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TT i ———~ WOULD ou! New York State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. Library Cornell Un “tana Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http:/Awww.archive.org/details/cu31924003324211 ase jo srvak Aqy 0} AZI0} saat} Sutreaq Inq ae Sa ‘gua0s YOK MAN wsojsem [eotdA], —] ALVId ao eS ee ae THE , COMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY OF NORTH AMERICA BY J. C. FOLGER Assistant Secretary International Apple Shippers’ Association AND S. M. THOMSON Formerly Fruit Crop Specialist, United States Department of Agriculture IQew Pork THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1921 All rights reserved @ S3BS65 FT oP. 2 (rx gi % OoPyRIcHT, 1921, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Set up and electrotyped. Published February, x92. TO EDWARD H. THOMSON WHOSE VISION, ENCOURAGEMENT AND WISE COUNSEL HAVE BEEN OF THE GREATEST AID IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS WORK THE AUTHORS INSCRIBE THE BOOK PREFACE In collecting material for this work, the authors have visited practically every important apple-growing county in the United States; first in connection with a special investigation of the cost of producing apples in important regions, conducted by the Office of Farm Management, United States Department of Agriculture; and later as Fruit Crop Specialists engaged in organizing a system for estimating important fruit crops and particularly _ the commercial apple crop of the United States. The au- thors were impressed with a need of this kind of book, as the many published works on the apple have not dealt system- atically with the commercial phase of apple-growing which only recently has become a well defined industry entirely separate from the home orchard. The whole subject of propagation has been omitted, as this is now well treated in separate books. The apple is approached in this book from the point of view of commerce. In the preparation of this work, credit is due to Roy E. Marshall and Fred R. Motz of the Virginia Station for aid in the chapter on pruning; to Prof. W. H. Chandler of Ithaca, New York, for his advice and suggestions; to E. H. Siegler and W. V. Cruess, and to many others both in the Federal Department of Agriculture and the va- rious state schools of agriculture and experiment stations. vii : Preface For the Canadian material, the authors are indebted to Mr. C. W. Baxter, and for the Australian and New Zealand material, to Mr. 8. P. Vaughn of Tasmania, P. Val Kerr of Victoria, and R. A. Clayton of New Zealand. Tue AUTHORS. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I ImprorTANCE AND History or tHe APPLE INDUSTRY . Decline of farm orchards . ‘ Centralized plantings in favored regions Outlook for the apple industry Favorable factors . . . Increase in population Movement to the city : Development of foreign market Education and advertising . Transportation Distribution F Improved cultural ‘guethuda ‘ ; Increase in the use of by-products . Future production Unfavorable factors Increased commercial ens Poor outlook for unfavored region . Danger from boom development Competition with citrus fruit . Conclusions . History of commercial epple-growing in the ‘United States < 2 z Scientific claastfration Bh ie. ts - CHAPTER II _—- Leapina Appts KeEcions or THe Unirep States . Western New York. . .... «+ =s- Hudson Valley . . . - + «© © «© «© « ix Contents New England Baldwin belt . . . . . The Champlain district bie New Jersey . . . . . se Delaware . Shenandoah- Cumbetland district, Piedmont district of Virginia Minor regions in Pennsylvania, West Virginia ‘and Virginia és je A. 4G Mountain region of North Onreling : Mountain region of Georgia Ohio : Southern Ohio Remo Beauty disiriet, Paar: Minor regions in Ohio a> cota oer Ag Kentucky . ; ge Bad AB ee CP oe Michigan. . . . . 2. 1 se ee we Illinois oe Southern Wknois early apple resion : Mississippi Valley region of Illinois Southeastern Illinois . 2G Ozark region . F Missouri River region . . Arkansas ia of Kansas Colorado New Mexico . ee ee ey ee ee ee Utah. 2 2 ws ee Je le ee AS Montana dg FBS Me, 2 . xB toy on oe Washington Yakima alice 4 a Wenatchee North Central Washington district Spokane district Walla Walla district Oregon ; Hood Rives Valley Rogue River Valley . . . . Other apple districts in pores ‘ Idaho . j Payette district: Boise Valley eo. . Contents xi PAGES Twin Falls . . . .. . 15 Lewiston section : iy 15 California st ca. 76-79 Watsonville distrivt ‘8 8 %6-77 - Sebastopol apple district . 78 Yucaipa section 78-79 Wisconsin 79-80 Minnesota ‘ 80 Early apple vesions Dents 80-84 New York and New England 81 New Jersey 81-82 Delaware. . 82 Southern and Middle ‘Atlantic tiated ; 83 East North Central states 83 Southern Illinois 83 California . . . . . .. « 83-84 CHAPTER III CommerciaL APPLE Propuction iv CanapAa, AUSTRALIA anp New ZEALAND . 85-99 Canada 85-95 Nova Scotia ; . 86-88 Prince Edward Island ‘and New “Brunswick . 88-89 Quebec 89 Ontario 90-92 British Columbia BW ok. 8 92-95 Australia and New Zealand . . . .. . . 95-99 CHAPTER IV Looatrry ann Sire ror THE Commercian OrcHarp . . 100-132 Choosing the locality ue al ok - 100-132 Western New York .. . - 100-101 Hudson Valley . a4 - 101-102 Champlain district ae ~ 102-103 New England .. . ee 103 New Jersey-Delaware Peninsula BE ee a's 104 xii Contents — PAGES Shenandoah-Cumberland region . . . ~ 104-105 Piedmont region of Virginia . . . . ~ 105-106 Southern Ohio Rome Beauty section. . . 106 Western een wee ew ew we + 106-107 Tilinois . . pan Set, Beet Mik! St Se 8 a 107 Ozark region . . . oe ee ew ee 107-108 Missouri River resin ~ oe ew ew ee) 6 108-109 Western Slope of Colorado. . . .. . 109 Utah. . . . 2 oe ee eh) 109-110 Idaho wat we atl a i ae Se Oa Oe Se os, SLOSS Washington. . . ..... . © © ALL-112 Montana Pe ee ee ee 112 Oregon . .~. «© «© «© «© «© «© © « « 142-113 California . . . . . . . . «© « « 113-115 New Mexico .~ gt get Santas be 115 Choosing the site for a = aise » oe « « ~ 116-182 Raw versus planted land. . .... . 116 Time to buy . . .. . .« «© © «© «© = 117 Syndicate projects. . . . . . . . «. 417-118 Yields and varieties . . . . .... 118 Proximity to market . . . . . . . . 118-119 Distance from shipping station. . . . . 119-120 Bearing age of trees. . . . . . . . 120-122 Diseases and insect pests. . . . . « « 122-123 Climatic influences . . . . . . « « 123-125 Size of farm . . . . . . s © Se 195-126 Necessary capital . . . . . . . . « 126-128 Labor conditions . . . . . . . © «© 128-129 Social conditions . . . . . .. .e . 129 Regional ae as: SR: teak: can tees “O28 130 Soil . .. Bo a he ae we Gp BO=1389 CHAPTER V Tue Farm-ManaceMent Puases or AppLe-Growina . 133-143 Farm organization in relation to the orchard . . 183-140 Systems of tenantry . .. . .*. . . . 140-148 Contents CHAPTER VI EstaBLISHING THE APPLE ORCHARD . Nursery stock Systems of planting Square system . Hexagonal system . Quincunx system Planting distances . Time to plant Setting trees . Heading trees a Use of fillers and intemeropa é CHAPTER VII f Cuutivation oF THE ORCHARD . Clean cultivation Sod- or grass-mulch Clean cultivation with cover- crops : Cover-crops Value of cultivation and methods Implements : The tractor in oe epple grohard . Truck . . CHAPTER VIII IRRIGATION . we Choosing an ‘nrivated district . Irrigating the orchard . Quantity of water to supply . Time to irrigate orchards . Number of applications Methods of irrigation xiii PAGES . 144-154 . 145-147 . 147-150 . 148-149 . 149-150 150 . 150-151 151 151-152 . 152-153 . 153-154 . 155-171 . 156-157 . 157-158 . 159-160 . 160-162 . 162-165 165 ~ 165-171 171 . 172-185 . 177-180 . 181-183 . 181-182 182 | 182-183 | 483-185 xiv Contents a CHAPTER IX PAGES FErtTILizINg THE COMMERCIAL APPLE OrncHARD . . . 186-205 Present practices in fertilizing . . . . . . 187-188. Value of stable manure . ... . . . « 188-189 ‘Experiments with fertilizers . . . . 189-198 Research work of Kraus and Kraybill . . . 189-191 Experiments in Pennsylvania . . . . . 191-195 Nitrate experiments by Lewis . . . . . 195-198 Amount of fertilizer toa tree. . . . . . ~- 198-199 Needs of irrigated regions. . . . . . . . 199-200 Nitrate of soda . . So cee cia 1 SP ey 200 Methods of applying Partilizera 2 oe ee) e) . 200-202 Pruning with reference to fertilizing . . . .. 202 Fertilizer tests . . . 202-203 General summary and specific veeimmendations . 204-205 CHAPTER X Diseases AND Pests or THE APPLE AND THER Conrron 206-248 Important insect enemies of the apple. . . . 206-216 | Theeodlin-moth . ..... . . . 206-210 San José scale . . . . . we he) 20-211 Oyster-shell scale . . . 1. we eel 211 Apple aphids . . . . . . . . . ) . 211-218 \ Plum eureulio . . 2... we eee 213 ‘Apple red bugs. . . iD fon Verh reic ott, 214 | Apple-tree tenteaatonpillar ees ae ee ee 214 Round-headed auplonyres borer . . . .) . 214-915 Cutworms . . Be He, de: OWN caer Onto 215 ‘Bud-moth .. S Gh ch wa sa. GL oe 215 The fruit-tree leaf-roller oe ew ew ew ew 215-2916 Important apple diseases . . . . we. 216-223 Applescab . . . 2. 1. ww ee 216-217 Apple-blotch . A stele vats ey, Seo 217 Sooty-blotch. and Ay-speck Be: dé Gi a cs, 217 Cedar-rust . . et: oH: ak: ten, west, Op 218 _ Bitter-rot 2. 2 2. 2. . 1. ee 6 218-219 Contents Blister-canker . . . . . -Collar-rot oe qlee ee “#5 Fire-blight . . . . .. Apple rosette . . . 1. 1. Baldwin-spot Animal pests of the apple . Meadow mice Pine mice Control of mice ‘by. poisoning Spraying . we Man ae oe Cost of Sicacipe Spray equipment Hired sprayers . to Regional spraying notes . Dusting : Insecticides ‘ For biting dsaats : 5 For sucking insects, contact epraya Spreaders for the different insecticides . Fungicides CHAPTER XI Frurr Serrive anp Po.iination Causes for the failure to set fruit Essentials for a good pollinizer CHAPTER XII Pruyine ann THINNING . 4 Types of training apple trees . Natural form Central leader sytem « Open center, or vase-shape . The double-headed type . The modified leader tree . General treatment of young trees After first season i XV PAGES « 219-220 . 220-221 . 221-222 . 222-223 223 . 223-226 . 223-224 « 224-225 . 225-226 « 226-235 . 228-230 . 280-232 . 232-2383 . 233-235 . 235-238 . 238-247 . 239-241 . 241-246 . 246-247 . 247-248 . 249-257 . 250-255 . 255-257 . 258-283 . 259-268 260 261 . 262-264 . 264-265 . 266-268 . 268-270 . 268-269 xvi Contents PAGES After second season . . - « 6 © 269 After third season. . . «+ 269-270 Vegetative, transitory and fraitaze stares . . « 270-276 Transition period . . . . - «. - +. 270-271 The fruiting period . . . . ... 271 Fruit-buds . . . woe ee ee 2T1-2'72 Changing system of proniny toe ew we QT2-274 Bearing trees. . 274-275 Distribution and establishment of fruiting wood . . . . se ew ew ew ee 275-276 Time of pruning . . . . . . . « © « 276-277 Pruning tools . . . . . . - « « « « 277-278 Wound dressings . .. ... +6 « «© » 278 Thinning . . 2 ew ee 278-283 Time and method a ¢hinnine 2 ee ee 281-282 Cost of thinning . . . . . . 6. ee 283 CHAPTER XIII Renovation of Otp OrcHaRDS . . . . «© «© « « 284-290 General treatment . . . . . . . « «© ~ 285-286 Pruning .,. . . . 2. © «© «© «© + «+ 286-288 Spraying . . Me Soh Gah. cao aap feed CPE eile «28 288 Soil Taneeene woe we ee ww we 289-290 CHAPTER XIV: Hanpuing tHE Crop. . . we ee we ww Cw 291-812. Picking . . - » © « 291-296 Contract mibkeae versus day labor eo Se CG 294 Picking utensils . . . . . . . « « 294-296 Packing . . . « . 296-312 Sorting and ‘packing harteled anoles - . « 296-302 Orchard packing . . . . 297-298 Packing-houses for beceeled, pauls . . 298-302 Handling the western box apple crop. . . 302-807 Orchard carriers . f 303 Sorting and packing the boxed apples . 803-305 Contents xvii PAGES Packing-house arrangement and operation 305-307 Mechanical sizers Community packing-houses . Methods of operating community pack ing-houses Packing-house conntaieton. Bulk shipments CHAPTER XV MARKETING AND STORAGE . Selling on consignment Selling to cash buyers . 3 The lump-sum cash buyer Tree-run cash buyer Z Cooperative methods of selling . 807-808 . 808-312 . 809-310 . 310-312 312 - 313-338 . 3138-314 . 314-316 : 315 . 315-316 . 316-322 Form of organization for cobperative 4 associa- tions Pooling : Purchase of scandens 3 Distribution . ir one Commission-man . . The broker . Carlot operator . Carlot distributor Field of distribution Foreign markets Improved distribution within States . °. Physical Handling « Grades and standards . . Standard package . Inspection at point of origin . Storage Local vs. distance storeee Common storage Handling and qultural methods ; as relating to storage Pa ee . 819-321 . 3821-322 : 822 . 822-3825 3 323 . 823-324 . 824-325 ¢ 325 . 825-329 | . oe ee 825-327 the United 2. «2 827-829 : 329 . 829-333 . 830-332 . 3832-333 . 338-336 . 884-335 . 335-336 336 Xviii Contents Government agencies in marketing . . | Crop estimates . ' Market and storage eenorte - Codperative vs. individual effort. . . CHAPTER XVI SV IRUDS)= 200 MRS, tec Ce aye ak Gay Sig Ge: ee eae CHAPTER XVII By-Propucts oF THE APPLE INDUSTRY. . . « Evaporators Natural draft evaporators. Forced draft evaporators . ‘ Distillation types of evaporators Canning, jelly manufacturing Cider and vinegar . CHAPTER XVIII Cost or Propuction . Importance of yields Influence of size of orchard . Effect of size and type of farm Effect of climate and soil on cost of production Influence of varieties Accessibility to market . Cost of materials ‘ Labor and cost production . Orchard maintenance ‘ Cost of pruning and bruh disvosal Soil management of cee 2 Thinning Harvesting costs Conclusions PAGES . 336-338 337 | 387-838 338 339-347 . 348-356 - 350-355 . 850-352 - 852-354 354-355 355-356 356 . 357-386 . 361-364 . 364-366 . 366-369 . 369-370 . 870-371 372 372 . 373-3874 . 374-379 . 875-376 . 376-378 . 378-879 . 379-383 - 883-386 Contents xix CHAPTER XIX PAGES VaRIETIES OF APPLES. . . . 1 ww ew ws 387-487 Summer varieties . . . . . 1. we ss 894-395 Late varieties . . 2. . 1. ww ew ew ws 895-426 - Baldwin. . . ... ..hehee”™”*é«*O; Ben Davis . . ..... . ew ee 397 Winesap. . eof tt he 398 .. Rhode Island Greening * - oe ee we). 898-899 ~ Jonathan... - 2 ee ele. 899-400 York Imperial . . . 1... ee 400 Rome . be cael. Sat, Gel tig! aa! VSS. Nat Jee. Us 401 ~ Northern Spy RS es . . . 401-402 - Yellow Newtown (Alberta. Pippin) . . « 402-408 ” Regus Spitzenburg Sn . . . 4038-404 Grimes Golden. . . . . . . © «. . 404405 Stayman foe & S s w # = =» & « 405-406 “Delicious. oe ew ee eee 406-407 Gano and Blagk Ben ee ee oe ee 407 Yellow Bellflower . . . . . . . . ~« 407-408 Russets . . woe ee ee ee) 408-410 Tompkins King : . . . 410-411 Arkansas rei Black Twig) « el eb) Aes 411 Wagener. : . 2... 411-412 Arkansas Black po lo we oe oe ak ae < LID EATS, Willow Twig . 413 White Pearmain (White Winter Pearman: . 414 Red sae ape Ta NR ee GbE Ge 414 Yates ok ae ie ten we be het Be Oe cee 415 Stark . woe ee eee ee « 415-416 Hubberdston > mw ee et ee Ce ge Oe ee OT Tolman Sweet . . . . - ee ee 417 “SWinter Banana . ....+-.s... 418 Missouri Pippin . . . . . . . . . 418-419 Northwestern Greening . . .... =: 419 Rambo ..... + + +s. « « + 419-420 Ortley . 2. . 2 ee ee ee pe + 420-421 Red Canada ......+.-s.e-s AQt XX Contents Monmouth . ...... Collins F Pumpkin Sweet (Pound Swert) 3 Wolf River . Pa ee Sutton. 2. 6 3 cos = Wow ww Ss Ingram . . z Black Gilliflower SLady. . Early and fall verintios Oldenburg (Duchess) . ‘Wealthy . . Yellow ‘Teavisparent ‘ Twenty Ounce . Gravenstein “McIntosh . Maiden Blush (Lady Blak; Red Cheek) . ~ Fameuse (Snow) . . F Williams acai Early Red, Williams Favorite) . a. Taw sab SS Ms Benoni Bonum (Magnum Bonum) Red Astrachan . Early Ripe . Alexander Starr. . Red June (Caroline Red J ‘ane Carolina jh mn, Carolina Red) 5 Chenango (Chenango Strawberry) « Fall Pippin . Status of commercial vanetica Age varieties begin to bear’ : Relative productivity of varieties in full bearing . Relative hardiness of commercial varieties . Varieties in greatest demand . Export varieties... Varieties for the home orchards: . INDEX LIST OF PLATES Pruate I.— Typical western New York scene. Full bearing trees forty to fifty years of age. . . . . Frontispiece FACING 4 ‘ 4 PAGE Puate II.— Low-headed trees in a Virginia orchard . . 20 Pzate III.— A typical commercial apple orchard in the Missouri Valley, Kansas. A fifteen-year-old Newtown orchard near Medford, Oregon, in need of water. Red Astrachan orchard in Delaware .. 38 Puate IV.— Looking across the floor of the wieinidhas Val ley at Cashmere, Washington . . . “ é -e e B8 Puatt V.— View of the’ Hood River Valley fruit section . 70 Puate VI.— King apne growing in sain bias Nova Scotia . . 88 Puate VIL— A young setpeted outa in the Bitter Root Valley of Montana, showing the clean cultivation formerly practiced in the Northwest. . . .. . . 108 Prare VIIL—Eight-foot disk in operation in the Rogue River Valley, Oregon. suai harrow in use in a northwest orchard . . . . : . 180 Piate IX.— Weeder in use in a Hood River ee of float commonly used at Hood River after cultivation 152 Puatze X.— Irrigating five-year-old bapa trees in the Yakima Valley ... . e 8 eo we ee OS Priate XI.— Insect pests of the ats Oo add oa BS. Gr. SO Puate XII.—San José scale . . . we we we 208 Piate XIII.— Insect enemies of the an oo Bae ee 220 xxi xxii List of Plates \ ' FAOING PAGE Puate XIV.— The woolly aphis . . ... =... ~~ 284 Puate XV.— The tent caterpillar. Rosy apple aphis - . 246 Piate XVI.— Diseases of the apple. . . . . 260 Puatze XVII.— This tree has produced as high as 20 im rels of fine fruit in one season and averages about 10 barrels a year. . . . O14 PLatE ol eae etied < of poking practiced in Virginia rar . 292 Puate XIX.— Packing the fruit We ie A Oe Ode ee ey B06 Piatre XX.— Sizing and grading machines . . . . . 826 Pirate XXI— A Baldwin tree near Paonia, Colorado . . 346 Puate XXII.— A typical yellow Newtown orchard in the Watsonville, California, district . . . - . 368 Puate XXTIT.— ssi oes or in the Northwest . . . . 890 Puate XXIV.—A Nebraska orchard of Missouri issn trees. . ‘ ae ee - . « 418 THE COMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY OF NORTH AMERICA CHAPTER I IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY OF THE APPLE INDUSTRY / Tue object of this work is to deal particularly with the commercial phases of the apple-growing industry with reference to: (1) Distribution of important commercial plantings under which heading will be discussed the ad- vantages and disadvantages of various regions; (2) eco- nomic problems such as cost of production and marketing; (3) scientific cultural methods. In presenting the subject, attention is first given to the geography of commercial apple-growing in the United States and competing foreign countries. It is important to know not only where commercial apples are grown but also the cultural methods employed in different regions. The wide distribution of apple plantings in the United States and the extreme variation in the character of the orchards makes it difficult for one to determine the rela- tive importance of any region, much less to have a definite conception of the conditions which prevail in remote dis- tricts. Few agricultural enterprises have experienced the vicissitudes which seem inherent in the fruit-growing in- 1 2 The Commercial Apple Industry dustry. No small factor in bringing about the changing fortunes of the apple-growers has been a lack of definite information regarding the status of the industry in com- peting regions Temporary high prices determined in a large measure the rate of planting in most sections. Census figures giving agricultural, but not commercial, production of apples, have been used in forecasting cycles of either over- or under-planting. In census figures no line was drawn between commercial and agricultural production. Many times when the agricultural produc- tion was decreasing, the commercial production, or that portion of the crop which reaches the market and affects prices, was actually increasing, in some instances very materially. A sharp line must, therefore, be drawn be- tween commercial and non-commercial production if we are to make a correct analysis of the industry and view the future in the proper light. It has been only within comparatively recent years that commercial apple-growing in the United States has ex- perienced such a very noticeable change from what might be termed a local, home orchard or semi-commercial enter- prise into a highly specialized and scientific industry of. national proportions, centralized in certain favored local- ities, involving intensive and technical methods of culture, and necessitating very complex and intricate methods of distribution and marketing. In other words, the apple crop has been taken from the list of general farm products and has been placed among the foremost specialized crops. In 1919 the apple crop of the United States was valued at $275,463,000. It ordinarily ranks about ninth in the list of farm crops, being exceeded in total value only by wheat, oats, cotton, corn, potatoes, barley, hay and tobacco. Importance and History of the Apple Industry 3 Some’ idea of the relative importance of the apple crop may be obtained by a study of the following table: TaBLe I.— Estimatep Vatue or Important Crops oF THE Unrrep Srares, Basep on Five-Year Average 1914-1918 CORD) i ca gui sane ae Beso incad oes $2,634,804,000 OUENS. sock acd auny vemeleuce 1,198,737,000 EGS 5 oiptseludac cs eee ste 1,132,276,000 OURO desi ose Gkieas wale 1,097,039,000 Oats) sco 5 sg ibe boka dreieanet aoecsad.c 4 773,752,000 Potatoes: a cise isdeed.es 80 342s 372,239,000 PODRECO 3 Ses quaide Vs «ek BE Ries 208,426,000 APPles) ieeog Haste ecer>awad 184,774,000 DECLINE OF FARM ORCHARDS At present commercial apples can be grown successfully only when scientific and intensive cultural methods are employed. The farmer can no longer give his orchard in- different care and expect to compete with the commercial grower. With the advent of new districts, competition has necessitated the adoption of improved methods mark- ing the decline of the farm orchard and the corresponding rise in importance of specialized commercial plantings. About 1850, apple-growing began to assume important commercial proportions, but for many years the farm orchards remained an important factor. The demand for apples in the towns and cities was at first supplied from the farm orchards in adjacent territory. No great effort was made to locate distant markets and in years of heavy production most of the crops would remain on the farm. About 1860 certain highly productive sections of western New York demonstrated their superiority in producing high quality fruit and this fruit outsold that from other districts. These inherent advantages overcame the dis- 4 The Commercial Apple Industry. tance from market so that the center of commercial apple - production was established and has remained in western New York. (See Plate 1.) Despite the rapid centralization of commercial plantings in more favored regions, the apple is adapted to a wide, variation of soil and climatic conditions, and is widely cul- tivated throughout the United States. A great many farms produce a few more apples than are needed at home. Many of these go to waste, but sometimes the surplus is pressed into cider, used for other by-products, or in some quantity finds its way into commercial channels during the years when prices warrant. Just how great a part the last factor plays in the commercial apple industry is diffi- cult to determine, but obviously in the aggregate it is of no little importance. Particularly is this true throughout such states as Iowa, Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania where apples from farm orchards are hauled to nearby towns and supply the market. which might otherwise exist for the | so-called “ strictly” commercial crop. The line of dis- ~ tinction between commercial and non-commercial produc- tion is being more and more closely drawn, however, so that the strictly commercial crop stands out in sharp con- trast. a ae Practically speaking, ‘the spraying operation gives rise to one of the first sharp distinctions between commercial and non-commercial orchards. Insect pests and diseases have exacted a heavy toll from unsprayed orchards and to-day thousands of acres of farm orchards, especially east of the Mississippi River and in such states as Pennsyl- - vania, Ohio and Kentucky are slowly dying out. When it is known that more than 90 per cent of the orchards in some states have never been sprayed, the wide disparage- Importance and History of the Apple Industry 5 TaBLe IT.— AveraGE CoMMERCIAL AND AVERAGE ToTAL Propuc- TION oF APPLES IN UNITED States For Four YrEars. (1916-1919) | ‘ Percentage of Commercial \ state Maree] Tee Grow | teal ep vs ° commercial 1. Washington . 5,062,000 | ( 2)1 6,431,000 78 2. New York 4,132,000 | ( 1) 9,106,000 45 3. Virginia 1,785,000 | ( 4) 3,758,000 45 4. California 1,246,000 | ( 6) 2,435,000 51 5. Michigan 1,133,000 4 ( 5) 2,531,000. 44 6. Illinois 1,045,000 | (10) 1,731,000 60 7. Pennsylvania 988,000 | ( 3) 4,526,000 22 8. Missouri : 916,000 | ( 8) 2,008,000 46 9. West ¥irginia . 892,000 | ( 9) 1,784,000 50 10. Oregon 886,000 | (11) 1,480,000 62 11. Colorado . 683,000 | (21) 851,000 80 12. Ohio 629,000 | ( 7) ° 2,014,000 31 13. Idaho 589,000 | (20) 844,000 70 14. Kansas ‘: 500,000 | (25) 705,000 71 15. New Jersey . 493,000 | (23) 757,000 65 16. Arkansas 476,000 | (22) 809,000 59 17. Maine . . 441,000 | (12) 1,334,000 33 18. Massachusetts 307,000 | (17) 940,000 33 19. Indiana 304,000 | (16) 974,000 31 20. Maryland 279,000 | (24) 757,000 35 21, Vermont . . 207,000 | (26) 588,000 35 22. North Carolina 186,000 | (18) 1,232,000 15 23. Towa 182,000 | (18) 897,000 22 24. Delaware . 169,000 | (36) 224,000 75 25. Nebraska 164,000 | (32) 398,000 44 26. Tennessee 161,000 | (15) 1,173,000 14 27. New Hampshire 157,000 | (29) 441,000 36 28. New Mexico 156,000 | (35) 298,000 52 29. Utah : 123,000 | (37) 214,000 58 30. Connecticut . 117,000 | (28) 446,000 23 31. Wisconsin 117,000 | (19) 883,000 13 32. Kentucky 115,000 | (14) 1,208,000 10 33. Georgia 101,000 | (27) 474,000 21 34. Montana . 86,000 | (34) 324,000 27 35. Minnesota 51,000 | (30) 423,000 12 36. Oklahoma 35,000 | (33) 344,000 10, 37. Texas .. 24,000 | (38) 144,000 17 38. Rhode Island 22,000 | (40) ' 78,000 28 39. Alabama 20,000 | (31) 404,000 5 40. Arizona 16,000 | (41) 46,000 35 41. South Dakota 4,000 | (30) 105,000 4 U. S. 25,001,000 56,502,000 44 duction. 1 Figures in parentheses rank states in order of importance in total pro- 6 The Commercial Apple Industry ment between the agricultural and the commercial crop is not surprising. Table II shows the average agricultural and commer- cial apple prqduction in the different states for the period 1916-1919 inclusive. It will be seen that of an average total production of approximately 56,000,000 barrels, only © ~ 25,000,000 are commercial. In other Sronds, about 44 per cent of the total production during this period reached commercial channels. Apples used for by-products are not included in the com- mercial crop. Allowing for this factor, it would still ap- pear that from 40 to 45 per cent of our total apple crop is either consumed in the county where grown or goes to waste. CENTRALIZED PLANTINGS IN FAVORED REGIONS The centralization of commercial plantings in favored regions has been an interesting process. The most notable feature in the development of the apple industry has been the rapidly increasing commercial crop from western states, particularly Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Calli- fornia and Colorado. Twenty years ago commercial pro- duction in these states, with the exception of California, was practically negligible. To-day over 40 per cent of the commercial apple crop of the United States is grown in the Far West and at no distant date western production may represent one-half of this total. Although far from the centers of population and markets, millions of dollars have been expended in the development of apple orchards in the irrigated valleys of far western states. Heavy yields and fine market quality have combined to over- come the disadvantages of long shipments to market. Importance and History of the Apple Industry v4 Along with the development of the commercial apple industry there has been built up, and particularly in recent years, extensive machinery for the handling, dis- tributing and marketing of apples. Sectional lines have been broken down and this product has become distinctly a national and even international commodity of exchange. Thousands of cars of this fruit move across the entire continent and large cargoes are exported to Europe, Aus- tralia and South America. New and interesting relations between the producer and consumer have been established in an intricate system of marketing. Competition in the production of high quality fruit has worked great changes in cultural methods. Scientific investigation has thrown light on many phases of the industry, all of which will require separate treatment. OUTLOOK FOR THE APPLE INDUSTRY Apple production does not respond quickly to supply and demand, and for this reason there tends to be less stability in the matter of prices than with other products. It requires several years for trees to come into full bearing, and over-production as the result of excessive planting is not felt for a considerable period. If the production of potatoes, wheat or oats exceeds the demand, the land can be put in other crops. But when it has required ten or fifteen years, and much expense, to bring an apple or- chard to bearing, the owner is loath to pull out his trees and will usually wait several years in the hope that price and production will become adjusted. The history of apple production in the United States has run in cycles. In the middle of the past century, when apples first began to be grown commercially, prices 8 The Commercial Apple Industry were good. During the decade 1865 to 1875, prices con- tinued high, and during the period 1850 to 1875 over half of the present bearing orchards in western New York were set. Over-production began to be felt in about 1880. From this time on commercial production increased and prices fell until 1896, when the 76,000,000 barrel crop (agricultural) was grown and the industry reached low price ebb. From 1890 to 1896 many growers pulled out their trees, confident that the good prices would never return. Very little planting was undertaken in this period. In about fifteen years prices began to climb back until the crest of another wave was reached between 1907 and 1911. As prices improved, beginning in 1900 and continuing up until 1908-9, there occurred another heavy planting pe- riod which assumed the proportions of a boom in many western states. It was during this period that most of the acreage in such box-apple sections as Yakima, Wen- atchee, Hood River, southern Idaho and Colorado, which in 1919 produced nearly half of the commercial apples in the United States, was set. Five consecutive failures in the Ozark, Missouri, crop, from frost-injury, contributed to this inflation by creating a strong demand for northwest fruit in a territory ordinarily supplied. The productiveness of such valleys as the Yakima and Wenatchee in Washington was phenomenal. Trees were young and free from disease, the yields on bearing trees were unusual and the returns to the acre were far greater than had been thought possible from any com- mercial orchard. Gross sales sometimes exceeded $2,000 an acre and in some instances orchards sold for as high as Importance and History of the Apple Industry 9 $3,500 an acre. The price for raw land reached $500 to $1,000 an acre. A reaction in prices followed this period of heavy planting and the country is just now recovering from the effects of the boom. While once suffering from inflation, such districts as Yakima, Hood River, Wenatchee and other well known valleys have been and will remain as centers of production. Unfortunately, however, a large acreage of land unsuited to commercial production was set to trees and exploited as apple land, with disastrous results to investors. Projects including thousands of acres of land were laid out and planted to trees in some states only to fall into entire neglect. Thus far there has never been any con- certed movement toward actually pulling out trees. How- ever, to the same effect, many trees receive little or in- different care and never attain full commercial bearing. This is the principle which tends to limit production. Growers slip behind, omit cultivation and spraying and other necessary cultural operations, with the result that their orchards will not produce commercial fruit. It is for this reason that census figures, giving mere number of trees, are very often misleading and need careful analysis without which the industry may be led into periods of over- and under-planting. Favorable factors. It is often asked by those who contemplate setting an apple orchard whether it will be a good business proposi- tion or whether there will be over-production in the years to come. A definite reply is impossible. However, a careful study of these points, in the light of present facts 10 The Commercial Apple Industry’ and conditions, leads to certain probabilities.. The fol- lowing factors are favorable to the future of the apple industry. 1. Increase in population. The first point to be considered is the probable increase or decrease in consumption. There may be periods of very heavy planting, but if population and demand in- crease proportionately, an equilibrium is maintained. Obviously the most favorable factor in the outlook is the rapid normal increase in the population of the United States. If the same rate of increase continues, in 1930 there will be 130,000,000 people, while in 1940, when many of the apple orchards not yet in bearing will reach their highest productivity, there will be 165,000,000 peo- ple. If the same rate of increase continues until 1950, there will be 210,000,000. Rate of increase in population depends, of course, on a number of factors. , 2. Movement to the city. The important factor in the increase in population is that there is a constantly increasing percentage living in cities and towns. For example, in 1790 96 per cent of the inhabitants lived on farms and only 4 per cent lived in towns and did not raise the food they consumed; in 1860 84 per cent lived on farms and 16 per cent in. towns; in 1880 44 per cent on farms and 56 per cent in towns; in 1900 35 per cent on farms and 65 per cent in towns and in 1910 30 per cent on farms and 70 per cent in towns. The drift towards the city is distinctly in the orchardist’s favor. In fact, this would seem to be the Importance and History of the Apple Industry 11 most favorable of all factors in the outlook of the apple industry and a potent influence against over-production. 3. Development of foreign market. In past, years varying quantities, seldom exceeding two million barrels of the best apples, were exported annually. There are great possibilities in the export trade, not only in those countries which at the present time consume large quantities of American apples, but also in undeveloped foreign markets. South America is as yet a market largely undeveloped. At present, the United States produces the larger part of the world’s commercial apple crop. Most of this is consumed at home. In addition, foreign fruit is im- ported to the value of hundreds of millions of dollars from countries which do not consume apples except in a very limited quantity. The apple is one of the least perishable and at the same time one of the most popular fruits, once a demand is stimulated. At present Eng- land is the leading export market. Other north European countries consume American apples in lesser quantities. When it is considered that in the face of an abundance of other fresh fruits and food stuffs the people of the United States consume over 20,000,000 barrels of commercial apples and export only about 2,000,000 barrels annually, ‘the possibilities of export can be more fully appreciated, particularly as the European countries with their millions of population produce commercial apples only in limited quantities. It must be remembered, however, that by the time a package of high-grade apples reaches the European market, the price is out of the reach of such classes as in this country consume much of our own commercial crop. 12 ; The Commercial Apple Industry 4. Education and advertising. _ There is no doubt that consumption of high-grade fruit has been greatly stimulated in recent years by judicious advertising. This is particularly true of the northwest apples. Advertising and educational campaigns will con- tinue to increase consumption. The improved quality of commercial apples is unquestionably stimulating the de- mand for this fruit among all-classes. The fruit-stand has played no small part in creating this demand by dis- playing and familiarizing the people of the cities with the superb quality of certain high-grade brands and va- rieties of apples. A large portion of the northwest boxed apple crop is retailed an apple at a time. As the con- suming public becomes more and more familiar with high quality apples, the demand for this fruit becomes more and more pronounced. 5. Transportation. - The success of commercial apple-growing in various regions is greatly affected by transportation and railroad facilities. Some of the more southern districts, for ex- ample, have poor transportation facilities and orchards are very often located in hilly sections where hauling the fruit to the shipping point represents one of the principal costs of production. With improved roads and shipping facilities, distance from market and inaccessibility will be largely overcome. 6. Distribution. With the improved storage facilities and the progress already made in distribution, it is not surprising that the domestic markets have been able to absorb the increasing Importance and History of the Apple Industry 13 commercial apple crop. Should the apple-grower be able to duplicate even in part the distributing methods used in the citrus industry, it becomes apparent that he might share in the increased demand for high-grade fruit. The sale of oranges has inereased in recent years more rap- idly than population. Many potential consuming centers are represented in towns which can no longer depend on good apples from nearby farms, but are as yet scarcely touched by the present system of distribution. These will eventually be supplied and will absorb a large amount of high-grade fruit, ever though at the present time a demand for such a product seems relatively slight. Storage facilities now established in all large consuming centers have played a most important part in developing: city trade. The extension of storage facilities and better methods of distribution represent one of the favorable factors in the outlook for the commercial apple industry. 7. Improved cultural methods. There has been a great improvement in every phase of orchard management. Improved methods of spraying,. pruning, cultivating, and the like have made possible the production of high-grade fruit. Orchard management has probably reached its highest development in the Northwest. Careful orchard management is expensive, but there is compensation in increased yield, which is the big factor in reducing cost production a unit. The com- mercial grower has been able to produce high-grade fruit economically, sell it at good prices and outstrip his more careless neighbor or the producer of inferior apples. In other words, keen competition is forcing the home or- chard and semi-commercial fruit off the market, / 14 The Commercial Apple Industry 8. Increase in the use of by-products. ; One of the most favorable factors in the outlook of apple production is the increasing importance and use of apple by-products. It is only in recent years that the canned apple industry assumed great importance. Dried apples are more in demand than before. With the advent of prohibition, the demand for apple juice products is increasing greatly. Jellies, apple-butter and similar prod- ucts are being manufactured in increasing quantities. The apples required in the manufacture of these by- products will remove from the market much of the low- grade fruit. Enormous by-product plants have been built in the heart of the Shenandoah-Cumberland region of the Middle Atlantic states, in western New York, in the Ya- kima and Wenatchee valleys of Washington and in fact in all important apple regions. Numerous breweries and dis- tilleries have been converted into plants for the production of apple by-products. 9. Future production. It is important to note, in connection with possible future production, that there has been little concerted ap- ple planting in any part of the United States since 1910. This lack of planting can not fail to have effect on the production of the next two decades. In speculating on future production, one instinctively turns to New York State, which until very recently was credited with one- fourth of the normal commercial apple production of the United States. In the Hudson Valley are many new or- chards which will increase materially the production from this region. However, in western New York, which is Importance and History of the Apple Industry 15 responsible for the bulk of New York apple production, the average bearing orchard is over forty years of age. Although they have had a remarkable record for longevity, production can not be maintained indefinitely on these old orchards which were for the most part planted in the sixties and seventies of the preceding century. Therefore, unless planting proceeds much more rapidly than in the past, no increase and in fact a possible decrease in pro- duction can be expected from western New York. New England apple orchards have been going back rapidly the past several years. As a matter of fact, no- where in the eastern states with the exception of the Shen- andoah-Cumberland region, in New Jersey and Delaware, does there seem likely to be any material increase in production. It is a notable fact that a great decrease has occurred in. the number of apple trees all through the Middle West and although a revival of interest is serving to hold production at its present point, it does not seem that on the whole this section of the United States will show an increased apple production in the near future. The Pacific Northwest will unquestionably show an increased production during the next several years and will be an increasingly important factor in the commercial apple situation. While the Northwest will continue to ship more and more cars of apples, there will be no such relative increase in production as that which occurred in the past ten years. Unfavorable factors. To mistake hopes for facts in the determination to see only the favorable side, regardless of true conditions, has been too frequent. Production in the western 16 The Commercial Apple Industry states has not’ yet reached its maximum. Twenty-six per cent of the new planting in the decade 1900 to 1910 was in the Pacific Northwest. This region will have a normal increase in production of high quality fruit. It is, to a great extent, commercial, and most of it will reach eastern markets. This will unquestionably be the biggest factor in the apple problem. Even to-day the average ap- plegrower does not seem to appreciate the importance of the western crop which has grown so rapidly that it has been difficult to keep fully informed as to the normal size. ¥ . U 1. Increased commercial crop. It is very evident that there has been an increase in the strictly commercial apple crop of the United States, census figures to the contrary notwithstanding. It is important to be on guard against statistics and figures showing de creases in acreage. The fraction of the crop which reaches commercial channels is of the greatest importance. Ordi- narily the commercial crop is estimated at approximately 40 per cent of the total production. Commercial apples are defined to include only that portion of the crop which reaches strictly commercial channels. All fruit left or eaten on the farm, wasted or used for by-products, was not considered as commercial. The agricultural crop may de- crease, but if there is a greater portion of it directed into commercial channels, the decrease may be more than offset by the increasing commercial crop. In many sections the commercial crop is and has been increasing rapidly during the past few years. | Even with the expected increase in population and the better distribution discussed as favorable factors, years are likely to occur when bumper crops will cause prices to é Importance and History of the Apple Industry 1% fall as low as the cost of production. However, unless there is a decided tendency towards new planting, it seems improbable that these years will be successive or very fre quent. There should always be a margin of safety and these lean years should be considered by prospective apple- growers. 2. Poor outlook for unfavored region. One of the principal factors in lowering cost of produc- tion is increased yields. In other words, high yielding sec- tions have a distinct advantage and sometimes increased cost of production actually reacts in their favor by elim- inating less favored regions, and thereby limiting competi- tion. The great increase in the cost of labor and material has made it necessary to receive a price for fruit consider- ably in advance of that required formerly to pay the costs and leave a profit. Many sections can overcome these in- creased costs by increasing yields and better management. Less favored districts in so-called marginal regions will be the first to suffer. The grower who has good yields and manages well will ordinarily be successful. 3. Danger from boom development. During a period of high prices for fruit, there will al- ways be danger of land-selling booms. Promoters will buy up large tracts of land, set them to trees and then en- deavor to unload on unsuspecting city men and farmers not familiar with fruit-growing. Needless to say, the growth of the industry by such methods is unhealthy and honest and intelligent growers and horticulturists should combat such efforts with merciless publicity. This is not 18 The Commercial Apple Industry intended to discourage legitimate investments. Well se lected farms have been known to pay for themselves in a year. Syndicate farming schemes, however, are always questionable. They sound well, but they seldom work out. Attempts of this kind were numerous a few years ago, were largely discontinued for a time, but may revive following high price years. After a few years of inactivity, “ pro- moters ” will appear to prey on a new class of investors. Careful investigation on the part of investors should enable them to determine which orchards were set to produce fruit and which were set for speculation. By curbing this spec- ulative influence, a long step will be taken towards pre- venting over-planting. Among the favorable factors mentioned in the forego- ing paragraphs are the extension of foreign markets and the increase in exportations to meet this demand. In pass- ing, one should not fail to note that in a certain part of the world there are being developed important apple-produc- ing regions. Notable among these is Tasmania, which has produced as many as 2,000,000 cases of commercial ap- ples and exported as many as 800,000 cases (bushels) to England in one year. Canada will be an increasingly im- portant factor in the apple industry. Many lotalities are suitable for apple-growing in this country and new regions are constantly being developed. 4, Competition with citrus fruit. In discussing the outlook for the apple industry, some consideration must be given to its relative status in com- parison with the rapidly growing citrus fruit industry. In 1896, when one of the largest apple crops in the his- tory of the industry was harvested, citrus fruit-growing in Importance and History of the Apple Industry 19 the United States was comparatively in its infancy. Since 1896, citrus production has doubled and trebled: in size until during the year 1917 approximately 100,000 carloads of citrus’ fruits were produced and sold in the United States. Of these, 54,000 carloads were grown in Cali- fornia alone; the remainder largely in Florida. It is dif- ficult definitely to establish the significance of this growth in relation to the apple industry. In the first place, cit- rus fruits can be grown only within comparatively small areas and their production is thereby limited. Citrus- growers have perfected a better system of distribution and have placed their products in a greater number of markets. This competition may check apple consumption, but on the . whole, it seems to indicate that the possibilities of apple distribution have not been as well recognized as they might have been. Citrus production has increased much more rapidly than population and yet distributing agencies have sought out markets, stimulated demand and have disposed of their vastly increased product in most instances at a profit. Conclusions. On the whole, although our commercial apple produc- tion may increase perceptibly in the next few years, due principally to increased production from such regions as the Pacific Northwest and the Shenandoah-Cumberland, there will be no such relative increases as in the period from 1905 to 1920. The population is increasing, with a resulting demand for more fruit. The extension of foreign markets, better means of distribution and wider uses of the apple, com- bine in giving a promising outlook for the apple industry. 20 The Commercial Apple Industry There seems no reason to believe that over a period of |: « years, taking the good with the bad, apples will make any materially better returns than many other farm crops; yet apple-growing is a specialized industry and will always afford exceptional opportunity for individual effort. HISTORY OF COMMERCIAL APPLE-GROWING IN THE UNITED STATES The cultivated apple comes to us from prehistoric time. While several species of native crab-apples were growing wild in the forests at the time of the discovery of this country, these species have never attained commercial im- portance. Practically all the commercial varieties are , , from the Pyrus Malus stock, which is a native of southwest Asia and adjacent Europe ‘and which has been cultivated since time immemorial. Crab-apples came chiefly from Pyrus baccata, or Siberian crab, which comes from the more northern and eastern parts of Asia. At present the apple is the most widely cultivated and important fruit in existence, being grown in practically every country and in every climate. It has reached its greatest cultural development in the United States, which is the principal apple-producing country in the world. It is interesting to know that apple-culture in this coun- try developed almost simultaneously with the settling of the early colonies. Early records show that apple trees were being grown in New England within a few years after the founding of the Plymouth colony. In 1648 Governor Endicott exchanged with Wm. Trask 500 apple trees of. three years’ growth for 200 acres of land. Other frag-. mentary information taken from the history of the New England settlements indicates that apples were being ' "od Aq Sty} JO pUY, SUIT[OL UO o1e SpIeYyDIO YUOpPIIG ySOPL “PLeyo.s1o BIUISITA @ UI S901} papvey-MoT —JJ ALVIg Importance and History of the Apple Industry 21 grown in that region as early as 1650, and that numerous plantings there and elsewhere had been made by 1700. Among the early varieties mentioned were Pearmain, Rus- setin, Long Apple and Kreton Pippins. The two leading apple regions in New York State, the Hudson Valley and western New York or Lake Shore region, were recognized in the early development of the apple industry in New York. It appears in the early history of the Dutch settlements in the Hudson Valley that apple trees were planted near Kinderhook not long after 1700. Plantings also occurred in Long Island at about the same date. Pioneers report apple plantings in western New York as early as 1750. It must be remembered that this region was in a much more primitive state of development at this time than the New England and Hudson Valley sections. Legendary history suggests that apple seeds preceded the progress of civilization into western New York and, falling into the hands of Indian tribes, notably the Senecas and Cayugas, were scattered throughout this part of the state. General Sullivan is reported to have found bearing apple trees laden with fruit near Seneca Lake as early as 1779. It must not be thought that these early plantings were of commercial importance. They were isolated, small in ex- tent, but nevertheless represented interesting landmarks in the development of apple-culture in this country. Com- mercial applegrowing in New York really dates back to about 1860. Prior to this time A. J. Downing, who was born in 1802 and later conducted a nursery at Newburgh, had been a very important and influencing factor in the development of the apple industry in the Hudson Valley region, A. J. Downing died in 1852 after having pub- 22 The Commercial Apple Industry lished in 1845 his “ Fruits and Fruit Trees of America.” Charles Downing, his brother, remained a leading author- ity on apple varieties and apple-growing until 1885. In 1840 George Ellwanger and Patrick Barry started the Mt. Hope nurseries at Rochester, New York. Barry was one of the pioneers in the apple industry and had much to do in making western New York the leading nursery and apple-growing region. Jonathan Chapman, or Johnny Appleseed, the name by which he was more commonly known, had much to do with the spread of the apple westward from New York. Chap- man was an eccentric character. It seems that he spent much of the first half of the nineteenth century in roaming through Ohio and Indiana, at that time a wild undeveloped country. By carrying apple seeds about with him and sowing them broadcast, he effected a wide extension in apple plantings throughout this region. Being of an in- tense religious nature, his life and activities have a roman- tie interest which have been the subject of much writing. His descendants are actively interested apple-growers in southern Ohio to-day. From the standpoint of historic interest, few regions ex- cel the Piedmont of Virginia. Although the Newtown ap- ple originated on Long Island, it was later introduced into Albemarle County, Virginia, early in the eighteenth cen- tury and has been prominently identified with the develop- ment of the apple industry in this region, under the name of Albemarle Pippin. Albemarle Pippins were exported. to England from Virginia as early as 1759. Thomas Jef- ferson was cultivating this variety at Monticello, his coun- try place in Virginia, before the Revolution. It has been authentically stated that so pleased was Queen Victoria Importance and History of the Apple Industry 23 with several barrels of Virginia Albemarle Pippins pre- sented to her during the first year of her reign by the late Arthur Stevenson, American minister to England, that she caused the import tax on apples to be removed. Since that time apple exportations to England have rapidly increased. While certain species of wild crabs are native to the prairie states and doubtless isolated plantings occurred in this region prior to the Civil War, it was after 1860, at the time of the influx of many early pioneers, that apple trees were brought into the country west of the Mississippi River. ‘The apple industry in this section did not begin to assume commercial importance until the eighties and the decade following. It was at this time that many of the older orchards were planted in the Ozarks, Missouri River region and southern Ilinois. Good prices for apples in the late eighties stimulated planting and it was during the nineties that the heavy commercial apple plantings were made in the Middle West. The rapidly increasing’ importance of the western apple regions attracts considerable attention to the history and development of apple culture of the Far West. Probably the first apple trees on the Pacific Coast were grown at Fort Vancouver, Washington, where employees of the Hudson Bay Company are reported to havd planted seeds, carried from England, as early in 1825. The Pajaro Valley or Watsonville section of California is the oldest commercial apple region in the Far West. The agricultural history of this region dates back to about 1820 when Don Antonia Maria Castro applied ‘to the gov- ernment of Spain for a grant of land along the Pajaro River, which he called Vega del Rio del Pajaro. Several large land grants were given to the Spanish Dons during \ 24 The Commercial Apple Industry the next twenty years, but all were used for stock- raising. ; In 1858 the first apple orchard planted by an American in this region was set out on the Jesse D, Carr place, now the Sillman homestead. This orchard was about two acres in extent and contained a mixture of fruit. Some of - these trees are still in bearing. The second apple orchard in the Pajaro Valley was planted by Wm. F. White in 1854. These first two plantings were home orchards. The first commercial orchards in the Pajaro Valley were set out by Isaac Williams and Judge R. F. Peckman in 1858. One planted thirteen acres and the other six acres. The early varieties‘grown were Smith’s Cider, Rhode Is- land Greening, Gravenstein, Newtown Pippin and Belle- flower. The first shipment of apples from the Pajaro Val: ley was made in 1867 by Isaac Williams who sold his fruit in San Francisco. Increased demand for fruit stimulated apple planting and a large number of the present orchards were set out in the period between 1880 and 1900. The output of the Watsonville section was assuming commercial proportions many years before such sections as the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys in the Northwest had come into prominence. It is generally thought that the oldest apple orchards in the Yakima Valley were planted about 1875 to 1876. Near Fort Simcoe, twenty-seven miles south of North Yakima, stands an orchard planted by an Indian, Klickitat Peter, in 1877. This is probably the oldest apple planting in what was later destined to become one of the premier apple-growing regions. In 1888 there were a few family orchards in the Yakima district, but probably the first commercial planting of rrr J Importance and History of the Apple Industry 25 fruit-trees in Yakima was made in 1888 by H. J. Bicknell, in what is known as Parker Bottom. In the spring of 1889, Fred Thompson set out in the same locality what was probably the first commercial apple orchard in the valley. The whole planting consisted of ten acres and included three acres of prunes, three acres of peaches, three acres of Ben Davis apples and one acre of pears. In 1888 and 1889 two irrigation companies, one to un- dertake the Selah project and the other what is now the Sunnyside Government project, were organized. At this time a few express shipments of fresh fruit had been sent to the coast from the small home orchards. In 1894 the total apple output shipped from the Yakima Valley probably did not exceed twenty-five cars. Fruit was layer packed, but not wrapped, the old sixty-pound box being in common use. In 1896 ‘Fred Thompson shipped from the Yakima Valley what was probably the first car of fruit from this region to be sold east of the Mississippi River. It was in 1894 that the apple planting period really began, and the most extensive plantings were made in the years 1900 to 1908. The history and development of the Wenatchee Valley, which is probably the most intensive apple region in the country, was even more recent than the development of the Yakima Valley. The date of the first apple plantings in Wenatchee is given by some as 1873, others 1876. The first fruit-trees were set out by Miller Brothers who later established the first irrigating ditch in this region in 1883. Practically the entire Wenatchee Valley was a barren waste until 1896 when the Gunn ditch was built to water 600 acres of land. In 1901 W. T. Clark, coming from North Yakima, interested himself in the organization of 26 The Commercial Apple Industry the High Line Canal, designed to water 9000 acres of or- chard land. This ditch was completed to Wenatchee in October, 1903. The completion of the High Line Canal marked the beginning of important orchard development in the Wenatchee Valley. By 1913 there were about 20,000 acres of irrigable land under the different ditches established in the Wenatchee Valley. The Indians occupied the Grand Valley until 1880, at which time the history of fruit-growing in western Color- ado begins. In the spring of 1883 several hundred root- grafts were put out in the Grand Valley, only a fraction of which lived. The first fruit plantings were made in the lower lands of the Valley about 1885 or 1886. In 1882 a farmer living at Paonia, in Delta County, a local- ity of lesser importance than the Grand Valley, purchased twenty-six trees of mixed varieties from Rochester, New York, at one dollar each. Of these, three survived. As in the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, principal orchard development occurred in Colorado after 1900. From this fragmentary history of apple-culture in the United States, it may be seen that while apple trees have been grown in home orchards for nearly 300 years, it has only been within comparatively recent years that the in- dustry has assumed commercial proportions. / SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION The apple belongs to the important genus Pyrus, of the Rose family (Rosacese). “This genus includes the apples and pears. The common apple is Pyrus Malus, sup- posed to be native to Europe and Western Temperate Asia. Within this species, as it is commonly broadly accepted, are included the commercial apples, the Paradise and Importance and History of the Apple Industry 2" Doucin dwarf forms, so-called bloomless apple, and others. The Siberian crab is Pyrus baccata. The growth is more slender and wiry than in P. Malus, twigs and leaves not woolly as in that species, the fruit small, long-stemmed, and with the calyx falling away at the blossom end. Hy- ' brids oceur between Pyrus Malus and P. baccata. Some of the apples known as “crabs”’ are only small and acrid fruit-forms of P. Malus. Several species of crab-apple are native to North Amer- ica. One of them is Pyrus ioensis, the prairie crab. It is not cultivated for its fruit, but the Soulard, Fluke, and others are supposed to be hybrids between this species and Pyrus Malus. Some botanists separate the pears and apples into dif- ferent genera. Under this disposition, the pears are re- tained in Pyrus and the apples take the generic name Malus. The common apple then becomes Malus com- mumis, and the wild or run-wild form of it in Europe is called M. sylvestris. A number of oriental species of Pyrus (Malus) are grown for ornament, but they need not be discussed here. CHAPTER II LEADING APPLE REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES Tuere has been a noticeable tendency in recent years towards the centralization of the commercial apple indus- try in a relatively few intensive regions. A glance at the SECKWAL LISTRUBUTION CF COUR CUAL ALLL LE ORAL Fie, 1.— The principal ape eros regions in the United “ States, outline map showing the principal apple-growing regions reveals this. (See Fig. 1.) It is estimated that approx-_ imately 80 per cent of the total commercial apple crop of 28 ; Leading Apple Regions of the United States 29 the United States is produced in these relatively few re- stricted districts. In many parts of this country there is scarcely a farm that has not a small home orchard of apple trees. As has been emphasized elsewhere, production from these home orchards is having less and less commer- cial significance and interest centers in a few well-defined regions. ; a By describing each important apple region and pointing out its individual characteristics, it is hoped to convey to the reader a mental picture of the commercial apple indus- try as it has been developed in these well-favored regions. WESTERN NEW YORK (PLATE 1) From the standpoint of quantity production and total acreage, western New York is the most important apple region in the United States. As early as 1860 the produc- tivity of this section became apparent, and the high qual- ity apples outsold those from other localities. Good qual- ity and high yields were sufficient to overcome the ‘ad- vantages which many other regions may have enjoyed from: being closer to the Atlantic seaboard cities; and the center of commercial barreled apple production was established and has remained ip western New York: Previous to 1919, one-fourth of the normal commercial apple crop of the United States was produced in the state of New York, but the Northwest now produces so many _ apples that this will probably never be true again. Heav- iest plantings are in Niagara, Monroe, Orleans and Wayne counties which border on Lake Ontario. Each of these counties has an apple acreage of 25,000 to 35,000 \acres and each is capable of producing from a half to a million barrels of apples annually. Counties of less importance 30 The Commercial Apple Industry included in this region are Ontario, Yates, Seneca, Cayuga, Genesee, Onondaga, Oswego, Wyoming and Tompkins. In reality, the world’s most important barreled apple region is largely in a ten-mile belt along Lake Ontario, ex- tending from Niagara Falls to Oswego, New York, a dis- tance of about 125 miles. In this section much of the present bearing acreage was planted in the late sixties and in the seventies of the preceding century. In other words, the average age of bearing orchards is over forty years. Probably nowhere else in this country will trees retain such vigor and productivity at forty to fifty years of age as in western New York. The old apple orchards along the ridge road from Buffalo to Rochester have with- stood alternate periods of neglect and care, according to the vicissitudes of the apple industry, and yet they remain in most instances vigorous and productive at advanced age. The permanency of western New York as a leading apple region may be explained partly by the conservatism of the New York grower. Instead of devoting himself entirely to apples, the average farmer in western New York has 100 acres or more of farm land of which only 10 to 20. acres are in apples. His other crops have main- tained him in poor apple years. The yields on the com” mercial full bearing orchards average from 75 to 100 bar- rels to the acre. Some idea of the importance of New York as an apple state may be gained from the fact that the 1918 commercial apple crop was estimated at 5,950,000 barrels, over two- thirds of which came from western New York. Baldwin represents nearly one-half and Rhode Island Greening about 20 per cent of the total production. Northern Spy, Roxbury. Russet, Tompkins King, Duchess of Oldenburg, Leading Apple Regions of the United States 31 Hubbardston, Wealthy and Twenty Ounce comprise the greater part of the remaining commercial production. As might be expected, large storage plants have been built in nearly all of the apple towns, | Some of the more important apple centers are Rochester, Lockport, Medina, Albion, Brockport, Sodus, East Williamson, North Rose, Canandaigua and Holcomb. The barrel is used almost exclusively and very little of the crop moves in bulk. A high percentage of the dried apple production of this country comes from the western New York apple region. For many years Wayne County has been the center of dried apple production and in some seasons as much as 40 per cent of its crop is used for drying. Nearly every orchardist in this county has his own drier, and the pro- duction comes largely from small home driers rather than from large commercial plants. There is considerable variation in the types of orchards in western "New York. Probably 80 to 90 per cent of the bearing orchards are over twenty years of age and there are many profitable orchards over fifty years old. It is believed that the trees in this region reach their maxi- mum bearing capacity at forty to fifty years. The earlier plantings were set about 33 x 33 which proved too close on account of the large size which the trees attained. New plantings are being made 40 x 40. Orchard values in western New York have never reached the high figure attained in some apple regions. Seldom are bearing orchards valued at more than $500 an acre. It is difficult to give orchard values in any region and particularly in western New York where the orchard us- ually goes with the farm and where varying care is given. Some orchards are worth little more than the land they 32 The Commercial Apple Industry occupy. These are the old orchards which’ have received indifferent care for many years. HUDSON VALLEY The Hudson Valley is one of the well known eastern regions, the important commercial plantings extending along the Hudson River from Saratoga County south to Westchester County, and including both sides of the val- ley for a width of several milés. Tbe normal production for this region is about 600,000 barrels and originates largely in the counties of Columbia, Dutchess, Greene and Ulster, with lesser amounts in Albany, Saratoga, Rensse- laer, Orange, Putnam and Westchester. The industry is very intensive about the towns of Coxsackie, Ravena, Ger- mantown, Red Hook, Millbrook, Athens, Milton and Ulster Park. Much of the land is rough and hard to work and this region is not as well adapted to general farming as western New York. The soil in some instances is more or less de- ficient in fertility. The varieties grown are principally Baldwin, Greening, Ben Davis and Spy, with considerable commercial quanti- ties of McIntosh, Duchess, Gravenstein, Holland Pippin, Fall Pippin, English and Roxbury Russet. Trees are much the same in age as in western New York, the orchards in many cases being. even older.. How- ever, there is a larger proportion of young plantings and orchards coming into bearing in the Hudson Valley than in the western part of the state and particularly is this true of Dutchess and Columbia counties. The apples from the Hudson Valley are shipped largely by. boat and rail to New York and eastern markets. Many <> Leading Apple Regions of the United States 33 apples are grown here for the fancy trade demand and su rieties usually bring good returns, due to the ‘prox- to market. The average annual yields are less than in western New York, due largely to soil conditions. The future of the Hudson Valley fruit industry seems assured on account of its proximity to market. NEW ENGLAND BALDWIN BELT The intensive apple sections of Maine, New Hampshire and Massachusetts are included in what is known as the New England Baldwin Belt, so called on account of the prominence of the Baldwin variety. Beginning in south- ern Maine, this region extends through southern New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and into Connecticut, includ- ing both the intensive and more scattered and outlying apple plantings in this territory. In Maine the leading apple counties are Oxford, Kennebec, Franklin and Andro- scoggin; in New Hampshire, Rockingham and Hills- boro; while the heaviest apple production in Massachu- setts comes from. Middlesex, Franklin and Worcester coun- , ties. ‘ As above stated, Baldwin is the leading New England variety, while Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy, Mc- Intosh,.Wealthy, Gravenstein, Tolman, Ben Davis, Porter and Stark have commercial importance. ‘The New Eng- land apple trees, like those of New York, are for the most part old. Great numbers of them have gone out of com- mercial bearing in recent years and especially during the very cold winter of 1917-1918, when it was estimated that over a million Baldwin trees of this section were killed. The gipsy-moth has done heavy damage to the orchards in New Hampshire, and the commercial production for the 34 The Commercial Apple Industry ‘New England Baldwin belt has decreased within recent years. A great number of young orchards are coming in,’ particularly in favored spots of New Hampshire and Mass- achusetts, and these new orchards will tend to make up loss among older trees. Many varieties, such as Wealthy, Mc- Intosh and other fall or early winter sorts, are proving profitable. McIntosh and Wealthy are becoming espe cially popular in the newer plantings. Such varieties as Stark, Yellow Bellflower, Porter, Tolman Sweet, Russets, and many other old varieties are still found in considernble quantity, but are no longer being planted. The orchards of New England for the most part are small in size and come more nearly being farm orchards than do those of any other commercial section. They are in many cases too small to be operated profitably on a strictly commercial basis. A large part of the New England apple crop is marketed locally, particularly in Massachusetts where many apples are shipped in bulk or hauled in trucks to Boston and nearby markets. In normal times New England exports large quantities of apples, particularly of the Baldwin va- riety. The barrel is the standard package for New Eng- land apples when shipped in quantity to outside markets, although for local consumption basket, box or bulk trade predominates. In many cases, striatly high-grade apples are put up in boxes. The normal commercial produc- tion for this region is about 1,250,000 barrels, and it is not likely to increase ; in fact, unless planting is stimulated to a greater degree than at present, production will de- crease somewhat on account of the number of old orchards _ which are dying or are losing their vigor. Production of - high-grade fruit will increase. ‘ Leading' Apple Regions of the United States 35 THE CHAMPLAIN DISTRICT The Champlain district includes that portion of New York and Vermont bordering on Lake Champlain and Lake George. It is situated in a very rigorous climate and only hardy varieties will grow there. It is famous for its fine quality fruit which brings high prices on the market. In area the Champlain region is small as com- pared with most other commercial districts. It includes the counties of Grand Isle, Addison, Chittenden and Rut- land, Vermont, and the counties of Clinton and Essex, New York. The bulk of the production originates near ~ the towns of Middlebury, Shelburne, Rutland and Danby in Vermont. From a strictly commercial standpoint, Grand Isle County, Vermont, an island in Lake Cham- plain, is the most important of all the counties in this - region. Peru, Plattsburg, Lewis and Crown Point are towns about which the apple industry centers on the New York side. The varieties grown in the Champlain region are Me- Intosh, Fameuse, Rhode Island Greening and Northern Spy. Varieties of less importance are Baldwin, Ben Davis and Wealthy. The district is best known for its Mc- Intosh, Northern Spy and Fameuse production. Champlain orchards are in the main much younger than those in other parts of Vermont and New York. The- Grand Isle plantings, largely McIntosh, are particularly young. Although great damage was done to the whole Champlain district by the severe winter of 1917-1918, the young plantings will no doubt soon make up for this loss and bring the production up to normal. McIntosh trees survived the severe winter better than any other variety, a 36 The Commercial Apple Industry fact which will stimulate their planting to an even greater degree. NEW JERSEY The commercial apple production of New Jersey orig- inates largely in Burlington, Camden and Gloucester coun- ties in the southwestern part of the state and in Monmouth County in the northeast. The southwestern apple counties of New Jersey are all within easy access by truck to Phil- : adelphia, while Monmouth County production reaches New York City easily by rail. In former years, plantings in the western and north- western part of the state along the Pennsylvania border were responsible for a considerable production of winter apples, but this region has declined in importance in re- cent years. The new orchards in New Jersey are made up largely of summer varieties. The varieties of importance in Monmouth County are Ben Davis, Winesap, Graven- stein, English Codling, Wealthy, Twenty Ounce, Olden- burg and Red Astrachan. For the counties in the south- western part of the state, Starr, Early Ripe, Williams Early Red and Yellow Transparent predominate, while Winesap and Stayman are favorite late varieties, Considerable interest in apple-growing is being taken in the group of counties near Philadelphia, of which Burling- ton, Camden, Gloucester and Cumberland are most im- portant. Considerable planting is being done and much young acreage is to be found in these counties. Riverton, Moorestown and Burlington are towns about which many commercial orchards are located. : The early apple crop, which makes up such a large por- tion of the New Jersey production, is shipped largely in five-eighths-bushel or bushel baskets. A small part of the ee Leading Apple Regions of the United States 37 crop moves out in barrels, but the five-eighths-bushel basket is popular for winter as well as summer varieties. The commercial apple production for New Jersey is increasing, due to the greater output from the group of southwestern counties, including Burlington, Camden, Gloucester and Cumberland counties. The average commercial production for the state is esti- mated at about 500,000 barrels, of which a considerable percentage is made up of early varieties. The commercial apple sections in New Jersey are very favorably located with respect to markets and the future of the industry in this state seems bright. DELAWARD (PLATE III) The apple section in Delaware is really more or less of a continuation of the New Jersey district. Varieties, methods of marketing and even soil conditions are very much the same. The commercial apple orchards of Dela- ware are principally in Kent and Sussex counties. ‘Plantings are intensive about the towns of Wyoming and Bridgeville. The average production for the state is nearly 200,000 barrels, much of this being made up of early varieties which are entirely off the market by August Ist. The early apple industry in Delaware proved profitable, especially during the few years prior to 1919, and at the present time it is experiencing a marked growth. Many new and very large orchards are being set out. Williams Early Red, Red Astrachan, Yellow Transparent and Early Ripe are particularly popular among the early varieties, while Stayman leads among the late varieties. Large orchards are not uncommon in Delaware, there 38 The Commercial Apple Industry being several commercial orchards, over 500 acres in size. For the most part, these large tracts are carefully and systematically managed, although many have not yet attained full bearing. Delaware growers ship practically all their early fruit in five-eighths-bushel or bushel baskets, particularly the former, while the late apples are usually barreled. Dela- ware is primarily devoted to the production of early var- ieties and this has brought about its prominence in the commercial apple industry. Much of the acreage is young and an increased production is to be expected. SHENANDOAH-CUMBERLAND DISTRICT The Shenandoah-Cumberland district is the term applied to that section of Virginia, Maryland, West Virginia and’ Pennsylvania which is included in the Shenandoah: and ' Cumberland valleys. This region has somewhat recéntly come into prominence and is yet only approaching its max- imum production. By mentioning Frederick County, Virginia; Berkeley County, West Virginia; Washington County, Maryland; Franklin and Adams counties, Penn- sylvania; and counties in close proximity to these, a more or less compact region is defined which rivals western irrigated districts in intensity and exceeds New England in normal production.. A full or normal crop for the Shenandoah-Cumberland would be over 3,000,000 barrels. The two towns about which the apple industry of this region centers are Martinsburg, West Virginia, and Winchester, Virginia. Other important apple towns are Staunton, Virginia, Chambersburg, Biglerville and Waynesboro, Pennsylvania, and Hancock, Maryland. The counties of Berkeley, West Virginia, and. Frederick, VP me 7 2 PLatTe III.— (1) A typical commercial apple orchard in the Missouri Valley, Kansas. (2) A fifteen-year old Newtown or- chard near Medford, Oregon, in need of water. (3) Red Astra- chan orchard in Delaware. Trees are too high and difficult to harvest. 2, 7 Leading Apple Regions of the United States 39 Virginia, rank among the highest producing counties in the country. Each is capable of yielding over a half million barrels of high quality fruit in good crop years. Augusta County, Virginia, has an enormous acreage of young trees and will soon rival these counties in produc- tion. Franklin and Adams counties, Pennsylvania, with but 20 to 30 per cent of their trees in bearing, produce a quarter million barrels each annually and their production is rapidly increasing. The same is true of Washington County, Maryland. The York Imperial is the leading variety for the Shen- andoah-Cumberland and the Ben Davis is second in import- ance. Grimes Golden, Stayman, Black Twig, Delicious and Yellow Transparent have been planted extensively. The York Imperial represents fully 40 per cent and Ben Davis about 20 per cent of the regional production. Stayman and Delicious will increase in commercial pro- duction in the upper Shenandoah Valley and particularly in Augusta County. Stayman yields are increasing very rapidly in Pennsylvania, particularly Adams and Frank- lin counties. The average orchard in the Shenandoah-Cumberland is fully twenty years younger than those in New York. Most of the orchards have not yet reached maximum bearing; in fact a very large percentage of the trees are not in bearing at all; particularly is this true for Shenandoah, Rockingham and Augusta counties, Virginia, where enorm- ous acreages are just coming into bearing. “Taken as a whole, the commercial apple plantings in the Shenandoah*Cumberland represent one of the most promis- ing regions in the country. The trees are young, and rela- tively free frpm disease; the yields are high; plantings 1 I ' west. & 40 The Commercial Apple Industry are centralized; and possibilities are strong for a rapidl increasing production. Practically all of the apples ar shipped out in barrels, largely to northern markets. . greater relative increase in production may be expecte from this district than from any other outside.of the Nortl A PIEDMONT DISTRICT OF VIRGINIA (PLATE IZ) In total production several regions excel the Piedmon of Virginia, but in historic interest and beauty it is unsui passed. The Piedmont region extends from Patric County in’ the southern part of Virginia, north along th eastern slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains to the Potoma at Loudoun County. This area includes the famous Albe marle Pippin and old Winesap district of Virginia, whic centers in the counties of Albemarle and Nelson. Othe counties of importance are Franklin, Roanoke, Bedford Amherst, Patrick, Rappahannock, Loudoun and Culpepper The most intensive plantings are about the towns of Crozet Afton, Covesville, in the heart of the Piedmont, and als about Roanoke, Salem, and Stuart farther south. The Albemarle Pippin plantings for which the Pied mont is famous are found largely in the old orchards, par ticularly those in the Rock Fish Valley in Nelson Count) and about Covesville, Crozet and Charléttesville in Albe marle County. Pippin plantings also occur in the eastert part of Nelson County and farther south through Amherst. Bedford, and as far as the Bent Mountain district in Roa noke County. Most of these Albemarle Pippin plantings of the Piedmont are well advanced in age and only a few young trees are coming on to replace them. While the Piedmont has been best known for its Albe Leading Apple Regions of the United States 41 marle Pippins for more than a century and a half, the old Winesap is more widely grown and is produced in greater commercial quantities than any other variety. York Im- perial represents from 15 to 20 per cent of the regional production, while Stayman and Black Twig occur in some commercial plantings. The age of the Piedmont orchards varies from a few years to a century. The oldest trees in profitable bearing are those of the Albemarle Pippin or Newtown variety which was highly prized in the English markets a century ago. On account of late bearing and susceptibility to bitter-rot, this variety is less popular in the newer plantings. Principal commercial plantings average from fifteen to twenty years of age and lean rather strongly to Winesap, Stayman and York Imperial. A full crop for this region would be about 800,000 barrels but the average is not much over 500,000 barrels. Piedmont orchards are distinctly mountainous in char- acter, most of them being situated on hill or mountain sides. They are somewhat difficult to work and harvesting operations are expensive. Practically all the fruit is barreled and moves to outside markets, there being little home trade. Many of the York Imperials and Albemarle Pippins are exported. While annual yields do not gener- ally equal those of the Shenandoah-Cumberland on the west, higher quality varieties are grown and better prices are received. Among the disadvantages to be considered in this region is the prevalence of bitter-rot. Root-rot has also caused considerable loss and the growers find it impos- sible to control. A considerable acreage of young trees will attain full bearing soon after 1920 and the production of this section will doubtless be increased. High quality fruit and a 42 The Commercial Apple Industry progressive spirit among its growers insures growth and development of the apple industry in the Piedmont. MINOR REGIONS IN PENNSYLVANIA, WEST VIRGINIA AND VIRGINIA Aside from the important apple regions described, a number of minor regions throughout Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Virginia are worthy of mention. In the northeastern part of Pennsylvania, particularly in Luzerne and Lycoming counties, are considerable com- mercial apple plantings of Baldwin, Northern Spy and Rhode Island Greening. These conform more to the type of orchards in western New York than to those in Penn- sylvania’s leading apple region in the Cumberland Valley district. Outside of the eastern Panhandle section included in the Shenandoah-Cumberland region already described, there are no extensive commercial apple plantings in West Vir- ginia except in Hancock County which is situated at the tip of the northern Panhandle which extends northward be- tween Pennsylvania and Ohio. This was originally the most important commercial apple district in West Vir- ginia, but it has long since been eclipsed by the great development in Berkeley and surrounding counties. The important variety grown in Hancock County is the Willow Twig, well known on the Pittsburg markets. The or- chards are for the most part old and increased commercial — _. production seems unlikely. In southwestern Virginia there are many commercial orchards. This district is not included in either the Shenandoah-Cumberland or Piedmont region. The var- Leading Apple Regions of the United States 43 ieties grown are Winesap, York Imperial, Rome Beauty, Stayman, Lowry, Virginia Beauty and Delicious. MOUNTAIN REGION OF NORTH CAROLINA The mountain district of North Carolina is more or less a continuation of the Virginia Piedmont. Apples have been grown in the mountains of western North Carolina for many years; it is said that many of the old plantings were for the purpose of producing apples to be used in the manufacture of apple brandy. Certainly a great many of the old orchards are located in relatively inaccess- -ible and remote localities. It is doubtful whether more } than 5 per cent: of the North Carolina apple acreage has ever been sprayed. When the manufacture of apple brandy was discon- tinued, it was found that there was a market for apples in their fresh state and at the present time many thousand bushels of fruit produced on the old unsprayed orchards are hauled down the mountain-sides in wagons to find their . way to the market in bulk. Improved cultural practices are being adopted more and more each year. Apple orchards are planted in the western part of North Carolina, extending from Surry County, bordering on Patrick County, Virginia, on the north, almost to the extreme southwestern corner of the state. North Carolina apple orchards represent two distinct types. While for the most part the older trees are neglected and unsprayed, there are very intensive and strictly commercial plantings in a few localities, such as in Surry Comnty in the vicinity of Mt. Airy in the northwestern part of the state. A little farther south other commercial plantings have been set out 44 The Commercial Apple Industry in the vicinity of Taylorsville and Wilkesboro. The dried apple industry has assumed considerable proportions in this locality. The most progressive apple section in North Carolina is in Haywood County near Waynesville. Here a con- siderable number of strictly commercial apple orchards have been set out, which are responsible for the increasing commercial output of this section. A third important commercial region is in Polk and Henderson counties in the vicinity of Saluda and Hendersonville. While most of the North Carolina apple crop is handled in bulk, the product from the later commercial plantings is nearly all barreled, and finds a ready sale at good prices in southern markets. In addition to the apple counties already named, some commercial planting is found in Watauga, Madison, Rutherford, Alexander, and Jackson counties. The leading variety of the old orchards is the Limber- twig of which there are several types, including the Royal or Brushy Mountain Limbertwig. Winesap, Stayman, Delicious, and Arkansas (Black Twig) are among the new varieties predominating in the younger plantings. Pro duction of these varieties will increase materially. The Limbertwig, although a very good apple, owes its early popularity to the fact that it is a late keeper. Better known and higher quality varieties are supplanting the Limbertwig in the younger orchards. It is quite apparent that the strictly commercial production of apples from North Carolina will be increased materially when the young plantings attain full bearing. Surry County in the northwest central part of the state, and Haywood County Leading Apple Regions of the United States 45 in the western part, will be the main centers of commer- cial production. A full crop for western North Carolina at this time would not exceed 300,000 barrels of commercial apples, of which the larger part would be sold in bulk. MOUNTAIN REGION OF GEORGIA While not as yet representing great commercial pro- duction, an apple region is developing in the extreme north- eastern part of Georgia which is of particular interest since most of its fruit is boxed. Strictly speaking, the commercial apple district in Georgia includes but two counties: Rabun and Habersham, in the extreme north- eastern part of the state. Habersham County is the more important of the two and has experienced a period of heavy planting, which promises a greatly increased com- mercial output. A single orchard in this region ships as many as 40,000 packed boxes of apples in a season, which is a large boxed apple crop for any orchard East or West, but more particularly the East where boxing of apples is little practiced. H.R. State, whose orchard is one of the finest and most profitable for its size in Georgia, had much to do with the early development of this region. The most intensive apple plantings are about the towns of Cornelia, Demorest, Tallulah Falls and Clarksville. The leading variety in northeast Georgia is the Yates, which seems particularly adapted to the southern climatic and soil conditions, and has proved very popular on account of its heavy annual bearing habit. Other varieties of commercial importance are Terry’s Winter, Stayman ‘Winesap, Black Twig, Shockley and Winesap. Delicious 46 The Commercial Apple Industry appears prominently in newer plantings. The Limber- twig and Nickajack are found in the older orchards, but are not common in newer ones. A very large percentage of the commercial plantings in both Rabun and Haber- sham counties have been made since 1910. This region enjoys close proximity to the southern markets, and for that reason a good outlet for its fruit is assured. Several very favorable tracts of land have been set to apple trees in northeast Georgia and while for the most part these orchards are promising and well cared for, it is unfortunate that some unworthy promotion schemes . have been planned for the exploitation rather than the development of the apple industry in this region. Most of the trees not yet being in full bearing, it is difficult to state the possible output; the largest crop year prior to 1919 ‘included over 100,000 bushels of boxed apples, as well as considerable quantities shipped in bulk.. A greatly. increased production may be expected. \ OHIO Southern Ohio Rome Beauty district. The Southern Ohio Rome Beauty district is fairly well- defined and centralized and has come into prominence since 1910. The most important plantings in this region are in Lawrence, Gallia, Meigs, Athens and Washington coun- ties, bordering on the Ohio River, Lawrence and Washing- ton being particularly noteworthy. Extensive plantings occur about the towns of Marietta, Proctorville and Gal- lipolis. Apple land of this region’is mountainous in character, and the orchards are very often isolated and more or less Leading Apple Regions of the United States AY inaccessible. On account of the rolling character of the land, orchard operations are somewhat difficult. In many cases terraces have been made to facilitate the operation of power spray outfits. It is common to find the orchards situated on the tops of the hills. Trees are set close together and do not attain the size of those in most eastern regions. Orchards for the most part are under twenty- five years of age. A lack of symmetry is noticeable in some commercial plantings on account of missing and varying sized trees. Much of the fruit is ferried across the Ohio River to Huntington and Parkersburg on the West Virginia side. These cities, together with Marietta in Ohio, are the principal distribution centers for the southern Ohio crop. With the exception of some summer varieties which are often sold in bulk in nearby markets, most of the apples are barreled. The commercial production of the region has reached 750,000 barrels in certain years. Rome Beauty, the leading variety, originated in southern Ohio and is especially adapted to this section. Ben Davis, Grimes, York Imperial, Oldenburg and Yellow Trans- parent are among other important varieties grown com- mercially, of these Ben Davis and Grimes being most widely grown. The average annual yields in this region are rather small and unless planting proceeds more rapidly than for thé period 1915 to 1919, no greatly increased production can. be expected. . « Minor regions in Ohao. Columbiana County in the eastern part of Ohio is a rather important apple county with a number of old é 48 The Commercial Apple Industry orchards, many of which are not very well taken care of. The leading varieties are Baldwin, Greening, Ben Davis, Hubbardston and Flushing Spitzenburg, the latter known commercially only in this locality. In northern Ohio along the lake belt, particularly in Ottawa, Sandusky, Huron and Erie counties, are some- what limited apple plantings consisting largely of Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Ben Davis, Northern Spy, MeIn- tosh, and Duchess. Farther south in Ohio, about midway between the south- ern Rome Beauty section and Lake Erie is another small apple district consisting of more or less scattered plant- ings about Chillicothe. Early varieties such as Yellow Transparent figure in the production of this locality. . KENTUCKY For many years Kentucky has been credited with a very large apple production. However, this is for the most part non-commercial and originates almost entirely in old neglected orchards. The strictly commercial apple plant- ings of Kentucky are largely in Henderson County on the Ohio River just south of Evansville, Indiana. The apple industry has not attained very great proportions even here, although there are a number of important plantings and the orchards are generally well taken care of. The leading varieties are Winesap, Stayman, and Ben Davis, although there are considerable plantings of early kinds. In some years the total production of this small section reaches 40,000 barrels, although it is more commonly under 30,000 barrels of strictly commercial apples. The industry is being fostered in this section and further growth seems probable. aaa Leading Apple Regions of the United States 49 MICHIGAN Commercial apple-growing has been an important enter- prise in Michigan for forty years or more. While apple plantings are not confined to any one county or group of counties, they are centralized in the region bordering on the eastern‘ shore of Lake Michigan where the tempering influence of the lake favors the culture of many deciduous fruits. Some of the soils in this region are extremely sandy and are more particularly adapted to peach-growing than to apple-culture. A large portion of land, however, is a sandy clay loam, we]l suited to apples. The region is known as the western Michigan fruit belt and extends from Berrien County on the south to Che boygan County on the north. The most important apple counties of this region are Van Buren, Allegan, Kent, Ber- rien, Oceana and Grand Traverse. Apple plantings are also found in adjoining counties and widely scattered throughout most of the lower peninsula of Michigan. Some of the oldest orchards in the state are in the south and southeastern counties, but the importance of this re- gion has given way to the newer plantings, particu- larly in the northern end of the western Michigan fruit belt. Production for western Michigan in a full crop year would approximate 1,200,000 barrels or about 75 per cent of the total commercial apple production of the state of Michigan. The plantings in the southern part of the belt suffered severe loss from San José scale, while those in the northern part are much younger and have experienced less injury from scale. There has undoubtedly been a decline in the production in Michigan as compared with 1910. o 50 The Commercial Apple Industry However, with the young orchards just coming into bear- ing and with better care being given to the older trees, it seems highly probable that this loss will be made up within the next few years. The leading variety grown in western Michigan is the Baldwin, which comprises over one-fourth of the total pro- duction. Northern Spy and Oldenburg (Duchess) each represents about 14 per cent of the total production. Ac- cording to a recent survey, varieties next in order of im- portance are Wagener, Rhode Island Greening, Wealthy, Ben Davis, and Jonathan; the last named being prominent in the newer orchards of Van Buren, Allegan and Berrien counties. Ben Davis is outstanding in the older orchards in the southernmost counties. Oldenburg (Duchess) and Wealthy are the leading summer and fall varieties. Most of the apples of this region are packed out in barrels and a large proportion of the crop is marketed in Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, and other large cities nearby. Producing communities situated close to cities market much of their apple crop by wagon or truck, crates and bushel baskets figuring in this movement. An increased interest in the apple industry in western Michigan is evidenced in better cultural and marketing methods. Codperative associations are-increasing in prominence in many localities. ILLINOIS. r Illinois occupies a position of Sates cael in the commercial production of apples. Soil conditions generally throughout the entire state are very well adapted to apple-growing, and nearly every county has a consider- able acreage of trees. ve" Strictly commercN] areas are largel southern part of the $ POM 8 three fairly well-defined rept extreme ‘south- ern portion; (2) the Mississippi Valley region centering about Pike and Calhoun counties; (3) the southeastern part of the state, centering in Marion County. Illinois is probably under-estimated from a commercial standpoint. New orchards coming into bearing, and the renovation ‘of old ones have combined in making this the most important middle western apple state. Its central location and proximity to market serve as distinct advantages. Southern Illinois early apple region. The extreme southern or early apple section in Illinois may be defined to include the eleven southernmost coun- ties, but only Union and Johnson are of great commercial importance. These counties probably comprise one of the most important early apple-producing sections in the United States. J. C. B. Heaton of New Burnside is one of the persons largely responsible for the early develop- ment of this industry. Good returns for apples have Stimulated planting and an increasing production may be expected from this region. The principal early varieties are Yellow Transparent, Duchess of Oldenburg, Benoni, Red June, Chenango and Sops of Wine. Summer varieties comprise nearly three- fourths of the total production. Prominent among winter varieties are Winesap, Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan, and Rome Beauty. Early apples . dre shipped in baskets to Chicago, St. Louis and other nearby cities. The shipping season for these apples 52 The Commercial Apple Industry begins the last week -in June and is usually over by August first. Winter apples are sold either in bulk or in barrels, In some ways this extreme southern portion of Illinois is a continuation of the Ozark uplift. The country is somewhat mountainous and unlike northern Illinois. The soil is rather thin and in general well suited for the quick early growth of summer varieties. Mississippi Valley region of Illinois. Adams, Pike and Calhoun counties bordering on the Mississippi River are responsible for the heavy produc- tion of apples in western Illinois. Calhoun leads in ton- nage shipped and a large part of its output goes down the Mississippi River by boat. Conditions are dissimilar to those in the early apple region in the southern part of the state. With the excep- tion of Calhoun and Pike counties, land in western Illinois is more typical of the prairie states. Calhoun County apple production is being more than maintained by new plantings. While the total acreage in the other counties may have suffered more or less decrease from 1910 to 1918, a greater interest generally is exhibited among the leading and strictly commercial growers. Nearly 90 per cent of the acreage in this section is sprayed, while for the state as a whole it is doubtful whether 25 per cent of the acreage is sprayed. Leading varieties for this region are Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan, Grimes, Willow Twig and Winesap. Ben Davis and Willow Twig predominate. Practically all commercial apples are shipped in barrels, ‘% Leading Apple Regions of the United States 53 Southeastern Illinois. The Marion County district in southeast Illinois is sometimes spoken of as the Flora section, since Flora is the principal shipping point and_one of the important apple centers in the state. Clay, Richland, Wayne, Ef- fingham and Jasper counties are also included in this general region. Marion County was at one time credited as leading in the state in total number of trees, but in recent years has suffered heavily from loss in trees. Practically all of the orchards are of bearing age and very few trees are coming into bearing to replace a great percentage which passed out prior to 1918. Neglect, old age, and infection with disease and insects, notably San José scale, have exacted a heavy toll. Some commercial growers are maintaining their orchards, but it is doubtful whether over 50 per cent of the total acreage is sprayed at all. Yields throughout this section are generally low. Most of the apples are sold in bulk; the remainder in barrels. Ben Davis is the leading commercial variety and represents over half of the total production. Jonathan, Winesap, Rome Beauty and Grimes Golden are less ex- tensively grown. Of the summer varieties which prob- ably represent 15 per cent of the total production, Benoni, Transparent, Duchess and Wealthy are important. Con- sidered as a whole, Illinois is one of the few if not the only middle western state to maintain its commercial production in the face of a general decline in apple acreage throughout the Middle West during the period 1905 to 1918. Of its three commercial apple regions, two are showing increased production. High production is possible with good care and it seems probable. that 54 The Commercial Apple Industry Illinois will remain the leading apple state of the Middle West for some years to come. OZARK REGION The Ozark region in southern Missouri and northwest- ern Arkansas is one of the best known apple sections in the United States, although in production it ranks third among the four important Middle West districts. Essentially it is a Ben Davis region, since this variety and Gano represent over 65 per cent of its plantings, and an even greater proportion of its production. During the decade 1890 to 1900, the entire Ozark region experienced an era of planting unequalled in any other section of the country. Prices for apples in the late eighties stimulated and encouraged plantings, and the good yields produced by the Ozark orchards then in bearing afforded excellent returns. The over-planting which occurred in the nineties resolved itself into somewhat of a land-selling boom, a repetition of which was experienced in the west- ern states from 1900 to 1910. Thousands of acres of both suitable and unsuitable land throughout the Ozarks have been set to. trees, but of this great acreage only a portion has been cared for and much has been neglected and abandoned. The Ozark region includes some of the best and some of the worst orchards in the country. A period of late spring frosts in 1900 to 1910, when a num- ber of consecutive crops were lost or severely damaged, contributed to the lack of care accorded to many of these trees. . A full crop for the entire Ozark region would probably not exceed 1,600,000 barrels. Arkansas’ contribution to the Ozark apple production originates almost entirely in Leading Apple Regions of the United States 55 two counties, Benton and Washington, situated in the ex- treme northwestern part of the state. Madison, Boone, Carroll and Crawford counties in Arkansas are of much less importance. Bentonville and Rogers in Benton County, and Springdale and Lincoln in Washington County are important apple centers in Arkansas. In Missouri the commercial apple plantings of the Ozarks continue from the extreme southwestern part of the state, along the Frisco Railway to the northeast’ as far as Crawford County. Lawrence, Greene, followed by Newton, Barry, Webster and Howell, are the most impor- tant Missouri counties in the Ozark region. Marionville in Lawrence County is the center of the best orchard sec- ‘tion in southern Missouri. Orchards in the vicinity of this town illustrate the possibilities to be attained in the Ozark region. , y Probably -no other commercial apple district in the United States has suffered such a loss in trees as has the Ozark since 1910. Conservative estimates place the loss at more than 50 per cent, much of which has been due to blister-canker. With such conditions prevailing, one is not surprised in finding two very divergent types of orchards. There are the old, neglected dying orchards which have received practically no care while in some communities a revival of interest has brought many or- chards into a high state of cultivation and profitable bear- ing. - In such counties as Texas in the extreme southern part of Missouri are orchards which look almost like virgin forests, branches interlock, trees are unsprayed, unpruned and uncared for. The price of the land is established by its value for general crops, less the cost of removing the neglected trees. 56 The Commercial Apple Industry Orchards in the Ozark region vary from a few acres to over 100 in size, many of them being from 30 to 100 acres in extent. Large orchards discourage intensive cul- tural methods and yields tend to be low and biennial as trees grow older. In some localities there is a progres- sive element in the farming population, evidenced by greater attention given to orchard management. Despite this revival of interest it is doubtful whether over 35 per cent of the trees in the Ozark region are ever sprayed, with a result that not more than 35 per cent of the total acreage can be considered as strictly commercial. As stated above, Ben Davis and Gano represent over 65 per cent of the Ozark production. Jonathan, Ingram, Maiden Blush, Grimes, York Imperial, Collins and Ar- kansas Black are found in limited plantings, more partic- ularly in younger acreage. More than half of the production from this region is shipped in bulk, only the better grades and the higher quality varieties being shipped in barrels. It must be re- membered, however, that the bulk production competes directly with the barreled stock and is frequently not in- ferior in quality. MISSOURI RIVER REGION (PLATE II) Important commercial apple plantings of Towa, Nebraska, Kansas and northern Missouri are at the in- tersection of these four states, in what is known as the Loess Apple Belt, along the Missouri River in north- western Missouri, southwestern JIowa, southeastern Nebraska, and northeastern Kansas. This section has been placed in a district by itself, since the important Leading Apple Regions of the United States 5Y plantings are centralized in a well known and fairly well defined commercial region. The most extensive apple plantings in the Missouri River region are in Buchanan County in the vicinity of St. Joseph in northwestern -Missouri, and across the Mis- souri River in Doniphan County in northeastern Kansas. Towa and .Nebraska plantings are of less importance although the Missouri River region properly includes small corners of the above two states. In Nebraska, Nemaha and Richardson are two important counties, while across the Missouri River, Fremont, Mills and Pottawa- tomie counties lead in the commercial production for Iowa. All of the counties named border on the Missouri River and with several other counties in close proximity, com- prise a fairly compact region which extends into four states and has a normal production of nearly 2,000,000 barrels, which is greater than can be credited to the Ozark region. Ben Davis and Gano comprise approximately 50 per cent of the production from the Missouri River district, while Jonathan, Winesap, Arkansas (Black Twig) and Missouri Pippin trees-have been extensively planted, particularly in the younger orchards. A large part of the crop moves out in bulk as is the casé in the Ozarks. Doniphan County, Kansas, deserves particular mention as one of the most important and highly commercial counties in the Middle West. Community spirit has stimulated development of the apple industry and extensive plantings are found in the vicinity of Wathena and Troy. A high percentage of the yield of Doniphan County is barreled and more of the trees are sprayed than in prob- ably any other middle western apple section. Carload shipments from Doniphan County alone have amounted _— 58 The Commercial Apple Industry to more than 1,000 cars for a single season. In most instances the orchards reflect the careful attention which always insures a high state of productiveness. : Orchards in northwest Missouri are older, have a larger proportion of Ben Davis trees and in the main have re- ceived less attention than those on the Kansas side. Buchanan County on the Missouri River ranks,among the foremost, if not'the foremost apple county in Missouri, and yet it is doubtful whether 50 per cent of the trees are sprayed. While Buchanan County has been singled out on account of its central location and relative impor- tance, other counties in northwest Missouri, including Nodaway, Holt, Jackson and Lafayette, are of almost equal importance. The orchards in the Missouri River region are more uniform in type than those in the Ozarks and are, as a whole, better cared for. There are many old neglected orchards in northwest Missouri, but these are fast going out and the production from strictly commercial orchards promises to dominate the output of the region. The great- est increase in production may be expected from the young plantings in Kansas, many of which are just coming into bearing. Outside of the intensive commercial apple regions, the Middle West has suffered a tremendous loss in trees. However, most of these were in the farm orchards and it is felt that such regions as the Missouri River or loess soil region will serve to maintain the commercial produc- tion of the Middle West at some point near its present fig- ure. It must be remembered that apple-growing along the Missouri River has never reached the intensity of many other regions. General farming with here and there a Leading Apple Regions of the United States 59 commercial orchard describes the general farm manage- ment scheme. As may be expected, where apple-growing is only one of a number of enterprises, the general care given orchards is not as highly intensive as in some sec- tions. Commercial production at the present time comes from a comparatively few well-cared-for orchards. ; ARKANSAS VALLEY OF KANSAS The Arkansas River Valley in south central Kansas is a distinct region which requires separate treatment. Apple plantings in this valley are confined largely to the sandy loam soil along the river and are in Reno, Sedg- wick, Sumner and Cowley counties. Not all the valley land is suited to apples and plantings are spotted. Many of the orchards are irrigated with water pumped from wells and it is the only section east of Colorado in which irrigation is practiced in the growing of apples. . Heavy plantings were made in the period 1907 to 1910 and this region will be of. increasing importance as trees attain full bearing. Winesap and Ben Davis are the leading varieties, while Jonathan, Black Twig, Gano, York Imperial, Grimes and Rome Beauty are of less importance. On account of irrigation and other farm management practices in vogue, the Arkansas Valley has more in common with the western irrigated districts than with the typical Middle West sections. Furthermore, while bulk shipments represent a large portion of the cfop, a considerable percentage of the output is marketed in boxes. No barreling is done. A full crop from this region would be equivalent to about 250,000 barrels at present. Increased production may be expected. 60 The Commercial Apple Industry COLORADO Colorado stands out prominently as the most important apple state in the inter-mountain district. Practically the entire commercial apple crop of Colorado is produced on the western slope of the Rockies, in the Grand and Gunni- son valleys. The Grand Valley, extending in either direction from Grand Junction, in Mesa County, for a. distance of about twelve miles, is the most highly developed district in the state. This valley is comparable in many ways with typical northwest apple districts, being essen- tially boxed apple-producing, relying on irrigation, and employing northwest methods of culture and farm man- agement. Heaviest planting in the Grand Valley was in the period 1905-1910. Practically no planting occurred between 1912 and 1918. In 1918 there were about 10,250 acres of apples, of which 7,500 were over ten years of age. Alkali outcroppings in certain parts of the valley caused a considerable loss in acreage, amounting to probably 2,000 or 3,000 acres. It is possible that further decreases in acreage will occur and yet increased bearing capaeity of the remaining acreage will doubtless bring about increased production. The principal ship- ping stations in Mesa County are Grand Junction, Fruita and Clifton. The Grand Valley, while primarily an apple section, is not exclusively apple-producing. Nearly half of its fruit acreage consists of other fruits than apples. Peach and pear plantings, with smaller acreages of cherries and plums, represent in the aggregate nearly as extensive acreage as the apple. In the vicinity of Palisades, some Leading Apple Regions of the United States 61 ten miles from Grand J unction, is the famous Elberta: peach section, which has shipped 1,000 cars of peaches in a single season. The Grand Valley did not escape inflation. In fact, difficulties with irrigation systems and outcropping of alkali have brought this district its full share of troubles. In recent years the codlin-moth has become a most serious menace. In one respect, however, notably proximity to markets, Colorado has the advantage of states farther west. It is particularly adapted to the growing of Jonathan apples, which comprise nearly a third of its production. Winesap, Gano, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Rome Beauty are among the other important varieties. The northwest box is used almost exclusively for the packed fruit, although bulk shipments figure more prominently in Colorado than in any other of the leading western apple states. Codperative marketing has been an important factor in the development of this district. The western slope of Colorado includes two other apple districts, one in Delta and the other in Montrose County, both of less importance than the Grand Valley. In Delta County the apple acreage is in Gunnison Valley, with heaviest plantings at Hotchkiss and Paonia. The Uncom- pahgre, a branch of the Gunnison, supplies water for the orchard plantings in Montrose County which centers about the town of Montrose. Both of these districts are irri- gated and conditions conform largely to those given for the Grand Valley. Varieties are very much the same, although less attention is given to other fruits. On the eastern slope, the Canyon City district in Fre- mont County, along the Arkansas Valley, is the only other apple section of importance in the state. A distinctive 62 The Commercial Apple Industry t feature of Colorado commercial apple plantings is that they occur at an elevation of 4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level, NEW MEXICO: The Pecos Valley in Chaves County is the coming apple district in New Mexico, and is one of the important sections of the inter-mountain states. Over half of New Mexico’s commercial apple crop is produced in’ Chaves County. Heaviest plantings are in the vicinity of Ros- well, Greenfield, Dexter and Hagerman. The latter lies thirty miles south of Roswell along the Pecos River. County assessor’s figures indicate about 4,500 acres of trees planted before 1910 and about 2,500 acres planted 1910 to 1919. Little planting has been made since 1912. Ben Davis and Gano are the principal varieties, with Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, Winesap, Black Twig, York Imperial and Arkansas Black among the less important. The northwest box is the common package for this district, although bulk shipments are important. Less care is taken in grading and packing the boxed fruit than in the Northwest and much of the crop is jumble packed. The Texas farming section immediately to the east affords an outlet for most of the Pecos apple crop. Jonathans come on the market earlier than in most sections, and - for that reason Pecos apples have priority in Texas markets. A marked increase in production may be expected from this section. Heavy frosts are not infre- quent and have checked the normal increase in production. While 600 or 700 cars has been the largest production of this valley to date, a decided increase may be expected. Leading Apple Regions of the United States 63 The only distinct apple region in New Mexico outside of the Pecos Valley is known as the Farmington district and is in San Juan County in the extreme northwestern corner of the state. ‘The isolation of this region, com- bined with poor railroad facilities, has checked its develop- ment. Principal varieties are Gano, Jonathan, Romé Beauty and Winesap. UTAH Commercial apple growing in Utah is largely confined to irrigated valleys in Boxelder, Weber, Davis, Salt Lake, and Utah counties, which lie along the eastern shores of the Great Salt. Lake and Utah Lake, in north central Utah. The most highly commercial districts are near Provo in Utah, which has shipped as high as 300 cars of apples in a year, and also near Tremonton in Box- elder County. Both are irrigated and market their com- mercial apples largely in boxes, although bulk shipments are not uncommon. Principal varieties for the Provo district are Jonathan, Rome Beauty, Winesap, and Lawver; for the Tremonton section Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan and Winesap. The apple acreage in Utah County is approximately 5,000 acres, of which two-thirds was planted before 1910. Of the 2,000 acres in apples in Boxelder County, most of the trees were planted between 1906 and 1910. Local consumption and nearby mining camps largely absorb the production of Weber and Davis counties. Limited increase in commercial production may be expected from this state as the acreage increases in age. It is improb- able that commercial shipments will exceed 1,000 cars within the next few years. 64 The Commercial Apple Industry MONTANA’ The Bitter Root Valley, extending south from Missoula to Hamilton, Montana, at one time had an apple acreage amounting to 23,000 acres. Most of this acreage was represented in large projects which have since gone into the hands of receivers and are being neglected. Probably the greatest loss in acreage in any of the western districts has occurred in the Bitter Root Valley. The McIntosh apple is suited to this region but trees do not attain large size nor is growth rapid. Yields are smaller than in many other irrigated sections. The slump in apple pro- motion struck the Bitter Root Valley at an inopportune time, and as a result much of its acreage will be lost or will not reach full commercial bearing. WASHINGTON Interest in apple production west of the Rockies centers chiefly in the Pacifie Northwest and particularly in the state of Washington. In 1917 and 1919 Washington was the heaviest commercial apple-producing state in the Union, taking precedence even over New York which, on account of exceedingly light crops, dropped into second place for those years. Washington must be credited with over one-half of the total boxed apple production and in an average year now ranks first in quantity of commer- cial apples produced. It is interesting to note the very rapid growth and development of the apple industry in such regions as the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, which have recently come into prominence and are largely responsible for Washing- ton’s heavy production. Although very similar in many Leading Apple Regions of the United States 65 respects, these two districts will be discussed separately on account of their importance. Yakima Valley. The Yakima district is located in the south central part of the state and includes approximately 40;000 acres of apple plantings which are for the most part situated in the valley land lying along the Yakima River and its tribu- tary streams. As stated in the history of the Yakima district, the first commercial planting was made in this region about 1888 and as late as 1900 the total acreage of all orchard land was not more than 3,000 acres, and the total production did not exceed 200 carloads of fruit. Heaviest planting occurred after 1900 and reached a climax about 1908. Apple-growing is the principal industry in the Yakima Valley and, as might be expected, intensive methods of cul- tivation are practiced, every effort being directed at the production of high marketable quality fruit. The average fruit farm is under twenty acres and is devoted almost exclusively to apples. Peaches and pears are grown in lesser quantities and represent approximately 12 per cent of the total fruit acreage of the county. In more recent years greater diversification has been emphasized, with the result that growers with larger acreages are planting sugar- beets, potatoes and other crops. The productivity and ideal climatic conditions of the Yakima Valley attracted an unusually high type of settlers. The community spirit and social conditions are unsur- passed by those in any other apple. region. Good roads have been constructed and excellent facilities for handling, packing and storing the fruit are available. Probably 66 The Commercial Apple Industry nowhere else in the country have scientific horticultural methods been more assiduously practiced’ than in the Yakima Valley. 5 The productivity of the Yakima orchards is very high. Their annual yields are greater tHan those in any other region with the exception of the Wenatchee district. The average annual rainfall in the Yakima Valley is under twelve inches, and irrigation is necessary. Millions of dollars have been expended in irrigation projects designed to bring water from the mountain streams and fructify the otherwise desert land. A large part of the acreage is watered from canals operated under the United States Reclamation Service, although private projects are also found. Water rights in some instances have cost as high as $175.00 an acre; the average has been much lower, however. Annual maintenance of the irrigation ditches once installed often represents as much as $4.00 an acre. When to these costs are added the high price for raw land and the expense of bringing an orchard into bearing under the most intensive care, some idea may be obtained of the reason for high valuation of western irrigated orchards. Two thousand dollars an acre has not been an uncommon price for full bearing orchards. In some instances unsuited land was planted and the district suffered from over-development of ‘ boom ” projects. The Yakima Valley is under a severe handicap by its distance from consuming centers. It must rely on large annual yields of high marketable apples for its survival. Production has been rapidly increasing and reached 11,500 cars in 1919. Less than 25 per cent of the acreage was over ten years of age in 1918 and an increased production may be expected from this region in the next few years. Leading Apple Regions of the United States 67 Winesap is the leading variety and in some years repre- sents as high as one-half of the total production. Heavy plantings have been made of J onathan, Ben Davis, Ronie Beauty, Esopus (Spitzenburg), Yellow Newtown, De- licious, Stayman, Gano and lesser plantings of Arkansas (Black Twig), Baldwin, Wagener, Grimes Golden and Arkansas Black. Probably in no other region is there a larger list of extensively grown varieties and yet most of those named are good commercial kinds well adapted to the region. Wenatchee North Central Washington district (Plate IV). The Wenatchee Valley is included in what is commonly spoken of as the North Central Washington fruit region. ‘Although less than fifty miles apart, the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys are separated by a range of mountains and there are no rail connections except by a very circuit- ous route. These two very important fruit regions have grown up almost simultaneously under very similar condi- tions, vieing with each other in the production of high marketable quality apples. The Wenatchee Valley proper is in Chelan County, although in speaking of the North Central Washington district one commonly includes apple plantings along the Columbia River and its tributaries, extending northward from Wenatchee into Okanogan County. Annual rainfall varies from, eight to fifteen inches and irrigation is neces- sary. The principal producing area of this region lies in the ‘Wenatchee Valley in the vicinity of the towns of Wenat- chee, Monitor and Cashmere, and extends as far up the valley as Leavenworth, the latter being situated at the 1 68 The Commercial Apple Industry base of the Cascades. A very intensive region is in a semi-circular area about the town of Wenatchee. There is a considerable variation of altitude throughout the valley, but most of the orchards are at an elevation of 700 to 1,000 feet. _ The Wenatchee Valley is even more intensive and com- pact than the Yakima Valley. Its development dates back to about 1900, when the first large irrigation canal, later known as the Wenatchee Highline Canal, was begun. The planting of fruit-trees was more or less correlated with the development of irrigation. The total apple acreage in North Central Washington, including the Wenatchee Val- ley and the upper Columbia, is approximately 40,000 acres. Some of this acreage is in Okanogan, Douglas and Grant counties adjoining Chelan County on the east. The shipments reached a maximum in 1919-1920 of 12,300 cars of 756 boxes each. \ The farms in general throughout the Wenatchee region are small, most of them averaging not over fifteen acres and many even less. Some large projects embrace as many as several hundred acres each, but the region is not adapted to the extensive type of pemonltane The two ‘ predominating limiting factors are the high price of land and the small area of irrigable land. Peaches and pears are grown in limited quantities and there is also a consider- able acreage of alfalfa, but most of the latter occurs as an inter- or shade crop in the apple orchards. An intensive survey made by the authors in the Wenat- chee Valley indicated an average investment to the acre of nearly $2,000. It may be seen that with such a high valuation only a highly specialized crop like apples can ever be made to bring a sufficient return on the invest- Leading Apple Regions of the United States 69 ¢ ment. It seems, then, that the Wenatchee Valley offers less opportunity for diversification than almost any other region in the United States. At the same time it is unsur- passed in productivity and high marketable quality of its fruit. The surveys indicate that of all the apple regions of this country the highest annual yields and the highest percentage of extra fancy and fancy fruit were produced in the Wenatchee Valley. Like the Yakima Valley, the Wenatchee district must rely on heavy yields and high marketable quality fruit to overcome a severe handicap of extreme distance from markets. ‘The possibility for codperative movement among growers is explained by the intensity of plantings and by excellent community spirit. As in Yakima, the most intensive and careful orchard practices are in use. The Wenatchee region is practically free from fungus trouble, and with the exception of the codlin-moth, which is a decided menace, is infested with but few serious insect pests. In their early development, the Wenatchee orchards were almost without exception com- mitted to a practice of entire clean cultivation, without either shade or cover-crops. More recently, as in all irri- gated districts, the use of leguminous shade crops has become common. The highest production from the Wenatchee North Cen- tral Washington district prior to 1919 was the crop of 1917 which amounted to approximately 8,500 cars of 756 boxes each. At least 75 per cent of the acreage was under ten years of age in 1918 and an increased production from this region may be expected. Winesap, Jonathan, De licious, Spitzenburg, Stayman, Rome and Yellow New- town are listed in the order of their importance. 70 Commercial Apple Industry Spokane district. The third most important apple district in Washington is in Spokane County and is commonly spoken of as the Spokane apple district. Acreage of this county at one time was nearly as great as that in Yakima, but the pro- duction has never approached that of the latter. The region was developed after the Yakima and Wenatchee dis- tricts and considerable acreage of unsuited land was set in trees. The most intensive plantings are in the Spokane Valley west of Spokane, extending along the river for a distance of twenty-five miles to the east. Production from the county reached about 1,400 cars in 1920. a yee a . " Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 235 the western orchard section is unquestionably the codlin- moth. The dry arid climate in nearly all the irrigated sections seems particularly favorable to its development. The long hot seasons increase the number of broods and seem to stimulate the activities of this pest. Furthermore, the close grading of the fruit emphasizes the loss from worm injury. Eastern growers are justified in feeling that they have worked out a satisfactory spray program ‘against codlin-moth and are inclined to believe that the western grower is deficient in his spraying methods for con- trolling this insect. Yet in many instances growers on the western slope of Colorado and the Yakima Valley, Washington, have found it difficult to avoid excessive cod- lin-moth loss even after spraying much more thoroughly and frequently than is necessary under eastern conditions. Fire-blight epidemics have been more or less serious in the West and have been particularly injurious in the Yakima Valley, Washington and the Rogue River Valley, Oregon. In the Rogue River and Hood River valleys, Oregon, the apple-scab has been serious in years when the climatic conditions were favorable to its development. However, elsewhere in the West fungous troubles are in the main inconspicuous. California.— The Watsonville applegrower in the Pajaro Valley must devote considerable attention to the control of the tussock moth. The leaf-roller is also rather prevalent and the powdery-mildew causes more or less injury. DUSTING Dusting, as a substitute for the liquid spray method in controlling insects and disease, has been brought to the recent attention of fruit-growers by the extensive experl- 236 The Commercial Apple Industry ments conducted in western New York in 1911-1913 by Blodgett of Cornell. These experiments have been con- tinued elsewhere in different parts of the United States by various state and federal investigators. The practice of dusting has been adopted with greater or less success by , many commercial growers in different regions. Its status has not been definitely determined, but certain conclusions may be drawn from results thus far obtained. In the first place, dusting has certain inherent advant- ages over the use of liquid spray: (1) More trees may be covered in a given time and with less labor than with the liquid spray; (2) dusting is more convenient in rough hilly orchards; (3) considerable time is saved in loading the machine with material; (4) the elimination of water reduces very materially the weight of the spray material to be hauled through the orchard; (5) the equipment cost is much less than for liquid spraying machine. 2 In comparing the cost of common dust materials, such as arsenate of lead and superfine sulfur, with that of similar materials used in liquid sprays, it appears that the dusting method is more expensive, particularly if much dust is lost in the application in windy or unfavorable weather. In considering labor cost, dusting may be cheaper than spraying with liquids, and it is on this point that advocates for dusting lay particular stress. The spray-gun more recently developed has reduced this ad- vantage of the dusting method over the liquid spray. But certainly the grower may cover his trees at the critical period in less time and with less labor cost by dusting than with liquid spray applied with rods. A two-man crew operating a dusting machine can cover from three to four times as many trees as a three-man Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 237 crew operating a liquid spray outfit with the old rods. It is estimated that fifteen-year old trees require on the average of about 1 to 1144 pounds of dust for a single application, while trees twenty to twenty-five years old require approximately 2 pounds of dust. The time and amount of material vary greatly with the conditions and methods of application. These data will convey in a gen- eral way the relative speed of the two systems. The following formule are quite generally used: Formula’ I. Combination dust for chewing insects and fungous diseases: Arsenate of lead, powder ...10 to 15 per cent. Sulfur, superfine ......... 90 to 85 per cent. Formula 2. For insect infestations and light fungous attacks: Arsenate of lead .........---46- 10 per cent. Sulftt. .ccsevacsvsearueew eases 50 per cent. Hydrated lime or gypsum ........ 40 per cent. Formula 3. Arsenate of lead, powder ..10 to 15 per cent. Hydrated lime or gypsum . .90 to 85 per cent. Tt is rather difficult to dogmatize on the efficiency of dusting. Some growers, after a more or less thorough trial, are convinced of its economy and efficiency. Other grow- ers have discarded their dusting machines. In western New York dusting has not become general. Improved dusting mixtures and better methods of application may result in greater popularity for this method, for it has certain time-saving advantages. However, at the present ! 238 The Commercial Apple Industry time it has not been altogether sucecssful in controlling bad scab infection, excessive codlin-moth, or apple-blotch, the three most serious apple diseases and pests. It seems possible that dusting may prove better adapted to regions where the codlin-moth is not particularly serious or scab infection critical. For hilly orchards or orchards where water supply is remote, or where liquid spraying is exceed- ingly difficult, the use of eaeune may be recommended as a substitute. The power duster is usually operated by a two- or three-horse-power gasoline engine. The dust mixture is fed into a rapidly revolving fan by means of a hopper and a strong current of air forces the dust out through a dis- charge pipe. A single operator directs the cloud of dust by shifting the discharge pipe. INSECTICIDES. In studying insect control, the first consideration should be given to the methods by which insects secure their food. Generally speaking, there are two classes of insects: (1) biting and chewing insects such as codlin-moth and tent- caterpillar; (2) sucking’ insects such as aphids and scale. When insects feed on such exposed parts as the buds or leaves, arsenicals or other stomach poisons are necessary. In the case of chewing insects which feed beneath the bark, such as borers, other-control methods must be em- ployed. Sucking insects are best checked by the use of contact sprays such as lime-sulfur, nicotine, and kerosene emulsion. ‘ Following is a general classification of common insect- icides: Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 239 (1) Insecticides for biting insects — arsenate of lead, paris green, calcium arsenate and arsenite of zinc. (2) Insecticides for sucking insects — lime-sulfur, nicotine solution, miscible oils, so-called dry-lime-sulfur compounds. For biting insects. Arsenate of lead is the most widely used poison for chew- ing and biting insects. It is particularly effective against the codlin-moth. Both powdered and paste forms are in common use, the powder having come into recent popular- ity on account of convenience in handling. Of the two kinds of lead arsenate, one is known as ortho, triplumbic or neutral lead arsenate and the other as standard or diplumbic lead arsenate. The diplumbic or acid lead is now being employed almost to the exclusion of the ortho or triplumbic form, although the latter is sometimes recom- mended for more tender foliage or in regions where foliage is likely to be burned by arsenicals. Best brands of paste lead contain from 15 to 17 per cent of arsenic oxide, while powdered forms usually contain approximately double that amount, the 50 per cent water-content having been removed. Two pounds paste or 1 pound arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water are standard strengths. Before the lead is added to the spray-tank, it should be made into a thin paste by the addition of water or preferably reduced to a solution in 3 or 4 gallons of water. Particular atten- tion should be given to mixing the powdered forms so that the suspension will be complete. Strengths of less than 2 pounds of paste lead arsenate to 50 gallons of water have not as a rule given satisfaction. ‘At present a number of experiments are being conducted in the Northwest in 240 The Commercial Apple Industry which arsenate of lead is being used 3 and even 4 pounds paste to 50 gallons of water. Where the codlin-moth is becoming a more serious menace, it is thought that by increasing the dosage, quicker killing effects may be secured and the loss from later stings may be reduced. Paris green is an arsenical poison which has been largely superseded by arsenate of lead, the latter having proved more adhesive, more compatible with other spray materials and less likely to cause burning. Paris green is not widely used in any commercial apple region. Calcium arsenate is being tried out in many parts of the United States and, although more or less in an experi- mental state of development, has given some promise, par- ticularly when used on apples under eastern conditions where codlin-moth infestation is not serious. The pow- dered forms contain 42 to 45 per cent of arsenic-oxide and the paste forms 17 to 20 per cent. When employed alone in the Northwest, some burning resulted. The addition of paste lime at the rate of 2 or 3 pounds of stone lime to 50 gallons of water is considered a wise precaution against burning. Combination of lime-sulfur, summer strength, with calcium arsenate has thus far proved satisfactory. Calcium arsenate has not been widely employed in any commercial apple region, although it is being tested by many growers at present. Commercial forms lack the smoothness and fineness which characterizes the well- known brands of arsenate. It is not improbable that the physical properties of commercial calcium arsenate can be greatly improved. Experiments have thus far given some promise. Complete results of thorough trial and demon- stration will be awaited with interest. Although it has not yet demonstrated the quick-killing properties of lead, y Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control. 241 calcium arsenate is cheaper pound for pound than lead and this may cause its ultimate introduction in the East where codlin-moth infestation is not the menace which it is in most irrigated regions. Calcium arsenate is still in the experimental stage. Arsenite of zine is a quick-acting poison which in pow- dered form contains about 40 per cent arsenic-oxide. It is used in tussock moth control in the Pajaro Valley or Watsonville district, California, but on account of its tend- ency to burn it has not been employed elsewhere. For sucking insects, contact sprays. Inquid lime-sulfur has become the standard dormant or winter spray for apples. It is a combination insecticide and fungicide chiefly valuable for its effectiveness against San José scale and certain other insects as well as against fungous diseases. It is to be preferred to any of the present forms of so-called dry lime-sulfur. For full win- ter strength, 1 to 8 is generally accepted as the proper rate of dilution. This rate applies to the concentrated com- mercial lime-sulfur testing 33° Baume. Weaker solu- tions should be diluted accordingly. The table of dilu- tion on the next page will serve as guide. For summer sprays, particularly for apple-scab, a weak solution of lime-sulfur is widely employed alone or in com- bination with nicotine and arsenate of lead. The strength at which summer applications of lime-sulfur cause burning varies with the season and the climatic conditions. Lime sulfur has been used 1 to 10 in summer without injurious effects to the fruit or foliage. Again a dilution of 1 to 30 may cause foliage burning. It is generally accepted that 1 to 35 for the pink spray and later summer application 242 The Commercial Apple Industry TaBLe XIT Dmution TaBLE For Concentratep Lime-Sutrur So.utions Number gallons concentrated lime-sulfur to make 50 gallons spray solution. Deere Sie Summer or | Winter or dormant strength. 0118; = atone, | Sengoss” |) Bllter 36 1.330 1% 5% 4% 35 1.318 1% 5% 5 ’ 34 1.306 1% 6 5 33 1.295 1% 6% 5% 32 1.283 1% 6% 5% 31 1.272 1% 65% 5% 30 1.261 1% 7 6 oh ' 99 1.250 1% ™ 6% 28 1.239 1% 7% 61% 27 1,229 2 8. 6% 26 1.218 2 8 7% 25 1.208 2 8 7% 24 1.198 — 2% 9 8 23 1.188 2% 9 8% 22 1.179 2% 10 8% 21 1.169 2% 11 9% 20 1.160 | 2% 11% 9% is a safe and effective dilution. Excessively hot days should be avoided in summer spraying with lime-sulfur. In the Middle West, Bordeaux mixture is very often pre- ferred to lime-sulfur for the late summer sprays on account of its great effectiveness against blotch and _ bitter-rot. Some feel also that Bordeaux is less likely to cause burning. Home-made lime-sulfur solution.— It has been demon- - strated that the preparation at home of a lime-sulfur solu- tion is practicable and very ‘often economical. When a grower has less than four or five acres of orehard, it is prob- ably advisable for him to buy the commercial lime-sulfur, since it is usually.superior to the home-made; furthermore, Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 248 considerable difficulties attend the manufacture of lime- sulfur in small quantities. If the grower is operating a large orchard, or if several smaller growers can codperate as is done. in many instances, it is very often advisable for them to manufacture their own solution. The materials for making are: lime, use only fresh lump lime, free from foreign substances and containing at least 90 per cent cal- cium oxide and not over 5 per cent magnesium oxide; sulfur, either flowers of sulfur or commercial sulfur finely ground. Various appliances may be used for cooking lime- sulfur concentrates. .A large iron kettle raised from the . ground on loose stones, or kettles imbedded in masonry are suggested. When considerable amount of spray material is needed, a more elaborate plant will be practicable. Cooking with steam is the most satisfactory method and with a larger plant the installation of a boiler is advisable. A twelve-horse boiler will furnish sufficient steam for a cooker of 300 gallons capacity. Iron cooking vessels are usually preferable to wooden on account of danger of leak in the latter. The hydrometer is necessary for testing the density of the final solution. Table XII should be fol- lowed in making dilutions. Preparation of home-made lime-sulfur solution.— Formula ~ Fresh stone lime ..........--+--+- 50 pounds Commercial ground sulfur ....... 100 pounds: Water ...... so URE a a aha ofan le 50 gallons Place the desired quantity of lime in the cooker or slaking-box, ‘then add water (preferably hot, since hot water slakes the lime more quickly). Care should be 244 The Commercial Apple Industry taken to use enough water to prevent too violent slaking or burning, although too much water is objectionable, since this will drown the lime. Mix the sulfur to a thin paste and add the lime, then the desired quantity of water. After the full amount of water has been added, the cook- ing-vat should be marked or a notched stick used to show the original amount of water. Keep adding hot water from time to time to replace that which has evaporated. — The solution should not be allowed to boil down stronger ‘ than one-half gallon to each pound of sulfur, nor should there ever be much of an excess of water. The solution should be boiled for at least forty-five minutes but not longer than one hour. It is important that boiling should proceed vigorously and that the mixture should be stirred constantly. After the lime-sulfur solution has been made, it should be strained in order that the undissolved particles ‘may be removed. Straining should be through an iron wire (never copper) 30 to 50 mesh to the inch. The solu- tion should be allowed to cool before being tested with a hydrometer. If the solution is left exposed, a film of oil should be poured over the surface to exclude the air. It is highly important that all home-made lime-sulfur be tested with the hydrometer, otherwise the grower is merely guessing as to the strength of the spray. The sediment obtained in the manufacture of home-made lime-sulfur will be useful in painting the trunks of the trees. Nicotine solution is recognized as a standard contact insecticide for summer spraying. It is particularly effect- ive against aphids and may be used without injury to the foliage. A solution of nicotine sulfate containing 40 per cent nicotine such as Black Leaf 40 is the common com- mercial form. Proper dilution is given at 1 to 800 and Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 245 1 to 1,000. Soap should be added at the rate of 2 or 3 pounds to 50 gallons to increase the spreading and adhesive qualities of the spray. Nicotine may be used in combina- tion with lead arsenate, lime-sulfur or both. Miscible oils——‘“ Miscible” or “soluble” oils have come into considerable use as dormant sprays, particularly in the West where they have been found a satisfactory treatment for badly encrusted San José scale. The misci- ble oils have a tendency to spread after they have been applied and for that reason are particularly effective against scale insects. Home-made emulsions are used to some extent in California where the crude oils can be pur- chased cheaply. The question of injury resulting from continued oil spraying is disputed. It is advisable to make dormant oil spray in the late winter rather than in the fall. If oil sprays can be applied in the spring just previous to the swelling of the buds, preferably on sunny days, the . danger of injuring the trees will be minimized. When hard water is being used for spraying, it is desirable to add 1 to 2 pounds of soda to each spray tank. So-called dry lime-sulfur— The active and killing ingredients of lime-sulfur determine the value of these sprays. The following table gives the relative cost of this liquid versus dry lime-sulfur compounds measured in terms of active sulfur. The comparison in this table is in favor of the liquid lime-sulfur. In lime-sulfur (dry), thé active sulfur costs $18.90 for 100 pounds; in soda-sulfur $14.03 for 100 pounds, and liquid lime-sulfur only $8.03 for 100 pounds. The inference is clear that lime-sulfur solution is a much more economical form than the so- called dry lime-sulfur or soda-sulfur. ' 246 The Commercial Apple Industry Taste XIII Dry Sutrur Preparation vs. Lime-Sutrur SoLution Insecticide and Fungicide Laboratory, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of California. (Berkeley), Nov. 1918. a one eeuae equiva- Material. autfur. sativa a wean (Approx. ) sulfur. solution. 1 gallon weighs Lime-sulfur solution (33 B.) 26% $8.03 10.78 Tbs. Average retail price $11.26 per barrel. Soda-sulfur ............... 57% $14.03 49 Average retail price $8.00 per cwt, Lime-sulfur (dry) ......... 55% $18.90 5.0 “ Average retail price $10.40 per ewt. ' . Spreaders for the different insecticides. The use of spreaders in securing a more uniform coating of spray is attracting considerable interest among experi- menters and fruit-growers. Three so-called spreaders are more or less well known: (1) Glue — 1 to 2 ounces to 50 gallons. (2) Flour cas 2 pounds flour reduced to paste, to 50 gallons of water. (3) Soap—2 pounds liquid soap to 50 gallons of water. Other soaps such as fish-oil, rosin or common laundry soap may be used at the same rate. The use of soap with nicotine solutions is generally accepted as highly beneficial. Soap should not be used with lime-sulfur, however, but is compatible with arsenate PLATE XV.— Upper, The tent caterpillar, nest and young cater- pillars on wild cherry; frequently found in the apple. Lower, Rosy apple aphis and its effect on the foliage and fruit of the anvle. Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 247 of lead and is highly recommended in combination with Bordeaux. The other spreaders named, glue and flour paste, are being used with arsenicals, but their status has not yet been definitely determined. It is thought that they may increase the spreading tendencies and effect a more uniform coating of these arsenic stomach poisons. ate Lime-sulfur has been treated on the preceding pages, as it is both an insecticide and fungicide. Bordeaux mixture.— The standard formula for Bor- deaux mixture is as follows: Copper sulfate (bluestone) ........ 4 pounds | Fresh stone lime .............0005- 4 pounds W Alen Lose tees ona ueee eo ecta ues 50 gallons Dissolve the bluestone and slake the lime separately with water. Bluestone may be conveniently dissolved by plac- ing it in a burlap sack and suspending the sack in the upper part of a barrel or other receptacle filled with water. Stock solutions of this material may be made by dissolving 1 pound bluestone in 1 gallon of water and diluting to the required strength when ready for use. It is not advisable to make up in advance large amounts of this solution that cannot be used within a period of a few days. Nothing but wooden or earthen containers should be employed since copper sulfate (bluestone) reacts when brought in contact with metal ware of any kind. In slaking the lime, cover with just enough water to start slaking, then add water to prevent too rapid action and heating. Work the lime into a paste and dilute at the rate of 1 pound of lime 248 The Commercial Apple Industry to 1 gallon of water for stock solution. When ready for use, 4 gallons of stock solution will represent 4 pounds of stone lime, sufficient for 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture spray. When the mixture of lime and bluestone is to be made, it is a wise precaution to pour the two solutions simultaneously into the third receptacle in order that they will mix freely while going into the spray-tank or third receptacle. A strainer should be used when filling the spray-tank. Bordeaux mixture is the standard fungicide for bitter-rot and for blotch in the Middle West, and is used double strength in the fall for anthracnose. Finely divided sulfur.— There are a number of finely divided sulfur compounds on the market known as atomic sulfur, “milled” sulfur and by similar trade names. Greater adhesion and greater spreading qualities are claimed for these compounds. They are used against the powdery-mildew in some of the orchard regions of the Pacific Coast. CHAPTER XI FRUIT SETTING AND POLLINATION One of the most important phases of the orchard prob- lem is pollination. Without this, fruit does not set and crops are impossible. Broadly speaking, there are two phases of the problem: (1) The primary effect of pollin- ation, that is the fertilization of the pistils of the flower so that the bloom is capable of setting fruit; and (2) the secondary effect of cross-pollination about which much has been written, but about which there is still little definite information. In a study of the secondary effect of pollin- ation such questions arise as what effect Baldwin pollen will have on the McIntosh apple or how the cross-pollina- tion among certain varieties will affect the form, size, flavor or color of the fruit. Many varieties are known to be self-sterile. This term is applied to varieties which are unable to set fruit without the aid of pollen from another variety. Here attention is called to the fact that pollen from a different tree of the same variety does not constitute cross-pollination, An indication of self-sterility is the continued dropping of young fruit from isolated trees or from trees in solid blocks of the same variety. Self-sterility is not a constant character with any variety. The same variety may be self-sterile in one region and nearly self-fertile in another. Emphasis is placed on the fact that local conditions greatly 249 250 The Commercial Apple Industry influence self-sterility or self-fertility, Poorly nourished trees are more likely to be self-sterile than well nourished ones. Imperfect pollination is more often due to other causes than the absence of suitable varieties for cross-pollination. Furthermore, it is not always necessary to have a heavy set of bloom to secure a heavy yield of fruit. It is well known that under normal conditions if 4 to 7 per cent of the blos- soms set fruit in a good bloom year, a large crop of fruit is insured. If 10 per cent of the blossoms set fruit when the bloom is heavy, it is an indication of a very large crop. ie ane These facts do not minimize the importance of pollination, however, and it is highly important that every care should be taken to insure proper fertilization of the flowers. While the benefits of cross-fertilization are recognized as important in all plant-breeding work, the experimental data on the secondary effect of pollination are so contra- dictory as not to offer a field for definite discussion. The results of experiments to determine the effect of cross- pollination on color, form and flavor of the fruit have been largely negative. For that reason, this discussion will be largely confined to the primary effect of pollination. CAUSES FOR THE FAILURE TO SET FRUIT Failure of blossoms to set fruit properly is not by any means due in all cases to imperfect pollination. Many factors other than this affect the set of fruit and are more often the cause of light crops. Among the factors causing a light set of fruit are: 1. Fruit-spurs and trees may be weak on account of a lack of proper nourishment. When trees are starved for proper plant-food or when it is not made available by good { Fruit Setting and Pollination 251 soil management, the fruit-spurs become weak and fail to set fruit-buds which have sufficient vitality to develop into fruit. This often accounts for the crop failure of old trees making little annual growth. In such cases, lack of proper nourishment is more often the cause of unfruitfulness than lack of cross-pollination. 2. Insects and diseases prevalent at blooming time may cause a poor set of fruit. Some of. the bloom is often destroyed outright by various diseases, particularly apple scab, anthracnose, or blight. Many blossoms may be ruined in their early development by the attacks of insects. 3. Extreme vegetative vigor of the tree on account of an excess of certain elements of plant-food may detract from fruitfulness. Often when a tree is growing too vigorously, it runs largely to wood growth and sets very few blossoms and even these are shed as soon as the blooming period is past. Excessive amounts of nitrate or manure. when applied to orchards already making good growth often over-stimulate wood growth to the point at which the trees are almost barren. Furthermore, in such cases the fruit- buds go into the winter in an immature condition with less chance of escaping winter-injury. Most experimenters agree that wood growth can not keep up vigorously during the entire season without sacrificing a healthy set of fruit- buds. 4. Drought injury to trees may prevent the development of fruit-buds. It has been noted that when excessively long droughts occur, trees produce very little bloom the fol- lowing season. The weakening influence of the drought prevents the formation of fruit-buds with sufficient vitality to form fruit. In such cases the tree requires all its energy to repair vegetative growth, and even'though it may 252 The Commercial Apple Industry bloom profusely the blossoms are so weak that they fail to set fruit. 5. Winter-injury to fruit-buds may occur. The apple ordinarily does not suffer greatly from winter-killing of fruit-buds. In the case of most varieties, the fruit-buds are no more sensitive to winter-killing than the tree itself. However, the vitality of the buds may unquestionably be affected by the character of the winter, particularly if the relative humidity is low. Dry atmosphere and soil are more often the cause of injury to fruit-buds than extreme cold. 6. The buds or bloom may be injured by late spring frosts. Often buds are injured by frost before bloom and if not killed outright are so weakened as to be unable to set fruit. Fortunately, when freezes occur before bloom, there are usually some buds which are not so far advanced as others and which for this reason escape injury. Severe killing frosts are those which occur when. the trees are in full bloom or just as the bloom is being shed. Frost at this time may so impair the fruiting organs as to cause dropping of the fruit after it has once set. rd 7. Some varieties have an inherent inability to set fruit, although grown under favorable conditions and blooming profusely. These varieties are more frequently home orchard sorts and seldom trouble the commercial orchardist. 8. The last and one of the most important factors which affect the proper set of fruit is pollination. Proper pol- lination is usually dependent on one or some combination of six different factors: (a) In the case of self-sterile or partially self-sterile varieties, proper pollination can not take place unless other suitable varieties are present for pollinizers. (b) An absence of insects or other agents Fruit Setting and Pollination 253 may prevent pollination. Bees are almost essential. Other insects may be useful, but none is as active in carry- ing pollen from flower to flower. The importance of delay- ing the calyx application of lead arsenate until most of the petals have fallen is now emphasized by most horticultur- ists as a precaution against poisoning bees. Much has been said about the importance of wind as a pollinizing agent, useful in carrying the pollen from blossom to blos- som and from tree to tree and much effort has been expended in determining its effectiveness. Most author- ities agree that fully 99 per cent of all fertilized blossoms owe pollination to bees or other insects and Jess than 1 per cent to the wind. As a direct agency, therefore, wind has very little effect as far as carrying pollen is concerned. It may, however, prevent bees from working on the windy side of the tree and thereby cause a lighter set of fruit on the exposed than on the sheltered side. (c) Rain or cold weather is a factor affecting pollination. Cold, wet or damp weather during the blooming period often checks the activity of bees and sometimes prevents the germina- tion and causes decomposition, or devitalization, of the “pollen-grains. Unfavorable weather at blooming is a very important factor in reducing the set of fruit, particularly through the central western states, and often in the East. (d) Very hot and dry weather may also prevent proper pollination, particularly if accompanied by wind. Excess- ive heat may injure the stamens so seriously that they can not properly mature their pollen or it may cause dehiscence of the anthers before the pollen matures. (e) Excessively windy weather. Strong winds, particularly if accom- panied by rain are very injurious to the blossoms. The rain is likely to wash away the pollen-grains and strong 254 The Commercial Apple Industry winds prevent the activity of bees. In very hot weather high winds may so entirely dry up the fluid secreted by the stigma as to make germination of the pollen-grains impos- sible. (f£) Spraying in full bloom., Injury is caused and pollination is sometimes prevented if trees are sprayed in full bloom before pollination has taken place. The above discussion outlines some of the influences affecting the set of fruit. It now becomes important to consider mixed varieties with relation to cross-pollination. it is generally recognized that too much emphasis was formerly placed on the advisability of mixing varieties in order to aid in pollination. As a result, many orchards were set with mixed varieties when two or three well selected kinds would have provided for cross-pollination and would have been a much more desirable arrangement from a commercial standpoint. The orchardist too often proceeded on the theory that if a few different varieties were advisable as pollinizers, many were the more desir- able. As a matter of fact, one variety which is a good pollinizer may serve exactly as well as a score. The much discussed secondary effects of pollination should not be allowed too greatly to influence the planting of pollinizers. The direct effects of crossing certain varieties have not been established. Variations in the characteristics of different apples are now more generally attributed to bud variation than to cross-pollination. It is generally conceded that flavor, quality or color of apples is not directly affected by the cross-pollinating variety. This should in no way be construed as an argument. against cross-pollination, for in the case of the self-sterile or partially self-sterile varieties it is absolutely essential. Cross-pollination may effect the size of fruit and may Fruit Setting and Pollination 255 increase the set. Darwin states: “‘ Nature abhors self- fertilization.” ESSENTIALS FOR A GOOD POLLINIZER The following points should be considered in selecting varieties for pollination: (1) Not more than one row in six is necessary to insure certainty of proper pollination under normal weather conditions and in the presence of _pollinizing agents. However, attention is called to the fact that varieties to be handled economically should occur in plantings of at least two or three rows. (2) Varieties should bloom at the same time. This is clearly necessary, otherwise the pollen of one variety would be entirely gone before the other bloomed, making cross-pollination impossi- ble. (8) Varieties must have an affinity for each other; that is to say, the pollen of one must be acceptable to the pistils of the other. It is well in this connection to men- tion the fact that pears will not serve to pollinate apples or vice-versa. (4) Varieties must be good pollen-pro- ducers. If varieties which produce little pollen are _ planted with those producing abundant pollen, the former but not the latter will be benefited. It is important here to mention that Winesap is a very shy pollen-producer and should not be planted for the purpose of pollinating other varieties. (5) Varieties should come into bearing at about the same age. Such kinds as the Northern Spy would not immediately serve as pollinizers for the Wagener or Twenty Ounce, since the former is an extremely late bearer. (6) The varieties should be commercial. While this is not at all necessary so far as cross-pollination is concerned, it is highly important from a commercial stand- point. It is clearly inadvisable to plant non-commercial 256 The Commercial Apple Industry varieties as pollinizers when so many good commercial sorts are readily available. It is important in any discussion of pollination to name some of the varieties which are known as uncertain or self- sterile as well as some of those known as self-fertile. Cross-pollination with some other variety is usually advis- able, since in most cases it increases the set of fruit. UNCERTAIN OR SELF-STERILE DEPENDABLE OR SELF-FERTILE VARIETIES. VARIETIES. “Arkansas Ben Davis Tompkins King Baldwin Grimes Oldenburg Jonathan Rhode Island Greening Gravenstein Yellow Transparent Northern Spy Yellow Newtown Ortley Red Limbertwig Rome Beauty Esopus “Twenty Ounce Winesap The following varieties are grouped according to their desirability for securing best results in pollination. Each column contains those which are well pollinated by any one or more of the varieties in the same column. Certain limitations should be placed on this table, since in certain localities some compatible kinds bloom too early to pollin- ate later-blooming varieties. However, the pollen of each has an affinity for the pistil of the varieties in the same column. Fruit Setting and Pollination 257 I II Arkansas Black Wealthy Baldwin Rome Beauty Ben Davis Yellow Transparent Gano Yellow Bellflower Grimes White Winter Pearmain Jonathan Winesap McIntosh Willow Twig Yellow Newtown Wagener Northern Spy Esopus Ortley Gravenstein Oldenburg Red Astrachan Many other varieties might be named, but these lists contain a sufficient number to satisfy the commercial grower. If a region is particularly adapted to a combina- tion of any two or three commercial sorts, they may be interplanted with great success without detracting from the very important practice of limiting the number to a few commercial varieties. At the same time such com- binations will insure abundant opportunity for proper cross-pollination. CHAPTER XII- PRUNING AND THINNING Prunine will always remain a field for independent and individual study. No other orchard practice has aroused in the minds of fruit-growers and horticulturists greater variance in opinion. While investigators and observers are in accord on many of the principles of pruning, their application must always remain, to some extent, an indi- vidual problem. An apple-grower would do well to study pruning in the most productive orchards of his community and observe the system that has been practiced on the best and most productive trees. It is the purpose to give a brief description of the several pruning practices in use in the more important fruit-producing sections and to state briefly the advantages and disadvantages of such practices. Before planting, the ends of all broken or injured roots should be removed. This is done not with the idea of shortening the roots, but with the view of leaving smooth _ rather than broken and ragged root ends. Occasionally a few roots may be removed so as to avoid crowding and secure better distribution of the root system. Since a large proportion of the root system is removed when the tree is taken from the nursery, it is necessary to remove a portion of the top to restore a proper balance between the root system and top. Again, the removal of 258 ig Pruning and Thinning 259 a portion of the top determines the height of head and encourages the formation of a stocky and vig- orous framework. The height of heading will vary with the type of training to be fol- lowed and the locality. Lower heading is practiced with the open center type of tree than with the leader or modified types, as is CH pointed out elsewhere in this chap- Fic. 4—Showing ‘ter. In those sections in which framework of a young : wpa Jonathan tree. The sun-seald is prevalent, it is neces- trunk ia too short and sary to head lower than where this _the branches too nearly trouble is not a factor. The © zontal. height of heading apples at planting time may thus vary from 20 to 36 inches. (See Fig. 4.) TYPES OF TRAINING APPLE TREES All pruning practices are applied with the idea of developing the type of tree suited to the local conditions or conforming to the ideas of the individual. The prun- ing given trees during the first few years may be referred to as training. There are several methods of training apple trees, those in common use in commercial regions throughout the United States being: The “ natural form” ; the “central leader” type; the “open center,” or “vase- shaped ” tree; the “ double headed” type; and the “ mod- ified leader,” or “ modified open center ”’ tree. . 260 The Commercial Apple Industry - 4, Natural form. This system of training has been followed largely in the old orchards of New York, New England and some of the middle western states, and by growers generally who had no definite type in mind. Very little pruning is required as compared with other methods of training. The top ordinarily consists of a cluster of branches spring- ing from one point and forming a round head. The pruner merely | removes crowding and crossing branches and limits the number of main branches. In the more humid climates, later pruning is confined to the removal of cross- ing and crowding branches and to the shortening of way- ward branches for the purpose of maintaining tree bal- ance. In the drier climates of the Middle West, all the branches are usually headed back for the first few years in order to encourage stockiness. Advantages. _ 1. Most simple type of training and work may be done by unskilled. men. Disadvantages. 1. Too many main branches are frequently left, resulting in crowding and overlapping main branches. 2. Splitting at the crotches is not uncommon. 3. Frequently main branches are not stocky enough to sup- port loads of fruit in natural positions, the result being over- lapping branches and much poorly colored fruit. 4. Uneven distribution of fruiting wood is not uncommon when trees become mature. 5. Trees in the orchard lack uniformity. 6. Trees of this type often require heroic treatment later on. PLaTe XVI.— Diseases of the apple. 1, Bitter-rot on Pippin showing spots and red specks. 2, Sooty-fungus and fly-speck. 3, Apples affected with the scab fungus. 4, Leaf affected with apple-scab. Pruning and Thinning 261 Central leader system. By this method one central leader is allowed to develop year after year until its increasing height is naturally checked as the tree begins fruiting. Such lat- eral branches are allowed to re- main as will not crowd and will give the best distribution and bal- ance in later years. The lateral branches are considerably smaller than the central leader and strong unions are formed. While this system of pruning has never been widely practiced by commercial Fic. 5—A well fruit-growers, it has had some pruned young Jonathan . r tree trained to the cen- popularity, especially for dwarfs tral jeader form. and certain varieties such as the Jonathan and members of the Ben Davis group. (See Fig. 5.) Advantages. 1. Strong trees are produced. Crotches seldom split apart. 2. Great skill is not required to inaugurate and adhere to this type of pruning. ; 3. Trees like the Rhode Island Greening and Jonathan with tendencies to develop low drooping side branches lend them- selves to the method. Disadvantages. 1. It is difficult to keep trees opened up sufficiently to permit light to penetrate to the inner parts. 2. Trees usually become too high thereby making orchard operations more difficult and expensive. 262 The Commercial Apple Industry Open center, or vase-shape (Fig. 6). The open center type of train- ing was the first definite system generally advocated after commer- cial apple-growing became estab- lished in this country on a highly specialized basis. It was for a time quite generally adopted by fruit-growers in all sections of the United States as the ideal method of training and is still advocated eae ee by some professional horticultur- , sively pruned young De- ists and is practiced by many ae Be aa a fruit-growers. The development of certain weaknesses in the strictly vase-shaped tree has led to a modification of this type of pruning, however. In starting an open center tree, one-year-old whips are usually headed at 20 to 26 inches at planting time. The following winter or spring three to five well distributed branches are usually chosen to form the permanent frame- work of the tree, the leader being removed the first year. The three to five main branches growing outward and upward give the vase-like shape to the tree. After the first season’s growth, all the leaders are cut back heavily to approximately the same height. Equal cutting is con- tinued each year until the framework is completed, in order that no one of the main scaffold branches may attain prom- inence over the other. The center is kept sufficiently open to permit the penetration of light throughout the tree. The result is a spreading low-headed tree, sufficiently open to permit good coloring of the fruit. \ Pruning and Thinning 263 It is usually customary to remove some 50 to 60 per cent of the first year’s growth on each of the selected scaffold branches, provided the tree has made a vigorous growth. However, as previously mentioned, all of the scaffold branches should be cut back to approximately the same height, measured from the ground. In the succeeding year, two secondary branches are usually selected on each primary branch, the others being removed. The next year these secondary branches are usually shortened by the removal of about 40 per cent of the season’s growth. However, the secondary branches should not be left shorter than a foot. ‘ Pruning during the succeeding two or three seasons is along similar lines, except that the amount of heading back is lessened each year, provided the tree does not make too rank a growth. Advantages of the vase-shaped tree. 1. The penetration of light and air is permitted to all parts of the top, which results in a high percentage of functioning fruiting wood and much highly colored fruit. 2. The method results in a low, spreading, well balanced tree. ’ 3. The type and form is easily established and maintained. 4. The ideal may be closely approached with every one-year- old whip. Disadvantages. 1. The trees are often structurally weak, due to the fact that the scaffold branches frequently issue from practically the same point, thus leaving weak crotches. 9. Artificial supports are frequently necessary to avoid split- ting at the crotches when the trees reach bearing age. 3. When one main or scaffold branch splits off, the other 264 The Commercial Apple Industry scaffold branches are weakened at the crotches and “further breaking usually follows. 4. If one main branch splits off, the balance of the tree is permanently injured. 5. The amount of bearing wood is limited. os The double-headed type. In this type of leader tree, developed in New York and West Virginia and in use there, two whorls of main branches or scaffolds are used and the framework is formed by six or eight branches arranged along two or three feet of a strong central stem. If a one-year-old whip is planted, the heading is done at about 24 to 36 inches, which leaves the lowest scaffold branch about 20 to 30 inches from the ground. After the first year’s growth and before growth starts the following spring, three or at most four well dis- tributed branches are selected and all others removed. The remaining branches excepting the leader are headed back to 14 to 16 inches in length. The leader or upright branch is left with 16 to 18 inches of new growth. After the second season’s growth has been made, two secondary branches are selected on each primary branch except the leader and the others are removed. These secondary branches are then headed back to 18 or 20 inches in length. Long willowy branches are headed back even more severely. The second year’s growth on the leader is removed with the exception of the most upright development and any short spurs. About 16 to 18 inches of the new growth of the leader is left. This leaves the leader extending 214 to 3 feet above the first scaffold. After the third season’s growth, the lateral main branches and their secondary growth are handled in a Pruning and Thinning R65 manner similar to that following the second season’s growth, except that the heading back is less severe. It is after the third year that the second story of scaffold branches is started from the central leader at a distance of about 30 to 40 inches above the first set of branches. Three or four laterals are selected for this upper story and the others are removed. The second story scaffold branches are then treated like the first ones were two years earlier. . The upward growth of the leader is now suppressed and the tree is continued with an open center. It is sometimes advisable to add a third story. Advantages. , 1. The system results in a strong tree since the lateral branches are smaller than the central leader and therefore do not form weak crotches, ag are likely to occur when all of the main branches are of equal size. 2. The weight of the tree is distributed among six to eight main branches well placed on a central trunk rather than among three or four branches as is the case in open center trees. 3. The trees have a greater bearing surface than do open eenter trees, since the space in the center is more completely occupied. 4, Sufficient light and air are permitted to all parts of the tree since on the discontinuance of the central leader above the second scaffold the top then assumes some of the characteristics of a strictly open center tree. 5. A rather low spreading top is secured and at the same time a somewhat larger tree than under the open center system. Disadvantages. 1. In practice there is a tendency for growers to leave too many scaffold branches and thereby create a crowded condition. 2. There is danger of either the upper or lower set of scaffold branches becoming dominant unless the pruner uses skill and good judgment in maintaining the proper tree balance. ~ 266 The Commercial Apple Industry The modified leader tree. In Teaching from the two extremes embodied in the strictly “vase-shaped ” tree and the central leader type, many commercial apple-growers in the leading producing regions have adopted the “ modified leader ” system, thus appropriating the best features in both extreme types. As the name implies, this system develops a tree of a modified leader type. Starting with a whip headed at 30 to 36 inches, four to seven scaffold branches well distributed along a central trunk after’the fashion of an as- cending spiral are permitted to re- main and form the framework of the tree.| It is impossible to se cure all of these branches from a single season’s growth, from two to three being selected the first year and the remainder later. The per- manent framework may not be se- cured short of three or four years. "Fie. 7.—Mature Jon. O2e point to be remembered is -athan tree with com- that scaffold branches should be aa type of frame spaced well apart. Branches that are only two or three inches apart will be entirely too close when the tree reaches maturity. Some growers prefer scaffold branches one foot apart. (See Fig. 7.) The leader is permitted to develop during the first three or four years while the framework branches are being selected. The first year’s growth will usually consist of an almost upright branch together with several laterals. It may be possible to select two or even three well distributed Pruning and Thinning 267 scaffold branches after the first year. All others except the leader are removed and the remaining branches are cut back. In order that the leader may dominate for a time, it is left somewhat longer than the other branches. On vigorous trees as much as 40 to 50 per cent of the leader is removed and from 50 to 60 per cent of the laterals. The whole question of heading back*is a subject of varied opinion which will be discussed later. Additional laterals will develop during the second year. One or two desirable scaffold branches may then be added to the framework. The leader and selected laterals are treated in the manner described for the year previous, although heading back is usually less severe. The system is continued during the third and if neces- sary even to a fourth or fifth year. When suitable scaffold branches have been developed, the leader is removed and there remains a tree with central trunk about six or seven feet high along which are spaced three to six or even more main laterals extending outward and upward in all direc- tions at intervals possibly of 10 to 12 inches. Advantages. 1. This system of training results in a strong tree since the central leader is larger than the main or scaffold branches, thus leaving strong unions, which are not likely to result in split- ting. 4 The weight of the tree is distributed along a trunk and among several main branches rather than among three or four branches with no central axis as is the case in open center trees. 3. The system encourages a good distribution of main branches about and along the central axis. 4. Should one main branch break or be lost because of disease, there is still a sufficient number from which laterals may be grown to fill the opening and thus preserve the tree balance. 268 The Commercial Apple Industry 5. Trees trained in this manner have a large capacity for fruiting. © 6. Light and air are admitted to all parts, insuring fruit-spur activity and highly colored fruit. 7. The resulting tree is low headed and spreading and per- mits economical orchard operations. Disadvantages. 1. More judgmeftt is required in building this type of tree than any of the others. Untrained labor cannot be trusted with the shaping of the trees. 2. There is danger of some main branches, especially the upper ones, outgrowing the lower ones, thereby suppressing the latter to such an extent that they no longer serve as main or scaffold branches. 3. When building the young tree, pruners are apt to leave the leader too long or too short as compared with the laterals, thus destroying proper balance. GENERAL TREATMENT OF YOUNG TREES The foregoing has been a general description of the dif- ferent types of trees, but the reader has. gained little infor- mation as to what actually is done each year during the formative period of the tree. The amount of cutting back and thinning out does not vary greatly with the type of training. A more detailed discussion for the modified leader tree will, therefore, serve for the other types as well. After first season. Tf there has been a vigorous growth of more than 30 inches, the scaffold branches are shortened to about 50 per cent and the leader to 60 per cent. If growth does not exceed 20 inches, the leader is shortened to about 14 inches and the laterals to 10 or 12 inches. When possible, the Pruning and Thinning 269 secondary laterals should be developed on the main scaffold branches at a distance not closer than one foot or greater than 20 inches from the trunk. When the scaffold limbs make slow growth, it may be necessary to delay the develop- ment of secondary branches by cutting back the scaffold limbs to two or three buds. After second season. Heading back should be less severe after the second sea- son’s growth. Some recommend leaving about 20 inches new growth on the leader and about 15 inches on the scaf- fold branches. Others think that very little heading back should be done after this time regardless of the amount of growth. There is a growing sentiment that trees should be headed back very little after the second or third year. It is of course necessary to check wayward and crossing branches. Furthermore when growth is vigorous, heading back may be necessary in order to encourage stockiness. If long rangy growths are left, they will not be strong enough to carry heavy loads of fruit in later years. Dur- ing the first two or three years, certain of the main branches may outgrow the others, in which case the stronger grow- ing ones should be headed back more severely than the weaker growing ones. After third season. The main laterals may be cut back lightly to about the same length, slight predominance being given to the leader if it is retained. When the modified leader type is being followed, the third year may see the development of a sufficient number of scaffold branches, If not, the 270 The Commercial Apple Industry leader is maintained for one or more years, at which time it is removed in order to open up the center of the tree. Small side shoots and fruit-spurs developing in the middle of the tree during this time should be left. Such wood is productive of early fruit. Furthermore, an abund- ance of foliage and small twigs are necessary to protect the main limbs from the sun and also to aid growth. There must be plenty of foliage and twig growth if young trees are to produce wood. : VEGETATIVE, TRANSITORY AND FRUITAGE STAGES A tree may be said to pass through three distinct periods: (1) formative period, (2) transition period, and (3) fruit- ing period. The treatment, both in regard to pruning and soil management, changes materially with each of these periods. It is during the formative period that the tree devotes its energies to the formation of wood growth. The proper selection, distribution and training of scaffold branches during this time determines the ability of the tree to bear and carry heavy loads of fruit in later years. The length of the formative period is usually from four to six years, depending on the region and treatment provided. Transition period. Although less distinct, this period is critical. Between the fifth and eighth year the tree is undergoing a change from vegetative to heavy fruit production. The exact age will vary with the region, variety and treatment. Some varieties may not pass through this period until they become ten or twelve years old. Other varieties and par- ticularly when grown under irrigation begin to bear heav- ily at six and seven years. Pruning and Thinning yal Pruning during the transition period should be light and should consist almost entirely of thinning out, with little or no heading back. The thinning out should be ‘ confined largely to the top and ends of the branches and to shoot growths of the previous season. If the tree is becom- ing too thick, two- and even three-year-old branches should be removed. Too often the small lateral limbs and fruiting wood toward the center of the tree are removed, thus forcing all the fruiting area toward the tip ends of the limbs. Again, tops frequently become so dense that the inside spurs slough off due to lack of sunlight and air. The frurting period. All pruning during this period is to develop and main- tain a liberal supply of fruiting wood, well distributed throughout the entire tree. This pruning will consist largely of thinning out branches in order to maintain a liberal supply of functioning fruit-spurs, and in order to improve the quality of the fruit produced. Weak or way- ward branches should be removed. The tree should be kept open and shapely and in a vigorous growing condition. Regular annual pruning is essential. Fruit-buds. ' Fruit-buds may be regarded as the actual fruit manu- facturing machinery of a tree. In case of the apple, the fruit is borne mostly on spurs which develop from lateral buds on the shoots of the preceding season. In certain varieties of apples, such as Jonathan, Gravenstein, New- town and others, much of the first crop of fruit-buds is borne terminally on shoots. Axillary buds are also borne va 272 The Commercial Apple Industry on one-year-old wood, but on the side of the shoots instead of at the tips. Spurs are nothing more than very short branches on which terminal fruiting buds are borne every alternate year, under favorable conditions. These buds are usually developed from branches two years and older. If fruit-spars are properly cared for, they may live and produce fruit-buds in alternate seasons for at least eight or ten years. All lateral buds of the shoots of any one season do not develop into spurs the following year. Some of them grow out into new or branch shoots, many others remain dormant. Spurs are largely developed from the large, plump, vigor- ous lateral buds. Having developed a large number of spurs evenly dis- tributed throughout the tree, it is absolutely essential to conserve this fruiting wood. In a great many cases, the fruiting machinery toward the center of a tree fails to produce fruit. This is due principally to the lack of sun- shine and air, two factors on which a spur is entirely dependent for its ability to function. The pruning, then, should be with the idea of leaving spurs distributed throughout the entire tree and of getting plenty of\sunlight and air to each individual spur. This can be accomplished by thinning out as opposed to heading back. It permits more light to percolate through the tree and gives the leaves in the center a better chance to manufacture the food materials necessary for the formation of large strong fruit- buds. Changing system of pruning. After the form of a tree has once been established, it is not considered advisable to change its type unless its form Pruning and Thinning 273 may be modified without drastic pruning. An open center tree, for example, should be continued as such. A modi- fied leader should not be removed in later years in order to develop an open center tree. The type of train- ing should be established during the first three years and this same style should be followed out year after year. Trees four to ten years old that have been pruned with no definite type in view often present some very perplexing problems. The number and proper distribution of scaffold branches should be definitely chosen and part of the most objectionable branches removed the first year. In cases where there are a dozen main Fic. 8.— Common branches when half that number Ce a echt would suffice, it may be advisable to Rome Beauty un- select only six for the permanent ees a framework. The removal of the ob- U jectionable branches should be distributed over a period of two or three years, however. Young trees which have been neglected should be cut back rather heavily to encourage the development of good strong laterals near the base of the limb. When heading back has been neglected and the result has been long rangy branches with weak lateral development, it may be neces- sary to cut back into two- or three-year-old wood. When a good side branch is available, it is advisable to cut back to the side branch instead of to a bud. Dy FAS) y 7S ie ‘i r avd The Commercial Apple Industry Crossing and interfering branches should be removed. If too many long parallel limbs have developed, part of | them should be taken out in order to allow the remainder freer development. Two limbs which emerge from a com- mon point usually result in a weak crotch, a condition which can be overcome by unequal cutting, i. e. cutting one limb heavier than the other. \ Bearing trees. A tree that has been handled properly up to the bearing age, that has its framework well established, and its fruit- ing machinery well distributed, will require little subse quent annual pruning. As previously described, the treat- ‘ment of a bearing tree, whatever the type, will consist largely in thinning out the new growth near the tops or outer parts of limbs to allow a good circulation of sunlight and air. Wayward and crossing branches should be checked or removed. Gardner, of the Missouri Experimental Station, likens the fruit-spur to a factory. He refers to the spurs as little machines. The raw materials from which fruit is produced come from the soil and air and are manufactured into a finished product by the leaves through the aid of sunlight. The latter is classed as the cheapest, most abundant and yet most valuable form of motive power.. The performance of every spur is dependent on a certain amount of sunlight, (See Plate XVII.) Each individual spur relies on its own leaves for the manufacture of the starches and sugars which it uses. It cannot draw on other nearby spurs or on other parts of the tree for maintenance. As the manufacture of food materials is absolutely dependent on light, the production ‘soyOUBIQ 94} JO UOTINGIIYsIp poods ayy ajoN ‘azvad ¥w sTatreq OT oqe SOSVIOAR PUB UOSBIS 9UO UT FMA} oUY Jo STolIVy OZ se YsYy se paonposd sey v0 sy, —TT AX WvI1g Pruning and Thinning 275 of fruit-buds and fruit is likewise dependent on sufficient quantities of light. Thinning out the top and outer portions, then, is the most effective means of letting light in to each individual spur, thereby distributing the motive power necessary to develop activity within each individual spur and increase the amount of fruit produced. The removal of a few large limbs near the ground only leaves large holes and open spaces. The cutting of lower limbs and those near the body of the tree does not permit sunlight to enter into the parts where it is most needed nor does it permit the distribution of sunlight and air in sufficient quantities to modify the functioning of fruit-spurs. Removing large limbs leaves vacant spaces and admits sunlight in shafts rather than allowing it to penetrate evenly throughout all parts. It is better to remove many small branches, in thin- ning the outer parts of trees. This leaves the outer fruit- ing wood evenly distributed and still open enough to permit the entrance of sunlight and air. The removal of small branches requires time and makes it necessary for the pruner either to use a ladder or climb well out near ‘the ends of the main branches, but this careful work will prove profitable. Distribution and establishment of fruiting wood. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the distribution and establishment of functioning fruiting wood throughout the entire tree. It is not uncommon to see trees which have been stripped of all fruiting wood except near the ends of the branches. For example, limbs 20 to 25 feet long bear all their fruit from within 5 or 6 feet from the 276 The Commercial Apple Industry tip, the balance of the limb being a “ boarder ” and living at the expense of the productive area. It is highly de- sirable to have several well developed laterals along the scaffold branches in order that the fruiting area may be brought nearer the ground. - TIME OF PRUNING No concrete rules can be laid down as to the best time for pruning, as no one time will best meet all conditions. Pruning in most sections may usually be practiced in any favorable weather in the dormant season. ; In the Virginias and sections of the Pacific Coast, prun- ing is done from November to early April, while in the New England and middle western states, most of the work is during the spring months. Generally speaking, a slight preference should be given to pruning in late winter and early spring, because the wounds heal over more readily. Many growers are prejudiced against pruning» when the wood is frozen. Some maintain that drying out or dying back is likely to result from early winter prun- ing, but the writers do not know of serious injury of this nature in bearing trees. If one has a large acreage to prune, he should start work in the older trees in the early winter and reserve the younger trees for the late winter and spring pruning. Some growers hesitate to prune when growth is about to start in the spring, feeling that injury may result from bleeding. However, the writers know of no serious injury resulting from pruning apple trees at this time. . Summer pruning has received much attention in recent years but the results of investigations have been somewhat confusing. Summer pruning may be practiced to advan- 2G ets ies Pruning and Thinning R77 tage in training the framework of a young tree. It may also increase fruit production if timed correctly. How- ever, So many varying factors affect the time element that it is intpossible to give exact dates at which summer pruning may be done to increase fruit production. The average grower should refrain from inaugurating this practice until a better understanding is had of its effects. Water-sprouts and a few superfluous branches may be re- moved to advantage during the summer months. PRUNING TOOLS The tool equipment will vary with the man and with the type of work. In the eastern region practically all of the labor is done with a small hand shears and a saw. With these two tools, a pruner can do practically all that will be required in bearing trees and most of the work in young trees. Cheap shears and those with coil springs are undesir- able. The former are easily sprung and the latter easily broken. The shears should be 7 to 9 inches in length, the latter usually being preferred. A saw on which the teeth are set to cut on the “ pull” is less tiring to the pruner. Saws with teeth on both edges are objectionable since they frequently injure the bark. In some sections a swivel or hack saw is used. This type is a modification of a butcher’s saw equipped with swivels that permit very thin, narrow, fine-toothed blades being set on the bias. It cuts rather slowly in the case of large limbs, but is particularly good for small cuts and for removing limbs in tight places. The cuts made are clean and smooth. Pole pruners, 6 to 10 feet in length, are useful in prun- 278 / The Commercial Apple Industry ing the tops of trees six to ten years old, but work with this tool is slow and cutting lacks precision. Lopping or wooden handled shears are popular for work on young trees and also for working the lower parts of old trees. However, their use becomes somewhat awkward in the upper parts of bearing trees. The double leverage type of “loppers ” is desirable, 20 to 26 inches being the preferred length. WOUND DRESSINGS Some difference of opinion exists among growers as to the practicability of the use of dressings for protecting wounds. Certain experiments have shown that undressed wounds healed over more rapidly than dressed ones. However, for nearly all wounds paint is most desirable, white lead or white zinc thinned down with linseed oil having given the best results. Tar or creosote is some times preferred for large wounds since these substances are considered better preservatives than paint. The heartwood of a large wound will have to stand many years before it is completely healed over. Wounds in vigorous growing trees heal over more read- ily than those on trees of low vitality. The painting over of cuts less than one inch in diameter is not recom- mended. ‘ THINNING Although practiced very extensively in some parts of the country and particularly in the West, many growers are slow to adopt thinning, and yet it is essential to the. production of high-class fruit. Once a grower has care fully thinned his fruit for a few years, he needs no further f ) Pruning and Thinning 279 proof of the fact that this is one of the most important and profitable of all orchard operations. For many years the apple-growers in the Wenatchee and Yakima valleys, Washington, have made thinning a gen- eral practice. Cost production studies indicate that the largest yields and greatest profits have been secured from well and carefully thinned orchards. The same may be said for orchards in all other parts of the country where this practice has been given a thorough trial. In the; Middle West and East, however, the grower who thins his trees is the exception rather than the rule. The cost, to- gether with a lack of knowledge and appreciation of the great benefits to be obtained from thinning, are the princi- pal reasons which deter most growers from following this practice. Unquestionably it involves considerable ex- pense, particularly with a full bearing orchard in a heavy crop year. A heavy outlay of expense in any single year might be somewhat disappointing. Thinning is an oper- ation’ incident to the production of high-class fruit. -It should not be sporadic, but should be practiced in every heavy crop year. When fairly competent labor may be secured at reasonable rates, it will be profitable. As the competition in the growing of high-class apples becomes greater, thinning will become more and more a general practice in every commercial region in the country. In listing the advantages of thinning it is found that it: (1) increases size and quality of fruit; (2) reduces hand- ling costs such as for picking and packing; (8) prevents overbearing and promotes vigor of tree; (4) encourages annual bearing; (5) increases average annual yield; (6) reduces amount of cull and low-grade fruit since inferior, diseased, or worm-eaten apples may be removed; (7) 280 The Commercial Apple Industry secures uniformity of size and market quality of fruit; (8) insures a high price for crop. (1) The statement that thinning tends to increase the size and quality of the remaining fruit will go unques- tioned. Not only are the apples larger, but the color of fruit on well thinned trees is noticeably better than on overloaded ones. It is manifest that well developed speci- mens of good size and color will be of a superior quality and flavor. (2) By reducing the number of apples to be picked and handled at harvest time, the harvesting costs are materially lowered. If apples are not removed at thinning time, they must be picked at harvest at an even greater expense. Many of the culls and inferior fruits can be removed in thinning and this will not only tend to improve the quality of the fruit, but will reduce the sorting cost at harvest time. (3) If trees are left overloaded, their vitality is im- paired; branches are quite likely broken; and the pros- pects for the next year’s crop are very much poorer than if the tree had been properly thinned. It is difficult to measure the exact value of thinning as affecting annual yields and yet it is a notable fact that thinning unques- tionably stimulates annual bearing. Many well thinned orchards in the Northwest bear heavy crops annually while most unthinned orchards tend to bear biennially. (4) To claim that thinning reduces the tax on the vitality of the tree and yet maintain that it actually in- creases yield may seem contradictory. Unquestionably it increases average annual yield and it is a fact that in- creased size in fruit usually more than makes up for Pruning and Thinning 281 reduced numbers. Furthermore, by more even distribu- tion the tree may better hold its load. (5) It is possible in thinning to remove wormy, stung, diseased or otherwise inferior fruits and in this manner greatly reduce the percentage of cull fruit and in some ways check the spread of the injury. (6) Uniformity is one of the most desirable qualities in marketable apples. Thinning, of all orchard opera- tions, is the one which directly influences uniformity in size and marketable quality of fruit. (7) When the grower is striving for an abundance of highest quality fruit, thinning unquestionably pays. It increases the percentage of high-grade fruit and thus in- sures a higher net price. Cost of production a bushel will be lowered even though cost an acre may be increased. If a grower has expended heavily for spraying, pruning and other operations, he can not afford to neglect thinning in years when his trees tend to overbear. Time and method of thinning. Thinning should not be undertaken until after the June or May drop, as in some of the more southern regions, has occurred. When the apples are about the size of walnuts, the natural thinning of the fruit has largely ceased and artificial thinning may be begun profitably. Often many growers have a market for early cull fruit or sell it for by-product purposes. In such instances thinning may be delayed until perhaps August, at which time the cull or inferior fruit may easily be picked off. Still other growers thin their apples by making several pickings for commercial purposes, picking off the best a, 282 The Commercial Apple Industry and most matured apples for market and allowing the others to'remain. ‘Such practices can hardly be classed under the head of thinning, although they may be profit- able in some instances and may be practiced in addition to early thinning. The common practice in thinning is to start early after the June drop and pull or clip off all apples according to varying rules of spacing. Some growers leave the apples at a minimum of 4 inches apart, others 6 inches and still others 8 inches apart. This distance will depend largely on the variety, its tendency to cluster, and whether or not the apples of the variety are normally large or small when mature. Generally speaking, spacing 6 inches is a safe rule to follow. Many varieties of apples have a tendency to produce their fruit in clusters and often thinning the cluster to one apple is practically all that is necessary. In any case, if systematic thinning can not be practiced, the clusters should at least be thinned as this prevents much insect injury and promotes general uniformity of the fruit. The amount of thinning will depend on the individual tree, the variety and the amount of fruit on the tree. No def- inite formula may be laid down. The usual method of thinning apples is to pick the fruit off by hand, sometimes putting it into a bag, but usually permitting it to drop on the ground. Many growers, particularly in the North- west, prefer thinning shears, of which several types are on the market. The advantage to be gained in using thin- ning shears is that the apples are clipped instead of pulled off and for this reason fruit-spurs are not likely to be broken or damaged. Pruning and Thinning 283 Cost of thinning. The cost of thinning will depend on several factors, such as the variety, size of tree, kind of labor employed, method used, size of the crop and the vigor of the tree. The average man thins from three to twenty trees a day. In the Northwest one hour to a tree is considered an average amount. It must be remembered, however, that the Northwest trees are much smaller and the fruit easier of access than in the older orchards of the East and Central West. In old orchards, heavy with fruit, from three to five trees is a day’s work. It would not do to figure aver- ages on this basis as often many trees do not need much thinning. It requires about sixty hours an acre to thin the better Wenatchee orchards. Very little thinning is done in New York and Virginia, but if the trees in these regions were thinned as systematically as in Wenatchee, the amount of labor expended would be about the same to the acre despite fewer trees. The average grower is safe in assuming that it will pay him to spend on thinning an. amount equal to twenty-five cents a barrel for every barrel of fruit produced. The operation usually costs less than this amount. CHAPTER XIII RENOVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS TuRovcuovr the country and particularly in the east- ‘ ern and central western states are many thousands of apple trees which at present have little or no commercial significance. Many of these are in the old farm orchards, the average of which includes at most but a few acres of poorly kept and very often neglected apple trees. There are, however, a great many orchards originally set out for commercial purposes and later neglected. It is to this latter acreage that the discussion.on renovation will partic- ularly apply. Greatest possibilities for renovation are offered in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and the northeastern states, also in many sections of the Middle West. In southern states the old neglected orchards are for the most part of such small size and are so inaccessible as to offer slight inducement for successful renovation. The problem of renovation re- quires exceptionally careful study if one is contemplating this method of entering the business of growing apples commercially. In recent years many far-sighted individ- uals have been able to purchase neglected apple orchards and by renovation make much quicker returns on the money invested than would have been possible had a young orchard been set out and the owner waited for the latter to come into bearing. Such opportunities still ex- 284 ! Renovation of Old Orchards 285 ist. It is somewhat surprising in visiting well-known commercial regions to see a large number of orchards which receive little or no care, yet which under proper manage- ment could be made to yield a profit. The above state- ment is not to convey the idea that it is profitable to at- tempt the reclamation of all old farm orchards by the process of renovation. Very many trees are beyond the period when they may be reclaimed profitably. It requires considerable experience and nicety of judg- ment to determine what orchards may or may not be suc- cessfully renovated. In the first place, it is essential that the orchard should be large enough to meet the expense of proper equipment such as the spray-pump, and to warrant some detailed attention from the owner. It is doubtful whether an orchard of less than five acres, or one in which many trees are missing, can ever be renovated successfully and put on a profitable commercial basis. Smaller or- chards, of course, might well be restored for home use. Commercial orchards to be renovated should include varieties for which there is a demand. Plantings should be accessible to market and labor. However, one might profitably restore an old orchard in a locality in which it would scarcely be advisable to set new plantings. An established orchard always enjoys an important advantage from being already in bearing. The following suggestions are offered with regard to the process of renovating an old orchard and apply as much to the home orchard as to commercial plantings: General treatment. All dead wood and cankers should be cut out and the trunk of tree thoroughly scraped with a hoe or similar 286 The Commercial Apple Industry tool, being careful not to injure the tender inner bark. This scraping removes the hiding places for many orchard pests. After scraping, some advise that the trunks should be whitewashed. Unquestionably such treatment would be beneficial, although it it not recommended as necessary. In cutting large limbs, it is best to make two cuts, the first about a foot above the last in order to prevent split- ting or otherwise injuring the good wood below the final ; cut. It is well to disinfect large wounds with copper sulfate or corrosive sublimate, after which a coat of asphaltum tree paint or white lead is advisable to protect the tree against decay and from the ravages of insects and diseases. When small limbs and twigs are being headed, one should cut to a lateral growth, otherwise the remaining stub dies and decay follows. The chances are that in old neglected orchards many holes will be found in the trunks of the trees wheré limbs have been broken or cut off in years gone by, where decay has set in. Very often trees may be saved if the decayed wood is thoroughly cleaned out. Occasionally such cavi- ties are filled with cement, care being taken that all water and wet wood is removed first. As a general rule, such treatment is not practicable. Pruning. In shaping or pruning a tree after the dead wood has been removed, a number of precautions should be borne in mind. A common mistake in renovation is to sacrifice much of the fruiting area by removal of a large part of the top with a view to bringing the head closer to the ground. i Renovation of Old Orchards 287 It takes several years to develop fruiting wood and it may be advisable to thin out rather than remove the already ex- isting fruiting wood. Very often, however, because of excessively high trees, severe cutting back and thinning out of the remaining tops is necessary. Even in such instances it is unwise to re- move too large a portion of the fruiting wood, even though such wood may be found, as it very often is, at the tips of the larger branches. The orchardist should encourage lateral growth, but should avoid the sacrifice of too great a part of the fruiting area. It is usually advisable to dis- tribute the heavy pruning over a period of several years in order to preserve the balance between the roots and the top, and to prevent sun-scald on the larger limbs through exposure to direct sunlight. It is important that the outer parts and tops of all trees should be well thinned by.working from the top and tips of the branches downward. This provides for penetration of sunlight and allows distribution of fruiting wood throughout the entire tree. It is common to see a grower start with the lower trunk limbs and prune severely as far as he can reach conveniently, leaving the outer part of the limbs to bear all the fruit. Ladders are almost in- dispensable in thinning and heading back the tops. Each limb should be treated somewhat as a separate tree. Laterals should be thinned out and the remaining ones spaced as on the trunk, special effort being made to bring fruiting area nearer the ground. By thinning out the brushy tops, water-sprouts may be encouraged farther down on the main limbs. The following year the water- sprouts should be thinned out to a distance of 18 to 24 inches apart and cut back severely so that they will throw } ‘ 288 , The Commercial Apple Industry out laterals and evétttually lower the fruiting area. In pruning waterSprouts, the leader should be cut slightly less than its laterals, a safe proportion being to cut the leader 35 per cent and the laterals about 50 per cent. Although it is advisable to distribute the heavy prun- ing over a period of three years, the orchardist should bear in mind that the heavy cutting of one main branch does not necessarily produce the vigor necessary for fruit- ing on the remaining limbs. If one branch is pruned heavily, the water-sprouts will come on that particular limb and not on the others. Therefore, a general mod- erate pruning throughout the top, with careful attention given to thinning out the smaller fruiting wood, will serve to encourage fruiting generally throughout the tree and to afford an opportunity for converting water-sprouts into new fruiting wood in the lower part of the tree. System- atic pruning must be followed for a period of several years if renovation is to be made effective. Spraying. After pruning the next step in renovation is thorough spraying. Old trees are nearly always badly infested with scale as well as with other insects and diseases. A thorough application of lime-sulfur is a necessary clean-up measure. After the dormant winter spray, the same regu- lar spray program should be followed as is necessary in commercial orchards of the region. It is particularly im- portant in the case of old trees to have a tower on the spray rig in order that the spray will reach the topmost branches. The importance of spraying can not be em- phasized too strongly as essential to the proper renova- tion of the orchard. (See Chapter X.) Renovation of Old Orchards 289 Soil management. Thorough cultivation is usually the first step in reno- vation, although in come instances deep plowing may re- sult in cutting off many of the feeding roots, especially when an orchard has been in sod for some time and the roots feed close to the surface. If the roots are too greatly disturbed, the trees may be seriously weakened. Thorough discing when possible is always safe and satis- factory. Plowing is to be preferred if it can be done without destroying too many of the roots. Early culti- vation is best and should be performed as soon in the spring as possible. After thoroughly working the soil, it is very often advisable to sow a leguminous cover-crop in order to supply humus and nitrogen when these two essentials have become depleted. In many instances inter-crops have been continuously grown in old orchards with the result that the soil is de cidedly lacking in one or more elements of plant-food. When available, liberal applications of barnyard manure, from 10 to 18 tons to the acre, will aid in restoring soil fertility. When the soil seems generally weak and de- ficient, an application of confplete commercial fertilizer, consisting of 6 pounds nitrate of soda, 8 pounds acid phosphate and 3 pounds muriate of potash to a tree, may be considered a very liberal treatment. Fertilizer ex- periments emphasize the efficiency of nitrate of soda used alone. A 5-pound application of nitrate of soda will be generally profitable on weak trees. When commercial fertilizer is applied in conjunction with manure, the above amounts to a tree may be cut to about half. In summarizing, the three important steps in orchard 290 The Commercial Apple Industry renovation are: (1) careful pruning; (2) thorough spray- ing; (3) thorough working of the soil with the possible addition of commercial fertilizer. CHAPTER XIV HANDLING THE CROP Tue handling of the crop includes the operations from the time the fruit is ripe until it is put on the market. Special care is necessary in picking and packing in order that the apples may reach the market in good condition. PICKING (PLATE XVIII) The time of picking varies greatly with the variety and with the season. Other influences, such as age of trees and cultural practices, may also affect the time of this opera- tion. It is generally thought that fruit comes to maturity earlier on older trees than on young ones; also that apples grown on sod land should be picked sooner than those in cultivated orchards. As a rule, over-maturity is to be feared more than.immaturity, although both conditions may be disastrous. Maturity in most instances means hard ripe and not eating ripe. ~ Since the time of picking has so much to do with the keeping qualities of the fruit, it is important that the ripening tendencies of each variety be studied in every particular locality. The following points should be taken into consideration in order to de- termine the correct picking time for different varieties of apples: 1. The ease with which the fruit separates from the spur; 2. the red color; 3. size; 4. color of seeds; 5. tendencies of certain varieties to drop. 291 292 The Commercial Apple Industry 1. One of the most valuable guides in determining the time of picking is the ease with which the apple separates - from the spur. Much damage can be done if the apples are picked too soon, for in such circumstances the picker will probably destroy or break off many fruit-spurs. The grower must sacrifice size if the fruit separates readily from the spur, otherwise he may suffer from heavy drop- ping or over-maturity of the fruit. 2. In most cases, the amount of color is the grower’s guide in determining time of picking. In this connection it should be remembered that in bright seasons the apples have a tendency to color early and for that reason there is the danger of picking too soon. In damp cloudy weather, coloring may be checked and under such conditions there is danger of waiting too long before harvesting. Very often two pickings are advisable for such highly colored varieties as Winesaps. If the better colored specimens are harvested in the first picking, the remaining poorly colored apples will benefit by greater exposure to the sun- light. It must be remembered that an added picking rep- resents a considerable expense warranted only in the case of high quality crops, when the added color and size mean a considerable increased price for the product. Investi- gations ' have revealed that in the case of red apples the ground color which underlies the red color or blush is the most reliable indication of maturity. In immature fruits this color is green. Before the apples are ready to pick, the ground color should have turned to a white or very light yellow. The dark yellow ground color indicates over-maturity. The very common mistake of leaving such 1 Bull. 587, U. 8. Dept. Agr. \ Pate XVIII— Showing method of picking practiced in Vir- ginia, particularly in the Piedmont section where a crew of pickers will commonly pick from a single tree. An inefficient method. Handling the Crop 293 varieties as Jonathan and Esopus too long on the trees results in a much shortened life for the fruit in storage. 3, For green varieties and particularly early green apples, size is an important factor. The grower should not wait for the yellow ground color, otherwise he will lose through over-maturity of his fruit. If two pickings are made, it will be found that the apples left on the tree will quickly benefit in size by the removal of a portion of the crop. It must be considered that size will vary accord- ing to crop, age of trees, and season, so that no definite idea of the proper size at which to pick can be given. 4. It has been recommended that apples should not be picked until the seeds have turned brown. While the color of the seeds may be taken as an indication of matu- rity, it should not be considered as always reliable. The seeds should always be brown before the apples are picked, but the brown color of the seeds does not necessarily indi- cate maturity. In other words, immature fruit may have brown seeds. 5. Such varieties as McIntosh, Wagener, and Tomp- kins King tend to drop before maturity, and Stayman, Wealthy and Grimes to drop badly with the wind. The grower should watch these tendencies and should regard heavy dropping as an indication of need for immediate picking. No other operation in the physical handling is more essential to the life of the fruit than careful picking. The pickers should be impressed with the importance of preventing bruises, punctures or abrasions of the skin, since such injuries permit the entrance of serious storage decay. The fungi which cause most of the storage decay can not injure sound fruit. Careless picking hands may | 294 Lhe Commercial Apple Industry pull off the fruit-spurs and seriously injure the tree in climbing about or in carelessly manipulating the ladders, Delays in picking and also delay before storage often in- volve heavy loss. After the fruit has been picked, it should be put in ‘storage as soon as possible. Two or three days’ exposure to warm sun in the orchard after pick- ing will cause the apples to ripen rapidly and the life of the fruit will be materially shortened. Immediately stored fruit is always brighter and firmer than that which is left in the orchard for several days after picking. Contract picking versus day labor. In connection with the operation of picking, it is im- portant to consider the contract system as compared with day labor from the standpoint of efficiency and economy. The principal objection to contract labor in picking is the danger of careless handling of fruit when the picker tends to sacrifice carefulness for speed. “Most growers have avoided contract picking, although the practice is gaining somewhat in popularity in some regions, particularly where labor is scarce. Cost production studies have re- vealed that the contract picker working by the piece will pick on the average of at least 25 per cent more apples in a day than will the day laborer. If competent labor can be secured and carefully overseen, contract picking may offer an opportunity for speed and considerable saving in handling the crop. Picking utensils. Various types of picking utensils are in use and each has its advantages and disadvantages. The canvas bag, suspended by straps from the shoulder and opening at t Handling the Crop 295 the bottom so that the apples may be rolled out into a box or barrel, has become the most popular picking utensil in the Northwest. Some criticism is voiced against the picking-bag on account of the danger of bruising the fruit. When the picker is climbing about on ladders, apples in a bag may be knocked against the ladder or subjected to more shaking or rolling about than if placed im pails. The chief advantage of the picking-bag is that it leaves both of the picker’s hands free for picking. A pail with a canvas bottom which may be opened in emptying possesses some of the advantages of the bag and may afford better protection for the fruit. The round half-bushel basket is a very popular picking utensil throughout the East and Middle West. Its value may be enhanced by lining the sides with corrugated paper or padding the bottom to prevent bruising the fruit. Wire hooks on the handles of pails or baskets will aid in the hanging of these utensils on the ladder or tree. If the picker is obliged to walk a considerable distance to a sorting-table, as is the case where fruit is packed in the orchard, a pail or basket is sometimes preferred to the picking-bag, for in such instances the receptacles are filled and left at the bottom of the tree to be carried later to the packing-table. A waiter should be employed to carry the fruit from the base of the tree to the orchard sorting-table, since this workman will carry two or more baskets whereas the picker will make the return trip with only one. Where the crop is handled through the packing-house, receptacles for the picked fruit should be distributed throughout the orchard in order that the picker will not lose time in emptying his bag or pail of fruit. In all cases, the picker should be warned against allowing the fruit to drop into the 296 The aad a Apple Industry box or onto the table with sufficient force to cause se- vere bruising. A low or- chard wagon with springs is recommended for haul- ing receptacles of loose fruit. (See Fig. 9.) The pointed ladder is the most efficient type for picking in among the Fic. 9.— Slatted crate used very branches since it can be generally in the eastern states for placed against a fork or bringing apples from orchard to packing-house. tree. Step-ladders with a single prop are useful in picking from the outside limbs or from small trees. PACKING (PLATE XIX) Since there are two somewhat divergent systems for grading and packing the barreled and boxed apples, the two general methods will ‘be discussed separately. Throughout the East and Middle West, much of the pack- ing is done in the orchard although sheds are increasing - in number and popularity in nearly every commercial ap- ple region. Western growers early showed a preference for the packing-house, since very exacting labor and good equipment are required in maintaining the high standard of the boxed pack. Sorting and packing barreled apples Until recently most of the barreled apple crop was packed in the orchard with the aid of portable packing ! limb without injuring the, 1 1 q | Handling the Crop 297 equipment. The packing-shed is growing in popularity throughout the East and Middle West, but many commer- cial apple-growers still pack out their crop in the orchard, and this operation, therefore, must be given separate treat- ment. : Orchard packing. When sorting and packing is done in the orchard, the equipment usually consists of either a portable slatted table or a canvas or burlap-top table. Of the above two types, the slatted table is most com- monly used. Very often these tables are equipped with wheels in order that they may be moved about easily in the orchard. The top of the average slatted sorting- table tapers from three to four feet at one end to one to two feet in width at the other end. The table also slopes so that when the fruit is poured on at the wide end, it rolls down past the sorters to the narrow end, and there is lowered into the barrel by means of an apron. The upper end of the table top should be padded heavily to prevent bruising of the fruit. Leaves and brush drop to the ground as the apples roll down over the slatted top. Sorters stand at the side of the table, and when only one grade is being packed out, as is usually the case, they remove only, the culls and rots. When two grades are being packed, the additional grade is picked out as the fruit passes over the table, and is placed in barrels alongside the sorter. The packer stands at the lower end of the table and feeds the apples into previously faced barrels, at the same time assuming part of the responsibility for the grade. The slatted sorting-table is an example of cheap portable 298 ’ The Commercial Apple Industry equipment, but in its age there is danger that inferior fruit will crowd past the sorter. Although the slatted table is widely employed throughout the East and Middle West, it seems probable that its place will be taken more and more by the mechanical sizer or burlap-top table. Some barrel apple-growers, and particularly those in- terested in a more careful pack, employ the canvas or burlap-top table, which is usually about three feet high, three feet wide and six or eight feet long. The apples are emptied directly from the tree onto the top of the table. Sorters then grade out the fruit, usually placing it in baskets or receptacles according to its grade. Under this ‘system, two grades are ordinarily packed out, the culls being thrown to one side in a pile or placed in separate © barrels. The packer stands behind the sorter and fills previously faced barrels with the fruit according to its grade. The use of canvas or burlap-top table facilitates more careful handling and sorting than the slatted-top table. In the case of either, the picker usually carries his own fruit directly to the table, although in some instances the work of transferring fruit from the base of the tree to the packing-table is done by additional workmen. As previously pointed out, the latter system is more efficient. Before discussing packing-house equipment, it should be mentioned that portable sizing machines have been used to some extent in orchard packing. Packing-houses for barreled apples. While orchard packing still predominates, the rapidly increasing number of packing-houses throughout the bar- rel apple states is a distinct sign of progress. Some ad- Handling the Crop 299 vantages of a packing-house are: (1) Centralization of packing operations, no time being lost in moving equip- ment about the orchard; (2) packing may continue unin- terrupted during inclement weather; (3) improved sizers and other labor-saving devices may be installed econom- ically; (4) packages for the fruit are kept cleaner than if handled in the orchard. The eastern applegrower has come to rely on cold storage rather than common storage in holding his crop for any length of time. For this reason, common storage in connection. with packing plants is not recognized as such an important feature as in the West. The grower either sells his winter apples immediately or places them in cold storage. Therefore, the packing-shed in the bar- ‘reled apple industry assumes more the nature of a shelter for centralized packing operations. Eastern and middle western apple packing-houses might arbitrarily be classified in three groups: (1) Those pro- viding a mere shelter for either the inclined slatted-top or canvas-top sorting-tables; (2) those which not only pro- vide shelter for the packing operation, but which have a small sizing machine and possibly certain other labor-sav- ing devices; (3) the large improved packing-shed with a daily capacity of 300 to 1,200 barrels of apples. In the third class are the larger and best equipped: mechanical sizers, fitted. with conveyer belts, improved bing and other equipment calculated to insure the greatest speed and efficiency in handling the crop. With such ‘packing-houses, the fruit is usually delivered from the orchard on to a receiving platform or possibly directly on to a receiving belt which carries it past the sorters and delivers it directly into the sizing mechanism. The 300 The Commercial Apple Industry sorters stand beside the conveyer and grade out the fruit as it passes them. More improved sizers permit the grad- ing and sizing of two and even three grades simultaneously. The sorting is accomplished by dividing the grading belt lengthwise with strips which serve as partitions to separate the different grades.