PRICE LEIGH TRENPENCE. . Wasturc Grasses AND FORAGE PLANTS Nb e her Seeds, Weeds, and, P-rasiles. By Samuel P. Preston. (CLOVER PLANT ATPVEK HD BY DODLER,) LONDON : LEHOMASEC. VACKs a5 LUNGAT: Hit, EDINBURGH : GRANGE PUBLISHING WORKS. 1887. Cornell Mniversity Library BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henry W. Sage 1891 4. [POBY7 wn esl “Gas RETURN TO ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY ITHACA, N. Y. Cor SB 193.P94 a ii e plants, and th Mn Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003325333 ADVERTISEMENTS. WHOLESALE ONLY. Speciality for NATURAL GRASSES, RYE-GRASSES, and CLOVER SEEDS. We believe we are ina position ENTIRELY UNIQUE for the provision of seeds of the above of the highest class for :-— PURITY, GERMINATING FACULTY, AND CLEANLINESS. Same being always quoted by us at lowest market price, consistent with high quality. Our acquaintance with the British and Continental trade is wide, and at same time includes the most minute details. We pay particular attention to the collecting and cleaning of the Natural Grasses, and in this trade we hold a leading position as experts. In this and other branches, ovr list of patrons includes all the leading houses in Great Britain and Ireland. Sor samples and quotations please write to KRUGER BROS., 47 Waterloo Street, PHILIP PIERCE & CO., MILL ROAD IRONWORKS, WEXFORD, IRELAND. D2D MAKERS OF The New Patent. “ORION” Mower & Reaper. - roa] Es aw . Att wa 3 S aan. BAB 7 wm sctefts = 4S Se sgsanu68 ga SR Beet Es aes Hans 3 3 SOs gona Soa) FOR PRICE L PASTURE GRASSES. LAWES’ MANURES FOR GRASS. To obtain the heaviest possible crop of hay, and at same time improve the herbage and condition of the land, USE LAWES’ DISSOLVED BONES. This manure produces none of the exhausting effects of Nitrate of Soda and other stimulants. It is a genuine plant food, and its employment is always beneficial to the land. It will be found the best TOP DRESSING in the Market and an invaluable aid in renovating worn- out Pastures. MANURES FOR ALL GROPS Are manufactured on the bases of the famous field experiments conducted at Rothamsted by Sir J. B. LAWES, Bart. (referred to in this work), and can be relied on to give results that will pay the farmer. LAWES’ POTATO MANURE | LAWES’ CORN MANURE LAWES’ TURNIP Do, | LAWES’ MANGOLD Do. LAWES’ SUPERPHOSPHATE ' LAWES’ GUANO LAWES’ CHEMICAL MANURE CO. LTD., HEAD OFFICES—59 MARK LANE, LONDON, EC, Cow and Calf Series, PASTURE GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS, AND THEIR SEEDS, WEEDS, AND PARASITES. BY SAMUEL P. PRESTON. LONDON: THOMAS C. JACK, 45 LUDGATE HILL. EDINBURGH: GRANGE PUBLISHING WORKS. 1887. Ballantyne JPress BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO, EDINBURGH AND LONDON PREFACE. ——- LatTerLy there has been much discussion and diver- gence of opinion regarding the comparative merits of the different cultivated grasses. Some authorities praising beyond measure certain varieties and de- preciating others; while other authorities as strenu- ously advocate the opposite. Others again advocate the use of forage plants aud grasses hitherto unknown to our agriculture, and so far has all this gone that a large section of the agricultural public is puzzled what guide to follow. Again it may be noted—if one may draw inferences from the queries addressed to the agricultural press, and from the results of many conversations held by the writer with farmers, and with people who sell seeds in different parts of the United Kingdom—that there is a surprising lack of information on the subject of the parasites that injure or destroy the forage plants and the weeds that rob or stifle them. Under those circumstances it appears to the writer that there is room for a work, the plain and practical object of which is to bring within handy reach the essence of the opinions of the best British, Conti- nental, and American authorities, many of whom are of vi PREFACE. world-wide celebrity and acceptance, and all of whom have devoted the best part of their lives to the study of this and kindred subjects. In the part devoted to the grasses the writer has set himself the task of sifting out those passages which most directly illustrate the points that have practical importance to those connected with agriculture, sum- marising and arranging same by the aid, on the one hand, of an experience derived from a long connection with the Home and Foreign seed trade, and on the other hand, of an enthusiasm developed by long appli- cation to a particular line of study. The aim also has been to avoid elaborate statements of matters with which most intelligent agriculturists are already acquainted ; and to abstain from cumbering the work with botanical descriptions, or with historical accounts of the derivation of species and varieties— matters which, whatever interest they may have for the curious student of botany, are of small importance to the farmers and seedsmen for whose use this work is intended. The contents of the work comprise the following :— 1, The opinions in brief of the best authorities up to date on the comparative merits and values of the principal pasture and forage plants used in the agricul- ture of Europe and North America, with notes on suitable soils and situations. 2. Analyses of the leading natural and artificial grasses, notes on their comparative values as regards produce and nutritive matter, deduced from the cele- brated Woburn experiments. 3. Notes on the weeds and parasitic plants that infest our pastures and forage crops (a large proportion PREFACE. vii of which objectionable vegetation finds its way there through the medium of the seed). 4. Revised standards of purity and germinating faculty of agricultural seeds as recognised or used in the Home and Foreign seed trade. 5. Remarks on the impurities and adulterations of seeds, with extracts from the Act of Parliament known as, but miscalled, “The Adulteration of Seeds Act.” 6. Detailed instructions as to how the quality (purity, genuineness, &c.) of a parcel of seed may be judged; accompanied by illustrations giving enlarged sketches of those seeds that are somewhat difficult of recognition, 7. Notes on the manures that suit, or are unsuitable to, the various pasture and forage plants. THE INFORMATION contained in this little book has been collected from works that are in many cases bulky and rare and expensive, insomuch that but few men could spare the time for, or care to go to the trouble of, collecting them, and plodding through their contents. On those grounds the compiler of this work ventures to hope that his labours, in collecting and arranging, will be appreciated by a large number to whom the infor- mation presented in this handy form will be useful. OF ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION into the subject of pasture and forage plants there has been a surprising dearth in the United Kingdom; which is all the more to be won- dered at when one remembers that in such a humid and uncertain climate as ours there is no tribe of plants so important us the natural and artificial grasses, Since the time of Sinclair little or nothing has been done in the same line in the British Islands. The only viii PREFACE. break in the clouds is that afforded by the investigations of Sir John B. Lawes, but those, while highly valuable, are only directed to one branch of the subject, viz., to the question of the effects and value of manures in different combinations on the growth and character of the grasses, &c. On the Continent of Europe and in North America, on the other hand, there has been a great activity of inquiry into those subjects. Dr. Stebler, of the Swiss Governmental Seed Control Station, in his wonderfully complete work on “The Best Forage Plants,” makes reference to an astounding number of works, published in Germany alone, on the subject of the grasses ; and Dr. Vasey, of the United States Department of Agriculture, quotes a long list of works on the grasses of the United States, some of which are treatises on the grasses of a single State. The reports issued by the United States Department of Agriculture afford evidence of much valuable leading and assistance given to the cause of agriculture (in particular to the subject of the grasses) in the great Republic of the West; and in Denmark the agricultural schools and the Copenhagen seed-testing station (subsidised by the Government) are centres of activity and investigation. The various German states pay special attention to agriculture and forestry—some of their seed-testing stations have been in operation for almost half a century. The Swiss seed-testing station and its superintendent, Dr. Stebler, are of more than European reputation; and Dr. Stebler’s book on “The Best Forage Plants,” in the publication of which he was assisted by his Government, is a monument as well of scientific arrangement and accuracy as of profundity and completeness of information. PREFACE. ix As the great bulk of our seed supply is drawn from the Continents of Europe and North America, and as particular attention has been paid to the seeds of the agricultural grasses in Dr. Stebler’s book, I have given his opinions a special prominence. There are signs that this subject is about to receive more attention than it has hitherto received in those kingdoms. Our situation and our climate point to the fact that the cultivation of grass and other forage plants is one of those things our country is best suited for, and now that the introduction of the silo promises to make us, so far as those plants are concerned, to a consider- able extent independent of the weather, it cannot -be doubted that the careful selection and growth of the pasture grasses and forage plants suitable to locality, soil, rotation of cropping, and other circumstances, will form a very prominent feature in the farming of the future. The following is a list of the authorities whose works have been consulted and quoted from in this present volume :— Dr. Stebler, Superintendent and Director of the Swiss Seed Testing Station (Station Fédérale de Contréle des Se- mences). Dr. Parnell, author of the “Grasses of Scotland,” a standard work. Dr, Vasey, of the United States Agricultural Department. Chas. Johnson, author of the “ Grasses of Great Britain.” Sinclair, author of the celebrated “‘ Hortus Gramineus Wobur- nensis,” and Director of the renowned Woburn experi- ments. Mr. M. J. Sutton, author of “Temporary and Permanent Pas- tures,” and member of well-known firm of Sutton & Sons of Reading. Mr. Hunter, of Chester (to whose kindness the compiler is under PREFACE. obligations for loan of the major portion of the illustrations contained in this work). : Lawson's “ Agrostographia,” which still remains second to none as a standard of careful arrangement and accuracy. Mr, Carruthers, Botanist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Sir John B. Lawes, Bart., whose Rothamsted experiments are known and appreciated in every quarter of the globe where improved agriculture has obtained a footing, and whose name is a household word at the fireside of every intelli- gent farmer in the United Kingdom. Mr, Faunce De Laune, of Sharstead Court, Kent, whose spirited exposure of the erroneous processes by which land has been laid down to grass has had wonderful effects in bringing about desirable improvements in the said processes. Curtis and Stillingfleet, early and honourable pioneers in this field of investigation. Morton’s “‘ Encyclopedia,” a surprising monument of industry, careful research, and intelligent classification. And other authorities too numerous to particularise. CONTENTS. PREFACE . : % . . ‘ . » iii PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE Grasses F A . » xiii PAGE CHAPTER I. Bier Brome Grasses—continued. WEEDS .. aes Bromus Inermis , + 37 The Sale of Teapars Seeds . Ss Schreeder’s Brome Grass . 38 Is Legislation Wanted? . 7 Crested Dogstail 39 The Case ofIreland . . 9 Fiorin or Creeping Bent 41 What Should be Done? , 11 Herd’s Grass, or Redtop of Seeds Adulteration Act 13 America. 5 6 = 45 Fine Bent Grass . ' 46 CHAPTER I. Cocksfoot . - ‘ 46 SHEEP’s FEscUES— PARASITES— J Hard Fescue . * «SE Ergot and Ergotism . . 15 Finesleaved Feacue Clover Dodder . . + 20 wee : = arious-leaved Fescue 56 BrpomaKape or Red or Creeping - rooted Fescue . : 2. oF ORAETES 41, MEabDow FescuEs— TaE GRASSES— Tall Meadow Fescue 59 Meadow Foxtail . Fi » 22 Meadow Fescue . 62 Sweet Vernal. . . 26 Squirrel - Tailed Fesus Tall Oat-Grass . . 29 Grass . . . 66 Golden or Yellow Oat- Grass 32 Spiked Fescue Grass 66 Hassock Grass, or Tufted Yorkshire Fog, or Meadow Hair-Grass ; ‘ 34 Soft Grass ‘ 3 » & Wavy Mountain Hatr-Greas 35 Italian Ryegrass . » + & Brome Grasses— Perennial Ryegrass 72 Meadow Brome Grass . 36 Blue Melick Grass . 80 Bromus Erectus ‘ . 36 Timothy Grass . F 8x xii Mrapow Grassis— CONTENTS. Rough -stalked Meadow Grass , i . Wood Meadow Gras . Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass . - . Water Meadow Crise & Flat - stemmed Meacew Grass . Annual Meadow rs ‘ass Wood-Reed Meadow Grass Reflexed Meadow Grass . Millet . ‘ ‘ . ‘ Reed Canary Grass, . Green Bristle Grass. F CHAPTER IV. CLOVERS— Red Clover . 5 i Trifolium Medium. Alsike Clover White or Dutch Glover Common Yellow Clover or Trefoil . . PAGE 85 89 CHAPTER V. OTHER FoRAGE PLANTS— Lucern x * Goat’s Rue . ‘ Prickly Comfrey . Serradella . . ‘ Anthyllis Vulneraria . Gorse, Whin or Furze Mustard. ‘ Crimson Clover . Common Vetch or Tare Common Rye Common Sanfoin Guinea Grass Sugar Corn or Sugar Grass - . Indian Corn or Hains . APPENDIX. To JUDGE SEEDS Chemical Analyses of the Grasses Some Points in ‘Hayieakine Silos and Ensilage PAGE 113 116 118 120 » [21 . [22 i239 124 . 125 . 127 . 128 . 3 132 x 132, 134 » 135 139 . 142 PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE GRASSES. —+— It has been remarked of the grasses that they are the true plebeians of the vegetable kingdom, consti- tuting, as they do, the broad understratum of its vast society of flowering plants. They form a group of vast extent and of universal distribution, occupying . every range of temperature, from the most extreme of polar lands to those under the equator, and from the low ocean shores of the tropics to the alpine limits of perpetual frost. The grasses have found a name in every tongue and time, from the earliest periods of human record or tradition ; and the application of the seeds of many of them to the support of mankind is of such remote origin as to be not only beyond the earliest annals of the human race, but even to figure as a myth in the traditions which preceded them, and to occasion the practice of agriculture amongst all nations of anti- quity to be deduced from the teachings of a god. We can understand how the attention of people would be attracted to certain of the larger fruits as articles of xiv PRELIMINARY REMARKS. food; but it seems extraordinary that the various races of mankind should have adopted grass-seeds as their principal support, and pursued the cultivation of same till it has become a science involving the subsist- ence of millions, and engrossing the paramount con- sideration of kings and governments. Equally singular, in connection with some of the cereal grasses, is the fact that neither change of climate nor treatment under cultivation during thousands of years has brought any important alteration in general character, so that the cereal grasses grown under the rainless and burning skies of Egypt and those of the same species grown in Northern Europe differ no more than varieties which may be reared on the same field, Every grass has its stem cylindrical and jointed at intervals throughout,—the erect or ascending portion (the culm or straw) being almost universally hollow between the joints; and this applies irrespective of stature—equally in the little Poa annua, which finds a living, and even thrives, in the chinks between the paving-stones of an unfrequented street, and in, for instance, the Panicum arborescens, which contends for elevation with the loftiest trees of the forests of Hin- dustan, through the branches of which its slender stems, scarcely thicker than a goose-quill, penetrate till they reach the upper air. We may make a rough division of the grasses in the following way :— First. Those which are cultivated for the purpose of using their seeds in the manufacture of food for man- PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XV kind. This would include the cereal grasses (wheat, barley, rye, oat, maize, éc.), and of those two pro- minent facts are worthy of notice: rst, They are an- nuals; and 2d, They are never found in a wild state, unless where met with as solitary and temporary pro- ductions from seeds of chance distribution. Also it would include rice, millet, and other grasses which have acquired local or occasional value in cultivation. Such, for instance, are some species of Panicum, also Setaria, Zizania aquatica, Stipa pennata, Poa fluitans, &e. Second. Those grasses that are cultivated for their foliage, and used for pasture or forage purposes. It is with this very important section we deal in detail in the following pages. Third. Grasses such as those of the Saccharum or sugar-cane family, from the expressed juice of which sugar is manufactured. Fourth. Those grasses considered by the agricultu- rist as weeds, but which, while of little or no value as producers of food for man or beast, are yet extremely useful in the economy of nature as colonisers and pioneers to vegetation of a higher grade. The grasses which come under this section fulfil most useful func- tions,—some as land-formers, slowly changing marsh or morass into land that will bear ameliorative pro- cesses, or contributing largely towards fixing and ren- dering solid the mud-flats that accumulate about the mouths of rivers on low coasts. Others act as land- protectors — sand-binders — spreading a dense and rapidly-formed network over the surface of the loose xvi PRELIMINARY REMARKS. material, as well as fixing it below by an interlaced root-system. We may be sure that in nature there is a place and a use for everything, if we only knew, and would con- fine it to, its right place and purpose; and in no tribe of plants is this better exemplified than in the Grasses. PASTURE GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS, AND THEIR SEEDS, WEEDS, AND PARASITES. CHAPTER I. WEEDS. RuSKIN defines a weed to be a plant out of place, and furthermore a plant that has an invincible tendency to get out of its place. In Morton’s Encyclopedia we find a weed defined as any plant, different from the crop, found growing with the crop to its hindrance. This will hold as a general definition, but still there are certain wild plants which are more specifically known as weeds. Weeds may be roughly classified as follows :— 1. Flat or Prostrate Weeds.—Such as Ribgrass and some of the Thistle tribe. In addition to their other objectionable characteristics, these weeds are obnoxi- ous, inasmuch as they cover the ground and shade it, taking up considerable space. 2. Creeping Weeds.—Such as Crowfoot (Butter- cup) and certain of the inferior grasses. These do not attract much attention at first; but as each plant— A 2 WEEDS. by sending out side-shoots, which root and form distinct plants—is able to create a large colony of weed tufts, they would, if allowed, soon take entire possession of the field. 3. Running Weeds—Such as Coltsfoot, Stinging Nettle, Brake Fern, Couch-grass, &c. These not only increase by seeds, but almost each joint or division of the creeping root (rhizome) is capable of producing a separate plant. They are amongst the most troublesome in the whole list, and they are very exhaustive to the soil. Again, the ordinary processes of agriculture only result in propagating them by sub- division—the patches get broken up only to be spread over a large area. Removing the underground stems is the only effectual way of dealing with this class of weed,—a special attack with a three-prong fork, for instance, would be found detrimental to their existence. 4. Deep Rooted Weeds.—Such as the Dock, Burdock, Marsh Mallow, Ragwort, and Wild Carrot. They are for the most part biennial, and seed the second year. Some of them can be easily pulled up by hand when the ground is soft after rain, or they can be mastered by hoeing if cut below the crown. The foregoing operations should be performed before the seeds of the weeds are perfected, otherwise the ground may be stocked with fresh seed, and the weeding process have to be repeated all over again on a future occasion. After having pulled or cut the weeds they should be burned, as their fleshy taproots possess great vitality— and they have the capacity of perfecting their seed even after being pulled up. Most of the common species of weeds will be found to complete their growth and ripen their seeds WEEDS. 3 in a single year. The best known specimens of this class (the annual weeds) are the Common Groundsel, Chickweed, Wild Mustard (Charlock), Cleavers, &c. Nothing is more surprising than the length of time the seeds of some of the above will remain dormant in the soil, until, in the course of events, they are turned up and exposed to the influence of light and air, when they staré into growth ‘and produce a luxuriant vezetation, to the astonishment of the farmer. The latter in his perplexity to understand how such a crop of weeds came there, usually takes a short cut out of the difficulty by trying to connect the seedsman with it in some way or other. Almost every seeds- man can furnish from his experience instances of this nature; some of the instances being of an extraordinary and almost unaccountable character. Professor Buckman, in his Prize Essay “On the Extirpation of Weeds,” mentions how Charlock will often make its appearance in great quantities after the breaking up of pasture or old sanfoin lea; how quantities of wild plants will spring up quickly and abundantly in woods after trees and underwood have been removed; and how newly-formed earthworks frequently caused the sudden growth of wild plants which had never before been observed in the district. Sir John Sinclair has given us some observations to the effect that though it is impracticable to extirpate annual weeds altogether, yet the number of them may be so much lessened as to prevent them from materi- ally injuring corn crops. Two measures, he says, are necessary for that purpose—first, to bring the seeds within the limit of vegetation; and, secondly, to de- stroy every weed that vegetates—thus regularly lessen- 4 WEEDS. ing the original stock. By the operations of ploughing, harrowing, and rolling—first to cause the weed-seeds to start into growth, and afterwards to kill the young weeds—many farms which formerly were a nest of seed-weeds have been brought into such order that the weeds are kept under subjection, and are easily managed. Certain weeds in meadows betray a want of drain- age—such, for instance, are the Sedge grasses, Hassock- grass or Bull-Snouts (Aira cespitosa), Water Dock, Wild Forget-me-not, &c. Others show poverty in the soil, such as Ox-eyed Daisy, Sorrel, Ribgrass, Cowslip and Common Daisy when in quantity. Plants coming under the head of weeds, whether growing in poor or rich soil, not alone take up space we should rather have occupied by the crop, but they appropriate the most valuable part of its food: they impede the due growth of the crop by cramping and confining it; they clog the ground mechanically ; they keep air and light from the young seed; they delay the processes of harvesting and stacking, and make the work more expensive. It will in some measure illustrate the loss caused by weeds to quote the results of an experiment which demonstrated that the difference in produce of an acre of wheat that had been weeded over that of an acre of wheat that had not been weeded was 44 bushels; and that the same process applied to oats showed a gain of 10 bushels on the weeded acre, and applied to barley showed a gain of 15 bushels. Bearing in mind the immense loss caused to the country at large by the prevalence of weeds, it is not WEEDS. 8 going too far to say that their suppression is a matter of national importance. Relentless and continuous war should be waged against weeds,—and there should be official direction and supervision to insure that systematic efforts shall and must be made towards the destruction of those impoverishing pests of the plant world. There can be no greater nuisance, and none calling more loudly for the interference of the authori- ties, than a field or dyke or common covered with weeds which are allowed to seed and spread themselves all round; and those who attempt to estimate the national loss caused by weeds will yearn for a revival of that statute of King Alexander IT. of Scotland, which denounced that man to be a traitor “who poisons the king’s lands with weeds, and introduces into them a host of enemies.” Professor Buckman remarks that one of the most fertile sources of the continuation of weeds is that of constantly allowing them to seed on the land. In addition to the weed-seeds produced on the land, there are other agencies at work to increase the weed colony. The seeds of weeds are brought on land, for instance, by (1) the wind, (2) by floods in the case of low-lying lands, (3) in farmyard dung that has not been sufliciently decomposed, (4) in the excrement of fowl, and (5) through the medium of impure seeds. The Sale of Impure Seeds. However difficult it might be to prevent the intro- duction of weeds by the first four of the processes alluded to above, there should be no important diffi- culty in preventing the sale of impure seeds. 6 WEEDS. If we include bad grasses as weeds, which we are certainly bound to do, those of us whose connection with the seed trade supply a means of knowing can easily understand how largely the weed family may be, and is, recruited from this source. Yorkshire fog, Hassock-erass, useless Brome grasses, Couch or Scutch, &c. &c., find their way in immense quantities into land (where they should not be) through the medium of dirty or badly-cleaned seeds. It is not alone the bad grasses that are thus introduced, but many other weeds more or less injurious, as may be seen from a study of the details of this work. In the proper place the reader can note how, for instanee, we may—through the medium of badly-cleaned Ryegrasses—get Oxeyed Daisy, Buttercup, Trefoil, Large Dock, Sorrel Dock, Ribgrass, Dragon-grass, &c. &c. Through impure samples of the clovers we get Sorrel Dock and Rib- grass in large quantities, Corn Chamomile, Haresfoot Trefoil, and sometimes that worst pest of all, the Clover Dodder. Along with the natural grasses we may get Large Dock, Sorrel Dock, Brome grasses, Hassock-grass, Self-heal, and sometimes Ergot. So if we begin with perfectly clean land, and if there were no other source from which weeds could be introduced, we could soon accumulate a good stock by the use of unclean seed alone. Writing on this subject, Mr. Carruthers, botanist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, says: “It would be difficult to calculate the injury done to a meadow by the introduction of Yorkshire fog, and of the two Airas (Hassock-grass, &c.), which form so large a portion of some of the mixtures” (that had been sent in to him for examination). In mixtures for WEEDS. 7 laying down land examined by him, he found samples showing as much as 25, 26, and as high as 41 per cent. of Yorkshire fog, which—in some cases, at any rate—must have been added as a substitute for Meadow Foxtail. In other mixtures Mr. Carruthers found 27 per cent. of Aira flexuosa added as a substitute for Yellow Oat-grass. He has had samples of a seed sold as Meadow Fescue that contained scarcely a single grain of the seed of that grass; while samples of it containing 20 and Io per cent. of Ryegrass were quite commonly met with. He has seen samples of Dogs- tail containing up to 50 per cent. of Blue Melick grass (a grass found on all moors in Great Britain and Ireland, but possessing no agricultural value). This is not the place to multiply instances of natural impurities or of substitutions, which will be found detailed under the proper head in the body of the work, but one observation made by Mr. Carruthers may be quoted, viz.: “I have no reason for supposing it (substitution or adulteration) is done by any one connected with the trade in Britain, and I have little doubt that the worthless seeds are introduced before the goods reach England. It is greatly to be desired, then, that the buyers employed by the trade should be able to detect the presence of adulteration in samples offered to them.” Is Legislation Wanted ? Many people think that there should be a law putting a penalty on the sale of seeds that contain a conspicuous quantity of the seeds of weeds or inferior plants. It certainly does seem strange that a grocer may be fined for selling as coffee a harmless compound 8 WEEDS. of coffee and chicory—while the same grocer may with impunity sell, as Ryegrass seed, a most hurtful compound, in which it is quite possible there may be as much as (let us say) 50 per cent. of the seeds of bad grasses and other weeds. Those who buy the adulterated coffee suffer only to a most insignificant extent in comparison with those who buy and sow the adulterated or impure seed. In the latter case, not alone is the purchase money wasted, but the crop is deteriorated, the land poisoned, and much expense incurred in getting rid of the weeds thus introduced. Many who have heard of the “Seeds Adulteration Act,” but who have not read it, may think that it deals fully with the adulteration of seeds, as its name implies ; but the fact is that it is a “Seed Adultera- tion Act” in name only, and would be more properly entitled “The Dyeing and Killing of Seeds Act,” as it deals only with the killing and colouring of seeds—a practice never very general, and, in any case, one not a tenth part so damaging to the farmer, or so hurtful to the commonwealth, as the practice of selling weed-seeds, be they present as natural impurities or introduced as adulterants. (A copy of the Seeds Adulteration Act will be found on page 13.) In view of the evil consequences resulting from the sale of impure seeds, there are many who think that, in addition to imposing penalties on the sale of such by Act of Parliament, the sale of seeds— as of drugs—should only be entrusted to the hands of those holding a certificate of qualification. That certain steps, on some such lines as those, will be taken sooner or later, there can be no doubt; but it is very necessary to remark here, that measures of WEEDS. 9 such a character would be incomplete and barren of good result unless accompanied by a _ regulation placing a liability to prosecution on such landowners or farmers as allow weeds to grow and seed on their land. It is obvious that there is not much use in my going to the trouble of cleaning my land, or taking pains to procure seeds of high purity, if there is a weed nursery on a neighbouring farm, or on some contiguous railway embankment or piece of common. The Case of Ireland. Those remarks apply with much force to the sister kingdom of Ireland; of which it has been said with perfect truth that, as far as weeds are concerned, she is the richest country in the world. Dr. Macauley, in his “Tour of Observation in Ireland in 1872,” says: “The amount of weeds is a national disgrace. It is not uncommon to see a ton of weeds in a dozen tons of hay. Many a field has more weeds than a whole parish in England. Fields and roadsides are alike neglected, and weeds help to keep Ireland green but poor. I never saw such a country for weeds. I am sure it is no exaggeration to say that the direct loss to Ireland from weeds is above a million and a half sterling per annum, and I have heard the loss estimated at nearly double that amount.” Those remarks, written fourteen years ago, are equally true to-day. From observations made during a recent and extensive tour in Ireland, the writer can indorse every word of the above; indeed, it is a question whether matters are not now in a worse condition—as fourteen years of unchecked re- Io WEEDS. production would naturally increase and extend the evil. The fertility of the soil, combined with the humidity of the climate, produces Thistles, N: ettles, Ragworts, &, as large as bushes, and as profusely as if they had been sown for a crop. Whatever little is done, and it is only a little, to remove weeds from the fields, there is no attempt made, apparently, to remove them from the waste corners, the roadsides, the wide fences (known as “double ditches”), the railway embankments, and such like; and in the latter end of the autumn the gigantic Nettles, luxuriant Ragworts, and great flaunting Thistles send- ing their down forth into the breeze, are conspicuous objects of the landscape. Registrar-General Donnelly, in his Irish Agricultural Abstract of 1874, stated his opinion that “until legislation affords some remedy to those who keep their land free from weeds against such parties as allow weeds to grow and seed, the practice of clean agriculture in Ireland cannot be hoped for.” Most people have noticed the beautiful parachute- like apparatus attached to the seeds of the Thistle, Dandelion, and other weeds, by which they are capable of being wafted miles away from where the parent plant grew. Again, the seeds of Yorkshire fog and those of the Aira family (Hassock-grass or Bull-Snouts) are so light that they can be blown by the wind to a considerable distance. Bearing those things in mind, one can realise to some extent what damage can be. done by even one foul field in a district, or by neglected waste spots, railway or canal embankments, on which weeds are allowed to grow. WEEDS. II The enormous increase which may result from allowing weeds to seed may be conceived from a study of the following list, which shows the number of seeds each of the weeds named is capable of producing in a single season :— Number of Number of Name of Weed. Seeds on a Name of Weed. Seeds on a Single Plant. Single Plant. Groundsel a 6,500 || Shepherd’s Purse. 4,500 Corn Cockle . 5 2,590 || Cow Parsnip . 5,000 Red Poppy. -| 50,000 || Stinking Chamomile 40,650 Charlock . 4 6 4,000 || Oxeye Daisy . -| 13,500 Corn Sow-thistle . 19,000 |} Burdock . P «| 24,520 Musk Thistle . 3,750 || Common Dock . + | 13,000 Blackhead “ . 3,000 || Dandelion ‘ i 2,040 From the above may be gathered the significant fact, that—after allowing a wide margin for the casualties to which seeds are constantly liable—yet plenty would be left, even where seeding is allowed but for a single year, to give trouble for many years after. What Should be Done. It is apparent to all who have studied the matter, that if farming in Great Britain and Ireland is to con- tinue to afford a living to those connected with land, it can only be done by allowing none of the resources of the soil to go to waste, or to be diverted from the use and benefit of mankind. We must consider weeds as the persistent and implacable enemy of the farmer, and, through him, of all mankind. If we are to flourish they must go to the wall, and vice versd. Whatever way the problem of weed extirpation is 12 WEEDS. solved—it must be faced; and, impelled by a sense of responsibility, but with great diffidence, the writer ventures to put forward a few suggestions, which, if put in practice, would, he considers, go a long way in coping with this evil. Ist. Steps must be taken to prevent by law the sale of impure seeds; and to effect— 2d. The establishment of governmental seed-testing institutions in each of the three kingdoms. 3d. Grand juries should be obliged to compel those who contract for the care and repair of roads to remove and destroy all weeds found on, or growing on, the roadsides. 4th. The police or other local authority should be empowered to prosecute owners of fields or railway embankments, and overseers of commons, on which weeds were allowed to seed to the detriment and injury of the neighbourhood. [It will not do to throw the onus on the aggrieved neighbour (as the law does in some countries) of pro- secuting the offending party. People will suffer a great deal of this kind of loss and annoyance sooner than go to law with their neighbours and arouse bad feeling. | In concluding this chapter the writer desires to state his belief that this subject would long ago have been dealt with on some such lines as suggested above if we had had, what most other civilised governments have, viz.,a Minister and Department of Agriculture, under the auspices of which might be diverted to the rescue and development of agriculture some portion of that public attention which the extent and importance of such an industry merits. ADULTERATION ACT. 13 32 & 33 Vict.| SEEDS ADULTERATION. CuHap. 112. An Act to Prevent the Adulteration of Seeds. [11th August 1869.] Whereas the practice of adulterating seeds, in fraud of Her Majesty’s subjects, and to the great detriment of agri- culture, requires to be repressed by more effectual laws than those which are now in force for that purpose : Be it therefore enacted by the Queen’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows :— 1. This Act may be cited as “ The Adulteration of Seeds Act, 1869.” 2. In this Act— The term “to kill seeds” means to destroy by artificial means the vitality or germinating power of such seeds : The term “to dye seeds” means to give to seeds by any process of colouring, dyeing, sulphur-smoking, or other artificial means, the appearance of seeds of another kind. 3. Every person who, with intent to defraud or to enable another person to defraud, does any of the following things ; that is to say, (1.) Kills or causes to be killed any seeds; or, (2.) Dyes or causes to be dyed any seeds ; or, (3-) Sells or causes to be sold any killed or dyed seeds, shall be punished as follows; that is to say, 14 ADULTERATION ACT. (1.) For the first offence he shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds ; (2.) For the second and any subsequent offence he shall be liable to pay a penalty not exceeding fifty pounds: Moreover, in every case of a second or subsequent offence against this Act, it shall be lawful for the Court, besides inflicting upon the person guilty of such offence the punish- ment directed by this Act, to order the offender's name, occupation, place of abode, and place of business, and particulars of his punishment under this Act, to be published, at the expense of such offenders, in such newspaper or news- papers, or in such other manner as the Court may think fit to prescribe. (The other sections of the Act deal with summary pro- ceedings for offences. Recovery of penalties. Intent to defraud particular person need not be alleged. Appeal from summary conviction. Limiting time for proceedings. Court may order prosecutor to pay costs of unreasonable prosecution, and so on.) In 1878 the above Act was amended by a short Act of two sections—the second section of which is the only important one, and alters section two of the first Act as follows :— Section 2 of the Adulteration of Seeds Act 1869 shall be read as if instead of the words, ‘‘ The term ‘ to dye seeds’ means to give to seeds by any process of colouring, dyeing, sulphur-smoking, or other artificial means the appearance of seeds of another kind,” there were therein inserted the words, ““The term ‘to dye seeds’ means to apply to seeds any process of colouring, dyeing, or sulphur-smoking.” CHAPTER IL | PARASITES. Ergot and Ergotism. Ercot has been described as a monstrous condition of the grain, in which the enlarged and diseased ovary protrudes from the floret in a curved form resembling a cock’s spur (hence the name “ergot”—from the French—meaning a spur). This spur is of a blackish brown shade outside, while internally it is whitish, and contains much oil. In this condition it is taken by animals in grass and hay; causing, when taken in sufficient quantities, abortion in the case of in-calf cows that have arrived at a certain stage of pregnancy, and disease of a more or less acute character in other animals. Ergot spurs ripen with the grasses in the autumn ; and, falling to the ground, remain there during winter and spring—unchanged and unaffected by frost or rain. About the beginning of May the ergot com- mences to develop minute fungi, which ripen in June, and discharge spores in every direction. Such of the spores as alight on the grasses when in flower attach themselves to the seed-case, cast the embryo seed from its position, and commence ati once to grow as 16 PARASITES. parasites. When the ergot reaches its full growth in August, it has a second stage of reproductiveness, A, a spike of Ryegra:s (Lolium perenne) showing Ergot spurs.* B, a head of jCocksfoot grass (Dactylis glomerata) thickly studded with Ergot spurs. giving off spores from its tip or snout in greater numbers than those which were developed from the PARASITES—ERGOT. 17 fungi. Misty, fogey weather and light rains assist the propagation of the spores, but heavy rains are apt to wash them away. Dry, hilly pastures—without trees or hedges to prevent free currents of air—are not favourable to the growth of this parasite. In medicine, ergot is employed in modern practice to stimulate the motor nerve-centres which are connected with the uterus, in order to cause active contraction when that organ has lost its muscular force. In large doses ergot is an acrid poison—causing dulness, vertigo, dilated pupils, intoxication, muscular tremblings, and tetanic spasm, especially of the hind extremities, which after- wards become paralysed. Dry gangrene is a final result of the action of the poison; and by degrees the extremities, and even portions of the trunk, are rotted and fall off. “The action of the ergot,” says Mr. Walker, in his book on “ The Cow and Calf,” “taken in such quantities as it is found in our grasses, acts as an excitant upon the womb of the pregnant cow, whereby the parts contract, and give the animal a desire to abort the calf. Its malignant influences are little dreamt of by the majority of graziers. Thousands of cows annually abort during wet seasons from eating the ergot grains amongst the grass and fodder. It is no imaginary evil, but has been proved by direct experiments insti- tuted by men of undoubted veracity. It has been given to the mare, the cow, the ewe, and the cat, and has never fdiled to cause untimely birth when given in proper quantities, and when the animal had arrived at a certain stage in pregnancy.” In many cases it has been noticed that when a cow aborts in a herd many others follow suit. This is B 18 PARASITES—ERGOT. commonly ascribed to some infection or sympathy, but it is quite clear that many cases assigned to sympathy are really caused by the poisonous ergot. A case is mentioned in the Field where ergotism appeared amongst eighteen cows in a dairy. The animals’ legs began to swell as high as the hock joint, and in about a week the hoofs began to slough off. Some cases assumed a more severe form—the appetite failed, scab formed from the top of the hoof to above the fetlocks, and the parts below the line of the scab rotted off. This subject is worthy of the most serious attention, for losses, one year with another, from abortion and other animal ailments incurred by ergot in Britain may be estimated at as much as is caused by foot and mouth disease. Treatment of ergotism, as a matter of course, includes the removal of the animals from the place where ergot is found; or, in the case of ergotised fodder having been supplied, a change of food at once. Medical treatment, including the use of antiseptics and restora- tives, will prove in some instances beneficial; but it is obvious that in this disease prevention is far more important than cure, and what is wanted is a deter- mined effort to stamp out the pest. Meadow grasses should be cut before the period when the ergot spurs develop on the flower-head. Special attention should be paid to the corners of fields, to places under the shade of trees, and to the banks of streams and ditches. It is in such situations, where coarse grasses grow, that ergot is most likely to be found, and care should be taken to cut down such grasses in good time to prevent the pest being propagated. Farmers might offer a small reward per dozen for PARASITES—ERGOT. 19 flower-heads of grasses showing ergot spurs—thus stimulating the boys and unemployed persons of the locality to search for same. A few shillings spent in that way might save many pounds; and if a sufficient quantity of the spurs could be collected, there might be a market for them inthe drug trade. Tall Meadow Fescue grass seems to be particularly liable to attack of ergot, and on that account should not be allowed to go to seed. As in the majority of cases it would not be worth while collecting the ergots, the next best course to pursue is to cut and collect the ergotted grasses and burn them; taking care that they are shaken and tossed about as little as possible, as the grains of ergot have only a slight hold on the seed stalk, there- fore are easily detached, and if allowed to drop off and remain on land each grain will serve as a centre for the propagation of the pest at a future time. A writer in a recent number of the Agricultural Gazette reports that he has found the disease this year on almost every grass on his farm. Also that his hay and silage was ergotted last year, and that of a herd of forty-five cows, half of them had dead calves. This writer suggests that experiments should be made with ergot on in-calf cows, with the view of getting answers to the following questions, viz, How much ergot is required to produce abortion? Is the effect of ergot greater or less as the time of pregnancy advances? Does ergot affect a cow when given on a full stomach? Does it act immediately on the cow, or must she consume it for a length of time to make her abort? This is a subject on which further in- vestigation is very urgently required. i 20 PARASITES—DODDER. Clover Dodder. (Cuscuta trifolit.) This is a genus of leafless annual plants allied to the bind-weeds, and like them strangling the plants they lay hold of. A Dodder plant maintains its existence by twining round other plants, into whose stems it inserts its suckers and destroys the plants by appropriating to itself the sap. The seed of the Dodder on being A Clover Plant attacked by Dodder. sown with the crop comes up at first an independent plant; but, when it seizes a plant and sends its suckers into the stem thereof, it lets go its hold of the ground and lives thenceforth as a parasite. In appearance it resembles a number of fleshy threads twisted round a branch. One writer describes it as appearing like a large mass of yellow horse-hair PARASITES—-BROOM-RAPE. 21 shooting up through the clover and twining itself round every stalk of it. It commences in small patches all over the field, and gradually extends itselfi— destroying in its progress all vegetation, and leaving the whole area as black as if a fire had existed on the spot. The seed of Clover Dodder is of a pale grey colour, and looks so like frag- ments of greyish clay that it takes a keen sight and a close Bude of ieee amis 1 inspection to detect it amongst — ©nlarsed and natural size). % the seed. As it is not much more than half the size of any clover seed it is easy to get rid of it by sifting. When Dodder appears the only remedy is to dig up the crop on, and for a considerable distance around, the spots where the Dodder appeared, and then to burn all the plants along with the pared soil. If the Dodder is allowed to mature and shed its seeds those may lie dormant in the soil for many years. Lesser and Greater Broom-Rape. (Orobanche minor and O. elatior.) Those also attack clover, attaching themselves to the roots of the seedling clover, and drawing nourishment therefrom. The tall Broom-Rape sometimes has a stem as much as an inch and a half thick and a foot and a half high, and looks as much out of place growing on the clover stump as does the young cuckoo in the hedge- sparrow’s nest. The qualities of this parasitic plant are powerfully astringent. When it has once established itself it can only be removed by hand-picking. ( 22 } CHAPTER III. THE GRASSES. Meadow Foxtail. (Alopecurus pratensis.) Seed of ordinary quality weighs 5 lbs. to 9 Ibs. Best quality, 12 lbs. per bushel. Standard of germinating power, of H.M.’s Office of Seed of the Meadow Foxtail. Works, 60 per cent. Dr. PaRNELL says that this is one of the most valuable grasses to the farmer. One of the earliest and best for permanent pastures, and most grateful of all grasses to every kind of cattle. Its produce is nearly three-fourths greater on a clayey loam than on a sandy soil, and the quantity of nutritive matter is also greater in the proportion of three to two. Martyn says:—It possesses the three great qualities of quality, quantity, and earliness in a degree superior to any other. CHARLES JOHNSON reports that its strong fibrous roots take a firm hold of the soil, but THE GRASSES—MEADOW FOXTAIL. 23 the plants have little or no tendency to extend them- selves laterally. It has been affirmed to yield more bulk and weight of hay than any other grass hitherto subjected to experiment. The first crop may be cut about middle of May, and the lattermath is unusually productive. SINCLAIR'S opinion was that it should never form a less proportion than one-eighth of any mixture pre- pared for permanent pasture. Dr. J. A. V@LCKER (who made a series of analyses of the grasses for Mr. Sutton’s recent work) says that in Meadow Foxtail, Perennial Ryegrass, and Timothy, the amounts of nitrogen and true albuminoids are con- siderably higher than in the other grasses. Meadow Foxtail, indeed, shows a marked superiority in almost every respect; for, besides being so rich in nitrogen, it has also the highest amount of digestible matters. J. 8. GouLp (an American authority) says that pastures well covered with this grass will afford a full bite at least one week earlier than those which do not have it. No grass bears a hot sun better, and it is not injured by frequent mowings—on which account, as well as for its early verdure, it is valuable for lawns. Dr. STEBLER counts this and Sweet Vernal as the earliest of the good grasses of our meadows. It puts forth its long succulent leaves already in commence- ment of April, and its flower-spikes begin to appear about middle of same month. It reproduces itself by means of short stolons from the stump, and conse- quently does not grow in thick tufts. It does not acquire its full development till the third year. Mr. Hunter says that it thrives best on a rich, 24 THE GRASSES—MEADOW FOXTAIL. moderately stiff, moist soil, and does well under irriga- tion, but it is of little value on poor dry soils. Mr. Surron thinks it is only suitable for alternate husbandry when the ley is to remain at least three or four years. There is ‘scarcely a forage plant known which endures cold so well as this, and spring frosts do it little harm. Also it is one of the few grasses that thrive well under trees. By the third week of May it is in full flower, and should be cut if there is sufficient of it in the meadow to warrant early mowing. This necessity for early cutting should influence the proportion of Foxtail in a permanent prescription. The aftermath frequently exceeds the early growth in bulk. Manuring—Experiments at Rothamsted proved that both nitrate of soda and ammonia salts did equally well with the Foxtail plant. The Seed.—True seed of Foxtail, as Mr. Sutton says, is always expensive, and so light and delicate as to require exceedingly well prepared land to insure vege- tation. It has been pointed out by Dr. Stebler that in the ordinary seed of commerce the germinating power stands at a low figure, which is due to the fact that the seed is often gathered while unripe. They used to consider it fair seed that grew 30 per cent., and called it excellent when it grew over 40 per cent. From seventy-nine trials he found an average of only 19 per cent, of germinating faculty. Since the above was written, however, the quality of this seed has been improving year by year. The collectors, more parti- cularly in the North of Europe, are becoming more awake to the necessity of allowing it to ripen properly. The sorting and cleaning of the seed is also receiving THE GRASSES—MEADOW FOXTAIL. 25 much more attention, so that at the present time seed may be obtained with a guaranteed germinating power of as high as 70 per cent. This notable improvement has been brought about in a great measure by the investigations and reports of the Botanist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Also some credit for this change for the better is due to Mr. Faunce De Laune in calling public attention to the low germinating power of the Foxtail seed at that time usually supplied. Accord- 4 Seed of #Yorkshire Fog. ing to Mr. De Laune one could formerly meet with samples of Foxtail seed, of which not a single grain would germinate, and in other cases the germinating power would run to such figures as 5 per cent, 8 per cent. and go On. It would not be a difficult thing to collect the seed of the Meadow Foxtail. The best plan is to cut the flower-spikes with a portion of the stem attached, bind them in little bundles, and let the seed come to perfect maturity. By this plan seed of a much higher ger- minating faculty will be obtained than by the plan of stripping the seed from the standing stem. A few years ago it was not Seed of the Black Grass. --an uncommon thing to meet with a good many samples of Foxtail containing a considerable proportion of York- 26 THE GRASSES—SWEET VERNAL. shire Fog, and, it may be presumed, samples of that class are not yet quite extinct. Such impurities, how- ever, can be easily recognised, as the seed of the York- shire Fog is usually whiter in colour, and not so hairy as that of the Foxtail. Furthermore, the kernel of the latter is of a yellow hue, while the kernel of the Yorkshire Fog is of a silvery white colour. We have it on the authority of Mr. Hunter that the seeds of Alopecurus agrestis (Black grass) were also much used to adulterate Meadow Foxtail; and the same authority adds that “this Black grass is one of the most execrable of weeds, and not a seed of it should be permitted to enter into the composition of any perma- nent pasture, yet tons of this seed are annually used to adulterate the true Alopecurus pratensis.” Sweet Vernal. (Anthozanthum odoratum.) The best seed weighs from 1o to 12 lbs. per bushel. Standard of germination, of H.M.’s Office of Works, 6o per cent. W. CARRUTHERS, F.R.S., thinks that this is a Perennial grass deserving of a place, though not an important one, in permanent pastures. It is one of the earliest grasses, showing flowering heads even at the end of April. The foliage is at the best but scanty, and it is never a favourite food with stock. Mr. M. J. SUTTON says it is one of the earliest crasses, coming into full flower at the beginning of May, and therefore no surprise will be felt that it yields only a small hay crop. It is a true Perennial, and continues THE GRASSES—SWEET VERNAL, 27. growing until late in autumn, this fact clearly indi- cating that it is even better for grazing than for cutting. It grows luxuriantly on deep, rich, moist soils; and in wet peaty land it becomes so large and reed-like as to deceive any but the most experienced botanist. Strange to say, it is equally at home on thin moors and exposed sandy dunes, and will live in soil which will not feed any other grass. Dr. STEBLER’S opinion is that, as it starts to grow so early in spring, it has the advantage of the moisture remaining in the soil from the winter, and thus is enabled to thrive even on the driest soils. After being sown it starts growing more quickly than any of the other grasses, and gives, even in the first year, a fair return. In warm situations it comes so rapidly forward that it has ripened. and shed a portion of its seeds before the hay-cutting season, by which means the quantity of it in the land is increased (perhaps out of proportion to its value—Ed:). At the time of hay- making the flowering stems and heads are almost as hard as straw, and not much more nutritious. It is on account of its aromatic aroma that the culture of it has been so strongly recommended, but it is not by any means certain that the odours which are pleasant to mankind are equally agreeable or in any way of advantage to the beasts of the field. The latter will judge their food by the tongue and palate; and as Sweet Vernal grass, notwithstanding its name and smell, has a bitter taste, it is probable, and more than probable, that, instead of being liked by cattle, it is avoided by them, and only eaten when they are almost famished. Mr. Hunter says its yield is somewhat scanty, and its early produce not nutritive. The latter-growth is 28 THE GRASSES—SWEET VERNAL. more nutritious; and, as the peculiar aroma of this grass gives a relish to and improves the flavour of other grasses, the addition of a moderate quantity of seed to mixtures for permanent pasture is recommended. Dr. PARNELL found that it constituted a part of the herbage of pastures on almost every kind of soil, though it only attains to perfection in those that are deep and moist. It is said that the flavour of mutton is greatly improved when sheep are fed on pastures where this grass abounds. The Seed as imported contains a good deal of sorrel and other weed seeds that are collected with it. Itis also very necessary to bear in mind that the seeds of a worthless annual variety (Anthowanthum Puelli) are in a great many cases substituted for the true Sweet Vernal. It requires a very close examination to dis- tinguish the seeds of the one from the other. In the true kind the apex of the palea is evenly rounded, and the edge uniformly and finely serrate. The hairs are scattered irrecularly over the surface. In the false kind the apex of the palea is roughly serrated, and the hairs are arranged along the midrib and veins and along the edges. Those distinguishing characteristics are not, however, always to be depended on, and would not by themselves be a safe guide. The smell of the seed furnishes some help towards arriving at a correct opinion, but the most reliable test is an examination of the kernel. Rub some of the seed between the palms and blow away the chaff. The kernels of the false kind will be found pale coloured and short, while those of the true kind are dark brown (or almost black) and are more elongated than those of the Pueldi. The seed of the true Sweet Vernal (A. odoratum) is, and THE GRASSES—TALL OAT-GRASS. “29 must always be, costly. It is gathered by hand from plants growing wild in the: woods and clearings of Central Germany, and only a very small quantity is sent to this country. Tall Oat-Grass. (Avena elatior, Linn. Arrhenatherum avenaceum, &c., &e. Holcus avenaceus.) Standard of germination, per Dr. Stebler, 70 per cent. This grass is known under a variety of botanical names; in France it is called Fromental, and in other parts of the Continent is known as French Ryegrass. Dr. PARNELL says this grass produces a plentiful and early supply of foliage, and is valuable either for hay or pasture. On the Continent it is highly prized. All kinds of cattle eat it with avidity, although it is said to be unpalatable to horses. Dr. STEBLER’S opinion is that it is certainly one of our best forage grasses. In mixture with other grasses “it is an excellent plant, which should not be omitted from any mixture, provided it is not sown on too moist a soil. It is most valuable as a grass for meadowing purposes. On account of its deep-rooting propensities it succeeds well on dry soils that have depth and are not too compact, but if the soil is too poor the plant becomes sickly, and gives but a mediocre produce. It is a quick-growing grass, and flowers at beginning of June. Gives considerable produce the first year, but the second year’s cutting is the most important. Having a bitter taste, it should not be given by itself to cattle in a green state. For hay it is especially 30 THE GRASSES—TALL OAT-GRASS. suited, as it is easy to save and keeps well. In dry warm situations it might be used in mixtures to the extent of 20 per cent. If only for one year’s cutting Italian Ryegrass is of more value, but if for two or three years’ meadowing the Tall Oat-grass should get the preference. SINCLAIR'S remarks upon it are rather contradictory, but certainly very little in favour of its agricultural value. After mentioning the properties it possesses, which would entitle it to a high rank amongst the grasses adapted for alternate husbandry, he adds that it contains too large a proportion of bitter extractive and saline matters to warrant its cultivation without a considerable admixture of other kinds. Cuas. JOHNSON, quoted above, adds his own opinion that :—So long as it has to struggle for existence with other self-established tenants of the soil, it is harmless, and probably beneficial to the animals feeding upon the mingled herbage amongst which it is an admitted but never a prominent associate. Mr. Martin J. SUTTON says that its roots penetrate so deeply as to enable the plant to withstand the effects of both cold and drought. It is almost indifferent to soil, and may be grown pretty nearly everywhere. It cannot be called strictly perennial, but is twice as long-lived as Italian Ryegrass, and grows as much herbage in its first year, while in its second and sub- sequent years it is far superior to its better known rival. When sown in autumn a much larger produce is obtained in the following year than from a spring sowing. For a three years’ ley one-fifth of entire sowing would not be an unreasonable quantity on good deep soil. THE GRASSES—TALL OAT-GRASS. 31 Dr. Vasgey (of the Agricultural Department of United States of America) says the cultivated grass best adapted for winter pasture in the South is the tall Meadow Oat-grass, which will thrive on a more sandy soil than most of the cultivated grasses (though it prefers a rich upland), and will yield more green food in winter than any other grass. It and Cocks- foot are thought to endure the heat and drought better than any other cultivated grasses. Professor PHARES (of Mississippi) says it may be sown in March or April and mown the same season, but for a heavier yield it is better to sow in Sep- tember or October. Not less than two bushels per acre should be sown. The Seed—According to Professor Phares it is a little difficult to save the seed. In about ten days after blooming the seeds begin to ripen and fall off, the upper ones first; therefore, as soon as the top seeds are sufficiently ripe, the panicle or flower head should be cut off and dried, when the seed will all thresh out readily. For an acre of arable land 20 Ib. of seed is sufficient ; but, as it is seldom desirable to cultivate it except along with other sorts, from one-fourth to one-half of that quantity will be found sufficient. There is a variety of this grass (Arrhenatherum bulbosum) of which the base of the stem forms small bulbs. This is rightly looked upon as a weed—or, as a writer puts it in Morton’s Encyclopedia, “the cultivation of it under any circumstances would not fail to create suspicions of lunacy against the owner.” As there is no way of distinguishing the seed of the one variety from that of the other, it would 32 GOLDEN OR YELLOW OAT-GRASS. perhaps be as well not to sow either of them unless there is the clearest proof that what is about to be sown is beyond question free from any admixture of the bulbous-rooted kind. It is owing to the latter being so commonly mistaken for the true variety that Tall Oat-grass is so little used in those kingdoms. One is no better than a Couch or Squitch grass, while the other—used with judgment—is capable of filling a very useful place in our agriculture. Golden or Yellow Oat-Grass. (Avena flavescens. Trisetum flavescens.) The best seed weighs up to ro lbs. per bushel. Standard of germination, of H.M’s Office of Works, 60 per cent. Flowers end of July. W. Carrutuers, F.R.S., reports that it is found in dry meadows and pastures, and may be grown in any kind of soil or situation. Produces a considerable quantity of foliage, and is a favourite food of sheep. Is important as a late grass in pastures. Dr. STEBLER quotes Langethal’s remark to the effect that this grass is always an indication of the superior quality of the fields in which it is found; and observes further that it thrives in almost all soils except those that are extremely strong or extremely light. Its produce is sure as well in wet seasons as in dry, though excess of either moisture or drought will hinder its development. It is entirely unsuited to meadows that are liable to be flooded but are not provided with suitable drainage. It is very advan- tageous in meadows and pastures, gives a grass of GOLDEN OR YELLOW OAT-GRASS. 33 good quality which beasts eat greedily, and should never be omitted from mixtures unless they are des- tined for places quite unsuited to it. Curtis says that in excellence it comes near to Meadow Foxtail, for which it may prove no bad substitute. Dr. PARNELL says it grows naturally in almost every kind of soil, from the limestone rock to the irrigated meadow, and is always present in the richest natural pastures. Thrives best in dry calcareous soil, and does well only when combined with other grasses. It is to be noted that sheep prefer it to most grasses. The Seed.—The supply of the seed of this grass is exceedingly small, as it is very difficult to collect. In fact, so scarce is the real article, that a totally different thing, viz., Aira flexuosa, has been quite openly offered and sold for it (see page 35). There is a very strong re- semblance between the seeds of the two grasses—that is, to the naked eye—so buyers should be on their guard in this matter. Indeed, when we consider the scarcity and dearness of the seed of Yellow Oat-grass, and the danger of getting instead the seed of a perfectly useless grass such as Aira flexuosa, it is a question whether it would not be better to omit Yellow Oat-grass altogether from pre- scriptions for laying down land, At the same time, Cc ( ‘Yellow Oat-grass, 34 THE GRASSES—HASSOCK GRASS. true seed of it, with good germinating faculty, can be had if one goes to the right source and pays the price. The enlarged illustrations given herein will enable the reader to notice the distinguishing features of the seeds of the two grasses. Hassock Grass or Tufted Hair-Grass. (Atra coespitosa.) Dr. PARNELL says this grass has a most unsightly appearance in meadows, pastures, and parks. It forms large tufts (termed by farmers Hassocks) very hard to get ridof. The leaves are extremely rough and coarse, therefore cattle seldom touch it; and, as it possesses little nutritive pro- perties, it does not merit the attention of agriculturists. Morton’s Encyclopedia says it forms unsightly rigid tufts, which should invari- Hassock Grass. ably be eradicated by grubbing them out with a mattock or strong hoe, at the same time dropping amongst the loose soil a few seeds of Cocksfoot, Timothy, or some other strong and rapid-growing grasses. The Seeds of this grass are found as impurities or adulterants amongst the seed of the Poas (Rough-stalked and Smooth-stalked Meadow grasses), and amonest the seeds of others of the natural grasses. Wherever met with it is most objectionable, THE GRASSES—HAIR-GRASS. 35 Wavy Mountain Hair-Grass. (Atra flexuosa.) W. CarruTuers, F.R.S., reports that it is common on sandy heaths, moors, and hilly pastures, and is no doubt of value as an ingredient in such exposed native pastures, but is otherwise a worthless weed. Dr. PARNELL says that sheep eat it, but it is not recommended for cultivation. Aira flexuosa. 36 THE GRASSES—BROMUS ERECTUS. THE BROME GRASSES. Morton’s Encyclopedia says that amongst modern agriculturists there are not wanting some who question the propriety of so rigidly excluding the Brome grasses from field culture, seeing that they yield a weighty produce in stems and seed, and do this, especially in the case of Bromus mollis (soft Brome-grass or Goose-grass) on very poor dry soils. Meadow Brome Grass. (Bromus arvensis.) Grown at Woburn on a sandy loam. Gave of Green food per acre— T. cwts. grs, lbs. At time of flowering ‘ . - yg FOr “T2° 2 -2 Affording of nutritive matter . . » Oo -T3 Lf & But at time of ripening the seed gave only per acre . : : e. BPO Be oO Yielding of nutritive matter . . oO “Thy 39 Bromus erectus. (Sometimes called Bromus pratensis and montana, also Festuca erecta and montana). Dr. STEBLER reports that this grass has been for a long time in cultivation in South of France. Is fibrous rooted, and grows in compact tufts forming a level turf. It can be sown in autumn or spring. Is not usually sown by itself, but generally with a mixture of Sanfoin or Lucerne. Is not remunerative on good land, but is a useful and lasting grass on dry warm chalky soils. Suits dry hillsides that are exposed to the sun. In favourable situations it begins to grow early in spring, and flowers at end of May or early in June, and should be cut before the flowering stage. After cutting it grows more leaf foliage, which is eaten with relish by cattle. THE GRASSES—BROMUS INERMIS. 37 Bromus inermis. Dr. STEBLER reports this as a’perennial stoloniferous grass, useful for binding the soil of embankments of railways or canals because of its property of pushing out a large number of long twisted underground stolons. It is capable of resisting a drought that would kill any other grass, and is equally insensible to cold. It has only a small nutritive value. The Seeds of the Brome grasses are found in very large quantities as natural impurities in badly cleaned Ryegrass. Bromus secalinus will be found in large Bromus secalinus. Soft Brome Grass (Bromus mollis.) proportion in some samples of Perennial Ryegrass, and as it is rolled together in such manner as to be of about 38 THE GRASSES —SCHREDER’S BROME GRASS. same thickness as the seed of the Perennial Ryegrass, it is impossible to separate the one from the other. The great flat white seeds of Bromus mollis, and occa- sionally the slender, long-awned seeds of Bromus sterilis and Bromus asper, may be easily recognised in impure samples of Home and Foreign Italian. Agriculturists should carefully avoid sowing seeds that contain ad- mixture of the seeds of any of those Brome grasses. In any land except the very worst they are out of place, and come under the head of weeds. Schreeder’s Brome Grass. Mr. Martin J. SUTTON says that this grass has not been sufficiently cultivated in England, and strongly urges its inclusion in mixtures for two or three years’ ley which are mainly to be fed off. There is a prejudice against it because of the harshness of its foliage, yet it is a valuable forage plant. It is one of the earliest grasses to start in a temporary pasture; it grows so strong as to crowd out weeds; it feeds on the surface, and will thrive on the thinnest soil. In warm moist seasons especially its usefulness will be manifested. Mr. Sutton once saw a field of this grass keeping an extraordinary flock of sheep, which were penned on it during ahotsummer. The crop was ready at one end of the field as soon as the sheep had finished at the other. Professor PHARES (of Mississippi) says it varies in the time of starting growth ; but, when once started, its growth after the successive cuttings or grazings is very rapid. It is tender, very sweet, and stock eat it greedily. It makes also a good hay, and produces an immense quantity of leaves, THE GRASSES—CRESTED DOGSTAIL. 39 Crested Dogstail. (Cynosurus cristatus. ) Extra good seed will sometimes weigh up to 36 lbs. per bushel. Standard of germination, of H.M.’s Office of Works, go per cent. Some seedsmen guarantee 95 per cent. CHas. JOHNSON reports that this grass frequently forms the principal part of the sward in situations natural to it, viz., high and dry pastures or sheep downs. In such situations no species is more valuable. Owing to the depth to which its roots penetrate, it remains green long after most other species have withered. It is not at all, however, adapted for general cultivation—the stems being too ¥& harsh and wiry, and the herbage unproductive poe) where a crop of hay is required. Curtis (who bases his qualifications to pronounce opinions regarding the grasses on “ twenty years culture and observation of them”) says that—finding this grass produces but little foliage ; that its stems are wiry and constantly refused by cattle; that, on account of its roots being fibrous and penetrating to no great depth, it becomes in dry summers little better than an annual —he is induced to think less favourably of its intrinsic merits, Dr. STEBLER considers it one of the best grasses—not valuable so much in respect of its produce as in regard of its high nutritive qualities. Prospers best in a humid climate, and forms an essential part of the best pastures in England, Holland, Schleswig-Holstein, and 40 THE GRASSES—CRESTED DOGSTAIL. Switzerland. It begins to throw up foliage early, and flowers from middle to end of June. Dr. PARNELL pronounces it to be a most valuable grass for permanent pasture, but not recommended for hay. Thrives better in tenacious elevated soils than in those of a drier or sandy nature, and in irrigated meadows attains an unusual size. Mr. HunTER says it should be included in all mix- tures for permanent pasture, but the quantity of seed should be very moderate, as when once established it will increase from year to year by self-sowing. The leaves are fine and form a dense turf. Morton’s Encyclopedia: a writer in this work says of the Crested Dogstail, that from a more intimate knowledge of its actual merits, it is not now generally considered worthy of field cultivation, Few grasses, however, are better adapted than it for bleaching greens and scythe-kept lawns. Manuring—At Rothamsted it appeared to thrive equally well on unmanured plots and on plots that had been dressed with mineral manures only. It showed a dislike for ammonia salts and a preference for nitrate of soda, The Seed varies in quality very much owing to care- lessness in collection, and in handling by those who save it. A difference in price of as much as 100s. per cwt. between a superfine and a poor sample is not an unusual occurrence. Through bad handling (during the process of drying the seed) many samples get heated and become discoloured. Many inferior samples will be found to contain various weed-seeds—sometimes ergot in addition ; and again the shelled seeds of Yorkshire Fog are prominent in many samples, THE GRASSES—FIORIN. 4t Considering the price of good pure Dogstail seed, and the adverse opinions of the grass expressed by some of the authorities quoted above, it is a question for the farmer —especially in districts where it abounds naturally— whether it would not be as well to exclude it entirely from the mixtures for laying down his land. Certainly, as a general rule, considering how copiously it resows itself,it is well to diminish the quantity of this seed in specifications to the lowest point. It is stated that Crested Dogstail is tre- quently adulterated with the seed of the Blue Melick grass (Molinia coerulea) —a \, * grass of no agricultural value which grows Miao, on heathy and moory land. The seeds of — Grass. Molinia may be distinguished by their larger size and darker colour, and can be recognised by the naked eye on a close scrutiny. Fiorin or Creeping Bent. (Agrostis alba var stolontfera.) As there are a number of varieties of Agrostis, all of which are next to useless except this one; and as the seeds of the other varieties are usually sent out instead of the true Fiorin, it is as well to give here a short botanical description of the plant, viz.:—This is a variety with the branches of the panicle (flower-head) densely tufted ; sheaths roughish ; stems long, smooth, and _procumbent, putting out roots from the nodes or joints. It differs from Agrostis vulgaris in having broad leaves ; 42 THE GRASSES—FIORIN. a much closer and larger panicle, with green or pale flowers; the large glume minutely toothed all along tts back ; the ligule long, narrow, and sharp. Dr. STEBLER’S view of it is that, if it has been grown on a suitable soil, it will produce herbage of a succulent nature which cattle eat with pleasure; but if grown on poor or dry ground, it will be avoided, as it becomes hard and without flavour. It suits best ona light moist soil; also on peaty soils that have not been drained ; also on wet clayey soils; but does not succeed on dry soils, especially if composed of compact clay, into which its fine roots cannot penetrate. Professor- BALDWIN (Ireland) writes as follows :— “Fiorin grass is extensively grown in Donegal. On reclaimed moor and other deep land there it makes most valuable permanent meadow. I speak of the true Agrostis stolonifera, with which worthless and even noxious plants are confounded.” CHARLES JOHNSON says that the value of all the varieties of Agrostis alba depends upon the creeping stems—which afford a heavy crop of hay late in the year, and also supply leaves for early feeding. The Fiorin of Nature’s own planting flourishes in a rich well-watered soil, and produces an almost miraculous quantity of fodder; but it is unreasonable to suppose that, in the absence of such conditions, any parallel success can attend its cultivation, The Creeping Bent may be a useless weed—wiry, nearly leafless, and unpalatable to cattle—or it may be succulent, abundant in foliage, and as grateful to them as it is productive— according to the soil and situation in which it finds itself. The creeping runners, stems or stolons of this and other grasses of similar habit, are highly nutritive. THE GRASSES—FIORIN. 43 Mr. Martin J. SurTon says it affords very early feed in spring, but its power of yielding late keep in autumn is its most remarkable feature. It has been pastured as late as the middle of December, and the herbage, if allowed to remain till following spring, not deteriorated. In wet seasons it overpowers other grasses, and its creeping roots become almost as objectionable as Couch. It is also very exhausting to the soil. Mr. Hunter says this grass is suitable for affording a supply of herbage during winter and early spring months when other grasses are dormant. The habit of growth resembles the strawberry—long trailing shoots or stolons being produced during the autumn and winter months. It thrives on all good soils, particularly those that are wet; also does well on peaty soils, but is not suited to dry pastures. Norts.—As the Fiorin grass came at first prominently into notice through the writings of Dr. Richardson, who had experience of it in the north-east of Ireland, I thought it well to make some inquiries about it in Ireland, and was referred by Professor Baldwin of Dublin to a gentleman in Donegal, who farms some reclaimed bog there on which a plantation of Fiorin had been made by sowing pieces of the creeping stems and covering lightly with soil. This gentleman reports as follows :—“I believe it is an excellent grass for our soil; in fact, we could not raise anything like the same quantity of any other kind of grass. My experience is that newly-broken bog is the most suitable land for it. I believe we have had as much as ten tons of hay per acre (Irish), but this I consider an extra good crop, and you will not have that quantity except for one or two years on good land well manured.” Wishing to see a 44 THE GRASSES—FIORIN. specimen of this exceptional crop, I procured a bundle of the grass and found amongst it a fair proportion of large plants of Rough-stalked Meadow grass, which no doubt helped to make up the ‘heavy yield. This instance corresponds with certain facts connected with the celebrated Orcheston Meadows near Salisbury, the grass of which was found by Curtis to be principally made up of Rough-stalked Meadow grass, and a species he calls Agrostis palustris, which, from the description given, appears to be the Fiorin. I have had also a report on this grass from another Irish correspondent of experience, who says: “ Fiorin grass—the kind with the creeping stem—should be cultivated by itself on moist ground for hay, of which it gives several cuttings in the year of enormous pro- duce and excellent quality. Cattle are extravagantly fond of it, and the farmer by its use may convert almost unprofitable swamps into the most valuable land on his holding.” The Seed.—As has been pointed out by Johnson, the Fiorin, as is the case with plants generally which pro- pagate themselves by lateral extension, produces very little seed. Hence those who are desirous of culti- vating it will succeed best by planting cuttings of the creeping stems in drills an inch deep and slightly cover- ing them with soil. The seed of commerce is almost invariably not that of the true Fiorin, but is the seed of some of the other worthless varieties —such as Agrostis dispar, Agrostis vulgaris, Agrostis canina, &e. Some of the leading seedsmen, having discovered this, and having ascertained by experiment the impossibility of getting seed of the true Fiorin, have struck it out of their lists altogether—which is a much better plan than THE GRASSES—HERD'S GRASS. 45 to send out seeds of grasses that are no better than noxious weeds. Even “aiken the seed of the bond fide Fiorin grass has been procured it is very difficult to get it to grow. My Donegal correspondent writes : “I have no faith in the seed oF Fiorin, as I have seen it sown and it never came to anything, but we plant the stems and cover them lightly with earth.” Again another correspondent writes: “I have tried to raise it from seed, but have entirely failed to do so.” According to the Woburn experiments, the Fiorin grass grown on an active peat soil, produced— T. cwts. qrs. lbs. At time of flowering, per acre . . - 7 18 0 Oo A. Which yielded of hay, per acre . ‘ 3 9 0 B. Yield at time of ripening its seed, per acre 8 I0 o 17 C. Further produce of Green Aftermath, per : D. acre, I 4 1 6 Portion left uncut till December produced at rate of, per acre H . a » 9 2 t 6 So as to give the reader an idea of the merits of the other varieties of Agrostis, which are so commonly sold as the true Fiorin, the following is appended :— Herd’s Grass, or Redtop of America. (Agrostis dispar.) Morton’s Encyclopedia says that, however suitable it may be in comparatively warm climates for dry soils, yet to the British grower it can only, like Agrostis vulgaris, be recommended for the most barren and worthless land. 46 THE GRASSES—-COCKSFOOT. Fine Bent Grass. (Agrostis vulgaris.) Dr. PARNELL says it grows on dry heaths and pas- tures. Is said to be disliked by cattle generally, and is not of sufficient importance to merit the attention of agriculturists. Cocksfoot. (Dactylis glomerata.) Seed weighs 18 lbs. per bushel. Standard of germination, of H.M.’s Office of Works, go per cent. Dr. PARNELL says it succeeds best when the subsoil is porous and not stagnant, so that the fibrous roots can penetrate deep. It is less impoverishing to the soil than Rye- grass ; and, though it is as a pasture grass that it possesses most value, yet even for hay it is superior to Ryegrass and many other grasses. In pastures it should not be allowed to grow coarse, but should be kept closely cropped either by cattle or by the ! scythe. Cocksfoot. CHARLES JOHNSON says for an alternate crop itis by far the best grass that can be employed alone. Rooting deeply, it is less liable to suffer from excess of drought than most others on dry sandy soils. As moist retentive land is more favourable to its luxuriance, and induces an overgrowth destructive of THE GRASSES—COCKSFOOT. 47 those of weaker habit but equally productive, it may be advisable as a general rule in laying down land to grass to exclude Cocksfoot where other species of a fine quality are found to flourish. This grass, Johnson thinks, is more valuable for pasture than for hay. Mr. Hunter says, for permanent pasture, for alter- nate husbandry, or for hay, there is not a more valuable grass. It is one of the earliest, most productive, nutri- tious, and valuable of the cultivated grasses, and no grass comes sooner to perfection. If kept closely cropped its produce is enormous, and it is relished and greedily eaten by all kinds of stock. Dr. STEBLER’S opinion is that it is an excellent grass, growing quickly and ripening early. It constitutes in his country (Switzerland) the principal part of the best pastures. It should be cut before the flowering stage, as at and after that period it contracts a toughness. After each cutting it produces less stems and a large proportion of root leaves, which give excellent forage whether in a green state or as hay. Of all grasses this one furnishes the most substantial aftermath. It reaches full development the second year after sowing. It is not advisable to sow it alone, or in too large pro- portion for forage purposes, as it forms large clumps with bare spaces between. It is best to use it in mix- ture with Clover, Ryegrass, Foxtail, and Timothy—the proportion of Cocksfoot not to exceed (unless in excep- tional cases) 15 per cent. A good rolling in the spring serves Cocksfoot, the operation reducing the projecting clumps to the level of thesward. In irrigated meadows it does very well, attaining in such situations a very large size. SINCLAIR recommends a mixture of three parts Cocks- 48 THE GRASSES—COCKSFOOT. foot, with one part each of Hard Fescue, Rough-stalked Meadow grass, Tall Oat-grass, Timothy, Perennial Rye- grass, and White Clover—to secure the most productive and nutritive pastures in alternation with grain crops on soils of the best quality; and even on soils of an inferior nature, under the circumstances of unfavourable seasons, this mixture will afford nutritive herbage when the land would have been comparatively devoid of it if one species of grass only had been employed. It is further stated, on the authority of Sinclair, that when Cocksfoot is suffered to grow rank or old for want of sufficient stocking, it contains nearly one-half less nourishment than that which is of recent growth. Professor PHARES (of Mississippi) says it may be mowed from two to four times a year, according to latitude, season, and treatment. It will grow well on any soil containing sufficient clay, and not holding too much water. Cocksfoot grass is easily cured and handled ; also it is readily seeded and catches with cer- tainty. I know but one objection to it, ie, like Tall Oat-grass it is disposed to grow in clumps and leave much of the ground uncovered. This may be remedied by thick seeding, using 24, or better, 3 bushels of seed per acre. In common with others I prefer Red Clover with Cocksfoot—it fills the gaps and matures at the same time. One peck of Red Clover seed and six pecks of Cocksfoot is a good proportion per acre. Sheep leave all other grasses if they can find this—and, acre for acre, it will sustain twice as many sheep or other stock as Timothy. Cut at the proper stage it makes a much better hay than Timothy, and is greatly preferred by animals—being easier to masticate, digest, and assi- milate, in fact more like green grass in flavour, tender- ness, and solubility, THE GRASSES—COCKSFOOT. 49 Mr, M. J. Surron says that its proper place is on good, strong, damp soils on low-lying districts, where it produces an enormous quantity of leafy herbage. It is entirely out of place in upland meadows. Its valu- able qualities are better realised in a three or four years’ ley than in a permanent pasture. With Ryegrass and Clover it forms a superior feeding ley. Its quality is always higher before flowering. Mr. Exuiorr (of the Border Union Agricultural Association) gives a contrary opinion to that of Mr. Sutton with reference to suitability of Cocksfoot for inferior lands. He says he saw it growing luxuriantly at Sharstead Court (Mr. De Laune’s place) on poor land at the head of a steep bank. Also he has grown it him- self successfully on poor and high land. Mr, Stanton GouLp of New York says it affords a good bite earlier in spring than any other grass except the Meadow Foxtail. It gives a very large amount of aftermath, and continues to send out root-leaves until very late in the autumn. Manures—We have it stated that when not liberally fed Cocksfoot almost disappears, Ammonia salts and mineral manures are conducive to its growth, but it does not take kindly to nitrate of soda, The Seed.—We draw our supplies of Cocksfoot seed from a wide area, Viz, youshire Fos. from North America, from New Zea- land, from France, and Germany. The New Zealand seed would be almost perfect if it were free from the seeds of Yorkshire Fog, which is present in large proportion in many samples. American seed, on the D 50 THE GRASSES—SHEEP’S FESCUES. other hand, is free from Fog, but sometimes contains seeds of Dock, &c. French seed is worst of any in the matter of impurities, containing, it might almost be said, a little of all sorts. At Woburn Cocksfoot produced green food per acre— T. cwts. qrs. Ibs. At time of flowering . F ‘ - 12 9 +O 17 Which gave of hay . : ; » 5 6 0 0 THE SHEEP’S FESCUES. Some Continental authorities comprise under the heading of Sheep’s Fescues all those sub-species and varieties that grow in compact tufts, and increase by lateral intra-vaginal shoots. Of those sub-species and varieties as many as eight are specified; while of the creeping-rooted Fescues (such as & rubra and its sub- species and varieties) six are specified. Of the Sheep’s Fescues there are only two that have importance from an agricultural point of view, viz. F, ovina var vulgaris, and £. ovina var duriuscula. In commerce, with the exception of fine-leaved Sheep’s Fescue, we cannot tell by ordinary examination of the seed which sub-species or variety that particular sample of seed belongs to. It may belong to one of the Sheep's Fescues, or it may be seed of Red Fescue or of F. fallax, or F. heterophylla. The latter seed is the longest and largest of the lot—but the size of the seed is no certain guide. Seeds as well as plants vary in size according -to soil and situation, and, for that matter, each plant of THE GRASSES—HARD FESCUE. 51 each variety will have some seeds larger or smaller than the normal size, and so a process of sifting will easily equalise the sizes all round. How unsatisfactory this is from the farmer’s point of view will appear when we discover that each of the various kinds which are liable to be sold as Sheep's Fescue requires a special soil and situation in order to attain its maximum development, Some of the kinds, for instance, are only suited for dry soils, while others are served by irrigation. Some creep at the root and exhaust the surface soil, while others are fibrous-rooted and go deep. Some do best under shade, while others prefer the open. It would clearly, therefore, be of great advantage to get the kind that suits the circumstances of our land; but the seed is little or no guide, and the farmer has no remedy except to deal with seedsmen of skill, experience, and integrity. Hard Fescue. (Festuca duriuscula.) Seed weighs 20 lbs. per bushel, Standard of germination, of H.M.’s Office of Works, 75 per cent. Some seedsmen guarantee from Io to 15 per cent. higher than this, Dr. STEBLER’S opinion is, that the variety known as Hard Fescue is only distinguishable from the other Sheep’s Fescues by its somewhat more robust growth, For good land, or even for poor land that can be irrigated, grasses of more value can be found; and it is only on dry and thin soils, where the better grasses 52 THE GRASSES—HARD FESCUE. will not do well, that the Sheep’s Fescues become of much importance to agriculture. On good soils it is useful as a bottom-grass in mixture with other grasses, and may be mixed with the clovers for soiling; but by itself, or in large proportion, it can only be used to advantage on land that is dry, poor, and thin, of a sandy or silicious nature. On such it is truly a god- send, as it supports extreme drought, and is absolutely insensible to temperature and to climatic influences, It should never be sown alone even in the worst land, as it grows in thick close tufts and does not cover the ground. To fill up the blank spaces it is necessary to mix it with other grasses or forage plants. With Anthyllis vulneraria, for instance, on soils of the poorer class—and with White Clover, Smooth Meadow grass, or perhaps Timothy, on soils of a somewhat better kind. The year it is sown it develops slowly and gives but a poor yield. It is the second or third year that it reaches its maximum, after which it begins to decline. Cattle will not eat it except under pressure of extreme hunger. Sheep like it well enough, but not so well as they like some other grasses. SINCLAIR remarks that it withstands the effects of severe dry weather better than many other grasses, and recommends its use to a small extent in laying down new pastures. He adds that it attains greatest perfec- tion when combined with Meadow Fescue and Rough- stalked Meadow grass. Dr. Vasey, of U.S.A. Agricultural Department, says it is indigenous in the mountainous parts of New England, in the Rocky Mountains, and in various Northern localities. It is without doubt the very best of the grasses growing on sandy soils, It is only as a pasture THE GRASSES—HARD FESCUE. 53 grass on such soils that it is valuable, and in these when highly manured it is driven out by the more succulent species, It roots deeply, and forms a dense, short turf, which adapts it admirably for lawns and pleasure-grounds where the soil is sandy. Mr. M. J. Surton says it is the most robust of all the small fescues. The herbage is tender, succulent, and much liked by all kinds of cattle. On moist and rich soils it affords an immense amount of herbage. It is of importance in forming a close bottom to the turf amongst stronger-growing varieties, and in this respect is of especial service for upland pastures. It may properly be considered one of the least expensive and most desirable of bases or bottom-herbage grass of a permanent mixture for all soils that are not very wet. CHAS. JOHNSON says that it is generally regarded as one of our most valuable grasses, being very productive considering the slender character of its foliage, and thriving in most soils.and situations. Few grasses retain their verdure during the severest winter to an extent so remarkable. The spring produce, however, is but trifling, the foliage not attaining much length until the approach of the flowering season. Meadows in which it abounds should be mown when it is in flower, as both bulk of produce and proportion of nutritive matter are greater at that time. The Seed.—The great bulk of what is offered in commerce is collected (we may presume for the most part in a hasty and careless fashion) from plants grow- ing wild in the woods and clearings, consequently it contains a great many seeds of weeds in its natural state. The most noticeable of weeds to be found 54 THE GRASSES—HARD FESCUE. in it are Sorrel, Tufted Hair-grass, and soft Brome grass, The writer remembers meeting with a sample of Hard Fescue a few years ago. It was offered by a Continental house, and looked so bad that he analysed it with the following result:—A hundred grains con- tained 58 of Hard or Red Fescue, 27 of Tufted Hair-grass, 4 of Meadow grasses, 4 of Sorrell, 1 of Chickweed, 2 doubtful seeds, and 4 bits of quartz. This, of course, was a very bad case, and there are not many like it (let us hope), but still a sufficient number of impure parcels Raia of the smaller fescues may be met with to sail warrant the statement that almost all the seed of this species that is imported would be the better of a special cleaning and recleaning before being sown. There are wholesale and retail seedsmen who devote themselves to the cleaning of the natural grasses, and the buyer can purchase perfectly pure seed if he will go to the trouble to look for it. Stimulating manures do little or nothing for Hard Fescue, they only encourage other grasses at its expense, At Woburn, Hard Fescue, grown on a hard clayey loam, gave of grass per acre— T. ewts. qrs. Ibs, At time of flowering . +» 8 4 0 Oo Which yielded of hay per a acre , e- BO 3B 3 9 At the seed ripening period it increases its weight of grass, but loses nutritive matter. THE GRASSES—FINE-LEAVED FESCUE. 55 Fine-Leaved Sheep’s Fescue. (Festuca ovina tenutfolia.) Extra good seed weighs 24 lbs. per bushel. Some seedsmen guarantee a germination of 80 per cent. CurTIS says that it appeared to him appli- cable only’ to the purpose of making a fine- leaved grass-plot that shall require little or no mowing. Dr. STEBLER describes it as a dwarf variety, with the leaves very fine and almost hair-like. j Seeds not awned. Has no ‘agricultural value, fine. but is useful in lawns and ornamental grounds, eevee particularly in shady places. CHARLES JOHNSON says also that in the practice of agriculture it is almost useless, being entirely un- productive as hay; while for grazing purposes, on temporary pasture, grasses of larger growth are pro- portionately far more profitable. Nature in her dis- tribution of it on poor, rocky, sandy soils, where other species would dwindle and die, points out the only situation to which it is properly adapted. He shares the opinion of the other authorities as to its suitability for lawns, bowling-greens, and pleasure-grounds. The Seed is of a tawny orange colour, something less than half the size of Hard Fescue, and differs also from the other Sheep’s Fescues in being awnless. It is stated on good authority that only a small quantity of the true seed comes into those kingdoms, and that a small-seeded sample of Hard Fescue is 56 THE GRASSES—VARIOUS-LEAVED FESCUE. usually sold for it. However, there is no difficulty whatever in procuring the true / ovina tenuifolia if people will go to the price of it, which is usually about thrice the price of Hard Fescue. It is also stated that it is sometimes adulterated with the seeds of the Blue Melic grass, which is a most objectionable adulteration in this instance, as it is a most obnoxious grass to ‘Blue Melic grass, +Ntroduce into lawns, in the formation of (Molinia caerulea). which Fine-Leaved Fescue is much used. At Woburn, grown on a light sandy soil, gave of grass per acre— T. ewts, qrs. Ibs. At time of flowering . - . o. baZe BE Bg At time of seed ripening did not increase in weight, but nutritive matter had decreased very much. Various-Leaved Fescue. (Festuca heterophylla.) Dr. STEBLER’S opinion of it is, that it is a first-rate grass, and that he has obtained very satisfactory results from it. It succeeds better in the shade than in the open. Itrequires strong rich land and a warm situation, as it belongs naturally to the south of Europe. Most of the seed sold as FP. heterophylla and F. rubra is really the seed of F. fallax. Mr. Martin J. SUTTON says it is a most valuable Fescue grass, and indeed one of the best of the finer grasses. The earliness of its growth makes it exceed- ingly useful in a pasture. For hay it is comparatively THE GRASSES—RED FESCUE. 57 unimportant and the aftermath is small. It will not make a continuous turf alone, but in company with Red Fescue and Smooth Meadow grass will fully oceupy the soil. Morton’s Encyclopedia says it is suited for a strong class of dry soils, and for permanent pasture on such it is recommended to sow 1 lb. or 2 lb. of it per acre. The Seed.—See remarks on the seeds of the small fescues under the head of Sheep’s Fescue. Considering the uncertainty whether one gets the true seed, it is little use going to any pains to particularise this fescue or F. rubra in our specifications. At Woburn, grown on a sandy soil with manure, gave of grass per acre— T. cwts. qrs. lbs. At time of flowering . : 7 Ue is S20 om Yielding hay . % : 7 - I 16 1 23 At the time of seed ripening the yield of grass was about one-fourth less, but the yield of hay did not suffer much diminution. Red or Creeping-rooted Fescue. (Festuca rubra.) Dr. STEBLER’s opinion is, that the only essential difference between this and the Sheep’s Fescues is to be found in the roots. The root-systems of the latter being fibrous and deep, while that of the Red Fescue is creep- ing, having underground stolons with extra-vaginal shoots or scions. It succeeds best on soils of a porous or somewhat peaty character, as in such it can freely 58 THE GRASSES—RED FESCUE. develop its stolons. It can be cultivated with success even on shallow soils if same are fairly good and not too dry. In the mountains of Switzerland, where it has but a thin layer of earth, it forms the principal part of the vegetation. It flourishes on the dry sandy banks of rivers, and will exist even on the sandy dunes by the sea. As its roots extend themselves principally through the upper spit of the soil, it is that section is exhausted by it. In point of nutrition it is not up to meadow hay of average quality. Mr. Martin J. Surron says this grass derives its name from the reddish-brown colour of the lower leaves. He is quite of opinion that Hard Fescue is infinitely superior, except for poor, dry, harsh soils, and on uplands where Red Fescue may fairly be considered essential, especially for its great power of withstanding drought. This quality fits it for use on railway slopes, and for all burning soils and hot climates. It must be regarded as exclusively a pasture grass, All cattle like it, but for hay it is of small utility, and the lattermath is inconsiderable, Morton’s Encyclopedia says that it and its varieties, like all creeping-rooted grasses, exhaust the fertility of the soil and extirpate the more valuable fibrous-rooted sorts—hence they should never be sown on ground suited for the growth of Hard Fescue and its varieties. Ait Woburn, grown on a light sandy soil, gave of grass per acre— . T. cwts, qrs. lbs, At time of flowering . x ‘ » 4 Il o17 Yielding hay . . ‘ ‘ « © i 3. 36 At time of seed ripening the quantities of grass and hay had increased to a small extent. THE GRASSES—TALL MEADOW FESCUE. 59 THE MEADOW FESCUES. The German botanist, Heckel, whose ruling in the matter is also adopted by Dr. Stebler, places Festuca pratensis and F. arundinacea as sub-species of F. elatior, and divides those again into varieties and sub-varieties. States further that F. loliacea (Darnel or Slender Fescue grass) is a hybrid between F. pratensis and Perennial Ryegrass, and adds that there are also in existence hybrids between Meadow Fescue, Italian Ryegrass and F. gigantea (Giant Wood Brome, or Fescue grass). Dr, Parnell also thinks it is very pro- bable that F. pratensis is only a variety of F. elatior. Tall Meadow Fescue. (Festuca elatior.) Seed weighing 20 lbs. per bushel. Standard of germination, per H.M.’s Office of Works, 75 per cent. Mavxke, a German botanist, so’far back as 1818 wrote that this was one of the best and most useful of grasses. Dr. PARNELL describes it as growing from three to five feet high, the root being perennial, fibrous, some- what creeping, and forming large tufts. Itis a nutritive and very productive grass, grows naturally in rich, moist soils of a clayey nature, and, notwithstanding its coarse appearance, cattle appear fond of it, especially cows. 60 THE GRASSES—TALL MEADOW FESCUE. Professor PHARES, of Mississippi, says it grows well in nearly all situations, wet or dry, on hill or bottom- land, even though subject to overflow, and matures an extraordinary quantity of seed. The seeds germinate readily, and it is easy to set a piece of land with this grass. On account of remaining green throughout the winter, it is sometimes called “evergreen grass.” Mowed and dried it makes good hay, much relished by stock, Dr. STEBLER reports that it flowers at the end of May or beginning of June, some days later than Tall Oat- grass and Cocksfoot, and ripens its seed about end of July, It gives abundant produce of good quality, and, being a true perennial, should never be omitted on land that is suitable to it, viz, good loam or clay soils where a sufficiency of moisture can be had. It will also do fairly well on a cool sandy soil that can be irrigated ; in fact, there is scarcely any grass that profits so much by irrigation as this one. It takes rather longer to develop than some of the grasses, and it is only in the second or third year that it reaches its complete development. When established it commences to vegetate early in spring, and grows quickly, so that on good ground one can get three good cuttings in a favourable season. In point of earliness it comes immediately after Meadow Foxtail. Mr. Faunce Dr Launs.—Although Tall Fescue is usually represented as doing well only on damp soils— moist clay, and so forth—it is reported by Mr. De Laune that plants of it during the exceptionally dry summer of 1884 retained their fresh green colour, and continued to grow, when all other grasses in the same pasture were suffering from the excessive and long-continued THE GRASSES—TALL MEADOW FESCUE. 61 drought. From this it would appear that it might be used with advantage on light soils as well as on those that are heavy and wet. Mr. M. J. Surroy would exclude this grass entirely from prescriptions for meadows which are generally cut for hay, not only because of the tendency of the grass to become ergotted, but because of the extreme coarseness of the hay produced. This authority adds further that the plant when indigenous to this country is practically sterile, yet on the Continent of Europe, where it is known as Festuca arundinacea, it is fertile, and seed of it is saved and exported to England annually. The plant, whether produced from the divided roots of the indigenous variety or from seed of the Continental F. arundinacea, equally maintains the characteristic creeping habit of the root, which is a distinctive feature as compared with F. pratensis. The Seed of the true Tall Fescue is larger, flatter, and more pointed than that of the common Meadow Fescue. Formerly it used to be difficult to get seed of Tall Fescue free from admixture of Perennial Ryegrass, and in some cases even yet such samples may be met with. Mr, Hunter says that “absolutely pure seed of F. elatior cannot be obtained, the purest samples usually containing from two to five per cent. of Rye- grass, about the same proportion of Cocksfoot, and some Meadow Fescue.” In addition to a natural sterility, a good deal of the seed of the Tall Fescue grass is rendered useless by the attacks of an insect which penetrates the ovary and destroys the germ. Therefore, from one cause or an- other, as much of the Tall Fescue seed of commerce is of low germinating power, it follows that ifa proportion 62 THE GRASSES —MEADOW FESCUE. of Perennial Ryegrass (which germinates well) be pre- sent in it, either as a natural impurity or as an adul- terant, the produce may perhaps show little else but Ryegrass plants, leading the experimenter to suppose that there was a larger proportion of Ryegrass seed in the sample than in reality was present. At Woburn, grown on a black rich loam, it gave of grass per acre— T. ewts. qrs. Ibs. At time of flowering . ; : 2s Ory 3 8 Yielding dried hay . : : < | To: 2 2 Meadow Fescue. (Festuca pratensis.) Seed weighs 26 lbs. per bushel. Standard of germination, per H.M.’s Office of Works, go per cent. Dr. STEBLER’s opinion of the Meadow Fescues gener- ally will be found under the head of Tall Fescue. SINCLAIR states that it constitutes a very considerable portion of the herbage of all rich natural pastures and irrigated meadows, and makes excellent hay. The leaves are succulent and tender, and they never form rank tufts, It is of greater value at time of flowering than at time the seeds are ripe in proportion of three. to one. Morton’s Encyclopedia states that it possesses high merits both as a spring and autumn pasture grass, and THE GRASSES—MEADOW FESCUE. 63 is surpassed by few as a hay grass when cut at the time of flowering. The