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http:/Awww.archive.org/details/cu31924003324211
ase jo srvak Aqy 0} AZI0} saat} Sutreaq Inq
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‘gua0s YOK MAN wsojsem [eotdA], —] ALVId
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THE ,
COMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY
OF NORTH AMERICA
BY
J. C. FOLGER
Assistant Secretary
International Apple Shippers’ Association
AND
S. M. THOMSON
Formerly Fruit Crop Specialist, United States
Department of Agriculture
IQew Pork
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1921
All rights reserved
@
S3BS65
FT
oP. 2
(rx gi %
OoPyRIcHT, 1921,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Set up and electrotyped. Published February, x92.
TO
EDWARD H. THOMSON
WHOSE VISION, ENCOURAGEMENT AND WISE COUNSEL
HAVE BEEN OF THE GREATEST AID IN THE
PREPARATION OF THIS WORK
THE AUTHORS
INSCRIBE THE BOOK
PREFACE
In collecting material for this work, the authors have
visited practically every important apple-growing county
in the United States; first in connection with a special
investigation of the cost of producing apples in important
regions, conducted by the Office of Farm Management,
United States Department of Agriculture; and later as
Fruit Crop Specialists engaged in organizing a system
for estimating important fruit crops and particularly
_ the commercial apple crop of the United States. The au-
thors were impressed with a need of this kind of book, as the
many published works on the apple have not dealt system-
atically with the commercial phase of apple-growing which
only recently has become a well defined industry entirely
separate from the home orchard. The whole subject of
propagation has been omitted, as this is now well treated
in separate books. The apple is approached in this book
from the point of view of commerce.
In the preparation of this work, credit is due to Roy E.
Marshall and Fred R. Motz of the Virginia Station for
aid in the chapter on pruning; to Prof. W. H. Chandler
of Ithaca, New York, for his advice and suggestions; to
E. H. Siegler and W. V. Cruess, and to many others
both in the Federal Department of Agriculture and the va-
rious state schools of agriculture and experiment stations.
vii :
Preface
For the Canadian material, the authors are indebted to Mr.
C. W. Baxter, and for the Australian and New Zealand
material, to Mr. 8. P. Vaughn of Tasmania, P. Val Kerr
of Victoria, and R. A. Clayton of New Zealand.
Tue AUTHORS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
ImprorTANCE AND History or tHe APPLE INDUSTRY .
Decline of farm orchards . ‘
Centralized plantings in favored regions
Outlook for the apple industry
Favorable factors . . .
Increase in population
Movement to the city :
Development of foreign market
Education and advertising .
Transportation
Distribution F
Improved cultural ‘guethuda ‘ ;
Increase in the use of by-products .
Future production
Unfavorable factors
Increased commercial ens
Poor outlook for unfavored region .
Danger from boom development
Competition with citrus fruit .
Conclusions .
History of commercial epple-growing in the ‘United
States < 2 z
Scientific claastfration Bh ie. ts -
CHAPTER II _—-
Leapina Appts KeEcions or THe Unirep States .
Western New York. . .... «+ =s-
Hudson Valley . . . - + «© © «© «© «
ix
Contents
New England Baldwin belt . . . . .
The Champlain district bie
New Jersey . . . . . se
Delaware .
Shenandoah- Cumbetland district,
Piedmont district of Virginia
Minor regions in Pennsylvania, West Virginia ‘and
Virginia és je A. 4G
Mountain region of North Onreling :
Mountain region of Georgia
Ohio :
Southern Ohio Remo Beauty disiriet, Paar:
Minor regions in Ohio a> cota oer Ag
Kentucky . ; ge Bad AB ee CP oe
Michigan. . . . . 2. 1 se ee we
Illinois oe
Southern Wknois early apple resion :
Mississippi Valley region of Illinois
Southeastern Illinois . 2G
Ozark region . F
Missouri River region . .
Arkansas ia of Kansas
Colorado
New Mexico . ee ee ey ee ee ee
Utah. 2 2 ws ee Je le ee AS
Montana dg FBS Me, 2 . xB toy on oe
Washington
Yakima alice 4 a
Wenatchee North Central Washington district
Spokane district
Walla Walla district
Oregon ;
Hood Rives Valley
Rogue River Valley . . . .
Other apple districts in pores ‘
Idaho . j
Payette district:
Boise Valley
eo.
.
Contents xi
PAGES
Twin Falls . . . .. . 15
Lewiston section : iy 15
California st ca. 76-79
Watsonville distrivt ‘8 8 %6-77
- Sebastopol apple district . 78
Yucaipa section 78-79
Wisconsin 79-80
Minnesota ‘ 80
Early apple vesions Dents 80-84
New York and New England 81
New Jersey 81-82
Delaware. . 82
Southern and Middle ‘Atlantic tiated ; 83
East North Central states 83
Southern Illinois 83
California . . . . . .. « 83-84
CHAPTER III
CommerciaL APPLE Propuction iv CanapAa, AUSTRALIA
anp New ZEALAND . 85-99
Canada 85-95
Nova Scotia ; . 86-88
Prince Edward Island ‘and New “Brunswick . 88-89
Quebec 89
Ontario 90-92
British Columbia BW ok. 8 92-95
Australia and New Zealand . . . .. . . 95-99
CHAPTER IV
Looatrry ann Sire ror THE Commercian OrcHarp . . 100-132
Choosing the locality ue al ok - 100-132
Western New York .. . - 100-101
Hudson Valley . a4 - 101-102
Champlain district ae ~ 102-103
New England .. . ee 103
New Jersey-Delaware Peninsula BE ee a's 104
xii Contents —
PAGES
Shenandoah-Cumberland region . . . ~ 104-105
Piedmont region of Virginia . . . . ~ 105-106
Southern Ohio Rome Beauty section. . . 106
Western een wee ew ew we + 106-107
Tilinois . . pan Set, Beet Mik! St Se 8 a 107
Ozark region . . . oe ee ew ee 107-108
Missouri River resin ~ oe ew ew ee) 6 108-109
Western Slope of Colorado. . . .. . 109
Utah. . . . 2 oe ee eh) 109-110
Idaho wat we atl a i ae Se Oa Oe Se os, SLOSS
Washington. . . ..... . © © ALL-112
Montana Pe ee ee ee 112
Oregon . .~. «© «© «© «© «© «© © « « 142-113
California . . . . . . . . «© « « 113-115
New Mexico .~ gt get Santas be 115
Choosing the site for a = aise » oe « « ~ 116-182
Raw versus planted land. . .... . 116
Time to buy . . .. . .« «© © «© «© = 117
Syndicate projects. . . . . . . . «. 417-118
Yields and varieties . . . . .... 118
Proximity to market . . . . . . . . 118-119
Distance from shipping station. . . . . 119-120
Bearing age of trees. . . . . . . . 120-122
Diseases and insect pests. . . . . « « 122-123
Climatic influences . . . . . . « « 123-125
Size of farm . . . . . . s © Se 195-126
Necessary capital . . . . . . . . « 126-128
Labor conditions . . . . . . . © «© 128-129
Social conditions . . . . . .. .e . 129
Regional ae as: SR: teak: can tees “O28 130
Soil . .. Bo a he ae we Gp BO=1389
CHAPTER V
Tue Farm-ManaceMent Puases or AppLe-Growina . 133-143
Farm organization in relation to the orchard . . 183-140
Systems of tenantry . .. . .*. . . . 140-148
Contents
CHAPTER VI
EstaBLISHING THE APPLE ORCHARD .
Nursery stock
Systems of planting
Square system .
Hexagonal system .
Quincunx system
Planting distances .
Time to plant
Setting trees .
Heading trees a
Use of fillers and intemeropa é
CHAPTER VII
f
Cuutivation oF THE ORCHARD .
Clean cultivation
Sod- or grass-mulch
Clean cultivation with cover- crops :
Cover-crops
Value of cultivation and methods
Implements :
The tractor in oe epple grohard .
Truck . .
CHAPTER VIII
IRRIGATION . we
Choosing an ‘nrivated district .
Irrigating the orchard .
Quantity of water to supply .
Time to irrigate orchards .
Number of applications
Methods of irrigation
xiii
PAGES
. 144-154
. 145-147
. 147-150
. 148-149
. 149-150
150
. 150-151
151
151-152
. 152-153
. 153-154
. 155-171
. 156-157
. 157-158
. 159-160
. 160-162
. 162-165
165
~ 165-171
171
. 172-185
. 177-180
. 181-183
. 181-182
182
| 182-183
| 483-185
xiv Contents
a
CHAPTER IX
PAGES
FErtTILizINg THE COMMERCIAL APPLE OrncHARD . . . 186-205
Present practices in fertilizing . . . . . . 187-188.
Value of stable manure . ... . . . « 188-189
‘Experiments with fertilizers . . . . 189-198
Research work of Kraus and Kraybill . . . 189-191
Experiments in Pennsylvania . . . . . 191-195
Nitrate experiments by Lewis . . . . . 195-198
Amount of fertilizer toa tree. . . . . . ~- 198-199
Needs of irrigated regions. . . . . . . . 199-200
Nitrate of soda . . So cee cia 1 SP ey 200
Methods of applying Partilizera 2 oe ee) e) . 200-202
Pruning with reference to fertilizing . . . .. 202
Fertilizer tests . . . 202-203
General summary and specific veeimmendations . 204-205
CHAPTER X
Diseases AND Pests or THE APPLE AND THER Conrron 206-248
Important insect enemies of the apple. . . . 206-216
| Theeodlin-moth . ..... . . . 206-210
San José scale . . . . . we he) 20-211
Oyster-shell scale . . . 1. we eel 211
Apple aphids . . . . . . . . . ) . 211-218
\ Plum eureulio . . 2... we eee 213
‘Apple red bugs. . . iD fon Verh reic ott, 214
| Apple-tree tenteaatonpillar ees ae ee ee 214
Round-headed auplonyres borer . . . .) . 214-915
Cutworms . . Be He, de: OWN caer Onto 215
‘Bud-moth .. S Gh ch wa sa. GL oe 215
The fruit-tree leaf-roller oe ew ew ew ew 215-2916
Important apple diseases . . . . we. 216-223
Applescab . . . 2. 1. ww ee 216-217
Apple-blotch . A stele vats ey, Seo 217
Sooty-blotch. and Ay-speck Be: dé Gi a cs, 217
Cedar-rust . . et: oH: ak: ten, west, Op 218
_ Bitter-rot 2. 2 2. 2. . 1. ee 6 218-219
Contents
Blister-canker . . . . .
-Collar-rot oe qlee ee “#5
Fire-blight . . . . ..
Apple rosette . . . 1. 1.
Baldwin-spot
Animal pests of the apple .
Meadow mice
Pine mice
Control of mice ‘by. poisoning
Spraying . we Man ae oe
Cost of Sicacipe
Spray equipment
Hired sprayers . to
Regional spraying notes .
Dusting :
Insecticides ‘
For biting dsaats : 5
For sucking insects, contact epraya
Spreaders for the different insecticides .
Fungicides
CHAPTER XI
Frurr Serrive anp Po.iination
Causes for the failure to set fruit
Essentials for a good pollinizer
CHAPTER XII
Pruyine ann THINNING . 4
Types of training apple trees .
Natural form
Central leader sytem «
Open center, or vase-shape .
The double-headed type .
The modified leader tree .
General treatment of young trees
After first season i
XV
PAGES
« 219-220
. 220-221
. 221-222
. 222-223
223
. 223-226
. 223-224
« 224-225
. 225-226
« 226-235
. 228-230
. 280-232
. 232-2383
. 233-235
. 235-238
. 238-247
. 239-241
. 241-246
. 246-247
. 247-248
. 249-257
. 250-255
. 255-257
. 258-283
. 259-268
260
261
. 262-264
. 264-265
. 266-268
. 268-270
. 268-269
xvi Contents
PAGES
After second season . . - « 6 © 269
After third season. . . «+ 269-270
Vegetative, transitory and fraitaze stares . . « 270-276
Transition period . . . . - «. - +. 270-271
The fruiting period . . . . ... 271
Fruit-buds . . . woe ee ee 2T1-2'72
Changing system of proniny toe ew we QT2-274
Bearing trees. . 274-275
Distribution and establishment of fruiting
wood . . . . se ew ew ew ee 275-276
Time of pruning . . . . . . . « © « 276-277
Pruning tools . . . . . . - « « « « 277-278
Wound dressings . .. ... +6 « «© » 278
Thinning . . 2 ew ee 278-283
Time and method a ¢hinnine 2 ee ee 281-282
Cost of thinning . . . . . . 6. ee 283
CHAPTER XIII
Renovation of Otp OrcHaRDS . . . . «© «© « « 284-290
General treatment . . . . . . . « «© ~ 285-286
Pruning .,. . . . 2. © «© «© «© + «+ 286-288
Spraying . . Me Soh Gah. cao aap feed CPE eile «28 288
Soil Taneeene woe we ee ww we 289-290
CHAPTER XIV:
Hanpuing tHE Crop. . . we ee we ww Cw 291-812.
Picking . . - » © « 291-296
Contract mibkeae versus day labor eo Se CG 294
Picking utensils . . . . . . . « « 294-296
Packing . . . « . 296-312
Sorting and ‘packing harteled anoles - . « 296-302
Orchard packing . . . . 297-298
Packing-houses for beceeled, pauls . . 298-302
Handling the western box apple crop. . . 302-807
Orchard carriers . f 303
Sorting and packing the boxed apples . 803-305
Contents
xvii
PAGES
Packing-house arrangement and operation 305-307
Mechanical sizers
Community packing-houses .
Methods of operating community pack
ing-houses
Packing-house conntaieton.
Bulk shipments
CHAPTER XV
MARKETING AND STORAGE .
Selling on consignment
Selling to cash buyers . 3
The lump-sum cash buyer
Tree-run cash buyer Z
Cooperative methods of selling
. 807-808
. 808-312
. 809-310
. 310-312
312
- 313-338
. 3138-314
. 314-316
: 315
. 315-316
. 316-322
Form of organization for cobperative 4 associa-
tions
Pooling :
Purchase of scandens 3
Distribution . ir one
Commission-man . .
The broker .
Carlot operator .
Carlot distributor
Field of distribution
Foreign markets
Improved distribution within
States . °.
Physical Handling «
Grades and standards . .
Standard package .
Inspection at point of origin .
Storage
Local vs. distance storeee
Common storage
Handling and qultural methods ; as relating to
storage Pa ee
. 819-321
. 3821-322
: 822
. 822-3825
3 323
. 823-324
. 824-325
¢ 325
. 825-329 |
. oe ee 825-327
the United
2. «2 827-829
: 329
. 829-333
. 830-332
. 3832-333
. 338-336
. 884-335
. 335-336
336
Xviii Contents
Government agencies in marketing . . |
Crop estimates . '
Market and storage eenorte -
Codperative vs. individual effort. . .
CHAPTER XVI
SV IRUDS)= 200 MRS, tec Ce aye ak Gay Sig Ge: ee eae
CHAPTER XVII
By-Propucts oF THE APPLE INDUSTRY. . . «
Evaporators
Natural draft evaporators.
Forced draft evaporators . ‘
Distillation types of evaporators
Canning, jelly manufacturing
Cider and vinegar .
CHAPTER XVIII
Cost or Propuction .
Importance of yields
Influence of size of orchard .
Effect of size and type of farm
Effect of climate and soil on cost of production
Influence of varieties
Accessibility to market .
Cost of materials ‘
Labor and cost production .
Orchard maintenance ‘
Cost of pruning and bruh disvosal
Soil management of cee 2
Thinning
Harvesting costs
Conclusions
PAGES
. 336-338
337
| 387-838
338
339-347
. 348-356
- 350-355
. 850-352
- 852-354
354-355
355-356
356
. 357-386
. 361-364
. 364-366
. 366-369
. 369-370
. 870-371
372
372
. 373-3874
. 374-379
. 875-376
. 376-378
. 378-879
. 379-383
- 883-386
Contents xix
CHAPTER XIX
PAGES
VaRIETIES OF APPLES. . . . 1 ww ew ws 387-487
Summer varieties . . . . . 1. we ss 894-395
Late varieties . . 2. . 1. ww ew ew ws 895-426
- Baldwin. . . ... ..hehee”™”*é«*O;
Ben Davis . . ..... . ew ee 397
Winesap. . eof tt he 398
.. Rhode Island Greening * - oe ee we). 898-899
~ Jonathan... - 2 ee ele. 899-400
York Imperial . . . 1... ee 400
Rome . be cael. Sat, Gel tig! aa! VSS. Nat Jee. Us 401
~ Northern Spy RS es . . . 401-402
- Yellow Newtown (Alberta. Pippin) . . « 402-408
” Regus Spitzenburg Sn . . . 4038-404
Grimes Golden. . . . . . . © «. . 404405
Stayman foe & S s w # = =» & « 405-406
“Delicious. oe ew ee eee 406-407
Gano and Blagk Ben ee ee oe ee 407
Yellow Bellflower . . . . . . . . ~« 407-408
Russets . . woe ee ee ee) 408-410
Tompkins King : . . . 410-411
Arkansas rei Black Twig) « el eb) Aes 411
Wagener. : . 2... 411-412
Arkansas Black po lo we oe oe ak ae < LID EATS,
Willow Twig . 413
White Pearmain (White Winter Pearman: . 414
Red sae ape Ta NR ee GbE Ge 414
Yates ok ae ie ten we be het Be Oe cee 415
Stark . woe ee eee ee « 415-416
Hubberdston > mw ee et ee Ce ge Oe ee OT
Tolman Sweet . . . . - ee ee 417
“SWinter Banana . ....+-.s... 418
Missouri Pippin . . . . . . . . . 418-419
Northwestern Greening . . .... =: 419
Rambo ..... + + +s. « « + 419-420
Ortley . 2. . 2 ee ee ee pe + 420-421
Red Canada ......+.-s.e-s AQt
XX Contents
Monmouth . ......
Collins F
Pumpkin Sweet (Pound Swert) 3
Wolf River . Pa ee
Sutton. 2. 6 3 cos = Wow ww Ss
Ingram . . z
Black Gilliflower
SLady. .
Early and fall verintios
Oldenburg (Duchess) .
‘Wealthy . .
Yellow ‘Teavisparent
‘ Twenty Ounce .
Gravenstein
“McIntosh .
Maiden Blush (Lady Blak; Red Cheek) .
~ Fameuse (Snow) . . F
Williams acai Early Red, Williams
Favorite) . a. Taw sab SS Ms
Benoni
Bonum (Magnum Bonum)
Red Astrachan .
Early Ripe .
Alexander
Starr. .
Red June (Caroline Red J ‘ane Carolina jh mn,
Carolina Red) 5
Chenango (Chenango Strawberry) «
Fall Pippin .
Status of commercial vanetica
Age varieties begin to bear’ :
Relative productivity of varieties in full bearing .
Relative hardiness of commercial varieties .
Varieties in greatest demand .
Export varieties...
Varieties for the home orchards: .
INDEX
LIST OF PLATES
Pruate I.— Typical western New York scene. Full bearing
trees forty to fifty years of age. . . . . Frontispiece
FACING
4 ‘ 4 PAGE
Puate II.— Low-headed trees in a Virginia orchard . . 20
Pzate III.— A typical commercial apple orchard in the
Missouri Valley, Kansas. A fifteen-year-old Newtown
orchard near Medford, Oregon, in need of water. Red
Astrachan orchard in Delaware .. 38
Puate IV.— Looking across the floor of the wieinidhas Val
ley at Cashmere, Washington . . . “ é -e e B8
Puatt V.— View of the’ Hood River Valley fruit section . 70
Puate VI.— King apne growing in sain bias
Nova Scotia . . 88
Puate VIL— A young setpeted outa in the Bitter Root
Valley of Montana, showing the clean cultivation
formerly practiced in the Northwest. . . .. . . 108
Prare VIIL—Eight-foot disk in operation in the Rogue
River Valley, Oregon. suai harrow in use in
a northwest orchard . . . . : . 180
Piate IX.— Weeder in use in a Hood River ee
of float commonly used at Hood River after cultivation 152
Puatze X.— Irrigating five-year-old bapa trees in the
Yakima Valley ... . e 8 eo we ee OS
Priate XI.— Insect pests of the ats Oo add oa BS. Gr. SO
Puate XII.—San José scale . . . we we we 208
Piate XIII.— Insect enemies of the an oo Bae ee 220
xxi
xxii List of Plates
\ ' FAOING
PAGE
Puate XIV.— The woolly aphis . . ... =... ~~ 284
Puate XV.— The tent caterpillar. Rosy apple aphis - . 246
Piate XVI.— Diseases of the apple. . . . . 260
Puatze XVII.— This tree has produced as high as 20 im
rels of fine fruit in one season and averages about 10
barrels a year. . . . O14
PLatE ol eae etied < of poking practiced in
Virginia rar . 292
Puate XIX.— Packing the fruit We ie A Oe Ode ee ey B06
Piatre XX.— Sizing and grading machines . . . . . 826
Pirate XXI— A Baldwin tree near Paonia, Colorado . . 346
Puate XXII.— A typical yellow Newtown orchard in the
Watsonville, California, district . . . - . 368
Puate XXTIT.— ssi oes or in the
Northwest . . . . 890
Puate XXIV.—A Nebraska orchard of Missouri issn
trees. . ‘ ae ee - . « 418
THE COMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY
OF NORTH AMERICA
CHAPTER I
IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY OF THE APPLE
INDUSTRY
/
Tue object of this work is to deal particularly with
the commercial phases of the apple-growing industry with
reference to: (1) Distribution of important commercial
plantings under which heading will be discussed the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of various regions; (2) eco-
nomic problems such as cost of production and marketing;
(3) scientific cultural methods.
In presenting the subject, attention is first given to
the geography of commercial apple-growing in the United
States and competing foreign countries. It is important
to know not only where commercial apples are grown but
also the cultural methods employed in different regions.
The wide distribution of apple plantings in the United
States and the extreme variation in the character of the
orchards makes it difficult for one to determine the rela-
tive importance of any region, much less to have a definite
conception of the conditions which prevail in remote dis-
tricts.
Few agricultural enterprises have experienced the
vicissitudes which seem inherent in the fruit-growing in-
1
2 The Commercial Apple Industry
dustry. No small factor in bringing about the changing
fortunes of the apple-growers has been a lack of definite
information regarding the status of the industry in com-
peting regions Temporary high prices determined in a
large measure the rate of planting in most sections.
Census figures giving agricultural, but not commercial,
production of apples, have been used in forecasting cycles
of either over- or under-planting. In census figures
no line was drawn between commercial and agricultural
production. Many times when the agricultural produc-
tion was decreasing, the commercial production, or that
portion of the crop which reaches the market and affects
prices, was actually increasing, in some instances very
materially. A sharp line must, therefore, be drawn be-
tween commercial and non-commercial production if we
are to make a correct analysis of the industry and view
the future in the proper light.
It has been only within comparatively recent years that
commercial apple-growing in the United States has ex-
perienced such a very noticeable change from what might
be termed a local, home orchard or semi-commercial enter-
prise into a highly specialized and scientific industry of.
national proportions, centralized in certain favored local-
ities, involving intensive and technical methods of culture,
and necessitating very complex and intricate methods of
distribution and marketing. In other words, the apple
crop has been taken from the list of general farm products
and has been placed among the foremost specialized crops.
In 1919 the apple crop of the United States was valued
at $275,463,000. It ordinarily ranks about ninth in the
list of farm crops, being exceeded in total value only by
wheat, oats, cotton, corn, potatoes, barley, hay and tobacco.
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 3
Some’ idea of the relative importance of the apple crop
may be obtained by a study of the following table:
TaBLe I.— Estimatep Vatue or Important Crops oF THE
Unrrep Srares, Basep on Five-Year Average 1914-1918
CORD) i ca gui sane ae Beso incad oes $2,634,804,000
OUENS. sock acd auny vemeleuce 1,198,737,000
EGS 5 oiptseludac cs eee ste 1,132,276,000
OURO desi ose Gkieas wale 1,097,039,000
Oats) sco 5 sg ibe boka dreieanet aoecsad.c 4 773,752,000
Potatoes: a cise isdeed.es 80 342s 372,239,000
PODRECO 3 Ses quaide Vs «ek BE Ries 208,426,000
APPles) ieeog Haste ecer>awad 184,774,000
DECLINE OF FARM ORCHARDS
At present commercial apples can be grown successfully
only when scientific and intensive cultural methods are
employed. The farmer can no longer give his orchard in-
different care and expect to compete with the commercial
grower. With the advent of new districts, competition
has necessitated the adoption of improved methods mark-
ing the decline of the farm orchard and the corresponding
rise in importance of specialized commercial plantings.
About 1850, apple-growing began to assume important
commercial proportions, but for many years the farm
orchards remained an important factor. The demand for
apples in the towns and cities was at first supplied from
the farm orchards in adjacent territory. No great effort
was made to locate distant markets and in years of heavy
production most of the crops would remain on the farm.
About 1860 certain highly productive sections of western
New York demonstrated their superiority in producing
high quality fruit and this fruit outsold that from other
districts. These inherent advantages overcame the dis-
4 The Commercial Apple Industry.
tance from market so that the center of commercial apple -
production was established and has remained in western
New York. (See Plate 1.)
Despite the rapid centralization of commercial plantings
in more favored regions, the apple is adapted to a wide,
variation of soil and climatic conditions, and is widely cul-
tivated throughout the United States. A great many
farms produce a few more apples than are needed at home.
Many of these go to waste, but sometimes the surplus is
pressed into cider, used for other by-products, or in some
quantity finds its way into commercial channels during the
years when prices warrant. Just how great a part the
last factor plays in the commercial apple industry is diffi-
cult to determine, but obviously in the aggregate it is of
no little importance. Particularly is this true throughout
such states as Iowa, Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania where
apples from farm orchards are hauled to nearby towns and
supply the market. which might otherwise exist for the |
so-called “ strictly” commercial crop. The line of dis- ~
tinction between commercial and non-commercial produc-
tion is being more and more closely drawn, however, so
that the strictly commercial crop stands out in sharp con-
trast. a ae
Practically speaking, ‘the spraying operation gives rise
to one of the first sharp distinctions between commercial
and non-commercial orchards. Insect pests and diseases
have exacted a heavy toll from unsprayed orchards and
to-day thousands of acres of farm orchards, especially east
of the Mississippi River and in such states as Pennsyl- -
vania, Ohio and Kentucky are slowly dying out. When
it is known that more than 90 per cent of the orchards in
some states have never been sprayed, the wide disparage-
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 5
TaBLe IT.— AveraGE CoMMERCIAL AND AVERAGE ToTAL Propuc-
TION oF APPLES IN UNITED States For Four YrEars.
(1916-1919)
|
‘ Percentage of
Commercial
\ state Maree] Tee Grow | teal ep
vs ° commercial
1. Washington . 5,062,000 | ( 2)1 6,431,000 78
2. New York 4,132,000 | ( 1) 9,106,000 45
3. Virginia 1,785,000 | ( 4) 3,758,000 45
4. California 1,246,000 | ( 6) 2,435,000 51
5. Michigan 1,133,000 4 ( 5) 2,531,000. 44
6. Illinois 1,045,000 | (10) 1,731,000 60
7. Pennsylvania 988,000 | ( 3) 4,526,000 22
8. Missouri : 916,000 | ( 8) 2,008,000 46
9. West ¥irginia . 892,000 | ( 9) 1,784,000 50
10. Oregon 886,000 | (11) 1,480,000 62
11. Colorado . 683,000 | (21) 851,000 80
12. Ohio 629,000 | ( 7) ° 2,014,000 31
13. Idaho 589,000 | (20) 844,000 70
14. Kansas ‘: 500,000 | (25) 705,000 71
15. New Jersey . 493,000 | (23) 757,000 65
16. Arkansas 476,000 | (22) 809,000 59
17. Maine . . 441,000 | (12) 1,334,000 33
18. Massachusetts 307,000 | (17) 940,000 33
19. Indiana 304,000 | (16) 974,000 31
20. Maryland 279,000 | (24) 757,000 35
21, Vermont . . 207,000 | (26) 588,000 35
22. North Carolina 186,000 | (18) 1,232,000 15
23. Towa 182,000 | (18) 897,000 22
24. Delaware . 169,000 | (36) 224,000 75
25. Nebraska 164,000 | (32) 398,000 44
26. Tennessee 161,000 | (15) 1,173,000 14
27. New Hampshire 157,000 | (29) 441,000 36
28. New Mexico 156,000 | (35) 298,000 52
29. Utah : 123,000 | (37) 214,000 58
30. Connecticut . 117,000 | (28) 446,000 23
31. Wisconsin 117,000 | (19) 883,000 13
32. Kentucky 115,000 | (14) 1,208,000 10
33. Georgia 101,000 | (27) 474,000 21
34. Montana . 86,000 | (34) 324,000 27
35. Minnesota 51,000 | (30) 423,000 12
36. Oklahoma 35,000 | (33) 344,000 10,
37. Texas .. 24,000 | (38) 144,000 17
38. Rhode Island 22,000 | (40) ' 78,000 28
39. Alabama 20,000 | (31) 404,000 5
40. Arizona 16,000 | (41) 46,000 35
41. South Dakota 4,000 | (30) 105,000 4
U. S. 25,001,000 56,502,000 44
duction.
1 Figures in parentheses rank states in order of importance in total pro-
6 The Commercial Apple Industry
ment between the agricultural and the commercial crop is
not surprising.
Table II shows the average agricultural and commer-
cial apple prqduction in the different states for the period
1916-1919 inclusive. It will be seen that of an average
total production of approximately 56,000,000 barrels, only © ~
25,000,000 are commercial. In other Sronds, about 44
per cent of the total production during this period reached
commercial channels.
Apples used for by-products are not included in the com-
mercial crop. Allowing for this factor, it would still ap-
pear that from 40 to 45 per cent of our total apple crop
is either consumed in the county where grown or goes to
waste.
CENTRALIZED PLANTINGS IN FAVORED REGIONS
The centralization of commercial plantings in favored
regions has been an interesting process. The most notable
feature in the development of the apple industry has been
the rapidly increasing commercial crop from western
states, particularly Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Calli-
fornia and Colorado. Twenty years ago commercial pro-
duction in these states, with the exception of California,
was practically negligible. To-day over 40 per cent of
the commercial apple crop of the United States is grown
in the Far West and at no distant date western production
may represent one-half of this total. Although far from
the centers of population and markets, millions of dollars
have been expended in the development of apple orchards
in the irrigated valleys of far western states. Heavy
yields and fine market quality have combined to over-
come the disadvantages of long shipments to market.
Importance and History of the Apple Industry v4
Along with the development of the commercial apple
industry there has been built up, and particularly in
recent years, extensive machinery for the handling, dis-
tributing and marketing of apples. Sectional lines have
been broken down and this product has become distinctly
a national and even international commodity of exchange.
Thousands of cars of this fruit move across the entire
continent and large cargoes are exported to Europe, Aus-
tralia and South America. New and interesting relations
between the producer and consumer have been established
in an intricate system of marketing. Competition in the
production of high quality fruit has worked great changes
in cultural methods. Scientific investigation has thrown
light on many phases of the industry, all of which will
require separate treatment.
OUTLOOK FOR THE APPLE INDUSTRY
Apple production does not respond quickly to supply
and demand, and for this reason there tends to be less
stability in the matter of prices than with other products.
It requires several years for trees to come into full bearing,
and over-production as the result of excessive planting is
not felt for a considerable period. If the production of
potatoes, wheat or oats exceeds the demand, the land can
be put in other crops. But when it has required ten or
fifteen years, and much expense, to bring an apple or-
chard to bearing, the owner is loath to pull out his trees
and will usually wait several years in the hope that price
and production will become adjusted.
The history of apple production in the United States
has run in cycles. In the middle of the past century,
when apples first began to be grown commercially, prices
8 The Commercial Apple Industry
were good. During the decade 1865 to 1875, prices con-
tinued high, and during the period 1850 to 1875 over half
of the present bearing orchards in western New York
were set. Over-production began to be felt in about 1880.
From this time on commercial production increased and
prices fell until 1896, when the 76,000,000 barrel crop
(agricultural) was grown and the industry reached low
price ebb.
From 1890 to 1896 many growers pulled out their trees,
confident that the good prices would never return. Very
little planting was undertaken in this period. In about
fifteen years prices began to climb back until the crest of
another wave was reached between 1907 and 1911. As
prices improved, beginning in 1900 and continuing up
until 1908-9, there occurred another heavy planting pe-
riod which assumed the proportions of a boom in many
western states. It was during this period that most of
the acreage in such box-apple sections as Yakima, Wen-
atchee, Hood River, southern Idaho and Colorado, which
in 1919 produced nearly half of the commercial apples
in the United States, was set. Five consecutive failures
in the Ozark, Missouri, crop, from frost-injury, contributed
to this inflation by creating a strong demand for northwest
fruit in a territory ordinarily supplied.
The productiveness of such valleys as the Yakima and
Wenatchee in Washington was phenomenal. Trees were
young and free from disease, the yields on bearing
trees were unusual and the returns to the acre were far
greater than had been thought possible from any com-
mercial orchard. Gross sales sometimes exceeded $2,000
an acre and in some instances orchards sold for as high as
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 9
$3,500 an acre. The price for raw land reached $500
to $1,000 an acre. A reaction in prices followed this
period of heavy planting and the country is just now
recovering from the effects of the boom.
While once suffering from inflation, such districts as
Yakima, Hood River, Wenatchee and other well known
valleys have been and will remain as centers of production.
Unfortunately, however, a large acreage of land unsuited
to commercial production was set to trees and exploited
as apple land, with disastrous results to investors.
Projects including thousands of acres of land were laid
out and planted to trees in some states only to fall into
entire neglect. Thus far there has never been any con-
certed movement toward actually pulling out trees. How-
ever, to the same effect, many trees receive little or in-
different care and never attain full commercial bearing.
This is the principle which tends to limit production.
Growers slip behind, omit cultivation and spraying and
other necessary cultural operations, with the result that
their orchards will not produce commercial fruit. It is
for this reason that census figures, giving mere number of
trees, are very often misleading and need careful analysis
without which the industry may be led into periods of
over- and under-planting.
Favorable factors.
It is often asked by those who contemplate setting an
apple orchard whether it will be a good business proposi-
tion or whether there will be over-production in the years
to come. A definite reply is impossible. However, a
careful study of these points, in the light of present facts
10 The Commercial Apple Industry’
and conditions, leads to certain probabilities.. The fol-
lowing factors are favorable to the future of the apple
industry.
1. Increase in population.
The first point to be considered is the probable increase
or decrease in consumption. There may be periods of
very heavy planting, but if population and demand in-
crease proportionately, an equilibrium is maintained.
Obviously the most favorable factor in the outlook is the
rapid normal increase in the population of the United
States. If the same rate of increase continues, in 1930
there will be 130,000,000 people, while in 1940, when
many of the apple orchards not yet in bearing will reach
their highest productivity, there will be 165,000,000 peo-
ple. If the same rate of increase continues until 1950,
there will be 210,000,000. Rate of increase in population
depends, of course, on a number of factors. ,
2. Movement to the city.
The important factor in the increase in population is
that there is a constantly increasing percentage living in
cities and towns. For example, in 1790 96 per cent of
the inhabitants lived on farms and only 4 per cent lived
in towns and did not raise the food they consumed; in
1860 84 per cent lived on farms and 16 per cent in.
towns; in 1880 44 per cent on farms and 56 per cent in
towns; in 1900 35 per cent on farms and 65 per cent in
towns and in 1910 30 per cent on farms and 70 per cent
in towns. The drift towards the city is distinctly in the
orchardist’s favor. In fact, this would seem to be the
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 11
most favorable of all factors in the outlook of the apple
industry and a potent influence against over-production.
3. Development of foreign market.
In past, years varying quantities, seldom exceeding two
million barrels of the best apples, were exported annually.
There are great possibilities in the export trade, not only
in those countries which at the present time consume large
quantities of American apples, but also in undeveloped
foreign markets. South America is as yet a market
largely undeveloped.
At present, the United States produces the larger part
of the world’s commercial apple crop. Most of this is
consumed at home. In addition, foreign fruit is im-
ported to the value of hundreds of millions of dollars
from countries which do not consume apples except in a
very limited quantity. The apple is one of the least
perishable and at the same time one of the most popular
fruits, once a demand is stimulated. At present Eng-
land is the leading export market. Other north European
countries consume American apples in lesser quantities.
When it is considered that in the face of an abundance of
other fresh fruits and food stuffs the people of the United
States consume over 20,000,000 barrels of commercial
apples and export only about 2,000,000 barrels annually,
‘the possibilities of export can be more fully appreciated,
particularly as the European countries with their millions
of population produce commercial apples only in limited
quantities. It must be remembered, however, that by the
time a package of high-grade apples reaches the European
market, the price is out of the reach of such classes as in
this country consume much of our own commercial crop.
12 ; The Commercial Apple Industry
4. Education and advertising.
_ There is no doubt that consumption of high-grade fruit
has been greatly stimulated in recent years by judicious
advertising. This is particularly true of the northwest
apples. Advertising and educational campaigns will con-
tinue to increase consumption. The improved quality of
commercial apples is unquestionably stimulating the de-
mand for this fruit among all-classes. The fruit-stand
has played no small part in creating this demand by dis-
playing and familiarizing the people of the cities with
the superb quality of certain high-grade brands and va-
rieties of apples. A large portion of the northwest boxed
apple crop is retailed an apple at a time. As the con-
suming public becomes more and more familiar with
high quality apples, the demand for this fruit becomes
more and more pronounced.
5. Transportation. -
The success of commercial apple-growing in various
regions is greatly affected by transportation and railroad
facilities. Some of the more southern districts, for ex-
ample, have poor transportation facilities and orchards
are very often located in hilly sections where hauling the
fruit to the shipping point represents one of the principal
costs of production. With improved roads and shipping
facilities, distance from market and inaccessibility will
be largely overcome.
6. Distribution.
With the improved storage facilities and the progress
already made in distribution, it is not surprising that the
domestic markets have been able to absorb the increasing
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 13
commercial apple crop. Should the apple-grower be able
to duplicate even in part the distributing methods used
in the citrus industry, it becomes apparent that he might
share in the increased demand for high-grade fruit. The
sale of oranges has inereased in recent years more rap-
idly than population. Many potential consuming centers
are represented in towns which can no longer depend on
good apples from nearby farms, but are as yet scarcely
touched by the present system of distribution. These
will eventually be supplied and will absorb a large amount
of high-grade fruit, ever though at the present time a
demand for such a product seems relatively slight.
Storage facilities now established in all large consuming
centers have played a most important part in developing:
city trade. The extension of storage facilities and better
methods of distribution represent one of the favorable
factors in the outlook for the commercial apple industry.
7. Improved cultural methods.
There has been a great improvement in every phase of
orchard management. Improved methods of spraying,.
pruning, cultivating, and the like have made possible the
production of high-grade fruit. Orchard management
has probably reached its highest development in the
Northwest. Careful orchard management is expensive,
but there is compensation in increased yield, which is the
big factor in reducing cost production a unit. The com-
mercial grower has been able to produce high-grade fruit
economically, sell it at good prices and outstrip his more
careless neighbor or the producer of inferior apples. In
other words, keen competition is forcing the home or-
chard and semi-commercial fruit off the market,
/
14 The Commercial Apple Industry
8. Increase in the use of by-products. ;
One of the most favorable factors in the outlook of
apple production is the increasing importance and use of
apple by-products. It is only in recent years that the
canned apple industry assumed great importance. Dried
apples are more in demand than before. With the advent
of prohibition, the demand for apple juice products is
increasing greatly. Jellies, apple-butter and similar prod-
ucts are being manufactured in increasing quantities.
The apples required in the manufacture of these by-
products will remove from the market much of the low-
grade fruit. Enormous by-product plants have been built
in the heart of the Shenandoah-Cumberland region of the
Middle Atlantic states, in western New York, in the Ya-
kima and Wenatchee valleys of Washington and in fact in
all important apple regions. Numerous breweries and dis-
tilleries have been converted into plants for the production
of apple by-products.
9. Future production.
It is important to note, in connection with possible
future production, that there has been little concerted ap-
ple planting in any part of the United States since 1910.
This lack of planting can not fail to have effect on the
production of the next two decades. In speculating on
future production, one instinctively turns to New York
State, which until very recently was credited with one-
fourth of the normal commercial apple production of the
United States. In the Hudson Valley are many new or-
chards which will increase materially the production from
this region. However, in western New York, which is
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 15
responsible for the bulk of New York apple production,
the average bearing orchard is over forty years of age.
Although they have had a remarkable record for longevity,
production can not be maintained indefinitely on these
old orchards which were for the most part planted in the
sixties and seventies of the preceding century. Therefore,
unless planting proceeds much more rapidly than in the
past, no increase and in fact a possible decrease in pro-
duction can be expected from western New York.
New England apple orchards have been going back
rapidly the past several years. As a matter of fact, no-
where in the eastern states with the exception of the Shen-
andoah-Cumberland region, in New Jersey and Delaware,
does there seem likely to be any material increase in
production. It is a notable fact that a great decrease has
occurred in. the number of apple trees all through the
Middle West and although a revival of interest is serving
to hold production at its present point, it does not seem
that on the whole this section of the United States will
show an increased apple production in the near future.
The Pacific Northwest will unquestionably show an
increased production during the next several years and
will be an increasingly important factor in the commercial
apple situation. While the Northwest will continue to
ship more and more cars of apples, there will be no such
relative increase in production as that which occurred in
the past ten years.
Unfavorable factors.
To mistake hopes for facts in the determination to
see only the favorable side, regardless of true conditions,
has been too frequent. Production in the western
16 The Commercial Apple Industry
states has not’ yet reached its maximum. Twenty-six
per cent of the new planting in the decade 1900 to 1910
was in the Pacific Northwest. This region will have a
normal increase in production of high quality fruit. It is,
to a great extent, commercial, and most of it will reach
eastern markets. This will unquestionably be the biggest
factor in the apple problem. Even to-day the average ap-
plegrower does not seem to appreciate the importance of
the western crop which has grown so rapidly that it has
been difficult to keep fully informed as to the normal size.
¥ . U
1. Increased commercial crop.
It is very evident that there has been an increase in the
strictly commercial apple crop of the United States, census
figures to the contrary notwithstanding. It is important
to be on guard against statistics and figures showing de
creases in acreage. The fraction of the crop which reaches
commercial channels is of the greatest importance. Ordi-
narily the commercial crop is estimated at approximately
40 per cent of the total production. Commercial apples
are defined to include only that portion of the crop which
reaches strictly commercial channels. All fruit left or
eaten on the farm, wasted or used for by-products, was not
considered as commercial. The agricultural crop may de-
crease, but if there is a greater portion of it directed into
commercial channels, the decrease may be more than offset
by the increasing commercial crop. In many sections the
commercial crop is and has been increasing rapidly during
the past few years. |
Even with the expected increase in population and the
better distribution discussed as favorable factors, years
are likely to occur when bumper crops will cause prices to
é Importance and History of the Apple Industry 1%
fall as low as the cost of production. However, unless
there is a decided tendency towards new planting, it seems
improbable that these years will be successive or very fre
quent. There should always be a margin of safety and
these lean years should be considered by prospective apple-
growers.
2. Poor outlook for unfavored region.
One of the principal factors in lowering cost of produc-
tion is increased yields. In other words, high yielding sec-
tions have a distinct advantage and sometimes increased
cost of production actually reacts in their favor by elim-
inating less favored regions, and thereby limiting competi-
tion. The great increase in the cost of labor and material
has made it necessary to receive a price for fruit consider-
ably in advance of that required formerly to pay the costs
and leave a profit. Many sections can overcome these in-
creased costs by increasing yields and better management.
Less favored districts in so-called marginal regions will be
the first to suffer. The grower who has good yields and
manages well will ordinarily be successful.
3. Danger from boom development.
During a period of high prices for fruit, there will al-
ways be danger of land-selling booms. Promoters will buy
up large tracts of land, set them to trees and then en-
deavor to unload on unsuspecting city men and farmers
not familiar with fruit-growing. Needless to say, the
growth of the industry by such methods is unhealthy and
honest and intelligent growers and horticulturists should
combat such efforts with merciless publicity. This is not
18 The Commercial Apple Industry
intended to discourage legitimate investments. Well se
lected farms have been known to pay for themselves in a
year. Syndicate farming schemes, however, are always
questionable. They sound well, but they seldom work out.
Attempts of this kind were numerous a few years ago, were
largely discontinued for a time, but may revive following
high price years. After a few years of inactivity, “ pro-
moters ” will appear to prey on a new class of investors.
Careful investigation on the part of investors should enable
them to determine which orchards were set to produce fruit
and which were set for speculation. By curbing this spec-
ulative influence, a long step will be taken towards pre-
venting over-planting.
Among the favorable factors mentioned in the forego-
ing paragraphs are the extension of foreign markets and
the increase in exportations to meet this demand. In pass-
ing, one should not fail to note that in a certain part of the
world there are being developed important apple-produc-
ing regions. Notable among these is Tasmania, which has
produced as many as 2,000,000 cases of commercial ap-
ples and exported as many as 800,000 cases (bushels) to
England in one year. Canada will be an increasingly im-
portant factor in the apple industry. Many lotalities are
suitable for apple-growing in this country and new regions
are constantly being developed.
4, Competition with citrus fruit.
In discussing the outlook for the apple industry, some
consideration must be given to its relative status in com-
parison with the rapidly growing citrus fruit industry.
In 1896, when one of the largest apple crops in the his-
tory of the industry was harvested, citrus fruit-growing in
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 19
the United States was comparatively in its infancy. Since
1896, citrus production has doubled and trebled: in size
until during the year 1917 approximately 100,000 carloads
of citrus’ fruits were produced and sold in the United
States. Of these, 54,000 carloads were grown in Cali-
fornia alone; the remainder largely in Florida. It is dif-
ficult definitely to establish the significance of this growth
in relation to the apple industry. In the first place, cit-
rus fruits can be grown only within comparatively small
areas and their production is thereby limited. Citrus-
growers have perfected a better system of distribution and
have placed their products in a greater number of markets.
This competition may check apple consumption, but on the .
whole, it seems to indicate that the possibilities of apple
distribution have not been as well recognized as they might
have been. Citrus production has increased much more
rapidly than population and yet distributing agencies have
sought out markets, stimulated demand and have disposed
of their vastly increased product in most instances at a
profit.
Conclusions.
On the whole, although our commercial apple produc-
tion may increase perceptibly in the next few years, due
principally to increased production from such regions as
the Pacific Northwest and the Shenandoah-Cumberland,
there will be no such relative increases as in the period
from 1905 to 1920.
The population is increasing, with a resulting demand
for more fruit. The extension of foreign markets, better
means of distribution and wider uses of the apple, com-
bine in giving a promising outlook for the apple industry.
20 The Commercial Apple Industry
There seems no reason to believe that over a period of |: «
years, taking the good with the bad, apples will make any
materially better returns than many other farm crops;
yet apple-growing is a specialized industry and will always
afford exceptional opportunity for individual effort.
HISTORY OF COMMERCIAL APPLE-GROWING IN THE
UNITED STATES
The cultivated apple comes to us from prehistoric time.
While several species of native crab-apples were growing
wild in the forests at the time of the discovery of this
country, these species have never attained commercial im-
portance. Practically all the commercial varieties are , ,
from the Pyrus Malus stock, which is a native of southwest
Asia and adjacent Europe ‘and which has been cultivated
since time immemorial. Crab-apples came chiefly from
Pyrus baccata, or Siberian crab, which comes from the
more northern and eastern parts of Asia.
At present the apple is the most widely cultivated and
important fruit in existence, being grown in practically
every country and in every climate. It has reached its
greatest cultural development in the United States, which
is the principal apple-producing country in the world.
It is interesting to know that apple-culture in this coun-
try developed almost simultaneously with the settling of
the early colonies. Early records show that apple trees
were being grown in New England within a few years after
the founding of the Plymouth colony. In 1648 Governor
Endicott exchanged with Wm. Trask 500 apple trees of.
three years’ growth for 200 acres of land. Other frag-.
mentary information taken from the history of the New
England settlements indicates that apples were being
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Importance and History of the Apple Industry 21
grown in that region as early as 1650, and that numerous
plantings there and elsewhere had been made by 1700.
Among the early varieties mentioned were Pearmain, Rus-
setin, Long Apple and Kreton Pippins.
The two leading apple regions in New York State, the
Hudson Valley and western New York or Lake Shore
region, were recognized in the early development of the
apple industry in New York. It appears in the early
history of the Dutch settlements in the Hudson Valley that
apple trees were planted near Kinderhook not long after
1700. Plantings also occurred in Long Island at about
the same date.
Pioneers report apple plantings in western New York as
early as 1750. It must be remembered that this region
was in a much more primitive state of development at this
time than the New England and Hudson Valley sections.
Legendary history suggests that apple seeds preceded the
progress of civilization into western New York and, falling
into the hands of Indian tribes, notably the Senecas and
Cayugas, were scattered throughout this part of the state.
General Sullivan is reported to have found bearing apple
trees laden with fruit near Seneca Lake as early as 1779.
It must not be thought that these early plantings were of
commercial importance. They were isolated, small in ex-
tent, but nevertheless represented interesting landmarks in
the development of apple-culture in this country. Com-
mercial applegrowing in New York really dates back to
about 1860. Prior to this time A. J. Downing, who was
born in 1802 and later conducted a nursery at Newburgh,
had been a very important and influencing factor in the
development of the apple industry in the Hudson Valley
region, A. J. Downing died in 1852 after having pub-
22 The Commercial Apple Industry
lished in 1845 his “ Fruits and Fruit Trees of America.”
Charles Downing, his brother, remained a leading author-
ity on apple varieties and apple-growing until 1885.
In 1840 George Ellwanger and Patrick Barry started
the Mt. Hope nurseries at Rochester, New York. Barry
was one of the pioneers in the apple industry and had much
to do in making western New York the leading nursery
and apple-growing region.
Jonathan Chapman, or Johnny Appleseed, the name by
which he was more commonly known, had much to do with
the spread of the apple westward from New York. Chap-
man was an eccentric character. It seems that he spent
much of the first half of the nineteenth century in roaming
through Ohio and Indiana, at that time a wild undeveloped
country. By carrying apple seeds about with him and
sowing them broadcast, he effected a wide extension in
apple plantings throughout this region. Being of an in-
tense religious nature, his life and activities have a roman-
tie interest which have been the subject of much writing.
His descendants are actively interested apple-growers in
southern Ohio to-day.
From the standpoint of historic interest, few regions ex-
cel the Piedmont of Virginia. Although the Newtown ap-
ple originated on Long Island, it was later introduced into
Albemarle County, Virginia, early in the eighteenth cen-
tury and has been prominently identified with the develop-
ment of the apple industry in this region, under the name
of Albemarle Pippin. Albemarle Pippins were exported.
to England from Virginia as early as 1759. Thomas Jef-
ferson was cultivating this variety at Monticello, his coun-
try place in Virginia, before the Revolution. It has been
authentically stated that so pleased was Queen Victoria
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 23
with several barrels of Virginia Albemarle Pippins pre-
sented to her during the first year of her reign by the late
Arthur Stevenson, American minister to England, that she
caused the import tax on apples to be removed. Since that
time apple exportations to England have rapidly increased.
While certain species of wild crabs are native to the
prairie states and doubtless isolated plantings occurred in
this region prior to the Civil War, it was after 1860, at
the time of the influx of many early pioneers, that apple
trees were brought into the country west of the Mississippi
River. ‘The apple industry in this section did not begin to
assume commercial importance until the eighties and the
decade following. It was at this time that many of the
older orchards were planted in the Ozarks, Missouri River
region and southern Ilinois. Good prices for apples in
the late eighties stimulated planting and it was during the
nineties that the heavy commercial apple plantings were
made in the Middle West.
The rapidly increasing’ importance of the western apple
regions attracts considerable attention to the history and
development of apple culture of the Far West. Probably
the first apple trees on the Pacific Coast were grown at
Fort Vancouver, Washington, where employees of the
Hudson Bay Company are reported to havd planted seeds,
carried from England, as early in 1825.
The Pajaro Valley or Watsonville section of California
is the oldest commercial apple region in the Far West.
The agricultural history of this region dates back to about
1820 when Don Antonia Maria Castro applied ‘to the gov-
ernment of Spain for a grant of land along the Pajaro
River, which he called Vega del Rio del Pajaro. Several
large land grants were given to the Spanish Dons during
\
24 The Commercial Apple Industry
the next twenty years, but all were used for stock-
raising. ;
In 1858 the first apple orchard planted by an American
in this region was set out on the Jesse D, Carr place, now
the Sillman homestead. This orchard was about two acres
in extent and contained a mixture of fruit. Some of
- these trees are still in bearing. The second apple orchard
in the Pajaro Valley was planted by Wm. F. White in
1854. These first two plantings were home orchards.
The first commercial orchards in the Pajaro Valley were
set out by Isaac Williams and Judge R. F. Peckman in
1858. One planted thirteen acres and the other six acres.
The early varieties‘grown were Smith’s Cider, Rhode Is-
land Greening, Gravenstein, Newtown Pippin and Belle-
flower. The first shipment of apples from the Pajaro Val:
ley was made in 1867 by Isaac Williams who sold his fruit
in San Francisco. Increased demand for fruit stimulated
apple planting and a large number of the present orchards
were set out in the period between 1880 and 1900.
The output of the Watsonville section was assuming
commercial proportions many years before such sections as
the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys in the Northwest had
come into prominence.
It is generally thought that the oldest apple orchards in
the Yakima Valley were planted about 1875 to 1876.
Near Fort Simcoe, twenty-seven miles south of North
Yakima, stands an orchard planted by an Indian, Klickitat
Peter, in 1877. This is probably the oldest apple planting
in what was later destined to become one of the premier
apple-growing regions.
In 1888 there were a few family orchards in the Yakima
district, but probably the first commercial planting of
rrr
J
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 25
fruit-trees in Yakima was made in 1888 by H. J. Bicknell,
in what is known as Parker Bottom. In the spring of
1889, Fred Thompson set out in the same locality what was
probably the first commercial apple orchard in the valley.
The whole planting consisted of ten acres and included
three acres of prunes, three acres of peaches, three acres
of Ben Davis apples and one acre of pears.
In 1888 and 1889 two irrigation companies, one to un-
dertake the Selah project and the other what is now the
Sunnyside Government project, were organized. At this
time a few express shipments of fresh fruit had been sent
to the coast from the small home orchards.
In 1894 the total apple output shipped from the Yakima
Valley probably did not exceed twenty-five cars. Fruit
was layer packed, but not wrapped, the old sixty-pound
box being in common use. In 1896 ‘Fred Thompson
shipped from the Yakima Valley what was probably the
first car of fruit from this region to be sold east of the
Mississippi River. It was in 1894 that the apple planting
period really began, and the most extensive plantings were
made in the years 1900 to 1908.
The history and development of the Wenatchee Valley,
which is probably the most intensive apple region in the
country, was even more recent than the development of
the Yakima Valley. The date of the first apple plantings
in Wenatchee is given by some as 1873, others 1876. The
first fruit-trees were set out by Miller Brothers who later
established the first irrigating ditch in this region in 1883.
Practically the entire Wenatchee Valley was a barren
waste until 1896 when the Gunn ditch was built to water
600 acres of land. In 1901 W. T. Clark, coming from
North Yakima, interested himself in the organization of
26 The Commercial Apple Industry
the High Line Canal, designed to water 9000 acres of or-
chard land. This ditch was completed to Wenatchee in
October, 1903. The completion of the High Line Canal
marked the beginning of important orchard development
in the Wenatchee Valley. By 1913 there were about
20,000 acres of irrigable land under the different ditches
established in the Wenatchee Valley.
The Indians occupied the Grand Valley until 1880, at
which time the history of fruit-growing in western Color-
ado begins. In the spring of 1883 several hundred root-
grafts were put out in the Grand Valley, only a fraction
of which lived. The first fruit plantings were made in
the lower lands of the Valley about 1885 or 1886. In
1882 a farmer living at Paonia, in Delta County, a local-
ity of lesser importance than the Grand Valley, purchased
twenty-six trees of mixed varieties from Rochester, New
York, at one dollar each. Of these, three survived. As
in the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, principal orchard
development occurred in Colorado after 1900.
From this fragmentary history of apple-culture in the
United States, it may be seen that while apple trees have
been grown in home orchards for nearly 300 years, it has
only been within comparatively recent years that the in-
dustry has assumed commercial proportions.
/
SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION
The apple belongs to the important genus Pyrus, of the
Rose family (Rosacese). “This genus includes the apples
and pears. The common apple is Pyrus Malus, sup-
posed to be native to Europe and Western Temperate Asia.
Within this species, as it is commonly broadly accepted,
are included the commercial apples, the Paradise and
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 2"
Doucin dwarf forms, so-called bloomless apple, and others.
The Siberian crab is Pyrus baccata. The growth is more
slender and wiry than in P. Malus, twigs and leaves not
woolly as in that species, the fruit small, long-stemmed,
and with the calyx falling away at the blossom end. Hy-
' brids oceur between Pyrus Malus and P. baccata. Some
of the apples known as “crabs”’ are only small and acrid
fruit-forms of P. Malus.
Several species of crab-apple are native to North Amer-
ica. One of them is Pyrus ioensis, the prairie crab. It
is not cultivated for its fruit, but the Soulard, Fluke, and
others are supposed to be hybrids between this species
and Pyrus Malus.
Some botanists separate the pears and apples into dif-
ferent genera. Under this disposition, the pears are re-
tained in Pyrus and the apples take the generic name
Malus. The common apple then becomes Malus com-
mumis, and the wild or run-wild form of it in Europe is
called M. sylvestris.
A number of oriental species of Pyrus (Malus) are
grown for ornament, but they need not be discussed here.
CHAPTER II
LEADING APPLE REGIONS OF THE
UNITED STATES
Tuere has been a noticeable tendency in recent years
towards the centralization of the commercial apple indus-
try in a relatively few intensive regions. A glance at the
SECKWAL LISTRUBUTION CF COUR CUAL ALLL LE ORAL
Fie, 1.— The principal ape eros regions in the United
“ States,
outline map showing the principal apple-growing regions
reveals this. (See Fig. 1.) It is estimated that approx-_
imately 80 per cent of the total commercial apple crop of
28 ;
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 29
the United States is produced in these relatively few re-
stricted districts. In many parts of this country there is
scarcely a farm that has not a small home orchard of apple
trees. As has been emphasized elsewhere, production
from these home orchards is having less and less commer-
cial significance and interest centers in a few well-defined
regions. ; a
By describing each important apple region and pointing
out its individual characteristics, it is hoped to convey to
the reader a mental picture of the commercial apple indus-
try as it has been developed in these well-favored regions.
WESTERN NEW YORK (PLATE 1)
From the standpoint of quantity production and total
acreage, western New York is the most important apple
region in the United States. As early as 1860 the produc-
tivity of this section became apparent, and the high qual-
ity apples outsold those from other localities. Good qual-
ity and high yields were sufficient to overcome the ‘ad-
vantages which many other regions may have enjoyed from:
being closer to the Atlantic seaboard cities; and the center
of commercial barreled apple production was established
and has remained ip western New York:
Previous to 1919, one-fourth of the normal commercial
apple crop of the United States was produced in the state
of New York, but the Northwest now produces so many
_ apples that this will probably never be true again. Heav-
iest plantings are in Niagara, Monroe, Orleans and Wayne
counties which border on Lake Ontario. Each of these
counties has an apple acreage of 25,000 to 35,000 \acres
and each is capable of producing from a half to a million
barrels of apples annually. Counties of less importance
30 The Commercial Apple Industry
included in this region are Ontario, Yates, Seneca, Cayuga,
Genesee, Onondaga, Oswego, Wyoming and Tompkins.
In reality, the world’s most important barreled apple
region is largely in a ten-mile belt along Lake Ontario, ex-
tending from Niagara Falls to Oswego, New York, a dis-
tance of about 125 miles. In this section much of the
present bearing acreage was planted in the late sixties
and in the seventies of the preceding century. In other
words, the average age of bearing orchards is over forty
years. Probably nowhere else in this country will trees
retain such vigor and productivity at forty to fifty years
of age as in western New York. The old apple orchards
along the ridge road from Buffalo to Rochester have with-
stood alternate periods of neglect and care, according to
the vicissitudes of the apple industry, and yet they remain
in most instances vigorous and productive at advanced age.
The permanency of western New York as a leading
apple region may be explained partly by the conservatism
of the New York grower. Instead of devoting himself
entirely to apples, the average farmer in western New
York has 100 acres or more of farm land of which only 10
to 20. acres are in apples. His other crops have main-
tained him in poor apple years. The yields on the com”
mercial full bearing orchards average from 75 to 100 bar-
rels to the acre.
Some idea of the importance of New York as an apple
state may be gained from the fact that the 1918 commercial
apple crop was estimated at 5,950,000 barrels, over two-
thirds of which came from western New York. Baldwin
represents nearly one-half and Rhode Island Greening
about 20 per cent of the total production. Northern Spy,
Roxbury. Russet, Tompkins King, Duchess of Oldenburg,
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 31
Hubbardston, Wealthy and Twenty Ounce comprise the
greater part of the remaining commercial production.
As might be expected, large storage plants have been
built in nearly all of the apple towns, | Some of the more
important apple centers are Rochester, Lockport, Medina,
Albion, Brockport, Sodus, East Williamson, North Rose,
Canandaigua and Holcomb. The barrel is used almost
exclusively and very little of the crop moves in bulk.
A high percentage of the dried apple production of this
country comes from the western New York apple region.
For many years Wayne County has been the center of
dried apple production and in some seasons as much as 40
per cent of its crop is used for drying. Nearly every
orchardist in this county has his own drier, and the pro-
duction comes largely from small home driers rather than
from large commercial plants.
There is considerable variation in the types of orchards
in western "New York. Probably 80 to 90 per cent of
the bearing orchards are over twenty years of age and
there are many profitable orchards over fifty years old. It
is believed that the trees in this region reach their maxi-
mum bearing capacity at forty to fifty years. The earlier
plantings were set about 33 x 33 which proved too close
on account of the large size which the trees attained. New
plantings are being made 40 x 40.
Orchard values in western New York have never reached
the high figure attained in some apple regions. Seldom
are bearing orchards valued at more than $500 an acre.
It is difficult to give orchard values in any region and
particularly in western New York where the orchard us-
ually goes with the farm and where varying care is given.
Some orchards are worth little more than the land they
32 The Commercial Apple Industry
occupy. These are the old orchards which’ have received
indifferent care for many years.
HUDSON VALLEY
The Hudson Valley is one of the well known eastern
regions, the important commercial plantings extending
along the Hudson River from Saratoga County south to
Westchester County, and including both sides of the val-
ley for a width of several milés. Tbe normal production
for this region is about 600,000 barrels and originates
largely in the counties of Columbia, Dutchess, Greene and
Ulster, with lesser amounts in Albany, Saratoga, Rensse-
laer, Orange, Putnam and Westchester. The industry is
very intensive about the towns of Coxsackie, Ravena, Ger-
mantown, Red Hook, Millbrook, Athens, Milton and Ulster
Park.
Much of the land is rough and hard to work and this
region is not as well adapted to general farming as western
New York. The soil in some instances is more or less de-
ficient in fertility.
The varieties grown are principally Baldwin, Greening,
Ben Davis and Spy, with considerable commercial quanti-
ties of McIntosh, Duchess, Gravenstein, Holland Pippin,
Fall Pippin, English and Roxbury Russet.
Trees are much the same in age as in western New
York, the orchards in many cases being. even older.. How-
ever, there is a larger proportion of young plantings and
orchards coming into bearing in the Hudson Valley than in
the western part of the state and particularly is this true of
Dutchess and Columbia counties.
The apples from the Hudson Valley are shipped largely
by. boat and rail to New York and eastern markets. Many
<>
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 33
apples are grown here for the fancy trade demand and
su rieties usually bring good returns, due to the ‘prox-
to market. The average annual yields are less than
in western New York, due largely to soil conditions. The
future of the Hudson Valley fruit industry seems assured
on account of its proximity to market.
NEW ENGLAND BALDWIN BELT
The intensive apple sections of Maine, New Hampshire
and Massachusetts are included in what is known as the
New England Baldwin Belt, so called on account of the
prominence of the Baldwin variety. Beginning in south-
ern Maine, this region extends through southern New
Hampshire, Massachusetts, and into Connecticut, includ-
ing both the intensive and more scattered and outlying
apple plantings in this territory. In Maine the leading
apple counties are Oxford, Kennebec, Franklin and Andro-
scoggin; in New Hampshire, Rockingham and Hills-
boro; while the heaviest apple production in Massachu-
setts comes from. Middlesex, Franklin and Worcester coun- ,
ties. ‘
As above stated, Baldwin is the leading New England
variety, while Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy, Mc-
Intosh,.Wealthy, Gravenstein, Tolman, Ben Davis, Porter
and Stark have commercial importance. ‘The New Eng-
land apple trees, like those of New York, are for the most
part old. Great numbers of them have gone out of com-
mercial bearing in recent years and especially during the
very cold winter of 1917-1918, when it was estimated that
over a million Baldwin trees of this section were killed.
The gipsy-moth has done heavy damage to the orchards
in New Hampshire, and the commercial production for the
34 The Commercial Apple Industry
‘New England Baldwin belt has decreased within recent
years. A great number of young orchards are coming in,’
particularly in favored spots of New Hampshire and Mass-
achusetts, and these new orchards will tend to make up loss
among older trees. Many varieties, such as Wealthy, Mc-
Intosh and other fall or early winter sorts, are proving
profitable. McIntosh and Wealthy are becoming espe
cially popular in the newer plantings. Such varieties as
Stark, Yellow Bellflower, Porter, Tolman Sweet, Russets,
and many other old varieties are still found in considernble
quantity, but are no longer being planted.
The orchards of New England for the most part are
small in size and come more nearly being farm orchards
than do those of any other commercial section. They are
in many cases too small to be operated profitably on a
strictly commercial basis.
A large part of the New England apple crop is marketed
locally, particularly in Massachusetts where many apples
are shipped in bulk or hauled in trucks to Boston and
nearby markets. In normal times New England exports
large quantities of apples, particularly of the Baldwin va-
riety. The barrel is the standard package for New Eng-
land apples when shipped in quantity to outside markets,
although for local consumption basket, box or bulk trade
predominates. In many cases, striatly high-grade apples
are put up in boxes. The normal commercial produc-
tion for this region is about 1,250,000 barrels, and it is
not likely to increase ; in fact, unless planting is stimulated
to a greater degree than at present, production will de-
crease somewhat on account of the number of old orchards
_ which are dying or are losing their vigor. Production of -
high-grade fruit will increase. ‘
Leading' Apple Regions of the United States 35
THE CHAMPLAIN DISTRICT
The Champlain district includes that portion of New
York and Vermont bordering on Lake Champlain and
Lake George. It is situated in a very rigorous climate
and only hardy varieties will grow there. It is famous
for its fine quality fruit which brings high prices on the
market. In area the Champlain region is small as com-
pared with most other commercial districts. It includes
the counties of Grand Isle, Addison, Chittenden and Rut-
land, Vermont, and the counties of Clinton and Essex,
New York. The bulk of the production originates near
~ the towns of Middlebury, Shelburne, Rutland and Danby
in Vermont. From a strictly commercial standpoint,
Grand Isle County, Vermont, an island in Lake Cham-
plain, is the most important of all the counties in this -
region. Peru, Plattsburg, Lewis and Crown Point are
towns about which the apple industry centers on the New
York side.
The varieties grown in the Champlain region are Me-
Intosh, Fameuse, Rhode Island Greening and Northern
Spy. Varieties of less importance are Baldwin, Ben
Davis and Wealthy. The district is best known for its Mc-
Intosh, Northern Spy and Fameuse production.
Champlain orchards are in the main much younger than
those in other parts of Vermont and New York. The-
Grand Isle plantings, largely McIntosh, are particularly
young. Although great damage was done to the whole
Champlain district by the severe winter of 1917-1918, the
young plantings will no doubt soon make up for this loss
and bring the production up to normal. McIntosh trees
survived the severe winter better than any other variety, a
36 The Commercial Apple Industry
fact which will stimulate their planting to an even greater
degree.
NEW JERSEY
The commercial apple production of New Jersey orig-
inates largely in Burlington, Camden and Gloucester coun-
ties in the southwestern part of the state and in Monmouth
County in the northeast. The southwestern apple counties
of New Jersey are all within easy access by truck to Phil- :
adelphia, while Monmouth County production reaches New
York City easily by rail.
In former years, plantings in the western and north-
western part of the state along the Pennsylvania border
were responsible for a considerable production of winter
apples, but this region has declined in importance in re-
cent years. The new orchards in New Jersey are made up
largely of summer varieties. The varieties of importance
in Monmouth County are Ben Davis, Winesap, Graven-
stein, English Codling, Wealthy, Twenty Ounce, Olden-
burg and Red Astrachan. For the counties in the south-
western part of the state, Starr, Early Ripe, Williams
Early Red and Yellow Transparent predominate, while
Winesap and Stayman are favorite late varieties,
Considerable interest in apple-growing is being taken in
the group of counties near Philadelphia, of which Burling-
ton, Camden, Gloucester and Cumberland are most im-
portant. Considerable planting is being done and much
young acreage is to be found in these counties. Riverton,
Moorestown and Burlington are towns about which many
commercial orchards are located. :
The early apple crop, which makes up such a large por-
tion of the New Jersey production, is shipped largely in
five-eighths-bushel or bushel baskets. A small part of the
ee
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 37
crop moves out in barrels, but the five-eighths-bushel basket
is popular for winter as well as summer varieties. The
commercial apple production for New Jersey is increasing,
due to the greater output from the group of southwestern
counties, including Burlington, Camden, Gloucester and
Cumberland counties.
The average commercial production for the state is esti-
mated at about 500,000 barrels, of which a considerable
percentage is made up of early varieties. The commercial
apple sections in New Jersey are very favorably located
with respect to markets and the future of the industry in
this state seems bright.
DELAWARD (PLATE III)
The apple section in Delaware is really more or less of
a continuation of the New Jersey district. Varieties,
methods of marketing and even soil conditions are very
much the same. The commercial apple orchards of Dela-
ware are principally in Kent and Sussex counties.
‘Plantings are intensive about the towns of Wyoming and
Bridgeville. The average production for the state is
nearly 200,000 barrels, much of this being made up of
early varieties which are entirely off the market by
August Ist.
The early apple industry in Delaware proved profitable,
especially during the few years prior to 1919, and at the
present time it is experiencing a marked growth. Many
new and very large orchards are being set out. Williams
Early Red, Red Astrachan, Yellow Transparent and Early
Ripe are particularly popular among the early varieties,
while Stayman leads among the late varieties.
Large orchards are not uncommon in Delaware, there
38 The Commercial Apple Industry
being several commercial orchards, over 500 acres in
size. For the most part, these large tracts are carefully
and systematically managed, although many have not yet
attained full bearing.
Delaware growers ship practically all their early fruit
in five-eighths-bushel or bushel baskets, particularly the
former, while the late apples are usually barreled. Dela-
ware is primarily devoted to the production of early var-
ieties and this has brought about its prominence in the
commercial apple industry. Much of the acreage is young
and an increased production is to be expected.
SHENANDOAH-CUMBERLAND DISTRICT
The Shenandoah-Cumberland district is the term applied
to that section of Virginia, Maryland, West Virginia and’
Pennsylvania which is included in the Shenandoah: and
' Cumberland valleys. This region has somewhat recéntly
come into prominence and is yet only approaching its max-
imum production. By mentioning Frederick County,
Virginia; Berkeley County, West Virginia; Washington
County, Maryland; Franklin and Adams counties, Penn-
sylvania; and counties in close proximity to these, a more
or less compact region is defined which rivals western
irrigated districts in intensity and exceeds New England
in normal production.. A full or normal crop for the
Shenandoah-Cumberland would be over 3,000,000 barrels.
The two towns about which the apple industry of this
region centers are Martinsburg, West Virginia, and
Winchester, Virginia. Other important apple towns are
Staunton, Virginia, Chambersburg, Biglerville and
Waynesboro, Pennsylvania, and Hancock, Maryland.
The counties of Berkeley, West Virginia, and. Frederick,
VP me 7 2
PLatTe III.— (1) A typical commercial apple orchard in the
Missouri Valley, Kansas. (2) A fifteen-year old Newtown or-
chard near Medford, Oregon, in need of water. (3) Red Astra-
chan orchard in Delaware. Trees are too high and difficult to
harvest. 2, 7
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 39
Virginia, rank among the highest producing counties in
the country. Each is capable of yielding over a half
million barrels of high quality fruit in good crop years.
Augusta County, Virginia, has an enormous acreage of
young trees and will soon rival these counties in produc-
tion. Franklin and Adams counties, Pennsylvania, with
but 20 to 30 per cent of their trees in bearing, produce a
quarter million barrels each annually and their production
is rapidly increasing. The same is true of Washington
County, Maryland.
The York Imperial is the leading variety for the Shen-
andoah-Cumberland and the Ben Davis is second in import-
ance. Grimes Golden, Stayman, Black Twig, Delicious
and Yellow Transparent have been planted extensively.
The York Imperial represents fully 40 per cent and Ben
Davis about 20 per cent of the regional production.
Stayman and Delicious will increase in commercial pro-
duction in the upper Shenandoah Valley and particularly
in Augusta County. Stayman yields are increasing very
rapidly in Pennsylvania, particularly Adams and Frank-
lin counties.
The average orchard in the Shenandoah-Cumberland is
fully twenty years younger than those in New York. Most
of the orchards have not yet reached maximum bearing;
in fact a very large percentage of the trees are not in
bearing at all; particularly is this true for Shenandoah,
Rockingham and Augusta counties, Virginia, where enorm-
ous acreages are just coming into bearing.
“Taken as a whole, the commercial apple plantings in the
Shenandoah*Cumberland represent one of the most promis-
ing regions in the country. The trees are young, and rela-
tively free frpm disease; the yields are high; plantings
1
I
'
west. &
40 The Commercial Apple Industry
are centralized; and possibilities are strong for a rapidl
increasing production. Practically all of the apples ar
shipped out in barrels, largely to northern markets. .
greater relative increase in production may be expecte
from this district than from any other outside.of the Nortl
A
PIEDMONT DISTRICT OF VIRGINIA (PLATE IZ)
In total production several regions excel the Piedmon
of Virginia, but in historic interest and beauty it is unsui
passed. The Piedmont region extends from Patric
County in’ the southern part of Virginia, north along th
eastern slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains to the Potoma
at Loudoun County. This area includes the famous Albe
marle Pippin and old Winesap district of Virginia, whic
centers in the counties of Albemarle and Nelson. Othe
counties of importance are Franklin, Roanoke, Bedford
Amherst, Patrick, Rappahannock, Loudoun and Culpepper
The most intensive plantings are about the towns of Crozet
Afton, Covesville, in the heart of the Piedmont, and als
about Roanoke, Salem, and Stuart farther south.
The Albemarle Pippin plantings for which the Pied
mont is famous are found largely in the old orchards, par
ticularly those in the Rock Fish Valley in Nelson Count)
and about Covesville, Crozet and Charléttesville in Albe
marle County. Pippin plantings also occur in the eastert
part of Nelson County and farther south through Amherst.
Bedford, and as far as the Bent Mountain district in Roa
noke County. Most of these Albemarle Pippin plantings
of the Piedmont are well advanced in age and only a few
young trees are coming on to replace them.
While the Piedmont has been best known for its Albe
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 41
marle Pippins for more than a century and a half, the old
Winesap is more widely grown and is produced in greater
commercial quantities than any other variety. York Im-
perial represents from 15 to 20 per cent of the regional
production, while Stayman and Black Twig occur in some
commercial plantings. The age of the Piedmont orchards
varies from a few years to a century. The oldest trees in
profitable bearing are those of the Albemarle Pippin or
Newtown variety which was highly prized in the English
markets a century ago. On account of late bearing and
susceptibility to bitter-rot, this variety is less popular in
the newer plantings. Principal commercial plantings
average from fifteen to twenty years of age and lean rather
strongly to Winesap, Stayman and York Imperial. A full
crop for this region would be about 800,000 barrels but
the average is not much over 500,000 barrels.
Piedmont orchards are distinctly mountainous in char-
acter, most of them being situated on hill or mountain
sides. They are somewhat difficult to work and harvesting
operations are expensive. Practically all the fruit is
barreled and moves to outside markets, there being little
home trade. Many of the York Imperials and Albemarle
Pippins are exported. While annual yields do not gener-
ally equal those of the Shenandoah-Cumberland on the
west, higher quality varieties are grown and better prices
are received. Among the disadvantages to be considered
in this region is the prevalence of bitter-rot. Root-rot has
also caused considerable loss and the growers find it impos-
sible to control.
A considerable acreage of young trees will attain full
bearing soon after 1920 and the production of this section
will doubtless be increased. High quality fruit and a
42 The Commercial Apple Industry
progressive spirit among its growers insures growth and
development of the apple industry in the Piedmont.
MINOR REGIONS IN PENNSYLVANIA, WEST VIRGINIA
AND VIRGINIA
Aside from the important apple regions described, a
number of minor regions throughout Pennsylvania, West
Virginia and Virginia are worthy of mention.
In the northeastern part of Pennsylvania, particularly
in Luzerne and Lycoming counties, are considerable com-
mercial apple plantings of Baldwin, Northern Spy and
Rhode Island Greening. These conform more to the type
of orchards in western New York than to those in Penn-
sylvania’s leading apple region in the Cumberland Valley
district.
Outside of the eastern Panhandle section included in the
Shenandoah-Cumberland region already described, there
are no extensive commercial apple plantings in West Vir-
ginia except in Hancock County which is situated at the tip
of the northern Panhandle which extends northward be-
tween Pennsylvania and Ohio. This was originally the
most important commercial apple district in West Vir-
ginia, but it has long since been eclipsed by the great
development in Berkeley and surrounding counties. The
important variety grown in Hancock County is the Willow
Twig, well known on the Pittsburg markets. The or-
chards are for the most part old and increased commercial — _.
production seems unlikely.
In southwestern Virginia there are many commercial
orchards. This district is not included in either the
Shenandoah-Cumberland or Piedmont region. The var-
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 43
ieties grown are Winesap, York Imperial, Rome Beauty,
Stayman, Lowry, Virginia Beauty and Delicious.
MOUNTAIN REGION OF NORTH CAROLINA
The mountain district of North Carolina is more or less
a continuation of the Virginia Piedmont. Apples have
been grown in the mountains of western North Carolina
for many years; it is said that many of the old plantings
were for the purpose of producing apples to be used
in the manufacture of apple brandy. Certainly a great
many of the old orchards are located in relatively inaccess-
-ible and remote localities. It is doubtful whether more
}
than 5 per cent: of the North Carolina apple acreage has
ever been sprayed.
When the manufacture of apple brandy was discon-
tinued, it was found that there was a market for apples in
their fresh state and at the present time many thousand
bushels of fruit produced on the old unsprayed orchards
are hauled down the mountain-sides in wagons to find their .
way to the market in bulk. Improved cultural practices
are being adopted more and more each year.
Apple orchards are planted in the western part of North
Carolina, extending from Surry County, bordering on
Patrick County, Virginia, on the north, almost to the
extreme southwestern corner of the state. North Carolina
apple orchards represent two distinct types. While for
the most part the older trees are neglected and unsprayed,
there are very intensive and strictly commercial plantings
in a few localities, such as in Surry Comnty in the vicinity
of Mt. Airy in the northwestern part of the state. A little
farther south other commercial plantings have been set out
44 The Commercial Apple Industry
in the vicinity of Taylorsville and Wilkesboro. The dried
apple industry has assumed considerable proportions in
this locality.
The most progressive apple section in North Carolina
is in Haywood County near Waynesville. Here a con-
siderable number of strictly commercial apple orchards
have been set out, which are responsible for the increasing
commercial output of this section. A third important
commercial region is in Polk and Henderson counties in
the vicinity of Saluda and Hendersonville.
While most of the North Carolina apple crop is handled
in bulk, the product from the later commercial plantings is
nearly all barreled, and finds a ready sale at good prices
in southern markets. In addition to the apple counties
already named, some commercial planting is found in
Watauga, Madison, Rutherford, Alexander, and Jackson
counties.
The leading variety of the old orchards is the Limber-
twig of which there are several types, including the Royal
or Brushy Mountain Limbertwig. Winesap, Stayman,
Delicious, and Arkansas (Black Twig) are among the new
varieties predominating in the younger plantings. Pro
duction of these varieties will increase materially. The
Limbertwig, although a very good apple, owes its early
popularity to the fact that it is a late keeper. Better
known and higher quality varieties are supplanting the
Limbertwig in the younger orchards. It is quite apparent
that the strictly commercial production of apples from
North Carolina will be increased materially when the
young plantings attain full bearing. Surry County in the
northwest central part of the state, and Haywood County
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 45
in the western part, will be the main centers of commer-
cial production.
A full crop for western North Carolina at this time
would not exceed 300,000 barrels of commercial apples,
of which the larger part would be sold in bulk.
MOUNTAIN REGION OF GEORGIA
While not as yet representing great commercial pro-
duction, an apple region is developing in the extreme north-
eastern part of Georgia which is of particular interest
since most of its fruit is boxed. Strictly speaking, the
commercial apple district in Georgia includes but two
counties: Rabun and Habersham, in the extreme north-
eastern part of the state. Habersham County is the more
important of the two and has experienced a period of
heavy planting, which promises a greatly increased com-
mercial output. A single orchard in this region ships as
many as 40,000 packed boxes of apples in a season, which
is a large boxed apple crop for any orchard East or West,
but more particularly the East where boxing of apples is
little practiced. H.R. State, whose orchard is one of the
finest and most profitable for its size in Georgia, had much
to do with the early development of this region. The most
intensive apple plantings are about the towns of Cornelia,
Demorest, Tallulah Falls and Clarksville.
The leading variety in northeast Georgia is the Yates,
which seems particularly adapted to the southern climatic
and soil conditions, and has proved very popular on account
of its heavy annual bearing habit. Other varieties of
commercial importance are Terry’s Winter, Stayman
‘Winesap, Black Twig, Shockley and Winesap. Delicious
46 The Commercial Apple Industry
appears prominently in newer plantings. The Limber-
twig and Nickajack are found in the older orchards, but
are not common in newer ones. A very large percentage
of the commercial plantings in both Rabun and Haber-
sham counties have been made since 1910.
This region enjoys close proximity to the southern
markets, and for that reason a good outlet for its fruit is
assured. Several very favorable tracts of land have been
set to apple trees in northeast Georgia and while for the
most part these orchards are promising and well cared for,
it is unfortunate that some unworthy promotion schemes .
have been planned for the exploitation rather than the
development of the apple industry in this region. Most
of the trees not yet being in full bearing, it is difficult to
state the possible output; the largest crop year prior to
1919 ‘included over 100,000 bushels of boxed apples, as
well as considerable quantities shipped in bulk.. A greatly.
increased production may be expected.
\
OHIO
Southern Ohio Rome Beauty district.
The Southern Ohio Rome Beauty district is fairly well-
defined and centralized and has come into prominence since
1910. The most important plantings in this region are
in Lawrence, Gallia, Meigs, Athens and Washington coun-
ties, bordering on the Ohio River, Lawrence and Washing-
ton being particularly noteworthy. Extensive plantings
occur about the towns of Marietta, Proctorville and Gal-
lipolis.
Apple land of this region’is mountainous in character,
and the orchards are very often isolated and more or less
Leading Apple Regions of the United States AY
inaccessible. On account of the rolling character of the
land, orchard operations are somewhat difficult. In many
cases terraces have been made to facilitate the operation
of power spray outfits. It is common to find the orchards
situated on the tops of the hills. Trees are set close
together and do not attain the size of those in most eastern
regions. Orchards for the most part are under twenty-
five years of age. A lack of symmetry is noticeable in
some commercial plantings on account of missing and
varying sized trees. Much of the fruit is ferried across
the Ohio River to Huntington and Parkersburg on the
West Virginia side. These cities, together with Marietta
in Ohio, are the principal distribution centers for the
southern Ohio crop.
With the exception of some summer varieties which
are often sold in bulk in nearby markets, most of the
apples are barreled. The commercial production of the
region has reached 750,000 barrels in certain years.
Rome Beauty, the leading variety, originated in southern
Ohio and is especially adapted to this section. Ben Davis,
Grimes, York Imperial, Oldenburg and Yellow Trans-
parent are among other important varieties grown com-
mercially, of these Ben Davis and Grimes being most
widely grown.
The average annual yields in this region are rather
small and unless planting proceeds more rapidly than for
thé period 1915 to 1919, no greatly increased production
can. be expected.
. « Minor regions in Ohao.
Columbiana County in the eastern part of Ohio is a
rather important apple county with a number of old
é
48 The Commercial Apple Industry
orchards, many of which are not very well taken care of.
The leading varieties are Baldwin, Greening, Ben Davis,
Hubbardston and Flushing Spitzenburg, the latter known
commercially only in this locality.
In northern Ohio along the lake belt, particularly in
Ottawa, Sandusky, Huron and Erie counties, are some-
what limited apple plantings consisting largely of Baldwin,
Rhode Island Greening, Ben Davis, Northern Spy, MeIn-
tosh, and Duchess.
Farther south in Ohio, about midway between the south-
ern Rome Beauty section and Lake Erie is another small
apple district consisting of more or less scattered plant-
ings about Chillicothe. Early varieties such as Yellow
Transparent figure in the production of this locality. .
KENTUCKY
For many years Kentucky has been credited with a very
large apple production. However, this is for the most
part non-commercial and originates almost entirely in old
neglected orchards. The strictly commercial apple plant-
ings of Kentucky are largely in Henderson County on the
Ohio River just south of Evansville, Indiana. The apple
industry has not attained very great proportions even
here, although there are a number of important plantings
and the orchards are generally well taken care of. The
leading varieties are Winesap, Stayman, and Ben Davis,
although there are considerable plantings of early kinds.
In some years the total production of this small section
reaches 40,000 barrels, although it is more commonly
under 30,000 barrels of strictly commercial apples. The
industry is being fostered in this section and further
growth seems probable.
aaa
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 49
MICHIGAN
Commercial apple-growing has been an important enter-
prise in Michigan for forty years or more. While apple
plantings are not confined to any one county or group of
counties, they are centralized in the region bordering on
the eastern‘ shore of Lake Michigan where the tempering
influence of the lake favors the culture of many deciduous
fruits. Some of the soils in this region are extremely
sandy and are more particularly adapted to peach-growing
than to apple-culture. A large portion of land, however,
is a sandy clay loam, we]l suited to apples.
The region is known as the western Michigan fruit belt
and extends from Berrien County on the south to Che
boygan County on the north. The most important apple
counties of this region are Van Buren, Allegan, Kent, Ber-
rien, Oceana and Grand Traverse. Apple plantings are
also found in adjoining counties and widely scattered
throughout most of the lower peninsula of Michigan.
Some of the oldest orchards in the state are in the south
and southeastern counties, but the importance of this re-
gion has given way to the newer plantings, particu-
larly in the northern end of the western Michigan fruit
belt.
Production for western Michigan in a full crop year
would approximate 1,200,000 barrels or about 75 per cent
of the total commercial apple production of the state of
Michigan. The plantings in the southern part of the belt
suffered severe loss from San José scale, while those in the
northern part are much younger and have experienced less
injury from scale. There has undoubtedly been a decline
in the production in Michigan as compared with 1910.
o
50 The Commercial Apple Industry
However, with the young orchards just coming into bear-
ing and with better care being given to the older trees, it
seems highly probable that this loss will be made up within
the next few years.
The leading variety grown in western Michigan is the
Baldwin, which comprises over one-fourth of the total pro-
duction. Northern Spy and Oldenburg (Duchess) each
represents about 14 per cent of the total production. Ac-
cording to a recent survey, varieties next in order of im-
portance are Wagener, Rhode Island Greening, Wealthy,
Ben Davis, and Jonathan; the last named being prominent
in the newer orchards of Van Buren, Allegan and Berrien
counties. Ben Davis is outstanding in the older orchards
in the southernmost counties. Oldenburg (Duchess) and
Wealthy are the leading summer and fall varieties.
Most of the apples of this region are packed out in
barrels and a large proportion of the crop is marketed in
Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, and other large cities nearby.
Producing communities situated close to cities market
much of their apple crop by wagon or truck, crates and
bushel baskets figuring in this movement. An increased
interest in the apple industry in western Michigan is
evidenced in better cultural and marketing methods.
Codperative associations are-increasing in prominence in
many localities.
ILLINOIS.
r
Illinois occupies a position of Sates cael
in the commercial production of apples. Soil conditions
generally throughout the entire state are very well adapted
to apple-growing, and nearly every county has a consider-
able acreage of trees.
ve"
Strictly commercN] areas are largel
southern part of the $ POM 8
three fairly well-defined rept extreme ‘south-
ern portion; (2) the Mississippi Valley region centering
about Pike and Calhoun counties; (3) the southeastern
part of the state, centering in Marion County.
Illinois is probably under-estimated from a commercial
standpoint. New orchards coming into bearing, and the
renovation ‘of old ones have combined in making this the
most important middle western apple state. Its central
location and proximity to market serve as distinct
advantages.
Southern Illinois early apple region.
The extreme southern or early apple section in Illinois
may be defined to include the eleven southernmost coun-
ties, but only Union and Johnson are of great commercial
importance. These counties probably comprise one of the
most important early apple-producing sections in the
United States. J. C. B. Heaton of New Burnside is one
of the persons largely responsible for the early develop-
ment of this industry. Good returns for apples have
Stimulated planting and an increasing production may be
expected from this region.
The principal early varieties are Yellow Transparent,
Duchess of Oldenburg, Benoni, Red June, Chenango and
Sops of Wine. Summer varieties comprise nearly three-
fourths of the total production.
Prominent among winter varieties are Winesap, Ben
Davis, Gano, Jonathan, and Rome Beauty. Early apples
. dre shipped in baskets to Chicago, St. Louis and other
nearby cities. The shipping season for these apples
52 The Commercial Apple Industry
begins the last week -in June and is usually over by
August first. Winter apples are sold either in bulk or
in barrels,
In some ways this extreme southern portion of Illinois
is a continuation of the Ozark uplift. The country is
somewhat mountainous and unlike northern Illinois.
The soil is rather thin and in general well suited for the
quick early growth of summer varieties.
Mississippi Valley region of Illinois.
Adams, Pike and Calhoun counties bordering on the
Mississippi River are responsible for the heavy produc-
tion of apples in western Illinois. Calhoun leads in ton-
nage shipped and a large part of its output goes down the
Mississippi River by boat.
Conditions are dissimilar to those in the early apple
region in the southern part of the state. With the excep-
tion of Calhoun and Pike counties, land in western
Illinois is more typical of the prairie states. Calhoun
County apple production is being more than maintained
by new plantings. While the total acreage in the other
counties may have suffered more or less decrease from
1910 to 1918, a greater interest generally is exhibited
among the leading and strictly commercial growers.
Nearly 90 per cent of the acreage in this section is
sprayed, while for the state as a whole it is doubtful
whether 25 per cent of the acreage is sprayed.
Leading varieties for this region are Ben Davis, Gano,
Jonathan, Grimes, Willow Twig and Winesap. Ben
Davis and Willow Twig predominate. Practically all
commercial apples are shipped in barrels, ‘%
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 53
Southeastern Illinois.
The Marion County district in southeast Illinois is
sometimes spoken of as the Flora section, since Flora
is the principal shipping point and_one of the important
apple centers in the state. Clay, Richland, Wayne, Ef-
fingham and Jasper counties are also included in this
general region. Marion County was at one time credited
as leading in the state in total number of trees, but in
recent years has suffered heavily from loss in trees.
Practically all of the orchards are of bearing age and
very few trees are coming into bearing to replace a great
percentage which passed out prior to 1918. Neglect, old
age, and infection with disease and insects, notably San
José scale, have exacted a heavy toll. Some commercial
growers are maintaining their orchards, but it is doubtful
whether over 50 per cent of the total acreage is sprayed
at all. Yields throughout this section are generally low.
Most of the apples are sold in bulk; the remainder in
barrels. Ben Davis is the leading commercial variety and
represents over half of the total production. Jonathan,
Winesap, Rome Beauty and Grimes Golden are less ex-
tensively grown. Of the summer varieties which prob-
ably represent 15 per cent of the total production, Benoni,
Transparent, Duchess and Wealthy are important. Con-
sidered as a whole, Illinois is one of the few if not the
only middle western state to maintain its commercial
production in the face of a general decline in apple
acreage throughout the Middle West during the period
1905 to 1918. Of its three commercial apple regions,
two are showing increased production. High production
is possible with good care and it seems probable. that
54 The Commercial Apple Industry
Illinois will remain the leading apple state of the Middle
West for some years to come.
OZARK REGION
The Ozark region in southern Missouri and northwest-
ern Arkansas is one of the best known apple sections in
the United States, although in production it ranks third
among the four important Middle West districts.
Essentially it is a Ben Davis region, since this variety
and Gano represent over 65 per cent of its plantings, and
an even greater proportion of its production. During the
decade 1890 to 1900, the entire Ozark region experienced
an era of planting unequalled in any other section of the
country. Prices for apples in the late eighties stimulated
and encouraged plantings, and the good yields produced
by the Ozark orchards then in bearing afforded excellent
returns. The over-planting which occurred in the
nineties resolved itself into somewhat of a land-selling
boom, a repetition of which was experienced in the west-
ern states from 1900 to 1910. Thousands of acres of
both suitable and unsuitable land throughout the Ozarks
have been set to. trees, but of this great acreage only
a portion has been cared for and much has been neglected
and abandoned. The Ozark region includes some of the
best and some of the worst orchards in the country. A
period of late spring frosts in 1900 to 1910, when a num-
ber of consecutive crops were lost or severely damaged,
contributed to the lack of care accorded to many of these
trees. .
A full crop for the entire Ozark region would probably
not exceed 1,600,000 barrels. Arkansas’ contribution to
the Ozark apple production originates almost entirely in
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 55
two counties, Benton and Washington, situated in the ex-
treme northwestern part of the state. Madison, Boone,
Carroll and Crawford counties in Arkansas are of much
less importance. Bentonville and Rogers in Benton
County, and Springdale and Lincoln in Washington
County are important apple centers in Arkansas.
In Missouri the commercial apple plantings of the
Ozarks continue from the extreme southwestern part of
the state, along the Frisco Railway to the northeast’ as
far as Crawford County. Lawrence, Greene, followed by
Newton, Barry, Webster and Howell, are the most impor-
tant Missouri counties in the Ozark region. Marionville
in Lawrence County is the center of the best orchard sec-
‘tion in southern Missouri. Orchards in the vicinity of
this town illustrate the possibilities to be attained in the
Ozark region. , y
Probably -no other commercial apple district in the
United States has suffered such a loss in trees as has
the Ozark since 1910. Conservative estimates place the
loss at more than 50 per cent, much of which has been
due to blister-canker. With such conditions prevailing,
one is not surprised in finding two very divergent types
of orchards. There are the old, neglected dying orchards
which have received practically no care while in some
communities a revival of interest has brought many or-
chards into a high state of cultivation and profitable bear-
ing. - In such counties as Texas in the extreme southern
part of Missouri are orchards which look almost like virgin
forests, branches interlock, trees are unsprayed, unpruned
and uncared for. The price of the land is established by
its value for general crops, less the cost of removing the
neglected trees.
56 The Commercial Apple Industry
Orchards in the Ozark region vary from a few acres to
over 100 in size, many of them being from 30 to 100
acres in extent. Large orchards discourage intensive cul-
tural methods and yields tend to be low and biennial as
trees grow older. In some localities there is a progres-
sive element in the farming population, evidenced by
greater attention given to orchard management. Despite
this revival of interest it is doubtful whether over 35
per cent of the trees in the Ozark region are ever sprayed,
with a result that not more than 35 per cent of the total
acreage can be considered as strictly commercial.
As stated above, Ben Davis and Gano represent over 65
per cent of the Ozark production. Jonathan, Ingram,
Maiden Blush, Grimes, York Imperial, Collins and Ar-
kansas Black are found in limited plantings, more partic-
ularly in younger acreage.
More than half of the production from this region is
shipped in bulk, only the better grades and the higher
quality varieties being shipped in barrels. It must be re-
membered, however, that the bulk production competes
directly with the barreled stock and is frequently not in-
ferior in quality.
MISSOURI RIVER REGION (PLATE II)
Important commercial apple plantings of Towa,
Nebraska, Kansas and northern Missouri are at the in-
tersection of these four states, in what is known as the
Loess Apple Belt, along the Missouri River in north-
western Missouri, southwestern JIowa, southeastern
Nebraska, and northeastern Kansas. This section has
been placed in a district by itself, since the important
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 5Y
plantings are centralized in a well known and fairly well
defined commercial region.
The most extensive apple plantings in the Missouri
River region are in Buchanan County in the vicinity of
St. Joseph in northwestern -Missouri, and across the Mis-
souri River in Doniphan County in northeastern Kansas.
Towa and .Nebraska plantings are of less importance
although the Missouri River region properly includes
small corners of the above two states. In Nebraska,
Nemaha and Richardson are two important counties, while
across the Missouri River, Fremont, Mills and Pottawa-
tomie counties lead in the commercial production for Iowa.
All of the counties named border on the Missouri River
and with several other counties in close proximity, com-
prise a fairly compact region which extends into four states
and has a normal production of nearly 2,000,000 barrels,
which is greater than can be credited to the Ozark region.
Ben Davis and Gano comprise approximately 50 per cent
of the production from the Missouri River district, while
Jonathan, Winesap, Arkansas (Black Twig) and Missouri
Pippin trees-have been extensively planted, particularly in
the younger orchards. A large part of the crop moves out
in bulk as is the casé in the Ozarks.
Doniphan County, Kansas, deserves particular mention
as one of the most important and highly commercial
counties in the Middle West. Community spirit has
stimulated development of the apple industry and extensive
plantings are found in the vicinity of Wathena and Troy.
A high percentage of the yield of Doniphan County is
barreled and more of the trees are sprayed than in prob-
ably any other middle western apple section. Carload
shipments from Doniphan County alone have amounted
_—
58 The Commercial Apple Industry
to more than 1,000 cars for a single season. In most
instances the orchards reflect the careful attention which
always insures a high state of productiveness. :
Orchards in northwest Missouri are older, have a larger
proportion of Ben Davis trees and in the main have re-
ceived less attention than those on the Kansas side.
Buchanan County on the Missouri River ranks,among the
foremost, if not'the foremost apple county in Missouri,
and yet it is doubtful whether 50 per cent of the trees
are sprayed. While Buchanan County has been singled
out on account of its central location and relative impor-
tance, other counties in northwest Missouri, including
Nodaway, Holt, Jackson and Lafayette, are of almost
equal importance.
The orchards in the Missouri River region are more
uniform in type than those in the Ozarks and are, as a
whole, better cared for. There are many old neglected
orchards in northwest Missouri, but these are fast going
out and the production from strictly commercial orchards
promises to dominate the output of the region. The great-
est increase in production may be expected from the young
plantings in Kansas, many of which are just coming into
bearing.
Outside of the intensive commercial apple regions, the
Middle West has suffered a tremendous loss in trees.
However, most of these were in the farm orchards and it
is felt that such regions as the Missouri River or loess
soil region will serve to maintain the commercial produc-
tion of the Middle West at some point near its present fig-
ure. It must be remembered that apple-growing along the
Missouri River has never reached the intensity of many
other regions. General farming with here and there a
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 59
commercial orchard describes the general farm manage-
ment scheme. As may be expected, where apple-growing
is only one of a number of enterprises, the general care
given orchards is not as highly intensive as in some sec-
tions. Commercial production at the present time comes
from a comparatively few well-cared-for orchards.
;
ARKANSAS VALLEY OF KANSAS
The Arkansas River Valley in south central Kansas
is a distinct region which requires separate treatment.
Apple plantings in this valley are confined largely to the
sandy loam soil along the river and are in Reno, Sedg-
wick, Sumner and Cowley counties. Not all the valley
land is suited to apples and plantings are spotted. Many
of the orchards are irrigated with water pumped from
wells and it is the only section east of Colorado in which
irrigation is practiced in the growing of apples.
. Heavy plantings were made in the period 1907 to
1910 and this region will be of. increasing importance as
trees attain full bearing. Winesap and Ben Davis are
the leading varieties, while Jonathan, Black Twig, Gano,
York Imperial, Grimes and Rome Beauty are of less
importance. On account of irrigation and other farm
management practices in vogue, the Arkansas Valley has
more in common with the western irrigated districts than
with the typical Middle West sections. Furthermore,
while bulk shipments represent a large portion of the
cfop, a considerable percentage of the output is marketed
in boxes. No barreling is done. A full crop from this
region would be equivalent to about 250,000 barrels at
present. Increased production may be expected.
60 The Commercial Apple Industry
COLORADO
Colorado stands out prominently as the most important
apple state in the inter-mountain district. Practically the
entire commercial apple crop of Colorado is produced on
the western slope of the Rockies, in the Grand and Gunni-
son valleys. The Grand Valley, extending in either
direction from Grand Junction, in Mesa County, for a.
distance of about twelve miles, is the most highly developed
district in the state. This valley is comparable in many
ways with typical northwest apple districts, being essen-
tially boxed apple-producing, relying on irrigation, and
employing northwest methods of culture and farm man-
agement.
Heaviest planting in the Grand Valley was in the
period 1905-1910. Practically no planting occurred
between 1912 and 1918. In 1918 there were about
10,250 acres of apples, of which 7,500 were over ten
years of age. Alkali outcroppings in certain parts of
the valley caused a considerable loss in acreage, amounting
to probably 2,000 or 3,000 acres. It is possible that
further decreases in acreage will occur and yet increased
bearing capaeity of the remaining acreage will doubtless
bring about increased production. The principal ship-
ping stations in Mesa County are Grand Junction, Fruita
and Clifton.
The Grand Valley, while primarily an apple section, is
not exclusively apple-producing. Nearly half of its fruit
acreage consists of other fruits than apples. Peach and
pear plantings, with smaller acreages of cherries and
plums, represent in the aggregate nearly as extensive
acreage as the apple. In the vicinity of Palisades, some
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 61
ten miles from Grand J unction, is the famous Elberta:
peach section, which has shipped 1,000 cars of peaches
in a single season.
The Grand Valley did not escape inflation. In fact,
difficulties with irrigation systems and outcropping of
alkali have brought this district its full share of troubles.
In recent years the codlin-moth has become a most serious
menace. In one respect, however, notably proximity to
markets, Colorado has the advantage of states farther west.
It is particularly adapted to the growing of Jonathan
apples, which comprise nearly a third of its production.
Winesap, Gano, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Rome
Beauty are among the other important varieties. The
northwest box is used almost exclusively for the packed
fruit, although bulk shipments figure more prominently in
Colorado than in any other of the leading western apple
states. Codperative marketing has been an important
factor in the development of this district.
The western slope of Colorado includes two other apple
districts, one in Delta and the other in Montrose County,
both of less importance than the Grand Valley. In Delta
County the apple acreage is in Gunnison Valley, with
heaviest plantings at Hotchkiss and Paonia. The Uncom-
pahgre, a branch of the Gunnison, supplies water for the
orchard plantings in Montrose County which centers about
the town of Montrose. Both of these districts are irri-
gated and conditions conform largely to those given for
the Grand Valley. Varieties are very much the same,
although less attention is given to other fruits.
On the eastern slope, the Canyon City district in Fre-
mont County, along the Arkansas Valley, is the only other
apple section of importance in the state. A distinctive
62 The Commercial Apple Industry
t
feature of Colorado commercial apple plantings is that
they occur at an elevation of 4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea
level,
NEW MEXICO:
The Pecos Valley in Chaves County is the coming
apple district in New Mexico, and is one of the important
sections of the inter-mountain states. Over half of New
Mexico’s commercial apple crop is produced in’ Chaves
County. Heaviest plantings are in the vicinity of Ros-
well, Greenfield, Dexter and Hagerman. The latter lies
thirty miles south of Roswell along the Pecos River.
County assessor’s figures indicate about 4,500 acres of
trees planted before 1910 and about 2,500 acres planted
1910 to 1919. Little planting has been made since 1912.
Ben Davis and Gano are the principal varieties, with
Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, Winesap, Black Twig, York
Imperial and Arkansas Black among the less important.
The northwest box is the common package for this
district, although bulk shipments are important. Less
care is taken in grading and packing the boxed fruit than
in the Northwest and much of the crop is jumble packed.
The Texas farming section immediately to the east affords
an outlet for most of the Pecos apple crop. Jonathans
come on the market earlier than in most sections, and -
for that reason Pecos apples have priority in Texas
markets. A marked increase in production may be
expected from this section. Heavy frosts are not infre-
quent and have checked the normal increase in production.
While 600 or 700 cars has been the largest production
of this valley to date, a decided increase may be expected.
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 63
The only distinct apple region in New Mexico outside
of the Pecos Valley is known as the Farmington district
and is in San Juan County in the extreme northwestern
corner of the state. ‘The isolation of this region, com-
bined with poor railroad facilities, has checked its develop-
ment. Principal varieties are Gano, Jonathan, Romé
Beauty and Winesap.
UTAH
Commercial apple growing in Utah is largely confined
to irrigated valleys in Boxelder, Weber, Davis, Salt Lake,
and Utah counties, which lie along the eastern shores of
the Great Salt. Lake and Utah Lake, in north central
Utah. The most highly commercial districts are near
Provo in Utah, which has shipped as high as 300 cars
of apples in a year, and also near Tremonton in Box-
elder County. Both are irrigated and market their com-
mercial apples largely in boxes, although bulk shipments
are not uncommon.
Principal varieties for the Provo district are Jonathan,
Rome Beauty, Winesap, and Lawver; for the Tremonton
section Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan and Winesap. The
apple acreage in Utah County is approximately 5,000
acres, of which two-thirds was planted before 1910. Of
the 2,000 acres in apples in Boxelder County, most of
the trees were planted between 1906 and 1910. Local
consumption and nearby mining camps largely absorb the
production of Weber and Davis counties. Limited
increase in commercial production may be expected from
this state as the acreage increases in age. It is improb-
able that commercial shipments will exceed 1,000 cars
within the next few years.
64 The Commercial Apple Industry
MONTANA’
The Bitter Root Valley, extending south from Missoula
to Hamilton, Montana, at one time had an apple acreage
amounting to 23,000 acres. Most of this acreage was
represented in large projects which have since gone into
the hands of receivers and are being neglected. Probably
the greatest loss in acreage in any of the western districts
has occurred in the Bitter Root Valley. The McIntosh
apple is suited to this region but trees do not attain large
size nor is growth rapid. Yields are smaller than in
many other irrigated sections. The slump in apple pro-
motion struck the Bitter Root Valley at an inopportune
time, and as a result much of its acreage will be lost or
will not reach full commercial bearing.
WASHINGTON
Interest in apple production west of the Rockies centers
chiefly in the Pacifie Northwest and particularly in the
state of Washington. In 1917 and 1919 Washington
was the heaviest commercial apple-producing state in
the Union, taking precedence even over New York which,
on account of exceedingly light crops, dropped into second
place for those years. Washington must be credited with
over one-half of the total boxed apple production and in
an average year now ranks first in quantity of commer-
cial apples produced.
It is interesting to note the very rapid growth and
development of the apple industry in such regions as the
Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, which have recently come
into prominence and are largely responsible for Washing-
ton’s heavy production. Although very similar in many
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 65
respects, these two districts will be discussed separately on
account of their importance.
Yakima Valley.
The Yakima district is located in the south central part
of the state and includes approximately 40;000 acres of
apple plantings which are for the most part situated in the
valley land lying along the Yakima River and its tribu-
tary streams.
As stated in the history of the Yakima district, the first
commercial planting was made in this region about 1888
and as late as 1900 the total acreage of all orchard land
was not more than 3,000 acres, and the total production
did not exceed 200 carloads of fruit. Heaviest planting
occurred after 1900 and reached a climax about 1908.
Apple-growing is the principal industry in the Yakima
Valley and, as might be expected, intensive methods of cul-
tivation are practiced, every effort being directed at the
production of high marketable quality fruit. The average
fruit farm is under twenty acres and is devoted almost
exclusively to apples. Peaches and pears are grown in
lesser quantities and represent approximately 12 per cent
of the total fruit acreage of the county. In more recent
years greater diversification has been emphasized, with the
result that growers with larger acreages are planting sugar-
beets, potatoes and other crops.
The productivity and ideal climatic conditions of the
Yakima Valley attracted an unusually high type of settlers.
The community spirit and social conditions are unsur-
passed by those in any other apple. region. Good roads
have been constructed and excellent facilities for handling,
packing and storing the fruit are available. Probably
66 The Commercial Apple Industry
nowhere else in the country have scientific horticultural
methods been more assiduously practiced’ than in the
Yakima Valley. 5
The productivity of the Yakima orchards is very high.
Their annual yields are greater tHan those in any other
region with the exception of the Wenatchee district.
The average annual rainfall in the Yakima Valley is
under twelve inches, and irrigation is necessary. Millions
of dollars have been expended in irrigation projects
designed to bring water from the mountain streams and
fructify the otherwise desert land. A large part of the
acreage is watered from canals operated under the United
States Reclamation Service, although private projects are
also found. Water rights in some instances have cost as
high as $175.00 an acre; the average has been much lower,
however. Annual maintenance of the irrigation ditches
once installed often represents as much as $4.00 an acre.
When to these costs are added the high price for raw land
and the expense of bringing an orchard into bearing under
the most intensive care, some idea may be obtained of the
reason for high valuation of western irrigated orchards.
Two thousand dollars an acre has not been an uncommon
price for full bearing orchards. In some instances
unsuited land was planted and the district suffered from
over-development of ‘ boom ” projects.
The Yakima Valley is under a severe handicap by its
distance from consuming centers. It must rely on large
annual yields of high marketable apples for its survival.
Production has been rapidly increasing and reached 11,500
cars in 1919. Less than 25 per cent of the acreage was
over ten years of age in 1918 and an increased production
may be expected from this region in the next few years.
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 67
Winesap is the leading variety and in some years repre-
sents as high as one-half of the total production. Heavy
plantings have been made of J onathan, Ben Davis, Ronie
Beauty, Esopus (Spitzenburg), Yellow Newtown, De-
licious, Stayman, Gano and lesser plantings of Arkansas
(Black Twig), Baldwin, Wagener, Grimes Golden and
Arkansas Black. Probably in no other region is there a
larger list of extensively grown varieties and yet most of
those named are good commercial kinds well adapted to the
region.
Wenatchee North Central Washington district (Plate IV).
The Wenatchee Valley is included in what is commonly
spoken of as the North Central Washington fruit region.
‘Although less than fifty miles apart, the Yakima and
Wenatchee valleys are separated by a range of mountains
and there are no rail connections except by a very circuit-
ous route. These two very important fruit regions have
grown up almost simultaneously under very similar condi-
tions, vieing with each other in the production of high
marketable quality apples.
The Wenatchee Valley proper is in Chelan County,
although in speaking of the North Central Washington
district one commonly includes apple plantings along the
Columbia River and its tributaries, extending northward
from Wenatchee into Okanogan County. Annual rainfall
varies from, eight to fifteen inches and irrigation is neces-
sary.
The principal producing area of this region lies in the
‘Wenatchee Valley in the vicinity of the towns of Wenat-
chee, Monitor and Cashmere, and extends as far up the
valley as Leavenworth, the latter being situated at the
1
68 The Commercial Apple Industry
base of the Cascades. A very intensive region is in a
semi-circular area about the town of Wenatchee. There
is a considerable variation of altitude throughout the valley,
but most of the orchards are at an elevation of 700 to 1,000
feet.
_ The Wenatchee Valley is even more intensive and com-
pact than the Yakima Valley. Its development dates back
to about 1900, when the first large irrigation canal, later
known as the Wenatchee Highline Canal, was begun. The
planting of fruit-trees was more or less correlated with the
development of irrigation. The total apple acreage in
North Central Washington, including the Wenatchee Val-
ley and the upper Columbia, is approximately 40,000
acres. Some of this acreage is in Okanogan, Douglas and
Grant counties adjoining Chelan County on the east.
The shipments reached a maximum in 1919-1920 of
12,300 cars of 756 boxes each. \
The farms in general throughout the Wenatchee region
are small, most of them averaging not over fifteen acres
and many even less. Some large projects embrace as
many as several hundred acres each, but the region is not
adapted to the extensive type of pemonltane The two
‘ predominating limiting factors are the high price of land
and the small area of irrigable land. Peaches and pears
are grown in limited quantities and there is also a consider-
able acreage of alfalfa, but most of the latter occurs as an
inter- or shade crop in the apple orchards.
An intensive survey made by the authors in the Wenat-
chee Valley indicated an average investment to the acre
of nearly $2,000. It may be seen that with such a high
valuation only a highly specialized crop like apples can
ever be made to bring a sufficient return on the invest-
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 69
¢
ment. It seems, then, that the Wenatchee Valley offers
less opportunity for diversification than almost any other
region in the United States. At the same time it is unsur-
passed in productivity and high marketable quality of its
fruit. The surveys indicate that of all the apple regions
of this country the highest annual yields and the highest
percentage of extra fancy and fancy fruit were produced
in the Wenatchee Valley. Like the Yakima Valley, the
Wenatchee district must rely on heavy yields and high
marketable quality fruit to overcome a severe handicap of
extreme distance from markets. ‘The possibility for
codperative movement among growers is explained by the
intensity of plantings and by excellent community spirit.
As in Yakima, the most intensive and careful orchard
practices are in use. The Wenatchee region is practically
free from fungus trouble, and with the exception of the
codlin-moth, which is a decided menace, is infested with
but few serious insect pests. In their early development,
the Wenatchee orchards were almost without exception com-
mitted to a practice of entire clean cultivation, without
either shade or cover-crops. More recently, as in all irri-
gated districts, the use of leguminous shade crops has
become common.
The highest production from the Wenatchee North Cen-
tral Washington district prior to 1919 was the crop of 1917
which amounted to approximately 8,500 cars of 756 boxes
each. At least 75 per cent of the acreage was under ten
years of age in 1918 and an increased production from
this region may be expected. Winesap, Jonathan, De
licious, Spitzenburg, Stayman, Rome and Yellow New-
town are listed in the order of their importance.
70 Commercial Apple Industry
Spokane district.
The third most important apple district in Washington
is in Spokane County and is commonly spoken of as the
Spokane apple district. Acreage of this county at one
time was nearly as great as that in Yakima, but the pro-
duction has never approached that of the latter. The
region was developed after the Yakima and Wenatchee dis-
tricts and considerable acreage of unsuited land was set in
trees. The most intensive plantings are in the Spokane
Valley west of Spokane, extending along the river for a
distance of twenty-five miles to the east. Production
from the county reached about 1,400 cars in 1920.
a yee a
. "
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 235
the western orchard section is unquestionably the codlin-
moth. The dry arid climate in nearly all the irrigated
sections seems particularly favorable to its development.
The long hot seasons increase the number of broods and
seem to stimulate the activities of this pest. Furthermore,
the close grading of the fruit emphasizes the loss from
worm injury. Eastern growers are justified in feeling
that they have worked out a satisfactory spray program
‘against codlin-moth and are inclined to believe that the
western grower is deficient in his spraying methods for con-
trolling this insect. Yet in many instances growers on
the western slope of Colorado and the Yakima Valley,
Washington, have found it difficult to avoid excessive cod-
lin-moth loss even after spraying much more thoroughly
and frequently than is necessary under eastern conditions.
Fire-blight epidemics have been more or less serious in
the West and have been particularly injurious in the
Yakima Valley, Washington and the Rogue River Valley,
Oregon. In the Rogue River and Hood River valleys,
Oregon, the apple-scab has been serious in years when the
climatic conditions were favorable to its development.
However, elsewhere in the West fungous troubles are in
the main inconspicuous.
California.— The Watsonville applegrower in the
Pajaro Valley must devote considerable attention to the
control of the tussock moth. The leaf-roller is also rather
prevalent and the powdery-mildew causes more or less
injury.
DUSTING
Dusting, as a substitute for the liquid spray method in
controlling insects and disease, has been brought to the
recent attention of fruit-growers by the extensive experl-
236 The Commercial Apple Industry
ments conducted in western New York in 1911-1913 by
Blodgett of Cornell. These experiments have been con-
tinued elsewhere in different parts of the United States
by various state and federal investigators. The practice
of dusting has been adopted with greater or less success by ,
many commercial growers in different regions. Its status
has not been definitely determined, but certain conclusions
may be drawn from results thus far obtained.
In the first place, dusting has certain inherent advant-
ages over the use of liquid spray: (1) More trees may be
covered in a given time and with less labor than with the
liquid spray; (2) dusting is more convenient in rough
hilly orchards; (3) considerable time is saved in loading
the machine with material; (4) the elimination of water
reduces very materially the weight of the spray material
to be hauled through the orchard; (5) the equipment cost
is much less than for liquid spraying machine. 2
In comparing the cost of common dust materials, such
as arsenate of lead and superfine sulfur, with that of
similar materials used in liquid sprays, it appears that the
dusting method is more expensive, particularly if much
dust is lost in the application in windy or unfavorable
weather. In considering labor cost, dusting may be
cheaper than spraying with liquids, and it is on this point
that advocates for dusting lay particular stress. The
spray-gun more recently developed has reduced this ad-
vantage of the dusting method over the liquid spray. But
certainly the grower may cover his trees at the critical
period in less time and with less labor cost by dusting than
with liquid spray applied with rods.
A two-man crew operating a dusting machine can cover
from three to four times as many trees as a three-man
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 237
crew operating a liquid spray outfit with the old rods. It
is estimated that fifteen-year old trees require on the
average of about 1 to 1144 pounds of dust for a single
application, while trees twenty to twenty-five years old
require approximately 2 pounds of dust. The time and
amount of material vary greatly with the conditions and
methods of application. These data will convey in a gen-
eral way the relative speed of the two systems.
The following formule are quite generally used:
Formula’ I. Combination dust for chewing insects and
fungous diseases:
Arsenate of lead, powder ...10 to 15 per cent.
Sulfur, superfine ......... 90 to 85 per cent.
Formula 2. For insect infestations and light fungous
attacks:
Arsenate of lead .........---46- 10 per cent.
Sulftt. .ccsevacsvsearueew eases 50 per cent.
Hydrated lime or gypsum ........ 40 per cent.
Formula 3.
Arsenate of lead, powder ..10 to 15 per cent.
Hydrated lime or gypsum . .90 to 85 per cent.
Tt is rather difficult to dogmatize on the efficiency of
dusting. Some growers, after a more or less thorough trial,
are convinced of its economy and efficiency. Other grow-
ers have discarded their dusting machines. In western
New York dusting has not become general. Improved
dusting mixtures and better methods of application may
result in greater popularity for this method, for it has
certain time-saving advantages. However, at the present
!
238 The Commercial Apple Industry
time it has not been altogether sucecssful in controlling
bad scab infection, excessive codlin-moth, or apple-blotch,
the three most serious apple diseases and pests. It seems
possible that dusting may prove better adapted to regions
where the codlin-moth is not particularly serious or scab
infection critical. For hilly orchards or orchards where
water supply is remote, or where liquid spraying is exceed-
ingly difficult, the use of eaeune may be recommended as
a substitute.
The power duster is usually operated by a two- or
three-horse-power gasoline engine. The dust mixture is
fed into a rapidly revolving fan by means of a hopper and
a strong current of air forces the dust out through a dis-
charge pipe. A single operator directs the cloud of dust
by shifting the discharge pipe.
INSECTICIDES.
In studying insect control, the first consideration should
be given to the methods by which insects secure their food.
Generally speaking, there are two classes of insects: (1)
biting and chewing insects such as codlin-moth and tent-
caterpillar; (2) sucking’ insects such as aphids and scale.
When insects feed on such exposed parts as the buds or
leaves, arsenicals or other stomach poisons are necessary.
In the case of chewing insects which feed beneath the
bark, such as borers, other-control methods must be em-
ployed. Sucking insects are best checked by the use of
contact sprays such as lime-sulfur, nicotine, and kerosene
emulsion. ‘
Following is a general classification of common insect-
icides:
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 239
(1) Insecticides for biting insects — arsenate of lead,
paris green, calcium arsenate and arsenite of zinc.
(2) Insecticides for sucking insects — lime-sulfur,
nicotine solution, miscible oils, so-called dry-lime-sulfur
compounds.
For biting insects.
Arsenate of lead is the most widely used poison for chew-
ing and biting insects. It is particularly effective against
the codlin-moth. Both powdered and paste forms are in
common use, the powder having come into recent popular-
ity on account of convenience in handling. Of the two
kinds of lead arsenate, one is known as ortho, triplumbic
or neutral lead arsenate and the other as standard or
diplumbic lead arsenate. The diplumbic or acid lead is
now being employed almost to the exclusion of the ortho
or triplumbic form, although the latter is sometimes recom-
mended for more tender foliage or in regions where foliage
is likely to be burned by arsenicals. Best brands of paste
lead contain from 15 to 17 per cent of arsenic oxide, while
powdered forms usually contain approximately double that
amount, the 50 per cent water-content having been
removed. Two pounds paste or 1 pound arsenate of lead to
50 gallons of water are standard strengths. Before the
lead is added to the spray-tank, it should be made into a
thin paste by the addition of water or preferably reduced
to a solution in 3 or 4 gallons of water. Particular atten-
tion should be given to mixing the powdered forms so that
the suspension will be complete. Strengths of less than 2
pounds of paste lead arsenate to 50 gallons of water have
not as a rule given satisfaction. ‘At present a number of
experiments are being conducted in the Northwest in
240 The Commercial Apple Industry
which arsenate of lead is being used 3 and even 4 pounds
paste to 50 gallons of water. Where the codlin-moth is
becoming a more serious menace, it is thought that by
increasing the dosage, quicker killing effects may be
secured and the loss from later stings may be reduced.
Paris green is an arsenical poison which has been largely
superseded by arsenate of lead, the latter having proved
more adhesive, more compatible with other spray materials
and less likely to cause burning. Paris green is not widely
used in any commercial apple region.
Calcium arsenate is being tried out in many parts of
the United States and, although more or less in an experi-
mental state of development, has given some promise, par-
ticularly when used on apples under eastern conditions
where codlin-moth infestation is not serious. The pow-
dered forms contain 42 to 45 per cent of arsenic-oxide and
the paste forms 17 to 20 per cent. When employed alone
in the Northwest, some burning resulted. The addition of
paste lime at the rate of 2 or 3 pounds of stone lime to 50
gallons of water is considered a wise precaution against
burning. Combination of lime-sulfur, summer strength,
with calcium arsenate has thus far proved satisfactory.
Calcium arsenate has not been widely employed in any
commercial apple region, although it is being tested by
many growers at present. Commercial forms lack the
smoothness and fineness which characterizes the well-
known brands of arsenate. It is not improbable that the
physical properties of commercial calcium arsenate can be
greatly improved. Experiments have thus far given some
promise. Complete results of thorough trial and demon-
stration will be awaited with interest. Although it has
not yet demonstrated the quick-killing properties of lead,
y
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control. 241
calcium arsenate is cheaper pound for pound than lead and
this may cause its ultimate introduction in the East where
codlin-moth infestation is not the menace which it is in
most irrigated regions. Calcium arsenate is still in the
experimental stage.
Arsenite of zine is a quick-acting poison which in pow-
dered form contains about 40 per cent arsenic-oxide. It
is used in tussock moth control in the Pajaro Valley or
Watsonville district, California, but on account of its tend-
ency to burn it has not been employed elsewhere.
For sucking insects, contact sprays.
Inquid lime-sulfur has become the standard dormant or
winter spray for apples. It is a combination insecticide
and fungicide chiefly valuable for its effectiveness against
San José scale and certain other insects as well as against
fungous diseases. It is to be preferred to any of the
present forms of so-called dry lime-sulfur. For full win-
ter strength, 1 to 8 is generally accepted as the proper rate
of dilution. This rate applies to the concentrated com-
mercial lime-sulfur testing 33° Baume. Weaker solu-
tions should be diluted accordingly. The table of dilu-
tion on the next page will serve as guide.
For summer sprays, particularly for apple-scab, a weak
solution of lime-sulfur is widely employed alone or in com-
bination with nicotine and arsenate of lead. The strength
at which summer applications of lime-sulfur cause burning
varies with the season and the climatic conditions. Lime
sulfur has been used 1 to 10 in summer without injurious
effects to the fruit or foliage. Again a dilution of 1 to 30
may cause foliage burning. It is generally accepted that
1 to 35 for the pink spray and later summer application
242 The Commercial Apple Industry
TaBLe XIT
Dmution TaBLE For Concentratep Lime-Sutrur So.utions
Number gallons concentrated lime-sulfur
to make 50 gallons spray solution.
Deere Sie Summer or | Winter or dormant strength.
0118; =
atone, | Sengoss” |) Bllter
36 1.330 1% 5% 4%
35 1.318 1% 5% 5 ’
34 1.306 1% 6 5
33 1.295 1% 6% 5%
32 1.283 1% 6% 5%
31 1.272 1% 65% 5%
30 1.261 1% 7 6 oh
' 99 1.250 1% ™ 6%
28 1.239 1% 7% 61%
27 1,229 2 8. 6%
26 1.218 2 8 7%
25 1.208 2 8 7%
24 1.198 — 2% 9 8
23 1.188 2% 9 8%
22 1.179 2% 10 8%
21 1.169 2% 11 9%
20 1.160 | 2% 11% 9%
is a safe and effective dilution. Excessively hot days
should be avoided in summer spraying with lime-sulfur.
In the Middle West, Bordeaux mixture is very often pre-
ferred to lime-sulfur for the late summer sprays on account
of its great effectiveness against blotch and _ bitter-rot.
Some feel also that Bordeaux is less likely to cause burning.
Home-made lime-sulfur solution.— It has been demon- -
strated that the preparation at home of a lime-sulfur solu-
tion is practicable and very ‘often economical. When a
grower has less than four or five acres of orehard, it is prob-
ably advisable for him to buy the commercial lime-sulfur,
since it is usually.superior to the home-made; furthermore,
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 248
considerable difficulties attend the manufacture of lime-
sulfur in small quantities. If the grower is operating a
large orchard, or if several smaller growers can codperate
as is done. in many instances, it is very often advisable for
them to manufacture their own solution. The materials
for making are: lime, use only fresh lump lime, free from
foreign substances and containing at least 90 per cent cal-
cium oxide and not over 5 per cent magnesium oxide;
sulfur, either flowers of sulfur or commercial sulfur finely
ground. Various appliances may be used for cooking lime-
sulfur concentrates. .A large iron kettle raised from the
. ground on loose stones, or kettles imbedded in masonry are
suggested. When considerable amount of spray material
is needed, a more elaborate plant will be practicable.
Cooking with steam is the most satisfactory method and
with a larger plant the installation of a boiler is advisable.
A twelve-horse boiler will furnish sufficient steam for a
cooker of 300 gallons capacity. Iron cooking vessels are
usually preferable to wooden on account of danger of leak
in the latter. The hydrometer is necessary for testing the
density of the final solution. Table XII should be fol-
lowed in making dilutions.
Preparation of home-made lime-sulfur solution.—
Formula ~
Fresh stone lime ..........--+--+- 50 pounds
Commercial ground sulfur ....... 100 pounds:
Water ...... so URE a a aha ofan le 50 gallons
Place the desired quantity of lime in the cooker or
slaking-box, ‘then add water (preferably hot, since hot
water slakes the lime more quickly). Care should be
244 The Commercial Apple Industry
taken to use enough water to prevent too violent slaking
or burning, although too much water is objectionable,
since this will drown the lime. Mix the sulfur to a thin
paste and add the lime, then the desired quantity of water.
After the full amount of water has been added, the cook-
ing-vat should be marked or a notched stick used to show
the original amount of water. Keep adding hot water
from time to time to replace that which has evaporated. —
The solution should not be allowed to boil down stronger ‘
than one-half gallon to each pound of sulfur, nor should
there ever be much of an excess of water. The solution
should be boiled for at least forty-five minutes but not
longer than one hour. It is important that boiling should
proceed vigorously and that the mixture should be stirred
constantly. After the lime-sulfur solution has been made,
it should be strained in order that the undissolved particles
‘may be removed. Straining should be through an iron
wire (never copper) 30 to 50 mesh to the inch. The solu-
tion should be allowed to cool before being tested with a
hydrometer. If the solution is left exposed, a film of
oil should be poured over the surface to exclude the air.
It is highly important that all home-made lime-sulfur be
tested with the hydrometer, otherwise the grower is merely
guessing as to the strength of the spray. The sediment
obtained in the manufacture of home-made lime-sulfur will
be useful in painting the trunks of the trees.
Nicotine solution is recognized as a standard contact
insecticide for summer spraying. It is particularly effect-
ive against aphids and may be used without injury to the
foliage. A solution of nicotine sulfate containing 40 per
cent nicotine such as Black Leaf 40 is the common com-
mercial form. Proper dilution is given at 1 to 800 and
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 245
1 to 1,000. Soap should be added at the rate of 2 or 3
pounds to 50 gallons to increase the spreading and adhesive
qualities of the spray. Nicotine may be used in combina-
tion with lead arsenate, lime-sulfur or both.
Miscible oils——‘“ Miscible” or “soluble” oils have
come into considerable use as dormant sprays, particularly
in the West where they have been found a satisfactory
treatment for badly encrusted San José scale. The misci-
ble oils have a tendency to spread after they have been
applied and for that reason are particularly effective
against scale insects. Home-made emulsions are used to
some extent in California where the crude oils can be pur-
chased cheaply. The question of injury resulting from
continued oil spraying is disputed. It is advisable to make
dormant oil spray in the late winter rather than in the fall.
If oil sprays can be applied in the spring just previous to
the swelling of the buds, preferably on sunny days, the
. danger of injuring the trees will be minimized. When
hard water is being used for spraying, it is desirable to add
1 to 2 pounds of soda to each spray tank.
So-called dry lime-sulfur— The active and killing
ingredients of lime-sulfur determine the value of these
sprays. The following table gives the relative cost of this
liquid versus dry lime-sulfur compounds measured in
terms of active sulfur. The comparison in this table is in
favor of the liquid lime-sulfur. In lime-sulfur (dry), thé
active sulfur costs $18.90 for 100 pounds; in soda-sulfur
$14.03 for 100 pounds, and liquid lime-sulfur only $8.03
for 100 pounds. The inference is clear that lime-sulfur
solution is a much more economical form than the so-
called dry lime-sulfur or soda-sulfur.
'
246 The Commercial Apple Industry
Taste XIII
Dry Sutrur Preparation vs. Lime-Sutrur SoLution
Insecticide and Fungicide Laboratory, Agricultural Experiment
Station, University of California. (Berkeley), Nov. 1918.
a one eeuae equiva-
Material. autfur. sativa a wean
(Approx. ) sulfur. solution.
1 gallon weighs
Lime-sulfur solution (33 B.) 26% $8.03 10.78 Tbs.
Average retail price $11.26
per barrel.
Soda-sulfur ............... 57% $14.03 49
Average retail price $8.00
per cwt,
Lime-sulfur (dry) ......... 55% $18.90 5.0 “
Average retail price $10.40
per ewt. '
.
Spreaders for the different insecticides.
The use of spreaders in securing a more uniform coating
of spray is attracting considerable interest among experi-
menters and fruit-growers. Three so-called spreaders are
more or less well known:
(1) Glue — 1 to 2 ounces to 50 gallons.
(2) Flour cas 2 pounds flour reduced to paste, to
50 gallons of water.
(3) Soap—2 pounds liquid soap to 50 gallons of
water. Other soaps such as fish-oil, rosin or
common laundry soap may be used at the same
rate.
The use of soap with nicotine solutions is generally
accepted as highly beneficial. Soap should not be used
with lime-sulfur, however, but is compatible with arsenate
PLATE XV.— Upper, The tent caterpillar, nest and young cater-
pillars on wild cherry; frequently found in the apple. Lower,
Rosy apple aphis and its effect on the foliage and fruit of the
anvle.
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 247
of lead and is highly recommended in combination with
Bordeaux. The other spreaders named, glue and flour
paste, are being used with arsenicals, but their status has
not yet been definitely determined. It is thought that
they may increase the spreading tendencies and effect a
more uniform coating of these arsenic stomach poisons.
ate
Lime-sulfur has been treated on the preceding pages, as
it is both an insecticide and fungicide.
Bordeaux mixture.— The standard formula for Bor-
deaux mixture is as follows:
Copper sulfate (bluestone) ........ 4 pounds |
Fresh stone lime .............0005- 4 pounds
W Alen Lose tees ona ueee eo ecta ues 50 gallons
Dissolve the bluestone and slake the lime separately with
water. Bluestone may be conveniently dissolved by plac-
ing it in a burlap sack and suspending the sack in the upper
part of a barrel or other receptacle filled with water.
Stock solutions of this material may be made by dissolving
1 pound bluestone in 1 gallon of water and diluting to the
required strength when ready for use. It is not advisable
to make up in advance large amounts of this solution that
cannot be used within a period of a few days. Nothing
but wooden or earthen containers should be employed
since copper sulfate (bluestone) reacts when brought in
contact with metal ware of any kind. In slaking the lime,
cover with just enough water to start slaking, then add
water to prevent too rapid action and heating. Work the
lime into a paste and dilute at the rate of 1 pound of lime
248 The Commercial Apple Industry
to 1 gallon of water for stock solution. When ready for
use, 4 gallons of stock solution will represent 4 pounds of
stone lime, sufficient for 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture
spray. When the mixture of lime and bluestone is to be
made, it is a wise precaution to pour the two solutions
simultaneously into the third receptacle in order that they
will mix freely while going into the spray-tank or third
receptacle. A strainer should be used when filling the
spray-tank. Bordeaux mixture is the standard fungicide
for bitter-rot and for blotch in the Middle West, and is
used double strength in the fall for anthracnose.
Finely divided sulfur.— There are a number of finely
divided sulfur compounds on the market known as atomic
sulfur, “milled” sulfur and by similar trade names.
Greater adhesion and greater spreading qualities are
claimed for these compounds. They are used against the
powdery-mildew in some of the orchard regions of the
Pacific Coast.
CHAPTER XI
FRUIT SETTING AND POLLINATION
One of the most important phases of the orchard prob-
lem is pollination. Without this, fruit does not set and
crops are impossible. Broadly speaking, there are two
phases of the problem: (1) The primary effect of pollin-
ation, that is the fertilization of the pistils of the flower so
that the bloom is capable of setting fruit; and (2) the
secondary effect of cross-pollination about which much has
been written, but about which there is still little definite
information. In a study of the secondary effect of pollin-
ation such questions arise as what effect Baldwin pollen
will have on the McIntosh apple or how the cross-pollina-
tion among certain varieties will affect the form, size,
flavor or color of the fruit.
Many varieties are known to be self-sterile. This term
is applied to varieties which are unable to set fruit without
the aid of pollen from another variety. Here attention is
called to the fact that pollen from a different tree of the
same variety does not constitute cross-pollination, An
indication of self-sterility is the continued dropping of
young fruit from isolated trees or from trees in solid
blocks of the same variety. Self-sterility is not a constant
character with any variety. The same variety may be
self-sterile in one region and nearly self-fertile in another.
Emphasis is placed on the fact that local conditions greatly
249
250 The Commercial Apple Industry
influence self-sterility or self-fertility, Poorly nourished
trees are more likely to be self-sterile than well nourished
ones.
Imperfect pollination is more often due to other causes
than the absence of suitable varieties for cross-pollination.
Furthermore, it is not always necessary to have a heavy set
of bloom to secure a heavy yield of fruit. It is well known
that under normal conditions if 4 to 7 per cent of the blos-
soms set fruit in a good bloom year, a large crop of fruit is
insured. If 10 per cent of the blossoms set fruit when the
bloom is heavy, it is an indication of a very large crop.
ie ane
These facts do not minimize the importance of pollination,
however, and it is highly important that every care should
be taken to insure proper fertilization of the flowers.
While the benefits of cross-fertilization are recognized as
important in all plant-breeding work, the experimental
data on the secondary effect of pollination are so contra-
dictory as not to offer a field for definite discussion. The
results of experiments to determine the effect of cross-
pollination on color, form and flavor of the fruit have been
largely negative. For that reason, this discussion will be
largely confined to the primary effect of pollination.
CAUSES FOR THE FAILURE TO SET FRUIT
Failure of blossoms to set fruit properly is not by any
means due in all cases to imperfect pollination. Many
factors other than this affect the set of fruit and are more
often the cause of light crops. Among the factors causing
a light set of fruit are:
1. Fruit-spurs and trees may be weak on account of a
lack of proper nourishment. When trees are starved for
proper plant-food or when it is not made available by good
{
Fruit Setting and Pollination 251
soil management, the fruit-spurs become weak and fail to
set fruit-buds which have sufficient vitality to develop into
fruit. This often accounts for the crop failure of old trees
making little annual growth. In such cases, lack of proper
nourishment is more often the cause of unfruitfulness than
lack of cross-pollination.
2. Insects and diseases prevalent at blooming time may
cause a poor set of fruit. Some of. the bloom is often
destroyed outright by various diseases, particularly apple
scab, anthracnose, or blight. Many blossoms may be
ruined in their early development by the attacks of insects.
3. Extreme vegetative vigor of the tree on account of an
excess of certain elements of plant-food may detract from
fruitfulness. Often when a tree is growing too vigorously,
it runs largely to wood growth and sets very few blossoms
and even these are shed as soon as the blooming period is
past. Excessive amounts of nitrate or manure. when
applied to orchards already making good growth often
over-stimulate wood growth to the point at which the trees
are almost barren. Furthermore, in such cases the fruit-
buds go into the winter in an immature condition with less
chance of escaping winter-injury. Most experimenters
agree that wood growth can not keep up vigorously during
the entire season without sacrificing a healthy set of fruit-
buds.
4. Drought injury to trees may prevent the development
of fruit-buds. It has been noted that when excessively
long droughts occur, trees produce very little bloom the fol-
lowing season. The weakening influence of the drought
prevents the formation of fruit-buds with sufficient vitality
to form fruit. In such cases the tree requires all its
energy to repair vegetative growth, and even'though it may
252 The Commercial Apple Industry
bloom profusely the blossoms are so weak that they fail to
set fruit.
5. Winter-injury to fruit-buds may occur. The apple
ordinarily does not suffer greatly from winter-killing of
fruit-buds. In the case of most varieties, the fruit-buds
are no more sensitive to winter-killing than the tree itself.
However, the vitality of the buds may unquestionably be
affected by the character of the winter, particularly if the
relative humidity is low. Dry atmosphere and soil are
more often the cause of injury to fruit-buds than extreme
cold.
6. The buds or bloom may be injured by late spring
frosts. Often buds are injured by frost before bloom and
if not killed outright are so weakened as to be unable to
set fruit. Fortunately, when freezes occur before bloom,
there are usually some buds which are not so far advanced
as others and which for this reason escape injury. Severe
killing frosts are those which occur when. the trees are in
full bloom or just as the bloom is being shed. Frost at
this time may so impair the fruiting organs as to cause
dropping of the fruit after it has once set. rd
7. Some varieties have an inherent inability to set fruit,
although grown under favorable conditions and blooming
profusely. These varieties are more frequently home
orchard sorts and seldom trouble the commercial orchardist.
8. The last and one of the most important factors which
affect the proper set of fruit is pollination. Proper pol-
lination is usually dependent on one or some combination
of six different factors: (a) In the case of self-sterile or
partially self-sterile varieties, proper pollination can not
take place unless other suitable varieties are present for
pollinizers. (b) An absence of insects or other agents
Fruit Setting and Pollination 253
may prevent pollination. Bees are almost essential.
Other insects may be useful, but none is as active in carry-
ing pollen from flower to flower. The importance of delay-
ing the calyx application of lead arsenate until most of the
petals have fallen is now emphasized by most horticultur-
ists as a precaution against poisoning bees. Much has
been said about the importance of wind as a pollinizing
agent, useful in carrying the pollen from blossom to blos-
som and from tree to tree and much effort has been
expended in determining its effectiveness. Most author-
ities agree that fully 99 per cent of all fertilized blossoms
owe pollination to bees or other insects and Jess than 1 per
cent to the wind. As a direct agency, therefore, wind has
very little effect as far as carrying pollen is concerned. It
may, however, prevent bees from working on the windy
side of the tree and thereby cause a lighter set of fruit on
the exposed than on the sheltered side. (c) Rain or cold
weather is a factor affecting pollination. Cold, wet or
damp weather during the blooming period often checks
the activity of bees and sometimes prevents the germina-
tion and causes decomposition, or devitalization, of the
“pollen-grains. Unfavorable weather at blooming is a very
important factor in reducing the set of fruit, particularly
through the central western states, and often in the East.
(d) Very hot and dry weather may also prevent proper
pollination, particularly if accompanied by wind. Excess-
ive heat may injure the stamens so seriously that they can
not properly mature their pollen or it may cause dehiscence
of the anthers before the pollen matures. (e) Excessively
windy weather. Strong winds, particularly if accom-
panied by rain are very injurious to the blossoms. The
rain is likely to wash away the pollen-grains and strong
254 The Commercial Apple Industry
winds prevent the activity of bees. In very hot weather
high winds may so entirely dry up the fluid secreted by the
stigma as to make germination of the pollen-grains impos-
sible. (f£) Spraying in full bloom., Injury is caused and
pollination is sometimes prevented if trees are sprayed in
full bloom before pollination has taken place.
The above discussion outlines some of the influences
affecting the set of fruit. It now becomes important to
consider mixed varieties with relation to cross-pollination.
it is generally recognized that too much emphasis was
formerly placed on the advisability of mixing varieties in
order to aid in pollination. As a result, many orchards
were set with mixed varieties when two or three well
selected kinds would have provided for cross-pollination
and would have been a much more desirable arrangement
from a commercial standpoint. The orchardist too often
proceeded on the theory that if a few different varieties
were advisable as pollinizers, many were the more desir-
able. As a matter of fact, one variety which is a good
pollinizer may serve exactly as well as a score. The much
discussed secondary effects of pollination should not be
allowed too greatly to influence the planting of pollinizers.
The direct effects of crossing certain varieties have not been
established. Variations in the characteristics of different
apples are now more generally attributed to bud variation
than to cross-pollination. It is generally conceded that
flavor, quality or color of apples is not directly affected by
the cross-pollinating variety.
This should in no way be construed as an argument.
against cross-pollination, for in the case of the self-sterile
or partially self-sterile varieties it is absolutely essential.
Cross-pollination may effect the size of fruit and may
Fruit Setting and Pollination 255
increase the set. Darwin states: “‘ Nature abhors self-
fertilization.”
ESSENTIALS FOR A GOOD POLLINIZER
The following points should be considered in selecting
varieties for pollination: (1) Not more than one row in
six is necessary to insure certainty of proper pollination
under normal weather conditions and in the presence of
_pollinizing agents. However, attention is called to the
fact that varieties to be handled economically should occur
in plantings of at least two or three rows. (2) Varieties
should bloom at the same time. This is clearly necessary,
otherwise the pollen of one variety would be entirely gone
before the other bloomed, making cross-pollination impossi-
ble. (8) Varieties must have an affinity for each other;
that is to say, the pollen of one must be acceptable to the
pistils of the other. It is well in this connection to men-
tion the fact that pears will not serve to pollinate apples
or vice-versa. (4) Varieties must be good pollen-pro-
ducers. If varieties which produce little pollen are
_ planted with those producing abundant pollen, the former
but not the latter will be benefited. It is important here
to mention that Winesap is a very shy pollen-producer and
should not be planted for the purpose of pollinating other
varieties. (5) Varieties should come into bearing at
about the same age. Such kinds as the Northern Spy
would not immediately serve as pollinizers for the Wagener
or Twenty Ounce, since the former is an extremely late
bearer. (6) The varieties should be commercial. While
this is not at all necessary so far as cross-pollination is
concerned, it is highly important from a commercial stand-
point. It is clearly inadvisable to plant non-commercial
256 The Commercial Apple Industry
varieties as pollinizers when so many good commercial
sorts are readily available.
It is important in any discussion of pollination to name
some of the varieties which are known as uncertain or self-
sterile as well as some of those known as self-fertile.
Cross-pollination with some other variety is usually advis-
able, since in most cases it increases the set of fruit.
UNCERTAIN OR SELF-STERILE DEPENDABLE OR SELF-FERTILE
VARIETIES. VARIETIES.
“Arkansas Ben Davis
Tompkins King Baldwin
Grimes Oldenburg
Jonathan Rhode Island Greening
Gravenstein Yellow Transparent
Northern Spy Yellow Newtown
Ortley
Red Limbertwig
Rome Beauty
Esopus
“Twenty Ounce
Winesap
The following varieties are grouped according to their
desirability for securing best results in pollination. Each
column contains those which are well pollinated by any
one or more of the varieties in the same column. Certain
limitations should be placed on this table, since in certain
localities some compatible kinds bloom too early to pollin-
ate later-blooming varieties. However, the pollen of each
has an affinity for the pistil of the varieties in the same
column.
Fruit Setting and Pollination 257
I II
Arkansas Black Wealthy
Baldwin Rome Beauty
Ben Davis Yellow Transparent
Gano Yellow Bellflower
Grimes White Winter Pearmain
Jonathan Winesap
McIntosh Willow Twig
Yellow Newtown Wagener
Northern Spy Esopus
Ortley
Gravenstein
Oldenburg
Red Astrachan
Many other varieties might be named, but these lists
contain a sufficient number to satisfy the commercial
grower. If a region is particularly adapted to a combina-
tion of any two or three commercial sorts, they may be
interplanted with great success without detracting from
the very important practice of limiting the number to a
few commercial varieties. At the same time such com-
binations will insure abundant opportunity for proper
cross-pollination.
CHAPTER XII-
PRUNING AND THINNING
Prunine will always remain a field for independent and
individual study. No other orchard practice has aroused
in the minds of fruit-growers and horticulturists greater
variance in opinion. While investigators and observers
are in accord on many of the principles of pruning, their
application must always remain, to some extent, an indi-
vidual problem. An apple-grower would do well to study
pruning in the most productive orchards of his community
and observe the system that has been practiced on the best
and most productive trees.
It is the purpose to give a brief description of the
several pruning practices in use in the more important
fruit-producing sections and to state briefly the advantages
and disadvantages of such practices.
Before planting, the ends of all broken or injured roots
should be removed. This is done not with the idea of
shortening the roots, but with the view of leaving smooth
_ rather than broken and ragged root ends. Occasionally
a few roots may be removed so as to avoid crowding and
secure better distribution of the root system.
Since a large proportion of the root system is removed
when the tree is taken from the nursery, it is necessary to
remove a portion of the top to restore a proper balance
between the root system and top. Again, the removal of
258
ig
Pruning and Thinning 259
a portion of the top determines
the height of head and encourages
the formation of a stocky and vig-
orous framework.
The height of heading will vary
with the type of training to be fol-
lowed and the locality. Lower
heading is practiced with the open
center type of tree than with the
leader or modified types, as is CH
pointed out elsewhere in this chap- Fic. 4—Showing
‘ter. In those sections in which framework of a young
: wpa Jonathan tree. The
sun-seald is prevalent, it is neces- trunk ia too short and
sary to head lower than where this _the branches too nearly
trouble is not a factor. The © zontal.
height of heading apples at planting time may thus vary
from 20 to 36 inches. (See Fig. 4.)
TYPES OF TRAINING APPLE TREES
All pruning practices are applied with the idea of
developing the type of tree suited to the local conditions
or conforming to the ideas of the individual. The prun-
ing given trees during the first few years may be referred
to as training. There are several methods of training
apple trees, those in common use in commercial regions
throughout the United States being: The “ natural form” ;
the “central leader” type; the “open center,” or “vase-
shaped ” tree; the “ double headed” type; and the “ mod-
ified leader,” or “ modified open center ”’ tree. .
260 The Commercial Apple Industry -
4,
Natural form.
This system of training has been followed largely in the
old orchards of New York, New England and some of
the middle western states, and by growers generally who
had no definite type in mind. Very little pruning is
required as compared with other methods of training.
The top ordinarily consists of a cluster of branches spring-
ing from one point and forming a round head. The pruner
merely | removes crowding and crossing branches and limits
the number of main branches. In the more humid
climates, later pruning is confined to the removal of cross-
ing and crowding branches and to the shortening of way-
ward branches for the purpose of maintaining tree bal-
ance. In the drier climates of the Middle West, all the
branches are usually headed back for the first few years
in order to encourage stockiness.
Advantages.
_ 1. Most simple type of training and work may be done by
unskilled. men.
Disadvantages.
1. Too many main branches are frequently left, resulting in
crowding and overlapping main branches.
2. Splitting at the crotches is not uncommon.
3. Frequently main branches are not stocky enough to sup-
port loads of fruit in natural positions, the result being over-
lapping branches and much poorly colored fruit.
4. Uneven distribution of fruiting wood is not uncommon
when trees become mature.
5. Trees in the orchard lack uniformity.
6. Trees of this type often require heroic treatment later on.
PLaTe XVI.— Diseases of the apple. 1, Bitter-rot on Pippin showing spots
and red specks. 2, Sooty-fungus and fly-speck. 3, Apples affected with the
scab fungus. 4, Leaf affected with apple-scab.
Pruning and Thinning 261
Central leader system.
By this method one central
leader is allowed to develop year
after year until its increasing
height is naturally checked as the
tree begins fruiting. Such lat-
eral branches are allowed to re-
main as will not crowd and will
give the best distribution and bal-
ance in later years. The lateral
branches are considerably smaller
than the central leader and strong
unions are formed. While this
system of pruning has never been
widely practiced by commercial Fic. 5—A well
fruit-growers, it has had some pruned young Jonathan
. r tree trained to the cen-
popularity, especially for dwarfs tral jeader form.
and certain varieties such as the
Jonathan and members of the Ben Davis group. (See
Fig. 5.)
Advantages.
1. Strong trees are produced. Crotches seldom split apart.
2. Great skill is not required to inaugurate and adhere to
this type of pruning. ;
3. Trees like the Rhode Island Greening and Jonathan with
tendencies to develop low drooping side branches lend them-
selves to the method.
Disadvantages.
1. It is difficult to keep trees opened up sufficiently to permit
light to penetrate to the inner parts.
2. Trees usually become too high thereby making orchard
operations more difficult and expensive.
262 The Commercial Apple Industry
Open center, or vase-shape (Fig. 6).
The open center type of train-
ing was the first definite system
generally advocated after commer-
cial apple-growing became estab-
lished in this country on a highly
specialized basis. It was for a
time quite generally adopted by
fruit-growers in all sections of the
United States as the ideal method
of training and is still advocated
eae ee by some professional horticultur- ,
sively pruned young De- ists and is practiced by many
ae Be aa a fruit-growers. The development
of certain weaknesses in the
strictly vase-shaped tree has led to a modification of this
type of pruning, however.
In starting an open center tree, one-year-old whips are
usually headed at 20 to 26 inches at planting time. The
following winter or spring three to five well distributed
branches are usually chosen to form the permanent frame-
work of the tree, the leader being removed the first year.
The three to five main branches growing outward and
upward give the vase-like shape to the tree. After the first
season’s growth, all the leaders are cut back heavily to
approximately the same height. Equal cutting is con-
tinued each year until the framework is completed, in order
that no one of the main scaffold branches may attain prom-
inence over the other. The center is kept sufficiently open
to permit the penetration of light throughout the tree.
The result is a spreading low-headed tree, sufficiently open
to permit good coloring of the fruit.
\
Pruning and Thinning 263
It is usually customary to remove some 50 to 60 per cent
of the first year’s growth on each of the selected scaffold
branches, provided the tree has made a vigorous growth.
However, as previously mentioned, all of the scaffold
branches should be cut back to approximately the same
height, measured from the ground. In the succeeding
year, two secondary branches are usually selected on each
primary branch, the others being removed. The next year
these secondary branches are usually shortened by the
removal of about 40 per cent of the season’s growth.
However, the secondary branches should not be left shorter
than a foot. ‘
Pruning during the succeeding two or three seasons is
along similar lines, except that the amount of heading back
is lessened each year, provided the tree does not make too
rank a growth.
Advantages of the vase-shaped tree.
1. The penetration of light and air is permitted to all parts
of the top, which results in a high percentage of functioning
fruiting wood and much highly colored fruit.
2. The method results in a low, spreading, well balanced tree.
’ 3. The type and form is easily established and maintained.
4. The ideal may be closely approached with every one-year-
old whip.
Disadvantages.
1. The trees are often structurally weak, due to the fact that
the scaffold branches frequently issue from practically the same
point, thus leaving weak crotches.
9. Artificial supports are frequently necessary to avoid split-
ting at the crotches when the trees reach bearing age.
3. When one main or scaffold branch splits off, the other
264 The Commercial Apple Industry
scaffold branches are weakened at the crotches and “further
breaking usually follows.
4. If one main branch splits off, the balance of the tree is
permanently injured.
5. The amount of bearing wood is limited.
os
The double-headed type.
In this type of leader tree, developed in New York and
West Virginia and in use there, two whorls of main
branches or scaffolds are used and the framework is formed
by six or eight branches arranged along two or three feet of
a strong central stem. If a one-year-old whip is planted,
the heading is done at about 24 to 36 inches, which leaves
the lowest scaffold branch about 20 to 30 inches from the
ground. After the first year’s growth and before growth
starts the following spring, three or at most four well dis-
tributed branches are selected and all others removed.
The remaining branches excepting the leader are headed
back to 14 to 16 inches in length. The leader or upright
branch is left with 16 to 18 inches of new growth.
After the second season’s growth has been made, two
secondary branches are selected on each primary branch
except the leader and the others are removed. These
secondary branches are then headed back to 18 or 20
inches in length. Long willowy branches are headed back
even more severely. The second year’s growth on the
leader is removed with the exception of the most upright
development and any short spurs. About 16 to 18 inches
of the new growth of the leader is left. This leaves the
leader extending 214 to 3 feet above the first scaffold.
After the third season’s growth, the lateral main
branches and their secondary growth are handled in a
Pruning and Thinning R65
manner similar to that following the second season’s
growth, except that the heading back is less severe. It is
after the third year that the second story of scaffold
branches is started from the central leader at a distance of
about 30 to 40 inches above the first set of branches.
Three or four laterals are selected for this upper story and
the others are removed. The second story scaffold branches
are then treated like the first ones were two years earlier. .
The upward growth of the leader is now suppressed and
the tree is continued with an open center. It is sometimes
advisable to add a third story.
Advantages. ,
1. The system results in a strong tree since the lateral
branches are smaller than the central leader and therefore do
not form weak crotches, ag are likely to occur when all of the
main branches are of equal size.
2. The weight of the tree is distributed among six to eight
main branches well placed on a central trunk rather than among
three or four branches as is the case in open center trees.
3. The trees have a greater bearing surface than do open
eenter trees, since the space in the center is more completely
occupied.
4, Sufficient light and air are permitted to all parts of the
tree since on the discontinuance of the central leader above the
second scaffold the top then assumes some of the characteristics
of a strictly open center tree.
5. A rather low spreading top is secured and at the same time
a somewhat larger tree than under the open center system.
Disadvantages.
1. In practice there is a tendency for growers to leave too
many scaffold branches and thereby create a crowded condition.
2. There is danger of either the upper or lower set of scaffold
branches becoming dominant unless the pruner uses skill and
good judgment in maintaining the proper tree balance.
~
266 The Commercial Apple Industry
The modified leader tree.
In Teaching from the two extremes embodied in the
strictly “vase-shaped ” tree and the central leader type,
many commercial apple-growers in the leading producing
regions have adopted the “ modified leader ” system, thus
appropriating the best features in both extreme types. As
the name implies, this system develops a tree of a modified
leader type.
Starting with a whip headed at 30 to 36 inches, four to
seven scaffold branches well distributed along a central
trunk after’the fashion of an as-
cending spiral are permitted to re-
main and form the framework of
the tree.| It is impossible to se
cure all of these branches from a
single season’s growth, from two to
three being selected the first year
and the remainder later. The per-
manent framework may not be se-
cured short of three or four years.
"Fie. 7.—Mature Jon. O2e point to be remembered is
-athan tree with com- that scaffold branches should be
aa type of frame spaced well apart. Branches that
are only two or three inches apart
will be entirely too close when the tree reaches maturity.
Some growers prefer scaffold branches one foot apart.
(See Fig. 7.)
The leader is permitted to develop during the first three
or four years while the framework branches are being
selected. The first year’s growth will usually consist of an
almost upright branch together with several laterals. It
may be possible to select two or even three well distributed
Pruning and Thinning 267
scaffold branches after the first year. All others except
the leader are removed and the remaining branches are cut
back. In order that the leader may dominate for a time,
it is left somewhat longer than the other branches. On
vigorous trees as much as 40 to 50 per cent of the leader
is removed and from 50 to 60 per cent of the laterals.
The whole question of heading back*is a subject of varied
opinion which will be discussed later.
Additional laterals will develop during the second year.
One or two desirable scaffold branches may then be added
to the framework. The leader and selected laterals are
treated in the manner described for the year previous,
although heading back is usually less severe.
The system is continued during the third and if neces-
sary even to a fourth or fifth year. When suitable scaffold
branches have been developed, the leader is removed and
there remains a tree with central trunk about six or seven
feet high along which are spaced three to six or even more
main laterals extending outward and upward in all direc-
tions at intervals possibly of 10 to 12 inches.
Advantages.
1. This system of training results in a strong tree since the
central leader is larger than the main or scaffold branches, thus
leaving strong unions, which are not likely to result in split-
ting.
4 The weight of the tree is distributed along a trunk and
among several main branches rather than among three or four
branches with no central axis as is the case in open center trees.
3. The system encourages a good distribution of main
branches about and along the central axis.
4. Should one main branch break or be lost because of disease,
there is still a sufficient number from which laterals may be grown
to fill the opening and thus preserve the tree balance.
268 The Commercial Apple Industry
5. Trees trained in this manner have a large capacity for
fruiting. ©
6. Light and air are admitted to all parts, insuring fruit-spur
activity and highly colored fruit.
7. The resulting tree is low headed and spreading and per-
mits economical orchard operations.
Disadvantages.
1. More judgmeftt is required in building this type of tree
than any of the others. Untrained labor cannot be trusted with
the shaping of the trees.
2. There is danger of some main branches, especially the
upper ones, outgrowing the lower ones, thereby suppressing the
latter to such an extent that they no longer serve as main or
scaffold branches.
3. When building the young tree, pruners are apt to leave
the leader too long or too short as compared with the laterals,
thus destroying proper balance.
GENERAL TREATMENT OF YOUNG TREES
The foregoing has been a general description of the dif-
ferent types of trees, but the reader has. gained little infor-
mation as to what actually is done each year during
the formative period of the tree. The amount of cutting
back and thinning out does not vary greatly with the type
of training. A more detailed discussion for the modified
leader tree will, therefore, serve for the other types as well.
After first season.
Tf there has been a vigorous growth of more than 30
inches, the scaffold branches are shortened to about 50 per
cent and the leader to 60 per cent. If growth does not
exceed 20 inches, the leader is shortened to about 14 inches
and the laterals to 10 or 12 inches. When possible, the
Pruning and Thinning 269
secondary laterals should be developed on the main scaffold
branches at a distance not closer than one foot or greater
than 20 inches from the trunk. When the scaffold limbs
make slow growth, it may be necessary to delay the develop-
ment of secondary branches by cutting back the scaffold
limbs to two or three buds.
After second season.
Heading back should be less severe after the second sea-
son’s growth. Some recommend leaving about 20 inches
new growth on the leader and about 15 inches on the scaf-
fold branches. Others think that very little heading back
should be done after this time regardless of the amount of
growth. There is a growing sentiment that trees should be
headed back very little after the second or third year. It
is of course necessary to check wayward and crossing
branches. Furthermore when growth is vigorous, heading
back may be necessary in order to encourage stockiness.
If long rangy growths are left, they will not be strong
enough to carry heavy loads of fruit in later years. Dur-
ing the first two or three years, certain of the main branches
may outgrow the others, in which case the stronger grow-
ing ones should be headed back more severely than the
weaker growing ones.
After third season.
The main laterals may be cut back lightly to about the
same length, slight predominance being given to the leader
if it is retained. When the modified leader type is
being followed, the third year may see the development
of a sufficient number of scaffold branches, If not, the
270 The Commercial Apple Industry
leader is maintained for one or more years, at which time
it is removed in order to open up the center of the tree.
Small side shoots and fruit-spurs developing in the
middle of the tree during this time should be left. Such
wood is productive of early fruit. Furthermore, an abund-
ance of foliage and small twigs are necessary to protect the
main limbs from the sun and also to aid growth. There
must be plenty of foliage and twig growth if young trees
are to produce wood.
: VEGETATIVE, TRANSITORY AND FRUITAGE STAGES
A tree may be said to pass through three distinct periods:
(1) formative period, (2) transition period, and (3) fruit-
ing period. The treatment, both in regard to pruning and
soil management, changes materially with each of these
periods. It is during the formative period that the tree
devotes its energies to the formation of wood growth. The
proper selection, distribution and training of scaffold
branches during this time determines the ability of the
tree to bear and carry heavy loads of fruit in later years.
The length of the formative period is usually from four to
six years, depending on the region and treatment provided.
Transition period.
Although less distinct, this period is critical. Between
the fifth and eighth year the tree is undergoing a change
from vegetative to heavy fruit production. The exact age
will vary with the region, variety and treatment. Some
varieties may not pass through this period until they
become ten or twelve years old. Other varieties and par-
ticularly when grown under irrigation begin to bear heav-
ily at six and seven years.
Pruning and Thinning yal
Pruning during the transition period should be light
and should consist almost entirely of thinning out, with
little or no heading back. The thinning out should be
‘ confined largely to the top and ends of the branches and to
shoot growths of the previous season. If the tree is becom-
ing too thick, two- and even three-year-old branches should
be removed.
Too often the small lateral limbs and fruiting wood
toward the center of the tree are removed, thus forcing all
the fruiting area toward the tip ends of the limbs. Again,
tops frequently become so dense that the inside spurs slough
off due to lack of sunlight and air.
The frurting period.
All pruning during this period is to develop and main-
tain a liberal supply of fruiting wood, well distributed
throughout the entire tree. This pruning will consist
largely of thinning out branches in order to maintain a
liberal supply of functioning fruit-spurs, and in order to
improve the quality of the fruit produced. Weak or way-
ward branches should be removed. The tree should be
kept open and shapely and in a vigorous growing condition.
Regular annual pruning is essential.
Fruit-buds. '
Fruit-buds may be regarded as the actual fruit manu-
facturing machinery of a tree. In case of the apple, the
fruit is borne mostly on spurs which develop from lateral
buds on the shoots of the preceding season. In certain
varieties of apples, such as Jonathan, Gravenstein, New-
town and others, much of the first crop of fruit-buds is
borne terminally on shoots. Axillary buds are also borne
va
272 The Commercial Apple Industry
on one-year-old wood, but on the side of the shoots instead
of at the tips. Spurs are nothing more than very short
branches on which terminal fruiting buds are borne every
alternate year, under favorable conditions. These buds
are usually developed from branches two years and older.
If fruit-spars are properly cared for, they may live and
produce fruit-buds in alternate seasons for at least eight
or ten years.
All lateral buds of the shoots of any one season do not
develop into spurs the following year. Some of them grow
out into new or branch shoots, many others remain dormant.
Spurs are largely developed from the large, plump, vigor-
ous lateral buds.
Having developed a large number of spurs evenly dis-
tributed throughout the tree, it is absolutely essential to
conserve this fruiting wood. In a great many cases, the
fruiting machinery toward the center of a tree fails to
produce fruit. This is due principally to the lack of sun-
shine and air, two factors on which a spur is entirely
dependent for its ability to function. The pruning, then,
should be with the idea of leaving spurs distributed
throughout the entire tree and of getting plenty of\sunlight
and air to each individual spur. This can be accomplished
by thinning out as opposed to heading back. It permits
more light to percolate through the tree and gives the
leaves in the center a better chance to manufacture the food
materials necessary for the formation of large strong fruit-
buds.
Changing system of pruning.
After the form of a tree has once been established, it is
not considered advisable to change its type unless its form
Pruning and Thinning 273
may be modified without drastic pruning. An open center
tree, for example, should be continued as such. A modi-
fied leader should not be removed in
later years in order to develop an
open center tree. The type of train-
ing should be established during the
first three years and this same style
should be followed out year after
year.
Trees four to ten years old that
have been pruned with no definite
type in view often present some very
perplexing problems. The number
and proper distribution of scaffold
branches should be definitely chosen
and part of the most objectionable
branches removed the first year. In
cases where there are a dozen main Fic. 8.— Common
branches when half that number Ce a echt
would suffice, it may be advisable to Rome Beauty un-
select only six for the permanent ees a
framework. The removal of the ob- U
jectionable branches should be distributed over a period of
two or three years, however.
Young trees which have been neglected should be cut
back rather heavily to encourage the development of good
strong laterals near the base of the limb. When heading
back has been neglected and the result has been long rangy
branches with weak lateral development, it may be neces-
sary to cut back into two- or three-year-old wood. When
a good side branch is available, it is advisable to cut back
to the side branch instead of to a bud.
Dy
FAS)
y
7S
ie
‘i
r
avd The Commercial Apple Industry
Crossing and interfering branches should be removed.
If too many long parallel limbs have developed, part of |
them should be taken out in order to allow the remainder
freer development. Two limbs which emerge from a com-
mon point usually result in a weak crotch, a condition
which can be overcome by unequal cutting, i. e. cutting one
limb heavier than the other.
\
Bearing trees.
A tree that has been handled properly up to the bearing
age, that has its framework well established, and its fruit-
ing machinery well distributed, will require little subse
quent annual pruning. As previously described, the treat-
‘ment of a bearing tree, whatever the type, will consist
largely in thinning out the new growth near the tops or
outer parts of limbs to allow a good circulation of sunlight
and air. Wayward and crossing branches should be
checked or removed.
Gardner, of the Missouri Experimental Station, likens
the fruit-spur to a factory. He refers to the spurs as
little machines. The raw materials from which fruit is
produced come from the soil and air and are manufactured
into a finished product by the leaves through the aid of
sunlight. The latter is classed as the cheapest, most
abundant and yet most valuable form of motive power..
The performance of every spur is dependent on a certain
amount of sunlight, (See Plate XVII.)
Each individual spur relies on its own leaves for the
manufacture of the starches and sugars which it uses.
It cannot draw on other nearby spurs or on other parts
of the tree for maintenance. As the manufacture of food
materials is absolutely dependent on light, the production
‘soyOUBIQ 94} JO UOTINGIIYsIp poods ayy ajoN ‘azvad ¥w sTatreq OT oqe
SOSVIOAR PUB UOSBIS 9UO UT FMA} oUY Jo STolIVy OZ se YsYy se paonposd sey v0 sy, —TT AX WvI1g
Pruning and Thinning 275
of fruit-buds and fruit is likewise dependent on sufficient
quantities of light.
Thinning out the top and outer portions, then, is the
most effective means of letting light in to each individual
spur, thereby distributing the motive power necessary to
develop activity within each individual spur and increase
the amount of fruit produced. The removal of a few
large limbs near the ground only leaves large holes and
open spaces. The cutting of lower limbs and those near
the body of the tree does not permit sunlight to enter into
the parts where it is most needed nor does it permit the
distribution of sunlight and air in sufficient quantities to
modify the functioning of fruit-spurs. Removing large
limbs leaves vacant spaces and admits sunlight in shafts
rather than allowing it to penetrate evenly throughout all
parts.
It is better to remove many small branches, in thin-
ning the outer parts of trees. This leaves the outer fruit-
ing wood evenly distributed and still open enough to
permit the entrance of sunlight and air. The removal of
small branches requires time and makes it necessary for
the pruner either to use a ladder or climb well out near
‘the ends of the main branches, but this careful work will
prove profitable.
Distribution and establishment of fruiting wood.
Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the distribution
and establishment of functioning fruiting wood throughout
the entire tree. It is not uncommon to see trees which
have been stripped of all fruiting wood except near the
ends of the branches. For example, limbs 20 to 25 feet
long bear all their fruit from within 5 or 6 feet from the
276 The Commercial Apple Industry
tip, the balance of the limb being a “ boarder ” and living
at the expense of the productive area. It is highly de-
sirable to have several well developed laterals along the
scaffold branches in order that the fruiting area may be
brought nearer the ground.
-
TIME OF PRUNING
No concrete rules can be laid down as to the best time
for pruning, as no one time will best meet all conditions.
Pruning in most sections may usually be practiced in any
favorable weather in the dormant season. ;
In the Virginias and sections of the Pacific Coast, prun-
ing is done from November to early April, while in the
New England and middle western states, most of the
work is during the spring months. Generally speaking,
a slight preference should be given to pruning in late
winter and early spring, because the wounds heal over more
readily. Many growers are prejudiced against pruning»
when the wood is frozen. Some maintain that drying out
or dying back is likely to result from early winter prun-
ing, but the writers do not know of serious injury of this
nature in bearing trees.
If one has a large acreage to prune, he should start work
in the older trees in the early winter and reserve the
younger trees for the late winter and spring pruning.
Some growers hesitate to prune when growth is about to
start in the spring, feeling that injury may result from
bleeding. However, the writers know of no serious
injury resulting from pruning apple trees at this time. .
Summer pruning has received much attention in recent
years but the results of investigations have been somewhat
confusing. Summer pruning may be practiced to advan-
2G ets ies
Pruning and Thinning R77
tage in training the framework of a young tree. It may
also increase fruit production if timed correctly. How-
ever, So many varying factors affect the time element that
it is intpossible to give exact dates at which summer
pruning may be done to increase fruit production. The
average grower should refrain from inaugurating this
practice until a better understanding is had of its effects.
Water-sprouts and a few superfluous branches may be re-
moved to advantage during the summer months.
PRUNING TOOLS
The tool equipment will vary with the man and with
the type of work. In the eastern region practically all
of the labor is done with a small hand shears and a saw.
With these two tools, a pruner can do practically all that
will be required in bearing trees and most of the work in
young trees.
Cheap shears and those with coil springs are undesir-
able. The former are easily sprung and the latter easily
broken. The shears should be 7 to 9 inches in length,
the latter usually being preferred.
A saw on which the teeth are set to cut on the “ pull”
is less tiring to the pruner. Saws with teeth on both
edges are objectionable since they frequently injure the
bark. In some sections a swivel or hack saw is used.
This type is a modification of a butcher’s saw equipped
with swivels that permit very thin, narrow, fine-toothed
blades being set on the bias. It cuts rather slowly in the
case of large limbs, but is particularly good for small cuts
and for removing limbs in tight places. The cuts made
are clean and smooth.
Pole pruners, 6 to 10 feet in length, are useful in prun-
278 / The Commercial Apple Industry
ing the tops of trees six to ten years old, but work with this
tool is slow and cutting lacks precision.
Lopping or wooden handled shears are popular for work
on young trees and also for working the lower parts of
old trees. However, their use becomes somewhat awkward
in the upper parts of bearing trees. The double leverage
type of “loppers ” is desirable, 20 to 26 inches being the
preferred length.
WOUND DRESSINGS
Some difference of opinion exists among growers as to
the practicability of the use of dressings for protecting
wounds. Certain experiments have shown that undressed
wounds healed over more rapidly than dressed ones.
However, for nearly all wounds paint is most desirable,
white lead or white zinc thinned down with linseed oil
having given the best results. Tar or creosote is some
times preferred for large wounds since these substances
are considered better preservatives than paint. The
heartwood of a large wound will have to stand many years
before it is completely healed over.
Wounds in vigorous growing trees heal over more read-
ily than those on trees of low vitality. The painting
over of cuts less than one inch in diameter is not recom-
mended.
‘
THINNING
Although practiced very extensively in some parts of
the country and particularly in the West, many growers
are slow to adopt thinning, and yet it is essential to the.
production of high-class fruit. Once a grower has care
fully thinned his fruit for a few years, he needs no further
f
)
Pruning and Thinning 279
proof of the fact that this is one of the most important
and profitable of all orchard operations.
For many years the apple-growers in the Wenatchee and
Yakima valleys, Washington, have made thinning a gen-
eral practice. Cost production studies indicate that the
largest yields and greatest profits have been secured from
well and carefully thinned orchards. The same may be
said for orchards in all other parts of the country where
this practice has been given a thorough trial. In the;
Middle West and East, however, the grower who thins his
trees is the exception rather than the rule. The cost, to-
gether with a lack of knowledge and appreciation of the
great benefits to be obtained from thinning, are the princi-
pal reasons which deter most growers from following this
practice. Unquestionably it involves considerable ex-
pense, particularly with a full bearing orchard in a heavy
crop year. A heavy outlay of expense in any single year
might be somewhat disappointing. Thinning is an oper-
ation’ incident to the production of high-class fruit. -It
should not be sporadic, but should be practiced in every
heavy crop year. When fairly competent labor may be
secured at reasonable rates, it will be profitable. As the
competition in the growing of high-class apples becomes
greater, thinning will become more and more a general
practice in every commercial region in the country.
In listing the advantages of thinning it is found that it:
(1) increases size and quality of fruit; (2) reduces hand-
ling costs such as for picking and packing; (8) prevents
overbearing and promotes vigor of tree; (4) encourages
annual bearing; (5) increases average annual yield; (6)
reduces amount of cull and low-grade fruit since inferior,
diseased, or worm-eaten apples may be removed; (7)
280 The Commercial Apple Industry
secures uniformity of size and market quality of fruit;
(8) insures a high price for crop.
(1) The statement that thinning tends to increase the
size and quality of the remaining fruit will go unques-
tioned. Not only are the apples larger, but the color of
fruit on well thinned trees is noticeably better than on
overloaded ones. It is manifest that well developed speci-
mens of good size and color will be of a superior quality
and flavor.
(2) By reducing the number of apples to be picked and
handled at harvest time, the harvesting costs are materially
lowered. If apples are not removed at thinning time,
they must be picked at harvest at an even greater expense.
Many of the culls and inferior fruits can be removed in
thinning and this will not only tend to improve the quality
of the fruit, but will reduce the sorting cost at harvest
time.
(3) If trees are left overloaded, their vitality is im-
paired; branches are quite likely broken; and the pros-
pects for the next year’s crop are very much poorer than
if the tree had been properly thinned. It is difficult to
measure the exact value of thinning as affecting annual
yields and yet it is a notable fact that thinning unques-
tionably stimulates annual bearing. Many well thinned
orchards in the Northwest bear heavy crops annually while
most unthinned orchards tend to bear biennially.
(4) To claim that thinning reduces the tax on the
vitality of the tree and yet maintain that it actually in-
creases yield may seem contradictory. Unquestionably it
increases average annual yield and it is a fact that in-
creased size in fruit usually more than makes up for
Pruning and Thinning 281
reduced numbers. Furthermore, by more even distribu-
tion the tree may better hold its load.
(5) It is possible in thinning to remove wormy, stung,
diseased or otherwise inferior fruits and in this manner
greatly reduce the percentage of cull fruit and in some
ways check the spread of the injury.
(6) Uniformity is one of the most desirable qualities
in marketable apples. Thinning, of all orchard opera-
tions, is the one which directly influences uniformity in
size and marketable quality of fruit.
(7) When the grower is striving for an abundance of
highest quality fruit, thinning unquestionably pays. It
increases the percentage of high-grade fruit and thus in-
sures a higher net price. Cost of production a bushel will
be lowered even though cost an acre may be increased. If
a grower has expended heavily for spraying, pruning and
other operations, he can not afford to neglect thinning in
years when his trees tend to overbear.
Time and method of thinning.
Thinning should not be undertaken until after the June
or May drop, as in some of the more southern regions, has
occurred. When the apples are about the size of walnuts,
the natural thinning of the fruit has largely ceased and
artificial thinning may be begun profitably.
Often many growers have a market for early cull fruit
or sell it for by-product purposes. In such instances
thinning may be delayed until perhaps August, at which
time the cull or inferior fruit may easily be picked off.
Still other growers thin their apples by making several
pickings for commercial purposes, picking off the best
a,
282 The Commercial Apple Industry
and most matured apples for market and allowing the
others to'remain. ‘Such practices can hardly be classed
under the head of thinning, although they may be profit-
able in some instances and may be practiced in addition to
early thinning.
The common practice in thinning is to start early after
the June drop and pull or clip off all apples according to
varying rules of spacing. Some growers leave the apples
at a minimum of 4 inches apart, others 6 inches and still
others 8 inches apart. This distance will depend largely
on the variety, its tendency to cluster, and whether or not
the apples of the variety are normally large or small when
mature. Generally speaking, spacing 6 inches is a safe
rule to follow.
Many varieties of apples have a tendency to produce
their fruit in clusters and often thinning the cluster to
one apple is practically all that is necessary. In any case,
if systematic thinning can not be practiced, the clusters
should at least be thinned as this prevents much insect
injury and promotes general uniformity of the fruit. The
amount of thinning will depend on the individual tree,
the variety and the amount of fruit on the tree. No def-
inite formula may be laid down. The usual method of
thinning apples is to pick the fruit off by hand, sometimes
putting it into a bag, but usually permitting it to drop on
the ground. Many growers, particularly in the North-
west, prefer thinning shears, of which several types are
on the market. The advantage to be gained in using thin-
ning shears is that the apples are clipped instead of pulled
off and for this reason fruit-spurs are not likely to be
broken or damaged.
Pruning and Thinning 283
Cost of thinning.
The cost of thinning will depend on several factors, such
as the variety, size of tree, kind of labor employed, method
used, size of the crop and the vigor of the tree. The
average man thins from three to twenty trees a day. In
the Northwest one hour to a tree is considered an average
amount. It must be remembered, however, that the
Northwest trees are much smaller and the fruit easier of
access than in the older orchards of the East and Central
West. In old orchards, heavy with fruit, from three to
five trees is a day’s work. It would not do to figure aver-
ages on this basis as often many trees do not need much
thinning. It requires about sixty hours an acre to thin
the better Wenatchee orchards. Very little thinning is
done in New York and Virginia, but if the trees in these
regions were thinned as systematically as in Wenatchee,
the amount of labor expended would be about the same to
the acre despite fewer trees. The average grower is safe
in assuming that it will pay him to spend on thinning an.
amount equal to twenty-five cents a barrel for every barrel
of fruit produced. The operation usually costs less than
this amount.
CHAPTER XIII
RENOVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS
TuRovcuovr the country and particularly in the east-
‘ ern and central western states are many thousands of
apple trees which at present have little or no commercial
significance. Many of these are in the old farm orchards,
the average of which includes at most but a few acres of
poorly kept and very often neglected apple trees. There
are, however, a great many orchards originally set out for
commercial purposes and later neglected. It is to this
latter acreage that the discussion.on renovation will partic-
ularly apply.
Greatest possibilities for renovation are offered in Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and the northeastern states, also in many
sections of the Middle West. In southern states the old
neglected orchards are for the most part of such small
size and are so inaccessible as to offer slight inducement
for successful renovation. The problem of renovation re-
quires exceptionally careful study if one is contemplating
this method of entering the business of growing apples
commercially. In recent years many far-sighted individ-
uals have been able to purchase neglected apple orchards
and by renovation make much quicker returns on the
money invested than would have been possible had a
young orchard been set out and the owner waited for the
latter to come into bearing. Such opportunities still ex-
284
!
Renovation of Old Orchards 285
ist. It is somewhat surprising in visiting well-known
commercial regions to see a large number of orchards which
receive little or no care, yet which under proper manage-
ment could be made to yield a profit. The above state-
ment is not to convey the idea that it is profitable to at-
tempt the reclamation of all old farm orchards by the
process of renovation. Very many trees are beyond the
period when they may be reclaimed profitably.
It requires considerable experience and nicety of judg-
ment to determine what orchards may or may not be suc-
cessfully renovated. In the first place, it is essential that
the orchard should be large enough to meet the expense of
proper equipment such as the spray-pump, and to warrant
some detailed attention from the owner. It is doubtful
whether an orchard of less than five acres, or one in which
many trees are missing, can ever be renovated successfully
and put on a profitable commercial basis. Smaller or-
chards, of course, might well be restored for home use.
Commercial orchards to be renovated should include
varieties for which there is a demand. Plantings should
be accessible to market and labor. However, one might
profitably restore an old orchard in a locality in which it
would scarcely be advisable to set new plantings. An
established orchard always enjoys an important advantage
from being already in bearing.
The following suggestions are offered with regard to the
process of renovating an old orchard and apply as much
to the home orchard as to commercial plantings:
General treatment.
All dead wood and cankers should be cut out and the
trunk of tree thoroughly scraped with a hoe or similar
286 The Commercial Apple Industry
tool, being careful not to injure the tender inner bark.
This scraping removes the hiding places for many orchard
pests. After scraping, some advise that the trunks should
be whitewashed. Unquestionably such treatment would be
beneficial, although it it not recommended as necessary.
In cutting large limbs, it is best to make two cuts, the
first about a foot above the last in order to prevent split-
ting or otherwise injuring the good wood below the final ;
cut.
It is well to disinfect large wounds with copper sulfate
or corrosive sublimate, after which a coat of asphaltum tree
paint or white lead is advisable to protect the tree against
decay and from the ravages of insects and diseases. When
small limbs and twigs are being headed, one should cut to
a lateral growth, otherwise the remaining stub dies and
decay follows.
The chances are that in old neglected orchards many
holes will be found in the trunks of the trees wheré limbs
have been broken or cut off in years gone by, where decay
has set in. Very often trees may be saved if the decayed
wood is thoroughly cleaned out. Occasionally such cavi-
ties are filled with cement, care being taken that all water
and wet wood is removed first. As a general rule, such
treatment is not practicable.
Pruning.
In shaping or pruning a tree after the dead wood has
been removed, a number of precautions should be borne in
mind.
A common mistake in renovation is to sacrifice much of
the fruiting area by removal of a large part of the top
with a view to bringing the head closer to the ground.
i
Renovation of Old Orchards 287
It takes several years to develop fruiting wood and it may
be advisable to thin out rather than remove the already ex-
isting fruiting wood.
Very often, however, because of excessively high trees,
severe cutting back and thinning out of the remaining tops
is necessary. Even in such instances it is unwise to re-
move too large a portion of the fruiting wood, even though
such wood may be found, as it very often is, at the tips of
the larger branches. The orchardist should encourage
lateral growth, but should avoid the sacrifice of too great a
part of the fruiting area. It is usually advisable to dis-
tribute the heavy pruning over a period of several years in
order to preserve the balance between the roots and the
top, and to prevent sun-scald on the larger limbs through
exposure to direct sunlight.
It is important that the outer parts and tops of all
trees should be well thinned by.working from the top
and tips of the branches downward. This provides for
penetration of sunlight and allows distribution of fruiting
wood throughout the entire tree. It is common to see a
grower start with the lower trunk limbs and prune severely
as far as he can reach conveniently, leaving the outer part
of the limbs to bear all the fruit. Ladders are almost in-
dispensable in thinning and heading back the tops.
Each limb should be treated somewhat as a separate tree.
Laterals should be thinned out and the remaining ones
spaced as on the trunk, special effort being made to bring
fruiting area nearer the ground. By thinning out the
brushy tops, water-sprouts may be encouraged farther
down on the main limbs. The following year the water-
sprouts should be thinned out to a distance of 18 to 24
inches apart and cut back severely so that they will throw
}
‘
288 , The Commercial Apple Industry
out laterals and evétttually lower the fruiting area. In
pruning waterSprouts, the leader should be cut slightly
less than its laterals, a safe proportion being to cut the
leader 35 per cent and the laterals about 50 per cent.
Although it is advisable to distribute the heavy prun-
ing over a period of three years, the orchardist should
bear in mind that the heavy cutting of one main branch
does not necessarily produce the vigor necessary for fruit-
ing on the remaining limbs. If one branch is pruned
heavily, the water-sprouts will come on that particular
limb and not on the others. Therefore, a general mod-
erate pruning throughout the top, with careful attention
given to thinning out the smaller fruiting wood, will serve
to encourage fruiting generally throughout the tree and to
afford an opportunity for converting water-sprouts into
new fruiting wood in the lower part of the tree. System-
atic pruning must be followed for a period of several years
if renovation is to be made effective.
Spraying.
After pruning the next step in renovation is thorough
spraying. Old trees are nearly always badly infested
with scale as well as with other insects and diseases. A
thorough application of lime-sulfur is a necessary clean-up
measure. After the dormant winter spray, the same regu-
lar spray program should be followed as is necessary in
commercial orchards of the region. It is particularly im-
portant in the case of old trees to have a tower on the
spray rig in order that the spray will reach the topmost
branches. The importance of spraying can not be em-
phasized too strongly as essential to the proper renova-
tion of the orchard. (See Chapter X.)
Renovation of Old Orchards 289
Soil management.
Thorough cultivation is usually the first step in reno-
vation, although in come instances deep plowing may re-
sult in cutting off many of the feeding roots, especially
when an orchard has been in sod for some time and the
roots feed close to the surface. If the roots are too
greatly disturbed, the trees may be seriously weakened.
Thorough discing when possible is always safe and satis-
factory. Plowing is to be preferred if it can be done
without destroying too many of the roots. Early culti-
vation is best and should be performed as soon in the
spring as possible. After thoroughly working the soil, it
is very often advisable to sow a leguminous cover-crop
in order to supply humus and nitrogen when these two
essentials have become depleted.
In many instances inter-crops have been continuously
grown in old orchards with the result that the soil is de
cidedly lacking in one or more elements of plant-food.
When available, liberal applications of barnyard manure,
from 10 to 18 tons to the acre, will aid in restoring soil
fertility. When the soil seems generally weak and de-
ficient, an application of confplete commercial fertilizer,
consisting of 6 pounds nitrate of soda, 8 pounds acid
phosphate and 3 pounds muriate of potash to a tree, may
be considered a very liberal treatment. Fertilizer ex-
periments emphasize the efficiency of nitrate of soda used
alone. A 5-pound application of nitrate of soda will be
generally profitable on weak trees. When commercial
fertilizer is applied in conjunction with manure, the above
amounts to a tree may be cut to about half.
In summarizing, the three important steps in orchard
290 The Commercial Apple Industry
renovation are: (1) careful pruning; (2) thorough spray-
ing; (3) thorough working of the soil with the possible
addition of commercial fertilizer.
CHAPTER XIV
HANDLING THE CROP
Tue handling of the crop includes the operations from
the time the fruit is ripe until it is put on the market.
Special care is necessary in picking and packing in order
that the apples may reach the market in good condition.
PICKING (PLATE XVIII)
The time of picking varies greatly with the variety and
with the season. Other influences, such as age of trees and
cultural practices, may also affect the time of this opera-
tion. It is generally thought that fruit comes to maturity
earlier on older trees than on young ones; also that apples
grown on sod land should be picked sooner than those in
cultivated orchards. As a rule, over-maturity is to be
feared more than.immaturity, although both conditions
may be disastrous. Maturity in most instances means
hard ripe and not eating ripe. ~ Since the time of picking
has so much to do with the keeping qualities of the fruit,
it is important that the ripening tendencies of each variety
be studied in every particular locality. The following
points should be taken into consideration in order to de-
termine the correct picking time for different varieties of
apples: 1. The ease with which the fruit separates from
the spur; 2. the red color; 3. size; 4. color of seeds; 5.
tendencies of certain varieties to drop.
291
292 The Commercial Apple Industry
1. One of the most valuable guides in determining the
time of picking is the ease with which the apple separates -
from the spur. Much damage can be done if the apples
are picked too soon, for in such circumstances the picker
will probably destroy or break off many fruit-spurs.
The grower must sacrifice size if the fruit separates readily
from the spur, otherwise he may suffer from heavy drop-
ping or over-maturity of the fruit.
2. In most cases, the amount of color is the grower’s
guide in determining time of picking. In this connection
it should be remembered that in bright seasons the apples
have a tendency to color early and for that reason there is
the danger of picking too soon. In damp cloudy weather,
coloring may be checked and under such conditions there
is danger of waiting too long before harvesting. Very
often two pickings are advisable for such highly colored
varieties as Winesaps. If the better colored specimens
are harvested in the first picking, the remaining poorly
colored apples will benefit by greater exposure to the sun-
light. It must be remembered that an added picking rep-
resents a considerable expense warranted only in the case
of high quality crops, when the added color and size mean
a considerable increased price for the product. Investi-
gations ' have revealed that in the case of red apples the
ground color which underlies the red color or blush is the
most reliable indication of maturity. In immature fruits
this color is green. Before the apples are ready to pick,
the ground color should have turned to a white or very
light yellow. The dark yellow ground color indicates
over-maturity. The very common mistake of leaving such
1 Bull. 587, U. 8. Dept. Agr.
\
Pate XVIII— Showing method of picking practiced in Vir-
ginia, particularly in the Piedmont section where a crew of pickers
will commonly pick from a single tree. An inefficient method.
Handling the Crop 293
varieties as Jonathan and Esopus too long on the trees
results in a much shortened life for the fruit in storage.
3, For green varieties and particularly early green
apples, size is an important factor. The grower should
not wait for the yellow ground color, otherwise he will lose
through over-maturity of his fruit. If two pickings are
made, it will be found that the apples left on the tree
will quickly benefit in size by the removal of a portion of
the crop. It must be considered that size will vary accord-
ing to crop, age of trees, and season, so that no definite
idea of the proper size at which to pick can be given.
4. It has been recommended that apples should not be
picked until the seeds have turned brown. While the
color of the seeds may be taken as an indication of matu-
rity, it should not be considered as always reliable. The
seeds should always be brown before the apples are picked,
but the brown color of the seeds does not necessarily indi-
cate maturity. In other words, immature fruit may have
brown seeds.
5. Such varieties as McIntosh, Wagener, and Tomp-
kins King tend to drop before maturity, and Stayman,
Wealthy and Grimes to drop badly with the wind. The
grower should watch these tendencies and should regard
heavy dropping as an indication of need for immediate
picking.
No other operation in the physical handling is more
essential to the life of the fruit than careful picking.
The pickers should be impressed with the importance of
preventing bruises, punctures or abrasions of the skin,
since such injuries permit the entrance of serious storage
decay. The fungi which cause most of the storage decay
can not injure sound fruit. Careless picking hands may
|
294 Lhe Commercial Apple Industry
pull off the fruit-spurs and seriously injure the tree in
climbing about or in carelessly manipulating the ladders,
Delays in picking and also delay before storage often in-
volve heavy loss. After the fruit has been picked, it
should be put in ‘storage as soon as possible. Two or
three days’ exposure to warm sun in the orchard after pick-
ing will cause the apples to ripen rapidly and the life of
the fruit will be materially shortened. Immediately
stored fruit is always brighter and firmer than that which
is left in the orchard for several days after picking.
Contract picking versus day labor.
In connection with the operation of picking, it is im-
portant to consider the contract system as compared with
day labor from the standpoint of efficiency and economy.
The principal objection to contract labor in picking is the
danger of careless handling of fruit when the picker tends
to sacrifice carefulness for speed. “Most growers have
avoided contract picking, although the practice is gaining
somewhat in popularity in some regions, particularly
where labor is scarce. Cost production studies have re-
vealed that the contract picker working by the piece will
pick on the average of at least 25 per cent more apples in a
day than will the day laborer. If competent labor can
be secured and carefully overseen, contract picking may
offer an opportunity for speed and considerable saving in
handling the crop.
Picking utensils.
Various types of picking utensils are in use and each
has its advantages and disadvantages. The canvas bag,
suspended by straps from the shoulder and opening at
t
Handling the Crop 295
the bottom so that the apples may be rolled out into a
box or barrel, has become the most popular picking utensil
in the Northwest. Some criticism is voiced against the
picking-bag on account of the danger of bruising the fruit.
When the picker is climbing about on ladders, apples in a
bag may be knocked against the ladder or subjected to
more shaking or rolling about than if placed im pails.
The chief advantage of the picking-bag is that it leaves
both of the picker’s hands free for picking.
A pail with a canvas bottom which may be opened in
emptying possesses some of the advantages of the bag and
may afford better protection for the fruit. The round
half-bushel basket is a very popular picking utensil
throughout the East and Middle West. Its value may be
enhanced by lining the sides with corrugated paper or
padding the bottom to prevent bruising the fruit. Wire
hooks on the handles of pails or baskets will aid in the
hanging of these utensils on the ladder or tree.
If the picker is obliged to walk a considerable distance
to a sorting-table, as is the case where fruit is packed in
the orchard, a pail or basket is sometimes preferred to the
picking-bag, for in such instances the receptacles are filled
and left at the bottom of the tree to be carried later to the
packing-table. A waiter should be employed to carry the
fruit from the base of the tree to the orchard sorting-table,
since this workman will carry two or more baskets whereas
the picker will make the return trip with only one. Where
the crop is handled through the packing-house, receptacles
for the picked fruit should be distributed throughout the
orchard in order that the picker will not lose time in
emptying his bag or pail of fruit. In all cases, the picker
should be warned against allowing the fruit to drop into the
296 The aad a Apple Industry
box or onto the table with
sufficient force to cause se-
vere bruising. A low or-
chard wagon with springs
is recommended for haul-
ing receptacles of loose
fruit. (See Fig. 9.)
The pointed ladder is
the most efficient type for
picking in among the
Fic. 9.— Slatted crate used very branches since it can be
generally in the eastern states for placed against a fork or
bringing apples from orchard to
packing-house.
tree. Step-ladders with a
single prop are useful in picking from the outside limbs
or from small trees.
PACKING (PLATE XIX)
Since there are two somewhat divergent systems for
grading and packing the barreled and boxed apples, the
two general methods will ‘be discussed separately.
Throughout the East and Middle West, much of the pack-
ing is done in the orchard although sheds are increasing -
in number and popularity in nearly every commercial ap-
ple region. Western growers early showed a preference
for the packing-house, since very exacting labor and good
equipment are required in maintaining the high standard
of the boxed pack.
Sorting and packing barreled apples
Until recently most of the barreled apple crop was
packed in the orchard with the aid of portable packing !
limb without injuring the,
1
1
q
|
Handling the Crop 297
equipment. The packing-shed is growing in popularity
throughout the East and Middle West, but many commer-
cial apple-growers still pack out their crop in the orchard,
and this operation, therefore, must be given separate treat-
ment. :
Orchard packing.
When sorting and packing is done in the orchard, the
equipment usually consists of either a portable slatted
table or a canvas or burlap-top table.
Of the above two types, the slatted table is most com-
monly used. Very often these tables are equipped with
wheels in order that they may be moved about easily in
the orchard. The top of the average slatted sorting-
table tapers from three to four feet at one end to one to
two feet in width at the other end. The table also slopes
so that when the fruit is poured on at the wide end, it rolls
down past the sorters to the narrow end, and there is
lowered into the barrel by means of an apron. The upper
end of the table top should be padded heavily to prevent
bruising of the fruit. Leaves and brush drop to the ground
as the apples roll down over the slatted top. Sorters
stand at the side of the table, and when only one grade
is being packed out, as is usually the case, they remove
only, the culls and rots. When two grades are being
packed, the additional grade is picked out as the fruit
passes over the table, and is placed in barrels alongside
the sorter. The packer stands at the lower end of the
table and feeds the apples into previously faced barrels, at
the same time assuming part of the responsibility for the
grade.
The slatted sorting-table is an example of cheap portable
298 ’ The Commercial Apple Industry
equipment, but in its age there is danger that inferior
fruit will crowd past the sorter. Although the slatted
table is widely employed throughout the East and Middle
West, it seems probable that its place will be taken more
and more by the mechanical sizer or burlap-top table.
Some barrel apple-growers, and particularly those in-
terested in a more careful pack, employ the canvas or
burlap-top table, which is usually about three feet high,
three feet wide and six or eight feet long. The apples are
emptied directly from the tree onto the top of the table.
Sorters then grade out the fruit, usually placing it in
baskets or receptacles according to its grade. Under this
‘system, two grades are ordinarily packed out, the culls
being thrown to one side in a pile or placed in separate ©
barrels. The packer stands behind the sorter and fills
previously faced barrels with the fruit according to its
grade.
The use of canvas or burlap-top table facilitates more
careful handling and sorting than the slatted-top table.
In the case of either, the picker usually carries his own
fruit directly to the table, although in some instances the
work of transferring fruit from the base of the tree to
the packing-table is done by additional workmen. As
previously pointed out, the latter system is more efficient.
Before discussing packing-house equipment, it should
be mentioned that portable sizing machines have been
used to some extent in orchard packing.
Packing-houses for barreled apples.
While orchard packing still predominates, the rapidly
increasing number of packing-houses throughout the bar-
rel apple states is a distinct sign of progress. Some ad-
Handling the Crop 299
vantages of a packing-house are: (1) Centralization of
packing operations, no time being lost in moving equip-
ment about the orchard; (2) packing may continue unin-
terrupted during inclement weather; (3) improved sizers
and other labor-saving devices may be installed econom-
ically; (4) packages for the fruit are kept cleaner than if
handled in the orchard.
The eastern applegrower has come to rely on cold
storage rather than common storage in holding his crop
for any length of time. For this reason, common storage
in connection. with packing plants is not recognized as
such an important feature as in the West. The grower
either sells his winter apples immediately or places them
in cold storage. Therefore, the packing-shed in the bar-
‘reled apple industry assumes more the nature of a shelter
for centralized packing operations.
Eastern and middle western apple packing-houses might
arbitrarily be classified in three groups: (1) Those pro-
viding a mere shelter for either the inclined slatted-top or
canvas-top sorting-tables; (2) those which not only pro-
vide shelter for the packing operation, but which have a
small sizing machine and possibly certain other labor-sav-
ing devices; (3) the large improved packing-shed with a
daily capacity of 300 to 1,200 barrels of apples.
In the third class are the larger and best equipped:
mechanical sizers, fitted. with conveyer belts, improved
bing and other equipment calculated to insure the greatest
speed and efficiency in handling the crop. With such
‘packing-houses, the fruit is usually delivered from the
orchard on to a receiving platform or possibly directly on
to a receiving belt which carries it past the sorters and
delivers it directly into the sizing mechanism. The
300 The Commercial Apple Industry
sorters stand beside the conveyer and grade out the fruit
as it passes them. More improved sizers permit the grad-
ing and sizing of two and even three grades simultaneously.
The sorting is accomplished by dividing the grading belt
lengthwise with strips which serve as partitions to separate
the different grades.