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LIBRARY OF THE |

HORTICULTURISTS’ LAZY- CLUB.
CORNELL UNIVERSITY. |

PRESENTED BY

N. B.—Inscribe the date, post-office address, course of study,
and the like.

Cornell Universit

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ini

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
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There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003391384

Actual size: photographed in Santa Cruzin January.

THE LOGANBERRY, A CALIFORNIA HYBRID, BY J. H. LOGAN. See page 4c.

THE

CALIFORNIA FRUITS

AND |
HOW TO GROW THEM.

A MANUAL OF METHODS WHICH HAVE YIELDED GREATEST SUCCESS; WITH LISTS OF
VARIETIES BEST ADAPTED TO THE DIFFERENT DISTRICTS OF THE STATE

BY EDWARD J. WICKSON, A. M.

Professor of Agricultural Practise in the University of California, and Horticulturist of the
Agricultural Experiment Station; Author of ‘‘California Vegetables in Garden
and Field;’’ President of the California State Floral Society;
Horticultural Editor of the ‘‘Pacific Rural Press’’
of San Francisco, etc.

‘“« The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear,
And verdant olives flourish round the year;
The balmy spirit of the western gale
Eternal breaths on fruits untaught to fail;
Each dropping pear a following pear supplies,
On apples, apples, figs on figs arise;
The same mild season gives the blooms to blow,
The buds to harden, and the fruits to grow.”
—Pope's Hom, Odys. Bk. VIL.

THIRD EDITION: LARGELY REWRITTEN.

PACIFIC RURAL PRESS, PUBLISHERS
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.

1900,
Ev.

(2

2 3359
VV 64
bare |

Aq. GA

ENTERED ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR 1899, BY

EDWARD /. WICKSON AND PACIFIC RURAL PRESS,

IN THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS, AT WASHINGTON.

TO LUTHER BURBANK, OF SANTA ROSA,
WHOSE CREATIVE HORTICULTURAL
GENIUS HAS, BY NEW COINAGE OF
“BLOOMING, AMBROSIAL FRUIT OF VEGE-
TABLE GOLD,” AMPLY REQUITED THE
WORLD’S GIFT OF THE CHOICEST FLOW-
ERS AND FRUITS FOR THE ADVANCE-
MENT AND ADORNMENT OF CALIFORNIA
—THUS BESTOWING NEW HONORS UPON
THE STATE AND NEW RICHES UPON MAN-
KIND—THIS WORK IS CORDIALLY IN-
SCRIBED AS AN EXPONENT OF ESTEEM
AND APPRECIATION.

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION

The writer desires to express sincere gratitude for the cordial wel-
come and patronage which the two earlier editions of this treatise have
received, not only in California, but in other semitropical countries.
At the time of the preparation of the first edition in 1889 there was no
thought that it would find foreign fields of usefulness; it was merely the
earnest hope of the writer that it would win its way as a safe guide to
the extension of the fruit interests of California; and to that end no
effort was spared to constitute the work an explicit and truthful state-
ment of natural conditions attending fruit growing in California, and
accurate descriptions of the practises which best minister to success
under these conditions. The generous patronage bestowed upon the
work by Californians for a decade is a demonstration that this purpose
was attained, and it is largely owing to their cordial commendation that
the work has extended so widely into foreign fields. It is profoundly
satisfactory to the writer to have the assurance that the acceptance of
the treatise as a faithful guide to practise in California has actually fore-
shadowed its popularity wherever the same fruits are grown; and, in-
versely, its acceptance abroad is indirect evidence of its accuracy and
helpfulness in California.

With such inspiration as naturally proceeds from these facts, the
writer has for two years devoted such time as could be spared from
other pressing duties to a thorough revision of the work, condensing
portions which were ditfuse or merely of passing, local interest; and
expanding other portions which are of deep and lasting importance and
in which California experience and experiment really involve knowl-
edge new to horticultural literature and of the widest applicability. The
revision has required a rewriting of the most important chapters and
a study of original data nearly equal to that invelved in the preparation
of the treatise in the first instance. The illustrations have also been
largely replaced and the work brought up to the beginning of the cen-
tury.

As was done in connection with earlier editions, the writer desires
to extend to all readers an exhortation to correction of any statement
which may seem unwarranted from their points of view and experience.
The subject is varied, multifold, and involved, every new fact is impor-
tant and will be welcomed.

EDWARD J. WICKSON.

University of California, Berkeley.

By the Same Author
‘THE
California Vegetables in Garden and Field

A Manual of Practise With and Without Irrigation

CONTENTS:
Chapter Chapter
Vegetable Growing in California. XX. Corn.
Farmers’ Gardens in California. Cucumber.
California Climate as Related to Vegetable Egg Plant.
Growin: Luttuce.
Melons.

PACIFIC RURAL PRESS, Publishers

Vegetable Soils of California.
Garden Irrigation.
Garden Drainage in California.

Onion Family.

Cultivation. Peppers.
Fertilization. Potatoes.

Garden Location and Arrangement. Radishes.

The Planting Season. Rhubarb,
Propagation. Spinach,
Asparagus. Squashes.
Artichokes. Tomato,

Beans. Turnip.

Beet. Vegetable Sundries.

Cabbage Family.

Carrot, Parsnip, and Salsify.
Celery.

Chicory.

Vegetables for Canning and Drying.
Seed Growing in California.

Garden Protection.

Weeds in California.

Large Octavo; 336 Pages; 12 Full-Page Plates

Price $2.00 Including Postage to Any Part of the United States

330 Market St.. San Francisco, Cal.

CHAPTER

1
Tk:

XIV.
XV.

XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.

XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.

XXVII.
XXVIII.

CONTENTS:

PART FIRST:*GENERAL. PAGE
The Climate of California and Its Local Modifications.... 9

Why the California Climate Specially Favors the Growth

OP Pit sec siadelet vd aaecetieeae es ateeh abe aeneunant eet 19
The Fruit Soilssof Californians. sa ca ccsavsragwmesene pds eics 27
The Wild Fruits of California .....................02 05 38
California Mission Fruits.............0 cece cece cence eee 44
Introduction of Improved Fruit Varieties .......... 0 ..... 48

PART SECOND: CULTURAL.

Clearing Land fot Bruit aciaveeaueca seis waekaiteaes 57
The Nursery »e...5 32 Hashes tlw oasis @ paola, sic i fab tr 66
Budding: and ‘Grafting. 4... os4. sxania Sen wseseteuke as 76
Préparation for -Planting:.sccdscacaeeeiesssive sae aabed go
Planting ithe: Trees: sega ds haadaushtn ieldslelaedd nae ease 109
Pruning Orchard Trees and Thinning Fruit ..... .... .. i135
Cultivation” acca Gicnc. Seeeeneenundeneeaaoaneitar’ 138
Fertilizers for Fruit Treesiand: Vineseici anurans escriiaeecvs 154
Irrigation of Fruit Trees and Vines......... 0 .........00 167
PART THIRD: ORCHARD FRUITS.
The Apple ninccee tices aiccennninnds oad aia Reese wes cacy 187
The Apricot wy rescacisis. Aone wena, age ees stots 200
“The: GHerey: sven s aaa tines Gncwry pena wu s'e ces deen eek 214
The Peach 25 «isa swssauiey ee ncaa cee Secudeevnwecess aguas, 228.
The Nectanineiadccameve ett hatedee: cos sa eweeuey 245
WHE OP ESR 6s. accia-ctn ataeel utaatactue, Meck Gooey weblnlaCdch abéeahisurancatnisebssre 248
Plums-atrd:: Prunes ceca ies censored Peteaa agent 261
“Ee OuinGeti225 ccnaspaneinaneaneus te Bacar te. Aenea eae 278
PART FOURTH: THE GRAPE.
Vine Propagation and Planting ............. 02. c eee ees 281
Pruning and Care of the Vine................ 00 ee eee eee 298
Grape Varieties in California.............0..000 cece eens 309
PART FIFTH: SEMITROPICAL FRUITS.
The Date ..... Ses Sache A nae ete, a4 A Aeldeedintle ed Yee a uae 316
The Fis taniace or ce nveworsenay oie tases abbas ees eee 321

viii

XXIX.
XXX.
AE,
AXXII.

NXAITL

XXXIV.

XXXV.

XXXVI.
XXXVI.
XXXVIILI.
XNXIX.

D.alee

Contents.

ERE ONiMes seas So ttarces para aiea nsar ema HcOR DA, RNS 333
The Oranee svaies ceaccauces msrviaseianissuininie Retidsa a ensue BIO APE 351
The emo n, Meine eteiesie ene eae Aare eine: Hweenbodness 373
Miner Sémitropical Pruits..:; sexsceewis caasecows eeeeiees 381

PART SIXTH: SMALL FRUITS.
Berries and Currants oc..c.0 06208 ox aeaew esa aewer yeas 389

PART SEVENTH: NUTS
Nut Growing im California: onacgseyecd eanaan sisecmiaiee its 406

PART EIGHTH: FRUIT PRESERVATION.
Fruit Canning, Crystallizing and Drying............... - 420

PART NINTH: FRUIT PROTECTION.

En EIOUS MMSE CHS Sse ccs aae ane aie an em Gulendatweaoamerk eae 434
Diséasessof Trees and Vittes: auc. cspxen cee waneasne: waht eae 456
Suppression of Injurious Animals and Birds.............. 460
Protection from Winds and Frosts ..............00.e0 000s 465

PART TENTH: MISCELLANEOUS.

Utilization of Fruit Wastes.......0 0... cc cece cece sees 469
TINGE Xv eth ch RE cane cerage:. ac aiehe seeks hcpeneietoot al tetas ee snoanas aessehi 471

CALIFORNIA FRUITS.

“PART FIRST: GENERAL,

CEAP TERR: i.

THE CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA AND ITS LOCAL
MODIFICATIONS.

In climatic conditions affecting horticulture we have in Cali-
fornia almost an epitome of the whole United States, with added
climatic characters peculiarly our own. We have high moun-
tain valleys with wintry temperature-conditions, where only
hardy northern fruits can be grown; we have hot valleys where
the date palm confidently lifts its head to the fiery sunshine,
while its feet are deeply planted in moist substrata beneath the
sandy surface; but we cannot claiin tropical conditions, because
our dry air denies us many strictly tropical growths, although
we have frostless sites for them. Intermediate between the cold
and snow of the mountains and the heat and sand of the desert,
we have every describable modification and gradation, and,
naturally, it is between these extremes that our richest inherit-
ance of horticultural adaptation lies. It is this infinite variety
which gives us true title to the term semitropical.

When this breadth and scope of our horticultural adapta-
tions is realized, it becomes apparent that an enumeration of the
fruits we can grow successfully would be, in fact, a catalogue
of the known fruits of the world, except those which are strictly
tropical. Wherever there is a northern or southern departure
from the equator sufficient to bring energy to mankind, or where
the same is accomplished by elevation upon tropical mountain-
side or plateau, there also are fruits which find a welcoming

(9)

2

IO Climatic Peculiarities.

home in California, and are improved by the intelligent cultiva-
tion and selection which here prevail. On the other hand, it
has been abundantly demonstrated, during recent years, by
official awards at great exhibitions and by the sharp criteria of
the markets as weil, that the fruits of wintry regions are quite
as much benefited by transfer to proper locations in California
as are the people who come to grow them. From north and
south alike, then, California maies grand acquisitions, and
includes within her area the adaptations of the whole country,
with some which no other State possesses.

But while this horticultural scope is claimed for the State
as a whole, it is necessary to add that local adaptations within
the State must be very narrowly drawn. Our greatest failures
have followed ill choice of location for the purpose intended.
Whenever certain California fruits have been ill spoken of, they
have been produced in the wrong places, or by ill-advised
methods. It is possible, then, to produce both poor and perfect
fruit of a given kind. It may be said this can be done anywhere
by the extremes of culture and neglect, but to this proposition
it must be added that in California equally excellent methods
and care will produce perfection in one place and the opposite
in another. One who seeks to know California well must under-
take to master both its horticultural greatness and littleness;
and so closely are these associated, and so narrow the belts of
special adaptations, that there are many counties which have a
range of products nearly as great as the State itself.

It is hard for the stranger to realize this. It is difficult for
him to believe that the terms “northern” and “southern” have
almost no horticultural significance in California; that northern
fruits reach perfection, under proper conditions, at the south,
and vice versa; that some regions of greatest rainfall have to
irrigate most frequently; that some of greatest heat have sharp-
est valley frosts; that some fruits can be successfully grown
through a north and south distance of 500 miles, but cannot be
successfully carried a few hundred feet of either less or greater
elevation; that on the same parailel of latitude within a hundred
miles of distance, from coast to mountainside, one can contin-
uously gather marketable Bartlett pears for three months—not
to mention the second crop, which is often of account on the
same trees in the same season.

Through the multitude of local observations, which seem
perplexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly dis-
cern certain general conditions of both nature and culture, which
may be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively
Californian.

The climate of the Pacific Coast is described by the meteor-

Why Our Climate Ls Afild. IL

’

ologist as “insular or moderate,” as contrasted with the ‘‘conti-
nental or excessive’ climate of the regions east of the Sierra
Nevadas. The west coast of Europe is also insular in its cli-
mate. The northern limit of an annual mean temperature of
50° Fahr. is about 51° 30’ of north latitude on western coasts of
both Europe and America. But though there is this similarity
in mean annual temperature, there is a decided advantage per-
taining to our climate over that of west Europe in that our
range of temperature is less; that is, extremes of heat and cold:
are nearer together, and changes are therefore much less ex-
cessive. This characteristic of our local climates is due in the
main to two great agencies, one active, bringing heat, the other
passive, shielding us from arctic influences.

First: Our proximity to the Pacitic Ocean. For three
hundred days in the year the air currents from this vast body
of warm, placid waters flow over California, moderating summer
heat and winter cold, and, impinging on the western slope of the
Sierra Nevada, give to the foot-hills, up to a certain elevation,
a valley climate and a valley range of products, as will be noted
later.

Second: Another agency contributing to the mild climate
of the Pacific Coast consists in the mountain barriers upon our
northern and eastern boundaries. Redding says it was Guyot
who first called attention to the fact that the Sierra Nevada and
the Cascade Mountains reach the coast of Alaska and bend like
a great arm around its western and southern shore, thus shutting
off or deflecting the polar winds that otherwise would flow down
over the Pacific Coast States, while California has her own addi-
tional protection from the north in the mountain arch which has
its keystone in Mount Shasta.

CHIEF TOPOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATIC DIVISIONS OF
CALIFORNIA,

California is usually divided into three main areas and cli-
mates, each distinct in typical conditions and yet separated by
regions, more or less wide, in which these conditions merge and
influence each other. Dr. Robertson says*:—

Isothermal lines which normally run east and west are, as they near
the Pacific, deflected north and south, and define three distinct climatic
belts. These may be named coast, valley, and mountain; and while they
resemble each other in having only two seasons, they are dissimilar in other
respects. These differences depend upon the topography of the country,
and are of degree rather than of kind; altitude, distance from the ocean,
and situation with reference to mountain chains, giving to each region its
characteristic climate.

*Report of State Agricultural Society, 1886, p. 322.

12 Local Characters.

How similar are the conditions which prevail in these belts
may be learned frotn the data shown in the following table,
which includes points separated by nearly the whole length of
the State, the difference in latitude of the extreme north and
south points being seven or eight degrees. Thus, through a
north and south distance great as that which separates the
States of Georgia and New York, similar climatic conditions
prevail in California. In the following table the averages are
deduced from observations by the United States Weather Bu-
reau observers for a long series of vears:—

SEASONAL AND EXTREME TEMPERATURES AND AVERAGE RAINFALL IN
Various CALIFORNIA REGIONS, FROM THE RECORDS OF THE U. S.
WEATHER BUREAU, TO THE CLOSE OF 1898.

we a = —.
3g |2e/2sleelse/ ss]: 3
EU EE/ES/ £2 22/23 |2sle) 28
STATIONS. COUNTY. gOS] CSlPEl ae oe l ee le) ot
= oo BA) boo) FQ} Wa) VE | om ws
a EE 28 i E/E) SE] mala ts
s | 22) 22/88 /2e)selm fe] $s
ee ee |e < 3] <a
Coast.
Eureka......... Humboldt........ 64| 47.0] 51-0|55.7/52.0/ 51.2} 84]20] 46.14
San Francisco|San Francisco..} 183} 51.8] 52.3]59.4|56.9/ 56.5} Ioo}29| 23-31
San Jose....... Santa Clara...... 94| 49-6] 56.7| 66.2] 59.7] 58.0) 104/22] 14.52
Salinas ......... Monterey..... ... 44] 48.6} 55.9] 61.9) 56-7|55-8) 96)20] 14.58
S’nta Barbara|Santa Barbara..] 100] 54.1/57.6]65.9!62.5/60.0} 100/28] 18.19
Los Angeles..|Los Angeles.....) 293]54.2)60.1|69.7|64.0]62.0) 109/28} 18.31
San Diego.....|San Diego........ 93} 54-4] 59-4 68.4]63.7/61.5| 98)32| 9.86
Valley.
Redding....... Tehamatcccreyi 557/47-1| 60.5] 80.0] 64.4) 63.0] 117/18] 34.60
Marysvillesse:| Yubascesccccscesee: 67| 50.0] 62.9| 78.3]65-4]64.2) 116/20] 18.09
Sacramento...|Sacramento...... 35|47-7| 58.3] 72-3/ 62.0] 60.1) 108|19] 20.56
Merced Merce dissciesnves 171| 49-0] 61.0} 78.9|64.9]63.4| 120]20) 10.30
Tulare sek (dl MIBTe ene sess 289] 49.8] 62.5} 80.6) 63.4] 64.1] 118]14| 7.00
Colton.......... San Bernardino] 965] 52.5] 62.4] 77.2]65.6/64.4) 114/22] 10.93
Foot-hill.
Auburn......... PIAGET. os. cacsnee 1360] 46.9] 56.8] 74.6]62.2}60.1) ro8]12| 32.55

LOCATIONS FOR THE GROWTH OF DIFFERENT FRUITS.

It is intended to describe as definitely as possible the loca-
tions suitable for the growth of difterent fruits in the special
chapters given to those fruits, but there are a few general con-
ditions which should be outlined.

In discussing the choice of location for an orchard it is not
intended to speak geographically. As has already been inti-
mated, latitude, which is a prime factor in gecgraphy, is of ex-
ceedingly small account as an indication of horticultural adap-
tations in California. ‘ The fact becomes strikingly apparent

The Coast Climate. 13

when it is known that the apple and the orange, fruit kings
whose kingdoms lie at opposite borders of the temperate zone,
so far distant that one may be called semifrigid and the other
semitropical, have in California utter disregard for the parallels
of latitude, which set metes and bounds upon them in other
lands, and flourish side by side, in suitable localities, from San
Diego to Shasta. Impressive as this truth may be, it is not so
startling as another fact, viz., that fruits, in suitable interior sit-
uations, ripen earlier at the north than at the south—a complete
reversal of the tenets of the geographer.

It is apparent then that the selection of locations for or-
chards must be made with a knowledge of special conditions
governing the distribution of equal temperatures and other nat-
ural agencies contributing to the development of fruit. This
distribution, as has been intimated, is not by straight lines, as
in parallels of latitude, but by curves, which proceed in various
directions, governed chiefly by topography. These are curves
of temperature, of rainfall, of elevation, of soil formation and
deposit. Geography retires from authority; topography and
climatography govern.

Let these ruling conditions be reviewed, then, briefly: First,
as to general areas; second, with reference to special situations
and locations.

COAST CLIMATE.

The chief characteristics of the coast climate are equable
temperature, increasing southward; summers cool and winters
warm, as compared with the interior; abundant rainfall, decreas-
ing considerably southward; a somewhat humid atmosphere, as
compared with the interior; frequent fogs or overcast skies;
prevailing westerly winds.

The extension of coast influences toward the interior is
governed by local topography. Coast valleys open to ocean
winds are cooler and moister and demand hardier fruits than
valleys sheltered by intervening ranges. Gaps and passes in the
. ranges are subject to winds of considerable force and low tem-

perature, and are not generally favorable for fruit; on the other
hand, situations sheltered on the north and west favor growth of
fruit even though quite near the coast. Sometimes a distance
- of a few miles, sometimes a windbreak of natural forest or of
planted trees, so modifies coast influences that fruits do well.
‘Elevation on the sides of coast valleys secures similar results.
For example, the floor of the Pajaro Valley is well suited for
‘apples, late pears, cherries, plums, prunes, and berries (except
gooseberries), while on adjacent hillsides peaches do well.

In southern California, coast winds are warmer than in the

-

14 Characters of Coast Regions.

upper half of the State, but coast influences intrude farther, asa
rule, because the hills near the coast in southern California are
low; the high ranges, answering to the Coast Range of the. upper
part of the State, trending far into the interior. On the coast
side of these ranges fruits ripen later than in sheltered interior
points in the upper part of the State, but eastward of them,
where soil and moisture favor, or irrigation is practised, extra
early locations have been found.
, Some of the horticultural effects of the conditions prevail-
ing on the coast may be described as follows:—

Late Ripening of Fruits—The late ripening of fruits in most
parts of southern California has just been mentioned. Intru-
sion of coast influences has the same effect at the north.
Directly on the coast, at Pescadero, San Mateo County, for ex-
ample, fruits ripen about a month later than in Santa Clara
Valley, which is just across the Coast Range. Napa Valley,
though about forty miles inland and sheltered by ranges of hills,
still is sufficiently affected by coast influences to mature fruits
considerably later than Vaca Valley, ten miles further east, be-
yond a higher range, which completely bars out these influences.
In Ventura County, in a cafion sixteen miles from the ocean,
and at an elevation of sixteen hundred feet, fruits ripen three
weeks earlier than on the coast or in the valleys opening thereon.

Failure of Certain Fruits—Though killing frosts are few
directly on the coast, the deficiency in summer heat and sun-
shine renders some fruits unsatisfactory. This is especially the
case in the upper coast region. Grapes and figs ripen imper-
fectly, while but a short distance back from the coast, in shel-
tered situations, they do well. Elevation sometimes produces
corresponding effects. The complete reversal of coast conditions
by local topography is seen in the Happy Camp region, on the
west side of Siskiyou County, and east of the range which is the
eastern boundary of Del Norte County, the extreme north coast
county of the State. Happy Camp is in a warm belt, at an ele-
vation where peaches, apricots, and nectarines do well if irri-
gated. The apricot at that latitude in ordinary situations is a
failure, as it also is for.a certain distance farther south along the
coast. a

Pests and Diseases——Certain blights ‘are more prevalent
under coast conditions. The scab blight of the apple, the curl-
leaf of the peach, and some other blights, are prevalent on the
coast and in coast valleys, on the river bottoms in the interior,
and on the mountains, and less serious, or wholly absent, in the
hot interior valleys. Some insects prefer the coast, notably the
black scale, which, with the black smut which attends it, has long
been a grevious pest of growers of olives and citrus fruits, and

Valley Climate. 15

has recently become prevalent on deciduous fruit trees in some
regions. Directly under coast influences, moss and lichens
gather quickly, and should be removed. Spraying with alkaline
washes not only kills insects but cleans the bark from parasitic
vegetable growth. Although fruit trees on the coast are not
so subject to sunburn as in the interior, there is especial value
in low heading to withstand winds; there should also be plenty
of room given the trees, that sunshine may have free access to
warm the ground all around the tree.

VALLEY CLIMATE.

The characteristics of the interior valley climate are higher
summer and lower winter temperatures than on the coast, the
range of temperature being very nearly the same both north and
south; rainfall abundant in the north and decreasing rapidly
southward, so that as a rule the interior valleys in the south half
of the State require irrigation; very dry air and almost constant
sunshine, freedom from fogs and from dew in summer-time;
winds occasionally strong, hot, and desiccating in summer and
cold in winter.

Local Modifications —The term “valley climate” is broad,
and includes everything, from the coast to a certain elevation on
the slope of the mountains. Certain small valleys protected
from cold northerly winds and from fog-bearing westerly winds
and open to the spring sunshine, have a forcing climate which
produces the earliest maturing fruit of the season; earlier not
only than the coast and the mountain but also somewhat earlier
than adjacent locations in the broad, open valley. Slight ele-
vation, even on the sides of small valleys, frequently secures
freedom from winter frosts and ministers to early ripening.
Elevation above sea-level on the rims of great valleys also secures
similar results and gives rise to thermal belts in which semi-
tropical fruits are successfully growing even as far north as Shasta
County. On the floors of great valleys moderating influences
are secured on the lee side of wide rivers and by planting on the
river bank or on slightly elevated swells rather than on the level,
open plain. The river bottom lands of the great valleys, though
subject to severe frosts, are freer from the effects of desiccating
winds than the open plains; they are, however, more favorable
to the spread of certain blights than the plains are.

Some of the horticultural effects of valley conditions are as
follows: Early ripening and perfection of summer and autumn
fruits, owing to continual sunshine and dry air; forced maturity
of certain late fruits, as apples and pears, which destrovs char-
acter and keeping quality; injury from sunburn and hot winds

16 foot-hill Climate.

in summer, which seriously aftect both fruit and foliage of some
varieties; occasional injury to tender fruits (semitropicals) and
to young trees of hardy fruits, which have been kept growing
late in the season, from low temperature, which sometimes is
reached suddenly on the floor of the valleys; freedom from some
blights and insects which are prevalent on the coast, but not
from others. Many of these minor troubles are, however, coun-
terbalanced by the earliness, size, beauty, and quality of certain
fruits, and by the most rapid and successful open-air drying of
fruits, owing to high autumn temperature, the freedom from fog,
dew, and generally from rain during the drying season.

FOOT-HILL CLIMATE.

Foot-hill climate is usually considered as a modification of
valley climate. It has been shown that up to about two thou-
sand five hundred feet, on the western slope of the Sierra Ne-
vada, the seasonal temperatures are quite like those of the val-
ley, but the rainfall increases about one inch for each hundred
feet of elevation. There are, however, in the foot-hills, places
where early spring heat and freedom from frost give very early
ripening fruits, and other places at the same elevation where win-
ter temperature drops below the valley minimum, and where late
frosts also prevail. This is governed by local topography. In
many of the small valleys among the foot-hills, bordering upon
the great central valley of the State, and in the Coast Range as
well, frosts are more severe than on the hills adjacent. The por-
tions of these highland valleys most affected are usually the very
lowest, the moist lands of the creek bottoms, or the wet swales,
where there are such. Growths on the black or dark-colored
soils, which are so situated as to be well drained and warm, are
hable to frost, while those on the red lands and those of a
chalky or ashen hue escape. The direct rays of the sun upon
the darker earth hasten the spring growth beyond that on soil of
lighter color. Hence if, other causes combining, there comes a
frost, the earlier vegetation of the dark land suffers more than
adjoining lands of a different description. These sudden
changes to either extreme occur on the low grounds of the foot-
hills to a far greater extent than upon the surrounding hills and
ridges, or in the broad valleys of the Sacramento and San Joa-
quin.

Of course the disposition of cold air to settle in low places
and to flow down cafions and creek-beds while the warm air
rises and bathes the adjacent hillsides, has much to do with the
frost in the hollow and the freedom from it on the hills, irrespect-
ive of color or character of soil. The constant motion of the
air on the slopes is also a preventive of frost, providing the gen-.

Mountain Climate. 17

eral temperature 1s not too low. It is not uncommon to find in
deeper valleys, protected against the western wind, flecks of
snow and a wintry chill, with dormant vegetation, while one
thousand feet higher up the foliage is fast developing.

MOUNTAIN CLIMATE.

Above an elevation of two thousand five hundred to three
thousand feet, conditions gradually intrude which resemble
those of wintry climates. The tender fruits, the apricot, peach,
etc., become liable to winter injury and give irregular returns,
or, as greater elevation is attained, become wholly untrust-
worthy. Early blooming of these fruits during warm spells
which are followed by severe frosts, renders the trees unfruit-
ful. At four thousand to four thousand five hundred feet the
hardy apple and pear flourish, ripening late, and winter varieties
possessing excellent keeping qualities. Here, however, winter
killing of trees begins and locations even for hardy fruits have
to be chosen with circumspection.

There are elevated tracts of large extent among the Sierras,
where the common wild plum, the choke-cherry, gooseberry,
and California chestnut are produced abundantly. April frosts
have killed the fruit of those same plums, transplanted to lower
ground, while those left growing in their natural situation were
quite unharmed. It has been observed that these plum trees,
with other fruits and nuts in their original positions, invariably
occupy the broad tops of the great ridges instead of the sides
and bottoms of ravines or narrow, pent-up valleys. Follow
nature in the choice of orchard sites (with due regard to a sup-
ply of moisture in the soil, either natural or artificial) and little
hazard attends the culture of the hardier fruits of our latitude
among the highlands of the State than is incident to other
seemingly more favored localities. The beauty and quality of
these mountain fruits are proverbial.

A RULE OF GENERAL APPLICATION.

What has been thus suggested of the great variation of
temperature conditions within narrow limits should lead to the
conclusion that not only must the kind of fruit to plant be de-
termined by local observation and experience but often varieties
of these fruits must be chosen with reference to adaptation to
local environment. For this reason it is impossible to com-
pile tables of varieties suited for wide areas—and yet it is true
that some varieties have shown themselves hardy and satisfac-
tory under all conditions. These facts will be shown by the
discussion which will be given to each of the different fruits. —

18 Why California Trees Rest.

REST AND ACTIVITY OF FRUIT TREES.

Indication has already been made of regions adapted to the
growth of early and of late fruits. There is, of course, difference
in the time of rest and of returning activity in blooming. On
the mountains under wintry conditions the trees leaf out and
bloom late, following more or less the habit of Eastern trees.
In the foot-hills, the valleys, and the coast, there is less difference
in time of rest and of leaf and bloom. Even in regions where
there may be a month’s difference in ripening of fruit, as, for ex-
ample, in the Vacaville district, fifty miles inland, and in Berke-
ley, two miles from the bay shore, trees bloom almost at the
same date. The difference in ripening is due to the higher tem-
perature and fuller sunshine of the interior situation, which have
a forcing effect, while the low temperature and dull skies of the’
summer on the coast retard maturity.

The'rest of the tree, in all save the mountain district, is not
dependent upon the touch of frost. It comes rather from thirst
than from cold. The immense weight of fruit, the vigorous
growth of wood, and the exhaustion of moisture from the soil
by the draught of the roots to compass this growth; are the chief
causes which bring the sere and yellow leaf in California. It
is not frost, for the petunias may be blooming and the tomato
vines still green in the fields. But the time has come for a rest.
The trees sleep; but it is merely as a nap at midday; the early
rains wake them soon. The roots are active first, then the buds
swell, and the blossoms burst forth—sometimes as early as Jan-
uary—the almond first heralding the advent of California spring-
time.

Sometimes this season of rest is too short for the good of
the tree or vine. The early rains, when followed by a spring-
like temperature, as sometimes happens, induce activity in the
top as well as the root, and the tree is not in condition to with-
stand cold weather, which may follow. It is probable that such
stimulated activity, suddenly checked, is responsible for more
ills to tree and vine than are usually attributed to it.

bbe Te il

WHY THE CALIFORNIA CLIMATE SPECIALLY
FAVORS THE GROWTH OF FRUIT.

It was pointed out by the earliest students of meteorology,
as related to horticulture, that perfect development of fruits de-
pends upon certain atmospheric conditions, which are included
in the term climate: First, temperature; second, light; third,
humiditv or atmospheric moisture,—considered wholly apart
from soil moisture. It was also shown that temperature and
humidity should be equable, or as free as possible from excessive
extremes or rapid changes.

Obviously, the chief characteristics of the California climate
are: First, freedom from extremes of low temperature; second,
an abundance of sunshine; and third, an atmosphcre with a low
percentage of humidity. It will be interesting to introduce
enough statistics to demonstrate these claims, and to cite rea-
sons why these conditions are of special value to the fruit
grower.

THE OFFICE OF HEAT IN FRUIT PRODUCTION.

Temperature conditions may preclude the success of a fruit
tree either by destroying it outright, by dwarfing it, or by pre-
venting it from ripening its fruit. Extremes of temperature
accomplish the death of plants, and insufficient or excessive
mean temperatures may prevent fruition without, killing the
plant. The first quality of the California climate to arrest the
attention of fruit growers in the States east of the Rocky Moun-
tains is the freedom from the effects of extremely low winter
temperatures, to which is due the deplorable failure, in the east-
ern and western States, of many of the fruit varieties from the
west of Europe, and to escape which such zealous effort is now
being put forth to secure hardy varieties of native and foreign
origin.

How slight is the injury from low temperatures in all parts
of the State where fruit is largely grown may be seen from the
following compilation of extreme low temperatures at different
points approximately at the same latitude on the coast, in the
interior valleys, and on the foot-hills.

(19)

20 Advantage of Ample Feat.

Lowest TEMPERATURE AT SEVERAL CALIFORNIA POINTS.

6 6 é
Bo a5 oo
oN : oN : ON
Coast and Coast Valleys. boy Interior Valleys. bee Foot-hills. bow
ag as ag
< < <
Bure Kaerasatevessre ese 20 [Redding : eebeeerensiees 18
Cape Mendocino.....| 28 Red Bluff....... sexfi 16
Hydesville....... 24 Oroville......... san 20 at
INA Pats cecnceticctosdend 20 Marysville...... v-| 20 16
San Francisco... 28 Sacramento. 19 12
San Jose..... 22 |Merced... 20
GiltOyicseecas: 20 |Fresno........... | 18. 08
San Miguel.............] 17 Tulare City... 14 22
Los Angeles............| 28 Colton... 0... 22 ws
San Diego... .. ..... B32 POWAY seevivers sveasuees 21 |Fall Brook... ........] 27

These records will show anyone familiar with winter killing
of the leading orchard fruits that such disasters are not to be
feared in the chief fruit regions of California. Local tempera-
ture is largely controlled by local conditions, as has been aiready
pointed out, and in the districts named in the table there are
special locations where the lowest temperature probably ditfered
a few degrees from the figures given.

NECESSITY OF ADEQUATE SUMMER HEAT.

Passing beyond the freedom from winter killing, it may be
remarked that the influence of certain degrees of heat upon the
growth of the plant and the perfection of its fruit, has been the
subject of much close observation. Boussingault conducted
careful experiments, and showed that a temperature above a cer-
tain minimum of heat is found necessary for gerniination, an-
other for chemical modification, and a third for flowering, a
fourth for the ripening of seeds, a fifth for the elaboration of the
saccharine juices, and a sixth for the development of aroma or
bouquet.

Originally the mean annual temperature was alone ob-
served, and the polar limits of plants, it was presumed, could be
thereby determined. More recently it was taught that the mean
temperature of seasons is of more importance than that of the
year, and it is believed that to the relative distribution of heat
over the seasons rather than to the absolute amount received
during the year, we are to attribute the fitness or unfitness of a
region for the growth of certain kinds of vegetation.

It is held in Hurope that the mean heat of the cycle of
vegetation of the vine must be at least 59° Fahr., and that of
the summer from 65° to 66° Fahr. Jt is stated to be impossi-
ble, for instance, to cultivate the vine upon the temperate table-

Summer in Different Regions. 21

lands of South America, where they enjoy a mean temperature
of 62.6° to 66.2° Fahr., because these climates are characterized
by a constancy of temperature, never rising to the higher heats
necessary to the process of sugar forming, and the vine grows,
and flourishes, but the grapes never become thoroughly ripe.
Boussingault shows that, in addition to a summer and autumn
sufficiently hot, it is indispensable that at a given period—that
which follows the appearance of the seeds—there should be a
month the mean temperature of which does not fall blow 66.2°
Tahr. As will appear presently, this temperature test should no:
be taken alone, but it will serve as a standard to show one fea-
ture of the horticultural adaptation of the California climate.
Boussingault claims the need of 66.2° Fahr. for a single month.
To be sure to include this, the following table gives the average
summer temperature at the leading fruit-growing centers
named :—

AVERAGE SUMMER TEMPERATURE AT VARIOUS CALIFORNIA POINTS.

ein Pha Interior Valleys. nee Foot-hills. aaa Pes.
Upper Lake.....| 86.9 |Redding.......... 1,363 | 74.6
Napa -seics cs ..| 69.6 |Oroville...... = 2,421 | 76
Livermore........ 70.8 |Marysville........ 2,500 | 85
San Jose.......... 66.2 |Sacramento...... ; 1,290 | 82.8
Hollister ......... 67:7. (Merced: ccsacseses 78.4 |Fall Brook.......| 700 | 68.2
Santa Barbara..| 65.9

Los Angeles.....| 69.7
San Diego........ 68.4

These points are selected because the European varieties of
the grape reach perfection in the vicinity. Boussingault’s meas-
ure of fitness would condemn points directly on the coast where
the summer temperature is approximately that of San Francisco
(59.4°), and it has been found by experience that such a sum-
mer temperature really does not favor the ripening of the grape,
although early varieties may mature in sheltered places. The
excess of heat above that required, as is found at all the interior
peints mentioned in the table, results in a very high sugar per-
centage in the grapes, and contributes to the ripening of a sec-
ond and third crop, as will be noted presently. The superior
length of the growing season in California, of course, is an im-
portant agency toward the same end.

DIRECT SUNLIGHT ALISO A REQUISITE.

Count de Gasparin was first to point out that not alone
sufficient heat but abundance of continuous sunshine is a requi-

22 Value of Clear Sunlight.

site of perfection in fruit growth and ripening, and on his author-
ity may be based a claim of exceptional value to the fruit grower
in the months of cloudless skies which are characteristic of the
California summer.

“The solar rays,’ says Gasparin, “do not only produce heat
but bring us light, and the effects of the heat and light rays differ
in a very pronounced manner. Without light there is no fruc-
tification; it is not necessary that the want of light should be
complete that there should be a failure of fruits. In fact, dif-
fused light alone does not suffice for the greater number of
plants; cultivated plants will not ripen their seed without the di-
rect rays of the sun, and the longer they are deprived of it the
smaller the quantity which they will mature.’’*

Again, referring to the grape, for in connection with the
growth of this iruit the most careful researches have been made,
Humboldt wrote: “If to give a potable wine the vine shuns the
islands and nearly all seacoasts, even those of the West, the
cause is not only in the moderate heat of summer upon the sea-
shore, but it exists more in the difference which there is between
direct and diffused light; between a clear sky, and one veiled
with clouds.” +

It is noticeable that at the California coast points the aver-
age cloudiness is almost twice that of the interior valleys, while
at the East the interior fruit regions of western New York,
Ohio, and Michigan, have a greater average cloudiness than the
Hudson River, New Jersey, and Delaware regions near the
Atlantic seaboard. The average cloudiness in the Eastern fruit
regions is rather more than twice as great as in the regions of
California where most fruit is grown.

This excess of advantage, as it may be termed, in connec-
tion with the high and protracted heat already mentioned, takes
practical form in the successful ripening of a second and some-
times a third crop of these grapes in a season, from later bloom
on younger cane growth. Another indication of excess of advan-
tage in the interior valley is found in the development of high
sugar contents, which is of direct value in raisin production.
The same tendency, though perhaps of less commercial value, is
seen in the fact that some grapes which yield a good claret wine
nearer the coast develop too much alcohol when grown in the
interior. ‘

The advantage of California over Eastern and Southern fruit
regions in the abundance of clear sunshine is shown by the rec-
ords of the United States Weather Bureau in the following table.

* Cours d’Agriculture, t. II, p. 96.
+ Cosmos, t. I, p. 349.

Cloudiness East and (Vest. 23

Cloudiness is rated from o to 10, three observations daily, and
the figures in the table are the averages from these daily obser-
vations for a series of years:—

NorMAL CLOUDINESS AT CALIFORNIA AND EASTERN POINTS FOR NINE-
TEEN YEARS (1870-98), FROM THE RECORDS OF THE U. S. WEATHER

BuREAU.
3 i= a od Be ~ 3 Be
CALIFORNIA. g C 5 = 2 3 é 8 gg
Red Bluft............] 4.4 | 4.2 | 3-6 | 1.9 | 1.0 |] 07 | 1.3 | 2.4 | 3.4 12.5
Sacramento......... 39 | 3-5 | 27 | 1.5 | 05 | 04 | 1.1 | 2.0 | 2.8 12.0
San Francisco.....} 4.8 | 4-3 | 4.2 | 3.8 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 3.5 | 3-3 | 3-8 |4.0
Fresn0...eeceeseeees 4.3 |29]2.7 ]15 | 07 ]09 | 1.4 | 2.2 | 2.8 |2.1
San Diego 4.8 {4.4 15.3.148 )43 | 3-9 | 3-7 | 3-8 | 3.3 |4.2
EASTERN.
Rochester, N. Y..| 6.6 | 5.4 | 5.2 | 4.9 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.9 | 6.0 | 7.6 |5.5_
New York, N.Y.) 5.5 | 5-3 | 5.2 | 4-9 | 5-0 | 4-9 | 4.7 | 4-9 | 5-2 |5.05
Philadelphia, Pa.| 5.6 | 5.4 | 5.1 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 4.9 | 4-8 | 4.7 | 5.2 |5.0,
Baltimore, Md.....] 5.4 | 5-1 | 5-1 | 49 | 4-8 | 4.9 | 4.7 | 4.6 | 4.9 4.9;
Cleveland, Ohio..| 6.4 | 5.3 | 4.9 | 4.6 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 4.9 | 5-7 | 7-3 |5.3
Grand Haven, M_| 6.2 | 5.4 | 4.8 | 4.6 | 3.8 | 4.0 | 4.4 | 5.6 | 7.5 {5.1
Jacksonville, Fla.| 4.2 | 4.1 | 4.1 | 5.1 | 4.8 | 4.9 | 5-0 | 4.2 | 4.5 |4.5
New Orleans, La.| 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.3 | 4.7) 49 | 4.7 | 4.3 | 3-5 | 4.5 |4.5

RELATION OF ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY TO THE GROWTH
OF “TREES.

There is another important condition of the climate of Cali-
fornia which is intimately related to those which have been con-
sidered, and which is to be credited with no small influence in
the perfection of our fruits, and that is the low percentage of
humidity which our atmosphere contains. In California the per-
centage of humidity is high in the winter and low in the sum-
mer; in the East the condition is just reversed. For this reason
summer heat is far more oppressive in the East than in Califor-
nia, and for the same reason certain serious fungoid diseases
which prevail at the East, though found here in less injurious
degree directly on the coast, are wholly unknown in the interior
where the air is drier. The dry air also favors the access and
action of light and heat, for Tyndall says that a sheet of vapor
acts as a screen to the earth, being in a great measure impervious
to heat. 7

It is not necessary then that there should be clouds to lessen
the chemical effects of sun heat in fruit ripening. Not only do
clouds intercept sunshine, but watery vapor in the air—when to
the eye the sun is bright as ever—can absorb a large quantity of

24 Value of Dry Air.

the effective sun rays, and so retard fruit ripening. Hence an.
apparently sunny country which has much invisible watery vapor
in the air, may prove defective in fruit-ripening qualities.

It is true that air free from humidity allows rapid escape of
heat by radiation as well as free access of it, and in dry air frost
is more severe, but at the time of the greatest fruit growth, from
June to October, radiation down to a frost point is prevented by
other natural agencies. In the early spring and late autumn
the humidity percentage rises again and checks radiation just
at the time of the year when it is most desirable to have it
checked.

The following table, compiled from the records of the
United States Weather Bureau, shows the prevailing relative
humidity in the East and South and in California:—

NorMAL RELATIVE HuMIDITY AT EASTERN AND CALIFORNIA POINTS,
1888 to 1896, FROM THE RECORDS OF THE U. S. WEATHER BUREAU.

er

ae
-EASTERN e 3 g a | Z 3 z [ges
‘STATIONS. £ s Z 3 es A fe) z, : a g

Jacksonville, Fla.| 72.3 | 73.0 | 77.6 | 78.6 | 80.9 | 82.9 | 79.8 | 82.2 | 78.3
Philadelphia, Pa..| 63.4 | 68.9 | 69.2 | 68.6 | 71.2 | 75.2 | 70.7 | 73.6 | 70.1
Rochester, N. Y..| 67.8 | 68.6 | 69.1 | 67.3 | 70.7 | 75.2 | 75.6 | 76.2 | 71.3
Grand Haven, M.| 70.9 | 71.4 | 73-7 | 69-0 | 73-1 | 750 | 75.7 | 79-1 | 73-5
St. Louis, Mo ..... 63.7 | 67.8 | 68.8 | 66.3 | 67.3 | 70.2 | 65.9 | 71.1 | 67.6
New Orleans, La..| 76.0 | 74.2 | 78.1 | 78.3 | 78.8 | 77.3 | 74-0 | 79-4 | 78.0
Galveston, Tex...} 84.6 | 78.0 | 79.3 | 77.4 | 78.1 | 77.2 | 75.6 | 80.4 | 78.5

CALIFORNIA

STATIONS.
Los Angeles 75.2 | 73.0 | 75.4 | 76.2 | 72.9 | 74.3 | 66.6 | 73.3
Fresno....... 52.7 | 42.4 | 34-7 | 34.7 | 43.6 | 55.1 | 64.1 | 48.3
Sacramento 67.6 | 66.1 | 59.8 | 59.8 | 59.0 | 62.4 | 66.8 | 63.6
Red Bluff.........../ 61.9 | 56.8 | 43.7 | 35.6 | 35.3 | 43.6 | 51.6 | 60.7 | 488

THE THREE POINTS COMBINED.

The three great advantages of the California climate,—
abundant heat, continuous sunshine, and dry air,—taken in con-
nection with the fitness of the soil and the great length of the
growing season, insure the characteristic excellence of California
fruit, and the early maturity, great growth, and abundant fruit-
age of our trees and vines. Heat, sunshine, dry air, and a rain-
less summer also minister directly to the curing of fruits in the
open air. All things considered, it is doubtful whether any area
of the world excels California in possession of natural adaptation
to fruit production and preservation.

A Long Growing Season. 25

A RECAPITULATION OF CALIFORNIA’S CLIMATIC: ENDOWMENT.

Through the multitude of local observations, which seem
perplexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly dis-
cern certain general conditions of both nature and culture, which
may be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively
Californian. Of these, perhaps the most striking is the length
of the growing season.

Take, for instance, the peach in a good peach region. The
bloom appears in February, followed by the grand foliage ex-
panding to a leaf-size, marvelous to one unused to such peach
leaves. The shoots of new growth rush out with vigor, prom-
ised by such a leaf, and yet the fruit below expands as though
it would burst its skin in rapid enlargement—and still it grows.
The new shoot, apparently weary of its several feet of extension,
stops for a rest, and then, reviving, starts out its laterals—while
still below the peach is growing. The laterals push out a foot
or more—all carrying large, fresh leaves. While these are in
full vigor, the fruit ripens, after having a full half-year’s joint work
of root and foliage, if it is a late variety. Is it any wonder it
weighs a pound? But still the tree is active. It forms its termi-
nal buds, and then all along the new main shoots and their lat-
erals are formed the leaf and blossom buds for the following year.
Still the foliage holds green and active, if the moisture below
be adequate, and the leaves seem loth to fall in the ninth month
from the time of blooming. Is it any wonder California peaches
are large and the trees require pruning and thinning to enable
them to carry the weight produced in such a season of growth?
And what has been said of the peach is true of other trees, ac-
cording to their nature and habits. The trees themselves are
more eloquent of California’s conditions for growth than descrip-
tions or statistical tables can be made.

But the quality of the light and heat, if the term is admissi-
ble, is a factor as well as their duration. The air, free, not
alone from clouds, but from the insensible aqueous vapor which
weakens sunshine in its effort to serve vegetation in a humid
climate, has a clearness and brilliance from its aridity which
makes each day of the long, growing season more than a day in
other climates, and thus adds to the calendar length of the grow-
ing season. The surplus light and heat also act directly in the
chemistry which proceeds in the tissues of the plant, and we
have not only size, but quality, color, aroma,—everything which
makes the perfect fruit precious and beautiful beyond words.

It is true that for commercial purposes it is not possible to
allow this process to go too far, for its later effects are higher
sweetness, accompanied by such juiciness that the fruit cannot
endure transportation. But go to the tree to apply the only test

3

26 Importance of Moderation.

which can be fairly put to a juicy fruit, and the demonstration
of the service of clear, unobstructed sunshine through an ade-
quate period is complete. But if this can not be done, place the
judgment upon the mature peach carefully sun-dried and intel-
ligently cooked, or upon the ripe peach skilfully canned, and the
distinctive adaptations of California for fruit production will dis-
play themselves.

But there are other agencies involved in the perfection of
fruit than intensity and duration of heat and light. Without
adequate moisture in the soil, the air which we have credited
with such benign power in carrying heat and light for perfection
of fruit would transmit the same as agencies for the destruction
of the tree which bears it. If this moisture comes from rainfall,
it descends at the time of the year when the tree is least active,
consequently is least retarded by a clouded sky and mousture-
laden air, and least affected by atmospheric disturbances. Strong
storm winds find the tree with reefed sails, and able to endure
pressure which would tear it to pieces if they came upon its grand
spread of foliage on branches heavy with fruit. It is a priceless
horticultural endowment that no tornado can pierce our protect-
ing mountain-barriers, and that it is exceedingly rare that our
local winds disturb the confident swaying of the branches and
leaf movement beyond the activity which ministers to the sap
flow. And if the adequate moisture is not from rainstorm, but
by irrigation, the same facts remain, for the water reaches the
tree without interrupting its aerial activity. Temperature is
maintained, light is unobstructed, and the tree is refreshed with
moisture without the chill and darkness which favor fungoid
parasites. Of all the ways by which moisture could come to
soils supporting fruit tree or vine, the natural by its time, and the
artificial by its method, endow California with the best.

The characteristics of the California climate which have
been especially pointed out in this sketch are not propitious to
fruit culture when they exist to excessive degree, as in some in-
terior or continental climates. Local conditions of altitude,
distance from the sea, and exposure to the sweep ot arctic winds,
induce sudden and great weather changes, which are serious in
their effects. Excessively low percentage of atmospheric humid-
ity, in connection with desiccating wind, often produce greater
evaporation from the leaves than the roots can supply. Exces-
sively dry air admits a parching sun heat at one time, and at
another facilitates radiation of heat, until the rapid decline in
temperature makes killing frosts frequent. It is evident that
California has these agencies constantly held in check by her
insular situation and protecting environment, and owes her won-
derful adaptation to growth of tree and perfection of fruit not
more to the possession of certain conditions than to the fact of
their existence in moderation.

CHAPTER. IL,
THE FRUIT SOILS OF CALIFORNIA.

The favoring characteristics of the California climates,
which have been described, find their fitting complement in the
adaptation of the California soils to the perfect development of
fruit-bearing tree and vine. In their wonderful variety and con-
sequent great range of special adaptations within narrow limits
of area, our soils also resemble our climates. As a man may
sometimes find within the boundaries of an ordinary-sized farm
such a difference of atmospheric conditions that the same fruit
will thrive in one spot and not in another, so he may find ditfer-
ences in soil which will tend to produce the same results. For
this reason the precise spot in which to plant any given fruit
must be chosen with regard to both soil and exposure. In the
chapters devoted to the several fruits, there will be an attempt
tnade to describe the soil requirements of each, so that the inex-
perienced planter may not err seriously in choosing the location
for each kind of fruit he desires to grow. While this is true, it
will also appear in these special chapters that the choice of roots
upon which to bud or graft gives the planter a certain latitude
and independence. This is of greatest value in the planting of
home orchards, or orchards for local markets, in regions where
the soil is not what is usually preferred for fruit production.
With proper choice of stocks and wisdom and diligence in cultt-
vation, one need hardly despair of growing good fruit on any
soil which will support any laudable plant growth. And yet in
commercial orcharding, the secret of which is producing most
abundantly and cheaply, too great attention can not be paid to
choice of specially-adapted soils.

It is an interesting fact that more complete and exact knowl-
edge exists of the soils of California than of any other State of
the Union, and for this knowledge the public is indebted to E.
W. Hilgard, Professor of Agriculture, and Director of the Agri-
cultural Experiment Stations of the University of California.
For the last twenty-five years he has given all the time he could
spare from many other and pressing duties, to the examination,
and, when needed, the analysis, of representative soil specimens,
and to practical expositions of their nature, adaptations, and re-

(27)

28 Light and Deep Soils.

quirements in the event of exhaustion from too long cropping.
This information must be sought in a number of publications,
and no condensed outline of the work in its present state is avail-
able. Professor Hilgard has now (1899) in preparation a general
treatise entitled “Soils: Their Formation, Properties, Composition
and Relations to Climate and Piant Growth,” which will natu-
rally include the results of his long study of California soils and
climates. It is the purpose of the writer to undertake a compila-
tion, from these sources, of information which especially relates
to the fruit soils of California, now known and used as such.
The plan will be to collate the descriptions of the soils and their
composition with the practical deductions therefrom, rather
than the detailed analyses, for which the reader must be referred
to the original source.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF CALIFORNIA SOILS.

One of the most interesting and important recent achieve-
ments in soil investigation consists in demonstrating distinctive
differences between soils formed under arid and under humid
climatic conditions.* In the development of this subject certain
distinctive characters of California soils clearly appear and they
are of direct relation to the thrift, productiveness, treatment and
longevity of fruit trees. These characters are: (a) lightness and
consequent permeability and ease of cultivation; (b) depth, ad-
mitting exceptional root extension and penetration; and (c) rich-
ness, containing some kinds of plant food in considerably
greater amounts than are found in the soils of humid regions.
These characteristics as demonstrated by Professor Hilgard may
be outlined in this way with special reference to their relations
to fruit growing.

Lightness.—California soils predominantly exhibit the sandy,
silty or pulverulent nature of all soils formed under arid condi-
tions, save in case of pre-existing clay formations of former geo-
logical epochs, as well as back-water deposits of the present
epoch, all of which are substantially independent of climate.
While “sand” in the humid regions means virtually quartz grains
only, in the arid country it means very largely grains and pow-
der of the other soil-forming minerals as well. While, therefore,
in the humid region, sandy land as a rule means poor land, in
the arid, on the contrary, sandy lands are at least as desirable
as heavier ories, both on the score of high productiveness, dura-
bility and ease of cultivation, together with ready resistance to
drouth.

Depth—Another point of great importance is that the dif-
ference between soil and subsoil, which is so striking and im-

* Rep. Cal. Exper. Stations, 1893-4, Pp. roo,

Value of Lightness and Depth. 29

portant in regions of abundant rainfall, is largely obliterated in
arid climates. Very commonly hardly a perceptible change of
tint or texture is found for depths of several feet; and what is
more important, material from such depths, when thrown on the
surface, oftentimes subserves the agricultural uses of a soil
nearly or quite as well as the original surface soil. The uncon-
cern with which irrigators proceed to level or otherwise grade
their land, even though this may involve covering up large areas
of surface soil with subsoil from several feet depth; the rapidity
with which the red loam of the placer mines of the Sierra Nevada
foot-hills is re-covered with the natural forest growth of the re-
gion, etc., are examples familiar to the residents but surprising
to newcomers, who are accustomed to dread the upturning of
the subsoil as likely to deprive them of remunerative crops for
several years, until the ‘raw’ subsoil has had time to be “vital-
ized” by the fallowing effect of the atmosphere, and to acquire
the needful amount of humus or vegetable mold. Thus the sur-
face soil, which in the humid regions supplies the bulk of the
nourishment, becomes here of minor importance, serving chiefly
as a mulch to prevent waste of moisture; while the active process
of nutrition occurs in the deeper portion of the soil stratum,
whose composition, as well as condition of disintegration and
aeration, is substantially the same as above. The second foot is
rarely found to differ materially from the first, even as to humus
content; for the latter, being almost exclusively derived from the
humification of roots, the leaves and herbage on the surface
being mostly oxidized away under the intense heat of summer;
it not unconimonly happens in very porous soils that the first six
inches of surface soil are poorer in humus than the second foot.

Practical Results of Lightness and Depth—The “lightness”
and perviousness of the prevailing soils of the arid region per-
mit of the penetration of roots to depths which in the humid
region are inaccessible to them on account of the dense subsoils,
which prevent the needful access of air. This deep penetration
enables even annual plants to avail themselves directly of the
stores of moisture in the substrata, at depths which in the humid
region are scarcely reached save by the tap-roots of some per-
ennials and trees; while the latter themselves reach depths never
approached by them in the region of summer rains. Professor
Hilgard has personally found the ends of the roots of grape-vines
at a depth of twenty-three feet, in a gravelly clay-loam; and from
ten to fifteen feet are ordinary depths reached by the root system
of fruit trees. Such depth of rooting, when conservation of
moisture is secured by proper surface cultivation, enables decid-
uous fruit trees to grow thriftily and bear fine fruit through six
months of drouth while as many weeks of drouth may bring

30 Soil Classification.

distress and loss of fruit to surface-rooting trees on the shallow
soils of the humid region.

Richness —The foregoing conditions are rendered the more
significant and effective through the third characteristic of soils
formed in arid climates. The average aggregate amounts of
piant-food ingredients are markedly greater in the arid than in
the humid soils, wherever their derivation is at all generalized.
Among the agriculturally important ingredients contained in
larger average amounts in the arid soils than in the humid, lime
stands foremost; its percentage in soils not derived from cal-
careous formations being from twelve to fourteen times greater
in the arid than in the humid soils. Magnesia follows lime in
this respect, but the average difference is only about half as
great. The average content of potash in the arid soils exceeds
that in the humid in about the proportion of one to three or four.
But no such constant difference exists in respect to phosphoric
acid. As regards humus, and the nitrogen of which it is the
carrier and reservoir, its amount is usually considerably less
than in the humid soils; but the total nitrogen percentage does
not differ widely, because the humus of arid soils contains, on the
average, from three to five times as much nitrogen as is found
in the humus of humid soils, and therefore, the supply of soil
nitrogen is very nearly the same in both regions, while from
several causes, the humus-nitrogen of arid soils is more available
to plants.

CLASSIFICATION OF CALIFORNIA SOILS.

Any attempt to classify the soils of California upon scientific
lines or even to describe them in their wondertul variety, accord-
ing to their geographical occurrence, would lead beyond the
limitations of a treatise upon the practise of fruit growing.
Rather let an attempt be nade to designate certain grades of soil
with brief characterization of their leading features as they are
related to the growth of fruits. By such a course it may be
made to appear that though the soils of the State are pre-
‘dominantly light, deep, and rich and thus eminently fitted for
fruit growing, there are many degrees in the possession of these
‘characters or any of them, in local soils, and upon this individual
manifestation they rate all the way from perfection to defective-
ness. Let a classification proceed then upon a descending scale.

Light, Deep Loams.—Admixture of clay with enough coarse
materials to secure permeability to air and water, ease in culti-
vation, deep root penetration and free drainage of surplus water,
produces soil of the highest adaptability to the growth of fruit
trees and vines. These -soils are popularly known as loams.
They are designated as sandy loams, medium loams and clay

Northern Valley Loams. 31

loams, according to the proportion of clay commingled with the
sand or coarse materials.

Professor Hilgard has devised the following nomenclature
of soils based upon their content of clay: Sandy soils, less than
five per cent of clay; sandy loams, from five to ten per cent;
ordinary or medium loams, from ten to fifteen per cent; clay
loams, from fifteen to twenty per cent; clay soils, from twenty to
fifty per cent of clay.

The coarse materials are sand grains of various sizes or rock
particles in various degrees of disintegration. The fine materials
are clay and rock powder, commonly designated as fine silt.
Loam soils may result from deposits by flowing water or may
consist of debris but little removed from local rock disintegra-
tion. They include a wide variety of materials but agree in the
possession of striking adaptability to fruit culture. Some of the
leading instances of such soils may be cited.

Loams of the Valley Plains——On the east side of the Sacra-
mento Valley low ridges and swales at right angles to the river’s
course come in from the foot-hills, forming a gently undulating
plain with a fall of from fifteen to twenty feet per mile, some-
times right up to the river channels. Nearly all the soils of the
east side have a reddish tinge, showing the admixture of the red
foot-hill soil, and demonstrating, by the way, that all these lands
are well drained. In cuts ten to twelve feet deep, made by the
sloughs, the reddish plains loam is seen to reach from six to ten
feet depth, being then underlaid by gravelly substrata. The width
of this class of profusely fertile valley land, east and west, varies
considerably, according to the meanderings of the rivers. Away
from the water courses, the higher lands of the valleys are
largely red or yellow loams, sometimes clayey and difficult of
cultivation unless taken just in the right condition, sometimes
gravelly and apt to dry out unless the natural water supply is
supplemented by irrigation, but mostly a free-working, fairly re-
tentive, light loam, very satisfactory for some kinds of fruit.

The soils of the San Joaquin Valley have, as a rule, a much
greater admixture of sand than those of the Sacramento Valley;
there is also a more distinct subdivision of the valley lands into
upland or “bench” lands, and lowland or alluvial lands proper.

Upon the upland or plains soils, especially of Fresno and
Tulare Counties, wonderful progress in fruit-growing by irriga-
tion has been made during the last few years. Though its sum-
mer aspect is most forbidding and almost desert-like in lack of
vegetation, the application of water has shown exceptional
quickness of growth, early bearing, and lavish productiveness of
tree and vine. These plains loams vary in appearance, and are
from this fact locally named, “reddish loam,” “white ash,” and

32 Southern Valley Loams.

“sand hill.’ All are distinctly calcareous. Even in the case of
the latter, which is the lightest and is made of almost ninety per
cent of inert sand, it is so deep and has its plant food in such
highly available condition that it is producing very large crops
of fruits where there is no rise of the bottom water to prevent
root penetration. In the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada there
are some loose loams of light color resulting from the decompo-
sition of granite, but they are as a rule inferior to the red foot-
hill soils, which are more clayey, and will be mentioned among
the clay loams later. ;

The soils prevailing in the valley of southern California, from
Redlands at its head to Los Angeles at its opening out toward
the sea, consist chiefly of granitic sand, which at some points
on the slopes forms the soils exclusively, but everywhere con-
stitutes a prominent ingredient of the valley and mesa lands.
These mesa lands are conspicuous for their orange-red tint, and
the red sandy loam of which they are composed, to depths vary-
ing from ten to as much as eighty feet, is evidently the choice
soil for orange culture. It is manifest that at some remote epoch
it filled the entire valley. Of the middle portion much has been
washed away, but islands of it form red-land tracts of greater or
less extent all over the region, traversed by and more or less
commingled with, the granitic wash from the valleys and cai-
ons of the Sierra Madre. The latter frequently consists largely
of gravel, and were it not for the luxuriant natural vegetation
borne by these gravel beds, few would have thought of devoting
them to the costly experiment of orange planting, which, never-
theless, has proved eminently successful even on these unpromis-
ing-looking masses of debris. In the upper valley (San Bernar-
dino Valley proper) the red loam is conspicuous, and gives its
name to the flourishing settlement of Redlands, on the terminal
slope; but the heavy flow of water from the upper cafions, nota-
bly from that of the Santa Ana River, has scoured it out of the
valley itself, and left there, at least on the northern portion, gray
and blackish granitic loams of great depth and productiveness,
underlaid, and therefore underdrained, by the enormous gravel
beds that hold the artesian water of this favored region.

The reddish mesa soils prevail through the smaller southern
California valleys as well, and are similar in character, as they
are derived from similar geological formations.

Where the surface descends gradually to the seashore, and
not in bluffs, there are, as in Los Angeles and Orange Counties,
coast flats several miles in width, where the soil is a dark-colored
sandy loam, glistening with scales of mica, and more or less
affected with alkali in the lower portions. Similar soils are
found in tracts of greater or less extent up the coast as far as

PRUNE ON PEACH ROOT NEAR NILES: SHOWING DEEP ROOTING OF CALIFORNIA TREES.—%ee page 29.

Alluvial Soils. 33

Santa Barbara at least. As a rule, these seashore lands are very
productive, but fruits for them must be chosen with reference to
their low level and exposure to coast influences.

The light loams of the so-called desert region of southern
California are not inferior in productive capacity to some of the
best soils of the great valley, which it greatly resembles, save in
the scarcity of humus, or vegetable matter. Only a detailed
survey, however, can determine the tracts having an arable soil,
as against those overrun by arid sand. The soil of the Colorado
River bottom is highly productive, easily worked, being quite
light. It is a highly calcareous soil, and is likely, whenever the
water of the Colorado River shall be made available for irriga-
tion, to yield rich returns for cultivation.

The valleys of the seaward slope of the Coast Range have
mostly gray, light, and silty, rather than sandy soils, quite sim-
ilar in appearance from Ventura to Humboldt County, though
differing considerably in composition, those of the southern
region being more calcareous, and apparently richer in phos-
phoric acid; as the coast region consists for the most part of low
ranges with intervening valleys, the valleys are, as a rule, small,
though a few show considerable area. In such a country the
soil surface shows wide diversity within smaller areas than on
the vast stretches of the great interior valley; consequently, so
far as soil goes, the coast farms are often suited to a wider range
of fruits than the interior valley farms of similar size.

ALLUVIAL OR SEDIMENTARY LOAMS.

These soils have been considered from the earliest plantings
by Americans as par excellence the fruit soils of the great valley
of central and northern California. They occur along the
courses of existing streams, and extend back to variable dis-
tances, until they merge into the valley loams, or adobes. These
deposits are considerably higher than the present beds of the
streams, and are sometimes described as “next to river bottom.”
They consist of fine alluvium, with seldom any admixture of
coarse materials. These river soils are usually very deep, and
they are naturally well drained.

These deposits cross the valley in somewhat irregular
courses; they are of greater or less width according to the drain-
age area whence they have come. They vary also in depth,
and taper down on either side to the level of the red loam or
adobe upon which they have been deposited. Such strips are
first chosen by the fruit planters of the district in which they
occur. In the valleys of the rivers crossing the eastern side of
the San Joaquin Valley, there are, bordering the streams as
well as Tulare Lake, considerable areas of brown to blackish

34 Clay Loams.

loam varying from heavy to light, but for the most part easily
tilled and exceedingly rich. Considerable fruit has been grown
for years on these situations, and some kinds do well on these
bottoms which do not show adaptation to the plains. Some
even of the higher lying portions of these “black lands” support
thrifty orchards without irrigation. The wider stretches of allu-
vial soils in the upper part of the valley, as in the Mussel Slough
country and the Visalia region, for instance, are notably well
adapted to fruit growing. The occasional intrusion of alkali,
which must be carefully avoided, is the chief obstacle to the gen-
eral approval of these alluvial lands for fruit purposes.

Soil of similar character is found in some small valleys con-
sisting of an alluvial wash from the bordering hills which in some
places reaches a depth of thirty feet or more without notable
change in character. Such soils have proved very fertile and
durable.

In the coast valleys of the State there are also very exten-
sive areas of alluvial soils which are largely used in fruit produc-
tion, as well as upland loams formed in place by the disintegra-
tion of local rock formations. The famous fruit region extending
from Oakland southward nearly one hundred miles, including
the Alameda and Santa Clara Valleys, has very large areas of
alluvial soil, ranging from deep, rich blackish loams used for
vegetables and small fruits, to lighter loams resulting from inter-
mixture of sediment brought by streams from adjacent hill-
sides with the clay of the valley bottom. It is to these deep,
rich alluvial deposits that the region owes its great reputation
in fruit lines.

Below the “river banks” sedimentary soils, which is another
name for the soils previously considered, lies the rich river bot-
tom, adjacent to the beds of the main rivers and sloughs of the
valley. It is usually a dark, rich, and moist soil, easily tilled and
not subject to baking and cracking. It is largely used for the
growth of vegetables and alfalfa, but considerable areas have
been planted with fruit trees, especially with pears, which do
not suffer from submergence of their roots for considerable time.

CLAY LOAMS.

Of loams containing sufficient clay to render them some-
what heavy and tenacious, there is also a great variety in Cal-
ifornia. Their suitability for different fruits depends upon selec-
tion of roots adapted to their character and upon the depth and
degree of retentiveness of the soils themselves. They are more
difficult of tillage than the free loams, but offer some compénsa-
tion therefor in their richness and durability.

Clay Sorls. 35

Clay Loams of the Foot-hills and Valley Border.—The soils
of the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, throughout its course
along the great valley, vary from a moderately clayey loam to
a heavy, though not uncommonly gravelly, often orange-red
clay. This character seems to be sensibly the same, whether the
soil be derived from the decomposition of the ancient slate bed-.
rock or directly from the dark-colored granites, thus creating
a presumption that the two rocks are closely related. The soils
are highly charged with iron to the extent of from seven to over
twelve per cent, which being finely divided, imparts to them the
intense orange-red tint. The soils of the foot-hills agree with
the soils of the valley in having a good precentage of lime, while
the supply of potash and phosphates, as well as of organic mat-
ter, is smaller, and sometimes low, though never apparently
inadequate for present productiveness, in the presence of so
much lime.

Along the base of the foot-hills of the Sierra there is in
Fresno, Tulare, and part of Kern County, a belt of reddish or
brown loam soils, corresponding to those similarly located in
the Sacramento Valley, but generally more clayey, and hence
frequently designated as adobe by contrast with the very sandy
soils of the valley at large, although properly they should be
classed simply as clayey loams. This belt is eight to ten miles
wide in middle Tulare County, and narrows to the north and
south. Here these lands have a gentle slope of ten to twenty
feet per mile from the base of the foot-hills, and appear to be
underlaid at a depth of twelve to fifteen feet by water-bearing
gravel. The soil is a reddish, more or less sandy, loam, chang-
ing little in its aspect for several feet. Its adaptation to fruit is
shown by the products of the Porterville region.

CLAY SOILS.

Thus far a very small area of true adobe* soil has been
employed in horticulture. There is a great difference in the
character of what is known as adobe in different localities. Its
color varies, as the popular terms “black waxy,” “black,”
“brown,” and “gray” adobe indicate. Its physical condition and
chemical composition also vary greatly. The black adobe of
the east side of the Sacramento Valley is easily tilled as com-
pared with the gray adobe on the west side, which is very refrac-
tory and often largely impregnated with alkali. To render soil
of adobe character useful for fruit growing, this tendency to dry
out and crack, thus allowing evaporation from below as well as

* This name has been erroneously applied to the loam commonly used in the construction
et gto houses. Agriculturally, it means ‘‘a heavy clay soil,” such as could not be used in
uilding.

36 Defective Sorts.

from the surface, must be overcome. The discussion of this
point belongs to the chapter on ‘‘Cultivation.” Adobe soils are,
as a rule, rich and durable and therefore promise long fruitful-
ness to trees and vines with roots adapted to heavy soils, but
difficulty of cultivation, excessive retention of water, and other
evils are always present. Some suggestions on the treatment
of such soils will be given in the chapter on fertilization.

DEFECTIVE SOILS,

Although California soils are predominantly of the depth,
lightness and richness best suited to the growth and bearing of
fruit trees and vines, it should always be borne in mind that
there are marked exceptions, and failure to observe this fact
has resulted in considerable disappointment and loss. There
is in California much land which is bad from a horticultural
point of view and it is apt to occur even in the vicinity of lands
of the highest excellence. It is, therefore, necessary to advise
that the closest examination be made before investment be made
in the planting of fruits.

Although there are instances of deficiency in plant food in
California soils and considerable areas of land sterile through
excess of saline and alkaline salts, these are usually indicated by
the local reputation of the tracts, if the newcomer will take pains
to make inquiry. It is rather the more obscure, subsoil condi-
tions which lead to loss or failure, and they may be unknown
even to men who have owned or iarmed the land for years for
ordinarv field crops. These defects are, in the main, three:—

Hard-pan.—Good loams may be underlaid near the surface
by hard-pan or by layers of heavy clay. These prevent root
penetration; they also limit moisture reception to the shallow
surface layer, which is apt to become water-logged for lack of
drainage during the rainy season or by excessive irrigation, and
to quickly lose its moisture by surface evaporation in the dry
season, with no compensation from the tight layer below. In
such a situation, then, the plant may suffer severely from excess
of water at one time of the year and lack of it at another. Such
lands may serve well for some of the small fruits, but not for
trees or vines. Under certain circumstances the defects of these
soils may be corrected, as will be suggested in the chapter on
preparing lands for planting.

Leachy Sub-soiis—Good loams are also occasionally under-
laid by layers of coarse sand or gravel, through which water
flows away beyond the reach of roots which will only make
measured progress through such matcrials. Trees in such situ-
ations are apt to come into distress in the dry season and can
only be comforted by frequency and volume of irrigation and

flow to Find Defects. 37

fertilization, which are out of proportion to the returns they are
able to make.

Rise of Ground Water.—Good fruit lands are also occasion-
ally rendered defective by the rise of the ground water toward
the surface so that only a shallow layer is left for root extension
—the evil being aggravated by the fact that a temporary fall of
the ground water induces deeper rooting, which a subsequent
rise of the water destroys, and decay of the roots ensues. This
trouble has occurred over large areas where excessive irrigation,
or the course of leaky ditches, on higher lands, has filled the
lower levels to such an extent that there is actual outcropping
of swamps in the swales. The cure for these conditions is,
obviously, drainage, which it is not always possible to secure
at a warranted outlay.

Alkali—Connected with this rise of the ground water the
alkali evil may intrude. ‘But little trouble arises from this cause
in the high-lying, sandy tracts, where irrigation or the natural
rainfall carries the soluble salts annually into the country drain-
age; but in the low-lving and less pervious soils of swales and
valley troughs, which are at the same time intrinsically the
richest in available mineral plant food, the accumulation fre-
quently causes considerable trouble and difficulty.*

Prospecting for Soil Defects—The University Experiment
Station at Berkeley, undertakes to advise planters concerning the
character of the land they propose to use. For subterranean
prospecting, Professor Hilgard commends a steel rod not less
than a quarter of an inch in diameter (round or square, prefer-
ably the latter), well pointed at one end, and provided at the
other with a stout iron ring for the reception of a stout cross-
handle, such as is used for post-hole augers. With such a prod,
or sounding-rod, not less than five feet in length, the explora-
tion of the subsoil for hard-pan or dense clay layers becomes a
matter of a few minutes. It is easy also to detect thus the pres-
ence of underlying layers of quicksand, gravel, or other loose
materials through which irrigation water would waste, or which
would prevent the rise of bottom water within the reach of
plant roots, by the large interspaces between their grains. Any
remaining doubts as to the nature of such underlying materials
at particular points can then quickly be solved by the use of a
post-hole auger or by digging, as thorough inspection and the
taking of samples for each foot of depth may be found desir-
able.

* University publications on alkaline soils and their treatment may be had by application
to Agricultural Experimeut Station, Berkeley.

CHAPTER. 1¥.

THE WILD FRUITS OF CALIFORNIA.

The wild fruits of California are numerous, and for the
most part peculiar to the region, being either of local genera or
local species of more widely distributed genera. Very few are
identical with the wild fruits common to great areas of the con-
tinent. For this reason our wild fruits constitute a very inter-
esting subject for botanical study, and they are now, perhaps
more widely than ever before, attracting the attention of botan-
ical pomologists. Viewed from the standpoint of practical
pomology or horticulture, our wild fruits can not be claimed,
on the whole, to have attained any very great importance.

A few fruits, as will be noted further on, have demonstrated
their culinary or household value, and are locally sought for,
but none have any notable commercial value. This may be due
to the fact that some of our most delicious wild fruits are very
exacting in their choice of conditions, and can not be moved far,
even within the limits of our own State, and presumably would
not take kindly to longer journeys.

Another reason why we have made little of our own wild
species is found in the fact that our climate favors the superior
growth of the best improved fruits of nearly all parts of the
world. Therefore, we have little occasion for recourse to the
improvement of local wild fruits, because of superior hardiness
and adaptation, as has been done in other parts of the country.
Neither fruit planters nor propagators have given any special
attention to the wild growths, either for fruit or for stocks,
although a beginning has been made in both these directions,
which may ultimately attain importance. The horticulture of
California wild fruits is a thing of the future.

The distributions of our wild fruits is determined by limita-
tions of areas of similar climatic conditions. In a general way
it may be said that fruits are most abundant in foot-hill and
mountain regions, and that our great valleys have always been
practically destitute of them, except along stream borders.
These fruits are most abundant in the northern portion of the
State, but some exist throughout the State, usually thriving at
higher elevations as they proceed southward.

(38)

Wild Plums and Cherries. 39

Oregon Crabapple (Pyrus rivularis). —This fruit, though more
abundant in the more northerly regions of the coast, as its name
indicates, is found in the northwest counties of this State. It
chooses a moist situation, becomes a tree fifteen to twenty-five
feet high, shows white bloom, and red or yellow oblong fruit,
about half an inch long. The flavor is rather acid, but the fruit
is eaten by the Indians, and was sometimes used for jelly-making
by early settlers.

Wild Plum (Prunus subcordata)—This must be regarded as
one of the most useful of our wild fruits. Even now, when the
plum varieties of all the world have been introduced, residents
in some of the Sierra regions, where an excellent variety (Kel-
loggii) abounds, prefer it to the cultivated fruit, both for eating
and preserving and jelly-making. The typical species is widely
distributed over the mountainous regions of the State, and is a
low shrub with white bloom and fruit three-quarters of an inch
long, of red color and inferior pulp. The better variety has a
narrower range, forms a larger shrub, and bears a yellow fruit,
larger and better than the typical species. Some attempts have
been made to improve this variety by cultivation and selection
of seedlings, and the results are promising, as fruit has been
shown at our fairs notably better than the wild gatherings. The
roots have also been used to some extent as stocks, but seem
to possess no marked advantage. Mr. Felix Gillet, of Nevada
City, reports that grafting an improved plum on the wild stock
seems to cause the root to grow to much greater size than
natural to it. Observation upon grafted and non-grafted seed-
lings in the same nursery row convinced him of this behavior.
Other experimenters have condemned the stock because of
dwarfing and suckering. In early days the wild plums in the
mining regions of the mountains were largely made use of and
are highly praised by pioneers.

Oso Berry (Osmaronia cerasiformis).—This fruit is sometimes
called the “California false plum.” It has a plum-like form, and
is of a rich, blue-black color, but is bitter, though not disagree-
able to birds and animals, which feed upon it. The white bloom
of the shrub has an almond odor. Used as a stock, the plum
varieties grafted upon it have been dwarfed.

Wild Cherries (Prunus sp.).—Quite a group of wild fruits
come under this generic grouping. and they have marked and
widely different characteristics. One (Primus demissa) closely
resembles the Eastern choke-cherry, and bears its round, red, or
dark purple fruit on a raceme. It is used for marmalade by
housewives in the mountain districts. This species has proved
of some utility both for its fruit and as a stock for grafting in
early days when better cherry stock was not available. Another

40 WVild Grapes and Berries.

species (Prunus ilicifolia) has evergreen foliage, and is a useful
hedge plant.

Of species bearing fruit in umbels, or true cherry style, we
have two. Prunus emarginata makes a handsome tree, some-
times thirty feet high, but its oval, dark red fruit is quite bitter
and astringent. Another species bears bright red fruit, intensely
bitter.

California Grape (Vitis Californica)—Along our streams the
native grape-vine attains large size and fruits freely, the fruit
resembling the “frost grape” of the East. The vine frequently
covers and sometimes kills large trees with the density of its
foliage. Some variation is reported in the species, but it is pos-
sible that some of the better kinds are seedlings from some.
imported species, bird planted. The species has attained some-
thing of a reputation as a phyloxera-resisting root for grafting,
but it has proved exacting in its choice of soils and situations,
and otherwise not desirable, and some Eastern species are now
relied upon for this service. ;

Elderberry (Sambucus glauca).—The elderberry makes a fine
tree in California, sometimes twenty feet or more in height, and
with a trunk a foot and a haif in diameter. The fruit is borne
in large quantities and is used to some extent for preserves and
pastry.

Raspberries (Rubus sp.).—In the mountains of the eastern
part of the State is a scarlet hemispherical berry of pleasant
flavor, which is called “thimbleberry” (Rubus parviflorus). It
seems to have an advantage over a variety (velutinus) of the same
species which is found near the coast and has a dry, insipid fruit.
Another raspberry, which is found in all hilly and mountainous
regions, both on the coast and in the interior, is Rubus leuco-
dermis. It resembles the black-cap raspberry of the Atlantic
slope, except that it has yellowish-red fruit. This fruit is quite
largely gathered for domestic uses, and some efforts have been
made to cultivate the plants.

Salmon Berry (Rubus spectabilis)—The beauty, size, and
delicious flavor of this fruit are highly commended by all who
have enjoyed it in the upper coast counties of California and
farther northward. The plant makes a strong bush, five to ten
feet high, and it delights in woods and shady banks of streams.
The praise of all who know the fruit has led to frequent attempts
to introduce the plant to warmer and drier parts of the State, but
such efforts have thus far uniformly failed.

Wild Blackberry (Rubus wvittfolits)—This fruit should per-
haps be called a “dewberry.” as it has a trailing, or, at most, but
partially raised stems, which extend from five to twenty feet.
The plant occurs abundantly on banks of streams and. other
sufficiently moist locations, both in the coast and interior regions

Wild Strawberries. 41

of the State. Around the margin of Humboldt Bay, on land
cleared by fire or axe, blackberries spring up abundantly on the
denuded land. Tons of the fruit are said to remain after the
local housewives have done their utmost in preserving and jelly-
making. In the lowland region around Stockton considerable
quantities are sometimes gathered for sale. The fruit, which
has been held in high repute ever since pioneer days, is oblong,
black, and sweet. The species is variable, and the anomaly, a
white blackberry, has been reported irom Del Norte County.

Wild Strawberries (Fragaria sp.)—We have in California
two Eastern species: Fragaria vesca and F. Virgimana. Thus
far these have only been reported from localities in the Sierra
mountain region. Another has been found identical with a
South American species, Chiloensis, and it occurs along the coast,
where the fruit is esteemed, and is sometimes abundant enough
to gather in quantity. A fourth species is local, and is named
Californica. It bears a small round fruit and is partial to the
coast region. Recently some cultural attention has been given
to the wild strawberry, and a variety worthy of propagation is
reported by growers resident in the Sierra region. It is called
“Honey,” and is described by Watkins as small to medium size,
exquisite flavor, glowing red color, productive, perfect bloom,
and very hardy. Other varieties of the Alpine type have been
brought to light in the Sierra region and to some extent dis-
tributed.

Wild Gooseberries and Currants (Ribes sp.)—Some of our
currant species are achieving quite a reputation abroad as orna-
mental shrubs, but they bear insipid fruit. The fruit of Ribes
tenuiflorum is, however, more agreeable, and is esteemed for
jellies, etc., by dwellers in its region, which is the mountain
region of the extreme north of the State. We also have a
species (bracteosum) which has something of the black currant
flavor and a fair-sized fruit, black with whitish bloom, and very
sweet.

There are also several species of Ribes which are classed
with the gooseberries, but only three bear edible fruit. One of
these (Ribes divaricatum) is peculiar to this coast; another (Ribes
oxyacanthoides) occurs at an elevation in the Sierra Nevada and
thence extends eastward beyond the Rocky Mountains. The
berries are small to medium, of pleasant flavor, and well armed
with spines. Another species (Ribes quercetorum), common in
San Luis Obispo and Kern Counties, resembles the flavor of
the cultivated gooseberry, and is free from spines.

Cranberries and HHuckleberries (Vaccinium sp.).—We have
several species belonging to the same botanical genus as the
Eastern cranberry, but quite different from it both in growth

4

42 Other Wild Berries.

of plant and character of fruit. The fruit of two species is red-
dish, but insipid. Other species (V. ovatum, &c.) have dark blue
or purple fruit. Some of these are locally esteemed, and the
argument drawn from them is that the cranberry of commerce
would succeed. It should be stated, however, that the situations
in which these plants thrive are not at all according to the re-
quirements of the bog cranberry. A huckleberry (Vaccinium
ovatum) is largely gathered in the redwood region of northern
California, for canning and pie-making. The berries are juicy
and delicious, and the preserved fruit has a very agreeable flavor.

Other Berries-—There are many small, wild fruits, com-
monly designated as berries, which are of considerable botanical
interest. The fruit, too, may be said to be edible, judging by
the taste of Indians, birds, and wild beasts, but not likely to be
much more than ornamental in the eyes of white people. They
may be briefly enumerated :-—

The “manzanita” (Arctostaphylos manzanita), the “little
apple” of the Spaniard, bears a rather dry but sub-acid fruit.

The “bear berry” (Arctostaphylos uvaursi) is esteemed by
Indians both as food and medicine.

The “western buffalo berry” has small acid edible fruits.

The “salal” (two species of Gaultheria), small fruit, either red
or purple, is also a favorite of the aborigines.

Of “barberries’’ we have three species of berberis. One,
aquifolium, is called the “false Oregon grape,” chiefly notable
for its handsome bloom, which has been chosen the State flower
of Oregon. The fruit is dark blue, and the root is said to be a
febrifuge. Another species (nervosa) has a larger fruit, which
is esteemed in cookery; and a third species (pinnata) bears a
small, pleasant-flavored fruit. It is the Lenya amarilla of the
Spanish-Californias.

Our “service berry” (Amelanchicr alnifolia) is from a quarter
to a third of an inch in diameter and of a purple color.

The “lemon berry” is a fruit of Rhus integrifolia, and is
coated with an acid exudation which is said to dissolve in water
and make a pleasant drink. The fruit of Rhus tri-lobata is said
to have both a sweet and an acid coating.

The berries of the “toyon” or “tollon” (Heteromeles arbuti-
folia), or “California holly,” are said to be eaten by Indians, but
they serve the white people a better purpose in Christmas dcora-
tions.

_ The “jujube” of commerce (Zizyphus jujuba) has a local rel-
ative in Zizyphus parryi, which is, however, dry and mealy,
rather than juicy.

_The “beach strawberry” is the fruit of Mesembrianthemum
equilaterale, a relative of the ice-plant. The good-sized fruit is

Wild Olive and Almond. 43

gathered along the sea-shore, and remotely suggests a straw-
berry.
Wild Olive (Forestiera neo-\sexicana).—This is a tall willow-
like shrub, found in springy places on the borders of the Mojave
Desert. It bears an abundance of small fruits which, from their
botanical relationship to the olive, have attracted some attention.
Experiments to determine its standing as a possible root for the
olive have been suggested.

Wild Nuts of California—The wild nuts of California are of
very little commercial importance. The wild almond (Prunus
Andersonit) of the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada is only of
botanical interest, and little more can be said of the California
filbert (Corylus rostrata, var. Californica), which has none of the
quality of the improved filberts nor even of the wild hazelnut.
Our chestnut (Castanopsis chrysophylla) has a sweet kernel, but
a hard shell, almost like a hazelnut. Our native walnut (Juglans
Californica) is better in flavor than the Eastern black walnut, but
its hard shell makes it of little commercial account in competi-
tion with better, cultivated nuts.

The one native nut which is regularly sold in the local
market is the “pinenut”—seeds of several species of Pacific Coast
pines. Their flavor is somewhat resinous, but is agreeable.

The seeds of twe species of palms, I/ashingtonia filifera and
the Lower California Erythea armata, are sought for by the In-
dians, who also eat the sweetish fruit of the Yucca Afojavensis,
which somewhat resembles in shape the banana, and in flavor
the fig, and is called the “wild date.”

The Indians also use the acorns of several species of Cali-
fornia oaks as food, extracting the bitterness by soaking in water,
and then making a rude bread of the acorn meal.

The ‘“jajoba” (Simmondsia Catifornica) is a low shrub, the
fresh fruits of which, deprived of their seed-coats, are eaten like
almonds, and when dried by fire and ground they are used as a
beverage, in the form of tablets made up with sugar, or as a
simple infusion. Fire-dried seeds contain 48.30 per cent of fatty
matter; the oil is suitable for food and of good quality, and pos-
sesses the immense advantage of not turning rancid. In Lower
California it is prepared by boiling with water. The French are
recommending it for cultivation in their North African colonies.

Cactus—The common cactus (Opuntia Engelmanni) bears a
sweet edible fruit which the Indians dry in large quantities for
winter use. By long boiling they make a sauce, which, after
slight fermentation, they consider especially nutritious and stim-

ulating.

CHAPTER V,

CALIFORNIA MISSION FRUITS.

Cultivated fruits were first brought into California from the
south. Mission work among the Indians of Lower California
was actually begun by the establishment of the mission at Lo-
reto by Salvatierra, October 19, 1697. The following years
horses and cattle were brought from Mexico, and from this intro-
duction came ultimately the vast herds which roamed the hills
and plains of California. Probably the first seeds and plants of
cultivated vegetables and fruits came about the same time, for
there was a small garden and a few fruit trees at Loreto in 1701.
But Loreto was not fitted for horticulture, and in the same year
an expedition in charge of Father Ugarte, who is called the
founder of agriculture in Lower California, crossed over the
mountain to a more suitable location at the mission of Vigge
Biaundo, which had been destroyed some time before by hostile
Indians. Ugarte restored the mission, made irrigating ditches,
and planted fruit trees and vines. This effort was successful
from a horticultural point of view, for in 1707 Ugarte made more
wine than would suffice for mission use, and sent some to Mex-
ico in exchange for other goods. Thus began the export trade
in California wine.

The Jesuits continued their establishment of missions in
Lower California until there were fifteen missions, at five of
which there were vineyards, and presumably as many or more
which had gardens with fruit trees.

The variety of fruits grown in Lower California was small.
They had figs, oranges, citrons, pomegranates, plantains, and
some olives and dates. There were no North European fruits,
with the exception of a few peaches, which, however, did not
appear to thrive.

The Jesuits were supplanted in Lower California, in 1768,
by the Franciscans. The Franciscans, led by Junipero Serra,
at once pressed northward, and entered the territory which is
now the State of California. Their first establishment was at
San Diego, in 1769. Thence they proceeded northward, brav-
ing many perils, and undergoing great hardships, establishing
missions through the coast region of the State. Credit is given

(44)

Fruits at the Missions. 45

to the secular head of the expedition to San Diego, Don Joseph
de Galvez, representing the king of Spain, for ordering the car-
tying of seeds of fruits, grains, vegetables, and flowers into the
new territory, and from the planting at San Diego the same
varieties were taken to the twenty missions afterwards estab-
lished.

Kinds of Fruit at the Missions—It is of no little interest to
ascertain how great a variety of fruits was grown in these mis-
sion orchards. Vancouver, in 1792, found a fine orchard at
Santa Clara, with apple, peach, pear, apricot, and fig trees, all
thrifty and promising. He also describes at the mission of San
Buena Ventura apples, pears, plums, figs, oranges, grapes, and
peaches and pomegranates. Robinson described the orchards
connected with the Mission of San Gabriel as very extensive,
having among their trees oranges, citrons, limes, apples, pears,
peaches, pomegranates, and figs. There were also grapes in
abundance. Edwin Bryant noticed at San Luis Obispo Mis-
sion the orange, fig, palm, olive, and grape. At the Mission
San Jose he found an inclosure oi fifteen or twenty acres, the
whole of which was planted with trees and grape-vines. There
were six hundred pear trees and a large number of apple and
peach trees, all bearing fruit in great abundance and in full per-
fection. The quality of the pears he found excellent, but the
apples and peaches indifferent. E. S. Capron, in a general enu-
meration of the fruits grown at the missions, includes cherries.

Early Planting by Others than the Padres—Though the ear-
lier Spanish population had the example of successful horticul-
ture before them for half a century at the missions, they did not
seem inclined to emulate the efforts of the padres upon their
own grounds, except in occasional instances. General Vallejo
planted fruit trees in Sonoma Valley as early as 1830, and of his
place it is said: “It is an old and well-cultivated place, well known
in all the northern portion of California while this State was still
Mexican territory.” Exceptions there were, also, at the south.
The old fruit garden on the Cumulos Rancho, in Ventura County,
has become famous. Fremont, writing of his observations in
1846, says that among the arid, brush-covered hills south of San
Diego he found little valleys converted by a single spring into
crowded gardens, where pears, peaches, quinces, pomegranates,
grapes, olives, and other fruits grew luxuriantly together.

Scarcely had six years elapsed subsequent to the settlement
of the pueblo of San Jose on its present site, before the inhabit-
ants were enjoying the benefits of luxurious fruits. Before 1805
more was grown than could be disposed of in its natural state.

Decline of the Mission Orchards.—Vhe decline of most of the
mission orchards and gardens followed the secularization of the

46 Planting by Early Settlers.

establishments in 1834. There were a few exceptions, where the
mission lands fell into enterprising Spanish or American hands.
During the years of neglect, the more tender trees died, and the
more hardy survived. The pear and the olive vied with the vine
in withstanding drouth and the trampling and browsing of the
cattle that roamed unmolested through the deserted gardens.
These pears, as will be described presently, were turned to good
account by the early American settlers; the olive and the vine
furnished cuttings for most of the plantations made during the
first twenty years or more of American occupation.

But it seems that not all the mission orchards were per-
mitted to fall into decay after the secularization. In 1846 Bry-
ant found at the Mission San Jose two gardens inclosed by high
adobe walls. The area was from fifteen to twenty acres, all of
which was planted with fruit trees and vines. There were about
six hundred pear trees and a large number of apple and peach
trees, all bearing fruit in great abundance, the quality of the
pears being excellent, the apples and peaches indifferent. Other
visitors to some of the mission orchards between the events of
secularization and American occupation speak of being regaled
with pears and milk, a dish which seemed to them ambrosial
after the weary journeys overland across the deserts, or after
months of ship fare.

Planting of Mission Fruits by Early Settlers—There were
quite considerable plantations, chiefly of mission grapes and
oranges, by early settlers in the neighborhood of Los Angeles.
General Bidwell says he saw in Los Angeles in 1845 the largest
vineyards that he had seen in California, and the vines were
the most thrifty. Wine was also abundant,—even the Angelica.
Los Angeles had orchards, also, mostly of oranges. The largest
orange orchards at that time were those of Wolfskill, Carpenter,
and Louis Vigne. :

Among the early planters of mission fruits in the northern
part of the State was Yount, who planted vines in Napa Valley
in 1838, and other fruits later. John Woliskill, of Winters, saw
grapes and peaches at Yount’s in 1841, and J. M. Pleasant took
peach pits from Yount’s over into Pleasant’s Valley, Solano
County, in 1851. Dr. Marsh, on his place at the base of Mount
Diablo, had, in 1842, a mission grape vineyard more than an acre
in extent, and in good bearing. The vines were planted about
1838. Mr. Wolfskill planted a few vines on Putah Creek in
1842.

Partial Revival of the Mission Fruit Gardens—After the in-
coming of Americans in 1849 some of the old mission trees
were secured by enterprising men, and made to renew their
youth by pruning, cultivation, and irrigation, that they might

Russian Introductions. 47

minister to the great demand for fruit which sprang up among
the gold seekers. The trees richly reciprocated the care and
attention given them. The first fruits offered for sale in the San
Francisco markets were from the pear trees of Santa Clara and
San Jose Missions, and from the mission grape-vines of the same
localities, and of Los Angeles County. These grapes, packed
in sawdust, came up the coast by steamer, and were then re-
shipped to the mining camps, arriving for the most part in good
condition, and were very popular. It is recorded that one thou-
sand five hundred tons of these grapes were sent from Los An-
geles County to San Francisco and the mines in 1852. Another
instance in which thrift followed neglect is seen in the fact that,
in 1858, Don Andres Pico, who succeeded to possession of the
orchard at the San Fernando Mission, did a considerable busi-
ness in drying pears and other fruits, using the labor of the
Indians.

At the present time vestiges of the old mission orchards
still remain, the pears and olives still bearing, and in some cases
the old date palms guarding the desolate scenes, or standing as
reminders of the old regime, while the new life of California is
surging up around them.

RUSSIAN FRUITS.

The second introduction of cultivated fruits to California
was by the Russians. The exact date of their planting at Fort
Ross on the ocean side in Mendocino County is not known, but
is believed to have been as early as 1812. The present owner
of the property is Mr. G. W. Call, who says the survivors of the
original Russian planting look “very old and mossy, and are not
very thrifty, but still bear some fruit every year.” They were
planted too closely, and have undergone periods of neglect, no
doubt. The trees are apple for the most part, but there were also
cherries, and some of both fruits survive. The trees are all be-
lieved to have been grown from seed, and if this be true some
fortunate results were obtained, for there is still grown in Green
Valley, Sonoma County, a medium-sized, bell-shaped apple,
lightly striped with red, which is called the Fort Ross or Rus-
sian apple, and was probably propagated by grafts from the Fort
Ross orchard. Seeds were also secured from this source for
propagation of apple trees in early days in that section of the
State.

CHAPTER V1,

INTRODUCTION OF IMPROVED FRUIT VARIETIES.

The first cultivated fruits of the old era came to California
with the padres. The first fruits of the new era came with the
American pioneers. Though not a little inquiry has been made,
it is not yet possible to declare definitely who brought the first
budded or grafted trees upon California soil, and it is hoped
that this statement may induce someone to disclose this historic
fact, which is of much interest in view of our wonderful growth
in fruit production. Perhaps the first improved varieties of de-
ciduous fruits arrived in 1846. B. M. Leiong, secretary of the
California Board of Horticulture, says that it is a tradition in
his family that his father, the late Martin Lelong, who came to
California as a member of Stevenson's regiment, brought with
him a small lot of French varieties of apples growing in a box,
and that they were planted in Los Angeles.

In the fall of 1849 W. H. Nash, now a resident of San Fran-
cisco, joined with R. L. Kilburn in ordering from a nursery in
western New York a small box of thirty-six fruit trees, which,
packed in moss, well survived the journey around the Horn,
arriving and being planted in Napa Valley in the spring of 1850.
The shipment included Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury Rus-
set, Winesap, Red Romanite; Esopus Spitzenburg apples; Bart-
lett and Seckel pears; Black Tartarian and Napoleon Bigarreau
cherries.

Before this introduction of grafted fruit trees, and, indeed,
for several years afterwards, there were many shipments of fruit-
tree seeds from the eastern States to California. Mr. Barnett,
of Napa, planted Kentucky seed as early as 1847. T. K. Stewart
says that he brought to California with him, in 1848, about two
hundred pounds of vegetable and fruit seeds, the latter including
peach, pear, and apple, all of which were planted on the Ameri-
can River, within the present limits of Sacramento, in the spring
of 1849. At the same time he planted figs and olives, and, in
1851, seeds of oranges. From all these he secured bearing trees.

But these early efforts at improvement of California fruits
were but faint forerunners of the zeal and enterprise which fol-
lowed the great invasion by gold seekers. As soon as the first

(48)

The First Nursery Trees. 49

thought—to get gold directly from the soil—would admit the
second—to get it indirectly, by agricultural and horticultural
arts—there came a demand for something better than the wild
fruits of the mountains, better and more abundant than the fruits
from the mission orchards. At first everything in the line of
fruit-tree seed which could be obtained was planted. Thus the
immediate vicinity of the mines soon began to show growing
fruit trees. But seedlings of any kind would not satisfy the
planters, and effort was put forth in every direction after grafted
trees of the best varieties. Oregon had a few years the start
of California as an inviting field for immigration, and the advan-
tage also of winning the attention of those who went out, not as
gold seekers, but as agricultural producers. Oregon had grafted
trees in bearing, and nursery stock as well, about the time the
demand sprang up for it in California. Its introduction was
then, however, of very recent date. Up to 1847 the cultivated
fruit of Oregon consisted of seedlings introduced by the Hudson
Bay Company. In that year occurred the first considerable, if
not the very first, introduction of grafted fruit upon the Pacific
Coast. The story of that venture has been so often wrongly
told that it is well to record its interesting incidents in the words
of one quite near to the event, if not actually participating in it.
Seth Lewelling, of Milwaukee, Oregon, writes :—

In 1847 my brother, Henderson Lewelling, crossed the plains from
Henry County, Iowa, to Oregon, bringing with him a pretty general va-
riety of grafted fruits. He fitted up a wagon for the purpose, selected
small plants, and planted them in soil in the boxes, and watered them to
keep them alive. He told me that in some places he had to carry water a
mile, up the mountains, to save his trees. When he arrived in Oregon,
late in the fall, he had something over three hundred plants alive. The
same fall William Meek arrived in Oregon with a few varieties of fruit
trees. He and my brother put their stock together, and commenced the
first nursery of grafted fruits on the Pacific Coast. It was situated five
miles south of Portland, just below Milwaukee, on the east bank of the
Willamette River. For want of seedling stock they could not increase
their nursery much until, in 1850, my brother John and I crossed the plains,
bringing with us some apple seed, which we planted that winter. We also
found a gentleman named Pugh, in Washington County, Oregon, who had
planted some apple seed in the spring of 1850, which had grown well, and
we bought his stock. During the winter of 1850-51 we put in about twenty
thousand grafts. In March, 1851, I went to Sacramento, taking with mea
box of grafts of apple, pear, peach, plum, and cherry, and sold them in
Sacramento. I believe I have the honor of being the first to distribute
grafted fruit in California.

Other Early Introductions--The introduction of grafted
trees, for sale by Mr. Lewelling in the spring of 1851, was
quickly followed by other commercial importations, and by ship-
ments by planters for their own use, so that the plantings of
1851-52 were quite large. Still there was great doubt as to the
success of the trees. The late G. G. Briggs, after his great

50 Early Fruit Gardens.

melon profits of 1851, went back to New York State for his fam-
ily, and, returning to California, brought with him, as he says,
“with no idea that they would succeed, but as a reminder of
home,” fifty peach and a few apple and pear trees. To his sur-
prise the trees grew well in 1852, and the next year blossomed
and bore some of the best peaches he ever saw. ‘The pears also
bore some fine fruit the same year.

Besides the introduction of grafted trees which have been
mentioned there were others in 1852, for, at a fair held in San
Francisco in 1853, there were several kinds of apples, grown by
Isaac A. Morgan, of Bolinas, on trees planted the previous year.
Apples were also shown from Napa. David Spence, of Mon-
terey, showed the first almonds grown in California. During
the winter 1852-53 the distribution of grafted trees must have
extended widely over the State. Five doilars for a small tree
was frequently paid at the nursery of Meek & Lewelling, in
Milwaukee, Oregon, and the trees were carried overland into
the mining districts of California, as well as brought to San Fran-
cisco for distribution through the valleys.

Fruit Gardens, not Orchards.—lt is interesting to note that
much of the pioneer effort was expended upon fruit gardens
rather than ftuit orchards. Two ideas, at least, led in this direc-
tion. One was the popular thought, which, however, was very
early found to be erroneous, that frequent and copious irrigation
was essential to the growth of fruit in this dry climate. Another
was the ambition, which was correct, both from a horticultural
and commercial point of view, to secure the fruit just as soon
as possible, for the double purpose of determining what was
adapted to the novel conditions, and to secure the magnificent
prices which fruit commanded in the market. For these ends
dwarfing stocks naturally suggested themselves, and were em-
ployed to an extent which seems wonderful when it is remem-
bered that now hardly a fruit tree in the State is worked upon a
dwarfing stock. Very early, say from ’52 to 58, at San Jose,
Oakland, Stockton, and Sacramento, small areas, which would
now only be considered respectable house lots, were turned to
great profit with dwarf pear and apple trees. The place of Mr.
Fountain, near Oakland, was called, in 1857, “The finest orchard
of dwarf trees in the State.’ It consisted of three acres set
with one thousand six hundred apple and pear trees, all dwarf
from root grafts, two years old, and four feet high, and most of
them in good bearing. He started the branches from the
ground, pruning severely, and heading in during the winter.
He claimed that dwarfing gave him better and larger fruit, and
from two to three years sooner than with standard trees. He
did not irrigate, but plowed frequently, four inches deep, up to
the first of June.

Landscape Fruit Planting. 51

But though these dwarf-tree gardens were formally declared
“to be the fashion,” and though the list of stock of one Sacra-
mento nurseryman, in 1858, included ninety-five standard and
eight thousand and sixty-cight dwarf pear trees for sale, the
foundations of the greater orchards were early laid upon the
basis of standard trees. Thus the Briggs’ orchard, of one thou-
sand acres, on the moist land of the Yuba, was planted with
trees sixteen feet apart each way, and Mr. Lewelling, and other
early planters on the rich lands of central Alameda County,
adopted about the same distance.

Quite in contrast, too, with the prevalence of dwari trees,
and contemporaneous with it, was the grand plan upon which
the pioneer of pioneers, General Sutter, laid out his orchard
on Hock Farm, on the west bank of the Feather River, eight
miles from its junction with the Yuba, of which the following
description was written about the time the trees were coming
into bearing :—

Several acres were set apart for an ornamental fruit orchard, the trees
and shrubs being so arranged as to present a unique landscape garden,
nearly every article in which is productive of fruit. The arrangement of
the fruit trees is peculiar, a large portion of them being set on either side of

the broad avenues opening through the extensive grounds in various direc-
tions, imparting to the whole an air of picturesque beauty seldom seen.

But neither the narrow dwarf-tree garden plan nor the broad
landscape-garden plan has survived. Neither of them harmo-
nized with the commercial idea of orcharding—large produc-
tion and economy of cultivation, and both are now but curiosi-
ties of the early horticulture of California.

Irrigation Abandoned.—The early abandonment of dwarf
trees suggests also the early abandonment of irrigation in the
valleys of Northern Caliiornia—as early as 1856. Facilities
which had been secured for irrigation of orchards were allowed
to go unused, because it was seen that it was better not to use
them. One case is reported in Napa County where means to
furnish the orchard with thirty thousand gallons of water per
day were allowed to lie idle. The substitution of cultivation for
water, of course, attended this reform. The announcement of a
practise, in 1856, “to plow deep, dig wide and deep holes for
planting, and work the ground from February to July, allowing
no grass or weeds to grow among the trees,” shows that the
thorough and clean culture, for which California is famous, is
not a recent idea in our practise. Even the abandonment of the
plow, and almost weekly use of the cultivator, was the practise
of some growers in the San Jose district as early as thirty years
ago. In fact, the descriptions of orchard management in that
day include nearly the whole variety of methods which now pre-

52 Tne First Over-Supply.

vail. The experience of the last decade has shown that irrigation
facilities are more valuable even for deciduous fruits than was
once thought possible. This proposition will be discussed in the
chapter on Irrigation.

Early Wisdom and Enterprise-—It is evident to anyone who
studies the records, that California was very fortunate in num-
bering among the early settlers so many men with horticultural
tastes, skill, and experience. The rapidity with which fruit trees
were multiplied, and the confidence with which these early com-
ers entered upon the nursery business, shows their training.
Although there were many trees brought here from the East
and from Europe, they constituted only a very small per-
centage of the plantings of the first few vears, but the orchards,
with the exception of a very small number of trees introduced
to furnish grafting and budding stock, were the product of the
soil. When this is borne in mind, it becomes all the more won-
derful how so much could be done in a new country, in a distant
part of the world, in so very short a time. It was an observa-
tion which was put upon record as early as 1856, that ‘‘some
varieties of fruit are much improved by change to this State, and
some are not benefited.” The test seems to have been that if a
variety was not better than at the East, it should be discarded.

The First Oversupply—The wonderful stimulus given to the
fruit interest by the results attained in growth and in marketing,
soon induced larger plantings than the demand warranted. In
1857 it was publicly stated that “there are single farms in this
State, containing each over half a million fruit trees in orange
and nursery—one person owning enough trees, when fully ma-
tured, to produce as much fruit, other than grapes, as will be
sold this year throughout our State. The day is not far distant
when fruit will be an important crop for raising and fattening
swine.” This was, to a certain extent, a statement of a croaker,
for plantations continued, rare varieties were brought from the
East, the South, and from Europe; the growth of some fruits
continued to be very profitable, and the nursery business, con-
fined to fewer hands, was profitable also. The idea that quality
rather than size should be striven for led to more discrimination
in propagation and better treatment of trees.

The decade from 1858 to 1868 was one of quiet in the fruit
interest of California. Many of the too hastily and carelessly
planted trees died from lack of proper cullivation and pruning,
and the borer wrought sad havoc. In 1860 and 1861 there was
serious depression. It is recorded that peaches were worth but
one cent a pound, and many were allowed to go to waste as not
worth gathering. The flood of 1862 destroyed many trees along
the Sacramento River, and replanting was slow until prices be-

Overland Shipment. 53

gan to improve, as they did soon alterward. The rapid devel-
opment of the mining interest in Nevada, and the construction
of roads across the Sierras, opened the way for the disposition
of much fruit grown in the foot-hills and in the region around
Sacramento.

The imports of dried and canned fruits were large, and
growers were exhorted to take steps to secure this trade for
themselves. Something was done in this direction, for by 1867
the local product of canned fruit was equal to the demand. Dry-
ing did not advance so fast; for two years later there were im-
ports of six thousand barrels of dried apples, while the hundreds
of thousands of bushels of the fruit were rotting under the trees
in our orchards.

The decade under review was also notable for the first
appearance of cured raisins and prunes at the State fair of 1863.
The raisins were from the Muscat of Alexandria grape, and the
report states that so-called raisins exhibited previous to that
time were merely dried grapes. Dr. J. Strentzel, of Martinez,
was the first exhibitor of Muscat raisins, and he exhibited also
dried grapes of four varieties to show the contrast between a
raisin and a dried grape. J. R. Nickerson, of Placer County,
exhibited the dried prunes, which were of the German variety.

Though this decade was one of uncertainty and doubt, there
were rich lessons of experience learned, and the foundations for
coming greatness were well laid. Many of our leading lines oi
production trace their beginnings to this period, and their later
developments have been beyond any anticipations then cher-
ished.

The New Era.—Another era in California may be marked as
beginning with the year 1869, because then the first fresh fruits
were sent East over the newly-opened overland line. This
period of our growth is too recent to warrant prolonged discus-
sion. The incidents, many of which are not pleasant to recall,
are within the memory of many. The first season’s shipments
amounted to thirty-three tons of pears, apples, grapes, and
plums; in 1870 seventy car-loads, or about seven hundred tons,
were sent.

The Eastern shipment of fresh fruits began its new era with
the year 1886, when the first full train load of fifteen cars of fresh
fruit from deciduous trees went overland. Shipping train loads
of oranges from southern California began at an earlier date.

During the present decade shipments of fruit and fruit prod-
ucts have increased until a very large aggregate in weight
and value has been attained. The volume of shipments beyond
State lines is shown by the following statement, compiled from
the records of the State Board of Trade.

Our Surplus Fruit Products.

54

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At the Close of the Century. 55

The Fru Interest aw 1899.—The fruit interests of California
have reached the calm, deep waters which lie below the rapids.
Notable progress has been secured in planting, in the growth,
preparation and marketing of the product, in the contest with
injurious insects and plant diseases, and, in fact, in all things
which contribute to success. It is true that there are problems
still unsolved; and there have been grevious losses to individ-
tals who have proceeded upon too great expectations or have
erred in location for various fruits. Such mishaps will be less
frequent in the future. At present there is a disposition to pro-
ceed more cautiously and to profit by the lessons which have
been learned, many of which will be mentioned in their proper
places in later chapters.

Some dimensions of the present fruit interests may be sug-
gested by the following summaries and estimates based upon
the returns of the County Assessors to the State Board of Equal-
ization of the latest available date:—

NUMBER AND ACREAGE OF FRuIT TREES AND VINES IN CALIFORNIA
MaRrcH 1, 1898.

FRvit. Bearing Non-bearing. Total. Acreage.

Apples enact: 1,068, 362 532,067 1,600,429 21,339
ADPHCots. icctieceiersgeoce:| “15279;510 835,691 2,135,201 28, 202
Cherry... 303,923 122,467 426,390 5,685
Figyssessesies is as 143,331 63,619 206,950 2,759
Lemon .... 488,885 865,044 1,353,925 18,052
Orange ... suncnusaneaes 2,318,481 1,608, 202 3,926, 083 52,355
LIF cavessecciess scareas aasaniie 250 100 350 3
POMElO™., sscdicnescaecen dase 2,233 22,227 24,460 326
Olive. ..... waveeviceriaated 420,791 782,570 1,203,361 16,044
Peach cise cas orertectitantesvesss 3,514,429 1,695,124 5 209)553 69,454
Nectarine sc2.csiveciessccee 15,025 - 257 15,882 212
QUINCE iecossexssvcsesmne canine 4,988 692 5,680 56
Peaiiceeevet-ceteeen teenies thee 1,086, 194 487,984 1,574,178 20,989
Prune, French ...........06 4,612,293 2,295,633 6,907,926 92,105
Prunes, other....... re 573,729 400,649 974,478 12,993
Bef (9 eee sole 7,632 4,406 12,038 160
Almond see eaeeeeens 9595179 538,378 | 1,497,557 19,967
Weal nutvscccscnwstes toads: desea 282,381 257,733 540,114 19,289
Unclassified *. s 123,284 133,243 256,527 |. 2,565
Grapes, acres. st 144,070 Te 7 A | ccoetiesins caslsest 159,844

TLOtal ss ..secesaesiioneniesses 17,205,500 10,646,086 | 27,851,586 542,399

* From the records of March 1, 1897.

It is customary to add about 20 per cent to the summaries
from the assessors’ reports, because their figures are likely to
be below the facts. There have been, however, so many reduc-
tions of area during the last two years, either from natural

56 Thirty Millions in Fruit.

causes or of disappointment in returns from the trees, that it is
doubtful whether the effective acreage of fruits should be counted
any higher than that given.

VALUATION OF A YEAR'S HORTICULTURAL PRODUCTS.

The California State Board of Trade estimates the gross value of a year’s shipments
beyond State lines as follows:—

KINDS. ~ Pounds. Selling price Value.
per lb.

Fresh, deciduous........... ..cecsscseeoeee 139,464,400 2c $ 2,789,288
CiPEUS is scscscdnssesitinn aes wisuicsseavel]: 301,317,800 2c 7,226,356
Dried, deciduous.. seewaiedel’ “T535325;400 4c 6,133,016
RaISinSianscsinseoussebsaustcnueadsueenseroneane 951592,600 334 Cc 3,594,723
NUtSs.sciecbiseviensenceanis : | 11,631,600 6c 697,896
Canned, deciduous............006ecceeaee 104.439,400 5c 5,221,920
Vepetablés; fresh wesc scvss sa sveextterssas 57,127,600 Ke 428,457
Vegetables, canned . & 3,786,000 2c 94.650
WANE. secciacretacaitecse siospiaanie ..-| 136,488,000 2%c* 3,412,200
BYANGY cnc siete vesaavias enedapnaweds tee bes 6,765,600 Tact 507,420

Otal ValUatlon s:csssasiesesdeescevose) se diecel oop esate den eee eee ere $30,095,926

* Basis of 20c per gal. + Basis of 60c per gal.

These amounts are of available surplus for export. They
do not include the local consumption by a million and a quarter
ot fruit-loving people.

PART SECOND: CULTURAL.

CHAPTER VII.

CLEARING LAND FOR FRUIT.

The greater part of the orchard and vineyard area of this
State was naturally almost clear for planting. The removal of
large trees, which paid the cost of the work in firewood, or the
grubbing out of willows on some especially rich bottom land,
was about the extent of clearing which our earlier planters had
to undertake, and by far the greater part of them perhaps never
had to lift an ax. Still there has always been some clearing
done, here and there, even since the earliest days, especially upon
hill lands, the peculiar value of which for some fruits is generally
recognized. 5

The lands which need clearing are in the main the foot-hill
slopes of the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada. In the
south there is besides, sometimes, the debris of the desert flora
to clear away when water is secured and the rich wilderness is
subdued. This work is, however, so easily accomplished that it
hardly rises to the dignity of “clearing,” as understood by the
Fastern nind.

It is not possible in this connection to enumerate all of the
great variety of shrubs and trees which the settler lays low in his
clearing. The grand trees which figure most largely in lumber-
ing operations are not met with as a rule in foot-hill clearings.
.The trees which the settler encounters are rather the degraded
valley growths, which, though assuming grand proportions in
the valleys, become “scrubs” amid the harsher environment of
the hillsides. This is notably true of the oaks and of some other
trees.

Chamisal and Chaparral—Of true shrubs to be removed,
it will only be possible to name a few of the most abundant.
The common manzanita (Arctostaphylos manzanita) occurs on
dry ridges everywhere, both on the coast and at great elevations,
sometimes only growing a few inches from the ground, some-
times rising eight or ten feet. Next to this, perhaps, the two

(57)
5

58 Cost of Clearing.

terms which the land clearer has most to use are “chaparral”
and “chamisal.” To distinguish between them it’ may be said,
however, that the term chamisal properly applies to the shrub
Adenostoma fasciculatum, var. obtusifolium, which is abundant on
dry soils in the Coast Ranges and more rarely in the foot-hills
of the Sierra Nevada, often covering extensive areas with dense
and almost impenetrable growth, producing an effect on the
landscape like that of the heaths of the Old World. Another
species, A. sparsifolium, with narrow, scattered leaves, is some-
times abundant on the mountains east of San Diego.

By chaparral is generally meant shrubs of several species of
Ceanothus, forming dense thickets and giving its name to certain
soils on which it most abounds, both in the Sierra foot-hills and
the hillsides of the Coast Range, where it is known as California
lilac. The genus includes the “flat brushes,’’ as they are called,
from their trailing on the ground, or low, horizontal shoots.

Other Small Growths.—Shrubs of frequent occurrence also
are the poison oak (Rhus diversiloba), chiefly on the north sides
of hills in all parts of the State, but most abundant in the Coast.
Ranges, and other species of Rhus which are not poisonous; the
hazel-nut (Corjlus rostrata), which has been mentioned in the
chapter on wild fruits; the buckthorns, several species of rham-
mus, well distributed on the hillsides and mountains of the State.

In some parts of the State there are also large areas of
sage-brush or wormwood made up of several species of Artemi-
sia, sage or chia, two species of Salvia, and the famous white
and black sages of the bee-keepers, which are species of Andi-
bertia, occurring chietly on the mountains of southern Califor-
nia. Add to these the spireas, the azaleas, the rhodendrons, the
sweet-scented shrubs (Calycanthus), etc., and include nearly all
the wild fruit trees, bushes and vines mentioned in a previous
chapter, and one will gain the idea that though California is
widely considered a bare State, the land clearer has a host of
plants confronting him and disputing his right to the soil.

Cost of Clearing—The cost of clearing on the foot-hill
slopes of the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges is too variable
to admit of estimates except such as may be made on the spot by
experienced persons. The cost varies, of course, according to
the density of the growth of trees and underbrush, and the rate
of wages to be paid. Though in some cases higher cost is
reached, probably as a rule the expense of clearing will be from
$s.00 to $30 per acre, less whatever the firewood might be worth.
In exceptional cases, where there is a large growth and a good
wood market near by, the wood may pay the expense or more;
even the roots of chaparral sell in our cities at $3.00 or $4.00 per
cord. It sometimes happens that charcoal can be produced to

Methods of Clearing. 59

advantage; in fact, there are now orchards upon land which was
secured in the first instance for the charcoal to be made upon
it. Usually, however, the clearing is an item of expense and
must be reduced as much as possible by working in the most
economical and effective way.

Though in most cases of clearing by the actual settler him-
self the problem is merely one of muscle and persistence, some
few hints may be given from the experience of others which may
be useful. Spare time during the summer and fall can often be
used to advantage with a sharp ax in trimming up the smaller
trees, which are large enough to yield fencing material, and get-
ting out posts from the redwoods and oaks, and rails and pickets
from the pines. By thus using the waste miaterial the settler
can often get out enough fencing material to inclose his land
and thus save considerable expense. Brush, too, which cannot
be made use of can be lopped off—in short, all the sharp ax
work can be done in a dry time. The actual clearing, however,
should be done in the winter, when the ground is wet and soft,
and digging is easy or “snaking out’ is possible.

Partial and Thorough Clearings—Orchards are planted on
both partially and thoroughly cleared land. By the former prac-
tise clearing enough is done to give space for the tree holes,
the debris is burned up, and the trees planted. In this kind of
work the stumps are left to be taken out at a convenient season,
the object being to get fruit trees to growing as soon as possible.
Where one is working with little more than his own muscle, and
has no capital, this sort of planting is better, perhaps, than not
planting at all, but it must be borne in mind that all subsequent
work will be done at a great disadvantage, and as cultivation
is likely to be very imperfect, it would be a question whether in
the end anything would be gained by such a plan. The encum-
-bered character of the ground will, of course, prevent the use of
the horse in cultivation until most of the stumps are removed.
Aside from this, decaying stumps and roots in the soil often kill
the young trees; especially is this the case with old oak stumps.

Clearing of land for orchard or vineyard is a very different
thing from clearing for pasture, as is done in the redwood region
ot the northwest Coast Ranges of the State, where the stumps
are untouched; the trees not taken by the lumberman are girdled
and left a prey to decay and storms, and the brush slashed and
burned every few years to prevent it from completely taking
possession of the land. Clearing for fruit should be thorough,
everything which will interfere with good cultivation removed;
roots grubbed so that as little shooting up as possible is secured;
the ground evened up to obviate standing water, and, where
needed, arrangments made for irrigation and drainage, as will be
considered later.

60 Power Stump Pullers.

Removal of Trees—The first operation in clearing will be
the removal of the trees. This can be partly done in the dry
season if one has unemployed time. In such case the tree is
felled and worked up into fire-wood and the stump left for subse-
quent treatment when the ground is moist. Unless there is idle
time to employ, the whole work can, however, be better done in
the winter, for then the top of the tree may be made to help pull
out its own roots. This is done sometimes by digging out the
soil and cutting off the main lateral roots below the depth to
which the plow will reach. By thus reducing its anchorage the
tree will topple over, or may be pulled over with a team and
tackle, and it will usually lift out its stump quite effectively.

A Steam Puller—An arrangement for tearing out trees
without digging has been used to some extent in Santa Cruz
‘County, which is said to handle redwood trees up to four feet in
diameter successfully. It consists of a portable engine and a
“puller,” which is a windlass operated by steam, from which a
wire cable is carried to the tree which is to be pulled down. A
strong chain is put around the tree at a distance above the
ground proportioned to its diameter in such a way as to give
necessary leverage. ‘The immensely strong hook at the end of
the cable is attached to this chain and the cable is slowly wound
upon the reel. The coil begins to grow taut, a dull creak and
strain are heard as the roots begin to be torn from the earth.
Two chains are used, a second tree being prepared while the
first is falling, that no time may be lost. The cable is detached
from the falling tree, and a horse draws it from amid the debris of
fallen foliage to the next victim. The extraction of roots by
this method of pulling is said to be very complete, and the earth
is loosened to a considerable depth.

Powerful traction engines, manufactured for hauling com-
bined harvesters and steam plows, have also been very success-
fully used for the removal of large trees in land clearing.

Horse-Power Stump Pullers —The use of horse-power de-
vices for tree felling and stump extraction has increased consid-
erably of late. The one which has achieved the best results is a
local invention called the “California Stump Puller.” It is sim-
ply a specially-designed capstan worked by one horse, with a
wire cable five-eighths of an inch in diameter, an improved
snatch block, chains, and a draft-hook to unite the cable with the
chains. Power is applied to the capstan with a sweep. It is
calculated that with this device, properly adjusted, one horse
is enabled to produce an effect equal to the capacity of 60 horses
without it, and that a t200-pound horse which can move a dead
weight of one and a half tons for a short distance can move a
dead weight of 90 tons with the devices employed in the ma-

Al California Device. 61

chine. It is so rapidly adjustable that recently in Napa County
eighteen stumps were pulled in eighteen minutes, every root,
however long, coming clear out of the ground with each stump.

Fon =
ie oy

The California Stump Puller.

The Use of Powder-—Another means for the removal both
of stumps and of growing trees which has come into quite wide
use during the last few years, is high explosives, which have
vastly cheapened the clearing of lands where either large trees
or stumps have to be removed. Full instructions for the use of
powder are furnished by the agents in San Francisco, and they
often send an expert to start the work and give instruction if
there is much ta be done. It has been estimated that the cost
of handling trees and stumps with explosives is less than one-
fifth that by hand grubbing, and the ratio of saving increases as
the trees are larger, as powder is cheaper than muscle.

Removing Shrubs and Brush.—In the case of removing
shrubs of a somewhat tall growth, the top is made to help out
the roots. This is done either with a good strong rope or a chain.
To do this requires two men and a pair of horses, and two
chains, each ten or twelve feet long. A chain should be placed

62 Charcoal Burning.

around the bush some distance above the ground, to give lever-
age. Ifthe bush is not removed at the first pull, start the horses
in the opposite direction. While the driver is unfastening the
chain from the chaparral, the second man can place the other
chain around another bush, and the one who gets through his
work first should at once assist the other. In this way the
horses are kept in constant employment, and neither of the men
need lose a moment’s time. This work should be done when
the ground is thoroughly wet.

Where manzanita grows somewhat upright, as it does on
the hills north of the bay, the same methods of extraction can be
employed with it, first slashing off enough to allow adjusting the
rope or chain a few feet above the ground. Where it grows
lower, as, for example, on the hills of Santa Clara, the manzanita
brush is gone over with a roller so as to break it down, and
then the land is burned over. The roller should be of the ordi-
nary farm pattern, but rigged with a tiller (header fashion) so
that the horses can push the roller and walk over the flattened
brush. The only object of the rolling is to smash the brush
down so that it will burn readily. When the brush is got rid of
in this way, the plow is trusted to get rid of the roots. The
plow should be of the pattern known as “prairie breaker,” with-
out coulter. Horses should be shod with a plate of sheet iron
between the shoe and hoof to prevent snagging, and not less
than four of them used. Much of the Santa Clara County vine
belt was cleared in that way. Of course this method only an-
swers for the lighter-rooted growths; tough-rooted chaparral,
oak, holly, etc., must be grubbed out, unless the roots are snaked
out by the tops, as has been described. ;

Marketable Products of Clearing —Whether any money can
be made from the results of clearing depends altogether upon
local markets for wood and charcoal and the cost of transpor-
tation to them. Trom clearings near large towns enough can
be sometimes had to pay for the work and hauling, and along
railways wood can be often shipped with profit. This can only
be learned by local inquiries.

Charcoal Buriung.—Charcoal can usually be sold to advan-
tage, and wood can sometimes be profitably disposed of in this
way when it can not be marketed for fuel. A considerable acre-
age of unprofitable iruit trees has been disposed of in this way
recently. Charcoal is made from most kinds of wood, and some-
times stumps and large roots are charred. A simple process of
charcoal burning is given by an experienced burner as follows:—

To burn a pit of charcoal, the prime necessity is to perform the process
of combustion with the least possible contact with air. Select a suitable
place not too far from the dwelling, because 'he operation must be watched

Cutting to Kill Brush. 63

from time to time by night as well as by day. It is not'necessary to dig
much of a ‘‘pit’? in the ground. Choose hard limbs of pine, spruce or
whatever wood is most available of that kind. Dry, dead limbs, if not
decayed, take for choice. Set them up wigwam fashion, close together,
fitting them as well as they will allow, the apex forming the chimney. Be
careful to keep that chimney free, because the fire should be there applied
to brisk ‘‘kindling” as far down as possible. Build round and round, tak-
ing the precaution to lay three or four straight pieces, three or four inches
in diameter, along the ground from the outside to the center. These may
have to be withdrawn to promote the draught.

The wood all being in place, it is now required to cover it thoroughly.
In the absence of turf or sods, it must be thatched with leavy green boughs,
or anything that will prevent the earth or dirt that is now heaped on from
running through. Pack this soil covering carefully, exclude air as far as
possible, excepting when the port-holes referred to near the ground are
needed. The direction of the wind will determine which ones are to be
opened. When the fire—after a few hours, more or less, according to the
materials—has got a good hold, close also the chimney. Visit the pit reg-
ularly, night and day; lessen or increase the draught as may seem needed;
and in a week or ten days the two or three cords of wood should be turned
into good hard coal. When uncovered, water or dirt should be thrown
upon coal that is too lively when spread out on the ground.

Cutting to Kall Brush—Just when to cut to kill depends upon
the character of the growth and of the season. Dr. J. W. Gally
says: “It all depends, with the leaf shedders, somewhat on soil
and altitude or nature of climate. Now, in Pajaro Valley, which
is cool and moist, I have seen willow, sycamore, cottonwood, box-
elder, maple, and ‘grub’ oak die out from being cut down flat
with the ground, or to two or three inches below the surface, in
late July or early August. But even that will depend some-
what on the kind of season; if in a late, cold, wet season, you
cut a little later.”

Mr. P. C. Scranton, of Lake County, gives a slightly differ-
ent time. He says: ‘‘For the evergreen oaks and other ever-
green brush, the time is late in the fall, just before the coldest
weather sets in in November or December. The ‘grubs,’ or
oaks that shed their leaves, have to be treated entirely different.
Their time is in spring or early summer, at their most vigorous
growth. Suddenly deprived of their leaves, the stump and roots.
are overcharged with sap, some kind of fermentation sets in,
and J have seen the timber mold and commence to decay in a
few days when it was very warm weather.” In the eastern hills
of Fresno County best success is had with cutting brush in
August. More experience and observation are needed to enable
one to generalize safely, but one conclusion seems to be that
with deciduous growths the best time to cut is when they have
just made their most vigorous growth, and this is in the sum-
mer—but the month to be chosen for the work will depend upon
the location, though August is generally selected as the best
time. id

64 Use of Sheep and Fire.

In the case of evergreens, as stated by Mr. Scranton, the
cutting should be just before the coldest weather, in which they
are the nearest dormant, the length of time before they can put
leaves out again kills them. Evergreens, however, differ much
in tenacity of life, for while most kinds are easily killed, the
California redwood will endure almost any abuse with ax or
fire and still spring up repeatedly and persistently for years.

The Use of Sheep on Sprovts.—On sprouting brush, there is,
perhaps, no cheaper or more effective means of repression than
sheep and goats. They are used after the top growth is cleared
away instead of grubbing, if one can wait, for by their persistent
cutting down of growth, the small stumps and roots will decay
enough in a year or two to be plowed out with a strong team
and plow.

Burning of the Debris—However the trees and underbrush
may be wrenched from the soil, fire is the final clearer. Where
trees are to be worked up into fire-wood, it should be done as
soon as they are felled, for the work is much less than after they
become dry and hard. If it is not designed to break the land the
first winter, the wood is left to season and it becomes lighter and
easier to handle. The brush and roots, if no use is to be made
of them. can be left to lie on the clearing to dry out during the
following summer, and after the first rains of the following fall
the whole area can be burned over. Such stumps as do not
burn with the brush must be gathered in piles and re-fired.
Burning before the first rain should not be attempted, unless it
be in exceptional situations, because of the danger of comimuni-
cating fire to the surrounding country, which is a standing dan-
ger in our dry climate. After the rain, then, clean up the
ground perfectly.

First Crop on a Clearing.—lIt is the opinion of some clearers
in the redwood region that the soil is not fit for fruit trees the
first year after the original growth is removed, and they grow a
field crop the first year. They claim that peas are the best cor-
rective of “redwood poisoning,’ and fortunately in the upper
redwood district they have a climate well suited to the pea.
Whether their theory is right or not, their practise is of advan-
tage, because they get a better cultivation and aeration of the
soil, and kill out much of the sprouting from the old roots,
which is usually quite persistent in the moister parts of the State.
Usually the tree and vine planter is in such haste to realize from
his labor that he does not allow the first year to go for any side
issue.

Surface Leveling and Draining.—There is often occasion to
clear the land of stone and rocks. The latter should be blasted
out of the way so that the land may be clear for the plow and

Grading and Leveling. 65

cultivator. Once in a while one will come upon a stone wall
inclosing an orchard in this State, as trim and true a wall as the
most thrilty New England farmer can boast, but walls are not
common. Our valley orchard lands are, as a rule, naturally as
free from stone as they are from underbrush, but on the hills it
is different. Probably the best way to dispose of much of the
stone is to dig trenches in the natural water runs, put in stone,
cover with small brush, and then with soil deep enough so the
plow will not reach the brush. This disposes of the stone for
all time, and at the same time helps to drain the soil. Concern-
ing other treatment of the land after the rubbish is removed,
F. W. Butler writes as follows:—

When water runs are wide, lateral ditches should be cut extending en-
tirely through the moist areas. If during the rainy season a run is likely to
have more water than can be conveyed properly through a covered trench,
it should be left open and graded so that a team can cross it, and for fifteen
feet on each side sow to red-top. In this way the land can be utilized that
would be worthless for trees, and the red-top, that can be grown at a profit,
w iltake the place of unsightly weeds, that would otherwise grow at the
point that can not be cultivated.

To distribute work more evenly through the first year buildings can be
erected, a well dug, and the trenching done in the dry season, while all the
grubbing, leveling, plowing and planting must be done the following sea-
son, as soon as the ground is sufficiently moistened. All depressions
where water would stand should be filled, and all flat places should be
graded until water will readily flow off, and not be retained so near the
surface of the ground as to cause it to become soured. This leveling can
be best done by one man and a pair of horses. Plow the adjacent elevated
land and scrape into the places to be filled. The land is now ready for
plowing and should be done thoroughly, subsoiling to as great a depth as
the removal of the stumps will allow. It is now well to go over the
ground again with the scraper and level all the most elevated points so
they can be readily reached by water in irrigating. Then cross-plow as
deeply as possible without again subsoiling, harrow and drag, and the
ground will be ready to plant.

Mr. Butler writes with reference to the foot-hills of the
Sierra Nevada, where irrigation must be practised. Where irri-
gation is not used, leveling, or rather grading, is unnecessary,
but it is often quite as necessary to arrange for drainage so that
there may be no depressions which do not have an outlet for the
surplus water. The life of the trees and the convenience of the
planter demand this.

CHeaPrER WEL
THE NURSERY.

California nursery stock is unrivaled in growth, health, and
vigor. This is the verdict of all visiting horticulturists, and has
been formally declared by the victories of California tree grow-
ers at the New Orleans World’s Fair, in 1885, where the highest
premiums were awarded to Californians in nearly all classes in
which they exhibited; and at the Columbian Exposition of 1893.

The quality of the trees which can be purchased at our
nurseries, and the very low rates at which they have been sold
during the last few years, make it little worth while for the
orchard planter to try to grow his own trees. In fact, the invest-
ment called for to secure a good assortment of well-grown trees
will be one of the best which the orchard planter can make. The
professional grower, if he is honest and enterprising, can give
the purchaser the advantage of his experience and skill in the
choice of stocks suited to his soil, varieties of fruit adapted to his
situation, and be of assistance to him in other ways connected
with his enterprise; and such helps to an inexperienced planter
or to a newcomer are very valuable. There may be, however,
some reader who is distant from established nurseries, or pos-
sessed of limited means, who may like to use his spare time
in growing his own trees, and to such suggestions are offered.
There will, however, be very much which can only be learned by
actual experience.

In the. selection of location for a commercial nursery there
are matters involved which it is not proposed to discuss. At-
tention will be paid rather to matters connected with what may
be called a farm nursery. The first point will be the selection
of a small piece of ground which offers proper soil, exposure,
and, in some parts of the State, facilities for irrigation.

Proper Soil for Nursery.—The soil should be a mellow loam,
easy of cultivation and not disposed to crust and crack. In all
respects what one would choose as a rich, kind garden soil will
answer well for the nursery. The soil should be moist, but thor-
oughly drained, either naturally or artificially, for time and labor
will be largely wasted on a water-logged soil. In this respect a
soil which might yield fair crops of some shallow-rooting vege-

(66)

The Farm Nursery. 67.

tables would not always be suitable for the young trees, which,
to do well, must have favorable conditions to send the roots to
considerable depth. Good spots are often found in the rich
loam along the banks of creeks, as in such situations one finds
generally a deep alluvium, well drained by the creek. But such
situations, if liable to overflow, should be rejected because stand-
ing water is not good for trees, and because the soil will be apt
to be soaked with water and inaccessible just at the time when
the trees should be lifted for transplanting to orchard.

It is not always possible to find an ideal nursery spot on
every ranch, but still trees may be well grown on less favorable
places if attention is given to correcting natural defects. For
exainple, if the soil be naturally heavy, it may be improved
somewhat by repeated plowing and cultivation during the year
before starting the trees. If it be an adobe, its mechanical con-
dition may be greatly improved by thc application of a top
dressing of lime at the rate of six hundred to one thousand
pounds of lime to the acre. For this purpose “lime waste,”
which contains both lime and wood ashes, can be had cheaply,
at the kilns. Old plaster which may have been left from house
repairs is excellent. Even builders’ lime would not be very
expensive, for but little would be required ior so small a plot of
jand as a farm nursery would need to cover. The lime will
increase the amount of plant food in a heavy soil as well as ren-
der it more friable. Another way in which a small area of heavy
soil may be improved is by the addition of sand. A few loads
of sand, if it can be had near by, will remove the tendency to
crack, and will act as mulch to prevent evaporation of moisture.
If the soil be very loose and subject to too rapid drying out, the
remedy will be moderate irrigation during the summer, but it
should cease early enough to allow the young trees to ripen their
wood before the frosts of autumn. Mulches of various light,
fine materials, rotted straw and the like, may be used to advan-
tage among the young seedlings in preventing drying out of
the soil, if the plot is to be hand-worked, but such materials are
apt to be in the way of neat, thorough work with the horse. A
mulch of sand, if available, is not open to this objection.

In choosing soil for a nursery, a piece of land which has
been in cultivation for garden or field crops is to be preferred
over a newly-cleared piece. It is often the case that soil from
which old stumps or shoots have recently been removed has
become soured from the processes of decay in the dead wood.
Although the deposits of humus from decay of woody fiber tends
to enrich the soil, afterwards certain acids are formed if the land
lies without cultivation. These are not favorable to the growth
of young roots, and a crop to which as much time is given as

68 Location of Nursery.

a crop of young trees, should not be placed upon it. This evil
quality in the soil is removed by cultivation and aeration, or
may be corrected by the application of lime. This state of soil
is most complained of in connection with old stumps and roots
of oaks in the valleys.

Situation and Exposure.—As to situation of the piece chosen
for nursery, in addition to what has already been suggested, it
may be remarked that warmth in the soil is necessary to a good
growth, and a good year’s growth is essential to the production
of a satisfactory tree. Drainage contributes notably to the
warmth of the soil. Exposure is also of importance. Plenty of
sunshine and protection from cold winds are to be secured.
Sometimes a little elevation is desirable. It would be a serious
mistake to seek moist, low land if the piece lies at the bottom
of a little valley cr depression where the cold air settles during
the night and frosts are frequent. In such cases choose higher
ground. Of course, in broad, open valleys there is not this
objection, for such seasonable frosts as may be expected there
are not injurious to deciduous nursery stock. The greatest
nurseries in the State are in the open valleys, not on the lowest
ground, however, in all cases, but on what would be called good,
rich valley land. There are, however, situations in the thermal
belts in which the temperature does not fall low enough to check
growth of deciduous trees and cause the leaves to drop. In such
cases it has been found desirable to select lower and colder
ground for the nursery of deciduous trees.

Preparation of Nursery Ground.—The best preparation tor
nursery ground is the growth, the previous season, of a hoed
crop. This will secure frequent working of the soil, thorough
pulverization of the clods, etc. The produce of the hoed crop
should thus pay the cost of putting the land in good condition,
at least. Where the retention of moisture is an object, as it
really is in some parts of the State where the annual rainfall is
sometimes small and no facilities for irrigation provided, it will
perhaps pay better in the end to keep the land in bare fallow
during the previous summer; but there must be frequent and
thorough cultivation, keeping the surface always mellow, or
more moisture will be lost by evaporation than a hoed crop
would require for its growth. Properly cultivated fallow soil
will have moisture within a few inches of the surface, while
unworked soil adjoining will be baked hard and dry to a depth
of several feet. During the winter immediately preceding
planting, the green stuff should be allowed to grow for a time,
but should be plowed under before it.gets high enough to inter-
fere with perfect turning of smooth furrows. The decay of this
green crop is of advantage to the soil. Another plowing in the

Growing Seedlings. 69

spring, and a thorough harrowing, will leave the ground in good
condition to receive the pits or root grafts as the case may be.
In this plowing for nursery there should be deep work done and
subsoiling, as will be more fully set forth under the head of
preparing land for orchard, to which the reader is referred.

Growth of Seedlings for the Nursery.—The two chief ways
of producing fruit trees are, first, from seedlings grown on the
spot; second, from buds and rvot grafts upon stock imported
from the East or from abroad. First, as to the growth of seed-
lings :—-

It is usual to take seeds from sources where they can be
collected with the least trouble. Apple seeds are washed out
from the pomace of the cider press; apples and pears from the
coring and peelings of canneries and drying establishments; pits
of the stone fruits are derived from the same source. Supplies
can usually be purchased from such establishments at a mod-
erate cost. The trouble is that from such supplies one is apt to
get seeds and pits from all varieties, possessing different degrees
of health and vigor. There is just as much to be gained from
selecting the seed from which to grow good strong stocks for
fruit trees as there is in selecting good garden or field seed.
One can generally get good peach pits, for it is easy to have the
order filled when the cannery is running on strong-growing
yellow varieties, for these are believed to be most vigorous, and
yet some claim much preference for pits from vigorous seedling
trees, and make extra efforts to secure them. Wherever it is
possible, and if one is only to produce a small lot of trees it is
practicable, to select from the fruit the seeds for planting. Not
only is there great difference in the strength of different varieties,
but individual trees vary greatly. lf one is taking seed from an
old orchard to start his nursery with, he can take pains to get
his seed from his strongest trees, and thus secure also that which
is probably best adapted to his locality.

Apple and Pear Scedlings—For a small lot of apple and pear
trees the seed can be best sown in boxes. Select plump pips
and keep in moist sand. Keep from the time they are taken
from the fruit until sowing. Fill the boxes, which should be
three or four inches deep, with good garden mold, cover the
seed about half an inch, and then cover the soil lightly with
chaff or fine straw to prevent the surface from drying out. Be
‘sure that the boxes have cracks or holes in the bottom for drain-
age, and the whole is kept moist but not wet. When the seed-
lings have grown to the height of three inches, they can be set
out in the nursery rows as one would set out cabbage plants.

Cherry Scedlings—There are different ways of handling pits
of stone fruits to prepare them for setting out in open ground,

70 Ibays to Sprout Pits.

which will be described. The cherry is grown from pits of two
wild varieties; one is commonly called the "Black Mazzard.”
It is the common wild cherry of the East, and is the original
type of what are known as the Heart and Bigarreau types of
cherries. The other is the ‘Mahaleb,” which is used at the
East for dwarfing, and also in situations where it thrives better
than the Mazzard, as it is hardier stock. In this State the
Mahaleb does not seem to have such a dwarfing effect as there;
trees on that stock in this State over twenty-five years old are
twenty-five inches in diameter of trunk. The Mahaleb, how-
ever, ripens its wood earlier, and for this reason may be valuabie
in the colder parts of the State. The Mazzard is, however,
almost universally used in California. Cherry stones are some-
times taken from the fully-ripened fruit, dried for two or three
days, the stones cracked carefully and planted at once in good
soil and kept properly moist. They will germinate soon and
make a growth of a foot or so the first season. Such stocks
are taken up for grafting in the winter and set out in nursery
row the next spring. A better way of treating cherry is that
given by W. W. Smith, of Vacaville:—

The fruit of the Mazzard should be allowed to get perfectly ripe on the
tree, then gathered and let lie in a heap for three or four days, so that they
may be partially or wholly freed from the pulp by washing them in water.
They should then be spread out in the shade and stirred frequently for
about twenty-four hours. This will give the outside of the pit time to dry
sufficiently to prevent molding, while the kernel itself will remain fresh and
green. They should then he placed in moist (not wet) sand and kept so
until the rains set in in the fall, when they can be planted in drills, in good,
rich, mellow soil prepared the previous spring and kept clean of weeds
through the summer, ready for the purpose. They should never be allowed
to get perfectly dry; and the reason for it is that we have but little or no
freezing and thawing weather in this country to cause the pits to open; but
if they are kept constantly moist it answers the same purpose as freezing.
The seeds of the Mahaleb cherry will sprout with less difficulty, but the
same rules for keeping the Mazzards will apply to them.

The Larger Stone Fruits—In handling pits of the larger
stone fruits, apricot, peach, plum, etc., the chief requisite is
to prevent drying and great hardening of the pit. Some plant
in the fall and trust to natural conditions to start the seedling in
the spring, but this interferes with the cultivation of the ground,
and leaves the seedling to grow in soil which has perhaps been
puddled by heavy winter rains. There must also be much
hand work done to clear the rows from weeds. It is much better
‘to keep the pits from drying by covering with sand moderately
moist, hasten the sprouting by appropriate treatment towards
spring, and then plant out in thoroughly prepared soil, and they
will make a satisfactory growth. The following method, by D.
J. Parmele, of Vacaville, has given good results:— -

Growing Nut Seedlings. 7

Keep the pits out of the sun until the rains commence in the fall, then
put them into a box about a foot deep, with openings at the bottom for
drainage, and scatter sand or fine earth through them, putting about two
inches on top, and place them under the eaves of a building on the south
side, where they will get well soaked every time it rains. If there should
be a long dry spell during the winter; water them a little. About March
they will open and sprout. Then take a plow and open a deep furrow in
loose, mellow ground, and, witha hoe, pull about two-thirds of the dirt
back into the furrow, breaking the clods, and making it fine, the same as
you would if you expected to plant onion seed there. Drop the sprouted
pits in straight line, and cover two inches. On account of the extra work
in preparing the ground, the trees will be large enough to bud in July.

Another way is to spread out the pits on a smooth piece of
ground and cover with sacks, and over these a layer of straw
three or four inches thick to retain moisture. The pits may be
planted out as soon as they crack open, although no harm will
be done if they are allowed to lie until the sprouts are well out.

Another method which has been especially recommended
for treatment for almonds is the following: Lay boards upon
the ground and cover them with an inch of sand; spread on this
a layer of almonds and then another inch of sand, and so on.
Keep the pile wet, and in three weeks of warm weather they will
burst open. Plant in drills one inch deep and put over them a
light coat of rotten straw.

If from any cause the pits have become quite dry, they
should be soaked in water two or three days before planting.
In this way imported Myrobalan pits may be made to sprout,
though even with such treatment many will refuse to germinate.
For this reason imported seedlings are preferred to pits.

Nut-Tree Seedlings.—In growing nut-tree seedlings much
the same methods are followed as with pits of stone fruits.
There are methods described in detail by California growers
which should be given. As has been said, the nuts may be
pianted at any time after ripening, in the milder parts of the
State, if the grower will undertake the greater care and cultiva-
tion. On some light soils where the rainfall is not excessive,
this is not much trouble. Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, the well-
known propagator of improved varieties of nut trees, gives this
as his method:—

The nuts may be planted as soon as gathered, though here in Nevada
City it is too cold to plant them in the fall, for the frost in winter would
surely lift the nuts right out of the ground. This is the way I employ in
keeping and sprouting walnuts: I throw into the bottom of a box one inch
deep of sand, then a layer of nuts; put in another inch of sand, and another
layer of nuts, and so on to one or two inches from the top. Then water
well with a sprinkler and water again during the winter whenever the sand
gets too dry. Thesand has to be pretty well saturated with water, espe-
cially from the first of January down to planting time, which is in February,
March, or April, according to localities. The latter part of March or first

week in April is best for Nevada City. The nuts are planted in drills and
to a depth of two to three inches.

72 Imported Seedlings.

In propagating chestnuts it is always better to select for seed the largest,
finest, and healthiest nuts; in the fall or beginning of winter the nuts have
to be planted in a box of damp sand, by layers, the bux being kept in a
cellar. The nuts may be planted, too, in a hole in the open ground, a layer
of chestnut leaves being first thrown in the bottom of the hole, on top of
that a layer of nuts, then another layer of leaves, and so on to the top,
which has to be properly covered with two or three inches of earth so as to
prevent the frost injuring the nuts. In February or March, according to
location, the nuts are taken out and planted in drills to a depth of three to
four inches; less for smaller seed like American chestnuts.

In planting out pits or nuts, if they have sprouted when
taken out of the sand or hole where they have been kept during
the winter, as is most generally the case, they must be planted
with the sprout up or sideways, but never the small end down.
So it is with walnuts, almonds, and filberts, and also the pits of
peaches, apricots, and plums. This point is quite important
with chestnuts and walnuts, so as to obtain straight stocks and
shapely roots; then when the nuts are planted wrong, upside
down, the sprout is liable to remain buried in the ground, where
it will finally rot.

Imported Seedlings —A very large proportion of some kinds
of fruit trees produced in this State are worked upon imported
seedling stocks. Almost all the cherries, and it is estimated
that nine-tenths of the pears and one-third of the apples, are
thus grown. These stocks are cheap, convenient to handle,
and are therefore popular. ‘It is easy enough to grow peach,
almond, apricot, and Myrobalan seedlings, but small seeds, like
apple and pear, often do not show up well in the spring, espe-
cially if the soil is of a kind that crusts over with rain and sun-
shine. Therefore our nurserymen import these seedlings in the
winter, plant them out, as has already been described, and bud
in the following summer, grafting the next spring where the
buds fall. If the seedlings are large when received, they are
often root-grafted at once, and then one summer in the nursery
gives a tree suitable for planting out. These stocks are of bet-
ter budding size during their first summer than California seed-
lings, which are apt to overgrow.

To succeed with cherry seeds requires special treatment, as
has already been described, and the nurseryman usually finds it
cheaper to buy his stocks.

Myrobalan plum seedlings were formerly imported to a large
extent, but are now chiefly home-grown, and seedlings are used
instead of cuttings, which formerly were employed largely.
This stock has secured great favor for plums and prunes, and,
in some situations, for the apricot; but some growers report a
very marked dwarfing effect on the apricot, and do not approve
its use.

Prof. Newton B. Pierce, of Santa Ana, has discovered in

fruit Trees from Cuttings. ries

California upon imported seedlings a serious root-fungus which
kills all kinds of orchard trees in Europe, and he advises the
use of home-grown seedlings to escape this danger.

Fruit Trees from Cuttings.—It is feasible to grow a number
of kinds of fruit trees from cuttings, but it is not desirable in
many cases to doit. Trees grown from a graft or bud in a seed-
ling root are much better. The root system of a seedling is
naturally stronger and more symmetrical. The roots from a
cutting start out at the bottom and spread out horizontally and
irregularly This style of a root system is expressively named
“duck-foot roots,” and they do not give the tree a deep, strong
hold on the soil. Trees can, however, be multiplied very fast
from cuttings. Notable instances of this are the Myrobalan
plum and the Leconte pear. Cuttings of deciduous trees should
be taken from well-matured wood of the previous season’s
growth, and planted in rows and in well-prepared soil, as has
already been described for the sowing of fruit-tree seeds. The
cuttings-should be taken before the sap begins running in the
winter. A cutting about ten inches long, four-fifths of its length
buried in the ground, will answer. Be sure that the ground is
firmed well at the base of the cutting, but keep the surface loose.
Small wood is better than large, though, of course, the extreme
ends of twigs should be rejected usually. Cultivation of cut-
tings is the same as that of seedlings, and budding, when the
cuttings are to be used as stocks, is also governed by the same
rules.

The orange and lemon can be grown from cuttings, but the
work is done at a different season, and requires different treat-
ment. Cut from wood one or two years old; set in open ground
of partial shade and give plenty of water (dry ground is death
to their tender roots). Plant out in the summer months. Cut-
tings started in the warm weather and given partial shade and
plenty of irrigation are very apt to succeed. A piece of well-
drained soil is essential. This method of growing these fruits
is not, however, in wide use or favor.

The propagation of the olive and the fig from cuttings will
be considered in the chapters on those fruits.

Planting Out in Nursery.—For planting out in nursery, the
term “spring” is given at the proper time, but in California it
must be remembered that spring is not any definite division of
the year. “Spring weather’ comes from the first of February
to the first of May, according to the latitude or elevation or
exposure resulting from local topography. Cherries may be
ripe in Vaca Valley before fruit trees put out leaves in Modoc
County; and between these extremes there are advents of spring
in other places according to the situation. These facts are more

6

74 Planting in Nursery.

fully set forth in the chapter on climate. Spring must be de-
tected in the behavior of vegetation and not by the calendar.
When the tree buds swell and the leaves appear, spring has
come for that locality. But whether one can plant his nursery
then or not will depend upon the character of the soil and the
condition of the rainfall for that season. This varies much
from year to year. As a rule, however, in most parts where
fruit is grown at present in large quantities, the heavy cold rains
will be over by the first of February, and then nursery opera-
tions can commence if the soil is in good condition. If not, the
planter must wait until the soil is dry enough to work nicely.
There will, of course, be heavy rains after the first of February;
but they will not do more injury than to require cultivation to
loosen the soil, if the nursery ground is well situated for drain-
age, and if it is not it should not be used for this purpose.

Supposing the ground has been deeply plowed and thor-
oughly harrowed, as has been already described, the laying out
of the ground is the next operation. Everything should be
done with a view to the use of the horse in cultivation. The
rows should be laid out as straight as possible. Some use a
plow furrow; some an arrangement like a corn-marker, with
two cultivator teeth set four feet apart; some stretch a line, to
get the pits or root grafts as true to it as possible, and some
trust to the furrow for straightness. No rule can be laid down
for means to be employed; the result must depend upon the eye
and skill of the individual. Some people can hardly shoot a
straight line with a gun. Each must do the best he can in this
respect.

There is difference in practise as to distance between the
rows in nursery. The usual distance is four feet, but others
claim that it is better to make the rows six feet apart, especially
where no irrigation is practised, as this gives the young trees
more room, and if the ground is kept thoroughly cultivated, as
it should be, it gives the roots a greater supply of moisture to
draw upon. In growing a small lot of trees, where there is
plenty of land, it is, of course, desirable to give them every
advantage in the way of facilities for growth.

At the ends of the rows spaces of about twelve feet should
be left as turning-ground for the horse when cultivating, and as
a roadway. The length of nursery rows depends upon the taste
of the grower. It is convenient to have alleys wide enough for
a horse and cart at intervals of one hundred to three hundred
feet, but in small nurseries the headlands would probably give
all the access required.

The depth for planting seeds and pits must be regulated by
the size of the seed and the character of the soil, as is always

Nursery Irrigation. 75

laid down by the authorities, and in this State another condition
must be made, and that is the climate or weather conditions
prevailing in the locality. Where the rainfall is generally light
and the soil loose, seed must be planted deeper than where good
spring showers are to be expected. In fine soils seeds must be
planted shallower than in coarse, even with the same rainfall.
Judgment and experience must dictate in this matter, and if a
man has no experience, he is pretty apt to get it.

During the spring months the cultivator must be used as
often as may be required to keep the weeds from getting too
high, or the soil from becoming too densely packed by heavy
rains, but the ground should never be worked when too wet.
It requires some watchfulness and promptitude to use the culti-
vator just at the right time.

Nursery Irrigation—In parts of the State where the rainfall
is adequate, cultivation thorough, the soil sufficiently retentive,
and atmospheric conditions favorable, the seedling will make its
growth without irrigation, and many nurseries are on ground
not provided at all with irrigation facilities. In other parts of
the State irrigation is necessary. Water should be applied spar-
ingly, and yet enough to keep the seedling in healthy, growing
condition. This is shown by the leaves, which should not droop
or curl. Excessive irrigation should be guarded against, because
a soft, excessive growth is very undesirable. Water is a good
thing, and in some cases a very necessary thing, but the use of
it should be wisely regulated. At budding it is, necessary that
the sap should be free and the bark slip easily. 'To foster this
condition it is sometimes desirable to give a watering a few days
before budding commences. Water should be applied by run-
ning it through shallow furrows between the rows, and the cul-
tivator should follow as soon as the ground is dry enough to
work freely.

CHAPTER Lx.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

If the nursery ground has been well worked and the seed
properly handled, the growth of the seedling will be strong and
rapid. Jf an early start was had and other conditions favorable,
some kinds will be ready for budding in June, and the produc-
tion of what are called “June buds,” as will be described pres-
ently. In ordinary practise, however, budding will come later,
and the budding season extends from July to October. The
weight of the budding of deciduous trees is generally done in
August and September.

Budding Illustrated.

The process of budding, as employed on all the common
fruit trees, is very simple. It consists in lifting the bark and
inserting a bud from another tree in such a way that the inner
bark of the bud shall come in contact with the layer of growing
wood in the stock, and then it will be quickly knit to it by the

(76 )

Budding Explained. 77

sap, if the bark is closed around the inserted bud closely enough
to prevent the air from drying the two surfaces at the point of
contact.

In the engraving a is the cutting or “bud stick” from the
tree of the kind into which it is desired to transform the seed-
ling. This cutting is to be made from the growth of the pres-
ent season, which has well-iormed buds at the axils of the leaves.
If buds are desired to mature early, pinch off the ends of the
shoots from which they are to be taken. Suckers and so-called
“water sprouts” should not be used, but rather well-formed wood
from the branches of the tree. It is requisite that the buds be
taken from a vigorous, healthy tree of the variety desired. Bud
sticks can be carried or sent considerable distances if packed
in damp moss or other material to prevent drying. Sealing the
ends with grafting wax is also a good precaution against drying
out.

Budding knives can be bought at all seed stores and cutlery
establishments. They have a thin, round-ended blade at one
end of the handle, and at the other end the bone is thinned
down, or a bone blade inserted. The former is for cutting and
the latter for lifting the bark of the stock into which the bud is
to be placed. Armed with a bud stick and such a knife, the
“budder” starts in upon a row of seedlings. Bending the seed-
ling over a little and holding it between his left arm and his left
leg, he reaches down for a smooth place on the bark as near the
ground as convenient to work, and makes a horizontal cut, and
from that a perpendicular cut dewnwards towards the roots, as
shown at 0, in the engraving, with the bark slightly lifted and
ready for the insertion of the bud. Next he cuts from his bud
stick a bud, as shown atc. This carries with it, on the back, a
small portion of the wood of the bud stick as well as the bud
and bark. It was once claimed that this wood should be care-
fully dug out, but in budding most kinds of trees it is not neces-
sary; in fact, it may be better to leave it in; such at any rate
is the general practise. The point of the bud is now inserted at
the opening at the top of the slit in the bark of the stock and
pushed down into place, as shown in figure d. To handle the
bud the part of the leaf stem which is left on is of material assist-
ance. Nothing remains now but to apply the ligature which is
to hold down the bark around the bud.

There are various ways of tying in the bud. Any way will
do which holds down the bark closely, but not too tightly.
Different materials are also used, soft cotton twine, stocking
yarn, strips of cotton cloth, candle wicking, etc. The last-
named is perhaps the best material, on ail accounts, although
strips of cheap calico bear evenly upon the bark and do very

78 Treatment of Buds.

good work. The use of twine is speedy, but the strands bearing
upon a narrow surface, and not being elastic, they are apt to
do injury by cutting into the bark unless carefully watched and
loosened. The fiber from basswood bark was formerly largely
used, but has given place to the other materials named, which are
more handily obtained. The buds must be examined about a
week or ten days after insertion, and the ligature loosened, for
otherwise it will cut into the rapidly-growing, stock. Some-
times trees are badly injured by neglect in this particular.

In making June buds, where immediate growth of the bud
is desired, some growers make a hard knot with the cord around
the stock, above the bud, and then use the loose ends to tie the
bud. When the binding around the bud is loosened, the hard
knot remains on the stock, girdles it, and forces the sap into the
bud. Thin wire, known to nurserymen as “label wire,” is also
used for this purpose.

In going through the nursery row, all seedlings which are
large enough are budded at once. In going through the row
again to look to the bands, if the bud is seen to be fresh looking,
it is considered to have “taken.” In stocks where the first bud
has dried up, another is inserted lower down. Sometimes seed-
lings which were too small to hold a bud at the first working
over are given a bud later in the season, or left for taking up
for root grafting in the winter.

In nursery practise the budder does not stop to tie his buds,
but 1s followed in the row by another man, who carries the tying
material, and does this part of the work.

The common method of budding thus described is used on
all common orchard fruits. Special styles of budding for special
fruits will be described in the chapters treating of those fruits.

Usually the budded trees are allowed to stand in the nur-
sery row with no other treatment that year than the insertion
and care of the bud, the latter remaining dormant until the
next spring. Then, as soon as the sap begins to swell the buds
on the stock, the top is cut off down to about two inches above
the bud, and all growth is kept off except that of the inserted
bud. When that has grown out about twelve inches, the stub
is cut off to about three-quarters of an inch or less from the bud,
and the wood is quickly grown over by the bark. As there are
apt to be dormant buds on the stock below the inserted bud,
the trees have to be examined from time to time, and all such
suckers removed. This is the common practise with budded
trees. Exceptions will be noticed presently in connection with
definitions of different kinds of trees known to the trade.

Spring Budding.—-What has been said in reference to bud-
ding applies to the use of dormant buds. It is also possible to

Nursery Grafting. 79

work with what is called a “pushing bud.” This process, as
described by a distinguished French authority, consists of retard-
ing the growth of the buds on the scions by burying them in
the ground until the sap is starting well in the stock in the
spring, and then putting them in, trimming off the top of the
stock so as to force the bud into growth. In this way the grower
of a rare variety may secure trees for planting out the follow-
ing winter, or he may secure a stock of buds for fall budding,
and thus multiply his stock of a desirable variety very rapidly.
A modification of this method consists in taking buds in the
spring when they have grown out even half an inch, and inserting
them by the usual method -of lifting the bark, when the sap is
flowing well in the stock. Then cut off about half the stock, so
as not to give the bud too much sap at first, and afterward,
when it is seen to have taken well, the balance of the stock is
cut off near the bud. This method gives a tree the first season
and saves a year over dormant budding. Shade and protection
from dry wind are desirable.

GRAFTING.

The next process of propagation to be considered is that
by grafting. Its success, as with budding, consists in bringing
the growing wood (inner bark or alburnum) of the scion into
contact with the same layer of the stock. It can be applied to
any part of the tree, from the topmost branch to the lowest root,
as is the case when new trees are made from scions and root
fragments. Thus grafting pertains both to the production of
young trees for planting out and to the transformation of old
trees bearing worthless fruit into producers of choice varieties.

Grafting for the production of young trees is first in order.
Instead of budding the seedling during the first summer of its
growth, it may be allowed to complete its season’s growth, and
drop its leaves. When thus dormant the young trees are taken
from the ground, the roots rinsed off with water if the ground
is wet and sticky, or merely shaken free from clinging earth if
ina dry time. Enough trees are dug at once to graft at a sitting.
The grafting can be done at the work-bench in the tool-house
or barn, and if one is pressed with other daylight work, it may
be done by lamplight at the kitchen table, if the housewife can
be conciliated for the muss it will make.

Care of Scions.—The scions should be previously selected,
and whether taken from trees on the place or brought from near
or distant sources away from the farm, should have been placed
as soon as procured in moist earth on the north side of the
house or other building, where they will keep cool and damp
until one is ready to use them. At the ‘East and in parts of

80 Grafting Wax and Bands.

this State where the ground is apt to freeze it is necessary to
keep scions in the cellar with their butts covered with moist
sand, but over most of the area of the State nothing more is
needed than to put down in the earth at the base of a tree or on
the north side of a building, with, perhaps, a box or barrel in-
verted over them to keep out mice and other intruders. Care
must be taken not to let them dry up. If it is desirable for any
reason to keep scions dormant long into the spring or summer,
of course storage in a cool cellar is better, for in the open ground
the scions will burst into leaf after a warm spell of spring
weather.

In selecting wood for scions, as for bud sticks, never take
water shoots or suckers that start from the body of the tree and
push up through the older branches, but always give the prefer-
ence to sound, fully-matured wood, at the ends of the lower or
nearly horizontal branches. Careful experiments have shown
that trees grown from such scions are more likely to take on a
low, spreading habit than those from the central or upper
branches. The scions should be tied in bundles with a stout
cord; and a piece of a shingle, with the name of the variety writ-
ten plainly and deeply thereon, should be tied in with each bundle.

Grafting Wax.—In grafting, a good grafting wax is requi-
site. The ingredients are mixed in different proportions by dif-
ferent growers. A few recipes which are known to give good
results are as follows:—

Two lbs. mutton tallow; 2 lbs. beeswax; 4 Ibs. resin.

Two and one-fourth lbs. resin; 2 lbs. beeswax; 3 of a lb. tallow.

One lb. mutton tallow; 2 lbs. beeswax; 4 Ibs. resin.

Two lbs. resin; 2 lbs. beeswax; ¥ Ib. tallow, and a little linseed oil.

Two lbs. resin; 1 lb. beeswax, 2% lbs. linseed oil; 4 tablespoonfuls
turpentine.

All these mixtures are made with the aid of gentle heat,
and during grafting the wax must be kept warm enough to
apply easily with a small brush. To do this the wax dish may
be kept on a hot brick, to be changed for a fresh one as it cools,
or, better still, is to heat the wax in an old fruit-can or some-
thing of that kind, inside another, which is partly full of warm
water. The wax should not be so hot as to run too easily, but
just right to spread well.

Grafting is greatly facilitated by the use of strips of waxed
cloth or waxed paper, the latter being quite good enough for
root grafts, which we are at present especially considering.
This waxed paper is made by spreading a thin coat of wax, with
a brush, upon tough, thin wrapping paper, cutting up the paper,
when cold, with a sharp knife, on a board, into strips about an
inch wide. \Waxed cloth is made by dipping cheap cotton cloth
into hot wax, pulling the pieces between the edges of two boards

Liquid Grafting Wax. 81

to take out as much wax as possible, and when the cloth is cold,
tearing it up into half-inch strips for small grafts or wider strips
for large grafts. While grafting is going on in-doors, these
strips hanging near the stove are kept in good, soft condition
for use.

There are grafting preparations which do not require heat-
ing, but remain in a semi-fluid state, and then become very hard
by contact with the air. The following is a popular French
preparation :—

Melt one pound of resin over a gentle fire. Add to it one ounce of beef
tallow, and stir it well. Take it from the fire, let it cool down a little, and
then mix with it a tablespoonful of spirits of turpentine, and after that add
about seven ounces of very strong alcohol. The alcohol cools it down so

rapidly that it-will be necessary to put it once more on the fire, stirring it
constantly. Great care is necessary to avoid igniting the alcohol.

This wax is easily prepared, and when well corked will keep
for six months. It is put on the wounded part of the tree, very
thin, and soon becomes as hard as stone. Thus it is valuable
not only for grafting, but for covering the scars caused by re-
moving limbs in pruning. When bench grafting is done by
nurserymen, of course all anpliances are arranged for the speed-
iest work, and wonderful results are attained by one man and a
helper, even as many as three thousand root grafts of apple in
ten hours. We are, however, merely discussing home practises.

Cleft Grafting—Where various-sized stocks are to be
used, as will be the case with a bunch of home-grown seedlings,
different styles of grafting must be used. Where the stock is
much larger than the scion, as is apt to be the case with Cali-
fornia seedlings, the cleft graft will be simplest.
Cut off the top smoothly above the root crown
and then split the top of the stock, as shown in
the cngraving. Then prepare the scion by
whittling it to wedge-shape at the =
lower end. Open the slit in the
stack with a little wedge and in-
sert the scion so that its inner bark
matches with the inner bark of the
stock, something as shown in the
second figure. It does not matter
whether the outside of the scion is
flush with the outside of the stock
or not; the vital point is to get the Cishoecatiat RaseReaus:
growing lavers just inside the barks
in contact with each other, and, to be sure of this, it may be well
to give the scion a slight diagonal pitch, for if the barks cross
each other, this desirable contact is sure to be made. It is well
to make the side of the wedge of the scion which goes nearer
to the center of the stock a little thinner than the outside.

82 Side and Whip Grafts.

A scion for a root graft is cut longer than for use in the top
of the tree, for in planting the point of grafting is placed a little
way under-ground. Such scions are usually cut with
four or five buds. After the scion is in place, it only
remains to wrap it closely with a piece of the waxed
cloth or paper, in such a way that all the cut surfaces
are covered, extending the wrapper a little below the
split in the reot. Paint over the wrapper with warm
wax put on with the brush, put a little on the top of
the scion, and the graft is complete.

Side Grafting—Another method which prevents
splitting the stock is the side graft, shown in the ac-
companying figure. It consists in bending the stock
to one side and cutting in diagonally with a thin-bladed,
sharp knife, a little more than half way through the
stock. Into this open cut insert the scion so that the
inner barks touch; then allowing the stock to straighten
up, holds the scion firmly. Covering with a wax band
drawn tight makes a good job, and such grafts make as
good growth as the buds set the previous summer.
This method can be used with stems or branches up to
an inch in diameter, and is essentially the same as will
be mentioned later as a side graft for working over old
trees. In this style of grafting, a stub of three inches
or more may be left above the graft, and to this the
graft can be tied to prevent blowing out if it makes a
strong growth. Afterward the stub is cut back with a
sloping cut and waxed or painted to prevent checking.

Whip Grafting in the Stem.—Grafting above the
root or in the stem of the stock when stock and scion
are about the same size, is done by tongue |
or whip grafting. The accompanying y),;
sketch shows a whip graft in the stem of
the stock. Grafts up to an inch in diameter can
be made in this way, but it is generally used for
smaller wood. Care must be taken to secure
proper contacts of the inner barks at least on one
side of the stock. After pushing the parts to-
gether, a wax band holds them firmly in place,
or the joint may be simply tied and painted over
with wax.

Al Root Graft—When the root stock and the
‘ scion are about the same size, the tongue graft is
also used, as shown in the figure. In making this
both the stock and scion are given a sloping cut
of about the same length, and a secondary cut made in each.
When the two are put together, the wood ‘tongues in,” or

t

Side Graft.

p Graft.

Tongue Graft.

Handling Root Grafts. 83

interlocks, as shown in the engraving. The object of this is
to make more points of contact for the inner barks of root and
scion, and at the same time to interlock the two more firmly.
In putting the two together, if the stock is slightly larger than
the scion, be sure to put the scion so that the inner bark contact
is made, and this will bring the scion a little to one side of the
center. Bind with the wax band, and paint with wax as in the
case of the former graft.

In large nursery practise expert grafters have come of late
years to make this root graft without wax, merely tying in the
graft. For amateur work at home it is much safer to use the
wax.

Grafting in the root, where the root is much larger than the
scion, may be done without splitting the root by cutting or saw-
ing out a triangular piece on the side of the root, cutting the
scion to fit and trusting to a strong band to hold it in place.
This graft is illustrated in the chapter on propagating the grape.
It also works well with root grafting the walnut, and is used by
some in ordinary top grafting on other trees.

Planting Seedlings or Root Grafts in Nursery Row.

Planting out Root Grafts——This root grafting can be done in
the winter before it is time to plant out, and the grafts can be
made a few at a time, as convenient. The grafts, then, as fast
as prepared, should be bedded in moist sand in the cellar, and
will make their contact firm, and even start to growing a little.
In planting out in the nursery rows be sure the earth is firmed
well around the root, otherwise many will be lost. The plant
can be put in and the earth closed with a dibble, as seen in the
sketch. Plant ten or twelve inches apart in the rows. Keep
the weeds down and the soil well cultivated and loose on the
surface, and the first season’s growth will give a tree fit for
planting out in orchard in the coming winter. For irrigation
the same rules will apply as given for the growth of seedlings
for budding.

84 Treatment of Trees in Nursery.

PRUNING TREES IN NURSERY.

As for other treatment of the trees (either from bud or root
graft) in nursery during the first year, there is some difference of
opinion and practise. Jf the young tree will be content to make
a straight switch with good buds in the axils of the leaves, but
no laterals thrown out, it will be in the best possible shape for
planting in the orchard, and gives the planter a chance to make
the head at whatever height suits him, and to secure uniformity
through the orchard. All trees will not, however, be content
with this growth, but will push out laterals all along the stem.
Even in this case some let the whole growth go for the planter
to treat as he thinks best. Another plan is to go over the nur-
sery when the young stock is about two feet high and pinch
back the laterals part way, but retaining the leaves nearest the
stem to shade the stem. This pinching back is done from the
ground up to a height of one to one and a half feet, and above
that the growth is left to take its natural course, to be cut as
desired when the head of the tree is formed. Pinching back
develops buds near the stem and gives the planter a better
chance to head the tree lower if he likes. Another practise
which prevails to some extent, is to pinch off the terminal bud
when the young tree has reached a height of about two and a
half or three feet in the nursery. This soon forces a growth of
lateral branches, which are in turn pinched after they have grown
out a couple of feet. The iesult is the formation of a head on a
nursery tree the first year, and when such trees are planted in
orchard they are merely cut back on the laterals, leaving the
head as formed in the nursery. Such trees are difficult to handle
in packing, and take much room in shipment. * There may,
however, be an advantage in such practise for the home grower
if he is situated in parts of the State where the greatest season’s
growth is attained. Orchard planters generally, however, pre-
fer a dormant bud or a yearling of moderate growth, without
laterals.

CLASSES OF NURSERY STOCKS.

The several classes of stock which are to be had from nur-
series are as follows:—

Root Grafts—These are seedling roots, or pieces of them
on which scions of the desired variety have been grafted on the
bench and the junction healed over in the cellar. No growth
has yet started in the scion. If the tree planter wishes this kind
of stock, he should plant it out in nursery row in the spring and
remove the trees to orchard the following winter.

June Buds.—For the multiplying some desirable varieties
very fast, buds are kept dormant in a cool place; or, by pinching

Grafting Old Trees. 85

off the top shoots of the current year are forced to mature buds
very early. These buds are put into seedling stocks as early in
the season as possible. After budding, the top of the stock is
girdled with knife or cord, or partly cut away, and growth is
forced on the bud so as to give a small tree at the end of the
first summer. This method of propagation is growing in popu-
larity in this State, especially in the foot-hill districts where small
trees are preferred for transplanting.

Dormant Buds——Trees are sold in dormant bud when they
are lifted from the nursery and sent out before any growth has
started on the inserted bud. The bud should be seen to be the
color of healthy bark.

Yearling Trees—These are trees which have made one
season’s growth from the bud or graft. Two-year-olds have
made two seasons’ growth, and soon. The proper way to count
the life of a tree is from the starting of growth in the bud or
graft, for this point is really the birth of the tree.

WORKING OVER OLD TREES.

Another operation which may be properly considered as a
branch of propagation is the working over of old trees. There
is much of this being done every year in this State. The old
seedling fruits in the older settled parts of the State are being
made to bear improved varieties; trees of varieties illy adapted
to the prevailing conditions are changed into strong growing
and productive sorts; trees are changed from one fruit to another,
as with the tens of thousands of unproductive almonds which
have been worked over into plums, prunes, and peaches. Still
another reason for working over is to secure more valuable and
marketable varieties. Sometimes a mixed orchard is made to
bear a straight line of one sort which is in demand, or when the
grower finds he has too many trees of a single kind, which give
him more fruit than he can conveniently handle when it all ripens
at one time, he works in other varieties so as to get a succession
of varieties adapted to his purpose, and thus secures a longer
working season in which to dispose of them. This is especially
the case in large orchards of apricots, peaches, and plums, when
the grower depends upon drying his crop. Information con-
cerning the successive ripening of varieties can be gained from
the special chapters on the different fruits. For all of these
reasons, and others which need not be enumerated, the work of
the propagator is continually going on even in our large bear-
ing orchards. As with young trees, so with old, transforming
the character of the tree is done both by budding and grafting.

Budding Old Trees.—One way to prepare an old tree for bud-
ding is to cut back the branches severely during the latter part of

86 Cleft Grafting.

the winter, which has the effect of forcing out new shoots around
the head of the tree, and in these the buds of the desired variety
are set in the summer, just as is done in budding nursery stock,
except that the budding should be done rather earlier because
the sap does not run as late. When the shoots are budded,
those being selected which are situated so as to give the best
symmetry to the new head, the shoots not budded are broken a
, foot or so from where they emerge from the old wood, and are
allowed to hang until pruning-time. At the winter pruning the
budded branches are topped off a little above the bud and when
the new shoot starts it is often loosely tied to the stub of the old
branch to prevent breaking out in the wind. When it gets
strength, the stub is cut away smoothly to allow the wound to
heal over.

Another way is to insert the buds in the old bark at points
where it is desirable to have the new branches start. This is
sometimes done by lifting the bark, as in ordinary budding, and
slipping the bud under, sometimes by what is called shield or
plate budding, which consists in removing a piece of the old
bark entirely and putting in its place a piece of bark of the
desired variety, having upon it a dormant bud. With plate
budding it is necessary to be careful to have the inserted bark
just the size of the bared spot, and to wrap it more closely than
when the bud is slipped under the bark of the stock. In all
cases in budding old trees, care must be taken to get fully-
matured buds, and it is well to take them from large shoots,
which have a thicker and firmer bark than may be used in bud-
ding nursery stock. It is also desirable to be very sure that the’
buds are taken not only from a tree of the desired variety, but
from a healthy, vigorous tree of that variety.

In selecting buds, also, one must be sure that he gets leaf
buds, and not fruit buds only. In taking buds from some kinds
of bearing trees, of course, he may sometimes, to
get well-ripened buds, be obliged to take both
fruit and leaf buds together. This will work well
if care is taken not to rub off the leaf bud. It is
rather easier, however, to work with buds from
young trees not yet in bearing if one can be sure
that these trees are of the desired variety.

Grafting Old Trces—Old trees are also re-
newed by grafting. This is most generally done
by the old process of “top gratting,” as practised
at the East. The main stem or the larger branches

Cleft Gratin are cut square off, and the scions, usually two,
but four or more if in the trunk, are shaped and
set into clefts in the stock as shown in the engraving. It is

Top-Grafiing Me:hods. 87

better to use limbs than to graft in the trunk, if the old trees are
of good size. The following description, which the writer bor-
rows in part from some unknown source, will serve to guide
novices in the matter :—

The outfit necessary for doing the work consists of a small, fine saw, a
regular grafting knife, or a pocket-knife with a long, straight, sharp blade,
wax, light mallet, and a hard-wood narrow wedge. After selecting the
limb to be grafted, saw it off—your own judgment will guide you as to best
point, but betore the saw gets quite through the limb, cut the bark on the
under side of the limb to prevent the liability of peeling down.

Next split the stub with knife and mallet and insert the wedge in the
center of the cleft to hold it open. It is usual to cut the scion with two
buds, but sometimes better results are had by using scions with but a single
bud. Whittle the scion wedge-shape, so that it fits nicely down into the
cleft. To do this, hold itin the left hand with the bud at the ball of the
thumb, then cut the side toward you; as will be natural, turn it over, and
cut opposite side in the same way, making the wedge a very little thinner
on the edge opposite the bud than the other. This will insure a firm
pressure at the points where the bark of scion and stock meet.

When set, the bud of the scion will be on line with the outer long
portion of the graft. The point to be closely observed in adjustment is to
have the inner or sap bark of the scion connected with the same of the
stock. If a trifle too far in, or too far out, the work will be a failure.
Some people set the graft a little out at the top anda little in at the bottom,
so as to be sure of a connection at the crossing-point, but there will be
firmer hold if there isa union the whole length. Our rule has been to have
the wood of the scion come exactly even with the surface of the stock
wood, and we seldom fail in getting firm adhesions and solid limbs, after
years of growth.

After the scions are set, and two should be put into one limb if large,
carefully withdraw the wedge and apply the wax, so that every part of the
wood and bark cut and split is well coated. In doing this use extreme care
not to move the scions at all from their sittings.

Most grafting over of old trees is done by this method,
using one or another of the wax preparations described upon a
preceding page. If the cut surface of the stock and the split is’
thoroughly waxed over as low as the bark is split, there is
usually little trouble with the growth of the scion and the heal-
ing over of the stock. In the warmer valleys in the interior, the
sun is often hot enough to melt the wax and cause it to run and
bare the wood surfaces. This is prevented by dusting the wax
thoroughly with brick-dust well powdered; but, by a little ex-
perimenting with the recipes already given, one can secure a
wax which will stand any heat likely to be encountered.

For grafting over trees by working upon the limbs, the
neatest and surest work can be done by methods of grafting
which do not require the splitting of the stock. There are
various ways of doing this. One method is shown in the en-
graving on the next page, and consists in cutting the scion as
shown, and inserting it beneath the raised bark and then bind-
ing well with waxed bands, the preparation of which has already
been described.

88 Grafting in the Bark.

Another method is an application of what the French call
oblique side grafting. It consists in making an oblique cut
downward through the bark of the stock and
for a distance into the wood, using a chisel
and mallet or even a strong knife. A saw
and knife are also used for making this cut,
as will be described in the chapter on the
peach. A small form of side graft has al-
ready been shown earlier in this chapter. In
it the scion is held in with a wax band. Some
growers remove the top of the stock with a
sloping cut about half an inch above the
scion, as shown in the engraving, and wrap
the waxed band well around and over all the
exposed surfaces. Others do not remove the
whole of the limb until the scion has started
well into growth, and then they cut down and
pare the stock and cover with a band or with a wax that will
not run in the sun.

Several ingenious devices have been patented by Califor-
nians for securing uniformity in the incision in the stock and in
shaping the scion, but it is so easy to succeed with ordinary tools
that such inventions have never come into wide use.

Grafting in the Bark.

TIMES FOR GRAFTING IN CALIFORNIA.

There is nothing particularly new about the methods or
means employed for grafting deciduous fruit trees in California,
but the time at which the operation can be successfully done,
and the condition of the scion, are different from those held to
be necessary in other climates. It is not at all requisite that the
scions should be carefully stored away to keep them in a dor-
mant condition, nor that the grafter should haste to do his work
in just such a state of sap-flow in the spring-time. It was early
discovered that grafting could be successfully done with grow-
ing scions, and that scions could be cut from one tree and set
in another nearly at any time the grafter desired. Grafting is
therefore possible much later in the season than is prescribed
elsewhere, and it is also possible to begin earlier. In one of the
largest apple and pear orchards in the State it is common to
graft in December. The absence of freezing weather saves the
graft from injury. As our trees start their flow of sap early, and
often when the ground is too wet for comfortable orchard work,
it is the practise of many to get their grafting and pruning done
before the heavy mid-winter rains begin. The practise of most
growers is, however, to conform somewhat nearly to traditional
methods, to do most of the grafting in the spring months, and

When to Graft. 89

to use dormant scions, the growth of which is retarded by heel-
ing them in on the north side of a building, or keeping them in
sand in the cellar, as the grower chooses. Of course it should
be understood that there are parts of the State where the winter
conditions are more nearly like those at the East, and practise
has to conform to them.

As to whether it is better to remove the eis top of the
tree and graft all the limbs in one year, there is some difference
of opinion. The prevailing practise is to graft over part of the
limbs one year and the balance the following year; or else to
leave part of the top to shade the bark and take part of the sap
flow until the grafts start out well, and then cut it away.

Whenever old bark is exposed by cutting back for grafting,
thorough protection against sunburn must be provided. The
simplest way to do this is to cover the exposed bark with good
whitewash. By using thirty pounds of lime, four pounds tallow,
and five pounds of salt with enough water to make it flow well,
a tenacious whitewash can be secured.

What has been said thus far relates especially to the work-
ing over of old trees of common deciduous fruits. Though
much the same method will succeed with some of the semi-
tropical fruits and with nut trees, the discussion of their propa-
gation and grafting over will be deferred to the chapters devoted
to them, and this will also give opportunity to describe methods
especially adapted to these fruits.

CHAPTER. X,
PREPARATION FOR PLANTING.

The two essentials in preparing land for trees or vines are
deep and thorough cultivation, and provision for drainage, unless
the situation is naturally well drained. Drainage will be con-
sidered in connection with irrigation in another chapter. In
this place, however, by way of emphasis, it may be remarked
that high land is not necessarily well drained, although the gen-
eral feature of the surface may be an incline, nor is low land
necessarily wet, although the surface may be apparently level.
For horticultural purposes the drainage of the land must be
considered on the hillside as well as in the valley, for reasons
which will be more fully set forth in the chapter on drainage.

The preparation of land for fruit planting should begin with
grading. In irrigated orchards this is essential for the equal
distribution of water. Even where irrigation is not anticipated,
it is of decided advantage to smooth down hummocks and fill
sags which are likely to collect,water in the rainy season. As
has been shown in Chapter III, this can be done on most Cal-
ifornia soils without danger of uncovering a sterile subsoil.
Some intimation of the method of grading is given at the close
of Chapter VII. In preparation for the irrigated orchard, and
the probability of irrigation is now great even in regions where
formerly rainfall was the sole reliance, it is important that
accurate grading should be done and the use of the surveyor’s
level and grade stakes will be found a very desirable investment.
All moving of soil should precede the general plowing.

For the planting of orchard or vineyard the land must be
put in as good tilth as possible, and extra expenditure to secure
this will be amply repaid in the after-growth of the trees and
vines. If practicable, it will be all the better to have the process
of preparation begin a year before the plants are to be set.
This is true either with newly-cleared land, as has been described,
or with old grain or pasture land which is to be used for fruit.
Thorough and deep breaking up as soon as practicable to plow
in the fall, and leaving the surface rough during the winter,
facilitates the access of air to the lower layers of the soil, and
in a certain sense mav be said to sweeten and enliven it. Fol-
lowing in the furrow with a subsoil plow is very desirable, either

(90)

Plowing Before Planting. gI

at the first plowing or later. Such treatment of old grain land
breaks up the old hard-pan, which has probably been tormed by
years of shallow culture. The preparation should continue
during the following summer, and can often be made both thor-
ough and profitable by the growth of a summer “hoed crop,”
the culture of which will kill out many weeds and secure good
pulverization of the soil. 1f no summer crop is grown, the land
should be kept in cultivation by plowing the weeds under as
long as the surface soil retains moisture enough to start them.
A special advantage of such summer-fallow in regions where the
rainfall is apt to be short is that, by prevention of evaporation,
the trees or vines set the following winter will have a good part
of the rainfall of two seasons to grow with, and the result will
often be very noticeable. If there are supplies of manure avail-
able, as is often found in old corrals on our grain or stock farms,
it is better to gather and apply this the winter before the plant-
ing of the trees. If this work is not done, then it should be left
until after the trees are planted, and then be spread upon the sur-
face during the winter, and plowed in in the spring after it has
been in part leached into the soil by the rains. Application
should be made evenly all over the surface and not massed
around the roots of the trees, unless it is to be applied as a
mulch to the surface after the spring cultivation is over, as will
be considered later.

If it is thought desirable to plant the land immediately after
breaking up, put in the plows as early in the fall as it is possible
to do deep work, that is, to plow to a depth of ten or twelve
inches, or more. Harrow thoroughly. If it is still early, cross-
plow also deeply when the land pulverizes well, and follow in
the furrow with the subsoil plow. working to a depth of fourteen
inches or more. For this kind of work good teams are needed,
and the plow should be sharp and bright. If the work is hard
for the team, set the plow so as to take less land, but do not
sacrifice the depth. Harrow again thoroughly, and the land is
ready for the trees or vines.

‘Avoiding Dead Furrows——Unless dead furrows can be used
to advantage for surface drainage in case of heavy rain-storms,
it will be of decided convenience in laying off to have the field
free from them. This can, of course, be secured by beginning
the final plowing at a line in the center of the field, turning all
furrows inwards. In this case, too, if a right-hand plow is used,
the team will always turn on unplowed land, and thus avoid
trampling upon and packing the loose soil. The slight ridge in
the center of the fieid formed by the first two furrows can be
easily leveled by a couple of back furrows, and when properly
harrowed the field will be found smooth as a floor for staking
out for planting.

92 Best Arrangement for Trees.

LAYING OUT FOR PLANTING IN SQUARES.

It is very desirable, both for convenience in cultivation and
for the beauty of the orchard, that the trees should stand in
straight lines, and care should be taken to attain that end. Most
orchards and vineyards in this State are laid out in squares:
that is, the rows of trees or vines are all at right angles to each
other, as shown in the accompanying sketch. This is the sim-
_ g § &

@ 9
Planting in Squares.

plest arrangement; and by some of our largest planters is’ held to
be the best. It is true that the trees are not equidistant from
each other in all directions, and that, theoretically at least, there
is a portion of the ground unused—supposing that the roots
occupy a circle, as do the branches. Practically, however, it
may be doubted whether the hungry roots of well-grown trees
or vines leave any porvien of the soil unvisited.

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Double Squares.

Methods of Marking Off. 93

There are also forms of double squares and alternating
squares available for planting at long distances, with growths
between, which are ultimately to be cut out, or for vines between
fruit trees.

VARIOUS WAYS OF MARKING FOR SQUARES.

Marking with a Plow.—This method was used in laying off
some large orchards in the Sacramento Valley. A common
two-horse turning plow is rigged with a “marker,”—a light
wooden bar extending at right angles from the beam, the bar
being as long as the desired distance between the rows of trees.
On the end of this bar a crosspiece is fastened perpendicularly,
so that it scratches along on the surface of the ground. The
line of the first furrow has to be designated by a flag stake, to
which the plowman proceeds. When this is done, the team is
turned and sent back along the next row, the location of which
has been fixed by the marker, and so on for the length of the
field, the marker being turned each time to indicate the next
furrow. Following the same course the other way of the field
leaves the trees to be planted at the intersection of the furrows.

Measure and Sight—Another method which is quite com-
monly used and answers a good purpose in small plantings
is the combination of measure and sight. The sighting stakes
are usually plasterers’ laths pointed at one end and whitewashed
to make them more visible to the eye. In the use of these it is
necessary to measure the distances and locate the laths to mark
the ends of the rows all around the field. Then locate a line of
laths across the field each way through the center, these laths
occupying places which the trees of these two central rows will
fill. After these are in place, measurement can be dispensed
with, and the job can be finished by sighting through. The
man on the ends of the rows has three laths to sight by in each
row, and the stake driver places the stakes as directed by the
sighter. Good location can be done this way if a man has a
good eye and patience enough.

Marking off with a Wire-—A measuring wire or chain is,
perhaps, the best means for getting accurate location of trees
or vines. It is used either for setting in squares or in other
arrangement, as will be described presently. Measuring wires
are made of annealed steel wire about one-eighth of an inch in
diameter. The length varies according to the wishes of the
user. If it is desired to lay off the plantation in blocks of one
acre, the wire should be two hundred and eight feet nine inches
long, for that is approximately the length of one side of a square
inclosing an acre of ground. But some use a wire as long as
three hundred feet, when the acre measure is of no consequence;
and others, in smaller plantings, make the wire just the length

94 To Find a Square Corner.

of the piece they have in hand. At each end of the wire is fixed
a strong iron ring about one and one-half inches in diameter,
to be slipped over stakes; some use a larger ring, say three
inches in diameter, because it is easier to handle in pulling taut.
Along this wire, patches of solder are placed exactly at the dis-
tances desired between the rows of trees or vines, and to these
places pieces of red cloth are sometimes fastened so that the
points may be easily seen. Another style of measuring wires
is made of small wire cable about a quarter of an inch in diam-
eter, made of several strands of small wire. It is more flexible
and less likely to become kinked than the large wire, and can be
easily measured and marked off to represent the distances at
which rows of different kinds of trees should be placed. This
is done by separating the strands a little at the desired points
and inserting a little piece of red cloth, pressing the wires to-
gether again and tying firmly with a waxed thread to prevent
slipping. In this way the same wire can be easily arranged for
planting vines or for the trees requiring the greatest distance be-
tween the rows. Another advantage of the cable is that any
stretching can be taken up by retwisting, which can not be done
with the stretching of a single wire.

Finding a True Corner—To use the measuring wire for lay-
ing out trees on the square, it is necessary first to get one corner
true, and then a field of any size can be marked out accurately.
Select the side of the field which is to serve as the base of the
square and stretch the wire along that, say fifteen feet from the
fence, which will give room enough to turn with the team in
cultivation or to drive along in picking-time. When the wire
is thus stretched parallel with the boundary of the field, place a
stake at each of the distance tags on the wire, and these stakes
will represent the first row of trees or vines. To find a square
corner, begin at the starting-point and measure off sixty feet
along this row with a tape line, and put a temporary stake, then
from the starting-point measure off eighty feet as nearly at
a right angle with the first line as can be judged with the eye,
and run diagonally from this point the temporary sixty-foot
stake. If the distance between these stakes is one hundred feet,
then the corner is a right angle. Now, having the outside lines
started at right angles to each other, one can proceed with the
measuring wire and lay off as large an area as he desires, if
care is taken to have each line drawn parallel with the last, and
all stakes accurately placed with the tags on the wire—providing
the land is nearly level or on a uniform grade. In locating trees
over uneven ground, the measurements will have to be made
from tree to tree, with the tape line held as nearly’to a level as
possible.

Quincunx Planting. 95

Rows on Hillsides—Laying off orchard or vineyard on hill-
side too steep to plow both ways, there is advantage sometimes
in placing the rows up and down the hill nearly twice as far
apart as the rows along the face of the hill In planting trees
thus the advantage to be gained is by enabling you to keep the
team well up the hill; thereby you are able to plow or cultivate
the trees close on the lower side of the rows. There is no
difficulty in cultivating the upper side of the rows, for the plow
or harrow is always below the team. If trees are planted as
recommended, the team can be guided up the hill a little between
the rows, then allowed to drop down hill one step, and thus one
can cultivate the trees close on the lower side. The same rule
will apply to vines.

QUINCUNX PLANTING.

There is much confusion in the use of this term in this State.
It is, in fact, made to cover almost every kind of arrangement
which is not on the square. Webster defines the term to mean

O00

Quincunx.

“the arrangement of things, especially of trees, by fives in a
square, one being placed in the middle of a square.” Trees set
in quincunx would stand as shown in the accompanying dia-
gram. To locate them in this form it is only necessary to pro-
ceed as already described for planting in squares, by fixing upon
the base line and locating two side lines to it at right angles.
Place the stakes on these two lines just half the distance desired
between the trees, and have the measuring wire long enough to
reach across from one line to the other. Near one end of the

96 Planting in Triangles.

wire place another mark just half way between the end and the
first tree mark; that is, if the trees are to be twenty-four feet
apart in the squares, this additional mark should be twelve feet
from the end of the wire. Now set the first row with the end
of the wire at the corner stake, and set stakes at each twenty-four-
foot mark.

Proceed now to the first half-way stake, and instead of put-
ting the end of the wire at this stake, put the twelve-foot mark
there. Put stakes now at each twenty-four-foot mark again to
locate the trees in that row. In the next row put the end of
the wire at the first stake and proceed as in the first row. There-
after using the end of the wire and the twelve-foot marks alter-
nately, the stakes will be set in quincunx all over the field. If
the midway stakes are now pulled out along the two side lines,
the remaining stakes show where the trees are to be placed. This
way of planting locates about seventy-eight per cent more trees
upon any given arca, but it brings the trees at irregular distances
from each other, and except in furnishing a way to arrange an
orchard with permanent and temporary trees, there does not
seem to be any advantage in it.

PLANTING IN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLES.

This is the arrangement generally implied when the term
“quincunx” is wrongly employed. By it the trees are all equally
distant from each other, and thus the ground as equally divided
as possible. The arrangement admits
fifteen per cent more trees to the acre
than the setting in squares, and the
ground can be worked in three differ-
ent directions. This arrangement also
gives better facilities for irrigation.
Objections are urged to it, however,
in that it does not admit of thinning
trees by removal of alternate rows, as
is sometimes desirable, and that one
has to take a zigzag course in driving
through the orchard.

Hexagonal planting places the
trees as shown in the accompanying
sketch,

It is termed hexagonal because,
as the figure consists of six trees in-
closing a seventh, a line drawn through the encompassing trees
makes a hexagon. It is also called septuple planting, because
seven trees enter into its figure.

An orchard can be laid out in hexagonals by using the

Trees Planted in Hexagons.

Distances for Hexagonals. 97

measuring wire as described for quincunx planting with the
distance and half-distance marks, except that the guide stakes
in the side rows must be placed at different distances apart.
Mr. H. A. Brainard, of San Jose, gives the following useful
table, showing the distance for side stakes to reach desired dis-
tance between the trees, and the method of calculating the num-
bers of trees to the acre by the square and hexagonal or sextuple
atrangement :—

Trees set Sextuple. Check-stakes should be
10 feet apart 8ft.8 in.
12 7 “ aioe weg sO SS 4 2-5
a4 oe ee : Es ‘
i 46 20 /2
I a
20 oe “6 id ize
21 “fe ae 2% «ec
22 oe ce vf, “ec

“é “ 1 A ““
24 9%

After the field is staked, each alternate stake in the check rows should
be removed. The following table will show the number of trees to the acre
by the square and septuple system:—

Septuple.

1o feet apart
12 46 6

For any distance not given in the above table, calculate the number of
trees to the acre by the square system, and add fifteen per cent. This will
give the number if planted septuple.

Laying out Hexagonals with a Triangle.—It is possible to lay
out an orchard in hexagonal form by working from stake to
stake with an equilateral triangle of dimensions equaling the
distance required between the trees.

Take three strips of one-by-two-inch dry pine or redwood, and as long
as you wish the distance between the trees. Cut the strips the same length,
and fasten the corners of the triangle firmly together by nailing to pieces of
pine board six by six inches. : : . :

If the long strips are set up edgewise, the triangle will be much stiffer
and better to carry. Through the corner boards bore an inch hole, making
sure that the three sides of the triangle measure exactly the same. If they
do, the triangle must necessarily be perfect. Then brace it a little by
nailing a lath across each corner, and it is ready for use.

Now split out some three-quarter-inch pins, one foot long, from a good,
straight-grained redwood post. Make one hundred pins for each acre you
have to lay off. Do not use lath for pins, as they will cost double and will
not be half as good.

98 The Use of a Triangle.

Three persons must now carry the triangle, beginning on one side of
the field, say eight feet from the fence, and guided the first time through by
a line of stakes. Carry the triangle with its side to the line of guide stakes
and its point in. The head man and the inside man will stick pins, while
the rear man will slip his corner each time upon the pin set by the head man.

After the first time across, the man at the inside point of the triangle
alone will set pins, while the other two fit their corners upon the pins in
the last row set. Thus one row of pins only is set each time you go across
the field.

a
Sn
Gi
Zo

ta

i

One Corner of Triangle—All Being Made Alike.

MBs If the triangle is exact, and the first row of pins is set perfectly straits
and the pins are always set perpendicularly, everything will now work like
a charm and the job will be perfect; and it is so simple and easy that a man
and two small boys can lay off from five to ten acres in one day. Remem-
ber that no guide stakes are used anywhere after the first time through.

The Triangle on Hillside—The use of the triangle requires
a little nicety in “leveling up’ where the piece is hilly. By
using a plumb-line at two corners of the triangle, the third cor-
ner resting on one of the stakes, leveling the triangle and bring-
ing one of the plumb-lines over another stake already set, the
position of the other line would determine the position of the
next stake. This method has worked fairly well, even in places
where the slope was sufficient to give a fall of six feet between
the trees, which were set twenty feet apart.

Locating in Triangles with a Chain.—Instead of a wooden
triangle, a chain has been used in this way :—

First stretch a chain along one side of the ground, setting by it the first
row of stakes. This forms the base line. Have a piece of chain just twice
the length of the established distance between trees, with ample rings on
the ends and a joint in the middle. Put one of the rings over the first
stake and the other over the second stake. Then take the joint in the

Laying off with a Chain. 99

middle of the chain and stretch it out reasonably tight. The wire forms a
letter V, at the focus of which stick a stake. The point is indicated with
precision by the joint in the middle of the chain. Then take the ring off
the first stake and put it over the third stake, leaving the one on the second
stake where it is. Tighten the chain again, and another point is fixed.
Thus continue all the base line, shifting the rings alternately, turning over
the chain as one turns a pair of draughtman’s compasses in his hand when
spacing off a line. The second row of stakes being set, set the third row,
and so on through the ground.

The suggestions given in this chapter should indicate ways
enough to lay off orchard and vineyard ground to answer all
needs, though there are other good ways not mentioned. It is
hoped that the instructions will not be regarded as too explicit.
They are intended for the guidance of the inexperienced planter,
and will naturally seem laden with detail to those who have
become familiar with the operations by repeated practise.

CHAPTER 261,

PLANTING THE TREES.

After the field has been graded, thoroughly tilled and care-
fully laid off as has been described, the next step is digging the
holes for the trees. “How large shall the holes be?’ He was
a wise fruit grower who, when asked this question, replied, “As
large as the field.” That is to say, it is much better to work
the whole ground over deeply than to trust to deep holes and
shallow working elsewhere. Where this is done, the tree holes
need only be large enough and deep enough to receive the roots
without folding them in or cramping them up. In a loose, deep
soil, however, one can dig extra deep and broad holes if he de-
sires, and will be repaid by extra growth of the tree; but in a
close, tenacious soil a deep hole is not only undesirable, but
often positively a danger to the tree, unless drainage of the holes
is provided artificially. Such holes hold water like a tub, and
the loosening of the soil deeply facilitates its gathering in the
hole. Many have found their trees in such places dwindling
and dying because their roots were soaking in water.

Planting on Some Shallow Soils—As a rule, trees should
have a deep soil, and for these deep, free loams, California is
famous, but there are situations where very satisfactory growth
.. and production can be had, even when the hard-pan is near the
surface and the soil would be called shallow. In such places
it is the character of the subsoil which warrants the tree and
vine planter in making use of them. The best illustration of
such situations is the large area of what is called “bed-rock
land,” adjacent to the city of Sacramento. It is about thirty
years since Mr. James Rutter, of Florin, first noticed that there
were vines here and there which grew exceptionally well and
bore large crops of fine fruit. He found by investigation that
under these vines there were crevices in the bed-rock, and from
this he took the hint to bore through this hard-pan in the bottom
of the hole where he placed the tree, and in this way he gained
access for the roots to the subsoil and egress for the water
through the permeable substratum. He bores a hole two inches
in diameter into or through the bed-rock and rams well into it
one and a half pounds of black blasting powder. After explod-

( 100 )

Blasting Before Planting. 101

ing this, he sometimes bores a three-inch hole about four feet
below the blast. Instead of blasting in the hole where the tree
1s to be planted, some bore and blast the hard-pan midway be-
tween the rows, placing the holes at “quincunx” with the trees.
The shattering of the hard-pan between the trees is said to be
practicable after the trees are growing, and may in certain soils
relieve trees which are suffering for lack of drainage. A half-
pound cartridge of dynamite has been successfully used for sub-
soil blasting.

There are situations here and there over the State where
such practise would be beneficial, and in some cases mere dig-
ging or boring through the impervious stratum avails much.
On the bench back from the Mokelumne there are spots where
“Java crusts” overlie gravel, and trees have been well grown by
cutting holes through the lava to the gravel, filling with good
soil and planting the trees in these holes. Their roots penetrate
to the gravel-stratum and obtain abundant moisture and nutri-
ment. This “lava” is quite soft when not exposed to the air,
but being quarried hardens so as to serve as building stone. In
certain situations where a shallow layer of soil overlies a heavy
clay, trees have been blown over, but when a cut has been made
through the clay, the trees have rooted deeply and have with-
stood the winds.

It is becoming more and more apparent, however, that for
commercial plantings of trees and vines all such defective soils
should be avoided. There is plenty of good, deep land to be
had, and the burden of ameliorating poor land is a serious hand-
icap in the competition which has brought production to very
narrow margins of profit.

Digging the Holes—Holes for tree planting may be dug at
a leisure time after the laying off of the field, even though it is
not designed to plant the trees immediately, but our largest
planters do not approve the practise. In such cases the sides of
the holes should always be freshly pared off before the trees are
put in, because the rain and sunshine are apt to cement the sides.
In digging holes the surface earth should always be thrown on
one side and the lower soil on another. The object of this is
to have the top soil to place in direct contact with the roots
when the tree is planted, the lower soil being used to fill up the
hole with.

TREE SETTERS:

No matter how carefully the stakes are placed in laying off
the orchard, the trees will not easily come in line unless some
handy device is used for bringing the stem just in the place occu-
pied by the stake which was thrown out in digging. These

102 Two Tree- Setters.

devices are called “‘tree-setters,” and there are a number of de-
signs. Two are given, either of which will give good results.
Take a piece of board one inch thick, four inches wide, and five
feet long; bore an inch hole in the center, and one at each end
at equal distance from the center; then cut a piece from one side

¢
Ses
oA

4

Bar for Tree Setting.

of the board, marked by a square, the corner resting in the mid-
dle of the center hole. Make two stakes, each one foot long,
that will easily pass through the end holes. Place the center of
this board against the stake, where the tree is to be planted;
push the stakes into the ground through the holes in the ends,
then lift the board from position and proceed to dig the hole.
When dug, replace the board over the end stakes in its former
position, then plant the tree with its trunk resting against the
center notch in the board, and you have it in just the right place.

Another setter is in the form of a triangle: Take three pieces
of plain one-inch stuff three to four inches wide and four feet
long, and nail them together, forming a three-cornered frame,
letting the ends project sufficiently to form a corner, as shown in
the drawing. Next make a couple of smooth, hard stakes, well
sharpened, and about a foot or sixteen inches in length. When

Triangular Tree Setter.

you are ready to set your trees, place the frame flat upon the
ground with one corner firmly and fairly against the stake which
marks the place where the tree is to stand. Now in the other
two corners stick the stakes already prepared for the purpose.
This done pull up the stake against which the frame was first

Selecting Good Trees. 103

placed—the one indicating a place for a tree—remove the frame,
being careful in doing so not to move the other two stakes,
which must be left to be used while setting the tree. After
the hole is dug and everything ready for setting the tree, again
place the frame against the two standing stakes, let the tree drop
into the other corner, which will help support it while the dirt is
being placed about the roots; and this will bring the tree exactly
where the stake was originally. If the stakes are properly put
in line, so will be the trees.

These setters are described as they are used when the hole
is dug and the tree set at the same time. Such is the ordinary
practise in planting. If one wishes to dig the holes beforehand,
it is necessary to furnish more stakes, as two have to be left
beside each hole to mark the position of the setter when the
planting is done. Besides its use in bringing a tree into line,
the tree-setter enables one to judge of the depth of setting as
compared with the surface of the surrounding ground. It is
not easy to determine this with the eye if the hole be a large one.
Where the measuring wire is used to set the stakes, it is some-
times stretched across again after the holes are dug, the tags on
the wire thus indicating the places for the trees of the whole row.
The trouble with this practise is the bother of having the wire
in the way while filling and tramping the earth around the roots.

SELECTING TREES;

In the purchase of trees it is well to patronize nurserymen
in your own district, providing they are honest and intelligent
men, who keep themselves informed as they should about their
business. The advice of such a local nurseryman is often of
great value to the newcomer, tor he will know by his experience
and observation much about the adaptations of fruits and vari-
eties thereof to the region. If, for any reason, local nurseries
do not meet your needs, seek some well-established nursery at a
distance. It is much safer to deal directly with the grower of
the trees than to patronize traveling agents. Where, however,
these agents are the accredited representatives of well-known
establishments, they may save the planter time and trouble by
taking his order for him. So-called “tree peddlers,” who are
jobbers in trees and in too many cases send you refuse trees
which they pick up cheap wherever they can, and label them to
suit, without respect to truth or honesty, should be resolutely
avoided, no matter what inducements or blandishments they
may Offer.

It is desirable, if possible, to visit the nursery yourself, and
see the stock which is to be furnished you. The trees should
have a good healthy look, with clean, bright bark and of: size

104 Lifting Trees from Nursery.

enough to indicate a good, free growth. The matter of size is
not the only point to consider, for size of the top is not so de-
sirable as well-matured wood and plenty of roots. On the other
hand, stunted trees are not, as a rule, worth planting, for a
stunted tree, like a stunted calf, does not make a good after-
growth. There are cases, however, in which, by extra cultiva-
tion in good soil, fine trees have been grown even from “culls”
from the nursery. The best rule is to select trees of good me-
dium size, straight and healthy. In judging size, however, one
must take California and not Eastern standards, because our
nursery stock, if well grown, invariably is of much greater size
than Eastern. Ask to see samples of the roots as well as the
tops and do not purchase trees unless the roots are healthy
looking and free from knots or excrescences. Gnarly and
knotty roots in the young tree are a sure sign of insect pests
or of unhealthy growth, and planting such trees has occasioned
our orchardists immense loss. Many have been led into pur-
chasing poor trees because they may be had cheap. A tree
selected merely because it is cheap may prove the most expen-
sive thing a man can put in the ground.

Guarding against Insects—The top of the tree should be
carefully examined to discover scale insects if there be any. For
this purpose a hand-magnifier should be used. Such a glass
should always be in the fruit grower’s pocket. One can be
bought at any optician’s for a dollar or two, which will fold into
its case so as to be carried without scratching. Our nursery-
men, by forsaking old infested locations and obtaining new
ground, now sell much cleaner trees than they did a few years
ago. But still it is well to be always on the watch for pests.
Disinfection of nursery stock is now officially provided. Details
of treatment will be given in the chapter on injurious insects.

TAKING TREES FROM THE NURSERY.

Trees should be carefully taken from the nursery rows so as
to obtain a good amount of small branching roots. In lifting
from the home nursery, digging with well-sharpened spades,
which will sever the long roots cleanly, is perhaps the best
method. In the large nurseries the newly-invented tree-diggers
are generally used. They have two revolving coulters, which
cut through the surface soil each side of the trees, and a sharp,
curved blade, which is drawn through the ground under the
trees, loosening the soil and severing the long roots cleanly.
The tree is then easily lifted, and has generally a much better
root system than by the old style of “ploughing out,’ which
broke off so many of the fibrous roots and lacerated the larger
ones. Whether the taproot should be retained or not is not

Treatment of Nursery Trees. 105

worth discussing on theoretical grounds. As a matter of fact
and practise, the taproot cuts no figure at all in California or-
chard planting to-day, although the discussion of the question
was very warm in this State thirty years ago. It is important,
however, that the planter should have as many small lateral
roots as he can:get. The small fibrous roots are usually of
little account, as they scldom survive transplanting, and it is
better to clip them away, if the time can be afforded, as they
often prevent the proper close contact of the soil with the larger
roots. Cutting back all roots to short stubs at the base of the
stem has succeeded in some instances in California on moist low
lands, but longer roots are far safer in the deep drying of the
surface layer which is to be expected in this State.

The roots, after lifting, should not be permitted to dry.
Hence, in hauling from the nursery to the farm, the trees should
be well covered with wet straw and old sacks, or, if shipped from
the nursery to distant points, should be well packed. The best
way to pack trees is, undoubtedly, to box them in with wet straw,
but it costs less and they usually carry well considerable dis-
tances if carefully bundled with tules, the roots packed in wet
straw, and, especially about the roots, the packing and covering
bound down tight with ropes to prevent drying out.

Attention should be paid to hauling away trees from the
railway stations as soon as possible after arrival. It is not un-
common for shipments to lie on the station platforms for days,
often when a desiccating north wind is blowing. Such treat-
ment soon takes the life out of the rootlets, and often, no doubt,
the nurseryman is blamed for failure of trees which have suffered
some such neglect as this, either from transportation companies
or from the purchasers.

Heeling In.—On arrival at the farms, trees should be “heeled
in” as soon as possible; even if it is the intention to plant at once,
heel them in just the same, for delays arise often in the most
unexpected manner. To heel in, dig a trench or plow a deep
furrow, or a double furrow, in light, moist, but well-drained
soil; put in the trees singly side by side, removing all the pack-
ing material carefully from the roots, laying the tops all one way,
and then shovel the earth over the roots until they are well
covered with loose soil, and be sure that the soil sifts down well
between the roots. Ordinarily this treatment will hold the trees
in good condition for a considerable time if need be. If, how-
ever, they have become dry before arrival, the bundles should be
thoroughly drenched with water before heeling in. In extreme
cases, where the top shows drying by shrinking and shriveling
of the bark, the trees should be drenched, and then they should
be covered root and top with earth for two or three days, when;

8

106 Time to Plant Trees.

if the irouble has not gone too far, the bark will recover its
smoothness and plumpness. It should be very seldom, how-
ever, that a lot of trees is allowed to get into such condition by
neglect. In heeling in it will be found a great convenience and
a safeguard against possible confusion by loss of labels, if each
variety as taken from the packing is placed by itself in the
trench. Nurserymen generally attach a label to each small bun-
dle, if the trees are of several varieties, and the novice is apt to
lose all track of his sorts when heeling in the trench, unless he
heels in each kind by itself, leaving the nurseryman's label to
mark the whole lot of each kind.

If the planter has his own ideas of after-treatment of his
trees, or if he is a beginner and desires to adopt the suggestions
which will be laid down in this book, he should insist that the
nurseryman shall not trim up nor cut back the trees before
packing. Have the trees packed just as they are lifted from the
ground. The work toward the shaping of the tree should be
done after it is planted in the orchard.

PLANTING THE ORCHARD:

The best time for planting out deciduous fruit trees in most
parts of California is immediately after the first winter rain
which is sufficiently heavy to moisten the soil to a considerable
depth. The young tree should be dormant before being moved,
and if its leaves have fallen it is good evidence of its dormancy.
Such, however, is the effect of the climate of California, more
apparent in some years than others, and with some kinds of
fruit than others, that the young tree retains a small part of its
activity very late, and in such cases it is not practicable to wait
for the complete falling of the leaves. Sometimes for conve-
nience of work, the trees have to he lifted before this takes place,
and in such case it is desirable to remove the leaves to lessen
evaporation. It is probably better to transplant in this condi-
tion for the sake of early setting in its new position than to wait
for all the leaves to drop. This statement is not intended to in-
clude nursery stock which is kept growing late in the season by
late irrigation. Such trees are not desirable.

Time to Plant—Early planting of common orchard fruits is
of advantage for several reasons. First, an early-planted tree
gets the full benefit of the season’s rainfall, whatever it may be,
and a late-planted tree, in a year with short rainfall, is apt to
suffer during its first season’s growth, unless it can be irrigated.
The two main things to observe are the dormancy of the tree
and the proper condition of the soil, and both of these are most
apt to coincide in most parts of California about the first of

Proper Condition of Sott. 107

January. There will, however, be some variation from year to
year, and different parts of the State disagree as to date. Hence,
the general rule must be based on conditions, that of the tree
and that of the soil. If the novice can not judge these for him-
self, he must get the advice of some one of experience in the
locality.

The dormant period of a tree in California, as has been
stated in another connection, is very short. As many cold-
climate annual plants become perennial here, so our deciduous
trees, in comparatively frostless portions of the State, evince a
tendency to become evergreen. The period of dormancy in the
root is also shorter than the inactivity of the top. Trees trans-
planted early are found to have their root wounds calloused over
and new rootlets considerably advanced before the buds swell.
Therefore, by early planting the tree begins soon to take hold
upon the soil, the latter being well settled around them by rains,
which often follow early planting, and the high winds, which
are apt to come in the spring’ in some parts of the State, find
the tree well anchored and ready to maintain itself.

Again, the proper condition of soil, if not seized at its first
coming, may not recur until after the great storms of the winter
are over, say in February or March (in most parts of the State),
and then often the buds are bursting into bloom and leaf. Plant-
ing when the soil is water-soaked and cold is very undesirable,
for in such condition it can not be properly disposed about the
roots, and trees moved at this period are apt to show their dis-
like of the treatment. If the work has been delayed unavoid-
ably, so that early planting can not be done, it is better to keep
the trees heeled in until the proper soil condition returns, even
if it be rather late, for a little extra attention to cultivation for
retention of moisture will pull through a late-planted tree.

These remarks are of very wide application in this State,
but there are exceptions. In our high altitudes, where the cli-
mate approaches Eastern conditions in cold and snowfall, prac-
tise in planting will also approximate Eastern methods. In re-
gions of very heavy rainfall and on the upper coast where the
rainy season and moisture from fogs are prolonged late in the
spring, late planting is safer and surer than in the warmer, drier
parts of the State.

Another consideration, too, is the slope of the land to be
planted. Our hillside fruit growers in regions of heavy winter
storms sometimes plant slopes, which, if plowed deep in the fall,
are apt to wash badly during the heavy winter rains. On such
slopes it is better to plow late in the winter, after the heavy
storms are over, and plant when the soil has become warm and
mellow. ;

108 Economical Planting.

THE OPERATION OF PLANTING.

Tree planting should be carefully and well done, but it need
not necessarily be slowly done. With a kind soil deeply worked
and just in the right condition for planting, trees may be put in
well and rapidly. Two men work together at a decided advan-
tage. Using the straight “tree-setter,” which has already been
described, one takes each end, and as soon as the center notch in-
closes the tree stake, the setter stakes are pushed into the soil, the
“setter” is laid aside, and the two men, taking up their shovels or
spades, begin first around the outside of the hole, throwing all the
surface dirt on the same side of the hole and leaving the tree stake
to be thrown out last, because its remaining serves to center the
hole. The lower soil is now thrown to the other side of the
hole, and when depth enough is reached, the soil at the bottom
of the hole is loosened up to the depth of a shovel-thrust, with-
out removing it from the hole. A shovelful or two of the sur-
face soil is thrown into the center of the hole, being allowed to
remain higher in the center, because this generally furnishes a
cushion about the natural shape of the under surface of the root
system of the tree. Now replace the tree-setter upon its end
pegs, let one man hold the tree with its stem in the central notch
in the setter, and while the other man shovels in the surface earth
rather slowly at first, the man who holds the tree with one hand
will spread out the roots, pulverize and pack the earth around
them, being sure that no cavities are left under any of the roots,
but that their surfaces everywhere come in contact with the soil,
and that they spread out as widely as possible. The earth is
being continuously put in by the shoveler, and when the roots
are covered the planter steps in the hole and carefully firms the
soil down upon the roots by tramping (especially at the cut ends
of the roots around the outer side of the hole), at the same time
judging of the perpendicularity of the tree with his eye. When
this is done, both men use their shovels and fill up the hole with
the earth taken from belcw, being sure to leave the last few
inches at the surface pulverized, but untramped, unless the soil
he very light so that tramping will not overpack it. Some ove
said long ago that one should not plant a tree as he does a post,
ramming down the earth to the very top ot the hole. Many
trees are doubtless ruined by overzeal in this respect.

The shovel has been mentioned frequently as the tool to be
used in planting. Where the soil is deeply plowed, well worked,
and free from stone, the shovel is the most rapid tool. Under
other conditions the long-handled spade, and in some cases the
long-handled spading-fork, serves admirably in loosening the
soil at the bottom of the holes and in breaking up lumps while
filling in. One man with a shovel or spade, and the other with
the fork. makes a good combination in this respect.

General Suggestions. 109

Planting in a Furrow.—A practise which has been largely
followed in the Sacramento Valley and which attains greatest
speed and cheapness consists in laying off as described on page
93, and then proceeding with a heavy listing plow, followed by
a subsoil plow in the same furrow. The trees are then rapidly
set with the least digging. This is all done before the field is
plowed. Plowing immediately follows planting. The advan-
tages of this method are ease of work on firm ground instead of
a plowed surface. and escape of injury to this surface by men and
teams in planting after plowing.

RANDOM SUGGESTIONS.

The roots of every tree should be examined before planting.
All large root ends should have a fresh, clean cut with a sharp
knife or shears. Make a slanting cut with the cut surface on
the underside of the root. Where a root is mangled or bruised,
it should in most cases be cut back to a sound place.

The tree should be placed if possible with the same side
toward the sun as was exposed to the sun in the nursery; at all
events, the wound made by the cutting away of the seedling stock
above the bud should be at the north or northeast, in order that
this weak point may be shaded as much as possible from the
afternoon sun.

If the roots of the young tree grow more to one side than
the other, place the strongest roots toward the prevailing wind.

The use of water to settle the earth around the roots is
sometimes desirable in sections where the rainfall is light or un-
certain. Pour in the water after the hand-work in spreading
the roots and in pressing the soil under and around them has
been done and the hole partly filled. When the water has soaked
away, fill the hole with fine earth withvut tramping. In early
planting in parts of the State where the rainfall is abundant,
there is no need of the troublesome process of water-settling;
in late planting, however, it will sometimes be found of advan-
tage. Puddling the roots, or dipping them in thin mud and
planting with this mud adhering, is governed by much the same
conditions as water-settling; it may insure the growth of the tree
when otherwise it might be seriously injured by drouth. With
puddled roots especial care should also be taken to leave the
surface loose to prevent evaporation. In making puddle, use
loamy soil and never adobe, for in drv time the latter will bake
around the roots and often kill the tree.

The Use of Mamure-——Never put manure in the hole with
the tree. Sometimes the injunction is, Never put anything but
well-rotted manure in the hole. It is better to put none of any
kind. Manure should be spread upon the ground after plant-

110 Speed in Planting.

ing. The rains then leach it out and it may be turned under in
the spring plowing. There are, however, light soils in the drier
parts of the State where turning under manure in the spring is
a disadvantage, as it makes the soil too porous and facilitates
evaporation. On such soils, extra care should be taken to have
the manure thoroughly decomposed by composting, as will be
described in the chapter on fertilizers, and all applications should
be made either late in the spring to act as a mulch during the
summer, or if a mulch is not thought desirable, apply the manure
in the fall before the first rains, so that it may be turned under at
the first plowing and have the whole winter for disintegration.
In this dry climate there is often misapprehension, especially
among newcomers, as to what is well-rotted manure. They
take the scrapings of the corral, which have been trampled and
pulverized, but which, having been kept dry, have never rotted.
When this is put in the holes with the tree and then moistened
by rainfall or irrigation, it will burn the tree, the first sign of
the injury being the drving up of the leaves. It is, on the whole,
safest and best to put nothing but well-pulverized surface scil
around the roots of the young tree.

Depth of Planting —The depth to which trees should be set
has always been a matter of discord among planters. The saf-
est rule under ordinary circumstances is to get the tree as nearly
as possible the same depth it stood in the nursery row; that is,
so as to have it stand that way when the ground has settled, or
the surface returned by cultivation to its normal level. In plant-
ing in loose soil in the drier parts of the State, it is often desir-
able to plant rather low, because several inches depth of the
surface soil become dry, and it is desirable that the roots should
be well in the moist layer. But if irrigation is to be practised,
it must be remembered that the water lfevel will rise when the
soil is saturated, and deep-planted trees are apt to suffer. The
experience of recent years is decidedly against deep planting,
which used to be advised because of our dry climate. Thou-
sands of trees have been ruined by planting too deep.

Speed in Planting —On good soil, well prepared, trees can
be put in rapidly ancl the job still be well done. It is reported
that on one occasion, in planting almonds, twenty men finished
sixty-four acres from Friday noon to Wednesday night, plac-
ing the stakes, digging the holes, and planting the trees.
This would be almost three-quarters of an acre per day per man.
In platting peaches and apricots an average of one hundred
trees per day to the man has been attained. On the mellow
loam, in another case, the average was one hundred and twenty-
five trees to the man, digging holes two feet square in land
which had been plowed twelve inches deep. Such work is only

Mapping and Labeling. III

possible on good soil, well prepared, and by men who work well
together.

Mappmg and Labeling. —Where mixed varieties of fruit are
planted, the orchard should be mapped as soon as the trees are
set. A good durable map is made of the glazed muslin, such
as carpenters and architects use for their drawings. The map
can easily be drawn to a scale by using a fraction of an inch to
represent a foot. After the map is made, it can be rolled on a
broom stick and is easily preserved. With such a record, the
grower need not care what becomes of the labels, as he can
locate a variety any time by its row and tree number. If, how-
ever, one desires labels, let them be made in this way: Take a
piece of common sheet zinc five inches wide. Across this cut
pieces three-quarters of an inch wide at one end and tapering
to a point at the other. Near the wider end write plainly with
a common lead-pencil the name of the variety. This will get
brighter by exposure to the weather. The small end may be
coiled around the branch of the tree; it will yield as the tree
grows and will do no injury. Such labels will last for a long
time. Labels attached by a cord or wire should be removed
as soon as the trees are set, for they are apt to be forgotten
and the tree seriously injured by the cutting in of the ligature.
Jeven when iabels are used the map is the only surety, because
any kind of a label is apt to be lost by accident or by malice or
mischief of intruders.

Mulching —Although early-planted trees on deep soils in
regions of sufficient rainfall need only good cultivation after
planting, there are cases in which mulching is desirable. Va-
rious light materials may be used for a mulch, but nothing is
better than well-rotted straw, in which fermentation has killed
all weed seed. Apply it to a distance of two feet around the
tree, and to a depth of not less than six inches. It is best
done as soon as the tree is planted, and is to be especially
recommended when late planting is practised. Even in local-
ities of light rainfall, if the trees are well mulched early in the
winter, irrigation may be unnecessary for the young deciduous
tree: Trees planted very late in the spring may, by using great
care and mulching well, make as great a growth as those set
out early in winter. This should not be an excuse for late plant-
ing, but we mention it to show that where late planting is
necessary, mulching will help the trees to pull through. It is a
far easier way of keeping the ground moist than by irrigating.
Of course this does not mean that a mulch will obviate irrigation
where systematic irrigation is found necessary, though there are
indications that irrigation may often be lessened, and in some
cases obviated, by extra cultivation or mulching, at least until
the trees come into bearing.

112 Just after Planting.

Guarding against Sunburiu.—Newly-set trees should be
protected against sunburn. There is nothing easier and neater
than to push a “shake’”* into the ground so that its shadow will
shade the stem of the tree from the afternoon sun. If set on
the southwest side, it will do this. Where shakes are not at
hand or are too expensive, the stem of the tree may be bundled
with straw or wrapped with paper. Manufactured “tree pro-
tectors” of paper which are readily adjusted around the trees
are now largely sold. Such protectors, when made of blackened
paper, have been found to invite sunburn instead of preventing it.
This objection does not hold to the use of light-colored material.
Whitewash made according to the formula given at the close
of Chapter IX is a good protection from sunburn. For young
trees, however, it should be made with air-slacked lime, which
has lost some of its causticity. Another whitewash, which has
been largely used for young trees, consists of four ounces of
whale-oil soap dissolved in each gallon of water, whitening be-
ing stirred in to give the solution a paint-like consistency. Mil-
lions of trees have perished in this State, and as many more been
condemned to sickly lives, because of sunburn, and borers which
seek the injured bark for entrance. Pruning has much to do
with saving trees from this evil, as will be shown in the proper
connection, but in the hotter parts of the State, the first precau-
tion should be to shade the bark of the young tree with some
artificial protection.

Cutting Back at Planting —Whatever idea the grower may
have as to shaping his tree, it must be cut back when planted.
Lifting from the nursery has removed a considerable part of the
root system of the young tree and the top must be reduced ac-
cordingly. The planter who dislikes to sacrifice the fine top
will sacrifice future growth and vigor by retaining it. The tree
may struggle through and regain strength, but it wili for years
be smaller than if it had been properly cut back at planting.
If the moisture supply should be short, a tree may die the first
summer which would have survived if differently treated at plant-
ing. The manner of cutting back depends somewhat upon the
style of pruning to be followed afterward, as will be considered in
the next chapter.

* Shakes are pieces of wood three feet long, six inches wide, and one-quarter of an inch
thick, split or sawed from California redwood.

CHAPTER XII;

PRUNING ORCHARD TREES AND THINNING FRUIT.

It is not intended to enter into a discussion of the general
theories of pruning. The reader desiring to pursue them is re-
ferred to the abundant literature on the subject in Eastern and
European treatises. The effort to approve or condemn these
theories by considering them in the light of California experience
and observation might lead to interesting conclusions, but it has
no place in a work aiming merely at an exposition of what
appears to be the most satisfactory practise in California fruit
growing. It will be found that this practise varies somewhat in
the different regions of Calitornia, sometimes in degree, some-
times in kind, because of different local conditions, and it might
be found that nearly all reasonable theories of pruning could be
verified in California experience.

Pruning in California is at present almost exclusively a
shaping process. Our fruit trees are naturally so prone to bear
fruit that pruning to produce fruitfulness is seldom thought of,
and still more rarely practised, while pruning to reduce bearing
wood, and thus decrease the burden of the tree, is quite widely
done, to take the place, in part, of thinning out the fruit. Prun-
ing to restore vigor to the tree, as in cutting back to make a new
head, is also rather a rare proceeding, probably because our
trees are generally too young to require it. We prune, then,
for shape and for the many practical advantages which inhkere
in the form now prevailing in California orchards. Some of
these advantages are peculiar to our climate; others we share
with those who advocate a similar form elsewhere.

Our best orchards of the same fruits in adjacent localities
are almost identical in form and general appearance of the trees,
and those more distant differ chiefly in the extent to which the
same principles are applied. And this is not because the trees
are allowed to follow their natural inclination, which should
secure resemblance, but because their natural bent is resolutely
conquered by agreement of growers that they know what is
good for the tree; and this substantial unanimity is the result of
the experience of the last forty-five years. People possessed of
the art temperament sometimes complain of the depressing uni-
formity and artificiality of orchard-tree shapes in California.

(313)

114 Reasons for Pruning.

They are apt to lament the iact that systematic orcharding des-
troys the picturesqueness of tree-growth. They should under-
stand that such conception of a fruit tree has no place in com-
mercial fruit growing. The producing tree is the result of the
conception of an agency to serve certaiti purposes. The or-
chardist does not pursue uniformity merely for its own sake, but
rather for the purpose it serves, and the fact that many thinking
men have practically agreed upon a certain form as an ideal of,
producing ability is demonstration that such form is, at least,
approximately correct. There is an industrial conception of an
agency which is necessarily and essentially different from an
art-conception of picturesqueness based upon the feral type. The
wild tree is rude and crude from a cuitural point of view.

PRACTICAL PURPOSES OF PRUNING.

One of the first things for the beginner to undertake as he
approaches the practise'of pruning trees and vines is to form
some conception of the purposes to be served. Imitation is not
the foundation of intelligent pruning, though it yields many val-
uable suggestions. Satisfactory work rests upon a ccrrect
understanding of the reasons for each act and to the attainment
of this, all study, observation and experience should tend. Pos-
sessing this, one can proceed capably, modifying method to
meet condition, and producing desirable results. Receive all
suggestions and then go quietly to the tree and study your prob-
lem in its shade. The tree is the best revelator of its needs.
Some of the best pruners in California are men who were un-
trained to horticulture before they entered upon their orchard
work. Reading, discussion, systematic instruction are all valu-
able. They save much time and many errors, but recourse to
the tree affords the sovereign test of attainment.

These may be counted among the practical purposes to be
attained by pruning in California: (a) Convenience of the
grower; (b) health and strength of the tree; (c) regulation of
heat and light; (d) attainment of strong bearing wood; (e) at-
tainment of size in fruit; (7) promotion of regular bearing.
Examine trees with reference to their embodiment of these char-
acters and one can hardly fail to secure rays of light upon the
subject of pruning which seems dark to so many.

- Convenience.—Trees which branch near the ground are most
quickly and cheaply handled in all the operations of pruning,
spraying, fruit-thinning and picking. Low trees with obliquely-
rising branches are more easily cultivated than any form with
horizontal branches, unless the head is carried so high that the
animals pass easily under the tree. To do this sacrifices all the
other conveniences and economies which actually determine

Vigor Promoted by Pruning. IIl5

profit, and is really out of the question from a commercial point
of view. Sometimes it does not pay to pick some fruits at a
certain distance above the ground, when picking at half that
distance yields a profit.

Health and Strengih.—It is imperative in most parts of this
State that the sunshine be not allowed to touch the bark during
the heat of the day. This protection is secured even for young
trees by low branching and the encouragement of small, low
laterals. The low tree with properly spaced branches attains
superior strength by virtue of thick, strongly knit, short growth
between branches, and by its strong, stiff, obliquely-rising
growth sustains weight which brings horizontal branches to the
ground, and thus even high-headed trees are liable to contin-
ually increasing interference with cultivation, and the desperate
grower has to raise the head of his tree higher into the air and
farther above the profit line, while at the same time he renders
it more liable to sunburn, to bark-binding, and to unthrift by
forcing the sap to flow an unnecessary distance and through wood
and bark which impede its movement. Besides, a low tree
escapes stress by strong winds which a high tree invites and at
the same time is less able to withstand. Pruning for health and
strength of tree also includes the removal of unthrifty or dis-
eased parts, which are not only an encumbrance to the tree but
may communicate to other parts the causes of their ill condition.

Heat and Light—The maintenance of strong bearing wood
in the lower part of the tree is conditioned upon the proper prun-
ing of the top of the tree. How far the upper levels or the
shade-layer of the tree can be safely opened, depends upon the
local climate in each fruit region. The rule must be the higher
the summer heat the denser the tree; the lower the heat the thin-
ner the tree; but everywhere the proper condition of openness
must be constantly in view in pruning. Not alone must this be
done to maiutain thrifty growth below, but it is also essential to
the best growth and ripening of the fruit in the lower and interior
parts of the tree. Fruit inferior in size, color and quality results,
in part, from lack of pruning to regulate the admission of light
and heat, sometimes one sometimes both, to the shaded portion
of the tree.

Bearing lV’ood.—Good fruit develops on good bearing wood
and gocd bearing wood is the product of proper degrees of light
and heat, as has just been urged. But bearing wood in the case
of some fruits is new wood, and reduction of old wood for the
purpose of forcing the growth of new wood must be constantly
in mind. Renewal is more or less a consideration with all trees,
and especially the securing of strong new wood. This is a point
upon which close study of the bearing tree will yield most satis-
factory suggestions.

116 Best Form of Tree.

Sige of Frisit.—The size of fruit, providing the tree is healthy
and vigorous, depends upon the character and amount of bearing
wood which the tree is allowed to carry. Removal of part of
the fruit burden is done by thinning after it is well set, but this
labor should always be minimized by antecedent pruning, which
adjusts the retention of bearing wood according to the vigor,
size and bearing habit of the tree. Thinning out of bearing
shoots and spurs, when either are clearly seen to be in excess,
should be the constant study of the pruner.

Regular Bearing.—This point is largely involved in the pre-
ceding and affords an additional incentive. Regulating the
amount of fruit borne in one year involves the profit of two years,
because a tree can not produce an excessive amount of fruit and
perfect good fruit buds for the following year. It may generally
make buds which will bloom, but not always that. If it does
make the bloom, it is no guaranty that the bloom will be strong
and effective for bearing. Consequently, pruning for reasonab'e
amount of bearing should always be borne in view and should
be practised at the close of the year of non-bearing with particular
diligence, if the alternate year bearing habit is to be broken up.

The foregoing are among the practical purposes to be served
in pruning. There are others, but these will suffice to emphasize
a single point, and that is, that pruning can not be compressed
into a single formula, nor can one learn it by a recipe. There
are various ends to attain; they may be attained in different ways,
although it is not strange that substantial agreement in methods
does largely prevail. It is better to try to understand the pur-
poses than to memorize formule. Get the tree and its interest
clearly in the mind; have an ideal toward which to work; be
more interested in why a neighbor prunes in a certain way than
how he does it. Learn constantly by all available means, and
at the same time study the visible forms and aim to understand
their fullest significance.

FORM OF TREE BEST SUITED TO CALIFORNIA CONDITIONS.

The form of deciduous fruit tree which prevails with singu-
lar uniformity all over the State is the “vase,” or “goblet,” or
wine-glass” form, all these terms signifying a similar general
shape. There are different ways in which this form is secured
and maintained in different parts of the State, and with different
fruits, which will be especially noted in the chapters devoted to
these fruits.

The mainspring of success in California is to grow low trees.
Low is a term admitting of degrees, it is true, and may imply a
trunk six inches up to one of two feet, in the clear. In addition
to the general advantages of low-trained trees, which have been

California Vase Form. 117

described, there are special reasons for this form in California.
Hundreds of thousands of trees have been destroyed by the ex-
posure of a long, bare trunk to the rays of the afternoon sun.
The sunburned sides have given the conditions desired by borers,
and destruction has quickly followed. Sometimes young trees
have not survived their first season in the orchard, because of
burned bark; or this, with the added injury by the borers. It
is also found by California experience that growth is more vig-
orous in the branches when they emerge near the ground. Even
where actual burning may not occur the travel of the sap through
the longer distance of trunk is undesirable. It is believed, also,
that benefit results from shading of the ground at the base of the
trees, by reducing evaporation, and by maintaining a tempera-
ture of soil better suited to vigorous root-growth.

But whatever may be the reasons, the fact is indisputable,
the higher the prevailing summer temperature, and the greater
the aridity, the lower should the trees be headed. Trees which
will do well in the central and upper coast region and adjacent
to the bay of San Francisco, with twenty-four to thirty-six inches
of clear trunk would dwindle and probably perish in the heated
valleys in all parts of the State. In such situations, both north
and south, the best practise is to head the tree fifteen, twelve,
and some even hold as low as six inches from the ground. There
will always be some difference in opinion as to detail, but the
necessity of making the trunk short enough to be effectually
shaded by the foliage is admitted by all growers.
‘Characteristics of the California Vase Form.—This vase
form is a product of French ingenuity in the training of dwarf
trees, but it has undergone very marked modification in Califor-
nia, losing much of the accuracy of its outline and gaining vastly
in speed of work and in bearing capacity of tree without sacri-
ficing any practical value which inheres in the design.

The California vase form dispenses with the central stem or
trunk at a certain short distance above the ground, but this is
not done for the purpose of securing a hollow or open-center
tree, which is a leading characteristic of the old European vase-
form. The few branches which are taken cut from the short
stem are pruned when the tree is young to induce successive
branches with short interspaces. At each cutting the aim is to
get two branches from one, and as nearly as possible of equal
vigor, so the California tree does not, except, of course, in occa-
sional instances, show the outline of a leader from the bottom to
the top, but there is a succession of branchings, turned this way
or that by the skilful pruner, occupying available air space, dis-
tributing the weight so it comes more nearly over the center of
gravity and at the same time knitting the fibers of the branch so

118 Flow to Sccure Good Form.

that the weight of the [fruit is well sustained. This idea, how-
ever, is not allowed to go so far as to wholly close the interior
of the tree, but to retain such degree of open interior as is found
desirable. When the tree is laden with fruit, the weight natu-
rally expands the top quite enough to admit the sunlight without
exposing either the fruit or the branches to danger of burn-
ing. Thus it appears that instead of the true vase or wine-glass,
with hollow interior and thin walls, we have the general exterior
outline of this model, but give a good part of the central area of
the figure to bearing shoots, and thus secure a large bearing
surface with well-strengthened supports.

It has been found that this many-branching form, developed
upon a few main branches well placed upon the trunk, gives a
stronger tree than can be had by growing a considerable num-
ber of leaders, all starting from near the point where the tree was
headed at planting. Such leaders crowd each other at the point
of emergence from the stem, and when laden with fruit, sway
outward and break out at this point. A vastly stronger tree is
secured by starting but four or five branches from the low trunk
and letting them emerge from different sides of the stem, and at
different levels. Thus each main attachment to the stem has
abundant room, and the wood enlarges symmetrically and sol-
idly. The expansion of the top is attained by the branching
which follows the cutting back of succeeding years. Starting
branches from nearly the same level on the stem has been the
occasion of great losses of overladen trees, and quite a consid-
erable recourse to strengthening up weak trees by running bolts
through from side to side at the points where experience shows
breakage is likely to occur. In this respect it is now clearly
seen that the practise which was widely adopted a few years ago
of beginning with a very short stem and using the three or four
adjacent buds nearest the point to which the tree was cut back
at planting is defective. It is much better not to cut back so
far at planting, but to leave a longer trunk, keep a greater distance
between the main branches and still have the lowest branch as
near the ground as before. thus securing a tree which is prac-
tically as low as that secured by the old method of starting. This
point will be enforced by illustrations.

HOW TO SECURE THE DESIRABLE FORM.

For the benefit of the inexperienced reader, it will be well
to illustrate the steps by which the form of tree found so gener-
ally desirable is to be attained.

Cutting Back at Planting —This has been shown on page 112
to be essential to strong growth of the transplanted tree. It is
also the prime act in securing a tree with a low head and

first Year Pruning. 11g

strong branches. Formerly trees were cut back farther than
desirable and the branches allowed to crowd each other, as has
just been stated. It is better to retain twenty-four inches of
stem than twelve inches—providing care is taken during the first
summer to prevent, by pinching, the growth of too many
branches near together. Allow those to grow which are more
distant from each other on the stem and pinch the intervening
shoots. In this way one can have the lowest branch at six
inches from the ground in the hot valleys if desired, or twelve
inches in the coast valleys, and the highest branch at eighteen or

Yearling apple marked to cut back for greater
or less space between main branches; also first
year’s growth from each beginniug marked for
first winter pruning.

twenty-four inches. This gives about twice the distance be-
tween the main branches which was formerly allowed, and it is
of vast advantage to the strength of the tree. The illustrations
of this fact are from trees planted by the writer in 1887 to test
this matter. At this date they are large trees and show the
forms of heads resulting from different spacing of branches on
the young trees during the first summer’s growth.

First, then, cut back the tree just after planting, as shown
in the engraving, deciding first at what height you wish your
trees to form heads, and cut them all back as uniformly as pos-

120 Strength in the Head.

sible and still secure a good bud just below the point of cutting.
To preserve these buds the trees should be handled carefully
while removing from the nursery and during planting.

If the tree has already grown laterals where the head is
desired, three or four of these properly placed on the stem may be
selected to form the main branches, shortened in to the sound
bud nearest the stem, and other laterals, not desired to form the
head, removed. This treatment is shown in the engraving of a
young peach tree well branched in the nursery. If all the lat-
erals on the young tree have started out above where the head
is desired, as is sometimes the case, it may be necessary to remove
the whole top, and usually others will start below afterwards.

Twelve. VearOIG: apate 1ress in the writer’s garden at Berkeley, showing forms of head
bape eg from cutting back for greater and less spacing of main branches at planting
If there are no buds visible on the stem at the place where the
head is desired, the choice must be made between heading the
tree higher up, where the buds are, or cutting back without re-
gard to buds, trusting to the development of latent buds at the
right place, or to the growth of a shoot from below which can
be cut back to form a head the following year. It is for this
reason, among others, that planters prefer a yearling tree which
has not branched, but has good buds all along the stem; but
peaches and apricots usually branch in the nursery.

After cutting back at planting, the shoots desired to form
-the head are allowed to make their full growth without inter-
ference. All shoots not desired for branches are pinched off

Results of Experiment. 121

Apricot and cherry trees twelve years old, showing results of cutting back to longer
and shorter stem at planting, in 1887, as an experiment in head forms.

9

122 Pruning the Peach.

after growing out two or three inches, leaving a bunch of leaves
to shade the trunk and contribute to its stouter growth. Con-
stant watchfulness is necessary io pinch off undesirable branches
all the first summer.

First Pruning.—In the winter following planting, the pre-
vious season’s growth is cut back to about ten or twelve inches
from their junction with the stem. Some prefer to cut shorter,
but this is apt to huddle the branches too close together when
they get old and stout. Growers, however, do not agree on the
exact length which these future main branches should be left
at the first pruning.

If, during the first summer’s growth, all shoots except the
number desired to form the head have been pinched back, the

*
%

oy

~

~.

\

ting - oe

Yearling peach. Cut back at planting. First summer’s growth in the orchard.
first winter pruning consists only in cutting back the main
branches. If laterals have grown on the parts of these branches
which are to be left on the tree, they should be cut back to a bud
or two. This is better than removing them entirely, for the
next summer they will be pinched after throwing out a few leaves
to shade and thicken the branches, just as the short growths
left the previous summer serve the main stem.

Pruning the Peach. [23

Second Pruning —During the second summer it is usual to
allow two branches to grow from each of the main branches left
at the previous winter pruning, and to pinch off all others, as
described. These branches are allowed to run out their full
growth, except where excessive growth is made, and then it is
repressed by summer pruning. This is done with the apricot

First winter pruning. Second summer’s growth in orchard.

in the warmer parts of the State, as will be considered at length
in the chapter on that fruit. Usually, however, the main
branches are untouched during the second summer’s growth.
During the following winter the main branches are cut back
from one-half to two-thirds of the growth they have made, and
if too many strong laterals have grown below this point, some
are shortened, others are removed entirely where they are apt

124 Pruning the Peach.

to cross or crowd each other. It is not desirable, however, that
all small growth should be cleanly removed. Some of these
small shoots will bear a little fruit and the leaf action is in any
case desirable as a contributor to the strength of the larger
branches to which they are attached. Besides, they serve to
shade the bark from sunburn.

Second winter pruning in orchard.

Third Pruning —When the tree reaches its third winter
pruning, its form is well outlined, and early-bearing trees like
the peach, apricot, almond, Japanese plums, etc., will give the
grower a respectable crop the next season. To bear this crop
greater care should be taken at the third winter pruning to
leave the small laterals low down on the main branches, for on

Weakness in the Head. 125

them, clustered close in the head of the tree, most of the first
crop will be found. Though some trees, as stated, do bear
earlier than the third summer, the fruit is not usually consid-
ered of commercial account until the third summer. An en-

graving is given of a peach tree just after its second winter prun-
ing. It is a very good representative of the vase-form of a
tree as grown in California. It has four main branches, each
issuing from a different point on the stem, each permitted to

Weak tree from 11l-spaced branches.

carry two main branches, which are not arranged around the
circumference, but some of them tending toward the center. At
the third pruning more shoots have been left than are required
by the rule, for, starting with four main branches, there are usu-
ally sixteen left at the third pruning.

126 Treatment of Alature Trees.

PRUNING BEARING TREES.

Three winter prunings of deciduous trees usually establish
their permanent form, and subsequent pruning 1s chiefly di-
rected toward the retention of that form; for strength of branch
and stem; for renewal of bearing wood; for regulation of amount
of bearing wood; for relative light and shade, and for conve-
nience in cultivation and other orchard work. Naturally, these
ends are sought according to the needs and habits of different
fruits, and the methods of attaining them will be discussed in
the chapters treating of these fruits. There are, however, cer-
tain general considerations which are proper in this connection:

Pruning during the dormancy of the tree induces greater
growth of wood during the following summer; pruning during
the active period reduces wood growth and promotes fruit-bear-
ing. The greater the amount of wood removed during the dor-
mant period will make the summer growth of wood proportion-
ately stronger. Whether the total weight of wood growth woula
be greater may be questioned, but the effective wood growth
is certainly greater. Whether the fect of new wood grown on
a peach tree cut back to stumps in the winter would be greater
in weight than all the mches of growth which would be scattered
all over the surface of the tree if not cut back, may be doubted,
but the new growth secured by cutting back will be of immense
vigor and the following year will bear large fruit, while the new
growth on the tree not cut back will be thin and short and the
fruit indifferent. The weaker the tree or the branch or twig of
the tree, the greater the part of it to be removed when dormant
to get the stronger new growth.

Pruning during the active period of the tree, or allowing it
to go uncut during the dormant period, have the same effect,
viz., the promotion of fruiting. Some trees, like apricots and
peaches, which bear upon new laterals, will bear fruit even though
heavily winter-cut, if these small laterals are retained on the
lower parts of the main branches. Some other trees, like the
prune, which bears on spurs, will delay the formation of spurs
if heavily winter-cut. These two facts suggest two diverse pol-
icies in pruning bearing trees: A peach tree unpruned will reduce
its crop for lack or weakness of new laterals; a prune tree too
severely winter-pruned will reduce its crop for lack of old spurs.
Again, some fruits, or varieties of fruits, bear chiefly upon the
tips, others chiefly upon the lateral spurs; shortening one reduces
the crop largely; shortening the other may increase the mar-
ketable crop by decreasing the aggregate number. These and
other similar facts suggest that pruning bearing trees, to be
intelligently pursued, must be accompanied with the fullest pos-

Thinning Bearing Trees. 127

sible knowledge of the bearing habit of the fruit or variety
thereof.

Cutting back or “shortening in” should be done in a way
which will reduce the burst of new shoots near the cut. This is
measurably secured by always cutting the branch at a strong
lateral, because the sap flow into this lateral prevents undue pres-
sure and forcing of latent buds in the vicinity of the cut. For
this reason the cutting back of all branches to a certain definite
height is wrong. Trees shorn across at a certain line become
thick as a brush with top shoots which require extensive thin-
ning, or the bearing wood will soon be all at that level through
failure of the densely-shaded bearing wood below. Cut to the
nearest lateral below the line you wish to approximate, and
shorten that lateral if desirable, and the result will be fewer and
stronger shoots than from a stub-cut. ;

In the treatment of bearing trees the main effort should
generally be toward thinning or reducing the number of bear-
ing shoots. This is related to the important work of thinning
the fruit to reduce the burden of the tree, and will be mentioned
again in that connection. The work has, however, a bearing be-
yond the size of individual fruit specimens. It involves the whole
future of the tree as a profitable affair. An unthinned tree be-
comes a thicket of small, weak and dying laterals and spurs.
An attempt to cure this afterwards by sawing out many large
branches is only partially successful, though perhaps the best
thing that can be done after such condition has been allowed to
exist. The only way to keep the interior of the tree full enough
of strong, bearing wood is to resolutely and regularly thin out
surplus shoots as the tree advances in age and size. This work
is as important with trees which are not regularly cut hack, as
with those which are thus treated. It is one of the most vital as
well as the most generally neglected item in orchard practise.

In thinning out lateral bearing shoots seldom leave more
than one at any point; select the strongest; remove the rest close
to the branch. When a new shoot springs out at the base of an
older one remove the older one; when a new shoot breaks out
on the side of an older one cut the older one back to that point.
In thinning always reject the older, weaker laterals or spurs.
This does not apply to the outbreak of strong suckers or water
sprouts below the main branches; they should usually be cleanly
cut away unless a new main branch is desirable.

Pruning of bearing trees should always have regard to the
removal of branches which have become decrepit through sun-
burn, blight or disease of any kind, frost injury, or any form of
die-back from whatever cause. Such wood is not only of les-
sened value, but there is also danger of extension of the trouble.

128 Times for Pruning.

Removing such wood and training new wood to take its place
should always be in mind.

Where cutting of large branches is demanded for any rea-
son it should be remembered that the wounds are most quickly
healed and least injury to the tree is to be apprehended if the
cutting is done near the beginning of the growing season.

TIMES FOR PRUNING.

Some changes of view have lately prevailed as to the
times, within the dormant period, during which winter-pruning
can be done to the best advantage. Formerly it was thought to
be a vital matter that no cutting should he done until the leaves
had fallen, and this is still the prevailing practise, and may prove
to be on all accounts the best. Recently, however, pruning
in autumn has been quite widely practised.

Fall Pruning.—There is a time near the end of the active
season in California when the foliage changes its aspect. There
is no marked change in color, perhaps, but there is a certain
limpness and drooping which betokens decided decline in activ-
ity. It comes first to the early fruits, the cherries and apricots,
for instance, and upon old trees earlier than young ones. The
buds are weli formed; the season's growth apparently complete.
There are no frosts to hasten the fall of the leaf and it remains
in place. Does it render any important service? On the con-
clusion that it does not, many growers begin the winter pruning
while the days are longer and ground dry and firm rather
than delay pruning until the short, dark days and rain-soaked
soil of December and January render pruning expensive and
disagreeable. Those trees are first pruned which first assume the
appearance described, and the work proceeds with other varie-
ties afterwards until the winter pruning is finished by December
1—about the time when it commonly began under the old prac-
tise. Not only is more thus accomplished in the same number
of days’ work, but the orchard is earlier in shape for the winter
spraying and cultivation, and the grower is ahead of his work
and not behind it all the season if the season is unusually rainy.
Several years’ practise of this method discloses no bad results
except in the one item of increasing danger from frost. Vines
and trees pruned early in the dormant period have a tendency
to start growth earlier than those pruned late in the dormant
period. In places, then, where early bloom and fruit-setting are
particularly threatened by irost, this practise may be undesirable.
The method is rather new and not widely tried and awaits fuller
demonstration of its standing.

Spring Prunng.—Resting largely upon this matter of re-
tarding growth, the practise of pruning very late in the dormant

Summer Pruning. 129

period, or, in fact, at the beginning of the growing season, is
also gaining wider adoption where frost injury is especially
feared. It is not actual freezing, but a drop of two or three
degrees below the freezing point which is feared, and during
recent years such a teniperature has wrought havoc with some
fruits, in early valley regions particularly. Later pruning, even
after the bloom and foliage have appeared, has worked no injury
to the trees, but it is less conveniently done than when the trees
are free of foliage.

Summer Pruning.—Summer pruning, to induce bearing, is,
as has been previously intimated, but little employed in this
State, for the constant tendency of our trees is to bear early and
to overbear. Enough has, however, been done in individual
cases to show that fruit-bearing is promoted by pruning after
the chief growth of the season has been attained. If the prun-
ing results in forcing out laterals late in the season it has been
done too early. What is desirable is the strengthening or devel-
opment of fruit buds, and this will be accomplished after the
energy has been too far dissipated to make new wood growth.

Summer pruning to check the too exuberant wood growth
of some kinds of trees is employed to some extent, chiefly in the
warmer parts of the State, where the vegetative process in some
trees seems fairly to run riot, and unless checked is apt to ruin
the tree by breaking to pieces when the wind and weight of fruit
test its strength. The methods of summer pruning employed
in different parts of the State for different fruits will be con-
sidered in connection with the special chapters on these fruits.

Summer pruning to preserve form is another matter, and
relates in the main to pinching in, to check undesirable exten-
sion and to direct the sap toward shoots in which growth is de-
sired. This practise is approved by most of our orchardists, and
is employed by them to a greater or less extent. More people
believe in than practise it, however, because the summer months,
with their long succession of fruits to be gathered and shipped
or dried, and the additional consideration that there is always a
scarcity of labor at this time, give the orchardist so much work
to do that he is more apt to confine his “pinching” to a little that
hé may do now and then when he has a few moments’ leisure than
to do the work thoroughly and systematically. The result is that
the regular winter pruning is the main operation for tree shaping
in this State.

There is such a great difference in opinion about summer
pruning that it will be very difficult to make any assertions about
it which will not be disputed. Much of this difference comes,
of course, from different conditions prevailing in different trees
and in different parts of the State, and some of these will be met,

130 Restoration by Pruning.

as already promised, in following chapters. Leaving these
wholly out of consideration at this time, it is safe to advise those
who wish to secure symmetry or any particular form in any kind
of a tree, that they can resort to summer pinching with advan-
tage, and can sometimes to advantage remove wood too large for
the thumb and finger to sever.

Constant watchfulness should be maintained for adventi-
tious shoots starting out on stem or limb at points where
branches are not desired. Wherever they start out strongly,
they should be pinched, or entirely removed, according to the
best judgment to be formed in each case. Suckers, which,
properly, according to Downing, are ‘shoots sent up from the
root or from parts of the stem below the surface of the soil,”
should be removed whenever discovered.

RENEWING OLD TREES.

Improving and renewing trees by cutting back and graft-
ing has already been considered under the head of propagation.
It is often desirable to renew trees of a satisfactory variety, and
this is done simply by cutting back when the tree is dormant.
Cutting back was formerly done early in the winter, before the
rise of the sap begins, but more recently it has been seen that
the exposure of large cut surfaces for weeks or months before
growth begins, results in drying and shrinkage of the bark and
checking of the wood, both of which are avoided by amputa-
tion later in the dormant period or during the early part of the
growing ‘season. In cutting back, of course, those stumps
should be left to support new branches which will secure the
best balance and symmetry in the new head. When the new
growth starts, there generally appear many more shoots than
are desirable, and selection of the best-placed and most vigorous
should be chosen, the others either being rubbed off in the bud
or pinched back when a few leaves are put out. In cutting back
trees, the exposed trunk and branch stumps should be wrapped
in old sacking, or carefully whitewashed as protection from sun-
burn.

in removing large limbs it is desirable that the cut should
be made in the right place so as to secure quick covering of the
scar with new growth. Cutting so as to leave a long stub results
in an unsightly piece of dead wood on the tree, and this, in de-
caying, carries the decay deep into the center of the trunk or
branch. Cutting too close prevents covering with the new
bark, and also results in a hole in the branch. Cutting just to
the right mark, which is the outer edge of the little collar or
swelling which will be found at the base of all branches, enables
the wound to grow over quickly, and if the wound is properly

Tools for Pruning. 131

treated when cut, there will be no decay, and the wound will
soon be wholly obliterated.

In amputating large branches, an undercut with the saw
should be made first so that the bark shall not be torn as the
branch falls. Another good way is to saw off first at a distance
from the final cut and then saw off smoothly at the right place
when the weight is removed.

Trees often become “hide-bound,” as it is called. Espe-
cially in this dry climate the bark gets dry and tough, therefore
can not expand in proportion to the growth of the tree, or supply
the amount of sap necessary for the demand. Slitting such trees
here and there up and down the trunk and main limbs with a
sharp knife seems to have good effect, for often in three months
the cut opens half an inch, and a fine, clear bark, with an increase
of growth, results. On old trees, too, there is often a growth of
moss and lichens which should be removed. This can be done
by scraping off the rough, loose bark and spraying with an alka-
line wash, such as will be described in the chapter on injurious
insects. This will remove the objectionable growth, give the
trees a clean, bright bark, and, probably, contribute to their vigor
as well as to their appearance.

PRUNING TOOLS.

There is some difference of opinion as to the comparative
value of the pruning knife and the pruning shears. The knife,
if sharp, and well used, makes a smooth cut, with no bruising of
the bark, and such a wound heals over perfectly. The shears,
if of good pattern and sharp, also make a very good cut, but
there is always some little injury to the bark on the side oppo-
site to the entry of the blade. On small cuts, say three-quarters
of an inch or less, if the blade is kept very sharp, the resistance
does not make sufficient injury to the bark to seriously consider,
and the speed with which the shears can be used renders them
the main reliance for all the smaller pruning. Nearly all styles
of hand shears are used in this State.

There are, also, two-hand shears, which are very powerful,
and enable one to work very quickly. When kept well sharp-
ened they are very effective tools. There are a number of styles
in use, both home-made and imported.

Still another arrangement of shears is mounted on a pole,
the cutting blade being operated by a cord, and having a spring
to throw the blade back. The pole is jointed, so that one or
more lengths can be used. With this device one can stand on
the ground and shorten in the top shoots of a tree very handily.

For larger cuts than can be made with the pruning knife or
one-hand shears, there are pruning saws of different styles, of

132 California Pruning Saws.

which the two shown in the engravings are of California design
and construction, being made by the Pacific Saw Company, of
San Francisco. The frame is made of the best spring steel, con-
structed somewhat on the principle of a butcher’s saw, with the
exception of the saw blade being much narrower; and instead of
being stationary, it revolves so that the pruner is enabled to

California Pruning Saw—Steel Back.

adjust the blade to cut at any angle, as is often necessary to do
when cutting where limbs grow close together, and where it
would be impossible to use an ordinary saw of a wider blade.
The blade is only one-fourth to one-half inch wide, and there-
fore not liable to get pinched in the cut. Strength is imparted
by a tension screw under the handle. which tightens the blade.
The blade is easily detached by slackening the tension screw,
and lifting the blade out of the slot in the clutches at each end.
The blade can be thus reversed and made to cut with a push or
a pull, as may be desired.

California Curved Pattern Pruning Saw.

The foregoing saw is commonly called the Hatch pattern.
Another similar to it, except that it is heavier and has a handle
like that of a butcher’s saw, is known as the Jessup pattern.
Another popular saw is the curved pruning saw, with twelve and
fourteen-inch blades. As the engraving shows, the saw cuts
with a pull.

CUTTING TO A BUD.

Whatever may be used to make the cut, it is important to
sever the twig or shoot at that distance from a wood bud which
gives that bud the best chance to grow well, and at the same
time facilitates the healing and complete obliteration of the scar.
Cutting too far from the bud leaves a stub which dies back, and
is likely to carry decay into the pith and thence down into the
limb. Cutting too close to the bud or carrying the slope down

Gathering Pruning Brush. 133

too far behind it, does not give it enough live wood to carry it,
and it makes a weak growth. The accompanying engraving
shows the right way and the wrong way to cut a bud. In the
first figure, the cut is too far from the bud; in the second, too
close to it, and in the third the cut is made at the right point.

Cutting to a Bud (Barry).

Cutting to inside buds with trees of spreading habit, and to
outside buds with upright growers, or to a side bud when lat-
eral extension is desired, should always be remembered as a
means of throwing new growth in the direction demanded by
symmetry and equal occupation of the space allotted to the tree.
This is one respect in which study of the habit of the tree sug-
gests proper practise.

COVERING WOUNDS.

Whenever wood is cut with so great diameter that it will not
grow over in one season, the wound should be coated with some-
thing to keep the wood from checking and decaying. It has
been amply demonstrated by California experience that smooth-
paring of the cut by shears or saw is a waste of time. Large
wounds should, however, be covered to prevent checking of the
wood and drying back of bark edges. Nothing is better or
cheaper for this covering than lead and oil paint, a little thicker
than for ordinary use, and applied sparingly, so that it will not
run down the bark.

GATHERING UP PRUNINGS.

Gathering up prunings for burning is tedious and expensive,
and several efforts have been made to substitute machinery for
hand labor. A device which has been shown to work well is
Anderson’s Brush Rake, invented by W. C. Anderson, of San
Jose. It readily gathers all kinds of tree and vine brush, com-
presses it considerably and is easily discharged of its load by a
slight lift while still going forward. It is said to save about one-
half the cost of hand raking.

134 Thinning Fruit Essential.

Anderson’s Brush Rake.

Baling Prunings—There is a fuel value in prunings which
has become more clear since pumping for irrigation 1s so widely
practised, but loose prunings are too expensive in handling. T.
G. Rogers, of Winters, has contrived a “brush baler.” It is a
large strong saw horse inverted, to which is bolted a long, heavy
lever. Attached to a cross piece on the lever -are four heavy
tines bent in a semicircle. The saw horse is filled with brush,
the lever is then pulled down and fastened by a ratchet brake,
the brush is forced into a small, compact bundle, and when bound
with wire makes a bundle easily handled by the fireman.

THINNING FRUIT.

Intimately connected with the pruning of bearing trees, is
the thinning of the fruit or proper spacing of the individual
fruits so that each shall have space and sap to allow its attain-
ment of satisfactory marketable size. It has been fully demon-
strated that no demand is profitable which will be content with
the undersized fruit from an overladen tree. The superior
price ior good-sized fruit for all uses, not excluding drying, is
unquestionable; the total weight secured may be variable as
between thinned and unthinned trees, but it can be accepted as
an indisputabie fact that any increase of weight there may be
upon the unthinned tree will not be nearly an equivalent for the
loss in value. It is the conclusion of our largest and most suc-
cessful growers that, large as is the expenditure required for
careful and systematic thinning of fruit, it is the most directly
profitable outlay which they have to make for orchard mainte-
nance.

Objects in View in Fruit Thinning —But thinning fruit has
objects beyond the value of the visible crop which it makes prof-
itable. No overburdened tree can discharge the twofold sum-
mer duty of every cultivated fruit-bearing tree which is to per-
fect this season’s fruit and lay a good strong foundation for next
year’s bearing. If the tree, after fruit gathering, has not the

When to Thin Frutt. 135

strong, vigorous foliage to complete the formation of fruit buds
for the following year, there will either be a lack of bloom or
a show of bloom unfit to set, and the tree will work for itself
next year, and not for you, because this year you would not work
for it. In this particular, thinning fruit coincides in purpose with
pruning to limit the amount of bearing wood, which has already
been considered.

Other objects there also are which are related directly to the
profit of orcharding and should command respect from the most
careless, The following is an emphatic statement of the case:*

There are at least six ways in which growers are repaid for thinning
peaches, nectarines or apricots designed for drying:— .

First: You can thin off half the fruit when small quicker than you
could pick it when large, and when mature the time required to fill a basket
depends mainly upon the number of peaches it holds. *

Second: It takes just as long to cut and spread on a drying tray a
small peach as a large one. It takes longer to cut eight peaches that will
weigh a pound than to cut three and pick off five when they are little.

Third: If peaches run six to the pound the weight of pits will not
vary much from that of the cured fruit. If they run three to the pound, they
will weigh not much over half. A ton of large peaches is as likely to yield
400 pounds of dried as a ton of small fruit of the same variety to yield
300 pounds. It meansa difference of about $8.00 per ton in the value of
the fresh fruit to the dryer. It will cost over $1.00 per ton to thin a heavily
laden peach orchard in a way to make that difference.

Fourth: Granted that you leave fruit to reach the same weight at
maturity, still you leave it along the body and in places on the limbs where
the weight has no breaking leverage and take it off the ends where it may
get sun-burned and is almost sure to break the tree.

Fifth: Vitality drawn from the plant and certain elements of fertility
from the soil, are in proportion to the number of seeds matured. The
pulp cuts little figure except in aerial substances and water.

Sixth: Suppose that fruit dried from peaches that weigh three to the
pound only brings one cent a pound more than that from peaches half that
size. Two cents would more accurately measure the difference in value.
Still, the smaller figure is enough to meet the whole cost of picking and
hauling or of cutting and drying in any well-managed establishment.

When to Thin Fruit—Thinning of fruit should begin with
the winter pruning of bearing trees, as has been already urged
in connection with regulating the amount of bearing wood allot-
ted to each tree. After this is carefully done, there is the thin-
ning of bloom, which is urged on the ground of least possible
loss of energy by the tree in the partial development of fruit
to be subsequently removed. Hand-thinning of individual
blooms is impracticable on a commercial scale, but removal of
spurs or twigs, or shortening of them with shears, is feasible
enough. The objection must lie in the fact that profusion of
bloom does not necessarily indicate an excessive set of fruit, and
any severe reduction of bloom is, therefore, venturesome unless

* Condensed from F. S. Chapin.

136 How to Thin Frutt.

one is fully assured by local experience of the habit of the variety
under treatment. Reduction of the amount of fruit itself is,
therefore, the only safe proceeding, and this should not, as a
rule, be undertaken until the first drop, through lack of pollina-
tion, has taken place. Even at greater theoretical loss of en-
ergy to the tree, it is better to err on the side of thinning a little
too late than too early in order to secure the fullest assurance
possible of the permanent burden which the tree assumes.
Where spring frosts are likely to occur they afford additional
reason for delay. If surety of the local conditions comes before
the pits harden in the young fruit it is fortunate for the tree, but
even after that it is till a greater saving to the tree and assurance
of profit to the grower to reduce the fruit to a proper amount
than to permit overbearing.

The Practise of Thinning.—If the tree has not been sufficiently
relieved of an excess of bearing wood during the winter pruning
and has made a very heavy set of fruit, thinning with the shears
by cutting out whole spurs or short bearing shoots, or even
shortening in longer limbs, cutting always to a lateral when
possible, is of no appreciable injury to the tree. After all the
shear-work possible is done, the spacing of the fruits on the
twigs and branches must be provided for. This was done in
early days by beating the tree with a pole, and some still main-
tain that they can use the pole to advantage. The almost uni-
versal practise, however, is to use the hand in plucking or push-
ing off the small fruit. This is done very quickly by experienced
workmen. If the trees are low, as they should be, most of the
work can be done from the ground. It is best to work in verti-
cal spaces and take all.that can be reached from top to bottom
without changing position; then move a step or two and take
another vertical strip, and so on.

The distance which should be left between specimens de-
pends upon conditions. It is as unsatisfactory to thin by rule
of inches as it is to prune by such a rule. The space to each
fruit depends upon the kind, the age, vigor and strength of the
tree, the size and thrift of the lateral or spur which carries the
fruit, the moisture supply, the richness of the soil, etc. It also
depends upon what use is to be made of the fruit, because it is
possible to have some fruit which is too large for certain de-
mands, though this objection does not often arise. The strength
of the shoot is perhaps the most easily appreciable factor.
With peaches, for instance, a shortened lateral one-eighth of an
inch in diameter should only carry one peach, while one one-
quarter of an inch in diameter might mature four good large
fruits. It would evidently be wrong to work for an arbitrary
inch-distance on all sorts of shoots, and it will be seen to be just

Points on Proper Thinning. 137

as irrational if it be applied without regard to the other condi-
tions of the tree. If, however, a rule must be had, let it be this,
that the distance between the fruit shall be two and one-half
times the diameter desired in the fruit. This would fix an arbi-
trary distance, then, of four to six inches for apricots and six to
eight inches for peaches—with other fruits according to their
respective sizes, and the late varietics with greater distance
than early.

Any such standard, however, considers only the size of che
fruit, not the strength of the tree, and therefore stops short of
one of the important ends of thinning, to conserve the strength
of the tree for next season’s fruiting. Fruits might be thus
spaced and still the tree be overladen, because it may be carrying
too many bearing shoots. Calculate the burden of the tree in
this way, for instance: Peaches which weigh three to the pound
are of fair marketable size; sixty such peaches will fill an ordi-
nary peach-box of twenty pounds; ten to twelve such boxes is
fruit enough for a good bearing tree six to ten years of age.
Now count the little peaches you have left on one main branch
and its laterals, which ought to be about one-tenth of the tree,
and thin down to about sixty. By doing a few trees in this way
and thinking of the relation of the bearing wood to the fruit,
one will soon get a conception of the proper degree of thinning,
and proceed to realize it as rapidly as the fingers can fly along
the branch.

It is seldom desirable to divide doubles in peaches; pull both
off or leave both on, as they may be needed or not to make the
load of the tree. Clusters of apples or pears should often be re-
duced to singles, except where size is apt to be too great.

All kinds of fruits are clearly subject to increase of size by
thinning, but it is with only the larger fruits that the practise
prevails at present. The dividing line seems to lie upon the
prune. With this fruit thinning is only done by pruning the tree
for the reduction of the number of bearing branches, while with
some shipping plums hand thinning is practised. Growers are
still striving for a prune naturally of larger size rather than to
have recourse to thinning.

The practise of thinning partially at first, trusting to further
removal of fruit later if too much of it survives the natural drop
and various accidents, is followed by some growers, but the rule
is to finish at one operation.

Io

CHOAPT ER .ALU,

CULTIVATION.

It was demonstrated very early in California experience in
fruit growing, that “clean culture” is the proper treatment for
trees and vines. Though the frequent stirring of the soil and
the complete eradication of grass and weeds have been advocated
by certain horticulturists for generations as the true practise, it
has nowhere secured such wide adherence as in California. It
may even be held to be an essential to successful growth of tree
and vine in most soils and situations in California, and the ad-
vantages of clean culture, which have been urged elsewhere, are
intensified under our conditions.

Chief of these advantages is the maintenance of the soil in
a condition favoring root growth, and the main feature of this
condition is the retention of the moisture, though regulation of
summer temperature in the soil is also involved. Where mois-
ture-retention is not the chief concern, because of ample irriga-
tion facilities, and the moderation of soil temperature is of
greater moment, a summer-growing cover crop may be of bene-
fit to the trees. In irrigated districts of excessive heat and dry
air this policy may prevail, but it will be only the exception to
the rule of clean culture.

Retaining Moisture by Cultivaiion.—lt is a familiar fact that
water will rise in a tube of exceeding small diameter very much
higher than the surface of the body of water in which the tube is
held upright. The water rises by capillary attraction. A com-
pact soil has extending through it minute spaces, formed by the
partial contact of its particles, which facilitate the rise of water
from moist layers below, in accordance with the same principle
which causes the water to rise in the capillary tube. This move-
ment is constantly going on in a firm soil, and as fast as the top
layer is robbed of its moisture by evaporation, the water rises
from below and it too is evaporated. During a long, dry sum-
mer, the water rises and is evaporated from a depth of several
feet in some soils, and the earth, beneath the baking sun heat,
becomes “‘dry as a brick.”

When a soil is broken up by cultivation, its capillarity is
temporarily destroyed through the disturbed layer, because the

( 138 )

flow Cultivation Acts. 139

particles are so separated that the mutual connection of the
minute interspaces no longer exists. But if it be roughly
broken up, so that the disturbed layer takes the form of coarse
clods, the air has free access to the upper surface of the firm
soil beneath them, in which the capillary condition still exists,
and evaporation proceeds in the same way, though in a some-
what less degree, than if there had been no cultivation. It
becomes evident, then, that the pulverization of the disturbed
layer must be so complete that the particles are separated and
capillarity destroyed, and, farther, that the free access of air to
the lower point, where capillarity exists, must be prevented.
This is accomplished by the fine loose earth which acts as a
mulch. When this is attained, only that moisture in the upper
surface which comes in immediate contact with the air is evap-
orated, and the balance is retained for the use of the plant.
Plants growing, then, in a well-cultivated soil, have the water in
the lower soil held for their use, and as fast as they use it the
supply is replaced from the firm soil below; or else, evaporation
being stopped, their roots extend freely through the moist soil,
seeking the nourishment they need.

Such is a brief outline of the theory which explains the re-
sults gained by thorough cultivation of the soil, so far, at least,
as retention of moisture is concerned. The practical demonsctra-
tion of this retention is easy. Go into a well-cultivated orchard
or vineyard, push aside the soil with the foot, and moisture will
be found two or three inches from the surface, or even less in
some soils, while on uncultivated land adjacent, digging to the
depth of several feet will show nothing but hard earth, baked
and arid. In such hard-baked earth, moreover, the sun heat is
conveyed or conducted downward very rapidly during a hot day,
so that in some cases the roots are seriously injured. When
the surface is well tilled, it will act like a blanket, preventing a
too rapid conveyance of heat downward, and thus also diminish-
ing the intensity of evaporation.

Accurate demonstration of these facts has recently been se-
cured as the result of many moisture determinations in culti-
vated and uncultivated soil by the University of California
Agricultural Experiment Station.* Very striking exhibition of
the condition of trees with and without cultivation is found in
the engravings which are reproduced herewith. Upon the dem-
onstration, the practise in the uncultivated orchard was radically
changed. The exact determination of moisture present at vari-
cus depths of the soil beneath these contrasted orchards in the
month of July is as follows:—

*Bulletin r2r.

‘ONINIO[GV ANVT GALVAILINONA NO LOOIaY

‘SHTIN YVAN GNVT GHLVAILTIND NO LOOIdV

I ee

Loss in Uncultivated Soit. 141

CULTIVATED. UNCULTIVATED.
DEPTH IN SOIL.
Per cent, ce er | Per cent. pie! ge
First f00tssccwsessvereveuteieatverience| 6.4 128 4-3 * 86
Second foot 5.8 116 4-4 88
Third foot .....c.ccceeeeesee 6.4 128 3.9 78
Fourth foot.........0. see 6.5 130 5.1 102
Fifth foot... cece 6.7 134 3-4 68
Sixth foots ccavsssvevssrenssceasvassssesares 6.0 120 4.5 go
Total for six feet... seen 6.3 756 4.2 512

This shows a gain of nearly fifty per cent of soil moisture
by cultivation.

Necessity of Adequate Cultivation—It has been very fully
demonstrated by California experience that adequate depth of
tilth must be attained. The depth of cultivation, or the thickness
of the dust-mulch, as some like to call it, must be sufficient to
prevent the access of the dry air to the firm soil below. At the
East, where they have a moister air, a thin mulch may answer;
but in California, with a thirsty air for such a protracted period, .
there must be deeper tilth. Two or three inches of dust spread
over a hard-pan layer, formed in some soils by cultivation, will
not retain moisture well in California. The cultivator should
go twice that depth, ordinarily, and then the result will be accom-
plished if it is done frequently enough to prevent the re-firming
of the surface by atmospheric moisture or by the rise of moisture
from below. The exact significance of depth in the loose, sur-
face layer has also been demonstrated by moisture determination
in the subsoil at different points by the California Experiment
Station, as follows:—

PERCENTAGE OF MOISTURE IN CULTIVATED LOAM SOIL.

Depth. Niles. Santa Maria. Ventura.
Three inches. 5.4 5.3 6.5
Six inches. 6.3 8.3 9.3

These may be accepted, probably, as average results: varia-
tion may occur in soils of different characters. The capillarity
in a heavy soil is vastly greater than in a light soil. The diffi-
culty of securing a pulverized surface layer is also greater in the
heavy soil. The poorer the pulverization, the deeper the layer
must be. Naturally, then, growers’ practise will vary. The rule
will remain that there must be depth enough to secure effective
protection of the firm soil beneath from agencies promoting
evaporation.

Loss of Moisture by Weed Growth—One of the most active

142 Storage of Moisture in the Soil.

agencies for the exhaustion of moisture from the subsoil is the
growth of weeds. To cultivate the soil in winter and spring,
and then to allow a growth of weeds to “shade the soil” is a great
error. Although under the cover of rank weeds moisture may
appear even at the suriace and convey the impression of moisture-
saving, the fact is, as fully demonstrated by experience and
accurate caperiment, the moisture in the lower layers of the soil
is reduced and trees are thus robbed of their supply. Weed
growth must be resolutely suppressed during the dry season.

Moisture Storage in the Soil—Conservation of moisture in
the soil is not only the surety of the current season’s growth and
fruitfulness, but is the safeguard against injury from the years of
deficient rainfall which occur now and then in California. The
moisture supply is equalized by this storage in the soil, and a
surplus from the liberal rainfall of one year is held over to supply
the lack of the next. Of course, the well-cultivated surface is
also well calculated to catch the water. While from a hard sur-
face much of a heavy rainfall ows off quickly to a lower level
before it can penetrate, a loose soil retains all that falls upon
it, except the excess, which disappears by seepage or drainage.

It has sometimes been held by California orchardists that
planting some tall-growing crop, like corn, so as to shade the
young tree and the ground around it, is an advantage. This is a
great mistake. ‘Though some rich, moist soils may afford mois-
ture enough to grow both the tree and the corn, it is a fact that
in most cases the growth of the corn is made at the expense of
the tree, and sometimes almost costs its life and thrift. It
has been clearly shown by the researches of Professor Wollny,*
that though shading ground by a leafy growth may make the
surface layer of the soil moister, the lower layers are invariably
made drier, and it is in these lower layers that the tree seeks its
sustenance. The young tree should be shaded as has been
described in the chapter on planting, and not by a growing
plant.

GROWING CROPS BETWEEN TREES AND VINES.

The possible advantage of a cover growth of clover in re-
gions of high heat and ample moisture has been noted at the
opening of this chapter. The rule, however, must be: Grow
nothing whatever between the trees if you desire the full success
of the latter. As with ail rules, this one may admit of exceptions.

Inter-cultures in orchard or vineyard may be allowed under
certain conditions of the soil and the purse of the grower. If
the soil is deep and moist and rich, the cost of planting and culti-

*Cited in Pacific Rural Press, May 3, 1879.

Lnter- Cultures in Orchard. 143

vation, and sometimes more may be made by growing a crop
among your young trees. Of course, if irrigation is available,
much more can be done in this direction than if dependent upon
natural supplies of water.

There is much difference as to crops in amount of injury
they may do the trees. Growing alfalfa, without irrigation, has
been known to kill out an orchard. Grain is less dangerous,
but still is objectionable, both because of exhaustion of soil and
moisture, and because of danger to trees from heat deflected from
straw and stubble. The crops least injurious, because of their
requirements, and because the constant cultivation of them checks
the loss of moisture by evaporation, are corn, beans, potatoes,
beets, carrots, etc., squashes, and other members of the melon
family, onions, and other shallow-rooting vegetables. In the
. growth of these, however, there should be a width of four feet of

well-cultured soil on all sides of the tree, unoccupied.
In soils exceptionally rich and deep, and where rainfall is
sabundant, inter-cultures of small fruits or vegetables may be
carried on for a long series of years with profit both from the
trees and the inter-culture. In similar deep, rich soils, with irri-
‘gation, immense crops of small fruits and vegetables, even as
-high as twelve to twenty-four tons of tomatoes per acre, have
been taken from between orchard rows, and one hundred and
fifty sacks of onions per acre from between the rows in a straw-
berry plantation. In Ventura County some fields of lima beans,
in favorable years, have paid over $70 per acre—grown between
young trees. In other parts of the State considerable amounts
ot peas for sale to canners are grown between the rows in
young orchards. This crop is especially desirable when good
sale is assured, because the plant is hardy and can make a good
part of its growth during the rainy season and the ground be
cleaned up and well cultivated early in the summer. As beans
and peas are legumes, their roots enrich the soil, as will be noted
in the chapter on fertilization.

How Exhaustion by Inter-Culture May Be Avoided.—But all
inter-cultures are a loan made by the trees to the orchardist.
The term may be very long and the rate of interest very small
in some cases, but sooner or later the trees will need restitution
to the soil of the plant food removed by inter-cropping. This
may be accomplished by the use of fertilizers. Still the rule that
the trees or vines should have all the ground is generally true.
It is also true that on merely ordinary soils, trusting to rainfall,
or on shallow soils, trusting in part to irrigation, the trees or
vines should have the full strength of the land and all the help
which can be give them in the shape of thorough culti-
vation.

“ALNNOD YALLAS NI GUVHOYO HOVAd ONNOA Y Nt ONINNVOD YOu SVAd ONIMOUD

Plowing Orchard and Vineygrd. 145

METHODS OF CULTIVATION.

In general terms the main objects of cultivation of orchard
and vineyard are two: Winter cultivation for moisture reception,
and summer cultivation for moisture retention.

Wherever early winter plowing can be done without too
great danger of soil washing, it affords the best available means
of admitting water to the great reservoir in the lower levels of a
deep soil. Too frequently large volumes of rain water, en-
riched by air-washing as it falls and by fine soil-particles as it
flows, are allowed to run off into the country drainage, with the
double loss of fertility and moisture to the fruit grower. Deep
penetration of winter rains should be, in all safe ways, promoted.
Cultivation for retention has already been strongly urged and is
quite generally recognized.

To serve these main purposes there are two main divisions
of practise in this State, each of which has variations of greater
or less importance.

First: Winter plowing followed by frequent use of cultiva-
tor and pulverizer in summer.

Second: Use of cultivator at intervals both winter and sum-
mer, following, if needed, with pulverizer in the summer.

It will not be attempted to render judicial decision as to the
comparative merits of these two systems of cultivation. It is
quite probable that each has claim to superiority under different
local conditions. It will be enough at present to describe the
main features of each division of practise, and perhaps to men-
tion incidentally some of the claims by which each method is
supported by its advocates.

Plowing Orchard and Vincyard.—There is considerable vari-
ation in the practise of plowing orchard and vineyard, in the
kinds of plows employed, and in the times chosen for the work.
Some plow but once, toward spring, whenever the ground is in
suitable condition; and, if there is much growth of weeds and
clovers, a looped chain is run from the plow to the end of the
evener to aid in drawing under the tall growth. Sometimes,
however, the growth gets so rank before the soil is in condition
to plow that the weeds are mown before plowing. Where but
one plowing is done, the soil is usually thrown away from the
trees and afterwards is leveled back by harrowing or cultivating.
If this practise is adopted, care should be taken that the soil is
properly returned about the tree roots, for injury is sometimes
done by bringing the roots too near the surface, which is soon
afterward intensely heated by the sunshine.

It is undoubtedly better practise to plow earlier, when the
green stuff gets a good start, but is still not too high to turn

146 Breaking up Flard-pan.

under handily. In this practise the weed stems are not so
woody, but they easily decay and act as a fertilizer, Where
early plowing is practised, it is usual to plow again when the
second growth of weeds reaches the proper state in the spring.
When two plowings are given, the earth is usually thrown away
from the trees in the first plowing, and returned toward
the trees in the second plowing. But this order is sometimes
reversed in situations where rainfall is heavy and the soil reten-
tive, for the dead furrow between the rows often acts as a surface
drain to carry off surplus water, which is thus prevented from
standing around the tree roots. In all modes of plowing it is
desirable that before the summer heat comes, the surface be
leveled as completely as possible.

Too much stress can not be Jaid upon the importance of
plowing when the soil is in good condition and not otherwise.
To disregard this is bad enough in all soils, but it is a grievous
mistake to work any of the clayey soils when they are out of con-
dition. If too wet, they are puddled by the plow and dry down
in hard clods, impenetrable by air, and even resist water itself for
a long time. When clods are thus formed, it may require long
effort to bring the soil back to a good friable condition. The
cultivation of adobe is one of the problems of California agri-
culture. The more refractory it is, the more particular care is
needed to take it when it is in proper condition to work. To
work it when perfectly dry is simply impossible; and if it is
plowed when too wet and sticky, it becomes hard, lumpy, and
altogether unmanageable. The condition which favors best re-
sults by tillage must be learned by experience.

Another mistake, apt to be made where the orchard or vine-
yard is but one of the branches of a mixed farm, is to put aside
the plowing until all the field work is done, and in some seasons
the soil in the orchard has become so dry that it turns up in large
clods, which are afterwards partially reduced by the harrow,
but never put in the fine tilth which should be secured for the
retention of moisture and otherwise to encourage the growth and
productiveness of the trees.

Breaking up Hard-pan.—Those who advocate the use of the
plow, claim several advantages for it. The chief is that more
thorough tilth can be secured. In most, but not all soils, there
is formed by cultivation an artificial hard-pan at whatever depth
the implement attains, if this depth be kept the same for many
successive cultivations. This hard-pan, in some soils at least,
becomes impervious to water and is otherwise an injury to the
growth of the trees. It occurs in irrigated and unirrigated land
alike, but probably is more quickly formed by irrigation. When
continuous summer cultivation is practised, the hard-pan will be

fiillside Cultivation. ry7

found at whatever depth the teeth uniformly reach. The remedy
is to plow in winter just below this hard-pan layer and thus break
it up, and then by the action of the air and rains it is reduced,
and cultivation may proceed as before. Where the hard-pan is
formed by the plow, the ground should be plowed shallow one
year and deeply the next, thus alternating from year to year.

Green Manuring.—Another advantage in the use of the
plow is, as has already been mentioned, the turning under of the
growth of weeds, grass, and clover as a green manure. Many
growers attach considerable importance to this, and some, who
have orchards in which winter growth has been killed out by
long cultivation, are seeking for a quickly-growing crop which
they can sow with the first rains and secure growth enough to
turn under with the winter plowing. This consideration may
be farther presented in the chapter on fertilization.

Plowing Hillside to Prevent Washing.—Where the slope of
the land is sharp, there is much danger from washing during the
rainy season, if the hillside is not terraced or furnished with
ditches carefully laid out on contour lines to carry the water
down on a gentle grade. The old plan of plowing furrows one
above another around the hill to check the flow and let the water
down easily, is often found treacherous unless one is able to
strike good grades, because of the liability to collection of water
at certain points and the subsequent breaking away and wash-
ing. Recently some of the foot-hill growers have adopted the
plan of plowing furrows seven or eight feet apart straight down
the hill in the direction of its deepest descent. The rainfall is
thus distributed over the ground so that not much water is col-
lected in any one place and the harm done by washing will not
amount to much. Hillside work differs according to char-
acter of soil and of local rainfall and conference with experienced
men in the region will usually afford the beginner the best sug-
gestions of method. In some localities, the plowing of a few
furrows at intervals to assist in penetration and the growth of a
cover crop during the winter to assist in binding the soil, will
be found better than any attempt at the early plowing, which may
work admirably on level lands.

The Best Plow—For piowing orchards and vineyards many
kinds of plows are used, including the ordinary one and two-
horse walking plows, single and double sulky or riding plows,
and gang plows of different kinds. In several of the leading
fruit districts there are plows made in the local shops which are
patterned to meet the different soils prevailing. Which is the
best plow is a question which can not be answered, it must be
determined by local conditions, and the best wav to get informa-
tion is to consult the experienced cultivators of the locality.

148 Preventing Injury to Trees.

Sieam Plowing of Orchard.—A local phase of orchard plow-
ing in the Feather River district of the Sacramento Valley is
worthy of note. A large traction engine has been used to haul
a gang of plows, covering twenty-four feet of land, the full width
between the rows of trees, and doing the work of four eight-mule
teams, turning over the ground in excellent shape and doing the
work much more cheaply than it can be done by animals.

Avoiding Injury to Trees and Vines—The great problem 13
to use the plow so as not to injure the trees and vines. Injury to
the roots is one ground on which those who advocate the banish-
ment of the plow from orchard and vineyard base their opposi-
tion, as will appear more fully presently. It is the usual practise
to run the plow shallower when approaching the stem of the tree
or vine, and this is easily done when using a riding plow or a
two-horse walking plow between the rows and finishing up near
the trees with a single-horse walking plow, which is a common
practise. The injury by the plow to which especial reference is
now made, is that to the bark of the tree or to the vine stump.

Makers of the special orchard and vineyard plows have re-
cently made them adjustable so that the plow will work either
side of the central line of draft, and these improved tools have
rendered obsolete the early contrivances for accomplishing the
result with common field plows.

Flat Hames and a Spreader—Among the worst things for
use among trees are the pointed iron hames which are found on
most harnesses. They often seriously bark the branches under
which the horse passes, and should be dispensed with. An
arrangement used in San Bernardino County consists in having
broad leather tugs and hames with only one long iron loop on
the swell of the hame. The tug is passed around the hame and
the end is brought through the iron loop from the under side,
so that the draft will hold the tug tight between the collar and
the hame and the end between the iron staple and the pulling
part of the trace. A spreader is put between the tugs; it is made
of a hard-wood stick sixteen to eighteen inches long; a hole is
bored in each end large enough for a two-inch screw, a hole
punched in each trace about twelve inches from the rear end, and
the tugs are screwed to the ends of the spreader, and the ends
of the tugs attached to the plow clevis. This gives no iron or
wooden surfaces at all, either on harness or whiffletree, to strike
the bark.

Improved Singletrees——Later than these came the orchard
and vineyard singletrees, invented and patented by Californians.
The first was that of G. G. Wickson & Co., of San Fran-
cisco, and it is now very widely used. As shown in the en-
graving, it is made in two parallel parts, the trace is slipped

An Lnproved Singletree. 149

between the upper and lower lialves, and there held by a
simple clasp, leaving fully one-half extending beyond the ends
of the wood, and preventing the singletree coming into con-
tact with anything in passing, as shown in left-hand end of
the illustration. With very young trees the edge of the traces
might injure the tender bark, so a little supplementary trace
is attached to the main trace at right angles, as shown in right-

California Improved Orchard and Vineyard Singletree.

hand end of illustration, and passes between the ends of the
singletree, presenting the flat side of the trace to obstructions,
in which shape it can not injure in the slightest degree the ten-
derest bark. The engraving is made with ends unlike to show
hoth styles of hitching. There are other patented devices for
preventing injuries to trees and vines which can be seen at the
stores of dealers in agricultural implements.

Dispensing with Doubletrees—Still other inventions which
admit the use of two horses even close up to the trees, because
they dispense entirely with whiffletrees and tugs, are known as
the steel harness, Eastern inventions, which have secured the
approval of some of our leading growers for use in orchard and
vineyard. The plow is attached to the steel yoke by a chain
running between the horses. With them it is possible to work
quite close to the trees and vines, and is especially desirable in
the vineyard in working close to the vines when they have grown
out about two feet, which is a difficult job with the old-style
harness.

SUMMER TREATMENT OF PLOWED ORCHARD AND VINEYARD.

Where the orchard or vineyard is plowed twice during the
winter, the land should remain after the first plowing as the plow
leaves it. The moistening and aeration during the winter have a
-good effect upon the soil both chemically and mechanically.

150 Cultivation without Plowing.

If but one plowing is done, when the chief rains are sup-
posed to be over, there must be full effort put forth to reduce
the soil to good tilth, and to level the surface as much as possi-
ble. This is done by harrowing with one of the several improved
harrows which are now generally introduced and found very
effective. They act in cultivating, clod crushing, and leveling, in
a most satisfactory manner. ‘They are too well known to need
description. Each has its advocates and its adaptations to cer-
tain soils. As with plows, so with harrows and cultivators, the
best for one soil may not be the best for another, and local in-.
quiry among experienced fruit growers will be the best guide
for the newcomer. In addition to the excellent implements
brought from the eastern States, there are others of California
invention and manufacture which have very marked local adap-
tations, and almost every fruit region in California has some em-
bodiment of local inventive genius in the form of implements of
tillage.

The secret of success in handling the heavier soils in spring
working is to secure as perfect surface pulverization as possible
without compacting the soil. Light soils need a certain amount
of firming after plowing, or else there is too free access of air
and too great drying out. For these and other reasons, the
grower has to study his soil and learn from observation the
methods which succeed best with it. The practise which gave
success under certain conditions might not be well adapted
under other conditions. The use of the roller is a striking
example of this fact. In some orchards the roller is a bencfit,
in others a decided injury. Its chief effect is compacting the
surface layer, which is only desirable on very coarse open soils.
The long-tooth harrow accomplishes a very marked compacting
of the soil to the depth it reaclies and olten settles the lower layer
too closely and causes it 1o run together too solidly if rain fol-
lows. The modern cultivators, clod-crushers, disk-harrows, etc.,
are superior in effect, each in the soil to which its action is most
desirable.

After the work incident to working down the soil after plow-
ing, the cultivator is relied upon to kill the weeds, break up the
crust which may form after spring rains or after irrigation, and
to prevent the compacting of the surface layer of the soil from
any causes.

CULTIVATION WITHOUT PLOWING.

There are orchards in California which have not been plowed
for years—in some cases the plow has not been used since the
trees were planted. Instances of this kind are to be found both
in irrigated and unirrigated land. It depends largely upon the

Summer Cultivation. I51

mechanical condition and disposition of the soil whether the
practise will give satisfactory results. It can not be trusted on
land prone to develop hard-pan, as has already been considered,
and yet the term “cultivation” has taken such a wide range ‘in
this State, and the tools have reached such efficiency, that there
is not as much difference as formerly between the plow and the
cultivator, except that the former turns the soil and the latter
stirs without turning. For some who oppose the use of the
plow, use a chisel-tooth cultivator, cutting to a depth of eight
inches in the spring, but at other times of the year they do not
cut more than half as deep. This treatment would tend to dis-
pose of hard-pan. However this may be, and what the special
nature of their soils, there are fruit growers, both in northern
and southern California, who have for years trusted almost
wholly to the cultivator, cutting to a depth of three or four
inches, and keep their orchards throughout the year almost in
the same state of tilth, never allowing a weed to grow. This
practise is, however, becoming less prevalent, and for certain
soils the question is practically settled in the minds of nearly
all orchardists, while for other soils there is still doubt. For the
heavier soils, which continuous shallow cultivation is apt to ren-
der too compact, it is necessary to have recourse to the plow to
open the land for proper aeration and penetration of moisture
which otherwise would be largely lost by surface run-off. The
lighter soils do not require this and they seem to do well with
continuous use of the cultivator. It is beginning to be clearly
seen, however, that this treatment tends toward the decrease of
the humus and the consequent impoverishment of the soil. Its
water-holding capacity is also lessened. These facts have in-
duced some growers to change their practise and take up the
plow during late winter or early spring to cover in the growth
of green stuff which they allow to grow instead of frequently
destroying it with the winter use of the cultivator. Either the
fall and spring plowing, or both, followed by the summer use of
the cultivator, is the most rational and satisfactory practise for
most of our deciduous orchards, though there are local condi-
tions and circumstances under which different procedure is pref-
erable.

SUMMER CULTIVATION.

Whatever the winter policy may be, the essential point in
summer cultivation is to preserve the surface layer of pulverized
earth. It will not do to have a few inches of clods, from the size
of a pea to that of a goose-egg, resting on a hard surface. The
finer the pulverization the shallower can be the surface layer,
and vice versa, and this is probably one reason why in practise

152 fining the Surface.

the work of the plow is, in so many situations, found the best
foundation upon which to rest the year’s cultivation.

In order to secure this finely-pulverized layer, it is some-
times necessary to use what is called a “rubber,” where there
are many clods which are merely displaced by the harrow or
cultivator. There are different styles, and they are generally
home-made. The most common form is made of two-inch plank
in lengths of three or four feet, bolted or spiked to pieces of four-
by-four-inch scantling running crosswise, the edges of the planks
lapped like the clapboards which are used at the East for weather
boarding. As these edges are drawn over the surface, the clods
are rubbed into tilth if they are not too hard and dry.

But this rubbing may be very undesirable if it leaves the
surface smooth and polished. It may refiect the sunheat even
to tree-burning, and it is apt to form an evaporating surface,
which is most to be avoided. The best finish for the land is
that produced by a light, fine-tooth harrow, and an attachment
of this kind is provided with various clod crushers and cultiva-
tors. The result is a surface of loose earth, flat and fine, which
approaches very closely an ideal condition.

There is less difference than formerly in the use of the har-
row or cultivator during the summer. Still some are content
to use the cultivator only as a weed-killer, and after the weeds
cease to grow and the spring showers are over, the cultivator is
laid aside and the land is left unstirred until the following win-
ter. This, of course, refers to unirrigated ground, for wherever
irrigation is practised, a cultivator must follow. It is a fact, how-
ever, that even if no rain falls, the soil becomes compacted to a:
certain degree, and the best way to imprison the greatest possi-
ble amount of moisture below is to run the cultivator at intervals
all through the dry season. It should run shallow and only stir
the surface layer. The experience of the most successful grow-
ers is that frequent stirring without, however, bringing new soil
to the air, is the best-paying practise.

WHAT IS THOROUGH CULTIVATION.

As clean, thorough cultivation has been approved, it may
be desirable to attempt to define the term. It can, however,
only be approximately done, because of the great difference in
individual views and practises. Some indication of the opera-
tions which are contemplated may be had in the following spec-
ifications upon which contracts have been let for care of or-
chard: First, plowing away from the trees, followed by harrow-
ing; second, plowing toward the trees, followed by harrowing;
ten summer workings with cultivator; three workings with shal-
low cultivator or weed-cutter: five hand hoeings around the

Service of a Mulch. 153

trees. The contract intends the most complete and perfect
working of the soil and specifies the above merely that there may
be no difference of opinion between owner and contractor.

In cases where the land is infected with morning-glory,
weekly cultivation is stipulated for in some cases, and this seems
about the only way to cope with this formidable trespasser.

CULTIVATION FOR WEED KILLING.

Cultivation for weed killing is a minor consideration in Cal-
ifornia, because cultivation for moisture conservation effectually
disposes of most of them, and weeds do not start readily in the
earth-mulch during the dry season. There are, however, a few
most persistent pests which require heroic measures. Johnson
grass and morning-glory are the most prominent of these. The
only successful treatment consists in cutting constantly with a
weed-cutter (a sharp horizontal knife), operated so as to pass
under the whole surface and run so often that the plant is never
allowed to show a shoot on the surface. It is of no use merely
to cultivate or ‘‘weed-cut” as for other weeds. This spreads the
pest more and more; but if the rising shoots are continually cut
under the surface, and never allowed to get the light, it will kill
the plant surely, but it may take two seasons to do it. Weed-
cutting knives of this description are usually contrived by local
smiths and are attached to sleds or fitted with plow-handles, or
used with a pair of thills and cultivator-handles, or other rig-
ging as the operator may choose. The vital point is a blade of
sheet steel, very sharp, and rigged to run just under the surface.
Tt must be used as often as once each week.

MULCHING A SUBSTITUTE FOR CULTIVATION,

The use of a mulch or covering of the ground with a litter
ot light materials to prevent evaporation, is practised to a small
extent in this State. Though mainly used for berries of differ-
ent kinds, recourse has also been had to mulching by vineyard-
ists. The materials used are various, such as partly-rotted straw,
coarse manure, damaged hay, corn-husks, corn-stalks, vine
prunings and leaves, and even fine brush from adjacent thickets.
The practise has been found of greatest value on hillsides where
cultivation is difficult, and danger of washing of loose soil is
great. There are cases where vines have been grown several
years in this way to the satisfaction of the owner. The danger
of fire in our dry climate when the surface is covered to a depth
of several inches with a dry mulch is considerable. Asa rule, the
mulch employed by the California grower is a perfect pulveriza-
tion of the surface soil, as has been described.

it

CHAPTER. AV.

FERTILIZERS FOR FRUIT TREES AND VINES.

Californians are but just beginning to use fertilizers in their
orchards and vineyards. Some people have even held that Cali-
fornia soils would never need fertilization, and that there is
something in our soil and climate which releases us forever from
repaying anything to the ground for the wealth of produce
which we take from it. Such a view is, of course, without foun-
dation, and yet it is not difficult to see how it arose. Early
attempts to enrich the soil by the turning under of coarse stable
manure, as is done in other countries, was undertaken here on
light soil in a region rather short of rainfall. The manure did
not decompose, and its coarse materials made a soil, already too
light to retain moisture well, so open and porous that its mois-
ture was quickly carried away by evaporation, and crops did not
grow so well as upon adjacent land which had not been manured.
So the fiat went forth against manure. The corrals* became
undisturbed guano deposits, and manure piles were fired in dry
weather to get the soil poison out of the way. Innumerable tons
of bones were gathered and ground in San Francisco and
shipped away to countries which need fertilizers. Nature did
much to foster the popular delusion, for field crops were glo-
riously large, and trees and vines grew rampantly and bore fruit
the weight of which they were unable to sustain. How could
there be more conclusive evidence that manure was a detriment
to California soils?

It is foreign to our purpose to discuss the general subject of
the use of fertilizers in California, and the changes in belief and
practise which have recently gained ground. Of course, the
marked falling off in the yield of shallow-rooting cereals gave
the first unmistakable intimation that there was something
wrong about the old theory of the perpetual youth of California
soils. The lands used for fruit will be last to show exhaustion,
because trees are deep feeders, and the soils, as they are often
the very best and deepest of the State, selected for fruit because
of that very character, possess, in an eminent degree, lasting

*Inclosures for live stock of any kind.

(154)

When to Fertilize. 155

properties, as is shown in the chapter on the fruit soils of Califor-
nia. But certain of these soils are already showing the need of
refreshment, and intelligent growers are quick to minister to
the lands which are giving them such generous returns, as they
can well afford to do. Present progress in the use of fertilizers
rests upon the clearly demonstrated hunger of the orange tree.
An active fertilizer trade has proceeded from a center in Los
Angeles and asserted itself all through the southern citrus re-

gions. More recently growers of other fruit and nut-bearing.

trees have seen that even the deepest and richest soils could not
honor unlimited drafts upon their fertility, and money expended
for fertilizers has continually increased. Recently, too, fruit
growers in the upper regions of the State have learned the need
and the profit in fertilizing, and in the future natural manurial
supplies will be carefully husbanded and commercial fertilizers
will be profitably used.

WHEN IS FERTILIZATION NECESSARY?

Though the use of fertilizers by our fruit growers is begin-
ning, it should be plainly stated that at present, except perhaps
with citrus fruit trees, or the oldest orchards of other fruits, it
is not the rule that such applications are necessary. There is
reason to believe that we have some soils which are really too
rich for fruit. There is sometimes an overrank growth of wood,
which delays or prevents the formation of fruit buds, and there

is a marvelous development of fruit which is inconsistent with.
the highest quality. For this reason the grower should not:

conclude, from the foregoing general remarks concerning the
need of fertilization in California, that he must manure his soil
whether it. needs it or not. Especially is this the case with
young trees, in which the wood growth is easily overstimulated.

As with irrigation, so in fertilization; the tree or vine itself will

give the observing grower hints as to its needs, and if the growth
of wood and color of foliage are such as obviously indicate
health and vigor, it may be concluded that the plant needs
nothing but good cultivation and intelligent pruning.

Usually cases of overrich ground will cure themselves as
the trees attain size and full bearing, and it is then that fertiliza-
tion may be necessary. When the tree or vine which has been
properly pruned and cultivated is not able to mature a good
weight of well-developed fruit, and make a satisfactory wood
growth, usually at the same time showing some degree of dis-
tress by the color of its foliage, it needs help; and if the grower
is sure that the trouble is not from lack of moisture in the soil,
he ‘should bestir himself in the manuring of his orchard or vine-
yard. In examining the soil for moisture, one should dig

156 What Fertilizers to Use.

deeply, for there have been cases of moisture near the surface,
and drouth below.

WHAT FERTILIZERS TO APPLY TO FRUIT TREES AND VINES.

A discussion of this subject from a chemist’s point of view
is beyond the scope of this volume. The reports of the Univer-
sity Experiment Station at Berkeley are rich in details of the
researches and deductions therefrom by Dr. E. W. Hilgard, who
maintains the position that the most intelligent and economical
choice of fertilizers is to be made alter ascertaining by analysis’
in what constituents the soil is deficient and in what it is well
supplied. Applications made in conformity with suggestions
based upon analysis have proved very satisfactory. But as soils
vary within narrow limits of area, there must be analysis for.
each soil in question.

Approaching the matter of choosing fertilizers without soil:
analysis, the method by local trial is open. In this recourse
there is danger of error, as pointed out by Dr. Hilgard, arising
from local differences in soil and subsoil, and must be checked
by several check plots so interposed between the others as to’
not only check them by direct comparison, and to prevent the
washing of fertilizers from one fertilized plot to another, but
they must also be compared, first of all, among themselves, to
determine what is the normal product of the unfertilized land.
It will frequently be found that these unfertilized check plots
differ more widely between themselves than do the fertilized ones
from them or from each other. It usually takes several seasons
to come to definite results.

From these statements it must appear that the prescription
of fertilizers is not an easy matter. Disappointments will natu-
rally be encountered, but unquestionably the advantage is on the
side of patient trial and wise investment in fertilizers honestly
made and honestly sold. One of the most manifest needs of the
State is a fertilizer-control law which shall provide surety to the
purchaser of the purity and identity of the materials which ate
offered for sale. Efforts to secure the enactment of such a law
have been repeatedly made without success. Active and united
effort to secure a wise law alone can succeed.

Though the deficiencies of the soil, as learned by analysis,
or by practical test, must be the basis of prescription of fertiliz-
ers, the analyses of fruits, as showing the special needs of the
plants, are of the highest importance. The following analyses
oj the different fruits, containing, in each case, skin, pulp, and
seeds, are almost entirely from California-grown specimens. and
are supposed to represent an average composition of the fruits
named.

What the Fruits Contain. 157

QUANTITIES OF SOIL INGREDIENTS WITHDRAWN BY VARIOUS FRUITS.
(Compiled from analyses by Mr. G. EB. Colby, University of California.)

FResH Fruit. Total Ash,| Potash. Lime. Sheer eate Nitrogen.
1,000 pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. on Pounds.
Pounds.
Almonds f......0..005. 17.29 9.95 1.04 2.04 7.01
APTICOtS seas vedenotnete 5.08 3.01 16 66 1.94
Apples scsi dvcsseeeecas 2.64 1.40 aL +33 1.05
Bananas .....s sees 10.78 6.80 -10 17 97
CHEE ES iisesierussses 4.82 2.77 .20 92 2.29
Chestnuts f. f 9.52 3.67 1.20 1.58 6.40
Figs...... 7.81 4.69 85 86 2.38
Grapes... 5.00 2.55 625 JET 1.26
Lemons .. ee 5.26 2.54 1.55 58 I.51
Olives ....... a5 13.50 g.11 2.43 1.25 5.60
Oranges.......... wae 4.32 2.1 .97 +53 1.83
Peaches ..... she stshatiotat 5.30 3-94" tae 85% I.20*
PEATS' s5.lo assess aeiic sts 2.50 1.34 «19 -34 .90
Prunes, French...... 4.86 3.10 -22 -68 1,82
PWM cc entsccvsocteenes 5.35 3.4t* 25% -75* 1.81
Walnuts tf... aoe 12.98 8.18 1.55 1.47 5.41
t Including hulls. * Estimated.

FIRST AID ,.TO THE INJURED SOIL.

Based upon the clear characteristics of California soils as
already indicated in the chapter on that subject, and supported
by wide observation of results of fertilization, Dr. Hilgard gives
these general suggestions :—

Any large-scale fertilization should begin with phosphates
and nitrogen, and, should this not prove fully satisfactory, then
with potash also, this being the order in which these substances
are likely to become deficient in most of our soils under cultiva-
tion. In the course of time potash fertilization will become widely
necessary in this State. Under continuous heavy cropping with
small fruits, such as strawberries, potash fertilization has already,
as a matter of fact, become necessary at some points, and will
gradually become more so. On the gray soils of the foot-hills of
‘Amador and Placer Counties it is necessary from the very outset,
these soils being as poor in-potash as Eastern lands. The same
is true of some of the sandy lands of the interior.

AVAILABLE SUPPLIFS OF PHOSPHATES.

Phosphatic manures are now being supplied to fruit growers
by importers and manufacturers located in various California
cities, and results attained by their use are such as to warrant
continuance. They are bone afd rock phosphates, which are

158 Potash Fertiltzers.

transformed into superphosphates, and, with nitrogenous matter
added, serve as good applications both for growth and fruiting.

Home-made Bone Manures—Much good bone manure can
be made by collecting bones, heads, horns, feet, etc., from
butchers’ shops or elsewhere. How to make such material avail-
able, by simple proceedings, is described by Professor Hilgard
as follows:—

1. Bones put into a well-kept (moistened) manure pile will themselves
gradually decay and disappear, enriching the manure to that extent.

2. Raw bones may be bodily buried in the soil around the trees; if
placed at a sufficient depth, beyond the reach of the summer’s heat and
drouth and cultivating tools, the rootlets will cluster around each piece,
and, in course of a few years, consume it entirely.

3. Bones may be packed in moist wood ashes, best mixed with a little
quick-lime, the mass kept moist but never dripping. In afew months the
hardest bones will be reduced to a fine mush, which is as effectual as super-
phosphate. Concentrated lye and soil may be used instead of ashes. In
this process the nitrogen of the bones is lost, going off in the form of
ammonia, the odor of which is very perceptible in the tank used.

For neither of these processes should the bones be burned. The burn-
ing of bones is an unqualified detriment to their effectiveness, which can
only be undone by the use of sulphuric acid.

4. Bones steamed for three or four hours in a boiler under a pressure
of thirty-five to fifty pounds, can, after drying, be readily crushed in an
ordinary barley-crushing mill, and thus be rendered more convenient for
use. Practically, very little of the nitrogen (glue) of the bones need be thus
lost.

POTASH.

Though, as already stated, potash is commonly in good sup-
ply in California soils, it is very desirable to guard supplies well,
because, as the fruit analyses already given show, the use of
this substance by fruit trees and vines is very large. Recent ex-
periments also show that potash ministers directly to the quality
of the fruit in some cases. Ashes from wood fires are the most
available source of potash, but it is a mistake to regard wood
ashes as valuable only for their potash contents. Professor
Storer has found by analysis of a number of samples of house
ashes, that selected samples contain 8% per cent of real potash,
and 2 per cent of phosphoric acid, or say 4% pounds of potash
and one pound of phosphoric per bushel. Hence there is enough
potash and phosphoric acid to make a bushel of ashes worth
twenty or twenty-five cents, and besides that, some ten or fifteen
cents additional may be allowed for the “alkali power” of the
ashes, 1. e., the force of alkalinity which enables ashes to rot
weeds and to ferment peat.

These facts suggest to the fruit grower that he should care-
fully preserve all home-made wood ashes and apply them to the
soil at once, or, if stored for future application, be sure that they
are kept dry. Leached ashes from the lye barrel, or ashes from

Nitrogen and Gypsum. 159

open piles, leached by rains, are hardly worth handling. Coal
ashes are almost devoid of fertilizing properties, though, if finely
divided, as in the case of coals burning completely, their use is
beneficial, mechanically, on clay soils, in the same way that fine
sand would be.

The chief supplies of potash salts are now brought from Ger-
many and are in the hands of local dealers, but there are exten-
sive deposits in Utah, New Mexico, and elsewhere in the interior,
which can be employed when railroads make them available.

NITROGEN.

Nitrogen ministers directly to the vegetable activity of the
plant and is a wonderful stimulant of wood growth and foliage.

Supplies of this substance can be had from animal manures
as far as available, but the most convenient, and at present cer-
tainly the cheapest and most available, source of nitrogen at
command of the farmer is Chile saltpeter, which contains about
sixteen per cent of nitrogen, in its most effective form. From
one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds per acre is the
usual dose. Sulphate of ammonia is the other most available
source of nitrogen obtainable in commerce; a good commercial
article contains twenty per cent and over of nitrogen. It does
not, however, act quite as rapidiy as the Chile saltpeter. A sug-
gestion of caution in the use of nitrogenous manures will be
given presently.

LIME, GYPSUM, AND MARL.

Lime is another substance usually abundant in California
soils, but still often desirable as an application. This is, notably,
the case on our heavy clays or adobes, where, as has already
been mentioned in another connection, the use of lime as a top
dressing, at the rate of six hundred to one thousand pounds to
the acre, not only makes the heavy soil more friable, but acts
upon and makes available the large amount of organic matter
which such soils usually contain. Lime also renders inorganic
materials more available for plant food, corrects acidity, and may
destroy insects and fungi. Application of lime is also desirable
after applications of barn-yard manure have been made for
several years; and it is especially valuable wherever, in alluvial
soils rich in vegetable matter, there is an excessive growth of
wood and leaf. Usually light soils are not materially benefited
by the use of lime.

Ground limestone is sometimes proposed as a fertilizer, and
has ever been offered on the market. It is insoluble and inert
carbonate of lime, and is not worth the cost of hauling any dis-
tance. It cannot take the place of burned limestone.

160 Barn-yard Manure.

Gypsum.—Gypsum, or land plaster (sulphate of lime), occurs
in considerable quantities in this Siate and Nevada, and is now
being mined and ground at a low price in the San Joaquin Val-
ley. It acts directly in correcting soils made alkaline by presence
of carbonate of soda. Applied to soils not alkaline, gypsum sets
free potash, magnesia, and ammonia, which may be present in
insoluble form; and it also causes potash to be transferred from
the upper to the lower layers of the soil, so that roots can every-
where find a store of it. Hence its special value when applied to
deep-rooting plants. The reason why gypsum is so capricious
in its action, which was long a mystery, is now held to be clear,
because upon soils that are tolerably rich in fixed potash it will
do good service, while upon soils poor in potash it will not. In
any event gypsum is to be regarded as an excitant rather than as
a form of plant food.

Of the several uses of gypsum, probably its chief value lies
in its power as an absorbent. If added to manure in excess it
delays fermentation, and it is, therefore, not a desirable addi-
tion to the compost heap. But for covering fermenting manures
or scattering around moist places in horse and cow stables to
absorb odors and fix volatile manurial substances it is of value.

Marls.—Mar! is a calcareous earth, and is called shell marl,
rock marl, earthy marls, etc., according to its origin and mechan-
ical condition. A number of samples from different parts of
the State have been analyzed by Professor Hilgard, and some of
them commended for local application to soils needing lime, but
not valuable enough to warrant hauling far.

BARN-YARD MANURE AND COMPOST.

Where fruit growing is carried on with stock growing, there
are abundant supplies of manure available, but this combination
is not characteristic of California, though prevailing to some ex-
tent, and likely to be more prevalent as fruit planting extends
farther from the centers which are wholly given to it. But even
in the fruit centers there are certain amounts of material avail-
able from the animals that are kept for cultivation and hauling,
or to be had, often, for the expense of hauling from adjacent
towns.

As already stated, coarse, unrotted manure can seldom be
used to advantage in this State unless it be in heavy soils in
regions of ample rainfall, or on lighter soils, perhaps, if well irri-
gated; and even in such situations either finely-divided or well-
rotted manure is infinitely superior. Corral scrapings, which
are usually the first recourse when the idea of manuring springs
up in a neighborhood, are not always well decomposed, but they
are finely divided, and therefore decompose readily as compared

Treatment of Compost. 161

with coarse straw, which, it is said, has been found practically
unchanged even after lying two years in a dry, loose soil. It is,
therefore, of the greatest advantage to prepare barnyard manure
with care for use in this State by some such method as will be
described below, which includes composting, thereby turning to
account nearly all organic material likely to be available:—

Clean up all the manure on hand just before the fall rains, putting the
same on the land, and either cultivate it in or plowit under. What manure
accumulates during the winter pile in a snug heap some five or six feet in
depth, and throw it over some three or four times during the winter to
keep it from burning, as well as to thoroughly mix it and thereby hasten
decomposition. Put horse, cow, hog, chicken, and every other kind of
manure that can be had, all together. Never burn anything that will rot,
but haul to the pile corn-stalks, roots, and all squash, melon, tomato, and
potato vines, etc.,as well as weeds of every description, in fact, anything
and everything that will decay and make vegetable matter. Use fresh
horse manure mostly to hasten the decomposition of said vines, weeds,
etc., alternating as the heap is made. Byso doing there will not be a weed
seed left with vitality enough to germinate. It it well to have manure piles
under a roof to avoid leaching during the longest and most excessive rains,
but so situated that some of the rain falling on the barn can be easily con-
ducted to the piles, giving them just the amount of water necessary to wet
thoroughly without leaching, and no more.*

Treatment of Manure without Composting. —Even when com-
posting all refuse vegetable matter with the manure is not
thought worth the time and trouble, it is just as important to
properly treat the manure when stored alone. This can be easily
done by some such plan as is described below :—

Collect the stable manure in a large bin and keep it wet enough to
‘prevent burning or ‘‘fire-fanging.’? With a bin, say ten or twelve feet
square and five or six’feet high, built convenient to the barn, the manure
can be placed therein and watered daily with much less trouble than it can
be composted with other material. This, of course, presupposes the abil-
ity to run the water in through a hose or by natural flow. Care must, of
course, be taken that too much water be not supplied, causing the sub-
stance to be leached from the pile. But in my own experience I find the.
danger is at the other extreme, and when I open my pile I sometimes
wish I had used more water. In filling the bin leave one end or side open
as long as possible, for convenience of filling.

Barn-yard manure and compost carefully prepared in some
such way as described, and applied before the rains or early in
the rainy season, to be turned under at the first plowing, will be
in condition to be readily assimilated, and will not injure any soil.

Sheep Manurc.——The proximity of the orange orchards of
southern California to extensive sheep ranges led to large use of
the manure from the sheep corrals until supplies were practi-
cally exhausted. Recently large deposits in the San Joaquin

*Ira W. Adams, Calistoga.
+ B.C. Brown.

162 Value of Waste Products.

Valley have been opened, and the material, which has shown
value by analysis in one case of above $14 per ton, is finely
ground and placed upon the market in a business way. The
deposit mined by George C. Roeding & Co., of Fresno, is sev-
eral acres in extent and at some points the material is ten feet
deep.

Seca manure is usually counted richer and quicker, though
not so lasting in its effects, as stable manure. Being highly ni-
trogenous, too free use of sheep manure tends to excessive
growth of wood, especially on young trees. Old bearing trees
may be benefited by such a stimulant.

VARIOUS WASTE PRODUCTS.

The care advised in saving and treating barn-yard manure,
hen manure, bones, ashes, etc., should be extended to other waste
products of the farm. Soapsuds should be allowed to run to
adjacent trees unless used in the flower garden. Peelings and
corings of fruit, cut for drying, should be fed to pigs and the
resulting manure secured. It is not wise to corral the swine in
a dry run in the summer and allow the manure to be sluiced out
by the winter rise of the stream.

Prunings.—Prunings of the orchard and vineyard should be
burned between the rows, in small piles, so as to distribute the
ashes well. Danger to adjacent trees may be avoided by using
portable, home-made tin shields on the sides of the fires. It is
not wise to carry all the prunings to the side of the highway and
burn them there and allow the ashes to be lost. Vineyard prun-
ings are sometimes cut up with an arangement like a straw-
cutter, which reduces them to bits about an inch in length. They
are then scattered over the surface of the ground, turned under
at the next plowing, and soon decay. Where, through light-
ness of soil and short rainfall, the woody fiber does not readily
decay, burning upon an iron sled about ten feet long is practised.
At its front is a V-shaped iron rod, to which a horse can be
hitched. On the sled are flaring sheet-iron sides and perforated
bottom. This is filled with brush, a fire kindled, and as the horse
moves forward fresh brush is added, while the ashes by its
motion are sifted out very evenly all over the vineyard.

Refuse from Wineries—VYhe fermented husks, stems, and
seeds, all containing valuable fertilizing properties, are often
spread on the road and in holes, where it is of no account what-
ever. If scattered over the vineyard, much valuable substance
would be returned to the soil. In some soils application of raw
refuse would be undesirable because of the acidity developed. It
is usually safe on calcareous soils, and for other soils should be

flow to Apply Fertilizers. 163

composted with lime or wood ashes to facilitate decay and neu-
tralization of the acid. Oi winery refuse the lees are especially
valuable because of the supplies of potash they contain, but they
are now being largely used in the manufacture of tartaric acid.

Other Waste Products-—There are available from various
manufactories different waste products which can not be specified.
When any such material comes to the notice of the fruit grower,
he should seek advice from the Agricultural Experiment Station,
at Berkeley, as to the probable value of the material, and its
special uses.

CAUTION IN USE OF FERTILIZERS.

Besides the injunction already given against application of
fertilizers when the soil is already quite rich enough to produce
good fruit and plenty of it, it should be noted that manures un-
duly rich in animal matter should be used with caution, as they
may overstimulate the plant, delay or reduce fruiting, injure the
quality of the fruit, and possibly engender disease in the tree or
vine. Excessive size and puffiness of oranges is clearly due to
excessive use of nitrogenous manures.

The effect of excessive use of stable manures, or other
manures very rich in nitrogen, upon the products of the vine has
been frequently noted.

METHODS OF APPLYING FERTILIZERS.

Suggestions concerning proper application of barn-yard
manures, both to young trees at planting and to bearing trees
and vines, have already been given. The same conditions which
cause slow decomposition of stable manures apply to any fertil-
izing material which is not readily soluble in water. All such
material should be in a finely-divided state. Surface applica-
tions of ground bone, will, in the dry climate of California, lie
practically unchanged for a long period. Ground bone should
be plowed in as deeply as can be done without injury to the
roots of trees and vines, and then, if the surface is kept culti-
vated, it will lie in moist strata and decompose, or be seized by
the searching rootlets. On the other hand, superphosphate, or
other really soluble chemical fertilizers, will produce immediate
results, and can be most economically used on light and easily
permeable soils, on which falling water sinks and does not flow
over the surface. In leachy soils a part of such fertilizers might
be carried down beyond the reach of shallow-rooting plants, but
there is little danger of this in the case of trees and vines.

When superphosphate is used on irrigated ground, it is
sometimes drilled in to prevent its being carried along with the
running water. One way is to run a chisel-tooth cultivator

164 fertilizers in Irrigation Water.

ahead of the grain-seed drill and to distribute and drill in the
fertilizer as deep as feasible to do without injuring the roots.

Manures with Irrigation Water—Distribution of fertilizers
by using the flow of irrigation water is described by A. S. Chap-
man, as follows :—

We shovel sheep manure into the irrigating ditches, allowing each tree
to receive about twenty-five pounds at each separate irrigation. Our basins
cover the entire surface of the ground. We make no effort to choke such
weeds as clover, alfilerilla, and the like; but the irrigator with his hoe
destroys the obnoxious nightshade, hoarhound, and nettle.

In the fall of the year we follow with copious liming—about three bar-
rels of unslacked lime to the acre—applied in the following manner at the
head of our irrigating ditch: We plant a box about three feet wide, six feet
long, two feet deep, and six inches under the surface of the running water.
In it we place a barrel of the lime. It slacks and swells to twice its orig-
inal bulk. A man stands on this with his hoe and sees that the water car-
ries it off evenly. With an irrigating head such as we use, a man will run
into the ditch four barrels a day, or about three barrels to the acre. We
have a considerable fall, and the water runs very rapidly; but it takes up
all the lime, and the water runs white, like milk. ;

We now leave the orange orchard till spring, when we plow under
weeds, manure and lime. We thus aim to supply our soil with nitrate of
lime, potash, and magnesia. Carbonic acid gas is absorbed by the water
and attacks the inert plant food in the soil; hard-pan is prevented both by
the mechanical effects of the vegetable matter and the lime.

The basin method of irrigation, to which allusion is made,

will be more fully described in the following chapter.
FERTILIZING MATTERS IN IRRIGATION WATER.

Water used for irrigation may carry in solution injurious
substances, as, for example, alkali, as will be noted in the follow-
ing chapter; or it may carry very valuable fertilizing properties.
These facts can only be determined by analysis. Professor Hil-
gard has found that the water of one creek in Alameda County
carries to the land it irrigates about half a grain of potash in each
gallon, which means that if twelve inches of such water were
used on the ground during the season, each acre would receive
therefrom about twenty pounds of fully available potash. At
Riverside a crop of oranges requires about forty-two pounds of
potash per acre, of which the amount of irrigation water gen-
erally used contains thirty-five pounds besides other matters re-
quired by plants. These things have a definite cash value in the
market; and this value the irrigator gets as a free gift in addition
to the water. Even in the case of the Nile, the sediment is only
part of the sum of fertility conveyed by the river.

GREEN MANURING.

Green manuring consists in plowing under a growth of
weeds or a sown crop to secure by its decay a contribution of

Green Manuring. 165

humus to the soil. All plants by their decay in the soil add or-
ganic matter to it, and this matter is of nitrogenous character,
but leguminous plants do this and a great deal more, for by their
exclusive ability to use atmospheric nitrogen, There is also
special value in deep-rooting legume in soil amelioration. There
is now reason to believe, as has already been stated, that where
moisture is ample for both alfalfa and trees we shall come to
using this plant for a permanent cover of orchard ground as a
substitute for a part of the clean culture which is now observed.
This is, in fact, already being done to some extent. It is also
probable that alfalfa can be used for a certain time even where
its permanent stand is not desirable, for it is not difficult to de-
stroy alfalfa with a well-sharpened plow although the roots may
have attained considerable thickness. Of course this, as already
stated, depends upon moisture supply; where that is not abund-
ant clean culture for moisture conservation is unavoidable. But
where moisture in excess of the needs of the trees is available
it will be used in future indirectly for their benefit in ways we are
only just beginning to discern, and one of these is likely to be
the summer growth of legumes in the orchard.

This is, however, largely a matter for future determination,
and under ordinary conditions may never be practicable. The
wider problem is to secure a leguminous plant which will make
a heavy growth during the winter months, so that it can be
plowed in early in the spring, and the ground put in shape for
the thorough surface pulverization to prevent evaporation of
moisture during our long, dry summer. For this reason we can-
not use many plants which are used for green-manuring in humid
climates. Crimson clover, cow peas, etc., do not make good
winter growth. They make exuberant growth for a time in the
spring when heat is adequate and moisture abundant, but at
that time it is too late to grow crops for plowing under because
the soil is too dry for their decay and their presence tends other-
wise to the loss of moisture and makes it very difficult to secure
a good surface tilth. The greatest care must be had not to allow
a growth of weeds to stand too long or its covering will do more
harm than good. These tender legumes may have some local
value on moist lands in the summer time, but hardy legumes are
the desideratum both for winter forage and green-manuring.
The common “bur clover” (Medicago denticulata) is proving very
satisfactory in some parts of the State, and the “Canadian field
pea” is coming into quite wide use in some of the southern citrus
orchards. Experiments are also in progress with the lupines
which may yield valuable results.

‘spurlqarH seg “oisug “WM 4d-ONISONVN NAAYO YOH VIUVTATV AO HLMOUS YALNIM

CHAPTER XY,
IRRIGATION OF FRUIT TREES AND VINES.

Whether fruit shall be grown with irrigation or not is a local
and specific question, and it must be answered with due regard
for several conditions, among which are: First, the minimum
local rainfall; second, the character of the soil and subsoil; third,
the situation and environment of the ground on which the fruit
is to be grown; fourth, the kind of fruit which it is desired to
produce.

These conditions are all correlated, and a knowledge of
them all is necessary to an intelligent decision as to correct prac-
tise in any given locality. For example, the amount of rainfall
which is adequate in one locality, or in one situation, even, may
be quite insufficient in another, because, first, one soil may be
deep and fairly retentive, into which roots can penetrate and find
abundant moisture; second, another soil may have sufficient
depth, but be so porous as to lose its moisture by evaporation,
or so leachy as to lose it by drainage; third, still another may be
shallow, and quickly dried out under a fervid sun, or quickly
drained by reason of a sloping substratum of rock or hard-pan,
while another similar soil, differently situated, may receive abund-
ant moisture from the drainage of the slope above it; fourth,
possibly in all the soils cited there might be adequate moisture
for deciduous fruits, but citrus fruits would require irrigation; or
enough for young, but not for bearing trees. :

Thus it appears that even to decide whether a location has
sufficient rainfall for the growth of fruit without irrigation, one
must pass judgment upon all the conditions first mentioned. It
is hardly worth while, then, to discuss such a topic upon theoret-
ica lgrounds, or to attempt to answer the general question, Shall
irrigation be employed in the growth of fruit? The true guide
is enlightened local experience, and the true test is the growth
of the tree and the excellence of its fruit. So long as the grower
is able to secure every year a generous amount of good-sized
and excellent fruit by natural rainfall, he need concern himself
very little about irrigation; if his tree shows distress, and his
fruit, even when properly thinned out, is not up to market stand-
ards every year, he may do well to provide himself with irriga-
tion facilities, either for constant use or to supplement rainfall
when it is occasionally deficient.

( 167 )

168 When Irrigation is Needed.

Of course it is not commended as a rule of practise that
the grower wait until the tree shows signs of distress before
applying water. This is a very bad plan of proceeding, but the
visible language of the tree is mentioned as indicating once that
the tree needs help, either at regular intervals or occasionally,
and after such a warning the grower should be able to tell by
examination of the soil and by study of the local rainfall record
when this need will occur, and apply his water in advance of the
need.

Recent experience has enabled fruit growers in all parts of
California to arrive at a truer conception of the relation of irriga-
tion to the growth of fruits. Many who have long scouted the
suggestion that irrigation was necessary for deciduous fruit trees
in their districts, have during the last few years found that water,
in addition to the rainfall, was very profitable, either to enable
large, bearing trees to produce larger fruit, or to maintain in full
vigor their later summer growth and to make strong fruit buds,
which ensure the following year’s production. It has also been
widely demonstrated that a tree which is adequately supplied
with water, no matter whether it be directly from the clouds or
through the irrigating stream, yields fruit of better size, aroma,
flavor and carrying quality than a tree which, from any cause,
falls even a little short of an adequate supply. It is clear then
that neither irrigation nor non-irrigation are in themselves prin-
ciples, but are merely methods to be employed when conditions
demand the one or the other.

The fact that water is sometimes used to excess, and the
fruit thus grown is found to be lacking in using and carrying
qualities, militates not against irrigation, but against the igno-
rance or carelessness of the grower. It has been clearly shown
by the experience of our fruit-shippers and canners that wisely-
irrigated trees bear fruit admirably suited to their purposes, and
that if proper size is not attained with the natural rainfall, by
proper cultivation, pruning, and thinning, irrigation should be
resorted to. Of course the water should be applied at proper
times, in proper amount, and in a proper way.

HOW MUCH WATER SHOULD BE USED?

This is by its very nature a very elusive question and any
attempt to answer it by definite prescription is more apt to pro-
duce folly than wisdom. For as it appears that whether irriga-
tion is at all needed or not depends upon several conditions
which must be ascertained in each place, so the amount of water,
which is really an expression of the degree of that need, depends
also upon local conditions of rainfall, of soil depth and retentive-
ness, of rate of waste by evaporation, of the particular thirst of
cach irrigated crop, etc. The result secured by the use of water

frrigation for Citrus Fruits. 169

is really the ultimate measure of the duty of water in each in-
stance. Jn the case of fruit trees and vines, then, whatever
amount of water secures thrifty and adequate wood growth and
strong, good-colored foliage, but not excessive or rank growth;
and abundance of good-sized and rich, but not monstrous and
watery, fruit, is the proper amount for that place and that pro-
duct,—and to the ascertainment of that amount, by local expe-
rience of himself and others, the grower should employ his most
earnest thought and his keenest insight.

It is, however, a fact that this rapid generation seeketh per-
sistently after a sign, and has more respect for one who declares
a recipe than for one who suggests a reason. Evidently some
outlines, at least, of a prescription must be attempted, and possi-
bly it may serve as some sort of a measure to those who may be
beginning without any knowledge whatever on the subject.

During the year 1899 the writer renewed his data of the irri-
gation practise of California fruit growers by systematic inquiry,
and presents in adjacent tables a partial transcript of the results,
which may be suggestive to inquiring minds.

INSTANCES OF IRRIGATION FREQUENCY, SEASON AND VOLUME.

CITRUS FRUITS.

No. of Acre-inches*

i Pes Time of Season
County. eee ae irrigations. cleo Totals.
Tulare 5 to 8 Aprilto Oct. 4 20 to 32
“ 8 to 10 Mar. to Oct.. 6 48 to 60
Fresno 2 to 7 Aprilto Oct. 2 4 to m4
Ventura... ......4 20 5 to 6 Mar. to Oct.. 2% 12% to 15
Los Angeles...... 12 3 June to Oct. 6 to 9 18 to 27
a Io 6 May to Oct. 3% 2I
3 June to Oct.. 4 12
3 to 4 July toSept. 1% 4% to 6
3 to 7 a OY foceey Wad 2 to 7
6 es fe og SE tO: 2 4% to 12
7 Mar.to Nov. 1% 10%
3 oe og 6
6 May to Oct. 1% 9
7 Aprilto Oct. 1% 10%
4 July to Oct. 1% 6
4 May to Oct. 2% Io
4 to 8 a ie 2 8 to 16
6 to 8 ut fo 24 to 32
a May to Nov.. 3° 21
6 Apr.to Sept. 1% 10
7 Apr. to Nov.. 3 21
8 Apr. to Dec..
3 to 7 May to Nov..
4 to 6 May toSept. 6 24 to 36
6 to 7 Juneto Oct... 4% to Io 24 to 31%
4 to 6 May toSept. 6 24 to 36
4 May to Oct... 2% Io
5 “ “6 ies a 15
4 to 8 es 0g 8 to 16
6 to 8 “ See 24 to 32
3 June to Oct.. 3 9

I2

170 Trrigation for Deciduous Fruits.

INSTANCES OF IRRIGATION FREQUENCY, SEASON AND VOLUME.
DECIDUOUS FRUITS.

i No. of Time of Acre-inches* Season
County. pa veg ug: irrigatious. ‘lath Totals.
‘stsineats eexeme 40 3to 4 Summer...... 2 6 to 8
subieve nuns 28 February....... 12 12
seis 12 ior 2 £Winter........ 12 12 to 24
ae 4o I Summer...... 2% 2%
de enteuineniosen 25 10 May to Oct... 14 12%
seen 3 5 June to Oct... 1
evees fey 3 to 4 July toSept. 1% 334 to
as 8 toro JunetoAug. 1% io to 12%
Santa Clara 1 to 3 Mar.tojJune. 3 3 to 9g
_ I Match: ncscsiess 12 12
a 3 July to Aug. 4 I2
es I Winter........ 8 to Io 8 to Io
ra 3 Jan. to July. 4 12
Monterey 1 to 4 Feb. toJune. 4 4 to 16
Merced 3 to 4 ‘Summers. 2 to 3 6 to 12
HS 2to 4 saa 3 to 6 6 to 24
Fresno 3 to 4 MO saaiaeans 2% 7% to Io
I February....... 12 I2
a 3 Mar. to July.. 6 12
Kings ...... 2to 4 Summer...... 4 8 to 16
KON: coessoncsninin 4-2 Mar.to June. 4 8
ANYOs: wexcime, chaste 318 45) Apr. to Aug, 14% 1%
Los Angeles... 18 1 Mar. or Apr. 6 to 9 6 to 9
asin 20 I JULY ieeses render 6 6
Oh ates 12 2to 3 June toNov. 4 8 to 12
Orange se once 15 2to 3 Summet...... 2 4 to 6
fe -ateehdewas i 2 Heo sani 4 8
Riverside ... ..... I5 3 to 6 MaytoSept. 1% 4% to 9
BO Supine io 3 to 4 #£2x%Apr.toSept. 1% 5 to 6%
San Diego ........ 8 3 to 5 Summer...... 2 6 to Io
Bee aceratehin 18 3 Bes Gpetiante 3 9

* An acre-inch is an actual depth of one inch over the surface.

The foregoing outline of local practise shows that infinite
variety exists and in the nature of the case must exist, and that
any definite prescription of the duty of water is impossible. The
compilation includes, however, the extremes, and in this way
gives a sort of picture of prevalent practise. In some cases
cited, in which the amount of water at each irrigation seems
small, the fact is due to the use of small basins, while in this
computation the contents are reduced to acre-inches which cover
the whole surface; in other cases, as, for instance, the frequent
irrigations in Sacramento and Placer Counties, the soils are shal-
low, overlying bed-rock, and a small amount saturates them. In
other places an acre-foot of water is readily absorbed and re-
tained in the deep soil. The annual rainfall is also seen to have
little relation to the amount of irrigation, because neither fine
shallow, nor deep coarse soils, can retain the volume of water
which falls upon them during the rainy season. Then the vary-

Winter Irrigation. 171

ing rate of evaporation, the character of tilth, etc., enter as fac-
tors, and it becomes clear that he is fortunate enough who knows
how much water to use on his own place.

WHEN TO IRRIGATE,

The outline of experience which has been given includes
times for irrigation as well as amounts of water used, but when
to irrigate is governed by local conditions and the needs of
different fruits and can not be stated in general rules. There
are, however, some principles involved which may be hinted at.

Winter Irrigation.—On lands with sufficient depth of fairly
retentive soil, the grower may artificially supplement a scanty
rainfall by thoroughly soaking the land by winter irrigation, and
then by careful summer cultivation he will be able to conserve
enough water in the soil to carry deciduous fruit trees or vines
through bearing and autumn bud formation without further
water supply. But there are other situations in which no amount
of winter irrigation nor rainfall will suffice for these ends. There
are foot-hill orchard areas in which the winter rainfall is two or
three times as great as in the valley situations where fruit is suc-
cessfully grown without irrigation, and yet water must be applied
in summer on those foot-hills or the fruit would be unmarketable
and the trees in distress. The forty or more inches of rainfall
falling on a shallow soil underlaid by a sloping bed-rock in some
cases nearly sluices the cultivated soil from its foothold, and yet
the oversaturation in winter avails nothing for summer growth,
because most diligent cultivation can not retain moisture enough
in shallow soil thus situated to sustain bearing trees in good
crops of full-sized fruit. The same is true of valley soils under-
laid by hard-pan. In such cases winter irrigation could add
nothing but distress to the soil oversoaked by rainfall; and sum-
mer irrigation, well-timed and adequate, is the secret of success
in the orchard. The same conclusion must hold for soils under-
laid by gravel or sand and thus too rapidly dried by leaching.

But even this generalization must be accepted only for sit-
uations endowed with conditions which justify it. There may
be sloping hills with shallow soil where winter rainfall does not
amount to saturation. Then winter irrigation to supply such
saturation is desirable, and then, too, summer irrigation in
proper amount and at proper intervals, will also be demanded.
Among the foot-hills, also, there may be localities with depth of
retentive soil in which water enough can be applied in winter
to carry trees through the year. Thus we come again to the
only safe generalization which can be made, and that is, that
everywhere water must be adequate to the demands of the tree
at the time it is needed, and whether it can best be applied in

172 Summer Lrrigation.

summer or winter, or both, or whether it is not necessary to
make any artificial application at all, depends upon existing con-
ditions. which the grower must ascertain and to which his policy
and practise must conform. It is a fact, however, that in all
soils, which under good cultivation are fairly retentive, winter
irrigation, when water is most abundant, and usually carries
most sediment, can be made to go far toward making summer
irrigation unnecessary for all deciduous fruits.

As to winter irrigation, practise varies, some relying upon
a single heavy flooding by using checks on contour lines, by
which, perhaps, a foot in depth or more of water is allowed to
soak into the soil; others use the same method of application in
winter as in summer, and, therefore, give a number of irrigations
in winter. There is, of course, much less danger of injury by
water to deciduous growths in winter, because they are dormant,
though an eye should be kept on drainage for excessive irriga-
tion as for excessive rainfall. The grape and the pear are
known to endure long submergence, but some other fruits are
sensitive about it.

Summer Irrigation—When this shall begin and when end
are to be locally determined. In some places even the earliest
fruits can not reach satisfactory size and quality without irriga-
tion. In others rainfall with winter irrigation will suffice for
proper development of early fruits, but not for late. In both
cases the iruit may be satisfactory, but the tree unable to hold
its leaf vigor until the work of the growing season is properly
completed. It is then apparent that local practise must vary in
order to reach the universal fact, and that is that all through its
active season the tree must have’constant and adequate moisture
supply. Many evils in lack of bearing, in dying-back, in unsea-
sonable activity and the like are due to inadequate, intermittent
and, in some cases, to excessive moisture in the soil.

Cultivation and Irrigation—With such an extension of irri-
gation practise as is now being realized, there is danger that
those who have previously trusted so fully upon good cultivation
may swing to the other extreme and trust too much to the stream
of water and too little to the plow and cultivator. There is a
temptation this way when one finds that he can run water in
large amounts very cheaply. Not only is there danger of over-
irrigation in the growth of tree and fruit, but the ill effects of
water upon the soil, when unattended by good cultivation, are
constantly threatened. The tree needs air as well as water; it
needs a certain free condition of the soil for its best root action.
These needs can be amply secured when adequate application of
water is quickly followed by soil-stirring. Irrigated soil rightly
treated is delightfully mellow and free and of condition to invite

Ditches for Lrrigation. ; 173

the fullest activity on the part of the tree. Irrigated ground not
properly treated becomes compacted, fissured, cloddy and gen-
erally hateful, losing moisture rapidly, setting around the roots
like cement and tearing them by its subsequent shrinkage.
These conditions do not occur on the lighter soils, and yet even
these are best when cultivated in a rational manner.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION.

There are various methods employed in California for the
conveyance and application of water to trees and vines. Some
of the principal ones may be enumerated and described as
follows :—-

Permanent Ditches —Permanent runways for water are be-
coming far less popular than they were in earlier days, because
it is seen that the trees thrive far better if cultivated. There is,
however, on hill lands difficult to plow and cultivate, and prone
to wash, a naturally strong temptation to lay out the ditches once
for all on grades suitable for slow running of the water, and
trust to seepage and percolation from these ditches to supply
moisture to the trees adjacent to them. By this method irriga-
tion must be more frequent than by other methods which will be
described, because the soil is not so well saturated, and even the
more frequent application takes less water than less frequent
application through newly-turned furrows. There is, also, neces-
sity for much work with the hoe if the grower pretends to keep
down the weeds—which,. however, is not always done, and the
running water distributes the seeds.

Annual Ditches —A modification of this method, which pre-
vails to some extent in the foot-hills, consists in giving the or-
chard a thorough plowing when the heavy rains are over in the
spring, plowing under the winter growth. The surface is kept
stirred after later showers. In May shallow ditches are made
with a double-moldboard plow nearly along contour lines, which
are quickly located with a level. Slight fall is given so the water
will flow slowly, and these ditches are used all during that season,
and allowed to remain to carry down winter water until the next
thorough working in the following spring. This plan makes
summer cultivation somewhat difficult, but it may be the best
method on the sharp foot-hill slopes.

Large ditches are also used between the rows of bearing
trees on level land in soils which readily absorb water and the
roots are widely extended. It is chiefly used on lands adjacent
to rivers, from which water is pumped in large volume. For
example, along the Sacramento River, on land that is apt to bake
by flooding, or by the large check system, soon to be described,
large ditches are plowed out in the centers between the tree rows

174, The Furrow System.

and they are kept full of water, often for ten days atatime. This
is done twice for fruits that ripen before. August 1, and once
afterwards for late fruits. The ground between the ditches and
the trees is cultivated frequently.

Fresh Furrows.—Irrigation by freshly-turned furrows is the
most prevalent method in this State, and is popular in all our
irrigated regions where the soil is such that water freely dis-
tributes itself laterally, and does not flow directly downward, as
in some soils. The furrow system, as practised at Riverside,
will serve to illustrate the method:—

Along the head of the tree rows is placed a flume of wood or cement
into which the water comes from the measuring box of the water company.
This is made large enough to carry water sufficient for all the furrows, and
opposite each proposed stream is a little gate or outlet. A marker or irri-
gating plow has prepared the land to receive the water by making from 4
to 6 shallow furrows in each space between the tree rows. Into this the
water is allowed to slowly run—that is, if the irrigator be an expert. If
he be not a good irrigator he will turn into each furrow a head sufficient to
push the water through in a hurry, and in so doing wash down to his
neighbor or back into the river the best of his soil. Some boast that they
can run water a week without running off their land 2 per cent of the
amount received; but these are fewin number. The hasty application of
water has a tendency to form a ‘“‘slickens’’ that seems to prevent the
water from penetrating into the soil as it does when it moves slowly.
Given time, it will soak so deeply that one may sink a hoe-handle its length
in the deep and fertile soil. It is only occasionally that the conditions are
so favorable that it is well to allow the furrows to be over 60 rods in length,
although eighty is the more common distance. The ideal distance is about
4o rods, where the grade is perfect.*

Building Flumes for the Furrow System.—These are made in
different ways, but well-made lumber flumes are best on all ac-
counts. The following are explicit suggestions for construc-
tion :—

Sixteen-foot lumber is better than longer. The sides of the flume
should be of 8-inch lumber throughout, nailed to the side of the bottom,
making 7 inches high inside. This size will carry about 75 inches of water.
Reducing the flume in size, and keeping it nearly on a level, will give you
the same pressure throughout. This is very important in regulating the
streams. Place the first length about half its depth in the ground, and
as it goes along and comes up too high, put in a drop of 2 or 3 inches or
more, if necessary, and so on through the length. The first section, how-
ever, should be about 2 feet wide, narrowed to the size of the flume so as to
control the stream. Collars should be put around the flume every 8 feet of
distance; that is, one in the center and one to cover the joints at each end.
These collars should be 2x3-inch stuff.on the bottom and sides and 1x3 on
top. This makes a strong, durable flume. The width of the flume should
be reduced so the stream will decrease as it goes along; say from 16 inches
to 14, 12, 10, 8-inch—the sides being the same throughout or reduced so as
to have to-inch sides on the 16-inch bottom and 8-inch sides on the rest—
nailed to the side of the bottom. Two-inch holes are none too large, in
order to keep them clear of trash, such as leaves, etc. By lifting up the

*E, W. Holmes, Riverside. SS

flooding, Checks and Basins. 175

slide of the gate it will wash out. I generally shut the gate down the thick-
ness of my finger. In this way each gate can be regulated very nicely.
All flume material should be of the best soft redwood, as the hard warps
and cracks.-

At the Lower End.—As all conditions have to be very favor-
able if there is no overflow at the lower end of the furrow-face and
as the water has less chance to penetrate there it is common to
1un cross-furrows or to make cross-checks which will retain
water at this point until it soaks in. Others locate an alfalfa
patch below the orchard into which the overflow passes and is
utilized.

The Number of Furrows.—There is a wide variation in prac-
tise in the number of furrows employed for different soils and
different ages of trees. This must be determined by local ob-
servation.

Flooding, Checks, and Basins —These are different methods
of bringing the water to bear upon a broad expanse of surface,
and are best fitted for deep, leachy soils, in which, from the di-
rect downward course of the water, the distribution by furrows
would be very imperfect.

Flooding, as the terin implies, consists in allowing the water
to flow over the whole surface of the ground, dirt being, how-
ever, drawn up around the tree to prevent access of water to the
bark, which is a cause of serious disease. Flooding is done by
running a considerable head of water broadcast down each sev-
eral row, shifting it from one to another as soon as the stream
has run through. To use this method the ground must be quite
level, or serious washing is likely to ensue, aad the soil must
be of rather a porous character, for the water is not held in con-
tact with the soil, as in other methods. It is obviously a bad
method for soils disposed to run together, and is so uneven in
distribution that it has been widely replaced by the check sys-
tem, which is more rational.

The Check System—The check system aims to hold a cer-
tain depth of water, until it is absorbed, upon all parts of the
surface except the fraction occupied by the banks or small levees
which inclose the checks. It requires considerable displacement
of soil, which necessitates hard work and constant attention while
the water runs, which is not the case with the furrow system.
The compensation must be found in the fact that, when well
done, there is certainty that each tree has received a certain ade-
quate amount of water in all parts of the soil-mass which belongs
to it.

There are various ways of practising the check system, ad-
vancing in character from the simple plowing of furrows each

* A. S, Bradford, Placentia.

176 flow to Make the Checks.

way between the rows to the construction of well-defined and
strong banks with suitable implements which reduce the cost to
a minimum. The following method, as practised in Orange
County, is of the latter class:—

The ground is deeply cultivated, say about five inches deep, so as to
be able to throw up a high ridge; then with a four or six-horse ‘‘ridger”’
run once each way between every row, if it is a citrus or deciduous or-
chard, and twice should the trees be walnuts, as the larger checks require
better banks orridges. After this is done run entirely around the outside of
the piece to be irrigated, so as to have as perfect a ridge as possible on the
outside. Then, with one horse attached to what is locally known as a
‘‘go-devil,’? proceed to close up one side of the checks. The practise
generally followed is to close up the high side of the checks, if the land
does not cut by running water, but if it cuts, close up to the lower side.
After closing up the checks the ditches are plowed out, and then what is
known as a “ V’’ is run twice through them to perfect the ditch. On
lands inclined to cut, it is advisable that the length of the rows to be irri-
gated should not be over 250 feet, but in heavy land this distance can be
considerably increased, if necessary, without danger of cutting the ridges
by too long a run of water.

If the checks have been closed on the low side of the ridge, it is better
to run the water to the ends of the ditch and water the last row first; but
if closed on the high side, water the row nearest the gate or main ditch, as
the case may be, first, as in each instance there will be dry earth to work
with, if necessary, when closing up the checks. The water is run down
the row to the end tree, and as soon as the last check is filled it is closed
up, and so on till all are filled and closed, when the water is turned down
the next row.*

The “ridger” described is a sled with the solid plank “run-
ners” set farther apart at the front than at the rear. With t'e
weight of the driver this takes in much loose earth in front,
which is crowded up as it proceeds to the narrow space behind,
and is left as a well-defined ridge. The passing of this “ridger”
in crossing the first-made ridges breaks them down, and as many
as it is desirable to close are quickly fixed by the “go-devil,”
which is a large horse-hoe, or sort of square scoop, fitted with
thills for the horse and handles for the man. Coming to the gap
in the ridge the man lifts on the handles and the earth is placed
to restore the ridge, all but a little touch with a shovel afterwards.

Sometimes the checks are filled one from another, begin-
ning on the high side; sometimes a centrai ditch is formed by
running the “ridger” twice, finished with the V, and the water is
admitted to each check from this central ditch. In this way the
men can work down one side and up the other, and finish at the
point where the water is to be diverted to the next set of checks,
of which several sets should be fixed in advance of the water if
possible. Weak places in checks or ditches, in soils disposed to
cut, can be strengthened by old grain sacks opened out and
weighted down with soil.

*Sydmer Ross, of Fullerton.

IRRIGATION BY THE FURROW SYSTEM IN A RIVERSIDE ORANGE ORCHARD.—See page 174.

The Basin Method. L77.

Basins.—This word is often used to indicate the check sys-
tem, but should now have a narrower signification to distinguish
between enclosures which cover nearly the whole space, or only
a fraction of it. The latter are properly basins. On some slopes
they are useful because they can be scooped out so as to give a
very high barrier on the low side. They are also useful in using
a very small continuous stream without a reservoir. They aie
defective in not widely distributing moisture and thus inducing
root extension. They are usually made by hand labor and often
filled with a mulch of straw or manure to prevent cracking of
the soil and to reduce evaporation. Whenever they are used
they should be broken up and the soil thoroughly tilled at least
once a year.

DEVELOPMENT AND STORAGE OF WATER.

It is, obviously, beyond the limitations of this work to at-
tempt an extended review of irrigation enterprises and practises.
The enterprises undertaken by capitalists, or by co-operation
among settlers, require the services of competent engineers. All
these matters are too great in extent and variety to be discussed
in this work. As, however, it has been the aim of the writer to
aid the inexperienced planter to help himself in small efforts, a
little space will be given to suggestions as to how a planter may
develop and use such small water supply as may be derived from
spring, small creek or well, on his own land without employing
an engineer,

Running Lines for Irrigating Ditches—How far to go up a
creek in order to bring water out upon a given piece of land
is a question which frequently arises in individual practise.
There is also doubt as to how much fall should be given to the
ditch. The fall required by a ditch or canal depends upon the
amount of water which it is desired that it should discharge, and
upon the width and depth with which it is intended that the
water should flow. It may also be dependent upon the charac-
ter of the soil in which the ditch is to be constructed, and upon
the peculiarities of the water itseli. A strong current in soft
soil may cause mischievous erosions. Water carrying much
sediment must never be allowed to move sluggishly, as clear
water sometimes may. It is best to state the requirements to a
competent engineer and act on his suggestion, or secure the
counsel of a neighbor who has had experience with similar soil
and water.

Having decided what fall to give the ditch, the nearest
point at which water can be taken out of a creek to be brought
to a certain piece of land is found by commencing with the point
at which the water is to be delivered (generally the highest poirt

178 Running Lines for Ditches.

of the land to be irrigated), and running up stream a line which
has the inclination intended for the ditch.

To stake out this line when no special hindrances are in the
way, use a home-made leveling instrument constructed as fol-
lows :—

With sound, straight-edged lumber a triangle is made, as indicated in
the sketch. The three pieces, 4 2, 6feetlong, B C, 12 feet long, and C A,
4 feet long, are made fast to each other at 4, &, and C. The board, A D,
is fastened to the triangle at right angles to B C. Near A, on the board,
A D,a plumb-line is made fast. The plumb, like a mason’s plumb, hangs
in a hole at F, so that when A D is vertical, the string hangs very near the
surface of the board, 4 D.

FAO \,
lh \
cae Pe re iN

A Home-made Leveling Instrument.

eC

It will be seen that when 4 D is exactly vertical, B C is exactly hori-
zontal, if the angles at D are true right angles. An ordinary carpenter’s
square used in the construction of the apparatus will insure sufficient accu-
racy in the position of 4 D.

In marking on the board, A D, however, the line in which the string
of the plumb will hang when BZ C is exactly horizontal, more care is
required. Two pegs are driven, as far apart as B and C, for these points
to reston. The highest one is driven into the ground until the plumb-line
follows about the center line of the board, 4 D.- Having marked this
position of the plumb-line, the triangle is reversed so that the end 2 rests
on the peg where before we had the end CG, and vice versa. Should the
plumb-line be ina position at variance with the first one marked on the
board, then the correct position for the # C horizontal will be exactly in
the middle between the two found by the aid of the two pegs.

It will frequently be found convenient to have a scale of feet marked
offon BC. Holes in the pieces 4 B and C A at Z E, or handles, will
make the triangle convenient to carry. Only two men are necessary in
using it.

To use this instrument for locating the line of the ditch,
calculate the amount which your line should rise between each
two pegs. Drive a peg at the starting-point with its top say six
inches from the general surface of the ground. Hold one end

Use of Leveling Triangle. 179

of the levelling apparatus above this peg by exactly that amount
which the line rises per each instrument-length (B C), and swing
the other end around into the direction from which the ditch is
to come, until, when level, it is just six inches above the ground.
Drive a peg here, which will, like the first, be six inches high,
and proceed as before. Care should be taken to give the top of
each peg exactly the correct elevation. The level must be hori-
zontal when resting on any peg, and raised exactly that amount
which the line rises per level-length, above the preceding peg.
It will be found convenient to use a carcfully-prepared block
to hold on the top of each stake at the rear end of the level in-
stead of trusting to measurement each time.*

Locating Contour Lines for Checks or for Distributing Ditches.
—This work can be done with the aid of the level above de-
scribed. For instance, to locate a contour (a line of equal ele-
vation), as required in the construction of a check levee, drive
a peg until its top has a convenient elevation from the ground,
say one foot. Rest one end of the triangle on this peg and
swing the other around until when B C is horizontal this other
end has exactly the same elevation from the ground as the top
of the peg. At this point drive a second peg and proceed as
before. If the tops of the pegs be chosen as the height of the
levee, they may be retained as grade stakes as well as line stakes
for the embankment.

Storing Water from Small Sources—For individual uses
quite a respectable water supply can sometimes be developed
from apparently mean sources. This can be done by clearing
out and opening up hillside springs, and often by tunneling into
the hillside to intercept subterranean water-flows, or by pumping
from a well. Even a small spring, yielding but two quarts per
second, is equivalent to a three-inch stream, and would be suf-
ficient for several acres in fruit trees. To derive the greatest
benefit from small springs, however, a reservoir is necessary,
in which the flow of twelve to twenty-four hours, or even a
longer period, can be accumulated, and then discharged as re-
quired. It is by using water in driblets that many springs are
wasted. A spring supplying even one and a half inches of water
would be wholly swallowed up by a thirsty soil within two hun-
dred feet of its source, when, by arresting the flow and accumu-
lating it in a reservoir and discharging at intervals in a
volume four times as large, it would more than cover eight
times the surface. A spring flowing two quarts per second will
discharge forty-three thousand two hundred gallons in twenty-
four hours. This would require a reservoir‘forty by twenty

*C.E. Grunsky, C. E., in acific Rural Press.

180 The Small Reservorr.

feet, and seven feet deep, or double that width if the depth is
decreased one-half. The shallower itt can be made the better,
for many reasons, but especially on account of the temperature
of the water. That of springs is generally too low in summer
for immediate use, and its value is greatly enhanced by being
raised to an equal or greater temperature than that of the air.
This is quickly done by exposure in a shallow pond. A reser-
voir can be constructed entirely in the ground where the slope
will admit of it, and by lining the bottom and sides with clay
well puddled, will answer for most purposes. Some are built
of adobe, backed with earth and plastered on the inner side
with hydraulic cement. Concrete of lime, sand, and broken
stone, is, however, the best material, where lime can be readily
obtained, and any person with ordinary mechanical skill can
construct them. The following hints on a dirt reservoir may be
suggestive :—

A reservoir should be built on the highest part of the tract sought to
be irrigated by scraping the earth from the outside and from such a large
area as not to affect the utility of the land trom which it is taken. With a
levee all around 5 feet high, 4 feet of water could be carried safely. The
slopes ought to be two to one on the inside. A reservoir 20 feet square
and 4 feet deep would hold 12,000 gallons. With the slopes as above the
reservoir should be measured 2 feet from the bottom, or half way up the
4 feet of water; consequently to lay out a reservoir to hold 12,000 gallons,
put the stakes 12 feet square and build. For any other sized one take 8
feet off the same asin this. A reservoir 25 feet square will hold 18,750
gallons and would be 17 feet square at the bottom; one 30 feet square
would hold 27,000 gallons and would be 22 feet at the bottom; one 35 feet
square--27 at the bottom—will hold 36,000 gallons; one 4o feet square—32
on the bottom—will hold 48,000 gallons. This spread upon the surface of
an acre would be alittle more than 13{ inches of rainfall.

Almost any loam soil will hold water with a little puddling. The
cheapest way to puddle is to build a pen the size of the intended reservoir,
including at least a portion of that to be under the embankment, wet it
very wet, put some hogs in the pen and keep feeding them barley, a little
at a time, so as to make them not only walk around but root for the barley.
A half sack of barley fed to eight or ten hungry hogs in half a day will
make a good puddle. If it did not work satisfactorily the water could be
taken off and the bottom covered about an inch deep with coarse sand
mixed one part to five with Portland cement, put in dry, and let it be cov-
ered slowly. A barrel of cement may be counted at about 4 cubic feet and
with the mixture above would cover the first-named reservoir about 13¢
inches. This would make it tight. The supply pipe should come up from
ae bottom, so that the lift would never be more than the height of the
surface.

Loss of Water by Seepage-—The great loss of water by
seepage during a long run has led to the cementing of ditches,
and to the use of miles of large wooden, concrete and iron pipe
by the irrigation, companies of southern California; also, where
the slope is rapid, paving ditches with rock has been resorted

*Wiull S. Green, of Colusa.

The Current Wheel. 181

to. Similar efforts naturally suggest themselves to the user of
a small water supply to save his flow from loss. Where lumber
is cheap, the use of a board flume is the most available means
of saving water.

Irrigation from Wells—A considerable area of orchard is
irrigated from flowing wells in different parts of the State.
Nearly everywhere in the artesian districts there are local well-
borers who have kept records of the strata traversed in their
work and can estimate closely the cost of securing water by this
method.

Wells to supply pumps will be incidentally mentioned in
connection with a later paragraph on pumping. They consti-
tute a great and a growing feature in our present irrigation devel-
opment. Naturally the availability of wells for irrigation must

«He \.
End View of Irrigating Wheel.

be locally determined. Recent experience shows that even deep
wells can be profitably used with proper pumping appliances.

Lifting Water from Flowing Ditch or Siream—Where a
stream has a rapidity of two miles or more per hour, and a lift
to a height of six to sixteen feet will give head enough to dis-
tribute the water over a considerable area, there is nothing
cheaper than the current wheel which is largely used in this
State. The engraving gives an end view of such a wheel.
Eight pairs of arms, carrying flat buckets like those of a
steamboat paddle-wheel, extend from a hub rotating on metal
bearings. At either end or both ends of each bucket are fixed
wooden or tin water boxes which fill themselves on entering the
water, and on being brought to the highest point of rotation
empty themselves into a receiving trough. This trough sup-
plies the distributing ditches, etc., and its inner end is so placed
that it comes under the projecting buckets of the wheel without

182 Pumping for Irrigation.

interference with the motion of the arms. The current of water
in the channel underneath forces the buckets down stream, the
latter delivering in the opposite direction at the top. By using
a double set of boxes, one at each end of each bucket, the water
may be delivered on both sides simultaneously. A little experi-
menting will indicate the proper size of the boxes, which de-
pends upon the velocity and volume of water in the channel as
well as the amount to be delivered.

At the Fancher Creek Nursery, in Fresno County, a wheel
is used eighteen feet in diameter, and carries sixteen buckets,
which empty into a trough sixteen feet above the ditch. The
wheel lifts about one cubic foot in two seconds.

PUMPING FOR IRRIGATION.

The year 1898 will be ever memorable for the general
awakening of Californians not only to the desirability of an
irrigation supply even in regions which had hitherto depended
upon rainfall, but to the fact that pumping is feasible and profit-
able. Thousands of growers began to realize that their orchard
soil is merely the cover of an apparently inexhaustible reservoir.
Others satisfied themselves that supplies from adjacent streams
can be very cheaply thrown to elevations from which the water
would flow over their lands. The use of the pump is only just
beginning in California, though we have had for years as good
and capacious pumping machinery in use as the world can show.
The capacity of pumps, their ease and cheapness of operation
in this land of oil wells, and of ponderous waterfalls whose power
can be transformed into electric energy, warrant the conclusion
that in many places water can be lifted from below more
cheaply than it can be brought long distances by ditch; and
that the supply is more constant and subject to the users’ com-
mand and convenience. In all parts of the State well-boring
and digging and pump construction is proceeding at a rate
beyond any parallel in the history of California. Pumping
plants of all capacities, from the greatest of the gasoline class,
lifting five thousand gallons per minute from a depth of twenty-
five feet, down to the plant with a throw of three hundred gal-
lons per minute, all styles of motors and pumps are being con-
stantly multiplied. These plants are being placed upon wells in
the orchard or in the vicinity, or upon adjacent streams, or are
being mounted upon barges so as to do custom pumping for
many orchards. Many new devigns by California inventors
are coming into use. It would require a volume to contain
any adequate account of California's recent progress in these
lines. Economic pumping is governed by so many consid-
erations that no general statement would be conclusive in any

Cost of Pumping Water. 183

specific case, Each orchardist must ascertain his own condi-
tions and then confer with trustworthy manufacturers or their
agents as to what will meet his requirements.

As a surety of the general proposition that pumping is fea-
sible and profitable even from deep wells, reference can be made
to the Santa Clara Valley, where the most numerous recent in-
vestments in pumping outfits have been made:—

There are about 1,500 irrigating plants of all kinds in this valley
proper. About goo of them have been put in during the past three years.
Many of them are centrifugal pumps run by steam. These are the larger
plants, where from 15 to 4o H. P., and in some few instances a larger H. P.,
are used, and the size of the pumps range from 4 inches to 12 inches.
Most of the smaller plants are run by gasoline, though several use crude oil,
and many of these are also centrifugal. Some of these are deep-well
pumps, and they are very satisfactory in raising water from a greater depth
than 100 feet. From 100 to 400 or 500 feet they work admirably.

The cost of pumping differs materially in the different kinds of power,
sizes of pumps and depth of wells. Figuring from what may be a safe
average of the actual cost of fuel, a No. 4 pump, centrifugal, with gasoline
as power, at 70 feet depth, would cost $3.00 per day. This would result in
600 gallons per minute, 36,000 gallons per hour, or 360,000 gallons per day
of ten hours. Such a stream of water is calculated to irrigate about 5 acres
per day—equivalent to a little more than 234 inches of rain. But these fig-
ures being of the best experiments, a better and safer estimate would prob-
ably be 4 acres per day or an equivalent of about 2 inches of rain.

But, generally speaking, it is safe to say that at a cost of about $3.00
per acre for the water the orchards of Santa Clara County can, under the
present process, be irrigated, two or three times, at $6.00 to $9.00 per
acre per year. The average cost of plant is about $1,200,*

These calculations are chosen because they represent aver-
age conditions and include a large number of small plants.
There are many cases citable in which pumping plants of great
capacity with small lifts are supplying the amount of water indi-
cated at even one-third of the cost mentioned. But plants of
such capacity require considerable investments and should be
submitted to competent experts for estimates of cost and effi-
ciency.

THE MINERS’ INCH.

There is a slight difference in the miners’ inch in some of
the different mining districts, but for irrigation purposes usually
the measurement is as described by section 1415 of the Civil
Code, which specifies a miners’ inch in this State as that quan-
tity of water which will flow through an opening of one square
inch in the bottom or side of a vessel, under a pressure of four
inches above the opening. Fifty of these miners’ inches are
equal to a discharge of one cubic foot of water per second, which
is called a “second-foot,” of which one miners’ inch is the fiftieth
part.

*C. M. Wooster, of San Jose.

184 The Miners’ Inch.

To get the number of gallons in miners’ inches, multiply the given
number of inches by 14.961, pointing off five decimals. The result will be
the number of gallons discharged per second.

To get the miners’ inch in gallons, divide the number of gallons flow,
or discharge per minute, by 8.9766. The result will be the number of
inches sought.

One miners’ nee in saat Leh waned 15. .ceseccssenee snennance coens 0.1496
Per minute... Sewascen 8.976
Per hour.,.... 538.56
Per day.. 12925.44
Per mont! + 293,418

Per year... & 45721, 017

This will cover an acre over fourteen feet deep in a year, and cover ten
acres about eighteen inches deep ; or would give to ten acres six irrigations
of three inches each.

It may be stated, however, that the extreme service claimed
for water is from eight to ten acres of trees and vines or five to
six acres of small fruits per miners’ inch—meaning the amount
of one inch running constantly, but to be handled in multiplied
inches applied at intervals.

RANDOM SUGGESTIONS.

Without attempting an impossible thing, to wit, to furnish
explicit directions for the practise of irrigation, for much of it
every man must learn for himself by experience, a few sugges-
tions may be noted, even though more important ones do not
come to mind:—

Usually water should be prevented from actual contact with
the trunk of the tree. Citrus trees are especially sensitive to
such contact, and resent it by ‘‘gum disease,’ which was for-
merly far more prevalent in the State than now. Care must,
therefore, be taken not to set trees which are to be irrigated,
too low. It is better to raise them up a little and draw the earth
up around, them to prevent approach of the water.

If possible, the ditch should run on the shady side of the
tree, because reflected sunshine from the water surface may burn
the bark.

In examining soil to ascertain dryness, one must dig deeply,
for often an upper layer will be fairly moist, if well cultivated,
while lower lavers, where the feeding rootlets are, will be arid.
Therefore, when trees or vines are suffering, dig far down in
examining the soil.

In irrigating, thorough, deep soaking is necessary, and ex-
amination must be made to see if an artificial hard-pan which
prevents the descent of the water has been formed.

Be careful not to continue irrigation too late in the season.
It will prevent the proper dormancy of deciduous trees, and if
more fall irrigation is given citrus trees than they need for per-
fecting the fruit, the trees will continue growing tender shoots

Sub-irrigation in California. 185

until they are injured by severe frosts. On the other hand, it is
often desirable to give deciduous trees a draft of water alter the
fruit has been gathered, if the soil is so dry that-the tree is
likely to drop its leaves too soon, and wake from its dormancy
with the first rains. Many times the fall blooming of deciduous
trees, which is very undesirable, may be prevented by keeping
them growing later in the summer by moderate irrigation.

If trees or vines, in regions usually irrigated, are to be
grown without irrigation, it is important that the grower be
more than usually thorough and constant with his summer cul-
tivation. In trying the non-irrigation experiment, one should,
of course, begin with young trees which have not been irrigated,
and not usually expect success by withdrawing the water from
trees which have been accustomed to it, and have developed a
root system accordingly.

SUB-IRRIGATION IN CALIFORNIA.

The word “sub-irrigated” is freely used in California to de-
scribe land which is moistened below by underflow or seepage
from streams or springs, or from open irrigation ditches, trav-
ersing higher levels. This land is sub-irrigated, it is true, but
there is no system about it, except the natural distribution of
water, which is disposed to run down hill. Some of our most
productive lands are of this character, and where the soil and
subsoil are fitted to the movement of this living water, and not apt
to retain it up to the point of saturation, most satisfactory growth
of deep-rooting field crops and of trees and vines are secured.
But this is not sub-irrigation in the ordinary signification of the
term.

Several systems of sub-irrigation have been devised by Cali-
fornia inventors, but none have passed beyond the ‘experimental
stage, and no considerable acreage is yet in place.

“DRAINAGE IN CALIFORNIA.

There was for a long time a very erroneous popular gen-
eralization that California soils do not need drainage; that in a
dry State the aim should be to retain the moisture, not to part
with it. It is, of course, true that we have vast areas of natu-
rally well-drained soil, upon which any money spent for drain-
age would be in great part thrown away, but we have, also,
both in the valley and on the hillsides, locaiities where, by pecul-
iar character and conformation of the subsoil, water is held in
the soil until evaporated from the surface, and the result is a
boggy, miry condition, which prevents proper winter cultivation,
and at the same time injures the roots of the trees.or vines. This
defective cultivation, added to the puddling effect of standing

13

186 Drainage and Irrigation.

water, makes the soil dry out completely under the fervid sun
of summer, and the result is that the wettest soil of the winter
is the driest in the summer, and plants which are injured by
soaking in winter suffer again from lack of moisture and sus-
tenance in summer: Thus it is a fact, clearly proven by obser-
vation and experience, that thorough under-drainage removes
surplus water in winter, and ministers to the retention of mois-
ture in summer. More than this, a soil puddled by standing
water can not present its contents in available form for plant nu-
trition, and besides, it loses the fertilizing effects of atmospheric
currents, which freely pass through an open, well-drained soil.
Wet land is cold and late in spring, and hot as a baked brick
under the summer sun; it is no fiction of the imagination to
say that well-drained land is warm in wiuter and cool in sum-
mer—that is, cool to a degree which favors quick and free root
growth, and cool enough to escape the parching effect of deeply-
baked soil.

These, and a host of simular considerations, which have
made under-drainage popular in older countries, are of weight
in California. Possibly, as a rule, because of our vast area of
deep, kind loams, the proportion of land needing drainage in
this State is less than elsewhere, and yet there is a vast extent
of country to be improved by tiling. During the last few years -
there have been large losses of trees from planting upon soils
defective in this respect. The evil has resulted from excessive.
rainfall and excessive irrigation, either direct or by underflow
from adjacent irrigations. In some places this latter movement
of water has brought alkali to assist in the ruin of the trees and
vines. The cure is drainage to sufficient depth and with good
outlet for the drainage water.

Information on the construction of under-drains is too avail-
able through other sources to cail for its presentation in this
connection.

Drainage and Irrigation.—A special importance attaches to
complete and systematic drainage in connection with irrigation. °
There is pressing need of such provision where the soil has be-
come overloaded by seepage water from irrigation ditches, and
it is well that people in such situations are waking up to the
need of coupling drainage outlets with their irrigation inlets.
Another matter closely allied to this is the action of alkali on
soils thus artificially water soaked. This has been made the
sttbject of a special publication by Professor Hilgard, to which
allusion has already been made. Drainage is plainly essential,
hoth in individual farms and in districts where the water level
is rising too high, ana the striking statements given in Professor
Hilgard’s report will incite all to insist that immediate attention
be given to the needs of the State in this regard.

PART THIRD: ORCHARD FRUITS.

CHAPTER: XV,
THE APPLE.

During the last decade notable progress has been made in
apple growing in California. The old idea that our conditions
did not favor excellence in an apple has given way to full assur-
ance that in wisely selected elevations and exposures the very
highest points of size, beauty, flavor, keeping and shipping qual-
ities are secured. Even before the wondertiully satisfactory test
of both northern and southern California appl.s at the New Or-
leans World’s Fair, it was clear that the right variety grown in
the right place yields an apple in California than which a better
can not be grown anywhere, and during the last five years Cali-
fornia early apples have been in sharp request for shipment to
all regions of the northwest and British Columbia, and Cali-
fornia winter apples have been sold at the highest prices east of
the Rocky Mountains and in Europe. Shipments beyond State
lines of above seven hundred car-loads in 1898 testify to these
facts.
Localities for the Apple-—Speaking generally, it may be laid
down that the great valleys of the interior are not well suited
to the apple. In the early regions of the Sacramento Valley
and foot-hills, however, excellent early apples are profitably pro-
duced. In the great valley and lower foot-hill region of the State,
the late apple usually lacks character and keeping quality. On
the great plains the tree is liable to sunburn, or sun blight, as it is
called. Some varieties, because of the character of their foliage,
are less liable to this injurv than others, and it is possible that
this evil may be finally overcome by the selection of varieties
with blight-proof foliage, as will be mentioned later. In the
great valley, however, on the rich river-bottom land of the Sacra-
mento and the San Joaquin and its tributaries, the apple roots
deeply, attains good size, bears good fruit, with fair keeping
quality, while but a few miles away on the plains it would be
inferior.

(187 )

188 Localities for the Apple.

In the interior the region of adaptation to the apple lies at
an elevation on the foot-hills on both the east and west rims of
the great valley. Its limits are not well defined, but there are
flourishing orchards at an elevation of about four thousand five
hundred feet on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains,
and from two thousand to three thousand five hundred feet is
commonly regarded the best apple region of the mountains.
The trees attain large size and bear heavily, and the fruit, of
well-adapted varieties, is large, crisp, and juicy, and has excep-
tional keeping qualities.

Along the coast the apple succeeds well from end to end of
the State, and very close to the ocean excellent {fruit is produced
on good soil. There is a certain advantage in elevation in the
coast region as well as in the interior, but the advantage is not
so marked nor is the required elevation so great. Coast valleys
in the central and upper portion of the State, where the soil is
suitable, produce most excellent apples, but even here the lower
hillsides, with deep, well-drained soils, are, perhaps, preferable
to the floors of the valley. Departing from immediate coast in-
fluences and approaching the interior, with its gréater heat and
aridity, the greater elevation becomes desirable. The apple, ex-
cepting the very early varieties, does not relish the forcing heat
which brings such perfection to the peach, but to insure late
ripening and long keeping, with accompanying crispness, juici-
ness, and flavor, it must have atmospheric surroundings which
favor slower development.

Localities for apple growing in southern California are to
be chosen with much the same rules as in the upper parts of the
State. As has already been said, vaileys in which coast condi-
tions largely predominate produce good apples on suitable soils,
but away from the coast proper, elevations must be sought, and
they should be above the so-called thermal or frostless belts.
Good apples are grown on low lands near the coast in Los An-
geles and Orange Counties. Sixty miles inland, in San Ber-
nardino County, winter apples fail in the valleys, but are most
excellent at a sufficient elevation upon the slopes of the sur-
rounding mountains or in elevated valleys like the Yucaipe Val-
ley above Redlands. In the elevated interior of San Diego
County, as in the Julian and Smith Mountain districts, excellent
apples are produced in large quantities and profitably carried
long distances.

_ Second and Third-Crop Apples—There is a peculiar be-
havior of the apple tree, most noticeable where winter temper-
ature is mildest, and that is blooming and fruiting out of season.
In the case of early apples the second bloom may appear about
the time the first fruit ripens and the third bloom when the sec-

Exposures and Sotls for the Apple. 189

ond crop is half grown. Even such behavior may be followed
by regular blooming the following spring. Second crops of
apples are not of amount nor regularity enough to be of much
economic importance, as the second crops of pears and grapes
sometimes are. The third crop occasionally ripens.

Exposures for the Apple—The choice of exposure for an
apple orchard may almost be inferred from what has been said
about localities. In regions with high summer temperature the
apple will do best on cool, northerly slopes, and this exposure
becomes doubly desirable when the location has high temper-
ature with only moderate annual rainfall, or where the soil is
not well adapted to the retention of moisture. With such pre-
vailing conditions, the apple will be grateful for the cooler air
and the greater moisture of the northerly slope. Where the
temperature is moderately cool, and the rainfall adequate, the
matter of exposure is of less account, and the grower can make
the existence of the best soil the test of location of his orchard.
At elevations on the sides of high ranges where late cold storms
are liable to rush down from higher snow fields, protection from
the usual course of such storms, or from the course of cold
winds generally, must be sought; and directly upon the coast,
especially in the northern part of the State, in certain places
where the peach does not usually succeed, even the apple may
need protection, and the benefit of all heat available, and then a
southerly or southeasterly exposure becomes desirable. The
choice of exposure is thts seen to be largely a local question
and to be determined by a knowledge of local conditions. A
newcomer in a region can best learn these conditions by con-
ference with older residents, or by personal observation of older
orchards.

Soils for the Apple—Experience with the apple in Califor-
nia confirms what has long been set forth as its choice of soils
in older regions. If one avoid an extremely light, sandy soil
on the one hand, and a very stiff clay or adobe on the other, he
may plant apples on almost any soil which allows extension of
the roots to a considerable depth without reaching standing
water. The apple thrives in a moist soil, but it must be well
drained, naturally or otherwise. A soil which may be called
best for the apple is a deep, rich, moist, calcareous loam, but the
tree will thrive on coarser materials. The subsoil, whatever its
nature, must be sound and open to the passage of moisture.
The most unfavorable condition for the tree is a subsoil of clay
which holds water. There is some difference in varieties as to’
choice of soil. The Yellow Bellflower, for instance, will do well,
on a lighter soil than the Yellow Newtown Pippin.

190 Growth of the Apple.

PLANTING AND CARE OF THE APPLE ORCHARD.

The chapters on propagation, planting, and pruning con-
tain suggestions to which the reader is referred. Care should
be taken to obtain trees with clean, healthy roots, not knotted
and scarred by woolly aphis.

Distance in Planting—The distance between the trees is of
the highest importance. All the old apple orchards are over-
crowded. More recently trees have been set at greater dis-
tances, and such planting is now generally advised. There is
some difference of opinion as to proper distance, but certainly
twenty-live to thirty feet is near enough, and some of the best
new orchards have been p!anted at forty fect, the ground being
used for a time with other crops or planted with early bearing
trees, for which the soil is suited, between them.

Pruning the Apple—The manner of shaping fruit trees de-
scribed in the chapter on pruning succeeds admirably with the
apple. Yearling trees are usually planted, and they are regu-.
larly pruned until proper form is secured. After coming into
bearing there must be intelligent pruning according to the
growth-habit of the variety. Some varieties, like the Yellow
Bellflower, resent heavy pruning alter coming into bearing, and
siow growers, like the Ychow Newtown Pippin, do not need it.
On the other hand varieties, like the Winesap and Smith’s Cider,
are apt to make long slim branches and bear at the ends. This
can be corrected by cutting back to secure more short shoots
which will bear better fruit. The grower must study his vari-
eties not only with reference to this but in forming the tree, cut-
ting to an inside bud all varieties which naturally take a hori-
zontal direction, and cutting to an outside bud varieties which
have a tendency to send up tall, straight shoots. By thus throw-
ing the new growth upward in the first case, and outward in the
second, one can shape each kind to greater symmetry and
strength for fruit carrying, and bring up all spreading varieties
to a form which admits near approach of the plow and cultivator.
This manner of shaping the tree must continue as long as seems
necessary to secure a tree which will come to bearing age shapely
and strong, and within reach.

Bearing trees should not be allowed to carry too many
branches, and pruning will largely consist of thinning out sur-
plus shoots and removing interference between branches. It is
not desirable to shorten-in the apple as is done with the apricot
and peach.

In regions of the most intense summer heat, less pruning
is admissible ‘than in ihe coast and elevated regions. It is nec-
essary that the foliage be dense to protect the tree and the fruit
from sunburn. Nor does the tree seem to relish cutting back.

An Apple Storage House. I9t

Slight thinning cut, if the tiee becomes too brushy, seems to be
the best treatment in some of the hot valleys.

Thinning the Fruit—QOne of the most important items in
the handling of an apple orchard is the faithtul thinning out
of the fruit of all varieties which are prone to overbear. Al-
though this work is tedious and expensive, it is profitable, because
of the improved price which can be had for the larger fruit
which will be secured, and it is desirable in the effects of thin-
ning on the tree. It will be relieved from the exhaustion of
overbearing, induced to yield annual crops, and often saved from
breaking down with a too heavy burden.

GATHERING AND STORING APPLES,

The disposition in this State, as elsewherc, is to allow the

fruit to hang too long upon the tree before gathering. It was
long ago demonstrated that an apple for long-keeping must be
picked early. As late fall weather in Cali‘ornia is so delightful,
there is more temptation to delay the picking than where the
approach of winter admonishes the grower to get his fruit under
cover. Picking apples for shipment should be done just when
the seeds begin to blacken and when the fruit yields to pressure.
If left on until fully ripe, and the seeds all black, the fruit will
not keep. This rule applies to fall apples for shipment to distant
markets, or for apples to be stored at home.
Nearly all the ways of keeping winter apples have been
tried in California. It has been found by experience that apples
keep perfectly until late in the spring by piling under the trees
and covering with leaves, ctc., allowing the rains to fall upon
them. When dry north winds blow, the fruit should be sprinkled
occasionally. They come out from the cover fresh, smooth, and
plump, and for family use such rough storage will often answer
a good purpose. For commercial storage, however, good fruit-
houses are used. The requisites of such houses are an evenly
cool temperature, moist air, and gcod ventilation, the fruit being
open to free access of the air.

Mr. Edward Berwick, of Monterey, a leading apple grower
of the coast region, handles his fruit in this way :—

The apples are carefully hand-picked into baskets and at once trans-
ferred to ordinary apple boxes—just put in loose, not packed tight as for
shipping. These boxes are hauled to the fruit house with as little jar as

ossible.
e This fruit house is built of rough boards (fastened on a heavy frame)
with inch-thick battens covering the cracks, and rustic-nailed outside the .
battens, thus leaving an inch air-space between the boards and the rustic.
It is of two stories—the upper devoted to tools and stores, the lower used
for fruit, and arranged with shelves accordingly. This lower story has only
an earthen floor. One object of this is to give.no lodgment for rats or mice,
the other is to serve as a means of maintaining a cool, damp atmosphere.

192 Apple House for Southern Coast.

To this endit is kept well watered in apple-keeping season; and, to avoid
mildew or mold, it is also liberally sprinkled with ground sulphur, By day
doors and windows are mostly kept shut, by night open; this, of course, is
to exclude the heat and allow free circulation of the cool night air.

A rather more open house is used in the coast region of
southern California, by Mr. T. W. Ward, of Carpinteria:—

It is a slat house made of strips 1x24 inches, put on one inch apart.
The roof is similarly constructed. There are two passages, on either side of
which are two shelves, one above the other, z. e., eight in all. The shelves
are made of slats placed one-half inch apart, with sides a foot high. The
apples are spread on these shelves a foot or more deep. The floor is made
of slats, and there are bins on this also. The fruit must receive a thorough
sprinkling weekly, unless sufficient rain falls. The slats are close enough to
prevent birds doing damage, and the whole building is raised six inches
from the ground.

In the mountain regions arrangements must be made for
frost-exclusion,—a consideration which does not apply to the
valley and coast.

Of course, in selecting apples for storage, all windfalls
should be rejected. The fruit should be carefully picked and
handled, without bruising. The advantage of spreading on
shelves, aside from the free admission of air, is the ease with
which the fruit can be examined and all decaying specimens
removed.

Marketing Apples——With well-grown fruit, from an orchard
free from insects, or one in which they are absolutely repressed,
and the apples properly stored for winter and spring sale, there
is a rich reward for the apple grower. The market is free from
everything but late pears and citrus fruits, and they cannot re-
place the apple in popular esteem. Let the fruit be carefully
selected and graded into firsts and seconds as to size, and let
the brand get the reputation of covering nothing but sound
fruit of honest uniformity throughout the package, and in the
long run the apple grower will not be ashamed to compare his
returns with those of the grower of other fruits—providing, as
already intimated, he is growing the right varieties in the right
place.

SELECTING VARIETIES.

For the family orchard there should be a selection of quite
a number of varieties, ripening in succession, from the earliest
to the latest. Which are best in the different parts of the State
can be approximately determined from the tabular statement
which will follow, and which has been compiled from special
reports of hundreds of apple growers during 1808.

The selection of varieties for a commercial orchard is a
very different proposition. Only a few kinds should be chosen,
with special reference to their growth and bearing, and the mar-
kets for which they are intended.

Sy

Apples for Various Places. 193

Summer and Fall Appics.—In some regions noted for early
maturing of fruit, it is profitable to grow early apples, providing
there are facilities for reaching profitable avenues of trade. Ex-
cept to minister to some special local or distant trade which can
be thus foreseen, it must be said that early summer and fall
apples are hardly worth the attention of the commercial planter.
These sorts are apt to come into direct contest with the magnifi-
cent peaches, grapes, and other summer and autumn fruits, and
suffer thereby.

Winter Apples—For large ventures in apple growing, in
localities carefully chosen for especial adaptations, a few of the
finest varieties of winter apples should be selected. These, a’
reported from the different counties, can be learned from the
table. It is the judgment of the most experienced apple
growers, many of whom have old orchards including many vari-
eties, that new plantations of winter apples should contain only
about six sorts. Of these, in all parts of the State, three would
be the Yellow Newtown Pippin, White Winter Pearmain, and
Yellow Bellflower; the other half of the half dozen would be
differently made up in different parts of the State, as can be
learned from the table which will follow.

Apples for Long Shipment.—There has been for years quite
an important trade in shipment of California apples to various
ports in the South Pacific Ocean, and recently there has been
a sharp demand for California apples for shipment to the east-
ern States and England. The characteristic size, quality, and
keeping of the fruit, together with the size and style of package,
have strongly commended the fruit. The center of this trade
(1899) is Watsonville, in a coast valley, in the central part of the
State. The two apples which are most popular are the Yellow
Bellflower and the Yellow Newtown Pippin. It is an interest-
ing fact that these varieties by virtue of quality have overcome
the popular fervor for a red apple.

For the Interior Valleys—In choosing varieties for the hot
valleys of the State those making a heavy leaf growth are to be
preferred. The Spitzenburg, for example, is a failure in the val-
leys of the interior. From experience already had it seems
likely that some of the Russian varieties, with thick, large leaves,
will prove best for such situations. The behavior of the Astra-
cans, the Duchess of Oldenburg, and others of Russian origin,
are illustrations of this fact. Other varieties have been on trial
for several years, but no great distribution of them has yet been
attained.

VARIETIES CHIEFLY GROWN IN CALIFORNIA.

Of the hundreds of varieties of apples tested in California,
comparatively few are now grown, as has already been suggested.

194 Apples Chiefly Grown in California.

Those named below have been reported by growers as succeed-
ing in the localities named with the description, or indicated in
the table which will follow. The descriptions of the standard
sorts are, in the main, condensed from Downing,* with local
notes interpolated when thought necessary. The arrangement
is, approximately, in the order of ripening.

Carolina Red June (Southern).—Medium size, oval, irregular, inclined
to conic; deep red covered with light bloom; stalk in small cavity; calyx
closed; flesh white, tender, juicy, subacid; core rather large.

Early Harvest (American).—Medium size, roundish; straw color, with
few faint white dots; stalk half to three-fourths inch, slender, set in mod-
erate cavity; calyx in shallow basin; flesh very white, tender, crisp, pleas-
ant.

Early Strawberry (New York).—Medium size, roundish, narrowing
towards the eye; skin smooth, deep red on yellow ground; stalk one anda
half inches, rather slender and uneven, in deep cavity; calyx small, in
shallow basin; flesh white, tinged with red next the skin, tender, subacid,
sprightly.

Red Astracan (Russian).—Large, roundish; skin deep red, save green-
ish yellow in the shade; pale white bloom; stalk short, and deeply inserted;
calyx partially closed and set in slight basin; flesh white, juicy and crisp,
pleasant acid; tree hardy and vigorous, and an early bearer. The main
reliance in California for an early apple.

White Astracag (Russian).—Large, roundish; skin smooth and nearly
white, with faint streaks of red, and covered with white bloom; flesh white.
Considerably grown in the Sacramento Valley for early shipment.

Duchess of Oldenburg (Risen eee, roundish, oblate; yellow,
streaked with red; calyx large, nearly closed, set in wide, even hollow;
flesh juicy, subacid. ;

Gravenstein (German).—Large, rather flattened; a little one-sided or
angular; broadest at base; stalk short, strong, deeply set; calyx large,
closed, in a large basin; skin yellow, freely marked with light and deep red
and orange; flesh tender, crisp, high-flavored, aromatic; a strong-growing
and heavily-bearing tree; a standard fall apple in this State.

Red Bietighetmer (German).—Large to very large, oblate, slightly
conical, regular; smooth, whitish, or yellowish white, shaded with light and
dark red, and purplish crimson in the sun; stalk short, rather stout; calyx
closed in large, deep, slightly corrugated basin; flesh white, firm, juicy,
brisk subacid. oo ‘

Maiden’s Blush (New Jersey).—Rather large, smooth, regular; yellow,
with evenly shaded red cheek; stalk short, in rather wide, deep hollow;
calyx closed in moderate depression; flesh white, tender, sprightly.

Fall Pippin.—Very large, roundish, a little flattened; stalk three-fourths
inch, projecting considerably beyond the fruit (which distinguishes it from
the Holland Pippin); calyx open. not very large, rather deeply sunk in
round, narrow basin; skin smooth, yellowish green, becoming pure yellow;
brownish blush and few scattered dots; flesh white, tender, mellow, rich,
aromatic.

Alexander (Russian) —Very large, showy, conical. greenish yellow,
streaked with red in shade, bright red in the sun; calyx large, in deep
basin; stalk slender, long, in deep cavity; flesh yellowish white, crisp, ten-
der, and juicy. Tree vigorous, but not always a good bearer.

Twenty-Ounce; syn. Cayuga Red Streak (New York).—Very large,
roundish, slightly uneven; greenish yellow, boldly splashed and marbled

* “ Downing’s Fruit and Fruit Trees of America,”’ John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Apples Chiefly Grown in California. 195

with purplish red; stalk short, in wide, deep cavity; calyx small; flesh
rather coarse, but brisk, sprightly, subacid flavor.

Gloria Mundi.—Very large, roundish, oblate; ribbed; greenish yellow.
ooo show apple on account of great size attained in this State. (See
table.) |

fameuse; syn. Snow Apple (Canada).—Medium size, roundish, some-
what flattened; deep crimson, nearly concealing pale yellowish ground;
flesh snowy white, tender, juicy, slight perfume; stalk slender, one-half
inch, in narrow, funnel-shaped cavity; calyx small, in shallow, rather nar-
row basin; “tree vigorous, with dark wood; one of the finest dessert fruits;
succeeds particularly well in the foot-hills.’—/ohn Bidwell,

King of Tompkins County.—Large, globular, angular, inclining to
conic; yellowish, mostly shaded with red, striped and splashed with crim-
son; stalk short and stout, in Jarge, somewhat irregular cavity; calyx small,
closed; flesh yellowish, rich, juicy, vinous, aromatic, chiefly grown in moun-
tain regions. 3 ;

Rambo (Pennsylvania).—Medium to large, flat; yellowish white with
pale yellow and red in the sun, with large, rough dots; stalk long, rather
slender, curved, deeply set; calyx closed, in broad basin; flesh greenish
white. Reported a failure in some counties.

Ben Davis —Large, roundish, sides often unequal; light red and deep
red on yellowish gruund; stalk medium, rather slender, in deep, narrow
cavity; calyx partially open. Commended as a market apple by the South-
ern California Nurservmen’s A-sociation.

Baldwin (Massachusetts).—Large, roundish, narrowing a little towards
the eye; deep bright red overa yellow ground; few russet dots; calyx
closed and set in narrow basin; stalk one-half to three-fourths inch, rather
slender, set in deep, even cavity; flesh yellowish white, crisp, juicy, sub-
acid. Best in northern and elevated regions; coloring varies greatly
according to locality.

Floover (South Carolina) —Large, roundish, slightly oblique; yellow-
ish, mostly overspread witn red, with conspicuous light dots; stalk rather
long, in large cavity; calyx open in furrowed basin; flesh yellowish, juicy,
crisp, acid.

Rhode Island Greening.—Large, roundish, a little flattened, pretty-
regular; dark green, becoming yellowish green; calyx small, woolly, closed,
in shallow basin; stalk three-fourths inch, curved, thickest at the bottom;
flesh yellow, fine grained, tender, crisp, juicy, aromatic, slightly acid; tree
healthy and the variety widely popular.

Vandevere; syn. Newton Spitzenburg.—Medium size, oblate, slightly
conic; fine yellow, washed with light red, striped and splashed with dark
red, and shaded with carmine in the sun; light bloom and peculiar gray
specks; stalk short, in wide cavity; calyx small, closed; flesh yellow, rich,
sprightly, vinous.

Jonathan (New York).—Medium to large, roundish, conical or tapering
to the eye; light yellow nearly covered with red stripes and deep red in the
sun; stalk three-fourths of an inch, rather slender, in deep, regular cavity;
calyx in deep, broad basin; tender, juicy, rich, vinous; a great favorite in
California; specially commended as a market apple by Southern California
Nurserymen’s Association; keeps till midwinter.

Winesap.—Medium size, roundish oblong; dark red with traces of
yellow in the shade; stalk nearly an inch, slender, set in an irregular cavity;
calyx small. in regular basin; flesh yellow, crisp, high, rich flavor; largely
grown; tree a good bearer.

Ortley; syn. White Bellflower, etc. (New Jersey).—Large, oblong,
greenish yellow, becoming fine yellow with slight blush; stalk medium,
slender, set in deep, acute cavity; calyx closed, set it abrupt, corrugated
basin; flesh white, fine-grained, juicy, subacid.

196 Apples Chiefly Grown in California.

Swaar (New York).—Large, roundish; golden yellow with numerous
brown specks; stalk slender, three-fourths inch, in very round cavity; calyx
small, greenish, set in shalluw basin; flesh yellowish, fine-grained; very
rich, aromatic flavor and spicy smell.

Lawver.—Large, roundish, oblate, dark red, covered with small dots;
stalk medium, cavity deep, regular; calyx small, closed, in medium
furrowed basi; flesh white, sprightly, aromatic; a promising, late keeping
variety.

Yellow Bellflower (New Jersey).—Very large, oblong, irregular, taper-
ing toward the eye; smooth; lemon color, with blush; stalk long and slender,
in deep cavity; calyx closed, in rather narrow basin; flesh tender, juicy,
crisp, with sprightly, subacid flavor; keeps well into the winter; tree a
strong grower and healthy; one of the universal favorites in California.

Romanite—Small to medium, roundish conical, truncated; yellow,
mostly covered with clear, handsome red; indistinct light dots; stalk
slender; calyx in an abrupt basin; flesh yellowish, fine-grained, juicy,
pleasant, subacid. .

Esopus Spitzenburg (New York).—Large, oblong, tapering roundly to
the eye; smooth, nearly covered with rich, lively red, dotted with distinct
yellowish russet dots; on shaded side, yellowish ground with streaks and
broken stripes of red; stalk rather long, three-fourths inch, slender, pro-
jecting beyond the base and inserted in wide cavity; calyx small and closed,
in shallow basin; flesh yellow, rather firm, crisp, juicy, with a delicious rich,
brisk flavor. A largely grown variety; tree a good, upright grower and
healthy; fruit keeps fairly.

Smith's Cider (Pennsylvania).—Large, roundish, oblate conic; yellow,
shaded and striped with red, sparsely covered with gray dots; stalk slender,
in deep, rather narrow cavity; calyx closed, in broad, shallow basin; flesh
whitish, juicy, crisp, acid; tree a strong grower, and fruit keeps till mid-
winter.

Rome Beauty (Ohio).—Large, roundish, approaching conic; yellow,
shaded and striped with bright red, sprinkled with light dots; stalk one
inch, in large, deep cavity; calyx partially closed, in deep, narrow basin;

- flesh yellowish, juicy, sprightly; fruit keeps late.

Missouri Pippin (Missouri).—Large, roundish oblate, slightly oblique,
somewhat flattened at the ends; shaded, striped and splashed with light and
dark red, often quite dark in the sun; many large and small gray dots; stalk
short, small; cavity large, deep; calyx closed or half open, basin rather ab-
rupt deep, slightly corrugated; flesh whitish, rather coarse, moderately
juicy, subacid, Quite largely planted, but losing favor for lack of keeping
quality in coast valleys.

Nickajack (North Carolina).—Large, roundish to roundish oblate,
slightly conic, sometimes oblique; yellowish, freely striped and splashed
with red, many large dots; stalk short, in large cavity; calyx partly open;
flesh yellowish, fair quality; reported a shy bearer in high altitudes.

Northern Spy (New York).—Large, roundish, oblate conical; pale
yellow, purplish red stripes in the sun; stalk three-fourths inch, slender, in
wide, deep cavity; calyx small, closed; flesh white, mild, pleasant; highly
esteemed in a few localities, but abandoned in others for shy bearing.

White Winter Pearmain.—Large, roundish oblong conic, somewhat
oblique; pale yellow with slight blush, many minute brown dots; stalk short,
in deep cavity; calyx nearly closed; flesh yellowish, tender, crisp, juicy,
very pleasant subacid, extra high flavor; grown everywhere, and fruit keeps
late; tree a strong grower and healthy.

Lady (French).—Small, regularly formed, flat; smooth and glossy, with
brilliant red cheek contrasting with lemon yellow ground; flesh white, crisp,
juicy and pleasant; chiefly used for ornamental purposes.

California Seedling Apples. 197

Rawles Janet (Virginia).—Medium to large, oblate conic; yellowish,
shaded with red and striped with crimson; stalk short and thick, in broad,
open cavity; calyx partially open, in shallow basin; flesh yellow, tender,
juicy, pleasant vinous flavor; tree healthy and prolific.

Stark.—Large, roundish, inclined to conic; sometimes elongated,
sometimes oblique; greenish yellow, nearly covered with dark red and
sprinkled with light and brown dots; stalk short, rather stout; calyx closed;
flesh yellowish.

Yellow Newtown Pippin.—Large, roundish, oblate and oblique, more
or less flattened; yellow with brownish red cheek; stalk very short; flesh
firm, crisp, juicy, and with very rich, high flavor. Generally considered
the best winter apple in California.

CRAB APPLES.

fyslop.—F ruit large, growing in clusters; roundish ovate; dark rich red,
covered with thick blue bloom; stalk long, slender: calyx closed; flesh
yellowish.

Large Red Siberian.—Roundish ovate with large and prominent calyx;
pale red and yellow skin. .

Large Yellow Siberian.—Fruit similar in size to foregoing, roundish
oval, flattened at base and crown; light clear yellow, inclining to amber,
with warm cheek.

Transcendant.—Medium to large, roundish oval, flattened at the ends,
slightly but regularly ribbed; golden yellow, with rich, crimson cheek, or
nearly covered with red; delicate white bloom; stalk long and slender, in
open, deep cavity; calyx closed; flesh creamy yellow.

. Montreal Beauty.—Large, roundish oblate; bright yellow, mostly
covered and shaded with red; one of the most beautiful of crabs.

_ Whitney's Crab.—Large, handsome, greenish yellow, striped with
crimson.

CALIFORNIA SEEDLING APPLES.

Skinner's Seedling (Name approved by California State Horticultural
Society, November, 1887). Syn. Skinner's Pippin, Santa Clara King.—
Originated with Judge H. C. Skinner, on bank of Coyote, east of San Jose,
and tree reported still standing in 1879. Recommended by B.S. Fox at
convention of fruit growers held in San Francisco, September 8, 1859, and
adopted for trial. Described by Committee of New Fruits, American
Pomological Society, 1877 (p. 46), as follows:—

“Santa Clara King: Fruit large to very large; form, oblate, conic,
slightly mixed; color rich lemon yellow, faintly striped with bright red;
flesh, yellowish white, very tender, juicy, sprightly, mild subacid; quality
best. Season, September and October. This i- the best very large apple
we have seen. Said to be a god grower and productive.”’

Recommended by Southern California Nurserymen’s Association for
family use. *

Marshall’s Red (Name approved by California State. Horticultural
Society, November, 1887). Syn. Red Bellflower, Marshall's Seedling.—
Originated with J. L. Marshall, Brown’s Valley, near Napa, from seeds of
Yellow Bellflower, the branches of which interlaced with those of a Red
June tree, and the seedling is presumably a chance hybrid between these
two varieties. Fruited first about 1877, and generally introduced by
Leonard Coates in 1884. The tree resembles Red June in habit of growth;
fruit large. same shape as Yellow Bellflower, but of same color as Red
June; quality very good; flesh firm and fine-grained; aromatic, and slightly
more acid than the Yellow Bellflower; tree, a very heavy bearer, and the
fruit ripens in October in the bay region.

198 California Fruit Districts.

Cook’s Seeating (Name approved by Calitornia State Horticultural
Society, November, 1887). Syn. Soxoma Seedling.—Brought to notice by
O. B. Shaw, of Sonoma, who sent specimens to the Aural’ Press in January,
1872. Described in that paper, January 27, as a seedling raised by David
Cook from the seed of the Juneating. Above medium size, pale yellow
striped with red, sharp acid flavor. Not decidedly rich, but flavor full and
acceptable. Excellent keeping qualities. Especially popular in Sonoma
and Napa Counties; reported unfavorably from Placer County.

Tabular Showing of Adaptations—In preparation for this
edition the writer undertook special inquiry to secure informa-
tion from growers as to what their choice would be if they were
to plant apples in 1899. Several hundred growers were con-
sulted. and the results of this inquiry are herewith substituted
for the tabulation used in earlier editions of this work. Old
data were abandoned entirely. The r:su't is a large shrinkage
in the list of varieties which are now thought to be worth plant-
ing in the different parts of the State:—

An attempt has been made to district the State in accord-
ance with the scheme of climatic divisions described in Chapter
[. This groups regions of nearest resemblance, and is more
rational than any prescription according to county lines cari be,
for though some counties lie wholly in one climatic division, many
more counties extend through two, and some even through three,
such divisions. It is, therefore, a more promising proposition to
encourage planters in any locality to study their climatic adapta-
tions, not with regard to county lines but rather as they are re-
lated to the conditions of elevation, exposure to ocean influ-
ences and other factors which characterize natural belts, or areas,
of similar horticultural fitness. The only instances in which
these agencies are grouped geographically, is in constituting
southern California a division by itself. This is a recognition of
the fact that though in southern California coast and interior
differences clearly exist, they are not so marked as they are in
the upper portions of the State, and there is consequently less
marked contrast in suitability to various fruits. This concession
to the south as sui gencris also escapes, or answers instead of a
third division of coast valleys, for the southern counties as a
whole have a mollified or subdued coast climate, their region of
strictly interior valley and foot-hill climate being restricted by
the fact that practically almost ail their cultivated area lies sout 1
and west of their high mountains. It is an interesting fact that
the California coast climates north and south show much greater
contrasting conditions than do the interior valley regions, north
and south, and southern California being so largely in the coast
class could on this basis of wide coast variations claim a distinct-
ive designation, though it could hardly be granted on the com-
parison of interior valley characters throughout the State.

Apples for Different Districts. 199
APPLE VARIETIES APPROVED BY CALIFORNIA GROWERS.
; Interior | Mountain
VARIETIES. weeaue pots : bic 8 valleys Fit debate
region. | regiog. | foot-nills, | plateaux. aoe
Alexander......... Sige We andaeaaaes x x ere ah
Arkansas Black.........)/......... xX syncing stiwsivaeniens x
Baldwin....... EN SC Te x Maan Xx x Measriuntes
Ben Davis........ See08 xX Sas oes x 5X KX
Bietigheimer............ Xx x Xe Suchesackd : x
Cook’s Seedling. ......./..... KX Maia ee alinemeuns Nees Noe bee Bale os es
Early Harvest.......... x XxX XG x x
Early Strawberry........).......6. rented Ma li eeeena cat x
Esopus Spitzenburg..... KX x XX x
Fall Pippin esc essed lode on edars x Sila eeas x
Fameuse esx ¢emcscna ds eeis wees xX Me vb haeea a adel i ys
Saves pre eee XX XX x xX x
PG Oet 2 is Ae iaeee aig ewes Z ® x io Gee AN oe ater "
Jonathan . eave x x x XX NK
Kaighn’s Spitzenburg.. x BD | cla cravat x Raided Sai
Lawver......-.ceeeeee = xX x x 4 Xx
Maiden’s Blush.... ..... wisemels x xX oa x
Marshall's Red is20. ..c8 se vege ex x seetiees a sa x
Missouri Pippin.........)......... or : x
Nickajack:. ....sccGe0 0% Goss ane sens ; ree x
Northern Spy......-.... x KS * | Weeder re
Oldenburg Duchess.....) X 9 |....u.ee, peceesiislt) Le Be
Ortley onc. seeuees Deaicralloacnscas att x x x x
Rambo..... badabeabercinel| Sees Sai |iaeenaranes vil eceeetash ts vies x
Rawles’ Janet ..........)...4 pa sgalitaciieess |sdeixegs x x
Red Astracan........... XX RX XX XX XK
Red June........... xX x x x x
Rhode Island Greening. XX XX 5.4 XX 6.4
RIGIMANIEGS. Sashes Sheena ety tensa nell emlicnes ee || 8 Bacnerae ene. < xX
Rome Beauty........... x x Xe) |evstanteusediees x
Smith’s Cider.......... x ee : x x
Skinner's Seedling..... |......... KE~ y il caseaecdvanens'esl ataapweneaniees x
ISNA Kaas ereeess os cal siacatauneke > ann eerers x % x
Gwar wiecesescned Boers x x x eceeauete | encetelers
Tompkin’s King...:....] xXx 9 |..... etegal sie dk eit ae XX x
Twenty Ounce.......... oieaaie x eee i eaauaigvadur tocketodnd womacdes
Vandevere..........-- desadl iiss se c, aalhavacayebadene és x esis tea ss x
Wagener........--.6--- x > en oor eer sal! saleaiene - x
Wealth Viwsrerc2 cteneyen x te se x an Recon atee i
White Astracan: .i.04sa0|esdwvexualine cede XM, lnawhneaeies %
White W. Pearmain..... x XX XK x Xx
Williams’ Favorite...... Wham sue x > eee 5x I aeadioniotoss
Winesap...... 0 vee e eee Xo haw beens XX er XX
Yellow Bellflower..... XK, XX Xx Xx XX
Yellow N. Pippin.. .... XX XX XxX XX XxX
Yellow Transparent..... x aa otro lteter eas diy ake — Paliasiacrvcasrcdeshee .
York Imperial ‘a3 Xl vies thavaleaeeuoes ‘|, 2X sigigiaasenes

These remarks are applicable not alone to the apple but to
other fruits for which tabulations will be given in subsequent

chapters ;—

CHAPI ER 20¥ (1.
THE APRICOT.

California has peculiar adaptations for the growth of the
apricot. It has often been pointed out that such adaptations are
exceptional, and that nowhere else does the fruit attain such
perfection nor possess such commercial importance. Although
the apricot has been grown here from the earliest days of the
American occupation, and though since the opening of the
export trade in canned and dried fruits, the planting of apricot
orchards has proceeded with great rapidity, present indications
are that our distant patrons are only just beginning to recognize
the desirability of the fruit, and that their demands will make it
well-nigh impossible for us to extend our production beyond
profitable limits.

Though the apricot has some pests and diseases to contend
with, they have thus far proved slight evils, and the tree is gen-
erally regarded as one of our healthiest and most vigorous, as it
certainly is one of our most beautiful orchard trees. It is long-
lived and attains great size. On the old Routier place, on the
banks of the American River, near Sacramento, are some apricot
trees that were set out in the early fifties. They have a height
all of fifty feet; the main trunks like forest oaks, and the first
branches or limbs twelve and fifteen inches through. The
smaller limbs and foliage were at least fifty feet across; a half
dozen of them shaded an acre of ground and their average an-
nual crop per tree has reached a ton of choice fruit. On the
ranch of F. Hubert, near Burson, in Calaveras County, a seed-
ling apricot tree planted March 10, 1857, has a trunk seven and
one-half feet in circumference, and has yielded one thousand
five hundred pounds of fruit of good quality in a season. At
Haywards, Alameda County, on the orchard of the late Judge
Blackwood, are apricots worked on peach stock in 1857, which
are still in good bearing.’ His observation was that the apricot
gives longevity to the peach root, for the peach trees of the same
age not worked with apricot have disappeared. But forty years
of life and vigor is only a part of the career of the apricot in Cali-
fornia, if it is fair to judge by the vigor of trees in New Mexico,
which were found growing there by the early trappers and front-
iersmen, and were, apparently, old trees fifty years ago; and in
Europe trees said to be two hundred years old are still bearing,

( 200 )

Localities for the Apricot. 201

and trees are said to be at best age for fruit bearing between ten
and fifty years. Intelligent treatment of the trees to secure
growth of new wood, which will be mentioned presently, seems
to give it almost indefinite productiveness,

The apricot is a rapid grower and an early and heavy bearer
in California. In the interior and in the southern coast valleys
it yields a paying crop during its third summer in the orchard,
and from eight to fourteen tons to the acre has been reached
for several years in succession, in Judge Blackwood’s old orch-
ard of Royal apricots, in Alameda County. The trees, even of
some varieties which are uncertain bearers, are large and vigor-
ous growers, and have warranted the suggestion that there is a
use for the apricot tree for a windbreak for the protection of
other trees. The trees may be planted near together in strong
land and make a windbreak that will pay its way without regard
to such fruit as it may incidentally produce.

LOCALITIES FOR THE APRICOT.

In speaking cf localities for the apricot, reference is, of
course, only made to its growth as a standard orchard tree with-
out protection of any kind. It shows even in California that it
does not forget the conditions which destroy its thrift elsewhere,
for late frosts in our upper coast counties render it, as a rule,
unprofitable; and Lake County, just back from the coast, can not
be commended for the apricot, except in protected situations.
It is also sensitive to too great elevation on the foot-hills of the
Sierra Nevada, theugh it thrives in the lower foot-hills. In the
depressions of the great interior valleys the crop is often lost by
frost. In the small valleys, apricots usually do better on the
hillsides than cn the floors of the valleys, because there is less
frost at the slight elevations.

It is often claimed that situations directly subject to ocean
influences are best for the apricot. It is noted by many ob-
servers that the apricot “points its best branches to the ocean,
in the very teeth of the constant breeze, and the landward limbs
and twigs bend up and endeavor to reach in the same direction.
‘This is patent in every tree, and in the long orchard rows is very
striking.”’* This is taken to signify the special liking of the tree
for the vicinity of the coast. It is well enough to interpret it that
way, providing one does not lose sight of the perfect success ot
the apricot in the interior as well. It is true that the fruit near
the coast attains higher color, and the less rapid growth of the
tree makes it somewhat easier to handle, but the earlier ripening
in the interior, coupled with freedom from fog and constant
sunshine for drying, are points of the highest industrial import-

*S, R. Thorpe, of San Buena Ventura.

14

202 Stocks and Soils for the Apricot.

ance. The fact is that the apricot has a very wide range in Cal-
ifornia, and though the trees have been cut out at some points
it has been chiefly because too frosty locations have been chosen
or because some other fruit has seemed to be locally more de-
sirable, for one reason or another.

In some valleys in the upper part of the State opening
directly to the ocean, there is sometimes complaint of the crack-
ing of the fruit on the sunny side. The alternation of sunshine
and fog seems to have something to do with this, for in favor-
able years, when fogs are few, the fruit is sound.

Locations for early ripening of the apricot are to be chosen
with reference to the influence of topography, as laid down in
the chapter on that subject. In a general way, it may be said, in
regions directly subject to coast influences, both in northern and
southern California, the apricot is late. On the west side of
the Sacramento Valley, in small, hili-locked valleys, the earliest
apricots have been grown for years. Protected situations in
the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, on the eastern rim of both the
Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys, share in the production of
the earliest ripening fruit. There is, probably, about a month’s
difference in the ripening of the same variety in the earliest in-
terior situations and in the coast valleys of both northern and
southern California.

In the interior of southern California, in irrigated situa-
tions, on the west side of the so-called Colorado Desert, and in
Arizona, apricots rival in earliness the product of the famous
valleys of interior northern California.

STOCKS AND SOILS FOR THE APRICOT.

Because of the success with which the apricot can be
budded on various stocks, it has a wide range in adaptation to
different soils. Budded on the peach root it may be grown
successfully on the light, warm, well-drained loams in which the
peach delights. The peach root is, in fact, largely used for the
apricot. It gives the tree quick growth and early fruiting, and
the fact that the gopher does not like the peach root is a con-
sideration with some planters. In growing stock, pits of a
strong-growing yellow peach should be secured.

For deep, rich, well-drained, loamy soils, the apricot on its
own root makes a magnificent tree. Apricot roots for budding
are easily secured. The pits sprout as readily as corn. Some-
times, where cutting and drying are done in the orchard, the
ground the next spring will be almost covered with a volunteer
crop of seedling apricots. These little plants, taken up and set
out in nursery rows in March, are ready for budding in June or
July. Large numbers of trees are sometimes secured in this
way. In the upper San Joaquin Valley there are situations in

Exposures for the Apricot. 203

which the apricot seems more productive on its own roots than
on the peach, and in the moister parts of the San Fernando and
tributary valleys in southern Calitornia the apricot root has re-
cently advanced in popularity.

When it is desired to grow the apricot in moister and
heavier soils than have been described, or where a light soil is
underlaid by a heavy, retentive subsoil, recourse should be had
to the plum root. Only a non-suckering plum stock should be
used. For this purpose the Myrobalan has been considerably
used. Some growers complain that the root has a dwarfing ef-
fect on the tree, and object to its use. The manner of securing
Myrobalan stocks has been described in the chapter on propa-
gation.

elpricot on Almond—The almond should as a rule be re-
jected as a stock for the apricot. Hundreds have tried it, and
found that the scion never made a good union with the wood of
the stock, but was knit to it only by the bark, and is, therefore,
easily broken off by the wind. It may grow well and some-
times gets to be two or three inches in diameter before it breaks
off, thus wasting much time for the orchardist. Whole orch-
ards worked in this way have been a loss and disappointment.

A few growers, however, approve the almond and use it
with the idea that it gives larger fruit. J. J. Shaner, of Los
Gatos, advocates the almond stock for the Royal apricot in dry
soils. He proceeds, however, by root grafting, instead of bud-
ding, using the side graft. He cuts off the top of the stock about
four to six inches above ground, scrapes away the dirt, bends
the stock, and, with a sharp, thin knife, cuts into the root to the
center, making the cut perpendicular, so that the graft will be
that way when inserted. The scion should be made wedge-
shaped. After insertion, draw the loose earth around it, and the
work is done until the graft has made a growth of eighteen to
twenty-four inches. This is given as a record of experience,
but still caution is urged against the use of the almond as stock
for the apricot.

In addition to the specifications of certain stocks for differ-
ent soils, it may be remarked, in a general way, that the apricot
seems to thrive better on a tolerably heavy soil, with enough
sand to make it work easily, than on a very light soil. It does
well on soil rather too heavy for the peach. It also enjoys
moisture better and gives signs of distress unless its roots are
fairly supplied all during the season, but it dislikes standing
water and should not be planted on undrained situations.

EXPOSURES FOR THE APRICOT.

The apricot blooms early; it follows the lead of the almond.
Thus it runs greater risk than other fruits of frost injuries dur-

204 Planting the Apricot.

ing blooming. And in the parts of the State most subject
to frost, exposures should be selected in accordance with the
principles laid down in Chapter I, which treats of topography
as related to fruit growing.

In securing the advantage of the earliest ripening even in
the earliest districts, elevation is of great importance. The first
apricots of the season for a number of years have come from an
elevated ridge, rising in the center of Pleasant’s Valley, in
‘Solano County. This ridge has higher hills but a short distance
away on both east and west, which protect it from cold winds,
and on all sides there is low ground, to which cold air can freely
descend. In this spot apricots and other fruits ripen several
days earlier than on other lands but little removed.

PLANTING THE APRICOT.

The apricot becomes a large tree in California, as has
already been remarked, and it should be given plenty of room.
Twenty-four feet each way is certainly a minimum distance for
so large and long-lived a tree, and some orchards have been
planted at thirty feet. If nearer planting is done it should be
with reference to subsequent removal of part of the trees.
Twenty feet apart, with later removal of half the trees to double
the distance, or such an arrangement as proposed by H. D.
Briggs, of Azusa, should be adopted :—

In setting out an orchard it seems advisable to double set the ground,
as an apricot twelve to fifteen years old should have not less than 800 to
g0o square feet of ground. This can easily be obtained by setting 20x20
feet; then when nine or ten years old remove every other tree, making
them forty feet in the row, with rows twenty feet apart, of course taking
them out diagonally. The trees will very quickly tell the orchardist when
they are too thick. When 'the outside rows have twice the fruit of those
inside, it is quite evident that the time spent in pruning, etc., on half the
trees is worse than wasted. I have cut roots 4o feet from a nine-year-old
tree.

The apricot makes such rapid growth and so much depends
upon giving it proper form, as will be seen presently, that one
year’s growth is all that should be allowed in the nursery. Some
growers would rather have a dormant bud than a two-year-old
tree, and cases have been reported of trees from dormant buds
outgrowing yearling trees planted at the same time in the same
orchard. But in growing from a dormant bud in the orchard
care should be taken to develop a short trunk, with properly-
spaced branches, by pinching the side shoots near the ground.
Trees started from dormant bud and allowed to branch from the
ground, have developed very unsatisfactory form, and have, in
some situations, lost their lower branches by the wind. The tree
should have a low head, but a short trunk seems to give a better
tree, and more elasticity to the branches.

The Apricot Needs Attention. 205

PRUNING THE APRICOT.

Of all California orchard treés, the apricot seems most in
need of the constant attention of the orchardist to give it proper
shape and strength. It is a rampant grower, and in,its zealous
haste for size and fruitage it overreaches itself and becomes the
prey of specific gravity and wind force. Thousands of trees
kave been ruined by literally breaking to pieces with the
weight of their fruit, and being torn by winds of only ordinary
velocity. Thousands more have been rescued from such a fate
by bolting the branches to each other. This excessive growth
and consequent weakness of the apricot is greater in some parts
of the State than in others, because of the difference in degree
of forcing conditions, but everywhere the apricot needs watch-
fulness and timely aid in building up its strength. The general
principles to be observed in securing branches strongly attached
to a short trunk have already been discussed at length in the
chapter on pruning.

There has been a very marked change during the last few
years of the pruning of the apricot. Summer pruning, imme-
diately after the fruit is picked, has become much more general,
and winter pruning has proportionally decreased. The new
practise is certainly more rational than the old. Young trees
are winter pruned to promote low branching and short, stout
limbs; bearing trees are summer pruned to promote fruit bear-
ing and check wood growth—the excess of bearing shoots be-
ing removed by thinning during the winter.

The apricot tree bears upon old spurs, like the plum; also
upon the new wood, like the peach. ‘This fact has to be borne
in mind when winter thinning of the new growth is undertaken.

A very clear record of procedure by which J. B. Neff, of:
Anaheim, Orange County, has built up one of the best apricot
orchards in the State is as follows:—

Pruning the apricot requires some skill and considerable judgment,
which can only be formed by experience and observation of the habits of
the tree. Trees of four to five feet in height are preferable for planting, and
when planted should be trimmed to a single stem and cut off at eighteen
inches from the ground. These will throw out shoots vigorously and fre-
quently two or three shoots from one bud. These shoots should be thinned
out, leaving not more than four or five, no two of which should come from
one bud, nor be directly opposite. The first shoot should start twelve
inches from the ground, the others in such a manner as to divide the space
and make the branches balance, leaving the top shoot to form the central
part of the tree.

It will be necessary to go over the trees several times the first year to
remove shoots that may start where not wanted, but no general heading
back should be done, as it tends to dwarf the tree; though if some of the
limbs are making an overgrowth they should be pinched back to keep the
head balanced. :

206 Pruning the Apricot.

The pruning of the second year should be done in January, as the tree
will not be dormant until then, if it has been kept in a thrifty condition.
The first year’s growth should be cut back to within five to ten inches of
the body of the tree, and all forks should be cut out, even if it necessitates
forming a new head, as it is much better to lose some growth on a young
fe than to take the risk of splitting down when the tree begins to bear

ruit.

When the shoots start for the second year’s growth, take off all that
come on the under side of the limbs and thin to one, two, or three, as may be
needed to balance the tree, bearing in mind that an apricot tree always
inclines toward the coast breezes in this locality.

The second year will require much more attention than the first year,
in order to keep offsuckers and ail lateral growth that may start on the
under side of the new limbs, the object being to make the limbs grow as
nearly upright as possible. The remark on heading back holds good for the
second year also.

The trees will become dormant earlier the second year than they did the
first, but should not be trimmed earlier than December, and a month later
is preferable, as the ends of the limbs are not exposed to the drying winds
so long before the sap begins to flow, and consequently will heal over bet-
ter. The second year’s growth should now be cut back to within fifteen to
twenty inches of the old wood, except the central stem, which may be left
twenty-four to thirty inches long, depending on the number of laterals it
may have thrown out. When the new shoots start they should again be
thinned down to two or three on each limb, and all taken off that tend to
turn down or out at right angles, but do not take off the fruit spurs.

The trees will need to be gone over about three times before July to
remove suckers and lateral growth that may start on the lower side of the
limbs, as the tendency in the third year is to make an immense growth
of downward laterals, and these must be taken off so as to develop wood
that is to be left for fruit. If the orchard is on good land and has been
properly irrigated and cultivated,the trees should now be large enough to
begin to yield fruit. The object in trimming during the first two years and
the first half of the third year has been to growa vigorous upright tree, with
strong limbs, capable of carrying a heavy load of large fruit, and to get the
fruit as close to the body of the tree as possible.

There will be a few specimensof the fruit the third year, and as soon
as these are gathered the trees should be summer pruned for the first time,
care being taken that the land shall have been allowed to become mod-
erately dry so that the trees may be partially dormant. If the downward
growth of the laterals has been kept cut off, all that remains to be done is to
cut off about one-half of all this season’s growth all over the tree, using the
same judgment as before with reference to prevailing winds and symmetry
of tree. If this is properly done and water at once turned on the orchard,
a new growth will be made and the fruit buds for next year fully developed.

The only pruning necessary in the following winter will be to take out
any cross limbs and sprouts that may have been overlooked in the summer.

After the trees begin to produce regular crops they will not grow so
vigorously, and the numerous prunings of the first three years will not be
necessary, as almost all can be done by summer pruning until the trees get
so old that they need the old wood taken out. This can be more readily
done without damage to the trees where from 24 to 30 limbs are grown,
than in the old method of leaving only eight or ten large limbs.

When it becomes necessary to take out old wood—as the best fruit
grows on new wood—a few limbs can be taken out each year until a full
top of new wood is again made.

Winter Pruning.—The evident defect of many old apricot
orchards is the failure of the low-bearing wood and the thicket

Renewal of Old Apricot Trees. 207

of brush near the ends of long bare limbs. Such trees need:
renewal of the top by vigorous winter pruning, which should

}

5%,

Old Apricot Trees at Pomona Renewed by Pruning.

preferably be done toward the close of the dormant season rather
than early in the winter as formerly. Old and unprofitable trees
have been reclaimed in this way. _
Winter pruning is still the regular method in some parts of
the State where the conditions do not favor excessive growth of
the tree and where summer pruning does not seem to be called
for. The practise is to remove half or two-thirds of the new
growth and thin out, by removing entirely enough new and old
wood to prevent the tree from becoming thick and brushy.

THINNING THE APRICOT.

All free-fruiting varieties of the apricot must be thinned to
secure size acceptable to purchasers. It is the experience of the
oldest growers that though thinning is an expensive operation,
it is very profitable. When half the fruit is taken off in thin-
ning, the remainder reaches as large aggregate weight as though
the whole were allowed to mature, and the thinned fruit is worth
about twice as much per pound. Even if less weight is secured,
and in most cases the purpose should be to get less weight,
the tree is spared the exhaustion of overbearing and the owner

208 frrigation of the Apricot.

escapes a year of little or no fruit. A discussion of this subject:
is given in a previous chapter.

TRRIGATION OF THE APRICOT,

Whether the apricot shall be irrigated or not is answered in
the chapter on irrigation. In many locations, with proper prun-
ing, thinning and cultivation, perfectly satisfactory fruit can be
grown with the usual rainfall. In others a single winter irrigation
will satisfy all the needs of the tree: in others a single irrigation
just after fruit picking and summer pruning will carry the tree
through. It is a fact, however, that as the trees advance in age
some supplement to the average rainfall is often desirable and
in dry years irrigation is the saving of two crops. Some idea
of the amount of water used can be had from the chapter on
irrigation. The following account by Mr. Neff applies to his
practise in Orange County, which is an average situation as to
rainfall and atmospheric humidity, and is as good a general
statement as could be .made:—

If rains are copious, winter irrigation may be dispensed with during
the first two or three years after planting the orchard, but when the trees
reach the age for bearing fruit the rain water should be supplanted by irriga-
tion water until the soil is thoroughly wet 5 feet deep, and in order to have
this, at least 20 inches of water, including rainfall, must be put on the land.
Three irrigations should be given the trees during the first summer, but it is
not necessary to wet more than a strip 5 or 6 feet wide along the tree rows.
The orchard should have three irrigations during the second summer and a
strip 12 feet wide should be watered, as the roots are reaching farther and
the trees require a greater amount of water. The irrigation for the first
two years should always be done before the trees show any want of water,
so as to keep them growing vigorously.

All the space between the trees should be watered the third year and
afterward; but two irrigations will be sufficient for the summer. The
best time for the summer irrigation of bearing apricot trees is when the
ae is about half grown, which is usually about the second or third week
in May.

If well watered at this time the fruit grows to its largest, and has time
to ripen slowly as the ground gradually dries, until it has all the sugar which
will go into the fruit. An orchard in full bearing that has been well watered
in the winter should now have as much as full roo inches of water for two
hours on each acre (equal to four acre-inches).

The second irrigation should be given as soon as possible after the
summer pruning is done, in order to start the trees growing and develop
the fruit buds for the next year. This will not require quite so much water
as the irrigation in May, but ought to be as much as 100 inches of water for
one hour on each acre.

DISEASES OF "THE: APRICOT,

Though the apricot tree, as has been said, is regarded as
one of the healthiest fruit trees, it is subject to some maladies.
Trees perish irom being set in unsuitable situations, and in these
cases, if the evil be stagnant water in the soil, or penetration to.

Diseases of the Apricot. 209

alkaline subsoil, the root shows it. Sometimes, however, a
branch or a whole tree withers and dies without apparent cause
early in the summer, and while the root is still sound. The dis-
ease is evidently acute, but its cause is not known, nor a remedy
proposed. It is an old trouble of the apricot, and not peculiar
to California.

The so-called “gum disease” sometimes causes injury to
trees. The best treatment is to cut away the diseased part
down to healthy wood and cover the wound with common lead
and oil paint, put on sparingly so as not to flow over healthy
bark.

Some years certain varieties in particular are blackened at
the pit and rendered unsalable, but the trouble has not thus tar
proved serious generally, except with certain varieties which
have generally gone out of use for that reason.

The worst injury to tree and fruit is done by what is called
the “shot-hole fungus” (Phyllosticta circumscissa), from its per-
forations of the leaves as though by a charge from a shot-
gun. It makes ugly scars on the fruit, which render it unsa-
lable. The same disease also affects the leaves of cherries and
plums. Thorough use of the Bordeaux mixture described in a
later chapter will prevent this trouble.

A disease which is prevalent in some districts of southern
California is called “black heart;” a pit disease which sometimes
does great injury. No treatment except that of pruning back
to healthy wood has thus far been proposed. Root knot is also
a serious trouble of the apricot, as of several other trees. It will
be considered in the chapter devoted to diseases of fruit trees.

Until recently the apricot has been generally free from
scale insects, and it is not affected by those species which are
worst on some other fruit trees, but recently it has been seri-
ously infested in some places with black and brown scales, which
will be considered in a later chapter.

The ripe apricot is sometimes seriously assailed by the
diabrotica, a small green beetle, with twelve black spots upon
its wing covers. Driving the insects away with smoke smudges
has been used to some extent. Fortunately, the insect only oc-
casionally occurs in large numbers.

VARIETIES OF THE APRICOT,

Though nearly all standard varieties of the apricot have
been introduced and planted in this State, comparatively few
are found on the lists of the orchard planters. Many local
seedlings have been brought to notice and propagated to some
extent but are less used now than ten years ago, and the dis-
position is to restrict planting to a few old varieties. There is,
however, still a need of new varieties combining size, quality and

210 Varieties of the Apricot.

regular bearing. As with most other fruits, some varieties are
found to succeed wherever conditions favor the fruit at all; other
varieties succeed in some regions and not in others. Our table
of varieties for the different counties shows this fact, and an
attempt will be made to make the showing more explicit by
notes in connection with the mention of each variety.

APRICOT VARIETIES APPROVED BY CALIFORNIA GROWERS.

Central Interior
VARIETY. Coast valley and
valleys, foot-hills.

Southern
California.

Blenheim vsensivecsasraeexasss. seatiwn “osevension
Early Golden....
Early Moorpark.
Hemskirke........
Taree Fa rlyiissssseaccessansae
Large Early Montgamet..
TUIZE Bay coudecauaibacdoessoacogen
Moorpark...
Newcastle.........
QOullin’s Early ...
Peach sesevvesercess
Royal:.sasvsvceves aie
Routier’s Peach..
Sparks’ Mammoth.

St. AMbroise..sssescccs cscssceeees Becsnats xe | iaueaaarecs ses

In the following statement the arrangement is approxi-
mately in the order of ripening, and the descriptions are from
Downing, with additions and changes to meet local observa-
tion :—

VARIETIES OF FOREIGN ORIGIN.

Large Early.—A French variety; fruit of medium size, rather oblong
and compressed; suture deep, skin slightly downy; pale orange in the shade,
fine bright orange with a few ruddy spots in the sun; flesh separating
readily from the stone, orange colored, rich and juicy; kernel bitter. This
variety is especially popular in the southern coast counties, but in most
situations has proved an uncertain bearer. Ripens before Royal.

Larly Golden.— Origin unknown; small, roundish oval, with suture well
marked and extending half way around; skin smooth, pale orange; flesh
yellow, moderately juicy and sweet, with very good flavor; separates from
the stone. This variety is reported favorably from some counties, but gen-
erally otherwise, and is not largely grown. Ripens before Royal.

Royal.—A French variety, and at the present time the leading Califor-
nia apricot. Of large size (when well thinned out), free stone, fine color
and flavor, good bearer, and fruit ripens evenly, when well grown; a favor-
ite with the canners and an excellent variety for drying. Fruit roundish,
large, oval, slightly compressed; skin dull yellow with orange cheek, very
faintly tinged with red, and a shallow suture; flesh pale orange, firm and
juicy, with a rich vinous flavor.

There is a variety somewhat grown in Sacramento and Solano Counties,
sometimes called ‘‘White Royal,”’ which is not liked by canners, because
of its lack of color and flavor.

Varieties of the Apricot. 2U1

Blenheim Apricot, Grown in University Orchard.

Large Early Montgamet.—Large, orange yellow, reddish on sunny,
side, firm.

‘ Oullin’s Early.—Early form of Peach apricot, large size, delicious
flavor. Ripens in Amador County four weeks earlier than Peach.

Luizet.—Large, oval, distinct suture, one side higher than the other;
orange with crimson cheek; flesh deep yellow, firm, rich. Especially
approved in the upper San Joaquin.

Blenheim or Shipley.—This is a valuable variety in this State and seems
to surpass Downing’s description both in vigor of tree and size of fruit.
John Rock modifies Downing’s description to suit California experience
with this variety, as follows: ‘‘A very good variety, above medium, oval;
orange, with a deep yellow, juicy, and tolerably rich flesh; vigorous grower
and regular, prolific bearer.’’ This agrees perfectly with the behavior of
the variety in the University orchard at Berkeley, where it is the best of
twenty varieties. It is not reported so constant a bearer in some other
parts of the State. Fruit runs a little larger than the Royal, and is usually
better distributed on the tree, but it must be well thinned. This variety
has been approved by canners. Ripens a little later than the Royal.

Early Moorpark—Very popular in southern California, where its iden-
tity has been long in dispute, and is not yet fully determined. The Earl
Moorpark of Thomas Hogg is as follows: Roundish, inclining to oval, with
very deep suture on one side, extending from base to apex. Skin yel-
low, mottled, and dotted with crimson on the exposed side. Flesh in all
respects resembling Moorpark. Stone oblong, with a covered channel
along the back, which is pervious. Kernel bitter. Ripens three weeks
earlier than Moorpark.

St. Ambroise.—Large, early, compressed, deep yellow, reddish on
sunny side. Juicy, rich, and sugary, with firm flesh when grown in the in-
terior; apt to be coarse and to lack flavor near the coast. Condemned by

212 Varieties of the Apricot.

canners for not processing well, and by dryers for loss of weight and for
white color around the pit. It has served well as a shipping variety.

Bergettii—An undetermined variety introduced by Mr. Bergetti and
widely distributed under his name in the San Joaquin. Closer comparison
may prove it to be St. Ambroise.

Hemskirke.—A fine English variety quite widely grown in California;
ripens later than Royal, described by Downing as follows: ‘‘ Fruit large,
roundish, but considerably compressed or flattened on its sides; skin orange,
with red cheek; flesh bright orange, tender, rather more juicy and sprightly
than the Moorpark, with rich, lucious, plum-like flavor; stone not perforate,
rather small, and kernel bitter.’’ Esteemed in California because the tree
is more hardy and a more regular bearer than the Moorpark, and the fruit
ripens evenly on both sides.

Feach.—A variety from Piedmont of the largest size, about two inches
in diameter, roundish, rather flattened, and somewhat compressed on its
sides, with a well-marked suture; skin yellow in the shade, but deep orange
mottled with brown on the sunny side; flesh of a fine yellow, saffron color,
juicy, rich, and high flavored; stone can be penetrated like Moorpark and
has bitter kernel. This is a very successful sort in the warmer parts of the
State especially, and is a favorite in the Sacramento Valley. It ripens just
ahead of the Moorpark.

Moorpark.—A standard of excellence and an old variety which origi-
nated in England. Fruit large, roundish, about two inches and a quarter in
diameter each way; rather larger on one side of the suture than on the other;
skin orange in the shade, but deep orange or brownish red in the sun,
marked with numerous dark specks and dots; flesh quite firm, bright
orange, parting free from the stone, quite juicy, with a rich and luscious
flavor; stone peculiarly perforated along the back, where a pin may be
pushed through; kernel bitter. In California the Moorpark reaches grand
size, but has the fault of ripening unevenly in most localities. The tree is
tender and bears irregularly, which leads to its rejection by most planters,
though some growers cling to it because of its size and quality and occa-
sional grand crops. The San Jose districts lead in the production of this
variety, and in some parts of the Santa Clara Valley the Moorpark seems
to ripen uniformly. The same behavior is reported from localities in the
upper San Joaquin Valley, where it also seems to be a more regular bearer.
The variety is almost wholly rejected in southern California.

VARIETIES OF CALIFORNIA ORIGIN.

Newcastle.— Originated with C. M. Silva & Son, of Newcastle, Placer
County, in 1881; size full medium, round; rich golden yellow, with brilliant
red cheek in the sun; freestone; flavor sweet and rich; not quite as large as
the Royal, nor quite as rich in flavor, but prettier, being more highly colored
—the coloring being nearly equal on all sides, except that it is rather darker
on the side to the sun. The tree is an early, regular and good bearer, a
medium grower, being rather more upright in its habit than the Royal.
Its time of ripening is seventeen days earlier than the Early Golden and
twenty-five days earlier than the Royal—the three varieties being in the
same orchard within a few yards of each other, and treated in the same way
as to culture.

Routier’s Peach.—Originated with Hon. Joseph Routier, near Sacra-
mento. Large, yellow in shade; deep vrange, mottled or splashed with red
in the sun; flesh juicy and rich, high flavor and a good market variety.
Blooms a week later than peach. Very popular in Sacramento and San
Joaquin Valleys.

Sparks’ Mammoth.—Popular in Ventura County. Largest size, even
larger than Moorpark, pale yellow, very tender, juicy and sweet. Recently
quite widely distributed in southern California, but its bearing habit is in
question.

CHAPTER XVIIT.
THE CHERRY.

Although the amount of cherries grown in this State is
small as compared with the aggregate weights of some other
fruits, the cherry, from the growth of the tree and the size and
quality of the product, is entitled to rank as one of the grand
fruits of California. The size of the California-grown cherry is
a matter of pride with residents, and a marvel to visitors. It is
related that one of the most distinguished Eastern pomologists,
who was taken to an Alameda County cherry orchard during
picking-time, could not recognize the varieties, though he had
himself propagated and shipped to California the very trees
which were bearing the fruit, the size of which so far surpassed
all his mental standards. And quality is commensurate with
size. Whatever disagreement there may be concerning the fla-
vors of our other fruits as compared with Eastern, the rich-
ness and excellence of the California cherry have never been im-
peached. Recently the shipment of cherries to eastern markets
and the extension of the canning interest have considerably en-
larged the opportunity for profitable growth of the fruit.

Famous Old Trees—-The longevity and productiveness 0:
the cherry tree in this State is naturally of interest. Cherries
were planted in some of the earliest settled parts of the State
and are still in full vigor. One of the most famous trees is a
Black Tartarian, which was brought from France by Dr. L. E.
Miller, and planted by him in 1854, on land now owned by
Robert Hector, in Placer County, just below Rattlesnake Bar,
on the American River, about eight hundred feet above sea level.
It is described as seventy feet in height, the branches cover-
ing a space between seventy and seventy-five feet in diameter.
The trunk branches about six feet above the ground, and at that
point has a girth of over ten feet. A close record of its crop
has been kept, as follows: 1886, two hundred boxes, of ten
pounds each; 1887, one hundred and eighty; 1888, three hun-
dred; 1889, two hundred and twenty; and 1890, three hundred
boxes. Since that date this yield has not been exceeded. The
trees are too large to be profitable, for the fruit has to be picked
with the aid of extension ladders securely guyed, by men slung

(214)

Localities for the Cherry. 2t5

in swings from such ladders or the forks of the trees. Mr. Hec-
tor has about fifty of these large trees. Other large trees are
to be seen near Woodside, San Mateo County, and near Oro-
ville and Chico in Butte County, some of which have borne a
ton of fruit in favorable seasons.

LOCALITIES FOR THE CHERRY.

There has been an idea that the area adapted to the growth
of the cherry is quite limited. The great valley was generally
condemned, though at some points the trees were very produc-
tive, and at other points grew well but did not bear. Southern
California, both on the coast and in the interior, was announced
as unsuited for the cherry. Later experience is recording suc-
cessful growth and fruitage of the tree in many places where it
has long been regarded a failure, and it now seems likely that
early disappointment resulted chiefly from lack of attention to
the soil and moisture conditions which best suit the tree.

How far atmospheric conditions which are beyond control
influence the growth and fruitage of the cherry, can not yet be
fully determined, but ample trial seems to demonstrate the un-
satisfactory character of the tree, manifested in small fruit and
sun-burned foliage, on the plains of the interior valleys, although
the soil is kept moist enough. There is, however, still the hope
of securing varieties of the fruit which have been developed
under conditions similar to those prevailing in the interior of
California. Professor J. L. Budd believes that the Russian
cherries, which are largely grown in a region subject to high
summer heat and dry air, will succeed in parts of California
where the varieties originating in west Europe fail.

SOILS FOR THE CHERRY,

The cherry thrives in free, deep soil, in which water does
not stand within about fifteen feet from the surface. It delights
in deep deposits from old water courses, and does not dislike a
moderate amount of sand. A loam underlaid by a sandy sub-
soil is acceptable, but a loam underlaid by clay has shown its
unfitness by the early failure of the trees, while those on deep
loam near by have remained vigorous and profitable. On the
foot-hills it thrives in the light, mellow soil and fails in the tight
clay either in soil or subsoil, as it does in the adobe of lower
lands; and yet a clay loam of no great depth upon a clay subsoil
may grow good trees if the clay be so disposed that surplus
water from winter rains can escape and water is at hand to
guard against summer drouth. But this is merely a suggestion
for garden growth of the cherry. Commercial orchards should
have a good depth of sufficiently retentive soil. The great

216 Requirements of the Cherry.

cherry trees of Mr. Hector, in Placer County, which we have
mentioned, are growing right on the bank of the American
River, where the soil is a pure, sandy loam, in some places over
sixty feet deep, as proved by an old shaft once dug near. the
center of the orchard.

But though the cherry dislikes a wet soil, it is particular
about its water supply and insists upon enough, its require-
ments being greater than some other trees. During the dry
years 1898 and 1899, trees came into distress where they had
never suffered before, and many large, valuable trees died. The
only new condition they encountered was lack of soil moisture.
It thus appears that while the cherry is undoubtedly injured by
excess of water in the soil, it is still very exacting in its require-
ment of an adequate supply. If this can not be retained in the
soil by cultivation, irrigation must be resorted to. Thus the
cherry growers in the famous Willows district, of San Jose,
usually find it an advantage to give their trees an irrigation be-
tween the spring rains and the ripening of the fruit, and another
irrigation after the fruit is gathered.

These facts show that the cherry must have enough water
or it will not succeed. On the other hand, there must not be ex-
cessive moisture in the soil either from irrigation or by moisture.
Cherry trees in southern California, planted with orange trees
and given similar irrigation, have failed utterly. Planting on
naturally moist land in low places has also failed, and observed
facts some time ago led to the conclusion that at the south
the cherry should be planted on well-drained land, which could
be irrigated (as the behavior of the tree indicated its need of
water), rather than on naturally moist land, because of the likeli-
hood of excessive moisture in such situations. More recent
experience has declared mellow, well-drained soils of the higher
lands well adapted to the cherry, and on such soils, when well
cultivated, cherries have done well without irrigation at Pasa-
dena, Pomona and elsewhere. The commercial cherry prod-
uct of southern California comes, however, from mountain val-
leys and high plateaux—the chief regions being the Yucaipe
Valley above Redlands and the Mesa Grande region in the in-
terior of San Diego County.

In California, as elsewhere, the Dukes and Morellos may
succeed where the Hearts and Bigarreaux fail. The May Duke
seems especially hardy, and bears well in Nevada, where other
sorts fail utterly.

Late Fruiting of Cherry Trees—Though the cherry in favor-
able situations bears early, the grower, especially on strong,
tich lands, will often have many years of disappointment from
falling blossoms and fruit. During this time the trees will be
making marvelous wood growth, and this apparently sup-

Exposures for the Cherry. 217

presses the frujting function. Usually these trees will ultimately
bear when their exuberant growth declines. They can be
thrown into fruit sooner by root pruning, digging a trench
around about eight feet from the tree, and severing the roots thus
encountered, or by summer pruning of twig ends. Because of
this overgrowth, growers give such soil to the apple or the pear
rather than the cherry. Sometimes the non-bearing of the
cherry is inexplicable. Though everything seems to be rght,
and the blooms are profuse, the fruit will not stick. Some
think it is due to lack of association oi different varieties and
cross fertilization. It is held at Vacaville that keeping bees in
the vicinity of cherry orchards has increased the bearing.

EXPOSURES FOR THE CHERRY,

Exposures for the cherry are chosen both with reference to
protection from frost injury and to early ripening of the fruit.
The cherry blooms early; it is almost as venturesome as the
almond. In protected situations, guarded from cold northerly
winds, and open to sunshine on the south and southeast, the
fruit advances to maturity very rapidly. In Vaca Valley about
a month of good weather alter the biossoming will ripen an
early cherry. The pioneer cherry growers of Vaca Valley went
there from their old homes in Napa Valley, because they could
gather and market cherries in their new locations before the
same varieties were ripe in Napa. They chose places protected
on the north and west by steep hills. ‘The two things to secure
are, apparently, protection from the sweep of cold winds and
elevation above the deposit of cold air, which occurs in depressed
places.

In localities where fruit ripens late, as near the coast, there
is no need to seek forcing conditions, for the extra early varieties
should not be planted except for family use. Early varieties
are comparatively poor in quality, and will not sell profitably, as
they will reach the market alongside of better later sorts from
earlier districts. The place for the cherry in the later districts
is on the most proper soil, according to the requirements which
have been laid down, avoiding, however, so far as possible, wind-
swept spots, and seeking amelioration of direct ocean influences
by elevation or intervention of hills and windbreaks.

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING THE CHERRY.

In the chapter on propagation is given a successful method
of growing cherry seedlings. California cherry trees are al-
most exclusively propagated by budding on seedlings of the
Black Mazzard. '

The planting of the cherry is covered by the general con-
siderations already given for the planting of orchards. The

T5

218 Planting the Cherry.

distance which cherries should be set apart is a disputed point
among planters. Mr. Hector, drawing the suggestion from his
niammoth trees, would plant them eighty feet apart on such soil
as his, and thinks forty feet near enough on any good soil. This
is the extreme of all distances which have been named, and
looks to the needs of the trees a generation ahead. This is
farther in the future than most growers care to calculate, and
would prefer to let the coming generation cut out some of the
trees if necessary. Still trees should not be set too close. When
planted twenty feet apart the trees have interlaced their branches
when sixteen years old. and the spaces between the rows have
been covered in like colonnades. In the Haywards region the
branches of twelve-year-old trees set twenty-eight feet apart have
nearly reached each other, though continually cut back. Much
depends in the matter of distance upon the manner of handling
the trees. The trees can be grown much nearer together by
continuous pruning than where the usual way of cutting back
for the first few years and letting the tree take its natural growth
after that, is followed. James E. Gedney, of Mesa Grande,
San Diego County, practises close planting and cutting back.
He says:—

I plant my trees twenty feet apart each way. My method is to plant
thus closely and then keep my trees low, by cutting back every year; this
facilitates gathering the fruit very much. I prefer this way to setting the
trees farther apart and allowing them to attain too great a height. By the
former method I secure fully as good, if not better, results per acre, to say
nothing of the difference in gathering the fruit. Another advantage in

keeping the trees headed low is that the wind does not affect them nearly
as much as it does tall trees.

Thus it appears that one may fix his distance in planting
according to the method of pruning he proposes to follow, re-
membering, however, that the cherry is naturally a large tree,
and most old orchards are now overcrowded.

As with other trees, orchard planters prefer trees with one
year’s growth on the bud in the nursery, because they usually
get, then, a straight switch with well-developed buds all the way
down, and the head can be formed as desired. For garden
planting, older trees, properly pruned in the nursery, can be used
to advantage.

PRUNING THE CHERRY.

All our best growers agree in the advantage of a low head
for the cherry, and all aim to have the trunks from the ground
up to the limbs literally covered all around with leaves, which
completely shelter the bark from the rays of the sun. In plant-
ing, therefore, the side buds are carefully preserved—not to be
grown into branches, but to be cut or pinched back when they
have come out a few inches, leaving just growth enough to clothe

Pruning the Cherry. 219

the tree with a covering of its own foliage. This was early. in-
sisted on by the late Mr. Geiger, of San Jose, and as we have
mentioned it, we will proceed first to describe his method of
growing the cherry tree, as shown by the following illustration.

Natural and Trained Growth of Voung Cherry Tree.

The first figure shows the way unpruned young trees usu-
ally grow in this State, shooting upward quickly and exposing
their stems to sunburn and borers. The second figure shows
Mr. Geiger’s method of developing spurs from the ground up to
the head. These spurs not only furnish leaves to shade the
trunk, but soon become fruit spurs and bear well. But this fig-
ure also shows Mr. Geiger’s way of shaping the upper part of his
tree by carrying up a leader with a regular system of side
branches. He heads back at planting to two feet, pinching off
the shoots below the head as stated, and allowing the shoots
which form the head to grow larger, but they too are all pinchea

220 Pruning the Cherry.

except the leader, which is allowed to grow as long as it pleases
during the summer. About February or March, for Mr. Geiger
does not believe in pruning the cherry until the buds begin to
burst in the spring, he cuts back the leader to about twelve or
sixteen inches from its starting-point and cuts back the side
branches to about six or eight inches. This is done year after
ycar, cutting back and thinning out the side shoots, pinching the
laterals, and allowing the leader to grow, never interfering
with it until the spring pruning, and always letting it predom-
inate over the side shoots. By cutting short, wood is increased,
but at the end of six years the tree goes into fruit very rapidly.
As the tree increases in fruit, it decreases in. wood, and by the
time it is ten or twelve years old there will be but little cutting
to do, except to shorten in and thin out, and this requires some
judgment and experience, to know where to cut, how to cut,
and when to cut. To shorten in, never cut down to an old
fruit spur. It is very difficult to get healthy wood out of such;
but whenever you can find last year’s wood, there you can cut
with safety anything that is less than one inch in diameter.

This system of pruning must be accompanied by constant
pinching during the summer-time. It should commence when
the lower shoots are about six inches long, and be followed up
closely all through the growing season. Those on the trunk
should never get longer than eight or ten inches, under any cir-
cumstances. After these are pinched, let the trees rest ten or
fifteen days, or until the branches in the top get a good start.
Then pinch everything clean but the leader, in every main
branch in the tree. The leader takes its own way all through
the growing season, to prevent the effects of over-pinching or
checking growth. If only the side shoots are kept back, the
leader or head of the branches receives the current or flow o
sap and maintains and carries on life and vitality in the tree.
One object in pinching or spur pruning is to keep back surplus
wood and create fruit spurs, throwing all the little twigs and
branches into fruit, thereby utilizing all the wood the tree can
produce, not allowing it to grow at the tree’s expense, and then
have to cut it off. And another object in side-shoot pruning is
to make the tree produce fine large cherries, all closely nestled
around the big wood, and no long, slim branches hanging down
like weeping willow. All such branches are always more or
less sunburnt on the top and full of worms, one of the evils
tending to the destruction of the tree.

Mr. Geiger’s method is commended to those who like a tree
with a central leader, and are willing to give their orchards such
constant attention as he does. His orchard near San Jose shows
that his system is practicable; in fact, he followed it for a life-
time, and his orchard is still famous.

Common Practise with the Cherry. ers

THE USUAL METHOD OF PRUNING THE CHERRY.

As we have said, all cherry growers agree on low heading
and on the advantage of pinching the lowest shoots as soon
as they make a bunch of leaves. In forming the head, and in
after treatment, the usual method is quite different from that we
have described. It follows the vase or goblet form, which has
been discussed at length in the chapter on pruning. Of the ap-
plication of this method to the cherry, W. W. Smith, in an ad-
dress before the State Horticuitural Society, said:—

The cherry may be pruned the same as any other deciduous fruit trees
until it is about five years old; after that the less pruning the better, except
when necessary to cut out a dead or crossing branch. Pruning the cherry
is more or less likely to produce gum (and this, decay), and should be
avoided as much as possible. Cherry trees, however, should be trained
with low heads not to exceed eighteen inches from the ground to the first
branches; fifteen inches is better. From three to five branches are enough
to form the head of the tree; all others should be removed early. Three
are better than five; two makes a forked tree, which is likely to split down
in after years.

At the end of the first season we have a neat little tree with three to
five branches. During the following winter these branches should be cut
back from six to eight inches. Thenext season these should be allowed to
produce two branches each (no more); then, at the end of the second
season from planting out, we have a tree with from six to ten branches.
The following winter the new growth should be cut back again to from
twelve to eighteen inches—according to the amount of growth the tree
makes—the less the growth the more you cut. The same process should be
repeated the following winter, treating each branch as an individual tree,
until the tree is about five years old; it takes at least five years to get the
head of a cherry well established. After this, as some varieties will persist
in throwing out branches near the ground, they should be removed during
the summer. At this age the tree, ifwell grown, will have top enough to
shade its body from the sun, and there is no further need of branches on the
main trunk.

If necessary to remove large branches it should then be done in mid-
summer, as that is the only season when the gum is not more or less exuded.
We make it a rule to go over and dress up and prune our cherry orchard
immediately after the crop is gathered—which in our part of the State is the
last of May. All wounds made then by the removal of branches or other-
wise will heal over the same season. All large wounds made at any time,
however, should be coated over with paint.

The method thus described by Mr. Smith is that by which
probably nine-tenths of the cherry trees of this State are shaped.

In the cherry there should be the same observation as to
cutting inside and outside buds as with other trees; in fact,
the outside bud is the rule, because so many varieties make a
directly upright growth. In removing limbs, cutting to the
collar or swelling at the base of the limb is especially important,
also the covering of the wound to prevent checking of the wood.

GRAFTING OVER THE CHERRY.

Since canning of cherries began on a large scale, there has

222 Grafting the Cherry.

been a vastly increased demand for white cherries. The Royal
Ann (a local name for Napoleon Bigarreau) has been the fa-
vorite. Other white sorts are also used for canning. This rise
in favor of the white cherries has vastly increased their propor-
tionate production as compared with the choice black and red
varieties, which are still popular as table fruit.

It is the experience of growers that the cherry is grafted
over as easily as the pear or apple, if the tree is healthy. In
large trees as many as fifty or one hundred grafts may be set,
choosing the smaller limbs, even if you have to go pretty high
in the tree. J. W. Cassidy, of Petaluma, advises grafting be-
fore the sap begins to fiow in the winter, or if not done then,
wait until the buds are well advanced or the tree in bloom. He
has trees which were over thirty years old before they were re-
headed, and they now have fine tops of new and healthy wood,
and produce abundantly.

PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE CHERRY.

The disease of the cherry which is most heard of is the
“gum,” or overflow and condensation of sap, which, if left to
itself, often induces decay of adjacent bark and wood. Without
attempting to explain the cause or causes of the unhealthy exu-
dation, it may be said that prompt treatment of certain mani-
festations is desirable, and in others the tree should be cleansed
from the flow. Where the gum exudes on the side of trunk or
limb, the thin outer bark should be pared away with a sharp
knife, the accumulation of gum and sap removed, and the
wound painted with lead and oil paint. Mr. Geiger used for
this purpose a mixture of two parts of resin and one of shellac
melted together, adding a small piece of tallow to the melted
mass. Gum in the crotch should be cleanly brushed out when
softened by the winter rains. If allowed to remain, it becomes
sour and offensive and may injure the tree. In places where
two or three limbs come out close together a kind of cup is
formed, which will hold the gum from one year's end to another,
and, in its soft state, leaves, sticks, cherry pits, dust, and dirt will
stick and hang, and sometimes the mass becomes so foul that
the stench can hardly be endured. By this collection, also, a
nest is made for all manner of insects, bugs, and worms. An-
other evil in letting the gum stay on is, if rain does not wash
it off clean, it runs down the trunk of the tree and makes the
bark look bad, and if it is very thick on the bark when it dries,
it will contract and crack the bark crosswise, and is very injuri-
ous to the tree.

Gumming in the crotch can be largely avoided by starting
the young cherry as advocated in the chapter on pruning.
Branches which emerge from the trunk at separate points and

Diseases of the Cherry. 223

at wide angles seldom gum: those which are crowded together
or emerge at acute angles gum badly. In shaping young trees
a gumming joint sometimes may be clearly cut out and those
branches selected to remain which start out more nearly at a
right angle; in older trees there is nothing to do but keep the
fork clean, as already described.

There are cases reported in which gumming of old trees
has been stopped by allowing the ground to lie uncultivated,
weeds being cut down with the hoe. Some trees which per-
sisted in making rank wood growth, and bearing no fruit, have
been made fruitful by the same treatment. As a rule, however,
the cherry thrives with good cultivation.

Die-back of the Cherry.—The dying back of cherry branches
is more or less common in all regions, and the immediate cause
thereof is not known. It is apparently sometimes a root trouble,
as is the dying back of other fruit trees. This might have re-
sulted from standing water in the winter in the soil, although
the same condition may result from lack of sufficient moisture.
Anything which causes destruction of the root hairs 1s apt to
cause die-back and other forms of unthrift in the top. Early
vegetative activity in the branch, followed by frost, seems also
to occasion die-back in some cases. Fortunately, this can occur
without injury to the rest of the tree, though it is sometimes
and in some places destructive to the tree in the end. The only
treatment is removal of the affected wood, and if this can be
done during the growing season, as soon as signs of injury ap-
pear, it is all the better.

The Gopher.—One of the most dangerous foes of the cherry
is the gopher, for he seldom takes less than the whole tree,
young or old. Traces of his presence should be constantly
watched for, and killing methods described in a later chapter
adopted. If a tree is seen to wilt suddenly, the probability is
that a gopher has girdled it. Covering the wound sometimes
saves the tree, but not usually.

Insects injuring the cherry will be mentioned in a subsequent
chapter.

VARIETIES OF THE CHERRY.

Many varieties of the cherry have been tested in this State,
and many have been abandoned from one cause or another.
Those most frequently starred in our table are the survivors in
public esteem. As our reports have come from those who grow
for market, possibly some sorts too tender for shipment, but
excellent for family use, are omitted, but will be included in the
descriptions which follow the table. The claims to value upon
which a variety is judged are several: Extra earliness, an im-
‘portant consideration in early districts for shipment, and else-

224 Varieties of the Cherry.

where for local sale or family use; firmness to withstand
mechanical injury by jarring in transit and durability to escape
decay during the long journey to distant markets; firmness and
‘fixed color to stand processing in the cannery and to prevent
coloring the juice; lateness to extend the cherry season.

In classification of cherries it was originally considered that
there were four classes of cherries. The Hearts were the tender
and half-tender sweet cherries, while the Bigarreaux were the
firm-fleshed ones; but these have been so intermingled and
blended together by hybridization that no distinct line can now
be drawn separating them. There is really but one class of
these, whose main characteristic is the large, vigorous growth of
the tree. The Duke and Morello cherries, also wanting a nat-
ural division, really constitute but one class.

CHERRY VARIETIES APPROVED BY CALIFORNIA GROWERS.

Interior | Mountain
valley valleys | Southern

and and California.’

foot-hills. | plateaux.

Upper Central
VaRIETY. Coast Coast
region. region.

g ae
Black Hearticccsisrs
Burr’s Seedling......
Centennial......... ... ise
Chapiiay cc. sscseecinne
Early Purple Guigne...... XX
FE ORs 2c. deed cisiiedbrcinagslasinin
Knight (Early) sc | istansidinanetnistamr eitece cube farss
Lewelling: cncectecasescdaetes x

Me zel cccesesusagerwande saesswsus xx XX
Napoleon (Royal Ann)...} xx Xx
Pontiac

Kw mM mm mM

Schmidt

Spanish (Yellow)... KX sHipinsiien ease lf olen oiatsacaa anindl| sinus dniyel sie of feNnwdadsallndn
Tartarian (Black)...........) XxX xx Kx Xx KX
Wood (Governor)........+ x x x x Bs
May Duke x 5 x XX
Morello ar or x x x x
Olivetszecesy cenaiy See Ko |sdeceweepess x | Repraramaes
Richmond x x x x

It has been attempted to arrange the varieties approximately
in the order of their ripening. The brief descriptions of stand-
ard varieties are in the main condensed from Downing, modi-
fied, however, in some respects, by reference to experience and
observation of California growers and nurserymen.

In addition to the old standard varieties, a number of

Varteties of the Cherry. 225

Pacific Coast seedlings have become popular, and others are
very promising. Special description of these seedlings will tol-
low the standard sorts.

BIGARREAUX AND HEARTS.

Early Lamaurie.—Fruit large, dark purple; flesh rich, juicy, excellent.
Downing says a week earlier than Early Purple Guigne. Has proved the
earliest cherry in the University collection at Berkeley, and in Vacaville
district. Not fully tested as to regular bearing.

Guigne Marbree.—“ Fruit medium large, round, skin dark red; flesh
purplish red, tender, juicy, delicate flavor.”—Gilet, ‘‘A better bearer
than Early Purple Guigne.”— IV. W. Smith.

Baumann’s May (Early Black Guigne).—Rather small, deep rich red,
ps rather dark when fully ripe; tender, juicy, tolerably sweet and
good.

Early Purple Guigne.—Smal\ to medium size; purple; tender, juicy,
and sweet. This variety is considered the earliest good cherry. It is
reported a shy bearer in some localities.

Belle ad’ Orleans,—Above medium size, roundish, heart-shaped; whitish
yellow, half-covered with pale red; very juicy, sweet and excellent.

Early White Heart.—Below medium size, rather heart-shaped, skin
dull whitish yellow, tinged and speckled with pale red in the sun; flesh melt-
ing, sweet, and pleasant when fully ripe.

White Tartarian.—Fruit of medium size, obtuse heart-shaped; skin
pale yellow; stalk slender; flesh whitish yellow; half tender and very sweet.

American Hearit.—Fruit pretty large, heart-shaped, often nearly four-
sided and irregular in outline; borne in clusters; flesh half tender; skin
strong and adhering to flesh.

Werder’s Early Black.—An early variety, moderately productive; tree
vigorous, spreading; fruit large, black, tender, sweet and excellent.

Knight's Early Black.—‘' Large, black, tender, juicy, rich, and ex-
cellent; high flavor; a shy bearer until the trees attain age.”

Rockport Bigarreau.—Large; pale amber in the shade, light red in the
sun; half tender, sweet and good; a very excellent and handsome cherry;
good bearer; highly esteemed for canning and shipping.

Coe’s Transparent.—Medium size; pale amber, red and mottled next
the sun; tender, sweet and fine.

Cleveland Bigarreau.—A thrifty, strong, spreading grower, and pro-
ductive; large; clear red and yellow; juicy, sweet, and rich.

Black Tartarian.—Fruit of the largest size, bright purplish black.
Flesh purplish, thick, juicy, very rich and delicious. Tree a remarkably
vigorous, erect, and beautiful grower, and an immense bearer; the best of
the black cherries.

Governor Wood.—Large; light yellow shaded with bright red; flesh
nearly tender, juicy, sweet, rich and delicious; a vigorous grower and very
productive.

Elton.—Large, pointed; pale yellow, nearly covered with light red;
juicy, with a very rich and luscious flavor; one of the best.

Black Eagle.—A very excellent English variety, ripening in June; large
size, deep purple, or nearly black; flesh deep purple, tender, with a rich,
high-flavored juice.

American Amber.—Fruit medium sized, roundish, heart-shaped; skin
thin, smooth, light amber, delicately mottled and overspread with bright
red; flesh tender and juicy, but not high flavored.

Yellow Spanish (Bigarreau Graftion).—Large; pale yellow, with red
cheek in the sun; flesh firm, juicy, and delicious; one of the best, most
beautiful, and popular of all light-colored cherries.

226 Varieties of the Cherry.

Mezel, Monstrueuse de (Great Bigarreau).—A foreign variety of the
largest size; dark red or quite black; firm and juicy; late.

“ ~ Pontiac.—Large; dark purplish red; half tender, juicy, and agreeable.

Burr's Seedling.—Large; yellow, shaded with red; sweet and rich;
vigorous and great bearer; apparently does better near the coast than in
the interior.

Oxheart.—Fruit large, obtuse, heart-shaped; skin dark red; flesh red,
half tender, with a pleasant juice of second quality.

Napoleon Bigarreau (Royal Ann).—A magnificent cherry of the largest
size; pale yellow, becoming amber in the shade, richly dotted and spotted
with deep red, and with a bright red cheek; flesh very firm, juicy and sweet.
Tree a free grower and an enormous bearer.

Tradescant’s Blackheart (Elkhorn).—Large, heart-shaped; deep, glossy
black; very solid and firm; dark purple, moderately juicy.

Schmidt’s Bigarreau.—‘A new German variety lately introduced.
The largest of all the Black Bigarreau cherries. Skin of a deep black
color; flesh dark and very juicy, with a fine flavor.” —/ohn Bidwell.

DUKES AND MORELLOS.

Early Richmond (Kentish).—An early, red, acid cherry; valuable for
cooking early in the season.

May Duke.—An old, well-known, excellent variety; large, dark red,
juicy, subacid, rich.

Arch Duke.—Fruit large, obtuse, heart-shaped; bright red becoming
dark; flesh light red, melting, juicy, rich, subacid flavor, very good; tree
more upright and vigorous than May Duke.

Late Duke.—Fruit large, flattened or obtuse, heart-shaped; white,
mottled with red, becoming rich dark red when ripe; flesh yellowish, tender,
juicy; hangs long on the tree.

Reine Hortense.—‘‘It is one of the very largest of cherries; a beautiful,
glossy red, or deep pink, when fully ripe; heart-shaped; a universal bearer,
and when hanging on the tree no fruit is more beautiful; excellent for can-
ning, but too soft and juicy for shipment.” —W. W. Smith.

Lnglish Morello.—Large, dark red, nearly black; tender, juicy, rich,
acid, productive and late.

Guigne Noir Luisante (Black Spanish).—Fruit medium size, round,
fee nner glossy, blackish red; flesh reddish purple, tender, juicy, rich,
acid.

Belle Magnifique.—Fruit large, roundish, inclined to heart-shape; skin
a fine bright red; flesh juicy, tender, with sprightly subacid flavor; one of
the best of its class; a fine table fruit when fully ripe.

PACIFIC. COAST SEEDLINGS,

Lewelling—Black Republican (Black Oregon).—‘‘Seedling by Seth
Lewelling, Milwaukee, Oregon, from seed planted in 1860; first fruited in
orchard in 1864. Widely distributed in California. Large, black, sweet,
with purple flesh; ripens ten days after Black Tartarian.”—/ames Shinn.
“Large, late black cherry, good flavor, long keeper; dries and ships well.
Seems to succeed better on foot-hills than in the valley.’—Robert William-
son. ‘Supposed to be a cross between Napoleon Bigarreau and Black
Tartarian, having the solid flesh of the former and the color of the latter;
very late.’’—/ohn Rock. “I am of the opinion that the Black Republican
and Lincoln came from the seed of the Black Eagle, but I have little idea
of what variety they were crossed with.’’—Seth Lewelling.

Bing.—Originated by Seth Lewelling, from seed of Black Republican.
“Fruit large, dark brown or black, very fine; late; a good shipping
variety.”’—Seth Lewelling. Tree vigorous, and foliage heavy.

Varieties of the Cherry. 227:

Centennial.—A seedling of Napoleon Bigarreau, raised by Mr. Henry
Chapman, in Napa Valley, and fruited by him for the first time in 1876.
Propagated and introduced by Leonard Coates, of Napa, in 1885. It is
larger than its parent, more oblate in form, and beautifully marbled and
splashed with crimson on a pale yellow ground; exceptionally sweet and of
remarkable keeping quality. Described by Committee of American Pomo-
logical Society (1885) as follows: “Size large, slightly oblate; amber, with
dark crimson marbling; flesh firm, sweet, and rich; quality best; condition
excellent (after crossing continent by mail), showing its good shipping
qualities.” The Centennial has been little planted recently, because of
superiority of Royal Ann.

California Advance.—Originated by W. H. Chapman, of Napa, propa-
gated by Leonard Coates, of Napa. Seedling of Early Purple Guigne,
ripens one week earlier than its parent; is larger and more obtuse, rounded
form, and said to be a heavier bearer; dark purple turning black; rich and
sweet, and of good degree of firmness.

The Oregon.—Seedling of Napoleon Bigarreau, by H. W. Prettyman,
of East Portland, and named by Oregon State Horticultural Society in 1888;
described as larger than Napoleon; firm; dark red; “‘fit to eat earlier than
Napoleon, but coming to full maturity somewhat later.’’? Introduced in
1888, by W. S. Failing, Portland.

Oregon has been prolific in originating new varieties of the
cherry which are locally popular, but only a few have established
themselves in California.

CHAPTER 2.x.

THE PEACH.

The peach was for many years the leading orchard fruit of
California, but the recent large planting of prunes has relegated
the peach to second place. ‘The peach was the first fruit to ripen
on the improved trees brought here by the early American set-
tlers, and the magnificence of the peach was consequently the
key-note of the refrain which greeted the ears of the world in
which the California gold cry was ringing early in the fifties,
In fact, the gold from the mine and the gold from the tree were
very nearly related. In old Coloma, where gold was discov-
ered, there was a peach tree which bore four hundred and fifty
peaches in 1854, which sold for $3.00 each, or $1,350 for the
crop of one tree, and in 1855, six trees bore one thousand
one hundred peaches, which sold for $1.00 each. Some of these
pioneer trees are said to be still living and bearing fruit.

LONGEVITY OF THE PEACH IN CALIFORNIA.

There are many other facts to establish the claim that the
peach tree, if planted in a suitable soil and situation and cared
for with any devotion and skill, is not a short-lived tree in Cali-
fornia. California is too young to mark the limits of its dura-
tion, but there are numerous instances in the earliest-settled
places in the State, where peach trees above forty years old are
still vigorous and productive.

In favorable soils the peach is stronger and longer lived in
the root than in the top, and sometimes triumphs over neglect by
discarding its old, wind-broken, sun-burned and bark-bound
branches, and forms a new head of its own. This is the reason
why the intelligent system of pruning which is now prevalent,
ministers to the longevity as well as the profitability of the tree,
aiding it to constantly renew its youth by restraining its exuber-
ance, and at the same time furnishing it sound new wood on
which to grow its fruits and foliage. But while these are facts,
there is some difference of opinion as to the point at which an
old tree becomes less valuable than a young one. Along the
Sacramento River some count about a dozen good crops as the

(228)

Localities for the Peach. 229

limit, and thus replace the trees when about fifteen years of age.
This is a point which may vary greatly, according to local condi-
tions.

Early Productiveness—Quite as important as the longevity
of the peach tree are the facts of its rapid growth and early pro-
ductiveness. It is the first of our fruit trees to attain size and
yield a profitable crop. In localities best suited to its growth
it will mature some fruit the second summer in the orchard
if the small shoots are not pruned away from the main branches,
and during the third summer averages of forty to fifty pounds
per tree have been secured from considerable acreages. These
facts are stated to show what the peach of good variety may do
in a good situation and soil and with the best of care. Of course
they are not to be taken as average results, although greater
than those given are sometimes attained.

LOCALITIES FOR THE PEACH.

Nearly every county in California reports the possession of
peach trees. Above an elevation of four thousand feet on the
sides of the Sierra Nevada, they may be subject to winter kill-
ing, and lower still careful choice of situation has to be made
to avoid frosts at blooming-time—the peach in such places be-
ing subjected to some dangers which beset it in the eastern
States. Below these points, however, lies the great fruit belt of
the foot-hills of the Sierra, where the peach is the chief fruit
grown and its excllence is proverbial. Size, beauty, richness,
and delicacy of flavor, irmness, which endures carriage to the
most distant markets, are all characteristics of the foot-hill
peaches of California.

In the great interior valleys of the State wherever proper
condition of soil and water supply can be found, the peach also
thrives, the tree making a wonderfully quick and large growth,
and the fruit attaining great size.

In the small valleys on the west of the great valley and on
the eastern slopes of the Coast Range, there are also extensive
areas suited to the peach, and sheltered places on the eastern
and western edges of the Sacramento Valley have produced the
earliest fruit for a long series of years. Recently the contest for
the earliest fruit of these districts, with the foot-hill district on
the east side of the Sacramento Valley and special locations in
the upper San Joaquin Valley, has been quite close.

In the coast valleys, opening upon San Francisco Bay and
the Pacific Ocean, the peach is also a leading fruit. Its success
is greatest, however, where good shelter is had from direct coast
influences. Even where open to these influences, good peaches
can be grown by choosing the smaller range of varieties, which

230 Soils and Exposures for the Peach.

do well by protecting the trees from harsh winds, and by seek-
ing elevation above depressed valleys, whose frosts are frequent.
The occurrence of curl-leaf is a factor of much importance,
which will be considered presently. In the coast counties north
of San Francisco Bay the danger to the peach from unfavorable
atmospheric conditions increases as one goes northward, and
situations must be chosen with greater care. And yet by such
exercise of care, peaches for home use and local markets can be
successfully grown.

South of San Francisco Bay the coast influences soften as
you proceed southward, and the peach draws nearer to the ocean,
choosing, however, elevations, and avoiding broad, wind-swept
areas and narrow defiles where drafts and fogs are frequent. At
considerable elevations, as on the Santa Cruz Mountains, some
varieties of peaches are notably excellent. The general rule
holds with the peach, as with other fruits, that coast influences
retard ripening and the season of the fruit is late.

In the valleys and at elevations in southern California the
peach is largely grown and high excellence attained.

SOILS “AND EXPOSURES FOR THE PEACH.

Though the range of soils for the peach can be somewhat
extended by the choice of stock for budding upon, as will be
considered presently, its range is narrower that that of the
apricot. The best peach soils are light, deep, sandy loams,
rather dry than moist, but under all circumstances well drained.
It will thrive on land with a considerable mixture of coarse sand
or gravel, providing it contain also needed elements of fertility;
for the rapid growth and heavy fruitage of the peach requires
abundant nutrition. Though it accepts coarse materials both in
soil and subsoil, it relishes fine sediment and perhaps finds no
more congenial location than in the deep, sandy loam, or sedi-
mentary deposit bordering the creek beds of our warm valleys,
and will send its roots deep to secure long life and abundant
fruitage. Such soils, whether along existing streams or de-
posited by prehistoric water courses, which have left their mark
by the elevated ridges of rich sediment above the prevailing
valley soils, are warm, deep, and thoroughly drained, and delight
the peach.

At elevations on the hillsides there are free loams which
result from decomposition of the underlying rocks, and on them
the peach thrives, both where the soils themselves are deep and
where the underlying rock is loose and open, permeable by roots
and affording escape for water. Success has been reported-even
when holes are partly excavated in these rotten rocks, as in the
soft sand rock on the hills east of Vaca Valley, or in the broken
chalk rock in what is called Blackburn Gulch, near Santa Cruz.

Peach Propagation, 231

The superior warmth of such soils is supposed to minister to
earlier ripening of the fruit, though the escape from cold air by
elevation is no doubt a greater factor to the end.

The influence of comparatively slight difference in eleva-
tion is very marked. E. R. Thurber, of Pleasant’s Valley,
Solano County, has a plat of peach trees on a natural terrace
about seventy-five feet higher than the general level of his
orchard. On the terrace his peaches ripen and are disposed of
before the same varieties ripen in the orchard below.

As in the valley a short distance to water is to be avoided,
soon the hills too great percolation from higher levels is unde-
sirable. Of course natural defects of this kind can be corrected
by adequate under-drainage.

Still, though such be the general soil conditions best suited
to the peach, the tree can be well grown for home use or local
markets on somewhat heavier soil, providing there is good
drainage, but drainage must be insisted upon, for thousands of
trees have perished during the last few years because planted in
retentive soils without drainage. Alkaline soils should, how-
ever, be avoided, as the peach, when grown on its own roots,
seems to be of all fruits inost sensitive to alkali.

As to exposures for the peach the same rules hold as for
other fruits which are liable to injury when in bloom or young
foliage. Thus low places where cold air settles should be
avoided, also low gulches thrcugh which cold drafts prevail. In
frosty situations an incline away from the morning sun will
often allow the trees to escape serious injury.

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING.

The chapter on propagation gives the general method of
growing and budding peach seedlings. In selecting pits, pref-
erence is usually given to those from strong-growing, yellow
peaches, at least for working on the same colored truit, while
others use pits of the Morris White, others the Strawberry, and
others still will use only pits from vigorous seedling trees’ In
this State-the peach is usualiy so healthy and vigorous, and the
“yellows” not known, and less care may be needed in selecting
pits; still, there is certainly nothing lost by making every effort
for a good stock.

The hard-shell sweet almond has long been used as a stock
for the peach. It is held that it gives a hardier, stronger root,
in dry soils especially.

When it is desired to grow the peach on moister soil than
suits its own roots, the St. Julian plum is used. The Myrobalan
has been used to some extent, but experience generally does not
favor this stock.

Boo. . Peach Planting.

The so-called “peach-almond” has been used to some
extent. It is a fruit having the pit of a peach but the pericarp
of an almond, that is tough and tasteless and disposed to split
like an almond hull. Early in the fifties a chance hybrid of this
sort appeared in the nursery of W. B. West, of Stockton, and its
pits were used for nursery seedlings which, when budded to the
peach, produced gocd trees. Trees bearing the peach-almond
are found here and there over the State. Mr. Burbank has pro-
duced a hybrid of the Wager peach and the Languedoc almond.

Distance in Orchard.—Distance observed in planting peach
orchards differs greatly, according to the views of different
growers. Regarding the peach as a catch crop to plant be-
tween apricot, pear, cherry, walnut, fig or other slower-grow-
ing, larger trees, the trees may be set comparatively close; that
is, with the latter trees at thirty to forty feet, and alternate rows
of peach planted quincunx, and to be removed at the end of ten
to fifteen years. If the peach is to have the ground to itself,
some planters plant at eighteen feet in equilateral triangles, or
twenty to twenty-four feet on the squares, the present tendency
with the peach, as with other trees, being to give more room
than was the custom a few years ago.

Age of Trees—lIn planting peach orchards yearling trees
are generally used, although far more are planted in dor-
mant bud than of any other kind of fruit trees. The reason for
this is easily found in the disposition of the peach to make a
tree the first year from the bud. It springs almost at once into
a full outfit of laterals. Some growers employ this disposition
to form a head the first year in the nursery. When the bud has
grown out eighteen inches, pinch it off at the top and force out
laterals, which make long growth the same season. When
planted out in orchard the following winter, cut back to fen or
twelve inches. In this any one can get a yearling with the equiv-
alent of a two-year-old head on it. The common practise is,
however, to let the growth from the bud proceed as it chooses,
and when the yearling is set in orchard, cut back to a single
bud, laterals which are desired to form the head and removing
others. The development of form from a vearling branched in
the nursery is illustrated in chapter on pruning.

Recently preference has arisen for smaller trees for trans-
planting and, especially in the foot-hills, June buds, described
in the chapter on propagation, are largely employed.

Planting Dormant Buds—The chapter on planting describes
the planting of yearling trees. The lifting of dormant buds
from the home nursery and planting in orchard is described by
P. W. Butler, of Placer County, as follows:—

_ Have the ground prepared and stakes placed in position in the orchard
in early February, if possible, and begin the planting at once, while the trees

HOVdd WNW AHL

“ONITGHHS VINYOSITVO V :

‘Ibe a8ed 93S

Selecting Peach Trees. 233

are in dormant bud. Take no more trees from the nursery than can be
planted in half a day. Plow a furrow on each side of the row, six inches
from the trees, turning the soil from them, then two men with heavy spades
or shovels, one on each side of the tree, can readily take it up without
breaking many of the roots; and what are so broken should be smoothly
trimmed with a sharp knife. Place the trees in a tub of water, near where
they are to be planted, and take from it only a few ata time. Put them ina
basket or box and cover with wet sack, that they may be kept moist until
placed in the ground.

On planting, place the bud one inch below the level of the ground, but
do not cover it until after it has grown to the height of a few inches. The
stock should be cut off at the bud with a thin, sharp knife, and not with
shears, as is often done, as the latter method will sometimes split the tree,
when it will take in moisture and not heal readily.

Some growers do not cut back the young seedling tree
until growth has started out well on the dormant bud.

Rather more care is needed in handling dormant buds both
in planting and in their young life in the orchard. Lookout
must be kept for suckers and against injury in cultivation. Suc-
cess with dormant buds is notable. In good hands they com-
monly outgrow yearlings planted at the same time, and the
percentage of loss from failure of the bud to start is very small.
Ot course every bud should be examined before planting, to see
that it has a healthy color.

In the selection of peach trees for planting, a clean, healthy
root only should be taken. During recent years there have
been a good many young roots affected with knots or swellings
from some obscure cause. Such trees should be burned. If
planted, the knot sometimes grows to an enormous size and
little or no top growth is made.

PRUNING THE PEACH.

As has been advised for other trees, the peach should be
given a low head, developed as described in the chapter on prun-
ing. In its after-treatment, it has been the universal experience
that constant “heading in” is essential to the strength and health
of the tree. This also has been considered in an earlier chapter.
The peach is a pressing instance of the necessity of regular
pruning, to renew and regulate the amount of bearing wood
and to promote profitable longevity in the tree. Illustrations
of the pertinence of these remarks are found in the practise of
the most successful peach growers in all parts of the State. A
few instances will be given:—

The peach, fruiting only on wood of the previous year’s growth, bears
fruit farther away from the body of the tree each year, and the small shoots
of from one-eighth to three-sixteenths in diameter begin to decline when
the fruit is removed. To have healthy growth, all of these small branches
must be removed the first winter following their fruiting, when there is a
greater tendency to form small new growths, which may fruit the following

16

234 Pruning the Peach.

season. In the peach, it will seldom be found necessary to remove any in-
terior branches, except suckers, until they have produced a crop, when
they will begin to decline and should be removed.

“JT would certainly not cut peach trees back less than one-half of the new
growth in the winter pruning, and our trees are getting too large for their
age even with that amount of pruning. This has suggested, in other locali-
ties, summer pruning or shortening in, with success in some places. So far
my own experience is favorable. It will be noticed on trees kept growing
rapidly that the fruit buds are near the ends of the shoots, and it seems to
take away too many of these buds to cut back one-half in the winter prun-
ing, but by cutting back about one-halfthe new growth in August, fruit buds
are developed lower down, and where they would not be developed with-
out the summer pruning.”’—H. Culbertson, El Cajon, San Diego County.

“Prune the peach every year, cutting back and thinning out the center,
using great care not to cut out too many of the little fruit shoots of new wood
growing on the main branches, but removing the slender branches of the
old wood, leaving as many branches of the new growth as the tree will sup-
port. In this case judgment must be used as to what the tree will support.
The soil may be wet or dry, rich or poor, the grower must be the judge.
To grow small fruit, prune lightly; to grow large fruit, prune with care and
judgment. To get this judgment you must have some practical experience.
I prefer doing the work when the sap begins moving in the spring of the
year. All cuts heal over better then and the pruner can see how the buds
are setting and use his own judgment as to how much wood he wants to
cut out.’—R. C. Kells, Yuba City, Sutter County.

“Cutting back the peach must be more severe, as the growth of the new
wood diminishes. Not more than five or six fruit buds should be left ona
shoot, and if the fruit all sets, it must be also thinned. The trees should be
trained low and their vigor encouraged by permitting a reasonable amount
of young shoots to grow around the lower part of the main limbs. When
this method is continued systematically every season, the trees will bear
large crops of fruit, of good quality, for many years. When they are
allowed to overbear for one or two seasons, the fruit will decrease in size,
and soon become almost worthless; the trees will be enfeebled, and in con-
sequence very liable to be attacked by disease. The only thing to be done
in this case is to cut off the whole top of the tree, allowing it to form a new
head. I have seen old peach orchards thus renovated, and the results
are often very flattering, but it is far better not to allow them to get into a
condition where this desperate remedy is necessary.’’—Leonard Coates,

Napa.

Cutting Back the Peach Is not Shearing.—Some undertake
the annual pruning of the peach by a shearing process, treating
a fruit tree as one would a hedge—cutting everything to a line.
There has been a good deal of this done in California, but it
is wrong nevertheless. Shortening in the new growth of the
peach each year is proper practise. It is the first step toward
preventing overbearing of small, unmarketable fruit and saving
the tree from profitless and injurious effort. Thinning the
shoots by removing all but one when two or three start from the
same point is also working toward large fruit and regular bear-
ing in the tree. This shortening and thinning of the new wood
must also be followed by thinning of the young fruit just after
the natural drop and it is seen that the tree carries too many.
Proper pruning can not be done by shearing because it is apt to
shorten the strong shoots too much and the weak shoots too

Thinning Peaches. 235

little. Each shoot must be cut by itself according to its growth
ana its ability to carry more or less fruit. Shearing, too, does
not thin out the shoots but continually multiplies them until
the tree is as full of brush as a hedge.

THINNING PEACHES,

Thinning out fruit on the peach tree is not only the secret
of obtaining good, marketable fruit, but joins hands with prun-
ing in preserving the health and future production of the tree.
The importance of thinning has been urged in a previous chap-
ter, but the following is a very strong statement, by Mr. Cul-
bertson:—

In my experience there is no single operation in connection with truit
growing of more importance than thinning. The past season, in order to
test the difference in expense of preparing large and small peaches for dry-
ing, I timed the cutting, and found it took double the time; hence, double
the expense, which meant a difference of about $15 per ton of dried
fruit. Add tothis a difference of two cents per pound in price makes
‘$55 per ton. Suppose an orchard under good treatment produces a ton
of peaches to the acre, then $55 would represent the difference in profits.
Unthinned or small fruit is certainly undesirable.

As to how much thinning should be done there are diverse opinions.
Some take off one-half, others three-fourths. Some growers thin to meet a
certain ideal, but find it difficult to explain in words. The common rule of
leaving a specimen of fruit every four or six inches is a safe rule; that means
many must come off. Different conditions of soils, climates and irrigation
vary the amount to thin out more or less. More may be left where the tree
is on land giving a strong, vigorous growth.

In thinning peaches I have been practising a method that ee good
results and is easily learned. The peach bears on three sizes of branches,
that are one-eighth, three-sixteenths, and one-fourth of an inch in diameter.
The first has two peaches, the second three, and the third four; this, of
course, after there has been a judicious course of pruning and the trees
under irrigation; trees on dry land should have only one-half as many left.
To reach this result often a dozen may have to come off, allowing only two
to remain. The more there are the greater necessity for thinning.

The time for thinning peaches is as soon as one can be sure which are
likely to remain on the tree and which will drop of their own accord.

WORKING OVER PEACH TREES.

The fashion in peaches changes from time to time according
to the demands of the canners or the market for dried fruit.
The grower often finds varieties which he first selected, less
healthy, less productive, or, for other reason, less desirable than
others. There is, therefore, often occasion for working over
trees. Budding is often resorted to, buds being successfully
set in quite old wood, providing buds from well-matured wood
are taken. Wood buds from young trees unaccompanied by
fruit are best, but because of greater certainty of securing the
variety desired, it is common to take wood and fruit buds to-
gether from bearing trees. A larger cut of bud and adjacent

236 Grafting the Peach.

bark is taken when working in old bark than for use on seed-
lings. When a branch is budded, it is sometimes broken at a
distance beyond the bud and allowed to hang, the idea being to
furnish the bud some but not too much sap. Some growers
thus bud and break part of the branches, allowing others to
remain unworked, to maintain the growing processes ot the tree.
These branches and those in which buds have not taken, are cut
off and grafted the following spring. The aimond is successfully
grafted over with the peach, and this course has been followed
with thousands of unproductive almonds.

Grafting the Peach—GCrafting the peach by the ordinary
top-grafting with a cleit graft seldom succeeds. A side graft
with saw and knife is better. It is described by J. W. Mills, of
the University Experiment Station, near Pomona, as follows:—

Saw grafting is rapidly taking the place of cleft grafting, for it does
away with all difficulties arising from splitting and there is no cavity left in
the heart of the limb or tree. The process is to saw off the limb at the de-
sired place as in cleft grafting, then saw across the corner and down the side
at an angle of about 45 degrees and trim out with a sharp knife. Place the
knife blade a little to one side of the saw cut, a little farther from the edge
at the top than at the bottom, and by pressing on the knife the whole sides
of the crevice will be trimmed smoothly at one stroke; this operation re-
peated on the other side of the saw cut will make a neat notch in the end of
asolid limb. By cutting a little deeper from the saw cut at the top than at
the bottom, and if the amateur does not trim his scion at the right angle, he
can insert it gently in the crevice or notch and see just where totrim. Ifhe
is so slow that the fresh cut shows signs of discoloration, he can make a
fresh surface by placing his knife parallel to the edges and shaving off a thin
slice. He still retains the same angle, but the scion will set a little deeper,
which is no objection. By cutting a thin layer off the top of the stump next
to the notch will show exactly where the inside layer of bark is. The inside
bark of the scion must be even with the inside layer of the bark of the
stump or limb that is being grafted. If the scion is inclined slightly out or
in at the top, it will make a correct union at some point and be sure to grow.
If the inclination is very slight the union will extend over considerable
length and will make a much better start than if the union is at only one
point, owing to the enlarged surface through which the sap is transmitted.
One of the most important points in grafting is to have good wax and go
over the grafts a few days after they are put in and rewax them.

DISEASES OF THE PEACH.

Curl-Leaf.—The most prevalent trouble with the peach
tree in California is the curl-leaf. It was noticed from the first
planting of peach trees by Americans, nearly forty years ago.
Only recently has it been conceded to be due to parasitic fungi,
and its prevention by washes of fungicidal character demon-
strated. The treatment will be described in the chapter on tree
diseases. The facts of its occurrence may be stated as follows:—

Curl-leaf is much more prevalent in some sections than
others, and in one place than another in the same section, and
some sections are practically [ree from it. Some varieties are

Diseases of the Peach. 237

much more subject to curl-leaf than others; generally speaking,
some curl nearly everywhere, others curl in one place and not
in another, others are practically free from curl in all situations.

Curl-leaf occurs in various degrees. Mild cases do not seem
to injure either tree or fruit; severe cases destroy the fruit and
sometimes the tree itself. ‘lhe disease is almost always at its
height when the young fruit is about the size of small peas. If
the curl is “bad,” the fruit will fall to the ground, there not be-
ing healthy leaves enough to afford the required support. Hi,
however, the curl is moderate and partial, only a part and some-
times none of the fruit will be lost. The disease, as is well
known, is of brief duration, say twelve to twenty days, after
which the trees resume a healthy appearance in every respect,
and if the fruit has been able to survive the ordeal, it also ap-
pears to grow and become as perfect as if no check had been
given to its growth.

Mildew.—This disease, which occurs in the form of whitish
felted patches on leaf and twig early in the spring, and finally
affects the fruit, has long been troublesome in this State, and

Characters in the Leaves of Peaches.

occurs on certain susceptible varieties in many localities from
the coast to the Sierra foot-hills. Observation in this State has
fully affirmed the statement of Downing, that the serrate, gland-
less-leaved varieties are liable, and those with good glands on
the leaf stems are free.

The conclusion would be that where mildew prevails, varie-
ties with serrate, glandless leaves should be avoided. But it has

238 Varieties of the Peach.

been found that some glandless-leaved varieties, although sub-
ject to mildew, resist curl-leaf. Therefore it may be worth white
to combat the mildew. This has been done effectually by
treatment which will be described in a later chapter.

As with curl-leaf, mildew is prevalent some years and slight
in others.

VARIETIES OF THE PEACH.

Nearly all varieties of the peach have been tried in Cali-
fornia, and, as with other fruits, it has been found that varieties
must be chosen with reference to their success in special loca-
tions. Choice has also to be made according to the purpose of
the grower, whether for early marketing, for sale to canners, for
drying, or distant shipment or for late marketing. As with
apples, there is little use of planting early varieties (unless it
be for home or local use) except in very early regions. An early
peach from a late region is killed by competition with better
middle season sorts from the earlier regions.

In an early region one can plant early, middle, and late
varieties to advantage, and thus secure a very long-fruiting sea-
son. The peach season in interior districts begins at the first of
June with the Alexander, and continues to the end of Novem-
ber with local seedlings—giving six months of peaches. Of
course the very early and very late sorts are only of use for
marketing as table fruit. The most important series is a fine
succession of mid-season peaches, suitable either for canning,
drying, or distant shipment. Such a selection can be made
from the tables and descriptions which will be given later.

Color is a most important item in the peach. While can-
ners and Eastern shippers use the beautiful white peaches to
advantage, the fashion for canning and drying is now strong in
support of the yellow-fleshed varieties and Clingstone. The
yellow peaches are in greatest demand. The color about the
pit is also an important point. Canners demand a peach,
whether white or yellow, which is almost free from color at the
pit, because the extraction of the red color dyes the juice; in
drying, the demand just now is for a yellow peach with a red
center, because the colors give the dried fruit a more attractive
appearance. Of course there is a market for dried white peaches,
but the preference is for the yellow.

In the enumeration following the table only those seed-
lings which are now commercially propagated are included.
Many which were prominent ten years ago have been dropped
by this test. The writer has record of many others, some of
them likely to rise to important place, which are reserved until
after further trial.

The Most Popular Peaches. 239
PEACH VARIETIES APPROVED By CALIFORNIA GROWERS.
Upper Central duteelor M tai
ont ountain
VARIETIES. Coast Coast - ee valley outer
Satie rr and ‘ California.
Ss. valleys. | root-nitis.| region.
Alexander.....cccccssessee
Amsden...,..
Albright..

Bilyeu...... ....
Briggs’ May

California Cling. .
Decker si siesiessiens
Early Charlotte...
Early Crawford...
Early York........

Elberta....
Foster ............

George Fourth..
George’s Late Cling

Gen. Bidwell

b ce
Golden Cling (Sellers)...
Hale’s Early.....

Heath Cling ..
Henrietta......
Honest Abe..
Indian Blood.
La Grange......

Late Crawford..
Lemon Cling ....

(oh) | ere
McDevitt Cling.
McKevitt Early.

McKevitt Cling...

Mary’s Choice..
Morris’ White...

Nicholl’s Cling..

Oldmixon Free
Orange Cling....
Persian Cling....

Phillips’ Cling...
Piquet’s Late....
Ronyen's s oF ie a
Salway... gi saiva ecards fats

Smock...

Strawberry ..
Stump. .
Susquehanna ..
Tuskena. ......
Wheatland ..

Wylie Cling. .....

Yellow Tuscany

240 Varieties of the Peach.

The following are the peaches chicfy grown in California,
arranged approximately in the order of ripening :—

Briggs’ Red May (California).—Originated as a chance seedling in
nursery row, on the farm of John G. Briggs, on the Feather River, about
one mile from Yuby City, about 1870. It was found to be about ten days
earlier than the Early Tillotson, which was then the stand-by for an early
peach. Fruit medium to large, round; white skin with rich, red cheek;
flesh greenish white, melting, juicy, rich, firm enough for shipment; stone
partially free, a standard early variety; subject to mildew.

Alexander (\\linois)—Most widely grown as best early variety. Fruit
medium to large; greenish white, nearly covered with deep red; flesh firm,
juicy, and sweet; bears transportation well; pit partly free.

Amsden (Missouri).—Resembles preceding, but averages smaller;
claimed by some to be slightly earlier; rather less liable to curl-leaf.

Early Imperial (California).— Originated by W. W. Smith, Vacaville,
and planted to secure a yellow freestone earlier or larger than St. John.
Most growers find it no improvement on St. John.

Yellow St. John (New Orleans).—Earliest yellow peach; averages
smaller than Yellow Crawford, but classed as large; roundish, orange yel-
low with deep red cheek; juicy, sweet, and high flavored; freestone.

Hale's Early (Ohio).—Medium to large, nearly round; skin greenish,
mostly covered and mottled with red when ripe; flesh white, melting, juicy,
rich and sweet; fair for local market and shipping; widely grown; freestone.

Strawberry (New Jersey).—Medium size, oval; stem cavity deeply
sunk; suture extending half way round; skin almost wholly marbled with
deep red; flesh whitish, juicy, rich and delicate; tree healthy.

Foster (Massachusetts).—Uniformly large, slightly flattened; slight
suture; stem moderately depressed; flesh yellow, very rich and juicy; color
deep orange, dark red in the sun; freestone; tree hardy and productive;
very widely grown in California and popular. Ripens before Early Craw-
ford, which it sometimes resembles, but is of better quality.

Crawford's Early (New Jersey).— Very large, oblong, swollen, point
at the top prominent, suture shallow; skin yellow, with red cheek; flesh yel-
low, rich, and excellent; freestone; tree very healthy and productive;
probably the most largely planted variety in California.

George the Fourth (New York).—Large, round, deeply divided by
broad suture; sides unequal; skin pale yellowish white, dotted with red and
red cheek; flesh pale, red at pit, from which it parts freely; quality good.
Somewhat troubled with curl-leaf.

Snow (American).—Large, globular; skin clear, beautiful, almost
wholly white; flesh white to the free stone, juicy, rich and sprightly.

Mary's Choice (New Jersey).—Large, yellow, resembling Early Craw-
ford, but ripening later.

Red Cheek Melocoton (American).—Large, roundish oval, swollen
point at top; yellow, with deep red cheek; flesh yellow, red at stone, which
is free; juicy, good flavor. Approved in Humboldt and San Benito
Counties.

Tuskena (Alabama or Mississippi).—Wrongly called ‘‘ Tuscan” and
“Tustin ’’ Cling in this State; largely planted in interior valleys and foot-
hills; very large yellow cling; the earliest fine cling variety; very valuable
for early shipping. Ripens with Crawford’s Early.

Oldmixon Free (American).—Large, roundish or slightly oval; greenish
or yellowish white, marbled with red; flesh white, tender, and excellent,
juicy and rich; high flavor.

Honest Abe (California ).—‘ Originated at Healdsburg, Sonoma
County. Large, yellow, with red cheek; best quality; ripens between Craw-
ford’s Early and Late. Does not curl.’’—James Shinn,

ONITO LIASGOW AHL

‘the a8ed 22S—ONITGAAS VINNOAIIVO V

Varieties of the Peach. 241

_ Morris White.—Large, oval; skin white with creamy tint when fully
ripe; flesh white to the stone, which is free; melting, juicy, sweet, and rich;
especially good for home use and canning; somewhat subject to curl-leaf.

_, Wager (New York).—Lemon yellow tinged with red; flesh yellow,
rich, juicy, sweet, and excellent, having much the appearance and flavor of
apricots; stone small and free from the flesh; quality best.

_Muir (California).—Originated as chance seedling on place of John
Muir, near Silveyville, named and first propagated by G. W. Thissell, of
Winters. Fruit large to very large; perfect freestone; flesh clear yellow,
very dense, rich and sweet; pit small; tree a good bearer and strong grower,
if on rich roil, to which it is best adapted; free from curl in Vacaville district;
fruit a good shipper and canner and peculiarly adapted to drying because of
exceptional sweetness and density of flesh; yield, one pound dry from less
than five pounds fresh. One of the best California seedlings. Claimed by
some to be identical with Wager. i

_. Wheatland (New York).—Large, roundish; skin golden yellow, shaded
with crimson; flesh yellow, rather firm, juicy, sweet, and of fine quality.
£ilberta (Georgia).—Very large; round-oval with deep suture; golden-
yellow, faint red stripes; flesh yellow, fine, juicy, rich and sweet; tree prolific;
perfect freestone.

Newhall (California).—‘.Originated with Sylvester Newhall, of San
Jose. Very large; skin yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh deep yellow,
juicy, and a rich, vinous flavor; ripens about one week before Crawford’s
Late ; tree very hardy, healthy, vigorous, and not affected’ by curl; free-
stone.”’—/John Rock.

Stump the World (New Jersey).—Large, strong; skin creamy white,
with bright red cheek ; flesh white, juicy and high flavored. Commended
for family use by Southern California Nurserymen’s Association. Curls
somewhat in some localities ; freestone.

Crawford's Late (New Jersey).—Very large, roundish, yellow with
dark red cheek; flesh deep yellow, juicy, and melting; flavor rich and excel-
lent; a popular and widely-grown variety, but very subject to curl-leaf in
some localities; freestone.

Lemon Cling stone (South Carolina).—Large, lemon-shaped or oblong,
having large, projecting, swollen point like a lemon; skin fine yellow; flesh
firm, yellow with rich, sprightly, vinous subacid; slightly red at the pit,
which adheres firmly.

Orange Clingstone.—Large, round; suture distinctly marked and ex-
tending nearly around the fruit; no swelling at apex, like Lemon Cling-
stone; deep orange color, with red cheek; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, with
rich flavor; somewhat subject to mildew. Though largely grown, this vari-
ety has been largely supplanted by the following sub-varieties, which are
seedlings from it.

Sellers’ Golden Cling (California.)—Originated on the farm of S. A.
Sellers, Contra Costa County, and introduced by James Shinn. Very large,
rich golden color; tree healthy; one of the very best of clings; ripens with
Late Crawford.

Runyon’s Orange Cling (California).—‘' Originated with Mr. Sol. Run-
yon, on the Sacramento River. Superior to the common Orange Cling.
Runyon’s Orange Cling has globose glands, and is not subject to mildew
like the common sort. Fruit very large, yellow, with a dark crimson
cheek; rich, sugary, and vinous flavor. Highly esteemed and extensively
planted in the Sacramento region and elsewhere.”’—/ohn Rock.

Nichols’ Orange Cling (California).—Originated by Joseph Nichols,
of Niles, introduced by James Shinn. Large, yellow, with purple cheek;
flesh yellow and good. Tree healthy and a heavy bearer.

Peck’s Orange Cling (California).—‘Originated at Healdsburg, So-
noma County. Improved seedling of Orange Cling, of Downing. Large,

242 Varieties of the Peach.

handsome, yellow-fleshed, free from curl, hardy, vigorous, productive,
superior for market or drying; planted more extensively in Santa Rosa Val-
ley than in any other.’’—Luther Burbank. :

Stilson (California).—‘‘ Originated at Marysville(?). Perfect in shape;
very large; red cheek with crimson stripes; yellow-fleshed, more highly
colored than Susquehanna; table and market quality excellent; ripens after
Crawford’s Late; treestone.’”—P. W. Butler.

Susquehanna (Pennsylvania).— Large, nearly globular; suture half
round; skin rich yellow, ncarly covered with red; flesh yellow, sweet, juicy,
with rich, vinous flavor; freestone; tree healthy. Very widely distributed
and popular.

Mc Cowan's Cling (California).—Originated with Dr. McCowan, of
Ukiah. Yellow cling; round, smooth outline; no suture; no red at pit,
which is small; flesh firm, fine-grained, and sweet; not much subject to curl;
fruit apt to run small unless carefully thinned; reported an irregular bearer
in Alameda County; liked by canners; approved in Placer County.

Phillips’ Cling—A California Seedling.

Lovell (California).—Originated as chance seedling with G. W. Thissell,
and named by him in 1882; propagated by Leonard Coates, of Napa. Yel-
low freestone; size uniformly large, almost perfectly round; flesh fine, text-
ure firm, solid, clear yellow to the pit; tree a good grower and bearer;
superior for canning and shipping, and dries well. Said to curl in some
places. ‘The richest peach I ever saw on a tray.’’—&. A. Bonine, Los
Angeles County.

Mc Kevitts’ Cling (California).—Originated as chance seedling in apri-
cot orchard planted by M. R. Miller, on place owned later by A. McKevitt,
Vaca Valley; named in 1882 by nurserymen who propagated it. A white
clingstone; flesh very firm, fine-grained, sugary, and rich, high flavor, white
to the pit; skin strong and fruit excellent for shipping or canning; tree
remarkably strong in growth and free from disease. Widely distributed.

Varieties of the Peach. 243

Wyle Cling.—An old seedling, increasing in popularity in northern
Sonora County as superior to Orange Cling in not splitting at the pit, and
not dropping from the tree. A fine peach for canning and drying.

General Bidwell (California).—Originated from a shoot from a peach
root upon which an apricot had grown and died, on Rancho Chico. Named
by State Horticultural Society, September 4, 1886, and commended for cul-
tivation. Ripens one week later than Late Crawford and ahead of Salway
and Piquet’s Late. About the shape of the Orange Cling, but larger; very
yellow with reddish cheek; flesh very solid, juicy, and rich; freestone and
a small pit.

California; syn. Edward’s Cling (California).—‘ Originated in Sacra-
mento. Very large, round, regular; orange, nearly covered with dark, rich
red; flesh deep yellow; flavor delicate, rich, vinous.’—C W. Reed.

Picquet’s Late (Georgia).—Large to very large; round, sometimes a
little flattened; yellow, with red cheek; flesh yellow, melting, sweet, rich and
fragrant; freestone; not subject to curl-leaf.

Smock Freestone (New Jersey).—‘‘Large, yellow, mottled with red; mod-

erately rich and juicy. A better drying peach than Salway.”’—Z. A. Bonine.

La Grange (New Jersey).—Large, oblong; greenish white, some red
on sunny side ; not desirable in coast regions ; freestone.

Salway (English ).—Large, roundish oblate; suture broad, deep, extend-
ing beyond the apex; skin downy, creamy yellow, rich, clear, crimson
cheek; flesh deep yellow, red at the pit; juicy, rich, sweet, vinous; freestone;
a standard late peach in California; tree very healthy.

Phillips Cling (California).—Originated with Joseph Phillips, of Sutter
County; propagated by J. T. Bogue, of Marysville. Fine large yellow cling,
no color at pit, which is very small; exceedingly rich and high-colored; de-
scribed by Mr. Skinner, superintendent Marysville Cannery, as the best
peach he ever used.

Persian’s Cling (California.)—‘‘ Originated in Visalia, probably from
seed of Heath Cling, and a few days earlier than its parent. Large; clear
white skin and flesh, the latter very sweet; commended for canning.”’—JZ. H.
Thomas, Tulare County. ,

Heath (Maryland).—Described by Downing as the most delicious of all
clingstones. Very large; skin downy, creamy white, with faint blush of red;
flesh greenish white, very tender and juicy, with most luscious flavor; best
adapted to interior regions, or places free from curl.

Steadly (Missouri).—‘‘ Large to very large; white skin; flesh white at
the pit, firm, rich, and good flavor; freestone. Produces very heavy yield
of dried fruit.’—Z. H. Thomas, Tulare County.

George’s Late Cling (California).—‘‘ Originated in Sacramento. Large;
white flesh, colored around the pit; beautiful yellow color, striped and
splashed with bright red; a very heavy and uniform bearer; a good shipper,
and at its season of ripening there is no peach grown in Placer County
that yields the grower so much profit.’—P. W. Butler. Subject to mildew
in some localities. :

Yellow Tuscany (Dura cini, Tuscany).—A very large yellow cling; prop-
agated by G. Tosetti, formerly of San Leandro; tree a strong grower and
free from curl-leaf. very productive. On the basis of its behavior at the
University Experiment Station at Pomona, this variety has recently been
largely planted in southern California. It is counted the best yellow cling
for canning in that section. Ripens with Lemon Cling.

Albright’s Cling (California).—‘‘Originated with Mr. Albright, near
Placerville. Very large; yellow, with bright cheek; rarely equaled in qual-
ity and flavor. Described as larger, more highly colored, of better flavor.
better shape, and the tree a more prolific bearer than the Orange Cling.’’—
P. W. Butler, Endures long shipment well even after being well colored.

Mc Devitt Cling.—Originated with Neal McDevitt, of Placer County.
Uniformly large; rich, golden yellow, becoming red when ripe; flesh very

244 Relative Ripening of Peaches.

firm and solid, superior in flavor; excellent shipper; tree good and regular
bearer.”’

Staley (California). Very large; eleven and one-half inches in circum-
ference; somewhat elongated and flattened laterally; rich, creamy white
with very faint touches of light red; suture shallow, but almost continuous
around the peach; stone small and perfectly free, cavity considerably longer
than stone; flesh white to the pit, very juicy, fine, tender; flavor delicious.
Originated as sucker from peach root from which prune had been broken
off in Selma, Fresno County. Ripens twenty days after Salway or four
weeks after Susquehanna. A high-class white freestone. Introduced by
F. M. Nevins, Selma. ; a

Levy’s Late; syn. Flenrietta (District of Columbia).—Above average
size, yellow flesh, red cheek; late; clingstone.

Bilyeu’s Late October —‘‘Large; greenish white with red cheek; flesh
whitish, freestone; tree a rapid grower and attains great size; prolific bearer;
fruit ships well, and where it will mature no peach can take its place; does
particularly well in the foot-hills.’—P. H” Butler.

Decker (California)—Grown for eastern shipment, in Vaca Valley,
and in Sutter and Butte Counties.

DATES OF RIPENING OF LEADING VARIETIES.

_The relative ripening of a large number of peach varieties, as noted at the Univer-
sity Experiment Station, near Pomona, will be useful to planters in determining proper
succession of varieties.

VARIETY. First flower. Full flower, Ripe.
Briggs’ Red Maysusec iiceowaeseces: March 4 ...... March 24 ...... June 16
Amsden’s June...... fee Sevens March 8 ws... March 25 ...... June 17
PISKAN AE Rirssspcavccesansccammdns sanuecde March 17 ...... March 31 ...... June 17
Large Eanly VOR «ccccceseceansnnsies March 4 ...... March 18 ..... July 15
Yellow St. JOM accsssesnsusnwesectes March 4 ...... March 12 ...... July 17
Crawford's Early: ..cccie sesseenioees March 2 ...... March I5 ...... July = a1
FlOSUED ssssecnssceteundes senbiseusoxeeacnas March 4 ...... March 15 ...... July = 21
Oldmixon Free 2 March, 7 sce March 18) sce uly 25
Morris White... March 4 ...... March I5 ...... Aug 3
Mite orcsenss aooseatechesenneme aia at March 8 ...... March 23 ...... Aug. 5
SUSGUCHATINA 16. eedswaiereccoscncnase March 4 ...... March 14 ...... Aug. 5
Crawiord’sS: Late sss ccecisetsimsecéacainas March 2 ...... March I ...... Aug. 8
INGWhiall hiiccccinin vectecakatsawcnsencosven March 4 ...... March 14 ...... Aug. 8
Runyon’s Orange Cling............ Mateh! 2! sescez March 14 ...... Aug. 8
California: CHING. .cacsssceiecnsies vos Mareh, 2 savas March 16 ...... Aug. 12
Stump’ the World sscssesensveonsanees March 2 ...... March 16 ...... Aug. 12
Lovell eresen: cremutereccesuewmen aria Feb. 28 aan. March 49 ...... Aug. 13
Nichols’ Orange Cling wo Marchi 4 <.c:; March 14 ...... Aug. 14
Seller’s Cling. cccesx.s w March 2 scons March 14 ...... Aug. 14
McDevitt’s Cling. .....cceeesecseeeeeee March, 2 ...0... March 18 ...... Aug. 16
MCKEvitt’s Cling ..c.iese-. cxceverones March 2 000. March Ig ...... Aug. 19
Walkins Cig: ccccsmscssseveoosvencns March: 3 asses March 14 ...... Aug. 20
Indian: BlOOdsescisecssiecwessencsomeness March 65: sess March 25 ...... Aug. 20
Yellow Tuscany Cling ....3. 0... March 5 we March Io ...... Aug. 21
Lemon Cline sciscssevtacanccsnenens March 14 ...... April 2 sssaes Aug. 21
Smock’s Late Free ............ 46.008 March 4 ...... March 18 ..... Aug. 28
PiGGUEES Teatey cic. scccts bs cacnasonecdes March 5 ...... March J8 ...... Sept. I
Staley’s California. » Mareh 2... March 15 ...... Sept. 6
Henrietta......... w Mare’. 6. cscs March 15 ...... Sept. 15
Heath?s Cn? sievsierssinsennes ase March 7 azases March 14 wu... Sept. 15

Sal wayisiwsusepssiavenaneesewanaessawes Marchi. 9. sss March 4g ...... Sept. 18

CHAPTER 2X,
THE NECTARINE.

The nectarine reaches perfection under California condi-
tions, as does its close relative, the peach. The fruit is, in fact,
as Downing says, only a variety of the peach with a smooth
skin; only a distinct, accidental variety of the peach; and this is
rendered quite certain, since there are several well-known ex-
amples on record of both peaches and nectarines having been
produced on the same branch. Nectarine pits usually produce
nectarines again, but they occasionally produce peaches. Peach
seeds occasionally produce nectarines; the Boston variety origi-
nated from a peach stone.* All these facts which are recorded
of the relation between the peach and nectarine have been ver-
ified by California observation.

The practise of growing nectarines is also exactly like that
employed with the peach. It is propagated and pruned in the
same ways, except that, as pointed cut by Mr. Culbertson, the
nectarine has more of a tendency to form short interior growths,
and fruit buds are formed on the larger new growths, thus en-
abling the pruner to cut them back more closely, and yet have
an abundance of fruit buds remain. The peach and nectarines
are the same in natural adaptations and requirements, and in
diseases, so that what has been given concerning the growth
of the peach in this State has an apt application in the case of
the nectarine.

The success of the nectarine worked on almond stock, as
has been demonstrated by the experience of many, has led to
the grafting over a good many unprofitable almond trees to
nectarine, though this has not been done to the extent to which
the French prune and some other plums have been worked on
old almond stocks.

Comparative Production of Nectarine and Peach—It may be
wondered, considering the similarity of the peach and the nec-
tarine, why the former is our leading fruit and the latter is the
least grown, but one, of all the temperate zone fruits, only the
lowly quince being less in importance. The explanation is that

* “ Downing’s Fruit and Fruit Trees,” p. 565.

( 245 )

246 The Nectarine Not in Favor.

the fruit buyer, both in California and at the East, prefers the
peach, whether it be fresh, or canned, or dried, and some of
those who have tried even a few acres of nectarines have found
many occasions to wish the ground had been given to peaches.
How much of this preference is due to lack of knowledge of the
nectarine, and how much to its somewhat different flavor, it
would be difficult to accurately determine.

It is altogether probable that the nectarine will advance in
popular favor. This has been prophesied for some years, it is
tiue, the expectation being based upon the wonderful excellence
of the nectarine as grown in our interior valleys, and the passing
beauty of the amber translucency of the dried nectarine, both
when sun-dried in the interior, and when produced by machine
evaporators. The excellence of the canned nectarine has also
figured in the anticipation. It must, however, be acknowledged
that anticipation has not yet been largely realized, for it is esti-
mated that the amount of dried nectarines is but five per cent,
and of canned nectarines considerably less than two per cent, of
the respective forms of peaches. Nor does the demand call for
change in this proportion, for there is a slight advantage in the
market value of the peach even in its great preponderance of
supply. Still there are many who arc very confident that it will
in the future rank much higher in the California fruit product.
It would please growers and fruit driers and canners to popular-
ize the nectarine, for its smooth skin makes it as easy to handle
as an apricot, and the beauty of the product, which certainly ex-
ceeds that of the peach, and is rather more easily attained, is
very gratifying to the producer.

VARIETIES OF THE NECTARINE.

Varieties of the nectarine, as of the peach, show different
local adaptations, and are valued by growers accordingly. The
varieties grown are, however, comparatively few. The tollowing
have been found most satisfactory in California; the descriptions
are somewhat condensed from Downing’s treatise, modified to
suit local growth, and arranged approximately in the order of
the ripening of the varieties :—

Advance.—Large, round, green, marked with red and brown; flesh
greenish white; rich and well flavored. . The earliest to ripen.

Lord Napier (English).—Large, pale cream color with dark red cheek;
flesh white, melting, tender and juicy, separating freely from stone; leaf
glands reniform and flowers large. Especially commended as a heavy and
regular bearer; pronounced best in flavor at Pomona Experiment Station.

Downton (English).—Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit
large, roundish oval; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek; flesh
pale stsct, slightly red at the stone, which is free, melting, rich, and very
good.

Early Newington (English).—Leaves serrated without glands, flowers
large; fruit large, roundish ovate, a little enlarged on one side, and termi-

Varieties of the Nectarine. 247

nating with an acute, swollen point; skin pale green, but nearly covered with
bright red and coated with thin bloom; flesh greenish white, but deep
red at stone, which adheres closely, juicy, sugary, rich, and excellent.

Hlardwicke (English).—Leaves with globose glands; fruit very large,
roundish, inclining to oval; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek;
flesh pale green, slightly marked with red at the stone, melting, rich, and
high-flavored; freestone. This variety is a favorite in southern California;
described by the Southern California Nurserymen’s Association as being
the only satisfactory bearer.

Boston.—Raised from a peach stone by T. Lewis, of Boston; tree hardy
and productive; leaves with globose glands; flowers small; fruit large and
handsome, roundish oval, bright yellow, with deep red cheek; flesh yellow
to the stone (which is small and pointed), sweet, though not rich, with pleas-
ant and peculiar flavor; freestone; a general favorite in California.

New White; syn. Large White.—Leaves with reniform glands; flowers
large; fruit rather large, nearly round; skin white with occasionally slight
tinge of red; flesh white, tender, very juicy, with rich, vinous flavor; stone
small and free; commended wherever nectarines are grown in California,
and more freely planted than all other nectarines combined.

Stanwick. — Originated in England from seed brought from Syria.
Large, roundish oval, slightly heart-shaped at base; skin pale, greenish
white, shaded into deep, rich violet in the sun; flesh white, tender, juicy,
rich, sugary, and delicious.

_ Aumboldt.—Very large, bright orange yellow vigorously marked with
crimson, flesh orange, tender; juicy, and high flavored. Described as one
of the best of the newer varieties. Ripens late.

As the future for the nectarine seems to rest upon drying
and canning of the fruit, the light-skinned, white or yellow-
fleshed varieties without color at the stone, are most desirable.
For drying there has been thus far a decided preference for free-
stone varieties, though possibly the present popularity of cling
peaches for drying may extend to the clingstone nectarines.
Much color, however, either in skin or flesh, will prevent the
production of the beautiful translucent, amber hue of the dried
nectarine, which is attractive to consumers. Color in the flesh
is, of course, undesirable in canning, because of discoloration
‘of the syrup. These facts have had much to do in fixing the
popularity of the varieties named in the foregoing list.

At present the largest orchards of nectarines are in interior
valley locations, which are also fine peach counties and are per-
fectly adapted both to the growing of the iruit and to the open-
air, sun-drying of it.

’

CHAPTER 1
THE PEAR.

The oldest deciduous fruit trees in California are pear trees,
as has already been stated in the account of fruits at the old
missions, and some of the trees are still bearing, though it is a
century and a quarter since their planting. The pear withstands
neglect and thrives in soils and situations which other fruit trees
would rebel against. It defies drouth and excessive moistiire,
and patiently proceeds with its fruitage, even when the soil is
trampled almost to rocky hardness by cattle, carrying its fruit
and foliage aloft above their reach. And yet the pear repays
care and good treatment, and receives them from California
growers, for the pear is one of our most profitable fruits. It is
in demand for canning, for drying, and for distant shipment,
and its long season and the slow ripening after picking allow
deliberation in marketing, and admit of enjoying low rates for
shipment by slow trains. The pear has not the beauty of the
peach, nor is its handling characterized by so much dash and
spirit, but the production of favorite market varieties at a time
when the market welcomes them, is about as well repaid as any
effort of the California fruit grower.

The most obvious marks of the California pear are size and
beauty. The most conspicuous example is the Bartlett, which
is the pear of California, judged by its popularity, fresh, canned
and dried. When well grown, its size is grand, and its delicate
color, aroma, and richness unsurpassed. What extreme in point
of size has been reached is not known to the writer, but he saw
at the San Jose Horticultural Fair, of 1886, thirteen Bartlett
pears grown by A. Block, of Santa Clara, which weighed four-
teen pounds, the heaviest of the group weighing twenty-two and
one-half ounces. Other pears have made standard sizes in
California far in advance of their records elsewhere. There was
in 1870 a Pound pear sent from Sacramento to the late Marshall
P. Wilder, president of the American Pomological Society,
which weighed four pounds nine ounces, and was reported by

( 248 )

Two-thirds of natural size.
THE WINTER BARTLETT PEAR: GROWN BY G. C. ROEDING, OF FRESNO.
See page 250.

Originated at Eugene, Oregon, about 1870; resembles Bartlett in appear
ance; smooth, with brown dots; tender, juicy and melting; flavor
like Winter Nelis; very Jate; believed to be of
much value for late shipping.

Localities for the Pear. 249

Colonel Wilder to be larger than anything previously recorded
in pear annals.* Notes kept by the writer include five Vicar of
Winkfields weighing four pounds eight ounces; nine Easter
Beurre weighing twenty-iour and one-half pounds, the heaviest
single specimen weighing two and three-fourths pounds; thirty-
five Beurre Clairgeau weighing thirty-seven pounds, the heaviest
one, nineteen ounces; Seckel pears, nine and three-fourths inches
in circumference—Downing’s figures make the Seckel five and
seven-eighths inches around.

LOCALITIES FOR THE PEAR.

_ The pear has a wider range than the apple in local adapta-
tions. It does as well as the apple in the coast regions, if suita-
ble varieties are grown; it thrives far better than the apple in
the interior valleys; it rivals the apple in the ascent of the slope
of the Sierra Nevada, and gains from the altitude, color and late
keeping, as does the apple. By rejecting a tew naturally tender
varieties, or by proper protection against the scab fungus (fusi-
cladium dendriticum), in regions where its attacks are severe, one
can grow pears almost everywhere in California.

The choice of location is governed more by commercial
considerations than by natural phenomena. The same facts
which make the Bartlett the favorite variety with planters, also
should regulate the choice of locality for growing it. These
facts were expressed by the late C. W. Reed, of Sacramento, one
of the leading pear growers and shippers of the State, as fol-
lows :—

In the Sacramento Valley proper there is but one variety of pear that
will justify extensive cultivation, viz., the Bartlett. While nearly all varie-
ties may be grown successfully, and many varieties may be desirable for
home purposes, yet for profitable orchards we have to confine ourselves to
this one variety, except in high altitudes, or localities where the fruit only
matures very late. The reason for this will be better understood by the
inexperienced if exp'ained. The Bartlett pear having qualities that make
it a universal favorite for shipping, canning, and for domestic market, no
other variety is wanted while it is obtainable. With the difference in the
time of its ripening in different localities that are adjacent, our markets are
supplied with this variety about four months each season, viz., July, August,
September, and October. While this pear is in the markets, any other
variety to compete with it must sell at very low prices. It is not only the
great demand the Bartlett pear has over the other varieties in the markets,
but as a healthy grower and regular bearer it has no equal. In the higher
altitudes, where pears will keep till the Bartlett has disappeared, other
varieties may be quite profitable, although they can never be grown to any
similar extent.

Of course experienced pear growers, whose taste would
secon cloy with a continuous diet of Bartletts, and who know
fully the superior quality of other varieties which ripen soon

* Tillon’s Journal of Horticulture, March, 1871, p. 87. An engraving of this fruit, natural
size, was given in Pacific Rural Press, Nov. 8, 1873.

17

250 Popularity of the Bartlett.

after it, would dispute the position taken by Mr. Reed, but for
present California taste and trade he is undoubtedly correct.
As the canners and shippers and local consumers all call for
Bartletts, and as they usually sell at the East for nearly twice
the price of other varieties, the choice of location to secure a
Bartlett, either very early or very late, is the part of wisdom, for
either end of the season usually yields better prices than the
middle. Some growers are even opening the Bartlett season by
growing Clapp’s Favorite, which sells well because it is taken
for a Bartlett, and closing the season with the Winter Bartlett,
a local variety recently introduced. The earliest Bartletts come
from the interior valley; the next, from the valleys adjacent to
the bay of San Francisco; the next, from the higher foot-hills
of the Sierra Nevada; and the last, so far as present experience
goes, although some coast and mountain situations are quite
late, reach the market from the Vacaville district. It is an in-
teresting fact that this district, which has long been famous for
marketing the first early fruits, should also market very late
ones. It is true, however, that early fruits hasten to maturity
and late fruits are retarded. Late iruits push along until about
midsummer, then stop growing for 2 month or two during the
hottest weather, and afterwards proceed on their course and fin-
ish up well. W. W. Smith, of Vaca Valley, has picked Bartletts
as late as November 19, but that is unusually late. In years
with heavy late spring rains the Bartlett ripens earlier in the
Vaca Valley than in ordinary seasons, and when the fruit sells
well in the East, the Bartletts are gathered green and shipped all
through the season, as their first growth usually makes them
large enough for this purpose.

Though the Bartlett is in wide favor, as stated, there is some
progress being made in introducing other varieties, as will be
stated in connection with the discussion of the adaptations of
varieties. This substitution of other sorts is in part because
the merit of others is being recognized, and in part because in
some regions some of them are healthier and more trustworthy
bearers than the Bartlett.

There is produced in some situations a “second crop” of
‘Bartletts which is of account, the bloom appearing upon the tips
of the shoots of the current season’s growth.

SOILS FOR THE PEAR.

The pear will generally do well on shallow soil and over a
tight, clay hard-pan, where most other fruits would be unsatis-
factory or fail utterly. The trees will thrive in clay loams, and
even in adobe, if properly cultivated. In laying out fruit farms;
which often include a variety of soils, even in comparatively
small area, the pears and plums (if on the right stock, as will be

The California Bartlett, 251

seen) should be set on the lower, moister, stiffer soil, and other
fruits ou the lighter, warmer, and better-drained portions. The
pear, however, enjoys the better situation, though it will thrive
on the poorer. The tree seems to attain its greater growth and
heaviest bearing on the alluvial soils of the valleys and near the

THE BARTLETT PEAR AS GROWN IN CALIFORNIA.

This is a medium-sized specimen, and was grown by James O'Neil, of Haywards, from a bud
brought from original Bartlett stock in Massachusetts.

252 Planting the Pear.

banks of rivers and streams. All pears will be later in maturing
and have better keeping qualities if grown on a clay subsoil.
Thus it appears that the pear will flourish whether the water is
near or far from the surtace. As compared with the apple, it
may be said that on wet land the apple tree dies in a few years,
or becomes worthless. On dry land it lives longer, but the fruit
is small and tasteless, and comparatively worthless. But the pear
tree will bear good fruit, under the same conditions, and its mar-
ket price will average higher than that of the apple.

It has been learned by experience that the pear will flourish
on soil somewhat alkaline. At the University Agricultural
Experiment Station at Tulare, this subject has been demon-
strated in detail. It is shown that though the pear endures a
certain amount of alkali its limit of endurance may be often ex-
ceeded and there is little warrant to select alkali soil for pears,
unless it be to fill a space that would otherwise be vacant in the
orchard. If it is not too alkaline the pears will thrive. If gyp-
sum be used in planting, somewhat stronger alkali will be en-
dured than otherwise.

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING.

The use of dwarfing stock for the pear has been. nearly
abandoned in this State, though in early years the quince was
largely used. The most prominent orchard on quince stock is
that of A. Block, of Santa Clara, where may be seen dwarf trees
set eight feet apart in squares, which are doing exceedingly well
under his liberal system of manuring and irrigation. It is quite
possible that, at least for gardens, we shall see in the future more
use made of dwarf trees, but for commercial orchards there ap-
pears no need of dwarfing. It is better to have fewer trees and
larger ones.

The following varieties are commended for cultivation on
quince stock as dwarts, experience proving them vigorous grow-
ers and abundant bearers in suitable localities: Bartlett, Beurre
Hardy, Doyenne du Comice, Duchess d’Angouleme, Beurre
Diel, White Doyenne, Easter Buerre, Winter Nelis, Emile
‘dHeyst, P. Barry.* 4

But, the pear is usually grown in California on its own
roots. It comes into ‘bearing early enough, and is a long-
lived tree. Trees are grown by either budding or grafting, as
described in the chapter on that subject. Only good seedling
‘roots should be used, and not suckers from old trees. The Jap-
anese stock, so called, being seedlings of the Sand pear, of
Asia, has been used to some extent by our tree growers.

* Catalogue California Nursery Co.

Pruning the Pear. 253

Distance in Planting.—-If the pears are to have the whole
ground, it is usual to plant from twenty to twenty-four feet apart
on the square. As the tree is slower to attain size and full bear-
ing than the stone fruits, and as it is a long-lived tree, the pears
ale sometimes set twenty-four feet with plums in quincunx.
Peaches and apricots are also set between pears sometimes,
when the soil chosen for pears suits them also.

PRUNING.

Usually the pear is grown in the vase form, as described in
the general chapter on pruning. With regular, upright grow-
ers, heading low and cutting to outside buds results in a hand-
some, gently-spreading top, and effectually curbs the disposition
which some varieties, notably the Bartlett, have to run straight
up with main branches crowded together. The accompanying
engravings show how a vase-form tree is developed from an up-

Bartlett Pear after First, Second and Third Winter Pruning.

right grower like the Bartlett, from an unbranched yearling cut
back to about eighteen inches. A longer stem and more widely-
spaced branches would be better, but the pear stands crowded
branches better than other trees because of the strength of the
wood. The engravings do not show relative sizes of the trees
but merely the method of branching.

254 Pruning the Pear.

As with other fruit trees, the pear must be studied and
pruning must be done with an understanding of the habit of the
variety under treatment. Irregular and wayward growers,
which, in windy places, also have their rambling disposition
promoted by prevailing winds, often give the grower much per-
plexity. .The general rules of cutting to an outside bud to
spread the tree, to an inside bud to raise and concentrate it, and
to an outside bud one year and an inside bud the next, if a limb
is desired to continue in a certain course, are all helpful to the
pruner. But with some pears, of which the Winter Nelis is a
conspicuous example, it is exceedingly hard to shape the tree
by these general rules, and some growers abandon all rules,
merely shortening in where too great extension is seen, or to
facilitate cultivation, and trust to shaping the tree when it shall
have finished its rampant growing period. It will be interest-
ing to cite a few methods of California pear growers:—

“The Winter Nelis pear is an uncouth grower. Let the trees alone
until they have borne a good, heavy crop, and the limbs come down and
spread out nicely; this will occur in five or six years after setting. This
will give you an idea what you want to do with the balance of the top that
is not borne down with fruit. My plan is to cutstraggling branches, thin out
so that the branches will not wind around each otner, but don’t cut the top,
for you will find that the more you cut the more wood you get, and after
the tree comes into full bearing is plenty time to head back.’’—A4. Cadwell,
Petaluma.

“Our orchard is not in a very windy place, but still it is windy enough
to throw our Nelis trees out of form. To get any regularity of shape, we
cut off every year all the shoots growing low down on the leeward side,
shortening in what are left as occasion may require, to an inside bud. On
the windward side we rarely cut any branch out, but shorten in a little
to an outside bud, frequently being obliged to cut back a strong shoot to a
lateral which is growing outward.’’—Leonard Coates, Napa.

“Itis hard to get a misshapen Winter Nelis tree into shape. Let the
grower take his shears and go around the tree and examine the difficulty
until he is conversant with it, and then commence to prune, not too heavily
though. Cut the limbs that lean too far ‘leewards’ back a little with an in-
side bud, and train all future limbs toward the weather side of the tree; cut
the limbs this year so the coming buds will form limbs growing in the
direction of the weather side of the tree. But use moderation and take your
time for it, and don’t cut too many big limbs off three-year-old trees—none,
in fact, ifit can be helped. In bringing limbs to proper place, I have found
a piece of corn-stalk the required length for the intended place, inserted
endwise between the limb and the bedy of the tree to be spread, to be a
very good brace, easily made, and not likely to injure the tree.’— 7. EZ. Owen,
Santa Cruz.

These methods will suggest others by which one can bring
the most irregular grower into shape. If the tree is cut at
planting so as to form the head low, it may be safely left until
bearing age for shaping. The tree naturally makes a viny
growth of young wood, and the object of leaving it alone is
that one limb holds the other more upright until the main limbs

Thinning and Irrigation. 255

become large, or stiff enough to keep the shape; so they may
be left, after being thinned out to form three to five limbs, as
judgment may direct. Some trees will be best with three or
four, others five.

The experience of pear pruning just cited has been secured
in regions more or less subject to coast influences. In the hot
interior valleys, with the pear as with the apple, care must be
taken to prune so as not to open the tree too much to the sun,
but to shorten in and thin out only so far as is consistent with
maintaining a good covering of foliage.

The pruning of bearing pear trees is much like that of the
apple, to be determined largely by the habit of the tree, and to
secure a fair amount of fruit on branches with strength and stiff-
ness enough to sustain it.

Summer pruning will promote fruiting either in a young
or an old tree and some practise it to secure early bearing of
young trees, but the common practise is winter pruning to
secure strong wood and prevent overbearing.

THINNING PEARS.

It is quite important to attend to thinning the fruit on
overloaded trees. Even the popular Bartlett will often give fruit
too small for profitable sale unless thinned. With pears, as
other fruits, thinning should not be done until it is seen that the
fruit is well set. Dropping off from natural causes sometimes
thins the crop quite enough.

IRRIGATION OF THE PEAR.

In some situations the pear needs irrigation, though it will
endure drouth which would destroy most other fruit trees.
There is no profit in small, tough fruit. As stated in the chap-
ter o1j irrigation the wood growth and fruit show whether proper
moisture needs are met or not. Early pears are advanced in
development by irrigation in some parts of the State, and this
is an important factor in their value.

BLIGHT OF THE PEAR.

There are blights of the pear occasionally occurring in this
State which are not yet fully understood, nor has their identity
with the well-known Eastern blights been fully determined,
though some growers claim to have recognized characteristic
Eastern forms. They exhibit their presence by spots and streaks
of dead bark. They are apparently of different origin; probably
both bacterial and fungoid. The organisms have not, however,
been definitely determined as yet. These diseases make their

256 Diseases of the Pear,

spread in the winter and enlarge very rapidly to a certain limit
and there stop for the season, proceeding or advancing from
new centers the next year. They occur in some parts of the
interior valley in ruinous amount and grow much more slowly
near the coast. Cutting back where the disease occurs on the
smaller limbs has measurably checked the trouble, but not by
any means put an end to it. No satisfactory treatment has be n
denionstrated, but the use of strong Bordeaux Mixture in the
autumn on the trunk and larger branches has been used to some
extent and some have pronounced such application beneficial
at least in reducing the speed of the disease.

The scab fungus which seriously affects some varieties, and
notably the Winter Nelis, in the coast region, is identical with
the scab of the apple and will be mentioned in the chapter on
tree diseases. because of the tabiliy co: tue Winter Nelis 10
this disease, and because of its irregular bearing in the coast
region, there have been many trees grafted over into varieties
better suited to coast conditions. The Beurre Clairgeau, be-
cause of its health, prolific bearing, and acceptability to shippers,
was largely introduced in this way, but it has not sold as well
as expected. Ordinary top grafting succeeds admirably with
the pear. Clapp’s Favorite and other varieties have also been
workea upon Winter Nelis.

GATHERING AND RIPENING OF PEARS.

Many pear growers make the common mistake of allowing
the fruit to hang too long on the tree, instead of gathering and
ripening in a cool, dark place. Pears should be picked at the
first indication of ripeness, the first sign being a tendency of
the stem to part from the spur when the pear is gently raised
up. This test applies especially to the Bartlett. Picking at
this stage and laying away in the dark ripens up the Bartlett
well. When picked at this stage and sent overland by slow
freight, they ripen en route and the boxes open well on the
Eastern markets. There are a few varieties which shrivel if
ripened under cover, but the rule is a good one, and the grower
will soon note the exceptions. Many desirable varieties have,
no doubt, been pronounced poor and insipid because allowed to
ripen on the tree.

To ripen well, pears should be packed in tight boxes or
inclosed in drawers. They do not do as well as apples on
shelves open to circulation of air. As already stated, the oily-
skinned apple endures exposure and maintains a smooth, ruddy
cheek and sound heart in spite of wind, rain, and rough weather.
The pear, under similar conditions, decays rapidly.

The Most Popular Pears. 267:

PEAR VARIETIES APPROVED BY CALIFORNIA GROWERS.

Interior | Mountain
valley valley Southern
and and California.

foot-hill. | plateaux,

Upper Central
VARIETIES, Coast Coast

valleys. valleys.

Angouleme, Duchess ’d.
PRIN OU woe sesewcnceraes goxsesiile?
Bartlett........
Bloodgood...
BosGivccsscsecive

Brandywine .
Claire Gaus .niccsesnccten. cvewes
Clapp’s Favorite............
Comice...... pesieieaye 18

Easter Beurre....
Emile d’Heyst......
Flemish Beauty....
Glout Morceau .............
Hardy, Beurre...............
Howells scrcccesanvecseete weet
Kieffer ... weeemetes
TAWSOD? civssaciiessosececananse
Louise, Bonne de Jersey.
Madeleine....s..0.s0..cccceees
Onondaga. seciccirevccveedss
Py Barry ine escadecsewd Gases
Se CK elicccsceeedesavesteosaces
Souv. du Congress .......
Vicar of Winkfield.........
Wilder, Early......... 2...
White Doyenne.............
Winter Bartlett .............
Winter Nellis. ............66-

VARIETIES OF THE PEAR.

Though large collections of famous Eastern and European
pears have been brought to California, the peculiarity of the
local market, and demand for canning and shipping, has led to
concentration upon very few sorts. The pears chiefly grown
in California are the following, arranged approximately in the
order of their ripening:—

Harvest; syn. Sugar Pear (American).—Small, roundish, pale yellow,
brownish in sun, brown and green dots; flesh whitish, rather dry but sweet;
tree upright, young wood olive yellow brown.

Madeleine (French).—Medium, obovate pyriform, stalk long and slender,
set on the side of a small swelling; pale yellowish green, rarely brownish
blush; calyx small, in shallow, furrowed basin; flesh white, juicy, delicate.

Wilder Early (American).—Small to medium, yellow with red cheek;
sweet, and good. Recently introduced and profitable for local sale in San

258 Varieties of the Pear.

Diego County. Should not be confused with Col. Wilder, a California seed-
ling which has gone out of use.

Bloodgood (New York).—Tree short, jointed, deep reddish brown
wood; fruit medium turbinate, inclining to obovate, thickening abruptly
into stalk; yellow, sprinkled with russet dots; calyx strong, open, almost
without depression; stalk obliquely inserted, without depression, short,
fleshy at its base; flesh yellowish white, melting, sugary, aromatic; core
small.

Clapp’s Favorite (Massachusetts).—Tree a strong grower; young shoots
dark reddish brown; fruit large, slightly obtuse pyriform; pale lemon yellow
with brown dots; flesh fine, melting, juicy, with rich, sweet, delicate, vinous
flavor; resembles Bartlett, but lacks musky flavor.

Dearborn'’s Seedling (Massachusetts).—Young shoots long, reddish
brown; under medium size; roundish pyriform; smooth, clear, light yellow,
with few minute dots; stalk slender, set with very little depression; calyx
spreading in shallow basin; flesh white, very juicy, melting, sprightly.

Lawson; syn. Comet (New York).—Medium to large, bright crimson on
yellow ground; flesh fine, rich and sweet. :

Souvenir du Congress (French).—Large to very large (exceeding Bart-
lett and Clapp’s Favorite, to both of which it bears strong resemblance);
skin smooth, bright yellow when fully ripe, brilliant carmine in the sun;
flesh resembling Bartlett, but has not the musky flavor; firm to the core; tree
a good grower, but somewhat subject to smut.

Bartlett (English).—Tree a strong grower, early bearer, and healthy;
fruit large, smooth, clear yellow, sometimes with delicate blush; stalk mod-
erately long, stout and inserted in shallow cavity; calyx open; flesh white,
fine grained, juicy, buttery, highly perfumed (musky), vinous favor.

Beurre Hardy.—Large, long obovate, sometimes obscurely pyriform;
skin greenish with thin, brown russet; stalk an inch long; cavity small, un-
even, oblique, basin shallow; buttery, somewhat melting, rich, slightly sub-
acid; tree a strong grower.

Flemish Beauty (Belgian).—Large, obovate, often obscurely tapering
to the crown, very obtuse, surface slightly rough, with some reddish brown
russet on pale yellow ground; flesh juicy, melting, and good if picked early
and ripened in the house.

Seckel (Pennsylvania). — Rather small, regularly formed, obovate;
brownish green, becoming dull yellowish brown, with russet red cheek;
stalk slightly curved, and set in a trifling depression; calyx small and set in
a very slight depression; flesh whitish, buttery, very juicy and melting, with
peculiarly rich, spicy flavor and aroma.

Ffowell (Connecticut).—Rather large, roundish pyriform, light waxen
yellow, often with finely-shaded cheek thickly sprinkled with minute russet
dots and some russet patches; stalk medium, without cavity and sometimes
lipped; sometimes in small cavity; calyx open in large, uneven basin; flesh
whitish, juicy, brisk, vinous. .

Duchess a’ Angouleme (France).—Very large, oblong obovate; some-
what uneven, knobby surface; dull greenish yellow, streaked and spotted
with russet; stalk long, stout, bent, deeply set in irregular cavity; calyx set
in somewhat knobby basin; flesh white, buttery, and juicy, with rich flavor.

Louise Bonne of Jersey (France).—Large oblong pyriform, a little one-
sided; glassy, pale green in shade, brownish red in the sun, numerous gray
dots; stalk curved, rather obliquely inserted, without depression, or with a
fleshy, enlarged base; calyx open in a shallow uneven basin; flesh very
juicy, and melting, rich, and excellent; very prolific.

Beurre Diel (Belgium).—Large, varying from obovate to obtuse pyri-
form; skin rather thick, lemon yellow, becoming orange yellow, marked
with large brown dots and marblings of russet; stalk stout, curved in rather
uneven cavity; calyx nearly closed, in slightly furrowed basin; flesh yellow-

Varieties of the Pear. 259

ish white, a little coarse-grained near the core; rich, sugary, buttery, deli-
cious.

White Doyenné, syn. Virgalieu (France).—Medium to large, regular,
obovate; smooth, clear, pale yellow, sprinkled with small dots, sometimes
red cheeked; stalk brown, little curved, in small round cavity; calyx small,
closed in shallow basin; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, rich, and high
flavored.

Beurre Bosc (Belgium).—Large pyriform, a little uneven, often taper-
ing long and gradually into the stalk; skin pretty smooth, dark yellow, dots
and streaks of cinnamon russet, slightly red on one side; stalk long, rather
slender, curved; calyx short, in shallow basin; flesh white, melting, buttery,
rich, with slightly perfumed flavor.

Onondaga, syn. Swan's Orange (Connecticut).—Large, obtuse, oval
pyriform, neck very short and obtuse, body large and tapering to obtuse
apex; flesh melting, sprightly, vinous. A vigorous, upright grower, healthy;
yellow shoots; sells well in distant markets.

Beurre Clairgeau (France).—Large, pyriform, but with unequal sides;
yellow, shaded with orange and crimson, thickly covered with russet dots,
sometimes sprinkled with russet; stalk short, stout and fleshy, inserted by a
lip at an inclination almost without depression; when lip is absent, the cav-
ity is uneven; calyx open; flesh yellowish, buttery, juicy, granular, sugary,
perfumed, vinous. A popular variety for local and distant markets.

Beurre d’ Anjou (France).—Large, obtuse pyriform ; stem short, thick,
and fleshy, in a cavity, surrounded by russet; calyx small, open in small
cavity, russetted; skin greenish, sprinkled with russet, sometimes shaded
with dull crimson, brown and crimson dots; flesh whitish, not very fine,
melting, juicy, brisk, vinous flavor, perfumed; tree a fair grower, but some-
what affected by fungus.

Dana’s Hovey; syn. Winter Seckel (Massachusetts).—Small, obovate,
obtuse pyriform; greenish yellow or pale yellow, with much russet and
brown dots; stalk rather short; a little curved, set in slight cavity, sometimes
lipped; calyx open and basin small; flesh yellowish, juicy, melting, sweet,
aromatic.

Vicar of Winkfield (France).—Large and long pyriform; pale yellow,
fair and smooth, sometimes with brownish cheek and marked with small
brown dots; stalk slender, obliquely inserted without depression; calyx
large, open, set in a basin very slightly sunk; flesh greenish yellow, juicy,
with good sprightly flavor.

Doyenné du Comice (France).—Large, varying, roundish pyriform, or
broad, obtuse pyriform; greenish yellow becoming fine yellow, shaded with
crimson,’ slightly marked with russet spots, and thickly sprinkled with rus-
set dots; stalk short, stout, inclined and set in shallow cavity, often russeted;
calyx small, open; basin large, deep, and uneven; flesh white, fine, melting,
aromatic.

Glout Morceau (Flemish). ‘‘ Rather large, varying in form, but usu-
ally short pyriform, approaching obtuse oval; neck very short and obtuse;
body large and tapering towards the crown; often considerably ribbed;
green, becoming pale greenish yellow; stalk stout, moderately sunk; calyx
large; basin distinct, rather irregular; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery,
melting, rich, sweet, and of fine flavor.’”’"—/. /. Thomas.

Block's Acme (California seedling, by A. Block, of Santa Clara).—Large
and very handsome, surpassing Beurre Clairgeau in size and color; regu-
larly formed, pyriform, skin pale yellow, covered with russet all over, which
becomes a fine glowing red on the side exposed to the sun; flesh white,
crisp, and melting, juicy, sweet, and slightly musky; a pear that will rank
foremost with our best shipping pears.

Winter Nelis (Belgium).—Medium, roundish, obovate, narrowed in
near the stalk; yellowish green, dotted with gray russet and a good deal

264 Stocks for Plums and Prunes.

the seed of the Myrobalan vary as do other fruit seedlings, both
in fruit and in foliage and habit of trees, and perhaps this fact
has given rise to the distinction between “true” and “false”
Myrobalan, so called. Practise has proceeded without much
reference to the discussion, and whether grown here, from seed
of trees imported long ago, or from cuttings of the same, or
whether seedling stocks are imported directly from France, as
large quantities are, the Myrobalan of French origin 1s now the
accepted plum stock for California, except in light, alluviai, well-
drained soils, where, for the French prune, peach or ‘almond
may be preferred. The Myrobalan has -largely displaced the
St. Julian and the Mirabetle, as well as the peach. Though
described by some authorities as a dwarfing stock, it is found
to be sufficiently free growing in California to suit all purposes,
and to form a good foundation for full standard trees, though
the peach and almond roots in proper soils give a quicker and
greater growth.

Experience has shown that the Myrobalan stock thrives in
this State both in low, moist, valley lands, in comparatively dry
lands, and in stiff upland soils. Thus it has come to be accepted
as an all-around stock for the plum.

In some soils especially adapted to the peach, peach roots
are preferred as stocks for the French prune, but, as already
said, all plums can not be worked directly on the peach root,
the Robe de Sergeant, Columbia, Yellow Egg, and Washing-
ton, for example. Sometimes.the bud or scion may make a
large growth, but the two woods do not unite, and the trees
break off sooner or later. ;

Some work the plum on the apricot root, and report success
when the soil suits the apricot root, and the gophers do not get
at it. But it sometimes happens that the French prune parts
from the apricot root even after growing some time upon it.
There are, however, instances of the French prune thriving, and,
apparently making good union with the apricot root.

Some plums do well on the almond root and some do not.
The French prune succeeds admirably both when worked on
young almond stocks and top grafted in old almond trees.
Success is also reported with the Fellenberg on the almond.
But the almond root is suited especially for warm, dry soils.
Excellent results from the use of almond stock are reported
from the interior vallev and the Sierra foot-hills.

Propagating by Sprouls—The French practise of growing
certain varieties of the plum by means of sprouts from the base
of old trees has been successfully followed in this State by Felix
Gillet, of Nevada City, and is strongly commended by him as
securing a tree which will not gum, which is one of the reasons

Planting the Plum. 265

why the same practise prevails in France. This practise is as
follows :—

Sprouts growing at the foot of old and large trees, and but few are
found to each tree, are taken off and planted close together in a bed to
make them root well, and the ensuing spring planted’ in nursery rows,
where they are trained like any other trees, and transplanted where to re-
main, when branched. :

For this method it is necessary that the parent tree should
be upon its own roots, else one is apt to get suckers from a wild
stock.

PLANTING AND PRUNING.

As with other trees, there is difference of opinion as to the
best distance apart for plum trees. The present tendency is
toward wider planting; not nearer than twenty feet is the usual
advice, and on rich land, twenty-two or twenty-four feet 1s better.

The plum, in Califoinia, is a most rapid grower; six to ten
feet from the bud or graft in a season, and about as much after
the first winter’s cutting back, is not at all unusual. At this rate
of progress, then, the tree soon runs up and away, in a spindling,
sprawling fashion, unless severely cut back for the first few
years. Neglected trees of some varieties show long, streaming
branches, arching outward, and exposing the bark to sunburn
(to which it is very sensitive), breaking the tree to pieces as the
fruit gets weight, and, even if supported by props, breaking off
at the bearing of the prop. This condition of the tree can only
be obviated by low heading and moderate cutting back each
year, with due regard to limiting the amount of bearing wood
to get large fruit. For such plum varieties the suggestions on
forming the tree and subsequent treatment in the chapter on
pruning will be found helpful.

Pruning the French Prune—During the last few years,
growers of the French prune, and other varieties of similar
growth, have reached substantial agreement as to the best prac-
tise. The old method of cutting back bearing trees has been
abandoned by nearly all growers. Cutting back the young tree
to secure sufficient low branching is followed by thinning of
shoots from this low head so that the tree shall not become too
dense or carry too much bearing wood. The strength in the
head depends upon proper spacing and arrangement of the
branches as insisted upon in the chapter on pruning; and large,
well-ripened fruit, which is essential to successful and profitable
drying, is conditioned upon avoiding excess of branches and ad-
mission of sufficient light to the tree.

A rather longer central stem is retained than in the old style,
and a central stem throughout is admissible if one prefers it and
does not desire to dispense with it as the first step toward secur-

18

*paddoy o1e seat} Surreaq vey A[pider
yno saysnd qo1ym ‘poom Sunof jo ssouqvam ay} SMOYs ainjoId puodas oy] “jUoUIYo"Ne Buoss pue juauiaS1¢[ua 10} Wool a1ow YyIA\ Wey} Buroeds Aj1edo1d
JO pvajsul ‘urajs y10qgR & Jo do} ay} ye spngq jusoe(pe Wo MoI 07 soyouLIg AuBUT ZULMOT]e tol Zupnser ssouxeem oy} A[Zulylz}s smoys oanjord ys1y oy L

‘asof ues ‘srapues Aq ojoYg—SHAUL ANNUd ONIUVAG NOVA ONILIND GNV ONILUVLS ONOUM AO SLOAAAA SNOULSVSIG

Pruning the Prune. 267

ing a more open tree. Some retain the longer stem at planting;
others cut back to eighteen inches, develop three side branches
upon that and train the branch from the top bud for a length-
ening of the stem, and bring out more branches upon that the
second year, and then dispense with its farther extension. The
accompanying engravings show this method of developing the
head of a young French prune. ‘The tree was cut back at plant-
ing in orchard to a straight switch about eighteen inches high.

\\

————— = 3,
Sar ie
Pruning after first summer’s Growth during second summer
growth in orchard. in orchard.

At the end of the first summer this showed the form in the first
picture, which is marked for the first winter pruning. The sec-
ond engraving shows the branching developed from this during
the second summer’s growth, also marked to prune away some
undesirable branches. Upon a tree of this form farther cutting
back is not desirable as it has enough well-placed branches to
form the tree.

The tree shown in leaf represents the same tree during its
third summer’s growth and presents a fair idea of a well-shaped
young tree, with a good outfit of well-placed branches.

How long cutting back shall continue depends partly upon
the locality and partly upon the notion of the owner. In inte-

268 Good Form of Young Prune.

rior localities the tree grows with great rapidity and branches
more freely. During the third summer it will bear some fruit
if not cut back the previous winter and, where growth is so
rapid, there is little danger of injuring the tree by early bearing.
In the coast valleys cutting back may continue another year,
and fruiting be thus postponed a year to get another summer’s
freer wood growth.

French Prune—Second Summer’s Form.

Though cutting back may properiy cease early with the
French prune, it is a great mistake to allow the trees to go un-
pruned. Removal of defective wood, prevention of branch
crowding and overbearing are of the highest importance, as
insisted upon in the chapter on pruning.

Special Study of Varieties in Pruning. —The points just ad-
vanced apply especially to the management of the French prune.
How far other varieties may be benefited by it must be deter-
mined by the grower by study of the habit of the variety he has
to deal with. The general rules for handling trees with differ-
ent habits of growth are applicable to a certain extent to the
plum. When to apply a rule or make an exception must be
learned by observation and experience. Some plums, like the

Good Branching of Prune Trees. 269

Silver prune, have something of the growth habit of the peach,
and this is also very true of some of the Japanese varieties.
Cutting back in winter and pinching in summer are both useful
facts in securing lower branching and low-growing fruit spurs.

‘asof ue ‘siapues “gS Aq—SHAUL ANNYd ONINVAT ONNOA AO SWAOA GOOD
r ae ey = ¥ eine, ee

270 Popular Plums and Prunes.

VARIETIES OF PLUMS AND PRUNES.

As with other fruits, comparatively few varieties of the
plum are largely grown in California, and the list is continually
being reduced. The following tabulation is the result of a very
wide inquiry made during the year 1899.

PLuMS AND PRUNES APPROVED BY CALIFORNIA GROWERS.

Interior | Mountain
valley valleys Southern

and and California,

foot-hills. | plateaux.

Upper Central
VARIETIES. Coast Coast
valleys. valleys.

Abundance ex. savenccsesc
Agen, Prune d’..
Bradshaw .........

Clyman ....
Columbia..
Damson....
Duane Purple....
German Prune...
Giant
Golden Drop, Coe’s
Golden Prune ............6.
Green Gage ....... bs
Imperial Epineuse..
Italian Prune .........

PéaChes.. ser aeerueeays
Pond (Hungarian)..
Red June ...........eee
Robe de Sergeant.
Royale Hative.....

Tragedy......
Washington .
Wickson......
Yellow Egg ....

Simon (Prunus Simoni).—Medium to large, roundish, flattened, with
cavities at base and apex; brick red, small yellow spots; stalk stout and
short; flesh yellow, adhering to flattened pit; largely grown for shipment in
early interior regions where it has good quality; lacks flavor near the coast.

Clyman (California seedling introduced by Leonard Coates).—Large,
roundish oblong, flattened; suture indistinct; mottled reddish purple, beau-
tiful blue bloom; freestone; flesh firm dry and sweet; prolific; the leading
early plum for shipment.

Red June (Japanese).—Medium to large, deep red, flesh light yellow,
firm, good quality. The best of the early Japanese plums.

Tragedy (California seedling).—Medium to large, suture shallow, wide
and extending beyond apex; dark purple; flesh yellowish green, sweet and

Varieties of the Plum. 271

well flavored; freestone. Very valuable for shipping from early regions in
all parts of the State.

Abundance (Japanese) ; syns. Yellow-fleshed Botan, Mikado of Hinclay.
—Large, globular with point at apex; cherry color covered with white
bloom; flesh yellow, juicy and rich, Popular for shipment from early
regions.

California Red (California seedling).—Introduced by J. T. Bogue, of
ie: Large, light red, firm flesh and small pit. A good shipping
plum.

Peach (French, prune péche).—Very large, roundish oblate, regular,
flattened at ends; suture distinct, shallow; color varying from salmon to
light brownish red; stalk very short, cavity narrow, shallow, flesh rather
coarse, juicy, sprightly, free from the nearly round, very flat, much furrowed
stone; shoots smooth. A prominent variety for early eastern shipment.

Royale Hative (French).—Medium roundish, slightly wider at base;
light purple, stalk half an inch long, stout, scarcely sunk; flesh amber yel-
low, with rich, high flavor, nearly free from the small, flattened, ovate stone;
shoots very downy. Largely grown as an early market plum and for east-
ern shipment.

Prunus Simoni.

Bradshaw.—Large, obovate, with obtuse suture on one side, some-
times with very slight neck; dark purple, with light blue bloom; stalk
three-fourths inch long; cavity narrow; flesh a little coarse, becoming
light brownish purple, at first adhering, but becoming nearly free when fully
ripe; juicy, good, slightly acid; tree vigorous; shoots purple, smooth. Re-
ported from Sacramento County as blooming late and seldom injured by
frost.

Green Gage (French).—Rather small, round; suture faint green, be-
coming yellowish green, usually with reddish brown dots and network at
base; stalk half to three-fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh pale green, melt-
ing, juicy, exceedingly rich, and flavor excellent; shoots smooth.

Normand (Japanese).—Medium to large, roundish, golden yellow; fine
sprightly flavor even near the coast; tree excellent grower and very prolific
and regular bearer; one of the best of the Japanese plums.

272 Varieties of the Plum.

Burbank.—Tree imported from Japan by Luther Burbank. Named
‘*Burbank”’ by Professor Van Deman. Tree usually vigorous, with strong,
upright shoots, and large, rather broad leaves; comes into bearing very
early. Almost globular, being five and a half inches around horizontally,
and five and five-eighths inches around vertically; rich cherry red, slightly
mottled with yellow and freely dotted with same tint; flesh deep yellow,
juicy, very sweet, and of fine, somewhat peculiar, but very agreeable flavor;
pit is very small, three-fourths by a trifle over half an inch in diameter.

Duane’'s Purple (New York).—Very large, oblong oval, longer on
one side; slightly narrowed towards the stalk; reddish purple, bloom liiac;
stalk three-fourths inch; slender; cavity narrow; flesh juicy, moderately
sweet, and moderate flavor, mostly adhering to stone; shoots very downy
and leaves large and downy beneath.

Wickson Plum—Crossbred Japanese.

Washington (New York).—Very large, roundish oval, suture obscure,
distinct at base; yellowish green, faintly marbled, often with pale red blush;
stalk half to three-fourths inch; slightly downy; cavity wide, shallow; flesh
rather firm, sweet, mild, very rich and luscious, free from the pointed stone;
shoots downy; very vigorous.

Wickson.—A crossbred by Luther Burbank; form suggests the Kelsey,
but more symmetrical; in ripening, the color develops from a deep cherry
red down to a rich claret as full ripeness is attained. The color is solid and
uniform. The flesh is of amber tint, very juicy and translucent; the pit is
small and shapely, the flavor is striking and agreeable, but likely to be
deficient near the coast.

Varieties of the Plum. 273

Yellow eg; syns. White Egg, White Magnum Bonum (English).—
Very large, oval, narrow at ends, necked at base, suture distinct; stalk one
inch, not sunk, surrounded by fleshy ring at insertion; light yellow, bloom
thin, white, flesh firm, rather acid until fully ripe, and then sweet, adheres
to the pointed stone.

Prince Engelbert (Belgium).—Large, oblong oval, deep bluish purple,
with dense bloom; stalk rather slender, with a fleshy ring at base; cavity
rather deep and narrow; flesh juicy, melting, sweet; freestone; shoots
downy. Approved in Alameda, Placer and El Dorado Counties.

Jefferson (New York).—Large, oval, base slightly narrowed, suture
slight; greenish yellow, becoming golden, with reddish cheek; bloom thin,
white; stalk one inch, but little sunk or not at all; flesh rich yellow, very
rich, juicy, high flavored and luscious, adheres partly to its long, pointed
stone; shoots smooth; tree a slow grower, but productive.

Columbia (New York).—Very large, nearly globular, one side slightly
larger; brownish purple, reddish brown where much shaded, with many
fawn-colored dots; bloom blue, copious; stalk one inch, rather stout; cavity
small; flesh orange, very rich and sweet, free from the stone, which is very
small and compressed. Shoots downy, stout, blunt, spreading; leaves
nearly round.

Satsuma; syn. Blood Plum of Satsuma.—Introduced and first fruited in
this country by Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa. Described by Prof.
H. E. Van Deman, U.S. Pomologist, as follows: ‘‘ Leaves more lanceolate
than those of Kelsey; fruit averages about two and a quarter inches in
diameter, nearly round, and but slightly sutured on one side; surface dark
red, under a thick bloom; dots rather conspicuous and numerous; flesh dark
purplish red, which has caused the name ot ‘ Blood Plum of Satsuma’ to
be given by some; stone very small and pointed.”’

Red Magnum Bonum, syn. Red Egg.—Large, oval, tapering to the
stalk; suture strong, one side swollen; deep red in the sun; slight bloom;
stalk one inch, slender, cavity narrow; flesh greenish, coarse, subacid;
shoots smooth.

Imperial Gage (New York).—Medium size, oval, suture distinct; stalk
three-fourths inch, slightly hairy, evenly sunk; green, slightly tinged with
yellow, with marbled green stripes; bloom copious and white; flesh
greenish, juicy, melting, rich, and delicious, usually free from the oval,
pointed stone; tree very vigorous and productive; shoots long, upright,
slightly downy; leaves with slight shade of blue. A popular canning variety.

Damson (English).—Small, roundish oval; purple, with thick blue
bloom; melting, juicy, subacid.

German Prune (Common Quetsche, Germany).—‘‘ This name has been
applied in this State to numerous plums and prunes which are sold
under it. The fruit of the true German prune is long oval, and swollen on
one side; skin purple, with thick blue bloom; flesh firm, green, sweet, with
a peculiar pleasant flavor; separates readily from the stone.”—/ohn Rock.
Complaint is made in many localities of the tendency of the variety to drop
before ripening, almost the whole crop sometimes dropping.

Kelsey Japan.—Trees brought from Japan by the late Mr. Hough, of
Vacaville, in 1870, and purchased by the late John Kelsey, of Berkeley,
who propagated and fruited them for several years. First wide distribution
was made by W. P. Hammon & Co., in 1844, who named the fruit after
Mr. Kelsey. The following description is by H. E. Van Deman, U. S.
Pomologist, from California and Florida specimens: “Tree upright in
growth, leaves narrow, twigs brownish gray. Fruit from one and a half to
two and a half inches diameter, heart-shaped, with a distinct suture on one
side from stem to apex ; stem is short, and set in a depression at the larger
end; colors mixed yellow and purple, which vary in depth, but rarely make
a brilliant appearance, covered with a bloom; flesh yellow, very firm, and

Hl
y

K \ &

ual

Varieties of the Plum. 275

clings to the stone, which is rather small, and nearly always partly sur-
rounded by a cavity; when fully ripe the quality is very good.’’ Very
widely grown; is in less favor than formerly in interior valleys where color is
not well developed. Where the fruit is of good color it is profitable for
shipping and is highly regarded everywhere for domestic use.

Quackenbos (New York).—Large, oblong oval; deep purple; suture
faint; stalk short, slightly sunk; slightly coarse, sprightly, sweet and sub-
acid; partly freestone.

Victoria (English).—Large, obovate, suture distinct; color a fine light
reddish purple; stem half inch, cavity rather deep and narrow; flesh yellow,
pleasant; clingstone; next to Pond’s Seedling in size, beauty, and produc-
tiveness.

Flungarian Prune, English Pond’s Seedling; Grosse Prune ad’ Agen
(English).—This variety was brought to San Jose probably about 1856, and
in some unaccountable way was first contrasted with the French prune and
called the ‘‘ great prune of Agen;’’ afterwards, also in a mysterious way,
it took the name ‘‘ Hungarian prune.’”’ It is still marketed by these names
both here and at the East. The true name is English Pond’s Seedling.
Fruit very large, ovate, slightly tapering to stalk; skin thick, reddish violet,
with numerous brown dots, and covered with handsome bloom; rather
coarse, juicy, sweet; a very showy fruit; tree a strong grower and prolific
bearer; fruit has a tendency to double; selJls well in local and distant
markets on its style.

Imperial Epineuse as Grown by John Rock.

Giant.—Burbank seedling; very large, dark crimson upon yellow
ground; flesh yellow, flavor good; freestone. A shipping plum, rather
disappointing as a drying plum.

276 The Popular Prunes.

Splendor.—Burbank seedling; medium size but larger than French
prune; clear red, drying dark, does not shake from the tree; earlier than
French prune.

Sugar.—Burbank seedling, introduced in 1898; very large and very
early for a prune; sugar in fresh fruit 23.92 per cent; very promising.

Imperial Epineuse; syn. Clairac Mammoth.—\ntroduced in 1884 by
Felix Gillet and in 1886 by John Rock. Described by Mr. Rock as follows:
“Uniformly large size, reddish or light purple, thin skin, sweet aud high
flavor.’”’ Described by Mr. Gillet: ‘‘ Uniformly large, more oval than the
French prune; nearly of the same color but somewhat lighter or reddish
purple; earlier than the French and with thinner skin.’ Fruit grown by
Mr. Rock analyzed at the State University in 1898, showed 20.4 per cent of
sugar against 18.53 per cent average of three analyses of French prune.
Very profitable as far as tried, as a large dried’ prune, and very largely
planted and grafted in, in the Santa Clara Valley.

There has been quite widely planted another prune called Jmperial
which is very inferior in sugar content and likely to prove much less
satisfactory.

Prune @ Agen, syn. Petite Prune d’ Agen; French Prune, etc.—This is
the drying prune at present most widely grown in this State. Itis described
by John Rock as follows: ‘Medium-sized, egg-shaped, violet purple, very
sweet, rich and sugary; very prolific bearer.’’ The first trees of the kind
were grown by Louis Pellier, at San Jose, about the year 1857, the graft
having been brought from France by his brother in December, 1856. The
identity of this variety (which was first largely grown in the neighborhood
of San Jose) with the variety chiefly grown in the French district tributary
to Agen, was first announced by W. B. West, of Stockton, in the year 1878,
during his visit to France. Since that time there has been much discussion
of the matter, and Mr. Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, has been to great pains
to send samples of our fruit for examination by fruit experts. The conclu-
sion at which Mr. Gillet arrives, is as follows: ‘‘ Our Petite prune is a true
type of the d’Ente, its botanical characters being identical, and the fruit
as richly flavored and sweet as that of its French ancestor.”’

Robe de Sergeant.—Though this term is given in Downing as a synonym
of Prune d’Agen, and seems also to be in French a synonym for the d’Ente
prunes; another prune grown in this State from an importation by John
Rock, is quite distinct from the foregoing. Mr. Rock describes the variety
as follows: ‘‘ Fruit medium size, oval; skin deep purple, approaching black,
and covered with a thick blue bloom; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, and
well-flavored, sugary, rich and delicious, slightly adhering to the stone.”
This variety makes a larger, darker-colored dried prune than the Prune
d’ Agen, and has sold in some cases at a higher price. It has recently been
in disfavor in coast valleys for defective bearing, but is more satisfactory at
some interior points.

Bulgarian,—‘‘An undetermined variety grown under this name, chiefly
in the vicinity of Haywards, Alameda County; above medium size; almost
round; dark purple; sweet and rich, with pleasant acid flavor; tree a vigor-
ous grower, and an early, regular, and profuse bearer.’’—/ohu Rock.

Coe’s Golden Drop (English).—Very large, oval, suture distinct, one
side more enlarged, necked; light yellow, often dotted red to the sun; stalk
three-fourths inch, rather stiff; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, and rich, closely
adhering to the pointed stone; shoots smooth, rather glossy. A standard
late variety for canning.

Silver Prune (Oregon).—Originated with W. H. Prettyman, who says:
“Tt is a seedling from Coe’s Golden Drop, which it much resembles, but it
is much more productive.” Profitable as a bleached prune, but defective
in bearing in some California districts.

Golden Prune.—Originated from seed of Italian prune by Seth Lewell-

Varieties of the Plum. 277

ing, of Milwaukee, Oregon, and described by him as larger than Italian;
light golden color; exquisite flavor; dries beautifully.

Bavay’s Green Gage; syn. Reine Claude de Bavay (French).—Large,
round oval, greenish yellow, spotted with red, with small violet-colored
longitudinal veins; flesh rather firm, juicy, sugary, rich, of fine quality,
adhering slightly to the stone; shoots smooth, leaves roundish, shining; a
free grower and very productive. ~

Ickworth Imperatrice (English).—Large to medium, obovate, purple,
with irregular streaks of fawn color; stalk medium; flesh greenish yellow,
sweet, juicy, rich, mostly adhering to the rathersmall stone; shoots smooth;
pied late, hangs long on the tree, and keeps well; endures long shipment
well.

fellenberg, syns. Large German Prune, Swiss Prune, Italian Prune.—
Medium size, oval, pointed and tapering at both ends; suture small, distinct;
dark purple, with dark blue bloom; stalk one inch, scarcely sunk; flesh
greenish yellow, juicy, sweet, delicious, parts from the stone; tree a free
grower and very productive; late, excellent for drying. But little grown in
California, but largely in Oregon.

Coe’s Late Red; syn. Red St. Martin-—Size medium, roundish, suture
distinct on one side; skin light purplish red, or dark red; bloom thin, blue;
stalk three-fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh rather firm, crisp, rich, vinous;
very late; shoots downy.

The Giant Plum of Burbank.

LUTHER BURBANK’S NEWER VARIETIES.

Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa, during the last few years
introduced many new varieties not included in the foregoing
list, which possess striking characters and some of which will
become famous. They must, however, endure the test of trial
and await later credit. Seedlings by other growers are also
undergoing a similar ordeal.

CHArlER AATEC
THE QUINCE.

The quince enjoys California conditions to the utmost, and
rewards the grower with large crops oi very large and beautiful
fruit. A quince weighing a pound is no curiosity, and it is un-
likely that any city of the world can show such fine quinces at
such low prices as San Francisco. The lesson from this fact is
that the fineness of the fruit, and the evident adaptation of the
State to its growth, should not alone be considered by the
planter. The local consumption of quinces is naturally small,
and it is chiefly for home preserving and jelly making. The
commercial jelly makers use apple juice as the basis of nearly
all their jellies, only using a little quince for flavoring, and some
housewives follow the same course. The hope for profitable sale
of the fruit in large quantities must therefore rest on distant mar-
kets, and though those well acquainted with the growth and sale
of the fruit in the cities of the Mississippi Valley, have predicted
a great demand for the California quince in that territory, expe-
riences of shippers thus far have been varied, and not such as.
to induce the extension of our quince production, at present at
least. ;

But though the quince in California has at present narrow
commercial limitations, a few trees should find a place in every
orchard, for family use or for local sale.

CULTURE OF THE QUINCE.

The quince is readily grown from cuttings. Take good-
sized shoots of well-matured wood of the current year’s growth,
after the leaves drop in the fall, and set out at once in nursery
row in moist, alluvial soil, or in any loose soil which is well
drained and can be kept moist enough by cultivation or irriga-
tion.

_.. Quinces are planted at all distances apart, and are grown
either as bushes or trees. Undoubtedly the best way is to plant
about fourteen or sixteen feet apart, and prune into low standard
tree form. This can be done much as already advised for other
fruit trees. An annual cutting back of about half of the new

( 278)

The Pineapple Quince. 279

growth, while forming the tree, will strengthen the trunk and
limbs and prevent the running out of long leaders, which droop
to the ground on all sides when laden with fruit, and are often
broken by the weight and the wind. Owing to the disposition
of the quince to throw out several small shoots at a single point,
it is advisable, when forming the tree, to remove all buds but
one, just as the growth is starting. This will give one good,
strong branch where it may be needed, instead of several weak
ones. Pinching off shoots which start out too vigorously, or at
undesirable points is, of course, advisable.

The Pineapple Quince of Burbank.

Soils for the Quince—As the quince grows naturally in
moist, though not wet, lands, many persons think it always
does best in springy ground or along the banks of rivulets; but
though moist soils are preferable to dry, such positions are not
essential to obtaining large crops of fine fruit. In fact, the
quince, like most fruit trees, prefers a well-drained location, and
does best on a soil which can be freely worked. It thrives when

280 Other Quince Varieties.

fanned by the ocean breeze and does fairly well in the interior,
providing it has moisture enough in the soil, and in some situa-
tions will doubtless require summer irrigation.

VARIETIES OF THE QUINCE,

Though notably all varieties of the quince are introduced
by our nurserymen and carried by them in small stock, most
plantations are of the “apple” or “orange” variety. The fol-
lowing may be enumerated, however, as growing in this State:—

Apple or Orange.—Large; bright yellow; the best. August and
September.

Portugal.—Very large, and fine flavor, turns a fine purple or. deep
crimson when cooked.

Rea’s Mammoth.—A very large and fine variety of the Orange quince;
a strong grower and very productive.

Champion.—Fruit very large, fair and handsome; tree very productive,
surpassing any other variety in this respect; bears abundantly when young;
flesh cooks as tender as an apple, and without hard spots or cores; flavor
delicate, imparting an exquisite quince taste and odor to any fruit with
which it is cooked.

The Chinese Quince.—A most extraordinary fruit, oblong, of immense
size, often weighing from two to two and-one-half pounds; growth rapid
and distinct.

West's Mammoth.—Originated by W. B. West, of Stockton, from seed
received from Boston in 1853; of the Orange quince family; round; clear
yellow; very large; fine flavor and for the class a very good keeper.

Pineapple.—Originated by Luther Burbank and distributed by him in
1899; the result of a long effort to secure a quince which would cook tender
like an apple. The name comes from its flavor, which is suggestive of the
pineapple. :

PART ‘POURTH: THE GRAPE,

CHAPTER XLV,
VINE PROPAGATION AND PLANTING.

The culture of the grape is one of the great branches of
California horticulture. Its three chief divisions are: Grapes for
the table, grapes for wine, and grapes for raisins. In all these
branches the product has far exceeded local requirements and
has become an important item in the export trade of the State,
and yet, though grape products have reached large amounts,
the producers are still confronted with problems in the growth
of the vine and in the manufacture and marketing of its products
which will require the fullest devotion, the keenest intelligence,
and the brightest spirit of enterprise, to bring to satisfactory
solution. The attainments of the industry can be measured by
the statistics of the shipments of grapes, raisins, wine, and
biandy, which are given at the close of Chapter VI. During re-
cent years, owing to the spread of phylloxera in certain regions,
the fact that the raisin product had apparently reached the limit
of the consuming capacity of available markets and the depres-
sion in the wine interest, the grape acreage of California has
decreased from the figures of a decade ago. The outlook at the
close of the century has, however, some very encouraging
features.

THE GRAPE AREA OF CALIFORNIA.

The grape has a very wide range in California. If the im-
mediate seacoast and the higher altitudes on the mountains be
excepted, the grape may be planted with a good chance of suc-
cess anywhere if soil and local topography be suitable. As has
been shown in Chapter I, the vine can approach quite close to
the ocean if some shelter from prevailing cool winds be afforded,
and quite high on the mountains if one keeps out of depressions
where late frosts are frequent. In planting the grape in doubt-
ful situations much depends upon choice of proper varieties.
For example, in the cool air of the coast region and the short

( 281 )

19

282 Localities for the Grape.

summer of the higher altitudes, early maturing varieties must
be the main reliance, for late sorts will not receive heat enough
to bring them to iull maturity.

Away from immediate coast influences, and up to perhaps
three thousand feet or more. on the sides of the Sierra, the grape
is sucessfully grown both upon the floors of the valleys and
upon the hillsides. But there is still need of choice both of
special locations and of varieties according to the purposes which
the grower has in view. The coast valleys of the upper part of
the State produce good table grapes, but they are unfavorable for
the raisin industry because of the deficient sunshine and excess-
ive atmospheric humidity of the autumn months. The best rai-
sins are made in the dry, heated valleys of the interior, and the
conditions which there develop the fullest quality in the raisin
grape also develop the sugar in some kinds of wine grapes be-
yond a desirable percentage. Here again the choice of suitable
varieties intrudes itself, for the varieties which yield light table
wines in the coast valleys may yield heavy “heady” wines in the
interior. Valleys, too, as a rule, although they yield larger crops
of grapes and greater measure of wine than similar area on the
hillsides, must yield the palm for quality to the warm soils of the
slopes. And here enters the business proposition whether large
amount and Icss quality is better than less amount and higher
quality. To this there can be no general answer. It depends
upon the disposition which is to be made of the crop, and the
demand for it.

These few facts out of many which could be stated will
serve to enforce the fact that wide as is the range of the grape,
both localities and varieties for certain purposes must be intelli-
gently chosen. Much has been learned during the last few
years, but it will require the experience of another generation,
perhaps, to make the matter clear.

Soils for the Grape-——The grape will thrive on a great va-
riety of soils, in fact, on any of those enumerated as fruit soils
in Chapter III. There are thrifty vineyards on the light, deep
valley loams, on the heavy clayey loams, on adobe, and on the
red soils of the foot-hills. Even on shallow soils the grape will
do well if given sufficient moisture, and on rocky subsoils it
thrives if there be crevices for the roots to penetrate, or if the
rock be shattered to admit the roots to permeable substrata.
Standing water during the active period of the vine is, however,
unfavorable to growth, and alkali is adverse to satisfactory re-
sults in wine making. Almost any soil which does not hold ex-
cess of water or is not tainted with alkali will do for the vine,
although the plant appreciates good, deep soil, and will grow
and bear fruit in propoition to its supply of it. Of course the

Growing Seedling Grapes. 283

economic question oi ease of cultivation enters into the choice
of soil for the grape, as for other fruits, but its claims are ob-
vious and need not be enlarged upon.

Length of the Grape Season.—By choice of early and late
varieties the grape season extends over a half year in California,
without recourse to artificial means of preservation. Where the
fall rains are not very protracted, the late varieties keep in good
condition on the vines until the winter pruning. Good grapes
have been picked from the vines as late as the middle of January.

PROPAGATING AND PLANTING VINES.

The grape is propagated from seed or by layers, or by cut-
tings of various lengths. Growing from seed was somewhat
resorted to in California to get stocks for resisting the phyliox-
era. but such wide variation in resistance occurred in seedlings
that propagation by cuttings, of varietics demonstrated to be
best in this regard, has become universal. There is at present
little disposition to grow grape seedlings in the hope of securing
better and hardier varieties, as is so largely done in other parts
of the country. The vast numbers of varieties of the European
species, vinifera, which we have to draw from, makes the effort
for new seedlings of little object.

Growing Vines from Seed.—Seed is easily removed from
grapes by crushing the berries and stirring the pulp rapidly in
water. Professor Husmann says that one pound of good, fresh
seed will give from two to three thousand seedlings. Some ad-
vocate sowing grape seed in the fall, just as it is taken from the
fruit, but best results are usually obtained by
spring sowing, after danger from frost is over.
It is advisable to keep grape seed moist for some
time before sowing. Seed soaked one week in
water, and afterward allowed to lie in a heap for
three weeks germinates quickly, starting in ten
days or two weeks after being put in the ground.
Professor Husmann advises pouring hot water on
the seed and allowing it to cool, the seed remain-
ing in the water for twelve hours, and after that it
is kept for a week in a sack, exposed to the sun,
and covered at night, the sack being moistened
from time to time.

. The seed should be sown in the open ground,
{ the soil having been worked deeply and finely,
Growth from Sin- aS for a garden. Sow the seed about an inch

t- A : =
gle i apart, in drills far enough from each other to

284 Layering the Vine.

admit of the use of the cultivator in the summer: cover not to ex-
ceed an inch in depth, and after moderate pressing of the ground,
cover the whole bed with rotten straw, which should be gradually
removed as the sprouts appear above the ground. This mulch
will not only retain moisture, but will prevent the surface from
being crusted by heavy showers. Summer cultivation with cul-
tivator and hoe should be given.

Growing Vines by Layering.—-This is another method of
multiplying vines which is but little employed in California,

Layering to Multiply Vines.

because it is so much easier to secure plants by cuttings, as the
vinifera species roots so readily. Layering consists in bending
down and burying a cane so as to facilitate top and root growth
from each of the buds. The engraving shows an old vine stump,
one of the lower canes of which has been layered, and from which
shoots are expected, as shown by the dotted lines. To hold the
cane in place, stakes are used. The engraving shows the cane
as just ready to start into growth, the filling of the trench being
deferred until the lateral shoots grow out considerably, and then,
by covering, the roots are developed. The cane must rest in
moist earth, and usually has to be watered artificially, as well as
treated to prevent evaporation. The following winter the cane
is raised and a plant made at each node.

Another use for layering is to fill a vacancy in the row, a
cane being taken from the nearest living vine, as shown in the
engraving. In this case the layer must be set in a deep trench
so as not to be torn out by the plow, and the layered cane is at
once covered in with earth, all but one or two buds at the ex-
tremity, where the new vine is desired. In the engraving the
cane is given a twist around the old stump so that it may enter
the ground where it will not be caught by the cultivator. Such

Vines Grown from Cuttings. 285

a layer usually bears the second year and is then detached from
the parent vine.

Both the layers described are iaid down early in the spring,
before growth starts in the vine. Summer layers of the current
season’s growth are sometimes made, but are not usually satis-
factory.

Growing Vines from Cuttings—This is the prevailing
method in this State both to secure grafting stocks and to grow
vines on their own roots. In growing from cuttings, different
policies are adopted, 1. e., placing the cuttings in permanent place
in the vineyard, or rooting them in nursery to be afterward
transferred to the vineyard as “rooted vines.” First, the various
kinds of cuttings will be considered, and their placing mentioned
later.

Growth from Single Eyes.—The use of single eyes or single
buds, the shortest possible form of cutting, is not large in Cali-
fornia, but some growers have reported good results. The

Single Eye Cutting

method is to prepare the cuttings as shown in the engraving,
and plant them carefully, with the bud upwards, in well-prepared
soil, covering the cutting completely, but very little under the
surface. Success depends upon retention of moisture in the
surface soil to induce rooting, and mulching is advisable. The
method of propagation, too, seems best adapted to the moister
parts of the State, whence, in fact, most success with it has been

286 Vines Grown from Cuttings.

reported. Besides economy of wood in getting a plant from
each bud of the cane, which is sometimes an object, growing
from single eyes is advocated because of the satisfactory root
system secured, which, as the engraving shows, much resembles
that of a seedling. The use of single eyes is obviously better
adapted to nursery than to field growth.

The Use of Longer Cutiings.—There are several kinds of
cuttings generally recognized by vine growers, of which two
may be specified, as follows: The ordinary cutting consisting
wholly of the wood of the previous season’s growth and a cut-
ting which retains more or less of the older growth. Where the
cutting retains a small cross-section of an older cane, it is termed
a “mallet cutting,” from its obvious resemblance thereto, as
shown at B in the engraving. Some held that this round piece
of old wood is undesirable because it is apt to decay, and they

Different Forms of Vine Cuttings.

restrict the old wood to the top fragment, which carries the dor-
mant buds at the base of the cane. Such a cutting is shown
at C in engraving. _
Though the use of the old wood is correct enough in theory
and satisfactory in practise, it is the ordinary cutting, shown at
A in the engraving, which is relied upon in vine propagation.
There is, however, wide difference in opinion and practise as to
how long this cutting should be to secure the best results. Or-
dinary cuttings, as used in California, vary in length from ten
inches to three feet. Clearly enough this disagreement is due
in part, at least, to different local conditions under which the
vine is to make its growth, but two things are generally ac-
cepted as the result of California practise. and this is, perhaps,
only confirmatory of experience abroad: First, that the tendency
is toward the use of shorter cuttings than formerly; second, that
where the longer are used, they should be set obliquely, so as
not to bury the lower extremities too deeply in the ground.
What distance is too deep depends, to a great degree, upon the
soil and locality, for a cutting will grow good roots at a much

Rooting Cuttings. 287

lower level in the light, warm loams of the interior valleys than
in any other soil or, situation, and longer cuttings are used in
the interior than in the coast regions. The usual length of cut-
tings is from eighteen to twenty inches.

Making and Caring for Cuttings—Cuttings can be taken
from the vines at any time after the fall of the leaf and before
the spring flow cf sap begins, The earlier cuttings—those
taken before January—are more likely to make a successful start
and after-growth than those cut later in the season.

It is common, however, to defer preparation of cuttings till
the pruning is done, be it early or late, and this will generally
answer the purpose, if care be taken to secure the cuttings im-
mediately at the pruning; but if the branches be allowed to lie
upon the ground for days, exposed to sun, wind, or frost, before
the cuttings are secured, their chances of growth are seriously
lessened, and a good part of the failures in planting are due to
such cuttings.

Cuttings should be taken from short-jointed, well-ripened
wood of the previous year’s growth, cut squarely and smoothly
just below a bud. Cuttings from the middle or top end of
branches are not so likely to root, nor to grow so vigorously, as
those from the butts or ends nearest the old wood.

Keep them dormant until the time comes to set them in
the vineyard, else the tender shoots may get broken. To keep
them back, place them, at the pruning, in shallow trenches, top
down, on the north side of a close board fence or a building,
cover the butts with ioose earth, and over that throw some straw
and boards. Take care that the trenches are in moist but not
wet ground, as too much moisture rots the cuttings. If the
ground should not be moist enough, or if the cuttings seem
dry or withered, plunge them in water to within three or four
inches of their top, for a few days before setting, and do not let
them dry again before planting.

Rooting Cuttings in Nursery.—What has been written is in
reference to cuttings designed for placing in permanent posi-
tion in the vineyard, but, tor the most part, applies as well to
the preparation of cuttings for the nursery. For nursery treat-
ment, however, shorter cuttings can be used than for field plant-
ing, because of the better cultivation and more generous mois-
ture conditions which are usually provided.

In preparation of ground for the rooting of vines and the
planting of cuttings therein, the suggestions in Chapter VIII
are directly applicable, as, to secure rooting of the cuttings, there
is just as great need for deep and fine working of the soil, press-
ing of it around the cutting, and for careful culture during the
growing season, as there is for such treatment of fruit-tree seed-
ling or root graft. It is just as necessary, too, that the rooted
cuttings should be carefully lifted and guarded from drying out

288 Cuttings or Rooted Vines.

while on the way from the nursery to permanent place. The
reader is, therefore, referred to Chapter VIII for suggestions on
preparation, laying out, and care of nursery ground intended for
the rooting of grape cuttings.

To secure vines upon resistant roots recourse has recently
been made by some growers to the cutting-graft which will be
mentioned presently.

There is a growing tendency to use rooted vines instead of
cuttings in planting out vineyard, for, although the former cost
several times as much as the latter, either in the time of the
grower or in cash outlay, the balance is believed to be usually
on the other side, when the uniform stand and more satisfactory
growth secured by rooted vines are considered.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING THE GRAPE VINE.

Working over the grape-vine is largely practised in this
State and is easily accomplished. The occasion is twofold:
Replacing undesirable varieties with those of better quality, or in
better market demand, and in bringing the vinifera varieties

|

Inlaying a Bud in a Vine Cane.

upon roots which resist the attacks of the phylloxera. The em-
ployment of resistant stocks has proved eminently satisfactory
in this State, the resistant stock having been successfully installed
even in the hole from which the dead vinifera root has been taken.
For this reason resistant roots are largely relied upon in the
planting of new vineyards in infested districts, and are also used
in regions where the insect is not now found, by those who fear
and desire to provide against its coming.

Budding the Grape. 289

Budding the Grape-—Buds can be readily made to grow in
grape canes, though budding is not largely used. Success can
be had with the same method of budding that is common with
fruit trees as described in a previous chapter. Insert the bud
in the spring as soon as the bark will slip well on the stock, and
before the run of the sap is too strong. Keep the cuttings in a
cool place so their growth will be retarded, and then seize upon
just the right condition of the stock, insert the bud under the
bark of a cane of the previous season’s growth, tie it around
with a string, and the bud starts readily without further treat-
ment. When its growth shows its ability to take the sap, the
top of the stock is removed.

Another method of budding the vine is by inlaying a piece
of wood with the bud, as shown in the engraving. The use of
a narrow waxed band would probably be desirable with this
style of budding. It takes considerable ingenuity to make 2
good fit of bud and stock for inlaying, and it is but little done.
It offers a way, however, to rapidly multiply wood of some de-
sirable variety, by securing a cane from each bud.

Grafting the Vine——Grafting in old vine roots is a simple
operation, and is performed in various ways. The principles
involved in vine grafting are similar to those affecting tree
grafting, as described in Chapter IX. The processes employed

pe

Making the Side Cut into the Vine Root. Adjustment of Scion to Stock.

are also similar, but the graft requires less binding and covering,
because it is usually made beneath the surface ot the ground,
and is, therefore, less subject to accident, exposure, and drying
out.

Grafting in the Old Stump.—This is resorted to when the
character of the vineyard is to be changed. Out of the many

290 Cleft Grafting the Wine.

ways for working into old stumps, two are given below, as those
most commonly employed in this State. The first is called ‘‘lat-
eral cleft grafting” and introduces the scion by a side cut into
the stock without splitting across. The earth is removed from
the old vine down to its first lateral roots, and the top is sawed
off cleanly a few inches above the first laterals. A cut is then
made into the side of the stump with a knife and mallet, as is
shown in the figure. The scion is then cut long enough so that
one bud will remain above-ground when the surface is leveled
again, the bottom of the scion being given an oblique wedge-
shape, so as to fit the crevice in the stock. Some care is needed
in shaping the wedge of the scion. A fit like that shown in A
in the sketch will not succeed, while one in which the surfaces
are in contact, as in B, will give good results.

Common Cleft and Lateral Grafts. Scion in Position.

The manner of inserting the scion is shown by another en-
graving, which also pictures a wedge which is used to force the
cleft open a little. If the cut is well made and the end of the
scion so adjusted that the stock will pinch it when it is pushed
into place, nothing more will be needed except to smear over
the cut surface of the stump and the joint of the scion and stock
with clay or with a mixture of two parts clay and one part fresh
cow manure. If the scion is held firmly and sealed in with this
mixture, it usually needs no tying, and the hole can be carefully
filled with loose earth, with a strong stake to mark the place of
the graft, and to which the new growth can be securely tied

Suggestions on Grafting. 291

aiterwards. Another common method is to split the stump
across its center and insert one or two grafts, as shown in the
figure. If two are used and both grow, the weakly one is after-
ward suppressed. In this cross cleft graft some grafters rely
upon the stock to hold the scion without tying, and daub it over
with the clay mixture, care being taken to fill and cover the split
in the stock to exclude water. Others put a ligature around
the split stump, as shown in the engraving. Strips of cotton
cloth answer well for this purpose. Tying offers better security
from knocking out the graft with the cultivator.

In grafting into very tough old stumps, some growers leave
a slim wedge of wood in the cleft with the scion to prevent the
stock from closing too forcibly upon the scion.

Side Grafting —-Sidé grafting the vine is commended by
some growers. It consists in inserting a graft by a cut into the
side of the stock, the method being essentially the same as that
employed with fruit trees, as described in Chapter IX, except that
in side grafting the vine the top is not amputated, but is allowed
to bear its crop and is then removed the following winter. The
next summer the scion will bear a crop, and the vine is worked
over without cessation in its bearing.

Herbaceous Grafting —This term is applied to a graft in
which the scion of the current season’s growth is set by a cleft
graft into canes also of the current season’s growth, while both
scion and cane are elastic, but not too soft. The method has
not been usually successful in this State, apparently because of
the dryness of the summer air.

Carz of Scions— Scions should be kept cool and moist
enough to prevent drying but not wet enough to cause decay,
as has already been described in the keeping of cuttings.

Time of Grarting.—Grafting is done in February, March,
and April in different parts of the State, March being the month
usually chosen for the work. If a spring graft fails, the stump
may be regraited in August or in the following spring. In re-
grafting, the stump is cut off again below the previous cleft.
The time for the work is when the sap has ceased flowing, usu-
ally from the first to the tenth of August.

The recourse to resistant roots to escape the phylloxera has
been attended with some disappointment because the wild roots
at first widely used proved only partially resistant. Recently,
in the main through employment of French selected varieties of
the American wild species, stocks with satisfactory resistance,
larger growth and vigor and adaptation to different California
soils have been secured. Notable success has been attained in
the habilitation of vineyards on the basis of resistant roots. The
University Experiment Station, at Berkeley, has maintained
leadership in this direction by publication of information and by

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Resistant Vines. 293

distribution of resistant roots for trial. Explicit information
can be had free by application to the University.

Resistant Varieties——American wild vines are characterized
by every marked differences in degrees of resistance to phyllox-
era, and especially in adaptability to soils. Not only do species
differ in this respect, but varieties of the same species show
widely different characteristics. As a result of the process of
selection varieties have been secured which are far above the
average of the species in vigor of growth and development, de-
gree of resistance and general suitability for resistant root pur-
poses. Of the few varieties which have thus demonstrated par-
ticular excellence in France and have given notable indications
of success in California, are the following :—

For soils likely to become somewhat dry in summer—the
Rupestris “St. George.”

For deep, moist and tolerably rich soils, Riparia “Gloire de
Montpellier,” and “Grande Glabre.”

For heavy, low lands, even if slightly alkaline, hybrid
“‘Solonis.”

The Lenoir, Herbemont and a few others are praised by
local growers.

The Cutting Graft—Gratfting the desired variety upon a
resistant cutting and then planting the grafted cutting in nurs-
ery for rooting is an accepted French method which is being

Whip Graft with Earth Mound.

successfully employed in California. ‘This has ‘advantage in
time gained and in securing a full stand of vines as compared
with grafting upon cuttings already rooted in place in the vine-
yard—though the latter is successfully practised. An adjacent
engraving shows the rooting of cutting-grafts in the nursery.
Grafting on Resistant Stocks after Rooting—Graiting on
resistant roots differs from working in old stumps in the size of

204 Laying Out Vineyard.

the wood to be operated on, and in the fact that the graft must
be set migner up because it is not desirable to have the scion
strike roots of its own, for the obvious reason that depending on
such roots would make the vine no longer resistant. The ad-
vantage of covering the graft with earth is, however, still to be
enjoyed, for the earth can be raised in a little mound around the
graft, to be removed when the graft has taken well. For this
reason grafting on resistant roots is usually done at or near the
surface of the ground.

The common cleft graft is used when the stock is large
enough to give a split strong enough to hold in the scion. In
grafting smaller stocks the whip graft is used, as shown in the
accompanying engraving, which represents the stock, the scion,
and the two alter insertion and tying, with the dotted line to
show the mound of earth made to keep the graft from drying
out. This graft is variously treated. It is covered with clay
by some, by others with grafting wax; but the common experi-
ence is that graiting wax makes too tight a joint, and holds in
surplus sap, which begets disease. The use of a wax band spe-
cially adapted to ruling conditions has proved very successful,
but the easiest and usually most satisfactory way is to wind with
soft twine or raffia which will decay and loosen as the graft en-
larges. ;
LAYING OUT THE VINEYARD.

Vines are planted in rectangles, generally in squares, but
sometimes at a less distance in the rows than the rows are from
each other. The stakes which are to represent the future vines
are in either case placed by the same methods of measuring or
marking off. All the methods described for clearing and pre-
paring lands, in Chapter VII, and for laying off ground in
squares, described in Chapter X, are applicable to vineyard
ground. The measuring wire therein described is the means
usually emploved for laying off. A special contrivance which
has been used to some extent on level ground is thus described:

The marker most in use is made in the form of a sled, sixteen, fourteen,
or twelve feet long, with three runners so placed as to mark rows eight,
seven, or six feet wide. These runners should be made about three feet
long, of some hard wood (Oregon pine will do), two inches thick and firmly
nailed to two planks placed upon them of the lengths first above named.
Upon these should be bolted two strong pieces of joist in the form of wagon
hounds projecting in front far enough to receive a stout pole like a wagon-
tongue, well braced and fastened with an iron rod. Care must be taken
that the motion of the machine is steady and true in all its parts. With a
well-made marker, a gentle team, and a careful driver, excellent work may
be done.

Distance of Planting —There is as much difference of opin-
ion and practise in fixing the distance between vines as between
orchard trees, but usually more room is given than formerly.

Laying Out Vineyard. 295

Planted in squares, the distance varies from seven to ten feet,
with eight feet as most prevalent, taking the State as a whole.
Planting in rows is also adopted to some extent. Such plan-
tations are made with the vines seven by ten or eight by ten
feet, four and one-half by eleven feet, etc. There is great vari-
ation in the distances. Some advantages of the row system
are as follows: Greater space to spread trays for raisin curing;
plowing can be done with double team and larger plows; the
brush can be gathered and burned between the rows instead of
carrying it to the avenues; sulphur and materials for spraying
can be brought in by team to any part of the vineyard; empty
boxes can be distributed and filled ones gathered up without
carrying, etc. Planting in rows recommends itself not only for
planting new vineyards, but also for changing old vineyards
from seven by seven feet to three and one-half by fourteen feet,
or from eight by eight feet to four by sixteen feet, giving op-
portunity to change from a wiifera-root vineyard to a resistant-
root vineyard. This can be accomplished by planting resistant
roots in the alternate rows to be preserved, right between the
two old vines.

Number of Vines to the Acre-—However the vines be set, it
is very easy to calculate the number of vines which an acre will
accommodate. Multiply the distance in feet between the rows
by the distance the plants are apart in the rows, and the product
will be the number of square feet for each plant; which, divided
into the number of feet in an acre (forty-three thousand five
hundred and sixty), will give the number of plants to the acre.

Avenues in the Fineyard-——For convenience of access with
team and wagon there should always be avenues through the
vineyard. They are usually arranged so as to cut up the vine-
yard into blocks about twice as long as broad, if the vineyard
be on level land. Of course, on hilly lands the avenues should
be located for ease of banling. The avenue is made by leaving
out a row of vines, and, therefore, the exact size of the block will
depend upon the distance between the rows. Some advise hav-
ing not more than forty vines between the avenues. Planting
in rows, with wide spaces between the rows, renders fewer ave-
nules necessary.

PLANTING CUTTINGS AND ROOTED VINES.

Various means are used for planting cuttings. An essential
condition to successful growth is to have the lower part of the
cutting well embedded in the soil, as it will not root unless in
close contact with the earth. To lack of care in this regard
most failures are due, and for lack of surety that such contact is
made the various contrivances for speedy planting, such as
the planting bar, are widely condemned; an excavation of the

296 Planting Vines.

hole and refilling with fine surface earth, just as advised in
Chapter XI, for planting orchard trees, is commended as the
safest practise. Much, however, depends upon the soil. In
loose, free soil such a use of bar or “sheep’s-foot” as will be pres-
ently described may be satisfactory, while it would be imprac-
ticable on firmer soils, both because of the difficulty of insertion
and because the packed condition caused by the forcing in would
not favor root extension, and not desirable on shallow soils be-
cause the contact of the better surface soil with the bottom of
the cutting will stimulate the growth of the cutting, and is,
therefore, very desirable. ‘The planting by direct thrust is ob-
viously impracticable when horizontal planting of a long cut-
ting is desired, as will be described later.

The post-hole auger and a device for taking out soil as a
“trier” takes out a sample of cheese or butter, have also been
used to some extent, but not widely, in making holes for cuttings.

Planting Bar and Sheep’s-foot—The following methods, de-
scribed by Dr. Gustav Eisen as prevailing in the raisin districts
of the San Joaquin Valley, on sandy, loamy soils, will well il-
lustrate similar methods wherever followed:—

The planting bar consists of a bar of hard iron, sharpened at the lower
end and furnished with a cross-handle at the other. The length of the bar
is about three and a half feet, width about two and a half inches, and thick-
ness a third to half an inch. If less than this the bar will bend. The
planting is done by pushing the bar perpendicularly in the ground. After
withdrawing it, insert the cutting and push it down to the bottom. Fill up
the hole by again inserting the bar in the ground close by and pressing the
flat side against the hole.

The sheep’s-foot consists of a round rod with cross-handle at the upper
end. The lower end of the rod is slightly flattened, bent, and forked. The
planting is done by fitting the forked end over the butt-end bud of the cut-
ting, and immediately pushing cutting and rod together to the desired depth
in the soil. A slight twist is now given to the sheep’s-foot. This loosens
it from the cutting and allows it to be withdrawn. A tamp with the foot
fills the hole. Great care must be taken in withdrawing the sheep’s-foot,
lest in doing so the cutting should be drawn out also, and this will leave a
fatal air chamber at the lower end. The slight twist given the rod before
withdrawing loosens it and leaves the cutting undisturbed.

For planting in dry situations some careful planters run
water and fine earth into the hole made by the bar after insert-
ing the cutting; others run in fine sand dry and then pour on
water. In using water in this way one must take care that he
does not use adobe earth, for a succeeding dry spell may bake it,
and the cutting will be worse off than if not puddled.

Planting Long Cuttings—Where the long cutting, planted
more or less horizontally, is adopted, the method of the late G.
G. Briggs, one of the largest giape planters of the interior val-
leys, may be followed. This is his description of his practise :—

Planting Vines. 297

I make my cuttings of wood of the previous season’s growth, about
three feet long. I lay out vineyard with a plow, crossing furrows at right
angles at the distance desired for the vines. At the intersection of the fur-
rows, dig holes twenty inches deep and twenty inches long, and the width
of ashovel. The holes should be dug all on the same side of the furrows,
or in a corresponding angle of the intersecting furrows. The butt of the
cutting is placed from the intersection; bringing the top at the exact inter-
section, with two buds above the surface. ‘The end of the hole at the inter-
secting part must be perpendicular, so as to give the top of the vine a
perpendicular position from the elbow of the vine at the bottom of the hole.
To make this elbow when the vine is placed, slip the foot on the cutting and
cover with soil and tramp down. I have found this mode of planting the
most successful. It gives a larger amount of roots than perpendicular
planting, and the roots are low enough below the surface to be out of the
reach of ordinary drouth, and the same time none are so deep as to be
cold and slow of action in circulation. In covering, be careful to place the
soil close about the perpendicular part of the cane, and up full with the
general surface, but back from this part the hole may be left in the form of
a sink, to catch and hold moisture during the first rainy season.

Planting Rooted Vines—-Planting rocted vines is governed
by the same rules commended for planting trees in Chapter XI,
so far as preparation of holes, care in placing and firming the
soil around the roots, etc., is concerned. In handling rooted
vines there must be greater care in packing and _ transporta-
tion to prevent the 100ts from drying, and in carrying to the
field it is generally advised that the plants be kept in a pail or
other receptacle with water. The vine roots are very small and
tender, and success will largely depend upon good care of them.
At planting all dead roots should be trimmed away and the top
reduced to a single cane cut back to two eyes.

When to Plant-—The exact time to plant can not be stated,
for the condition of the soil and the local season-points are the
best guides. Planting can be done much later as a rule in the
coast regions than in the interior, because the soil is usually
later in getting into good condition of mellowness and warmth,
and the late rains are usually heavier. It is certainly not ad-
visable to place cuttings in cold, wet soil, and dry soil will quickly
destroy their vitality. The suggestions given in Chapter XI
should be carefully considered. The planter must use good
judgment in choosing his time for planting, aided in forming it
by the best local experience he can get.

Cultivation of Vineyard.—-Generat suggestions concerning
the cultivation of the vineyard have already been given in Chap-
ter XIII, preceding.

20

CHAPTER AY.

PRUNING AND CARE OF THE VINE.*

a

Most of the varieties of vinifera grown in California at pres-
ent thrive under the short pruning system. There are exceptions,
however, which will be noted later. The prevalence ot the short
pruning’system frees our growers from the expense and incon-
venience of trellises. Though in the early years of the vines
stakes are used, our older vines stand by themselves and are as
independent of supports as are our fruit trees. The vines are, in
fact, shaped upon something the same model as our fruit trees,
the so-called “goblet form” of the French being our prototype.

FIG. 4.

FIG. 1.

Various Growths of Vines before First Pruning.

An effort will be made to describe briefly how this form is at-
tained.

First Year—During its first year in the vineyard the cut-
ting is allowed to make all the growth possible without interfer-
ence. After the fall of the leaves the following winter, the vines
will be found to have made varying amounts of growth, accord-
ing to individual vigor, as shown by the accompanying engrav-
ing, ranging from Fig. 1, which is a good growth, down to Fig.
4, which is a feeble growth. In these figures d represents the
wood of the cutting which was planted with two buds above-

* A general discussion of the pruning of the vine, with due consideration of all the ends to
be attained by different pruning policies, is evond the unavoidable limitations of this treat-
ise. The literature of the subject is large, and any one who aims to make a specialty of the
grape will of course seek other sources of information. Bulletin 119, of the University Experi-
ment Station, Berkeley, is a suggestive exposition of the subject. It is the aim of the writer
merely to give a few suggestions which will aid the beginner or one who designs to growa
small area of vines in connection with other fruits.

( 298)

Pruning for Goblet Form. 299

ground; a is the lowest shoot of each, which, in the first three
instances, Figs. 1, 2 and 3, should be cut back to two buds, and
all the other shoots removed entirely, leaving, however, the old
stem d in each case, as it is useful to tie the new shoots to during
the following summer. In the case of the feeble growth, Fig.
4, the shoot & is to be removed and a allowed to stand as it is, in
the prospect of its picking up strength and making growth
enough to be cut back to two buds at the end of the next season.

Thus it appears that usually all the vines can not be brought
to uniform condition at once, but some will require a year or two
more than others in the shaping process, because of the inherent
weakness of the individual, or because some of the vines may be
set in a spot of the vineyard less favorable to growth.

Fie. 6. Fic. 7.
Vine at Second and Third Pruning.

Second Year.—During the second summer, vigorous vines
will send out shoots five feet or more in length, according to the
inherent strength of the variety or the favoring situation, and ot
these the most upright and vigorous should be selected to serve
as the foundation of the future trunk. It should be cut back so
that the second bud from the top of the part that is left shall
mark the height desired for the first fork of the coming goblet-
shaped head. This cane should be tied to a stake and all other
buds save the three at the top rubbed off. All other canes
should be closely cut away. The engraving, Fig. 5, shows at a
the cane to be chosen to form the future vine, while b and c are
to be cut away cleanly.

At this point practise varies in this State. Instead of rub-
bing off the lower buds, as advised, some growers allow laterals
to grow below the future head and the laterals bear fruit and. are
afterwards cut away. The result is that a trunk is afterwards
formed with scars from the removed laterals instead of smooth
trunks, which are secured when the lower buds are rubbed away.

300 Pruning for Goblet Form.

The grower has to decide whether this fruit is worth more to him
than the healthier and more vigorous vine, which will probably
be secured by dispensing with this early fruit.

Another point of difference enters here, and that is the choice
of height at which the head of the vine shall be tormed. By the
head is meant the point at which the lowest branches emerge
from the main stem, and not the tops of the highest spurs, which
some call the head of the vine. The question is, then, At what
point shall the oldest or lowest forks be formed? Experience
favors low-heading on hillsides and on broad valley vineyards.
The grapes are brought near to the warm, dry soil, which, with
raisin and table grapes, at least, is desirable because the radia-
tion of heat from the sun-heated soil during the night gives a
more uniform heat during the twenty-four hours, and, by bear-
ing its fruit low and supporting part of it upon the ground, the
vine is less affected by wind. But this very low heading is not
desirable on moist soils because of mildew, nor is it safe on low
ground where frosts are likely to form. For this reason in
broken country where vineyards run from the hillsides down
into small valleys, it is usual to head the vines on the low ground
higher than on the hillsides.

Third Year.—During the third summer canes will grow
from the vines something as shown in Fig. 6, and considerable
fruit will be borne. Sometimes all these canes are allowed to
grow through the season, but it is better practise to rub off other

The Vine at Fourth and Subsequent Prunings.

shoots when two or three vigorous ones can be selected to form
the main branchingss of the trunk. It is also customary to pinch
off the main shoots after they have grown out a foot or so.
This pinching results in the growth of leafy laterals which shade
the fruit and add to the stockiness of the main canes. At the
winter pruning which follows, these two or three main canes are
cut back to two or three buds, the greater number of buds being
left on the more vigorous vines. All other shoots are cut away
cleanly. This operation fixes the first fork of the vine head, as
shown in Fig. 7.

Stump Pruning. 301

‘

Fourth Vear.—The fourth summer most vines will put forth
a number of canes and bear a ‘good crop of fruit, though some
varieties are later in bearing. The same treatment is given the
vine as during the preceding summer, and at the following
winter pruning each branch is allowed to retain two spurs of
two or three buds each, according to the strength of the vines,
as aforesaid. Thus the vine which was left as in Fig. 7 at the
third pruning becomes the form shown in Fig. 8 at the fourth
winter pruning.

Subsequent Pruning.—After the fourth year the pruning
proceeds upon the same plan, the number of branches or spurs
being increased as the vigor of the vine seems to warrant, until

A Stump-pruned Vine.

the trunk shows the goblet form, as shown in Figs. 9 and Io.
From year to year the number of buds left on the spurs depends
upon the ability of the vine to produce the fruit and make a
healthy growth.

Stump Pruning—Short or spur pruning is also followed
without systematic effort to build up a symmetrical trunk,
branching in goblet shape, as has been described. In such
practise the vine is usually headed as soon as a strong cane is
thrown out about as high as the top of the trunk is intended to
be, and year after year shoots are selected from those emerging
near the top of the stump. Irregularly-branching heads are
thus formed, continually crowding upward, and are kept within
bounds much less easily than low-heading branches. The en-.

302 Long Pruning with Stakes.

graving shows a stump-pruned vine with some canes cut short
and some long, according to a system which will be mentioned
presently.

Thompson’s Seedless Long Pruned.—W. R. Nutting, Fresno.

In stump pruning there is a difference of practise as to low
heading according to locality. In the interior regions the vine
is now headed almost at the surface of the ground; in the coast
regions there is usuaily a stump of one to two feet or more. As
with trees so with vines, the practise is to prune to make lower
heads than during the early years of California fruit growing.

Loug Pruning.—Some varieties grown for market and for
raisin making do not thrive if pruned by the short-spur system.
‘Notable among these are the Sultana, Thompson’s Seedless,

A Renewal System. 303

Emperor, and Sabalskanski. There are also a number of wine
varieties which must be pruned long. Long pruning admits of
degrees, but it usually signifies using a five or six instead of a
four-ioot stake and leaving the selected canes from eighteen
inches to three feet or longer instead of cutting back to two or
three buds, as in short pruning. ‘These long canes are securely
tied to the long stakes.

With varieties needing long pruning the first two or three
buds next the old wood do not bear fruit, hence the need of
Icaving buds farther removed from the old wood to secure it.
This habit of the vine invites the practise of growing a long cane
for fruit and at the same time providing for wood growth for the
following year’s fruiting by cutting another cane from the same

An Instance of Long Pruning.

spur down to two or three buds. By this practise the wood which
has borne the fruit is cut back to a bud each winter and the cane
which has grown only wood is pruned long for the fruit of the
following summer. -A modification of the practise is to prune the
canes from some of the spurs long, and from other spurs short,
thus making the spurs alternate from wood bearing to fruit bear-
ing from year to year. Sometimes instead of using a long stake
the long cane is brought over the top of the vine and lashed to
the trunk on the other side; or two or more canes are thus
brought over from side to side and tied securely at their cross-
ing. The engraving shows one style of long pruning, which
illustrates the cutting to long and short canes, and will suffi-
ciently indicate the system. The number of long canes to be
left to the vine depends on its vigor, and this can only be learned
by experience.

Grape varieties which do not succeed with short-spur prun-
ing are generally grown on long stakes, as stated, but use of the

304. Long Pruning with Trellis.

trellis is increasing, especially among growers of Thompson’s
Seedless, in the interior valley and is also employed in the coast
valleys for varieties which seem to thrive better when lifted from
the ground. The engraving shows long pruning with renewal

5

Long Pruning with Renewal Spurs and a Trellis.

short canes trained upon trellis, and an accompanying plate
shows the trellising of Thompson’s Seedless in a large vineyard
near Fresno.

The Chaintre System—This is another method of long
pruning, which was introduced in California about fifteen years
ago, but has never been widely adopted. It is of French origin,
the term en chaintre meaning “trailing chains.” It consists in
growing long canes, which, when fruiting, are supported upon
short, forked stakes, so that the clusters hang within a few inches
of the ground, as shown in the engraving, which represents a
branch of a chaintre-trained vine in fruit.

Matcrials Used in Training | ines.—The chief item of cost
in vine training is the stakes. The best stakes are of California
redwood, which is exceedingly durable. The cost of four-foot

The Chaintre System of Long Pruning.

stakes for short pruning is abuut $12 per thousand and for five
and six-foot stakes for long pruning about $15 to $18 per thou-

TWO-WIRE TRELLISING OF THOMPSON'S SEEDLESS GRAPE AT FRESNO.—See page 304.

Summer Care of Vines. 305

sand, free on board cars in the redwood regions in Souoma and
Santa Cruz Counties.

Vines are tied with “grape twine,” old cable (bought at the
junk shops in San Francisco), with wire, with the tough leaves
of the New Zealand Hax, and with withes of ozer willow. Both
of the last-named materials are now grown for home use by.
many vineyardists. Professor Husmann strongly commends
No. 16 annealed galvanized wire for making the upper ties of
young vine stumps to stakes, and uses the other materials for
the lower ties and for fastening up growing canes.

Grape-vines should be tied tightly to the stake. By
“tightly” is meant tight enough to prevent a chafing motion.
without compressing the cane. The object of tying up vin -
to prevent their being blown about by the wind and the break-
ing of the canes. Some, however, tie loosely, and are careful to
have the vine on the leeward side of the stake. Split stakes
should have the corners rounded to prevent chafing of canes.

SUMMER PRUNING AND SUCKERING.

Summer pruning or topping of vines is usually practised.
Some follow the pinching process, by which the terminal of the
growing cane is nipped off with the thumb and finger when it
has grown out about two feet. Others wait longer and then
slash off the ends of the canes with a sickle. The tendency is to
leave summer pruning until too late and to slash off wood idis-
criminately, to the injury of the vine. Summer pruning, if done
early enough, and this would be while the growth is still soft at
the point of removal, will induce the growth of laterals and will
shade and improve the fruit, and at the same time thicken the
growth of the main cane and strengthen its connection with the
spur. Slashing of canes too late in the s.ason deprives the fruit
of the service of enough leaf surface for the elaboration of the
sap, often seriously checks the growth of the vine, and in hot
regions induces sunburn. The first summer pruning should be
done soon after the bloom. The second could take place when-
ever the canes or laterals extend beyond the length necessary
to shade the grapes.

Suckering is an important process and usually has to be at-
tended to at least twice in the season. It consists in removing
all shoots from old wood which are not provided for at the pre-
vious winter pruning. The growth of these suckers takes sap
which should go to the other canes. All such shoots should be
rubbed or pulled off while they are still soft; if a sucker puts out
at a point where it would be desirable to have a spur to balance
the head of the vine, it should of course be allowed to grow, to
be cut back to two buds the following winter. By such selection
of suckers new spurs are secured to replace old and failing ones.

306 General Suggestions.

GENERAL NOTES OS PRUNING.

Longer or shorter pruning produces effects not only upon
the amount and early ripening of the fruit of certain varieties,
but upon quality, as shown in the wine. Such effects have to be
discerned by local observation.

It is a very difficult matter to lay down any rule for pruning
a vineyard, so much depends on the age of the vines, the differ-
ent varieties, and the quality of the soil. A basis on which to
build a theory on the subject might be found in and through an
understanding of the quantity ot grapes that may be expected
from a vine, as the secret of pruning is to keep a just medium
between the production of grapes to the injury of the vine and
its wood and an overproduction of wood to the detriment of the
crop. In older vines a proportion should be maintained between
the vigor of the vines and the crop desired; each bud may be
considered good for two bunches of grapes the ordinary size, and
‘upon this estimate may be obtained. It must be borne in mind
that the result of overloading the vine is detrimental to its vigor
and health, while the reverse will not injure it, but will lessen the
profits for that season, often giving greatly increased returns in
after years.

Close attention should be given to the growth of the wood
and fruit of the preceding year. If the canes are very large and
the bunches of grapes poor and there are many suckers, it indi-
cates that more eyes are necessary. On the contrary, if the canes
are small, and the bunches of grapes numerous and straggling,
and the ripening not even, it indicates that the number of eyes
left should be less.

Pruning should also be regulated to produce a good second
crop of grapes or to prevent the formation of a second crop.
The second crop is often desirable in raisin and table varieties,
but undesirable in wine varieties.

Attention should be paid to the tools used in pruning. Let
the blades be kept sharp and thin; large shears are very apt to
bruise the wood more than small ones.

Pruning is done after the iall of the leaves and before the
swelling of the buds, usually in January and February. Early
pruning has a tendency to make the vines start growth early,
consequently in frosty situations pruning is often deferred till
late in the winter—as late as the middle of March in some cases.
In such situations it is advised to leave more buds at pruning,
so that if the frost kills the first shoots there are buds below to
make later growth. This practise has been followed with marked
advantage in some regions liable to late spring frosts.

The treatment of vines injured by spring frosts is clearly
the inimediate removal, by a sharp downward jerk, of the frosted

Sulphuring Vines. 307

shoots. P. C. Rossi, a large vineyardist, recites this experience,
both in the San Joaquin and Santa Rosa Valleys.

We had all the vines affected by frost entirely stripped of the damaged
shoots, and we had the pleasure of seeing that, in a short time after, all the
dormant buds came out finely, with their regular two bunches of grapes;
therefore we have lost only one-third of the crop. In order to make care-
ful experiment we left a row of vines untouched, and the result proved that
the vines that were not stripped did not do as well as the others, as the
dormant buds in many cases did not come out, and those that came out
were not healthy and strong, and hardly had any grapes. The damaged
shoots that were not removed died gradually, and at the junction with the
cane new shoots came out without any grapes at all. The result clearly
proves that we will have fully two-thirds of the crop out of the frost-bitten
vines which were stripped of the damaged canes, while we had hardly any
first crop and only a second crop on the vines which were not attended tu.

DISEASES OF THE VINE.

One of the most prevalent diseases of the vine in California
is caused by a fungus which affects leaves, canes, and berries,
and is locally known as “mildew.” This disease is recognized
by grayish white coloring of the affected leaves, which, as the
disease progresses, shrivel and dry up; the young cane also
blackens and dries, and the berries show whitish patches, which
become darker colored and the berries crack open. The usual
remedy for the trouble is finely-ground or sublimed sulphur
applied several times during the season. The application is

The Sulphur Bellows.

made with a “dredge” or a bellows. The dredge is a tin cylin-
der with a handle at one end like that of a ‘‘sugar scoop” and the
opposite end periorated finely. Another form resembles the
spout of a watering-pot, the sulphur entering through the
handle, and fine gauze covering the face instead of perforated
metal. By a proper movement of the arm the sulphur in the
cylinder is thrown against the perforated end, and enough finds
egress from the small holes to shower the vine. The dredge is
best fitted for use on smali vines or for use early in the season,

308 Other Vine Diseases.

when the growth is just starting from the stump. When larger
spread of sulphur is desired, the bellows may be used. The
remedy should be a little in advance of the disease, and in regions
where the mildew appears regularly, sulphur is applied about as
soon as growth starts in the vine, a second application about
blooming-time, and a third when the berries are the size of
peas.

The Bordeaux Mixture and other copper preparations are
sometimes useful upon grape-vines, as will be cited in the chap-
ter on plant diseases.

Couwlure-—A frequent misfortune of the vine, and for which
no remedy is yet known, is cculure, a te:m signifying the failure of
the fruit to set or to remain on the cluster. This occurs in vary-
ing degrees from the loss of a few berries to the almost complete
clearing of fruit from the stem. It is worse with some varieties
than others and in some localities than others. The trouble is
believed to arise from various causes,

There is, also, occurring with more or less frequency, a red-
dening and death of the vine leaves, supposed to be identical
with the trouble known to the French as “‘rougeole.’”” The leaves
show light-colored spots at first, which afterward turn red and
finally involve the whole leaf or cane, and sometimes the whole
vine. It usually occurs i midsummer, and is not necessarily
fatal in its effects.

Root Knot.—An evil occurring on the main stem of the vine,
generally near the surface of the ground, is an excrescence of
woody character commonly called “black knot.” There has
been much discussion as to the cause of this abnormal growth,
without iull agreement among observers. Some attribute the
knots to injuries to the stump in cultivation, others to outbursts
of sap which the short pruning system does not give top growth
enough to dispose of, and to various other causes. This is an-
alogous to the ‘crown knot” of fruit trees which will be mentione 1
in the chapter on plant diseases.

Anaheim Disease—There has prevailed for several years a
mysterious disease of the vine in southern California, known as
the “Anaheim disease,” because its evil work first appeared in
that vicinity. It destroyed many thousand acres of vines and
led to the abandonment of grape growing in same regions.
The disease has thus far baffled scientific inquiry as to its cause.
The fullest statements concerning it can be found in Bulletin
No. 2, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Vegetable
Pathology. by Newton B. Pierce, 1892, and Farmers’ Bulletin
No. 30, 1895. Fortunately during recent vears the trouble has
not been aggressive.

CHAPTER. AAV
GRAPE VARIETIES IN CALIFORNIA.

Large collections of grape varieties have been brought into
California during the last forty-five years. They were sought
in all‘grape countries, and from such wide experimental plant-
ing a few have survived in popular esteem and are now chiefly
grown. Being derived from different countries, they came
bearing many names. Some of these have been preserved,
some wholly lost, and replaced with local appellations. The re-
sult is that our grape nomenclature is full of confusion. Some
varieties have been identified by the means of the standard
French grape literature; others are apparently unknown to the
compilers of that literature. It is, therefore, impossible to-day
to determine a number of our most popular table and shipping
grapes, as well as some of the wine varieties. In order to char-
acterize our leading table grapes. descriptions will be quoted
from the best available local authorities, as follows :—

Early Black July; syns. Madeleine, Madeleine Noir, etc.—‘‘Leaves
rather small, light green above and beneath; bunches small and compact;
berries small, quite round; skin thick, black, covered with a blue bloom;
flavor moderately sweet, but not rich nor perfumed. The earliest grape,
and chiefly valued for the dessert on that account.’”’—/yatt.

Early Madeleine; syn. Madeleine Angevine.—‘Moderate grower, with
long-jointed, brown wood; leaf medium, deeply lobed, dark green above,
tomentose below; young points reddish, woolly, slender; bunch medium,
compact, shouldered; berry medium, oblong, yellowish green, transparent,
rather thick skin, sweet and juicy. Vine a shy bearer when frost is
prevalent.’’—Husmann.

White July; syn. Luglienga.—‘Vine strong-growing and sensitive to
frost; leaves of medium size, deeply five-lobed, dark green, glabrous on
both sides, sharply toothed, the terminal tooth of each lobe very long and
acuminate; bunches of medium size, well filled; berries of medium size,
oval, at first green, becoming yellow with overripeness, with thin skin, crisp,
firm flesh, and agreeable flavor.’—Bioletti. The Luglienga, which means
July grape, is one of the earliest grapes known.

Chasselas Dore; syn. Fontainebleau, Sweetwater.—‘A rather vigorous
grower, with medium or somewhat slender canes of a reddish-brown color;
young shoots of garnet color, nearly or quite glabrous; leaves rather be-

(309)

310 Darieties of the Grape.

low average size, a little longer than wide, glabrous above and nearly so
below, except for a few hairs on the main nerves, with well-marked sinuses,
the petiolar one often closed, the petiole long, rather slender, and rose-
colored; bunches of medium or over-medium size, conico-cylindrical,
shouldered, more or less compact; berries medium to large, with firm but ten-
der skin, small seeds, of delicate flavor and texture, at first crisp but
becoming soft with full maturity. The grapes are of a clear green color,
tinged with a beautiful golden bronze where exposed to the sun.”’—Szoletzi.

Chasselas Rose.—Fruit resembling foregoing, except that both bunch
and berries are usually smaller, and flavor is more pronounced. *

Chasselas Victorta.—“Vine vigorous, very short-jointed and brittle,
and bears well with short pruning; wood grayish yellow, thick and strong;
leaf light green, deeply lobed and shining; young shoots with numerous
laterals; bunch very large and heavy, often weighing five pounds, shoul-
dered, very compact; stem brown, very thick; berry medium, round, pale
lilac purple, with lilac bloom, juicy, vinous, refreshing.”—Alusmann.,

Palomino, syn. Golden Chasselas.—‘‘The vine quite largely grown as
‘Golden Chasselas’ is undoubtedly identical with the Listan, or Palomino.”
—Hilgard. ‘Vine a fair grower; wood close-jointed; leaf medium, oblong,
deeply lobed, bright green above, grayish green and tomentose below;
stem short, young points with reddish tint and woolly; bunch large, conical,
rather loose and shouldered; berry round, full medium, sometimes flat, pale
green with yellowish tinge; thin skin, juicy and sweet, resembling
Chasselas.’’—Husmann.

Black Malvoise.—‘‘Vine a strong grower; wood long-jointed, rather
slender, light brown; leaf medium size, oval, rather evenly and deeply five-
lobed; basal sinus moderately open, with parallel sides, upper surface
smooth, almost glabrous, lower surface lightly tomentose on the veins and
veinlets; bunches large, rather loose, branching; berries large, oblong, red-
dish black, with faint bloom; flesh juicy, flavor neutral.’’—Afi/gard. Widely
grown as an early table grape.

Mission.—“‘This variety, grown at the old missions, has never been
determined, nor its exact source ascertained. It is by some regarded as a
most delicious table grape. It can be found in small areas in every county
of the State adapted to the grape. Vinea strong grower; wood short-jointed,
dull dark brown to grayish; leaf above medium size, slightly oblong, with
large, deeply-cut, compound teeth, basal sinus widely open, primary sinuses
shallow and narrow, secondary sinuses ill-defined, smooth on both sides,
light green below with light, scattered tomentum.”’—Ai/eard. ‘Bunches
slightly shouldered, loose, divided into many small, distinct lateral clusters;
berries medium size, round, purple black, heavy bloom; exceedingly sweet,
juicy, and delicious; seeds rather large; skin thin.’’—Ayaiz.

Muscatel; syn. White Frontignan.—‘‘Vine of medium size, with strong,
spreading canes; canes reddish-brown, with short internodes; leaves of
medium size, thin, five-lobed, glabrous, except for a few hairs on the lower
side of the well-marked ribs; bunches long, cylindrical, regular, compact;
berries round, golden-yellow, becoming amber-colored, very sweet and of
marked aroma. Ripens a little later than the Chasselas.’’— Bioletti.

White Muscat of Alexandria.*—“Vine a short, rather straggling and
bushy grower, well adapted to short stool pruning, as it forms rather a bush
than a vine; wood gray, with dark spots, short-jointed; leaf round, five-
lobed, bright green above, lighter green below; young shoots a bright
green. The laterals produce a second and even a third crop; bunch long

* There is much doubt about the White Muscats as grown in California. Some claim
inability to distinguish between certain grapes of the Muscat type which are being grown in
this State under distinctive names; others pronounce them clearly different varieties. The
matter can not be adjudicated at present.

Varieties of the Grape. Bat

and loose, shouldered; berry oblong, light yellow when fully mature, trans-
parent, covered with white bloom, fleshy, with thick skin, very sweet and
decidedly musky.”—Ausmann. The leading table grape of California.
Rejected for irregular bearing on some mesa lands in southern California.

Muscatel Gordo Blanco.—‘‘Muscatel Gordo Blanco has a closer bunch
and rounder berry than the Muscat. The skin is softer and the pulp is not
quite so hard. The berry inclines to be a little darker in color and not
nearly so green when it is ripe, and I think not quite as long as the Muscat
of Alexandria. If the Muscat would set as well as the Muscatel, the
difficulty would be obviated. One very important difference is that when
you come to dry them, the Muscat of Alexandria loses the bloom very
rapidly. The bloom comes off when you come to dry and pack them. But
the Muscatel does not lose its bloom. The Muscat of Alexandria has to be
dried a little more than the Muscatel to bring it into a keeping condition
under the some condition of ripeness.’’—R. B. Blowers.

_. “The growth of the Muscatel or Gordo Blanco vine is low and spreading,
with no upright branches in the center; clusters heavy, and, when perfect,
close and shouldered; berries round and large (the greatest circumference
being at the center), a crease often being found at the apex of the berry;
color green, or, when fully ripe, amber green or yellow. Distinguished
from Muscat of Alexandria by low, depressed growth of vine, closer cluster,
rounder berries, and by thicker and finer bloom, The Muscatelis the choice
raisin grape for the San Joaquin Valley, and for the interior generally.’”’—
Dr. Eisen. r

fluasco Muscat.—A variety brought from Chile, but after wide trial in
California, seems not superior to the other White Muscat varieties previously
mentioned. Its dense cluster is not well adapted to raisin making. It is
held however, to be less subject to coulure.

feher Szagos.—“‘Vine a strong grower and heavy bearer; branches erect
but slender; leaves glossy, entire; bunches medium to small, pointed, and
solid; berries greenish amber, medium oval, pointed, with thin skin and few
small seeds; flesh not firm, but dries well and makes a good raisin.’’—
Dr. Eisen.

Larga Bloom; syn. Uva Larga.—A variety of Muscat said to be named

because of the length of its berries, but held by some growers to be indis-
tinguishable from Muscatel Gordo Blanco. An excellent raisin grape, but
now chiefly grown as a table fruit in the Santa Cruz Mountains.
‘ White Malaga.—“Vine a strong grower; wood reddish brown, short-
jointed; leaf medium, leathery, smooth, deeply lobed, light shining green
above; bunch very large, loose, shouldered, long; stem long and flexible;
berry very large, oval, yellowish green, covered with white bloom; thick
skin, fleshy.’’—Husmann. Grown in southern Californiain situations where
the Muscat does not do well; also elsewhere as a table grape, and to some
extent in San Joaquin Valley for raisins.

Sultana, syn. Seedless Sultana.—‘Vine vigorous, upright; leaves large,
five-lobed, with rather large sinuses, light colored, and coarsely toothed;
bunches large, long-cylindrical, with heavy shoulders or wings, well filled
when not cultured, but not compacted; berries small, round, firm and crisp,
golden-yellow, and without seeds.” —Aio/etti. In California the variety is
apt to have some seeds. It has more acid, and therefore greater piquancy
of flavor, than Thompson’s Seedless, but the latter is exceeding it in
popularity among growers.

Thompson's Seedless.—Named by Sutter County Horticultural Society,
after W. Thompson, Sr., of Yuba City, who procured the cutting in 1878,
from Ellwanger & Barry, of Rochester, New York. It was by them de-
scribed as “‘a grape from Constantinople, named Lady Decoverly.’? When
it fruited in Sutter County, it was seen to be superior to the Sultana, and
has been propagated largely. It has been widely distributed by J. P.

312 Varieties of the Grape.

Onstott, of Yuba City, and others, and is now to be found in all parts of the
State. The variety is described by Dr. Eisen as follows: “Oval; greenish-
yellow; as large as a Sultana; seedless, with thin skin; good, but not strong
Havor, and without that acid which characterizes the Sultana grape and
raisin; bunches large or very large; vine an enormous bearer.” Mr. Bioletti,
of the University of California, considers the variety identical with the
Sultana of Asia Minor, and give this description: ‘Vine very vigorous and
with large trunk and very long canes; leaves glabrous on both sides, dark
yellowish-green above and light below, generally three-lobed, with
shallow sinuses, teeth short and obtuse, bunch large, conico-cylindrical,
well filled, on herbaceous peduncles; berries under medium, ellipsoidal,
crisp, of neutral flavor, with moderately thick skin of a fine golden-yellow
color.”

The Sultana Grape.

Flame Tokay, syns. Flame-colored Tokay, Flaming Tokay.—‘Vine a
strong grower, large in all its proportions, wood, joints, leaves; wood dark
brown, straight, with long joints; leaves dark green, with a brownish tinge;
lightly lobed; bunch very large, sometimes weighing eight to nine pounds,
moderately compact, shouldered; berry very large, oblong, red, covered
with fine lilac bloom; fleshy and crackling, firm; ripens late.’’—Alusmann.
The leading show grape of the State and desirable for shipping; quality low.
Defective in color in some localities.

Black Hamburg —‘Bunches very large, from six to ten inches in length,
very broad at the shoulders, tapering to a point gradually; berries very
large, round, slightly inclining to oval; skin rather thick, deep purple, very
black at maturity; very sugary, juicy, and rich.’’—/ya¢t. A very popular
market grape.

Rose of Peru; syn. Black Prince (?).—“Vine a strong grower, with
dark brown, short-jointed wood; leaf deep green above, lighter green and

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Varieties of the Grape. 313

tomentose below; bunch very large, shouldered, rather loose; berry round,
large, black, with firm and crackling flesh, ripens rather late; a very hand-
some and productive variety, of good quality, but not adapted for long
shipment.’’—A/usmann.

Moscatello Fino; syns. Moscatello Nero, Black Muscat.—‘‘ Leaves of
medium size, with deep upper and shallow lower sinuses, glabrous above,
slightly downy below, and very hairy on the veins, teeth long and sharp;
bunches large to very large, long, loose, conico-cylindrical, and winged;
berries very large, on long, thin pedicels; skin well colored, thin but tough;
flesh soft and'juicy, with delicate Muscat aroma. An excellent table grape.
It is a heavy bearer, and produces very fine-looking bunches of dark-colored
grapes. Rather late.’’—Aioletti.

Purple Damascus; syn. Black Damascus.—‘‘Vine a medium grower;
wood light brown striped with darker brown, short-jointed; leaf round, five-
lobed, smooth, light green above, tomentose beneath; stem reddish, large,
long and woody; bunch large, loose, shouldered; berry very large, oblong,
dark blue, covered with lighter bloom, meaty, skin thick, ripens late.’’—
Hlusmann.

Purple Cornichon; syn. Black Cornichon.—‘‘ Vine a heavy grower, with
thick, light brown, short-jointed wood; leaves large, longer than wide,
deeply five-lobed, dark green above, and lighter and very hairy below,
coarsely toothed, and with short, thick petiole; bunches very large, loose, on

“song peduncles; berries large, long, more or less curved, darkly colored and
spotted, thick-skinned, and on long pedicels. Desirable on account of its
attractive appearance, curious shape, excellent shipping qualities, and late
ripening.’’—Biodetti.

White Cornichon.—Resembles Purple Cornichon in shape and flavor,
put has very thin and tender skin, which makes it better for the table, but
boorer for shipping. Leaves not deeply cut; smooth on both sides.

Emperor.— Vine a strong, vigorous grower; leaves very large, with
five shallow lobes, short, obtuse teeth, glabrous above, woolly beneath,
light green in color; bunches very large, long, conical, loose, with large,
dull purple, oval, firm berries.’’-—Bioletti. An excellent shipping grape,
largely grown by R. B. Blowers, of Woodland, Yolo County, by whom its
merits were first announced. Pronounced unsatisfactory because of irreg-
ular setting and non-ripening in localities near the coast in northern Califor-
nia, and generally condemned in southern California. Seems best adapted
to early interior situations.

Black Ferrara.—A large black grape; large bunches; berries cling well
to the stem, thick-skinned, flavor superior. An excellent local market
variety and long-distance shipper.

Gros Colman, syn. Dodrelabi.—“ Vine strong-growing, with dark-brown-
ish wood; leaves very large, round, thick, very slightly lobed, shortly and,
bluntly toothed, glabrous above, close-woolly below; bunches large, short,
well filled, but not compact; berries very large, round, dark blue, with thick
but tender skin. Remarkable as having the largest berries of any round-
berry variety known, and is probably the handsomest black table grape
grown. The grapes have good keeping qualities, except that they are liable
to crack.’’— Broletti.

Black Morocco.—‘‘Vine a strong grower, with thin, spreading canes;
leaves under medium size, very deeply five-lobed, even when very young,
the yourger leaves truncate at base, giving them a semicircular outline,
with long, sharp teeth alternating with very small ones, glabrous on both
sides; bunches very large, short, shouldered, and compact; berries very
large, round, often angular from compression, fleshy, of neutral flavor, dull
purple color or colorless in the center of the bunch. Remarkable for the
number of second-crop bunches which it produces on the laterals. Late in
ripening and of very fine appearance; a fairly good shipping grape, but

21

314 Varieties of the Grape.

difficult to pack on account of the size and rigidity of the bunches. The
grapes are of an agreeable crispness, but lacking in flavor.’’—A#zodetti. Vine
quite subject to root knot.

Verdal; Aspiran Blanc.—‘‘Vine of medium vigor and rather hardy;
canes somewhat slender and half erect; leaves of average size, glabrous on
both surfaces, except below near the axils of the main nerves, sinuses well
marked and generally closed, giving the leaf the appearance of having five
holes; teeth long, unequal, and somewhat acuminate; bunches large to
very large, irregular long-conical, without any or with small shoulders, well-
filled to compact; berries yellowish-green, large to very large, crisp, with
thick but tender skin, agreeable, but without marked flavor.”—Aioletti.
Largely grown as a late table grape; in good condition ; insome regions as
late as November.

Almeria.—‘ Vine vigorous; leaves of medium size, round, and slightly
or not at all lobed, quite glabrous on both sides, teeth obtuse and alternately
large and small; bunches large, loose or compact, irregular conical; berries
from small to large, cylindrical, flattened on the ends, very hard and taste-
less.’’—Bioletti. The grape cultivated at the University experiment stations
under this name is one of the several varieties which are shipped in such
large quantities from Malaga and Almeria packed in sand or cork-dust.
The grapes ripen late and attain about 20.0 per cent of sugar. They have
remarkable keeping qualities. Vine needs long pruning, and is only adapted
to hot, interior situations.

There are many other vizzfera varieties which are grown to
a limited extent either for raisins or for table use. Among these
are the Canon Hall Muscat, the White Tokay, White Champion,
Cinsaut, Sabalskanski, etc., for table use; the White and Black
Corinth, for drying. With grapes, as with other market fruits,
the planter usually confines his attention to a very few popular
kinds.

EASTERN GRAPES.

Though many of the improved varieties of the grape species
indigenous east of the Rocky Mountains, and of the hybrids be-
tween these species and the wizuzfera, have been introduced in
California, their growth for table fruit is almost of insignificant
proportions, and does not constitute even a respectable fraction
of one per cent of our grape area. The popular taste decidedly
prefers the vzzzfera varieties. There is, however, a variety be-
lieved to be of local origin, which is worthy of mention, as
follows :—

Isabella Regia.—‘‘A remarkable, giant-leaved, and very prolific sport
of the Isabella, originating by bud-variation with Mr. J. P. Pierce, of Santa
Clara. The berries, like the leaves, are of extraordinary size, and when
ripe the fruit is exceedingly sweet and strongly aromatic. It is, therefore,
acceptable as a showy, perfumed table grape, much liked by some, but
readily surfeiting those who are accustomed to the vinifera grapes. The

berries are too soft for shipment to any distance, but, all things considered,
keep fairly.”’—Aiilgard.

WINE GRAPES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA.

Progress is being continually made in the propagation of
varieties yielding the best qualities of wine, and in the manu-

Popular Wine Grapes. 315

facture thereof. The hosts of considerations involved in this
effort are beyond the scope of this work, and in great part be-
yond the knowledge of the writer.

It will be interesting, however, to introduce lists of the
grapes more or less widely grown in this State for the various
kinds of wine.

DRY WINES.

Red (Claret and Burgundy) —Zinfandel, Carignan, Mataro, Mourastel,
Petite Sirah, Petit Bouschet, Alicante Bouschet, Grenache, Valdepefias,
Cabernet Sauvignon, St. Macaire, Beclan, Mondeuse, Blue Elbling, Refosco,
and Barbera.

White (Sauterne, Hock, etc.).—Semillon, Sauvignon Blanc and Vert,
Johannisberg Riesling, Franken Riesling, Traminer, Chasselas Dore
(Gutedel), Chauche Gris, Berger, Folle Blanche, Feher Szagos, Green
Hungarian, Palomino, White Pinot, Thompson’s Seedless.

SWEET WINES.

Ports.—Mission, Malvoisie, Grenache, Trousseau.

Sherry and Madeira. —Mission, Palomino, West’s White Prolific,
Verdelho, Feher Szagos, Sultana, Thompson’s Seedless.

Angelica, Muscat, etc.—Muscat of Alexandria, Muscatella, Furmint
(Tokay wine).

Other varieties are also grown, but this list includes those
most largely used ai present.

PART FIVE: SEMITROPICAL FRUITS.

CHAPTER XVII,
THE DATE.

The date palm (phoenix dactylifera) was brought to Cali-
fornia by the padres, and the oldest date trees in the State are
the survivors of their early plantings. These trees are found at
the San Diego Mission, as shown in the engraving. hey are
conjectured to be a century old, and they have survived drouth
and neglect, making unsuccessful eftort at fruiting, for, accord-
ing to common report, the fruit does not ripen, but whether
owing to the unfavorable conditions indicated, or to lack of
fertilization of the bloom, is not known. There are trees at
Ventura, on the site of the garden of the old mission of San
Buena Ventura, about forty feet in height and ten feet in cir-
cumference at the base, with long, graceful, tern-like leaves,
which put forth about thirty feet from the ground.

The ill success of these old trees in the direction of fruit
bearing probably long prevented further attention to the date as
a profitable growth. Still there were date palms grown from
seed of the commercial date planted here and there for orna-
ment or out of curiosity, and in due course of time the fruit
appeared. The first public exhibition of California dates known
to the writer was made at the Mechanics’ Institute Fair, in San
Francisco, in September, 1877. The fruit was grown on the
scuth bank of Putah Creek, the northern boundary of Solano
County, the situation being slightly above the level of the plain
of the Sacramento Valley, which lies east of it. The plants
were grown by the late J. R. Wolfskill, from seed of commercial
dates purchased in San Francisco, and planted in 1858 or 1859.
The seed germinated readily, and the young plants were set out
in a row about one hundred feet south of Putah Creek, on a
rich, fine, sandy loam, lying about twenty-five feet above the
bed of the creek. The plants received good cultivation but no
irrigation. This treatment was continued after the property
passed into the hands of the late S. C. Wolfskill, the plants being

(316)

Old Mission Dates. B17

allowed to remain in the row as originally planted, and they
have attained great size, considering their crowded condition.
They are approximately six feet apart, have trunks about two
feet in diameter, and are twenty-five feet or more in height.

<P“! Oe

Date Palm at the San Diego Mission.

Another bearing date palm stands about a mile eastward
of the situation just described, near the residence of J. R. Wollf-
skill. It was grown from seed of the date of commerce, which
was planted in 1863, and the tree bore its first fruit in 1880. In
the plate which shows this tree there also appears upon the left
a taller date palm, which bears staminate bloom, as will be
mentioned presently. This latter tree was originally one of the
row previously described, and was successfully moved to its
present situation after attaining considerable size.

318 Propagation of the Date.

The fruit of these two bearing palms differs notably in ap-
pearance. That of the first-mentioned tree is of bright yellow
color and angular outline; that of the second tree is wine red,
with stnooth surface.

During recent years the date has iruited at many places in
California and Arizona. There is little doubt that it will succeed
in any of the interior regions which have a sufficiently high sum-
mer temperature, and even the so-called Colorado Desert may
be dotted with groves of date palms, as portions of it now are
with groves of the majestic fan palm of California.

Soils and Waters for the Date-—In California thus far the
date palm has only been planted on good orchard land, but,
according to experience in date-growing countries, the tree
does not require rich soil, but, on the contrary, will thrive in a
soil poor in humus—too poor and too purely mineral for any
other fruit tree; and it produces the finest and best-flavored
dates, nourished by water too alkaline for man and beast to
drink. These observations should lead to trials of the tree in
situations not adapted to other fruits.

PROPAGATION OF THE DATE.

The date palm grows readily from the seeds of the dried
date of commerce, and, as has been intimated, the trees now
fruiting in this State have been obtained in this way. By the
use of seed, one gets, however, only seedlings, and the chance of
thus securing a really fine variety is probably not greater than
with other fruit-tree seedlings. In date-growing countries the
best varieties are propagated by rooting the off-sets, sprouts, or
suckers which appear at the base of the old palms. To secure
the best foreign varieties such plants must be imported. The
first successful enterprise of this kind was accomplished in the
summer of 1890 by the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, under the direction of Professor H. E. Van Deman, then
chief of the Division of Pomology. The plants were divided
between New Mexico, Arizona, and California. The plants for
California were sent to the Department of Agriculture of the
University of California, and were planted at the experiment
stations at ‘Tulare and at Pomona. Upon fruiting a number of
these plants, it appears likely that they are only seedlings and
not the best foreign varieties, as represented. The United States
Department of Agriculture undertook arrangements in 1899 for
a new importation, hoping to reach better results. A full ac-
count of the earlier effort and its outcome is given in Bulletin
29, of the Arizona Experiment Station.

Growing Plants fron. Seed--The seed germinates with
great readiness: in fact the young plants spring up as volunteers
where date seeds have been thrown during the rainy season.

Blooming and Bearing of the Date. 319

The seeds may be sown in open seed-bed, if slightly protected
by cloth or lath frame, and the plants reset in nursery row to be
placec in permanent position after attaining more size. They
transplant well if a ball of earth is taken up with the roots. If
grown in boxes, which is, perhaps, preferable, because more
easily watered and cared for, they may be afterwards potted for
a time, but the plant should not remain long in the pot because
of the circular growth soon assumed by the roots. Large date
plants can be readily transplanted by removing the outer leaves
and taking as large a ball of earth as can be handled.

Rooting Suckers.—Suckers taken off in warm weather and
watered freely usually take root readily. Care should be taken
not to let the plants dry. Professor Toumy, in the Arizona Bul-
letin already cited, says a sharp two-inch chisel and a mallet are
good tools to use in removing suckers. The leaf stalks should
be cut away, exposing the bulb of the sucker, care being taken
not to injure the bulb in removing. One should cut in rather
deeply at either side, not being afraid of injuring the old plant,
cutting out a V-shaped portion extending from the base of the
bulb downward for a foot or more, and being careful to secure
in uninjured condition all the attached roots. Mr. J. W. Mills,
foreman of the Pomona substation in California, has the best
success in removing suckers by banking earth about the stem of
the plant so as to cover the bulbs, a number of weeks prior to
removing them. A good system of roots is established by this
method. In growing plants from suckers one gets fruit much
sooner than from seedlings.

Bearing Age of the Date—There is, however, much differ-
ence in the ages at which the seedlings have come in fruit in the
hands of different growers. Fruit has been reported on seed-
lings six years old and even on plants four years from the seed.
Such early maturity must not, however, be generally expected.

Blooming of the Date. —The date palm is dioecious, and, its
staminate (male) and pistillate (female) blooms appearing on
different trees, it requires the association of the two for perfect
fruiting. Growing plants from seed leaves the grower in doubt
as to the sex of his plants until they bloom. Usually one ob-
tains a large preponderance of male plants. In propagating
from suckers the new tree is of the same sex as the parent. It
is advised to have about one male to twenty female trees. The
pollen can be transported long distances and maintains its vital-
ity for a long time.

Artificial fertilization of the bloom of the bearing palm has
been found of advantage in this State, and was probably first
practised by J. R. Wolfskill. Though the staminate tree was
but a few feet awav from the pistillate, the male bloom was
broken in pieces and hung to the leaves of the female tree near

320 Beauty of the Date Palm.

to the pistillate flowers. It was found that the parts of the date
cluster which are nearest to the suspended male blooms have
more perfect fruit than the more distant parts. Other Califor-
nia date growers have had similar experience.

In Winters the bearing palms bloom in April and May, and
the fruit ripens in November. ;

Beauty of the Date Palm—tThe date palm in fruit is a beau-
tiful sight. The glaucous green pinnate leaves arch outward.
Retween two of these emerge the bright orange-yellow polished
fruit stalks, which divide into a spray of slender bright yellow
stems a foot or so in length; and thickly set upon these in clus-
ters are the coral red date berries, covered with a rich bloom.
It is a sight not easily forgotten by a lover of nature, and es-
pecially by one reared in a northern zone, the characteristic
vegetation of which is so different.

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CHAPTER AAV.
THE FIG.

The fig is, perhaps, the grandest fruit tree of California.
Its majestic size and its symmetry make it a crowning feature
ot the landscape, and its dense foliage renders the wide space
embowered by it a harbor of refuge from midsummer heat,
both for idlers and for the industrious. On adjacent farms in
Pleasant’s Valley, Solano County, there are large fig groves;
one serves as a shelter for the packers of fruit from the contig-
uous orchard, and the other incloses and shades a croquet
ground. Measurements of large trees are abundant, for old
trees are numerous in the intericr of the State, both in the val-
ley and on the slopes of the Sierra foot- hills. At Knight’s
Ferry, in Stanislaus -County, there is a fig tree* sixty feet in
height, with branches of such length as to shade a circle seventy
feet in diameter. The trunk at the base is eleven feet around,
and nine feet at a distance of three feet from the ground. A
little higher the trunk divides into seven or eight large branches,
each of which is nearly five feet in circumference. At thirty
feet from the ground the limbs are seven and eight inches
through. The largest grove is in the neighborhood of Knight’s
Ferry, and consists of fifteen massive black fig trees, which,
though set sixty feet apart, mingle their branches overhead and
form a network through which, in the summer, hardly a beam
of light can pass.

Such groves are frequently seen in the older settled parts
of the State. Perhaps the most interesting single fig tree is
that on Rancho Chico, quite near the residence of General Bid-
well. It was planted in 1856, and has attained a marvelous
growth. One foot above the ground the trunk measures
eleven feet in circumference; the widespreading branches have
been trained toward the ground, and, taking root there, banyan-
like, they now form a wonderful inclosure over one hundred and
fifty feet in diameter. The tree is loaded every year.

The crop on these large trees is pr oportionate to their size,
and, entering their area in the morning during the ripening sea-
son, one can scarcely step without crushing figs, though the fruit
is gathered up each day and placed in the sun for drying.

(321)

322 Sttuations and Soils for the Fig.

REGIONS SUITED FOR THE FIG.

Though there are still many fine points to be determined
as to what situations and conditions favor the production of
the very finest figs, and there are indications that there is possi-
bly much difference, it may be truly said that a very small part
oi the State is really unsuited to its growth. If one shuns the
immediate coast of the upper part of the State, where the sum-
mer temperature 1s too low for successful ripening, and keeps
below the altitude of the mountains where winter killing of the
tree is possible, he can grow figs almost anywhere.

Selection of varieties adapted to particular situations has
much to do with the success of the fig, as with other fruits, and,
therefore, a broad statement of adaptability must be received
with such an understanding. The intrusion of the coast influ-
ences borne eastward by the winds of summer, as described in
Chapter I, give a night temperature too low for ripening of
some varieties, which turn sour upon the trees. Present indi-
cations are that the finest dried figs, having the thinnest skin
and the nearest approach generally to the fig of Smyrna, the
commercial standard for dried figs, will be produced in the drier
portions of the valleys and foot-hills. Even in southern Cali-
fornia fig-scuring is quite prevalent and selection of locations
must be circumspectly made. More time is requisite for the
final demonstration of these matters, although years have al-

ready been devoted to the problem.
SOILS FOR THE FIG.

As it must be left with the future to determine the mooted
point as to the influence of special situations upon the bearing
of the fig, and the more minute characteristics of the fruit, so
more experience is needed to demonstrate the comparative effects
of different soils. It might seem, from the fact of the age of
our trees in different parts of the State, that time enough had
elapsed to determine these points, but it must be remembered
that all our oldest trees are of the very hardy variety found at
the missions, and conclusions drawn from them as to all vari-
eties are unsafe.

The fig will thrive in any soil that one would think of se-
lecting for any of our common orchard trees, and, in fact, the fig
succeeds on a wider range of svils than any one of them. One
is safe in planting figs for family use, or for marketing, wher-
ever the summer temperature is high enough to ripen the fruit
well, and the winter temperature high enough to preserve the
life of the tree. This applies merely to the successful growth of
the fig; to secure ripening at a time when the fruit can be profit-
ably sold for table use, is another question.

Growing Fig Cuttings. 323

The selection of soils especially suitable to the production
of the best figs for drying involves more considerations than
rule in the growth of table fruit. For drying, the fig should at-
tain a good size, but should not contain excess of moisture. In
some parts of the State the first crop of figs in the season has
been found unfit for drying. ‘The second, and, in some localities,
the third crop, appearing later in the season, when the moisture
supply of the soil is reduced, dry well. This condition of the
first crop is, however, affected by local conditions, for there are
places in the Sierra foot-hills where the soil moisture has to be
replenished early in the season by irrigation to prevent even the
first crop from falling prematurely, and subsequent irrigation
brings to perfection the second and third crops. The fig tree
needs plenty of moisture in the soil, but not too much. As with
other fruits, if the soil does not retain the needed amount nat-
urally, it must be supplied by irrigation wisely administered.

PROPAGATION OF THE FIG.

The fig grows very readily from cuttings, and this is the
chief method of propagation. Cuttings should*be made while

Fic. z. FIG. 3- Fic. 4.
Growth of Fig from Cuttings—Lelong.

the tree is fully dormant, in the winter, of well-matured wood
of the previous season’s growth, giving preference to stocky,
short-jointed shoots, and making the cuttings about six to eight

324 Budding the fig.

inches in length. The cut at the lower end should be made at
the joint, or where solid wood is found. The planting and care
of the cuttings is essentially the same as of vine cuttings, already
described. If well made and cared for, a very satisfactory
growth is made the first season, and the trees are ready for
planting out in permanent place the following season.

Single-bud Cutiings—-lf one desires to multiply a new vari-
ety very rapidly, single-eye cuttings will make plants. This is,
also, analogous to single-eye grape cuttings, as already de-
scribed.

The engravings show different styles of fig cuttings. Fig.
1 is the cutting usually employed, and its start in bud and roots
is shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 3 is from the tip of a shoot, and Fig.
4 is a single-eye cutting.

Budding the Fig —The foregoing means enable one to prop-
agate a fig so rapidly that recourse is not had to budding, as in
propagating other trees; still, budding is feasible, either on small
plants or on young shoots of old trees which it is desired to
over.

The fig may be budded by the common shield method, as
used for ordinary fruit trees, and described in Chapter IX, but
owing to the tendency of the fig bark to shrink in drying, the
bud should be closely bound in with a narrow waxed band, to
exclude the air. As the bark is thick, it is often desirable to cut
out a little of the edges closest to the bud when in place.

A better method of budding the fig is by annular or “ring
budding,” a method also relied upon with the walnut and chest-
nut.* Annular budding, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2, is done in
the fall. A circular ring of bark is taken off from the stock, as
shown in the first figure on the left, which operation is done by
the aid of a budding knife, by running two circular cuts around
the stock. and a longitudinal one between the two circular cuts,
the ring of bark taken off having the appearance shown in
Fig. 2. This ring must be at least one inch wide, and from that
up to two inches. A like ring of bark is taken off in the same
manner from a scion of the variety to be budded in, and from a
branch of the year, or preceding one, well in sap, and having
about the same diameter as the stock. This ring should have
on it one or two buds. It must fit exactly the space (a) seen on
Fig. 1, and more particularly at the lower circular cut (b), so that
both barks will exactly unite at that point. When the ring is
too long, a little bit of it might be cut off with a very sharp
knife till it fits well; if the ring is too large for the stock, a lon-
gitudinal strip would be cut out, and if too narrow, such a strip,
if with a bud on so much the better, will have to be used to

* Felix Gillet, Nevada City, in Rural Press.

Budding the Fig. 325

fill up the empty space. One must be very careful while draw-
ing the knife around the stock not to go too deep into the
wood to injure the cambium layer, or to weaken the stock. Tie
a bandage pretty firmly over the whole. After two or three
weeks the bandage has to be taken off, and, in the ensuing
spring, the top of the stock or limb is cut down three inches
above the budding.

Another way of working such trees is by “whistle budding,”
which is done in the spring, when the sap is well up. Figs. 3 and
4 show this method. The stock and scion must be both of the
same size and well in sap. The top of the stock is cut down to
several inches from the ground; a circular ring of bark is then
taken off, and a corresponding ring from the scion, but without

br

L

|
m)Ih

Annular and Whistle Budding Illustrated.

a longitudinal cut, is put in its place. In inserting it care should
be taken that the top of the stock, which is to receive the ring
from the scion, be very smooth, and the latter is then easily
pushed down around it and bandaged. In the case of the fig,
it is especially desirable to use the latter method when the sap
is up, because if the top of the stock is not removed, the exuda-
tion from above sours around the bud and prevents the union
of stock and bud.

To prepare an old fig tree for budding over, the limbs may
be cut back in February within two to six feet of the trunk,
covering the ends with paint or grafting wax. Allow two shoots
to start near the end ot each of these amputated limbs, and rub
off all other shoots. Bud the shoots when they attain the thick-
ness of one’s finger, taking green buds from the growth it is
desired to introduce, or let them grow and bud in the fall, which-
ever is most convenient; or bud in the growing shoot, and rebud
in the fall where buds have failed.

326 Grafting the Fig.

Grafting the Fig —The fig can be grafted by the cleft-graft
method, as described in Chapter IX, but the cleft should be
made to one side of the stub and not through the central pith.
Especial care must be taken, in excluding the air. Fill the cleft
between the scions with warm wax, which will run in and fill
the cavity. Then bind the stock with wax bands, taking the
greatest care to cover the exposed wood surface, the cut end of
the bark (which in the fig is very prone to shrink and draw
back), and as far down the stock as the bark has been split.

Another method is to make slightly outward and down-
ward cuts into the stub with a sharp chisel, so as not to cause
a split, but rather deep, clean cuts, into which the wedge-shaped
scions are firmly pushed and a cord wound around the stub to
hold all strongly in place before waxing thoroughly.

The form of side-grait as described in the chapter on the
peach is also available. A form of bud-graft, that is, budding
with a large shield into old bark, is also successful. Judge
Rhodes, of San Jose, describes his method, both with the olive
and the fig, in this way:—

Cut the shield from a limb of about ¥% inch in diameter, length of shield
about 1% inches, its thickness from ¥% to ¥ inch, and its bud near the m d-
dle of the shield. Do not remove the wood from behind the bud. Makea
cut in the stock, through the bark and into the wood, its length and width
a little greater than those of the shield. Insert the shield into the cut, so
that the inner bark of the top of the shield and cut will coincide, so that
one side of shield and cut—and both sides, if practicable—will coincide.
Place the flap of the cut over the shield (removing a part of the flap so the
bud will not be covered), and fasten flap, shield and stock together very
firmly with twine, and protect them with paper tied around them. They
may be grafted in that mode, whenever dormant buds are found, for the
shields. Twenty-four shields were inserted at several times, during one
spring, and there was only one failure.

Seedling Figs—Figs are readily grown from the imported
fig of commerce. Dr. Gustav Eisen, of San Francisco, our lead-
ing writer on the fig, gives the following explicit directions for
growing the fig from seed:—

Cut open imported Smyrna figs; wash out the seeds in warm water,
those that float are empty and worthless; those that sink are generally
fertile. Sow these in shallow boxes of sand and loam mixed, and place in
a frame under glass. In three weeks they will be up and must be very
sparingly watered. Set out next season in nursery row. In three years
from the seed such plants will be found to bear. Do not throw away plants
pout six to eight years old, as some may develop, or show their qualities
ate.

The tendency of the plants grown from Smyrna figs is to
revert to the wild type, and there is a small chance of securing
good varieties.

Pruning the Fig. 327

PLANTING AND PRUNING THE FIG.

The chief point to observe in planting fig trees is to get
them far enough apart, because of the great spread of branches
which they attain. Of course they may be planted twenty feet
apart if the owner intends to remove alternate rows, but to
plant at forty feet, or even farther apart, with other fruit trees
or vines between, on the plan of alternate or double squares,
described in Chapter X, would be the best way to lay out a fig
orchard—the intermediate growths to be removed as the figs
require more room.

Very handsome effects are produced by planting the fig
along avenues to inclose orchards of other fruits.

In transplanting fig trees cxtra care must be taken to keep
the roots from drying. After planting, the stem must be dili-
gently guarded from sunburn, to which it is liable in the warmer
parts of the State.

Pruning the Fig-——The fig requires very little pruning after
its shape is outlined. There is difference of opinion and
practise as to the height at which the head should be formed;
some head as low as already advised for common orchard trees;
others, having in mind the immense thickness attained by the
limbs, and their disposition to droop, head as high as four to six
feet, which is the better way to proceed.

In shaping the tree, branches should be brought out at a
distance apart on the stem, so that there may be room for their
expansion without crowding each other, and care should be
taken not to leave too many main limbs. Three limbs, well
placed arourd the stem, are enough. The branches putting out
on the under side of these limbs should be suppressed, and those
growing upright, or obliquely upright, retained. After getting
the general shape of the tree fixed, there is little need of prun-
ing except to remove defective branches or those which will
cross and interfere with each other and to prevent the interior
of the tree from becoming too dense. It is better to remove
branches entirely than to shorten them; or, in shortening, always
cut to a strong lateral. Stubs left at pruning are very undesir-
able in the fig.

Cultivation—Young fig orchards are cultivated as are other
fruit areas. Old trees which completely shade the ground are
usually left to themselves, without cultivation, except cutting
out weeds. Irrigation is governed by local conditions, as al-
ready stated.

Bearing Age of the Fig.-—The fig often, and, perhaps, usu-
ally, begins its bearing very early, in the most favorable situa-
tions in this State. Some fruit is often had the second year, and
a crop worth handling the third year. Still, it is wiser not to

328 Caprification of the Fig.

calculate definitely upon such rcturns, ior four or five years
sometimes pass without a satisfactory crop. We have, also,
instances of “barren fig trees,” which persist in ‘dropping their
untimely figs,” year after year, during their youth. tow much
of this is due to variety, and how much to locality, is not def-
nitely known, but successful truiing has been secured by graft-
ing over barren trees, using scions irom bearing trees growing
adjacent to them,
CAPRIFICATION.

Caprification consists of suspending the fruit of the wild
or Capri fig in the branches of the tree of improved variety, that
the pollen may be carried by an insect from the former to the
latter. Calilornia has never heen able to produce dried figs
equal to the fig of commerce or the Smyrna fig. This was, at
first, thought to be due to lack of the Smyrna variety. After
painstaking effort this variety was introduced. Trees grew
readily from the cuttings; fruit appeared upon them and dropped
before maturity. Doubt then arose as to whether importers
had not been deceived, and other efforts were made which re-
sulted in other importations. These also cast to the ground
their immature figs. Discussion turned. then upon the fact of
caprification—the necessity of having the fruit of the Capri or
wild fig adjacent to the fruit of the Smyrna fig so that insects
from the Capri might visit the fruit of the improved variety and
pollinate its inclosed flowers, which, appearing upon the inner
wall of an almost closed cavity, could not be reached by ordi-
nary visiting insects. The wild trees had already been intro-
duced and were freely growing near the others, but this fact
availed nothing—the figs fell just the same from the Smyrna
trees. In 1890 Mr. George C. Roeding, of Fresno, essayed to
demonstrate the fact that the lack of the pollination was the
secret of failure, and he succeeded in introducing the Capri pollen
into the eye of the Smyrna fig, and secured thereby the retention
of such pollinated. figs upon ‘the trees, and when ripened and
dried these had the Smyrna character. The demonstration was
complete that California could not grow Smyrna figs without
the pollinating agency found to be essential to success in
Smyrna, which is a minute wasp called the blastophaga—an in-
sect so minute that it can make its way through the mesh of ordi-
nary cheese-cloth and can enter the almost closed eye of the
young fig—so minute that a magnifying-glass is necessary to
give one any clear idea of its outline. For years constant effort
has been made by various parties to secure the introduction of
this insect. Urgent appeals were made to the United States
Department of Agriculture, after private undertakings failed, to
secure the insect alive or otherwise in form for permanent resi-

Enemies of the Fig. 329

dence. In 1899 the fact was accomplished. The living insect
appeared in large numbers at Fresnc—the offspring of those
brought to California in April, 1899, by the United States De-
partment of Agriculture.

Foes of the Fig—The fig is freer from insect pests than
other fruit trees, and yet it is a mistake to consider it wholly
free. The writer has seen the leaves well covered with a lecan-
tm scale, and has found a moth larva boring in the pith of the
young shoots; still, practically, the fig tree in California has not
yet suffered from insects.

The gopher has a pronounced appetite for fig roots, and
their presence should be carefully watched for. Swine have a
liking for fig bark. The trees of the grand grove planted at
Hock Farm, on the Feather River, by General Sutter, were
completely girdled from the ground as high as a pig could reach
by standing on its hind legs. Figs make good food for hogs,
and plantations have been made with this in view, but if the
hogs are to be harvesters, it will be well to protect the stems of
the trees from them.

VARIETIES OF THE FIG.

The fig presents what may be termed an aggravated exam-
ple of the confused momenclature which pervades California
iruits. Dr. Eisen has made a commendable effort to bring
order out of chaos by a study of foreign records and locally-
grown fruit. and has published a catalogue of varieties chiefly
grown in California, with descriptions of the characteristics of
each in Bulletin 5 of the Division of Pomology of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture, from which the following is chiefly
drawn :—

Adriatic.—Size medium, roundish; neck medium; stalk short; ribs ob-
scure; eye open, with red iris; skin very thin, greenish in the shade, yellow-
ish in the sun; pulp bright strawberry red or white, with violet streaks in
the meat; varies in quality according to location. This has been found very
useful in California, but is not of fine flavor when dried. It requires rich
soil, with considerable moisture and a very large percentage of lime. This
variety is zo¢ identical with that known in Italy as Adriatic.

Agen.—Medium size, roundish; skin bright green, cracking longitu-
dinally when ripe, showing white bands; flesh deep red, very rich; a good
bearer, but very late, requiring a Jong hot season. :

Angelique ; syn. Angelica.—Medium, pyriform; ribs prominent; yellow-
ish white; pulp white, with rose-colored center; leaves five-lobed. A very
good variety in some of the coast valleys. } : hee oat

Athens ; syn. Marseillaise.—Small, roundish or turbinate, with indis-
tinct ribs, depressed at apex; skin rough; color whitish yellow, pulp red,
opaline. Very sweet, and one of the best drying figs both in France and
California. .

Bourjassotte, Black; syn. Barnissotte, Black.—Medium, broader than
long, flattened at apex, with no neck and an uneven cheek; ribs distinct,
even; eye small, sunk, closed; skin waxy, black with violet blush; bloom

22

330 Varieties of the Fig.

clear blue, wanting at apex; meat pink, pulp blood-red. A most excellent
fig for the table. It requires rich, moist soil.

Bourjassotte, White; syn. Barnissotte, White.—A fig related to the
former, but larger; eye larger, sunk; skin waxy, green; pulp bright red.
A very fine fig. Tree very large.

Brown Turkey.—Large, turbinate, pyriform, with hardly distinct neck;
stalk short; apex tlattened; ribs few, slightly elevated; eye medium, slightly
open, scales large; skin smooth, greenish to violet-brown in sun, with
darker ribs; pulp dark rosy red, quality good, and tree a good bearer.
Brunswick is frequently confounded with this fig.

Brunswick.—Very large, pyriform, with swollen cheeks, one of which
is larger than the other; apex very obtuse; neck and stalk very short; ribs
distinct, but not much elevated; eye medium, open; skin pale amber, with
violet tint; pulp amber. An early, large fig, but with no flavor. Very
common; requires rich, moist soil.

Celeste, Blue; syn. Violette.—Small, ovate, turbinate; ribs few, but
distinct, especially near apex; eye raised, rough; color dark violet amber,
without reddish blush; bloom confined to the neck; skin thin; pulp deep
rose ; meat amber, sweet, but lacking in flavor.

Col. de Signora Bianco.—Medium sized, pyriform; long, ribbed neck;
skin green, changing to yellow; flesh deep red, very rich and luscious; a
strong grower; late, suited for a warm region.

Dottato.—Medium ovate, pyriform; neck well set; stalk very short or
none; ribs low; skin smooth; eye medium; skin thin, yellowish green,
meat white; pulp yellowish amber, sometimes with violet flush. One of
the best figs for drying; tree a strong grower, requiring moist, rich soil.
Lately introduced into California.

Drap ad’ Or.—Large, pyriform, with very low neck and stalk; ribs
elevated; apex obtuse and concave; color light violet-reddish amber, not
dark; pulp rosy red. A fig of very fine quality; especially useful for con-
fections and crystallizing; not identical with Brunswick.

Du Rot.—Above medium; round, pyriform; stalk very short; eye large
or variable, with scales standing out; skin smooth, pale bluish green; pulp.
amber, with rosy streaks and exceedingly minute seeds. Related. to Mar-
seillaise and Athens, and one of the very best figs in California for drying.

Early Violet.—Small to very small, round, turbinate; neck distinct but
short; stalk medium to long; ribs distinct, elevated; skin rough; violet-
brown, with thin pearl-colored bloom; pulp red. This variety bears almost
continuously and is preferable to the Ischias and Celeste.

Genoa, White.—Above medium, pyriform; neck small; stalk short; ribs.
indistinct; skin downy; eye very small; skin pale olive-green; pulp pale
rose. One of the better figs, quite distinct from Marseillaise.

Gentile.—Very large; ovate pyriform; neck short but distinct; stalk
very short; skin uneven, with ridges; eye very large, open, with projecting
scales; color. greenish yellow, spotted with white; pulp amber, streaked
with rose; seeds few but very large. Only the first crop of this variety
ripens. . It is of the San Pedro tribe. One of the best early figs.

Grosse Grise Bifere.—Medium ovate pyriform; neck very short; stalk
short; ribs distinct; eye small; skin downy, dark violet amber, pale olive in.
shade; the bloom is separated by a distinct line from the apex; pulp deep
red. Atender, good fig.

Ffirtu du Japon.—Medium size, roundish with long stalks; skin very
dark; flesh opaline; quality best; very prolific.

Lschia, Black.—Small; neck short; stalk medium; skin smooth; color
dark violet black, greenish around the apex; neck dark; eye medium,
open; bloom thin, dark blue; pulp red. Of fair quality but small size.

Ischia, White.—Size below medium, round, with small neck; stalk very
short; eye open; skin smooth, bluish green with brown flush; pulp rosy red.
Common in California, but hardly worthy of cultivation in that State.

Varieties of the Fig. 331

Mug dalen.—Below medium, round; ribs distinct, rough, disappearing
around the eye; stalk longer than the fig; eye open, large; skin greenish
yellow; pulp amber white. A very delicious fig, superior to the Ischias and
Celeste. Not synonymous with Angelique.

Marseillaise, Long.—Large, longer than wide; skin thick, with brownish
shade; pulp dull red. Requires moist soils. A fair fig, which dries well.
Not related to either Black or White Marseillaise.

Marseillaise, White—Medium ovate, pyriform; neck short; stalk
medium; ribs numerous and distinct; apex flattened; eye large, open; skin
downy, pale yellowish green, mottled with white; pulp amber, with a few
large seeds. One of the best figs for drying. Requires sandy, rich soil.

Mission, Black.—Medium to large, turbinate; neck long; stalk short;
ribs distinct; eye prominent, open; skin rough, deep mahogany violet, with
red flush; pulp not fine, red, but not bright or brownish amber; sweet, but
not high-flavored; common in the Southern States, California, and Mexico.
The oldest fig in this country.

Monaco Bianco; syn. White Monaco.—Large, rounded, turbinate, flat-
tened; neck small but very distinct; ribs numerous; eye very open; skin
dark bluish green, with thin bloom; pulp dark-red rose. A most excellent
fig for table, one of the best in California.

Pacific White.—An unknown variety found growing on a farm in Placer
County. Medium size, fine-grained, very sweet, dries well, but the skin is
thicker and more tough than the imported fig. That and its small size are
ie only objections to it. It is quite widely distributed in southern Cal-
iforna.

Pastiliere.— Large, 3 inches by 1%; elongated, pyriform, with long
neck; stalk short; eye closed, surrounded by an elevated iris; skin rough,

‘hairy, with blue bloom; pulp red. Fine for preserves.

Ronde Noire.—Large, round, but irregular; neck distinct, short; eye
small; skin smooth, waxy, dark violet brown; pulp amber. ‘Greatly to be
eo eeeed as a table fig. Is not related to Black Ischia or Osborn
Prolific. :

San Pedro, White, syn. Brebas.—Very large, round, flattened at apex;
stalk and neck short; eye open; skin thick, tender, of a bright yellow color
or greenish in the shade, without bloom; pulp amber. A remarkable and
handsome fig. Only the first crop matures without caprification. Suited
only for table use. Requires moist, rich soil.

San Pedro, Black.—Very large, elongated ovate, with no stalk, but
with well-set neck; skin smooth, violet black with green neck; pulp red,
coppery, tinted violet. For table use. The largest fig known.

Smyrna (Fig of Commerce, Drying fig of Smyrna).—Of several
attempts to secure the true Smyrna fig, or the variety which produces the
well-known Smyrna fig of commerce, that made by the San Francisco
Bulletin, and managed by G. P. Rixford, has achieved most prominence,
and is now generally conceded to have proved successful. Fourteen thou-
sand cuttings were obtained through United States Consul E. J. Smithers,
in 1882, and. a large part of these were distributed throughout the State. A
later direct importation of fig cuttings from Smyrna was made by the
Fancher Creek Nursery, of Fresno. These trees have already borne fruit,
as has been described in a preceding paragraph on caprification. In the
summer of 1890 cuttings imported from Smyrna by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture were sent to several parties in this State. If the fig
insect fully establishes itself, as anticipated on a previous page, this variety
will establish itself as the leading drying fig here as a Smyrna, and a very
important industry will be established upon it. Other figs called Smyrna in
this State are misnamed.

Verdal, Round.—Below medium, round pyriform, without stalk or neck;
skin smooth, waxy, bluish green; eye closed; pulp dark, blood red. A
small fig, but valuable for canning and preserves; better than the Ischias or

332 Outlook for the fig.

Celeste. It does well in the Santa Clara Valley, but is inferior in the in-
terior of the State.

There are many undetermined varieties of the fig grown
here and there in the State. Some may be finally identified,
others: may be new. Some of them yield an excellent dried
fruit and should be more carefully experimented with. During
the last decade there has. been a marked decline in interest in the
fig because of the failure to secure the Smyrna type in the dried
fruit and because so many varieties soured before drying. The
outlook rests upon successful caprification, although recently
there has been increased success in profitable drying of other
varieties.

CHAPTER. 2X LX,
THE OLIVE.

The olive is another of the old mission fruits which has
recently risen to a high place in the public mind. Though the
tree and its products have been constantly under discussion
since the American occupation, and though experimentation
has been constant, it was not until 1885 that the tide of popular
favor turned strongly toward the olive. For twelve years
thereafter planting proceeded with enthusiasm amounting
almost to infatuation, until the acreage now in olives has
reached such a figure that the most enthusiastic question the
wisdom of further planting. This is all the more serious
because the future of the products of the olive is by no means
clear. The competition of olive oil with cheaper salad oils
works greatly to the disadvantage of the higher-priced article,
apart from the fact that the cheap oils are sold in the guise of
the olive, and can only be stopped by general pure-food legis-
lation, which is now so greatly desired. The difficulty of pro-
ducing pickled ripe olives with good keeping qualities is also
vastly greater than anticipated. In addition to these troubles
the sterility of the trees in some situations, through frost or
other agencies, is discouraging many growers. It is probable
that for the next few years, the uprooting of trees will exceed
the planting and that the clive acreage will decrease until pres-
ent difficulties are clearly shown to be surmountable.

The olive tree has survived a temperature of 14° Fahren-
heit in California, but the fruit is injured by a slight fall below
the freezing point. This may render unprofitable the late varie-
ties which carry their fruit-ripening into the winter months.

The olive tree will thrive throughout the larger part of Cali-
fornia, and it has been shown that it will grow in a soil too dry
even for the grape-vine, and too rocky for any fruit tree, but the
growth of the tree and the bearing of fruit will be proportional
to the amounts of plant food and moisture. On foot-hill slopes
the trees bear fruit earlier than in the rich valleys, although in
the latter the trees attain larger growth. Trees in the interior
bear sooner than on the coast, and ripen their fruit earlier in
the season.

( 333.)

334 Propagation of the Olive.

The olive tree is now thriving in California in a great vari-
ety of soils. It is productive, if frosts are not too severe, on
moist valley lands, while on hillsides, even where excavations
had to be made between boulders, or into disintegrating rock,
the tree has exhibited thrift and content with the situation. But
the conclusion should not be drawn that the olive relishes poor
soil. It may thrive with loose rock or boulders, but it finds
among them the elements it needs. It is not to be inferred that
the olive will succeed on sterile soil.

The relations of soils to the qualities of oil has been investi-
gated by the University of California Experiment Station and
the publications can be had on application.

We have not had experience enough in this State to dem-
onstrate the influence of soils on the quality of the oil, but oil
thought to be good has been made from truit grown on some of
our best valley fruit soils, deep and naturally well drained, as,
for example, on Putah Creek, where the tree is said to have
attained a girth of six feet at twenty years from the cutting.

At present olive planting is proceeding on all kinds of land
and in all situations. From these plantations our children may
gain wisdom.

PROPAGATION OF THE OLIVE,

Olives are propagated from seed, and from cuttings of vari-
ous kinds and sizes. The growth from seed is seldom practised
in this State, because growth from cuttings is easy, and furnishes
the variety desired without grafting.

Growing Olives from Seed.—The olives should not be
planted with the pulp, but cleaned of this either by letting them
rot in a pile or by putting them into an alkaline solution to cut
the oil. A simple way to hasten germination is to break the
pits, taking care not to hurt the germ. An instrument similar
to the nut cracker has been invented in France which is said
to work verv well. When the kernels are deprived of their
shell, they are kept moist in a compost, or mixture of cow-dung
and sandy soil, and are sown thickly in the month of April. If
it is thought to be too much work to take the kernels out of the
pits, they must be soaked in a solution of one-fourth pound of
concentrated lye to the gallon of water. Most of the seeds sprout
the first year. Planting the naked kernels gives the quickest
result. Without using this artificial means the seeds may remaitr
dormant at least for two years.

Large Cutiings—There are two chief met hods of prop-
agating the olive from cuttings now practised in California.
One uses well-matured wood, and the other young wood which
has just passed out of the herbaceous state. Practise with hard

Small Olive Cuttings. 335

wood proceeds by taking cuttings of sound wood about a foot
long and one-half to one inch in diameter, and rooting them
as already described for vine cuttings, in Chapter XXIV.
These large cuttings sometimes remain dormant for a year or
more, and recent propagation has been almost exclusively by
the small-cutting method.

Propagating the Olive by Small Cuttings.

Small Cuttings——Propagating by small cuttings has in-
creased rapidly during the last few years. It serves an excellent
purpose in rapid multiplication of the new varieties which are
being secured from abroad; it enables the grower to handle a
large number of plants in a small space, and the plants from
cmall cuttings have a symmetrical root system quite resembling
that from a seed. These cuttings are made from very small
shoots and both the tips and the lower cuts are used. In the

336 Budding the Olive.

engraving the figure on the left is a tip cutting; the next, a cut-
ting lower down the shoot, and the figure on the right is a tip
cutting as lifted from the sand to show its manner of rooting.
These figures are about natural size, and show clearly how the
cuttings are made. They are placed closely in boxes of sand
about four inches deep, and after a few months are potted in
small pots, or may be reset farther apart in boxes of soil or in
the open ground. If the cuttings are made in January or Feb-
ruary, when the wood seems to be in the best condition in
Berkeley, the trees will be of good size for planting in per-
manent place the next winter. It is very important to take
the small cuttings just when the wood is in the right condition,
not too soft nor too hard. How to determine this point can
not be described; it must be learned by experience.

Growing Trees from Truncheons—New varieties secured
from the south of Europe generally come in the shape of
truncheons, which are long sticks of hard wood. They may be
planted entire, or be sawn and split into large cuttings (for olive
cuttings, even in firewood shape, will grow if properly treated),
though better trees come from small cuttings. If the truncheons
are bedded a few inches below the surface in moist, warm soil,
shoots will appear which can be worked up into small cuttings
when they reach the proper condition.

BUDDING THE OLIVE,

Since a large area of Redding Picholines has been planted.
and the fruit found different from that anticipated, there has
been a demand for working over the trees into better varieties.
The method of budding commonly employed with fruit trees
does not usually vield a high percentage of success wita the
olive, and other ways have been adopted with much _ better
results.

Budding may be performed at any time of the year when
the sap flows freely. If done late in the summer, the buds lie
dormant through the winter. Best results are obtained when
the buds are inserted early in the spring, as the operation can
be performed to a much better advantage, and the buds will
grow to some height before winter. When inserted in large
orchard trees, or in limbs of large trees, the shoots from the
inserted buds are allowed to grow until they have attained such
a size as will iustifv in the removal of the entire top.

Twig Budding.—Twig budding, as first published in this
State by B. M. Lelong, secretary of the State Board of Horti-
culture, is very successful. The bud is cut deep into the wood,
in order to give the bud as much bark as possible. The leaves
are partly cut off, then, with the sharp point of the budding

Twig-Budding the Olive. 337

knife, the greatest part of the
wood inside of the bud is re-
moved, as shown in Fig. 1, which
shows large and small twig buds.
If part of the wood ‘is not re-
moved, then the bud can not take,
as the wood in it prevents thetwo |
barks (the inner bark of the bud

and the inner bark of the stock)
from uniting. When the wood
has been partly removed from the
bud, the bud is inserted into the
stock, as budding is done in the
regular, ordinary way, and tied
tight. At the end of three
weeks the string is removed,
and part of the top of the stock
is cut back to force the bud
to start. As the bud grows,

Fic... Twig Buds.

the foliage of the stock is gradually re-
moved, until the bud is able to take up the
entire flow of sap; it is then left to grow,
and trained as shown in Fig. 2, which also
shows the manner of inserting the bud in
the stock. When the bud’ has grown out
strongly, what remains of the stock above
the bud is cut smooth, close to the bud, to
allow it to heal over. ‘Fic. 2, Growth of a Twig Bud.

GRAFTING THE OLIVE.

Grafting is also used in working over both large and
small olive trees. Good success can sometimes be had with

340 How to Reach the Vase Form.

winds. Six or eight branches are left to form the head. The process of
shaping the tree then proceeds, as shown in the engravings. Fig. 1 shows
the young tree to be cut off at the point marked by the dotted line C.
Six branches, three on each side. are left, and the lower twigs shortened.
Each of the branches left develops, during the year, as the one shown in
Fig. 2, which is then cut at C again, and the shoots B and D are short-

Fic. 1. FIG. 4.

The Vase System of Pruning as Applied to the Olive.

Gathering Olives. 341

ened. This process starts out the upper shoot, and it appears the follow-
ing year as A in Fig. 3, and it is again cut at C. This causes the two
upper shoots to develop, and at the end of the year they appear as shown
at BB in Fig. 4. Thus they stand at the fourth year’s pruning, and each
of them is cut at C, and 4 is shortened and D allowed to develop. By
this time the tree has a spherical or vase form, and exposes much sur-
face to the sun, which is desirable.

The young branches that spring in the form of a cross on the more
vigorous branches, bear only wood buds; the others, which are weaker,
bear fruit buds on their whole length and burst into blossom at the spring
of the second year. The latter never blossom again in the same place,
but the shoot extends itself and forces two lateral ones. These new
shoots bear the following spring, and so on. It must therefore be always
borne in mind that the olive bears only on the two-year-old wood. If
the new shoots are formed every year, the olive will bear annually; but
in years of good crops, the sap employed to nourish the fruit only pro-
duces a number of very diminutive shoots, and the next crop is a short
one. The pruning ought to favor the growth of young lateral shoots,
either by shortening the terminal ones, suppressing the ‘“‘gormand,” or
fruitless shoots, or by reducing in a certain proportion, each year, the
fruit-bearing shoots, if we wish for a crop every year. The shortening of
a branch is made immediately above an outside bud in an oblique direc-
tion, the interior one being suppressed. The suckers at the root of the
tree should be continually cut off.

Concerning the time for pruning, the best season is said to be when
the winter frosts are well over and just before the sap starts in the spring.
By early pruning the sap is made to act upon the buds unfavorably situ-
ated on the tree, brings them out, and also develops latent buds on the
old wood. Thus one is enabled to prevent the tree from becoming coy-
ered with nalged limbs.

THE FRUIT AND ITS PRODUCTS.

The agricultural experiment stations of the University
of California have been occupied for many years in the growth
of olives and close examination of olive products both by labora-
tory and practical test. The publications of the stations consti-
tute the fullest compendium of exact knowledge on this subject
in the English language. All who wish to go into the matter
deeply should secure this literature, so far as it is now available.
For the purpose of this treatise outlines will be drawn from these
sources.

Gathering the Fruit.—QOlives should be picked carefully and
at the right time. For green pickles they should be picked
very soon after they obtain full size, but before they have begun
to color or soften. For ripe pickles and for oil making the fruit
should be gathered when it contains the maximum amount of
oil. This is soon after the olives are well colored, but before
they have attained the deep black which signifies dverripeness.
If the olives are gathered too green the oil will be bitter; if too
ripe, it will be rancid. When they can be easily shaken from
the tree they are ripe enough. If they commence to fall with-
out vigorous shaking they are overripe. For whatever pur-

342 flow to Make Olive Oil.

poses the olives are to be used they should be carefully gathered
by hand, and imperfect, immature, or bruised fruit rejected.
Sound fruit is required for high-grade oil or for handsome
pickles with good keeping quality.

THE MANUFACTURE OF OLIVE OIL.

Olive oil is made in this State with apparatus of both Cali-
fornian and European design, and, as a rule, there is made only
one, and at most but two, pressings of the pomace, which is
then used for fattening swine. In the frequent working over
of the pomace, and the close extraction of the oil, as practised
in Europe, we have done little as yet.

Olive oil is made on a small scale by a number of parties
who use home-made contrivances, or small, portable cider
machinery for the crushing and pressing. During the last few
years quite a number of mills have been erected, some being
“custom” or “co-operative” mills for using the olives produced
by small growers.

Drying—FExtraction of oil from fresh olives gives the best
oil, but is somewhat troublesonie, and it is custornary to partially
dry them. This partial drying is also useful to keep the fruit
for some time or for shipment before crushing. Place the
olives in layers not more than three inches deep, on trays that
are stacked in a dry, well-aired room, protected from the wind
and the direct rays of the sun. Turn daily until the fruit
becomes well wrinkled. This requires about eight or ten days,
according to the degree of temperature. The partially-dried
fruit may be stored in a dark room where the temperature does
not rise above sixty degrees Fahrenheit, for three or four weeks
without any serious deterioration of oil. To hasten the drying
process, artificial driers, constructed on the same principle as
the fruit or hop driers, are sometimes used. The olives are
placed in a single layer upon trays, and the drier is kept at a
temperature of about one hundred and twenty degrees Fahren-
heit; at over one hundred and thirty degrees Fahrenheit the
quality of the oil may be impaired. The drying takes ahout
forty-eight hours—-more or less—according to the nature of the
fruit.

Crushing —The olives are usually crushed by heavy stone
rollers revolving in a circular depression it) a bed of masonry
into which the fruit is placed. Crushers with corrugated bronze
cr bronzed metal rollers are now made that perform their work in
a very satisfactory manner, breaking up the flesh and pits very
thoroughly. As they are all of metal, they absorb no oil and are
easily cleaned. It is very essential that the flesh should be
crushed thoroughly in order to break up the cells and permit

How to Make Olive Oil. 343

the oil to be pressed out. Mr. Cooper formerly used a stone,
but has substituted two iron crushers, one following the other
over the fruit. Mr. Kimball works his crusher and his presses
by steam power. Mr. Cooper uses horse power, and has the
apparatus so geared that the horse works outside the building,
which is an advantage in point of cleanliness and otherwise.
Pressing—When the revolving crusher has reduced the
olives to a mass, the pomace is shoveled up from the bed of the
mill and prepared for pressing. Instead of the fabric of woven
esparto grass which is used abroad, coarse linen cloth is used.
A certain amount of the pulp is put in each cloth, so that when
the cloth is folded hack it makes a cheese about three feet
square and three inches thick. Ten or more of these cheeses
are placed one above the other, with slats between, and the
pressure applied gently at first. From the liquid which runs
out first is made the very finest oil, known as “virgin oil.” The
pressure is then increased very gradually until the full power of
the machine is reached. This presses out the second quality of
oil, which is generally mixed with the first. After obtaining all
the oil possible by the first pressure the “cheese” is taken out,
thoroughly broken up in hot water, and again pressed. This
yields the third quality, which is very much inferior to the first
and second. Sometimes the “cheese” from the first pressing is
thoroughly broken up with cold water and pressed again before
being treated with hot water. In this way a little oil is obtained
that differs little from the second quality, and may be mixed
with it. After this a certain amount of oil still remains in the
“cheese,” hut it can be extracted only by very powerful hydraulic
presses, or by chemical means, and then is of very inferior qual-
ity, and suitable only for burning or for soap making. a
Settling and Clarifying —The liquid from the press is dark
colored, and it is conducted into a receptacle for settling.
Much of the foreign matter quickly separates, the oil appearing
on the top. The oil is removed to other receptacles in which it
can stand from two to five months for perfect separation of
undesirable sediment. These settling tanks may be made of
well-tinned metal, or of cement lined with glass or other imper-
vious substance. The first settling is conveniently made by
means of a funnel-shaped apparatus, which by its conical shape
facilitates the rapid deposition of sediment. After standing for
twenty-four hours in this apparatus the major part of the sedi-
ment is deposited and can be drawn off at the bottom. It is
well, before running the oil into the settling tanks, to pass it
through two or three inches of cotton wool. This is accom-
plished by means of a funnel with a perforated, horizontal cross
partition, upon which the cotton is placed. It takes, generally,
about one month for the oil to settle sufficiently in the first tank,

344 Pickling the Olive.

after which it should be drawn off carefully into the second, and
so on until it is sufficiently bright. Three rackings are usually
sufficient.

Olives are sometimes ground and pressed in portable cider
mills or ground in barley crushers for oil manufacture on a
small scale. As the above description shows, oil making is a
simple process, and may be carried on at home with rude
devices. It is, however, a process requiring care and cleanli-
ness, and intelligent personal attention.

PICKLING THE OLIVE.

Olives are pickled in a green state, as is the case with the
imported olives; or in a ripe state, as largely undertaken in Cali-
fornia. No one had any conception ten years ago of the diffi-
culties attending the production of pickled ripe olives which
would have the keeping quality demanded in an article of com-
merce. It is now clearly seen that treating ripe olives to extract
the bitterness and to secure firmness, good flavor and keeping
quality is one of the most difficult propositions in our horticul-
tural manufacturing, and we can but admire the wisdom of the
Spaniard in teaching Anglo-Saxons to enjoy green olives. To
succeed with the ripe olive requires the utmost patience, experi-
ence, and intelligence, and one who undertakes it must not get
weary of the most exhaustive study of difficulties that may arise
and how to meet them. When the most careful picklers with
the best appliances sometimes lose hundreds of dollars worth
in spite of all they know about it, the difficulty of the matter

may be appreciated.
The following is an outline of the pickling of ripe olives as
drawn from the University publications :—

The Lye Process—The vats or other receptacles used for pickling
should be perfectly clean, odorless, and tasteless. Earthenware is the
Dest material, but it is cheaper to use wooden receptaclés thoroughly
treated with boiling water and soda until they are sterilized and all taste
of the wood removed. Metal receptacles must not be used. The vats
should have a plug below to draw off the liquids and should be covered
to exclude air. They should be shallow, so that the layer of olives should
not be much over a foot in thickness.

1. Place the olives in a solution, composed of two ounces of potash
lye to each gallon of very pure water, for four hours. Repeat this once,
or twice if necessary, to sufficiently remove the bitterness. If the olives
are soft at first, or if they are of a kind that softens rapidly in the lye,
use brine from the beginning, adding two ounces of lye and four ounces
of salt to each gallon of water. As the lye acts much more slowly when
used in combination with salt, it may be allowed to stay on the olives
for a longer time without injury, eight to twelve hours or even more.

2. Rinse the olives thoroughly and replace the lye solution with fresh
water. Change the water twice a day, until the lye has been removed
from the olive, as judged by the taste. Use weak brine if the olives are
too soft, changing once in two days.

Pickling the Olive. 345

3. Replace the water with brine composed of four ounces of salt to
a gallon of water and allow to stand two days.

4. Put in brine of six ounces of salt to a gallon for seven days.

5. Put in brine of ten ounces per gallon for two weeks.

6. Put finally into a brine containing fourteen ounces of salt to the
gallon of water.

Much depends upon having pure water. Ditch or stream water
should be boiled before using.

Pure-Water Process—The best pickled olives are made without the
use of lye, but this process is only practicable with olives whose bitter-
ness is easily extracted, and where the water is extremely pure and plenti-
ful, and even then it is very slow and tedious. It differs from the last
process only in omitting the preliminary lye treatment. The olives are
placed from the beginning in pure water, which is changed twice a day
until the bitterness is sufficiently extracted. This requires from forty to
sixty days or more, The extraction is sometimes hastened by making
two or three shallow, longitudinal slits in each olive, but this modifica-
tion, besides requiring a large amount of expensive handling, renders
the fruit peculiarly susceptible to bacterial decay and softening. Alto-
gether, the pure-water process can not be recommended for California, '
as it is too expensive and uncertain.

Green Pickles.—Green pickled olives are made by essentially the same
processes as are used for ripe olives. The extraction of the bitterness
requires the same care. The olives are pickled soon after they have at-
tained full size, and before they have shown any signs of coloring or
softening. They contain at this time comparatively little oil, and are in
every way much inferior to the ripe pickles in nutritive value: They are
not a food but a relish. They are rather more easily made than the ripe
pickles, as there is less danger of spoiling.

VARIETIES OF THE OLIVE GROWN IN CALIFORNIA.

Many varieties of the olive have heen brought to California
from southern Europe during the last twenty years. Fifty-
seven varietics have been analyzed and elaborately reported
upon by the University experts, and of these about fifteen varie-
ties have risen to commercial account, as shown by the state-
ments of their operations which leading propagators have
kindly furnished for this work. It is an interesting fact, how-
ever, that in spite of all the efforts put forth to secure a better
olive than the old Mission variety, this old sort comprises three-
fifths of all the planting which has been done during the last
few vears—that is, the Mission has received fifty per cent more
orders from planters than all other sorts combined. The fol-
lowing is the list of the varieties now growing in California on
a commercial scale, arranged approximately in the order of

their present popularity :— .
Mission, Oblonga,
Manzanillo, Pendulier,

Nevadillo, Polymorpha,
Rubra, Pendulina,
Uvaria, Regalis,
Columella, Lucques,
Sevillano, Macrocarpa.
Oblitza,

23

346 Varieties of the Olive.

These may be taken, then, as the varieties to which atten-
tion should be given. Of course the next few years’ experi-
ence may produce marked changes in this list.

The Mission Olive.—By this name is signified the variety found grow-
ing at the old missions in California. Samples of the fruit and leaves
sent by F. Pohndorff to Don Jose de Hidalgo Toblada, a noted Spanish
authority on the olive, led to the classing of our mission varieties with
the Cornicabra-Cornizuelo varieties of Spain, and its value was con-
firmed. It has long been known that the so-called Mission olive em-
braced several varieties, or sub-varieties at least.

Common or Broad-Leaved Mission Olive-—The variety of olive most
generally known as the Mission; ovate, oblique—sometimes very much

Mission Olive of California (Single Olive Natural Size).

sothe pit straight or slightly curved, fruit very variable in size, growing
singly or in clusters of two or three, or even five; time of ripening, late,
in the coast region sometimes not before February, but generally in
December; in warmer localities, in November.

Redding Pichohne.—Imported by the late B. B. Redding. A perfect
cval in shape. ripens early, several weeks earlier than the common Mis-
sion; dark purple or black when ripe; in pickling the pulp loses the bit-
terness quickly, the fruit being very pleasant. This variety has been
propagated extensively in the State, and, until fruiting, was supposed to

Varieties of the Olive. 347

be a large pickling variety. It has produced oil of good quality. The
smallness of the fruit is its irremediable defect.

Oblonga—Imported by John Rock from France. An olive of a pe-
culiar, club-like shape, being narrow at the stem end, broad at the point,
rounded and strongly oblique; generally pointed at both ends. The pulp

Manzanillo Grown by G. C. Roeding, Fresno. (Reduced.)

loses its bitterness comparatively quickly in pickling. This olive ripens
quite early—at least two to three weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved
Mission; color, dark purple:

Pendoulier.—Large, oval, slightly curved at apex end; very desirable

348 Varieties of the Olive.

for pickling; early ripening in October in the interior valley and in No-
vember in coast valleys. ; ; :

Manzanillo No. 1.—Imported by F. Pohndortf from Spain, large
regular rounded oval; pit straight, strongly pointed at the apex, nine-
sixteenths of an inch long, five-sixteenths of an inch thick. Ripens
early, several weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission. The fruit
grows on long stems. The pulp parts readily with its bitterness, and is
exceedingly rich when pickled. Excellent in the San Joaquin Valley
both for oil and pickles.

Manzanillo No. 2—Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain. As the

name (‘‘small apple’) indicates, this variety is nearly round, with a pit
of rounded oval shape, rather squarely cut off at the base. This variety
ripens early—several weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission olive;
the fruit grows generally singly on long stems.
_ Rubra—Imported by John Rock from France; ovate, slightly ob-
Jique, looks a good deal like a small Mission olive; pit straight, pointed;
tipens three to four weeks earlier than the common Mission variety; is
of a jet black when ripe. This tree begins to fruit quite young, and is
a prolific bearer. Very hardy and prolific even in dry situations.

Oblitza as Grown by Geo. C. Roeding, of Fresno,

Uvaria—Imported by John Rock from France. Oval, regular, and
rounded on both ends; pit straight, heavy, late; later than the common
Mission olive; color dark purple or black when ripe. The name, ‘“grape-
like,” is well chosen, the fruit growing in clusters, as many as seven to-

Varieties of the Olive. 349

gether, and in shape themselves resembling the grape. Very prolific.

Pendulina.—Imported by John Rock from France. This variety_is
of an even, oval shape, rounded at both ends, quite variable in size, many
fruits remaining small and undeveloped; pit has small, sharp points often
at both ends. Fruit grows in clusters of from two to five; the pulp parts
very readily with its bitterness. Larger and more ovate than Pendou-
lier. Tree a strong grower; fruit desirable both for oil and pickles.

Columbella—Imported by John Rock from France. General form,
broadly oval; very even in size, remarkable for the peculiar pale yellow
color which all the fruit assumes before turning fully ripe and becoming
dark purple; pit small; straight and sharp-pointed; the pulp contains
little bitterness; flavor very rich; ripens late, later than the Broad-leaved
Mission. Tree hardy in dry places and a prolific bearer.

Polymorpha.—_Imported by John Rock from France. Very large,
ovate, oblique, and pointed: light colored; pit square at the base, strongly
pointed at the apex; flesh firm; ripens very early; fruit grows on strong
stems in clusters of two or three. Tree not a strong grower, but pro-
ductive.

Lucques.—A variety specially adapted for pickling, though producing
oil of good quality; strong-growing tree and hardy; sometimes shy
bearer when young; fruit shiny black, curved; product called “Crescent
Olive.”

Nevadillo Blanco—Imported by F. Pohndorff . from Spain. Oval,
slightly ‘oblique, pointed, resembling somewhat a Mission, but is gener-
ally more elongated in proportion to its diameter than the latter; pit
small, curved, and generally pointed at both ends; the fruit is borne
in clusters of three to five; ripening not much earlier than the Mission;
a fine oil olive, largely planted, but disappointing in some regions as a
shy bearer and subject to frost injury.

Oblitza.—Imported by the late N. Milco from Dalmatia; resembles
the Pendoulier, and may be identical; fine in the San Joaquin Valley and
pronounced by Geo. C. Roeding, of Fresno, the largest olive so far
fruited by him; oval, but broad and rounded at both ends; grows in clus-
ters; tree a good grower, hardy and productive; fruit excellent for
pickles; ripens in November in the interior—about the same as the Mis-
sion.

Sevillano—Recently largely planted as the variety exported from
Spain as the “Queen olive.” The largest of all olives; only useful for
pickling; when ripe, bluish black; clingstone. Tree a strong grower,
leaves deep green, greenish white underneath. Described by Mr. Roed-
ing as a regular bearer, but requires deep, rich, well-drained soil and
will not stand much cold.

The foregoing enumeration and description of varieties is
only partial and mainly restricted to varieties which have been
more or less largely planted. Many more have been experi-
mentally fruited and data are available at the University, as al-
ready stated. The following are the leading facts as to size, pit,
and oil contents of the varieties which have been most largely
planted, and a few others:—

350 Characters of Leading Olives.

AVERAGES OF OLIVE VARIETIES, DETERMINED AT THE UNIVERSITY OF

CALIFORNIA.
Number of Oil, per cent,
VARIETY. Olives Pit, per cent. in
per pound. whole fruit.
MISSION: cigs bocCauegcecnarenaraeeseanne ts 111.6 17.2 17.56
Nevadillo Blanco... 157.3 173 19.21
Manzanillo.............. 106.6 14.7 16.94
Redding Picholine.. ar 398.2 23.0 16.18
varias. isviedsveses eas me 205.1 25.5 13.71
RUD tas cieencccesevareteeen ee i 196.1 17.9 18.58
Oblonga....... oie Say: ee 179.4 18.7 13.34
Columbella.. 114 6 16.6 15.59
Pendulina .... 157.1 13:7, 18.63
Polymorpha .... a 71.9 17.1 15.85
MaCrOcalpa.c.cchonssiouudessnuces ai 72.8 17.5 14.70
RE PANS cei ssistennsislivncanion ce vaste oats 112.5 16.3 16.37
COrreOlol Oississeveicusveeate: fe se 262.7 25.8 21.15
RAZ 20 jeciecn caren iceulstaicte sires. ass se 216.5 24.3 21 10
PrantolOtssec2sceens am oe 298.9 25-9 24.10
Cuced: cricsiwsenaies Se 192.9 21.1 27.22
Leccino..... ae 245.5 2h 22.45
Grossaio....... Soe 242.3 25.7 23.96
Palazzuolo............ ats 272.1 22.2 29.34
Infrantoio......... ... es 375.0 300 19.31
Lucques.... 192.9 23.0 14.81
Picholine... Se 77.0 17.5 17.83
ASCOlAN Otis. csecccoeieiseniss a 60.6 12.0 16.26
Oblitza....... ee ane 105.2 14.6 11.23
Empel tre siessesas-cuntcareaieeteee veestuane TII.4 1537 19.86
SevillanOseswereswsieeuwnes 0s sens ceeds 36.2 14.5 17.23

CHAPTER XXX,
THE ORANGE.

The orange has held a leading place among California
fruits ever since the American occupation, and during the last
decade has rapidly advanced in investment and in product.
The greatest year in output was that which closed November 1,
1898, with a total shipment of over 14,000 car-loads to various
points bevond State lines, which was nearly four times as great
as the product of 1890. The product of the vear ending No-
vember 1, 1899, was about one-third less in bulk because of
drouth, but in value it was greater. The frost injuries in
Florida and the protective tariff on imported fruit added greatly
to the market value of the California product.

Southern California still maintains distinctive claim to
credit as the citrus quarter of the State, for her seven counties
furnished more than ninety-five per cent of the product, and her
position is not likely to be seriously questioned. There is only
ten per cent of the orange acreage ot the State in more northerly
Tegions, nor is there serious reason to apprehend that the ratio
of acreage will materially change in the future. Still, to con-
clude, from the commercial supremacy of the southern counties
in orange production, that all the southern country is fitted for
the growth of this fruit, and that more northerly counties are
not, or to decide from recent considerable increase in the north-
ern product that all the north is thus endowed, is both incorrect
and misleading. Certain southern situations have been proved
to be unsuited for profitable orange production, and certain
northern situations are also unfit. The-considerations urged in
the first two chapters of this work show that, so far as tempera-
tures go, citrus climate can not be attributed to different geo-
graphical divisions of the State. Within a north and south dis-
tance of above four hundred miles oranges are successfully
grown on a commercial scale, in proper situations and_ soils,
and temperature extremes ate practically identical within this
long stretch of latitude. The fact stated in Chapter I with
reference 1o topography, which brings earlier maturity to fruits
at the north than at the south, has direct relation to the produc-

(351)

352 Orange Situations and Soits.

tion of oranges, as of other fruits, and is of advantage to both
districts in that it lengthens the marketing season of the fruit,
and, to a certain extent, relieves both from competition.

SITUATIONS AND SOILS FOR THE ORANGE.

Though it is acknowledged to be impossible to speak geo-
graphically concerning the success of the orange, there are a
few generalizations concerning suitable conditions which may
assist the planter in choosing locations. The lowest tempera-
ture reached in our fruit districts since American occupation,
has not seriously injured mature wood of the orange, except in
notoriously unfit situations, but it should be pointed out that
injury to mature wood is wrought much below the limit of
safety to the product. The fruit is very liable to injury at a
slight drop below the freezing point, and where such tempera-
ture is reached every winter, the orange tree would be little
more than ornamental. Even in our best orange regions there
is occasional injury to the fruit and to young trees, and appre-
hension is felt as the frost season approaches, but this, of course,
is the case in many other orange regions of the world. As will
be shown in a later chapter, Californians have achieved notable
results in protection of citrus fruits against frost injury.

Situations not far distant from each other often differ greatly
in suitability for the orange, the chief elements of the variation
being elevation, exposure and soil. The orange tree, to be thrifty
and profitable, should have deep, rich, and permeable soil. The
soil should be fairly retentive of moisture and yet not heavy
enough to prevent escape of excess of water. It should be light
enough to work readily in cultivation and yet not so loose as to
dry out readily by evaporation or leaching. A first-class loam
of adequate depth answers these requirements. Substrata of
hard-pan or of sand and gravei are undesirable and have caused
planters much loss and disappointment. Due examination
should be made for such defects before planting. A subsoil of
clay loam is not objectionable providing the surface is of lighter
character. In fact, a clay loam is being successfully used in
several of our best orange districts—the chief objection to it
being its disposition to be refractory in tillage. In some regions
it is called “adobe” in contrast to the prevalent sandy soils of
the region, but it is not adobe in the correct use of the term.

& certain elevation above the Jow ground of the region is
very desirable because of escape from frost, as already explained
in Chapter 1, and shelter from currents of cold air is sometimes
locally of much importance. The principles involved have
already been discussed,

These are presented as ideals in the selection of situation
and support for orange trees. Of course there are trees grow-

Orange Propagation. 353

ing and hearing fruit in places and upon soils quite otherwise
than as described; and in family orchards, where conditions do
not absolutely preclude fruitage, the orange should find a place.
Thrifty and profitable trees can be found even on adobe, where
extra attention is given to timely and thorough cultivation. In
selecting location for extended commercial planting, however,
the very best situation should be diligently sought for. The
provision of irrigating facilities is governed by the conditions
noted in Chapter XV. In certain places where moisture is sup-
plied by natural underflow in an open soil which does not be-
come soggy, good iruit has been produced without irrigation,
but in situations otherwise best suited to the fruit, bearing trees
will require water. There have been losses and disappoint-
ment by planting in excess of available water supply. On the
other hand serious mistakes have been made in planting in
soils not capable of proper drainage. The orange tree is exact-
ing of properly regulated water supply: if denied this it will
yield poor fruit.
PROPAGATION OF THE ORANGE.

The orange is grown from cuttings. layers, and seeds.
Growth from the seed is the method almost exclusively followed,
and by far the best, but the others will be mentioned briefly.

Growth from Cuttings—This method of propagation is de-
scribed in the chapter on propagation.

Growth from Layers—The orange roots readily by layer-
ing, the drooping branches being partly cut through, buried in
the soil with the terminal shoot above ground. Layers must
be kept moist. Layering may be employed to obtain a few
plants easily, but, otherwise, it cuts no figure in propagation.
Layers and cuttings, of course, reproduce the original variety
without recourse to budding.

Growth from Seed—Good plump seed should be selected
in growing orange seedlings either for their own fruitage or to
use as stocks for budding. When seedlings for fruiting are
grown, select seed from a choice variety in a situation where
other citrus species are not grown; but the orange can not be
trusted to come true from seed, and, more than this, the seed-
ling class for fruiting purposes has been practically abandoned
as unprofitable to plant, though fruit from old seedling trees is
occasionally sold at a profit.

The seed chiefly used in this State at present is obtained
from cheap seedling fruit. When thoroughly decayed, the fruit
is pulped by mashing in a barrel, and the mass is washed, a lit-
tle at a time, on a coarse sieve, the pulp passing through, and
the seed being caught on the wires, and pieces of skin thrown
out. The plump seed will sink if thrown into water, and the

354 The Orange Nursery.

imperfect can be skimmed from the top. The seed should never
be allowed to dry, and unless it is to be sown at once, should
be stored by mixing with moist sand, from which it can be after-
wards removed by sifting. The best time for sowing orange
seed is after the ground has become warm in the spring.

Orange seedlings are grown either in boxes or in the open
ground. In either case a rich sandy loam which will not bake
should be secured or artificially made by mixing sand with rich
garden loam. Boxes of about two square feet area and six
inches deep are convenient to handle. The bottom should have
holes, or sufficient crevices for good drainage. Fill the boxes
about four inches with the prepared soil. place the seeds about an
inch and a half apart each way, and sift over them about an inch
of the soil, or a little less of the soil and a layer of clear sand it
it is at hand. It is essential that the soil should be kept moist,
and light sprinkling daily or each other day with water that
has been warmed by standing in the sun, is desirable. ~ Seed
can be sown in boxes in the house at any time, if plenty of light
and heat are given. If the boxes are to be out-of-doors, it is
best to sow in the spring, and to rig up a cover of cheap cotton
cloth, suspended about a foot above the surface, to prevent ef-
fect of frost at night, and of burning by sun heat by day. The
seedlings usually appear in about six weeks, and with good care
in weeding and keeping sufficiently, but not excessively, moist,
they will make a growth of about a foot the tirst season. Some
growers collect the boxes in a sheltered place, and build over
them a lath house, tacking on old sacks or other cloth, to shield
from sun and frost. The lath house keeps animals from running
over the boxes, etc.

Growing seedlings in an open bed involves about the same
operations. To guard against intrusion, it is advisable to make
board sides to the bed about a foot high, and to make = lath
frames which will reach across, resting on the edge boards. A
cloth sun-and-frost shade is also desirable, to be laid over the
lath frames when it seems needed. Beds should be made nar-
row enough so that one can easily reach half way across from
each of the long sides for weeding, etc. In open seed heds it is
usual to sow the seed broadcast.‘

The Orange Nursery—Planting out in nursery is usually
done after the ground is thoroughly warmed in the spring, and
the seedlings are then about a year old. The preparation of
nursery ground and the planting out of the seedlings can be
done as described in Chapter VIII. Orange seedlings should,
however, be given greater distance apart than is usual for decid-
uous trees, because the orange remains longer in nursery, and
because it is often desirable, when taking up, to sack the ball of

Young Navel Tree. 355

earth embracing the roots. If the roots are not to be sacked,
about nine inches will do between the plants; if to be sacked,
the distance should be twice as great. The rows should not be
too close in the orange nursery. If horse cultivation is to be
used, at least four feet between the rows should be allowed, and
even greater distance is desirable. In taking the seedlings from
the seed beds, a few should be lifted at a time, and their roots
kept shaded and moist until the ground closes on them in the

Budded Navel Orange Tree, about Five Feet High.

nursery row. To get an even stand in the nursery, small and
weak plants should be placed by themselves, or set in boxes to
take another year before going into nursery. ee

Young trees in nursery are very liable to frost injury, and it
is wise to protect them by some sort of a cover during the winter.

356 Budding the Orange.

A framework covered with cypress brush is often used, the
whole being cleared away in the spring, to allow of summer cul-
tivation. Cultivation of trees in nursery is about the same as
with deciduous fruit trees. The horse should be used, and the
surface kept perfectly pulverized. The cultivator should follow
irrigation as soon as the soil will-admit of it. Frequency of ir-
rigation of nursery depends, of course, upon local conditions.
Some give two or three irrigations, by running the water in
a little trench alongside the rows, at intervals of two weeks, for
a time after planting, and then irrigate once a month during the
summer. It is important that irrigation should not be continued
too late into the fall, because the young tree should harden its
wood before cold weather. Nor is it desirable that the growth
be too rapid. A good growth of sound wood 1s better than
extra size.

Length of Time in Nursery—Seedlings are usually budded
after being one or two years in the nursery, or at two to three
years from the planting of the seed. At a convenient time in
the winter the lower shoots and thorns are removed from the
seedlings, so as to leave a clear stem of about six inches, for the
convenience of the budder.

BUDDING THE ORANGE.

The orange root is the best foundation for an orange tree,
and the seed of the seedling sweet orange is the main reliance.
The seedling of the Florida sour orange has been used to some
extent to escape gum disease. It has not been a perfect re-
course, though it seems to be agreed that the sour stock is much
less likely to gum. Oranges have also been worked upon pom-
elo seedlings, which force a strong growth, but time enough has
not transpired to demonstrate results. Of course many lemon,
and recently many pomelo trees, have been worked over to the
orange, but in these cases the orange root was below the other
wood. All lemon roots are not suitable for the orange. The
japanese practise of dwarfing with the citrus trifoliata has never
prevailed in this State.

Budding is almost exclusively adopted in working in de-
sirable varieties. The best time.to bud is about the time the
new growth starts on the seedling in the spring, though some
‘practise budding in midsummer and fall. Good, well-matured
buds only should be used; those from both base and tip of the
shoots are frequently defective. The method of budding de-
scribed in Chapter IX is that usually employed in budding cit-
rus trees, and the rules for loosening the ligature, etc., are sim-
ilar. Midsummer buds are apt to have soft growth at the com-
ing of cold weather; fall buds remain dormant until spring;
spring buds start to grow almost immediately, and have the ben-

Budding the Orange. 357

efit of the whole summer season for growth and maturing of
wood.

After the bud has started out well, the top of the stock
should be removed at a short distance above the bud, and suck-
ers on the old stock should be continually looked for and re-
moved. The tender shoot of the bud is protected by tying to
the stub, as shown in the engraving (from Lelong), and when
the growth of the bud has become strong enough to support
itself, the old stock is smoothly sawn away at the line O, and the
wound covered with liquid grafting wax, or paint.

477 i
}

Supporting the “Bud. Cutting a Bud with a Thorn.

The care of budded trees in nursery is similar to that of the
seedlings of the previous year. If too great a tendency to branch
low down is observed, the tips of the lower shoots should be
pinched, but it is not desirable to underprune much; the reten-
tion of the lower branches thickens the stem. Sometimes a
very rank growth on the bud will need a stake to strengthen
it or protect it from blowing out. The intrusion of gophers
and other vermin should be resolutely and persistently guarded
against.

Working over Old Trees—Old orange trees can be trans-
formed into improved varieties either by budding or by graft-
ing, as described at the close of Chapter IX, though re-working
by grafting has been almost entirely superseded by budding.
The common way to bud over an old tree is to cut back part of
the branches and force out new shoots, the best of which are
selected for budding and the others removed. Sometimes only
a part of the tree is removed at first, and when the new buds
have grown out on that, the other part is similarly treated.

Recently the practise of budding into old bark has been
widely adopted as the quickest way to secure a new tree. As
with working into old bark in other trees it is necessary to take
an older bud and a larger, thicker shield of bark behind it, than
when budding into younger stock. Some remove the wood
{from the back of the shield, but generally it is not done. The
following is an outline of practise approved by the Redlands
Horticultural Club :—

358 Budding the Orange.

Keep the buds carefully in a damp cloth. Slide the bud upward, above
the cross-section. Bind around the bark, steering clear of the buds proper,
a wrapping of waxed cloth, already prepared, three-fourths of an inch wide.
When enough of this has been wrapped about the tree trunk or branch to
keep the bark and the bud in place, rub the end of the muslin strip with the
handle of the budding knife, down upon the muslin already wound about
the bark. This will hold the waxed wrapping firmly in place. From ten
days to two weeks after the buds have been inserted, cut off the entire top
of the tree, above the buds, and cover the stump of trunk or large branch
with grafting wax—applied hot—with a brush.

As soon as the wax is put on—and it must be put on as soon as the top
is sawed off—whitewash the tree, over the waxed cloth, also over the bud,
over every part of the tree that is left, except the stump ends, to which the
hot wax has been applied. Immediately the buds will begin to grow.
From ten days to two weeks after whitewashing take off the muslin wrap,
and, if the work has been done carefully, in accordance with the above
directions, 90 per cent of the buds will develop—perhaps more. A prime
necessity for this work is a razor-sharp budding knife.

There is a variation in practise in cutting back the stock
above the bud. Instead of cutting back at once, heroically, as
just described, some cut back part of the top at a distance above
the bud, cutting down to the bud after it shows good strong
growth, tying the young growth to the stub at first to protect it.
Others insert the bud in the fall, cutting back to start the bud
after the fruit on the old top is gathered. It is very important
to watch for suckers below the bud and remove, or pinch them
back, to make a bunch of leaves. The growth from the bud it-
self often needs pinching to induce low branching. Twig-bud-
ding can also be used on the orange by the method already de-
scribed for the olive.

Budding in old trees is best done in the spring, when the sap
‘low is strong, but. as stated, can be done in the fall and the
bud allowed to lie dormant until spring.

PLANTING ORANGES IN ORCHARD.

As already stated, orange trees are planted out at greater
age than deciduous fruit trees. Budded trees are given one or
two years’ growth in nursery and one or two years’ growth on
the bud, which, added to the vear in seed bed, makes them
three to four years of age from the sowing of the seed. Seed-
lings, to be planted out as such, are allowed two years’ growth
in the nursery, which makes them three years old trom the seed.
For this length of time and the unusual care involved in their
growth, taking up from nursery and preparation for carriage,
orange trees of planting age are of much greater cost than de-
ciduous fruit trees.

Since the growing of seedlings for their fruit has practically
ceased, the distance between the trees in orchard planting has
ranged from twenty to twenty-four feet. All the varieties now

Moving Young Trees. 359

propagated are quick to bear fruit and if properly shaped will
find ample space in these distances—the greater distance on the
richer soil as a rule.

Preparation of land for orange planting by deep and thor-
ough cultivation and laying off to secure straight rows by the
square, quincunx, and hexagonal methods have been quite fully
discussed in Chapter X, and Chapter XI has suggestions for
. planting, many of which are applicable to the setting of orange
trees. There are, however, special methods employed in lifting
the orange trees from the nursery rows and in placing them in
permanent position, which will be outlined.

The orange, in common with other evergreen trees, is ex-
ceedingly sensitive to exposure of its roots, and for this reason
the handling of the young trees is very different from that of or-
dinary orchard trees. Three ways are employed for securing
this constant moisture of the roots, as follows:—

Packing in Wet Straw.—As fast as the trees are lifted from
the nursery ground by digging carefully so as to loosen and
secure all the roots possible, they are packed in damp and par-
tially rotten straw, proper receptacles being at hand so that the
roots are not exposed by carrying them any distancé. In tak-
ing up, all roots bruised by the spade are cleanly cut with a sharp
knife. The taproot is cut away at a depth of a foot or so from
the surface. This use of wet straw, if faithfully carried out, will
answer well in taking trees short distances for planting, but the
use of a puddle on the roots before packing in damp straw gives
additional assurance of success.

Puddling the Roots—This method is also used for decidu-
ous fruit trees, as mentioned in Chapter XI. It consists in hav-
ing a thin pudding of loamy soil with preponderance of sand
rather than of clay, into which the roots are dipped as soon as
the tree is lifted from the nursery. This mixture, which should
be about as thick as cream, may be made in a hole in the ground,
or, better still, in a box or cask large enough to allow complete
plunging of the roots. As soon as dipped, and with all the mud
which will adhere, the roots are packed in wet straw. If the
trees are to remain thus packed for any length of time, the
greatest care must be observed to keep the straw damp, and
water must be applied gently to avoid washing the puddle from
the roots.

Sacking the Roots with a Ball of Earth——This is a very: sat-
isfactory way to move orange trees, and if it is well done, the
tree does not wilt. and may be moved long distances and handled
more freely than the puddled roots. To ball and sack trees, dig
a trench along one side of the row about six inches away from
the trees, and about a foot and a half deep. By careful digging

360 Planting Orange Trees.

under each tree from this trench the taproot is reached, and sev-
ered by a cut with a sharp spade. The side roots are also cut
by thrusting the spade down on the three sides not opened by the
trench. The top earth is carefully removed nearly down to the
highest lateral roots, and after being sure that the roots are sev-
ered all around, the tree is lifted out with the ball of earth which
incloses the remaining roots. This ball is rounded off carefully
and then placed on a half of a grain sack or other piece of bur-
lap, the corners of which are drawn up and tied around the -
stem of the tree with baling rope. It is also an additional surety
of safety to allow the baling rope to run under and around the
ball to aid in holding it together. The balled trees must be
carefully handled so as not to break the ball, which would result
in tearing to pieces, as well as exposing, the roots.

The manner of handling the trees depends somewhat upon
the character of the nursery soil. Successful balling of course
requires a certain amount of adhesiveness in the soil.

One can not be too careful in the handling of orange trees.
Though they will stand harsh treatment when in permanent
place, they must be most carefully transplanted. Lifting from
the nursery when the soil is too dry, exposure of the roots, or
careless planting, will consign the tree to a slow, sickly growth,
and often kill it outright.

Cutting Back at Transplanting.—The rule of reducing the
top to compensate for the loss of roots, is vital in moving orange
trees, but sometimes cutting back is carried too far and subse-
quent growth is checked rather than promoted. Some grow-
ers cut back the young trees a little while before lifting from the
nursery. Some take off all leaves after planting out; and claim
that growth starts sooner and more strongly, but is doubtful
whether defoliation is advisable, except in case of wilting, when
it is necessary.

Digging Holes and Setting Trees—The same considerations
which require extra care in lifting trees for nursery, rule in plac-
ing them in permanent place. All authorities on the subject
specify exceptional care in preparing the tree holes as a profit-
able investment on the part of the planter. Large and deep
holes are commended, provided the planting is being done in a
deep, free soil. Deep holes would be more injurious than bene-
ficial in a tight subsoil, unless drainage were furnished, but there
are good orange trees now bearing in such places—-good enough
at least to be an ornament and acceptable fruit producers for
family use.

On large-scale planting in deeply prepared soil, holes large
enough to allow good spreading of the roots are sufficient.
Handling the soil at planting has been fully described in Chap-
ter XI, and the importance of bringing the soil into frm contact

Pruning the Orange. 361

with the roots has been urged. The use of water in planting
citrus fruit trees is especially desirable. Transplanting should
be done just as the growth is starting in the late spring or early
summer, and this is the opening of the dry season and rains can
not be expected. Therefore when the roots are arranged and
the top soil lightly tramped around them, water is run in the hole
and the earth compacted around the roots by water settling.
After the water has settled away, the hole is filled and the sur-
face left loose to prevent evaporation.

These instructions apply to the planting out trees which are
taken up with long roots and puddled. In planting out balled
trees, the sack is not removed, but after the tree is embedded
in the earth, the tying rope is cut. The sack soon decays in the
soil.

Orange trees can be successfully transplanted at different
times of the year, but the best time, as just stated, is after the
ground gets well warmed by the spring sunshine. The date at
which this condition arrives depends upon locality. Experience
seems to indicate that the young orange tree is in best condi-
tion to transplant just as the new growth is starting out, and
preferably when it has not grown out more than two inches.

Great care must be taken that transplanted orange trees do
not become dry after planting. The methods of irrigation are
described in Chapter XV. Good cultivation should also attend
the orange from its first planting onward. This subject 1s fully
discussed in Chapter XIII.

PRUNING THE ORANGE.

All the considerations urged in Chapter XII in favor of
low-headed and strongly-branched trees apply to the orange,
though the habit of the tree in growth and bearing requires dif-
ferent pruning policies. The orange tree is more disposed nat-
urally to assume a good form than most other trees, and for this
reason most experiened growers declare their belief in pruning’
as little as possible, which is unquestionably good policy, provid-
ing attention enough is given to securing a shapely and con-
venient tree and to overcome the tendency in the young tree to
run out very long shoots which result in unsymmetrical shoul-
ders with hollows beneath them, or to assume a weeping habit,
which interferes with irrigation and cultivation and prevents the
development of good bearing space above. It is so easy to
bring the orange into good shape by a little hard thinking about
what shape is desirable and a very little timely cutting and pinch-
ing to secure it.

The orange tree should assume a compact wall of foliage.
The interior of the tree is merely the framework to support this

24

362 Good Form in the Orange.

and pump sap into it. It has been held that it was necessary
to prune the young tree to quite a high head at first to allow for
the natural droop of the branches and the result is seen in many
young trees with slim stems and umbrella-like tops. It is better
to develop a stout stem by allowing for a time a low growth upon
it and then raise it later by removal of the lower growth which
has done good service and outlived its usefulness. By wise
underpruning it is possible not only to secure a shapely and con-

Result of neglect in forming head.

Fic. 1. Orange tree at planting in Better form secured by
orchard—3 feet high. training.

venient tree but also to so train the lower growth that it shalt
present good, low bearing wood without groveling in the dust.

Unquestionably the drooping habit of budded orange trees
is largely due to their treatment. A grower who does not be-
lieve in pruning allows the branches to extend too far horizon-
tally and the weight of the foliage and the early fruiting brings
the branches to the ground. To relieve the lower branches of
the young tree of a part of this weight will enable them to assume
a better direction, and this slight relief at first will prevent much

Training up the Orange. 363

-branch-sawing in later years. The young tree as it comes from
the nursery usually starts upon an upright course. If stopped
at about three feet it can be brought along to develop strong
and well-arranged branches, much as has been described for de-
ciduous fruit trees in Chapter XII. The adjacent engraving,
Fig. 1, shows a young tree in planting condition, stopped at
three feet and needing only a slight cutting back of the laterals
to be ready to begin its orchard life. If young trees are trans-
planted short distances and at the right time they do not need
so much cutting back as is commonly given them. If allowed
to grow from the start shown in Fig. 1, pruning only to prevent

ES

ZZ

A
ee | | ee ee
oe eee
aw a ee a

Fic. z. Branch-form of Orange before Removal of Lower Branches.

long branches from running out at random, and ‘removing
branches which may start strongly from near the base, the tree
will assume the branch-form shown in Fig. 2 and at from two
to three years after planting in the orchard. At about this age
the removal of lower branches begins, as they have served their
purpose in shading the trunk and bearing the first fruit. These
‘branches are removed one bv one until, when the tree is five
years in the orchard, it has lost all branches below the two-feet
line except the one branch marked “a” of which the upright-
growing part will be retained. The higher branches assume the

364 Building Down the Orange.

more horizontal habit, too great out-shooting is repressed and at
about five years orchard-age the tree attains a height of about
twelve feet and is of the general form shown in Fig. 3. The next
few months will bring its foliage to the ground to remain there
or to be under-trimmed, as the notion of the grower may be.

BUILDING DOWN AND NOT SAGGING DOWN.

It is perfectly feasible and rational to secure a good form
of low tree without removal of large branches and without rely-
ing upon the sag of the branches from a high head. It requires
rather more watchfulness and attention and study of the subject
than some growers desire to give, but the results when attained

gy cium
an a =

Fic. 3. Good Form of Five-year-old Orange Tree.

are very satisfactory. The method is that of J. H. Reed, of
Riverside, and has been followed by him for a number of years
with his own orchard and others of which he has had charge.
It will be found readily intelligible with the help of the sketches.
Mr. Reed would begin with a young nursery tree like that al-
ready shown in Fig. 1. He does not believe in much cutting
back before planting providing a fair amount of roots are left
in the ball at transplanting. If the tree has been properly
planted and cared for, it will soon begin to put out new growth,
usually first along the stem, the strongest growth being lowest
down. As many of these young branches along the stem as are
not desired for permanent branches, are rubbed off, the earlier
the better, at least before woody fiber is deposited in them. Mr.
Reed rubs off promptly all below a point about two feet from the
ground, if there is a prospect of getting sufficient good branches
above that point. If not he saves them down eight or even
twelve inches lower if need be.

Strength and Uprightness. 365

Mr. Reed’s idea is to build the head along a considerable
length of the trunk and not have the branches bunched at the
top, and this is the same idea that is urged in the development
of the trunk of the deciduous fruit tree in Chapter XII. He
finds it impossible to do this in the nursery because if it is at-
tempted to form a head 18 or 24 inches along the upper portion
of the stem instead of one bunched near the top of it, the lower
branches will appropriate most of the sap and the upper portion

Fic. 4. Branch-form of Orange Six Months after Planting.

will not be well developed; while if this upper story is well es-
tablished in the nursery the lower portion can be built on with-
out detriment to the upper, if nutriment sufficient for both is
furnished. Fig. 4 will show approximately the branch-form of
the young tree at about six months from planting and the shoots
with which the building-down is begun. The first step is to
check the drooping habit. Upon this point Mr. Reed says:—

The common notion that the branch of the Navel orange naturally
tends down is a mistake which grows out of the fact that in its rapid
growth the new part of the stems and large leaves are so loaded: with
sap that they pull the stems from their natural upright position, and,
unless relieved, hold thein there till the deposit of woody fiber fixes the
branches in the drooping or unnatural position. If the tips of these
rapidly-growing branches, with their heavy leaves, be clipped at the right
time, the branches will spring back to the erect position, where they will
remain to send out new branchlets. It is wonderful how the orange
tree can be molded like a thing of wax by pinching and clipping here
and there, if done at the right time.

3366 Orange Pruning Illustrated.

RNAS Te
CMe SS ROE
d. ne Any es ey
4 ae Wey Sage

Fig. 6. FiG. 7.
Branch-form of five-year-old tree built down. Foliage-form of five-year-old tree.

Later Pruning of the Orange. 367

Fig. 5 shows the result of this clipping of heavy shoots to
allow them to assume a more upright growth and the encourage-
ment of new shoots below the two-foot mark. Fig. 6 gives the
branch-form of a five-year-old tree, with its lower story of bear-
ing wood well developed, and Fig. 7 is the foliage-form of the
same tree, about fifteen feet high, with its leaves and fruit reach-
ing to the ground. As to how low the branches should be al-
lowed, Mr. Reed says that until recently he has thought it best
to keep the lower branches clipped back so that the fruit would
not touch the ground, but he is persuaded that it is better to let
them come to the ground even if considerable fruit rests on it.
He finds that many of the best orchardists do this, and claim that
there are really less culls among the fruit on the ground than on
the less-protected branches above.

Later Pruning of the Orange.—After the form of the orange
is well established the aim should be to preserve a compact wall
of foliage of symmetrical and convenient form. It is desirable
that weak wood should be removed. As to the removal of dead
interior branches, which have given up the struggle for the light,
the theory is that they should be removed: the practise is that
they very seldom are. It is an appalling undertaking to get
into the inside of an old orange tree and saw off and drag out
the dead wood. We can not settle the question: each reader
must adjust it to the satisfaction of his own conscience. Some
accomplish this by claiming that the interior dead branches help
to sustain the weight of the live ones. There is, however, a
reasonable amount of thinning to be done. The clipping back
of ambitious shoots multiplies laterals. There should be a com-
plete wall of leaves, but the crowding of leaves on leaves excludes
light and air and weakens the tree by lessening the vigor of leaf-
action. Dead twigs which appear among good bearing shoots
should always be removed. ‘The gourmand shoots or suckers
should be repressed, unless, by clipping, one can be turned into
a branch where a branch is needed.

DISEASES OF THE ORANGE.

The orange is thus far subject to few diseases in California.
The most grievous is the so-called gum disease, which is analo-
gous to the gumming of other trees and will be discussed in the
chapter treating of tree diseases. Cracking of the fruit will also
be mentioned in that chapter.

There are several serious insect enemies of the orange,
which will be discussed in the chapter on that subject. The
“black smut,” which makes leaves and fruit unsightly in some
parts of the State, is a fungoid growth upon the exudations of
insects, and can be prevented by removing its cause.

368 The Navel Orange.

VARIETIES OF THE ORANGE,

Though many varieties of the orange have been introduced
in California, but few are generally grown. During the last
few years there has been a pervading disposition to concentrate
upon the Washington Navel, and, except to get other varieties
either earlier or later to extend the season, there seems little rea-
son to go beyond the Navel for commercial purposes. Not only
have recent plantings been predominantly of this variety, but old
trees of other kinds have been very largely budded over to it, and
this work is still going on at a rapid rate.

The Navel Orange, Showing Characteristic Mark.

Of the few varieties which are now largely grown the fol-
lowing is the ripening season :—

Navel and Seedlings, November to May; Malta Blood,
March to June; Mediterranean Sweets. April to July; St.
Michaels, May to july; Tardiff, June to September. :

Washinuton Navel (Bahia, Riverside Narel),—This orange is the most
popular of all foreign varieties grown in this State. Fruit large, solid,

The Washington Navel. 369

and heavy; skin smooth and of a very fine texture; very juicy; high
flavored, with melting pulp; is practically seedless, only in exceptional
cases are seed found; tree is a good and prolific bearer, medium thorny,
a rapid grower, although it does not attain a very large size; bears when
very young, commencing to bear as early as one year old from the bud;
ripens early. This variety was imported from Bahia, Brazil, in 1870, by
Mr. W. Sanders, of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, and
in 1874 two trees were received from Washington by Mrs. Tibbetts, of
Riverside, Cal. Trees were also received about the same time by Alex-
ander Craw, but the Riverside trees were first in fruit, and the excellence
of the variety being at once recognized, it was propagated rapidly and
took the name Riverside Navel from the place where its characteristics
were first made known. As it came to be grown largely in other dis-
tricts as well, a broader name, recognizing its receipt from the national
capital, was adopted, and is likely to stand.

Cross-section of Improved Navel Orange.

There is some variation in the Washington Navel, and higher types
are to be found involving departures in the direction of thinness and
sillkiness of rind, etc., as well as interior characters. The most promi-
nent of these is an improved Navel which A. C. Thomson, of Duarte,
Los Angeles County, claims is a sub-variety, produced by a process of
propagation, which he does not disclose, but whether the excellency of
the fruit is to be attributed to his method or to the exceptionally favor-
able soil and climate of his location, or whether he has merely a natural

370 Varieties of the Orange.

variation of especially good points, is not fully established. It has re-
cently advanced in favor among planters.

Australian Navel—A coarser type of the Navel introduced from
Australia in 1874 by Lewis Wolfskill, of Los Angeles, and largely prop-
agated formerly. It has now been practically abandoned for the Wash-
ington Navel. It seems to be of more account at some points in the
San Joaquin Valley than elsewhere.

Valencia Late.

Maltese Blood.—-Fruit small to medium, oval; flesh fine texture and
flavor, streaked and mottled with red; few seeds. The tree is thornless
and regular and heavy bearer.

Ruby.—Medium size, roundish; when ripe often reddened by deep
red pulp within; juicy and sprightly, often rather acid; tree vigorous,
thornless and a good bearer.

Mediterranean Sweet.—Fruit medium to large, pulp and skin of fine
texture, very solid and few seeds; ripens late, often not until May
or June. The tree is thornless and of dwarf habit of growth and is in-
clined to overbear. It was at one time the most widely-distributed
variety in the State, next to the Washington Navel, but has recently
been largely budded over. It was introduced and named by T. A.
Garey, of Los Angeles.

Paper Rind St. Michael.—Fruit small, round, very firm and very
juicy; pale, thin skin; very elegant in appearance. It ripens late and
keeps well on the trees as late as August; tree is of dwarf habit, median
thorny, a good bearer, and very desirable.

Varieties of the Orange. 371

Paper Rind St. Michael.

Valencia Late (Hart's Tardiff).—Medium size, oblong, pale yellow;
flesh rich, deep yellow. sprightly and crisp; tree a strong grower, slightly
thorny. Ripens late, and valuable for late shipping.

Mediterranean Sweet.

Tangerine, or Kid Glove.—-Fruit flat, small to medium, reddish; skin
separating readily from the pulp; flesh juicy and aromatic.

Satsuma (Unshiu Oonshiu).—A considerable acreage of this variety,
planted ten years ago on dwarfing stock, has availed very little commer-
cially. At present there is disposition to grow the variety on sweet

372 The Pomelo.

orange stock because of its earliness. Tree quite hardy, fruit irregular
in size. but usually medium size, flattened; rind easily detached; fine
texture, sweet and nearly seedless.

Kincquat (Citrus Japonica),—Fruit very small, oblong or olive shape?,
rind thick, yellow, smooth; -sweet-scented; very little pulp; containing
-many seeds: tree dwarf (a bush), a prolific bearer.

Maltese Blood.

THE POMELO.

This citrus fruit achieved a very sudden interest in Califor-
nia because of the prices commanded by Florida pomeloes about
five years ago. When this supply of eastern cities was cut off
by the serious frost injuries in Florida there arose a passion tor
planting the trees in California, and a considerable acreage was
planted, and as the tree is a very rapid grower and precocious
in fruit-bearing, large shipments were made in 1898, but the re-
sults were not satisfactory, and unless some new conditions
should arise it is possible that the California pomelo passion may
subside as rapidly as it uprose.

The fruit is a Shaddock (citrus decumana). Varieties have
been secured of smaller size and of blander flavor than the
coarse, sour and acrid fruit which is suggested by its name. An
effort has been made to secure the favorite varieties, and a large
list has been planted in this State, but the fruit does not com-
mand the place at the East which was awarded to the Florida
product. Asa tree the pomelo most nearly resembles the orange
and its culture is the same. As for varieties, California experi-
ence has been too brief and fitful to demonstrate particular value
or adaptation in them.

CHAPTER XXXL
THE LEMON, LIME, ETC.

The lerfon has undergone many vicissitudes in California.
At first the product was confined to poor seedlings which did-
not merit far and did not receive it. Constant effort was then
put forth tojsecure varieties which would be comparable with
the Sicilian fuit and the effort resulted in the production of lem-
ons which w¢e approved by every test of excellence. The next
difficulty wasto secure popular recognition of quality and desir-
ability from hose who were prejudiced in favor of imported
fruit. With he aid of the protective tariff this favor was se-
cured in less \me than would have been otherwise required, and
now the Caliprnia lemon is highly esteemed upon its merits
everywhere ad the tariff neutralizes the advantage of cheap
water transpotation from the Mediterranean region so that our
lemons can cmpete with the foreign product even in the cities
of the Atlantiseaboard. All this has been accomplished within
a decade, and\t is a notable result. One measure of this fact
may be found} the shipment of about twelve hundred car-loads
during the seapn of 1808.

As the lerpn outlook began to improve planting increased,
and in 1894 afry large acreage was set, both on the coast of
southern Califia and in the interior. More recently there
has been a terency to relegate the lemon rather to the coast
region and incase the orange acreage in the interior. This
seems warrantelby recent experience. ,

SITUPIONS AND SOILS FOR THE LEMON.

The lemon cs best in a practically frostless situation. Such
places are found) largest area in the southern half of the coast
regions of Califojia, but also exist at favoring elevations in the
interior. The mlerating influence of proximity to salt water,
and the effect ofical topography and environment, which give
frost-free nooks opelts, are elements favoring the lemon grower.
In such situationthe lemon blooms and fruits continuously
throughout the ye

While the lem requires a less extreme of low temperature
than the orange, !\lso thrives with a less extreme of high tem-

(373 )

374 Propagating the Lemon.

perature and less duration of it. It apparently does not require
as much heat to develop acid, which is the charm of the lemon,
as it does sugar, which is essential to an acceptable orange;
therefore, a coast situation which may not yield a sweet orange
may produce a good lemon. Another advantage of the lower
summer temperature is that the continuous ripening is not inter-
fered with, as it is by high summer heat, which hastens maturity
and brings the mass of the fruit to marketable condition in the
winter—a season when the demand for the lemon ‘s very small.
This objection is, however, being measurably overcome by the
proper storage and treatment of the fruit for sale, :t a consider-
able interval after picking, as will be mentioned presently.

The lemon delights in a sandy loam, and protably our best
orchards are on such soil, but the trees thrive n other soils.
There is a difference of opinion among growers a to what soil
is to be especially sought for. There are profitale lemon or-
chards in southern California located upon deep cay loams, and
even upon strong red clay soils. As with some oher fruits, the
choice of soil is, to a certain extent, governed b the stock on
which the lemon is worked.

PROPAGATING AND PLANTING.

The prevailing stock for the lemon is the cange seedling.
The orange root thrives on a greater variety o soils than the
lemon, and produces a healthy lemon tree wher the lemon on
its own root would fail. The growth of orane seedlings for
budding has been described in the last chapter. If lemon seed-
lings are desired they may be grown in the sate way. Plants
either for permanent growth or for stocks foroudding can be
grown from cuttings, as explained in Chapter III. The bud-
ding of the lemon is practically the same as of ie orange, which
has been described. An old tree can be chang from one vari-
ety to another by the methods described forthe orange, and
oranges can be worked into old lemon trees id good fruit se-
cured if the lemon itself be growing upon an ange root, which
is likely to be the case with trees planted duriz the last decade.

Planting of the lemon is the same as tit of the orange.
The distance in planting varies from twenty) twenty-five feet.
Jrrigation of lemon and orange trees is also milar.

PRUNING THE LEMON.

The pruning of the lemon is essentialldifferent from that
of the orange, because the habit of the tr is different. The
lemon requires constant attention to bring into good bearing
form and keep it there; the orange, after it well shaped, simply
needs attention to encourage it to retain e bearing form to

.

Pruning the Lemon. 375

which it seems naturally disposed. The orange provides itself
with satisfactory bearing wood, as a rule; the lemon devotes it-
self, even when it is old enough to know better, to a tangy ram-
bling wood growth with bearing wood upon the ends of willowy
rods where it is swept about in the wind and burned in the sun,
instead of nestling it neatly among the leaves as the orange does.

The rational proceeding with the lemon is, then, to develop
it at first into a low, stocky and strong form, such as is described
in Chapter XII for deciduous trees. This may be secured by
pinching so as not to allow running out of long branches at first,
or it may be secured by severe cutting back of the long growths
of the young tree. In either case low branching will be secured.
Make good selection from these branches to form a symmetrical
tree and cut back the growth which comes upon them to cause
it to branch in its turn. In this way plenty of good, strong
wood is secured low down, and with short distances between the
laterais. -Strong, upright shoots (wrongly called “suckers’’)
which break out at points where branches are not desired, should
be rubbed off or cleanly cut away. Having secured about the
right branching in about the right places no strong sprouts
should be allowed, and the tree should be encouraged to make
smaller laterals; which will be the bearing wood.

When this purpose is borne in mind it appears that the
pruning of the lemon involves many of the considerations urged
in‘Chapter XII for deciduous fruits: the method of making a
strong, short trunk, the arrangement of branches, the preven-
tion of long growths, the encouragement of low, bearing twigs,
the thinning of twigs to prevent the tree from becoming too
dense, the points to be observed in cutting back, not by shear-
ing but by treating each branch according to its position and
vigor—all these must be borne in mind by the lemon pruner.
Tt must also be remembered that the work must be resolutely
continued and the tree always prevented from wild growth and
kept down to bearing on the smaller twigs, which are promoted
and retained for that purpose. The building-down process de-
scribed for the young orange is easily applicable to the lemon.

Old lemon trees which have been allowed to grow away
into a long, rangy form and to bear fruit too high for profit, can
be brought down to good form by severe cutting back and after-
treatment of the new shoots, keeping the smaller horizontal
growths and cutting out cleanly the strong upright shoots, or
cutting them back if more branches are needed. The time
‘for pruning the lemon depends upon the end in view; if a
young tree, to promote wood growth, prune at the opening of
the growing season in the spring; in older trees, to repress
growth and advance fruiting, prune in midsummer.

376 Lemon Curing and Storage.

PREPARATION OF LEMONS FOR MARKETING,

The lemon as taken from the tree is not in condition for.
marketing except to packers who wish to undertake the curing.
To secure best results in quality and in keeping properties,
the lemon should be carefully cut trom the tree as soon as
proper size is reached. To allow the [ruit to hang upon the
tree until lemon color is assumed, gives a lemon which is de-
ficient in inice, oversized, apt to develop bitterness, and prone
to decay. If gathered before the color begins to turn, lemons
may be kept for months, and they will improve in market quali-
ties, by a thinning and toughening of the skin, and by increase
of juice contents. This curing of the fruit, as it is called, is ac-
complished in many simple ways. If the fruit is gathered and
placed in piles under the trees, where, with low-headed trees, it
is completely shaded by the foliage, it processes well and comes
out beautiful in color and excellent in quality, providing it is a
good variety. Some have trusted wholly to this open-air curing
under the trees, merely protecting the fruit by a thin covering
of straw, or other light, dry materials. Others let the fruit lie
a few days under the trees, carefully shaded from the sun, and
place it in boxes or upon trays, and keep it months in a darkened
fruit-house, providing ventilation but guarding the fruit against
draughts of air. Gathering the fruit while still green, and pack-
ing with alternate layers of dry sand, has given excellent mar-
ketable fruit, but of course the handling of so much sand is too
expensive.

Much attention has been given to lemon storage in southern
California during the last few years and many curing and storage
houses have been constructed. Naturally there is great varia-
tion in design and in methods of operation. The essential con-
ditions to be secured are exclusion of light; regulation of tem-
perature; ample ventilation, under control, however, so as to
prevent entrance of air which is too dry or hot; convenience and
cheapness of handling, for the lemon is expensive in handling
at best during the months of storage which is often desirable.
The way these and incidental requirements are met in one of
the latest constructions and in the methods of the owner can be
best shown by reference to the operations of Mr. A. S. Gaylord,
of Cucamonga, San Bernardino County, who secures admirable
results with a house of moderate cost, of which plans and a gen-
eral view are presented herewith.

Lemon-Curing House-——This lemon house is almost a house
within a house—the outer building enclosing an area 30x100
feet, the inner apartment being divided into five rooms of 18x20
feet each. Between the outer walls and the inner rooms is a
hallway (marked G on the plans} five feet wide in front and four

Mr. Gaylord’s Lemon House. BF.

feet on the other three sides. These rooms and hallway have
a twelve-foot ceiling. The outer and inner walls, the ceiling,
and the first or inner roof are all of six-inch tongue and groove
redwood ceiling. Three feet above this inner roof of ceiling B
is the outside roof of shakes A, connected with the inner roof
only by its braces, and extending to within eight feet of the
ground, where it is supported by four-inch posts and forms a
ten-foot porch H on the north and south sides. It is simply a
big sun umbrella shading the real building and allowing a free
circulation of air about it. A double row of eucalyptus trees
shades the eastern end, and a lean-to roof forming a ten-foot
porch answers the same purpose on the west.

Lemon House of Mr. A. S. Gaylord, at Cucamonga, Cal.

The building extends from east to west in its greatest
length, being so placed in order to receive the full sweep of the
westerly winds between the sun and inner roofs. The loft C,
between the ceiling and inner roof, is ventilated by eight open-
ings 4x4 feet, D, one in each end and three on each side, directly
opposite each other, those on the sides appearing on the outer
roof as gables or dormer windows, with air chutes extending
back into the loft. These openings are kept closed during the
heat of the day by means of a pair of closelv-fitting doors, and
opened about sunset, permitting a free circulation of the cool
night air through the loft. Each of the inner rooms F is con-
nected with the-outer air by flumes J, 6x8 inches, running from
each floor corner of each room, under the hallway to the out-
side of the building; also by eight-inch pipes from the centers
of the ceilings, extending through the roofs and terminating in

25

378 Plans of Lemon House.

“Star” ventilators E five feet above the outer roof. The cir-
culation of the air is regulated by slides. Each of the rooms is
connected with the front and back halls by sliding doors J, seven
feet wide by eight feet high, and the hall with the outside by
folding doors of the same dimensions directly opposite those of
the rooms. These doors are large enough to permit an orchard
truck to drive into the rooms to unload the fruit. The rooms

i

Ee

WF F Wy Fr FPF r be

Sectional and Ground Plan of Lemon House.

are also connected with each other and the end rooms with the
end halls by sliding doors. Thus by opening all the doors
there will be a free circulation of air through the whole build-
ing. ‘Trap-doors in the ceiling of the hallway allow the warm
air to rise into the loft and escape. The house has no windows,
as complete darkness seems to be necessary for the best results.
The floor is of clav. The capacity of the house is about 6,000
picking boxes or twelve car-loads. Experience has shown that

Varieties of the Lemon. 379

the temperature in this house did not rise much, if at all, above
eighty-five degrees during the hottest days, when the mercury
outside, in the shade, went as high as one hundred and fourteen
degrees. The temperature of the fruit was very much less,
probably not more than seventy degrees, as the temperature of
the house in the early morning was often as low as sixty-five
degrees, :

Suggestions for Lemon Storage-—The need of prevention of
temperature extremes and of ample ventilation is pointedly sug-
gested in the description of Mr. Gaylord’s lemon house. Other
essentials are to pick the fruit of uniform size—just to fit a two
and one-quarter-inch ring—it will lose one-eighth of an inch in
curing. Cut the stem close to the fruit; never pluck from the
tree, and never allow the slightest bruising. Lemons picked in
November and December, before touched by any frost, will
keep till the following July if properly stored. Later fruit will
not keep so well, and should be marketed first. Later pickings
may be two and three-eighths inches in diameter, but no lemon
should be above two and five-eightlis inches. In the house the
lemons may be kept pn trays or in boxes with piling loose
enough to admit air. There are many details which can only
be learned by conference with experienced men or by individual
experience.

VARIETIES OF LEMONS FOR CALIFORNIA.

During the last quarter of a century there have been efforts
put forth to secure better lemon varieties. Recently three varie-
ties have been accepted as satisfactory and nearly all others
have been dropped. The three are Eureka, Lisbon, and Villa
Franca, arranged according to present degree of popularity in
southern California. Taking the whole State in view, the Villa
Franca stands first.

Lisbon.—Imported from Portugal; first grown by D. M. Burnham,
of Riverside. Fruit uniformly medium size, rather oblong, fine grain,
thin sweet rind, strong acid; few seeds; a good keeper; tree is a strong
grower, with compact foliage, prolific bearer, but starts bearing late;
quite thorny, but thorns decrease in size as the tree grows older. Pop-
ular at interior points especially.

Villa Franca.—Imported from Europe. Medium size, oblong, slightly
pointed at the blossom end, rind thin, without bitterness, acid, strong,
juicy, nearly seedless. Tree thornless, branches spreading and somé-
what drooping, foliage abundant; withstands lower temperature than
other imported varieties. At present the inost largely propagated
variety. ;

Genoa.—Imported from Genoa by Don Jose Rubio, of Los Angeles.
Medium size, oval, sweet rind, thornless, and nearly seedless. Tree is
of a dwarf habit, a good keeper, one of the best.

Eureka.—A native of California, originated by C. R. Workman, at
Los Angeles, from seed imported from Hamburg in 1872, only one seed

380 The Lime and Citron.

growing, from which buds were put by him on orange stock. Dis-
tributed by T. A. Garey, of Los Angeles. Tree very free from thorns.
Fruit medium size, sweet rind. a good keeper, few seeds; very popular,
especially in coast regions. Rejected in interior because of scant
foliage. :

Bonnie Brae.—Originated with H. M. Higgins, of San Diego County,
and profitably grown by him for many years. Still grown, but chiefly
in southern San Diego County. Rind very thin and smooth and like a
lime.

THE LIME.

The lime (Citrus medica acida) has proved much less hardy
than the lemon. It has been killed in situations where the
orange and lemon have not been injured. Unless adequate
protection is thought worth the effort, there is little use in plant-
ing the lime, except in a frostless situation. Such localities are
found near the ocean in southern California, and here and there
at proper elevation in the interior, but the growth of the lime
must be counted very hazardous. There is less inducement to
experiment with the fruit from the fact that the Pacific Coast
markets are well supplied with Mexican limes, usually at prices
which leave no opportunity for competitors.

Limes are grown from seed, the variety usually coming
true from seed. The trees are small and are frequently grown
in hedge form. The common variety is the Mexican. The
Imperial, a large, rather hardy variety is favorably reported by
several growers.

THE CITRON.

This fruit (Citrus medica cedra) is little grown in California,
although it is quite hardy and could be produced over a large
area. The only use for the fruit, which resernbles a monstrou,
lemon, is in its candied rind, and no one has deemed it worth
while to push competition with the imported candied citron,
though very fine experimental lots have been produced, and the
interest of the fruit-preserving establishments in the product re-
curs periodically. There have been collections of citron trees im-
ported from the Mediterranean region by the United States De-
partment of Agriculture planted at several points in southern
California. As yet no considerable product has been reached.
There is, however, no cessation of interest, and experimental
planting continues, with a prospect of satisfactory attainment
erelong. Samples of the candied article have been approved
by experts as very satisfactory.

ORNAMENTAL CITRUS SPECIES.

There are grown in this State for curiosity or ornament
various minor citrus species, including the dwarf ornament sorts
from Asia, and the Bergamot. There are, of course, the orna-
mental species grown by florists for their fragrant bloom.

CHAPTER, 22XIL
MINOR SEMITROPICAL FRUITS.

A number of interesting fruits are now grown in this State
which, for one reason or another, have not yet attained any
great commercial importance. Some of them are quite likely to
advance in popular esteem and to gain a higher place in the
markets. Others will probably never be grown except for
home use and garden ornament.

THE BANANA,

The banana has been a favorite plant for experimental cul-
ture for many years, and though good fruit has been grown at
various points in the State, the culture is too hazardous to war-
rant large investment, and if this danger was not present, the
abundant supplies available from the islands of the Pacific would
probably reduce the profits to a narrow margin. The banana
can be trusted only in protected situations and in small numbers
which can be given special attention. With these conditions
the banana may yield very acceptable fruit for home use and be
an ornament to the garden. Its beauty is, however, seriously
impaired by winds, which whip its tender leaves into shreds and
give the plant an unkempt appearance.

The largest number of bananas are seen in Los Angeles
and Santa Barbara, and one grower at an elevation near the lat-
ter place reports his table supplied daily throughout the year
with the fruit of the Cavendish species. The Yellow Mar-
tinique or Yellow Costa Rica, Golden Tahiti, Hart’s Choice, and
a large-fruited variety known in Los Angeles County as the
Baldwin, are also approved by growers. How to grow bananas
in the garden, according to the experience of the late S. H. Ger-
rish, of Sacramento, is as follows:—

By experiment I have found that the banana will live—if in a proper
soil—without injury to the roots, at a temperature as low as sixteen
degrees Fahr.; the stalk will stand a temperature of twenty-five degrees
without injury, and the leaves are not wilted until the air is chilled to
thirty degrees. My method has been to supply the richest food for this
gigantic plant and force it to its extreme growth. Every one has old
chip dirt, ashes, boots, shoes, clothes, and manure, which are often a
nuisance. Dig a big hole, bury this up, in the center of the mass place a

( 381)

382 The Cherimoyer.

pailful of sand, and plant the fresh bulb. This is to preserve the dor-
mant plant from the wire-worms and insects, which will not attack the
growing plant. As the plant grows, give it an abundance of water and
all the slops of the house. Any kind of manure, fresh or old, ashes,
leaves, and vegetables will soon disappear and be absorbed by this
gigantic king of plants. As the rainy season approaches, pile all the
leaves and twigs of trees around the plants. It protects the bulbs and
makes the soil rich for next season.

THE CHERIMOYER OR PERUVIAN CUSTARD APPLE,

The oldest cherimoyer (Anona cherimolia) is growing in
Santa Barbara. The fruit was introduced about thirty-seven
years ago, and the parent tree has for many years produced
abundant fruit in such perfection that the seeds have readily
germinated, and trees thus propagated have been in successful
bearing in several Santa Barbara gardens. The leaves are oval
and pointed at both ends; flowers solitary, very fragrant, and
having a greenish color, Good specimens of the fruit are three
or four inches in diameter, often heart-shaped, grayish brown
or nearly black when fully ripe. The flesh, in which thirty or
forty brown seeds are found, is soft, sweet, and pleasant to the
taste, being most palatable when near decay. Mr. I. H. Cam-
mack, of Whittier, describes the pulp as of the consistency of
ice cream or a custard flavored with a blending of pineapples
and bananas. If it has a fault it is too rich. Apparently it has
no particular season for ripening, yet the best specimens seem
to be found in Santa Barbara in April and May. The cheri-
moyer is also found in gardens in San Diego and Los Angeles
Counties. It needs a well-protected situation. The fruit has
been marketed on a limited scale in Los Angeles, and larger
plantations have been made, especially in the Cahuenga Valley,
near Los Angeles. The plant comes true from seed and the
tree bears in its fourth year, and should have as much room as
an orange tree.

THE CHOCHO OR CHAYOTA.

, The chocho plant is fruiting in Santa Barbara County, for
Mr. Kinton Stevens, of Montecito, who obtained the seed from
Samoa. Sechium edule is the botanical name of this plant, but
it is perhaps better known as “choco,” “chocho,” “chayota,”
and “Portuguese squash.” It belongs to the order cucurbi-
tacae, and is a perennial vine, resembling in growth and fruit our
summer squash or vegetable marrow. Jt is a very prolific
bearer. Both the fruit and the great yam-like tuber are used as
food by man and beast in the West Indies, where it is considered
a wholesome article of diet. Thé roots often weigh as much as
twenty pounds. They have a flavor similar to the yam, and are
considered a greater delicacy than the fruit, which in a raw state

The Guava and Loguat. 383,

resembles the chestnut in flavor, and under favorable conditions
weighs over three pounds. The proper way to grow them is to
plant the whole fruit, as they have but one seed, and they pro-
duce fruit in three months, under favorable conditions.

THE GUAVA.

Two species of guava have been quite widely tried in this
State—the strawberry guava (Psidium cattleyanum) and the
lemon guava (Psidium guayava). The former is the hardier,
and, in fact, seems to be about as hardy as the orange, and it
has fruited in widely-separated parts of the State; the latter is
quite tender, and is at present only grown in favorable places
along our southern coast, and even there it is found inferior in
quality and usefulness to the strawberry guava. The guava
grows readily from the seed, and grows from cuttings under
glass. In regions of generous rainfall and on retentive soil it
does not require irrigation, but it must have sufficient moisture
at command. A light loam seems best adapted to the shrub.

THE GRANADILLA.

The granadilla is the term applied to the edible fruit of a
species of passion vine (Passiflora edulis) which is quite hardy,
and is growing in different parts of the State. The fruit is about
the size of a small hen’s egg, purple exterior when ripe, the thin,
brittle shell inclosing a mass of small seeds covered with a
bright yellow pulp, mildly acid, and of very agreeable flavor.
Very good jelly has been made of the fruit. Another passion
vine with large pink flowers is very widely distributed in Cali-
fornia, and bears a large, yellowish-brown fruit with edible pulp.

THE JUJUBE.

The jujube (Zyziphus jujube), from the fruit of which the
delicate paste of the confectioner is, or should be, made, was in-
troduced by G. P. Rixford in 1876, and is fruiting regularly and
freely in several parts of the State. The plant is easily grown
from seed or cuttings. The orange-red berries are produced
three years from planting, and ripen in November and Decem-
ber. They are edible fresh or dried. As yet the fruit has not
been turned to commercial account.

THE LOQUAT.

The loquat (Eriobotrya Japonica) is widely grown in Cali-
fornia as an ornamental plant, and a small amount of fruit is
profitably marketed each year. Recently a very marked im-
provement in loquats has been achieved by painstaking effort
by Mr. C. P. Taft, of Orange. Mr. Taft’s work has demon-

384 The Persimmon.

strated that this fruit is susceptible of improvement in size,
flavor, appearance, in bearing habit of the tree, and in direction
of early and late varieties, and in all these directions not only
in the line of better fruit, but fruit which commands in the mar-
ket several times the value of the common types. The season
for the loquat is from March to June, the bulk of the crop com-
ing in April and the first half of May. The Advance Loquat is
the best of the new varieties. It is very prolific. The fruit is
often as much as three inches in length, and from one inch to
one and one-half inches in diameter; it being of a peculiar pear
shape. The clusters frequently contain twenty specimens. Its
color is a bright orange yellow when fully ripe, and it should
never be picked until it is so. The flavor is distinct and very
sweet. Many compare it to the cherry. If not bruised when
handled it will keep easily two weeks, growing sweeter by the
process, and will eventually shrivel up without decay, thus
proving itself capable of being shipped long distances. Mr.
Taft has named the following varieties:—

The Advance —Fruit yellow, pear-shaped, from two to three inches
in length, clusters very large, very sweet when fully ripe.

The Premier—Fruit salmon-colored, oval, large, but not as large
as the Advance, sweet, but peculiar flavor.

The Victor—Largest, color pink to red, probably the best for
canning.

THE PERSIMMON.

The persimmon of the southern States (Diospyros Vir-
giana) was introduced into California in early days some time
ago, as there are trees thirty to forty feet high growing on
Rancho Chico. The widely-distributed species, however, is the
Japanese (Diospyros Kaki), of which many varieties are now
fruiting in different parts of the State. The tree is quite hardy,
and fruits freely both along the coast region and in the interior.
It easily takes the form of a low standard, and with its large,
glossy leaves during the summer, and its immense, high-colored
fruit clinging to the twigs after the leaves have fallen, it is a
striking object in the orchard or in the house garden.

Persimmons grow readily from seed, but in most cases the
improved varieties must be reproduced by grafting on seedlings
either of the Japanese or American species. The tree seems to
thrive in any fair fruit soil, taking very kindly to close soils if
well cultivated. The amounts of fruit now reaching our mar-
kets are increasing and a demand is found for certain amounts
at jair prices, but there is no object now apparent for large in-
crease of production. This fruit, so highly esteemed in the
Orient and so highly praised by travelers, has not become as
popular as expected on this coast, nor have the great markets

PINEAPPLE PLANTATION OF J. B. RAPP, CAHUENGA VALLEY, NEAR LOS ANGELES.—See page 385-

The Pineapple. 385

at the East required more than a car-load or two a year so far.
Those who wish persimmons at all seem to prefer the smaller
but more piquant Virginia species.

THE PINEAPPLE.

Casual experiments with the pineapple in the open air in
this State have been made for a number of years, the fruit be-
ing occasionally produced. Most has been accomplished by
Mr. J. B. Rapp, of Colegrove, Los Angeles County. Mr.
Rapp’s place is in the Cahuenga Valley, and in that part of the
valley which is famed as frostless, where even beans and toma-
toes survive winter temperatures. Mr. Rapp set out his first
twenty-five plants in 1891, and a number of his neighbors also
set out groups of plants, but two years finished up all but his.
In 1893 the first of his plants fruited, but they did not seem to
take kindly to the situation at first. They grew very slowly and
the first fruit only weighed half a pound. After setting out his
own acclimated plants, they have done better each year, and
the fruit which Mr. Rapp has sold recently has weighed from
two to four pounds each. If the strongest offsets or suckers are
planted they bear inside of a year, and Mr. Rapp is endeavoring
to have his fruit set from May to November, as the fruit setting
at other times in the year is usually undersized on account of
the slow growth during the winter and early spring. It seems
probable that the pineapple resents the dry air of our summer
as well as the lack of winter heat, and a lath covering and sum-
mer spraying may be desirable. It is very doubtful whether the
fruit can be profitably grown in this State on a commercial
scale.

The pineapple thrives best on a fine sandy loam, but will
grow well on many soils if well drained and cultivated. The
plants can be set three by three or four by five feet, so as to
allow cultivation both ways while the plants are voung. Plants
are secured from “suckers,” which come from the root, from
“slips,” which grow on the stem just below the “apple,” and
from “crowns,” or the tufts of leaves at the top of the fruit.
Suckers are said to bear in one year, and slips and crowns in
two years. Strong suckers are best for planting, and they
should be set out early in the spring as soon as the danger of
cold weather is over.

THE POMEGRANATE.

This fruit “Funica granatum), famed in literature and art, is
grown in various parts of the State, and certain amounts are
profitably sold. The shrub or low tree, in good soil, will
reach the height of twenty feet. It is a hardy plant, easy of
propagation from seed or cutting. The beauty of the tree, not

386 Various Shrubs and Trees. :

taking the fruit into account, has caused it to be planted in
many gardens. Exposed to the raw sea winds it does not
bloom wel! nor set with fruit, and is best adapted to the warmer
regions of the interior, where it is an early and abundant bearer.
The variety chiefly cultivated is a bright orange color, but there
is found a large variety ot them, varying from almost pure white
with a faint blush, to dark red. A very striking variety, with
deep red pulp, is grown by Mr. J. T. Bearss, of Porterville. The
fruit ripens in the warmer parts of the State, north and south,
in October.
THE STRAWBERRY TREE.

The Spanish madrofio (Arbutus unedo) is now quite widely
grown, chiefly as an ornamental shrub or tree. Plants have
‘been distributed from the propagating grounds of the State
University at Berkeley, where the tree has been in bearing for
the last ten years. Two large trees in the garden of J. L.
Mosher, at San Jose, are perhaps the oldest in the State. The
growth is exceedingly beautiful if kept free from scale insects,
the fruit ranging as it ripens through shades of yellow, orange,
and deep red, and contrasting beautifully with the glossy ever-
green foliage. The fruit is of pleasant flavor.

MELON SHRUB.

This plant (Solanum Guatamalense) is a small, half-herba-
ceous shrub from the table-land of Guatemala. The fruit is yel-
low, splashed with violet, somewhat of the shape of the egg-
plant, but is usually seedless, and is readily propagated from
cuttings. Plants grown at Berkeley have not succeeded well.
There are thriving plants in many protected places in the State,
and some fruit reaches the market, but few seem to like the
flavor, which is something like a tomato and melon mixed.

THE MELON TREE.

The melon pawpaw (Carica papaya) has been widely intro-
duced experimentally in this State. and many situations are
found unfitted for its growth, but satisfactory fruiting has been
secured at several places in southern California, especially if
protected the first year it will stand light frosts afterwards.
With Mr. Cammack, at Whittier, Los Angeles County, it ripens
fruit the third year from the seed—the fruit being pleasant to
eat as one would a muskmelon. The large fig-like leaves and
the peculiar markings of the trunk make the tree a very strik-
ing object.

THE PRICKLY PEAR,

The tufia, or fruit of the cactus (Opuntia vulgaris), is pro-
duced in nearly all parts of the State except on the mountains.

The Alligator Pear. B37

It was one of the old mission fruits, and was enjoyed by the
early mining population until better fruits were available. It is
about as large as a medium-sized pear, and has a pleasant acid
flavor if one succeeds in escaping the prickles in getting at the
interior of the fruit. The tufa is still a commercial article in a
small way. Plants are grown readily from cuttings of the fleshy
leaves.

THE ALLIGATOR PEAR,

The avocado, or Agua cote of the Mexicans (Persea gratis-
sima) has proved hardy in several districts in the State, north
and south. It is hardy in Berkeley, but has not vet fruited. It
is not likely that it will be satisfactory without high summer
heat and freedom trom heavy frosts, It is, however, one of the
most promising of its class of fruits, as it is known to epicures,
and its marketing at a high price reasonably assured. Mr.
J. C. Harvey. of Los Angeles, gives this interesting account
of it:—

It is a handsome evergreen tree, and, in. the typical form, bears
elliptical leaves from two and one-half to three inches in width, narrow
toward the base, and about six inches long., In some varieties the
new growth is of a reddish brown, ultimately becoming deep green.
The fruits are pear-shaped, about the size of a Bartlett pear, and contain
a single, rather large seed. When ripe, the skin, which is much thinner
than that of an orange, parts éasily from the pulp, which is of a mod-
erately firm though buttery consistency, and fornis, with lime juice or
pepper and salt, one of the most delicious salads known to epicures.
Indeed, the fruit is a perfect mayonnaise in itself. Few persons fail to
like it, even at first, and in countries where it is common, it is esteemed
above all other vegetable productions, both by natives and foreigners
alike. The pulp is quite rich in a bland and most agreeable oil, said to
be very nutritious. The tree attains a height of from twenty-five to
thirty-five feet, and forms a handsome object when liberally cultivated.
The tree is a gross feeder. Good-sized trees carry a large crop, which,
after attaining a certain size, can be picked at intervals of a week or two
extending over a period of two or three months, the fruits in each
instance ripening in a week or ten days after gathering; and a very
remarkable fact is that the quality or flavor of the last picking seems
just the same as the first.

THE WHITE SAPOTA.

There are two old trees in Santa Barbara, one believed to
have survived from the mission planting in the early part of the
century, the other half as old, which have been held to be the
white sapota (Casimiroa edulis). Dr. Franceschi has pointed
out the probability that the Santa Barbara trees are something
else or else a very inferior variety. Mr. Harvey, of Los Angeles,
describes the true sapota as growing with him from seed from
Vera Cruz.

388 Other Semttropical Fruits.

This tree endures slight frosts unharmed. It is indigenous in north-
west Mexico and is remarkable among the Aurantiacea, producing green
colored flowers, and superficially bears little resemblance to an other-
wise well-marked order of plants. The fruits are the size of apples, and
are esteemed in that portion of Mexico where it is common; according
to some botanical authorities it is not considered altogether wholesome,
possessing narcotic properties. The pulp is described as possessing a
delicious, melting, peach-like taste.

THE TREE TOMATO.

This plant (Cyphomandra betacea) was brought to general
notice by Mr. Cammack, of Whittier. It is a native of Central
America and is of shrubby habit, growing five or six feet high,
with large, shining leaves, often a foot long. The flowers are
fragrant, of a pale flesh color, with yellow stamens, and are tol-
lowed by fruit the shape and size of a duck’s egg, at first of a
purple tint, but gradually assuming a warm, reddish color as it
ripens. When ripe the fruit may be used raw as a tomato is.
If the skin is removed and the fruit stewed with sugar, it has
a slight sub-acid flavor which is very refreshing. It makes a
fine jelly. The plants bear the second year from the seed and
the fruit ripens continuously for several months. The seeds
should be started just as are those of the common tomato, and
the plants set out eight or ten feet apart.

THE KAI APPLE.

The name is applied to the fruit of Aberia Caffra, a native
of Natal and Kaffraria, a tall shrub, yielding an edible fruit of a
golden yellow color, about an inch in diameter. It is com-
mended as a hedge plant, as it is densely clothed with strong
dry spines. The leaves are small and of a rich green hue. The
fruit, which is produced freely in the warmer parts of the State,
is chiefly used for making preserves.

OTHER FRUITS.

The foregoing enumeration does not include all the exotic
fruits which have found a place on Californian soil. There are
many more, some of which will probably demonstrate their fit-
ness to add to the graces or the gains of our horticultural life.

PART SIXTH: SMALL FRUITS.

CHAPTER 2CeXIII,.
BERRIES AND CURRANTS.

In suitable soiis and situations, and with proper care and
cultivation, the small fruits sustain the general reputation of
California by the size and quality of the product, and by the
long-continued and abundant fruiting of the plants. Probably
nowhere else in the world do small fruits better repay generous
treatment than in this State, and probably nowhere do they suf-
fer more from neglect. There are parts of the State, of course,
where some small fruits, left to their own resources, thrive and
bear abundantiy, but, speaking of the State as a whole, the price
of success is intelligent devotion on the part of the grower.

There are localities in California which favor almost contin-
uous growth and fruiting of some of the small fruits, and it is no
fiction to say that in such a place one may have raspberries and
strawberries upon his table every month of the year. Such sit-
uations are the thermal belts, which are practically frostless,
and, by securing favoring moisture conditions in the soil and
proper varieties of the fruits, the existing teniperature conditions
will produce the results indicated. Though this be the case,
the profitable growth of small fruits is not, of course, restricted
to such situations, but the largest commercial enterprises are
carried on in places where the summer-crop rule prevails, but
the bearing season is much longer than in the eastern States.

Small fruits for family use may be grown on all fertile soils,
and therefore they should be produced on every farm. Grow-
ing for market on a large scale involves considerations of suit-
ability of soil and climate, ease of cultivation, water supply, and
facilities for transportation, which will probably occur to any
one who gives the matter the thought and personal observation
of existing small fruit farms, which such an important com-
mercial venture should command.

Preparation of soil for small fruits should be most thorough
and careful. Even more generous work than that commended
in Chapter X for trees and vines should be done. It is the more

( 389 )

390 The Blackberry.

necessary to work deeply because subsequent culture of small
fruits must be shallow.

THE BLACKBERRY.

The blackberry is a great favorite in California markets.
It thrives in all parts of the State, and the plant is best suited
of all small fruits to yield generously without irrigation, though
it relishes sufficient moisture and repays it with fruit. There
is great difference in practise as to supplying water artificially.
The growth of cane, and the size and appearance of the fruit,
will show the observing grower what should be the practise in
his situation, and the general suggestions as to irrigation in
Chapter XV are applicable. There are regions in which
blackberries are irrigated weekly throughout the summer, and
others in which the berries are gathered from June to Novem-
ber without irrigation. Of course, with such wide local varia-
tions, there can be no general rule for practise. Let the
grower simply bear in mind that if he does not get good,
plump, and glistening fruit and good strong growth of new
canes at the same time, he should give irrigation. The require-
ments of the plant during the fruiting season are great, and they
must be met.

Propagation.—Blackberry plants are secured by digging up
the shoots from old stools, securing therewith a bunch of
fibrous roots with a portion of the main root. To propagate
on a large scale dig up the roots entirely, and, cutting them up
with pruning shears into pieces about two inches long, plant
them in a well-prepared bed in the garden or nursery. Place
the root cuttings about two inches apart and cover about three
inches deep with well-pulverized soil, the depth being regulated
of course, according to the nature of the soil, deeper in light
than heavy soils. A light mulch will assist in retaining mois-
ture. The time for this work is at the dormant period of the
plant. One summer’s growth gives good plants for setting out.

Planting out Blackberries——Blackberries should be planted
in rows far enough apart to admit of the use of the horse and
cultivator. As the constant tendency of the plant is to extend
itself in the growth of new canes, the rows should not be less
than six to eight feet apart, and the plants about three feet
apart in the row. The plants soon occupy the full space in the
row, and cultivation is only possible between the rows. Some
growers plant blackberries as they do grape-vines, seven or eight
feet apart both ways, and then cultivate with the horse both
ways. Planting in rows is better. The number of plants to
fill an acre at different distances can be calculated as described
in Chapter XXIV for grape-vines.

Planting Blackberries. 391

D. Edson Smith, of Orange County, who has much expe-
rience with small fruits, describes his method of laying out and
planting on a large scale, with a view to irrigation, as follows:—

Plow deeply and harrow thoroughly several times before setting out.
Lastly, open a trench with your plow where the row is to be, twenty
inches deep; go along with a basket of plants, a four-foot lath and a
shovel, and set a plant in this trench every four feet and fill the dirt
around it with the shovel. If the trench is too deep in places for the
length of the plant root, fill in a little dirt; if not quite deep enough in
places, scoop out a shovelful. Aim, in preparing the ground with plow
and smoother, to leave it dishing each way toward the row of young
plants, so that irrigating water turned in at the upper end will run
along the row of plants as in a trough. Aim to have the ground around
the set plants a few inches below the general level of the land. After
the plants are all set in a row, go along with a rake if there are but a
few plants, or with a horse-hoe if there are many, and fill in the trench
between the plants. It is a pleasure to set out plants in this way, and
such deep, rich, well-stirred soil delights the plant roots, so that they
grow rapidly in every direction, and the plants throw up their heads in
a manner entirely satisfactory to all concerned. If the ground is dry, or
there is no rain soon after setting out the plants, irrigating water should
be turned down the row, or at least a quart or two of water poured
around each plant; then, before the soil hardens, stir it well with culti-
vator and hoe. All future care resolves itself into frequent waterings
and frequent stirrings of the soil. Allow no weeds to appear, and keep
three inches of surface soil well loosened with the horse and hoes.
These small fruits require frequent waterings, cspecially when forming
fruit and during the fruiting season.

Cultivation—Thorough cultivation of the surface soil is
essential for retention of moisture. After the plants attain size,
cultivation should be secured with as shallow-cutting tools as
possible so as to prevent injury to the roots, which not only
weakens the plant, but increases the growth of suckers between
the rows. A horse-hoe with a long knife running horizontally,
or with duck-foot teeth, well sharpened, answers well in keeping
the ground clear of weeds and suckers, and the surface loose.

Frequency of cultivation depends upon irrigation, for the
cultivator must alwavs follow the application of water. The
benefits of surface cultivation, as described in Chapter XIII, are
of especial force in this connection.

The spaces in the row which can not be reached with the
cultivator must be kept clean from weeds, and free from baking,
by the use of the hoe. It is advisable that the cultivation be the
cleanest possible, for moisture exhaustion by weeds can not be
afforded.

Pruning and Training —There is a little difference in the
way of training blackberries practised in this State. Of course
this does not include the “let alone” system, which is. not fol-
lowed by any good grower. The difference lies mainly in the

392 Care of the Blackberry.

use or disuse of artificial supports for the canes—the prevailing
practise being to dispense with them. In either case the prun-
ing of the canes is similar in kind but different in degree, for if
no supports are used, the canes are headed lower.

At planting out, cut back the cane to near the surface of
the ground and mark the plant with a small stake. At first the
top growth should not be checked, but when new canes grow
out strongly they should be pinched at the tip to force out lat-
eral branches for fruiting the next year. Those who intend to
tie canes to a stake or trellis let them attain a height of five or
six feet before pinching off the terminal bud; those who intend
to teach the cane to stand alone pinch when it is from two to
four feet high. All agree to pinch off the ends of the lateral
branches at about twelve inches from the main stem. This
pinching of blackberry canes may be done by the watchful
grower of a few plants, with the thumb and finger, but thrifty
blackberry plants are such rapid cane growers that in large
plantations cutting back is often done with a sickle or corn
hook or sharp butcher-knife, several times in the course of the
summer. It is also advisable to thin out the suckers with the
hoe while cutting out weeds, leaving only about as many as it is
desired to have for fruit the next season. After the leaves fall,
the canes which have borne fruit during the summer are all cut
off even with the surface of the ground with long-handled prun-
ing shears‘or with a short, hooked knife with a long handle, and
all debris removed from the rows. This method gives stout
canes, with plenty of short side branches, well supplied with
buds, which will send out fruiting shoots the following spring..

If supports are used, the four to six canes which are left to
each stool are gathered within a loosely-drawn bale rope and
tied to the stake; or if a trellis is used, the branches are brought
up to the wire or slat so that the distance is about evenly divided
between the shoots.

Though these systematic methods of summer pruning are
practised and advocated by the most careful growers, it should
be stated that there are large plantations which are conducted
upon a more simple system. The pruning consists in cutting
out old canes in the winter, and the only summer pruning is
slashing off those canes which interfere with cultivation. The
canes are sometimes held up by tying bunches of them together
with ropes. Of course this svstem costs less than the more
careful one which has been described, and yields profit enough
to induce adherence to it. No doubt quite as great weight of
berries could be had from a smaller area by a better system of
growing. :

Application of Manure—The blackberry loves very rich
ground, and plenty of well-rotted stable manure or compost, as

Varietics of the Blackberry. 393

described in Chapter XIV, should be applied. It is a good plan
to apply in a thick covering all over the ground and between
the canes as soon as the patch is cleaned up in the fall. The
early rains carry down the soluble parts of the manure, and later
in the season the whole is plowed in between the rows, leaving
a foot or more next the plants to be carefully forked in, as the
digging fork does not cut the roots like the spade.

Mulching—The mulch, to keep the ground moist and to
obviate summer cultivation, is very satisfactory where it is thor-
oughly done. Apply coarse manure or partially-rotted straw
and the like, after the last spring cultivation, and use the hoe to
keep down weeds and suckers which come up between the rows.
Some growers use mulch close to the canes, cultivating the re-
mainder of the ground between the rows.

Bearing Age and Longevity.—lf blackberry plants are well
treated the first year after planting out, there will be consid-
erable fruit the following summer. How long the plants will
bear satisfactorily depends, also, on situation and treatment.
Sometimes the plants fail early; even with good, generous treat-
ment in good soil, the old stool becomes weak, the shoots are
thin, and the fruit small. Some count about eight years as the
profitable age of the plant, and then cut out the plants and give
the land a change. Of course berry growers prepare for this by
frequently making new plantations.

Varieties of the Blackberry—Comparatively few kinds are
largely grown. The Wilson Junior, Lawton, and Kittatinny
were formerly the prevailing kinds, ripening in the order named.
The Erie is favored by some as a late variety. The Early Harvest
has been favorably reported by a number of growers. These
have, however, been largely superseded by a renamed variety,
Crandall’s Early, which is the earliest of the improved varieties,
and has a very long fruiting season. The fruit was named after
Dr. J. R. Crandall, of Auburn, who first fruited the variety from
plants given him by a stranger hailing from Texas. It is a
strong, vigorous, hardy plant, very productive, of firm, hand-
some berries; resembles Lawton in canes, leaves, and flavor oi
{ruit; not given to sprouting from running roots.

Another variety which has advanced in favor is the Oregon
Evergreen, introduced from Oregon. Mr. John Rock describes
it as follows: “Origin unknown; beautiful; cut-leaved foliage,
which it retains during the winter; berries large, black, sweet,
rich, and delicious. It continues to ripen from July to Novem-
ber, which makes it one of the best berries for family use.”

Some effort has been made to secure improved varieties of
our native blackberry, and a most striking result has been se-
cured by Judge J. H. Logan, of Santa Cruz, by crossing the

26

394° The Dewberry.

wild berry with Crandall’s Early, producing a fruit so large that
it has been named “Mammoth” by its originator. The canes ot
the Mammoth are very peculiar, being very large and thickly
covered with small, short spines. The canes start early in
March, grow thick and stout until about five feet high. They
then take on a running habit and grow from twenty-five to
thirty feet ir. a season. Late in the fall the tips or stolons seek
the ground and take root. The Mammoth is not an evergreen
like its Texas parent, although it does not entirely lose its leaves
in winter. It begins to grow and flower very early in spring
and ripens its fruit the last of May, some weeks earlier than the
Lawton. The fruit is more acid than the Lawton, but, when
perfectly ripe, is sweet and of superior flavor. When cooked or
canned the flavor is identical with the wild berry of California.

The Dewberry.—The improved varieties of the dewberry,
or trailing blackberry, are now quite widely grown and highly
praised. Some growers use trellises; others train the vines
along rows on the ground surface. The following is the method
of Mr. A. M. Munger, ot Fresno, and includes irrigation ar-
rangements :-—

For planting the Lucretia dewberry, prepare the ground by plow-
ing deep and cultivating until the dirt is thoroughly pulverized. Set
the plants about three inches deep and four feet apart, in rows, leaving
a space of six feet between the rows. Plant between February 15 and
March 15. Irrigate as often as once a month, always thoroughly cul-
tivating after each irrigation. By so doing a sufficient growth is secured
to produce a good crop the second year. Immediately after the first
rainfall, generally in October, the vines should be pruned by cutting
back within about sixteen inches of the base of the vine.

In February of the second year plow between the rows with a small
cne-horse plow, turning the furrows towards the vines, but using a
shield so as not to cover them. Follow immediately with a hoe, draw-
ing the dirt up under the vines and forming a ridge. This ridge should
be high enough to keep the vines up out of the water when irrigating.
After this ridge is formed, water should be run quite often, as the dew-
berry requires a great deal of water to mature properly. The vines.
should be irrigated as often as three times at least during the spring.
The fruit begins to ripen in Fresno about May 25, and continues about
one month. The dewberry roots readily from the tips without cover-
ing if the soil is loose and moist. If many plants are desired it is
advisable to cover slightly, and the tips will root as soon as the soil is
moistened by the fall rains.

THE CRANBERRY.

Though attention has been given to experiments with the
growth of the cranberry in California for many years, it has not
been demonstrated that the culture is successful or profitable.
Cranberries have been produced, and the fruit shown at fairs,
but beyond this nothing has yet been accomplished. It would

The Currant. 395

seem to be a fair conclusion that even in the most moist regions
our summer air is too dry to suit the plant.

THE CURRANT.

The currant reaches perfection in size and quality in parts
of California adapted to its growth, but its area is comparatively
small. The plant does not thrive in the dry, heated air of the
interior either at the north or south. It does well near the
coast, especially in the upper half of the State, and is grown
for market chiefly, on lands adjacent to and on the east side of
the bay of San Francisco. The comparatively cool and moist
air of the ocean favors it, but e¢ven here the sunburn, which is.
the bane of its existence in the interior valleys, occasionally in-
jures the fruit. Away from the coast, currants are grown to a
limited extent along the Sacramento ana San Joaquin Rivers,
near their confluence, but not in the hot valleys whence they
flow. On the foot-hills, too, where the plant has a northerly
slope, or other cooling influence, and sufficiently moist soil, it
will do moderately well. It is quite possible that the currant
may be satisfactorily grown for home use, or for local market
in parts of the State where at present one does not find it, pro-
viding the moderating ¢ffect of elevation and northerly ex-
posure, coupled with the shade of trees, be secured, but even
then the hot north wind of the early summer may often injure
the fruit. So far as the metropolitan market is concerned, it
does not matter that the currant area is limited, for existing
plantations produce all, and sometimes more, than can be
profitably disposed of at present.

Propagation.—The currant is readily grown from cuttings.
As soon as the bush drops its leaves, and the. ground is in cor-
dition, as to moisture, secure the cuttings a foot in length from
straight wood of the last growth, and place them in nursery or
in permanent place, in good sandy or garden loam, spaded and
broken up to a depth of eighteen inches. Set the cutting firmly
in the earth, six or seven inches deep. If they are to be trained
as small trees, every bud below where the lowest limb is to start
should be cut out—even to the end of the cutting underground
—otherwise they will be continually throwing up suckers. If
they are to grow as bushes, the natural and more productive
form of the currant, set then: as they are taken from the parent
bush.

Planting and Care.—-Currants are usually grown in rows
about five or six feet apart, the plants standing two and a half
or three feet apart in the rows. Most of the currant plantations
are between orchard rows, the partial shade of the trees being
considered desirable. It is claimed that currants do best when

396 The Gooseberry.

interplanted with cherry, apricot, apple, and pear, not so well
when associated with plum and peach, and the almond is least
desirable. The cultivation is such as is usually given to the
orchard, except that in heavy soil the plow is not allowed to
come near the cuttings the first season for fear of tearing them
from their rooting. After the first year the plow is used in the
winter and the cultivator in summer.

Currants well repay generous applications of well-rotted
manure, and relish sufficient moisture in the soil. Where this
can not be had from rainfall, and retained by cultivation and
mulching, irrigation must be resorted to.

Pruning.—If the currant is to be grown in tree form, the
branches from the upper buds of the cutting should be shortened
in at the end of the first summer, and branches growing hori-
zontally should be removed. The weaker shoots in the head
are thinned out, but not so much as to leave the top too open.
lf the plant is to grow as a bush, the only winter pruning will
consist in removing dead wood, and thinning the new shoots as
may seem desirable. Summer pinching of the new growth is
desirable, as it causes the fruit to set closely and tends to a thick
growth of foliage also, and this is necessary, for the bark is lia-
ble to sunburn, and the best fruit is that which is well sheltered
by the leaves. Another advantage of the bush form is the less
likelihood of killing by borers, which is imminent when the
growth depends upon a single stem.

Bearing.—The currant bears a quantity of excellent frwt
the second vear from the cutting, and reaches its fullest product
about the fifth to the eighth year, when the yield in the Hay-
wards region is said to range from one and a half to three tons
to the acre.

Varieties——The Cherry currant is the prevailing variety,
although the old sorts, the Red and White Dutch, the Red and
White Grape, etc., are grown in some localities, and Fay’s Pro-
lific is approved by some growers.

Black currants are but little grown, the market demand
for them being very light.

THE GOOSEBERRY:

The gooseberry is another fruit with somewhat circum-
scribed area in this State. In localities which favor it, the fruit
is often found very profitable, but the demand does not warrant
any great increase of product. Though the gooseberry thrives
in some situations which do not suit the currant, they may both
be described as averse to the hot and dry parts of the State.
Still, for home use or local sale one can grow certain varieties of
gooseberries successfully, by protecting them from too great
exposure to the sun, and by keeping the soil sufficiently rich

Growing the Gooseberry. 397

and moist. The choice of varieties is of the greatest importance,
as will be mentioned presently. At present the chief supplies
of the gooseberry, as of the currant, are produced in the coun-
try adjacent to San Francisco Bay, though thriving and profit-
able plantations are found elsewhere near the coast, here and
there in the interior, and at considerable elevations on the slope
of the Sierra Nevada.

Propagation, Pruning, etc—The gooseberry is grown from
cuttings, very much as already described for the currant. The
common and the best method is to start the cuttings early in
the winter, though some have succeeded with cuttings taken
in the spring just as the new growth is starting out. Disbud-
ding the lower part of the cutting if it is desired to train in tree
form is also practised with the gooseberry, but a smaller per-
centage of cuttings is found to grow after disbudding.

Gooseberries are planted out and cultivated as already de-
scribed for currants, and the requirements of the plant in soil,
moisture, and manuring are much the same.

If the gooseberry is to be grown in tree form, constant
attention to removal of suckers is necessary; if in bush form,
it will only he necessary to remove too old wood and to thin out
the new shoots. Suckers should be removed clean from the
stem, so as to eradicate the latent buds, and pulling off with a
gloved hand, when the suckers become woody enough to with-
stand breaking, is advised. As with the currant, the borer is
a constant menace to the life of a gooseberry plant confined to
a single stem.

Diseases and Pests—The gooseberry is subject to insect
depredation both in wood and fruit and leaf. The prevailing
trouble, however, and that which causes the failure of so many
foreign kinds, is the mildew. To escape this nothing is done
except to select varieties not subject to the disease.

Varieties of the Gooseberry.—The American varieties, Down-
ing and Houghton’s Seedling, chiefly the latter, constituted for
a long time the main varieties marketed in San Francisco.
Early experiments with collections of English varieties showed
that most of them were failures because oi mildew; still a few of
the green and white sorts, notably the Whitesmith, have suc-
ceeded. The proportion of large berries now being marketed
is much greater than formerly,.and the superior price warrants
especial effort to produce them.

A large English variety, which was brought to California
many years ago by the late John W. Dwinelle, is now the
most widely distributed iarge kind. Its true name was lost and
it has been propagated under various names, viz., Dwinelle,
Kelsey, New French; but the name Berkeley, adopted by W. P.

398 The Mulberry.

Hammon, in his wide distribution of it in 1884, now prevails.
It is large and handsome, very prolific, ripens early, and is
usually free from mildew.

The Champion, an Oregon seedling grown by, Seth Lewell-
ing, is medium sized, very smooth, and thick fleshed, the seeds
being few and small. They are entirely free from mildew, and
are clean, bright, and beautiful.

THE MULBERRY.

Nearly all varieties of the mulberry have been introduced
in California and grown rapidly and thriftily. Most attention
has been paid to those varieties most suitable for feeding silk-
worms, but the fruiting varieties are also grown here, though the
fruit has assumed no commercial importance. The mulberry
is grown readily from cuttings. The fruiting varieties thus far
chiefly distributed are the Downing Everbearing, the Persian,
the New American, the Russian, and the Black Mulberry of
Spain. All these bear large and desirable fruit. The last
named, introduced by Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, is growu
quite widely. The mulberry has a long season; the Persian
ripens in Tulare the last of May and continuously thereafter
until October.

THE RASPBERRY.

The raspberry is another of the great small fruits of Cali-
fornia. It thrives over a great area of the State: in fact, there
are few situations in which it can not be grown, if proper atten-
tion is given to retention of moisture in the surface soil, and to
giving the plants partial shade in the heated valleys, and the
cooler exposures in the foot-hills. The raspberry, skilfully
pruned and generously fed and cared for, is almost a constant
bearer, as has already been intimated. It is a continual delight
in the home garden, and always brings a high average rate in
local and metropolitan markets.

The culture of the raspberry is in the main like that of the
blackberry, as already described. The red varieties, which are
the kinds almost exclusively grown in this State, are propagated
by suckers and root cuttings like the blackberry, but the “black
caps” are propagated by layering the cane tips during the grow-
ing season. Bending down a cane with its branches and cover-
ing lightly with soil and with a light mulch to retain moisture,
will result in free rooting of the buried parts, and one can some-
times secure a dozen plants by the layering of a single cane with
its laterals.

The pruning of the raspberry is also by the renewal system,
as advised for the blackberry. . The tepping off of new canes,

The Raspberry. 399

when they reach about three feet in height, the subsequent
pinching of laterals which are thus forced out, the resolute thin-
ning out of sprouts so that but three or four strong canes are
allowed from one root, the faithful repression of all weeds, the
maintenance of a loose surface layer of the soil by very shallow
cullivation, the free application of manure and of water unless

a continually moist condition near the surface can be secured by
eultiation and mulching,—all these are among the essentials of
cultivation which will secure abundant fruit and a long bearing
season. However, as has already been stated with regard to
blackberries, there are large plantations which pursue a less
careful system of cultivation.

Continuous bearing of the raspberry may be secured in
those varieties which endure the treatment, by cutting out a
cane as soon as its fruit is gathered, the force of the plant being
then devoted to the fruiting of a second cane, which has previ-
ously been pinched, and a third shoot is pinched and allowed to
mature its wood to carry oyer and bear the first crop of the fol-
lowing year. A succession of sprouts is gained by pinching
off the tips of some as soon as they have grown up a few inches,
which results in the growth of later shoots lower on the stems.
In this way a succession of fruit is obtained.

The Cuthbert and other strong-growing varieties, after the
pinching at about three feet from the ground, will send out lat-
erals which will bear late in the fall, and the same cane will bear
a crop early in the following spring, when its career is ended
and it should be removed.

Raspberries are planted about three feet apart in the rows,
and the rows about six feet apart. They can be well grown
nearer together than is required for blackberries.

Farieties of the Raspberry—The old varieties have been
largely replaced by the Cuthbert, which is the universally pop-
ular and most largely-planted sort, having: been found trust-
worthy as a grower and as a free and constant bearer. The
good points of the Cuthbert, as representing the experience of
many California growers, include the following: A profuse
grower, with healthy and rich foliage, which protects fruit from
sunburn: an excellent bearer with the fruit well distributed
through the bush; the fruit comes off easily, and does not crum-
ble, is of fine flavor, and ships well. The Turner, Herstine,
and New Rocnelle varieties are grown to a limited extent; and
the Barter, a re-named variety, the identity of which is un-
known, has always retained a degree of popularity in the foot-
hill region of Placer County, where it first appeared.

The Black Cap varieties thrive fairly in most parts of the
State, but do not sell well in the markets, and are only grown

400 The Loganberry.

for home use. The golden or yellow raspberries are also out of
favcr because they are shy bearers and cut no figure in the Cal-
ifornia product.

Blackberry-Raspberry Hybrids—Two crosses of California
origin have been widely distributed and have demonstrated great
value.

The Loganberry was originated by Judge J. H. Logan, of
Santa Cruz, and is a cross between the California wild black-
berry and a red raspberry, thought to be the Red Antwerp. It
was a chance-hybrid developed by growing plants from the
seed of the wild blackberry in 1881. The plant was multiplied
by its originator and fruited for more than ten years, plants being
meantime given to Mr. James Waters, of Watsonville, who grew
it on a commercial scale and was gratified at the results of his
marketing of the fruit. The variety was first given to the public
through the University of California in 1893 and has since then
been propagated by nurserymen and sold in large quantities. It
has proved a most valuable fruit in alleparts of California, and has
commanded the attention of pomologists and growers all over
the world. The Loganberry is an exceedingly robust grower,
and has unique foliage and cane growth as well as fruit. The
fruit is strikingly large and handsome: sometimes and inch and
a quarter long, with the shape of a blackberry, and sometimes
the hue of a dark red raspberry. Its flavor is unique and pe-
culiar, and gives to many tastes suggestions of the combination
of blackberry and raspberry flavors. The culture of the Logan-
berry is like that of a dewberry—both in growth and propaga-
tion.

The Primus is another blackberry-raspberry hybrid, origi-
nated by Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa. It is describ-d as
like a raspberry in color and shape, though much larger, many
specimens attaining a length of an inch and a half by three-
quarters of an inch in diameter. It has a larger and softer pulp
core or center than the blackberry, and does not come off the
stem like a cap as a raspberry, but it is a little more tart and is
best cooked. It ripens early and the plant vields well. It has
been widely distributed and is popular. It has a trailing habit.

THE STRAWBERRY.

“Strawberries all the year round” is the trite expression by
which the charms of the California climate are characterized.
It is no fiction, for in the wonderfully-even climate of regions
adjacent to the coast and in thermal belts in the interior, the
strawberry plant blooms and bears almost continuously, pro-
viding proper moisture conditions are maintained in the soil.
There are, however, more or less well-defined crops, and “straw-

| Severs

MAMMOTH BILACKRERRV A HYBRID, BY J. H. LOGAN.—See page 394.

Growing the Strawberry. 401

berries all the year” does not mean a uniform supply; nor does
it mean that everywhere in California can one expect such con-
stant fruiting. In the very hot interior situations the plant re-
bels against the atmospheric conditions of midsummer, even
though the ground be moist; and in frosty places the plant be-
comes dormant during the wintry portion of the year. The
conditions of constant growth and bearing are moderation of
temperature and of atmospheric and soil moisture throughout
the year.

SITUATIONS AND SOILS FOR THE STRAWBERRY.

Bearing in mind the conditions described, the strawberry
can be grown anywhere in California. The native species, as
mentioned in Chapter V, flourish from the sand of the ocean
beach to the rich valleys of the Sierra, just below the line of
perpetual snow, and the deduction is that wherever fertile soil
and sweet water can be brought together in California, the straw-
berry will reward the grower.

Strawberries do well on a variety of soils, but as a rule
a deep, moist, loamy soil will yield best results. Boggy or
swampy spots should be avoided unless drainage is provided,
and in this way most excellent strawberry ground may some-
times be secured. Land which will produce good potatoes or
corn will generally yield good results with strawberries, pro-
vided irrigation is furnished. In many regions the plants will
hardly survive the summer without irrigation, and everywhere
a succession of crops during the season depends upon irrigation.
It is the common experience that light, warm soils yield the
earliest and highest-flavored berries, and heavy soils the later
and larger ones; but the size of the berry depends more upon
the supply of available moisture, and immense fruit can be pro-
duced on loose, open soils by free irrigation. And yet the
heavier soil, both because of its usually superior fertility and re-
tention of moisture, is preferred for the strawberry. The largest-
producing regions for the San Francisco market in the Santa
Clara and Pajaro Valleys are comprised mainly of low-lying,
heavy valley soils, naturally moist and rich, and furnished with
abundant water supply for irrigation. And yet in southern Cal-
ifornia the chief market crops are produced upon light sandy
loams with water equal to the needs of the plants upon such a
footing. It must be remembered that the strawberry is a shal-
low-rooting plant and must have moisture retained near the
surface. Some loose soils, especially on uplands, are almost out
of the question for strawberry growing. They are so leachy
that they will not hold moisture near the surface though one
should stand with a hose and almost continuously pour it on.
The plants would also dry up though the water were running

402 Growing the Strawberry.

near by ina ditch. To grow strawberries it is often an advan-
tage to have a shallow loam soil over a clay or hard-pan, for
then the tight layer below will prevent the escape of the water
below the reach of the roots. If this can not be had, the best
way to grow strawberries on leachy soils for home use is to
mulch and sprinkle.

Propagation of the Strawberry.—Seedlings undertaken in the
hope of originating valuablé new varieties are easily grown by
taking off the outside Javer of the choicest berries, which carries
with it the small, yellow seeds. Wash these from the skin and
cover them slightly in a sandy soil partially shaded and kept
moist by sprinkling, or a light mulch, and the plants are readily
grown. As with seedlings of other fruits, few, if any, will be
found superior to the parent variety.

Plants for setting out are secured by taking off the small
growths rooted from runners. The strongest plants are those
nearest to the parent plant. When these are allowed to root in
small pots plunged into the scil, they are called “pot-grown,”
and are superior for planting out, but thev are not largely used
in this State. When plants of any varietv are desired for new
beds or fields, a row or more are allowed to send out runners
during the summer, and these are fit for taking up and replant-
ing the following winter or spring.

Laying off Ground for Strawberrics—The essentials are
deep and thorough pulverization of the soil and grading of the
surface so that water will flow slowly in the ditches. Sugges-
tions as to location of grade lines may be found in Chapter XV.
The inclination which answers for water distribution may be
very slight; about two inches to the hundred feet answers on the
level lands of the Pajaro Valley, while in the foot-hills much
greater fall is made use of, and on hillsides rows are located
on contour lines and not in straight lines. A grade of three and
three-quarters inches to the hundred feet is sometimes used.
The triangle described in Chapter XV can be used to fix the
grades.

Of course, in grading the field it is often necessary to give
adjacent blocks opposite inclinations to provide for the return of
the water. On hillsides. where the water is carried down a
ridge io a flume, it is usual to keep the water always running
away from the flume, and only enough is taken out to reach to
the ends of the small ditches. A grade of six inches to the rod
is practicable for hillside irrigation, but of course only a small
flow of water is employed.

There are various ways of laying out strawberry beds and
plantations. Some give flat cultivation and lay out in single
rows two and a half to three and a half feet apart, and in some

Laying Out the Strawberry. 403

districts flat culture is unquestionably best. Others lay out in
double rows about two feet apart, and between each pair of
rows the soil from the center is drawn up to each side, making
a low ridge or level a little higher than the surface on which
the plants are set. This levee serves as a walk between the beds
and holds back the water upon the bed when irrigated by
flooding. Another, and the generally-adopted plan, is to have
the plants in double rows on a slight ridge, while between the
beds is a furrow which serves as a walk and for irrigation. This
is accomplished by throwing up the soil with the plow into
ridges about two feet wide, with a double furrow between. On
the sides of these ridges the plants are set, and often on the top
of the ridge between the rows of strawberries a single row
of onions or lettuce, or some other vegetable, is grown the first
year. In irrigation the water is drawn up from the trenches by
the roots and by capillary attraction, and the upper surface does
not bake as it would by flooding if the soil be heavy. In hoe-
ing out weeds and in fruit gathering, the workman walks in the
ditch and does not pack the soil around the plant by tramping.
This is the best method of laying out for large plantations.
The rows are a uniform distance apart across the field, whether
the space between be a ridge or a ditch. The method of ma<-
ing the beds a little lower than the general surface of the ground,
answers best on free, open soils with perfect drainage. Cultiva-
tion can be reduced by covering the depressed surface of the
bed with a mulch of fine, clean litter, such as chaff, cut straw,
etc. This retains moisture and gives the berry a clean surface
to rest on. Such a bed is an excellent arrangement for the
home garden,

In all arrangements the plants are set at less distances in
the rows than the rows are from each other. Probably the pre-
vailing distance is one foot between the plants; the range is from
eight to eighteen inches in the practise of different growers,
and determined, of course, largely by the habit of the variety. A
vine like the Sharpless, with a spreading growth and long fruit
stems, needs, perhaps, the sixteen inches which some growers
give it, while the smaller, more compact, Longworth Prolific
may do well with half that distance.

Planting Strawberrics—Strawberry plants are set out either
in spring or fall, or at any time in the winter when the ground
is warm and in good condition. In the drier parts of the State,
early fall or winter planting is more essential than elsewhere.
If the ground is dry, water should always be used in planting.
This may be given by thorough irrigation of the ground before
planting, or a little water may be used in setting each plant.
At planting it is usually best to remove all leaves from the plant,

404 Planting the Strawberry.

shorten the roots to three inches or less, and be sure the plants
do not dry while planting progresses. As with handling rooted
grape-vines, it is advisable to carry around the plants in a vessel
which has water in it. If plants have been received by mail,
they are invigorated by soaking in water a few hours before
planting.

In setting the plants, scoop out a little excavation with the
hand or a trowel, spread the roots well, cover with fine soil, being
sure that the crown of the plant shall not be below the surface
when the soil is leveled. Too many strawberry plants are
buried, not planted. Some plant very rapidly by using a dibble
to make a hole, into which the roots are dropped and soil pressed
around them by using the dibble alongside; others set the plants
on the side of the furrow, trusting to the next furrow to com-
plete the covering. Nearly all ways succeed if the plant is not
set too deeply and the ground is moist at planting and not
allowed to dry out afterwards—providing good, strong plants
are used. In buying plants it is often poor economy to buy the
cheapest.

Staminate aud Pistillate—In associating varieties be sure
that pistillate varieties are not set by themselves. Some scrts
have perfect flowers and are self-fertilizing; others have only the
pistillate element in the bloom and niust have the staminate
adjacent in another variety. All the varieties largely grown in
California have perfect flowers, though some pistillate sorts have
been locally approved.

Care of the Strawberry Plantation. —Herein lies the secret of
success with the strawberry. Neglect has led to disappointment
and condemnation of the strawberry, where intelligent care would
have rendered it a constant delight. The chief elements of
proper care may be thus enumerated :—-

Retention of moisture very near the surface by careful,
shallow cultivation or by mulching, persistent destruction of
weeds, and compensation for summer evaporation by frequent
irrigation. The plants during the bearing season should never
be allowed to show any leaf-shriveling from drouth. Frequency
of irrigation depends upon local conditions. Irrigation at inter-
vals of four to ten days, according to the soil, are the outlines of
prevailing practise.

Constant removal of runners from all plants except those
it is desired to multiply to furnish new plants or to fill the rows.
Pinching of runners should always accompany picking or hoe-
ing of weeds, and on the garden bed there can be no excuse for
neglect in this respect. The young plants should be faithfully
freed from runners to strengthen them up for hearing.

Though, as already stated, strawberries may in some loca-
tions be had all winter, it is better practise, as a general rule, to

Care of the Strawberry. 405

lay the plants away for a rest. The market season in the regions
supplying the San Francisco market extends from April to
December, and fruit is continuously shipped during that pe-
riod. At the approach of winter in the last-named month, it
is usual to go over the beds with a sickle, cutting off the old crop
of leaves close to the root crown, carefully cleaning up the plan-
tation for the heavy rains. In most cases it will be a great
advantage then to cover over all with a light coat of good ma-
nure, which the winter rains will leach down into the soils. The
result of the fall clipping and enriching will be an early and
strong start of the plant in the spring, and a most abundant
fruitage.

Duration of the Plantation.—Strawberry planis well cared for
and not visited by insect pests, have a long, productive, and
profitable life in California. Twelve-year-old plants at Santa
Clara have been reported as still producing abundantly. It is
customary to count from five to eight years as the profitable lite
of a plant, though some growers replant after two bearing years.

Varieties of the Strawberry—Though all new varieties are
tried by California growers, and quite a number may be consid-
ered successful either for market or for home use, only a very
few may be said to be widely grown. The three kinds which
are pre-eminent in public favor are the Longworth Prolific, the
Sharpless, and the Monarch of the West. The Sharpless is the
most widely grown; the Monarch shows hetter size and color in
southern California and on the Sierra foot-hills than in the re-
gions adjacent to San Francisco, although it is grown therein
to some extent. The Longworth is an old favorite, early, pro-
ductive, and hardy, and its style has become very popular in the
markets. Wilson’s Albany also holds favor in same. The Me-
linda is largely grown in the Pajaro Valley. The Gandy and
Dollar are approved in several counties.

The best drouth-resisting strawberry grown in California at
the present time is the Arizona Everbearing. It is a leading
variety in southern California, and is very hardy, enduring much
drouth and neglect, which the home strawberry bed is apt to get
when the fruit grower is very busy in his orchard. It is a late
berry and bears all summer if well treated. It is handsome in
form and color. The Australian Crimson, Brandywine, Lady
Thompson and Laxton’s Noble are also popular at the south,
and a variety called Shepherd’s is preferred at Santa Barbara.

It has been demonstrated that varieties show marked dif-
ference in behavior in different soils and situations. In planting
for market or home use in new regions the planter will be safe
in making his largest plantations of the varieties named above,
and at the same time he should put out experimental plots of
other varieties. In planting in established strawberry regions,
secure the hest available local advice, consulting a number of
growers and forming decision from such evidence.

PART SEVENTH: NUTS,

CHAPTER AST.
NUT GROWING IN CALIFORNIA.

Two nuts have risen to large commercial importance in
California: the English walnut and the almond. Other nuts
than these, except peanuts, have never attained great acreage,
although several have sticceeded and promise to hecome popular.

The walnut has thus far only been produced in large quan-
tities in Santa Rarbara, Ventura, Los’ Angeles, and Orange
Counties, and an aggregate annual product of eight and a
quarter million pounds has been attained in this district. The
almond product, which in some years amounts to five hundred
thousand pounds, has been chiefly grown in central California.

THE ALMOND.

The almond has an interesting history in California, but it
can be outlined in a few sentences. The importation of the
best European varieties began very early, and a number of them
had been planted in 1853. They proved irregular bearers,
though the trees grew thrittily and in some cases showed fruit
very soon after planting. The barren almond trees were largely
grafted into prunes or made into firewood and the conclusion
was reached that to secure regularity and abundance in fruiting,
locations for almond orchards must be sought with the utmost
care, and that the secret of success lay in the location. After
that local seedlings seemed to demonstrate their value in regular
crops, and in characteristics and qualities superior to foreign
kinds. Large planting was then undertaken on the ground that
the choice of soil and situation, and the selection of trustworthy
varieties, are both iactors of success, but that possibly more lay
in the choice of varietv than of location. This belief led to wide
planting in locations now seen to be unfitted by reason of frosts
and at the close of the century the almond acreage is being re-
duced by cutting out unprofitable trees, and it seems to be fully
demonstrated that no matter what variety is chosen, locations

( 406 )

The Almond. 407
for the almond must be selected with great care. It has also
been demonstrated that association of varieties promote pollina-
tion and satisfactory bearing.

Situations and Soils for the Almond.—Almonds are now do-
ing best on the higher lands in coast valleys, free from fogs and
protected from direct winds, but subject to tempered breezes;
also at various points in the interior valleys and foot-hills. The
general proposition that low lands in small valleys should be
avoided, and bench or hillside situations preferred, seems to be
a safe one. Lands directly upon the coast have not proved sat-
isfactory.

The almond prefers a loose. light, warm scil, and heavy,
poorly-drained soils should be avoided. Though they need
moisture enough to make good, thrifty growth they will produce
good crops on soils that are too light or dry to grow satisfactory
peaches, apricots, nectarines, cherries, or similar pulpy fruit.
The almond is, however, a very deep-rooting tree, and may suc-
ceed by reaching deeply for moisture rather than by denying
itself, as some think. The tree certainly suffers and is barren
from drouth in some cases.

Propagating, Planting, and Pruning.—The almond is prop-
agated from seedlings grown as described in Chapter VIII, and
budded as described in Chapter IX. The almond root is pre-
ferred, though the peach answers well. The apricot root should
be avoided.

For planting out, trees in dormant bid are very successful
if given proper care. Yearling trees are, on the whole, best, and
usually those which have made a moderate instead of a very large
growth are to be preferred. The almond makes a comparatively
large tree and should have plenty of room—not less than twent.
four feet apart (though some plantations are made at twenty
feet), and thirty feet is better.

The pruning of the almond is very simple. The tree should
be headed low and pruned during the first three years, as de-
scribed in Chapter XII, to secure a shapely, strong tree. After
the third year little pruning is required except to thin out ob-
jectionable branches by winter pruning. There is danger of al-
lowing the trees to become too dense. Shortening in, as prac-
tised with the peach, is not desirable with the almond.

The cultivation of the almond orchard is the same as com-
mended for other fruit trees. and as the trees are often planted
in naturally dry soils, the greater care in cultivation is needed to
retain sufficient moisture to give good size to the nuts. In cer-
tain locations, of course, irrigation will be necessary, but usually
a light rainfall will answer if good cultivation is given.

408 Flandling Almonds.

Gatheri:g, Huiling, and Bleachmmg—Almonds are gathered
by spreading canvas under the tree and shaking the branches
separately; the few nuts remaining can be displaced by striking
with a light stick. The gathering should be done after the hulls
have burst open, but should not be delayed until the nuts are
badly discolored. Discoloration of the nut depends upon local
atmospheric conditions and is worst in regions subject to moist
winds or fogs from the ocean, and they often extend consider-
able distances into the interior valleys. On dry plateaux adja-
cent to the Mojave Desert perfectly bright almonds are pro-
duced naturally.

Hulling is done with machines devised for that purpose.
There are several in use and recently great capacity and cheap-
ness of operation have been attained.

For the greater part of the almond product bleaching is ap-
parently demanded by market requirements. Sulphur should
not be applied until the nut is thoroughly dry, or else the fumes
will penetrate it, and not only spoil its flavor, but wili destroy its
germinating power. The nuts are dried by exposure to sun on
platforms or trays, and in dewy places should be covered during
the night. After being well dried, sprinkle the nuts sufficiently
to moisten the’ shell surface and apply sulphur fumes. Various
home-made contrivances are used for bleaching, such as piling
up several of the slat-bottom trays one upon another, placing
around them sides made of boards so as to hook together at the
corners, cover the top with a damp canvas, and burn the sulphur
in a hole in the ground below the bottom tray.

Webster Treat, of Davisville, a large grower of almonds,
describes his sulphuring-house for almonds :—

My bleaching-house is about twenty-five feet by eight feet, and I
generally put in about four thousand pounds of almonds, and expose
them to sulphur fumes for three or four hours. The house is boarded
with tongue and groove flooring, inside and out, and roofed with well-
laid shingles, and has a flue about two feet high on the apex, to help
draft the sulphur smoke up. The floor is of one-by-three-inch stuff, set
up edgewise, three-eighths of an inch apart, or just wide enough to ad-
mit the fumes from the sulphur burning below, and narrow enough to
prevent the nuts from falling through. The floor is about two and
one-half feet above the ground, and the lower space is boarded up with
tongue and groove also, and fitted with small doors every five feet, so
that the sulphur pans can be placed underncath the floor. ;

Sulphur fumes are applied until the nuts are of a light yel-
lowish color; the proper shade is tc be learned by securing ap-
proved samples from some trustworthy dealer.

Varieties of the Almond.—-Almonds should bear well every
year, hull easily, have clean, thin, soft shells, and a smooth,
bright, and plump kernel. Aimonds with long, single kernels

Varieties of the Almond. 409

are preferred in general to those which have double ones. These
are the characters which ruled in the selection of new varieties
by our leading propagator of new almonds, A. T. Hatch, for-
merly of Suisun. In 1878 Mr. Hatch planted out about two
thousand five hundred seedling almond trees grown from bitter
almond seed. He afterward budded all the seedlings but about
three hundred, which were left to bearing age unbudded. The
fruit of these seedlings was of all degrees of excellence. A few
of the best of them were selected for propagation and naming,
and they constitute the chief part of the large acreage which is
now credited to the almond in Chapter VI.

Excellent seedling almonds have also been produced by
other growers. The following list includes the sorts most widely
grown :—

INXNL.—‘Tree a sturdy, rather upright grower, with large leaves; nuts
large, with, as a rule, single kernels; hulls easily, no machine being
needed, nor is any bleaching necessary; shell soft, but perfect. It bears
heavily and regularly.’—A. T. Hatch.

Ne Plus Ultra.—Large and very long in shape; heavy and regular
bearer; soft shell; hull free.

Nonpareil —First called Extra. Of a weeping style of growth;
smaller foliage than the INL, but. still forms a beautiful tree. An
extraordinarily heavy and regular bearer, with very thin shell, of the
Paper Shell type.

Lewelling’s Prolific.—Originated with the late Mr. John Lewelling;
“tree a great bearer; of drooping habit; nut large and good; soft shell;
hull free.”—Leonard Coates.

Harriott's Seedling (or Commercial.)—From Visalia, where it is a
surer cropper than elsewhere; shell softer than the Languedoc; nut long,
of peculiar shape, quite large; kernel sweet.

King’s Soft Shell—Originated in San Jose; shell very thin and soft:
regular and abundant bearer.

Princess——The finest of the Paper Shell class; long, oval, kernel
large, white and sweet.

Languedoc.—Nut large; shell thin; kernel sweet; condemned for
irregular bearing.

Paper Shell—Medium size; shell very tender, easily broken between
the finger and thumb; kernel large, white and sweet.

Drake’s Seedling—Originated with Mr. Drake, of Suisun, of the
Languedoc class; very prolific, and a regular, abundant bearer. The
latest blooming variety.

Golden State-—Originated by Webster Treat. A large soft-shell,
somewhat longer than the Languedoc, with a full, smooth-skinned meat;
parts from the hull readily. An early variety, but in less favor than
formerly.

THE CHESTNUT.
The chestnut is not yet produced in large amount in Cali-
fornia, and certain quantities of the nuts are annually imported,

the American, Italian, or Spanish and Japanese all being found
in the San Francisco markets. Of chestnuts grown in Califor-

27

410 Chestnut and Filbert.

nia, the Italian predominates, and the Japanese is more common
than the American, which is slow of growth and late in fruiting,
as compared with the other kinds. Judging by the success of
the Italian, it may be said that a large area of California is well
suited for the growth of the chestnut, as there are bearing trees
in nearly all parts of the State. The chestnut succeeds on
heavy, clayey soil, even if it be quite rocky.

Chestnut trees are readily grown from the seed, and thus
grown come into bearing in from six to eight years, though the
Japanese sometimes bears sooner. The growth of chestnuts
from the seed is described in Chapter VIII. In growing from
seed of the improved varieties, there is a tendency toward rever-
sion, and budding and grafting may be resorted to; budding is
done by the ring method, as described in Chapter XXVIII.
The chestnut can also be grafted with the ordinary cleft graft.
Buds or scions should be taken from trees which are fruiting
satisfactorily, and in this way seedlings which have a tendency
to bear empty burs can be turned to good account. Chestnuts
can be grown in the nursery until several years old, providing
they are lifted at the end of the first year, the taproot cut off,
and the trees reset, giving them rather more room than during
their first year’s growth. In permanent plantings the trees
should have plenty of room, as they ultimately attain great size.
Mr. R. G. Sneath reports seeing trees at Grass Valley, Nevada
County, about twenty years old, which are fifteen inches in diam-
eter of trunk, and forty feet high, and reported to be bearing a
barrel of nuts to the tree regularly. Felix Gillet, of Nevada
City, has for many vears made a specialty of propagating a large
collection of the improved French varieties of the chestnut,
known as Afarrons, which are now quite largely distributed.
The chestnut has not however, attained any considerable product
as yet. The chestnut, aside from its desirability as an orchard
tree, can be commended as a tree for hillsides or a shade tree for
waysides or pastures, and should be more widely planted in Cal-
ifornia.

THE FILBERT.

The best English cob-nuts have heen quite widely tried in
California without successful results. Improved Spanish and
French varieties of the filbert were early introduced by Felix
Gillet, of Nevada City, and have been favorably reported by him
as to growth and bearing. A few other growers in foot-hill situ-
ations have reported success, but as a rule disappointment has
attended ventures with the filbert. The most favorable regions
for farther experiment are apparently the north slopes of the
Coast Kange, and other cooler and moister situations, as well
as at an elevation on the Sierra foot-hills, where Mr. Gillet pro-
nounces them satisfactory.

Peanut and Pecan. 4II

THE PEANUT.

During the last few years the peanut product of California
has notably increased and the crop is a popular one in some
parts of the San Joaquin Valley and southern California. The
nuts are considerably grown between the rows in young or-
chards and vineyards, as well as upon ground wholly given to
them. The following explicit directions are given by R. M.
Hargrave, a grower in Orange County. Some slight modifica-
tions in practise may be needed, according to locality, as, for
example, in time of planting. which is usually a little earlier than
the date given:—

Planting —The best time to plant peanuts is about the middle of May,
say 10th to 15th, in rows about three to four feet apart and sixteen to
twenty inches the other way, and not cover too deep—three or four inches.
Peanuts planted the middle of May ripen evenly and are of uniform size.
Very early peanuts ripen unevenly, and the first nuts that set on get so
ripe they turn to a pink color, and if the land is a little sandy the stems
get soft, lose their strength, and will not lift the nuts from the ground.

It takes about thirty pounds of the California or White Virginia,
and fifty pourds of the Tennessee Reds, to plant an acre. Tennessee
peanuts can be planted much closer in the rows. The California pea-
nut is the best to plant, as it yields three or four times as much as the
Tennessee Reds do, and has more ready sale.

The Quality of Land.—-Peanuts require a rich, sandy soil loam, that
is known as upland. Damp land gives the nuts a straw color, and they
are not as good a quality as those raised on higher land. They require
no irrigation, except on very sandy land, where some have found it
profitable; but, as a usual thing, when irrigated the ground is liable to
get hard, making the nuts crooked, ill-shaped, and many times coloring
them.

Cultivation.—Peanuts should be cultivated about the same as corn,
not allowing any weeds to grow in them, keeping the ground loose and
mellow, and when the spikes begin to form, they should not be dis-
turbed. If they are, it causes the nuts to blight or not fill out. The
blooms do not require to be covered.

Harvesting —Peanuts should he harvested when ripe, and not al-
lowed to stand too long, in hopes that the last ones set out will fill
out and ripen. as you lose more than you gain. The little ones spoil
the sale of the crop, and many are Jeft in the ground that get overripe.
Peanuts should be cut or plowed out and thrown into windrows, nuts
down, and let lie a week or ten days, and then sacked, as the best nuts
are cured in that way, and they do not mold so badly, and cure a better
color. They must not be allowed to get wet. The tops are good feed
if stored away in a shed for winter use. All kinds of stock like them,
and small nuts can be left on the vines. They make the best chicken
feed. An average yield is about twenty-five to thirty sacks to the acre,
forty pounds to a sack, but many have raised filty sacks, with extra
care and good land well adapted to peanuts.

’

THE PECAN.

The pecan, by rapid growth, early fruiting, and general
thrift, seems to be the member of the hickory family best fitted

412 The Pistachio.

for California conditions. A tree grown from a nut planted by
J. R. Wolfskili, on Putah Creek, in 1878 was, in 1894, over fifty
feet high, with a trunk twelve inches in diameter, growing lux-
uriantly and bearing freely. Still older trees, also very satis-
factory in growth and bearing, are to be seen at Chico and \1-
salia. The pecan, though ‘grown for thirty years by different
parties around the bay of San Francisco, either does not bear or
keeps the nuts hanging on until sonietimes they sprout on the
tree. The wider extremes in temperature or in humidity in the
interior seem to teach the tree better habits of growth and rest.
As yet, California has no large marketable product of pecans.

Pecan trees grow readily from the nuts if these are fresh.
Planters should secure nuts of selected varieties (for there is a
great difference in size and quality) direct from growers in the
southern States, and plant as soon as received, in the early winter,
or if conditions are not favorable for planting, the nuts should
be stored as described in Chapter VIII. Nuts planted in good
nursery ground in rows as there suggested, and covered about
two inches or a little deeper in dry, loose soil, and then mulched
to retain moisture, will germinate freely. The trees should be
transplanted to permanent place at the end of the first year, and
then usually the taproot can be retained, as some growers deem
very desirable; if the trees are to be put in permanent place later
thev should be transplanted in the nursery and the taproot cut
off. The nuts can, of course, be planted at once in permanent
place if one will take the extra trouble necessary to properly care
for them.

THE PISTACHIO.

The pistachio nut (Pistachia vera) was introduced a number
of years ago but no results have been reported. The species
upon its own root makes a low shrub and is very slow of growth.
We have also imported the Pistachia terebinthus, from which *+
derived the “chio turpentine,” and which is the stock upon which
the true pistachio is grafted in Europe. It is a very hardy tree,
the largest specimens probably being on the Rixford Ranch, in
the Sonoma Valley.

THE ENGLISH OR PERSIAN WALNUT.

The nut which is signified in California when the term wal-
nut is used, is the English walnut or Madeira nut (Juglans 1e* a)
and its many varieties. This tree makes a grand growth in Cal-
ifornia. Specimens can be found here and there, which, at about
twenty years of age, are from fifty to sixty feet in height, with a
_spread of branches of forty to sixty feet, and in some cases bear-
ing four to eight hundred pounds of nuts. Such trees can be
found in the rich valleys of both northern and southern Califor-

The English Walnut. Pipi:

nia, but, as has already been stated, the English walnut has thus
far been produced in large quantities only in regions adjacent
to the coast in southern California, though there are promising
plantations farther removed from coast influences. The equable
temperature of the southern coast seems, however, to specially
favor the nut. A number of French varieties, which have been
widely enough distributed to test their growth, have been found
to thrive in many situations where the old Los Angeles variety
is a failure, and there is at present quite a disposition to larger

PACS RERAL PRESS

Six-year-old English Walnut of A. E. Cole—Old San Bernardino.

plantings of the walnut, as a sole occupant of the land or as
border trees around fruit orchards. At the South the walnut
area has largely increased in those situations where the tree
shows most satisfactory bearing qualities. In the South newer
varieties of California origin, like the Improved Soft Shell, con-
stitute most of the present area. In all untried places, or in all
places where the old Los Angeles Walnut has failed, trial should.

414 Propagating Walnuts.

be made of the hardy French varieties, which will be described
farther on. Recently considerable planting has been done in the
coast and interior valleys and foot-hills of central California upon
the quite fully demonstrated success of these varieties. It is,
however, very desirable to secure satisfactory depth and reten-
tiveness, without excess of water, in the soil. The walnut abno.s
drouth as well as standing water.

Soils for the Walnut—The walnut makes most rapid growth
upon a deep, rich, moist, loamy soil, and shows its appreciation
of good things of the earth as do other fruit trees, and yet it at-
tains satisfactory size and bearing in less favorable situations.
Thriving trees can be found in the clays and decomposed granite
soils of the foot-hiils, as well as in the valley silts and loams.
Adequate moisture must, however, be had, and the walnut can
not be commended for dry, neglected places.

Propagation—The walnut tree grows readily from nuts
treated as described in Chapter VIII. In the main the use of
seedlings prevails, and the nut is usually considered to come true
from seed. Excellent results have, however, been obtained by
using the California black walnut as a stock for the English wal-
nut, and in that case budding or grafting must be resorted to.
Many instances of the success of the English walnut on our
native stock might be cited, but the most notable tree known
to the writer is to be seen on the grounds of John R. Wolfskill,
on Putah Creek, in Solano County. He put in a bud in 1875
and the tree has reached immense size and large product. Since
then many large native black walnuts have been top-grafted
with English walnut with notable success.

In working on the native California seedling stocks, Mr.
Clowes, of Stockton, buds by the common method, removing the
wood from the inside of the plate of bark, as advised for the
orange. Twig buds as uscd with the olive (Chapter X XIX) are
also successful, and ring budding (see page 325) works well on
shoots of a year’s growth, which have at least attained the thick-
ness of the middle finger. Mr. Gillet advises that the buds
should be set at the base of these shoots where the wood is per-
fectly round. The bandage should pass above and below the
bud so that the bark under it may be pressed down close upon
the stock, and this is more surely gained by shaving off the base
of the leaf stem, below the bud. about to the point where it
would separate when the leaf naturally falls off.

Grafting into the black walnut seedling root can also be
well done by a triangular cut into the edge of the root stump, as
described for grafting into grape-vine stumps. In the case of
the walnut, close binding with a wax band is desirable.

Large walnut trees can be worked over either by budding or
grafting. If by budding, the large limbs are cut back in the

Planting and Pruning Walnuts. 415

winter, and in August following, ring buds are put on as many
of the new shoots as may be desired. In grafting, the common
cleft graft is used, but the split should not be made through the
pith, but at one side; the scions should be whittled so as to show
as little pith as possible. This is done by cutting down to a
point at one side and not in the center of the scion. Care should
be taken to cover all exposed surfaces. Grafting over in this
way is desirable either for substituting a better variety of Eng-
lish walnut, or for working over a California black walnut into
an English variety. :

Planting Walnut Orchards—There is much difference in
practise in planting out walnut trees in permanent place.
Some advocate the use of trees two or three years from the seed,
getting as much of the taproot as possible; others allow the tree
to remain in nursery until it throws out laterals, which is usually
done the fourth or fifth year. Two-year-old trees are generally
preferred, but walnut trees of many times that age can be suc-
cessfully transplanted if the work is carefully done. Walnut
trees are usually set forty feet in squares, though some give the
larger-growing varieties fifty feet. Planting in hexagonals at
forty-five feet distance gives very satisfactory results. Some
growers plant in squares at thirty feet distance, intending to re-
move alternate trees as they crowd each other, first cutting back,
for a time, the trees which are finally to be removed.

Intercultures with the Walnuts—lIn the- southern walnut re-
gions it is common to grow beans, squashes, etc., between the
rows of trees until the latter reach bearing age; root crops which
attract gophers should be avoided. Inter-planting of smaller,
early-fruiting trees is also practised to a considerable extent.

Pruning the Walnut—The walnut is usually headed higher
than ordinary orchard trees, but preference is now given to start-
ing the first branch at about four feet from the ground instead of
six feet as formerly. All the pruning needed is in shaping the
tree as described for the fig. Upward trend of the branches
should be secured, sometimes by cutting out the shoots which
grow downward, sometimes by tying them up for a time to the
central stem until they are stiff enough to retain this position.
Placing branches on the stem according to the principles ad-
vanced in Chapter XII, should be borne in mind. The stem
should be protected from sunburn until the foliage accomplishes
this. Whenever shoots are killed back by sunburn or by frost,
they should be cut off cleanly below the black mark which shows
how far the injury has extended. If this is done, the die-back
down the branch is usually prevented.

Bloom and Bearing of the Walnut——The walnut has its stam-
inate and pistillate blooms separate, but both occur on the same

416 Bloom of the Walnut.

tree, as shown by the engraving of a twig with both associated.
All the buds marked a are staminate, and will develop into cat-

Fic. 2. Catkin of the walnut. Fic. 3. Pistils and embryo nuts.

kins, shown in Fig. 2. The terminal buds 6 are pistillate and
will develop into embryo nuts, each bearing a little branched

Gathering Walnuts. 417

plume-like pistil, as shown in Fig. 3. The bud marked c in Fig.
I is a leaf bud.

Successful fruiting depends upon the appearance of these
two forms of bloom, without too great interval of time, and the
lack of bearing of some varieties has been found to be due to the
fact that the catkins disappeared too long before the pistillate
bloom was sufficiently developed to receive the pollen.

The bearing age of the walnut depends upon the variety.
Some of the French varieties now grown here are very pre-
cocious and have borne fruit in nursery row at two and three
years old, but the pistillate blooms were then fertilized from
catkins growing on older trees. The practical bearing age of
the English walnut in this State may be rated at six to eight
years, according to the variety.

Gathering walnuts is done in different ways; some gather
them from the ground at intervals during the mouths of Sep-
tember and October; others use poles and clean the trees at
one operation; some go over the ground three times; first,
picking up what have fallen: second, picking up what have fal-
len, and striking the limbs lightly to dislodge others which are
ripest; third, picking up again and then knocking off all that re-
main on the trees. In this wav gathering lasts a month or six
weeks. Walnuts, after gathering, are usually treated as de-
scribed by F. E. Kellogg, of Santa Barbara County :—

As fast as gathered the nuts are placed in slat-bottomed trays 6x3
feet, by six inches deep, about fifty pounds in a tray, where they are
allowed to dry for three or four days, being thoroughly shaken up once
or twice a day. If the weather is very hot, they should be dried in the
shade. When the nuts are dry they are passed through an inclined,
revolving grader, making about twelve revolutions per minute, having
a one-inch-mesh wire screen, and all that fall through this are called
“seconds.” The lower end of the grader dips into a vat of water, thor-
cughly wetting the nuts and washing them to a certain extent—entirely
sufficient for paper shells and soft shells, and usually enough for hard
shells. A system of buckets attached to the drum of the grader then
elevates the nuts to a chute, which discharges them into a large box
4x4x8 feet high, with an inclined slat bottom two and one-half feet above
the ground. While in this box, they are subjected to the fumes of sul-
phur for twenty to thirty minutes for the purpose of improving the
color. The second grade walnuts are also put through the washing and
sulphuring process. The nuts are next drawn off from the bleachers into
the drying trays, piled one on top of the other. to prevent the sun from
shining directly on the nuts, and remain there for ten or twelve hours,
until the nuts are thoroughly dried off. The trays are then emptied into
a hopper, from which the nuts are drawn off into bags containing some-
thing over one hundred pounds each: the bags are securely sewed up and
stamped with the producer’s brand, and the nuts are ready for shipment.

Dipping instead of Sulphuring—Sulphuring often injures
the flavor of the kernel and dipping is coming into wide use.

418 Bleaching |Valnuts.

The following formula has been furnished to growers by the
University Experiment Station:—

Six pounds bleaching powder (also called chloride of lime), twelve
pounds sal-soda, fifty gallons water. Dissolve the bleaching powder in
about four gallons of water, stirring till dissolved. Dissolve the sal-
soda in about four gallons of water. Add one solution to the other
and stir well; let the carbonate of lime scttle to the bottom and draw
off the clear liquor and add water to make a total of fifty gallons. Put
the nuts in large dipping box or lath crate, immerse in the fiuid, and then
add one and one-fourth pounds of fifty. per cent sulphuric acid and
agitate by raising and lowering the dipping box. The bleach should
be reached in five to ten seconds, and the nuts are then washed in clear
water and put out to dry. Of course to employ this process cheaply
specially contrived dipping appliances are used. The same liquor can
be used with new batches of nuts so long as the proper effect is pro-
duced, and small additions of acid will prolong the efficiency of the
liquor.

Varieties of the Walnut—Of walnuts of California origin
there are two classes, which are called “hard’’ and “soft” shell,
but the accepted commercial product is largely composed of the
soft-shell class. Several varieties of French walnuts are now
being widely distributed. An attempt will be made to give
some of the distinctive points of each variety mentioned:—

Common English Walnut; Los Angeles Nut, etc—This is the ordinary
English walnut of commerce. It was planted at an early day in Los
Angeles County, but is now largely replaced by the Improved Soft Shell.

Santa Barbara Soft Shell; Sexton’s Soft Shell—Originated by Joseph
Sexton, who gives this account of its origin and characteristics: “The
winter of 1867 I bought in San Francisco a large sack of English wal-
nuts. I raised about one thousand trees that season, and planted two
hundred of them the following spring, in orchard form, at Goleta.
Sixty of them proved to be the soft-shell variety. The soft shell is a
little later in starting in the spring than the common nut, and blooms
about ten days later. It commences to fruit at six years old from the
seed, and some have been known to fruit as young as the fourth year.
The hard shell commences to fruit about the ninth year, and bears full
crops alternate years. The soft shell is not as strong a grower as the
other walnut; it being so prolific retards its growth. It is a superior
nut; the kernel is white. The shell is thin, rendering them easily broken
by the hand, at the same time strong enough to bear transportation to
any part of the United States ”

Ford’s Improved Soft Shell—G. W. Ford, of Santa Ana, propagated
an “Improved Soft Shell,’ gained by selection from the variety of
Joseph Sexton, which has been largely planted.

Proeparturiens—This famous French variety was introduced in Cal-
ifornia in 1871, by Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, and has since then been
brought in by other parties, and is now widely distributed. Its chief
characteristic, as its name indicates, is early bearing. The variety
blooms from two to four weeks later than the common Los Angeles
seedling: it shows both kinds of bloom simultaneously, and has the
characteristics of ripening its wood well, and high quality of the nut.

Varieties of the Walnut. 419

Other French Varieties —Quite large collections of French varieties
other than Proeparturiens have been introduced by Mr. Gillet and
others. The Cluster walnut fruits, as its name indicates, in long bunches,
sometimes as many as fifteen in a bunch; otherwise the tree resem-
bles the common English walnut. The Mayette is a large, full-fleshed,
and sweet nut, very late in budding out in the spring, and suited for
frosty places. The Franquette is a very large, elongate-oval, blooms
late, and is commended for size and quality of the nut. The Parisienne
is a beautiful variety, the nut large, broad, and shapely; the tree blooms
very late. All the foregoing varieties and the Serotina, Barthere Me-
sange, Gant, and Chaberte, were introduced by Mr. Gillet, in 1871.

Kaghazii—A variety called Kaghazi was grown and propagated for
several years by the late James Shinn, of Niles, who described it as:fol-
lows: “Very much larger than the ordinary kinds, and thinner shelled.
The tree is late in putting out leaves arid blossoms, and is, therefore,
especially good for places that are in danger of last frosts.”

Japanese TValnut; Juglans Sieboldiana—This species, native of the
north of Japan, was introduced to California about 1860, and a tree
grown from seed planted about that time is growing at the Tower House,
in Shasta County. Recently the good points of the tree have been
more widely recognized. The following excellent description is by
Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa: “This species, is found growing wild
in the mountains of northern Japan, and is, without doubt, as hardy as
an oak. The leaves are of immense size, and a charming shade of green.
The nuts, which are produced in extreme abundance, grow in clusters
of fifteen or twenty, have a shell thicker than the English walnut, but
not as thick as the black walnut, very much resembling pecan nuts. The
meat is sweet, of the very best quality, flavor like butternut, but less
oily, and much superior. The trees grow with great vigor, assume a
very handsome form, need no pruning, mature early, bear young, and
are more regular and productive than the English walnut.” The nut
has an exceedingly hard shell and does not rate commercially with the
popular varieties of the English walnut.

PART EIGHTH: FRUIT PRESERVATION.

CHAPTER XRAY,
FRUIT CANNING, CRYSTALLIZING, AND DRYING.

The preservation of fruit in various ways for home use and
distant shipment, is one of the leading industries of California,
employing a large amount of capital and labor, and distributing
a vast amount of money among our people. These facts can
be best emphasized by statements of the product of 1897, in the
leading methods of preservation; by canning and drying. The
crop of 1898 was seriously reduced by drouth and frost and that
of 1899 is incomplete at this writing.

CANNED FRUIT PRODUCT OF 1897.*

Table fruits, 2%4-lb. cans, two dozen per Case .......s.ceeee sees eee

Pie fruits, a eo vis es UES sd seater wastelleit io
1 i-gal. ‘ one “ SO aapisesmnnicay davgaleeess

Jams and jellies, 2-lb. te two. ot OS sree tS Woe ets

This product was the output of thirty-eight canning estab-
lishments, located in different parts of the State, and the product
is weighed and valued upon page 56. So far as the comparative
use of different fruits can be made out, it is as follows:—

Cases
Apples. crvsccssuccanssousasccternes 7,420 Pears, other
A DIIGOIS sseuecavacsnaee xi00 s+ 317,408 Peaches
Cherries, black........... aes 920387 PUN S seasiey sete aevendea vette iccdes
Cherries, white............ Se TIO, 170 Quinces 5,199
Currants: cee acyniee 5,697 Strawberries..........cccee eeaee 8,166
Grape ..... eee ; 32,206 Raspberries 3,810
Nectarines.............4. oe 1,369 Blackberriess sss scsevexvesxsecs 20,976
Péars,."Bartlett.cocvaccsvoocenss 329,794 Gooseberries....... ........ 4,809

*“ California Fruit Grower,’ Nov. 5, 1898.

( 420 )

The Canning Industry. 421

CURED FRUIT PRODUCT IN POUNDS.

Kinp, 1894 1895 1896 1897
ReaIS1TSiicc,acaruteedoea 103,000,000 91,360,000 68,250,600 93,704,000
Prunes..., +» 44,750,000 64,500,000 55,200,000 97,780,000
Peaches .. ++ 30,540,000 24,500,000 16,460,000 27,150,000
Pears daice wees aaa 6,530,000 5,400,000 9,650,000 6,350,000
ADriCotss.xseaerseedens 28,750,000 10,650,000 6,740,000 30,125,000
Dried Grapes . 4, 500,000 4, 250,000 2,690, 000 3,450,000

4,560,000 2,350,000 5,250,000
2,750,000 2,160,000 3,250,000
4,500,000 2, 100,000 3,250,000
1,350,000 625,000 285,000

213,820,000 166,225,600 270,594,000

THE CANNING INDUSTRY.

Fruit canning began in California about forty years ago,
but during the last two decades has attained its greatness, and
is 10w promising much wider extension. The process is sim-
ple, and yet is attended at every point, from the purchase of the
fruit to the sale of the product, with operations which require
experience, wisdom, and good judgment. It will be obviousty
impossible to give in print a guide to the pursuit of such an
industry. The principles involved in the process of commercial
canning are, of course, the same as rule in the old kitchen
processes, but to secure uniformity and cheapness of product a
vast number of manipulations and appliances have been de-
vised. These begin with the manufacture of the cans and at-
tend the product to the end, and the realization of the commercial
and uniform production which they assure involves the em-
ployment of large capital and the keenest business ability. The
canning interest has, therefore, segregated itself more and more
widely from the growing interest. Orchard canning on a small
scale which was once thought feasible has passed out of sight
except as it is seen to lie in the foundations of a few of the
smaller canneries which have been built upon it. It seems
clear now that as a rule the fruit grower’s duty to the canning
interest ceases with the production of acceptable fruit unless
individuals or associations can command capital enough to enter
the field on equal vantage with the large commercial canneries.
Capital is flowing toward the business; the field for the product
seems to be constantly expanding, and canning centers are mul-
tiplying throughout the State wherever ample supplies of good
fruits and vegetables are available. ;

Varictics for Canning —The table previously given showing
the fruits which enter in various amounts into the canned
product gives a general idea of what fruits should be planted to
minister to the canner’s demand. As.to varieties, it is not easy

422 Crystallized Frutts.

to make a general prescription, because the choice differs some-
what with different localities. It is a good idea for the new
planter to consult with owners of adjacent bearing orchards and
to secure from the nearest canneries lists which are acceptable

to them.
CRYSTALLIZED FRUITS.

Progress is being continually made in the production of
candied, crystallized, or glace fruits, but the product is not a
large one. Special establishments are now doing this work in
Ios Angeles, San Jose, and San Francisco. They have proc-
esses which are the result of considerable experimentation, and
they do not make them public. To others the way lies open to
similar experimentation. The general theory and an outline of
practise as given by J. J. Pratt, of the Yuba City Cannery, is as
follows :—

The theory is to extract the juice from the fruit, and replace it with
sugar syrup, which, upon hardening, preserves the fruit from decay, and
at the same time retains the natural shape of the fruit. All kinds of
fruit are capable of being preserved under this process. Though the
method is very simple, there is a certain skill required that is acquired
enly by practise. The several successive steps in the process are about
as follows:—

First. the same care in selecting and grading the fruit should be
taken as for canning; that is, the fruit should be all of one size, and as
near the same ripeness as possible. The exact degree of ripeness is ot
great importance, which is at that stage when fruit is best for canning.
Peaches, pears, etc., are pared and cut in halves, as for canning; plums,
cherries, etc., are pitted. The fruit, having thus been carefully prepared,
is put in a basket, or a bucket with a perforated bottom, and immersed
in boiling water. The object of this is to dilute and extract the juice
of the fruit. The length of time the fruit is immersed is the most
important part of the process. If left too long, it is overcooked and
becomes soit; if not immersed long enough, the juice is not sufficiently
extracted, which prevents a perfect absorption of the sugar.

After the fruit has been thus scalded and allowed to cool, it can
again be assorted as to softness. The next step is the syrup, which is
made of white sugar and water. The softer the fruit, the heavier the
syrup required. Ordinarily about seventy degrees, Balling’s saccha-
rometer, is about the proper weight for the syrup.

The fruit is then placed in earthen pans, and covered with the syrup,
where it is left to remain about a week. The sugar enters the fruit and
displaces what juice remained after the scalding process.

The fruit now requires careful watching, as fermentation will soon
take place, and when this has reached a certain stage, the fruit and
syrup are heated to a boiling degree, which checks the fermentation.
This heating process should be repeated as often as necessary for about
six weeks. : :

The fruit is then taken out of the syrup, and washed in clean water,
and it is then ready to be either glaced or crystallized, as the operator
may wish. If glaced, the fruit is dipped in thick sugar syrup and left to
harden quickly in the open air. If it is to be crystallized, dip in the
same kind of syrup, but allow to cool and harden slowly, thus caus-

fruit Drying. 423

ing the sugar which covers the fruit to crystallize. The fruit is now
ready for boxing and shipping. Fruit thus prepared will keep in any
climate and stand transportation.

Thus far the crystallized fruit produced in California has
sold well. There is a considerable importation of French fruit
to the United States, which may be displaced by the California
product, and the business commends itself to those who have
ingenuity, patience, and capital enough to enable them to ex-
periment and wait for future success. The California producer
has the advantage of an abundance of very fine fruit at a low
price. According to the consular reports, the fruits best for
crystallizing are not cheap in France.

FRUIT DRYING.

To describe minutely the methods and appliances employed
for the drying of fruit in California would require a volume, and
is beyond the scope of this treatise. A very small fraction of
the California dried iruit product is made by artificial heat.
Since it was first ascertained that, by the use of sulphur before
exposing the fruit to the sun, it can be cured without darkening
its color, sun drying has largely taken the place of machine dry-
ing. The capacity of any machine is infinitesimal as compared
with the acreage of sunshine. Owing to the beautiful light color
of the fruit and the great care in boxing and adorning it, Cali-
fornia sun-dried fruit sells as evaporated fruit—than which a
higher commercial tribute can not be paid to its excellence.
Though this is true, there is probably still a great field for
machine driers, especially in the upper coast region, and they
are also used on a large scale by firms and associations as a sup-
plement to sun drving. ‘Their capacity and economical use of
heat are continually being improved, and theig product, when
well manipulated, approaches perfection as a preserved product.

Although the sun drying of fruit may be a simple process,
so many little arts, methods, and appliances are continually be-
ing introduced to facilitate work or improve the product, that
one can learn much by visiting the different fruit regions during
the drying season. Such a’course is commended to growers
who contemplate large drying operations, for suggestions of
great economic importance can be secured. The notes of prac-
tise which can be given in this connection must be brief and
general.

Trays for Drying.—The greater part of the fruit, including
raisins, is placed upon trays for exposure to the sun. There is
great variation in the size of the trays. The common small tray
is made of one-half-inch sugar-pine lumber two feet wide and

424 Trays for Drying.

three feet long, the boards forming it being held together by
nailing to a cleat on each end, one by one and a quarter inches,
and a lath or narrow piece of half-inch stuff is nailed over the
ends of the boards, thus stiffening the tray and aiding to prevent
warping. A cross-section of such a tray is shown at A.

(a) i ra
ng Cc

[ones B i!
a oan) ae —

Cross-sections of Drying Trays.

A large tray which is used by some growers is four feet
square, and is made of slats three-eighths of an inch thick, and
one and a half inches wide, the slats being nailed to three cross
slats three-eighths of an inch thick and three inches wide, and
the ends nailed to a narrow strip one-half inch thick by three-
quarters of an inch wide on the other side. A crces:-section of
this tray is shown at B.

Since large drying yards have been supplied with tramways
and trucks for moving the fruit instead of hand carriage, larger
trays, three feet by six or three feet by eight, have been largely
employed. These tramways lead from the cutting sheds to the
sulphur boxes and thence to various parts of the large drying
grounds, making it possible to handle large amounts of fruit at
a minimum cost.

Protecting Friut from Dew.—In the interior there is seldom
any deposit of dew in the drying season, but occasionally there
are early rains before the drying season is over. The fruit is
then protected by piling the trays one upon another, in which
operation the thick cleats serve a good purpose. In dewy re-
gions the trays are piled at night, or cloth or paper is sometimes
stretched over the fruit, thus reducing the discoloration result-
ing from deposits of moisture upon it.

Drying Floors—For the most part the trays are laid di-
rectly on the ground, but sometimes a staging of posts and rails
is built to support them, about twenty inches from the ground.
The drying trays are sometimes distributed through the orchard
or vineyard, thus drying the fruit with as little carrying as possi-
ble. Others clear off a large space outside the plantation and
spread the trays where full sunshine can be obtained. Drying
spaces should be selected at a distance from traveled roads, to
prevent the deposit of dust on the fruit.

Grading.—It is of great advantage in drying to have all the
fruit on a tray of approximately the same size, and grading be-

Sulphuring Frutt. 425

fore cutting is advisable. Machines are now made which ac-
complish this very cheaply and quickly.

Cutting-Sheds——Shelter of some kind is always provided
for the fruit-cutters. Sometimes it is only a temporary bower
made of poles and beams upon which tree branches are spread
as a thatch; sometimes open-side sheds with boarded roof, and
sometimes a finished fruit-house is built, two stories high, the
lower story opening with large doors on the north side, and
with a large loft above, where the dried fruit can be sweated,
packed, and stored for sale. The climate is such that almost
any shelter which suits the taste and purse of the producer will
answer the purpose.

Sulphuring.—Yhere is constant discussion concerning the
desirability of sulphur fumes in connection with fruit drying.
The discussion may result in educating buyers so that they will
purchase unsulphured fruit at a good price, but they are of no
such mind at present, and the producer can not afford to do
otherwise than use sulphur on fruits on which the demand is for
a light color. Sulphur-bleaching of old, discolored, sun-dried
fruit in a sort of resurrecting process, is very different from the
exposure of freshly-cut fruit to sulphur fumes before putting out
in the sunshine. The latter is the practise which is at present
usually signified by the term sulphuring, although sulphur is
also used with the machine driers.

There are various contrivances for the application of sul-
phur fumes to the freshly-cut fruit. Some are small for hand
carriage of trays; some are large and the trays are wheeled into
them upon trucks. The most common is a bottomless cabinet
about five or six feet high, of a width equal to the length of the
tray and a depth a little more than the width of the tray. The
cabinet has a door the whole width of one side, and on the sides
within cleats are nailed so that the trays of fruit slip in like
drawers into a bureau. Some push in the trays so that the bot-
tom one leaves a little space at the back, the next a little space
at the front, and so on, that the fumes may be forced by the
draft to pass between the trays back and forward. The essen-
tials seem to be to open holes or dampers in the bottom and
top of the cabinet so that the fumes from the sulphur burning at
the bottom may be thoroughly distributed through the interior,
and then all openings are tightly closed. To secure a tight
chamber the door has its edges felted and the cabinet is made
oi matched lumber. The sulphur is usually put on a shovel or
iron pot, and it is ignited by a hot coal, or a hot iron, or it is
thrown on paper of which the edges are set on fire, or a little
alcohol is put on the sulphur and lighted, etc. The sulphur is
usually burned in a pit in the ground under the cabinet. The

28

426 Grading and Packing.

application of sulphur must be watchfully and carefully made,
and the exposure of the fruit should only be long enough to ac-
complish the end desired. The exposure required differs with
different fruits, and with the same fruits in different conditions,
as must be learned by experience.

Grading and Cleaning.—After the fruit is sufficiently dried,
(and it is impossible to describe how this point may be recog-
nized except by the experienced touch) it is gathered from the
trays into large boxes and taken to the fruit house. Some
growers put it into a revolving drum of punctured sheet iron,
which rubs the pieces together and separates it from dust, etc.,
which falls out through the apertures as the drum revolves.
Others empty the fruit upon a large wire-cloth table and pick
it over, grading it according to size and color, and at the same
time the dust and small particles of foreign matter fall through
the wire cloth. The fanning mill for cleaning grain may also
be used for rapid separation of dirt, leaves, etc., with proper
arrangement of metal screens.

Sweating —All fruit, if stored in mass after drying, becomes
moist. This action should take place before packing. To
facilitate it, the fruit is put in piles on the floor of the fruit-house
and turned occasionally with a scoop shovel; or, if allowed to
sweat in boxes, the fruit is occasionally poured from one box to
another. The sweating equalizes the moisture throughout the
mass. Some large producers have sweat-rooms with tight walls,
which preserve an even temperature. No fruit should be packed
before “going through the sweat.’ If this is not done, dis-
coloration and injury will result.

Dipping before Packing —All fruits except prunes can be
packed in good condition without dipping, provided the fruit is.
not overdried. Efforts should be made to take up the fruit
when it is just sufficiently cured to prevent subsequent fermenta-
tion. If taken from the trays in the heat of the day and covered
so that the fruit moth can riot reach it there is little danger of
worms. The highest grades of fruit are made in this way. If,
however, the fruit has been overdried or neglected, it can be
dipped in boiling water to kill eggs‘of vermin, and to make the
fruit a little more pliable for the press. The dipping should be
done quickly, and the fruit allowed to drain and ‘then lie in a
dark room, carefully covered, for twenty-four hours before pack-
ing.

, Packing.—To open well, packages of dried fruit should be
faced.” The many fine arts of paper lining, etc., must be
Larned by observation. Flatten some fair specimens of the
fruit to be packed (and reference is especially made to such
fruits as apricots, peaches, and nectarines) by running them

Dried Apples and Apricots. 427

through a clothes’ wringer or similar pair of rollers. Do not
face with better fruit than the package is to contain. It is a
fraud which will not in the end be profitable. Lay the flattened
fruit (cup side down) neatly in the botiom of the box. Fill the
box until it reaches the amount the box is to contain, and then
apply the press until the bottom can be nailed on. Invert the
box and put on the label or brand; the bottom then become the
top.

Many different kinds of boxes are used. A very good size
is made of seasoned pine, six inches deep by nine inches wide by
fifteen inches long, inside measurements, and it will hold twenty-
five pounds of fruit.

METHODS WITH DIFFERENT FRUITS.

As already intimated, it will be impossible to enter minutely
into the operations of drying and packing on a commercial scale,
or even to notice all the small and ingenious arts by which the
work is facilitated. Any one who contemplates production on
a large scale should personally visit leading regions and inform
himself by inquiry and observation. Such an education will
save mistakes, which may cost many times more than the ex-
pense of getting it. California producers are usually quite will-
ing to show visitors the methods they employ. Though this is
the better way of proceeding, a few general hints will be given
of methods with different fruits.

Appies——There seems little use of drying apples unless a
very light-colored, handsome product can be turned out. This
can be done by sulphuring as soon as cut, and sun drying in a
dry region, or by the use of a machine evaporator in regions of
greater atmospheric humidity. Recently the product has largely
increased.

Apricots.—Apricots for drying should be fully ripe but not
soft enough to be mushy. By the use of sulphur and sun heat,
an aimber-colored, semitranslucent fruit is obtained. The pre-
vailing method of gathering is to shake down the fruit upon
sheets, but the best product is hand picked. Pit the fruit by a
clean cut completely around in the suture; do not cut part way
round and then tear apart—a clean-cut edge is essential. Put on
the trays with the skin down, or with the cup up, as it is some-
times described; sulphur, and then put in the sun. About three
days of interior-valley sunshine will finish the apricots. Apri-
cots will yield on the average one pound of dried fruit to five
pounds of fresh.

Berries and Cherries—These fruits are onlv dried in the sun .
in smali quantities for local sale, and ordinary farm-house meth-
ods are employed.

428 Dried Figs and Pears.

Figs.—The fruit may be carefully picked from the tree so
as to secure the whole of the stem, when the fruit is fully ripe, as
is known by the seaming or slight shriveling of the skin. In
drying the common black fig from large trees, however, the
fruit is generally gathered from the ground, which is cleaned
and smoothed before the crop ripens. In drying black figs the
fruit is placed on trays and in most cases exposed to the sun,
but some foot-hill growers maintain the advantage of drying in
the shade. The figs should not be allowed to dry hard. When
sufficiently cured, put in sweat-boxes for several days, and when
ready to pack dip in boiling salt water, or, as is the practise of
some producers, dip in a thin syrup, boiling hot. In either
method a good, pliable condition and handsome color are ob-
tained. In drying white figs many sulphur the fruit from fift2en
minutes to an hour before putting out on the trays. Figs which
dry slowly have to be turned several times during the drying,
and those which are apt to run juice are placed so that the eye
is raised a little until the juice is thickened. ‘The white figs are
also put in sweat-boxes and dipped in hot salt water before
packing. In packing, the figs are often flattened and drawn
out by the hand. Such manipulation gives the fig a lighter and
more translucent appearance. The time required in drying figs
is usually from five to eight or ten days, according to location
and weather. The fruit does not cure evenly, and those which
are finished (as determined by sight and touch—to be learned by
experience) are picked from the trays, and others given more
time.

Pears.—The dried pear product is increasing, and, as with
apples, only a light-colored product is profitable. These are
made by sulphuring and sun drying, or by the use of the ma-
chine drier. For sun drying the fruit of medium size is halved,
the large fruit being quartered.

Peaches.—Peaches are sun dried in much the same way as
apricots, already described. Take the fruit when it is fully ripe,
but not mushy; cut cleanly all atound to extract the pit and put
on trays cup side up; get into the sulphur box as soon as pos-
sible after cutting. Peaches are dried both peeled and un-
peeled, but drying without peeling is chiefly done. Peeling is
done with the small paring machines or with a knife. Peeling
with lye has been generally abandoned because of discoloration
of the fruit after packing.

Clingstone peaches are cut with a knife invented by G. W.
Tarlton, of San Jose. It consists of the blade of any common
knife (like a shoe-knife), with a short U-shaped blade set in at
the point of the main blade. In cutting the peach in halves,

Drying Peaches. 429

the curved blade skims around the stone, completely severing it
from the peach. This device has enabled the grower to pit
clings as easily as freestones, but owing to the strength required
in the wrist, the pitting of clings can best be done by men. The
Tarlton knife works admirably, both with mellow and quite firm
fruit, and is, therefore, vastly superior to the spoon-shaped knife,
which can only be used on soft fruit. A strong, active man can
pit five hundred to seven hundred pounds of clings in a day.

U

The Tarlton Knife for Pitting Clingstone Peaches.

The weight of dried peaches which can be obtained from a
certain weight of fresh fruit, depends upon the variety; some
varieties yield at least a third more than others, and clings yield
more than freestones as a rule. Dry-fleshed peaches, like the
Muir, yield one pound dry from four or five pounds fresh, while
other more juicy fruit may require six or seven pounds.

Nectarines—Nectarines are handled like peaches; the pro-
duction of translucent amber fruit in the sun depends upon the
skilful use of sulphur.

Plums and Prunes—Our pitted plums, which are an acid
fruit, are meeting with more favor than formerly, and the product
is increasing. Pitting is done by hand or by the use of foot-
power “pitters.”” More rapid and capacious machines are being
brought out by inventors.

Prunes are one of our greatest and most promising prod-
ucts. Several varieties which dry sweet with the pit in are used
in making prunes, as already stated in Chapter XXII, but the
prevailing variety is the Prune d’ Agen.

‘Prunes are gathered by shaking from the trees, usually
upon sheets spread beneath. Several gatherings are made by
light shakings which cause only the ripe specimens to fall.

Prunes are usually graded before drying, and various home-
made contrivances are employed. Some use inclined planes of
adjustable slats, the grader being thus available for other fruits
than prunes; the large fruit rolls along into receptacles at the bot-
tom, while the small fruit falls through into other receptacles.
Other grading devices are made with wire screens or riddles of
different sizes of mesh. Some of them work on the principle of a
fanning mill, three to four riddles, placed above one another,
each with a slight incline, and a spout on the side where each
grade drops intoa box. Some have a long riddle, say twelve feet
long, with three different sizes of wire screen on it. This riddle

430 Curing Prunes.

is hung upon four ropes with an incline; the prunes are thrown
in the higher end, and by shaking it they roll down and fall
through the holes into boxes underneath. The first piece of
screen should be small, to let only stems and dirt through, and
no prunes. This long hanging screen is also used to grade
prunes after drying. There are now several excellent manufac-
tured fruit graders on sale in this State. Their work is very sat-
isfactory, and they have largely displaced home-made contriv-
ances.

The next step in the process is dipping in lye to thin and
crack the skin, which facilitates the escape of moisture in the
drying process. In a large caldron lye is made with one pound
of concentrated lye to each twenty gallons of water, and kept
boiling hot. The fruit is put into wire baskets or galvanized
pails with perforated sides and bottoms, and dipped in the boil-
ing lye for about a minute, or until the skin has a wrinkled
appearance, then the basket is plunged into clean cold water to
rinse off the lye. This rinsing water must be frequently changed,
for it soon becomes very alkaline. Some begin with a stronger
lye solution, one pound to ten gallons of water, claiming that a
very short dip in stronger lye is better than longer exposure in
a weaker solution. After this dipping, the prunes are placed
on trays. In the sun the prune dries sufficiently in from one to
two weeks, according to the situation and weather.

A process of puncturing the skin of the prunes by causing
them to roll over needle points has also been employed to some
extent. There are now manufactured very capacious appliances
for continuous dipping, rinsing, puncturing and spreading on the
trays so that the fruit is handled in large quantities at a mini-
mum cost. In no branch of our fruit industry perhaps has there
been greater advance in labor-saving devices than in prune
handling.

When sufficiently dried, the prunes are put through the
“sweat,” which takes from several days to two or there weeks,
and then are ready for grading, finishing, and packing. In grad-
ing, the prunes are separated by the use of a grader, as already
described, into a number of grades, the largest, forty prunes to
the pound, and so on, fifty, sixty, etc., to the smallest, which may
run one hundred or more to the pound. Finishing consists in
exposing to steam, in dipping in clear hot water, or hot sugar
syrup, or in dipping in boiled juice of ripe prunes, or peaches or
apples, etc. Although there is a great variety of materials used
for “glossing” prunes by different producers. the prevailing prac-
tise is to rely upon hot water, to which pure glycerine is added
at the rate of one pound to twenty gallons. Some growers also
add a little brine (having first dissolved the salt and skimmed

Curing Ratsins. 431

off the impurities). This final hot dip kills insect eggs, and the
fruit, after drying off away from the access of insects, should be
packed tightly in boxes.

Raisins —The varieties of grapes used for raisins are de-
scribed in Chapter XXVI. The production of raisins has
reached such an extent, and employs so much skill and capital,
that the processes employed to facilitate the curing and packing
are so various that a description of them can not be attempted.
Besides, there is now available an excellent special treatise on
this subject.* However, in beginning the commercial production
of raisins, one should visit the raisin [arms and packing-houses
during the harvest. The following description by T. C. White,
cf Fresno, gives an outline of practise in the vineyard:—

In Fresno picking commences about the first of September, although
there have been seasons when it occurred as early as the 20th of August.
The grapes under no circumstances should be picked for raisins until
they are ripe. There are three ways by which to ascertain this fact:
First, by the color, which should be a light amber; second, by the taste;
and third, by the saccharometer, which is by far the most accurate. A
grape may be ripe, and not have the proper color, when grown entirely
in the shade. The juice of the grape should contain at least twenty-
five per cent saccharine, to produce a good raisin.

The method of drying is with trays placed upon the ground The
almost entire absence of dew in our locality greatly facilitates this
method. The trays are usually twenty-four by thirty-six inches, which
hold about twenty pounds of fruit, and should produce from six to
seven pounds of raisins. The product of a vineyard depends largely
upon its age and favorable conditions, varying from two to nine tons
of grapes per acre.

The trays are distributed along the sides of the roads, from which
they are taken by the pickers as they are needed. As the grapes are
picked from the vines, all imperfect berries, sticks, and dead leaves are
removed from the bunches, which are then placed upon the trays, right
side up. A cluster has what is called a right and a wrong side, the wrong
side having more of the stems exposed than the right side. Great care
should be used in picking, so as to handle the branches only by the
stem. If the berries come in contact with the hands, some of the bloom
will be removed, which will injure the appearance of the raisins. The
trays are placed, after filling, between the vines, one end being elevated
so that the grapes may receive the more direct rays of the sun.

Too rapid drying is not desirable. The grapes are left upon the
trays until about two-thirds dry, which, with us, will be in from six to
eight days. They are then turned. This is accomplished by placing
an empty tray on top of the one filled with partially-dried raisins, and
turning them both over. Then take oif the upper or original tray, and
you have the raisins turned without handling or damage. After turn-
ing, curing will proceed more rapidly, and frequently 1s completed in
four or five days. During this time they should be carefully watched
to prevent any from becoming too dry. When it is found they are dry
enough, the trays are gathered and stacked one upon another as high
as convenient for the sorting which follows. This protects them from
the sun and prevents overdrying. Stacking should te attended to early

¢ “The Raisin Industry,” by Dr. Gustav Eisen, large 8vo., 255 pp., fully illustrated.

432 Curing Raisins.

in the morning, while the stems and berries are slightly moist and cool
from the night air, as they will retain this moisture after being trans-
ferred to the sweat-boxes, and assist in quickening the sweating process.

As the raisins are taken off the trays, some of the berries on the
bunches will be dry enough and a few will not be sufficiently cured.
To remove the moist ones would destroy the appearance of the cluster,
and to leave it out longer would shrivel the dry oues, hence the sweat-
box. The moisture is diffused through the box. some being absorbed
by the dry raisins, and the stems also taking their share are thus ren-
dered tough and pliable and easily manipulated when ready for packing.

Sorting and grading require care and judgment, and although a
tedious process, it greatly facilitates rapid packing. The sweat-box is
a little larger than the tray and about eight inches deep, and contains
about one hundred and twenty-five pounds of raisins. Heavy manila
paper is used in the sweat-boxes, one sheet being placed in the bottom,
and three or four more at equal distances as the filling progresses.
The object of the paper is to prevent the tangling of the stems and con-
sequent breaking of the bunches when removed for packing.

The sorters have three sweat-boxes, one for the first, second, and
third qualities. as the grade will justify. The bunches should be han-
dled by the stem and placed carefully in the sweat-boxes to avoid break-
ing the stems, thereby destroying the symmetry of the clusters. Any
found to be too damp are returned to the trays and left a day or two
longer in the sun. To ascertain if the fruit is perfectly cured, take a
raisin between the thumb and forefinger and roll it gently until softened,
when either jelly or water will exude from the stem end—if water, it
requires further drying. When the boxes are filled, they are taken to
the equalizer. This should be built of brick or adobe, and as near air-
tight as possible. but provided with windows to allow ventilation when
necessary. The windows should have shutters to keep it dark. The
filled boxes are placed one exactly upon another to a convenient height,
and should remain from ten to twenty days or more, when they will
have passed through the sweating process. When the raisins are suffi-
ciently equalized, the sweat-boxes are removed to the packing-room,
which is provided with tables, presses, scales, etc.

The foregoing relates to the preparation of the standard
clusters. Loose raisins are now being produced in increasing
quantities. Loose Muscatels are prepared by being put through
the stemmer and grader. The stemmer removes the berries from
the stems, and the grader, by separating according to size, de-
termines the grade. During the last few years the seeding of
raisins has increased rapidly, and large establishments for this
work, with very ingenious machinery, have been erected.
Seeded raisins promise to constitute a considerable portion of
the product.

A considerable quantity of dipped raisins are also’made of
the Sultana grape and of loose or inferior Muscatels. <A lye dip
of about one pound of potash to twelve gallons of water is used,
and the solution is kept boiling hot. The ripe fruit is dipped
for an instant, then plunged in fresh water for a thorough rinsing,
and then placed on the trays. During warm, dry weather in
the interior, the raisins are dried in the shade by leaving the

Dipping Ratsins. 433

trays in piles, but if cooler, moister weather prevails, the trays
must be spread out. The product is a handsome amber color.

An oil-dip is also being profitably used with Thompsons
Seedless :—

One quart olive oil; 34 pound Greenbank soda and 3 quarts
water are made into an emulsion, and then reduced with to
gallons water in the dipping tank, adding more soda to get lye-
strength enough to cut the skins, and more soda has to be
added from time to time to keep up the strength. The grapes
are dipped in this solution and sulphured to the proper color.

Drying of wine grapes for sale at the East or in Europe is
practised. They can be profitably produced at quite a low price,
in miuch the same way that raisins are made but with less care.

GRAPE SYRUP.

The manufacture of grape syrup, which was formerly of con-
siderable prominence as a means of disposing of wine grapes,
has recently received less attention because of low prices in com-
petition with the vast amount of syrup available from the sugar
refineries. As the source of sugar is now so largely the beet,
grape syrup may again be profitable in the future. Open evap-
orating pans are chiefly used.

PART NINTH: FRUIT PROTECTION.

CHAPTER XXXVI.
INJURIOUS INSECTS.

The California climate, which so favors tree and plant by a
long, mild growing season, also enables some insects to multi-
ply much more rapidly than they do in wintry climes, some
having several distinct broods, others carrying on the work of
reproduction and destruction of plants nearly the year round.
If, however, as now seems likely, a good part of the repression
of injurious insects may be trusted to other. insects, parasitic or
predatory, the climate will favor the multiplication of friend as
well as foe, and thus carry its own compensation. This result
has been promoted by the introduction of beneficial insects
from other parts of the world. It is also a fact that California
fruit growers have invented methods and appliances for re-
pression of injurious insects which have demonstrated notable
efficiency and value.

In order to arrange injurious insects in classes in a popular
way, the grouping will be based upon the character of the work
they do, an arrangement which has been followed by other
writers, and which is better than attempting to group the insects
which prey upon any single tree or plant, because injurious in-
sects seldom restrict themselves to a single food plant. There-
fore the grouping will be as follows: (1) Insects destroying foli-
age; (2) insects upon the bark or upon the surface of leaf and
fruit; (3) insects boring into the twig, stem, or root; (4) insects
boring into the pulp of fruits.

The literature upon the subject of insect pests in California
is quite extensive, but much of it is beyond the reach of the
general reader. There are, however, a number of publications
which should be on the shelves of every fruit grower, and these
are the bulletins and reports of the experiment stations of the
University of California, at Berkeley; of the State Board of
Horticulture, at Sacramento: and of the Division of Entomology,
of the LU. S. Department of Agriculture, at Washington. The

( 434 )

Cut Worms and Canker Worms. 435

study of the pests and the invention of means for their destruc-
tion are, however, continually progressing, and one can only
keep himself informed of this progress, and profit by improve-
ments, by diligent reading of California periodicals devoted
to practical horticulture.

INSECTS DESTROYING FOLIAGE.

Army Worms.—Smooth caterpillars about an inch or more
in length when fully grown; prevailing color black, with light-
colored stripes on the sides; moving forward in large bodies,
hence the name; six forward legs; eight central legs; two rear
legs; usually most destructive to grass and grain, but invade
vineyards and orchards. Most available remedy is spraying the
leaves with Paris green, one pound to two hundred gallons of
water on most growth but not stronger than one pound to two
hundred and fifty gallons on peach trees. The progress of the
worms can be temporarily arrested by plowing furrows in dry
ground outside the planted area and treatment of them by burn-
ing or crushing outside this barricade.

Cut Worms.—Smooth, plump. dull-colored caterpillars de-
stroying buds and leaves at night and hiding by day in loose dirt
at the base of the plant. Remedy: Paris green as above, or used
upon bunches of alfalfa or other vegetation placed at the base
of the plant as a trap, or uncovering and collecting the worms,
or using the bran and arsenic remedy which will be mentioned
later for grasshoppers.

Canker Worms.—Slim caterpillars of different colors, mov-
ing by a looping gait, and often completely defoliating trees
very early in the season. Remedy: Paris green spray, and

Canker-worm Moths; a Male, 4 Female.

banding of the trees with paper on which is spread a mixture of
printers’ ink and molasses, to prevent the wingless moth from
ascending the trees to deposit eggs on the twigs. In this mild
climate these bands must be put on in December and main-
tained through the winter. The use of a trap has largely super-
seded these bands as follows: Take No. 16 or 14 wire cloth in
strips six inches wide, draw and tack the top edge close to the
trunk of the tree over a bandage of cloth two inches or less wide
which is put on first to make the joint tight. The lower edge

436 IVeb or Tent Caterpillars.

flares out half an inch or more from the tree all around. This
will prevent the moths getting up, and will need cleaning about
once a week for jour weeks or more. Probably not one trap
in ten will need touching. ;
Tent Caterpiilars.—Several species of hairy caterpillars called
“tent caterpillars,” or “web worms,” from their spinning covers
of cobweb-like material, under which they take shelter in large
colonies; but one, at least, of the group does not spin a web,
though it lives in clusters on the tree. The worms can be killed
by cutting off and burning the twig holding the cluster or by
burning the colonies in place with a torch on the end of a pole,

Larve, Pupze and Moth of Web Worm.

or by spraying the foliage with Paris green. The pest can be
reduced by carefully collecting and burning the egg clusters
while pruning. The egg cluster encircles the twig, as shown in
the adjacent engraving.

Red-humped Caterpillar and Moth.

Red-Humped Caterpillar—Striped caterpillars, not hairy,
but having two rows of black spines along the back, also living
in clusters; of reddish color with yellow and white lines; a short
distance back of the red head of the caterpillar is a red hump on
which are four black spines; black spines are also scattered over
the body, but smaller than those on the back. Spray with Paris
green, or cut off and burn colonies.

The Tussock Moth, 437

Caterpillar of Tussock Moth—A conspicuous caterpillar with
four short, brush-like tufts on its back, and two long, black
plumes at the front, and one at the rear of the body—see en-
graving. This leaf-eater is found on apple, pear, plum, and
sometimes on other fruit trees, also on the walnut and oak. The
caterpillars can be killed with a Paris green spray. The larva
spins a cocoon sometimes in the fold of a leaf, more commonly
in crotches or rough places on the bark, or even on adjacent
buildings or fences, and the female, after emerging from the

Cocoon, Moth and Eggs of Tent Caterpillar.

cocoon, deposits her eggs upon the outside of it. The engrav-
ing below shows the wingless moth and cocoon with the mass
of eggs deposited upon it. The insect is fortunately very freely
parasitized and prevented from wide injury. It can be reduced
by destroying the egg-niasses during pruning, as they are white
and very conspicuous.

Tussock-moth Larva, Wingless Female and Cocoon with Eggs.

Pear and Cherry Slug. —A small, slimy, dark-colored worm,
with the fore part of the body notably larger than the rear part,
eating the upper surface of the leaves but usually not making
holes through them. The insect can be checked by throwing
fine road dust or air-slacked lime over the tree, which cakes
upon the slime of the worm and destroys it. On a large scale a
Paris green spray is best.

438 Saw-Fly Slugs and Worms.

Saw-Fly Worms——There are several larvae of saw-flies
which do much injury to pear trees, currants, etc., by eating the
whole leaf substance except the larger ribs. The worms are
small, not slimy like the pear slug, the one infesting the pear

The Pear and Cherry Slug (a) and Saw-fly Worm.

being about half an inch when fully grown. Its general appear-
ance and work are shown by the engraving. The most avail-
able remedy is a Paris green spray.

Large Caterpillars on Grape-vines—The grape-vine is often
seriously injured by the attacks of very large leaf-eating worms
two inches and upwards in length, sometimes with a large horn,

Sphinx-moth Larva on Grapeavines.
or spine, sometimes without. They are larvae of several species

of Sphinx moths or humming-bird moths, and of swallow-tail
butterflies (papilio). The worms can be killed by Paris green

Leaf Lice and Thrips. 439

spray or by hand-picking. ‘The numbers of worms can be re-
duced by killing the large moths, which are abundant at night-

Caterpillar of Swallow-tail Butterfly.

fall on beds of verbenas, or other garden flowers. These worms
are related to other large caterpillars which feed on tobacco,
tomatoes, etc.

Leaf-Eatng Beetless—There are many beetles, large and
small, which infest grape leaves. They can all be reduced by
the use of Paris green, or those which drop to the ground when
disturbed may be collected in large numbers on sheets spread
below.

INSECTS UPON BARK OR SURFACE OF LEAVES OR FRUIT.

Leaf Lice—Leaves of fruit trees, especially the apple an1
plum, are sometimes almost covered with lice or aphides of dif-
ferent colors, from light green to black, some individuals having
wings and some wingless. Available remedies for all these leaf
lice are the resin wash and the kerosene emulsions which will
be given later as summer washes for scale insects, with a spray
nozzle which sends spray upwards, so as to reach the under sides
of the leaves. Very often these pests are effectually cleared out
by lady-birds and other insects which devour them. The en-
graving shows the general form of the aphis tribe.

The Aphis or Leaf Louse.

Thrips——Very minute insects infesting leaves of pear,
causing them to wither and fall off—the leaves usually being
covered with black dots. Remedies the same as for leaf lice.

Vine Hoppers.—Very minute, yellowish, jumping insects
infesting grape-vines very early in the season, and multiplying

440 Red Spider and Other Mites.

rapidly. They exhaust the sap from the leaves, causing them to
turn yellow and fall, exposing the grapes to sunburn. There
are two kinds of vine hoppers. One in the Fresno region rises
in a cloud when the vine is disturbed; the one at Florin, and at
some points near the coast, drops to the ground. There is yet
no satisfactory way to catch the insects that rise into the air.
The ones that drop to the ground are handled quite satisfactorily
by using wide, shallow pans in which half an inch of water with
a little kerosene oil is put. These pans are made half round on
a circle about a yard in diameter. —Two men take pans and both
come up to the vine quickly from opposite sides and push the
pans under it. Thus the two pans largely cover the ground
under the vines and the bugs drop into the kerosene. Some
growers have saved their crops in this way. Treatment should
begin early in the season, before the vines run out so far that
it becomes so difficult to drop the hoppers in the pans.

False Chinch-Bugs.—Small, grayish-brown insects (about .
one-eighth of an inch long when fully grown), which injure the
vine leaves. They drop to the ground when the vine is dis-
turbed, and may be caught as just described for vine hoppers.

Grasskoppers—These pests often invade orchard and vine-
yard, and sometimes kill the plants outright by completely de-
foliating them. This plague has been successfully met by the
use of the arsenic and bran remedy, prepared as follows: Forty
pounds of bran, fifteen pounds middlings, two gallons of cheap
syrup, twenty pounds arsenic, mixed soft with water; a table-
spoonful thrown by the side of edch vine or tree. Cost per
acre for trees, twenty-five cents; for vines, fifty cents. If placed
on shingles about the vineyard, much of the poison not eaten
may be afterward gathered up and saved. Complete success
has resulted from the use of this remedy, as the grasshoppers
eat it readily and die in their tracks.*

Red Spider and Other Mites—Very minute insects, usually
discernible only with the aid of a magnifier, sometimes destroy
the leaves, causing them to lose their color and health by their
inroads upon the leaf surface. The red spider and yellow mite
are conspicuous examples; they infest nearly all orchard trees,
especially the almond, prune, and plum. The eggs of the red
spider are ruby-red globules, as seen with the magnifier, and
are deposited in vast numbers upon the bark of the tree, and
leave a red color upon the finger if it is rubbed over them. The
eggs are very hard to kill, and treatment is most effective
when applied in the spring and summer after the mites
are hatched out. The popular remedy is a thorough dust-

* For the protection of nurseries, orchards, and vineyards it is often necessary to resort
to various devices for excluding the grasshopper, or for destroying them upon adjoining

fields. Publications describing such devices may be had free by addressing the Secretary of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

The Woolly Aphis. 441

ing of the trees with sulphur, after spraying with cold
water. On a large scale the sulphur is applied in a cloud by
means of a modification of the broad-cast barley sower. On
a small scale it may be applied with a bellows as for grape-vines,
cr shaken from a cheese-cloth bag at the end of a pole. Some
growers prefer a spray to sulphuring, and the following, recom-
mended by G. P. Hall, of San Diego, is verv cheap and satis-
factory: Take 20 pounds of sulphur, mix it to a paste—not
sloppy—with cold water, in a barrel; then add to this wet sul-

Red Spider: Young and Mature, Highly Magnified.

phur to pounds of caustic soda 98 per cent, and it will boil the
sulphur just like lime slaking; have 20 gallons of water to add
to it as it boils to prevent its burning. This is a stock solu-
tion, and when ready to spray put 40 gallons of water in another
barrel, and take one-half gallon of the stock solution and add to
it, straining it to prevent sediment from getting into the spray.

Phyllexera——tThis pest of the grape-vine is closely allied to
the aphides, and lives both upon the root and leaf, though in
this State the root type prevails and the leaf form is seldom

Woolly Aphis and Injured Roots.

seen. No remedy has yet been found effectual, but escape is

had by using roots resisting the insects, as described in Chapter
XXIV. The insects are recognized, by the aid of a magnifier,
as minute yellow lice, chiefly on the rootlets.

29

442 Scale Insects.

The Woolly Aphis.—A louse of dark red color, occurring in
groups, covered with a woolly substance which exudes from
the bodies of the insects. In the engraving, a is the gall or
swelling produced on the rootlets by their presence; b is the
insect, showing the outgrowth of woolly matter; c is the winged
female. The woolly aphis is an almost universal pest of the
apple, though as shown by experience, some varieties are prac-
tically exempt from it. As the pest lives both upon root and
top, its annihilation is impossible, but it may be reduced so that
the fruitfulness and vigor of the tree are not impaired. The use
of wood ashes around the tree close to the trunk has been bene-
ficial. Removing the earth from the root-crown and applying
from two to five pounds of tobacco dust—a refuse from cigar
factories—destroys the insects at this point and prolongs the
effective life of the tree. The insect on the branches and twigs
can be reduced by spraying with the summer washes soon to
be given for scale insects, or the clusters of the insect can be
touched with a swab dipped in kerosene, but the kerosene should
not be allowed to spread upon the bark. Ladybirds often clear
away the woolly aphis of the tree above ground.

Much attention is now being given to trial of resistant roots
and it is likely that such roots will be generally used here as
in Australia.

Scale Insects —This is a large group of pests which occa-
sion greater loss and trouble to our fruit growers than all other
pests combined. There are many species, and no orchard tree
is exempt from the attacks of one or more of them, though some
trees are apparently more popular with the pests than others.
The fruit grower should study their life history and classification
as laid down in the works on entomology. It will only be possi-
ble in this connection to introduce a few engravings, by which
some of the most prominent pests can be recognized, and to
give some of the remedies which are now being most success-
fully employed against them.

San Jose Scale (Aspidiolus perniciosus).—This was formerly
one of the worst and most widespread of the species of scales
preying on deciduous fruit trees in California, but at present,
owing to friendly insects which prey upon it, has become of
minor importance, and, in fact, has practically disappeared from
some regions where it was formerly most injurious. The work
of this species is generally readily distinguished from other spe-
cies of scale by the red blotches which are formed wherever it
stings any part of the tree—either branch, leaf, or fruit. These
red blotches are more pronounced in some varieties than in
others. When the scales are present in large numbers, it causes
a complete discoloration of the bark clear to the sap-wood.

San Jose and Greedy Scales. 443

This scale has its preference among the deciduous fruits. The
apricot is apparently proof against it; certain varieties of cher-
ries and plums are but little affected. The engravings show a
pear affected by the scale; also the insect, natural size, on a twig;

Seat

RSs
BOWS
an wer

San Jose Scale on Fruit and Twig. Young Scale and Mature Female.

also the form of the young, and the mature female, found by lift-
ing the scale, the color of the insects being lemon yellow. The
scale of the female is about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter,
with a yellowish center, and gray or black margin.

The Greedy or Pear Scale (Aspidiotus rapax).—This species
affects many kinds of trees, deciduous as well as evergreens.
Scale, about one-sixteenth of an inch in length; form, ovoid;
color, drab; female, bright yellow. This insect is found in many
places along the coast. It infests, chielly, pear trees, hence its

Pear Scale on Twig, and Mature Female.

name. It is distinguishable easily from: the Aspidiotus perni-
ciosus by its whitish-yellow color, contrasting with the dark color
of the latter. Generally this scale has only one brood in the sea-
son, and, as compared with the San Jose scale, it is of little
danger, owing to its slow-breeding propensities.

444 Various Scale Insects.

Oyster Sheli Scale of Apple (Mytilaspis pomorum).—This is
one of the few insects which the northeastern States have in
common with us. Like the preceding one, it has only one
brood during the season. It affects the apple chiefly, although
sometimes the pear also. Owing to the thickness of the armor,

it is one of the most difficult of the scales to exterminate. It
can be easily recognized by the engraving, which shows a piece
of bark covered with it.

Rose and Berry Scale (Diaspis rosae)-—This scale has such
striking forms that it can be readily recognized. The round
white scale is that of the female, the elongated one with ridges is
the male. The rose scale infests, besides roses, various fruit
bushes, especially blackberries and raspberries. Remedy: For
raspberries and blackberries the cutting down of the canes to the
ground should be adopted, and the stumps sprayed or washed
with kerosene emulsion, recommended under the head of gen-
eral remedies for scale insects. :

Oleander Scale (Aspidiotus nerit)—This scale is small, flat,
yellowish-white. It affects a great many trees, especially ever-
greens. Lemon trees become badly affected, and the fruit is
sometimes completely covered. The olive is also subject, and
the fruit of the olive when infested does not mature well, and
wherever a scale is found, a green blotch shows its appearance.

Red Scale of Orange and Lemon (Aonidia aurantu)—This
scale affects citrus trees in both the coast and interior regions.
The scale fully grown is one-twelfth of an inch or a little more
in diameter, center yellow, margin light brown. The apearance
of trees infested with this pest is very striking, very much resem-
bling those diseased from other causes, such as bad drainage,
the leaf presenting a mottled appearance, a light blotch around
the scale contrasting with the natural green of the leaf. The
branches are but little troubled, but the fruit, like the leaf, be-
comes completely covered with the insects. An orange tree
infested with this scale gradually becomes sickly and languishes.

Other Citrus Tree Scales-—Two scales more recently
brought into this State from Florida are the “purple scale,”
Aspidiotus citricola, and the “long scale,’ Aspidiotus gloverii.
The red and purple scales of citrus trees are only treated suc-
cessfully by fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. This treat-
ment is an elaborate one, requiring special appliances which are
fully illustrated and described in Bulletin 122, which can be had

The Lecanium Scales. 445

free by application to the Agricultural Experiment Station at
Berkeley.

The Black Scale (Lecanium oleae)—This scale is almost a
universal pest, especially in regions adjacent to the coast, though
it has recently demonstrated its ability to endure interior valley
conditions. It affects citrus fruit trees and some deciduous trees
as well, and a fungus growing on its exudation causes the black
smut, which renders tree and fruit unsightly; but this smut ac-
companies other scale insects as well as this one. It is especially
troublesome on the olive, and will quickly spread to ornamental
plants and vines in the garden. It is a very difficult scale to
subdue. On citrustrees the fumigation method is the only
practical recourse. On deciduous fruits it requires both winter
and summer spraying to hold it in check. In spite of the fact
that immense numbers are killed by parasites, and perhaps by
fungi as well, it is still a grievous pest, and should be fought
unceasingly.

Soft Orange Scale (Lecanium Hesperidum).—This scale is a
pest of citrus trees the world over. The scale is ovoid, a little
wider at one end than the other; length, from one-twelfth to
one-seventh of an inch; color, dark brown on convex part, and
a lighter brown surrounding margin; it has two indentations on
each side, and one on posterior end. The engraving does not
bring out these characters well, but shows the way in which the
scale is seen on the leaf. It fortunately is usually held in check
by natural agencies.

Brown Apricot Scale—The apricot tree, though defying the
most ruinous scales of some other trees, is beset by scales of the
lecanium family. The black scale is one and the brown apricot

Brown Apricot Scale of Deciduous Fruit Trees.

. &
scale another. It is Lecaniuin Armeniacum. This scale is boat-
shaped; when reaching maturity, wrinkled; the color is a shiny
brown, darker in the center, lighter at the edges. A full-sized

Frosty Scale (ZL. pruntosum). Filbert Scale (ZL. hemisphericum).

GROUP OF LECANIUM SCALES FROM THE UNIVERSITY COLLECTION.

Mealy Bugs. 447

scale has a length of a quarter of an inch, and a width of one-
eighth of an inch. This scale attacks nearly all kinds of decid-
uous fruits, but especially the prune and apricot. It is a very
a scale, and the remarks about the black scale apply to it
also.

Other Lecaninims.—--There are several other lecaniins on fruit
trees: The filbert scale (hemisphericum), which is common in
greenhouses and occurs to limited extent on citrus trees; the
frosted scale (pruinesum), very large, oval and convex, cov-
ered with deuse, whitish bloom, occurs on deciduous fruit trees.

Cottony Cushion Scale or Fiuted Scale ({cerya purchasi).—This
promised at one time to be the most grievous of all scales in its
rapid increase and wide range of food plants, but it was speedily
reduced by an Australian ladybird, Novius (Vedalia) cardinalis,
introduced by Albert Koebele, with such success that specimens
are now rarely seen.

Mealy Bugs.—Closely allied to the scales are the mealy bugs
(species of dactylopius), soft and of a pale pink color, generally
covered with a whitish mealy powder, hence the name. The
common species is found in nearly every greenhouse in the

Mealy Bugs, Chiefly upon Citrus Trees.

world, and in California climate lives in the open air on many
kinds of plants, and has at various times proved quite trouble-
some. Unless checked by natural enemies, the mealy bugs mul-
tiply very rapidly, and mass themselves in the corners of the
leaves. The plants turn black irom the fungus growth growing
on the honeydew, and the bush presents the same appearance as
a scale-infested plant. With the aid of a magnifier the appear-
ance of the mealy bugs, as shown in the engraving, can be read-
ily recognized.

‘Remedies for Scale Insects—Though most of the scale in-
sects are attacked by parasitic and predacious insects, as already
stated, these natural agencies have only in certain cases proved
rapid enough to cope with the increase of the scales, and in-
secticides have to be employed to save the fruit and trees. There
is a vast number of these washes, many of which will do good

%

448 Remedies for Scale Insects.

work if thoroughly applied, which is usually the secret of suc-
cess. A few which have proved of special value will be given
herewith :—

A WINTER WASH FOR DECIDUOUS TREES WHEN LEAFLESS.

Lime, Salt and Sulphur Remedy.—The following formula has been
used with great success throughout the State: Forty pounds of un-
slaked lime, twenty pounds of sulphur, fifteen pounds common stock salt,
water to make sixty gallons. Boil ten pounds of lime and the twenty
pounds of sulphur in twenty gallons of water for an hour and a half, or
until both lime and sulphur are dissolved. The sulphur must be thor-
oughly dissolved and mixed with the lime: the mixture will then be of
an amber color. Then slake in an empty half-barrel thirty pounds of
lime with soft hot water, using enough water to thoroughly slake the
lime, and while it is boiling add fifteen pounds of common stock salt.
When the salt is well dissolved, add the contents of the half-barrel to
the hot mixture in the boiler and boil the whole for half an hour and
add water enough to make a total of sixty gallons of spraying material,
which will then be a thin whitewash. The material should be strained,
after being thoroughly mixed, through a fine wire strainer. Apply the
wash milk-warm or warmer, with a spray pump. Use only when foli-
age is off the tree.

WASHES FOR ALL TREES WHEN IN LEAF.

Kerosene Emulsion—Take kerosene, two gallons; common soap, or
whale-oil soap, one-half pound; water, one gallon. Dissolve the soap
in the water and add it boiling hot to the kerosene. Churn the mix-
ture by means of a force pump and spray nozzle for five or ten minutes.
The emulsion, if perfect, forms a cream which thickens on cooling.
Dilute before using, one part of the emulsion with nine parts of cold
water. To obtain this emulsion in proper form violent agitation is
necessary, the time required depending on the violence of the agita-
tion and temperature of the mixture. Professor Cook’s formula is this:
“Dissolve in two quarts of water one-fourth pound of hard soap by
heating to the boiling point, then add one pint of kerosene oil and stir
violently from three to five minutes.” This is best done by use of the
force pump. This mixes the oil permanently, so that it will never sepa-
tate. Add seven pints of water and the wash is ready for use.

Resin Soap—Take twenty pounds of resin, two and one-half pints
of fish oil, three and one-half pounds of caustic soda (98 per cent), and
enough water to make one hundred gallons. Place all the ingredients
together in the boiler with water enough to cover them three or four
inches. Boil from one to two hours, occasionally adding water until
the compound resembles very black coffee. Dilute to one-third the final
bulk with hot water, or, if cold water is used, add very slowly over the
fire, making a stock mixture to be diluted to the full amount as used.
When spraying, the mixture should be perfectly fluid and without sedi-
ment. This mixture can be used twice or three times as strong on de-
ciduous trees when dormant.

INSECTS BORING IN TWIG, STEM, OR ROOT.

The Common Borer.—An insect which has done vast injury
in this State is the “filat-headed apple borer’ (Chrysobothris
femorata). It affects chiefly apples, peaches, and plums. which
have been injured by sunburn. It is a pale-colored grub with

Various Borers. 449

a brown head, the forepart of the body being greatly flattened.
The matured beetle is greenish black or bronze colored, copper
colored on the under side. If any tree receives any damage to
the bark, either by sunburn or other causes, the borer is sure
to find it, and it works itself into the tree, its castings being the
only guide to its presence. The best remedy is prevention by

Flat-head Borer and Beetle. Sun-scald Peach Moth and Its Boring Larva.
Borer.

protection from sunburn, as described in Chapter XI. When-
ever a borer is removed, the debris and dead wood should be en-
tirely cleaned out and the smooth surface left, taking care to pre-
serve the bark as much as possible. Then the wound should be
smeared over with grafting wax, and a rag tied about it. In
this manner young trees have been saved, but if seriously at-
tacked, it is better to put in a sound tree and protect it.
Sun-Scald Borer-—Another borer which delights in sun-
burned trees is a minute beetle, making a burrow hardly larger
than a pin-hole. It is known as the sun-scald beetle (Xyloborus
wxylographus). The remedy, as in the former case, is to prevent
injury to the bark, for this precedes the attack of the beetle.
Peach Twig-Borer—This grub is the larva of a moth
(4narsia lineatella), about half an inch in length when fully
grown, and of a light reddish color. The moth, the worm (nat-
ural size and enlarged), and the manner of its working in the
peach, prune or apricot twigs, are shown in the engraving. The
first brood of worms bore into fresh young shoots of peach trees,
the second into the fruit. Any infested shoots should be cut
off and burned, and no hiding-places for the insects allowed. It
is in the spring that they show their work most plainly by the
withering young shoots. These must be cut off and destroyed.
The most effective treatment, however, is winter spraying. The
value of the lime, salt and sulphur wash for this purpose has
been long known, but why it was successful was not known until
Ed. M. Ehrhorn, horticultural commissioner for Santa Clara
County, found that the larvae passed the winter ensconsed in
shallow burrows in the crotches of the limbs all through the

450 Twig Borers.

trees. The wash penetrates the borings which cover them, and
kills. If it is not desirable to use this wash for scales or fungi in
addition to the peach moth, kerosene eniulsion, diluted with one
part of the stock emulsion to six parts of water, is a cheaper
treatment. It can be used from December onward through the
winter. ‘he kerosene reaches the worms in their winter quar-
ters very successfully.

The Olive Twig-borer and Its Work.

The Olive Twig-Borer.—A reddish brown beetle boring into
twigs of olive and other orchard trees, and grape canes, at the
axils of the leaves. The insect is shown in the engraving, some-
what enlarged, as the line on the right shows the natural length
of the insect. It is Polycaon confertus, and it breeds in decaying
logs and stumps and old grape-vines, apparently visiting the fruit
trees merely to gratify its appetite. Its work is not fatal to the
tree, but unless proper pruning and attention be afterwards
given, it may spoil the shape of a young tree. Reniove the af-
fected branches below the burrow of the beetle, or if it would
be difficult to replace a branch, see that the beetle is destroyed
and the entrance to the hole stopped up—this to prevent decay
and a weak branch following. Spraying with ill-smelling solu-
tions may prevent their attack, ‘but the insect has not beeti suf-
ficiently abundant to invite serious effort thus far.

Peach Crown-Borer—A grub boring into peach trees just
below the ground surface, its presence being shown by copious
gumming. The insect, which has become quite troublesome in
Santa Clara County, resembles the Eastern crown-borer of the
peach, but is a distinct species (Sannania pacifica, Riley). The

Crown Borers. 451

best methods of supressing this insect are two. A preventive
treatment consists in coating the base of the tree a few inches
below the surface and a foot above with a whitewash, with a
pint of coal tar to each five pounds of quicklime, put in while

California Peach-borer.

the lime is slaking. This should be done in April. A killing
treatment which has proved effective and safe to the tree is car-
bon bisulphide, when wisely used. Mr. Ehrhorn gives these
precautions :-—

Carbon bisulphide should not be applied when the soil is wet or
just before a rain, nor just after cutting out borers and putting on lime
and‘ other preventives. Avoid putting it on the bark of the tree.
Procure a machine oiler which will hold about eight ounces of carbon
bisulphide, remove the soil around the trunk of the tree about six inches
wide and six inches deep, being sure to detach all soil adhering to the
trunk of the tree. After this is done, fill'in this space with loose soil
to the level again. Now squirt the liquid a few times from one to one
and one-half inches away from the bark around the tree, and cover im-
mediately with six inches of soil. Borers have been killed in from
twenty hours to three days; after they are found to be dead, the soil
should be removed from around the trees so that any remaining fumes
of bisulphide can be dissipated.

Strawberry Root-Borer.—The larva of another clear-winged
moth (Acgeria impropria), boring into the root of strawberry

Strawberry Root-borer; Pupa, Grub and Moth. Currant Borer (enlarged) and Moth.

plants, found in various portions of the State, and doing consid-
erable damage, forcing the growers to resort to replanting much

452 The Codlin Moth.

earlier than otherwise would be necessary. Flooding the vines
has a great tendency to kill out the worms, and if the water was
retained, say four of five days during the winter, all over the
plants, doubtless all the larvae would be killed.

Currant aud Gooseberry Borer—A white worm eating out
the central pith of currant and gooseberry plants-——the larva oi
another clear-winged moth (Aegeria tipuliformis). Spraying
with whale-oil soap after the crop is gathered. pruning out and
burning in the fall of all old wood which can be spared, will re-
duce the evil.

INSECTS DEVOURING THE PULP OF FRUITS.

The Apple Worm.—The codlin moth (Carpocapsa pomonella)
is one of the great pests of the State. Its appearance and man-
ner of work are sufficiently shown by the engraving. It preys
chiefly upon the appie and pear, but the quince and other large
fruits are sometimes invaded by it. The first moths appear at
some time after the blossoming of the apple, and deposit their
eggs on the young fruit, or on adjacent leaves. The young
worm hatches in from seven to ten days, generally seeks the
eye or calyx, and eats its way into the fruit, and in twenty days

Codlin Moth in Various Stages in Fruit, and Wintering in Rough Bark.

its full growth is attained, and it goes out through the side of
the apple, and, by means of its spinneret, reaches the ground
or some large branch. If landed on the ground, it usually seeks
the trunk, which it ascends and soon finds a hiding-place under
the loose bark, where it spins its cocoon, and in eight or ten
days comes forth a moth, ready to lay eggs anew. ‘The egg is
laid all over the fruit, and especially at a point where two fruits
touch. Usually we have in this State two broods, at least, but

Treatment for Codlin Moth. 453

more often three, and, naturally, if unchecked, the increase from
the first to the last is enormous. The worms escaping from the
fruit in the fall hibernate as larvae under the loose bark of the
tree, or in storehouses, or in any available dry place.

There is one sovereign remedy for the codlin moth, and
that is the spray of Paris green. Its efficacy, when properly
done and pure material is used, is demonstrated beyond ques-
tion. It is possible to secure from 80 to go per cent of souid
fruit where, without treatment, not Io per cent would escape the
worms.

It is essential that the poison go from a fine nozzle in a mist
or cloud, and as soon as the mist covers the fruit and leaves
with a film of moisture stop the spray on those surfaces. Let
the fine particles of poison be planted by the medium of the mist
upon every point of the surface. There must be constant stirring
of the water in which the poison is suspended. An occasional
stirring will not prevent settling and unequal distribution.

One spraying may suffice for an early apple or pear, but
medium or late fruit should have two or three sprayings to reach
the offspring of later broods of moths. The first spraying
should be done, as a rule, later than was formerly advised, be-
cause it is now known that the moth does nox visit the blossom,
but the fruit after it has attained some size. It is a fact, however,
that the little worms, on emerging from the eggs, generally seek
the calyx or eye of the fruit for entrance, and it is important to
have poison there. For this reason the first spraying should
be done before the sepals close over the eye of the apple. The
worm will make its way through these turned-down sepals and
its poison should be ready for it inside. It is easier to thor-
oughly poison this cavity if the spraying is done while the little
fruit still stands upright. Subsequent sprayings must be done,
however, without regard to the position of the fruit. The later
hatchings of the worms are more apt to enter through the sides
of the well-grown fruit, especially at the point where the fruits
are in contact with each other, and it is necessary to have the
fruit continually covered with a film of the poison while these
later broods are hatching out, spraying at intervals of three
or four weeks, to be continued, less or more in number, accord-
ing to the lateness of maturity of the variety.

Paris green often contains an undue amount of free arsenic,
which is likely to injure the foliage seriously. For this reason
a formula which guards against it is desirable: Stir one pound
of Paris green and one pound of powdered lime, with a little
water, into a thin paint, and then thoroughly mix this paint with
cold water, so that the strength shall be one pound of Paris
green to 160 gallons of water.

454 Killing Yellow Jackets.

The Peach WW’crm.—aAs already stated, the larva of the peach
moth, which early in the spring bores into the twigs, is some-
times found later in the season in the flesh of the peach. Hence
the importance of saving the fruit by proper winter treatment of
the hibernating worms.

ANTS AND YELLOW JACKETS.

These insects are often of serious trouble during fruit dry-
ing. Ants are most effectually disposed of by slightly opening
their holes in the ground by thrusting down a crowbar and pour-
ing in a couple of ounces of carbon bisulphide and closing again
with earth. Yellow jackets also nest in the ground in old squir-
rel or gopher holes, and they too can be suffocated with carbon
bisulphide or by pouring in gasoline or kerosene and firing it.
Hornets which nest in trees are troublesome, but are much less
numerous than the cave-dwelling species.

To destroy yellow jackets by trapping and poison is also
feasible. W. F. Moyer, of Napa, proceeds in this way:—

Make a thin fruit syrup by mashing the boiling ripe fruit, strain it
and add a little sugar. Place the syrup dishes on the drying ground
where the “jackets” are thickest. When the top of the syrup is cov-
ered with drowned and drowning “jackets,” scoop them out with the
hand, and crush them with the foot. They won’t sting unless you
pinch them. As the syrup evaporates fll up the dishes with water. Ifa
day or two should elapse when no fruit is cut, be sure the traps are well
cared for, as they will swarm around them thicker than ever, especially if
the weather is hot. For dishes to place the syrup in. cut kerosene cans
so as to make two cans, each about six and one-half inches deep.

Poisoning to carry destruction to the young brood is also
practicable. Dr. J. H. Miller, of San Leandro, saved his fruit
in this way :—

I bought half a dozen beef livers, five pounds of arsenious acid and
several pounds of baling wire. Cutting the liver into pieces as large as
a man’s fist, I put them into a hot solution of arsenious acid, and, bend-
ing the wire into a hook at each end, I suspended the pieces from the
lower limbs of trees all around my drying-ground. The fruit was soon
deserted, and the little insects busily working at the fragrant liver. The
insects carried pieces of the liver to their nests, and besides causing the
death of those that had been destroying my fruit, the next generation
of yellow jackets was also destroyed, and so complete was the destruc-
tion that there were not enough of the little pests in that neighborhood
the following year to require a repetition of the treatment. There is no
risk in so using the poison, for the yellow jackets will not return to the
fruit, and bees will not go near the meat.

The Diabrotica.—-A light green beetle with twelve spots on
his back (Diabrotica soror), is sometimes very injurious to early
fruit, by eating into it when ripe. The insect also eats leaves
and blossoms. As the insect attacks the fruit just as it is ready
to pick, it is impossible to apply any disagreeable or poisonous

Treatment of Nursery Stock. 455

spray. Sometimes the insects are driven away by dense smoke
from fires in and around the orchard.

The Dried Fruit Worm.—Dried fruit is often seriously in-
jured after packing, by a small worm, larva of a moth not yet
determined. The eggs are deposited-on the fruit either while
drying or while in the packing-house, or through the cloth of
the sacks, or seams of the package. The eggs may be killed on
the fruit before packing, by dipping in boiling water, or by heat-
ing in an oven and after that preventing the access of the moth.
Infested fruit can also be treated by bisulphide vapor, the method
being the same as described for nursery stock below.

DISINFECTING NURSERY STOCK.

Cuttings, scions, young trees and vines, etc., can be freed
from insects by inclosing in a tight box or cask and placing a
saucerful of carbon bisulphide on the top of them, covering it
with canvas or any tight-fitting cover. The bisulphide vapor
will destroy all insect life in forty minutes.

Disinfecting such materials on a larger scale is done by
Alexander Craw, State quarantine officer, in this way:—

Use square canvas sheets, sixteen to twenty feet in diameter, made
of the best ducking, double stitched and then painted with boiled lin-
seed oil to make it-gas proof. The canvas must be perfectly dry before
it is rolled up, or it is liable to be destroyed by spontaneous combustion.
To fumigate evergreen stock use one ounce of cyanide of potassium (in
lumps, not pulverized), one fluid ounce of commercial sulphuric acid,
and two fluid ounces of water to one hundred cubic feet of enclosed
space. For deciduous and hardy trees, when dormant, use one-fourth
more of each of the above. When the canvas has been placed over the
stock to be fumigated, prepare the charge. Take a three or four-gallon
glazed earthenware jar, into which pour the necessary quantity of water,
then the sulphuric acid, and place it well under the canvas, the edges of
which are secured with soil or in some way so as to prevent the gas
escaping, with the exception of the edge immediately in front of the
jar. The proper amount of cyanide of potassium is then dropped into
the jar from a long scoop, and the tent is immediately closed, and re-
mains so for one hour.

It is hoped that this chapter will convey useful hints in the
warfare against insects. Whenever questions arise which are
not met thereby, appeal should be made to the University Exper-
iment Station at Berkeley.

CHAPTER XXXVII.
DISEASES OF TREES AND VINES.

A few suggestions concerning pathological conditions
which arise in trees and vines and prescription of treatment and
remedies may be helpful: First, diseases demonstrated to be
caused by fungi and bacteria; second, abnormal conditions, of
which the causes are not yet clear.

Powdery Mildews.—Fungi which bring upon the leaf sur-
face the appearance of a whitish powder and afterwards cause
the leaf to curl and dry without producing marked swelling,
perforation or discoloration, can be checked by the use of sul-
phur. ‘he chief of these is the mildew of the grape, the mildew
of the apple, appearing chiefly on the young growth, etc. The
way to use sulphur for these fungi is described in Chapter XXV.

Apple and Pear Scab on Fruit, Wood and Foliage.

Leaf-Spotting, Puncturing or Deforming Fungi—These
classes are usually distinguishable by the results they produce.
The mildew of the peach produces dense, whitish patches on the
leaves and growing fruit; the curl-leaf fungus of the peach pro-

( 456 )

fungicides. 457

duces swellings and contortions of the leaf; the scab of the apple
and pear produces first a smoky appearance on the leaf and after-
wards causes black scabby patches on the fruit and on the young
twigs; the shot-hole fungus of the apricot, plum, cherry, and
almond cuts roundish holes in the leaves as though a shotgun
had been discharged through the foliage, and then, in the case
of the apricot, produces roundish, dark red pustules on the fruit;
the rust fungi of the prune, blackberry, etc., produce eruptions
on the under sides oi the leaves, first of a yellowish or orange
color, changing to dark brown or black, and causing the leaf to
fall. These fungi are only slightly, if at all, checked by the dry
sulphur treatment, and are hest subdued by the use of copper
solutions :—

The Bordeaux Mixture—Lime, four pounds: bluestone (sulphate of
copper), four pounds; water, forty gallons. Use part of the water to
slake the lime and dissolve the bluestone, which should be done in sepa-
rate vessels. The bluestone should not be put in a metal vessel. If
put into a bag and suspended near the surface of the water, it will dis-
solve more readily, or hot water may be used in making the solution.
Both should be cold when mixed, and the resultant mixture will be a
beautiful blue wash. If mixed hot, a black compound (copper oxide)
is produced, which reduces the value of the wash. After thorough mix-
ing of the solutions, water should be added to bring the bulk up to
forty gallons.

This is safe to use on foliage. It may be used much stronger when
trees are dormant,—as strong as ten pounds of lime and ten pounds
of bluestone to forty gallons of water to kill spores of fungi on the
bark. This is a successful preventive of curl-leaf on the peach, shot-
hole on the apricot, scab on the apple and pear, rust on the prune, etc.
Tt should be followed by the weaker Bordeaux in the summer, as early as
indications of the diseases may appear. In spraying for apple and pear
scab, the addition of one pound of Paris green to each one hundred
and fifty gallons of the Bordeaux Mixture makes the application answer
also for the codlin moth.

Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate—Copper carbonate, four ounces; am-
monia, forty ounces; water forty gallons. When it is desirable to use a
fungicide on fruit near the picking season, or on ornamental plants,
which would be disfigured with the lime wash, the ammoniacal copper
carbonate may be substituted for the Bordeanx Mixture.

The usual way of making this wash is to dissolve copper carbonate
in ammonia, and then dilute. If the carbonate is not fully dissolved
before the water is added, it can not be further dissolved, and not only
is the carbonate wasted, but the fluid will not be up to standard strength.
It is well, therefore, to give. the ammonia ample time to act, say over-
night, before adding the water.

It is cheaper to make copper carbonate as follows: Bluestone, six
ounces; sal-soda, eight ounces; ammonia, forty ounces; water, forty
gallons. Dissolve the bluestone and sal-soda separately in small quanti-
ties of hot water, the former in a wooden or earthenware vessel. After
cooling, mix and dissolve the copper carbonate thus produced in the
ammonia and add the remainder of the water to make forty gallons.

Lime, Salt and Sulphur—This mixture, already prescribed for scale
insects in the preceding chapter, is an active fungicide for winter use.
It is a very satisfactory curl-leal preventive in the interior valleys.

30

458 Various Blights.

Toadstool Destruction—Trees are often destroyed through
invasion by toadstool fungi from decaying roots or wood with
which their roots come in contact. The injury is often not
detected until the tree is ruined and it is too late for treatment.
If only part is affected, the disease may sometimes be arrested
by cutting away the diseased parts and disinfection of the ex-
posed tissue with the Bordeaux Mixture.

Moss, Lichens, etc., on the Bark.—It has been clearly shown
by investigation at the University Experiment Station that the
growth of moss, etc., upon the bark of fruit trees is a decided
injury. All trees should be assisted to maintain clean, healthy
bark. This is accomplished by the use of the lime, salt and sul-
phur mixture already prescribed for scale insects. It can also
be done by winter spraying with caustic soda or potash, one
pound to six gallons of water.

Blights and Decays.——There are several blights which are
traceable to bacteria, parasitic growths which are not discernible
as are the fungi, and not usually amenable to spray treatment,
because they exist wholly within the tissues of the plant and are
not reached by applications. The blights of the pear, the black-
heart of the apricot, etc., are instances. Cutting back to healthy
wood and burning all removed parts is the best treatment which
can at present be prescribed.

A local disease which has been demonstrated hy Newton B.
Pierce, of Santa Ana, is the bacteriosis of the English walnut.
The disease is recognized by black sunken spots on the hull of
the voung walnut; generally worst at the blossom end and usual-
ly first seen there early in the season; later the spots run to-
gether and encompass considerable areas of the surface. As.
the disease progresses the nut is transformed into a hateful black
mass and is utterly destroyed. ‘The disease also affects the
leaves and young wood. The fallen nuts and leaves should be
plowed under deeply or gathered and destroyed. The tree
should receive careful pruning to remove all diseased parts. It
may be well to spray voung trees in the winter with the Bor-
deaux Mixture for the purpose of disinfecting the tree as per-
fectly as possible.

DISEASES NOT TRACEABLE TO PARASITIC GROWTHS.

There are a number of prominent troubles which are not
traceable to parasitic invasion of any kind, and yet may be in
some cases promoted by bacterial growth invited by preceding
conditions.

Sour Sap.—There is a fermentation of the sap, quite notice-
able by its odor, which may be found in all parts of the tree, from
the roct to the topmost twigs; sometimes in one part and not
in another. Sour sap in the root is generally due to standing

. Die-Back, Guin and Root-Knot. 459

water in the soil, and the remedy is drainage. Trees thus af-
fected make an effort to grow and then the young growth shriv-
els. Severe cutting back of the top to reduce evaporation until
the roots can restore their feeding fibers is the only treatment
of the tree, and its success depends upon the extent of the root
injury. Sour sap may also be caused inthe branches by the
occurrence of frost after the sap flow has actually started. Cut-
ting back the diseased parts, as soon as discovered, to sound
wood, is the proper treatment.

Die-Back.—Dying back of twigs or branches may occur
without parasitic invasion through root-weakness or partial fail-
ure. It may be due to standing water or to lack of soil moisture,
either of which will destroy the root-hairs and bring the tree into
distress. The treatment is cutting back td sound wood and cor-
recting the soil conditions, either by irrigation or drainage, as
one or the other may be needed to advance vigorous growth in
the tree.

Guimmosis.—This is a convenient term to designate the gum-
ming which is seen on many kinds of trees. As has been said
of die-back, gumming may result from excess of water or of
drouth in the soil, Gumming is, therefore, not considered in
itself a disease, but rather an indication of conditions unfavora-
ble to the thrifty growth of the tree. It has been usually found
by investigation that trees in perfect condition of health, with
the. moisture just enough and not excessive, are not troubled
with gumming; but there are cases in which this statement does
not wholly apply. There is very much in this connection which
is not fully demonstrated as yet. Many treatments are pro-
posed. It is a good thing to cleanly remove all the unhealthy
bark—cutting clean to sound bark and covering the wound with
paint or wax to exclude the air. Some report success with an
antiseptic wash—diluted crude carbolic acid and the Bordeaux
Mixture have both been used, and reported upon favorably.

Root Knots—These are excrescences upon the roots or at
the root crown of various trees and of grape-vines, and they have
been a serious trouble in this State for a good many years.
Althougi the knot has been studied by experts in plant pathol-
ogy, no exact cause of the trouble has yet been found. A satis-
factory treatment has, however, been discovered. If the knot
has not increased in size sufficiently to seriously interfere with
the growth of the tree it can be smoothly removed, the wound
treated with the Bordeaux Mixture, and the knot will not reap-
pear at the same place. Success has also been had with boring
a hole into the knot and filling the hole with bluestone solu-
tion. Bluestone can be used with least danger when the tree
is dormant.

CHAPTER AXXVITT.

SUPPRESSION OF INJURIOUS ANIMALS AND BIRDS..

The beasts of the field and the fowls of the air are some-
times such grievous trespassers upon the fruit plantation that
protection has to be sought against them. The animals which
figure in this evil work are mainly species of rodentia, some of
them burrowers, as, for example, the ground-squirrel and
gopher; others, surface dwellers, like the hare or jackass rabbit.
Occasionally there is injury done by deer in the orchard and
vineyard, and coons in the melon patch, but these larger animals
may usually be left to the hunters and the dogs.

RABBITS.

‘Though there are three species prevalent, none are burrow-
ers. This fact has led to united efforts at their suppression by
driving them, with mounted horsemen, from a wide stretch of
country into a narrow, fenced inclosure, where they are killed
with clubs. During the last few years tens of thousands have
been killed in this way, and comparatively few are now found
in the localities where the method has been adopted. Still,
however, there are plenty at large to vex the fruit planter, and
he must protect himself against them.

Rabbit Fences—The surest protection against rabbits is a
fence which prevents their entrance, and many miles of such
fence have been built in this State. Several styles prevail. The
ordinary board fence, with the boards running horizontally, is
made rabbit-proof by placing the lower boards close together,
with openings of but about two inches between them. A barbed
wire, with barbs about two and one-half inches apart, can be
used to advantage by running it along at or a little below the
surface of the ground to prevent scratching under.

The cost of board fences has led to the use of barbed wire
and wire netting, or of perpendicular slats interwoven with wire.
Such materials are sold in large quantities. A very effective
combination of barbed wire and netting, which is used in the
upper San Joaquin Valley, is described as follows :—

The tall posts are regular split redwood posts. The intermediate
small ones are made by sawing in two the regular posts and splitting

( 460 )

Reduction of Rabbits. 461

them into eight small posts, or rather, large stakes. The netting is of
galvanized wire, No. 19 gauge, and one and one-half-inch mesh. This
netting is stapled to the posts and stakes on the inside, or toward the
field. This is of prime importance, as it will not serve the purpose if
it is placed on the outside. The bottom of the netting is to come down
to the ground, and the ground must be lelt hard, and not plowed, to
prevent burrowing or scratching the dirt from underneath, which can
be easily done if the dirt is softened up. It is not at all necessary to

A Rabbit-proof Fence in Successful Use in Miramonte Colony, Kern County.

set the netting below the ground In the sketch are shown three
barbed wires, with barbs two and a half inches apart. These wires must
be placed on the outside of the posts. This position is also a prime
necessity. The lower wire is stretched just clear of the surface of the
ground. The middle wire is one inch higher than the top of the net-
ting, and the top wire, which is intended only as against cattle, is at a
height suitable for the purpose. The rabbit-proof portion is comprised
in the netting and the two lower wires. Hence, if cattle are not feared,
and rabbits are the only foe, the top wire can be dispensed with, and
the posts can be all short with a greater proportion of stakes, having
only enough stout posts to stand the strain of the wires. The theory
of this construction is that a rabbit can only pass the fence over the top
or under the bottom of the netting, and this is effectually prevented by
the barbed wires, which tear the animal if it attempts either to leap or
climb over, or to scratch under.

Smears Distasteful to Rabbits——\Where the expense of a
fence can not be assumed, measurable protection can be had by
sprinkling the leaves or smearing the stems of plants with sub-
stances distasteful to the animals, which are quite dainty in this
respect. Commercial aloes, one pound to four gallons of water,
both sprinkled on leaves and painted on the bark, gives a bitter
taste, which repels rabbits. A tea made by steeping quassia
chips is said to produce the same effect. Rancid grease, liquid
manure, putrescent flesh or blood, have been approved as a daub
for tree trunks, but the efficacy is only of limited duration.

Rabbit Poison.—Pieces of watermelon, cantaloupe, or other
vegetable of which they are very fond, may be poisoned with
strychnine and then scattered around the orchard. Rabbits will
not touch the bark as long as they can find this bait, and one
meal is effective, for the rabbit never gets far away from it. The
same results can be attained by the following mixture. To one
hundred pounds of wheat take nine gallons of water and one
pound of phosphorus, one pound of sugar, and one ounce oil of

462 Squirrels and Gophers.

thodium. Heat the water to boiling point and let it stand all
night. Next morning stir in flour sufficient to make a sort of
paste. The rabbits eat it with avidity if scattered about.

Another preparation is half a teaspoonful of powdered
strychnine, two teaspoonfuls of fine salt, and four of granulated
sigar. Put all in a tin box and shake well. Pour in small
heaps on a board. It hardens into a solid mass. They lick it
for the salt, and the sugar disguises the poison, which kills great
numbers.

GROUND-SQUIRRELS.

Ground-squirrels are poisoned by the use of the poisoned
wheats which are sold in the markets, or by use of bisulphide of
carbon, or “smokers,” which are arranged to force smoke into
the holes. A small quantity of bisulphide of carbon poured
into the hole, and the hole closed with dirt, is probably the most
effective squirrel killer, when the ground is wet, so that the vapor
is held in the burrow. Smokers are also most effective when
the soil is moist. When the ground is dry, poison is the best
means of reducing squirrels. The following is an exceedingly
effective preparation, of which a few grains should be placed in
or near each hole:—

Take strychnine, one ounce; cyanide of potassium, one and one-
half ounces; eggs, one dozen; honey, one pint; vinegar, one and one-
half pints; wheat or barley, thirty pounds. Dissolve strychnine in the
vinegar; and you will have to pulverize it in the vinegar, or it will gather
into alump. See that it is all dissolved. Dissolve the cyanide of potas-
sium in a little water. Beat the eggs. Mix all the ingredients together
thoroughly before adding to the barley. Let it stand twenty-four hours,
mixing often. Spread to dry before using, as it will mold if put away
wet.

- To keep squirrels from gnawing fruit trees, or climbing and
getting the fruit, tying a newspaper around the trunk of the
tree, letting the paper extend out four inches at the upper edges,
is said to be effective. The rattle of the paper when the squirrels
attempt to get over it will frighten them.

GOPHERS.

Gophers can often be destroyed by the use of poisoned
wheat, especially if prepared with a little oil of rhodium, which
seems to be very attractive to all rodents. Pieces of fruits or
vegetables into which a few grains of strychnine have been in-
serted by making a cut with a knife-blade and then squeezing it
together again, are also handy conveyors of death to gophers.
There are two ways to put poisoned materials into a gopher run-
way. One is to look for fresh open holes and put in the poison
as far as possible with a long-handled spoon; another is to take
a round, pointed stick and shove it in the ground near the

Traps for Gophers. 463

gopher mounds until it strikes their runway, then drop in the
poisoned bait. Close up the hole with some grass; level down
mounds, so that if the poison does not kill all the gophers, you
will soon discover their new mounds. If there are many
mounds, put the poison in a number of places.

Bisulphide of carbon is also successfully used in killing
gophers, while the ground is wet, using an injector which is
furnished with the poison to force the vapor through the long
burrows.

Trapping Gophers—Some are very successful in using
gopher traps, of which there are several styles sold. Gophers
come to the surface in the night, and generally close their holes
soon after daybreak. They frequently emerge again about noon,
and a third time late in the afternoon. It is best to set the trap
in an open hole; still, the holes may be opened if the dirt is still
fresh, with a good prospect of the gopher’s return. Therefore,
the trapper may make his rounds three times a day, as above
indicated. Care should be exercised in preparing the hole for
the insertion of the trap, a straight hole for a distance ot at
least ten inches, with no lateral branches, otherwise the gopher
in pushing out the dirt will likely enough thrust the trap to one
side, cover it up, or spring it, without being exposed to its grasp.
The trapper should be supplied with at least two varieties of
traps—one for the larger gophers, and the other for the smaller
ones. The common iron gopher trap, which springs downward,
is excellent for the former, and the small wire trap, which springs
upward, is generally successful with the latter. The size of the
hole is indicative of the size of the gopher. Either trap should
be inserted nearly its full length into the hole, pressed down
firmly, and a little dirt piled at the outer end to prevent its being
easily pushed out. After the trap is set, it is well to cover the
opening with some grass or weeds. Sometimes the holes re-
quire a little enlarging, but ‘care should be taken to make the
fit as close as possible, that the body of the gopher may be kept
near the center, and thus more exposed to the prongs of the
trap. In the fourth place, the trapper should have a small spade
and a little gouge-shaped implement for trimming the hole.

Gopher Pitfalls—If gophers are abundant, large numbers
can be captured in this way: Dig a trench around the orchard
or vineyard about the width of a spade and from fourteen to
sixteen inches deep. In the bottom of the ditches, about a hun-
dred feet apart. sink five-gallun oil cans, leaving the tops level
with the ditch bottom. The gophers migrate in the night, and
in attempting to come into the inclosure will fall into the ditch
and then run along the bottom until they drop into the cans.
Of course the ditch must not be wider than the cans. As many
as fifteen live gophers have been found in one can. The cats

464 Poisoning Birds.

soon learn to help themseives out of the cans. The ditch must
be kept clean, and if any roads cross the tract, set up a board at
night, to compel the gophers to tumble in the ditch. This ditch
should be constructed about the first of Tune, when the outside
feed begins to dry up, and the pests rush for the cultivated ground.
With such protection from the outside, and the use of poison
and traps inside, the trees and vines can be saved.

DESTRUCTIVE BIRDS.

Fruit growers generally appreciate the value of insectivo-
rous birds, but there are feathered pests which do such ruinous
work in disbudding the trees in spring-time, and in destroying
ripe fruit, that productive measures have to be adopted against
them. The so-called “California linnet,”’ which is not a linnet,
but a finch (Carpodacus frontalis), a persistent destroyer of
buds, and the English sparrow, infamous the world over, are
probably the most grievous pests, though there are other de-
structive birds, including the beautiful California quail, which is
protected by law, and yet must be destroyed in some parts of the
State or the grape crop must be abandoned.

‘For the killing of the smaller birds poison is usually em-
ployed, and it is best administered in water. Poisoned water
made of one-eighth ounce strychnine to three gallons of water
and placed in shallow tin pans in the trees, has been widely ap-
proved. Cutting oranges in halves, spreading strychnine over
the cut surface and empaling the half-oranges on twigs high up
in the apricot trees, has destroyed hundreds of linnets. Some
advocate the use of the shotgun, No. 30 caliber, with a small
charge of good powder and No. 10 shot. As many as five hun-
dred linnets have been killed in two days. The advantage of
this plan is that one kills linnets and not other birds, while poison
kills both friends and foes.

CHAPTER XXXL.
PROTECTION FROM WIND AND FROSTS.

Though the climate of California renders unnecessary the
protection against rigorous weather which fruit growers in some
other parts-of the world have to provide, there is often advan-
tage in securing shelter from winds and protection from late
frosts.

The general subject of forest planting in California, and the
effect of preservation and extension of our forest area upon our
fruit industries, has received the attention of our best-informed
growers. The planting of shelter belts at intervals across our
broad valleys at right angles to the courses of prevailing or
most violent winds, has also been urged with great force. These
greater enterprises and projects are beyond the scope of this
treatise. It is rather concerning the planting of trees to shelter
individual possessions that a few suggestions will be offered.

It has been already remarked that on the immediate coast
the successful growth of fruit will sometimes be wholly depend-
ent upon proper shelter from prevailing winds, and in regions
farther from the ocean the topography may induce strong cur-
rents of air which will illy affect trees and vines. In all such
places the fruit grower should: plant windbreaks, and will find
himself well repaid for the ground they occupy, by the success-
ful production on the protected area.

In the interior valleys there is also need of shelter from
occasional high winds which may visit the orchards either in
summer or winter, and prove destructive both to trees and fruit.
In some cases long lines of sheltering trees have been cut down
because they affected the fruiting of orchard trees planted too
near them, and afterwards the losses through lack of protection
were far greater than would have been incurred by retaining
them.

What Kind of Trees to Plant——This is a question concern-
ing which there is much to be learned. Data is accumulating
in the growth of trees planted to test their suitability, and the
future planter will have more certain ground to proceed upon
than is now available. Mention will be made, however, of a
few trees, which are now most widely grown.

( 465 )

466 Trees for Windbreaks.

The most widely-planted shelter tree is the Eucalyptus
globulus, or Australian blue gum. It is a rapid grower and vo-
racious feeder, and wonderful for root extension, for which it
has been roundly abused. It is doubtful, hotwever, whether we
have a better tree for high growth, and consequent large area
over which its shelter will be felt. It is deficient in undergrowth,
and if a close screen is desired, the planting of eucalyptus and
Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) is a common practise.
The latter also attains good height, but its broad. thick base fills
the gaps between the bare stems of the gum trees.. Another tree
which has often been planted with the blue gum, to supply a
thick, low growth, is the pepper tree (Schinus molle). It is also
grown in rows by itself. It makes a dense head, grows rapidly,
and flourishes without much care. Trees planted eighteen feet
apart will soon come together and make a dense wall of very
beautiful, bright, light-green foliage. The pepper is not only a
good windbreak, but also an excellent dust-catcher. Unlike
most trees which are used for this purpose, it does not become
laden with dust. The leaves are smooth and glossy, and there-
fore repel the dust particles, which, stopped in their flight by the
dense foliage of the tree, instead of clinging to it drop to the
ground. The growth of the pepper tree near the coast is much
slower than that of the Monterey cypress. The eucalyptus and
the cypress for the coast, and the eucalyptus and pepper for the
interior valleys, make, probably, as perfect a wall of foliage all the
year round as can be had. Tle blue gum is, however, some-
what subject to frost killing, especially when voung, and in very
frosty places is objected to on that account. A number of other
species of eucalyptus are now being planted, and are being
found more hardy than the blue gum. The folyanthema,
amygdalina, and viminalis are of this character.

The Monterey pine (Pinus insignis) is a rapid, high-grow-
ing tree, and, though a native of the coast, has proved itself well
adapted to the interior valleys of the central portion of the State.
Its foliage is dense for a pine, and its shelter, therefore, the more
complete. A native white cedar (Libocedrus dcecurrens) has also
been employed as a shelter tree in the San Joaquin Valley, and
is commended as rapid a grower in the interior as on the coast.
Its ability to stand drouth, heat and frost is said to exceed
that of any of the conifers of the seacoast. It stands well in
the most exposed situations, as its roots run very deep into the
earth, and it is claimed that it does not sap the fertility from the
soil around its base, as with the blue gum. It is also said to be
less subject to frost injury than the Monterey cypress and pine.

All the foregoing are evergreen trees, and therefore afford
protection summer and winter alike. Of deciduous trees there
are many which may be well employed. The California black

Protection from Frost Injury. 407

walnut makes a very satisfactory growth both in the interior and
upon the coast, and is largely used for roadside planting. The
California broad-leaved maple (Acer macrophylla) is very beau-
tiful, rapid in growth, and dense in foliage, and the same is true
of the box elder (Acer negrundv), but probably both trees are
especially suited to the coast regions. Of the poplars, the
Carolina (Populus monilifera) is best, because of its breadth,
density of foliage, and comparative freedom from suckering.
The locust (Robinia pseudacia) is used to some extent, but its
suckering is very objectionable.

Quite a number of the larger-growing deciduous fruit trees
are used to some extent along the exterior lines of orchards for
the protection of the inclosure. The fig, the walnut, the chest-
nut, seedling almonds, and apricots are especially commenced
for such use.

Growing Trecs from Secd—Much that has been said in
Chapter VIII will be suggestive to one who desires to grow his
own shelter trees from seed. Trees from small seeds are best
grown in boxes, and in many cases, as with eucalyptus and
cypress especially, do best when put in permanent place when
quite small. Whether put at once in permanent place, or in
nursery, the land should be deeply worked and the young plant
well planted and cared for.

Cultivation of Shelter Trecs.—Ii one desires rapid growth
of shelter trees, they should be cultivated the first few years as
thoroughly as an orchard. Much disappointment results from
allowing roadside trees to shift tor themselves in a hard, dry
soil. With’ such treatment the root extension is naturally most
tapid into the cultivated orchard ground, which is undesirable.
Cultivate and enrich the roadside, and the tree will grow chiefiy
on the waste land. At the same time the roadside will be pre-
vented from producing vast quantities of weed seed, to be blown
over the fence, and the place will have a name tor neatness,
which is too rare even in California.

PROTECTION FROM FROSTS.

Much attention has been given during recent years to the
protection of citrus fruits as they approach maturity, and of de-
ciduous fruits as they are starting on their growth, from occa-
sional fall of the mercury a few degrees below the freezing point.
It has been shown by ample experience that fruits may escape
injury by a temperature of 28° if the ground surface is wet and
the exposure be but of short duration. Fruit has, therefore,
been saved by irrigation, while that over dry ground has been
nipped by the same temperature. About the same result has
been secured by checking radiation of heat by covering the or-
chard or vineyard with a cloud of smoke. Both these pro-

468 Best Way with Freezes.

tective measures fail when the temperature falls a few degrees
below 28° or when such freezing temperature is continued sev-
eral hours. During the last few years, at Riverside, systematic
invention and trial of frost prevention has proceeded, and the
most satisfactory results are thus described by E. W. Holmes :—

Satisfactory results have been gained by the use of soft coal, burned
in wire baskets suspended under or between the trees. When twenty
to forty of these to the acre were used, we occasionally raised the tem-
perature from three to five degrees. More has been claimed; but this
is all that I am sure has been achieved. However, in a section where
the temperature would not go below twenty-five or twenty-six degrees.
for a few hours, this method was ample. The outfit costs about ten
cents a basket, or four dollars an acre if forty baskets are used, and the
coal about two and one-half dollars an acre per night. The objection
is the labor of replenishing the baskets in case of their being used the
second night, because even if kerosene is poured upon the kindling, it is
no easy task to light four hundred fires with a torch. Four.men will
be required to do this in proper time. Still. this is the system more
generally approved here, and because definite and certain results have
been achieved through it.

This refers to the protection of citrus fruits, the value of
which as the crop is maturing will warrant the cost. With de-
ciduous fruits thus far only smoke and steam clouds from burn-
ing piles of damp rubbish have been employed, except in irn-
gated regions where, if the frost threatens while the ground is
dry, the limited efficacy of running water is resorted to. There
is ample field for farther experiment in all lines of frost pre-
vention.

Where there is trouble from early activity of deciduous trees
the trees may be kept dormant for a limited time by winter
spraying with whitewash, which reflects heat and thus prevents

» -activity. Experiment has shown that heat upon the aerial parts
of the tree start the growth; it does not come from the root as
was formerly supposed.

PART TENTH: MISCELLANEOUS.

CHAPTER XL.

UTILIZATION OF FRUIT WASTES.

Some progress has been recently attained in the securing of
horticultural by-products from various kinds of fruit wastes.
There is a considerable product of cream of tartar from the
pomace and lees of the wineries in central California. In
southern California citric acid factories are largely using lemons
rejected in packing, and some other by-products of citrus fruits
have been secured in smali quantities. Vinegar from wine and
cider are, of course, made here as everywhere in fruit countries.

There has arisen also a profitable demand for fruit pits and
apricot and peach pits, which formerly were burned, are now
selling profitably—machinery for cheap extraction of the ker-
nels having been contrived by California inventors. The ker-
nels are bought by agents of European manufacturers of oils
and essences.

The disposition of waste fruit by growers must, however,
always lie chiefly in the line of feeding animals, and refuse fresh
fruits of all kinds, and especiallv refuse dried fruits have nutritive
value which should not be lost. A statement of the value of
various fruits as compared with various cattle foods has been
prepared by Prof. M. E. Jaffa, of the University Experiment
Station, in the table upon the next page.

A good average of the pitted fresh fruits is represented by
prunes. Using the equivalents in the table below for computa-
tion, it appears that if wheat bran costs $15 per ton, fresh prunes
would be worth as a substitute $3 per ton; likewise, if cotton-
seed meal is selling for $21 per ton, the prune value would be
about $2.75. At the market price of oat hay, the figure for fresh
prunes should be nearly $3 per ton.

The dried fruits naturally rank iar above the fresh material
as stock feed. Of the dried fruits represented in the table,
raisins lead in food value; containing one and one-fourth to one

(469)

470 Talue of Waste Fruit for Stock.

and one-half times the nutritive ingredients of alfalfa and oat
hays, respectively; 100 pounds of the fruit being practically equal
to the same quantity of grain, but to only eighty-two and fitty-
nine pounds respectively of rice bran and cotton-seed meal.

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FRUITS, AND Hay, GRAINS MEALS, ETC.

100 PouNDS FRUIT EQUIVALENT TO POUNDS OF

Zl erilojeol wie ner
ne We 5 ° 5 Py 4 q at iae4 gigs
So ee Sol |) BaP oe) oe eee Be ae
pA
i i= m |.F ® : p 2» | 50 w Biss
nD rs p a | S tad iad aS) — pe ole
o Ba i :. Ge | ees) ie ot Or tee
ce 3 4 : 9 o
Eel so
Esa lee i a :&

FRESH FRUITS. |

Apricots..... 40} 23) 29] 17) 18} 20} Ig] 20) 19] I5! 11| I5
Nectarines .. 43} 26) 30] Ig] 20) 22] 21]; 23) 21] 17) 12] 17
Figs ...... 50] 30) 371 23} 24] 26} 25] 27) 25] 20] 14] 20

GrapeS.......... -| 50! 30) 37| 23) 24) 26] 25] 27] 25] 20] 14] 20
Watermelons............. 22} 13} 16| ro} ro] 1] «rz|/ 32) x1} 8 6) g
Nutmeg Melons ......... Ig] 11] 13} 8 9g} 9g] 9 Io| gf 7] 5] 7

DRIED FRUITS.

Dried prunes............. 175| I04| 125} 78, 82| 88] 84! 92] 84| 67| 48! 68
Dried apricots............ 194} 115} 138] 86! 90) 97] 93] 102) 93) 74) 53] 76
190] I13) 135] 85; 88) 95] 91] 100; 91) 72) 51] 74
see] 186] TIO} 132) 83} 85] 93) 89] 97| 89] 71) 50] 72
Raisins eo siasesveseie’ 216; 128] 153| 97} Ioo| 108) 103] 111] 103] 82! 59] 84

Dried apricots rank slightly lower than raisins, because
they contain more water. Apricots are, however, of equal value
as a feeding stuff with wheat bran, that is, the unsalable dried
gpricots are worth to the orchardist about fifteen dollars per ton
tor feeding purposes.

Prune-fed or raisin-fed pork is indeed an accomplished fact
in California. As to the acceptability of the fruit diet to the hog
what could be more pertinent and more fitting appendix to this
treatise than this little tale? It is stated that Mr. Balaam, of
Farmersville, used to have a pet pig that ran under the fig trees
near the house. When the fruit began to drop, he ate figs and
rested in the shade until he finally grew too fat to move about
to gather the sweet morsels. By this time his owner became so
much interested in the case as to carry him his regular-figs three
times daily. Gradually, he grew so fat that his eyes closed en-
tirely and he was blind and helpless.

Acorns, edible...
Alkaline Soils...

INDEX.

Alligator Pear.
Almond, The...

prewing frotn seed .. 71
ulling and bleaching 408
pruning .. .406
situations ‘and soils . 406
43

+409

Animals, injurious -459
Ants, killing .. 452
Apple i in California 187
drying ..........8 427

exposures for..
localities for.

second crop..

seedlings, BTOWINE: 69
shipping .. 193
soils for .... 189

Southern California.
storehouse for....
summer and fall.
table of varieties.
thinning ,
varieties ....

VARIETIES: Jn
Alexander ...
Baldwin ...
Ben Davis .
Carolina Red June..

Cayuga Red Streak..

Duchess of Oldenburg .

Early Harvest..........

Early Strawberry...

Esopus Spitzenburg .

Fall Pippin

Gravenstein .

Hoover..... +195
Jonathan... 195
King of Tompkins County.. 195
Lady .. 196
Lawver . 196

Maiden’s Blush

Rawles Janet
Red Astracan..
Red Bietigheimer -
Rhode aad sGaeeniig::
Romanite.. aevenees ee

Rome Beauty ..
Smith’s Cider..
Stark wu... 5
Swaar sissnsee
Twenty-ounce .
Vandevere ...
Wagener ......
White Astracan .
White Bellflower ..
White Winter Pearmain
WINESAP...cceeeeree seers
Yellow Bellflower
Yellow Newtown Pipp
VARIETIES: Californian.
Cook's Seedling .
Marshall’s Red..
Skinner’s Seedling
VARIETIES: Craés.
' Hyslop
Large Red Siberian.
Large Yellow Siberian
Montreal Beauty.
Transcendant..
Whitney’s .
Apricot .......
diseases of..
distances for.
drying ..
exposures fo
growing seedlings
Irrigation ........
localities for .
old trees .......
‘on almond root
pruning...
shot-hole fungus
stocks and soils for
table of varieties.
thinning
VARIETIES: Introduced.

Early Moo: ar
Hieuiekirice :
Large Early.
Large Early Montgamet
Luizet .....
Moorpark .
Oullin’s Early.
Peach.
Royal. .
Shipley

St. Ambro
VARIETIES: Catifornian.
Newcastle ..
Routier’s Peach .
Sparks’ Mammoth
Army worms...

Banana, The.......
Barberry, native.
Berries and currants
Birds, poisoning ...
Blackberry, The.
cultivation

(471)

472

distances for.
longevity of

propagation -390
pruning «391
wild ...... + 40

VARIETIES: Introduced.
Crandall’s Early.
Kittatinny
Lawton
Wilson

VARIETIES: Californian.
Evergreen
Mammoth ..

Borers...

Bones, tr i 158
Bordeaux Mixture... +456
Budding, common method. «76
June - 78
over old trees. » 85
SPlitigesstecnes 78

Bud, cutting toa.
Buds, dormant .

Cactus fruits...
Canned fruit product.
Canker worms.
Caterpillars ...
Chain for haxagonal laying out..
Chamisal and chaparral ..
Charcoal making .
Cherimoyer.
Cherry...
delayed
distances for...
exposures for.
gum disease
grafting the....
localities for
old trees..... .....
pests and diseases
pruning the.......
seedlings growing
slug ..
soils for the..
stocks for the ..
tables of varieties
wil
VaRIE
American Amber .
American Heart
Arch Duke......
Baumann’s May
Belle d’ Orleans

Belle Magnifique .
Black Eagle .... 225
Black Spanish .

Black Tartarian .
Burr’s Seedling.
Cleveland Bigarr
Coe’s Transparent...
Early Black Guigne
Early Lamaurie ...
Early Purple Guigne
Early Richmond...

Early White Heart ..
Elkhorn..

English Morello
Governor Wood

Kee s Hatly Black..
Late Duke

May Duke...
Monstrueuse de Mezel..

-Codlin moth.

| Cutworms

Napoleon Bigarreau
Oxheart ..
Pontiac ....
Reine Hortense...
Rockport Bigarreau .
Royal Ann...
Schmidt’s Bigarreau.
Tradescant’s Black Heart
Werder’s Early Black .
White Tartarian..
Yellow Spanish...
VARIETIES: Pacific Coast.

California Advance
Centennial..
Lewelling
Oregon....
Chestnut, The
Choco or Cayota
Citron, The :
Clearing land for fruit ..
brushy...
cost of...
steam puller
stump puller
with powder ..
time to cut to :
Climate, divisions of
of California, characteristics of.
of California, why mild
foot-hill
mountain ..
coast ..
valley .
value of..
Cloudiness, east and west
Coast pests and diseases

Composting...
Corner, to fin
Cranberries .

Crops between trees or vines.
Crystallizing fruit ..
Cultivation...
hillside ...
methods of.
shallow, results of

to retain moisture.
without plowing
Currants ...
culture of ..
regions for....
varieties pro
wild .
Custard ‘apple.

Cuttings, fruit trees from...

bearing age of ..
bearing in Solano County
blooming o
first fruit....
from seed..
from suckers
propagation of.
requirements of.
transplantin
Dewberry...
Diabroticas
Die-back
Drainage desirable..
Dried fruit (see fruits)
boxes for... scented ccdcaie tiv a ahisauialvsatlacesatentcne 427

Index. 473

covering
cutting sheds
dipping ...

grading and. cleaning.
packing..
product of.
sulphuring.
sweating.
trays for.
worm .....

Elderberries....

Fertilizers, in California........
caution in use of .....
for trees and vines
methods of a aus
value of green...
when necessary.

Fig.
bea. g

budding ....
caprification
dryin
foes of .
from cuttings
from seeds.
grafting... :
planting and pruning..
regions FOR si ecccevte
size of old trees
soils for...
varieties, full list of.

Filbert growing..

Frosts, protectio: ft

Fruit gardens, early...

Fruit interest, extent of.

Fruit tree acreage.........

Fruit products, valite: of,

Fruits, crystallizing...
drying.........
drying floors
graders ...
grafted, first in California
value as stock food..

Fruits, locations for.

Fruits, native .....-.-.

Fruit shipments, eastern

Fruit trees, dwarf ...

Gooseberry, The.
culture of.....
requirements of.
VARIETIES: /ntyc

Berkeley...
Champion .
wild ..

Go hers, killing.
pitfall for .-
trapping -

Grafting ..

waxed bands
Gratt, time to .
Gralts, planting out...
Granadill EBs
Grape. area of..
budding ..
conditions of ripening
diseases of..
distance.....
from cuttings
from layers ... 3-284

Grasshoppers, killing.
Growing season, long..
Guava, The..
Gummosis ....
Gypsum, uses of .

Hard-pan, breaking up.
Heat, deficient on coast..

Heeling in young trees
pera one planting
Hillsi

Huckleberries, wild .

from seed ..
grafting .
AMM EW so5073 cisecesneninrsenesavyeeeweccaigassveneseast 307
planting devices +294, 296
planting ih TOWS sc. cis. caneeieeay ewan veseds 295
products 56
pruning.. 298, 307
pruning, ge 302, 304
pruning, short = 301
resistant ......... vs +1293
rooting in nursery 287, 292, 295
SOiIS FOL... eee a 282
stakes, twine, etc. 305
sulphuring......... 307
summer pruning 305
SYTUP «... 433
varieties . 309
Wild avees 40
wine, varieties of.. 315
VARIETIES: /ntroduced.
Almeria ...... 3I4
Black Corint 314
Black Cornichon 313
Black Ferrara ... 313
Black Hamburg 312
Black Malvoise. 310
Black Morocco 313

Black Muscat...
Canon Hall Muscat.
Chasselas de Fontainebleau ..
Chasselas Rose.....
Chasselas Victoria
Cinsaut ..... is

Early Black J 309
Early Madeleine 309
Emperor......... 313
Feher Szagos 3IL

Flame Tokay...
Golden Chasselas .
Gros Colman ....
Huasco Muscat ..

Larga Bloom QTE
Mission «310
Muscat of Alexandria 310
Muscatel.. 310

Muscatel Gordo Blanco.
Muscat Frontignan .
Palomino...

Purple Corn
Purple Damascus.

Rose of Peru.. ae Gl 2
Sabalskanski .. 314
Sweetwater .. «+309
Sultana ...... 3IL
Thompson’s Seedless. -.3II
Verdal wu. 314
White Champion 6314
White Cornichon +313
White July... +309

White Malaga
White Tokay
VARIETIES: Ca
Isabella Regia

importance Ofzeies
summer, records of.

e€, TOWS on
use of triangle on..

474

Humidity, atmospheric ..
east and west
deficient .....
excessive.

drainage and

Index.

PAGE.
21323

flooding...
for citrus ‘fruits.

in early days.
in basins or ch
in furrows ..
in Heese
leveling for.
locating contour lines
manurial value of.
measuring ..
methods of.
nursery .......
reservoirs, small .
running ditches for
Subirrigation ....
suggestions for.
summer..

taken from
wells and pumps for..
wheels for.........
when desirable..
winter

Jajoba... wy
Jujube of commerce
Jujube, native.

Kai Apple....
Knife for cling peaches.

Lemon, The.
curing .......
planting and pruning.
propagation...... ......
situations and soils fo
VARIETIES: Introduced.

VARIETIES: Californian.
Bonnie Brae.
Eureka

Lemon berry.
Lice, leaf...
Lime, The.
VARIETIES:
Mexican.
Imperial .
Lime, uses 0
Loganberry..
Loquat, The.

Manure, care of.
Manuring at planting.
Manzanita berries.....
Map of orchard and

Marls......

Introduced.

Moisture lost a weed gro wth..
retained by cultivation..
Morning glory, killing
Mulberry, The...
Mulching after pla nting..

instead of cultivation..

Early Newington
Hardwicke...
Humboldt...
Lord Napier..
New White.
Stanwick ....

Nitrogen for fruits.

INUPSEDY > si scecseceecie

growing seedlings..
laying out and plant
pruning in...... .....

selection of site for.
soil, preparation of.
soil, proper for..
trees, ages of..
trees, digging.
trees, disinfecting.
trees, selecting.

when to plant in

Nuts growing in eau
growing from seed... - 7
OLVES a veceteoses ose
at old missions a
budding 33

from cuttings.

from seed 334
grafting .... 338
localities for: 334
oil making. 342
planting 339
pruning . 339
pickling..

small cuttings.
soils for....
truncheons
wild..
VARIETIES: Introduced.
Ascolano
Columbella .
Corregliolo
Empeltre .
Frantoio.
Grossaio
Leccino..
Lucques.
Macrocarpa.
Manzanillo ..
Mission .......
Nevadillo Blanco.

Pendulina..
Pendoulier
Polymorpha.
RAZZO «...-- 000s 350

laying out in squares.
alternating squares.
double squares.....
measure and sight
measuring wire....
quincunx planting...

Index.

time itor r
ran Planting...

diseases,
distances for,
from cuttings ..
from layers

from seed
nursery...

situation uid soils
transplanting
VarRietigs, Jntroduced.
Australian Navel .
Bahia...

Maltese Blood ...
Mediterranean Sweet
Paper Rind St. Michael
Riverside Navel
Ruby ...

Satsu
Tangerine.
Valencia Late ...
Washington Navel..

approved lists of.
curl-leaf.....
diseases..

distance in planting.
dormant buds,

gra

growing season of.
calities for...

Leela of..

mil 236
moth... 448
‘‘peach-almond ’’. 32
pitting clings... 544
pruning ..

seedlings = 70
soils for . 230

stocks for..
tables of va
thinning .....
VARIETIES: Introduced.
Alexander aii

Bilyeu’s Late October
Crawford’s Early.
Crawford’s Late
Elberta ..

George F
‘Hale’s Early...
Hardy Yellow

Heath ....... 243
Henrietta... ae 5B
La Grange .-.. se

Lemon Clingstone
Levy’s Late ...--

Mary’s, Choice rae
Morris’ White
Oldmixon Free..
Orange Clingstone..
Picquet’s Late..--- ---- re
Red Cheek Melocoton ......- 22. 240

alway oe

Smock Free. eae
SNOW, ceeeee cee tree et tee eee terete es 240

Strawhbe trys acca munascouniacernie ds Grew
Steadly..... srspchiee
Stump the World,
Susquehanna ..... .....
Tuskena: «sic sees
Wager.. ee
Wheatland.. Spite 2 :
Yellow St. John.. awa Wis Sy DOOR TeseiG eae
VARIETIES: Californian.
Albright’ S CIB: ciscuguh a ape tdasinnisy tae 243
Briggs’ Red May . iis
Cait e nis de

Early Imperia
Edward's Cling.
General Bidwell .. :
George’s Late Cling.

Honest Abe.
Lovell.. ... +0242
McCowan’s Cling. +6242
MOTT cass, sascisiorearctainte +241
McDevit’s Cling.. + 243
McKevitt’s Cling. . +6242
Newhall cc scsicaas, soos ‘i 241
Nichol’s Orange Cling 241
Peck’s Orange Cling.. +241
Persian’s Cling .... +243
Phillips’ Cling........ : +243
Runyon’s Orange Cling. +241
Sellers’ Golden Cling .. 241
Staley ... = 243
Stilson é fea +242
Wylie Cling......... : ‘ «+243
Yellow Tuscany . Siovede 24S
Peanut growing............ ies ee4IL
PORT iiccis: Sraitiunremnis wikis SB . 248
Bartlett, why popular. ........ ae wig 24D,
characteristics in Cabtorma 249

diseases ... .. an
distances for the kana
drying ..

for alkali. soil.
irrigation s\eie
largest on record .
localities for......
on quince stock oils
propagation of..
prunin
Be CONES: ERODES:

storing and ripening
tables of varieties
thinnin ue
VARIETIES: HUT OUEE ED:
Bartlett, .. aie
Beurre Bosc
Beurre Clairgeau..
Beurre d’ en Saitek
Reurre Diel..
Beurre Hardy . 4
Bloodgood ssa
Clapp’s Favorite.
Comet,
Dana’s Hovey... i
Dearborn's Seedling.
Doyenné du Comice .
Duchess d’ Angouleme. ‘
Easter Beurre.. :
Flemish Beauty... ao RR Bers
Glout Morceau ...
Harvest ...

Leconte... .. ig
Louise Bonne de e Jersey eee
Madeline.....

476
nner PAGE.
MONGA GA 24 se gssciiigie: Gad Gates £273)
POWs etsress asayacs aacienaiccelsee atreenenis deka 280
SOCKE, oi- ssreesterrereiceile ar, 258
Souvenir du Congress : 258

Vicar of Winkfield
White Doyenné.....
Wilder Early
Winter Bartlett...
Winter Nelis. > ea ate
VARIETIES: Californian.
Block’s Acme
P. Barry
Pecan, The
Persimmon, Japanese.
Persimmon, Virginian.
Phosphates :
Pineapple ..
Pine nuts.....
Pistachio, The .
Planting, ‘conditions favoring.
cutting back after
depth of tes
operation of seeisiol 4e0e
preparing land for
speed in
time for
use of manure.....
Plowing, devices for..
orchard and vineyard
on hillside
to break hard-
without dead furrows
Plow, laying off with .
Plums and Prunes....

California alee’ - 39
drying. oss -429
{TOM CHETOOE 26 tesyc woo 264
in southern California 262
localities for......... . 261
myrobalan .. 263
planting ... 265
pruning the 265
seedlings ..

stocks and soils. .
table of varieties.
wild
VARIETIES: Jntroduced.
Abundance
Agen, Prune d’
Bavay’s Green Gaze.
Botan so: Z 3
Bradshaw .
Bulgarian...
Burbank .
Columbia... ...
Coe’s Golden Drop.
Coe’s Late Red .
Damson
Duane’s Purple. ..
Fallenberg ...
German prune...
Green Gage.... .. ae
Grosse Prune a’ Agen ‘
Hungarian prune......
Ickworth Imperatrice. .
Imperial poe tered
Imperial Gage..
italian prune
Jefferson
Kelsey Japan ..
Normand
Peach nis
Petite Prune @ Agen
Pond’s Seedling...
Prince Engelbert og
Prune d’Agen
Prunus Simoni. ....
Quackenbos ....

Lhdex.

Red June
Red Egg
Red Magnum Bonum. --
Robe de Sergeant
Royale Hative....--.---+ +7
Satsuma .
Simon.

VE ictoria | is
Washington...
WiC eon as

ellow
VARIET ee Coast.

Burbank’s SeedlingS.--+- -+r++-eeere es
California Red..--- - : ‘

Golden prune.
Silver prune...... .
Splendor..... ..
Sugar prune
Tragedy prune .
pomnertanate, The..
Pomelo oe cae
Potash. .
Prickly’ Pear..
Pruning. i. sees oe
bearing trees.......
California style.
effects Ofer <
gathering brush .. E
influenced by location

nursery.

purposes ¢
saws, California.
times for....... 2
COOl Sirs 2's .
to renew old trees | ois
vase form, origin of..
vase form, securing..
wounds, covering ..

Quince. ae
demand for.
propagation.
PRUNING sre se ace
soils for. nae WEES Ge Wn eter Su Le oe iE
PDD Leis te seats Gio caascetlaie insyeadsd Ayia ae ingens 280

‘ Chatieion oa
Chinese .

~Orange..

Portugal. 280

Rea’s Mammoth... ....... s,s cesses, 280
VARIETIES: Californian.

Pineapple ssc. axanus s,s xge0-t4 . 280

West’s Mammoth se 24280)

Quincunx planting

Rabbit fences.. ehatsaishin #12” “aaebas SA canvases
Rabbits, destroying.
poisons for..
smears for
Rainfall, records o
Raisin making......
Raspberry, The.
black-caps......
culture of. . facets
varieties, popular.
wild
Red Spider
Root-knots

Salal

black
brown apricot
cottony cushion

PAGE. PA
PDO Rt ccrwialatnenne prayers Sesrentebantn seeameenen ae eames 446 Wil dias saereneniuen meer sn ore Reddy de
PEAT ci6% Sanh Satis . 443 | Strawberry tree ......... 2+ + +386
Oleander cisiiecn cae GuRweee --444 | Sunburn, protection from . 89, 112
orange, red... ca .-444 | Sunlight, value of direct. fants 20
Geer sets : .-445 | Sunshine, records of.. 22
oyster shell. ...... --443 | Temperature, lowest..... 20
aoe and berry vreees ‘ --444 | Temperature, records of.. : 012
pad ae pee ae PRMMINS Hee cas oe
Salmon berry. Tomato tree...... “388

aki ee eee
Sapota, white.,............... cece ‘ . 387 OV OM enter ase

Scions, care of..
selection of ............4
Seed, growing trees from..

Trees, activity and rest of ...
79) heeling in
- 80! selecting...
7° | Tree-setters...

. 102
Seedlings, imported ...... -. 72| Triangle for laying out. ves 98
Service berry..... : AO) "TE RESOCK, BNOE Nc neRe adie cmanceaiaiie waadiwinies 437
Soils for fruits . 27 | vi )

adobe. “35 | Vine (see grape

alkali . .. 37 | Walnut, black..

alluvial.. . 32} Walnut, English...

i 36) bacteriosis... .

bed-rock or h hard-pan. e
.. 28 bleaching.

Characteristics of California...

classification a Re aicpenncteeisau> .. 30| blossoms of..
cla ‘ oe BS culture and soils. seer
defective. .... .. 36| gathering and drying......
granitic .... if kG) propagation and planting. is
loams .. ibtbcater draecngasanatarnots dy 3 PEUTIN Bs oe se 3s suajeirusinneracdiow eine:
mesa.... qa Ghee 32| VARIETIES:
plains. . 31 Common or Los Angeles...-
TOG: cao F 32 French varieties...........-
river bottom... . 32 Japanese. .
sand-hill ridge.... és 32 Kaghazi .
sedimentary or silty.. kee BE Soft Shell....... :

Sour -SaDvicsveeawonsiencss ..457 | Weed killing by cult vation.

Squirrels, destroying. .461 | Weeds, evaporation by ..

Strawberry ........ - Wild fruits of California.
care of . - a Reto! cree is Soe Windbreaks ..... ....
continuous bearing fats Aaa URNSL aT ea ..gor |. trees for...... .
ATFIQAtiNg vis sene 03% ‘ ges 8403) Wine grapes...........
laying out for 402 Winery refuse as manure..
planting ..... + 403 Winter-killing, unknown..
propagatio 402 | Wire, measuring......... ot
situations and soils. «401 Woolly ap hisincsccauirwcasanayed sonoma cancers

varieties, popular. eee 405 | Yellow jackets, killing.................2..45

And California Fruit Bulletin

ESTABLISHED 1870

Thirty Years of Uninterrupted Success

THE ONLY WEEKLY PUBLISHED IN CALIFORNIA DEVOTED TO
AGRICULTURE AND KINDRED PURSUITS

wr eae Rake Pe A CAP a a
The Standard Authority ; Fruit growers the world &
on all branches of Pacific 5 over have long learned to
rural life. g k look to the Pacific Rural

“2 The author of this book @”" ; Press for reliable, practical °°”
~~ ee aR aR ‘ hal
has been the horticultural Q : information, and experi-
editor of the Pacific Rural 5 ence of individual fruit £
Press for the last 25 years. } growers.
F cf

A High-Class Illustrated Paper

Sent Post-paid to Any Part of America for One Year—52 Issues—for

$2.00

Paciric RURAL PRESS

330 Market St.
San Francisco, Cal.

TRUMBULL & BEEBE

GROWERS, IMPORTERS
and DEALERS in

Seeds, Trees and Plants
7a

Catalogue on Application

419-421 SANSOME ST.

San Francisco, Cal.

GroWers of Choice Vegetable Seeds

COX Sael) COC,

INCORPORATED 1890

Importers and Exporters of

VEGETABLE, FLOWER
FIELD and TREE SEEDS
CLOVER and GRASS SEEDS

OFFICE AND WAREHOUSE

All, 413, 415

Sansome St., San Francisco

Branch, 34 Gansevoort St., New York

‘Ohe Name “Alin er

$s a Suarantee of
Sxcellence

OLIVER'S ORCHARD and VINEYARD

Plows are Everywhere Acknowledged
to be the BEST. They are Strong,
Durable, Light Draft, Easy to Handle,
Made of the Best Material, and First-
Class in Every Respect.

We Supply Perfect Fitting Duplicate Parts

BEWARE OF ImiTaTIons. Take none
but the genuine, made only by the
Oliver Chilled Plow Works, and sold
only by our authorized agents.

oR
Gliwer Chilled Plow Works

(13 and 15 Main St., San Srancisco, Cal.

FANCHER CREEK NURSERY

FRESNO, CALIFORNIA

Offer a Complete Line of Deciduous Fruit, Olives, Citrus Trees, Ornamental
Trees and Grape-Vines. A well-selected assortment of
Palms, Roses, and Greenhouse Plants

We Offer Many New and Valuable Novelties
Send for Price List aud Descriptive Catalogue

a
GEO. C, ROEDING, Proprietor

OTASH er

is as necessary to plants as bread is to man.
Some crops need more potash than others,
but none can do without it.
(« The character of soils must also be con-
\ sidered, some soils being more deficient in
plant food (potash, phosphoric acid and
nitrogen) than others.

Every farmer should read our pamphlets
containing full particulars of the large
number of experiments made by Experi-
ment Stations with fertilizers on different

:
soils and crops.
: These pamphlets can be had free on application.

GERMAN KALI WORKS, 93 Nassau St., N. Y.

Messrs. Meyer, Wilson & Co., of San Francisco,
Calif., are our agents for the Pacific Coast

This is a Plow
And a GOOD ONE, Too

It will do better work and more of it than any other
tool ever put into the ground.

Lightning WSeders get all the weeds. We
have ’em 6, 8, 10 ft. cut

DON'T FAIL to see our California Special ‘‘Handy” Fruit and Farm Truck. We
make a specialty of tools for orchard cultivation

Write or call

Allison, Neff & Go., 27? SISSON SrReer

Byron Jackson = «=
achine Works

625 Sixth St, San FP rancisce, Cai.

cm

Wrought Iron Frame Supporting Motor,
Direct Connected to 8-inch Jackson Pat-
ent Balanced Vertical Centrifugal Pump.

ds

Manufacturers
of

CENTRIFUGAL
PUMPS

Single and Compound, both
Vertical and Horizontal, for
city water works, irrigating,
reclaiming, mining, dredg-
ing, pumping rocks, pulp, etc.
We make special pumps either
Single or Compound, Vertical
or Horizontal, for direct con-
nection to high-speed electric
motors or water wheels, for
any speed, capacity or head.
Our pumps are all fitted with
our

Latest Improved
End Thrust
...Counter Balance...

requiring no collars or thrust
bearings on either Vertical or
Horizontal Pumps. Our Pat-
ent Self-Oiling Bearings,
either Vertical or Horizontal,
are just adapted for Centrif-
ugal Pumps, Dynamos, Water
Wheels, or line shafting, and
require no attention after
once filled with oil.

oe . Send For
: Catalogue....

California Stump Puller

1S ECONOMICAL AND RAPID
FOR CLEARING OLD ORCHARDS

In the improved form in
which it is now offered to
the public, it is universally
admitted to be the most
practical, powerful, and
successful machine of this
kind in America, and the
only machine in existence
that can be successfully
operated on hill-land. This
stump puller is doing good
work in many places
throughout the Pacific
States and Territories,
Mexico, Central America
and the Hawaiian Islands.

FIRST PRIZE AWARDED AT ALL PATENT STEEL SNATCH BLOCKS
EXHIBITIONS PATENT STEEL DRAFT HOOKS

An Illustrated Catalogue with full particulars will be sent for the asking.

A. BARNES, [anager
16, 18 Zoe St., San Francisco

PACIFIC ene
NURSERIES | |

Office and Greenhouses and Sale Yard

BAKER and LOMBARD STREETS

San Francisco, Cal.

THE LARGEST STOCK on the Pacific Coast of Azaleas,
Camellias, Rhododendrons, Roses, Palms, both hardy and indoor
varieties; Araucarias and Ferns, Evergreen and Deciduous Shade.
Trees and Shrubbery for parks and gardens, in the best varieties.
Coniferous trees consisting of Cypress, Pines, Spruce, Abies, Ju-
niperus, Taxus Arbor Vitas, Cedrus, Retinosphora and Crypto-
merias in small and large specimen trees.

F. LUDEMANN

2740 Lombard Sty San Francisco, Cal.

GHAMPION
Spray and Whitewash

PUMP

The cut herewith illustrates
our spraying pump—the ‘tCham-
pion”’—and its adaptability to
j the work for which it is espe-

cially designed. As will be seen
from the illustration, the pump
is very complete and strong. It
is perfectly double acting and
has a brass-lined cylinder. The
motion of the piston is horizon-
tal, The handle is so arranged
that the leverage is very power-
ful, and the movement is easy and natural. The air chamber is unusually large,
admitting of the continuous discharge necessary for good and thorough spraying.
We carry everything connected with spraying; also many other pumps. Send for
special catalogue. wud inetd

Webster 2 1-2 Horse-Power
Gasoline Engine

$185

2% H. P. Simplest and Cheapest Gasoline En-
gine made. It requires no engineer. All expense
stops when engine stops. Ready on five minutes’
notice. No Ashes, Smoke or Dirt. Engine can be
left alone, while running, for hours. It is designed
for running Pumps, Printing Presses, Blowers,
Grinding Mills, Fanning Mills, Machinery of all
kinds—in fact, for general farm and other pur-
poses, This size engine with the proper size pump
will irrigate from 10 to 20 acres of fruit. Send for
Special Catalogue and Prices—Mailed Free.

We carry 5, 8, 12 and 15 Horse-Power Gaso-
line Engines in Stock
...SEND FOR CATALOGUE

Te

Send for
Catalogue
Mailed Free

With Ball-
bearing Bed
Plate and
Divided
Boxes

TANKS— Alt Sizes Send for Our Catalogue—Mailed Free

We also carry Tanks, Iron Pipe and Fittings, Brass Goods, Horse Powers, Deep Well
Pumps, Power Pumps, Electric nal Rac la a Hose, Etc.

312 d 314 MARKET STRE
WOODIN & LITTLE, 27 20024 ARG sreer

INCORPORATED 1884
500 ACRES

CALIFORNIA NURSERY CO.

Niles, Alameda Co., Cal.

TREES and PLANTS—Fruit Trees, Nut Trees, Wine,
Raisin and Table Grapes, Ornamentals, Shade Trees,
Evergreens, Shrubs, Roses, Climbing
Plants, &c.

SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS:

OLIVES -—A large collection of French, Italian and Spanish Vagieties
ORANGE AND LEMON TREES of All Leading Sorts

For Complete List, Send for Our Catalogues
ae om
JOHN ROCK, Manager

California Nursery Co., Niles, Alameda Co., Cal.

The Sun Always Shines .

on the Fruits and Flowers which
come from....

BURBANK’S EXPERIMENT FARMS

For the whole world of horticulture acknowledges their great
value. No establishment, public or private, since the dawn of
history, has produced so many Vegetables, Trees, Plants, Grasses,

Fruits and Flowers of
ACKNOWLEDGED
UNIVERSAL VALUE

The BEST are yet to come Catalogue FREE to all
a

Luther Burbank
Santa Rosa, Cal., U. S. A.

COMMENCES MACHINE WORKS
.. The Caltfornia Wine Press.-

(Patented)
Crushers and Stemmers Combined

Pd

OLIVE OIL MACHINERY speciaity
ae
TOULOUSE & DELORIEUX

Manufacturers

Continuous Wine Press—Saves its cost the first season. 620-622 Commercial St., San Francisco, Cal.

| 4 Fpow sr
PORTLAND ORG.

G P NT This plant consists of a ‘‘Union’’ gasoline engine with

S PRAY | N LA oil tank, battery circulating tank and pump, complete;

also a plunger pump for forcing the spraying mixture

For Trees and Vines into the receiver—or compression chamber—a pressure

gauge, a solution tank and pipes and fittings, all on a

F galvanized iron pan fastened to a wooden base, ready

to be put on a wagon and connect hose. This outfit will do the work of a dozen men at trifling cost. Any

desired pressure up to 250 lbs. may be had. The engine can be taken off and used for other purposes.
It is a 2% h. p. with sensitive governor and all latest improvements.

a

..WRITE..
FOR
PARTICULARS

&

Union
Gas _
Engine
Co.

316

Howard St.
BF

___ Pacific Reversible Disc Harrow

=z Showing Extension Head and Low Down Levers

. . California . . (Ser eS a SS spade
Circular Orchard Harrow Eclipse 14-Tooth Vineyard Harrow

=

1Ob

PIOOR BF ec CO.

16 and 18 Drumm St. San Francisco