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1, FINCULEY HART, FLS..

SUPERINTENDENT BOTANICAL. DEPARTMENT.-

AYRINIDATS:

PRINFED AT ‘' THE. MIRROR” OFFICE, PORT-OF-SPAIN

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003314352

“CACAO?

A TREATISE ON THE CULTIVATION AND
CURING OF “ CACAO,”

BY

J. HINCHLEY HART, F.LS.-

Supt. BoTantcaAL DEPARTMENT, TRINIDAD,

“QUI NON PROFICIT DEFICIT”

(SECOND EDITION),

TRINIDAD

PRINTED AT THE ‘‘ Mirror” OFFICE, PORT-OF-SPAIN.

1900,

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ERRATA.

4—For “se ection” read selection.
9—For “give” read gives and for “exremely” read
extremely.
12—For “ possesses” read possess.
13—For “ Boca” read Bocare.
15—For “increasing ” read increase.
16—For “cartainly” read certainly
22—35th line, insert “his” between “to” and “own,”
32—For “of” read or.
45—For “ moring” read moving,
46—For “rouud ” read round.
52—For “skimed” read skinned.
59—I1st para. Insert the between “but” and “accuracy,”
60—For “ coommon ” vead eummon.
112—Insert by after “distinctly ” in sixth pare.

Parr IL—CULTURE.

CHAP. I.—SELEcTION oF Lanp, &c.

II.—SELECTION OF SEED—NURSERIES,

IIL.—PLANTING AND SHADING,

IV.—MANO0URING AND PRUNING.

V.—Roaps AND DrAINING—TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL.

Part IL—PREPARATION EOR MARKET.

CHAP. VI.—Picxinc anpD HarvesTInG.
VIIL—FERMENTATION, Curine, &c.
VIIT.—Wasuinc, Dryinc, PoLisHinc.

Parr III.—SCIENTIFIC anp MISCELLANEOUS.

CHAP, IX.—Botany anp NoMENCLATURE, DESCRIPTION OF TYPICAL
Forms. carp —* :

s X.—DIseEases, &c.

XI.—Export, Value oF Estates, Buicpincs, Lazour,
XII.—Tue CuEmistry oF Cacao, By Pror, J. B. Harrison, M.A,
» SITL.—Manuracture& oF CHOCOLATE, , -<
» XIV.—TransiT oF SEEDS AND PLANTS,

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I

SELECTION oF LANb.—Suitable soils—Aspect—Worn out Jands—Tidal lands
unsuitable—Shelter belts of Timber—lorest growth a guide in selecting
Jand—How to proceed in choosing a property—An ideal spot for Cacao
erowing—Elevation above sea-level—Mean Annual Temperature—Chemical
Analysis of soils ay i 2 a 08 oe

CHAPTER II.

NUMsERIES—Cacao ustially raised from seed—Preservation and transit of ripe
, seeds—Grafting Cavao—Method of transporting—Seeds for Nurseries, how
to select for improving varieties—Varieties when established should be
given local names—A bad arrangement for a Nursery anda good one—
Raising plants in boxes—Coconut refuse—Transplanting—Tap-root—Injury
to roots—Trimming wounds—W ater supply—Manure not generally required
—Leaf mould . . “. o . o

CHAPTER III.

PLANTING AND SHADING. —Preparation of land by Contract—Quarree as Spanish
iweasure—Planting from Nursery, and planting at stake—Use of bamboo
joints for plants—How to sow seed at stake~ Transplanting to fleld—Treat-
ment of plants before planting—Advice not to plant in wet weather—Dis-
tance apart to plant—Grenada planting— Choice of wide or close planting
depends on character of soil—Supply of vacancies— Planting by Contract—
Crops grown by Contractors—Ordinance to regulate Contracts—Sum paid
per tree to Contractor—Disadvantages of Contract work—Dishonest Con-
tractors—Intermediate crops on new land—Shade-~Grenada-grows without
shade—Prinidad uses shade—The reason discussed—Name of shade trees
“Bois Immortel "—Shade trees store Nitrogen—Castilloa considered unsuit-
able for shade—Para rubber—Terminalia or ‘ Myvabolaus—Saman tree—
Distance to plant shade trees—Smaller or primary shade plants—Value of
Banana—Weeding and ‘cutlassing’—Stem of trecs not to be covered by
cut-weeds i at ie se a att

CHAPTER Iv.

MANURING AND PRUNING.—Description of tree in good health~Such trees do
not require manure—Application of manttres—Farm yard manure safe to
use - Chemical manures sometimes dangerous in their application—Method
ot application, with surface, andvith dcep rooting plants—NAVURE’s method
of applying manure —Culture of trees different to culture of cereal crops—
We camot command Natvre, only assist her—iinuts on culture—The
application of artificial manure—The use of lime—Plants do not take all
their ford by the rovts—Nevessity of maintaining n proper state of health
among tl e leaves—Pruning— Its effect—How to perform it—How to balance
a tree— Bearing branches sometimes need cutting ont—Useless wood to be
cut out-—Care against making ragged cnt— Gormauidizers "—Huw to make
use of them at times—Wounds by saw to be cleaned with knife—All prun-
ing instruments to have a keen edge—Time for pruning- -Influence of the
moon—Trees should be pruned annually-~Pruning makes wounds—All
prunings ty be burnt— Manual dexterity iu use of kuife cannot be taught

y writipg—Maxins for the cultivator oe oo o

PAGE

47

8-14

lo-25

v.
aBLe or Contents.—Continued.

CHAPTER V. PAGE,

ROADS AND DRAINING.—Necessity of roads—How to make them—Economy of
having a proper system—General principles only can be laid down—Why
drainage is required—Form of drains—Best direction for drains—Natural
outlet for drainage waters should be secured—Subsoil drainage practically
impossible—Theory good ut practice unsound when referring to Trinidad.
—Temperature—Humidity a most important factor—Value of hygrometri-
cal observations—Continued drought fatal to the Cacao tree—RAINFALL—
Countries with same rainfall may not possess same humility—Comparison
with other countries—Planter must depend upon humidity more than
rainfall and temperature—Difference of humidity at increased elevation
above sea-level i a ak a oe « «©2428

CHAPTER VI.

Prckina CRop.—Cacao Hook—Instructions for harvesting crop~Importarice of
cutting ripe pods only—Skilled workmen only to be employed—Different
treatment required by different varieties—Separation when shelling ot
“breaking” of ripe from unripe produce—Rate of wages for picking—
SHELLING OR BREAKING.—How breaking is performed—Uphill work of
reform in methods practised—Central factories—Pessimists’ views—Obtain-
ing a name—Quality depends more upon the special kind grown, than upon
soil, cultivation, or preparation .. i we oe a 29-82

CHAPTER VII.

FERMENTATION. ~ Prizes for Essays given by Trinidad Government—The

now Necessity for the operation—The change that is brought about—What
causes the change—Geheral results—Cacao analysls~Professor McCarthy's
ahalysis—An experiment in Fermentation and its results—Comparative
weight of waste and weight of kernel— Why dissimilar methods produce
similar results—“ Stewed in their own juice” rather ancient—Practice of
Venezuelan planter described by Sir William Robinson—Destruction of
vitality—An important principle of Fermentation—Aublet’s description of
Fermentation dated .1775—Translation—Degree of heat required—Probable
action of diatase—Skin of bean a protection to the cured product—Average
heat required in sweating a - are +» = 83-42

CHAPTER VIIi.

Wasttina.—Ceylon and West African methods—Advice of London Brokerge+
Dr. Morris’ opinion on the variety grown in Ceylon—Dr. Trimen on same—
Change of character apparent—How Cacao is dried in Trinidad—Description
of house required—Length of time for drying—Prizes for apparatus for
artificial drying—Description of Ceylon drying house—Cacao said to require
slow drying—Colouring—Red earth—Venezuelan practice as translated by Sir
William Robinson—Description of San Antonio earth—“ Dancing”—Mildew
—Hand rubbing—Description of a well cured bean—How plump appearance
issaidtobesecured .. . a oe SD oe = 48-49

CHAPTER IX,

Botany anp NoMENCLATURE,—Mexican name~—Various species of Cacao—Dr.
Morris’ classification—Our own classification of varieties—Criollo—Forastero
—Calabacillo—Criollo. the finest Cacao—Dr. Trimen’s interpretation of the
word Criollo— Proper interpretation—Origin of the names—Houw to improve
the quality—Nicaraguan Cacao of the Criollo type—Theobroma pentagona—
produces a very fine Commercial Cacao—Epidemic of disedse amongst
Trinidad Cacao, 1727—Introduction of Forastero—Typical forms of beans
with illustrations— Discussion on value of the varieties— Comparative
rematks—Trinidad Plantations of a mixed character—Caused by Contract
system—Forms of Jeaf—Reference to cultivation in Jamaica and the word
“blast” Theobroma bicolor— Wariba” “ Wart” or wild hog—Reference to
illustrations of Theobroma guyanensis, Theobroma sylvestris, Theobroma
angustifolia .. oo ” o o oe, e+ 50-60

vi.
TaBLe or Conrenrs.—Continued.

CHAPTER X.

Distases, &c.—Diseases fow—Black rot~Canker—Dr. de Verteuil’s description
of blight— Phytophthora. omaivora, destroys Cacao.pods—Description of attack
—Experiment with infected pods—Analysis of Healthy and diseased fruits

by Prof. Harrison—R dial --Re-introduct: or introduction of:

a strong variety, 1757—Parasol ant—Cacao heetle—Means of destroying
same— Ordinance enabling Gevernor to declare districts infected — The
Asphyxiator — Belt’s opinion — Aphides—Wood ants— Vegetable parasites.
ores, Dodder — Epiphytes — ‘‘ Orchids” — Squirrel—‘‘ Manicou Gros

eux e oe

‘te oo oe isi on

CHAPTER XI.

Export, &¢.<Export of Cacao—Customs returns ~Value—Price of Crown Lands
—Estates on the market—Best course for investors—Yield, the best test
of value of Estates—Dr. Morris on the bearing of trees—Yield per tree~
Yield! and value per acre—Working expenses—Buildings reyuired—Pro:
“prietor should be resident—Cost of curing-houses, store-rooms and offices—
Cost of labour—Skilled vs. unskilled sia os v8 ais

CHAPTER XII.

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO.—Contributed by Prof. Harrison -=

Analyses trunk, branches, leaves, of Cacao tree—Propoitions of nutriment-

required—A good Cacao soil—Analyses of Cacao soils—Harrison—Analyses
of Cacao soils—Carmody—Analyses of the composition of the Cacao pod,
bean, husk, pulp, &c.— Deductions from analyses—General results of
examination .. or ae A ie ary c

CHAPTER XIII.

Food VALUE OF CACAO, MANUFACTDRE, &c.—Chemical compositiot-of the bean
by P. L. Simmonds—Table of comparative analyses—Results not flattering
to chemical science—Active principle of the bean according to Professor
Church—Forms of preparation—Discussion on the nutritive value of Cacao
—Method of manufacture—adulteration—Roasting—Grinding—Making up,
—‘‘Food for the Gods’—Way to make a real cup of Chocolate—Cacao
butter—Essential oil—Cacao powder—Adulteration experiment with dif-
ferent kinds—Visit of the author to Cadbury and Rowntree—Sugar sold at
£336 per ton by Cacao manufacturers—The word “Cacao” is

CHAPTER XIV.

TRANSPORT OF SEED AND Livina PLaNts.—Method of packing seeds and
plants—Growing on the way—Wardian cases—Sowing seeds ih cases—

PAGE.

61-70

1-76

W-107

108-115

Conclusion 4, ae “ ‘a, ae . +» 116-117

PREFACE.

In May, 1882, the writer’s attention was specially attracted
to the subject of the cultivation of Cacao, by being called upon
while in the Jamaica Service, by Mr. Morris (now Dr. Morris,
C.M.G., &e., &.), then Director of Public Gardens Plantations,
Jamaica, later, Assistant Director of Royal Gardens, Kew, and
now, Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies,
to assist him by the preparation of drawings and diagrams and
models of his Lecture on the cultivation and curing of Cacao,
delivered under the auspices of the Jamaica Institute.

Dr. Morris previous to his lecture had paid an official visit
to Trinidad for the purpose of obtaining information relative to
the production of Cacao. The lecture was published in pamphlet
form and obtained a wide circulation, and has since been repub-
lished. The majority of facts, gathered in Trinidad by Dr.
Morris, were collated with his usual ability, and most of them
have stood the test of publicity, without encountering serious
contradiction.

Being frequently applied to for information on the same
subject, I was induced to undertake the first edition of this work
for the purpose of satisfying such enquiries, and that being
exhausted, I have now the honour of presenting to the Public
a second issue. Over eleven years’ service under the Jamaica
Government, during the latter part of which I administered
the Botanical Department of that Island, and over thirteen
years in my present office, a total of over twenty-five years West
Indian service, all spent in Botanical work, will I hope fairly
entitle me to be heard on the subject, It is one to which I have
devoted close attention, and I am confident that full credit will
be given for the endeavonr to put into suitable and handy form,
information suitable to the beginner, suggestions acceptable to
the experienced, and matter of some interest to the general
reader. The prize essays on Fermentation printed as an
appendix to the first Edition have been omitted in the present
issue for various reasons, but the subject matter is dealt with
in Chap. vii. to which the reader 1s respectfully referred.

J. H. HART, FLS.

CHAPTER I.

Selection of Land.:

selected should be one which possesses the requi-
site depth of surface soil, and one moderately
¢ rich. A shallow soil resting upon hard bed rock:
is totally unsuitable, while a moderately shallow
suil resting upon a friable rock bed is. oftem.
found to grow Cacao to perfection. It is gene-
rally considered among Trinidad planters that a loose clay
or clay with an admixture of a fair proportion of sand and lime
is favourable to the gruwth of Cacao. If the soil is covered:
with a vegetable deposit which has accumulated from the falling:
leaves and branches of the original Forest, so much the better.
Tf land can be found on the banks of a stream or river where
there is considerable depth of alluvial deposit, such a position, if
capable of being well drained, is a sure source of wealth to the-
Cacao planter, Hard, dry, rocky soils, suff clays, mountain
sides, where great detrition frequently takes place, shallow
sands, and boggy ground should be, carefully avoided. The
aspect of the land should always be carefully considered. A
site’ exposed to trade or prevailing winds, or to strong sea.
breezes, should not on.any account be chosen for a Cacao
plantation.

Land which has been previously cultivated with other crops.
may be chosen when.it has good depth, is easily drained, and is.
capabie of being improved by the application of suitable-
Manures,

Worn out Sugar lands are dangerous investments for the.
intending Cacao planter asa rule, but an intelligent choice even.
here, »y inen who are acquainted with the local character of ths
svil and the Cacao tree and its requirements, will often result in,
the development of a productive plantation.

Salt iy inimical to the growth of- the Cacao tree,.and Jand-;
liable to be inundated with tidal waters should. never: le:
purchased.

2 SELECTION OF LAND.

Shelter belts of timber should be left on the windward side
Of a plantation when it is being made from the original Forest,
and on established Estates it would be found economical and
convenient to cultivate to windward such Timber trees as will
form good “wind breaks” while at the same time, they will
grow into and afford ample material for erection and repairs of
suitable buildings for residences, and for the purpose of curing
and storing of the crop.

In Nicaragua the Mango tree is planted for shelter
though of little use for timber. The seeds are sown a foot or
‘fifteen inches apart, in straight trenches on the windy sides of
the plantations. The trees are allowed to gruw close together
-and are kept trimmed, hedge fashion, on either side, but allowed
to grow to their full height. Thus grown they form the most
‘efficient wind-break I have seen used.

A careful study of the trees growing upon Forest lands will
afford the intending planter a fair guide as to what the land
will produce. A soil producing nothing but scrubby original
‘growth can hardly be expected to produce good Cacao, and in
fact never does. Sometimes however, land covered with heavy
Timber is found quite unsuitable for cacao cultivation, but this
is the exception rather than the rule, and much must indeed
depend upon the planter’s own faculty for observing surrounding
conditions, whether a successful choice will eventually be made.

A planter strange to the country in which he proposes to
settle, should never choose a site, or buy properties, until he has
resided in the land for a sufficient length of time to enable him
to be capable of forming a correct judgment from his own special
observation, as well as from the reports of other persons.

An ideal spot on which to found a Cacao plantation is, a
well sheltered vale, covered with large trees, protected by
mountain spurs from the prevailing winds, well watered, and
cyet well drained, with a guod depth of alluvial soil on which
rests a thick deposit of decayed vegetable matter, easy of access,
-and in a district distant from lagoons or marshes for the sake of
‘the proprietor’s health. Such a spot in a climate similar to
“that of Trinidad could not fail to produce regular crops of the
‘finest quality of Cacao.

Elevation above sea-level has also to be considered in
-ehoosing grou.d for planting Cacao. The higher the elevation
“the lower the degree of temperature experienced, and the trees
“‘anake smaller growth and give less in annmuak produce.

Plantations existing at over a thousand feet above sea-level
‘In Trinidad are few and far between, and cannot take rank
~among first-class estates, $

SELECTION OF LAND, 3

The mea. nnual temperature in Trinidad at sea-level i
“78.47 Fah. taking a twelve years average. From this the reader
may conclude that planting Cacao at higher elevations is not a
measure of economy or good practice, unless in specially
favoured positions with regard to soil and exposure,

It would be a grave error to assume that land fit for
the cultivation of Cacao can be chosen by the results of
-chemical analysis alone, for it is quite possible for land to
-contain all the substances required for the growth of a particular
‘plant, and yet be totally unsuited to grow that plant, owing ta
the materials being present in a form which cannot be taken up
‘by the roots.

Sometimes the mechanical nature of the soil is quite as
important as its chemical constituents, and unless a mechanical
-as well as a chemical analysis is made, its suitability for the
purpose cannot readily be ascertained. Although these draw-
‘backs exist, yet Chemical analysis is very useful, in fact essential
in securing aright judgment on the suitability of land for any
particular crop, but taken alene it should not be trusted.
‘Whenever used, samples should be taken with the greatest
care from those parts of the land which would give a fair
average of the area under examination. Unless this is done,
chemical analysis is not alone useless, but becomes positively
anisleading. For instance, a planter takes a sample of soil from
dis field, and brings it for analysis ; the chemist tells him it is
good land, rich in various constituents and excellent for the
-crop he proposes to plant. In faith of this the planter buys and
plants, alas! with failure—Why ?—the sample was taken from a
-spot which contained or received the wash of the surrounding
land, and was in consequence as rich in proportion, as the
adjoining ground was poor and valueless. Chemical analysis
is a valuable adjunct to practical planting experience, but
without that experience leads the planter into frequent
dilemmas. Jn Johnston's elements of Agricultural Chemistry
p. 147, 17th Edition the Editor warns Students that this is so, in
the following words: ‘Chemical analysis of a soil as ordinaril
conducted, valuable though it is in some respects, is not of at
service in indicating the actual fertilizing matters at the
moment available in the soil, The agencies at work whereby
the elements of fertility are rendered available for the plants?
uses, are so complicated and numerous that the best test of a
soil’s fertility is to carry out experiments with the plapt itself.”

CHAPTER II.

Selection of Seed—Nurseries.

tf g,
a p f £7 ACAO -has hitherto been invariably raised from,
‘ ‘seed by the planter, The seed possesses but a
short life, if exposed to dry air: if kept in a
) moist situation, fermentation quickly sets in and
(7 it becomes useless, It is thus very difficult
to transport Cacao seed to distant countries, or
‘to keep it for any length of time, uniess placed
under conditions favourable to germination. Cacao may be
sent in ripe pods for short journeys not exceeding 12 or 14 days,
if the pods are kept entire and without bruises, and well packed.
A good method of transporting seeds toa distance is to plant
them in Wardian cases and allow them to germinate on the
voyage. 7
For nursery purposes seed of the best quality should be
used, the largest beans should be selected, and care taken to
procure them from well ripened pods. It is a great mistake to
use seed of inferior varieties ur that taken from half-ripe pods
and from trees in indifferent health. This applies to all varieties.
Some trees are better bearers than others, some produce
finer pods, and the choice, for seed purposes. should rest
upon those which produce fine large pods, good beans, and bear
regular crops. In the vegetable kingdom asa rule, like pro-
duces like ; yet it is well known that variations do occur, aud it
is certain that the chances of procuting a good class of plants
from seed ‘ave in favour of the course recommended, rather than
by procuring seeds from the refuse pods of a plantation and
expect good results to follow. a
' Seed should also be taken from trees situated at a distance
from inferior varieties, for the purpose of avoiding as far ag
possibie the variation which will naturally occur, where cross.
fertilization is free to take’ place . for if poor varieties are near-
to the seed trees, the latter will must certainly produce a varlety-
having ‘some of the characteis of the poorer kinds blended with
its own. j ‘ :
Too much attention cannot be paid to she se ection of a
prcper quality of seed, af sit is the planter’s aim to improve the
quanity and quantity of his productions.

SELECTION OF SEED. 5
ree =
This point was forcibly urged in De Vertenil’s “ Trinidad,”
“1884, p. 223.

During the year 1898 the author proved by experiment
that the Cacao tree really admitted of propagation by grafting.
The method used was that of “inarching” or grafting by
approach. Having found trees possessing first-class qualities, it
is very eazv to see that these may be reproduced in quantities
sufficient fu- large areas, and that fields of Cacao may be
planted with exactly the same kind of tree as a selected parent,
and that such areas would give produce “ regular,” in quantity
and quality, year by year. There can be little doubt therefore
that the practice of using grafted trees, instead of the unreliable
seedling, will be of the greatest benefit to the planter.

When planting from seed, it is weil known that the produce
varies, and no two trees can be depended upon to give pods of
‘the same size, or beans of the same quality. When selecting
pods for seed, it is at once clear, that if taken from the
open field, only the maternal parent of the seeds contained
‘therein, can be known; while the interminable varieties
which everywhere exist clearly prove that cross fertilization
‘readily takes place. Variation is also to be well seen in
the cured produce, for although the beans may have a common
or family likeness, all dealers know, that if cut through and
carefully examined, there are material points of distinction, and
few can be found exactly alike.

The difference that an ‘“‘even sample” would make to the
seller, is therefore obvious. Once a tree has been selected and
largely propagated, owing to the possession of superlative
qualities, it is evident that the produce must be of an even
character, and that taken year by year, the crop will vary but
very little in general quality. By using the process of grafting,
the planter will be able to secure trees of one habit, pods of one
colour, and beans of the very best quality. Such beans when
cured, would be unique in “ break” and general condition; and
would be immensely superior to any produce harvested from
seedling trees. To adopt grafting asa regular practice upon a
‘Cacao estate would only be to adopt a method of fruit culture
so long and so successfully followed in Europe and America.
Why should there not be, Fowler's ‘ Nonpareil” Cacao,
Agostini’s “ Bright-red,” Walker’s “ Excelsior” and Needham’s
“ Criollo ;’ as well as Parkin’s “Surprise” Potato, Maste.’s
“Jargonel” Pear, or Bates’ “Marmaduke” Cherry, is not
easy to define; and it is probable the adoption of the art of
grafting will bring such kinds upon the local market, to its
evident advantage.

6 : SELECTION OF SEED

Having secured good seed, the planter has to decide upon his
nursery; and the methods he will employ for the purpose of.
raising sufficient stock, to plant out the ground he has prepared.
Every planter has his own views, as to the best method of
raising seeds and the position most suitable for nurseries. What.
I should consider a bad method would be; a nursery made in
stiff clay soil permeated by the roots of surrounding trees and
covered by their heavy shade, seeds sown thickly without
removing pulp, some deep, others on. the surface, beds sometimes
allowed to get dust dry, at other times deluged with water.
Such, cannot be expected to produce healthy plants. On the-
contrary, Nurseries made in a friable soil, well pulverized, in an
open situation, the seeds well cleaned and sown regularly their
own diameter beneath the surface of the soil, carefully watered.
when required, artificially shaded from the direct rays of the sun,
protected from the trampling of animals, the ravages of rats
and mice, and carefully weeded, when required; may reasonably
be expected to produce strong and healthy plants. With those-
who prefer raising plants in boxes—a very handy and economical
method all things considered—the best method to employ would.
be to procure well rotted and sifted Coco-nut refuse and to sow-
the seeds regularly, about # inch below the surface, the boxes
being made about six inches in depth and well drained. If
Coco-nut refuse is not to hand, a suitable substitute may be-
found in well decomposed leaf mould. Immediately the plants
have developed their first pair of leaves, they may be potted or-
transferred to nursery beds—in both cases, shading them until
well established. If transferred to beds, the plants should be
put out, about twelve inches apart each way—taking especial care.
not to place the plant too low in the ground. More plants die
from this cause than from any other, both in nursery and in
the field. No plant whatever, whether Cacao or any other,
should ever be placed in the ground lower than the position in.
which it stood in the soil as a seedling. Many people tell us a.
great deal about “tap-root.” Personally I have no reverence
whatever for even the name of “ tap-root” but at the same time
I have every respect for the principle which has led t+ the great
respect paid to the ‘“tap-root,” by the greater number of West
Indian planters ; and this principle is, that even the slightest
damage cannot occur to any root without lcss to the plant with,
which it is connected.

Every care should therefore be taken not to injure roots,
and in making nurseries, it is best to use a friable soil, for the
plants can always be removed from this without the injury they
are sure to sustain when grown in heavy soil, as it shakes off the.
roots readily and leaves them uninjured when ready for planting.

SELECTION OF SEED, 7
In case, however, of injury to the roots in transplanting, a
jagged wound should always be trimmed with a sharp knife, and
a broken or wounded root should never be allowed to remain
but should be at once cut off with a sharp knife, as it
is very liable to induce disease and spread decay—either
when planting in nursery or field.

Transplanting may be resorted to as a check to growth, at
times when nursery plants are becoming somewhat overgrown
and no ground is ready in the field. If carefully performed,
this operation will render the plants hardy and better able to
stand transport to a permanent position.

Nurseries should always be placed near water, and well
protected from wind, and direct sun ; but they are always the
better for having plenty of light.

Manure is not required in the nursery, unless the ground is
very poor, and it should on no account be used in the seed bed.
If the ground needs it, it may be slightly enriched with well
decayed leaf mould in suitabie quantities, but it should be the
planter’s earnest endeavour not to induce rampant growth in the
nursery, as the plants produced under such conditions are sure
to suffer when finally put outin the field. A healthy sturdy
plant is much better than a large and soft wooded one, and wilk
always make a finer tree.

CHAPTER III.

Planting and Shading.

{ HE preparation of the land for planting is an
important and heavy work, especially if the
ground is covered with original Forest. In
/ Trinidad the Forest is usually cut by contract
at so much per “ quarrée,” a Spanish measure of
3.1-5th acres. The wood is burned, and the
field cleaned, lined, and staked for planting,

There are two methods of plantivg, which are followed by
planters according to circumstances. The first is to raise plants
from seeds placed at once in the position the trees are to
permanently occupy—commonly called planting “at stake,” and
the second is to plant out the ground by using piants raised in
the nursery until they are from 12 to 24 inches in height.
Generally, I believe the opinion of our planters is in favour of
using nursery plants, but there is much to be said in favour of
planting “at stake.” Planting ‘“‘at stake” means that the plant
‘once fairly started, never has its roots injured in any way by
the operation of transplanting and the roots must therefore at
once and for all, assume their natural position. In using nursery
plants, or plants grown in bamboo joints, the roots must of
necessity get somewhat mutilated and sometimes curled or
twisted, although the endeavour of every planter should be to
raise each plant with a ball of earth adhering, and to see that
the roots are preserved as intact as possible.

In using either method of planting, the ground should be
well broken up around the exact spot where the planting is to
be done. When seed is used, three selected seeds should be
placed in a triangle about 6 inches apart and covered with about
an inch of soil, pressing the earth somewhat firmly down with
the hand or foot, thus ensuring a more regular amount of
moisture around the seed than if the earth was left loose. In
transplanting plants from nurseries to the field the greatest care
should be taken to keep the roots as free from injury as possible,
apd to secure balls of earth to each plant. The roots must no
in aby case be allowed to become dry, and to secure a zo

PLANTING AND SHADING, 9

supply of moisture in the plant itself, nurseries should always be
copiously watered the evening before the plants are to be
removed to the field. In no case should the plants be exposed
to a current of dry air or to direct sunshine,

In putting the plant into the ground the planter should
make sure that he does not plant it too deep or too shallow,—
what is meant by this is described in a previous Chapter.
The surrounding soil at the time of planting should be pressed
firmly down, but not made hard, allowance being made for dry
and wet weather, but plants should never be put in the ground,
if it can be possibly avoided, when the ground is in an exremely
sodden condition.

It is impossible however to instruct in full by writing how
@ plant should be placed or planted, and one practical demon-
stration is worth ten pages of manuscript or letterpress. The
novice should therefore seek from the practical experience of
others, the requisite knowledge for the purpose.

The distance which Cacao trees should be planted apart will
be determined by the planter in accordance with the character
of the soil and the elevation above sea-level. The higher above
sea-level and the poorer the soil the closer the trees may be
planted and vice versd—a distance ranging from 12 to 15 feet
apart each way will «pf¥bably meet all requirements (i.¢.) 12
feet in poor soil and 15 feet in rich soil.

In Grenada the practice of close planting is followed much
more generally than in Trinidad, but successful planters are to
be found among those who follow each system, The wide
planting cultivator “get more fruit per tree and of better quality
than the close planting cultivator ;” while the latter is said to get
as much from two trees as the former does from one, and as good
in quality. Probably more depends upon the judgment of the
individual planter with regard to the character of the soil he is
working, than upon anything else. If it is poor he will plant
close, if rich and deep, he will regulate his planting accordingly.
It is not to be doubted however, that where practicable, wide
planting give the advantage of affording easier access to the
‘cultivator for the various operations of pruning, harvesting,
manuring, weeding, &c., and the plantations where the practice
38 carried out certainly assume a much better appearaace than
those which are crowded with trees. The supplying of vacancies
should be carried on during suitable weather, the aim being to
obtain a field showing trees of regular size throughout.

_ Planting by contract has its advantages and disadvantages.
It is—provided you have a good contractor—one of the simplest

10 s PLANTING AND SHADING.

and certainly the cheapest and easiest method of establishing a-
Cacao estate.. The system may be briefly described as follows :—

The peasant enters into a contract to plant the land with
Cacao trees, and receives for his labour, the use of the land for
the purpose of growing annual crops of provisions, plus a fixed
price per tree, to be paid him at the end of five or six years
when the Cacao trees commence to bear, and the land becomes.
useless for gardening purposes. For many years, and to the
present day, this system has been generally adopted in Trinidad.
In 1889 an Ordinance or Law was passed controlling such
contracts, and now, each contract has to be signed before the
Magistrate of the district, and its general provisions have-
proved very effective.

The sum to be paid per tree, varies in accordance with the
situation, and the supply of labour; but generally ranges from.
15 cents to 25 cents per tree, or even a little more.

One of the greatest disadvantages of planting by the-
contract system, is the certainty of having no great care exercised:
in selecting the seed for producing plants, The peasant’s
interest is to get the trees to grow, and he knows well that the.
inferior varieties are hardier than those which produce the
finest Cacao, consequently there is great temptation for him to
use the seed of inferior varieties for planting.

This of course may be obviated by the planter supplying
the seed, or the plants, but even then, it is not always possible:
or convenient to properly supervise the planting operations, so
that the chances are that after all, inferior varieties will be
planted.

On the other hand, a proprietor cannot possibly plant as
cheaply as a contractor, as the latter is better able to dispose of
the ground provisions in the local market, and thus pay himself.
for his labour. Notwithstanding this fact, there are not a few
proprietors who prefer to plant by “day-labour” rather than.
encourage the contractor to follow a squatting existence for
some years upon land, which he is often found unwilling to leave
at the termination of his contract. With a dishonest contractor
a proprietor often loses one or two seasons ; as, it is frequently
found that men will take land, grow one or two catch crops, and
instead of planting Cacao, disappear!! As contractors are for
the most part drawn from the labouring classes, the proprietor
has no remedy, for in the attempt to recover, he is simply
sustaining further loss without the slightest possibility of
obtaining the value of the crops taken from the land.

Cacao is certainly benefited by intermediate cultivation
between the row of trees in their younger stages, provided the.

PLANTING AND SHADING, 11

cultivator does not go near enough to the Cacao tree to injure
its roots, and planters who reside upon their fields—as all
should do who are earnest for success—should endeavour to
plant crops of which he can readily dispose, and those which are
least exhausting to the land.

SHADE.

The question of shade is one upon which much has been.
written, and upon which there exists great divergence of opinion.
In the Island of Grenada the general practice is to grow Cacao
without shade. In Trinidad the prevailing practice is to give
the plants permanent shade by planting umbrageous trees at
regular intervals through the plantations. Each system has its
advantages and its disadvantages, and no hard and fast rule can
be laid down, but the novice would certainly be safe in following
the general practice of the district in which his land is situated,
giving due force to any surrounding circumstances which may
justify him in using a modification of the prevailing practice.
As stated in a previous chapter, the greatest care should be
taken in securing “ windbreaks” on the side of the plantation
exposed to the prevailing winds, and belts of original Forest
should be left for this purpose if practicable, and if this is
impossible artificial protection should be secured by planting,
quick growing trees for present, and forest trees for permanent:
protection. In Nicaragua, shade is grown sometimes for two.
years before the Cacao is planted, the hedges of Mango alluded;
to in a previous chapter being planted at the same time. Here.
also the shade trees are planted in the same rows with the
Cacao. These rows are placed some fifteen feet apart, but the
Cacao trees are placed close together in the rows, sometimes.
not more than six or seven feet apart. This allows a better
chance for tillage between the rows and certainly improves the
appearance of the field, and I did not observe that the crop was
less in consequence.

In Grenada the land in Cacao is sometimes undulating, but.
in the major part of the Cacao districts it is distinctly hilly.
Where the aspect of the plantation affords by the conformation
of the ground itself, shade or shelter from a particular direction,
artificial shade can certainly be dispensed with in a great
measure, but on level land in Trinidad the general practice goes.
to prove that it is absolutely necessary, to produce Cacao to
perfection.

For shade in the lower lying lands of Trinidad the tree
generally used is the “ Bocare,” or Hrythrina velutina, which
affords a deep shade, For the higher lands the “ Anauca,” or-
Erythrina umbrosa is used. Both are known, together with.

bea} PLANTING AND SHADING.

‘several other, Hrythrinas, as “Bois Immortel.” The Bois
Immortel proper, however, is the “ Anauca,” Erythrina umbrosa,
The latter grows to a much greater height than the ‘“ Bocare
and does not afford so dense shade. Why these trees should
have attained their high reputation was formerly difficult to
understand, but as modern science tells us that they are capable
of storing nitrogen in the soil, the matter isno longer an enigma,
and it becomes clear that they really do afford nutrimeut to
Cacao, but not in the way that was formerly understood. It
has been found that many leguminous plants are able to store
nitrogen in the soil, and allow it to become available for other
plants. The ‘“Immortel” is a leguminous plant, and hence the
inference is clear. Other leguminous plants are able to do the
same thing, and there can be little doubt that the “Saman” and
many others are able to do just as much for Cacao, and for other
plants, as the ‘* Immortel.”

The wood of the “Immortel” is utterly useless for timber
or fuel, and the branches often fall in wet weather, injuring the
Cacao trees beneath. Among the numerous timber trees which
thrive in Trinidad, it is curious to note that none have been
selected for shade purposes which would be useful in other ways,
but that such trees exist, is not to be doubted. The planter
should note that once such a tree is found and planted, it would
materially increase the value of his estate. +

_ Nearly all the trees as yet suggested for shade purposes,
possesses no economic value. Castillo :lastica has however been
mentioned as suitable; but having seen the plant in its native
country—Central America—I am unable to recommend it for
‘the purpose, as it appears from our experience that the tree
itself requires considerable shade. Timber trees to be grown for
timber, would be useless for Cacao shade, as it would be
impossible to cut them without injury to the Cacao. It is
therefore clear that we should Jcok for a plant which produces
an annual crop which can be gathered without injury to the
Cacao.

The Hevea’s, which produce the Para Rubber of commerce,
are likely trees for this purpose, but they are of slower growth
than the “Immortel,” Zerminalia belerica, a tree which pro-
‘duces the “ Myrabolans” of the markets, might also be tried.
Both these trees thrive well in Trinidad and in similar climates,

Tt will be seen from the foregoing that although it is
desirable to procur* a better tree than the “Immortel” for shade
purposes, it is a difficult task to find one, and the novice had
therefore better rest content with what has served so well in the
past, and leave experimental trials of new plants to the more
~experienced, :

PLANTING AND SHADING. 13

Of the ™Saman” (Pitheco'cbium saman) it may be recorded
that there is yuod and distinet evidence of its being a very
serviceable shade tree; and it has, in tle author’s opinion,
several puints to recommend it in preference to the ‘ Immortel.”

Having decided upon the question as to what permanent
shade he will use, the planter shuuld make arrangements to
plant it either before, or at the same time as the Cacao. The
distance and manner of planting will depend a great deal upon
the ground, the quality of the soil and the exposure; but the
usual distance is from 35 to 40 feet apart each way for the
* Boca,” &c., and from 40 to 45 feet apart fur the ‘ Anauca,”
and as much as 50 or 60 feet for the “Saman.” :

For the smaller shade plants, Corn (Zea mays), Pigeon or
Gongo Pea (Cajanus idicusy, Tanniax, Eddves, or Cocoes
(Colocasia esculenta), Castur oil (Licinus communis), Cassava
(Manihot utidllissima) and the Banana or Plantain (Jusa
sapientum), can be used, The Banana or Plantain used for
shade is usually planted intermediate between the permanent
rows of Cacao, If Cacao is at 15 feet, then Banana 74 and so
on. A variety of Plantain commonly known as the “‘ Moko,” or
* Jumbi Plantain,” is preferred to other members of the family
by Trinidad planters for the purpose of affording secondary
shade. The fruit of this plant is however considered fit for little
else but cattle food, though the grecn fruit when dried and
pvunded makes a wholesume, pleasant and nutritive meal, which
is a most suitable fuod for invalids and children. Since the
Banana trade has assumed such large proportivas in the West
Indies, attention has been called to the value of tae Banuna
as a shade plant for Cacao. The fruit shipped from Jamaica to
the United States is known as the “ Martinique Banana ;” bub
in the various Colonies, it appears under ditferent names; in
Trinidad being recognised oniy under the name ‘“ Gros Michel.”
This plant proves to be very suitable for shade purposes in the
intermediate stages. The distance at which intermediate or
temporary shade plants should be placed apart, is merely a
matter of convenience. The skilful will always take care he
has enough, and not too much, but as they are ali ultimatey
removed, it matters little really the exact dis:ance they are
placed apart, so lung as the Cacao gets the .ecessary shade.

A form of planting at stake may be etfected by planting at
once a Moko or Gros Michel at the exact distance apart tLe
Cacao is intended to be, and sowing in or near the Banaua stool
the three seeds; the Banana stool will, with the intermedia @
shade crops, give quite sutficien® protection to the yuung seedling,
Bou che costly prucess uf staking with “pickets” iy avoide |,

14 PLANTING AND SHADING.

The after cultivation, 7.e., weeding or cutlassing of a Cacao
‘estate is a work which is done on the average about twice in
each year. Jt is done by task work as a rule and at the rate of
40c. to 50c, per task, or at a cost of about 5s, per acre.

The cost of weeding, of course, depends upon the amount of
weeds to be cut, and the better the plantation covers the ground,
the smaller number of weeds there will be. Seldom or ever does
the planter dream of using the hoe for cutting up weeds,
although it may be conveniently used in the younger stages of a
plantation, before the roots of the Cacao have taken possession
of the surface. Hoe weeding is then much more effective than
cutlassing, but great care should be exercised that the surface
reots are not injured,

Whatever system is used, the bush should never be allowed
to be rolled up so as to cover the stem of the tree, but should be
neatly made into winrows, to be distributed over the ground
again, when sufiiciently decayed,

CHAPTER 1V.

Manuring and Pruning.

JANCKING,

O understand properly when a tree requires
manure and when it does not, we require some
standard or guide, as to what a Cacao tree in
good health and thriving condition really should
be like. There should be an ideal or standard
of culture and this should be the guide in all
important operations. Let us premise therefore,
‘that a tree in good health needs no manure. Such a tree
‘is doing its work well, and to the fullest extent, and
therefore to feed it with manure would be like overfeeding a
‘horse, and it would just as quickly get ‘‘ out of condition.” T's
make the point clear, I will describe what. my ideal is of a tree
in good health It is a tree which from its seedling stages has
annually made good periodic growth, proJlucing leaves and
branches strong and wilhout disease or blight, and one which
“produces an average crop of fruit without dropping it prema-
turely, or losing it by attack of parasitic diseases, and a tree
‘which can withstand a waximum of either rainfall or drought,
without its general bearing being affected. Such a tree needs
no manure, for manure is but food, and so Jong as it has a
-sufficient natural supply to maintain it in good health, it needs
no artificial substitute and will do its work best without it, and
‘to give such a supply would probably reduce crops instead of
‘increasing them. Tt must not however be understood that no
‘manure should ever be applied to Cacao, for such would be
‘in direct opposition to the principles and practice of Agricultural
‘Science, and could not be upheld, for when trees show by their
state of health that their natural food supply ts exhausted, other
‘supplies must assuredly be furnished

The application of suitable maoure to trees planted in poor
-goil, to trees in weak health, and to trees which it is desired
-should make a more than usual rapid growth to serve some
purpose of the cultivator, has the best effect , but the application
-of strong manures to treex in good health. and in average
-Learing, would tead to eucousage rank and sappy growth which

16 MANURING AND PRUNING.

would be non-productive and loss of crop would result, A tree,
like a horse, can do more work when in “condition” and with
less exertion than it can if overfed and surfeited.

Manure may with advantage be applied to a tree, should ib
be found that the plant has set itself more work to do than ib
can efficiently carry out. (i.¢.) by setting a larger crop of fruit
than usual. In such 4 case the application would cartainly be
beneficial and enable the tree to carry a crop which, under
ordinary circumstances and without manure, it would not be able
to, but the application of manure toa tree before the fruit is
formed, or at any early ‘period of its growth, would probably
result in inciting the tree to produce a large amount of branch
growth, to the detriment of the fruit, which would probably fall.

It will be seen therefore, that the application of manures to
Cacao requires great judgment and should only be done under
the personal supervision of a skilful cultivator, or loss may
result. Where, however, the plantation will evidently be the
better as a whole fur the stimulating action of manure, owing to’
-@ poor soil, its application may be made general and not special
from tree to tree. But. when chemical manure is appled it will
be best, to handle ip with the greatest caution. Farmyard or
stable manure can always be applied with much greater sale:y
than chemical manure, but its action is not so quickly appareiit
though its effects are more permanent. a

The, application of manure is a subject upon which chemists
and vegetable physiologists ditfer.in many respects. ‘The chemist
_is apt to insist upon the manure being, buried beneath the suil,
or he says much of its value will be lost owing to the dispersion
of its volatile properties by moving air, but the cultivator may
easily ascertain the best. method .of applying manures uf all kinds,
if he, studies the life history and characver of the plant and the
nature and morphology of its orgaus of, assimilation, aud
amoreuver, the frequent showers of the tropics prevent any great
waste of the. volatile constituents, To dig deeply about the
roots uf a surface feeding plant for, the purpose of, ap; lying
manure would be absolute:y) absurd, as we should. thereby
destroy the very organs or mouths, which, are needed to, take up
the, plant food. presented to. them, and iwhich are situated in the
Proper place to carry, out the process to. the best adyantage,
Practices of this kind, are uften recommended by. newcomers to
tae tropics who have only had training in the agriculture of a
temperate climate. T have seen the practice carried out with
dire ‘effect, more than, once in Trinidad. and itis quite certain
that although it may be carried out with considerable safety ina
temperate “climate, it is tranght with the greatest danger in the
tropicay’ sy Reve eS A ,

MANURING AND PRUNING, 17

The destruction of roots which the operation of burying-
manure occasions, would, in most instances, completely nullify
the action of the manure applied, as the broken roots would
not have the power, nor the same amount of surface for
absorbing food, as when uninjured; and the manure applied,
through its coming into direct contact with injured tissue, would
tend to destroy the roots by its caustic character, rather than be-
absorbed by them. That beneficial results follow the.
application of manure when buried beneath the surface, is of
course patent to the novice, but in the case of surface feeding
plants, it is only after the roots have recoverel from the
injuries done by the digging, that they are able to take up any’
manure which has been applied (i.e.) when these organs are
again in a condition to perform their proper functions. Even.
granting that uo special harm is done to the trees, there is
inevitable delay in tbe economy of growth, the hazard of losing:
a flowering season, and consequent loss of crop.

With deep rooting plants, the burial of manure is the most
economical method of application, as there can then be no loss.
of volatile constituents.

lf we think over for a while the course which nature ha$
pursued for ages in supplying plants with their food we shall
find that the method adupted is pureiy suyace manuring. Even
the ground the plant grows on, has heen almost entirely formed,
by additions to its surface, detritus from surrounding lands, by
deposits made by flood waters, or by decay induced by the flow
of water over its surface carrying with it solvents which are.
able to disintegrate the materials of which it is composed, For.
free cultivation, surface manuring is the only method in which
the manure can be fully utilized, and we can easily take steps.
to guard against evaporation or dispersion of volatile principles,
by covering the manure with material which will act as an
absorbent and thus retain the constituents likely to escape.

In the preparation of land for general crops of an annual or
perennial character, such as European cereals, the thorough
incorporation of the manure with soil, is of course, carried out as
completely as possible ; but with this kind of manuring we have
nothing to do in connection with Cacao cultivation, as it is nob.
required, and can only be employed where the field is clear of
growing crops.

It will be seen therefore, that the courss of manuring
recommended for adoption, is one which is based upon careful
observation of Nature’s processes. We cannot command Nature,
but can venture to assist her, and we can best do so by following
out-and understanding to the full, the methods she employs.

a8 MANURING AND PRUNING.

The Cacao tree, although it likes a deep rich soil, is also @
‘surface feeding plant, and the ground around the trees cannot
Ue dag or forked with impunity, for although the tree will stand
-considerable hardship, it is nevertheless materially injured when
‘the roots are mutilated. There are conditions, however, such as
-when the surface soil has been thoroughly baked by drought,
“when it would be beneficial to lightly prick it up with a fork,
‘taking care not to break the roots. A slight forking is however |
permissible at times previous to applying farm-yard manure
vunin the surface; having due regard of course to what has been
sail in the foregoing on the injury caused by the injudicious use
«ot fork and spade. Manure applied to the surface should be
covered if possible with a thin layer of earth, but if applied in
tbe form of compost, this is not so necessary an operation, as the
‘volatile constituents of the manure are then in a great measure

Meld fast.

In applying chemical manures of a caustic character, it is
-niways well to mix them with a suitable proportion of absorbent
earth, and to cover again with a coating of the same material.
The primary object in applying manure is to maintain a due
wPropo: tion of plant food when land has become exhausted of its
matural constituents, or to supply something in which the:land
as deficient. It is of course patent that with the continued
production of annual crops a large quantity of material is
wemoved from the soil, and this ‘must be replaced either by
mature, or artificially, or the crop will fall short, Farm-yard
manure takes a foremost position: for this purpose amongst all
others, and long continued practice shows that when properly
applied it is of the greatest value to the land, not only for its
manurial properties, but also for its mechanical action upon’the
soil, and moreover, it can never be as dangerous to use as
chemical manures, which are admitted to be decidedly hazardous
~when applied-by unskilled labour. By unskilled labour I do not
waean the peasant or farm hand only, but I refer to educated
people who take up the business of agriculture without due
study, acting under the impression that they were “born” to till
the ground.

Jn some cases quick lime becomes a powerful ally to the
~ultivator, but on the other hand its undue application tends to
exhaust the soil of valuable constituents, and therefore it should
<lways be used with great caution. In nature, manure is given
to the roots of trees by the decomposition of vegetable and
mineral substances, and is carried downwards by rain water,
worms, and other agencies, Rain water itself also provides a
<ertain quantity of plant food in solution, The plant or wee
<does not however, obtain all its food from the soil, as the

MANURING AND PRUNING, 19

‘surrounding air provides it with a large portion, which is taken
up in gaseous form by the leaves. It should therefore be the
aim of the cultivator to maintain on his trees as large a propor-
#ion of healthy leaves as they can carry. Whether the food is
talzen up by the roots, or by the leaves, it is in the latter organs
that all the material necessary for the purposes of growth and
reproduction is formed and distributed, Theleaves are in fact the
Laboratory of the plant, in which all the most important changes
of the vegetable fluids are carried out.

The importance of maintaining at all times a healthy crop
of leaves, cannot be over estimated ; and fur this reason a system
ef pruning should be adopted by which they are made to
distribute themselves with great regularity over the branches of
the tree, so as to place them in a pusition to carry out the work
“they are called upon to perform.

PRUNING,

The act of pruning is popularly supposed to cause the
production of fruit. That properly carried out, it has this eflect,
ds not to ke doubted, Lut the effect is not so direct as is often
assumed,

Given a young tree in good health, and with a single stem,
the pruning should commence by the regulation of the promaries,
or first branches made by the tree. There should, as a general
rule, be only three, or at most four primary branches left on the
Cacao tree. These should be encouraged to extend themselves
daterally, as they have a natural tendency to do, and should be
encouraged to develop at regular distances the secondary
ranches. The tertiary branches should also be encouraged to
grow at regular intervals.

In the primary stages, pruning should be performed before
the wood becomes sufliciently hard to require the use of knife,
by the method known as “pinching.” This is carried out with
thumb and finger, and all succuleut shoots not required, can be
theaded back or “stopped” by this means. At all times, it
‘should be the endeavour of the pruner to maintain the tree
“well balanced (7.¢.) it should not have one branch growing more
rapidly than another, so as to make the tree appear lop-sided
‘from any one point of view. Many of the older cultivators do
snot regard this point sufticieatly, in carrying out their pruning
~operations, and many branches are left, owing to their being
bearing branches, which for the permanent security of the tree,
for its general appearance, and for its bearing qualities, should
‘be removed. It is much better to check av unce the tendeucy
of a tree to assume an irregular and uncultivated fori, clan te
allow a branch grow for a time and finally be compelled te
wemove it when o¢ large size,

20 MANURING AND PRUNING.

The pruning of a tree should be conducted witha view to-
the production of fruit, Unless we have a plentiful supply of
good healthy leaves, evenly distributed over the tree su as to-
obtain a maximum of the light and air they require, we cannot
expect to secure large crops of fruit, in fact unless the machinery
is in good working order and the supply of fuel abundant, we-
cannot expect a good output. The leaves and roots represent
the machinery; and water, sunlight, air and manure, acting:
together, may well represent the fuel supplied.

The branches of a Cacao tree therefore, should be evenly
distributed, so that the leaves they carry may be maintained in.
good healtb, and just thinly enough distributed to admit
sulticient sun aud air to mature the fruit.

It should be a rule when pruning that too many branches
should nut be renoved at once. It is a mistake to prune
heavily at any one time, as it gives the trees too great a check,
and causes tou great a disturbance of the growth. The effect of
heavy pruuing may be seen by the large growth of young
shoots which appear at or near the plave where branches have-
been removed. These in most cases, are quite useless and have.
to be removed, causing a waste of plant energy, for if properly
directed the material used in this growth would have con-
siderably added to the health and strength of the tree. In
pruning neglected trees, the first thing to be done, is to cut
out useless wood, or wood which can never be expected to bear:
or to produce bearing branches, or again, weod that is diseased
or cankered. The next thing is, to equalize or balunce your
trees, and last, tu thin out the brauches aud foreshorten them
where required.

In removing branches the greatest care should be exercised.
not to make jayyed, ragged, solintering or slivering cuts, but to
qaake clean and even cuts close co the wood and near to a bud
or young branch into which the sap will be presently directed if
the vperation is well performed,

The young branches which are often found growing erect
{commouly called yormandizers trom the rapidity of their
growth), are productions which show that the parent stem, as.
ab stands, does not provide sutlicient chanuels for the expenditure
ef the sap supplied by the roots, and in consequence this sap
provides for itself an outlet and expends itself upon the produc—
tion ef rapid growth in a single direction. Tt shows that the
channels for the conveyance of sap are clogged or contracted,
and that the amount of sap produced cannot pass into the more
matured portion of the tree. It is also an effort of nature to
recover itself from hurd work. Every physiologist knows that
unless branches are produced, roots cannot be, and the produc-
tien of ruvt is in exact ratiu to Une production of branch, aad

MANURING AND PRUNING, 21

‘the more these are allowed to grow the larger amount of root
power the tree will have ; but the cultivator should see that this
power is judiciously expended, by directing growth in the
required channel. When however, a tree is bearing fairly in
proportion to its size, it is better to remove these branches as
‘they appear; as it is certain that by affording free opening for
the absorption of sap, they rob the crop of the full amount of
nourishment it should obtain, and the productive power of the
tree is seriously affected. They should be removed however,
as they appear, and not be allowed to grow to a large size and
then removed, as that practice would simply be a waste of the
material used up in producing them, instead of using it for
the production of fruit. it is « bad and slovenly practice to
allow suckers or gormandizers to be pulled off. They should
always be removed with a sharp knife. when the wvod is too
hard to allow of their being “pinched” between the thumb and
finger.

In cases where the Cacao tree has evidently become some-
what worn out or partially barren (i.¢.) its bearing wood shows
-evident signs of being out of condition, it is a good plan to make
use of a ‘‘ gormandizer” to supply a new bearing head to the tree,
and give it a new lease of life. This can easily be done if the
most suitable is allowed to grow, and trees can be more quickly
re-juvenated by this means than by any other.

' By allowing one of these branches to grow from a suitable
situation and by treating it in a similar manner as we would a
young plant, it is possible to re-juvenate and bring again into
bearing, trees which if left to themselves, could not be exp-cted
to yield any crop. It is really wonderful in wha* a short time
this operation can be completed if skilfully carried out.

After the young tree thus formed has assumed fair propor-
tions, the oider wood should be carefully and gradually cut
-away, but not all at once, as heavy pruning always seriously
interferes with the growth of the tree. If pruning is done with
@ saw, the wounds should afterwards be smoothed over with a
sharp knife as they always heal better if thus treated, and
besides, they should be covered with a coating of tar and clay or
other antiseptic dressing to hinder the entrance of parasitic
fungi, and the Cacao beetle from laying its eggs in the wounded
parts.

A wixture of coal tar and clay of the consistency of paint.
may most conveniently be applied to all wounds, Pruning with
a blunt cutlass, knife, or Cacao hook, should never be allowed.
The instruments used should be those which are able to carry a
keen edge, and the pruners should always be supplied with the
mueans of sharpening their tools without leaving the field.

MANURING AND PRUNING.

to
to

The time for pruning the Cacao tree is the subject for~
frequent discussions, on account of the influence which the
moon is supposed to have upon the flow of sap, &s., ke. Such
discussions are interminable. One assumes that the sap, like-
the blood of an animal, courses through the vessels of a plant
periodically, and that the moon has direct influence upon the-
flow. Another concludes that a tree has more sap in its branches.
at full moon than at other times, while others declare that.
insects attack the trees more at full moon than at other times. .
In nearly all these cases the premise is erroneous, and therefore -
the conclusion cannot be a correct one. If the moon has any
influence, I may at once confess that in all my practice, I have
never discovered it. I would ask those who assert that the.
moon has influence on the condition of a Cacao tree, to prove it
by something more than mere assertion, and to allow me the
priviledge of dissent until such proof is made known. I do not.
desire any one to accept my opinion, that the moon 1s entirely a .
negligible quantity ; unless they choose to do so, but I object
entirely to be forced to accept the opposite conclusion. If it
pleases certain planters to waste time and money (in my opinion):
in waiting for certain phases of the moon before commencing to-
prune their trees, to gather their crop, or to sow their seed,
that is their affair ; but I cannot for a minute sanction or teach-
such a doctrine, as I believe it to be incapable of proof. I know -
that there are many men for whom I have the greatest respect
who regulate the work of their estates, in some part at least,
by the phases of the moon; but I cannot see that it would be.
right on that account, to dispense with the call for scientific:
proof of the theory they adopt, as without this proof, the theory -
is to be regarded as one upon which it would not be safe to rely.

Whether the moon has any influence or not, had better for-
the present be left an open question, not that I have any
personal doubt upon the matter, but still the question is one,
which take it how you will, has little or no influence upon the -
progress of cultivation, as each individual may adhere to own pet
theory without being placed at any great disadvantage. In over
thirty years practical work in the temperate zone as well as in
the tropics, I have carried out hundreds of experiments bearing
on the subject of the moon’s influence on plant life ; and yet in
none of these have I found anything tosupport the conclusion.
that the moon was in any way a controlling power over the.
operations of the Agriculturist.

The season for pruning is a different matter from the time
for pruning. The one fixes the time of the month, while the.
other fixes the time of the year. It is taken as an accepted :
rule that in established Cacao, pruning or “trimming” as it is.
called in Trinidad is best carried on at the close of “crop time.”’

MANURING AND PRUNING, - 93
This practice is a reasonable one as the trees are then devoid
of both flowers and fruit and therefore suffer no possibility of
injury.

On the first class estates where cultivation is carried out in.
the best manner, the tree should annually receive attention in,
the matter of pruning, &c. Every tree should be visited and
carefully examined. On many estates in Trinidad it is the-
practice to prune only at intervals of once in three or four years.
Such cannot be considered good practice, as I have before shown
that the less pruning done to a tree at one operation, the better.

It should be remembered that a cut made in pruning a tree,.
is just as much a wound, as a cutting of a finger from the.
human body, and that although the plaut may repair the injury
to a certain extent, still the wound remains, and produces a
certain disorganization of tissue, not seldom resulting in decay
and death. .

In making cuts care should be taken, always to make them
at an angle that will shed the rain from the wound, as nothing:
is so conducive to the entrance of fungi, as the maintenance of a.
constant state of humidity on a wounded surface.

he cultivator shouid be careful in re noving and burning:
as far as possible prunings from the grounc. If left to rot. upon
the pjantation these prunings become the home of innumerable
wood destroying insects, and beetles which are inimical to the-
welfare of the Cacao plant. There is nothing like tidiness and
cleanliness in any cultivation, and departure therefrom is sure.
to produce sooner or later its concomitant evils.

The practice of pruning, the way to hold knife or saw,
cutlass or cacao hook, cannot be taught by any writer. ‘The
inexperienced should seek practical instruction, and even then
it requires a considerable amount of time and experience ere hu
will be able to handle his tools with dexterity and precision.

The difference between a slovenly cut and a clean cut are
at once apparent when the work is compared, and no workmam
should be permitted to practice pruning upon valuable trees,
until he is well accomplished in the practical use of the tools.
employed.

The skilful pruner can, by a proper handling of his tools,
and cutting back to buds situated in the positions from which
he desires a branch to come, form the tree at will into the shape
he requires, and the plantations in which such skill is exhibited,
will always present a tidy and cultivated appearance, while
those treated by the negligent and unskilful pruner will always.
look untidy and irregular.

Good maxims for the cultivator are, “prune little, but
prune often; prune carefully, but prune with decision. Prune
for a large amount of healthy leaf surface, and a crop will come.”

CHAPTER V

Roads and Draining.—Temperature and Rainfall,

ROADS,

4 HE Jaying out of Roads for a Cacao estate should
ap, always be one of the first considerations of the
{;° planter. If the erop he grows is difficult in the
Vv first place to get to the curing house, and in the
x, second place difficult to get to the market, it will
ee easily be seen that, what would in other cases be

a fair amount of profit, can owing to dilficulty of
‘transport, be easily frittered away. In laying out an estate
therefore the proprictor should reserve traces at right angles to
‘each other for roads to be used for the purpose of collecting his
‘erop, and ascertain that the land he selects is near to a good
main road or railway, so that his produce can be easily placed
upon the market.

With estates on the plains, roads are of course easily made,
‘but if situated ona hill side, to make roads is somewhat more
difficult, but still even here it is better to allow plenty of space
and make good roads at once; so as to give easy access to every
part of a plantation. Hill side roads are not difficult to make,
‘once the principle is understood, but, as with pruning, the work
‘can hardly be describea, and is best learnt by practice under the
tuition of an experienced hand,

The land taken up by roads, is by some planters thought to
de wasted, and many are satisfied with planting the whole
ground without providing anything which can be definitely
called a road. The economy of having a proper system of roads
is however easily understood by those who have been used to
systems of the kind, and the loss on the number of trees which
would be planted on the land occupied by a road is more than
vecouped to the planter, by the accessibility the roads afford when
pursuing any of the operations of cultivation or harvesting crop,
We often see plantations crowded with trees among which the
mule or donkey is allowed to struggle with its “panniers” or
“crook” when taking off crop; regardless of the many wounds

ROADS AND DRAINING.—TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL, 5

waich are made in the bark of the trees, and the diseases thereby
‘induced. Good roads should lie at short distances apart and
animals should never be allowed among the trees.

The distance at which roads should be made will have to be

-determined entirely by the lay or aspect of the plantation. In

flat land any distance from 4 to 8 chains may be used ; the richer
the soil the nearer the roads should be together.

In Draining, as in Pruning and Road-making, only general
principles can be laid down. A! land of course requires draining
-of some kind or another, but no one can give definite instructions
‘for draining an area until it is understood what amount of
drainage that particular area requires. Land situated at a low
level will of course require much more attention to rid it of
-superabundant water than will hill-side land, and each area
‘must therefore be treated according to its own requirements,

‘
The object of drainage is, to rid a Cacao estate of stagnant
or suyerabundant moisture. Flood waters from a river, so long
as they do not cover an estate for too long a period, do but little
‘practical harm, indeed in some distnicts they are lookod upon as
-doing a large amount of good, by bringing down and depositing
upon the surface a certain amount of manurial constituents.

Drains made in any kind of cultivation should always be
made V shaped with a narrow bottom. The practice of making
drains with upright sides, which fall in and choke the drain,
-cannot be too strongly condemned, and in no case can they be
-recommended ; and the depth and width of the drains should be
‘regulated by the circumstances of soil and situation,

Drains should never be made straight in coming downhill,
as when so made the wash becomes enormous, espccially if the
descent approaches in any way an angle of 35 degrees, but in
flat land the straighter they are nrade the better.

The site fora plantation should abkvays be selected where
‘there is a good natural main outlet fer drainage waters.

Under draining with pipe, rubble, ‘or bush draining is I
consider utterly useless in Cacao cultivation, as it stands to
reason that such drains must very early be filied by the roots of
‘the trees (beth Cacao and shade trees) and that the action of
the drains after the. first few months will be stopped by the
roots finding their way into them in search of moisture. The.

‘theory is good. but the practice is quite yasoyud with regard to

; 26 °ROADS AND DRAINING.—TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL.

Cacao. It is different in lands on which cereal crops are annually-
cultivated, for there the roots seldom or ever reach to the drains.
during the period of growth, and consequently the drains them-
selves work from year to year without let or hindrance. The-
planter should therefore trust entirely to his surface drainage:
and make that system do the work to the best advantage.

TEMPERATURE.

The temperature required for the growth of the Cacao tree-
will be best seen from the records of the temperature as taken at
the Royal Botanic Gardens, the temperature and humidity being
somewhat similar in the various Cacao districts.

Meteorological Results Royal Botanic Gardens,
Trinidad.

!
| Mean |
Inches off annual Tempera-| Tempera-, Tempera-

: . ture meanjture meaniture mean
Rainfall. | relativ : hae
Gs ‘qunidity Maximum Minimum.) Annual.

Record for 1887! 64-09 79 85:90 69-00 77 40
si 1888) 65-44 80- 87:50 | 69°70 | 78-60

- 1889} 73-79 77: 87:70 | 70:10 | 78:90
a 1890; 82-90 79° 86:10 | 69:00 | 77-50
i 1891) 53-74 76° 87:80 | 70:10 | 78-90
rr 1892; 91-14 80° 87:02 70°02 |; 78-70
ne 1893; 92-49 80: 87-44 | 68°58 | 78-01
vs 1894) 52-21 78° 87-80 | 69:10 | 78-45
a 1895) 62°23 76° 87°80 | 69°50 | 78-60

rr 1896 66:45 80- 87°84 70-81 79:07

2 1897| 77°68 | 80° | 8791 | 70-35 | 79-138
. 1898, 57°63 | 80° | 87:60 | 69-20 | 78-40
‘5 1899] 46-76 | 75: | 89:30 | 69:50 | 79-40

13 years average ...| 68:19 78: 87:51 | 69°57 | 78-54

ROADS AND DRAINING.—TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL. 97

It will be seen from the table given that the average.
humidity is 78-83, taking saturation at 100. In some districts
of the Island the amount of relative humidity or moisture
suspended in the atmosphere is probably much greater than at
the Royal Botanic Gardens. It may therefore be held that
what is indicated for this district, is the lowest permissible
amount for a district suitable for Cacao cultivation, and that
such crops would be benefited by a greater amount of humidity.

The annual Rainfall at the Botanic Gardens for the past
twelve years shows an average of 71 inches, but in the longer
period of 35 years this average is reduced to 65-49 inches.

In my experience, humidity is a much more important
feature in plant growth than temperature alone, and few plants
suffer more than Cacao at periods when the year is deficient in
moisture. Even in the driest weather in Trinidad the Hygro-
meter shews that during the later portion of the night and early
morning, the moisture in the air closely approaches to saturation,
and it is only the readings of the period between 10 a.m., and
4 p.m., which reduces the record to the average of 78,

Cacao can stand a certain amount of severe drought for
short intervals, but districts which are subject to continued
drought, are certainly not suatable for the cultivation of the Cacao -
tree, as under such conditions the Cacao tree will certainly die,
t
RAINFALL.

Countries in which the mean annual rainfall is greater than
in Trinidad, may not possess the same humidity, and therefore
are not as suitable for the cultivation of our plant, and countries .
on the other hand which exhibit a smaller annual rainfall may
be suitable for Cacao cultivation, owing to the presence of the-
requisite amount of humidity ; for in no country is the humidity
fully determined by, or coincident with the rainfall, as it is often
influenced by many other outside conditions. On the south side -
of the Island of Jamaica for instance, although a similar tem-
perature prevails as in Trinidad, the humidity shows a remarkable-
divergence from our record, and in that fact shews plainly that
this district is unsuited for the growth of Cacao. ‘Though there
are other situations in that Island where the requisite humidity-
can be obtained and where the tree thrives exceedingly well and

produces large crops of fruit.
The planter must not take it for granted therefore, that

because he is in the West Indies, Central or South America, etc.,
etc.,, inaclimate exhibiting a temperature similar to Trinidad.

28s ROADS AND DHAINING.=—TRNPRRATURE AND RAINFALL,

‘that he can rely upon such a situation or climate as being
‘suitable for Cacao, for he cannot do so, as he may find to his
cost if he attempts the venture. Having thus learnt what the
Cacao tree requires in the matter of moisture or humidity the
planter must examine for himself and depend on his own
judgment in selecting a spot for a Cacao plantation, especially if
it happens to be in a country where the cultivation of that

product has not preceded him.

In the West Indies, as in other countries the higher the
elevation the cooler the temperature, and the greater the
moisture during the hours of darkness, and in hilly situations in
well sheltered positions Cacao has been found to thrive owing
“to the presence of sufficient humidity in places where the
‘temperature is very much below the mean annual of the finest

Cacao districts.

PART It.

CHAPTER VI.

Picking.

WN picking Cocao it is the practice to make use of an.
BA instrument known as a Cacao hook, which is manu-
ta 7 factured for the purpose.

; The instrument is made of a shape to be used
either by a push, or pull, or by a side cut, and when.
kept well sharp, and affixed to a light bamboo rod,
serves admirably for collecting the pods from the
higher branches of the Cacao tree, but a sharp cutlass or knife is.
used for taking the pods from that portion of the tree within
reach of the arm. Care should always be taken not to cut too
close to the “cushion” or point at which the Cacao pod is borne,
as the ‘tree presents a succession of flowers and fruit from or
near the same point or ‘ cushion” each season ; and if the part is
wounded by a cutting instrument or bruised by a blunt one, the
supply of flowers, and consequently fruit, will be reduced during:
the following season.

The pods or fruit of the Cacao tree should not be harvested
until they are properly ripe, and it requires a considerable
amount of practice and experience to judge when the pod is fit
to be vathered. If collected when over-ripe, or when insuffi-
ciently ripe, the quality of the produce is much affected, as it
assuredly results in making an uneven sample. Only skilled and.
careful workmen should be employed for this work, as the-
planter will save a large amout of after picking and sorting if
the harvesting is properly done. It is much better to go through
the plantation and. pick “little and often,” and secure good?
samples, than to pick green and over-ripe together and have
afterwards the trouble of surting the picking, to eliminate the
anterior beans.

30 PICKING.

Where there is considerable variation in the kind of pods
“produced, it is better to sort the pods before shelling or breaking
‘them rather than make a mixture composed of the several
varieties of beans cultivated, as these are known to require
-different treatment during preparation for market, For instance
Calabacillo strain, is known to require different treatment to
the Criollo, and the Criollo again a different treatment to that
required by Forastero.

Tie pods when thus collected should be placed in separate
leaps. By some cultivators they are left a day or two before
‘Leing opened, by others they are opened at once and the beans
-sent on to the curing-house, or Boucan as it is called in Grenada.
The latter practice would be our choice, as it enables the planter
to secure his produce from the weather and from the depreda-
tions of rats, squirrels and the not infrequent Cacao thief. In
the one case the labour is performed by a few pickers and
carriers, and the breaking has to wait until sufficient material
is secured for a single fermentation, in the latter more hands are
required but the picking of a single day is fermented by itself.

On large Cacao estates however it is almost impossible to
gather or harvest Cacao without having some over-ripe pods and
pods with growing beans, among the crop. These should be
separated when the breaking takes place, if not before discovered,
and treated by themselves, as such material can never make
first-class Cacao.

The wages paid in Trinidad for picking Cacao is from 40 to
‘60 cents per day and is performed by experienced hands.

SHELLING OR ‘ BREAKING.”

This operation, as before shewn, is sometimes done in the
field and the produce carried home in bags, or the pods are first
carried, and then broken at the curing house. The first practice
is the most common, although the latter is to be most commended,

-as the decaying shells or pods when left on the field, area
fruitful source of disease.

The operation of shelling cr breaking is done with a cutlass
-or large knife. A cut is made round the middle of the pod,
taking care not to allow the tocl to go through the shell so as to
injure the beaus. The pod is then broken in the middle by a
~sharp jerk, and the beans are taken out and separated from the
fibrous tissue of which the placenta is composed.

Tn Nicaragua the pods are generally brought in and
broken under cover near the curing houses, and the empty
shells are put inte yards tu ferment, and to be troddea into
manure by cattle, pigs, &e. There is thus littie danger of the
-apread of fungoid diseases, as nu rotten pods are ieft on the

PICKING, 31
4

‘field. The pods are broken without the aid of either cutlass or
knife, by being dashed on a large hard wood log, upon which the
operator sits; and the beans are picked out and taken to the.
sweating boxes, and the shells carried away, by attendant
women and girls,

If superior samples of Cacao are intended to be made, it is
‘very important that the breakers should be instructed to carry
out strictly a sorting process which will separate the ripe from
‘the unripe beans, and the different varieties from one another,
for it is possible to make a much more even sample, by giving
due attention at this stage, than by any other means, for from
the appearance of the sweet pulp surrounding it, the condition:
-of the interior of the bean can be correctly estimated.

Among the planters of Trinidad there are many who are
~well alive to the importance of making improvements in the
process employed for curing Cacao, but as a rule their efforts are
amet by considerable prejudice in favour of the old rule-of-thumb
‘methods, and any one trying to make an improvement, is subject
at times to no little ridicule on that account, from those who
should be among the first to know better, and therefore it is a
hard fight to get required reforms into working order. With
‘the small settler it is doubtful if the classification of produce
could be carried out to’ any real.advantage, so long.as each
producer undertakes the curing of his own crop; but were a
system of central factories established, a system of classification
‘could be efficiently carried out, and. the general character of the
produce greatly improved. Large owners hold generally the
view, that a system of classification, does not pay, owing to the
increased cost of labour necessary to carry it out. Whether this
jis a true view, or not is best shown by the fact, that in the
‘markets of the world we always find that we must produce a
first class article to obtain a name, and to obtain a name, means
to obtain a profit above our competitors; but we certainly can
never obtain a name unless we make a first class article. To
make a first class article in any trade or business, is well known
in the long run to pay much better than to make ordinary
produce. There can be no doubt that many improvements in
the curing of produce can be effected if the necessary study is
given to the subject by intelligent men, and the curing of Cacao
certainly forms no exception to the rule. Classification of
produce of course would be governed greatly by the character of
that produce, but still even with crops of the most mixed
character, it is still possible to prepare produce for the market
which would exhibit a great improvement on the ordinary out-
turn, by careful selection of the pods in the field or better, by:
selection of beans during the process of shelling.

32 PICKING. .

Some will argue that it pays them better to make (what
they consider) an inferior article, instead of making (what they”
consider) a superior one. Now the facts are, that the so called
superior article is one which has gone through a large amount of
fermentation, and the so called inferior article, is one which has
been treated toa lesser amount of preparation. There cannot be
the slightest doubt that the prepared article is of the best flavour
but if the market demands at times a lower scale of preparation
it will of course generally be to the interest of the producer to

- supply the quality which is in demand, whatever the ideal may
be of superior or inferior quality, but he should nevertheless
not lose sight of the fact that a superzor article is always saleable,
while an inferior article has at times to suffer in price for the
want of a buyer.

The quality of Cacao however depends much more largely
upon the special kind uf variety grown, than upon the quality
of the land, or the amount of preparation it receives. Of course-
preparation can be well done, and badly done ; but, given a bad
class of Cacao, no preparation whatever could ever make it a
first class sample, it may make it better, but never first class.
For instance all the knowledge of preparation available in
Trinidad would not sutfice to make a sample of Trinidad Cacao.
into a sample which could be identified with that of Ceylon or
Java, for the reason, that the class of Cacao itself is essentially
different ; and per contra; it would puzzle the Ceylon planter to
turn out a sample to match that of the best Trinidad unless on
estates where the Forastero variety has been introduced ; and
Trinidad could only turn out a sample like the Ceylon produce,
by growing the exact strain which produces that class of Cacao,

CHAPTER VII.

Fermentation.

y

* T the latter part of the year 1889, being desirous:
of obtaining information from Trinidad planters.
of the various methods in use fur conducting an.
operation which nearly every one of them con-
siders of such great importance in the proper-
preparation of Cacao beans for the market; I
suggested to Governor Sir William Robinson,.
K.C.M.G., that it “would be a useful measure to offer prizes for-
the best essays on the fermentation of Cacao. The proposal
was approved and the prizes were offered. The first prize was
awarded to the late Dr. Chittenden; the second to Mr. Crichlow,
and the third to the late Honourable Eugene Lange.

The essays were published in the Agricultwral Record and
incited a large amount of public attention and criticism. ‘Che.
Essays were “printed as an appendix to the first Edition of this.
work and proved useful in showing the diversity of opinion.
which existed with regard to the manner of conducting the.
process. It cannot be doubted however that although the.
method varied toa considerable degree, yet nevertheless each,
was capable of producing gooa Cacao ; showing that in essentials.
all were agreed, or this result could not follow.

It will be convenient in discussing fermentation to consider :,
Ist, the necessity for the operation. 2nd, the change brought,
about, and 3rdly, what causes the change. 4th, general results,

1st.—The necessity for the operation.

We find that there are countries growing Cacao where the.
practice of fer mentation is not carried. out in the same manner
aa in Trinidad ; but it is an admitted fact at the same time that.
these countries obitain a low value for their produce. Fermented
Cacao hay for years past brought in a much better price than
the unfermented, and it is therefore only reasonable to suppose
that the practice of fermentation would be adopted in some one of
its formes by all the largest producing countries, It is a certain
fact however that of late years thers has been a large amount

34 t FERMENTATION.

of enquiry for Cacao which is but slightly fermented, or not
fermented at all and in consequence of this, so much importance
has not been attached to the methods of fermentation as formerly.

The process is however one upon which in a large measure the
commercial value of the produce depends, and no matter what
variety of Cacao is grown, be it Criollo, Forastero, or Calabacillo,
its value will be relatively enhanced if a proper system of
fermentation is carried out (i.e.) if it has to go to certain
markets, for others little is required. The systems or
methods extant for fermenting Cacao are innumerable, though
there appears the same underlying principle in all of them.

Tt is necessary first of all to remove the pulp surrounding
the berry, so as te allow the bean to dry—how we do this isa
matter of little moment so that we do it cffectually—but if in
removing it, we can at the same time effect improvement in the
substance of the kernel itself, we shall be carrying out at onc
operation what we should find very dfficult to do if carried out
separately. For instance, if we first removed the pulp, we should
not afterwards be able to change in any way the substance of
the kernel. J’ermentation is considered by all operators as the
easiest wry of effectually getting rid of the pulp, and it is also
probably the only reliable way of improving the character of the
interior of the seed.

Tt has been held that little or no fermentation is necessary
‘for some markets, and that the bitter flivour and the purplish
colour of the bean do n-t require alteration ; but those who hold
these views in Trinidad are probably still in the minority
although perhaps on the increase. Fermentation is a necessity
fur the quick removal of the pulp, it is a necessity to allow of
the bean being quickiy dried, and it is a necessity for the
purpose of altering and improving the character of the substance
of the bean, and to improve the colour and Havour of the produce.

2nd.—The change that is brought about.

The changes that are brought about during the process of
fermentation are in the exact ratio ‘f the time given to the
process, and {he manner in which the operation is carried out.

What is sought to be attained is, the completo removal of
the saccharine pulp which surrounds the seeds, for the purpose
of allowing the seeds to dry ina short time and to get rid of an
amount cf superfluous material which would otherwise remain
as a waste product attached to the cured bean. Besides, there
is a change in the bean to be brought about. Some are of the

FERMENTATION. 35

opinion that the changes of a certain kind take place, while
‘others hold that changes of an opposite charater are developed,
as was clearly shown by the Essays of 1889, All are however
fairly agreed that a change of some kind is necessary and
‘different operators disagree only as to the exact manner of
bringing about such a change. One object of the operator is to
change as far as possible the colour of the bean from a harsh
‘purple to a chocolate or cinnamon colour by fermentation,
and this change is brought about by the process in a varying

egrec. The original colour of the interior of the beans has
however much to do with the final colour of the finished article.
“The white seeded Cacao of Nicaragua takes only 48 hours to
become a fine “cinnamon” brown in colour, and the strains of
Cacao that have light coloured seeds are always those in which
‘the finest colour and break is produced. The true Creole-of
“Trinidad, as found wild in our forest has white seeds and
‘compares well in shape and form with the Ceylon and Java
produce with which it is now sail to beidentical. Mr. J. R.
Martin, reporting on Cacao to the Planters’ Association of
‘Ceylon in 1891, has a paragraph as follows :—‘ The break of
West Indian growths, so far as I had an opportunity of observing,
was invariably very dark brown or purple; which indicates
‘that the Cacao is of the Forastero variety, and every Cacao
planter knowsthat no care or curing will alter this characteristic.”
Mr. Martin here refers to the colour of the interior of the bean.
It is very clear that no preparation can ever produce the colour
‘from a purple bean, which can be obtained from the white
‘seeded varieties but stil] the purple colour of Forastero can in a
“great measure be contrelled by properly managed fermentation,

Another change whict. *~ brought about by fermentation is
the hardening or toughening vu. - shell of the bean. This is
-desirable from the point of view that it preserves the interior
~when the shell is kcpt entire. If the shell of the bean is brittle,
it suffers much during transport to market, and the interior
‘becomes liable to rapid deterioration in consequence. It has
been held that the operation of sweating or fermenting is simply
one of “ malting” (ve.) on. by which the starch of the bean is
changed into sugar by the act of germination, but I cannot find
‘that this theory has found much favour, and I am of the opinion
that it is impossible to make a high class product from ger-
minated Cacao.

Srd.— What cause the Changes.

This is a difficult question to answer. and in fact can only
be answered after a full study of the (Chemistry of Cacao. There
‘eas until recently no accurate data at hand on this most

36 FERMENTATION,

important subject. A partial analysis by Professor McCarthy
appeared in one, of the annual reports of the Royal Botanic
Gardens some years ago whien simply gave the constituents of
the fresh bean, but nothing further was forthcoming until in
1897 Professor J. B. Harrison, M.A., Government Analyst
of British Guiana, took up the question and performed a lengthy
series of analyses, which have afforded a very large amount of
valuable information. Professor Harrison has been good enough
to allow me to make use of this information and it appears, as
recently revised by himself, in the chapter which deals with the
Agricultural Chemistry of Cacao. (Chapter 12.)

These analyses show clearly the constituents of the fermented
and unfermented bean, and the changes caused by the operation.

It is clearly desirable, in the interests of a Country produc-
ing 20,000,000 tbs. of Cacao per annum, to know the basis of the
methods of fermentation which are in use, and the changes
which occur in the product ; and the planter will find interesting
infurmation on these points in Professor Harrison’s work.

Professor McCarthy’s analysis, ran as follows :—‘‘ In two
ordinary varieties of Cacao lately analysed fresh from the pod,
the fat in one was cnly 18% while in the other it was over 28%,
Theobromine being ir nealy the same proportions.”

A set of analyses are to be found in the pages of Tropical
Agriculture by P. L. Simmonds, but these, as the author states,
are not flattering to Chemical science.

An analysis by Professor Church in “ Food” (South
Kensington Science Hand-book) runs as follows :—

In roo parts. Inr ft,
Water wae

one Soe on o TS.
Albuminoids ass ase ee aert ye
Fat be wee ese 510 8070 ,,
Theobromine eta ase I's O'105 ve
Cacao Red... 4 see 30, O28 %
Gum, etc. ... tes wee 109 1°326. a
Ceilulose and lignose aie 8&0 1122 ,
Mineral matter... ans 36 0 252 .

Professor McCarthy found 18 and 28 per cent. of
fattv matter in two samples of fresh Cacao—but this
apparently mjght represent an amount of 50 per cent. in the
cured bean, in consequence of the removal of moisture and tke
pilp and mucilage from the outside of the bean, which material
gees to make up a large proportion of weight, and would reduce
the percentage of fat in proportion to the lolal weight of fresh

an.

FERMENTATION,
37

- An examination by the author, of beans fresh from the pod
‘showed the following :—

ozs.

Total weight from inside pod—No. 1 ss vas =3'75
Weight of pulp and testa or skin of seed removed —1'65
Kernel (clean) wae re oe one 195

— 340

Loss during operation 4. one ae "35

ozs.

Total weight from inside poa—No. 2 - aes =5'40
Weight of pulp and testa or skin of seed removed —2"40
Kernel (clean) ose js cia sxe ==2'40

— 4'80

Loss during operation oe oe 60

The pods were ripe pods, the entire contents were removed
from the shell after it was opened, and then carefully weighed.
After weighing the pulp, the desta or skin of the seed was
removed and the waste and cleaned bean again weighed as above. .
It will be seen that the pulp surrounding the bean, with the
placenta, weighs nearly the same as the cleaned kernel, and
therefore if Mr. McCarthy’s analysis was taken from the fresh
bean, pulp included, it is no wonder that he did not get a
higher percentage of fat than 18 and 28 per cent, Taking the
average between these and allowing the difference of 100 per
cent. for the weight of waste on the fresh beans, we have 46 per
cent. of fat in the fresh bean according to that analysis—
which approaches that of an average sample of cured Cacao—
Church’s analysis. The difference in the percentage found by
Professor McCarthy in his two samples would be easily’
accounted for, by the moisture contained in the bean, or in the
mucilage surrounding the bean bein~ greater in the one case
than in thé other. It will I think be evident that we are well
on the way to ascertain the ‘‘ cause of the change” once we have
digested the elaborate and careful analyses made by Professor
Harrison. These analyses necessitated over three hundred
operations, many of which had to be repeated, and he is to be
highly congratulated on his valuable contribution to our
knowledge of the Chemistry of Cacao.

4th —General Results.

Tf we examine carefully the underlying principle (often
unknown to the operator) which leads to certain results in all
the old methods of sweating or fermentation, we shall find that _

though the detail of procedure is somewhat different in each ;
yet there is a decided similarity in the result, We find

38 FERMENTATION.

one operator holding one opinion, the next holding another,
but after all their productions are about equal, allowing the
observant man the priority he gains by the use of his judgments.
or his common sense, i

Practice will tell the planter the condition to which he
must bring his beans by fermentation before he attempts to dry”
them ; aud until brought to this particular condition, they
cannot be considered properly cured or fermented, so as to
furnisb a well cured sample when finished off. The condition.
into which the bean should be brought, is well known to the
generality of planters, and we find them making sections of the
beans to ascertain whether the fermentation has been regular’
and general but to describe the particular condition is a hard’
thing to do. The best I know of is that of the Jate Dr.
Chittenden in 1st prize Essay. He says :--“‘ At this stage if
“ fermentation has been properly established, the cotyledons are,
‘*‘ found separated and the vinous liquor of the pulp, which
** passes through the membranous covering, occupies this space.
“as well as the cavities between the convolutions.” This it is
“which has so marked a physiological influence and affects its
“flavour, the bean being, as may be said, ‘stewed in its own
“juice.” What is here described I believe to be literally true,-
and unless we can stew the bean in its own juice, or absorb.
the constituents of the pulp through the membranous covering
in some manner, we shall never properly ferment Cacao or
change the character of the imterior of the bean.

The above may be taken as the condition to which the
bean is brought by the moist fermentation of Cacao, but there
are other methods used which produce similar results Dr.,
Chittenden says also, ‘The conuguwero puts up his beans to.
‘drain and forthwith exposes them to the sun for say five or
“six hours, then heaped and packed up they sweat afresh until,
“the following day, when they get five or six hours more sun
“and so on.” Again, “another contrivance of . the small,
“ grower, is that of bagging the Cacao at the end of the day.
“whilst still hot from exposure te the sun and to sweat ib
** during the night.”

This is the practice of the Venezuelan plantet, and is.
described in Sir William Robinson’s Pamphlet (1890 )

The prime object of sweating or fermentaton therefore
appears to be, to change the inside portion of the bean, by:
absorbing into it products obtained from the fermenting pulp,”
and where thiz is not fully accomplished by any of the methods, ,
the béan is classed a3 unfermented, and the product is generally,
of lower value. *

FERMENTATION, 39
Tt is understood by the experienced planter that some
varieties of Cacao take‘longer to cure than others, that
some are more bitter in flavour, and that some have a more
tender skin than their neighbours. He knows at once
that beans of the Criollo type do not require nearly a3
much time to “stew in their own juize” as Forastero,
or Calabacillo, and he knows when each has reached the proper
stage of preparation needed previous to the final drying, but
the why and the wherefore of the variation of time in reaching
this stage is, I believe, as yet a matter of doubt even among the
most able. That the difference in the membranous texture of
the cuter covering of the bean bears a material part in influenc-
ing the time necessary for fermentation cannot however be
doubted.

There is a point however in this question of fermentation
which appears to have been but little studied. The Cacao bean
of course possesses a living principle or embryo like all other
seeds, and it is well known that this principle e1n easily be
destroyed, both by exposure to dry air, and also by an excess
of moisture. The greatest care is always taken by cultivators
to avoid an alternation of wet and dry periods when putting
seeds to grow, as it is known that this means sure death to the
embryo in the first stages of germination, for once a seed has
started to grow, a short dry period readily kills it, and so also
does an excess of moisture. In the so called fermentation of
Cacao, we find the operators adopting both of the methods which
are so destructive to the vitality of seeds, for it is well known
that the vitality of the embryo of the Cacao must be completely
destroyed, or it cannot become cured Cacao. The Cacao bean
however does not need fermentation for the purpose of destroying
its Vitality, for simple drying invariably destroys the germ.
it is a well known fact that seeds from many members of the
game family are very difficult to preserve for any length of time,
owing to their vitality being easily destroyed by contact with
dry air. Therefore it is not simply the death of the embryo
which is needed, neither is it the ‘‘ malting” process which
has been considered as the basis of the process of curing. To
malt a seed, it must germinate and grow, and its starch must be
changed into sugar, It is not necessary however to allow
the Cacao bean ‘to germinate at all to produce a good sample,
for, though a fair sample may be made of germinated beans if
the process is not too far advanced, it is much better that the
bean should not germinate to the extent which allows the radicle
fo pierce the testa of the seed, though it is certain that Cacao
may be much more quickly cured 13 germination is allowed to
pake place previous to fermentation, as the absorption by the

40 FERMENTATION,

passage or outlet pierced by the radicle would be much more
‘rapid, but the testa being once pierced by the radicle, opens the
way to easy destruction of the contents, by giving access to
the spores of microscopic fungi, and the produce is never of first
class quality.

Protably the most important of the underlying principles
of the different methods of “Fermentation” is that which
‘creates a certain amount of absorption through the testa or skin
‘of the bean, which is secured by most methods) <A
‘certain amount of heat is required, some make use of sun heat,
while others use the heat of fermentation induced in various
ways, while others again use both. Small quantities are best
fermented by being put into a tin vessel and then exposed to
the sun to start the fermentation, Although the methods to
‘obtain good results, are known by practice to every intelligent
Cacao planter, yet formerly there was much guessing at the
‘quantity and quality of material used to obtain these results,
Now that we have Professor Harrison’s analyses and actually
know what the beans contain before and after fermentation, it
will be possible after some further trial and experiment to decide
which process of fermentation produces the best results.

In Aublet’s ‘“ Plantes de la Guiane” I find the process of
fermenting the produce of Theobroma Guianensis, Aubdl., given
in the following words :—

Pour conserver Vanande du Cacao, lorsque le fruit est dans
sa parfaite maturité, Pon rassemble auprés dune cuve la récolte
‘quon en a faite; on coupe par le travers la capsule en deux
portions pour en tirer toute la substance, et les amandes qu'elle
contient, qu'on verse ensemble dans le cuve. Cette substance sous
vingt-quatre heures entre en fermentation, ensuite se liquéfie et
devient vineuse. On laisse les amandes dans cette liqueur
jusqwas ce que lewr membrane ait bruni et qu'on reconnoisse que,
leur germe soit mort; car la bonté du chocolat dépend en partia
de la maturité du fruit et du degré de fermentation que Vamande.
a &prouvée par ce procédé. Les amandes se séparent avec facilité
de la substance qui les enveloppait, et sechant bientét. La liqueur.
vineuse est un pew acide et banne & boire; mise dans un alambia
et distillée, elle donne un esprit ardent, enflammable et d’un bon
gout.

Freely translated this will read :—

To preserve the kernel of the Cacao, the fruit, when ripe, is cut in
halves, and the kernels it contains are thrown together into a vat. The
substance surrounding the kernéls ferments within twenty-four hours,‘
‘then liquefies, and becomes sour. The kernels are left in this liquor unti
‘the membranes have become brown, and the germ is known to be dead,"

FERMENTATION, 41

for the quality of chocolat depends on the maturity of the fruit and on the
degree of fermentation it has undergune. The kernels or nibs separate
easily from the substance surrounding them and dry by degrees The
sour liquor is acid, but good to drink, and an ardent spirit cap be
“distilled from it which is high!y inflammable, and of a nice taste.

This shows that the practice of fermentation was knowa
long years ago and that this species of Cacao (probably a
different plant from our Theobroma Cacao,) was used for pro-
ducing chocolate. Aublet’s work was published in. 1775 or 125
years ago. Ibis curious to compare the conclusion come to by the
late Dr. Chittenden (viz.) “stewing in its own juice,” with the
sentence :— The kernels are left in this liquor until the mem-
branes have become brown,” and to note their similarity, and
also my remarks as to the death of the germ or the destruction
of vitality within the seed, both of which were conclusions
arrived at previous to finding Aublet’s description of the process.
It has been said by some that we “cannot add anything to the
chemistry of Cacao.” The thorough enquiry into the subject by
Professor Harrison has however shewn us the changes that take
place during fermentation, and careful experiment will possibly
show the exact temperature required for the proper fermentation
of the bean. Iam inclined to think from the few experiments
I have personally carried out that the heat which occurs during
fermentation is not so necessary for a proper preparation as is
generally believed. When ascertaining the weight of fresh pulp
surrounding the beans, it occurred to me to place the ‘skinned’
kernels” and the pulp that had been removed from them together
and to allow them to ferment. These were placed in a confined
‘space, and allowed to stand 3 days or 72 hours, and the
temperature was only that of the outside air or a mean of 80°
Fah. Fermentation had taken place and the smell and taste
of the liquor instead of being sour, was sweet and agreeable,
resembling very much the smell of the ‘‘ wort” when the brewing
‘of ale is in progress, shewing plainly that diastase was present,
probably produced by the alteration of the albumenoid substances
‘contained in the pulp, or in the bean, or by the pulp and bean
‘conjointly. The office of diastase appears to be to effect the
conversion of a portion of the starch of the bean into dextrin,
and thus to render it soluble, for we know that the same
process takes place in the malting of grain, but the process here
differs, from the fact that germination is not required to take
place but should beprevented. Malt differs from barley insomuch
as it contains more dextrin and soiuble substances, but rather less
starch, cellular matter, and insoluble albumenoids and a smaller
proportion of inorganic constituents; and that there is a simijer
difference between the unfermented Cacao bean and the fermented
one, admits of no doubt.

42 FERMENTATION.

The kernels of the beans which were placed with the pulp.
had assumed the much desired colour (the cinnamon red) which.
it is the ambition of the planter to produce, and it will be
observed that they did this in the short space of 72 hours or 3
days, when it is probable that if they had been fermented with
the skin on, it would have taken three or four times as long to
have secured the same colour to the kernel of the bean and:
appears to demonstrate what constituent it is that produces the
colour. The bean however when thus treated is liable to mould}
very rapidly, but the break and colour is all that could be’
desired in a first-class Cacao. It would hardly be practicable-
to treat Cacao on the same lines in large quantities, neither’
perhaps would it be desirable, but the experiment adds something:
to our knowledge of the process which has so long been followed. |

The skin or testa of the bean, after having allowed the.
changes caused by fermentation to happen to the kernel through}
its membranous texture, appears to be finally useful in preventing’
the ingress of the microscopic fungi or mould, which would.
destroy the interior parts, the toughened covering acting as an
efficient preservative of the interior, once it is properly cured.
If not properly dried, the testa or skin cracks, and the interior:
becomes mouldy and rapidly loses quality.

The temperature maintained in the sweating boxes hag’
been variously stated. In the prize Essays it was given as 100°
Fah, rising to 118° and 120° which from frequent personal
readings under different conditions I believe to be the average|
heat which can safely be developed. In very large fermenting!
chambers, the heat rises somewhat higher, but there is danger’
in allowing it to rise above 140°, as the character of the produce:
is sure to suffer. Frequent turnings have to be undertaken to
prevent too high a rise of temperature. ;

In reality the practice of fermenting Cacao is a simple one
when conducted on the older methods, but it is time that more
scientific method of working were brought into use, with a view.
of jatroducing and maintaining a higher standard of quality for
Trinidad Cacao. Progress has been made it is true during the
past decade, but it should go on at a faster rate, ES ee

“EUS

CHAPTER VIII.

Preparation of the Bean.

WASHING,

af ACAO must be washed immediately after fermen-
tation, or notatall. The pulp cannot be removed
except by the aid of this process and even after
the decomposition set up by fermentation, the

pulp is hard to remove. Ceylon planters appear
tize= to have adopted the washing process of prepar-
~ ing Cacao as being cleaner and better than the
method which generally obtains in Trinidad, and I learn that
‘the practice is now being followed in German ‘West-Africa where
‘large plantations are “being made. The prices obtained by
'Ceylon. produce is a guarantee that it is of first class quality,
‘and prices compare very favourably with those obtained by the
‘best Trinidad samples, Brokers in London however advise -
(Trinidad growers not to wash their Cacao, the chief argument
‘being that what is gained in price, is lost in weight, and vice-
jversa, Anyway, washing does not find favour with the Trinidad:

roducer, although a few who have tried the method have not
teen wholly unsuccessful, but they never succeed in making an
article which could be fairly ee in appearance with Ceylon
‘samples.

\ The late Mr. E. Lange in eee a Record March, 1891,
clearly proved that the “extra trouble was not compensated for
{by the price obtained; still, the tenour of his article
‘appeared to favour the washed product. Mr. Lange stated’
in his article that Messrs. Wilson Smitheit & Co. advised
him that it was not arlvsable to imitate Ceylon Cacao
: because the principle value o, that ciass of Cacao resided in its
“pale cinnamon break, which whether due to the soil or a different
variety of Cacao, Trinidad planters could not imitate.

44 PREPARATION OF THE BEAN.

Dr. Morris appears to favour the view that tie kind of
Cacao mostly grown in Ceylon is of the Criollo type, and after a
long study of the question, I am led to fully concur in this view.
The late Dr. Trimen in his report for 1890 gives the remarks
made “by a large grower who has great opportunities for
“ observation that the Forastero varieties which he chiefly
cultivates, appear to be gradually changing their characters
** and becoming more like the ‘.old Ceylon Red,’ the seeds losing
“their dark colour on section and becoming pale or nearly
white,” which clearly indicates that cross breeding is now
taking place freely in Ceylon. In Grenada I believe such a
‘change to be common and clearly apparent (2.¢.) the character
‘of Forastero as imported from Trinidad soon disappears owing
to the greater predominance of other types.

Tf the superiority of Ceylon Cacao is due to a difference in

the variety of plant producing it, itis certainly nouse to attempt by
washing to imitate it. I amfairly sure however that it is really a
‘difference of kind which decides the difference in quality rathez
than any method of preparation. There are differences due
to soil and situation which should by no means be overlooked,
but I am in no way sure that the common practice cf attributing
nearly all differences of quality, to a difference in soil and
climate, is a safe one, as it is not known to have more than a
minor effect with other things. Plant the Jargonelle pear, or
the Ribston pippin apple where you will, you can never make
anything else of them but Ribston pippins and Jargonelles, and
why the soil should be credited with making differences with
/Cacao as broad as would convert the apple into a crab, and the
:pearinto a quince, I fail to understand, but would rather believe
_ that the quality lies entirely in the intrinsic value of the special
‘kind cultivated.

DRYING AND POLISHING.

In Trinidad the general method adopted for drying Cacao
is by exposure to the sun on large wooden floors or trays which
can be rapidly covered when rain is about to fall, either by
running ia the trays under a fixed roof, or having a movable roof
over a fixed floor, The latter is by far the most common form
of drying-house used in Trinidad, though both systems are in
use, separate and combined. '

he houses are erected of wood, the floor being made large
cr small according to the size of the estate. The general run of
ivors are about 40 to 50 feet long by 18 to 20 feet in width.
The sliding roofs are made extremely light, placed ou wheels and
are covered with either plain or corrugated galvanized iron}

'

PREPARATION OF THE BEAN, 45.

The roof is divided in the centre, and when the floor is exposed,
each half is received by a frame-work contrived at each end of
the house. The central: portion under the flooring may be used
for two sets of trays, one on each side, which are made to run
_on wheels or light iron rails, and so arranged as to be run out on
frame-work at, right ang les. to the main frame-work of- the
building.

In these trays the Cacao i is exposed to the sun, after being
sufficiently fermented, but in the middle of the day it is the
practice, if very clear, to close the house for an hour or two, to
prevent the excess of heat from blistering the Cacao. The layer
of beans is spread about 3 or 4 inches thick over the floor, and
is turned frequently during the time it is exposed to the sun.

The length of time taken up in drying depends in a great
measure upon the way in which it has fermented. Cacao
properly fermented dries much quicker than the partially
fermented bean, and of course much depends upon the weather.
In rainy seasons, when there is much damp present, there is
considerable difficulty in making a good sample of Cacao ; in fact,.
Cacao at such times is often greatly depreciated in value, andi
sometimes becomes a total loss. Owing to this fact, it is
estimated that a very large sum would be annually saved to the
country, if more satisfactory methods of artificial drying were
generally instituted. The Central Agricultural Board of
Trinidad offered a prize of $200 for the best Cacao drying
apparatus at their Exhibition in October, 1890. The full prize
was not awarded but an honorarium of $40 each was awarded
to three designs which were of considerable merit.

The first was simply the adoption of the method. of heating
by hot water, to the ordinary: Cacao house. The second was a
telescopic drying apparatus adapted for either dry or wet weather,
and the third was a dryer having the means of keeping the beans
constantly stirr:d, which appeared promising.

Several sets of apparatus on the first principle have been
erected and found to work satisfactory but I have not learnt
that anything has ever been done in the way of-advancing the
usefulness of the second design. The third design was erected
on a large scale, but it was found that the moring of a large
weight of: beans, crushed the cuticle, and the idea has been
abandoned.

Sir William Robinson in his pamphlet (1890) gave an
account of the Ceylon drying house as furnished by the late Dr.
Trimen, it is as follows :—

“ The house is about twice as long as broad, built of brick, and is.
provided , with doyble, doors, but with the,exception of the openings for
the ingress and egress of tbe hot air, is heringiically sealed. The interior

. 46 PREPARATION OF THE BEAN,

“is fitted with a number of upright frames into which slide, one above a
other, the trays upon which the beans are spread ; these should be made
of narrow pieces of split bamboo, not of wire or coirnetting. The heating
apparatus is outside in contact with one end of the building, and consists
-of alarge stove standing ina short tunnel which opens into the house. -
At the other end of the building, also outside, is a powerful! fan, fitted in
another short tunnel; this is worked by hand (three or four Coolies
needed), and by its rapid revolutions draws the air through the house.
By passing over and rouud the stove the air is dried and heated; that
which passes out is hot anddamp. The flue of the stove passes under
the floor of the house and contributes to warmit. A drying house of this
sort is very simple and its cost only about 120 rupees; it does its work
perfectly, and nothing more elaborate or costly is required.

It is found desirable here to dry Cacao as slowly as possible provided
the risk of mould be avoided. This appears in the interior of the beans
in twelve hours and on their outside in about twenty-four in wet weather
if they are left cold, but by passing them rapidly through the hot air
-house, so as to have them hot when taken out, it is found that they will
remain for a night or so in the store without injury.

As the annual average number of rainy days in Ceylon is from 80 in
dry districts, to 328 in the wet, and Cocoa is grown only in the moist
regions of the Island we may assume that at least four-fifths of the Cocoa

-exported from that Colony is Gried artificially. The rainfall in the best
Cocoa Districts of Trinidad appears to average between So and 100 inches.
The total yield as before stated is 125,000 cwt. representing an enormous
crop and an immense number of people dependent upon it. Yet there are
not half a dozen artificial drying houses, if as many, in the whole Island,”

The method appears to be a very simple one, but the amount
of labour needed (‘three or four coolies”) appears to be large
when compared with that required for the ordinary Trinidad
methods.

It will be observed from the above that the Ceylon planter
Aound it desirable to dry Cacao as “slowly as possible, provided
the risk of mould be avoided.” This opinion has been long
theld by many Trinidad planters, and some are of opinion
that no drying apparatus which will shorten the time of
the operation in any great degree, will secure general
adoption, as it is to be feared that the quality of the Cazao
will suffer ‘if too quickly dried. However, if it can be
proved that the quality of the produce does not suffer by
‘quick drying, the method will undoubtedly be of the greatest
service to the Cacao planter, and experiments in this direction
tend to show that it does not really suffer, but is rather improved
-by quick drying.

However this may be, it is certain that so much loss does
not occur during bad weather as formerly, owing to the adoption
-of various systems of artificial drying,

Machines which are made to revolve as a cylinder, have not
been a success, as it has been found that a heavy weight of
moving Cacao breaks the outer shell of the beans and therefore

| CE

-—s

Drying House.

PREPARATION OF THE BEAN. 47

«damages the sample. One of the most effective and simple
systems of which I have information is that having a circular
floor pierced with numerous small holes, under which are placed
rows of small pipes heated by low pressure steam. From the
oor centre an upright shaft ascends which is driven slowly by
-band or other power. This shaft carries two or more bars or
booms running horizontally an inch or so from the floor. These
bars carry small ploughs, or turning shears and brushes which
slide upon the floor and keep the beans in motion and allow the
drying to prozeed rapidly, a chimney or funnel allowing vapour
to escape. The upper part of the shaft by a simple attachment
drives an ‘exhaust fan, The heating apparatus need not be of
an expensive character, as it could be made locally in most
‘places under intelligent direction, once a plan of the building,
boiler and tubes is furnished, but it is a necessity to have a
-circular building. This may be built either of concrete, brick or
wood throughout, but concrete is certainly preferable for the
‘basement, and wood for the upper story. It is estimated that a
building and apparatus to dry 10 bags in the 36 hours will cost
. £200, but to dry 5U bags per day the apparatus would cost much
less in proportion.

During the drying process Cacao has to be frequently turned,
but it appears to dry better if kept in 3 or 4 inch layers than if
spread more thinly over the surface of the drying floors.

In curing Cacao some Trinidad managers make use of red-
‘earth for the purpose of getting rid of the mucilage of the bean
in a more expeditious and handy manner, and this method
appears to be also in use in Venezuela. The process is described
as follows :—

We now come to the picking and drying of Cocoa (Cojida y seca).
‘Without going into details it would appear that in Venezuela the greatest
care is taken in the matter of picking. The ground on which the pods are
4o be placed, after having been cut from the tree ‘by the pruner
(desjarretadera) is carefully prepared by the spreading of plantain leaves
©n it in proportion to the picking. Here women are ‘placed who cut the
pod in order to get out the beans. The pods that are overripe or,black or
‘picked by birds are separated, so that at this early stage there is a careful
classification of the fruit. When the Cocoa is taken from the pod or
shelled, it is measured in baskets in order that the result of the picking
amay be known. It is then conveyed to the curing-house. If the picking
+is one of several consecutive days it is dealt with as soon as possible, for
“it is not, advisable to accumulate the pickings of more than two or three
days. It is preferable to deal with one day's picking on the following day
when the grains are very thinly spread in the curing place in order that
‘the damp and clammy (humido y enjuto) mucilage may be dried up.
Great care is now taken not to crack the kernel. It is raked witha
‘wooden rake, and. when it 1s being bagged for the curing-house a wooden
~shovel is used, ;

48 PREPARATION OF THE BEAN.

It is absolutely necessary that on the first day of exposure the Cocoa.
(beans) should have the full benefit of the sun, In the afternoon it is.
collected, heaped up in a dry room and sheltered with sheets of wrapping
cloth during the night. On the day following it is dried in the morning
and spread about in small lots. Then the operators, with a fine sieve,
sift over it a very small quantity of red earth, which is well prepared and
pounded in a mortar in anticipation. This earth must be thoroughly
pulverised and perfectly dry. An object is gained by this operation, viz.,
to give to the Cocoa colour and gloss. Failing coloured earth, brick dust °
or red ochre is occasionaliy used, but red earth gives the better colour:
and is more approved by the exporters. When this operation has been
finished the curing place is'dried and left wide open in order that the
Cocoa may be well under the influence of the sun, It is given only siz
hours on this day, when it is gathered up, placed in a dry room and well
sheltered, in order that it may go through the process of curing for the
day and the whole of the night. On the third day it is dried in the sun
four hours. It is again re-gathered warm into a heap, and it is sheltered
in the room the rest of that day and the whole night. On the fourth day
the same process is repeated.

In case any dampness is observed amongst the beans they are exposed
to the sun during the morning of the fifth day. But they must not be-
exposed to too great a heat because this would dry them too much, and
besides the kernel might crack and the weight might be diminished,
After tlis stage has been ‘reached the Cocoa is'' placed in wooden trays.
{Bateas) and ventilated:’ The dry husks and'useless grains are got rid-of,
and it is then thoroughly clean and fit to send to the market. :

COLOURING AND DANCING.

It appears that in Venezuela the practice of using dry-earth
is, first, for the absorption of the mucilaginous portions of the
covering of the beans, secondly, to give the bean “ colour”
and 3rdly in some measure to prevent or minimize the growth of
Fungi, or “mildew.” . -

In Trinidad various mixtures are used for colouring purposes
and for bringing out the polished appearance of the Cacao;
among them may be mentioned starch, red ochre, roucow or
annatto, and red earth or clay. The red clay of San Antonio
Estate, Trinidad, is described by the late J. J, Bowrey, Govern-
ment Analyst, Jamaica, as “a very fine ferruginous clay sree from
organic matter,” and is said to answer the purpose admirably,
Dressing or colouring of Cacao is however more practixed by
merchants who purchase from the small growers than by the
well-to-do planter, as by this means they are able to put an even
appearance on samples of different qualities ; but Cacao of finest
quality and appearance can be made without the addition of any
single particle, of extraneous matter, if the methods of the best
estates are adupted. , Oe

In damp weather the partially dried bean is extremely
liable to Le attacked by, numerous microscopic fungi or moulds,
and if these are allowed tu continue their growth undisturbed

PREPARATION OF THE BEAN. 49

the coating of the bean is pierced and its contents spoiled.
Various measures are adopted:in bad weather to disturb the
growth of the mildew, and of these none is more familiar than
the process called ‘ Dancing.” The Cacao is collected in heaps
and the labourers are employed to tread the heap with their
naked feet. The friction caused by the treading removes the
mildew from the outside of the beans and polishes them at the
same time. Where “dancing” is not convenient “ hand rubbing”
is resorted to for the same purpose.

The process of drying is always continued until the Cacao
is thoroughly dry, but only an experienced hand can tell whea
this point is reached.

If well cured it should have the outer skin separating from
the cinnamon colored interior. The latter should be firm, bright,
and break easily on pressure with the fingers.

Tt may be added that a plump bean of a light chocolate, or
what is known as a “cinnamon” colour, is a mark of the highest
quality of Cacao, when combined with what is known as “a.
good break.” Samples of darker colour have of late years found
favour in some markets for special purpose, but the highest
flavour certainly remains with the light colored and fermented
bean which has a good break.

It would appear to be held by some that heat is especially
necessary to harden the interior of the bean, and that to obtain
this it is found necessary to heap the beans, so as to make them
undergo a second and third fermentation at intervals during the
drying process, and it is contended that without this the bean
will often refuse to assume that plump appearance which is held
in such high estimation by buyers.

fake

PART IitI.

CHAPTER IX.

‘Botany and Nomenclature of Cacao with Description of

Typical Forms, &c., &c.

HE name which Linneus conferred upon this
plant is derived from the Greek /heos (god) and
Broma fvod, or “ Food for the gods.”

There are several species of the genus, which is
native of tropical regions extending from Mexico
to Brazil, and among the known species are the
following :— Theobroma bicolor, T. guianensis, T. sylvestris, T.
ovattfolia, 7. angustifolia, 7. pentagona, all said to he distinct
from our cultivated 7heobroma cacao, L., and its varieties which
is the kind from which the major quantity of the, marketable
product known as Cacao or “ Cucua” is derived.

The Mexicans give to Theobroma cacao the name of Cacao-
quahuitl, which has been in a great measure retained in the
word chocolate. Trees of Theobroma cucao grow in some places
‘to forty feet in height, the writer having seen them of this size
in the province of Veragua in 1885, but the usual height of the
Trinidad tree averages about fifteen or twenty feet, the lateral
diameter of its branches being abou€ the same measurement.
In Grenada, Tobago and St. Vincent the trees are generally of
smaller size.

The Botanical characters of the genus are given in
*Grisebach’s Flora of the British West Indies, p. 91, as follows :—

ORDER STERCULIACEZ:--TriBe BUETTNERIESR.

Calyx 5 partite, colored. Petals 5: limb cucullate, with a terminal, spathu- -
late appendaze. Column 10 fid . fertile lobes bi-antheriferous : anthers bilocular.
Style 5-fid. Fruit baccate, 5-celled: cells pulpy, polyspermous. Embryo exal-
-buminous : cotyledons fleshy, corrugate. Trees; lees entire; pedicels fascicled or
solitary, lateral,

BOTANY AND NOMENCLATURE, 51

-The description of our species is given in the same work in
similar terms :—

T. Cacao, L.—Leaves oblong, acuminate glabrous, quite entive; flowers
fascicled ;. pevicarp ovid-oblong 10 cosiate. Calyx rose-colored ; segments lanceolate,
acuminate, exceeding the yellowish corolla; pericavp yellow or reddish, leathery 6
to 8 inches long. ” Habitat, Trinidad— De Schach. ~ Naturalized in Famaica!
Dist. St. Lucia! Anderson. [Guiana and Brazil !}

The various names under which the varieties of this tree
Theobroma cacao) are known do not constitute species, but must
‘be merely considered as varieties of one original species. These
varieties probably owe their origin to seed variation and cross
breeding, together with the influence of soil and climate, but to
enumerate the whole of their names would serve no useful
purpose.

Dr. Morris’s classification* was based upon the nomen-
-clature of some of the best estates in Trinidad. Some modifica-
tion of this nomenclature is now however desirable. It must be
admitted however that the local nomenclature of various districts
- differs much, one with another, and it would therefore be a
hopeless task to attempt to reconcile these names. It is also
patent to the observer that there are certain characters of cacao
more strongly marked than others, as exemplified in the varieties
known as Criollo, Forastero and Calabacillo, though Dr. Morris
-contents himself with forming them into two “great classes,
“Criollo and Forastero,” and he gives Calabacillo as a variety
only of Forastero.

In the first edition I divided these. various kinds into three
-elasses placing Criollo as Class I., Forastero as Class II., and
‘Calabacillo as Class III., being the inferior type of the species.

Crass I. CRIOLLO.—or FINE THIN-SKINNED.
1. Var. a, Amarillo.
2: », 'b. Colorado.
Crass II. FORASTERO.—or THICK-SKINNED CACAO.

3. Var. a. Cundeamor verugosa amarillo.
4. we Je a colorado.
5. a & Ordinary amarillo.

6. ia a colorado,

7- » ¢ Amelonado amarillo.

8. f. colorado,

Crass III, CALABACILLO. —or SMALL-PODDED, THICK,
SMOOTH-SKINNED, FLAT-BEANED,

g. Var. a. Amarillo,
10 » 5. Colorado.

* No 1, Yellow Creole; No 2, Red Creole. Nos 3 and 4, Cundeamor, is
devived from the Spanish name of the ** Cerasee” (Momordica Charantia) which
possesses a peculiay warted appearance. Thus the name means Momordica-shaped,
vough ved or yellow cacao. Nous. 7 and 8 ave Am:+lonado.or melon-shaped, red

. and i yellow cacao. Calabacillo, calavash-sh tped cacao, red and yellow,

52 BOTANY AND NOMENCLATURE.

After the lapse of some years I still see no necessity to.
revise the list.

Dr. Morris in (Cacao and how to cure it 1882)* made two-
classes only, placing Calabacillo with Forastero. I retain the
original classification because it appears to me to cover well
all the various types which are present. Calabacillo is
certainly as far removed from Forastero, as Forastero is from
Criollo, as seen in Plantations of the present day, when every
intermediate form from Criollo down to Calabacillo can be seen
linking the whole in one continuous chain of varieties. To.
properly classify Cacao, we must first know what the originals.
were like, and it is clear that at the present time, it is hard to.
decide exactly what were the forms assumed by the older types
of Cacao fruit. There is an apparent consensus of opinion
however which points to the thin skimed and bottle necked’
variety, as the original Criollo,t and this is quite confirmed by
the Criollo being discovered in the virgin Forest of an uncultivated
part of Trinidad. Criollo has either yellow or red pods (red or
yellow coloring of the pod affects the interior but little and the
same quality of bean may be formed under both colours, and the
seeds when cut, show a white or nearly colourless interior. This.
character is also possessed by Java and Ceylon Cacao—and by
the Criollo of Central America, and also by the produce of
Theobroma pentagona. (Figs. x, Y, Z.)

Forastero Cacao of the best class also shews a light coloured
interior but slightly tinged with purple, but this increases until
in Calabacillo we have beans most highly coloured.

Venezuelan Cacao from some of the finest Estates, such as.
Ocumare and others can readily be distinguished by the lightness
of the colouc of the interior of the bean and by the shape of the
bean although to all outside appearance, the pods belong to the
general type of Forastero. On Trinidad Estates, which have
introduced ‘certain strains of Caeao from the Mainland, we
find what I consider is the finest class of Forastero Cacao. In
ordinary Cacao, pods may be found illustrating the passage, by
almost imperceptible differences, from the Crivllo on the one

8 j “Cacao, How to grow and how to cure it.” D. Morris (Jamaica,.
1882 :

t Criollo— Spanish for Creole.

“Pepa,
MnyGaspss

ti

FIG, X.
Calabact

lla.

Sap s>

a
py

pepiway

uy

Fic. Y.
Criollo.

FIG, Z.
Lorastero.

aidad,.

ei

c.f. Vaughan
Ter?

BOTANY AND NOMENCLATURE. 53

thand, to the Calabacillo on the other. In a paper read before
‘the Ist West Indian Conference 1899, held at Barbadoes I stated
that :—

“The only attempt at the improvement of the quality of Cacao is
‘that which has been made by the selection of seed by its external character
(in the pod) and the import of seed from other countries. The result is
that to-day although the remains of the original types are clearly apparent,
it is also clear that, though bringing good prices the Cacao as now grown
is as a whole nothing less and nothing more than an aggregation of cross
breed varieties.* Some few might attempt to do so, but I think a wise
planter would hesitate if he was asked to show where Criollo ended and
Forastero began, or where Forastero ended and Calabacillo began. The
fact is that the Cacao of the West Indies is nothing more nor less than a
mixture o f various strains, which again vary in and among themselves in
no certain direction, and among which the characters of the ancient types
appear more or less developed according to the character of their
surro undings and the numerous influences which have been brought to
bear upon them. The quality of the Cacao produced from these strains
(or types) is variable, some selling for good prices, while other brands are
decidedly inferior. The character of the leaves, the form of growth, the
colour and form of the fruit, the size, shape and colour of the interior of
the bean are all variable to a degree, and few trees can be found which
are the exact counterpart one of the other, either in their produce or the
‘vegetative characters.

The discovery (by the author in 1898) that Cacao can easily be
grafted by approach now puts into the hands of the planter means whereby
he can secure a crop of one particular kind or kinds at will, and further it
‘will enable him to make samples of a character formerly impossible. It
will also enable him to grow such types as the Criollo or any weak grower
upon the vigorous growing varieties of the Calabacillo type.

When grown from seed the selection should only be made after due
examination of the interior of the bean, as the quality of the finished
article can generally be determined by this means. The trees selected for
seed bearers should be vigorous, healthy, of good form and the blossoms
should be’ efficiently protected from Cross fertilization, or if deemed
expedient the flowers themselves may be artificially fertilized. It would
then be seen that the produce could be made to come true to a very high
percentage, and once plantations of a single type could be brought into
existence, then superiority would be so obvious that no further persuasion
would be required to have the method generally adopted, as it would be
seen to be the most profitable practice which could be pursued. Fields
would then be arranged so as to produce a sample of one certain quality,
showing no variation in the size and form of bean or the quality of its
interior. It would be possible to have plantations on which not a single
Red pod could be found, and others on which not a single yellow one could
be seen.”

How easily this result could be obtained by grafting is
readily to be seen, and although perhaps slightly more lengthy
and expensive, it is I think a preferable mode of propagation, to
that of raising from seed ; more expensive it is true, but in the

* It has been found that Forastero in Ceylon gives rise to forms representing
‘every type of Cacao grown. (Martin Report to Planters’ Association, 1892.)

54 BOTANY AND NOMENCLATURE.

long run I am sure would pay very handsomely, There are:
excellent kinds already on Trinidad fields and the best of these
should be propagated by grafting and grown under local names,
such as Gordon’s “‘ Excelsior Cacao,” Leotaud’s “ Promise Cacao,”
Agostini’s ‘‘Surprise Cacao,” De Cannes “ Best of all Cacao”—
which would be infinitely preferable to retaining names such as
Criollo, Forastero, by which the various kinds can only be very
indefinitely and sometimes very inaccurately identified.

The finest cacao is by general consent. admitted to be
produced by the Criollo, and this is assumed to be identical or
similar in character to that called the Caracas variety. I think
however there is considerable doubt if this idea is correct. In |
the Consular Report on the agricultural condition of Columbia,
Consul Dickson mentions that “the variety chiefly grown in
“ Columbia is different to that of Venezuela, which produces
“ Caracas cacao, the pods being much larger, and containing a
“ greater number of beans, but as the number of pods produced
“by a tree is greater, wt 1s probable that on the whole the Vene-
“ guelan variety is the more productive of the two. The quality
“of Columbian cacao is little, if at all, inferior to that of the
“ Venezuelan, but it is littte known in commerce, as only an
“ insignificant amount is exported, the supply scarcely subigfying
“ the demand of the country.”

What this variety may be, we have no means of correctly
ascertaining, but the comparison with the Caracas variety
indicates that it is very near to, if not synonymous with our
Forastero, and it is to be noted that such a variety would also
be. “ Forastero” or foreign to the Caracas people.

The late Dr. Trimen of Ceylon, in his Annual Report for
1890, fell into the error of interpreting the word “Criollo” or
Crevle as being synonymous with “ wild.”

It is well known, however, that the word is never used in this
sense in the West Indies, the true interpretation of the word
“Creole” being—one born in a country or one belonging toa
country. With European Anglicans the word “ Creole” is
generally supposed to have reference to a mixture of races, but
it is not used in that sense in the West Indies or Jamaica.

For instance, a child born of white parents in any West
Indian Island, or even on the mainland of Central and South
America, is a “Creole,” and just as much so, as a black or
coloured child would be. In fact, “ Creole” should be translated
as “native” and not ‘“ wild” or Coloured; a black or coloured
child being just as much a Creole, as a white one or a mulatto
and vice versa.

BOTANY AND NOMENCLATURE. ov

: It is important that the sense in which the word “ Creole”
is used should be fully understood as we have “Criollo” as our
first variety of Cacao. (Uriollo is Spanish for Creole.)

If we interpret the words Criollo Cacao as Native Cacao,
and Forastero as Foreign Cacao, and Calabash Cacao as Cala-
bacillo Cacao, we should have had a better definition of terms,
and prevent further misapplication of the word “ Criollo.”
Calabacillo is so named from the resemblance of the pods to one-
of the forms of the fruit of the Calabash tree (crecentia cujete, L.)

The late Dr. Trimen in Annual Report Ceylon, 1890,
remarks that these names appear to have had their origin in
Trinidad, and doubted whether Criollo was “ever really a native
plant there” (Trinidad.)

The misunderstanding of the word Criollo or “Creole”
probably led him to this conclusion, for it could not be native or
“Creole” if imported into Trinidad unless its name was imported
from South America with it, and if so, it should be known as
South American Criollo or 8. American .Native Cacao, and not
simply Criollo. The word “Trinitario”* is applied on the
“Spanish Main” to the Cacao known as Forastero in Trinidad.
and they term itso in contradistinction to their own Criollo,
A plant of Trinidad would clearly be Forastero or Foreign in
Venezuela, and therefore, their ‘‘Trinitario” being a foreign
Cacao and supposed to have its origin in Trinidad, would
properly be the Criollo of Trinidad, if the word is used in the:
correct sense.

It may be possible, however, that Criollo Cacao is native of
both countries. The balance of probability appears to be, that
its origin can be traced to South America as indicated by Dr.
Trimen.

In Nicaragua the plantations appeared to the author to
consist principally of the Criollo type. The interior of the
Nicaraguan bean is commonly white, but where the trees have
been planted close to the imported Forastero, there is a most
perceptible increase in the colour of the beans, and of this I can
bear personal evidence.

Dr. Trimen repudiated the authenticity of the word Criollo,
attached to plants sent him from Trinidad, and calls them
Forastero on account of their being dissimilar to “ the old Ceylon

* Dr. Chittenden in Agricultural Record, Vol. IL., p. 107.

56 BOTANY AND NOMENCLATURE.

Red Cacao, also called Caracas.” (Ceylon Report, 1890.) He
allows however that the Forastero sent from Trinidad to Ceylon,
is gradually changing character and “becoming more like the
“old Ceylon Red.”

It is probable that Dr. Trimen was quite correct in
repudiating the name, for if the “ white seeded” wild variety is
the ancient Criollo; then many of our present day forms are
intermediate between that and Typical Forastero. That a
change of character from distinct forms is possible is admitted,
and moreover our best botanists do not find sufficient distinctive
characters (notwithstanding the differences in the form, size and
colour of fruit, leaf.and tree) to make more than one species of
all our cultivated varieties ; which as Dr. Trimen truly says,
probably trace their origin to a common wild parent,

Dr. de Verteuil, now Sir L, A: A. De Verteuil, K.C.M.G.,
tells us in his work on Trinidad 1884 p. 242“ That from its
first settlement Trinidad exported Cacao, and thaé Cacao soon
gained a reputation on account of its delicious aroma. According
to Gumilla it was superior to that of Caracas and other places,
so much so that the crops were bought and paid for beforehand.”

“In the year 1727 however, a terrible epidemic spread in
the Cacao plantation” and complete ruin followed.

The nature of this epidemic is indicated, for Sir Louis
states “the trees were apparently healthy and vigorous, the
“ flowering abundant, giving fruits but none of them came to
‘“‘ maturity as the young pods dried up before full growth.”

‘It is of course impossible to decide exactly what this
disease really was, but the presence on the plantations of to-day
of a disease* which might be similarly described, leads to the
inference that it was of fungus origin and similar if not identical .
with that recently identified.

“ Thirty years later, some Aragonese Capuchin Fathers
** were successful in their attempt to revive the culture of Cacao
“in the Island. They imported from the continent a new
“« species (variety J. H. H.) the Forastero Cacao which, though
“ giving a produce of inferior quality was nevertheless promptly
‘‘propagated as being hardier, that is the Cacao at present
* cultivated in the Island.”

The characteristics of Criollo cacao are the thinness of the
shell of the pod its rounded beans and pale colour of the interior
of the bean on section. The leaves of the tree are small when

* Discussed in a later chapter.

BOTANY AND NOMENCLATURE. 57

compared with the Forastero varieties, and the tree itself is not
nearly so sturdy and thriving, and does not produce such regular
and abundant crops as the “Forastero and Calabacillo varieties.
The skin of the bean is thinner, and the interior has but a small
proportion of that bitter flavour which is characteristic of the
unfermented bean of Forastero and especially that of Calabacillo.

The flattest beans are those produced by pods of the
Calabacillo type. The beans of Forastero are intermediate
between these and the rounded form of the Criollo, whic are
often slightly pointed. (Fig. A.)

The above sketch of beans of three typical varieties show
‘the difference in form which occurs, but there will be found
intermediate forms hardly reconcilable with any of the figures so
that these must be taken merely as the type forms of the
varieties mentioned. (Fig. B.)

Figures 4, 5 and 6, represent respectively beans of Theobroma
bicolor, Nicaraguan Creole, and the best or high priced variety
of Venezuelan Cacao sometimes called “Caracas” Theobroma
bicolor has fruited for several years in Trinidad, since its
introduction in 1893, but the beans do not enter as commercial
Cacao. The Nicaraguan bean is the largest Cacao bean I have
seen, and is of the finest quality, only to be approached by the
finest flavoured Criollo, or ‘ Caracas.”

There are rounded beans* to be found in almost every pod
towards its extremities, but the proportion of rounded beans in
Calabacillo is very small indeed, and the yield of this form of
bean increases only as the character of the pods approaches the
Criollo type. Calabacillo, or that class which gives small,
rounded and smooth pods and flat beans, having a bitter taste,
is the lowest type of Cacao that is grown, and requires the
greatest amount of skill ‘during treatment to bring it into
marketable form, the process of fermenting it, taking more than
‘double the time required for Criollo. The tree however is the
strongest grower and the hardiest of all the varieties, and will
thrive on poorer lands and on lands on which it would be
impossible to grow the finer kinds.

In the best forms of Venezuelan and Trinidad Cacao, the
beans are characterised by a peculiar prominence on their sides,
(see Figs 2 and 6.)

Trees of the Forastero type are strong growers, and its
varieties are therefore suitable for most lands in which cacao
‘can reasonably be expected to thrive. It approaches the

* The word “bean” is incorrect, but as it ts the con form of expr
among our cacao planters, it is used as being better understood than any other.

58 BOTANY AND NOMENCLATURE.

Calabacillo type by the Amelonado variety, both red and yellow,
and certainly stands as a large intermediate and variable type
between Criollo and Calabacillo. In general the Forastero has a
thick skin. It approaches the Criollo in form, or runs into.
.Criollo by its variety Cundeamor verugosa, red and yellow ; but
trees may be found bearing pods which are hardly to be
distinguished from the Criollo on the one side and the Calabacillo
on the other, thus showing the breadth of form covered.

The planter should ascertain the character of his land with
as much accuracy as possible before deciding what variety of
Cacao he will plant. If very poor he can rely on Calabacillo
only, if moderately rich Forastero, but on rich and lasting
ground the best types may be planted. If however the best
types were grafted un the strong growing Calabacillo there-
would be more probability of succeeding in growing the best.
varieties on inferior as well as rich soils.

The generality of plantations in Trinidad contain trees so.
mixed in character that it is difficult to separate one kind from
another, although it cannot be doubted that it would pay well
for any extra trouble, if a system of planting each type in.
separate fields were adopted,

The contract system which prevails in Trinidad is probably
more to blame for the mixed character of the fields than any-
thing else. The contractor has perhaps in the first instance
planted from seeds supplied to him presumably, all of one kind.
In supplying first vacancies he uses the stronger and larger
growing plants, and in places where the plant has refused to.
grow after planting twice or thrice, he will (rather than lose.
count of a tree) put in a plant. of the strong-growing Calabacillo.

In length the leaves of Criollo type vary from 5 to 12
inches and from 2 to 4 inches in breadth. Some were
recently examined over three feet in length. Forastero Cacao
gives the largest leaves of all. For the sake of accuracy I have
made special measurements of some growing in the Royal
Botanic Gardens and find that they vary from 9 to 21 inches in
length, and range from 24 to 6 inches in width.

The leaves of the Calabacillo type are shorter and wider in
comparison with their length than either Criollo or Forastero.

It must be understood, however, that these measurements
are taken from extreme forms, and that the nearer the trees
approach other varieties, the nearer alike are the leaves,

Cacao is said to have been cultivated largely in Jamaica
some two hundred years ago, but according to Long, in his
History of Jamaica, the plantations were destroyed by a “ blast.”

Vig. 3.

Calabaein, Forastere, Criollo,
Fig. A.

Theobroma Nicaragua Caracas
Bicolor. Creole. Cacao,
FiG. Be

BOTANY AND NOMENCLATURR. 59

Dr. Morris mentions that in Trinidad also the trees were visited.
by ‘a blast ‘sometime during the last century.” He interprets
the word “blast” as a “blow or hurricane,” but the word in
East Anglian brogue has another meaning. “Blast”. is there.
synonymous with “blight,” and this is confirmed by Walker’s
Dictionary as follows: (o blast—to strike with some sudden
plague). Either interpretation would however fully account for
the destruction of planfations, especially when taken in conjunc-
tion with the high rate of duties which was imposed on the
article in England at about the same time. Whatever the cause,
the cultivation of Cacao in Jamaica received a wonderful check,
for in 1671 Long states there were as many as sixty-five walks
in bearing; while in 1882 it was only grown in isolated
instances until the value of the product was brought into notice
by Dr. Morris when resident there as Director of Public Gardens
and Plantations, when the cultivation largely increased. The
introduction to Jamaica was probably effected by the Spaniards
as the English only came into possession of that island in 1655,
or sixteen years previous to the date mentioned, One species is
mentioned by a writer (Martius) as having been found in
Jamaica (Theobroma sylvestris) but accuracy of this would appear
to need confirmation.

It is generally admitted that Theobroma Cacao is to be-
considered native of the Northern territories of South America ;
and the finding of plants in Virgin Forest in Trinidad, is
strong evidence that it is a native of the Island, as well as the
Mainland.

Spon’s Encyclopedia gives Theobroma angustifolia, T.
bicolér, T. guyanensis, 7. microcarpa, T. ovalifolia, T. speciosa,
T. sylvestris as producing commercial cacao, but we cannot learn
upon what authority.

When travelling in Central America in 1885, I found
Theobroma bicolor, Humboldt and Bonbland, indigenous in the
provence of Veragua, United States of Columbia. It was
known as “,iger cacao,” so named from the rank smell of the
seeds. It is not ih general use by the inhabitants, though it is
said to be used in some manner by the Indians. It has also the
name of “ Indian chocolate” and “ Wariba,” the latter being the
Indian name, and appears to suggest some connection with the
«“ Wari” or wild hog, probably a peccary (Dicotyles) which is
known to emit from a gland on the back a strong-smelling

fluid.

From information gathered when in Nicaragua, and from
observations made on tries introduced by the author to Trinidad,

60 BOTANY AND NOMENCLATURE.

4
which have fruited, it is certain that Commercial. Cacao of fine
quality is produced by Theobroma pentagona, the beans of which
are nearly double the size of the average Trinidad bean.

Figure 7. shows the pod of this species compared with a
pod of Forastero.

. 7

Theobroma angustifolia, otherwise known as ‘* Cacao Mono’

er “Monkey Cacao” does not produce commercial Cacao as the

beans are rank and ill flavoured. It has been introduced to
Trinidad, but has not yet fruited.

The bean of Theobroma guyanensis, Willd, is said by Don
to be white, and good eating when fresh. He also says that the
seeds of T. bicolor are mixed with the seeds of the coommon
‘Cacao,

Theobroma angustifolia were introduced to Trinidad at the
same time as 7’, bicolor, and ZT. pentagona and all three are now
well established, the two latter are now bearing (1899.)

Specimens of “wild Cacao” growing in the Gardens, and
specimens sent me from Colombia belong to the Genus Herrania,
-a near ally of Theobroma.

It has been recently determined that the old Dutch Cacao
of Ceylon is synonymous with the best and truest types of the
Criollo of Trinidad, as a tree sent from Ceylon recently fruited
in the Royal Botanic Gardens and enabled comparisons to be
‘made, when they were found to correspond in every essential
particular.

One of the Pachira’s P. insignis is sometimes called wild
‘Cacao—and is known in Trinidad as “Cacao Maron.” It has
‘been brought to me on more than one occasion as a “ new kind”
of Cacao. The seeds are edible when roasted, but have no
resemblance to Theobroma Cacao. :

According to Aublet’s illustrations the pods of Theobroma
guyanensis are small and oval, distinctly marked with five
raised ribs and the leaves are much like those of 7. cacao but
more cordate at the base. The fruit of 7. Sylvestris, from a
plate by the same author, is small, smooth, yét still showing the
five divisions of the pod by slight depressions or lines on the
‘outside at equal distances from each other. The leaves are
small and suggestive of the ordinary form borne by “ Criollo.”
The pod of 7, bicolor, Humboldt, is woody in texture, hard and
dry, and specimens can be kept for any length of time. I
have a specimen, collected in 1885, in the herbarium of this
department, and also specimens of the leaves and flowers, and
these have since been supplemented by specimens grown in the
‘Gardens,

@ ‘ON

0.

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VN

D

(Oy

DUO

Buje

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Lf

ADI O Do)

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FIG. 7.

CHAPTER \X.
Diseases, &c.— Insect Pests, Fungi, Vegetable Parasites,
Epiphytes, and other enemies.

ORTUNATELY for the cultivator the serious
diseases which at present attack the Cacao tree
in the West Indies, are few, except the plant is

‘4/¢ placed in a totally unsuitable position. Perhaps

e the most common disease atfecting the tree, is one
which is known under the name uf Canker. This
cause the stem and branches to dry in certain
spots and along certain lines and generally results in the death
of the tree.

The cause of this disease is not yet fully clear, but a fungus
of the parasitic type has been fuuad on Cacao pods, the allies of
which are known to cause canker of the bark on other trees.
This has been named Nectria baini?, Massee, and will be
discussed later, Generally speaking, however, when trees are
planted in well drained ground, little or no disease is found ; but
where a poor surface svil badly drained exists, canker will
appear (Canker of the bark has also been found to be due to a
Nectria—December, 1899.)

There is another disease found in Trinidad, Surinam,
Grenada and other places, which attacks the pods in damp
weather and causes them to rot and turn black, hence sometimes
called *‘ black rut” or “ black Cacao.” This is due to a parasitic
fungus recently studied and forwarded to Kew by the Author,
where it was determined as J’hytophthora omnivora, a fungus
akin to that (Phytophthora infestans) which destroys the
Potato (Sulunum tuberosum.)

The following extract from De Verteuil’s Trinidad, 1284,
page 431, reads :—

“ The prosperity of the Colony hud now reached tts culininat-
ing point, Cacao selling at a very high price. But in the year
1727. according to Gunilla, not a diseuse of the trees exactly, but
a bliyht attacking the pods under certain atmospherte iyiunces,
deotr yet the crops.”

62 DISEASES, ETC.

Pace 433 —“Govrernor Nanclares had for his successor
Colonel Don Pedro de la Moneda (1757). It was about this
time that an attempt was successfully made to re-introduce the
Cacao plant. A new species (variety J. H. H.) the Cacao Foras-
tero, which being hardier, although not yielding the same fine
quality, succeeded beyond expectation. It is this quality which is
stil cultivated in our days.”

Therefore it appears that a thirty-years interval elapsed
between the attack of the “blight” on the original Cacao, and
the re-introduction, The word “ re-introduce,” however, would
seem to imply that the first Cacao was introduced and not
indigenous to the Island but the force of evidence is now against
this view,

The following account of this disease is condensed from
Bulletin of the Botanical Department for July, 1899 :—The
disease is due to a parasitic fungus, known as Phytophthora
omnivora, a well known relative of that causing the potato
-disease. This fungus is specially known in Europe by the attack
it makes upon young beech seedlings and many other plants
both in the open air and when grown under glass.

It is nearly allied to a fungus called Pythium de Baryanum,
which causes a like destruction among seedling plants, generally
known as “damping off.”, Both fungi are essentially lovers of
moisture, and do but little destruction in dry weather. Phytoph-
thora reproduces itself in several different ways; and its oospores

care capable of lying.dormant for as much as four years without
losing their vitality. (Hartig on Diseases of Trees, 1894, p. 45):—

“Tts gonidia (such as are formed on the surface of a Cacao
pod), are capable of being blown by the wind, or conveyed by
animals, insects or men. (Hartig.) ”

Tubeuf, in his work on the Diseases of Plants, 1897. p. 116,
says :—“ Preventive measures against the whole group of fungi
to which Phytophthora belongs consists in the destruction by
burying or burning of diseased and dead parts of host plants,
which contain the hybernating oospores, by change of crop on
infected fields, and by treatment with copper re-agents.”

Phytophthora is said to cause an infectious disease. Once a
cacao pod is infected, the fungus permeates the pod by means of
the slender fungus filaments called hyphe and protruding through,

DISEASES, ETC, 63

appear upon the surface in the form of white mould. The hyphae
is enabled to pierce the epidermis from the inside by the action
of a solvent substance, excreted by the growing tip of the hyphe,
the protoplasm secreting a ferment which passes out and enables
the tip to corrode and dissolve away the substance ‘of the cell-
walls. When the hyphe has protruded from the surface conidia
or sporangia are developed, and these sporangia again give rise
to swarm cells, which have the power of movement in a drop of
water. ‘‘ When a conidium germinates in a drop of dew or rain,
the normal process is as follows: The protoplasm in the interior
‘of the pear-shaped comidium becomes divided up into about
twenty or thirty little rounded masses, each of which is capable
of very rapid swimming movements, then the apex of the
-conidium bursts and let these motile zoospores, as they are
called, escape.” (Marshall Ward, p. 280).

Each zoospore then swims about for a time and at length
comes to rest, commences to grow in about half-an-hour, and
then begins to bore its way again into its host.

“The whole process of germination and the entrance of the
fungus into the tissues, up to the time when it, in turn, puts out
its spore-bearing hyphe again, only occupies four days during the
moist warm weather in May, June and July.” (Marshall Ward).

It is probable, therefore, that under the conditions of heat
and moisture, which exist in Trinidad, the organism will have
still more rapid growth than in a temperate climate. The
average size of a conidium, according to the above author, is
1-400th of an inch long by 1-700th of an inch broad, and the
zoospores have a diameter of about 1-200th of an inch,

Having such measurements it is easily seen that a single
drop of water gives them as much room for movement, compara-
tively speaking, as a minnow would have in a mill pond. When
the fungus filaments, mycelium or hyphae, have become fully
developed, many branches begin to form an oospore or egg-like
spore. _ This spore is formed in a swelling of the free end ofa
branch of the hyphe and contiguous to it is formed a differen-
tiated branch of the same hyphae, known as an antheridium, and
between these two organs, fertilization takes place. It has been
noted that some 700,000 oospores may be found on a surface of
less than a square inch. The oospores reach the ground in the
decomposing part of plants, and it is this fact which has caused
us to recommend the entire destruction of all decaying material
in so strong a manner, from the time the subject was first dis-

64 DISEASES, ETC.

cussed. Soil containing cospores, taken from a diseased seed bed,
is said to have given rise to the disease four years afterwards,
and it is therefore easy to see how readily these spores may be
preserved in the decaying masses of broken and empty pods so
often seen upon a cacao estate.

No previous record can be found shewing Phytophthora as
destroying fruit in the way that it does the cacao pod, its chief
ravages having taken place on the leaves of seedling plants.

With regard to remedial measures, nothing has to be added
to, or taken from the former recommendations made under this
head, when attention was first called to the matter, the essential
point of which was, to destroy .all infected material as soon as
such comes under the observations of the planter.

The examination made at Kew reveals the further fact of
the existence of a second parasitic fungus upon the material sent
home, which proves to be new to science. This fungus has been
determined as Nectria bainit, Massee n. sp. This organism is
one known to botanists as an obligate parasite, and has been
shown to produce ulceration or “canker” in different trees. As
the canker of the Cacao tree in Ceylon is said to be caused by a
Nectria, it is obviously the duty of all connected with the
culture of Cacao, to watch closely whether the organism which
has now been brought to light, is rare or plentiful in our
plantations. It has been observed on the young blackened pods.
Therefore, it cannot be said that the work is finished in regard
to the investigation of these organisms, as it must of necessity
be carefully continued, if our planters are to obtain that measure
of protection from these fungoid pests which appears to be
desirable.

Phytophthora may be readily cultivated in a nutrient fluid,
composed vf Agar-Agar and mucilage obtained from a half
geown pod, sterilized and placed in ‘‘ Petii” dishes ; and its
growth can easily be studied in an ordinary “ drop culture.”

In the “ Petri” dishes it produces a characteristic out crop:
on the surface of the jelly, of small white circles. The disease
can be at any time reproduced on the half :ipe or full grown
pods from this cultivation.

Fortunately there are several Saprophytic furgi which cover
up and appear to destroy the conidia of Phytophthora, aud besides
these [have noticed a small mite vr ucurus, which completely:

“Phytophthora omnivora,”’—The Fungus causing the “ Cacao
Pod” Diseuse, highly magnified. (After Lartig.) As

seen on a beech leuf.

DISEASES, ETC. 65

destroys the whole growth of the parasite from the exterior of
the pods. These are probably to be regarded as natural enemies.
of the fungus, and may help in no uncertain way to prevent its
spread.

The facts of the case are now before us, the enemy is.
known ; and it is now quite certain that we are facing no new
danger, but one which has long been present, and one which.
we have not much cause to fear if proper measures are adopted.
to secure the destruction of infected material.

Persons possessing a microscope may compare the material
from infected pods with the drawing of the fungus which J have.
had made after an illustration in Hartig’s work on the diseases
of plants,

It is now clear as I anticipated in a previous report, thab
the disease is propagated largely in the heaps of decaying
material which arise from the opened pods being left upon the
field, and the first measure to be adopted is that all the empty
pods must be removed from the plantations and either buried or
burned.

Further study is necessary before anything can be said of
Nectria bainii, Massee ; as we are not as yet advised on the
extent of its distribution. This fungus being new has been.
named by the Kew authorities after Mr. J. P. Bain of Ortinola
who was the first to send pods for examination to the office of
this Department. On that lot of pods, however, no satisfactory
identification of the nature of the disease could be obtained, and
it was not until the receipt of other pods that the organisms.
were recognized. It was then proved that the fungus could.
destroy a healthy pod in some six or seven days, if inoculated
with the conidia from an infected pod ; showing the infectious.
character of the disease. Frum these pods also, the cultures.
sent on to Kew were obtained. These proved in the
words of the Director, Sir W. T. Thistleton-Dyer, “excellent
material” for the final identification of the organism causing the-
disease. It may be mentioned that /’hytophthora omnivora is an
organism known long years ago, and has a wide distribution
throughout the world.

A careful experiment was made with beans from rols
affected with Phytophthora and it was found that samples of
diseased and healthy beans fermented and dried at the same
time and in the sume way, differed very materi lly in weight.

E

66 DISEASES, ETC,

Tn the sample under observation 432 beans from healthy pods
weighed | ih. but it took 565 beans from diseased pods, to make
that weight, which is a loss of nearly 25 per cent.

Professor Harrison called attention to what was probably
this disease in his pamphlet on the cacao soils of Grenada, and
made analyses of the diseased pods. The following table gives
the composition of the dry matter of the whole fruit of the
variety Forastero, in a healthy, and in a diseased state, and is
followed by remarks by the Professor :—

Healthy. Diseased.
a, Organic matters bik 95:93 94 43
Phosphoric anhydride ... ‘81 59
Sulpburic anhydride... 18 19
Sodium chloride wise U6 gel
Tron peroxide sie 05 04
Manganese oxide wea traces ‘01
‘Calcium oxide ee 22 27
Magnesium oxide in 65 59
Potassium oxide sete 2:03 2°85
Sodium oxide ia 03 ‘40
Silica a 04 59
100-00 99-98

Taking into consideration that the healthy fruits analysed.
were quite ripe, whilst the diseased ones had only attained about
two-thirds of their normal development, the variations in the
analytical figures have but little significance. As the contents
of nitrogen and of the mineral constituents derived from the
soil varied but little in the two cases, probably the prevalence of
black cacao in any place is not connected with defects in the
‘composition of the soil, Wherever it has been seen occurring.
the diseased condition bas appeared to be closely connected with
an undrained condition of the soil or with dampness resulting
from over-shading and over-crowding the trees.

The remedial treatment consists in the proper drainage of
the soil and, judicious pruning of both the cacao and shelter trees
to let in light and air. All affected pods should be separated:

a, Containing nitrogen ees 152 1°64.

DISEASES, ETC. 67

from the apparently healthy ones, broken at a distance from the
trees and the husks either burnt or else treated in heaps with
‘quick lime and covered with soil. As an alternative the husks
might be treated with a solution of half a pound of sulphate of
iron (green vitriol) to one gallon of water or with Bordeaux
mixture, but we are satisfied that the destruction of the pods by
burning is the most effective process.

(Signed) J. B. Harrison, M.A.

There are probably several other parasitic fungi which
affect the cacao tree, but those mentioned are all which have
been properly determined as growing upon the cacao tree in

Trinidad.

Among the insect. pests of Trinidad there is none for the
planter to contend with worse than the “ parasol ant” (Zcodoma
-cephalotes) and the “cacao beetles” (Steirastoma histrionica) and
allied species. Steirastomz depresea has been found destructive
to Cacao in Grenada. The beetles attack the plant by deposit-
ing their eggs in crevices of the bark or small wounds, or under
the bark in holes made by the, insect itself. The larve when
hatched, cuts long channels through the soft wood of the branches
to such an extent that a slight breeze will break away the
branch, and sometimes the attack of the grub or larve is so
persistent as to kill the tree. The larvae may sometimes be
destroyed by probing the holes with a stout wire, thus
impaling the creature at its work, This is not always possible,
but where the life of a valuable tree is at stake, every endeavour
shquld be made to arrest the destructive progress of the larve or
grub, which can generally be found and destroyed without much
injury to the tree, if a close and careful examination is made.
In cutting out a grub, care should be taken to make the wound
2s small and as little jagged as possible, and to cover it at once
with the mixture recommended in a former part of this work for
covering of wounds made when pruning.

The Parasol Ant is truly the béte noir of the Cacao planter
and generally of the Agri-Horticultural community. Until one
becomes fully acquainted with the persistent depredations of this
creature it is hard to realize what an immense amount of damage is
effected by it alone, So much is this the case that the Legislative
Council of Trinidad lately passed an Ordinance which enables
thé Governor to declare certain districts infected, and to enable
planters to take means for their destruction.

The destruction of this pest is extremely simple, but from
the persistence with which impiegnated females seek the spots

68 DISEASES, ETC.

that contained former nests, an equal persistence and careful
watching is needed tu keep the ground clear. Where cultivation
is conducted in proximity toa large area of forest lands the
matter becomes a very difficult one indeed, for not only have the
local nests tu be destroyed but also those in the distant wood-
lands, and especially the large nests, a raid from which will
frequently do irreparable damage to a plantation in a single
night. There are many methods in use for compassing their
destruction, the most common being that of digging out and
puddling with water. Some forms of destruction are suitable
for one locality and some for another. Where a constant watch
for new nests is regularly kept, ay at the Royal Botanic Gardens,
they do not become of any great size before they are discovered,
and a dose of coal tar poured into their nest effectually disposes.
of them, once and for all, at that particular spot, as they never
again return where coal tar has once been-applied. Other nests
can best be attacked by using the fumes of sulphur driven in by
bellows or fan. A handy machine lately introduced,
costing some $24.00, known as the “Asphyxiator,” can
be used with sulphur or any other chemical producing
deadly fumes. These ants will, when on raid from a large nest,
make a track as much as 10 or 12 inches wide (from which
every portion of herbage iy carefully cut away) for the purpose
of carrying home to the nest the leaves they cut from the trees,
and several large trees are often completely cleared of leaves and
fluwers in the space of a yingle night. ach ant is able to carry
a piece of leaf half an inch in diameter, and huld it in its
mandibles above its head, resembling when on the march the
sails of a fleet of liliputian schooners dipping and swaying to the
wind. Belt, in the Naturalist in Nicaragua, studied these
insects and came to the conclusion that the leaf is not used
primarily for food, but is chewed up, and placed in a position
where the mycelium of certain fungi at once attack it, and form
fuod for the ants and their larve. Certain it is, that a peculiar
mycelium is found permeating the inside of every nest, and gives
te it a peculiar odour of its own, which once recognized, is again
easily distinguished. Belt’s observation has since been confirmed
by the observations of the writer, who fur several years had
artificial nests under observation. In these the ants could be
seen feeding themselves and their larvae upon the conidia of the
fungus, which is actually cultivated for food by these creatures,

There are several species of aphides or p'ant lice &e., which
attack Cacao, but unless the plant is in bad health from some
ether cause they seldom do any great harm, especially if clean'i-
aess and order, are the rule on the plantation. Tt has been found
however that iv-is.quite possible for any biting or sucking insect

‘DISEASES, ETC. 69

‘to infect a Cacao pod with the spores of Phytophthora omnivora
or with those of Nectria. With these are found an attendant
species of ant, as occurs on many other species of plints, but the
ant in this case is practically harmless,

Wood ants also infest tree: on which there is decayed
wood, or wood in process of decay; but the remedy for such
attacks is obviously the removal of all dead or dying wood, which
should never be allowed to accumulate on a well ordered
plantation.

Among the vegetable parasites there are one or two species
of Loranthacee, which affect Cacao. These are mistletoe-like
plants which are true parasites, and do considerable harm to the
trees, and should be at once removed with a sharp cutting
instrument as soon as seen. If the branch on which they are
affixed can be spared, it should also be removed, as it is liable to
reproduce the plant from the seat of union between the parasite
and the tree.

There are also one or two species of Cuscuta or “ Dodder”
which cause considerable damage. These plants are known as
“God Bush” and “ Love Vine” in several of the West Indian
Islands. Ina well managed plantation they are at once removed
from the trees in their younger stage, for if allowed to spread
they weaken and eventually destroy the trees they affect.

There are a large number of so-called “ parasites or orchids”
which are found to grow on Cacao trees. Among these may be
mentioned Zillandsia, Peperomia, Anthurium, Philodendron,
Marcgraavia, and several species of true orchids.*

True parasites such as Loranthus and Cuscuta, evidently
weaken the tree by the abstraction of its juices, but the epiphy-
tical growths do not take any nourishment from the tree itself,
but obtain their nourishment direct from the atmosphere and
from particles of food carried to their roots by the rain that
falls, only affixing themselves to the tree as a holding place or
suitable position for carrying on their life’s work.

It is doubtful therefore if they do any direct harm to the
tree, but nevertheless, 4 plantation having trees covered with
such growth cannot be said to be under good cultivation, and it

* The word ‘Orchids or Parasites’’ is applied indiscriminately in
Trinidad to any kind of parasitical or epiphytical growth which appears
on the Cacao tree.

70 DISEASES, ETC.

is certainly conducive to the maintenance of the health of the
tree that they should be regularly removed, as they prevent a
due circulation of air.

With regard to mosses and several of the lower forms of
cryptogamic life which infest the trunks and branches of Cacao.
trees, it is sometimes argued that they are beneficial, others
however declare it best to remove them. One reason given is,
that if they are removed, the process of removal will invariably
destroy numbers of the flower buds which are produced on the
trunk and branches. That this argument is sufficient I much
doubt, and I saould be more inclined to maintain the trunk and
branches (which are the fruit producing portion) in as clean a
state as possible, taking care however, to enjoin the workmen to.
remove these growths with the greatest care possible, so as not
to injure the “cushion” or node from whence the flowers are

produced.

The squirrel and the rat, are both great enemies to the-
Cacao planter, and it is always found that they select the best
class of pods, not alone on account of the thinness of their pods,
but also owing to the greater amount of sweetness that the pulp.
of the Criollo varieties possess. It is for this reason that in some
instances the Yorastero or thick podded varieties are planted,
instead of the finer sorts, and the same argument applies to the
damages done by mice, which are plentiful in some districts. The
rat-like oppossum, known locally as ‘“ Manicou Gros Yeux,” is
similarly credited with doing damage to Cacao, and is.
invariably destroyed when found, on that account.

A

CHAPTER NTI.

Export of Cacao.— Value of Estates,—Buildings required.

—Labour, &c.

Export oF Cacao.

yi HE export of Cacao from Trinidad has been
gradually increasing for many years, and it is
probable that the exports will probably continue
to increase for some years to come as the area
under cultivation is being extended largely, year
by year, as is shewn by the statistics of the
Crown Lands Office.

The following table which
has been kindly compiled for me by the direction of the Collector
of Customs (Hon. R. H. McCarthy) and is a valuable record of
the Exports of Cacao from Trinidad during the last decade:—

RETURN

OF EXPORTS OF CACAO.

PRODUCE OF COLONY

OTHER THAN PRopwcz or CoLonyr

Years. Quantity in Ibs. | Value £. Quantity in Ibs. Value £
1891 16,188,493 439,786 2,382,784 69,694
1892 25,041,635 648,103 3,879,542 113,061
1893 19,106,553 535,055 2,707,491 80,415
1894 21,608,384 509,808 2,920,926 77,756
1895 29,458,813 620,634 3,098,772 73,978
1896 | 23,481,848 | 452,141 | 4,574,965 98,447
1897 | 23,840,665 | 532,123 | 3,917,654 73,567
1898 | 24,340,960 | 705,956 | 3,855,264 | 106,316
*1899 25,645,760 679,231 3,182,144 80,601

* To half year ending 30th June.

12: EXPORT OF CACAO, ETC.

The exact acreage producing these crops is unknown as no
facilities exist for ascertaining what acreage is under cultivation.

In Ceylon the area under cultivation in 1892 was estimated
at 12,000 acres. The crop for 1891 was 20,000 ewts, Trinidad
therefore produced seven times as much as Ceylon at that date.

It will be seen from this, Mr. McCarthy’s table, what an
important article of commerce this product is, and as the cultiva-
tion is spreading in nearly every district of the Island it is pro-
bable that in a few years’ time the value of the export of Cacao
will exceed that of all other vegetable products combined. With
such a fact before them, it is especially incumbent on the Cacao
planters of Trinidad to seek every means to improve their pro-
duce so as to maintain a superior article and to be first in the
markets of the world. The Ceylon planter has succeeded wonder-
fully well in obtaining good prices, but it is questionable whether
his Trinidad confréere does not obtain from his Forastero trees, a
better return per acre, than his Ceylon brother does. From the
late Dr. Trimen’s Report it appears almost certain that the
quality of the bean as grown from seed imported from Trinidad is
improved by Ceylon culture.

The intending planter can obtain Crown Lands from the
Government of Trinidad on petition at the upset price of one
pound sterling per acre, exclusive of survey and other fees, but
all lands are subjected to public competition before the grant is
made, so that if two applicants require the same ground, it is
finally obtained by the one who has the longest purse, or who is
willing to pay more than his competitor, above the upset price.

There are in the usual course of business small and large
estates constantly passing through the market, and the price of
these vary according to the locality in which they are situated,
and the quality of the land. The value of an estate is usually
estimated at per tree, or per 1,000 trees and not at per acre, and
what might be worth in some districts but 60 cents per tree,
would in other and celebrated districts be worth as much as
$2 or S/4d. per tree.

The best course for the intending investor is to make himself
acquainted with the several districts and await his opportunity,
residing in the colony and adding to his experience in the mean-
time, In Trinidad as everywhere else, there are those present

EXPORT OF CACAO, ETC. 73

who will not hesitate to recommend estates to buyers simply for
the commission they could get from the seller, and there are
others again who will accompany an intending buyer in a
friendly way to visit an estate and afterwards attempt to recover
an exorbitant fee for their services. Let the investor beware of
such or he will probably be landed in a similar plight to that of
“‘Mark Tapley,” but it is questionable whether there is “any
credit in being jolly” under such circumstances. Good estates
have to be waited for, and are always readily disposed of, so that
the buyer should quickly make up his mind when he sees “a
thing going,” which is fairly in accord with his ideas.

The yield per acre, or the yield per tree of a Cacao estate is
the best test of its value, especially if reliable reference can be
made by the seller to the crop harvested for two or three pre-
ceding years. Cacao trees begin to bear in the third or fourth
years, and sometimes precocious trees will even begin earlier
than this, but it is not well to let them produce a crop, as
bearing will infallibly retard their growth.

Dr. Morris writes (Cacao and how to cure it) :—

At the sixth and on their ninth years, the Cacao tree should be in fair
bearing, but they seldom reach their prime before their twelfth or fifteenth
year. After this period where the trees have been carefully established
and well cultivated, a Cacao estate is a comparatively permanent invest-
ment, and it may be expected to continue in bearing and yield remunera-
tive returns for some fifty, eighty or a hundred years. In fact, if old and
exhausted trees are regularly and systematically replaced or ‘‘ supplied”
there is practically no limit to the duration of a Cacao estate.

The yield per tree will be seen to depend entirely upon the
-quality of the land, the size of the tree and various other attend-
ant circumstances, but is generally considered that a yield of
1-6 ibs. per tree which will be 10 bags of 165 tbs. each to 1,000
trees, is a first-class yield, 5 bags per 1,000 trees or 0°8 Ibs. per
tree would be considered a poor yield.

Taking our trees to be planted at 15 feet apart, there will
‘be 193 trees per acre nominally (of course it is never possible to
maintain this regularity, on account of roads, drains, &c., but for
the sake of method in the estimate we accept this number) and
the yield per acre will be 193 x 1-6 tbs. = 308°8 bs. which, valued at
-80/- per cwt., will produce the sum of £11 peracre, Calculating
the trees at 12 feet apart we get 302 to the acre, and these at
1:5 ibs. per tree, the value per acre would be £16 3.

74 EXPORT OF CACAO, ETC.

These statements were freely criticised on the issue of the-
first edition, and a prominent planter wrote: ‘It is an error to
state that a yield of 1-6 lbs. per tree, which will be 10 bags of
165 lbs. each, to 1,000 trees, is a first-class yield. That is an
average, a high average possibly of Trinidad cacao estates ; but a
first-class yield could not be under 12 bags per 1,000 trees, and
in many cases 15 bags.”

I see no reason however to alter the figures given in the-
first edition.

The working expenses of a plantation may be calculated at
£3 to £5 per acre annually, more or less according to circum~
stances, facilities for obtaining labour, easy transit of produce,
&e., &e.

It is calculated that an estate can be established by the
contract system at a cost of about £12 to £15 per acre, exclusive:
of buildings. A record has been published ofa single tree which
made a yield of 36 lbs. in one year, but this was exceptionally:
placed, and well treated to manure. In the Royal Botanic
Garden 7 lbs. of dry Cacao has been obtained from a single tree-
at one picking.

A method of calculating the value of an Estate was given
in the Agricultural Record for 1892 as follows :—‘ Note the
quantity of bags produced; that multiplied by 100 or 150
according to the quality of Cacao, facility for transport, healthy
locality, buildings on the spot, &c., &c., will give correct value of
the estate in dollars.” This is to say a latitude of 507 is allowed.
an estate for the possession of the points mentioned.

Buinpines Requirep.

The buildings required on a Cacao estate are few.

Where the proprietor is resident—and he always will be, if
he wishes his estate to pay—there must be a comfortable
residence, and therefore the expenditure under this head cannot
be laid down, but must be left to the individual taste of the
planter and the extent of his means,

: The most important buildings on a Cacao estate are the
drying houses and sweating boxes. These are generally built
all in one. The sweating boxes being placed under the drying

EXPORT OF CACAO, ETC. 75

floors, but sometimes they are separated, and we believe that.
this latter course is the best, as during the process of fermenta-
tion much moisture is given off by the bean and this cannot be-
conducive to the quick drying on the floors above.

The cost of houses for an estate of 300 acres would probably
be some £200 to £250 each or perhaps more, if substantial
buildings are to be erected and artificial drying resorted to, and
several of these would be required as an estate developed. A
single house will be sufficient to commence with on an estate
made from Virgin Forest as the crop will be gradually increasing
from year to year, and the necessary drying space should be
extended so as to keep pace with the number of trees coming into
bearing, but it is always better to have ample drying space, than
to be for one moment cramped for room ; for much is lost and
nothing gained by such a policy, as there is a liability to spoil
produce when there is not sufficient room in the drying houses.

It is generally considered that 80 square feet of drying
surface is sufficient space for drying the produce of 1,000 trees,
taking the crop of the year from beginning to end. If the
planter therefore can find out what it will cost him to provide
this area he can easily estimate for larger surfaces, the cost of
building entirely depending upon the district in which the-
plantation is situated.

Next to the drying house a good storeroom and office should’
be provided and a proper range of labourers’ barracks may be
required where labour has to be brought from a distance,

Lapour, &e.

It will be found much better to attach labour to an estate
by the allowance of house room, provision ground or other
privilege, than to employ casual labour as it presents itself, as.
there is much more interest taken in the work when the
labourer in a measure “belongs to the estate,” and looks upon

it as his home,

Skilled labour is highly requisite on a Cacao estate, 2.¢.,
the labourer must be accustomed to the work, and the higher the
class of labourer employed the better will the estate be worked.
Such labour is however not always obtainable, but it is certainly
the best when it can be had. We are not here speaking of the-
manager, foreman or ganger, but of the field hands for the pur-
pose of carrying on the general work of the plantation. With.

76 EXPORT OF CACAO, ETC.

managers and foreman generally, it is evidently to the interest
of the proprietor to employ only those who take an intelligent
interest in the work they have to carry out, and who take pride
in preparing a quality of produce which shall always bear the
highest stamp. With such men careful experiments may be
carried on, which will lead to improvement and economy when
compared with the methods now in use.

The cost of labour is an item always enquired about by a
new comer, and at times not easily answered, but he will under-
stand that this must vary with the district and only a general
idea can be given in a work of this kind.

The rate of wages on a Cacao estate varies according to the
work performed by the labourer, from 25c. to 60c. per day, and
much of the work is done by task, a system which is much _pre-
ferred by the labourer.

os

CHAPTER XII,

The Agricultural Chemistry of Cacao.

HIS Chapter is kindly contributed by Prof. J. B.
Harrison, M.A., Government Analyst, é&c., &e.,
of British Guiana.

The main features of the chapter first
~» appeared in an official report by the Professor
on the svils of Grenada to the Government of

that Island.

The composition of the different parts of the cacao tree has
been treated upon by Marcano of Venezuela (a) and in part
by Boname, late of Guadeloupe, now of Mauritius (d). Opportu-
nities for studying the requirements of the plant as represented
by the composition of the mature trees themselves being very
limited we accept for guidance the result given by Marcano.
This authority estimates that a cacao tree twenty years old is
made up of —

Trunk as wie ave we 495
Large branches tee se we 201
Medium branches ... Be was, LN
Small Shoots Sie dite sxe 12!
Leaves... ate wae we OE
1000

(a) Essais d’Agronomie Tropicale. V. Marcano.

() La culture de la canne 4 sucre 4!a Guadeloupe. Ph. Boname-

78 THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO,

-and that a plantation of trees of this age growing on one acre
“will contain—

Nitrogen .., as was 201 hs.
Phosphoric anhydride =e 95 Bs
Potash... ies Pee 251 —=C«
Lime wits ass ite 400,
Magnesia ... ae ise lll

‘whilst the so-called suckers and other young shoots trimmed
-annually from the trees contain*—

Nitrogen ... aa sus 84 Ibs.
Phosphoric anhydride ies 49
Potash... iss ee 42) oy
Lime ag a wee 66 Cg,
Magnésia ... is sé 20 4,

‘These together with the leaves which he states contain—

Nitrogen ive +e is 39 Ibs.
Phosphoric anhydride haa 75,
Potash... he Ae 30S,
Lime site ane rr 32 Cs,
Magnesia .,. ae eas 10s

are practically in all cases yearly returned to the soil.

The fruit, of which the husks may or may not be returned
to the soil according as to whether the pods are or are not
broken on the field, are estimated to remove as follows :—

If whole fruit removed If the pods are broken

from the field. and left in the field,
Nitrogen as 155 87 ibs.
Phosphoricanhydride 7-9 45 4,
Potash eh 22:1 37 (Cs,
Lime eee 65 14° ~C«,
Magnesia és 2:3 10

* This estimate appears to be excessive.

— mie!
Cacao Hook—I mproved.

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO. 79

From these figures it appears that the cacao tree whilst
storing up in the plant itself relatively large proportions of the
important elements of plant food present in the soil, requires for
the yearly productions of young shoots, leaves and fruit not less
than 138 lbs. of nitrogen, 64 lbs. of phosphoric anhydride, 94 lbs.
of potash, 104 Ibs. of lime and 31 lbs. of maguesia. Under
careful conditions of agricultural practice, however, of this great
annual drain upon the soil but 8-7 lbs, of nitrogen, 4:5 lbs. of
phosphoric anhydride, 3:7 Ibs. of potash, 1 4 lbs. of lime and 1 Ib.
of magnesia are necessarily removed from it, the remainder
becoming more or less available again for plant food by the
decomposition of the fallen leaves, pruning and husks upon the
land. Of the, in round numbers, 130 lbs. of nitrogen returned
to the soil a considerable proportion, possibly 20 to 30 per cent,
may be lost during the decomposition of the vegetable matter,
but where the trees are shaded by the nitrogen collecting Bois
Immortel or Orunoque trees (Hrythina velutina and E. umbrosa
which are used on the islands, or £. glauca which is used in
Guiana?) doubtless much of the amount thus lost is recouped to
the soil.

These considerations lead to the conclusion that a good
eacao soil should be one capable of yielding to the tree in the
‘course of years a somewhat high proportion of the important
‘constituents of plant food. without exhaustion, and also capable
of rapidly rendering again available the large quantities of
manurial matter returned to it in the forms of pruning:, leaves
fallen and broken pods. It must in addition be one in which
the course of nitrification readily takes place; in other words,
a fairly rich friable and well drained soil of prime importance
for the successful production of cacao,

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO.

80

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81

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO.

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82 THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO,

_ For comparison, I insert the following Analyses made by
P. Carmody, Esq., F.L.S., Government Analyst of Trinidad, of
Soils from Cocoa Estates in Trinidad and Venezuela :—

ANALYSIS OF SOILS, SANGRE GRANDE DISTRICT,
TRINIDAD.

Sample No... es 1

i)
eo
rn

Composition oF Airn Driep Solits.

Water ... ase on 6.04 3.56. 9.48 3.66
Dry Soil... gh .{ 93.96 96.44 90.52 96.34
100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00

ComposITION OF THE Dry Solu.

*Loss on Tgnition .| 6.641 6.097 7.004 8.948
Tron Oxide, Fe, 0.5, 2.327] 2.343} 2143] 2.440

Alumina, Al, 0.5, 3.798 | 5.171] 5.652] 5.313
Lime, Ca. O. 128 084 124 148
Magnesia, Mg. O. 445 498 405 284
Potash, K., 0. 183 223 267 217
Soda, Na ,0. 173 021 081 142
Phosphoric Acid, P.p O., 133 | .096 117 116
Sulphuric Acid, 8. O., All| 053 102 .025
Chlorine, Cl. .005 .006 .008 .093
Insol, Silicates | 86.056 | 85.408 | 84.097 | 82.364

100.000 | 100.000 | 100.000 100.000

*Containing Nitrogen ... 131%) 107% = 140% 1658,
Ce... Carbon... 234 Ad .139 224
{Equal toHumus ..., 403 | 784 | 242 | 386

Nitrogen as Nitric Acid...) .00253 | .00298 | .00235 00335

Reapviry AVAILABLE Porasn AND ProspHatTKs,

Potash, K., O. | -O9149%) .12909%) .1162%) 0881%
Phosphoric Acid, P.. O.,| .0510 .0564 .0159 -0465

83

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO

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84 THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO.

The samples from Grenada, St. Vincent and Demerara were
personally selected, whilst those from Trinidad and Nicaragua
were given to us and described as very fertile cacao soils by J. H.
Hart, Esq, F.L.S., the Superintendent of the Botanic Gardens,
Trinidad. With the exceptions of the Surinam, Demerara and
Trinidad samples, all are of soils arising from the degradation
of lavas and volcanic debris, rich in soda lime felspars. Asa
rule these fertile cacao soils are fairly rich in nitrogen, and
contain a somewhat high amount of potash, of which a relatively
high proportion was found to be soluble in 1% citric acid solution
whilst the proportion of phosphoric anhydride present appears to
be of lesser importance. They can, we consider, be safely
regarded as reliable types of the composition of really fertile
cacao soils.

As far as present experience gves in the selection of good
reliable soils for cacao cultivation, if the physical conditions are
in accordance with those mentioned in a previous paragraph, the
most important point chemically is that the soil should contain
an ample supply of availablej potash, a fair supply of nitrugen
and a medium one of phosphoric anhydride and of lime, and
should have either from its{chemical composition or its physical
condition a marked retentive power for hygroscopic moisture.
On soils of this kind large and remunerative crops of cacao may
reasonably be expected even during seasons during which on
other lands crops may suffer from drought.

In order to obtain reliable data as to the composition of
cacao grown under fairly favourable conditions at low elevations,
Charles Ross, Esq., of Pln. Land of Canaan, Demerara River,
supplied us with a large number‘of freshly gathered ripe pods of
Cacao of two varieties: lst, the small podded, thick, smooth
skinned variety with flat beans, known as Calabacillo; and 2nd,
the large podded somewhat thick rough skinned variety with
full tounded beans, known as ‘“ Furastero.” The former is the
variety agriculturally best suited for heavy lands, being the
hardiest of all varieties, and giving oa low lying land, by far
heavier yields of cured Cacao than “ Forastero” does, In addi-
tion we obtained from him cured heans of these varieties,
May other, varieties are to be fuund growing in greater or less.

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO. 85

abundance in the cacao groves of British Guiana including the
Criollo or Caracas kind, but as the bulk of the crops appears to
consist of Forastero and Calabacillo Cacao, principally of the
former, attention was confined to them.

The fresh pods were found to yield as follows :—

Calabacillo, Forastero.

Husk me 80°59 ae 89 87
Pulp ie 761 ‘ee 4:23
Cuticles of Beans 1:77 aa 50
Kernels of Beans 10-03 aie 5:40
100-00 10.00

The yields of cured cacao are 37:5 and 35-6 per cent, of the
beans and pulp of the two varieties respectively. Hence 100 lbs.
of the fruit of Calabacillo will yield 7:25 lbs. of fermented cured
cacao and 100 lbs. of the fruit of Forastero 3-6 lbs. There would
appear to be a distinct advantage in growing cacao of the variety
Calabacillo ; but the difference in the market value of the small
flat brands of this variety and in that of the large plump beans of
Forastero very materially reduces the apparent advantage while
comparatively upon light soils of higher elevation the agricultural
yield of Calabacillo is frequently less than that of Forastero.

The fresh fruits were rapidly divided up into the outer husks,
the cuticles of the beans and their adherent pulp, and the inner
kernels of the beans or cacao nibs proper. The cured beans were
also divided into cuticles and inner kernels. After weighing, all
~parts of the fresh fruit were dried at a temperature of about
140° F, uutil they ceased to lose weight, the loss of moisture
noted, and the dry material carefully ground up and sampled.

Analyses were afterwards made ef these portions and the
results calculated back to the original state of the fruits as

received.

86 THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO.
The following show the detailed composition. of the fresh

fruits of each variety, of the various parts of the fruits, and the-
distribution of the constituents in the parts of the fruit :—

TABLE I.

Wuote Fruit or Cacao, Variety “CALABACILLO.”

Water ae ne a 73-790

1. Albuminoids ... ze bee 1:470
2. Theobromine ... ene oe "234
3. Caffeine Peet on wii O15
4, Indeterminate nitrogenous matters... 067
Fat... ane aiid ie 3°093
Glucose Bis wee dae 274
Sucrose Sis ite ae 006
Starch ae se eae 844
Astringent matters eae aise 2-332
Pectin, etc. ... died ae 5231
Cacao-red was els as “888
Digestible fibre re — 5-405
Woody fibre... bu se 3122
Tartaric acid free i sie +324
Acetic acid free ies ait 054
Tartaric acid combined... i “716
Iron peroxide ... dex “ts 008
Magnesia oe i os *120
Lime See sh ae 042
Potash vis me ine 468
Soda ae ror Sis 038
Silica we ues eee ‘007
Sulphuric anhydride ae is 044
Phosphoric anbydride aa am 152
Chlorine awe oe oes 032
99-267

1, Containing nitrogen see es 212
2. 8 » ee ceo 072
3. ” ” eee eee 004
4 ” ” oo ere 0z0

Total nitrogen sn eae 325

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO. pore

TABLE IT.

ConstITUENTS oF THE VaRtous Parrs or THE Cacao Fruit,
Variety “ CALABACILLO.”

Kernels of | Cuticles Hak
Beans. | and pulp. ios
Water bes «| 37°637 87-600 82'893
1. Albuminoids ... i 6696 ‘918 *760
2. Theobromine ... she 1:352 241 094
3. Caffeine .. se as 108 841 nil.
4, Tndeterminate nit bios ) F .
genous matters f°” 531 traces, 169
Fat “ae ar ace} 299256 “444 "146
Glucose ... ice ia 991 725 132
Sucrose . ae ...| traces, ‘O66 traces.
Starch ... a 3-764 945 469
Astringent matters . ? os
eed actin aes 5004 395 2-225
Pectin, etc. iv saa 657 “815 1:710
Cacao-red 3 3 2-952 ‘S11 675
Digestible fibre, ete. ae 5112 4-652 D41LL
Woody fibre... ve 3°030 1346 3341
Tartaric acid, free sie ‘079 "439 347
Acétic acid, free oe nil, nil. 064
Tartaricacid, combined... ATT “303 "796
Tron peroxide ... ae 032 004 005
Magnesia — aise 324 114 099
Lime... os igs 054 054 039
Potash ... oe ace 142 “190 ABA
Soda... ies sa +239 041 041
Silica... ast 016 002 006
Sulphuric anhydride. aed 079 021 042
Phosphoric ae anti aise 749 115 082
Chlorine ws Sea ‘019 018 036
100-000 100-000 100-000
1, Contains nitrogen ae 1-071 147 121
2. a a ee “416 077 029
3. es — 031 ‘012 nil.
4 3 és 085 nil, 027
Total nitrogen oe 1:603 236 177

88 THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO.

TABLE III.

DistRistuTION OF THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE FrResH Cacao
Fruit, Variety ‘“ CALABACILLO.”

Percentage of pce of| Cuticles Husk.
; eans, | and pulp.
10:03 9:38 80°59
Water tee ..{ 3°7751 8:2169 66°7980
1, Albuminoids ... sigs 6716 0861 *6125
2. Theobromine ... bay *1355 0226 ‘0757
3. Cafleine dis as 0108 -0038 nil.
4, Indeterminate _ nitroge-
nous matters uaa 0532 traces, "0136
Fat... ate ee] 299343 0413 1177
Glucose ts ae 0994 0680 1064
Sucrose i | traces, 0063 traces.
Starch eae vibe 3775 “0886 3780
Astringent matters ... 5019 0370 17931
Pectin, etc. ... ape *0659 “0764 13800
Cacao-red ae aug 2961 0479 5438
Digestible fibre, ete. ... ‘5127 5316 4:3607
Woody fibre ... sd 3039 "1262 26917
Tartaric acid, free... -0079 -0412 “2748
Acetic acid, free Sad nil. nil. *0543
Tartaric acid, combined 0478 0284 6399
Tron peroxide... yea 0032 0004 0048
Magnesia wae aa 0325 0107 0765
Lime ... ace bes 0050 0051 0314
Potash... ne side 0844 0182 3659
Soda ... ei sa 0240 0038 0101
Silica ... 0016 0002 0041
Sulphuric anhydride .. 0080 0020 "0338
Phosphoric anbydride.. 0751 0408 0661
Chlorine wae 0019 ‘0016 0290
10-0293 9:3750 80-4616
1. Contains nitrogen ey 1074 0138 0975
2: ‘5 33 ses 0417 0072 0233
3. ¥i ‘i A 0031 0011 nil.
4 ie 45 0085 traces. 0217
Total nitrogen dx 1607 0221 "1425

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO. 89

TABLE IV.

Wuote Fruit oF Cacao, Variety “ ForAsrero.”

Water aS as ee 81.877

1. Albuminoids ... si aes 1:234
2. Theobromine ... aes a 152
3. Caffeine aids site shes 015
4, Indeterminate ... wea oe 175
Fat ae ase res 1.800
Glucose Pe waa wea °927
Sucrose oie is eee 054
Starch 3 sisi ek ‘780
Astringent matters is Said A24
Pectin, etc. ... so tee 1:022
Cavao-red aad ies oes 684
Digestible fibre ae wis 4:097
Woody fibre... aie és 5-055
Tartaric acid, free dee aie 255
Acetic acid, free ate wars 053
Tartaric acid, combined ... eas 564
Tron peroxide ... ee sus 010
Magnesia ave “i ae 119
Lime axe digs dein 040
Potash wisi ane Said 368
Soda as Ee ce ‘O11
Silica re as aes 008
Sulphuric anhydride wes anid 033
Phosphoric anhydride ae as 147
Chlorine ies ess aid 006
99-910

1. Containing nitrogen see es 198
pe sy 5 oe ose 046
3. Gs 4 nee see 004
4 . » “028

' Total nitrogen eee ose 278

90. THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO,

TABLE V.

ConsTITUENTS oF THE VARIOUS Parts oF THE Cacao Frutt,
VARIETY ‘“ FonasTERo.”

gore of} Cuticles Pdi:
eans, | and pulp.
Water ... oe .-| 36°567 83030 | 84-538
1, Albuminoids... ae 4826 1-271 1017
2, Indeterminate a 2-795 a 031
genous matters
3. Theobromine ... sa $22 “348 098
4, Caffeine... “es ets 223 059 nil.
Fat ate Sa ..-| 80°602 “421 142
Sucrose ... sas 58 165 1-001 969
Glucose ... oe a3 ‘917 091 nil.
Starch ... ee wi 6038 1:305 “445
Astringent matters... 4-894 108 172
Pectin, ete. ... ea 1-380 1:126 *995
Cacao-red - +e 1543 *7U5 631
. Digestible Fibre | oe 2821 6564 4:045
Woody Fibre ... = 3°458 2°455 5288
Tartaric acid, free wae 038 606 250
Acetic acid, free a nil, trace, 059
Tartaricacid,combined... “487 - 351 580
Iron peroxide ... oes 032 “010 009
Magnesia ig? ce 454 | 073 101
Lime... eis aes 105 030 037
Potash ... eos des 635 248 358
Seda ... aoe re 068: 015 073
Silica... eae 016 003 ‘008
Sulphuric anhydride ae 048 031 032
Phosphoric i li ae 1-045 098 096
Chlorine i shia 032 ‘061 026
100-000 100:000 100:000
1. Containing nitrogen... 772 *208 163
2k 4 55 ae 436 nil. “005
3. ay i ast 271 107 030
4, . 3 eed 064 017 nil.
Total nitrogen w| 1:543 | 327 “190

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO. 91

TABLE VI.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE FrResH Cacao
Fruit, Vartery “ Forastrro.”

Kernels of | Cuaticles Fads:

Name of Part. Beans. and pulp.

Per cent. of part ise 5:40 4°73 89:7
Water vas ..| 19746 3.9273 75-9750
1. Albuminoids... oe 2605 0501 9136
2. Indeterminate nitroge-
nous matters ... te 1471 nil, 0278
3. Theobromine ... 7 “0476 0164 “OS8O
4, Caffeine hits ane 0119 "0028 nil.
Fat ate aoe 16524 °0199 1:276
Glucose ibs “dea 0089 0473 8-708
Sucrose ies ise 0495 “0043 nil.
Starch ate ae 3186 0617 -3999
Astringent viditers oat "2643 0051 _ 1546
Pectin, etc. ay 0745 "0532 8942
Cacao-red a 0833 0333 * 5671
Digestible fibre... es 1519 3165 3°6352
Woody fibre ... «| “1867 ‘1161 | 47523
Tartaric acid, free 0020 0286 2246
Acetic acid, free sat nil, trace. 0530
Tartaric acid, combined 0263 0166 5213
Tron Peroxide ... ave 0007 0005 0081
Magnesia 0245 0034 (907
Lime bn ire 0056 “C014 0332
Potash ne De “0343 0117 3217
Soda 2x vA -0036 0: 07 “0065
Silica 0008 “0002 0072
Sulphuric anhydride 0026 0015 0288
Phosphoric ae 0564 "0046 0864
Chlorine za a 0016 0024 0023

5°3912 4:7296 89°7898

1. Containing nitrogen... 0417 0096 1465
oe 5 5 ae 0233 nil. +0045
3. ¥5 99 ant 0146 0050 0270
4 +0232 0008 nil.

Total nitrogen ...| 0830 0154 | +1780

92 THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO.

The fruit of Calabacillo contained less water but distinctly
more nitrogen, potash and phosphoric anhydride than that of
Forastero. The kernels of the beans of Calabacillo were dis-
tinctly richer in the alkaloids, also in astringent matter and in
cacao-red than were those of Forastero, the result being that the
beans of the former variety were of a harsher, more astringent
flavour than those of the latter. The beans of the two varieties
showed but little difference in their contents of fat, but those of
Forastero were of higher contents of starch and sugars. In
the cuticles and pulp from Calabacillo there were found somewhat
lesser amounts both of the alkaloids and of starch and sugars than
in those from Forastero. In the husks of both varieties small
amounts of theobromine less than 1 per cent. were found, but no
caffeine, which was present in small quantities in the kernels and
cuticles of both varieties, was found in either. But little
difference existed in the husks of both varieties in their contents
of nitrogen and phosphoric anhydride, but those of Calabacillo
contained the higher proportion of potash. When, however,
the higher proportion of husk in the fruit of Forastero are taken
it appears that this variety returns more nitrogen, more phos-
phoric anhydride and but little less potash to the soil in the
waste husks than does an equal weigh’ of the fruit of Calaba-
cillo, But it requires double the weight of fruit of Forastero
than of Calabacillo to produce an equal weight of cured cacao,
hence the return to the soil by the husks is more than twice as
great in the case of the former than that of the latter.

Assuming that the average yield here of the variety Cala-
baciJlo is 250 lbs. and that of Forastero 150 lbs. of cured cacao
per acre respectively, we find that the amounts of the con-
stituents of plant food removed from the land annually in the
whole fruit, returned to the soil in the husks and either sold in
the cured cacao or lost in the sweatings from the fermenting
boxes are as follows :—

POUNDS PER ACRE PER ANNUM.

Variety or Cacao. | CaLaBAcILLo. | ForastERo.

Whole |Refuse| ®°82* | Whole [Refuse|5°22*
Parts of frnit referred to. fruit. | husk.| 224 | senit. | husk and

- "| pnp. | *U “| pulp.
Weight per acre, 6,200| 5,000| 1,200) 6,900] 6,200] 700
Nitrogen ... xen ..| 2015) 8°85) 11:30} 19°04] 11°78] 7-26
Phosphoric anhydride .., . 942) 4-10} 5°32) 10-14) 5:95) 4:19
Potash ... see ane «..{ 29-01) 22°70} 6°31) 25°39) 22-19] 3-20

Lime oes ase oe e| 2°60) 1-95 65] 2°76) = 2-29 4G
Magnesia ... wee ees wf T44) 4°75] 269} 8-21) 2-66) 1:95

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAQ. 93

The unavoidable loss per acre in British Guiana as com-
pared with that in Venezuela given by Marcano, and with that
in Guadeloupe reported by Boname is as follows : —

ibs. PER ACRE PER ANNUM.

VENE- | GuaDE-

DEMERARA. :
ZUELA.| LOUPE.

Calabacillo.} Forastero. | Varieties not stated.

Nitrogen ids | 11°30 7°26 78 7:3
Phosphoric anhydride ...| 5°32 4:19 45 2°8
Potash ... sie wf 631 3°20 3-7 4:3
Lime... ig ox 65 ‘47 14 4
Magnesia — ws| 262 1-95 1 14

There is a general concordance in these results showing the
low amounts of constituents necessarily removed from the soil of
the production of a crop of cacao.

Where the Erythrina is used as a shade tree, manuring

~ should be directed largely towards the upkeep of the potash and
phosphates necessary to enable the shade trees to do their part
as nitrogen collectors and where no shade trees are used the
mineral manuring ought to be more largely supplemented by
nitrogen. Thus the following mixtures or mixtures of other
materials yielding the same proportions of nitrogen, phosphates
and potash per acre might be advisedly tried on cacao
plantations :—

Erythiina used for shade. Not shaded.

Nitrate of Soda na Pe I ewt. ren 2 cwt.
Superphosphate of lime 36 % soluble 2 ai ont ton
Potash sulphate ae Pa Toe : ”

The materials should be well mixed and applied in quantity
according to the number of trees planted per acre around each
tree at a distance of about two to three feet from the stem.

An exceler* way of applying phosphatic manures to the
cacao tree is by the use of slag phosphate. This has given highly’
satisfactory results, both in British Guiana and in Grenada.
Where plantations are being newly started much advantage to
the growth of the plaats may be obtained by mixing the soil in
the immediate vicinity of where the cacao is to be planted with
from two to four tbs. of slag phosphate meal

Attention has also been directed to ascertaining the changes
which the Leans with the surrounding pulp undergo during the
operations of fermenting aud curing. For this purpose cured beans
were anaivsed of the two vrrielies from the same plantation

* average rewu. a po. acie asalu.eG to be 450 Ibs.

94 THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO.

on which the samples of the fruits had been grown. The
cuticles and the husks of the beans were separately examined,
the composition of the whole bean being ccalculated from the
figures thus obtained. The analyses were conducted on precisely
the same lines and by the same methods as those of the various
parts of the fresh fruit. Unfortunately, the two varieties are
never, as far as our experience goes in the West Indian colonies
kept separate during fermentation, and we were forced to select
our own samples from out of a very large sample of cured beans
of the mixed kinds. Mr. J. H. Hart kindly examined the
samples drawn and considered them to consist of typical beans
of the two varieties.

The following show the results of these analyses compared
with those of the analyses of the similar parts of the fresh fruit
dried as befure described in the Laboratory :—

TABLE VII.

“COMPOSITIONS OF THE DRIED AND THE FERMENTED AND CureD BEANS,
CUMCLES AND ADHERENT PULP OF CALABACILLY,

ia Fermented and

Dried. Cured,

Water... 7 i #: 5-000 7169

1, Albuminvids ae aia ee & 704 7213
9, Indeterminate nitrogenous matters ig “681 3°509
3. Theobromine ee aes - 2-023 1549
4, Caffeine aes as % "186 103
Fat... ass os 6 83°181 40-744
Glucose ea se a 2°143 “909
Sucrose sae oe i O79 “O24
Starch ... oan tas r 5-980 5249
Astringent matters a a 9-900 5306

Pectin, ete. ave wate i 1°822 2°67
Cacao-red ase whe a 4°404 2-420
Dige: tible fibre, ete. ss ree 12 048 1'-615
Woody fibre one oe ae 5515 5503
Tartaricacid, free... ire pat 629 0 535
Acetic acil. free ... an «a8 nil. 869
"Tartasic acid, combined By eet ‘974 1114
Iron peroxide ae ane i O44 105
Magnesia a5 wae 04 “BBY “686
Lime ... on wae wed 134 207
Potash .. see is bed 1312 1125
Soda ... oe ae ae "RBS, 120
Sica... ais a ane 022 "065
Sulphuricanhydride aise ote 452 "057
Phosphoric anhydride ies si 1098 1113
Chlotine vas ‘< . 044 020
100 319 , 100°00.0
1, Containing nitrogen wee aye 74 1-080
i a ee ais ay trac s. “640
a, ae + ae aK *492, B15
4, ae a _ se ‘076 “099

Total nitrogen ae re 1542 21340 <

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO,

TABLE VIII.

95

Curictes or Cacao Beans, Variety ‘“ CALABACILLO.”

we OS LS

See

: Fermented
Dried. and cured.

Water 12-400 12.400
Albuminoids ... “ re 6:092 6°750
. Indeterminate nitrogenous matters . traces. 4006
. Theobromine .. ms 1599 1:023
. Caffeine : it Ae 972 *8D5
Fat ses ‘ive a 2-946 “4000
Glucose , i a 4811 476
Sucrose a eae 941) 143
Starch ‘ is 6-271 4 865
Astringent ER Hae 2621 2113
Pectin, ete, 5 408 6:140
Cacao-red aes 3391 3° 0G
Digestible fibre, ete. 36388 35:°721
Woody fibre 8 932 9.840
Tartaric acid, free 2913 °420
Acetic acid, Freee nil, ‘720
Tartaric acid, combined 2-010 3°459
Trun peroxide 026 057
Magnesia "756 “999
Lime 1358 “266
Potash 1-260 1-821
Soda 272 *219
Silica oe “013 +200
Sulphuric anhydride. . 139 085
Phosphoric Se “763 912
Chlorine A 119 ‘u19
100-0U0 100-000
Contains nitrogen 974 1-080
= a traces. 640
: : 492 ‘815
‘076 “099

” ”
Total nitrogen 1 542 2-134

96 THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO.

TABLE IX.

KeEernets oF THE Beans or “CALABACILLO” DRIED, AND
FERMENTED AND CURED.

. Fermented

Dried. and cured.
Water hb 5-000 6-080
1. Albuminoids ... ..| 10202 7°310
2. Indeterminate nitrogenous matters . “809 3°406
3. Theobromine .. 2-059 1:659
4, Caffeine 164 058
Fat 44-574 48 400
Glucose 1:510 1:000
Sucrose traces, nil.
Starch fs sais 5-735 5-329
Astringent matters =n 7-624 5 972
Pectin, ete. 1-586 1950
Cacao-red ite 4-497 2:300
Digestible fibre, etc. ... 7-287 6 182
Woody fibre ... 4617 4-600
Tartaric acid, free 120 560
Acetic acid, free nil. “900
Tartaric acid, combined °726 624
Iron peroxide 048 115.
Magnesia 493 621
Lime 082 *196
Potash 1:283 ‘980
Soda 364 ATT
Silica 024 037
Sulphuric anhydride... 120 ‘051
Phosphoric anhydride 1141 1179
Chlorine : avis 028 021
100-400 100:'v00
1, Containing nitrogen ... 1-662 1170
2. 99 5 129 "545
3. a ii 634 ‘BLL
4 ” ” me 47 | 14
Total nitrogen 2472 2.249

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO. 97

TABLE X.

Composition or THE DRIED, AND FERMENTED, AND CURED Beays,.
CuticLes AND Puup oF “ Forasrero.”

é Fermented

Bored and cured, .
Water in ate sis a 5-00 7027
1, Albuminoids ... sae 7203 6-259
2. Indeterminate nitrogenous enutbare:. 3 305 2 641
3. Theobromine . ore Seis cue 1461 1402
4, Caffeine Sid rere ah a, 331 ‘431
Fat oes ae ss we 37575 46-263:
Glucose ee es af ds 1:263 ‘5386
Sucrose os vi Sie 2ae 1:20.9 nil.
Starch sie Pee e & 8 545 6 337
Astringent matters ... ols ik 6-053 3-588
Pectin, ete, ... ee ee abe 2-369 1-457
Cacao- red ee eee a 2 62u 2-883
Digestible Aline ie ee Rs 10-420 9-070
‘Woody fibre ... Se ine Suse 6°803 6-662
Tartaric acid, free... er or 657 420)
Acetic acid, free ea iota sta trace. OTL
Tartaric acid, combined ies G24 964 ‘981
Tron peroxide aes es i 049 0735:
Magnesia tas wee das as 627 “676
Lime he ie eats lek "157 “163
Potash 26 se Gels wee 1133 945
Soda wis ala ais ae U96 195.
Silica one a 022» 051
Sulphuric anhydride .. wes oe (92 016
Phosphorie one ae a 1:370 1155
Chiorine fs was oe 3 *Ld9 040
99 843 100 000
1. Containing nitrogen .. aes 1-152 1001
2. . ee Ce me 523 423
3. a. ae, fe, soe “440 422
4. . - me be 94 153
Total nitrogen... = ed 2-209 1 968

98 THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO,

TABLE XI.

CuticLes oF Cacao Beans, VARIETY FOoRASTERO.

: Fermented

Dried. and cured,
Water is Bas wae wf 11-840 11-840
1. Albuminoids sae ‘Ade iy 6-603 6-130
2, Indeterminate nitrogenous matters...) traces, 3394
3. Theobroimine ... ee ai 1 1:808 ‘909
4, Caffeine ibe ssa ove sue “306 ‘DAT
Fat aes Se se Ne “2186 8580
Glucose mee ae He — 5-200 ‘TIA
Sucrose ae ays ite ies 473 nil.
Starch se ie Sete eal 6-779 3 682
Astringent matters ... oi Dak 561 4-350
Pectin, ete... one eee Ree 5849 5895
Cacao-red = ike fed wae 3662 3°100
digestible fibre és oe ...| 384100 31 292
Woody fibre ... ci cer ef 12-753 9610
Tartaric acid, free... Sats ai 3148 *420
Acetic acid, free date ets ..-| traces, 1:140
‘Tartaric acid, combined gr sd 1823 3-456
Tron peroxide... gon a one 052 “218
Magnesia ee ee ay sink 379 1 035
Lime ite dass ed a ‘156 224
Potash aes sats ‘giv — 1-283 21-38
Soda . mbt eat tats, o. ‘078 ‘194
Silier tne was af ea 015 +250
Sulphuric anhydride... es By “161 122
Phosphoric anhydride - ws “AO9 807
Chiurine se 8s dis sas *265 423
99 994 100-020
J, Containing vitrogen ... ae ies 1:056 ‘981
2. ” ” see sete ies trace, 543
3. ” ” ake . wes O44 O74
4, a ” $35 ae ied ‘O87 “TDD
Total nitrogen... wee - 1-637 1:953

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO. 99

TABLE XII,

‘CoMPosITION OF THE KERNELS OF THE Bans oF Forastero,
Driep, AND FerMENTED AND CurED.

: Fermented
Pirie. and cured.
Water — ste igs on 5-009 6-280
1. Albuminoids ... eats e 7-228 6:130
2. Indeterminate nitrogenous manteets,,. 4-081 2 525
-3. Theobromine ... nt eas ei 1321 1:480
4. Caffeine ows = sia ame 332 ALA
Fat ae es _ ..| 45°83-1 52-120
Glucose ees wits ise een ‘D47 566
Sucrose ee eid aes — 1:373 nil,
Starch mo ‘ile wee ea 9-043 6-750
Astringent matters ... ets a5 7 329 3470
Pectin, ete. ... oe ae e 2-068 ‘770
Cacao-red ae ae ster wae 2311 2 850
Digestible Ales Sas dis oe 3-969 5-762
W oody fibre ane ee a 5-435 6-200
Tartaric acid, free... was a ‘057 0-42
Acetic acid, free aa ae ws nil, | 600
Tartaric acid, combined... oe 7 49 596
Tron peroxide oe ee ine “O48 057
Magnesia i ae bie - 680 “621
Lime spe oss aoe ah 153 "154
Potash ses sen mee 5 951 ‘776
Soda das _ Be: way ‘lul 196
Silica : aus . ‘024 020
Sulphuric anhydride... ove 3 tut? tn tee
Phosphoric ,, ne sr aed 1465 1-210
Chlorine des sles Aue a ‘O47 - 48
99:995 100 000
ining nitrogen ... 1:156 “980
2 Containing ee ea aa
e, G ee oe ele 457
oe ean 095 119
Total nitrogen... sh - 2.310 1-960

100 THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAQ.

When the compositions of these substances are given in
percentages it is difficult to perceive the changes in composition.
which may have taken place during the fermentation and
curing. The results obtained have therefore been recalculated
on the assumption that the fat in the original beans as sub-
mitted to fermentation would undergo little or no change
during the process; comparison of the compositions of the por-
tions of the fresh fruit submitted to fermentation and of the
corresponding amount of the product yielded is thus approxi-
mately obtained In the germinatiun of the seeds the fat is used
up as food for the plantlet, but in the process of fermentation
and sweating germination is so quickly checked that the more.
readily available sugars are not all absorbed or used up. Thence
itis not likely that the fat will undergo appreciable change.
These are given fur both varieties in the following :—

TABLE XIII.

CANGES TAKING PLACE IN THE Kennel oF THE BEANS OF ‘' CALABACILLO”
DURING FERMENTATION AND CURING,

Fresh Cured Loss
Beans. Beans. | in Curing.
Water ast ies ‘ia i 37°37 3:675 | 33-962
Albaminoidls “s a - 6 696 4:419 2 O77
Inde erminate nitrogenous matters... O31 2059 1-621
Theobromive ain ree ee wee 1352 1-003 B49
Caffeine .. ves as ae oe ‘108 “082 ‘076
Fat wes pie wt wei wef 29°256 29:256 nil.
Glacose aa ise x " or 991 604 “BST
Sucrose wie = wee tty trace-. nil, *
Siareh 2% ats 2 ‘ oe 3 764 3°221 3.3
Astringent matters... an Sas 5-004 | 360 1-394
Pectin, ete... Ea a ‘iat a G57 «1178 + ‘521
Creno-red | 252 | B90 | 1562
Digestible fibre... seis — aig i112 3737 1375
Woody fibre ae ues sit 3 030 2-780 20:
Tartare void, free... Sis i ‘079 B28 | + Bay
Acetic aci', free... aa age are nil. 54d + 644
Tartare seid, combined .., z ia “477 ‘BIT *100-
Tron peroxide oe a a vas 32 069 + -037
Mavynesia P *B24 ee - “OSL
Lime | ‘Oo4 “TES + Onde
Potash “B42 *Hu2 +250
Soda °2AY “YN + UL)
Silica ee se i “O16 02 + ‘006
Suaphnrie anhydride . ae “8 | Od O3L 048 1
tho prone avhyaiile aoe an ‘THY ‘T12 037
Chiviine... exe wie wen wi | “019 “G12 *Ou7
| Inu Qu 6u 442

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO. 101

TABLE XIV.

‘RESULTS OF FeRMENTING AND Curinc 100 Parts or THE BEANS

WITH CUTICLES AND Pup or ‘“ CALABACILLO.”

Fresh. Cured. |. Loss
in Curing,
Water an ee .| 61-780 2:702 59-078
' Albuminoids nde es 3904 2-719 1185
Indeterminate eg . 274 1168 | 4 -894
neous matters
“Theobromine a Sa “814 *584 230
‘Caffeine... eas ain ‘075 039 036
Fat... ‘ies wey «| 15.361 15361 nil.
‘Glucose... oe os6 862 “342 *520
Sucrose... = Bah 032 009 0238
Starch ee asa ce 2-406 1:979 497
Astringent matters oa 2-776 2000 “776
Pectin, ete. ... ie an 733 1007 |+ -374
Cacao-red ... oie rr 1772 “912 860
Digestible fibre... wf 4847 4:379 468
Woody fibre is oe 2°219 2-074 “145
Tartaric acid, free ... ou 253 “201 042
Acetic acid, free ... ee nil, 327 | 4+ 327
‘Tartaric acid, comb. ~ “392 420 | + +028
Tyron peroxide ... is “018 039 | + 021
Magnesia ... oe es "225 258 }+ -033
‘Lime ae site a3 054 O78 | + -024
Potash 4. se = 528 424 "104
Soda awe wes ov 143 045 098
Silica _ wes ee 009 024 | 4+ +015
Sulphuric anhydride... “194 021 | 173
Phosphoric anhydride... “442 “419 023
Chlorine... see se 012 007 ‘O11
1001 32 37°538

102 THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO.
TABLE XV.

ReEsvLts OF THE FERMENTATION AND CuRING oF 100 PARTS oF-
THE Beans, Curictes anD Pup oF “ FoRASTERO.”

Fresh. Cured. |. Loss
in Curing.

Water eee dee .| 58-261 2-570 55-754
Albuminoids 3°165 3-233 932
Indeterminate nitrogenons

matters ... axe wis 1-452 -940 510
Theobromine ake Sis 641 *500 141
Caffeine... ape Biss "145 “154 + -009
Fat bs aa ..| 16509 16°509 nil.
Glucose ns ee a 555 209 246.
Sucrose ens me aa ‘531 nil. ‘531
Starch des ae i 3°754 2-261 1493
Astringent matters ees 2°659 1-280 1:379
Pectin, ete.. os we 1:261 520 ‘TAI
Cacao-red ... ait 1151 1-028 123
Digestible fibre, oy ass 4:578 3-236 1°342
Woody fibre i is 2-989 2377 612
Tartaric acid, free... is 302° 150 ‘152
Acetic acid, free... # trace. 240 240
Tartaric acid, comb, S54 423 350 073.
Tron peroxide a acd 021 028 + +007
Magnesia ... ee Bs *275 241 034
Lime wa oe dss 069 058 ‘O11
Potash ine Te ae 454 337 117
Soda es me aon “042 069 + 027
Silica s es 009 018 + 009
Sulphuric anhydride as 040 006 034
Phosphoric anhydride ae 602 ‘412 ‘190
Ciorine i nae = 039 “014 025

99-927 35-679

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO. 103.

TABLE XVI.

CuHanaeEs TAKING PLACE IN THE Kerrnets OF tHE BrAns oF

“ FoRASTERO,” DURING F'RRMENTATION AND CURING.
Fresh Cured Loss
Beans. Beans. | in curing.

Water dies ive «| 36567 3°637 32-880
Albuminoids we 4°829 3°599 1-227
Indeterminate nitrogenous

matters ... ses eae 2-725 1-482 1-243
Theobromine a ie "882 869 013
Caffeine oa oes °223 “243 + ‘021
Fat wes te ..| 30°602 30°602
Glucose... oa oe 165 "332 + ‘167
Sucrose ani ae Fe ‘917 nil. 17
Starch oe ahs So 6:038 3-963 2-075
_Astringent matters men 4:89£ 2.037 2-857
Pectin, ete. . ee ae 1:380 452 928,
Cacao-red ... ewe { 548 1673 | + +140
Digestible fibre... aie 2-821 3377 | + +556
Woody fibre oe ae 3458 3°640 | + +192
Tartaric acid, free ... ve "038 "246 + 918
Acetic acid, free... ee nil. 352 | + B52
Tartaric acid, combined... ‘487 350 137
Iron peroxide is bs 032 033) | + -001
Magnesia ... ies ie “454 364 090
Lime we hg lat. “S108 090 O15
Potash . vee) “885 “455 -080
Soda tae ied see 068 “115 057
Silica - 016 ‘O12 004
Sulphuric anhydride. 48 trace. 048
Phosphoric anhydride 1-045 ‘710 335.
Chlorine... en " 032 025 007

100-000 58-708

104 THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO.

In the case of the variety Calabacillo we find that 100 parts of
‘the fresh material submitted to fermentation and curing lose 6:25
“per cent. of their weight of which 59 is water and 3-5 organic and
mineral matters. Inthe kernels of the beans the loss on 100 parts
-amounts to 394, of which 6°5 parts consist of solid constituents.

Tn the variety Forastero, 100 parts of the material submitted
to fermentation and curing, yield 35°6 parts of cured cacao a loss
of 64-4 per cent. ensuing, of which 55-7 is water and 8-7 solid
constituents. The kernels of the beans lose 41°3 per cent. during

fermentation and curing, of which 8'4 parts are solid constituents.

It is evident that when submitted to a similar fermentation
-and curing, beans of the variety Forastero lose a higher propor-
tion of their weight than do the small flat beans of Calabacillo.

Inboth cases a considerable loss of the albuminoid constituents
ensued, with, in the case of Calabacillo, an increase in the indeter-
-minate nitrogenous matters. In Forastero, a loss of the latter also
-appeared to have taken place. In both cases we find a loss of the
alkaloidal constituents has taken place, this being greater in Calaba-
-cillo than in Forastero. A marked loss of the sugars has occurred
and also of the starch, pectin, gums and digestible fibre, this being
much greater in the case of Forastero than in that of Calabacillo.
The astringent matters and cacao-red have also decreased in about
-equal proportions on the two varieties. Little change has taken
place in the total quantities of tartaric acid present, but the fer-
mented and cured beans contain a small proportion of acetic acid
not present in the original material. Both varieties have lost some
-of the more soluble constituents of their mineral ingredients.

Comparison of the losses apparently undergone by the whole
material submitted to fermentation, and by the kernels of the
beans lead to the conclusion that, as might be expected, a certain
-amount of change in place has occurred in the constituents of the
kernels of the beans and the cuticles and pulp. The kernels
show a much more marked loss of astringent matters than do
the whole beans and to this loss much of the improvement in
flavour must probably be due.

It is also seen by examination of these results that it is proba-
ble that during the sweating process slight changes in the position
-of the constituents of the beans of the two varieties have taken place,
leading in some cases to apparent gains of constituents in one or
other of the kinds. It was found that the original sample consisted
approximately of one-fifth beans of Calabacillo and four-fifth
-beans of Forastero,

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO, 105

The following shows the losses resulting from the fermenta-
tion of the mixture and we think may be considered as a fairly
reliable indication of the changes which ordinarily take place
during the fermentation and curing of cacao :—

TABLE XVII.

LossEgs RESULTING FROM THE FERMENTATION AND CURING OF A
MIXTURE OF BEANs oF ‘CALABACILLO” AND “ ForAsTERo.”

Water or 3S pea 56-419
Albuminoids dss wee ahs “982
Indeterminate nitrogenous matters 208 229
Theobromine eee ui as 159
Caffeine vs oes bes nil,
Fat ane ie is nil,
Glucose wes eae ia 301
Sucrose si ies vee “429
Starch on ee ie 1-280
Astringent matters ea ne 1:258
Pectin wae see see 518
Cacao-red aye bee ves 270
Digestible fibre... ae aes 1167
Woody fibre 33 in sae “518
Tartaric acid, free wt ae “130
Acetic acid, free ... See ous 257
Tartaric acid, combined ees oe 053
Tron peroxide... ay 010
Magnesia : : . 021
Lime +o erry eee 004
Potash eee oi os 114
Soda ses -_ ag 002
Silica os ele a. & ‘010
Sulphuric anhydrid bi oes 030
Phosphoric anhydride sis _ 156
Chlorine nis aed ia 022

There has occurred a loss in almost all constituents of the
cacao, the only gains being in acetic acid, a product of the fer-
mentation, and in iron peroxide and silica due to dirt and dust
picked up during the final drying. As acheck on the accuracy
of these results, a sample of the liquid running from the sweat-
ine boxes was obtained, the constituents of which consist of

J BS .
matters removed from the fermenting material and was found
to contain with the exception of theobromine, either the missing
soluble constituents or the soluble products of their alteration
and of that of the less soluble carbohydrates.

106 . THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO.

TABLE XVIII.

ComposiTiuoN’ of THE SWEATINGS FROM A MIXTURE oF
CALABACILLO AND ForastTzRo.

Water aes aie es 84°817

1. Albuminoids ... ees aes 062
2. Indeterminate nitrogenous matters... 250
Glucose ws er sis 11-604
Sucrose ove Per ae 638
Astringent matter, &e. ... oe 354
Alcohol ia is ae "180
Tartaric acid, free aes vk 340
Acetic acid, free ae des 892
Acetic acid, combined... is 290
Iron peroxide ie sie 038
Magnesia aes ee ibe 074
Lime aes ise on 029:
Potash ar a se 354
Soda ane sa es 004
Sulphuric anhydride tas tee 021
Phosphoric anhydride... oe 038
Chlorine bee a igs 007
100-000.

1. Containing nitrogen iis i 010:
2 me ‘5 Sis ois 040

Examinations made by us ‘of the process of sweating showed
clearly that at first an alcoholic fermentation takes place
accompanied by a rise in temperature of the material; later a
little acetic ether is produced either as a direct product of fer-
mentation or by the interaction of the alcohol and the acetic acid!
produced, and that, finally, the fermentation becomes an acetic
one, the temperature in the fermenting boxes gradually rising so
high as to practically stop the alcoholic fermentation,

The results of the examinations and analyses show that the-
process of fermentation or sweating in cacao consists in an
alcoholic fermentation of the sugars in the pulp of the fruit
accompanied by a loss of some of the albuminoid and indeter-
minate nitrogenous constituents of the beans. Probably the
albuminoid constituents are first changed into amides and other

THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY OF CACAO. 107

simpler combinations which may be further broken up during
the process of fermentation. Some parts of the carbohydrates.
other than sugars undergo hydrolysis and either escape in the
runnings from the boxes in the form of glucose, or undergo in
turn the alcoholic and acetic fermentations,

During this change some of the astringent matters to which
the somewhat acrid taste of the raw beans is due are also
hydrolysed, and thus a marked improvement in flavour is gained.
Small quantities of the mineral constituents, principally of
potash and phosphoric acid, are removed from the beans in the
liquid escaping from the fermenting material. A slight loss in
woody fibre is shown, which may be due to loss of portions of
the cuticle during the operation of drying, or to changes in it
by hydrolysis during fermentation,

This work has necessarily only resulted in a partial and
incomplete study of the results of the fermentation. The study
of the changes which take place in various kinds of beans and
during variously modified conditions of fermentation must be
left to botanists and chemists in colonies and countries where-
Cacao is an important product. Work already done in this line
is fully compensated if it leads others more favourably situated
to take up the study of this interesting and intricate subject,
and, at any rate, the record of the investigation may be of some
service and guidance to the owners and managers of plantations
and to those contemplating purchasing suitable land for estab~
lishing plantations.

CHAPTER XIII.

Food Value of Cacao, Manufacture, &c.

LONG series of analyses were published some

years ago by P. L, Simmonds in “Tropical
Agriculture,” but that author remarks, that
the results are ‘not very flattering to chemical
science, the analyses being of the most contra-
dictory character, and containing discrepancies
which cannot be at all reconciled with each
-other”—but he nevertheless reduces them as far as he is able to
-an average, as seen in the following table :—

Cacao butter ae ice i 50
Albuminoids ane te eas 20
Starch inte ies ous 18
Salts tile ane wee 4
Theobromine ats dee ee 2
Miscellaneous ais ees daa 11

100

Professor Church’s analysis of cured Cacao is quoted in the
‘Chapter on Fermentation. Theobromine, according to the
Professor, “is the active principle of Cacao; and the taste and
aroma are mainly due to an essential oil and to Tannin,” and he
-deems it a milder and less stimulating beveraget han tea or
coffee. I doubt much, however, if Cacao of the class he refers
to, was that which obtained for it the name of “ Theobroma,” or
“ Food for the Gods.”

The manufacture of Cacao as now carried out in Europe
-and America presents a great contrast to the primitive methods
-of preparation, which methods are found still to exist in the
-countries producing it.

The Professor gives four forms of preparation in which Starch,
Flour, Sugar, Vanilla, Bitter Almonds, Cinnamon and other sub-
‘stances are used as adulterants, some to form ‘Soluble Cacao,” some

FOOD VALUE OF CACAO, ETC, 109

“Chocolate,” some ‘Flake or Rock Cacao” and some “ Pressed
Cacao”—and in most of these a portion of the original fat of the-
bean has been removed.

He says :—that most of the Cacao consumed in Europe is
prepared for use by admixture with other substances or by remov-
ing part of the fat or ‘Cacao butter.” Cacao-nibs, if simply
ground, would yield a rich but heavy food but not a beverage. It
may indeed be shown that 100 parts of Cacao-nibs contain
heat-givers equivalent to 182 parts of starch, while the Jresh-
Jormers present amount to no less than 17 parts, the ratio of the
latter being as 1 to 8. One pound of Cacao-nibs might in fact
produce as much as 24 oz, of the dry nitrogenous substance of
muscle,

This shows that one pound of Cacao-nibs is more than equal
in fiesh-forming constituents to one peund of lean mutton chop,
which is estimated to contain but 2 oz. of the dry nitrogenous
substance of muscle or flesh But we can’t eat a pound of:
Cacao-nibs at any one time, and it is seldom that more than
4 oz. is used for a breakfast cupful, and even to this is added
a certain proportion of milk and sugar. ‘The value of the milk
as a food constituent being as 3 oz. of the dry nitrogenous sub-
stance of muscle and flesh to the lb. So that Professor Church’s
remark that Cacao-nibs would yield a heavy food, but not a
beverage, is somewhat wide of the mark, for it actually yields only
a beverage, and is seldom, except on emergencies, taken as food.

If it was consumed as ‘‘nibs” it would certainly be a
“theavy food” as it appears to contain 50 %.of Fat, and 17% of
Albuminoids besides other constituents. No one eats it in the
form of “nibs” however, but small quantities in solution, and
therefore when we take of prepared Cacao a part equal to-
giz part of a pound, adding 4 ozs. boiling water and 4 ozs. milk ;.
we have according to the Professor’s own analysis, the sum of
13 drams-+3 drams or a total of 48 drams of flesh-forming con-
stituents in a cup of Cacao made from the ground nibs
unadulterated, of which 3 drams are supplied by the added milk,
or a total value of (j15) one-tenth of a pound of mutton chop.
What proportion of nutriwent is contained in a cup of Cacao
made from the various preparations, we are not able to gather,
but we should estimate it at a very much lower figure.

That Cacao-nibs, simply roasted and ground, will yield a.
beverage of excellent quality when properly prepared there can be
no doubt, though perhaps not one calculated to suit all tastes
but unce the palate is'“ educated” to the Havour, it is preferred to
any of the adulterated forms or preparations. In samples of
Cacao, or *‘ Cocoa” made by the best makers uv less uian 60% of

a

110 FOOD VALUE OF CACAO, ETC.

Sugar has been found. This large amount of sugar is accounted
for by the fact that without this addition it does not sell. Not
a little prejudice exists as to the digestibility and indigestibility
of Cacao Fat, and this prejudice is taken advantage of by the
manufacturers in making their preparations. It is somewhat
curious to note however, that some of the fat extracted from the
preparation intended for use as a beverage is used in the prepar-
ation of confectionery, such as ‘‘ Chocolate Creams,” when no
question whatever arises as to its indigestibility. Many indeed
who object to a certain amount of fat with their breakfast cacao,
use ten times the amount of quite as indigestible a fat, in the form
of butter, without a thought of indigestion, ‘The value of
Chocvulate Creams, Chocolate Stick. and other ‘‘ Bon Bons” as a
food may be estimated from the analyses. They contain from
12 to 40 % of Cacao which has a large percentage of Fat, some
starches, and some albuminoids, and these added to the Food
value of 60% of sugar will give total value which will be found
overestimated in the majority of cases both by sellers and
consumers. If the public could be persuaded to demand pure
Cacao, adding the sugar themselves they would be better served.

MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE,

The methods generally employed in Trinidad in manufac
turing Chocolate from the Cacao bean are extremely simple, and
the same in principle as those practised throughout Cacao
growing countries; but there are a few persons who produce an
article little inferior in point of manufacture to that produced in
Europe.

The bean after being cured and dried in a manner fit for
sale can be used at any time for manufacturing into chocolate,
The first process is to roast the beans in a cylinder over a slow
fire, until they assume a fine brown colour, but not to heat them
to such a degree as to burn them, or to destroy the essential oil
which they contain, for Cacao-beans once burnt or scorched can
never make upacup of first-class chocolate. When browned
sutliciently the testa easily separates from the inner portion of
the seed and can be cracked uff and fanned away as soun as the
beans are cool enough to handle, Car2 should be taken to
grind quickly after roasting. as unce roasted, Cacao soon loses
flavour and aronia, and the manufactured article should always be
kept in sealed or close fitting receptacles,

The ‘‘nibs” wre put upon a clean piece of free stone
about 2 feet square, perfectly smooth, another piece of the same
material, somewhat rounded, being used as a grinder. Rubbed
for some little time aud frequently turned with a small spathula,
the Leans are reduced tu a paste, the fat they contain assisting
the operation, Lut the grinding must be cuntinued until the

FOOD VALUE OF CACAO, ETC. 111

paste hecomes perfectly smooth and even. If sweet chocolate is
‘desired to be made, sugar should be added ; if ‘ unsweetened ”
nothing more has to be done but to make the paste up into such
sizes of blocks or rolls as may suit the fancy of the manufacturer
or the convenience of liousewife. Thexe balls, rolls, or blocks
are then allowed to set or harden, which they will do in a few
hours’ time, after which they can be transported any distance.
The operations of roasting and grinding shuuld always be done
‘in dry weather,

No adulteration is required, but still to suit some palates,
Vanilla, Nutineg, Cloves, Cinnamon, and various spices may be
added, but these combinations are in our estimation not equal
to the flavour of the viryin Cacao, provided the volatile essential
‘oil has not been destroyed during the process of roasting, during
which process it appears to be developed.

A cup of m-st delicious chocolate can he made from the
rolled or caked Cacao in about three minutes, in the following
manner :—Grate about half an ounce of bail chocolate into an
‘enamelled saucepan, adding sufficient boiling water to cover it ;
Jet it simmer for two or three minutes, add sugar and hot milk to
taste and serve. If preferred equal parts of milk and water
may be used. The substance removed from the Lean as fat
by the more elaborate methcds in which Cacao is prepared is
krown as ‘‘Cacao-Lutter.” This is a valuable concrete fat

‘melting at 10U° Fahrenheit which is expressed from the paste

of the Cacac-bean by pressure while subject to steam or sun
heat. On cvoling it becomes an opaque dry chocolate colored
substance, somewhat brittle and shows a waxy fracture. The
coloring is easily removed by filtering, while hot, through animal
charcoal, when the fat becomes a clean white. It has a pleasant
-chocelate odour and a bland flavour, and is much used for phar-
maceutical preparations. It is chiefly remarkable for having but
little tendency to rancidity.

From the fact that clean fats have a remarkable affinity for
the volatile or essential oils, it appears probable that a propor-
tion of the aruma of chocolate is Just by the removal of the
‘Cacav-butter, and this fact would alune account for the
superiority of the flavour of that Cacao in which the natural fat
is all present, over that from which it has been remuved.
Which way the manufacturer must make it, the public decides
-of course. Usually the less the manufacturer adulterates a
pure article, the Letter are his prospects for the future of his
business, but in Cacao the converse appears to be the case. It
is clear that more Cacao would be sold if the mixture of foreign
substances was disallowed. and the planter would in cunsequeuce
weap a decided Lenefit ‘trum tLe greater demand.

112 FOOD VALUE OF CACAO, ETC.

If the operator desires to make a Cacao powder, he has to-
express a large proportion of the fat which can readily be-
done in any common press. ‘The Cacao paste must be handled
in a high temperature so that all the fat is in a melted state, and
the apparatus must also be kept well warm. This can, in
Trinidad, be effected by working in the Sun, but in a temperate
climate, artificial heat is required, and is employed in all the.
Factories. The paste is put between thin layers uf cloth, neatly
folded so as to prevent escape and then placed layer upon layer-
in a strong press box, worked either by simple screw or by-
hydraulic pressuye, Sufficient of the fat can in this way be-
extracted to render the layers of paste dry, and formed into
sclid thin cakes. If these are now taken and rubbed through a
fine sieve, a cacao powder will be produced, in flavour equal, if
not superior, to the finest brands upon the market, and unadul-
terated and pure. Sugar can always be added by the consumer,
and no starch is necessary to make the article into palatable-
form. |

Cacao powder pure and unadulterated may well be called:
“* Food for the Gods” from the delicious flavour and aroma it
exhibits, but the lower qualities of the manufactured article
commonly sold and largely advertised would in many instances
be well named in the words ‘‘Food for the Pigs,” as they
certainly contain but a very small percentage of pure Cacao.

To ascertain whether there was any essential difference in
the character of various samples of the Cacao Bean when worked:
up or manufactured for consumption three samples were obtained.
from one of our largest dealers.

These samples were accurately weighed to 10 lhs. each, and’
were then roasted and ground and the fat extracted by an
ordinary press.

The percentage of fat is not so large as might have been
taken, but as in each case the means used was identical, the
results are directly comparable.

The character of each Cacao was exhibited most distinctly
the colour and flavour of the dry powder, and by the colour,
character and flavour of the fat extracted.

The Cacao powder, Cocoatina, or Cocoa essence produced. is
an article which can be used in the same manner as the ordinary
Cacao powder of the manufac‘urers, and is a perfectly pure
article. The value of the powder can be estimated if we allow
a certain per cent. for loss in the process of manufacture. Ourown
experience is too limited to fix this with ascuracy, but it may be
for our present purpose taken as 20 per cent.

FOOD VALUE OF CACAO, ETC. 113

The Cacao powder produced, is seen to average some 55 per
cent. of the total weight of Cacao operated upon, and therefore
we have a saleable article at a loss of 45 per cent. of the original
weight. Now the value of the cacao at the time of the opera-
tion was averaged at 14 cents per lb. and therefore the cost
of the powder not allowing for value of fat, and sale of waste—
and not admitting cost of manufacture, is more than double
the cost of raw material—or some 30 cents per lb. When,
however, some 15 per cent. or 20 per cent, fat is sold at 1/3d.
per lb. and the husk at a lower value, it will greatly reduce the
cost:of manufacture, and it can be clearly seen that Pure Cacav
Powder can be produced at reasonable rates, leaving a good
margin of profit, and also that the admixture of starch and sugar
is not in any way required, either for the purpose of making it
palatable or as an improvement tv the keeping qualities of the
article. The public should therefore put down adulteration by
demanding nothing but a pure Cacao powder, which is in every
way a palatable and nourishing beverage.

One of the facts to be noted is, that the mild flavoured and
light colored Venezuelan Cacao is rated at the same value as
ordinary Trinidad, although it is evident it produces a Cacao
powder in every respect superior to ‘‘ Ordinary ” Trinidad Cacao.

The following are the tables of results of our late
experiments :—

No. 1.—VeEnezuenan Fine Cuayep Cacao, VALUED AT l4c. PER LB.

nm

. Weight received from G. G. & Co....

. Weight when roasted and cleaned

Weight of Husk ses sie va

Weight of dry Cacao after fut was removed

Weight of Fat extracted from 7°55 lbs,

Loss during roasting and cleanivg -77 lbs.

Loss during grinding and expression of fat

“82 lbs.

. Total loss in mannfacture ... ans ata ee
Loss roasting, cleaning and extracting fat and husk 3
Dry Powder ons ace se He ven)

* Fat ae wat ae sie ett easy od;

MA pepo

=
Or
Oo

2.

Nores.—The loss is greater than it would be with larger quantities.
Comparing samples Nos. 2 and 3, it is seen that Clay is to be esti-
mated at about 13%.

* Fat should be slightly more, owing tothe absorption by the bags during extraction
of first example, possibly 13%.
H

114 FOOD VALUE OF CACAO, ETC.

No. 2.—Tarrnipap ‘ Finr Estates’ vanvgep 14$c. PER LB.

1. Weight received from G.G. & Co. ... Sas ... 10 Ibs,
2. Weight when roasted and cleaned .., saa Pe 7°86 5,
3. Weight of husk wee 168,
4. Weight of Cacao after removal of Fat... .. 5°60,
5. Weight of Fat from 7:86 lbs. as chs 2a 1-64 ,,
6. Loss roasting and cleaning “51 Ibs.
7. Loss during grinding and expression of fat -62 Ibs.
8. Total loss i ies nie wes 1:13 ,,
Dry Cacao Bowie: ity ve 56: %
. |Fat : aia ies 16-4 %
ca i a ae a76(1L3 %
Husk ... i hy si 16°3 %
100-0
No. 3.—Trinipap ‘“‘ Orpinary”’ Cacao, 14¢c. PER LB.
1. Weight received from G. G. & Co. ... sie .. 10° Ibs,
2. Weight when roasted and cleaned ... wit oes 7°80 ,,
3. Weight of husk ans ee 1°53 ,,
4, Weight of Cacao after removal ‘of Fat a a 5:48 ,,
5. Weight of Fat from 7°80 lbs. ste “6 ih 1°61 ,,
6. Loss during roasting and cleaning re ‘67 Ibs.
7. Loss during grinding and expressing fat ‘71 Ibs.
8. Total loss or a one was ae 1:38 ,,
{Pet Cacao Bowiiek os <i 54:8 %
Fat... oe as ws 16-1
10 Ibs. Loss ... ale sad 99-1 13°8 x
| Husk aie aes ee wee {a5-3 ”
100-0

The author in 1897, had the privilege, through the kindness
of the proprietors, .of visiting the large Factories of Messrs.
Rowntree of York and Messrs. Cadbury of Birmingham. The
cleanliness and cate with which the various preparations were
made in these works is hardly possible to excel, and the materials
used were of the finest quality. Regarding adulteration with sugar,
manufacturers admit it. and declare that the Public demand it so,
and that the sweetest chocolate sells the best, While this state of
things exist, it is perhaps hopeless to expect any large quantities of
pure Cacao preparations to be manufactured, as the Factories can-
not be blamed for supplying the popular demand. Nearly all first-
class makers, however, make the pure preparations, which can be
obtained if asked for, and these are gaining way slowly with the
intelligent, but the mass still buys the cheap, sweet and starchy -
inixtures which are sold under the names of Cacao and Chocolate.

FOOD VALUE OF CACAO, ETC. 115

Wishing to know what was really the percentage of sugar
in manufactured Chocolate of the best makers, I obtained a
sample which was sold at the rate of three shillings per lb. in
Port-of-Spain, the capital of Trinidad. In this pound I found
‘65 per cent. of sucrose, which might be either cane or
beet sugar, At any rate there was present 65 per cent.
-of sugar, in the one pound of chocolate. Allowing this to have
been of the very best class it could not have cost the manufac-
turers at wholesale prices more than 3 cents per lb,

The 35 per cent. Cacao and other material may be well
‘estimated as follows :—The loss on roasting and grinding Cacao
by hand is 27 to 30 per cent. The value of raw Cacao per lb.
is about 14 cents, and by adding 30 per cent. to the original cost
and make up for waste, we have a value for clean unground Cacao
of some 20 cents per Ib. Take manufacture, grinding, &c.,
to represent a value of 100 per cent. (which would be an extreme
estimate) we should have 40 cents—as the price of 1lb. of
prepared Chocolate without admixture of sugar. If again, we
take 35 per cent. of 40 cents—we have 14 cents for the cost of
the Cacao mixed ina pound of chocolate, This added to the
-cost of sugar (some 14 cents), gives 18 cents or 9d. as the cost
of first class prepared Chocolate which is sold at four times this
value or 3 shillings per pound.

It seems a curious thing that the public have not as yet
become alive to the fact that they are paying fur sugar in the
form of Chocolate at a ridiculously high rate. For out of every
100 tons of chocolate sold there are 65 tons of sugar sold at
3 shillings per lb. or at the rate of £336 per ton, while the
poor planter is glad if he can get some £8 to £12 per ton.

The “manufacture” of large establishments is not dealt
with in this treatise. To discuss (even if we were competent to
-do so) the various blendings of the different classes of produce,
the “milling,” the sweetening, the packing, and the thousand
-and one operations which go on in a large factory would more
than fill 100 pages by itself, and I therefore leave it for more
able hands.

The word “Cocoa” appears to be of European origin, and
has caused no little confusion owing to the similarity of its
sound to words which name entirely different products, such as
Coconut, Coca, Cocoes, &e., &c. Cacao is the original name and
under the rules of priority, it is considered the proper one to
use, and it has therefore been adopted throughout this work in
preference to the English spelling,

CHAPTER XIV.

Transport of Seed and Living Plants.

eae mf UCH trouble is experienced by intending planters
‘N W in sending Cacao seed to a distance. The-
author has however had considerable experience:
in forwarding to Ceylon, West Africa, Nicara-
gua, Europe and America. It has been
found best where quantities are required, to sow
the seed in light earth in Wardian cases. In
1893, I personally conveyed 25,000 plants of Trinidad Cacao to-
Nicaragua, and as successfully brought a smaller number of
Nicaragua Cacao to Trinidad. Cases sent to the West Coast of
Africa have arrived in splendid condition when sown in Wardian
cases, and established plants were safely sent to Ceylon in the
same class of package. When seed is to be sent to places.
requiring a journey of not more than 12 or 14 days, they may
be safely sent in the pods. The pods should he carefully picked,.

and packed without bruising into crates, with clean dry shavings,
wrapping each pod first in stout paper. A variety of methods
are devised for sending seeds, but the above described is the
one I have found most effective. Pods may be packed however
in dry sawdust with considerable success. The most essential
point needed to ensure successful transit, is to send them only
in warm weather or at such times when the temperature will
not fall much below 60 Fah. If plants or seeds meet with cold’
weather even for an hour, such as sometimes occurs on Wharves
and Railway Stations, when sending to Europe, it is almost
sure to be fatal to both plants and seeds. Small quantities of
seed may be sent by post, if care is taken to remove the pulp
from them and put them with dry clay, and then pack in moist
Coco-nut refuse, in a tin (not wooden) case. When pods are
sent they should be collected not more than three days previous
to despatch, and kept on a dry floor or shelf previous to packing.
In planting seeds we are told by some, that they must be put
into the soil in a certain position to do well. Some say the
radicle should point upwards, and others that it should stand
downwards, and some plant their seed laid flat in the soil. In
Nicaragua the seed coat and all the pulp clean down to the

TRANSPORT OF SEED AND LIVING PLANTS. 117

cotyledons is removed, and the seed put in with the radicle down-
wards. I have personally tested these positions many times
over, without finding any great or distinguishing advantage. When
planted without the seed coats however, there is less likelihood
of the attack of fungus through the. decomposition of the pulp
than would otherwise be the case, and the plants come up several
days earlier than those sown in the pulp, with testa intact.
With regard to the variety of positions, I have planted seeds in
all three positions in one box, and after the first fourteen days it
was impossible to tell which way they had been planted ; as the
plants were in the same stage of growth, and indistinguishable-
one from the other. If, therefore, the golden rule for sowing
seeds be followed, which with all seeds is to place them in their
own diameter under the soil, without regard to position, the
planter may surely reckon upon securing healthy and vigorous
seedlings. Those who fancy planting them in any one particular
way, may do so, therefore, with as much certainty of success as
those who use the opposite methods, and yet each will have the
separate satisfaction of believing in his method, which in some
cases gratifies more than to follow the practices pointed out by
experience and the planter Science.

There is probably much yet to be learnt, by the grower, the
curer and the manufacturer of Cacao, and the present edition, of
this work does not pretend to be perfect any more than its prede.
cessor, or to say everything that might be said on the subject of
Cacao. It has, however, been carefully revised in accordance
with the present knowledge of the subject, and it is hoped the
contents may be found both interesting and useful to Tropical
Planters.

May, 1900,

Date Due

il