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THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

THE FOREMAN AND HISJOB

A HANDBOOK FOR FOREMEN AND FOR LEADERS OF FOREMEN'S CONFERENCES

A COMPANION BOOK TO •THE INSTRUCTOR, THE MAN AND THE JOB"

BY

CHARLES R. ALLEN

SOMSTIUB AQENT FOB THE INDUSTBIAL TBAINmO OF BOTS AND HEN, UAB8ACBU8ETTS BOARD OF EDUCATION, BVPERINTENDENT OF ZNSTBUCTOB TRAININQ, U. S. B. B. EMEBGENCY FLEET COBPOBATION, SPECIAL AGENT, FEDERAL BOARD FOB VOCATIONAL EDU- CATION, AND IN CHABGE OF FOREMAN CONFEBENCES, EUFLOTUENT UANAOBBS SECTION, CHAMBER OF COMUERCS, HIAOABA FALLS NEW TORE

PHILADELPHU AND LONDON J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

COPYKIGBT,.I933i BT J. U. Z.IPPINCOTT CQUPAST.

PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOXT COMPANY

AT THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS

PHILADELPHIA, V. S. A.

PREFACE

The last few years have witnessed a greatly increased interest in the improvement of foremanizing and in the work of other minor executives in both industrial and commercial organizations. This interest has led to the development of a number of different plans for accomjilishing this purpose. Among these plans had been the development of what has come to be known as foremans conferences, in which foremen or other minor executives are brought together under the direction of a "conference leader" for the discussion of mat- ters affecting the factors entering into the efficiency of their work and the methods whereby those elements could be worked out to the best advantage under their own special working conditions.

It has been my good fortune to be connected with work of this special type to a considerable degree, either as a conference leader, as an adviser to various industrial plants where such work was conducted, or in carrying on work whose purpose was to train both plant representatives and representatives of public educational departments to organ- ize and to carry on this work.

As this work has developed it has become evident that, while the program for each plant should be specially based upon the particular organization of that plant, the special character of its product, and the special procedure or standard practice, the different subjects taJcen up for dis- cussion must be projected against some sort of a classified lay-out of the job of a minor executive or foreman.

It has also appeared that there is a need for bringing together material drawn from the results of such con- ference discussions and conclusions to serve as a suggestive guide to anyone having the responsibility for conducting

VI PBEFACE

such conferences. It has further appeared that under many conditions, suggestive "notes " and other " instruction ma- terial " could be used to advantage, if used in the right way.

The material in this book therefore consists essentially of points raised and discussed in foremen's conferences organ- ized around a fairly comprehensive, but by no means com- plete analysis of the foremans job and is intended to be of service to the conference leader in carrying on the work, to the members of the conference group, and to aid in the making up of programs for a series of conferences.

While not intended for a "reading book" it is hoped that it may be of service to foremen and other minor executives who may be interested in getting a " bird's-eye view " of their jobs and who are interested in ways and means whereby their work may be carried on to better advantage.

Since it is not expected that the different chapters will be, of necessity, taken up in the order in which they are given, a certain amount of repetition has been necessary. An endeavor has, however, been made to hold such repetitions down to the necessary minimum.

It may be noted here that while this book deals more directly with the problems of a foreman in an industrial plant, the questions raised and the suggestions made apply almost exactly as well to any one who has supervisory, mana- gerial and instructing responsibilities whether in the plant or in the office or even in commercial establishments, and that the discussions deal in general with the problems that come into the field of any executive. This is true, of course, because the problems with which any executive or super- visor has to deal are largely independent of the particular kind of work that he has under his direction. NiAGAKA Falls, N. Y. Nov. 1, 1921.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PARTI THE FOREMAN AND THE PLANT

CHAPTEB PAGS

I. — The Foreman and the Plant 3

II. — ^Thb Foreman's Jobs . lo

PARTI I

THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS

ni. — The Departmental and the Job Analysis . . . 31

IV. — Maeinq the Analysis op a Supervisory Job ... Si V. — Making the Supervisory Lay-out for the Job of a

Given Foreman 77

VI. — ^Making the Analysis op a Managerial Job ... 86

Vn. — The Further Extension op the Analysis ... 97

PART III

PUTTING OVER THE SUPERVISORY JOB

Vni. — Tying Up Procedure a^jd Responsibilities . . . Ill

IX. — The Conditions of Effective Supervision . . . 116

X. — Cost Elements and Managerial Problems on Supervision 123

PART IV

THE ANALYSIS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORKING

FORCE BLOCK INTO SPECIFIC AND DETAILED

RESPONSIBILITIES

' XI. — Detailed and Specific Responsibilities on the Distri- bution op the Working Force 137

XII. — Cost Elements and Managerial Problems on the Dis- tribution of the Working Force 145

PART V

THE ANALYSIS OF THE INFORMATION BLOCK INTO SPECIFIC AND DETAILED RESPONSIBILITIES

XIII. — Specific and Detailed Responsibilities on the Hand- ling OF Information 179

XrV. — Cost Elements and Managerial Problems on the Hand- ling op Information 190

VII

Pin TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART VI

THE ANALYSIS OF THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK INTO

DETAILED AND SPECIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES XV. — Specific and Detailed RjESPONSiBiLiTiBa as to the Phy- sical Condition op the Woeking Force . . . 229 XVI. — Cost Elejvients and Managebial PsoBLEMa on the Phy- sical Condition of the Working Force . . . 243

PART VII

THE HUMAN FACTORS (CONTINUED)

XVII. — Specific and Detailed RBspoNsrBUjTiEa as to the

Mental Attitude of the Working Force (Morale) 296 XVIII. — ^Thb Human Factor Block. Cost Elements and Mana- gerial Problems on the Mental Attitude of the Working Force. Leadership and Interest . . 303

XIX. — The Human Factor Block. Cost Elements and Managerial Problems on the Mental Attitude of THE Working Force. (Continued) Satisfaction . 328 XX. — The Human Factorb. Cost Elements and Managerial Problems on the Mental Attitude of the Working Force. (Continued) 349

XXI. — Cost Elements and Managerial Problems on Orders, Directions and Suggestions as Human Factor Elements 362

PART VIII

THE DETAILED ANALYSIS OF THE TEAM RELATIONS BLOCK (COOPERATION)

XXII. — Specific and Detailed Responsibilities on Co-opera- tion 383

XXIII. — Cost Elements and MANAGEHLiL Problems on Co- operation 391

PART IX

XXIV. — An Illustration of the Application op the Method of Analysis to a Human Factor Managerial Prob- lem. Carelessness on the Job .... 439

PART X

THE INSTRUCTING JOB

XXV. — The Instructing Job 461

XXVI. — EynciENT Instruction 468

XXVII. — The Instructing Process 475

TABLE OF CONTENTS ix

XXVIII. — ^Thb Insthuctob's Tooia . 486

XXIX. — Picking Out the Best Methods and Lines op Approach

FOR A Given Instructing Job 498

APPENDIX A

The Use op This Material in Foremen's Conferences. 509

APPENDIX B

A Classified Lay-out op Sobib Possible Supebvisort Respon- sibilities in a Foreuan'b Job. 517

PART I THE FOREMAN AND THE PLANT

CHAPTER I THE FOREMAN AND THE PLANT

This book does not undertake to tell foremen how to dis- charge their duty ; it does take up a number of points affect- ing the foreman's job that a large number of foremen have thought worth careful consideration and discussion in con- ferences. It therefore deals with three of the most im- portant factors in production, supervision, cost control and instruction.

Since a foreman has to do all three of these this book deals with the foreman and his job — the foreman because so much depends upon the way in which he puts over his job and the job because the more that a man thinks about his responsibilities and how best to discharge them, the better work he wiU do. To avoid any misunderstanding at the start it should be stated here that this book does not deal in any way with the methods by which trade processes and operations are carried on ; that is, with ways of doing pro- duction jobs. It assumes that all foremen possess the neces- sary "job knowledge" as to the different jobs under their supervision. In matters relating to the foreman's job how- ever it is hoped that the questions raised, the suggestions made and the conclusions reached in a large number of fore- mens conferences may be of value to other foremen in assist- ing them in thinking about their jobs and trying to find ways and means to put those jobs across in the best way.

The Foreman's Job. — As far back as we have any knowl- edge of the history of the human race, men have taken materials, done something to this material with the aid of tools or some sort of equipment, and so have turned out a product. They made something out of something. How- ever crudely this was done, it was, in fact, just as much

4 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

manufacturing as the production work carried on in our modem plants, and whenever the job called for several people to work together, there was a group of workers all working for the final thing that was to come out of the work of the group. That is, this group constituted a pro- duction team just as much as the operating force in a depart- ment in a modern plant makes a production tekm.

When such a production team got together to put over a job, it was.natural to select some one man as the "leader," so that the work could be carried on to better advantage, because, under such an arrangement, each man could be put on the part of the "team job" that he could do best, or some one man could do the planning for the team, or all members of the team could look to one man for orders or directions. Possibly, if the leaders was especially skilled on the different team jobs, he could also show team members who were not up in their work how to do it better, or could teach some job to some green member of the team.

This group leader, even in those days, it will be noted, had to plan, direct and sometimes instruct, so that he was, in all essentials, the foreman of that team, although, of course, he did not go by that name, so that the job of a foreman is as old as the human race.

Conditions have changed. Where in those days only a few crude tools were used, now we have complicated machines ; we have delicate processes ; instead of small groups, we have large numbers of people brought together in manufacturing plants or other business concerns; but through all these changes and developments the foreman has kept his job. There has always been a group leader, and a leader's job; the job has been there no matter what particular name it was known by.

The Foreman. — ^Although the job of a foreman has always existed, the name "foreman" is, itself, a very old one. In the days of the old trade guilds in Europe, when groups of workers wanted a representative to speak for

THE FOREMAN AND THE PLANT 5

them, they chose one of the number — ^usually one of the older or better workmen — to " come to the fore " ; that is, to be the foreman. In descriptions of ceremonies in connection with these old trade guilds, there is mention of the different groups of workers, "led by their foremen," taking part. Not only did foremen represent different working groups, but on some occasions groups of foremen got together, each fore- man representing his own group, to discuss matters on which the different working groups had interests in common, so that the foremen's conference is as old as the word foreman itself.

The Foreman in the Plant. — ^In the old days of small shops, where the employer ran the "business end" and the foreman "ran the shop," when matters for discussion came up, the foreman was the natural representative of the men ; he often "spoke for the shop" to the employer, and the employer often "spoke for the business" to the men through the foreman — ^that is, the foreman stood between the "Man- agement" and the "Force."

As industry has grown so that one foreman could not handle all the jobs, instead of running the whole shop, he has charge of a part of the shop ; his team only forms a part of the "big team," so that in a plant of any size one foreman has charge of transportation, another of maintenance, others of the different production departments ; but in spite of this "splitting up" the foreman's job is still practically the same — ^he has the same kind of responsibilities, although he does not have to spread himself over so much ground. To the management he still represents the men; to the men he still represents the management; and he still has responsi- bilities both ways, and all foremen recognize this double re- sponsibility in cal'rying on their work.

The Term "Foreman." — The man or woman holding a position carrying the sort of leadership responsibilities described in the last paragraph — that is, a foreman or fore- woman— ^is known by different titles in different industries, so.

6 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

to avoid confusion, so far as this book is concerned, he is always referred to as a foreman. The term "foreman" therefore, as used all through the book should be understood to mean any individual man or woman who stands next to the working force, and so has the double set of responsibilities described above — ^to the men on the one hand and to the management on the other.

"Superiors." — Of course, in most plants there are other men who stand between the foreman and the management, and who have, in a general way, the same sort of responsi- bilities, such as supervisors, assistant superintendents, superintendents and so on.

Such individuals will be referred to as superiors, and who- ever comes immediately above the foreman, as the term will be used, wiU be referred to as the immediate superior.

The Foreman a Manufacturer. — ^Within the limits of his job any foreman is, in the real sense of the word, a manu- facturer, because he is responsible for taking stock (or other things) and seeing that something is done to it, so that it is different from what it was before, and doing this with the aid of tools, equipment and men. The fact that this changed material may go to another department for further work, or that if: is not the final product of the plant, makes no difference. This statement would even hold for a shipping department or a maintenance department, because when a machine is repaired it is changed with the aid of equipment and men ; when a piece of stock is moved it has been changed as to its location ; when a finished product has been boxed up and marked, ready for shipment, something has been done to it with the aid of tools and men.

In order to get out his product, or to get his jobs done, whatever those special jobs may be, a foreman, so far as the doing side goes, has the same responsibilities and problems as any manufacturer. He must deal with material, operations and processes, tools and equipment, and, last but not least, he must deal with men. Within the limits of his particular

THE FOREMAN AND THE PLANT 7

job, as determined by the special organization of the plant in which he is eipployed, he has, in a sense, the problems of a general manager — that is, he has delegated to him that part of the responsibilities and problems of the management that go with his own special job.

In this connection a foreman is in a particularly im- portant position on the team, because he is what is sometimes called a "key" man. The idea of a key man comes, of course, from the notion of the keystone of an arch. If the keystone is poor, the arch will eventually fall. A key man is, therefore, a man who, on account of his position, holds the same place in a team that the keystone holds in an arch, and a foreman is a key man largely on account of the fact already pointed out, that he stands between the management and the working force just as the keystone stands between the two sides of the arch. A key man can, by virtue of his position, particularly affect the success or failure of any team job by his attitude toward that job; he can do more than anyone else to make it a success or a failure.

The Foreman as a Key Man on the Team. — ^As just stated, the foreman is a "key man" because, by virtue of his position, he can obstruct or assist the effectiveness of the work in many ways more than any other one individual in the organization. For example, it is desired by the manage- ment to promote an interest in safety devices and their use among the working force. The foreman's attitude will go far towards "making" or "breaking" the proposition. He can even outwardly "be for it," and yet, by his remarks made to the men (or made to others in the hearing of the men), kill the proposition. !

If he says that "it is all foolishness," the men will think that it is all foolishness. If he thinks that it is a good thing, and in his talk "boosts" the proposition, the men wiU think as he does and boost it, too. By whole-hearted cooperation with other departments, say the service department, he can help that work along; if he "knocks" it, he can almost put

8 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

it out of business so far as his men are concerned. Many foremen and forewomen have much more influence in this respect than they realize, and so often fail to help things along as much as they might, not so much because they intend to block things, as because they do not always take the time and trouble in the pressure of their work to fully inform themselves as to such matters and do not realize how much their attitude towards them affects the attitude of the mem- bers of the working force, especially where it is a matter in which their cooperation is necessary to make the proposition a success.

The Foreman in American Industry. — ^Many people believe that if our industries are to compete successfully in the future with foreign manufacturers, we must turn more and more to higher grades of manufacturing, while, in the past, American industries have been largely devoted to turn- ing out partly finished products — steel, lumber, and so on — leaving it to other countries to take our product and work it up into high-grade articles.

' This change is going on now, and more and more we are turning ou,t higher-grade products. Less steel billets and more steel ball-bearings ; Jess baled cotton and more high- grade cloth ; less hides and more shoes are coming out of our factories, and in the development of this higher and higher grade of production skill the foreman, by his efficiency and skill on his leadership job, will become a more and more important "success factor," and any man who has a fore- man's job can, with truth, feel that he has an important place on the "firing line" in American industries, and that what- ever he does to help himself to do a better foreman's job helps not only himself and the partidular plant in which he happens to be located, but helps the whole of American industry as well. We must perfect processes, but it must be the foreman who sees that they are correctly carried out; we must have first-class men on the job, .but it is the foreman who must see that the conditions are such that these men can do a first-

THE E'OREMAN AND THE PLANT 9

class job. We must invent new types of equipment, but the foreman is the man who must see that it is operated effectively and not abused. We must cut down turnover and save the cost of continually changing our force, and the foreman can do more than any other one man to bring this about. For all these reasons and for many others the American foreman in the American plant can do as much, if not more, than anybody else to enable our industries to make good under the new conditions.

CHAPTER II THE FOREMAN'S JOBS

Preliminary. — The last chapter dealt with the foreman in the plant and pointed out some of the responsibilities and opportunities that go with his job. Like anybody else in a "team" a foreman has, in his particular position, cer- tain kinds of responsibilities that go with that particular job, and this chapter, in a general way, deals with these responsibilities and with what has to be done to discharge them efficiently.

What is a "Job"? — ^As used in this book the word job, in a general way, means anything that a man is paid to do. In this sense, everyone connected with the plant has a "job," from the head of the organization down. The general man- ager has a "job," the office help have "jobs"; workmen and hdpers have "jobs"; foremen, supervisors and tool- room attendants have "jobs," and so all along the line.

Work Jobs, Service Jobs and Production Jobs. — ^A work job, as the term is used in this book, is any job that is car- ried on by a member of the working force. It may be an operator's job, a laborer's job, a skilled job. In any plant however there are many work jobs that do not deal directly with the product, such as maintenance jobs, and other jobs that do deal directly with the product.

For convenience in discussion it will be found desirable to distinguish between these two kinds of work jobs by call- ing those jobs that deal directly with the product, that get the product one step further along in the manufacturing process, production jobs, and to call all other kinds of jobs service jobs. Production jobs are carried on to get the product; if the production job fails, the product is not

10

THE POEEMAN'S JOBS 11

obtained. Service jobs make the product come out easier, but do not change the stock. Examples of such service jobs would be transportation jobs, store-room jobs, main- tenance jobs, crane operating jobs. We have therefore:

WorkjobsP^^^'=^J°^«- [^Production ji

Production jobs.

The Working Force. — People who are paid to carry on work jobs may be called workmen or members of the working force to distinguish them from people who are paid to discharge other kindsi of responsibilities.

Responsibility Jobs and Work Jobs. — In general, in any concern, there are two kinds of jobs which may, for conveni- ence, be called responsibility jobs and doing jobs, or work jobs. Doing jobs, or work jobs (both words means the same thing), are, of course, jobs carried on by the members of the operating or working force. As described in some detail later, these doing jobs are made up of operations, and, as a result of these operations, the stock or whatever is worked upon is changed in some way and a product obtained.

Responsibility jobs, however, are not made up of opera- tions, but of responsibilities. Where, in laying out a work job, we would list out the operations, in laying out a respon- sibility job, we would list out the responsibilities. By re- sponsibilities we mean that the man on that job is paid to see that something is done — ^but not to do it himself.

The Foreman's Job Not a Work Job. — ^Like every- one else who works for a living, the foreman has a job — that is, he is paid for doing something; but his job differs from that of the members of the working force because he does no direct work jobs himself. His job as a foreman does not require that he touch a tool or operate a machine himself, except, as pointed out later, in the special case where he acts as an instructor.

A Foreman Has a Responsibility Job, Not a Work

18 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Job. — ^From the preceding statement it is evident that a fore- man has a responsibility job, not a work job, as the terms are used here. He is paid for discharging responsibilities and for the skill with which he discharges them just as a man on a work job is paid for carrying on the operations or processes that go with his job in a workmanlike manner. Wherever the word job is used in connection with the duties of a foreman it should be understood that it refers to the discharge of some sort of responsibility, and not to the carrying on of a work job.

The Foreman's Possible Jobs. — A foreman may have any or all of three responsibility jobs as follows :

1. He may be responsible for seeing that work jobs are carried on correctly — that is, for getting the product of those jobs of standard or required quality. To put it in another way, he may be responsible for "spotting" any conditions that may prevent work jobs from being carried on in the best way or for noting the fact that these j obs are being carried on in the proper way. This sort of responsi- bility will be called supervisor^/ responsibility, and a responsi- bility job that is made up of these sort of responsibilities will be called a supervisory job.*

2. He may be responsible for discharging his supervisory responsibilities in such a way that, while these jobs are cor- rectly carried out, the cost will be made as low as possible. This cost-reducing responsibility will be called managetial responsibility, and any job that is made up of cost-control responsibilities will be called a managerial job^

3. He may be responsible for putting over to others job knowledge, or training them so that they get job skill; that is, he may have to imstruct. This sort of responsibility will be called instructing responsibility, and a job that is made

* The term supervisor as used in this book should not be confused with the position of supervisor as it is sometimes found in the organiza- tion of plants, especially in chemical plants. As the term is used here a supervisor would be a swperior, with regard to a foreman.

THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 13

up of these sorts of responsibilities will be called an instructing job,

A "bikd's-eye view" of the foreman's job Knowing his supervisory job

The Job

Supervision

Management

Instruction

Putting over his supervisory job Knowing his managerial job

Putting over his managerial job Knowing his instructing job

Putting over his instructing job Knowing the Job and "Putting the Job Across." — ^If a man has any one of the three kinds of jobs given in the last paragraph, he has to be able to do two things :

1. He must know the job; that is, he must know exactly what his responsibilities are.

2. He must know how to "put the job across."

If he does not know what his job is, he cannot properly discharge all of his responsibilities, because he does not know what they are. If he knows his responsibilities, but "does not , know what to do with them after he has got them," he is just as badly off. If he is to handle any responsibility proposition effectively, he must first get, in some way, a list of his respon- sibilities, or SL'responsibility lay-out, and then he must have the necessary knowledge and the ability to apply that knowl- edge so that the job will be put across properly.

The sort of knowledge that a man needs to enable him to put a responsibility job across properly will be called Auxiliary Information.

The "bird's-eye view" of the foreman's job given above indicates the possibilities, and the three possible jobs as shown there are discussed in the following paragraphs.

14 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Supervision vs. Management. — It is sometimes hard to get the distinction between supervision and management because in practice any foreman usually carries on the two sorts of jobs together. When the distinction is once clear however, it is easy to apply in any given case. The super- visor " spots " things, the manager does something about those things. Whenever there is need for improvement, for example, a foreman, as a supervisor, "spots" the fact that a certain machine is wearing out. If he failed to do this he would have fallen down on his job as a supervisor. In "spot- ting" the condition of the machine he has discharged his supervisory duty. But having done this he still has the responsibility, as a manager for not allowing that condi- tion to go on, but for doing something about it. If he gets the machine out of commission in such a way that his produc- tion is held up as little as possible, if he gets out his work order at the right time, so that the machine is repaired at just the right stage of depreciation, so that the whole job is carried out at the least cost, he has done a good managerial job. If, on the other hand, he does not do these things at all, or if he does them in such a way that the cost is greater than need be, he has done a poor managerial job.

Again, a foreman "spots" the fact that some of his men are getting dissatisfied; he does this in the discharge of his duty as a supervisor. He " dopes out " some way of fixing up this situation so that this dissatisfaction is reduced or cut out entirely. He does this in the discharge of his duty as a manager.

Again, he is responsible for certain stock that may be damaged by water. He " spots " the fact that, as it is stored, it is in danger. He does this as a_ part of his- super- visory job. If he did not see that the stock was in danger he would have fallen down as a supervisor. He plans out a way to save that stock from damage; he does this as a manager.

THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 15

As a supervisor a foreman therefore sees things; he is a "see man" ; as a manager he is a planner. As a supervisor he is an "observer" ; as a manager he plans to deal with the things that he observes so that cost can be held down to a minimum.

Of course, in carrying on his supervisory duties a man is as responsible for noting conditions that are right as for spotting conditions that can be improved. Where super- vision showed that everything was exactly right there would be, of course, nothing further to be done and so good manage- ment would be to do nothing. Management for improvement therefore comes in only where supervision shows that there is a chance for improvement.

The Supervisory Job. — Supervision means "looking over," seeing the whole thing in all its parts, and so being able to keep things going right, so that the job can be done at all.

For example, if a foreman in a machine shop was respon- sible, as a part of his job as a foreman, for the quality of the steel required for the different jobs, and, through his mis- take, the wrong kind of steel was used, so that the required product could not be obtained — that is, the job fell down entirely — that foreman would have fallen down as a super- visor. Again, if in a machine shop a foreman were respon- sible for the accuracy of the products of different operations, as, for example, where a job called for shaping, milling, planing and grinding, and, through his failure to properly inspect, the products of these operations were of the wrong size and had to be junked, he would have failed on his super- visory job. Again, if a foreman were responsible for the number of men in his team, and he failed to provide men enough to keep all the jobs going, he would have failed as a supervisor.

A man fails as a supervisor, therefore, whenever, through his neglect or slip, any of the jobs for which he is responsible fail to deliver the required product; that is, where those jobs do not get done at all, not of necessity because somebody

16 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

did not do something to some sort of stock, but because, so far as getting the required result is concerned, they might just as well have done nothing. Whatever was done was a dead loss.

Putting Over the Supervisory Job. — ^If the foremen in the illustrations given above fell down because they did not know that they were responsible, the dead loss referred to was due to the fact that they did not know their jobs; but if they knew that those particular responsibilities belonged to their jobs and forgot them, or did not think of the matter in time, or actually did not know enough to tell that the quality of the steel was wrong, or that the machined parts were outside of the accuracy limits, or that there were not men enough to man all the necessary jobs, then they fell down, not because they did not know enough about their jobs, but because, for some reason, they failed to put their jobs across properly, and so got the dead loss already referred to.

The Different Kinds of Supervisory Responsibilities. — While it is true that aU supervisory responsibilities are the same in the sense that they all relate to getting the job done it is also true that these supervisory responsibilities relate to different things, and so vary in the kind of supervision called for. In a general way these different kinds of responsi- bilities may be stated as follows :

1. Supervisory responsibilities on stock. Such responsi- bilities might include the duty of protecting stock from damage or loss, seeing that the necessary amounts were available as needed to keep the jobs going, seeing that the quality was right and so on.

2. Supervisory responsibilities on operations and proc- esses. Such responsibilities might include seeing that the product was according to specifications, authorizing the starting or stopping of an operation, or seeing that the operations used were the proper ones.

3. Supervisory responsibilities on tools and equipment.

THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 17

These might include the prevention of breakdown or of damage that will prevent securing the required product.

4. Supervisory responsibilities as to the kind and num- ber of workers necessary to get out the product. These might be, for example, seeing that all workers had sufficient knowledge or skill to properly carry on their jobs, or that there were enough workers to keep all jobs going.

6. Supervisory responsibilities on the handling of information. These might include for illustration, the fur- nishing of certain reports, or of making certain records, or of giving or transmitting orders or directions.

6. Supervisory responsibilities on the human factors. These might include such responsibilities as seeing that workers are interested in doing a good job, that they are satisfied to stay with the plant and that they are not suffer- ing from disease or illness.

7. Supervisory responsibilities as to instruction. These might include seeing that all green men are instructed in their duties, that men who are more or less experienced are given pointers on jobs that are a little different from these that they are used to and so on.

Possible and Actual Supervisory Responsibilities. — By combining the supervisory responsibilities of foremen in a number of plants that have different organizations it is possible to get what may be called a lay-out of possible supervisory responsibilities from which a foreman in a given plant can pick out the particular responsibilities that go with his particular job. We may have therefore possible responsibilities that any foreman may have and actual responsibilities that he does have under the special organiza- tion and procedure of the plant in which he is employed. A number of these possible responsibilities are suggested in the charts given in Appendix B.

2

18 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

The Managerial Job. — ^As has already been pointed out, while supervision deals with responsibilities for getting the job done at all, management deals with the question of get- ting it done as cheaply as possible, provided it is done as it should be done; that is, as the term is used in this book, management has for/ its purpose getting the job done at minimum, cost. A supervisor thinks of the job, a manager thinks of the cost of the job. For example, a foreman in a pattern shop is responsible for the stock on which the men draw. He allows this stock to be exposed to the weather, so that some of it gets warped or checked, so that it cannot be used. Unless it was all spoiled, and he could not get any more in time to prevent a shut-down, the jobs would not stop, but the cost to the concern would have been run up, because that part of the stock that could not be used cost money and had to be paid for whether it was used or not. This failure to properly protect the stock would be, as the terms are used here, poor manageToent, not poor supervision. In the illus- tration as to men in the preceding paragraph, if there were enough men, but they were so distributed that there were too many men on some jobs, so that they were loafing, and not enough men on others, so that they were overworked, such a situation would be due to poor management, because the cost of getting out the product would be increased. Again, in the case of the machine parts, if the foreman was "lost" when the time came to inspect a finished intermediate product before it could go on to the next operation, and the workman had to stop and wait for the foreman to turn up, that would be poor management on the foreman's part, because "time is money," and the cost of the finished product would be in- increased, although the job would have been done and , done right.

Management, therefore, means, as the term is used in this book, discharging a supervisory responsibility in such a way that cost is reduced to a minimv/tn, although the job is stUl properly done.

THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 19

Putting the Managerial Job Across. — Just as in the caSe of supervision, a foreman may slip up in management, either because he does not know his managerial responsibilities (or more often because he does not realize them), or because he does not put his managerial job across as well as he might. For example, in matters relating to the discharge of men, many foremen have not realized that every time that a man quits for any cause, there must be a replacement cost for train- ing another man to take his place (unless it is a case of per- manently reducing the force), and that that replacement cost goes into the overhead, and so have not handled cases that resulted in quitting or discharge in such a way that the cost to the plant was kept down to the minimum. Again, many foremen have not realized the cost-reducing value of legible records and reports, or in seeing that all tools and equipment are in good condition, so far as was possible within the fields of their responsibilities. To the extent to which any foreman fails to discharge his managerial responsibilities, so as to get the best results as to cost reduction under the con- ditions under which he has to work, he can be said to have fallen down to a greater or less extent in putting his man- agerial job across.

One Difference Betv^een Supervision and Management. — It must be evident from the preceding discussions that super- vision is a definite thing — either the job gets done or else it doesn't get done. There is no half-way business about it, whereas management is always a case of doing the best that you can. Supervision must be either good or bad ; manage- ment may be of aU degrees of effectiveness. In management a man must often guess at how to put the job across, acting on all the information that he has and using his experience to the best advantage. In supervision he practically always knows what ought to be done, though he may not always do it.

As a supervisor, therefore, a foreman is concerned with making his supervision "100 per cent" ; as a manager he is concerned with making his management as good as he can

20 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

make it, but he never expects to discharge all his managerial responsibilities on a 100 per cent, basis.

"Czar Reed," who was for a long time the Speaker of the House of Representatives, once was asked what made a good Speaker, and he is said to have replied that a good presiding officer was one who made 51 per cent, of his decisions cor- rectly. A foreman as a manager can do better than that, but there is no need of feeling discouraged if there is a failure in handling all managerial problems as effectively as ther could be handled, or if, in looking back, he can see where ht "made a fluke" on some managerial case. We all learn from experience, and it is always a case of "better luck next time."

What is Meant by Cost Elements. — The word cost ele- ment as used here, means anythvng that will cause cost to go up or down, according to the way it is managed, or " handled. " For example, carrying more stock than is required makes cost go up, because it ties up capital ; carry- ing too little stock, so that the production is slowed up because some machines cannot get stock to work on, also makes cost go up. These two things are cost elements on stored departmental stock.

Having more men than can be used to advantage, or putting high priced men on low priced jobs, or putting a low skilled man on a high skilled job, increases cost. These things are cost elements on men. Again, not running machines on full duty, or using the wrong m{|,chine for a given operation, or carrying a high idle load, makes for cost increase; they are cost elements on equipment or operations.

It should be understood that some of these things may happen either when the foreman cannot help it, or when he is doing the best he can under the circumstances, but never- theless, the cost is affected according to the degree to which they are done, and if they are done, as a rule, somebody's management is not as good as it might be.

THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 21

The Foreman's Managerial Problem. — ^Managerial prob- lems vary, according to the kind of jobs ; " managing " a boat would mean one set of problems ; " managing " a politi- cal campaign, another set, but in production work, all managerial problems finally head up into cost, because it is the business of any concern not only to turn out a good product, but turn out that product at minimum cost.

Sometimes, it is hard to see that certain things do actually affect cost; for example, it is only recently that turnover has been regarded seriously as a cost element, or that the con- dition of the buildings as to light, air, etc., actually affects cost of production, but it is becoming recognized generally, now, that they do. All these points are fully discussed in later chapters and it is enough to point out here, that when a foreman studies out his managerial problems, he will always find, that if he " chases them down to the end " they all relate to cost, though sometimes, he has to do some "chasing," before the fact is clear.

Supervisory Responsibilities, Managerial Responsibili- ties, Cost Elements and Managerial Problems. — ^It is evi- dent that, for every supervisory responsibility, if cost is to be considered, there is a corresponding managerial responsi- bility for carrying out that particular kind of supervision in such a way that cost is kept as low as possible and still the job is done right. This means that if the supervisory responsibilities are known, the corresponding managerial responsibilities are also known. One makes the other. Mana- gerial responsibilities in turn make it necessary to work out ways and means for discharging those responsibilities as effectively as possible, that is, they set up managerial prob- lems in each case. These managerial problems can only be dealt with effectively if the particular cost elements that affect cost in that case are known and it is clear as to just how they affect cost, and unless all of these things are cleared up the results will not be satisfactory.

22 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Of course, whether the same man has to deal with both supervisory and mailagerial responsibiUties is a question of organization but, under any ordinary conditions, somebody has to take care of both, so the statement as made above appHes whether both are handled by the same man or by different men, or whatever the particular arrangement happens to be.

"The Managerial Formula." — As a sort of summary of the statements made above we might indicate the rela- tion of supervisory responsibilities, managerial responsi- bilities, cost elements, managerial problems, and ways and means as follows:

Whenever the discharge of a supervisory responsibility shows that anything should be done to improve things this at once sets up a managerial responsibility to do something to improve matters, this at once sets up a managerial prob- lem to first determine the cost elements and then to work out ways and means for reducing the effect of these cost elements to a minimum or, when possible, to cut them out entirely, or, as a sort of a formula,

Supervisory responsibility = managerial responsi- bility = cost elements = a managerial problem = ways and means. The Instructing Job. — ^Under most conditions a foreman has, in addition to supervisory and managerial responsibil- ities, some sort of instructing responsibilities, though quite often he does not think of himself as an instructor. For example, he may have to give special instructions to workmen where the job is in some way out of the regular run, or he may have the responsibility of "breaking in green help," or of instructing apprentices. On another side, he may feel some responsibility for advising men who wish to secure additional training as to how they can get it the best and the cheapest. Where he has any responsibilities of this sort, they are neither managerial nor supervisory, as the terms are used in this book, but are teaching or Instructional responsibilities,

THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 23

and whatever these instructing responsibilities are they make up his instructional job.

Most foremen feei that because they are not called "teachers" and do not teach in a "school," that they have nothing to do with the teaching game, but there are practi- cally no foremen who are not doing some sort of instructing right straight along, for it must be remembered that an instructor, or teacher, is merely somebody who has the job of putting over what he knows or can do to somebody else who does not know or who cannot do.

Putting Over the Instructing Job.* — ^As in the two other cases, a foreman needs not only to know his instructing re- sponsibilities but also how to discharge them in such a way that the instruction, whatever may be its special nature, will be>^carried on as effectively as possible. In order to do this, a foreman needs to be able to know some of the "tricks of the teaching trade" — that is, some things that teachers have learned in order to do a good teaching job. The extent to which a foreman who has any instructing responsibilities will succeed in putting across his instructing job effectively wiU depend, therefore, on the amount of knowledge that he pos- sesses of the "teaching tools" and the skill with which he can use them in discharging his instructing responsibilities.

The Foreman's Department. — For convenience, when- ever reference is made to the group of jobs and workmen for which a foreman is responsible, the term department will be used in just the same sense in which it is used in many plants, even though the particular group of jobs that he has charge of does not go by that name in his particular case, as when the term "shop" or "shed" or "room" is used, or where his department is named from its special product, as "alum de- partment," "acid department," etc., as is common in many chemical plants, or by operations, as "weave room," "spin-

* For a complete discussion of ways and means for putting across the instructing job anyone especially interested is referred to the com- panion book " The Instructor, The Man and The Job."

24 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

ning room" in many textile mills, or "slip room" or "clay house" in potteries. Sometimes the foreman's department, as the term wiU be used, is called a "shop," as "the carpenter's shop," "the boat shop," "the boiler shop," and so on, as is common in navy yards and in railroad shops.

Just as the term foreman is used in this book to cover all the different names by which a foreman's job is known in different lines, so the term department will be used to cover the group of materials, operations, tools and equipment and men that make up his team, and for whom he is responsible.

How Foremen's Jobs are Alike. — ^At first thought, any- one would think that two foremen having in their departments entirely different work jobs, different kinds of equipment and*' different operations and processes would have totally differ^ ent supervisory, managerial and instructing jobs. In view of the statements made in this chapter, a little consideration will §how, however, that these responsibilities are practically the same, regardless of the particular sort of work carried on in the foreman's department. It follows from this fact that foremen from different departments can get together and discuss their supervisory, managerial and instructional prob- lems and "pool experiences" in working out ways and means for handling their jobs to better advantage. Since this is sometimes a somewhat difficult point to see, the following illustrations may be of help :

Why all Foremen's Jobs are Alike. — ^The statement that "all foremen's jobs are alike" means that while the different work jobs in different departments are different and the job knowledge required in order to know whether or not these work jobs are being done right wiU, of course, be different for each department, so that from the standpoiut of job knowl- edge each foreman must have a different "brand," they all have some kind of supervisory responsibilities, some kind of managerial responsibilities and generally some kind of in- structing responsibilities.

In many cases, at least, the ways and means for lining up

THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 25

the responsibility job, or the managerial job, are the same, and the problems as to how to put managerial or supervisory jobs across effectively are quite independent of the nature of the special work j obs in this foreman's department or in that foreman's department. For example, if there is a managerial problem on how to deal with absenteeism, it makes little or no difference what particular job the man was absent from. This would be equally true for a supervisory responsibility on the quality of product — if a number of foremen all had that particular kind of responsibility, the way in which that responsibility could be effectively discharged would have very little to do with the particular tests that would be used in inspecting. This would be also true of instructing.

If a number of foremen all had instructing responsibil- ities, the teaching "tricks" that they would need to use would be the same, whatever the particular jobs that they wanted to teach.

In a general way it is, therefore, true that any group of people who have supervisory responsibilities, or managerial responsibilities, or instructing responsibilities, have the same sort of jobs, although the particular work jobs that they have under their charge may be entirely different.

How Foremen's Jobs do Differ. — ^Although, as just stated, all foremen have, in general, the same kind of jobs, it is also true that foremen in different plants and even some- times foremen in different departments in the same plant do not have the same number of responsibilities, nor are the responsibilities that they have all of the same kind, because of the different ways in which different plants are organized. It is even true that in some cases all the supervising respon- sibilities go to one man, all the managerial to another and quite often a large number of the instructing responsibilities are turned over to a special training department.

In general, however, all the foremen in a given plant will have about the same responsibilities ; that is, they have about the same supervising, managerial and instructing jobs, but

26 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

their range of responsibilities might be considerably diiFerent from those belonging to the foreman from another plant. On this account, foremen from one plant can "get together" closer in discussing their foreman's jobs than can foremen from plants where the organization is very different in the different plants.

The way in which responsibilities may be discharged, or the procedure, very often varies in different plants. For example, in some plants a foreman may, according to the procedure in that plant, hire men directly — "at the gate." In other plants, according to the procedure, he may draw a requisition on an Employment Department. As in the case of responsibilities, the procedure is likely to be the same in the same plant for all foremen.

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

PARTI

1. What is the essential difference between a workman's job and a foreman's job?

2. A foreman directs a man to load up a truck with cans of paint and take the load to a certain address. Does he do this as a supervisor or as a manager?

3. Would a foreman put in a requisition for more raw materials as a supervisor or as a manager? How would it be if he timed his requisition so that it would be filled before he ran out of material?

4. If a foreman failed to secure a product of the right quality could he be criticised as a supervisor or as a manager? Why?

5. A man loads a truck in such a poor way so that a part of the load falls off and is damaged. The foreman gets him transferred to another job. Does he do this as a super- visor or as a manager? Why?

6. A department is running on sixty per cent, capacity and all equipment units are running on less than full capacity. The foreman cuts out certain units and gets

THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 27

the same output on the remaining units at full capacity. Did he do this as a supervisor or as a manager? Why?

7. A foreman notices that a man seems to be falling off in his work. He has always been a good man up to this time. In noting this is the foreman acting as a super- visor or as a manager?

8. In the case just given the foreman takes pains to find out what the matter is and sees that the man being ill goes to the doctor. Does he do this as a supervisor or as a manager? Why?

9. A foreman tells a competent man to do a certain job. Is he instructing the man? Why?

10. He finds that the man is not familiar with certain parts of the job and "wises him up." Is he instructing the man in this case? Why?

11. A foreman finds that one of his men is doing poor work because he is sleepy. Does he note this fact as a supervisor or as a manager? Why?

12. In the case just given the foreman looks into the matter and finds out that the man is doing a lot of outside work. Does he do this as a supervisor or as a manager? Why-

13. He talks with the man and gets him to give up the outside work. Does he do this as a supervisor or as a manager ? Why ?

14. A foreman finds that owing to his being a poor writer a number of his orders are not read correctly and so he takes to using a typewriter. Does he do this as a super- visor or as a manager? Why?

PART n

THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS

CHAPTER III

THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS

SECTION I. THE METHOD OF ANALYSIS

Preliminary. — The general method of analysis is of such great service to all persons who are charged with supervisory, managerial or instructing responsibilities, and the use of the analysis method is of such great value in dealing with super- visory and managerial problems, that every foreman should understand it and get in the habit of using it in his work. In general, the method of analysis stands against the "guess method" to which reference is made in a number of places in this book, because it substitutes exact knowledge for guess- ing, and gives a base on which action can be taken with a much greater certainty, that it is the best action that can be taken under the circumstances. The following chapters, therefore, take up the method of analysis as applied to those sort of jobs with which a foreman has to deal, this chapter dealing with the departmental and the work job analysis, other chapters taking up the analyses of managerial and supervisory jobs.

What is an Analysis? — ^An analysis simply means deter- mining what anything is made of. When a chemist makes an analysis of a substance, he merely finds out what is in it by the use of the different tests which he knows how to use ; in the same way the principle of analysis can be used in finding out what other things besides substances are made of. For example, the analysis of a trade is made by "taking account of stock" as to what a person must be able to do and what he must know to be a first-class man at that trade. Of course, nobody can furnish this information except a first-class

31

82 THE FOREMAN AND THIS JOB

workman at that trade, and an analysis adds nothing to what such a man knows — ^it merely lists it out. If the trade were that of a carpenter, the person making the analysis, who is usually the carpenter himself, but who may be some- body else sitting in with the carpenter, notes down all the jobs that a carpenter has to know how to do. If it were plumbing, or book-binding, or machine-shop work, the same listing of jobs would be carried out. If, in addition to the jobs themselves, there were certain trade terms that he must know, oi; names of operations of which nobody would know the meaning except a man in the trade, or special methods of figuring out that belonged to the trade in question, or any other special auxiliary information, these would also be listed. In the same way any job can be analyzed — for example, the job of lighting a safety match on the box, or opening a door, or making a batch of biscuits or setting a stick of type. Again, a managerial problem can be analyzed into its cost elements, or a department analyzed for the different work jobs that it carries on.

The Classified Analysis. — ^A properly made analysis gives us all that goes with the "job" (trade, problem, work job, responsibility job, etc.), but, if the information is of more than one kind, the different kinds would be all mixed up if we stopped there, so, in most analyses it is necessary to list out these different kinds of information under classification head- ings and so get a classified analysis.

What is a Classified Analysis?— As just stated, a classi- fied analysis is simply a list where the contents of that list are arranged under some sort of headings. For instance, suppose it was desired to make a list of the jobs in the plumbers' trade and these jobs were listed as soil-pipe jobs, terra-cotta jobs, flexible-pipe jobs, rigid-pipe jobs, installing jobs, and so on, we would have a classified analysis of that trade so far as jobs go. In the same way, responsibility jobs can be classified as supervisory responsibility jobs, man- agerial responsibility jobs and instructional jobs, supervi-

THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 33

sion, management and instruction being, in this case, the classification headings used. Of course, different classifica- tion headings can be used according to the special sort of an analysis that is required.

What are Classification Headings? — Classification head- ings are, therefore, merely the labels or "pigeon holes" that we use in making a classified analysis, and they serve the same purpose as the different bins or sacks into which a mail clerk throws letters for different places.

The Necessity for Making an Analysis Complete. — ^Like ainy other "half-baked" job an incomplete analysis is worse than none at all, because you think that you have got some- thing that you can depend on when you can't; hence, when any analysis is made, it is very necessary that it should "tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth," and this is often a very difficult thing to do, especially if the per- son who makes the analysis knows the thing to be analyzed thoroughly. For example, the better a man is on his j ob, or at his trade, the more trouble he will have in making a com- plete analysis.

The Difficulties in Making a Complete Analysis. — The fact that "the more a man knows about his job the harder it is for him to make a complete analysis" seems very strange until it is explained, but the reason is very simple. It is one thing to know and quite another thing to "know what you know." A man who has learned how to do things by doing them, as a rule, "just goes ahead and does them" without thinking much about how he does them or just what he does. He is not in the habit of "taking stock" of his job or of any- body else's job. On the job he uses his knowledge and skill so unconsciously that he hardly gives a thought as to how he does it or why he does it that way. He works, so^to speak, automatically, and the more experience he has had on the job the more automatically he works and the more he is "stumped" when he tries to analyze out what he does. This is true of everybody: in proportion as we have got so that

3

34 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

we do a job unconsciously we can't tell off-hand how we do it. How do you tie a four-in-hand tie ? How do you put on your collar? Just what do you do when you start an automobile? What do you do when' you take a pocket-knife and shatpen a pencil? Questions like these "sprung" on anybody will "phase" them for a moment and sometimes stick them en- tirely. The fact that a man has trouble in making an analysis of his job does not mean that he does not know the job, but only means that, on the job, he has been thinking of getting it done and not about what he did to get it done. A green man who has done a new job for the first time has thought about what he did ; an experienced man has thought about getting his j ob done.

The fact that most men have trouble in making analyses at the start simply means that they have to learn to look at the job from a new angle. They must, so to speak, "take the job out of themselves," and stand off and look at it, and this takes practice. While the "analysis habit" is sometimes hard to get, and it takes time and patience to get it, when a man has once got it, he will find that it is a "life-saver" in many ways, a number of which are suggested in different parts of this book.

SECTION II. THE DEPARTMENTAI, ANALYSIS

Preliminary. — The object of a departmental analysis is to get a classified list of all work jobs in a foreman's department. Since, according to the nature of the product and the organ- ization of the plant, one department may turn out only one product or more than one, we must first get the departmental production job, or jobs, then find out what payroll jobs go with each departmental production job and, if one payroll job covers more than one work job, we must find the work jobs in the payroll jobs.

This relation of departmental production jobs, payroll jobs and work jobs is indicated in the chart on page 40. The making a departmental analysis are, therefore, as given in the following paragraph.

THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 35

Steps in the Departmental Analysis. — The departmental analysis is carried out according to the following steps :

First. If the department handles more than one product, the entire work of the department is divided into de- partmental products, giving the analysis for depart- mental production jobs.

Second. A list is made of all the payroll jobs that are carried on in the department in order to get each depart- mental production job, giving the payroll job analysis.

Third. Wherever a payroll job consists of more than one work job, a list is made of these work jobs under each payroll job, giving the work job analysis.

The classification headings here are :

(1) Departmental production jobs.

(2) Payroll jobs.

(3) Work jobs.

Departmental Production Jobs. — ^Every department in a plant is operated to get one or more distinct products ; that is, it has one or more distinct departmental production jobs. Therefore, a departmental production job may be defined as the job of getting out one distinct departmental product, as distinguished from other products that may be turned out ir; the same department. For example, a machine-shop depart- ment might turn out only one departmental product, say gears, or one type, of sensitive drills or gas engines, or one type of automobile bodies, in which case, the department would have only one departmental production job, because all the work jobs in that department were carried on for the purpose of turning out one kind of product. On the other hand, if a department were turning out six distinct types of automobile bodies, each type requiring a different kind of work job, or if it were turning out gears, connecting rods, pistons and crank-shafts, or 2-, 6-, 8- and 12-H.P. gas engines, then there would be six departmental production jobs in the first case and four in the second and third, since, for

36 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

example, making crank-shafts calls for totally different work jobs from making gears, and making pistons calls for still another set of work jobs as compared with those required to make either of the other departmental products.

For another example, an acid department in a chemical plant may turn out only sulphuric acid, in which case it has only one departmental product and so only one depart- mental production job, but, on the other hand, it might turn out sulphuric acid, nitric acid, muriatic acid and acetic acid, in which case there would be four distinct departmental products and so four departmental production jobs.

In the case of a job shop, of course, each special order for a complete job would be a departmental production job.

Therefore, it is evident that, according to the character of the product and the degree of specialization, a foreman may have from one to a large number of departmental pro- duction jobs, and some of the more probable cases are dis- cussed in the following paragraphs :

Conditions Affecting the Number of Departmental r*ro- duction Jobs. — ^According to the conditions, departmental production jobs are determined in different ways, but in gen- eral we have one of the following situations :

There is only one departmental production job. This situation is generally true in cases of continuous produc- tion, as in a department in a cotton mill. Usually a weaving department turns out cloth, a spinning department yarn, and so on. This would be true in a platemill, or in different departments in a pottery, or in most cases in an assembling department. It should be noted here that the amount of product does not affect the number of departmental jobs, nor the different grades of product so long as the kind of product remains the same.

There are several different kinds of departmental production jobs. For example, suppose a weave room were turning out twelve kinds of cloth (varying pattern, quality, grade, etc.) ; this department would have twelve depart-

THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 37

mental production jobs, regardless of the quantity turned out from day to day. In the same way, a department in a paint factory might turn out red lead, white lead by the Carter process, white lead by the Dutch process, and in this case would have three departmental jobs. That is, we get a different departmental production job:

(1) If the product is different.

(2) If the product is the same, but is turned out by a different prpcess, or a different set of work jobs.

Departmental Production — Varying Jobs. — This condi- tion would come up in a job or repair shop, and would go with what may be called Elastic Equipment. Such a condition would occur in an automobile repair shop or in a job machine shop. Under these circumstances, it is evident that there can be no such thing as standard depart- mental production jobs, and they cannot be listed because there are none; but payroll jobs and work jobs that can be done can be listed in general terms; that is, a list can be made of the sort of jobs that the department is prepared to do under some sort of classified headings as discussed in the paragraph on work jobs. Under the conditions that exist in a job shop, it is evident that no list of departmental produc- tion j obs can be made, and under such circumstances this step can be omitted in making the departmental analysis.

Payroll Jobs. — The term "payroll job," as used here, means simply the name by which any worker is carried on the payroll. Examples of payroll jobs might be, in a cotton mill, loom fixer, bale-breaker tender, spinner, helper, etc. In a pottery, payroll jobs might be jigger man, modeler, slip mixer. In an electrical power house, water tender, fireman, switchboard attendant, oUer. In a machine shop, payroll jobs might be lathe hand, tool maker, grinder hand, tool- room boy, and so on.

Of course, the special names of payroll jobs will vary with the particular plant, but for any plant there are names

38 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

covering all that each man is paid to do that are carried on the payroll, and so, of course, are readily obtainable.

Of course, where a man follows a skilled trade, the payroll job is the name of his trade, as pattern maker, carpenter, pressmdn, plumber, etc., and where a worker is employed only on one specialized job, the payroll job is often the name of his work job, as discussed in the next paragraph.

Work Jobs. — ^As the term is used here, a work job means any one distinct job that a man is paid to do.- For example, in getting out a sensitive drill, some of the work jobs might be planing bases, turning columns, cutting gear racks, as- sembling, etc.

Any payroll job may, or may not, consist of more than one work job, as discussed in the following paragraph.

Work Jobs and Payroll Jobs. — In many cases a worker employed for a given payroll job actually does a number of work jobs. For exaniple, a tool maker (the payroll job) does a distinct production job, or work job, for every tool or jig or fixture that he gets out. In considering the matter of work jobs in payroll jobs, it is possible to strike any one of the following :

(1) The payroll job is the same as the work job.

(2) The payroll job covers two or more definite work j obs.

(3) The payroll job covers any number of work jobs. Case one would be illustrated by a weaver in a plain-goods

cotton mill. He is carried on the payroll as a weaver, and he has just one job — ^weaving on a plain loom.

Case two would be illustrated by a decorator in a pottery, who, under that name on the payroll, might stripe, put on decals and stipple, or by a meter-clock assembler, who as- sembles several different kinds of meter clocks, each kind being a different work job.

Case three would be true for any skilled trade, as, for example, machinist, carpenter, plumber, etc., who are carried

THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WOBK JOB ANALYSIS 39

on the payroll by the name of the trade, and who may have any work job that belongs in that trade.

Analyzing the Payroll Jobs into Work Jobs. — Evidently for case one no analysis is necessary, since the payroll job is the same as the work job, and, in such cases, this step is not required, and the payroll job can be analyzed into operations and operating points, as described in the fol- lowing paragraphs.

For case two all the work jobs that belong in that payroll job should be listed out.

Case three puts up a very long and difficult problem because the pay roll jobs cover all possible jobs in that trade, calling for what is called a complete trade analysis. However, fortunately for any purposes for which the use of the job analysis is suggested for the use of a foreman, such a complete trade analysis is practically unnecessary, though, it is necessary for a trade instructor. *

For any suggested uses of the j ob analysis for the skilled trades, as suggested later, it will be sufficient to list out sample typical jobs, such as, for example, in lathe work, turn- ing with face plate and dog, chucked jobs, back-gear jobs, hand-feed jobs, power- feed jobs, and corresponding general jobs on the other machines, on bench work, etc., and to analyze a typical standard job of each kind.

Such analyses are sufficient to serve for such matters as distribution of supervision, safety, determining job require- ments and so on, as discussed later.f

As a result of these th fee steps,, there is obtained a classi- fied list of all the work jobs in the department, as indicated in the diagram below — that is, a departmental analysis.

* For a full discussion and description of the methods for making such a complete trade analysis, see " The Instructor, The Man and The Job," Chapter VII.

fFor a very complete sample trade analysis, see Federal Board Bulletin No. 52. Theory and Practice of the Machinist's Trade. Copies can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price ten cents.

40

^'

THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

SUG&ESTIVE LAY-OUT FOR A DEPAB.TMKNTAI. ANALYSIS

This illustration shows a lay-out for a department turn- ing out three distinct kinds of product, the first with three

The De- partment

Departmental Production Job No. 1. (Three dif- ferent kinds of payroll jobs.)

Departmental Production Job No. 2. (Three dif- ferent kinds of payroll jobs.)

Payroll job A.-f (Six work jobs.)

job job job

Payroll job B, (T h re e work jobs.)

Work No. 1.*

Work No. 2.»

Work No. 8.»

As many as there are in payroll job A — ^say 4.

ob

o b

Work j

No. 1.J Work J

No. 2.t As many as

there are in

payroll job

B — say 3.

Payroll job C. (Two work jobs.)

job

Work

No. 1.* Work job

No. 2.*

Payroll job D. ^^eTaSeifth^iWorkjob.^ work job.)

Payroll job E. (Two work jobs.)

Payroll job F. (Three work )

Work job

No. 1* Work job

No. 2*

Work job

No. 1.* Work job

No. 2* Work job

No. 3."

Payroll (One job.)

job G. work

Work job."

Departmental! Production J o b I No. 3. (Only one] kind of payroll job.) I

* Note that this refers to the different kinds of jobs without paying any attention to the number of jobs of each kind.

•f Note that this refers to the different kinds of payroll jobs. j The department turns out three distinct kinds of products.

THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 41

different kinds of payroll jobs, the second with three and the third with one. The first payroll job has four work jobs, the second has three and the third has two.

For the second product the first payroll job is the same as the work j ob, the second has two and the third has three. The third product has one kind only.

SECTION ni. JOB ANALYSIS

Preliminary. — ^Just as the ability to make and use a de- partmental analysis is of service to a foreman in connection with planning his work, so he will find it equally desirable to be able to analyze work jobs.

According to the special purpose for which the analysis is made, there, are a number of possibilities, among which are the following, as discussed in other chapters :

(1) The Safety Analysis.

(2) The Supervisory Analysis.

(3) The Instruction Analysis.

(4) The Job Requirement Analysis.

All of these analyses are based on what may be called a Job Analysis, and this section describes a method of making such an analysis.

Making the Job Analysis. — ^As in aU other cases, making an analysis means merely "taking an account of stock," or listing out what has to be done, and this particular analysis is carried out by the following steps :

First, dividing the work job into operations.

Second, dividing each operation into operating points.

Third, dividing the operating points into two kinds, machine operating points and human operating points.

These steps are described and discussed in the follow- ing paragraphs :

42

THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

A SUGGESTIVE FORM FOR LAYING OUT THE ANALY- SIS OF THE OPERATIONS IN A JOB

Operations	Operating points
Machine	Human
Operation Number 1	Point No. 1 Point No. 4 Point No. 5 Point No. 7	Point No. 2 Point No. 3 Point No. 6 Point No. 8
Operation Number 2	Point No. 1 Point No. 2 Point No. 4	Point No. 3 Point No. 5

This represents a two-operation job, having eight oper- ating points in t!he first operation, of which four are machine- operating points and four are human-operating points. In the same way, operation number two has, out of a total of five, three machine- and two human-operating points.

In an actual lay-out of a definite job, each operation and operating point would be named sufficiently to identify it. Thus, in operation number one, point three might be "Pulling release lever" and point four, "Discharging onto apron." Points seven and eight in operation one are indicated as simul- taneous operating points — one machine, the other human.

The Departmental Analysis and the Job Analysis. — ^It will be readily seen that making the departmental analysis and making the job analysis are two distinct pieces of work.

THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 43

The departmental analysis can be made without analyzing the jobs and any given job could be analyzed without making a departmental analysis.

For the purposes for which the analysis methods are used in this book, it is usually necessary that both the depart- mental and the job analyses be made, though, as will be dis- cussed in later chapters, it is not always necessary to deter- mine the operating points on all jobs.

Operations in Work Jobs. — ^An operation is a part of a work job that carries the job along one step, and most work jobs consist of more than one operation. As a rule, when one operation is completed and another one started, the character of the work shifts. Successive operations call usually for the use of different tools, or a different kind of skill, or sometimes iboth. For example, in a machine shop, on a planer job, setting up the work on the table would be one operation, adjusting the tool or the tools another, adjusting length of stroke another, setting feed another, operating the machine another, and so on. (Again, in a chemical plant, in making white lead by the Carter process, we might have for opera- tions: (1) burning, (2) carbonating, (3) grinding, (4) washing, (5) pressing; so that in this case we might have a five-operation job.)

Illustrations of an Analysis of a "Work Job." — ^Assuming that the job to be analyzed is operating a typewriter, the, successive operations might be as follows :

1. Inserting paper.

2. Adjusting paper.

3. Typing.

4. Removing finished job.

And the above list of operations would constitute an operation analysis of that job. <.

For another illustration take telling timp by an "open face" watch, which analyzes as follows :

1. Taking hold.

2. Taking out of pocket.

44 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

3. Getting into reading position.

4. Reading the time.

6. Returning to pocket. Which would be the operation analysis for that job.

It should be noted that where operations are repeated, as in the case of typing, the operations are only listed once, though , they may be repeated a great many times before the job is finished.

Distinguishing Between Operations. — ^As stated above, when new tools or a different kind of skill comes into play, this indicates the end of one operation and the beginning of another. For example, on the tjfping job, different parts of the machine are used for each operation as listed, and in the case of the watch operation one calls for one kind of manipu- lation ; operation two for use of the hands ; operation three for eyes, and operation four for a different use of the fingers from operation one.

Frequently it is also true that each operation in a work job calls for a different sort of auxiliary information. A man might know how to tell time, but might not know how to get the watch out of his pocket.

For example, in typewriting, inserting the paper calls for one sort of knowledge and one kind of manipulation, and is carried out for one purpose, resetting the carriage for the next line is done for another purpose, requires different man- ipulation and calls for a different sort of knowledge.

Number of Operations in Work Jobs. — The number of operations in most work jobs rarely exceeds eight or ten, but is rarely only one. An example of a one-operation job would be pushing a push button, or a wall switch, but such cases are rare in industrial work jobs.

Kinds of Jobs that can be Analyzed. — ^Any job can be analyzed into operations whether it be a production job, or some other kind of a job, such as reading a blue-print, figur- ing out a problem, or washing dishes, or, as taken up later, a

THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 45

supervisory job, or managerial job, although the special use of the analysis method as described here is in connection with production jobs.

The Operation Analysis. — The list of operations in the job listed in order makes the operation analysis for that. job.

Operating Points. — Just as any one work job can be di- vided into operations, so any operation can be divided into operating points.

For example, in cutting on a planer, we might have for operating points :

(1) Forward cutting.

(2) Lift of tool.

(3) Back motion.

(4) Feed.

that is, the one operation consists of four operating points.

Again, in the typing j ob already referred to for operation No. 1, we might have :

(a.) Picking up paper.

(b.) Feeding onto apron.

(c.) Catching paper on platen.

(d.) Turning up. and for the second operation,

(e.) Throwing release lever.

(f.) Taking hold of paper.

(g.) Squaring up paper.

(h.) Throwing off release lever.

( i. ) Setting to first line.

In this way each operation may be divided into the operating points of which it is made up.

In a similar way, the other operations can be divided into operating points, and the same thing can be done with opera- tions on any job giving an operating point analysis.

Human vs. Machine Operating Points. — ^After having di- vided the operations into operating points, it is sometimes desirable to divide these operating points into two kinds :

46 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

( 1 ) Machine, or tool, operating points.

(2) Human operating points.

Practically any job is done by a "team" composed of machines or tools and men, and the operating points are car- ried on either by the machine or tools or by men. Those operating points that the machine or tool takes care of may be called machine operating points; those that the worker takes care of may be called human operating points. In some jobs, as in an automatic gear cutter, the human operating points are very few ; in other j obs, as in wood carving, most of the operating points are human operating points ; and all operating points on jobs can be classified under one heading or the other, with very few exceptions.

Human Operating Points. — ^Wherever human knowledge, strength or skill is required to carry on an operation we have a human operating point as distinguished from a machine operating point, as taken up in the following paragraphs. A human operating point is merely an operation or a point in the progress of the job where somebody has to do something to keep the job going. Whatever that "somebody" has to do is that human operating point. Operating the control lever and the brake valve on an electric car are human operating points ; moving the car is a machine operating point, the motors do that without any help.

An Illustration of Human Operating Points. — ^In the job analysis of a typewriting job, as just given, some of the human operating points would be inserting paper, turning up roller, resetting carriage for next line, and, when neces- sary, using the back spacer.

Machine Operating Points.— As just described, a machine operating point is one that is entirely taken care of by the tool or the machine without any call upon human knowledge or skill. It gften happens that the same operation can be made a machine or a human operating point, as in the case of the hand or automatic feed on a drill press, or in locating holes for drilling either by measurement and construction

THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 47

(laying out) or by the use of a templet. The job of operating a linotype shows many more machine operating points than the same job when done with the stick and the case.

A machine operating point is, therefore, one where the machine covers that special part of the job unaided, so far as that particular operating point is concerned.

An Illustration of a Machine Operating Point. — ^In the case of the typewriting job already used for illustration, the moving of the ribbon, the moving of the carriage and the striking of the type are all machine operating points. A watch, so far as running is concerned, is all machine operating points, except for winding. So far as running goes, a steam engine covers all operating points (admission of steam, let- ting out exhaust steam) without any outside help, although originally the valve motions were human operating points and workers were hired to cover them.

In making a job analysis for a number of purposes, it may be desirable to distinguish between human and machine operating points ; for example, this is important in connection with instruction, because machine operating points do not have to be taught; the machine is already thoroughly "in- structed" and "knows" its part of the job.

Simultaneous Operating Points. — Operating points may come one at a time as the job goes along or two or more may come at the same time, in which case we have what may be called simultaneous operating points.

Under such conditions an electrician would say that they were in parallel instead of in series. An example of a case of simultaneous operating points would be where a man, driving an automobile, gives a traffic signal with one arm and turns his steering wheel at the same time with the other, oi- when he throws out his clutch with his foot and at the same time closes his throttle, or where, on a drill press job with hand feed, the operator Avatches his drill and at the same time " feels " his feed.

Sometimes, as in the illustrations just given, a man can

48 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

cover two or more simultaneous operating points if they are not too far apart, but in many cases they are so far apart that more than one operator is required to cover them, some- times calling for as many men as there are operating points that must be covered at the same time.

It is also evident that it would be more difficult to learn to cover several operating points at once than it would be to learn them if they came one at a time, and this becomes an important matter in connection with instruction.

While the fact that operating points may or may not come together does not affect the making of the analysis itself, it does have a bearing on the assignment of workers to jobs and hence should be noted when it occurs, with hum,an operating points. Of course, with machine operating points it makes no difference — ^the machine takes care of itself.

Making the Job Analysis. — ^There are two ways of mak- ing the j ob analysis : The first is to do the j ob, or, if one is sufficiently familiar with it, go through it in the mind, as the expression goes- — visualize it.

This is a very difficult thing, however, for most people to do without a good deal of practice, and usually the better they are on the job the more difficult they find it, especially at first.

The second way is to watch a first-class worker on the job and note the various operations in their order. This is the easier way for most people.

In either case it is evident that the necessary information can only come from somebody who knows how the job should be done and can do it that way. This means, of course, a "shop man." '^

In making such job analyses as have been described it has been found convenient to use some sort of forms, and those given below have been found convenient for that purpose.

THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 49 DEPARTMENTAL PRODUCTION JOB ANALYSIS

Name: Position:

Department:

Note: A departmental production job being defined as an operation or process, or a group of operations or processes, giv- ing a definite departmental product, either intermediate or finished, list out the various departmental production jobs in your department.

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Remarks:

50

THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

WORK JOBS IN DEPARTMENTAL PRODUCTION JOBS

Name: Position:

Department:

Departmental Production Job

Names of Work Jobs as part of Departmental Production Job.

WORK JOBS

THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 51

Name:.

OPERATIONS IN WORK JOBS Position:

III	ent: PTital ProHiirtion JoV> .
-»
OPERA-
TIONS
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
No. 6		\
No. 7

A

If desired, one column may be used for mechanical, the other for human operating points.

CHAPTER IV MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB

SECTION I. GENEEAIi PEELIMINARY

Preliminary. — The supervisory job of any foreman is made up of supervisory responsibilities, just as a work job is made up of operations and operation points. Whatever the supervisory responsibilities that go with a given fore- man's job, he holds himself responsible for their proper discharge, and is held responsible by his superiors for putting across all of his responsibilities completely and effectively. In order that he may do this, it is plain that he must know two things :

i. He must know aU. of his responsibilities, not only a part of them, and

2. He must know the most effective way of discharg- ing them. *

In order to know all of his responsibilities, he must, in some way, list them out ; that is, he must do the same thing with his supervisory job that is done in making a job analysis as described in the last chapter.

This chapter, therefore, deals with making a classified analysis of a supervisory job, and shows how the method of analysis can be applied to determining the supervisory re- sponsibilities that belong in the supervisory job of any one foreman.

What is a Responsibility? — In the sense in which the term is used here, a responsibility means something for which a foreman could be properly called down should he fail to attend to it, or attend to it properly. For example, if it were a part of the job (the duty) for a foreman to know the quantities of material in his department, and he did not know, he could properly be called down for not having discharged 52

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB 53

that responsibility. If it were a part of his duty to know, each day, the number of men in his department, he would have another responsibility, if it were up to him to know that all the equipment units in his department were in running condi- tion, still another, and so on. We can, therefore, define a responsibility as any definite part of a foreman's duty, and a supervisory responsibility as any definite part of a fore- man's supervisory duty.

The Need for Analyzing and Classif jdng Supervisory Re- sponsibilities.— Before a foreman can give attention as to how he can best discharge his responsibilities, he must evidently know just what he has got to discharge; that is, he must divide up his duty into the definite responsibilities of which it is composed. He must "unscramble the omelette," so to speak, and separate the different eggs, so that he can look at them and see what they are before he can do anything about them. This simply means that, in some way, he must make a classified analysis of his job, so that he can "stand off and look at it."

The Need for a Complete Analysis. — ^As already pointed out, a foreman cannot do a good supervisory job unless he does a complete job, and in order to be able to do that he must know all his supervisory responsibilities, or he is in the same class with a "half-baked mechanic," who only knows a part of his trade or his job. Any analysis that is any good must be a complete analysis ; that is, it must include aU of the supervisory responsibilities that go with that foreman's supervisory job.

As a matter of fact, many foremen have never made such an analysis. They think that they know all of their responsi- bilities and have always supposed that they were looking out for the whole of their job, but, in many cases, when they came to make an analysis they were surprised in two ways: First, to find that they were taking care of responsibilities that they never knew that they had, and second, that they had respojvsihUities that they had never taken care of.

54 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

although when the facts as to responsibilities "came out in the wash" they at once agreed that those responsibilities were a part of their duty and should be attended to.

Sometimes a foreman will find, after making his complete analysis, that he and his superiors do not fully agree as to their understanding as to who is responsible as to certain points, and again the fact may be brought out that certain points have been "lost in the shuffle and that nobody has been made responsible for them — they are "orphans." Sometimes such a complete analysis brings out points where there is danger of "crossed wires" between different foremen, or between foremen and their superiors, which never have made trouble, and so have never been uncovered, but which were liable to make trouble any time. Sometimes it brings out cases where two people have both been given the same respon- sibility, which, of course, is always liable to make trouble.

A complete supervisory responsibility analysis is, there- fore, of great value in a number of ways, because it may serve at least the following purposes :

1. It defines the supervisory job.

2. It may uncover points as to which supervisory respon- sibilities have not been clearly defined.

3. It may uncover "lost" points that might become the cause of difficulties and misunderstandings.

4. It may bring to light responsibilities that belong in the job that have not been thought of as being a part of ths supervisory job.

The Need for a Complete Classified Analysis of the Supervisory Job. — For all of these reasons and for a num- ber of others that will come out of discussion and thought on the matter, a complete classified analysis of the supervisory job is the first necessity for a basis for working out the vari- ous problems in supervision and management that must be handled carefully and intelligently by all foremen.

Two Ways of Making the Complete Supervisory Analysis. — ^There are two ways of making such a complete

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A SUPERVISORY JOB 55

classified analysis which may be called for convenience the checking method and the listing out method, of which the checking method is usually the easier when it can be worked. Since both methods may be used they are described in follow- ing sections, and since both require the use of a classification system, the system used in this book is briefly described first.

The Classification System. — The particular classification used in this book as a basis for making classified analyses of both supervisory and managerial jobs is set up to provide a means for progressive classification of supervisory responsi- bilities by starting with large groups of responsibilities, divid- ing those groups into smaller groups, again dividing into smaller groups and so on, so that any given supervisory responsibility can be "picked out of the job" as exactly as is necessary.

This system of classification is described and the different classification headings are explained in the fol- lowing section.

A COMPARISON BETWEEN A PKODTJCTION LAY-OUT AND A EE- SPONSIBILITY LAY-OUT FOB, A FOREMAN'S JOB

1. The Field Lay-out.

A concern operating one to A foreman's job, including three plants, each plant one to three fields of re-

turning out a different sponsibility. 1. Supervis-

product. ory responsibilities. 2.

Managerial responsibili- ties. 3. Instructing re- sponsibilities.

2. The Block Lay-out.

Each plant has one or more Each field of responsibility

departments. covers one or more blocks. 3. The General Responsibility Lay-out.

Different departments in Each block contains different

each plant turn out prod- general responsibilities of

ucts of the same general the same general kind, kind.

66 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

4. The Specific Responsibility Lay-out. There are one or more jobs There are one or more spe- f or each departmental cific responsibilities in each

product. general responsibility.

5. The Detailed Responsibility Lay-out. There are one or more opera- There are one or more de- tions in each job. tailed responsibDities in

each detailed responsi- bility.

6. The Responsibility Point Lay-out. There are one or more oper- There are one or more re- ating points in each opera- sponsibility points in each

tion in a job. specific responsibility.

SECTION n. CLASSIFICATION HEADINGS FOE A GENEEAL EESPON- SIBIUTY LAY-OUT OF A SUPEEVISOEY JOB

Preliminary. — ^Thi* section gives the classification head- ings used in making out a general responsibility lay-out for a supervisory job. The next section describes how such a general responsibility lay-out can be further developed into a detailed responsibility lay-out.

The General Responsibility Lay-out. — The following diagram shows the classification headings and their relation to each other. They are :

1. Fields.

2. Blocks in fields.

3. Greneral responsibilities in the different blocks.

each classification heading carrying the meaning as given below.

Fields. — ^As the term is used here, field means either one of the three groups into which a foreman's responsibilities can be divided, supervision, including all responsibilities for getting the jobs done; management, including all responsi- bilities for getting the jobs done at the least cost, depending, of course, upon the way in which the managerial responsibil- ities are discharged; and instruction, which includes all re-

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A SUPERVISORY JOB

67

sponsibilities in connection with putting over any kind of knowledge or skill, or bo(th.

We have, therefore, the three fields :

1. The supervisory field.

2. The managerial field.

3. The instructional field.

THE KELATIONS OF THE CLASSIEICATIGN HEADINGS USED IN

MAKING A GENERAL KESPONSIBILITY LAY-OUT FOE

A SUPEEVISOEY JOB

Field

Block

Block

Block

General Responsibility

General Responsibility

General Responsibility General Responsibility General Responsibility

General Responsibility

General Responsibility General Responsibility

General Responsibility Blocks in the Different Fields. — ^If we take all the respon- sibilities in any one field and consider what a man has to think about when he discharges them we find that he does not al- ways think of the same things. For example, a foreman in a foundry making brittle hollow castings, in seeing that those

58 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

castings are not broken in handling, is thinking about cast- ings, while if he is seeing that there are enough men on the job of moving those castings, he does not think of castings, but of men, while a foreman in a machine shop, looking over the set-up of a planer job before it is started, is thinking about neither castings, nor men, but of an operation in a job.

A foreman in seeing that all danger points are guarded is thinking of danger from accidents, while when he gives orders he is thinking of making the person to whom he gives the orders understand exactly what he is to do. The respon- sibilities in the supervisory field can, therefore, be "bunched," according to what a man is thinking about when he discharges those responsibilities and these "bunches" of supervisory responsibilities may be called blocks.

Block Defined. — ^A block can be defined, therefore, as a group of supervisory responsibilities, all of which require a Tnan to think of the same sort of thing when he dis- charges them.

Evidently, if in listing out his supervisory responsibilities in one field, a foreman finds two that will make him think of the same sort of thing when he discharges them, they belong in the same block ; but if he finds that, in discharging them, he must think of different sorts of things, he knows that they belong in different blocks. For example, if a man had respon- sibilities for storing finished material from his department until it was turned over to the transportation department and also had responsibility for checking material when it came into his department, in discharging both responsibil- ities he would be thinking of the same thing, stock, and not thinking of other things, such as men, operations or reports ; so we would say that those two supervisory responsibilities were in the same block, which tells the same story in fewer words.

The Block Base. — The things that a man thinks about in discharging all the supervisory responsibilities that belong

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A SUPERVISORY JOB 69

in one block is called the block base, and, of course, different blocks have different block bases.

Block Bases. — The block bases into which all supervisory responsibilities can be checked up, and the names of the blocks are as follows :

1. Stock.

2. Operations and Processes.

3. Tools and Equipment.

4. The Working Force.

5. Information.

7. Human Factors. And all responsibilities in the supervisory field can be placed in one of these blocks.

The Block Lay-out. — If, in the case of the supervisory job of any given foreman, we list out all the blocks in which he has any supervisory responsibilities we have what may be called a block lay-out of that particular foreman's super- visory job. "■

Dividing up the Responsibilities in a Block. — Just as it was possible to divide all the responsibilities in a given field among the different blocks in that field, so it is possible to divide all the responsibilities in a given block into groups that are called General Responsibilities, so that one block may be broken up into any necessary number of general responsi- bilities, according to the general responsibility base, or, as it is more commonly called, the classification base.

General Responsibilities. — The basis selected here for the general responsibility base is the fact that, if we consider the different possible supervisory responsibilities in a block we find that they differ as to the condition of material or as to the purpose for which the supervision is necessary. For ex- ample, if a foreman has supervisory responsibilities in the stock block, they may be with stock in any or all of three conditions, as it comes into the department, while it is going through the department and after it is finished, so far as the department is concerned. Again, if a foreman had responsi-

68 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

bilities as to the repairing of broken tools, or, in a machine shop, the redressing of tools, and was also responsible for ordering new tools, the two sorts of supervisory responsi- bilities would concern themselves with equipment in a different condition, new and already in service, although both would be in the equipment block. Again, in the information block a foreman might have responsibilities for checking material as it came in and for checking it when it went out of the department, and his checks would deal with material in a different condition.

In the working force block, if a foreman had responsi- bilities for seeing that all jobs were covered and also that the right man was on the right job, he would not be dealing with responsibilities relating to material in different condi- tions, but with responsibilities having a different purpose, one to get men enough on the jobs to keep the jobs going, the other to get enough knowledge and skill on those jobs to keep them going.

A general responsibility can, therefore, be called a group of responsibilities in a block that either deal with ma- terial in some particular condition or that have the same general purpose.

General Responsibilities in Blocks. — ^According to the system of classification used in this book, the general respon- sibilities in the different blocks are as follows :

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB

61

Block.

Stock

Tools and Equip- ment

Operations and Processes

Greneral Responsibility. Base.

Raw departmenta,! Condition of

stock stock

Stock in process Finished stock

Condition and

Equipment in service New equipment

of

The Wo rkingf Keeping up Force 1 Distributing

amount equipment Operation control Getting the Changing operations ^^^^^^^

Securing the

New operations

The Information Block

The Human Fac- tor Block

Recording

GiAdng and trans- mitting

Reporting

Ordering, directing, suggesting

Relations set up by the organization

Cooperation

The physical condi- tion of the work- ing force

The mental attitude of the working force

necessary strength, knowl- edge and skill

Handling the necessary infor- mation between one member of the team and another member

To secure fixed responsibilities

The mental atti- tude and the physical condi- tion of the mem- bers of the team.

The Instructing Field

Instruction Cooperating with other training

agencies

Putting over job knowledge or skill

62 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Any responsibility can be placed under one of these gen- eral responsibility headings. As some explanation may be needed to make the meaning of these headings plain, they are taken up in the following paragraphs :

The Term "General Responsibility." — ^When we speak of a man as "having general responsibility for soiliething," we tell what that "something" is, but do not go into any further details as to just what kinds of responsibilities he has. The "something" is, of course, what is called here the base. We would say, for example, that the steward in a hotel had a general supervisory responsibility for seeing that all neces- sary food was provided and that the chef had general super- visory responsibilities for seeing that it was cooked. The foreman of a section gang on a railroad would have a general responsibility as to the condition of the track in his section. The foreman of a maintenance gang "is generally respon- sible" for all repairs, and so on.

Of course, with regard to all general responsibilities, we could go on and specify what responsibilities go with that general responsibility, as is taken up in later chapters. The following paragraphs only deal with general responsibilities as such.

The 'General Responsibility for Stock in Process. — ^The main point here is to bear in mind that this general responsi- bility only refers to responsibilities for the stock itself and does not refer to responsibilities for seeing that something is done to the stock — that is, responsibilities for operations or processes. If this distinction is kept clearly in mind, there should be little trouble in "spotting" the two kinds of respon- sibilities. For example, where there are several serial opera- tions carried on in one department, something must be done with intermediate products between operations and such "sumpage" would be stock in process. There might, for example, be a responsibility for seeing that such sumpage was protected from damage, or, in a silverware factory, from theft, and so on. The point here is that all supervisory re-

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB 03

sponsibilities that would belong in the general responsibility for stock in process require the supervisor to think of the stock, not of operations carried out on that stock, or proc- esses through which it is put.

The General Responsibility for Finished Stock. — Such a general responsibility includes any responsibilities for ma- terial after it has left the last operation, or machine, and before it is actually turned over to somebody else. In a maintenance department it may mean a machine that has been repaired and is standing waiting to be trucked over to the department where it belongs. In house carpentry it might be a completed house not yet turned over to the owner. Any responsibilities that have to do with the finished departmental product, up to the time that it is actually turned over to somebody else, belongs in this group, and if a foreman has any responsibilities of this kind we would say that he had a general responsibility for finished stock as a part of his super- visory job.

General Responsibilities for Equipment in Service. — ^AU foremen understand the sort of supervisory responsibilities that go with a general responsibility for equipment in service. The only difficulty is to avoid not getting mixed up between equipment responsibilities and responsibilities for seeing that jobs are done with the aid of that equipment, since these last would belong under operations and processes. In general, whenever a man has supervisory responsibilities for equip- ment in service, he thinks about getting something done, so that the equipment of his department will do what is expected of it ; that is, he thinks of its condition.

It should be noted that this general responsibility covers all supervisory responsibilities of any kind that relate to departmental equipment so long as no changes are in ques- tion ; as soon as a man begins to think about changes in his equipment in connection with any responsibilities that he may have, he has got over into responsibilities in connection with new equipment as discussed in the following paragraph.

64 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

General Responsibilities for New Equipment. — ^With the exception of small tools and attachments, a foreman is likely to be mostly concerned with supervisory responsibilities in connection with equipment "as is" ; stiU it is possible that he may have responsibilities that will make him think about additions or changes in his equipment, and this is quite likely to happen in the case of small tools and attachments. Under these conditions he would have some sort of responsibilities in the general supervisory responsibility for new equipment. For example, he might have something to do with replacing, qhanging or enlarging equipment, either by recommendation or suggestion, and it is, of course, possible that he may have the responsibility for direct buying, though this is improbable except possibly in very small plants. For illustration, he might be responsible for recommending the replacement of a given type of unit by some other type, or the junking of worn-out machines. He might be consulted in regard to a new installation of equipment when a chemical plant took up the production of a new product. He might have a "say" with regard to the installation of safety devices. It is not at all unlikely that he would be responsible for requisitioning for new small tools or for new parts of machines.

Still, on the whole, his responsibility points under this head are likely to be fewer than with regard to equipment in service, but whatever he has would belong under this general job classification.

The General Responsibility for Operation Control. — This is really the general responsibility that most foremen think is the main part of their supervisory job, because it takes in those responsibilities with which a foreman is most concerned on "the run of his job," but, as a rule, they are also the ones that bother him the least, because he knows the most about them, and has had the most experience in discharging them. While this is true, there are some things about this general responsibility that are worth mentioning, among which are the

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB 65

sense in which the terms operations and processes, are used here.

The terms operation and process, while they really mean about the same thing, often have slightly different meanings to foremen in different lines of work, and so both terms are used to avoid any possible confusion. Operation, to some men, means changing the stock by some mechanical means, as in a machine shop we might speak of rough turning, grinding, thread cutting as different operations. Used in this sense, it implies that there is some sort of a change in the stock, a time during which the stock is unchanged, then another change, and so on ; that is, the product is got out by a series of "jumps" or "little jobs" inside the whole job, the stock being changed in some way on each little job, but its nature is not changed.

The term process is often used to indicate a production job that changes the nature of the material, as in making steel, or acid ; and that goes on steadily from start to finish, as in most chemical plants. A foreman in a chemical plant would be more likely to talk of processes, and a foreman in a machine plant of operations, but the distinction, if any, is not important from the standpoint of the responsi- bility analysis.

In discharging any responsibilities that belong in this general responsibility, a foreman thinks about the results; he thinks about getting the job done right. It would include such responsibilities as seeing that the right operations were used, or that the right tools were used, or that these tools were in the right condition to be used. It would include responsibility for saying when a process was completed or had been carried to a point where something had to be done — say, a test made, or a heat changed. In general, then, if a fore- man has any responsibilities for the way in which his product comes out he has a general responsibility for operations and processes.

The General Responsibility for Changing Operations. —

5

66 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

By changing operations is meant having some sort of respon- sibility for changing the regular methods for doing a job. This is most likely to come either in an emergency or as a recommending or suggesting responsibility. For instance, a foreman, as the man best acquainted with the working of a process in practice might be called into consultation with regard to some proposed changes that were under considera- tion, or might himself be expected to suggest such changes as the thing worked out in the department.* If a foreman has any responsibilities in this connection, either acting, sug- gesting or recommending, it would be properly said that he had a general responsibility for changing operations and processes.

The General Responsibility for New Operations. — The conditions here are just the same as in the case of changing operations and processes, and the same discussion would apply. In this case, a foreman having such general responsi- bilities would be thinking of devising entirely new operations or processes rather than of modifying those already in use.

The General Responsibility for Keeping up the Working Force. — ^If any given job is to be done at all, the worker on that job must have at least enough job knowledge and skill, or physical strength, or both, to do that job. That is, there is a certain minimum for each job below which the foreman cannot go in assigning and still get out his product. One general re- sponsibility may, therefore, be due to the necessity of provid- ing workers who possess such a minimum amount of knowledge and skill for each job in his department. For example, sup- pose that on dne particular job it is necessary for the operator to read a pressure gauge ; if he does not know how to do it, the

* In many plants there are regular conferences with the production control experts as to the way that the production is coming out. Where this is the case the foremen have, of course, responsibilities in this general responsibility when they take part in such conferences just as much as if they acted directly in their own departments. This fact is mentioned because many foremen in laying out their supervisory jobs do not include such " conference responsibilities " in their lay-outs.

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB 67

job cannot be done. Again, it is necessary to put a man on a milling machine ; if he does not know enough about running the machine to do whatever his job on that machine calls for, the getting out of the product is stopped — it cannot be turned out at all under these conditions.

In discharging supervisory responsibilities under this general responsibility a foreman thinks about getting at least workers enough to keep all jobs in his department going, or, at least, to keep going all jobs that he is expected to keep in operation. Jobs cannot be carried on without workers, so, if the required departmental product is to be got out, there must be at least enough workers to cover the necessary human operating points. With less than that number the depart- ment could not run. In order to provide this number, it is necessary to keep up the working force, and a foreman may have responsibility points in this connection. For example, he may have to act in some way to secure new men, or to pro- vide a reserve, or to transfer or discharge men, or to "double up," or in some other way may have responsibilities in con- nection with the "manning" job.

A foreman may, therefore, have a general responsibility for the distribution of the working force if, in discharging these responsibilities he has to think of the qualifications of the worker with regard to the requirements of the j ob, as to strength, job ability or job knowledge, rather than thinking of the job as being "killed" simply because there was nobody to take care of it. There might be somebody on the job, and yet the job be killed because that somebody did not know enough to hold it down. It is the sort of supervisory responsi- bility for seeing that this does not happen that is meant when we speak of a general responsibility for the distribution of the working force.

The General Responsibility for Reporting. — ^A report is some information that is intended to be sent out of the depart- ment for the use of somebody else, usually some superior. Most foremen have some sort of reports to make and so have

68 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

this general responsibiKty. As in the case of infqrmation, the only point of difficulty is in remembering that the form in which the information is sent out has nothing to do with the responsibility for seeing that it is sent. For example, when a defective piece comes into a department and is sent back with a "rework order," that order is a report to the foreman from whose department it came. When a requisition is drawn on the supply department, that is a report to the head of that department that certain materials or tools are lacking and must be supplied if the work of that department is not to be killed.

Another point that often causes confusion in discussing this particular general responsibility is that a spoken report is just as much a report as a written one. When a foreman says to his superior, "Mr. Jones, we are going to run out of castings for No. 6 to-morrow, if we can't get some more out of the foundry by that time," he has made a report exactly as much as if he had sat down and dictated it to a perfectly good stenographer, who had in turn written it on a perfectly good typewriter, and he had carefully read it over and signed it. In many cases the spoken report is the quicker way, but it is a report just the same, and because a foreman does not have to hand in written reports this does not mean that he dpes not have a general responsibility for reporting. As a matter of fact, this is one general responsibility that all fore- men have. As a supervisor, any foreman has a general respon- sibility for seeing that all reports are made that must be made in order to get the work done.

The General Responsibility for Recording Information.— In practically all cases a foreman has a general responsibility for keeping some sort of records. In dischar^ng this respon- sibility he thinks about seeing that such records can be used effectively at any time after they are made, either by himself or by somebody else; that is, he thinks of the purpose for which the records are kept. He does not "keep records for the fun of keeping them."

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A SUPERVISORY JOB 69

It should be remembered that, whatever its form, whenever any sort of information is put down for the purpose of enabling anybody to secure that information later, even if it is only to avoid trusting to memory, we have a record, but in the sense in which the term record is used here, it refers only to such cases where the information as recorded remains in the foreman's department. If it goes out of his depart- ment to anybody else, it becomes a report and belongs in a general reporting responsibility, as discussed later. A gen- eral recording responsibility in the supervisory field, there- fore, means a responsibility for putting down in some form information for future use in the department.

The General Responsibility for Giving and Transmitting Information. — This is one of the most important and uni- versal general responsibilities that a foreman has. If he were deaf and dumb and could not write, he would be in a bad fix so far as discharging this particular general responsibility is concerned. In discharging this particular general respon- sibility, whether he gives the information himself or whether somebody else gives it to the person to whom it is given, a supervisor thinks of putting the information in question "across" correctly or of seeing that it is put across correctly. That is his supervisory job, because if the information is necessary to get the job done at all, if it is not put over, or put over to the right person, the job stops, and, as in all similar situations, if the job stops, the supervisor has fallen d6wn on his job as a supervisor.

The chief difficulty here is in remembering that, so far as the supervisory responsibility is concerned, the special form in which the information is given makes no difference. Thus, for example, a direction or an order is information. A posted notice is information, passing out a pamphlet on safety pre- cautions is transmitting information. The point is to think of why the responsibility has to be discharged and not about what it is discharged with — ^the tools used in discharging it, so to speak — and if this is done there is not likely to be con-

70 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

fusion in thinking about this particular general responsibility or in discussing cases in connection with it. It is not a question as to whether the information was written or spoken, whether it was written on a shingle or printed, or whether a foreman gives it himself or somebody else gives it at his direc- tion, the general responsibility is there just the same. So far as the supervisory responsibility goes, it makes no difference whether a foreman says, "Bill, do so and so," or "Bill, tell Jim to do so and so," he has the same general responsibility , for seeing that the job is not killed, because that information was not put across as it should have been. Two samples of information might be "You're fired" for spoken information, and "Any employee defacing the walls of this room will be immediately discharged" for written information, and if a foreman made the first statement acting on his own authority, he gave the information, and if he got the second notice from the general manager and posted it up, he transmitted it.

The 'General Responsibility Due to Direct Relations Set up by the Organization. — ^Any foreman has certain responsi- bilities for seeing that some things are done that reach out- side of his department. He is "at one end of the wire," and the fellow at the other end is somewhere "outside." These responsibilities are of two kinds : the first can be defined and often can be discharged according to a known procedure; that is, they are responsibilities set up by the organization, and come out of the fact that a foreman is not playing a lone hand, but is a member of a team. Because a failure to dis- charge these supervisory responsibilities in such a way that jobs are not killed is often due to a failure to take into account the human factors, these general responsibilities are included in the human factor block, but are distinguished from straight cooperative responsibilities as discussed in the next paragraph. For example, a foreman is expected to turn in a report at a certain date, and this report, combined with similar reports from other foremen, is to determine a matter of policy, say as to the taking on of certain contracts. He

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A SUPERVISORY JOB 71

forgets to turn it in, although he knew what it was to contain and when it was due. As a result, the job of estimating on that contract is held up and, to assume an extreme case, the concern is unable to get in its bid in time and loses its chance to make a try for that job. Now, there are two things worth considering in this case: First, he forgot; forgetting is a human factor, because machines and material do not forget. That foreman forgot because he was a man and not a lump of steel, or a ton of sugar, or a machine. Second, his slip-up, due to his being alive and not "dead," did not directly affect his job (of course, it might indirectly), but did directly kill somebody else's job; in this case the job of the man who had to figure on the contract. One member of the team knocked out the job of another member of the team. This was due to the fact that he failed to discharge a supervisory responsibil- ity in connection with a relation set up by the organization. If the organization had not been such that the contract estimator had to wait for that foreman's report before he could go ahead with his job, the foreman's "human" slip would not have made any difference to the estimator's job.

We may, therefore, say that where there are supervisory responsibilities whose discharge affects the jobs as carried on in other departments, where the responsibility is clear and the way of discharging it is set up, we have what may be called one form of "team responsibilities" as set up by the organiza- tion, and a general responsibility under that heading in the human factor block.

The General Responsibility for Cooperation. — Coopera- tion may be defined as " going out of your way to help the other fellow when you don't have to," and aU fore- men have this general responsibility with regard to the other members of the team.

In the case of responsibilities set up by the organization, as discussed in the last paragraph, a man can be definitely and specifically "called down" for not discharging them, but in the case of general cooperative responsibilities this is often

72 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

not the case. In the old days of the tandem bicycle anybody who ever rode on one of those things with somebody else knows how easy it was for the fellow on the back saddle to fail to cooperate and yet prove all the time that he was. In the same way in many cases a man may fail to cooperate and even "throw aU sorts, of monkey wrenches into the gears," if he lacks a sense of responsibility for cooperating with other team members, and he can prove all the time that he is work- ing as hard to cooperate with everybody as a dog works when he tries to run up a moving stairway that is running down. A man cannot be forced to cooperate; this is because in so many cases cooperation depends on the spirit and the sense of responsibility for cooperating, and not on the letter of the law. Wherever a failure to cooperate will kill the job, there has been a failure in the supervision, and it is usually a failure i/n the way that a man supervises himself. Suppose, in the case put up in the last paragraph, the foreman had not forgotten, but knowing that the estimating job was a big one and a hurry-up job, had got in his report ahead of time, and so had helped the estimator out, he would have cooperated. He never could have been called down for not doing it; he didn't have to do it ; he was neglecting no relation set up by the organization in not doing it ; yet he did it. Under the circumstances as assumed, he felt that he had a general co- operative responsibility, which he discharged.

The General Responsibility for the Physical Condition of the Working Force. — ^AU foremen include in their super- visory responsibilities some that would properly be included in the general responsibility for the physical condition of the working force, and, as an ordinary thing these responsibilities as they think of them almost always have to do with accident prevention, because this is the one responsibility of this kind to which the attention of foremen has been strongly directed in recent years. There are, however, other possible super- visory responsibilities that, if they are included in the fore- man's job, come into this special general responsibility, suck

MAKING TBE ANALYSIS OP A SUPERVISORY JOB 7S

as looking out for the physical condition of the members of the force as affected by disease or illness, so far as these set up supervisory problems. Since, as in the case of coopera- tion, attention has been given more to the managerial side of this matter, and since most of the cases with which a foreman has to deal involve managerial rather than supervisory re- sponsibilities, foremen, eis a rule, have given little attention to the supervisory side, except possibly in the case of acci- dent prevention.

If a little consideration is given to the matter, it will appear that a foreman has more supervisory responsibilities in this general responsibility than appears at first sight. For example, as a supervisor he has responsibilities for seeing that danger points are spotted, that special precautions are taken when needed, as in the case of wearing goggles, or masks on certain jobs. As a supervisor it may be a part of his supervisory duty to be posted as to the existence of con- tagious diseases among any members of his force. He may be responsible for knowing where a man suffering from a progressive, chronic disease, like "T. B.," has reached a point where he has become a safety menace or cannot be trusted to deliver the required quality of product.

In all such cases, and in many others, a foreman may have supervisory responsibilities, whose discharge makes him think about the physical condition of the working force, so that it is very rare to find a foreman's job that does not include a general responsibility under this classification heading.

The great difiiculty here is to distinguish clearly between supervisory and managerial responsibilities in this connec- > tion, because in so many practical cases the two merge into each other.

The following test should help in making this distinction. Any responsibility whose discharge makes a foreman think about the physical condition as such is supervisory. Any responsibility whose discharge makes him think what he can da about it to improve conditions: is managerial. If, in conr

74 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

sidering any responsibility about which he is in doubt, a fore- man will ask himself the question, "Do I think about the con- dition or about how to change the condition?" he wiU not go far wrong. In case of sudden iUness, is he responsible for knowing about it? What can he do about it? Is he respon- sible for knowing that a certain belt is dangerous ? What can he do about it to reduce that danger to a minimum or to cut it out entirely? If the question is put in this way, it is not difficult to distinguish between managerial and super- visory responsibilities.

The General Responsibility for the Mental Attitude of the Working Force. — ^As already explained, this means super- visory responsibilities for morale. This question of morale is taken up in a later chapter, but for aU purposes here may be defined as the state of mind of the members of the team with regard to the success or failure of the team job. The great difficulty here is the same as in the case discussed in the last paragraph, and it must be thought of in the same way. Has a foreman a general responsibility for morale? Has he responsibilities whose discharge makes him think of morale as it is? Is he in any way responsible for the condition of morale? Should he know where individual workers have a poor morale? Is it a part of his duty to know the "high" and the "low" morale "points" in his force? If he has re- sponsibilities of this kind, he has some sort of general respon- sibility for the mental attitude, or morale, of the working force for which he is responsible.

Of course, there is no question that all foremen do have responsibilities of this kind and that they do give them the most serious consideration ; in fact, these two general respon- sibilities taken from both the managerial and the supervisory side probably disturb most foremen more than all the rest of their job.

The General Responsibility for Instruction. — This gen- eral responsibility includes any responsibility for seeing that any instruction that ought to be given is given. It might

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB 75

include giving definitely planned instruction or seeing that such instruction was given. It might cover responsibilities for organizing instruction, as where it was up to a foreman to lay out a shop course for apprentices. In general any responsibilities whose discharge makes a man think about organized instruction, if they were included in the foreman's job, would mean that he had this general responsibility. * It has already been pointed out that it is quite possible that a foreman may not have this general responsibility at all; in such cases this is true because there is no responsibility for any sort of instruction included in the foreman's job.

The General Responsibility for Cooperating with other Training Agencies. — This general responsibility is one that all foremen include in their duty without thinking much about it. Any foreman, for example, will advise an ambitious man where he may get special training, if he knows anything about it himself, but how many do? How many foremen have taken the time and trouble to really find out what are the educational and training opportunities in the community that are worth anything, and how they may be taken advantage of, so that they can help their men to advantage? Where a training scheme has been set up in a plant, in how many cases have the foremen neglected no chance to throw it down instead of helping it to succeed, when they really knew nothing about it? Some vocational schools do give good trade train- ing, yet there are many cases where foremen who never had been in such a school and knew nothing about it would refuse to employ a young fellow who had had some training there just because he was "one of those no-good vocational school dummies."

If a foreman feels that it is any part of his job to help his men to get ahead or to help outside agencies to do a good job, he has a general responsibility under this heading; if he does not feel that way, he has no responsibility here. Since

*Since the question of instruction is taken up in Part IX, it is un- necessary to go into the matter here.

76 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

this is a cooperative responsibility, the matter is in his own hands.*

Conclusion and Summary. — This chapter has explained the classification system adopted in this book for analyzing a supervisory j ob as far as the division of supervisory respon- sibilities into general responsibilities.

As described in a later chapter, the analysis can be carried to a much finer point, and, where time permits, this is often advisable. Before going into that matter, however, it seems advisable to show how a given foreman can use this method as developed to this extent in making a general responsibility lay-out for his own particular supervisory job, which is done in the next chapter. Following chapters then take up the further development of the classification scheme and show how it can be used in making a much more finely worked-out analysis for the job of any particular foreman.

* Since this matter is also discussed in some detail in Fart IX, it is not carried further here.

CHAPTER V

MAKING THE SUPERVISORY LAY-OUT FOR THE

JOB OF A GIVEN FOREMAN

SECTION I. PREIilMINAEY

Preliminary. — The last chapter explained and discussed the way in which supervisory responsibilities could be clas- sified, and gave the analysis scheme down to general responsi- bilities, without regard to the application of this analysis scheme to the job of any given foreman. This chapter points out how a foreman can use this scheme in making a general supervisory lay-out of his own particular job in his own special department, according to the organization in the par- ticular plant in which he is employed.

The Object of the Analysis. — It has already been pointed out that one of the first things that any supervisor who wishes to study his job must do is to get his supervisory job "lined up," and that, in order to do that he must "take account of stock" or "take an inventory" of the different responsibilities that make up his job. Since the jobs of different foremen vary as to their general responsibilities, each foreman must take account of stock for his own special job. He cannot go by anybody else's job, although it is generally true that, so far as general responsibilities go, foremen in the same plant will have about the same lay-out for general responsibilities, the main differences coming when the analysis is carried down to a finer point, as is taken up in later chapters.

It is only by working on the basis of such a general re- sponsibility lay-out that a foreman can carefully consider what his special problems are and how to deal with them effectively. The object of this chapter is, therefore, to de- scribe the method of securing such a general supervisory lay-out for a given foreman's supervisory job by pick- ing out from all the possible general supervisory re-

77

78 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

sponsibilities those that belong in the particular supervisory job under consideration.

The General Method of Carrying on the Analysis. — ^The analysis is carried out by getting answers to the three follow- ing questions in the order in which they are given here :

1. What fields are included in the supervisory job?

2. What blocks are included in the fields that are repre- sented in the supervisory j ob ?

3. What general responsibilities are included in the blocks that go with the different fields that are represented on the job?

That is, first "spot" fields, then blocks in fields, then gen- eral responsibilities in blocks.

The Two Methods. — There are, in general, two methods of carrying out any analysis which may, for convenience, be called the "cafeteria method" and the "special order method," as we use them in getting a meal in a restaurant, and, since both methods may be used, they are described more fully in the following paragraphs.

The "Cafeteria Method." — ^When we go into a cafeteria we find a posted bill-of-fare that somebody has worked out on a classified basis — soup, fish, entrees, roasts, pastry, etc. That is, we find a classified list of possibilities, and we pick out what we happen to fancy, or what we can aiford, from that list of possibilities. If the cafeteria is a large one, we can find in this list of possibilities practically anything that anybody would want. Of course, sometimes the list is incom- plete, and we will ask if they have something that is not on the posted bUl, but, as a rule, we can find what we want some- where on the bill-of-fare. No one customer "eats through" the whole possible lay-out.

The principle of the "cafeteria" method is, therefore, based upon selecting from a given list of possibilities, and so making up a "special meal." Its success evidently depends upon the fact that somebody has done part of the thinking for the customers.

LAY-OUT FOR THE JOB OP A GIVEN FOREMAN 79

The "Special Order Method."— There is another way in which a meal may be made up. Where there is no bill-of-f are to select from, and we do all the thinking ourselves. We don't look at the "card," even if there is one, but we consider what we feel like eating and order it. A man says, "I feel like beefsteak, fried potatoes, coffee and mince pie," and gives his order accordingly. Here there is no list of pos- sibilities for him to select from, but he unconsciously runs over in his mind all the possibilities, accepting some and re- jecting others, his mind working something like this : "I sup- pose that they have got soup. Soup .'' Don't want soup ! Fish.? Nix on the fish! Chops.'' They ought to have 'em. No, guess not to-day! Next.-' Let's see, don't want roast beef. By George, what I want is a good thick steak! Any- thing else.'' Let's see! Guess I want fried potatoes to go with that steak. Coffee? Milk.'' Suppose I can get either here. Coffee for me to-day."

In this way he "builds up" a special order, according to his own special "eating job," and in that way gets his meal, making the complete analysis himself, working from "the way that he happens to feel," and not hy selecting from any classi- fied list of possibilities.

The Two Methods Applied to Job Analysis. — In making any sort of a responsibility analysis it is always possible to use either of these two methods, provided there is a classified analysis of possibilities available to work out the "cafeteria method." If no such "biU-of-fare" is available, the "special order method" must be used, of course, just as the original explorer had to find his own way through new country, because he could not ask his way if nobody had ever been there before.

Where such a list of possibilities is available that puts up all possible cases, a man can evidently select what goes with his job and in that way get his job lay-out. Where such an

80 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

analysis is not available, he must list out all the parts of his job and then classify them.*

Relative Advantages and Disadvantages. — The "cafe- teria method" evidently has the advantage of saving time and effort, because it is always easier to pick out than it is to think out, and this fact is the whole base of the business suc- cess of the cafeteria — a man can get his meal quicker and with less thinking. Hence, where the purpose is to get the lay-out as quickly and easily as possible, the cafeteria method is the better one. On the other hand, where no general classified analysis is avaUaHe, or where each man must handle his job under all sort of conditions, or where he wants to think hard about his job, the "special order" method is the better, and should be used, whenever there is time to use it. It wiU be noted that in the first case a man works from the top down, considering the most general classification headings first, and, in the second case, he works from the bottom up, starting with some detail, as coffee or pie.

The Combination Method. — ^There is a third method, which is really a combination of the other two, which uses what may be called the "Suggestive Incomplete Analysis" as a starter and works on from that. The use of this method wUl sometimes be seen in a cafeteria where a man, in addition to picking out what he wants from the posted bill-of-f are, will say, "Got any shredded wheat?" when that particular item does not appear on the bill. In such a case his meal is made up partly on the selective basis and partly on the "special order basis."

The Method Used In This Book. — To aid any foreman who may wish to make a supervisory responsibility lay-out of his job the straight " cafeteria " method is used up to the laying out of general responsibilities and the method is described in the following section. For the further carrying

* This second method as applied to Trade Analysis is fully described in " The Instructor, The Man and The Job," Chapter VII.

LAY-OUT FOE THE JOB OF A GIVEN FOREMAN 81

on of the analysis, into detailed, and specific responsibilities, the method is described in Chapter VII and the way in which it can be applied to the job of a given foreman is illustrated in Chapter XI, on the distribution of the working force and Chapter XIII on the handling of information, and in a number of succeeding chapters.

Any foreman who may wish to carry this work farther wiU find that he can use the suggestive charts of possible responsibilities given in the appendix as starting points from which he can work out his own special lay-out by the " combi- nation method, " checking off the detailed and specific responsibilities that he has and adding any additional ones that he may have that do not appear on the charts.

The following section describes the application of the selective method in making a general supervisory lay-out for the job of a given foreman.

SECTION n. MAKING THE GENERAL RESPONSIBILITY LAY-OUT POE A SUPERVISORY JOB

Preliminary. — This section describes the method of get- ting a supervisory responsibility lay-out for a given fore- man's job by the "cafeteria" or selection method, and is carried out by working through three operations as follows :

1. Determining the fields.

2! Determining the blocks in the fields.

3. Determining the general responsibilities in the blocks.

Each operation is carried through with regard to the special supervisory job under consideration.

The First Operation — Determining the Fields. — ^This operation is carried out by determining whether the job in- cludes aU three of the possible fields, only one of them or any two of them. Under most ordinary conditions a foreman has responsibilities in all three fields, but, as already stated, some plants have assigned supervision to one foreman and management to another, and, in some cases, instruction to

6

82 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

another foreman or even to a distinct training department, though, as pointed out later, a supervising or a managing foreman is rarely, if ever, entirely relieved of all general responsibilities for unorganized instruction. The possibilities are, therefore, that job of a given foreman is, or is not, in the supervisory field. If it is not, he has nothing to do with anything in this field, and the rest of this section, with the corresponding chapters on the further detailed analysis of a supervisory job have no interest to him.

In most cases, however, a foreman does have supervisory Responsibilities, and where this is the case, having settled that fact, he passes on to the next operation, the determina- tion of the supervisory blocks that go with his particular supervisory job.

The Second Operation — ^The Determination of Blocks. — This question is not always so easy to determine as the matter of fields, because very often a foreman has implied supervisory responsibilities that he has never thought of as responsibilities and which, in many cases, his superiors have never thought of as supervisory responsibilities either. For example, where a transportation department brings material to the department and takes it away, many foreman will say that they have no responsibilities in the stock block, and will leave it out of their responsibility lay-out for supervision, and their superiors will often say the same thing. When, however, they are asked if, In case somebody stole that material while it was in the department the foreman would be called down, they will both say "Yes," and admit that, by a sort of common' understand- ing, a foreman is responsible for looking out for stock while it is in his department, although nobody ever told him so m so many words. That is, there was an implied responsibility there, as the term was used above. In deciding on the blocks that go with a supervisory job, a foreman must, therefore, be very careful to include any blocks in which he has implied responsibilities, as well as stated responsibilities, and this is

LAY-OUT FOR THE JOB OP A GIVEN FOREMAN 83

where his chief difficulty is liable to come. The best way to test this out is to ask the questionj "If anything happened in connection with this block, could I be properly called down for it, or could I claim that it was none of my supervisory business, and make good on that claim ; could I successfully and honestly 'pass the buck'?" If his answer is "Yes," he can leave that block out of his lay-out ; if "No," he must put it in.

Working in this way, by selection from all the possible blocks, a foreman gets his list of blocks for his special super- visory job, or his block lay-out, and having done this he passes on to the third operation, the making of the general responsi- bility lay-out as described in the next paragraph.

The Third Operation — Making the Classified General Responsibility Lay-out. — The general supervisory lay-out already given shows the possible general responsibilities in each block. This operation is carried out by selecting from that list those general responsibilities that belong in the supervisory job under consideration. Here, as in the previous case, the chief difficulty is likely to be due to the omission of implied responsibilities, and the same test should be applied in each case. As a result there is secured a classified list of actual supervisory general responsibilities, or a general re- sponsibility lay-out for tl]iat particular supervisory job.

The Necessity for Getting a Correct General Supervisory Lay-out. — ^As will appear later, a correct general supervisory lay-out is the key to all the rest of the work. It is used to get the general managerial lay-out as described in the next chapter; it is used as the base for getting the specific and detailed lay-outs for all responsibilities, as explained later. If it is incomplete, or incorrect, all the rest of the analysis work is equally incorrect.

While the job of making a general supervisory lay-out appears to be very easy, it is so important to get it right that a foreman will find that it pays to work it out very carefully.

84

THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

A Sample of a General Supervisory Lay-out for a Given Foreman. — The following sample will indicate what a prop- erly worked out general supervisory lay-out will look like when it is completed.

Stock

Raw departmental In process Finished

Tools and Equipment

In service

Operations and Processes

Operation control

The Working!

_ fDistnbutmg

Information

Human Factors

Giving and transmitting Reporting

Physical condition Mental attitude

This sample lay-out is, of course, for a purely imagin- ative supervisory job, and in no way indicates what a given foreman might get in laying out his own special job.

A Convenient Lay-out Form. — The following form is convenient for making a general responsibility lay-out for a supervisory job.

LAY-OUT FOR THE JOB OF A GIVEN FOREMAN 85

GENEEAL RESPONSIBILITY LAY-OUT FOR A SUPERVISORY JOB

Name: Department:

Plant:

The above job has the general supervisory responsibilities indi- cated below.

STOCK

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

OPERATIONS AND PROCESSES

THE

WORKING FORCE

-

INFORMATION

THE

HUMAN FACTORS

CHAPTER VI MAKING THE ANALYSIS OE A MANAGERIAL JOB

Preliminary. — The last two chapters dealt with the ques- tion of making the analysis of a supervisory job for general supervisory responsibilities and of making a general responsibility lay-out for the supervisory job of a given foreman. In the same way this chapter deals with the method of analyzing a managerial job and the application of fhis method of analysis to a given managerial job.

In the following discussion it must be remembered that, so far as the analysis is concerned, it makes no difference whether managerial and supervisory responsibilities are dis- charged by the same person or by two different people, the two jobs are treated as distinct jobs. If, as is usually the case, a foreman's job includes responsibilities for both super- vision and management, he first gets his general supervisory lay-out. If he has only managerial responsibilities, he must use the general supervisory lay-out for the corresponding supervisory job.

If he cannot get it, he must make it before he can lay out his own managerial job, even though he himself has no super- visory responsibilities. This case is so rare that it is only mentioned in case a functional organization has been estab- lished between supervision and management.

■ Different Kinds of Managerial Jobs. — ^While, of course, any managerial job means doping out ways and means for discharging a supervisory responsibility in such a way that cost is reduced to a minimum, there are several different kinds of managerial jobs, among the more important of which are :

1. Management jobs corresponding to routine supervi- se

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A MANAGERIAL JOB 87

sory jobs. An illustration of such a managerial job would be to handle any responsibilities in connection with the pro- tection of stock, or with the keeping up of the working force, so that cost was held down to a minimum.

2. Management jobs dealing with the human factors, as where the probleni is to handle matters in connection with discharge, or transfers so that interest will be kept up, or dissatisfaction will be kept down to the least possible amount.

3. Management jobs dealing with the running down of production difficulties, as where the product of a certain operation or process comes out wrong, or the quantity falls off, and the managerial problem is to find the cause and apply the remedy.

4. Management jobs dealing with emergencies, as where the power must be shut off in a few minutes and the mana- gerial problem is to make the most of those few minutes, so that the cost will be reduced as much as possible.

For each of these cases it is possible to make a lay-out that will show all the points that should be taken into consideration in dealing most effectively with the problem. For example, in case 4 the supervisory responsibility would have been discharged when the necessity for the shut down (say a defect in the main steam line, or a transformer that was overheating), had been spotted before damage had occurred. The managerial problem would then be to deter- mine such things as who should be notified, in what order the notifications could best be given, what steps could be taken to get the trouble repaired as fast as possible, what tempo- rary arrangements might be made to carry the plant while these repairs were made if that were possible, at what stage the job should be turned over to a superior, etc.

In the case of production trouble all the possible known causes can be laid off with the best order in which these causes can be checked up in order to save as much material and time as possible. Where such information is furnished by

88 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

all who are concerned with the work and their experience is " pooled " and made a matter of record for everybody, such lay-outs of managerial jobs may be of the greatest value to a plant, especially where the plant is run on a double or triple shift and different shift foremen have charge at different times.

SECTION n. THE ANAliTSIS OF THE MANAGERIAIi JOB

Management vs. Supervision. — ^Management has already been defined as distinguished from supervision so these defini- tions are not repeated here.* It is worth while, however, to again draw attention to the fact that while, as the terms are used in this book, a supervisor is always thinking of getting the job done, a manager is always thinking about things that finally head up into the cost of those jobs, and this distinc- tion must always be borne in mind in connection with any analysis work on managerial jobs.

The Analysis Scheme for a Managerial Job. — ^The analysis scheme as given here is based on the fact that for every supervisory responsibility there is a corresponding managerial responsibility which must be discharged by some- body, if cost is to be given any consideration. The scheme of analysis for a managerial job, corresponding to the analysis for general supervisory responsibilities as already described, is as follows, it being understood that it applies to the case where a foreman either has all managerial responsi- bilities or managerial responsibilities in addition to super- visory responsibilities.

The General Responsibility Lay-out Determines the General Managerial Lay-out. — In view of the statement just made, it is evident that the general supervisory lay-out deter- mines the general managerial lay-out, so that when we have the first, we also have the second. The problem taken up in this chapter is, therefore :

• Chapter II.

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A MANAGERIAL JOB 89

Given a general managerial lay-out as obtained from a general supervisory lay-out, to analyze a managerial job.

As in the case of the supervisory analysis, a series of operations are carried out, as described in the following paragraphs :

Operations in Making Managerial Analysis. — The opera- tions worked through in making the analysis of a man- agerial job for general managerial responsibilities are as follows :

1. Determining for each general managerial respon- sibility the cost elements that affect the discharge of that responsibility.

2. In view of these cost elements defining the man- agerial problem.

Although not strictly a part of the analysis, there would be no use in making it if there were not added another step.

3. The determination of ways and means for dealing with that managerial problem as effectively as possible — ^that is, reducing cost. As a sample of what may be called a "blank" analysis scheme we have the lay-out as given below.

The Generaij The GenebaIj SnPEBvisoRT Re* . . Managebial .

BFONSIBILITT ResfONSIBILXIT

Cost element No. 1 Cost element No. 2 Cost element No. S Cost element No. 4 Cost element No. 5 Cost element No. 6 And so on.

The Deauho with

..Managerial.. the

Pqobleu Fboblebi,

The way in which this scheme for analysis can be applied to the particular managerial job of a given foreman is de- scribed in the following section.

SECTION m. MAKING THE GENERAL MANAGERIAL RESPONSIBIL- ITY LAY-OUT FOR THE JOB OF A GIVEN FOREMAN IN A GIVEN DEPARTMENT IN A GIVEN PLANT

Laying Out the Job. — Since the managerial responsibil- ity can always be obtained from the general supervisory re- sponsibility, the procedure here is self-evident and needs no

90 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

explanation. The diiBculties begin to come up when the at- tempt is made to determine the cost elements that affect its discharge. This is partly because in many casds these cost elements seem to overlap, they come in on more than one man- agerial responsibility and also because, in many cases, a man has never thought of many of them at all, or as cost elements in connection with that ,special managerial problem. It may be helpful in this connection to point out some of the more important general cost elements that may come into play on any given job, but not of necessity aU of them on any one job. '

These general cost elements are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs not because aU foremen do not know them, but because, as they come up in practice they are often so concealed that it takes some careful thinking to recog- nize them.

General Cost Elements. — ^As has already been stated, any general managerial responsibility can be discharged with varying degrees of cost, according to the particular way in which that managerial problem is dealt with: one man does this better than another, because he may have had more experience, or has made a better analysis of the cost elements involved, or because he is a better "guesser" in working out ways and means. However that may be, it is true that two different foremen may have the same responsibilities on the same kind of supervisory jobs; both may get out the same satisfactory product, yet one foreman may get out that product at less cost than the other, because he has managed with regard to his cost elements to better advantage than the other foreman. For example, In storing departmental stock of various kinds, one foreman may so arrange the dif- ferent kinds that each kind is put by itself and so labeled that the chance of any mix-up is practically cut out; while an- other foreman may "pile it in anyhow" so long as he gets it under cover. The first foreman has in mind the cost in time

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A MANAGERIAL JOB 91

for whoever has to get any particular kind of stock out of storage, and takes steps to reduce it to a minimum by arranging and labeling the different kinds .of stock in some effective manner. The second foreman fails to recognize that cost element and raises his cost on that responsibility higher than he should.

Again, one foreman may be careful to see that all equip- ment units that are in service are running at full duty ; they are either doing a full job or are shut down. Another fore- man, under the same conditions, runs his whole equipment at half or two-thirds capacity. The first foreman has man- aged his power cost elements on that particular part of his job better than the second foreman.

Again, of two foremen, one is careful not to put a "high priced man" on a "low priced job," so saving on the excess knowledge and skill that is not required on the low priced job, while the second foreman distributes his men any way so long as each man "knows enough for the job." Number one has managed better than number two, because he has recognized the elements of labor cost and has cut out the unnecessary cost of the unused knowledge and skiU that is of no value on the low skilled job, yet must be paid for.

In these illustrations it is evident that the first foreman recognized, in connection with his responsibility points some cost elements that the second foreman did not. We can call these things cost factors or cost elements, and it is evident that successful or unsuccessful management will depend to a large extent on the degree to which the analysis took into account all of the cost elements that came in to the man- agerial problem.

The Value of a Complete Analysis. — ^While it must be admitted that in many cases, especially in dealing with human factors in the more detailed way that is discussed in later chapters working out a complete analysis is extremely difS-

92 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

cult, still the fact remains that the more complete the analysis the better the chance of doing a good managerial job. In carrying the analysis as far as possible for general managerial responsibilities there are certain cost elements of which any or all may come into any managerial problem, and which are therefore given in the following paragraph.

General Cost Monents. — Among the more important cost elements that need to be watched out for are :

1. The cost of material.

2. The cost of power.

3. The cost of equipment and of depreciation.

4. The cost of knowledge, skill and strength as provided by the members of the working force.

5. The cost of handling information.

6. The cost of injury or poor physical condition on the part of the members of the working force.

7. The cost of low morale.

8. The cost of poor instruction.

Of course, these are not all, but they are enough to sug- gest others, and the degree to which such general cost ele- ments are properly taken into consideration in dealing with general managerial problems will determine, to a large extent, the effectiveness of the managerial work.

Determining Cost Elements. — ^Knowing the general man- agerial responsibilities, the next step in making the analysis of a given managerial job is to determine the general cost elements that go with each general managerial responsibility, and this listing should be worked out with great care to make it as complete as possible. When this has been done we have a cost element lay-out for each general managerial respon- sibility. When this has been done the next operation is to define the managerial problem for each general man- agerial responsibility.

Difficulties in Locating Cost Elements. — ^In carrying out the process of locating and assigning cost elements, usually

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A MANAGERIAL JOB 93

a foreman will find it difficult to locate them all. This is due to several reasons, among which are:

(1) He has been working to reduce certain cost elements so long that he is doing it unconsciously, and finds it difficult to lay them out, just as any good workman will find it difficult at first to set down what he does when he does a job.

(2) Many cost elements have not occurred to him as cost elements. For example, many foremen have never given serious consideration to the cost of training a new man to replace one who has quit ; that is, discharge cost, or the cost elements involved in decent sanitary conditions, or modern surroundings, as discussed in later chapters.

(3) Many cost elements that he recognizes, he thinks at first, have nothing to do zoith his job, such, for example, as the cost elements of accidents around the plant, but not in his department.

As he studies into the matter, he will find usually a num- ber of cost elements to which he had not been giving consid- eration and in proportion as he does uncover such elements he is able to improve his work on the managerial side of his job.

The Necessity of Knowing all Cost Elements for Good Management. — Just as it was pointed out in Section II that a good supervisor will know all his supervisory jobs, so a good manager will know all the cost elements that affect each of his special responsibility points, and in the long run his management will be good in proportion as he is able to do this. His problem, as a manager, therefore, is to know, first, the cost elements on each of his responsibility points, and second, to figure out how he can handle each situation so as to reduce his cost to the minimum.

Management on Cost Elements — Balancing Cost Ele- ments.— ^Rarely will it be found that only one cost element goes with any one responsibility point. Usually there are

04 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

several. In managing, the foreman should take them all into consideration, determine what he can do under his working conditions, and "balance up" according to his best judgment.

The lay-out of responsibilities and the corresponding cost elements will help him to define his managerial job, but nothing can take the place of judgment in handling the mat- ter so as to get the best results.

No fixed set of rules can be followed, because, as a rule, no managerial situation ever comes up exactly the same twice in succession. However, one of the common causes of less than the best judgment is due to not knowing, and so not taking into consideration, all the cost elements.

Defining the Managerial Problem. — This operation merely consists in stating in as definite and simple words as possible exactly what should be done to the particular cost elements in order to secure the best possible managerial results. When this has been done the general managerial problem has been defined.

Dealing with the General Managerial Problem. — The last operation in making the lay-out is to consider ways and means for dealing with the problem. This last operation is not really a part of the analysis, that is, of "lining up the job," but practically it is always the final outcome of the problem, because the only reason that a man would have for making such a lay-out would be because he wanted to see how he could handle the job in the best way or how he could handle it better than he had been doing it. The way that such a lay- out would look is indicated in the following sample :

MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A MANAGERIAL JOB

05

A SAMPLE OF A GENEEAL MANAGERIAL LAY-OUT*

The cost elements that come into this man- agerial problem are:

1. Loss of stock.

2. Loss of time in hand- ling stock.

3. Using too much or too expensive power in taking care of raw de- partmental stock, etc.

General Supervi- s o r y Respon- sibility for raw depart- mental stock

General man- a g e r i a 1 re- sponsibility as to cost in handling raw depart- mental stock.

The managerial problem is: To reduce to a minimum losses in handling raw de- partmental stock due to any form of loss, time lost in handling and failure to use the most effective methods in looking oiit

Means of dealmg with the problem are:

Since this calls for '"job knowledge," it is not at- tempted to fill it out, but the particular means adopted would be indi- cated here.

for it.

Ways of Laying out a General Managerial Job. — There are a number of ways of laying out a general managerial job, among which perhaps the most convenient is some such form as is suggested below :

* It must be understood that this sample makes no pretentions to be correct for the job.

96 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

LAY-OUT FOR A GENERAL MANAGERIAL JOB

GENERAL

MANAGERIAL

RESPONSIBILITY

COST ELEMENTS

MANAGERIAL PROBLEM

DEALING WITH THE PROBLEM

2.

4.

CHAPTER VII THE FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE ANALYSIS

SECTION I. INTO SPECIFIC AND DETAILED E.ESPONSIBILITIES

Preliminary. — ^The preceding chapters gave the scheme of analysis and dealt with the application of the principles of job analysis to the different foreman's fields, down to the point of general managerial, supervisory and instructional responsibilities. In many cases, however, the careful consid- eration and discussion of foremen's responsibilities and prob- lems require that either all of a foreman's job or some block or general responsibility be further analyzed. These further analyses are developed in a number of the following chapters, and this chapter describes how general responsibilities can be subdivided according to the further extension of the classified scheme whenever such finer subdivisions may be desirable.

The Further Development of the Analysis. — The further development of the analysis of general supervisory responsi- bilities is carried, on by working through the following addi- tional operations :

1. The general responsibility under consideration is di- vided into specific responsibilities.

2. The specific responsibilities are in turn divided into detailed responsibilities.

3. If desirable, any given detailed responsibility can be analyzed into responsibility points, and these can be classi- fied as human or machine responsibility points.

The following sections describe each of these opera- tions in turn, together with their application to the fur- ther analysis of general supervisory, managerial and in- structional responsibilities. ^ 7 97

98 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

SECTION n. ANALYZING A GENERAL RESPONSIBILITY INTO SPE- CIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES

Specific Responsibilities — The Fourth Operation in the Analysis. — ^If we consider all the diiferent responsibilities that may come into any given general responsibility, we find that while they all are alike in a general way they vary in the purpose for which the responsibility is discharged and also that they are carried out in a number of dijGFerent ways and their proper discharge calls for the use of diiferent kinds of auxiliary information. Responsibilities in any given general responsibility can, therefore, be "bunched" or classified ac- cording to their different purpose and the sort of auxiliary information that goes with them. For example, in the case of a general responsibility for raw departmental stock one kind of responsibility included in that particular general responsibility might be to inspect previous to acceptance and another might be to store so as to protect from damage. These two supervisory responsibilities would evidently be at- tended to for different purposes and would call for a different brand of "job knowledge." In fact, a man might know how to attend to storage very well and not know how to attend to inspection at all, because he might not know how to make the inspection test. In the same way, in the general responsi- bility for reporting, two different responsibilities might be reporting to immediate superiors and to a special depart- ment, and evidently the purpose for which a report is made to an immediate superior and to a special department would not be the same, and the sort of information required to dis- charge these two specific responsibilities would be different.* A specific responsibility can, therefore, be defined, as in the following paragraph;

*It should be clear that the different information referred to is not information contained in the reports, but information about to whom they were to go to, when they were due, etc. Two reports might con- tain the same identical information and still seeing that they were attended to might be specific responsibilities that would belong in two different groups.

THE FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE ANALYSIS

Specific Responsibility Defined. — As the term is used here, a given specific responsibility would include all responsi- bilities in any given general responsibility which are dis- charged for the same general purpose, but have different ob- jects and therefore are discharged in different ways, calling for a different kind of auxiliary information.

The Relation of Specific Responsibilities to General Responsibilities. — The relation of a general responsibility in any block to the specific responsibilities in that general re- sponsibility is shown in the diagram given below:

BLOCK.

GENERAL RES'P. SPECIFIC REST.

Block

No. I

No. II

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 Etc.

fNo. 1 No. 2 Etc.

SECTION in. ANALYZING A SPECIFIC SESPONSIBILITY INTO DE- TAILED RESPONSIBILITIES

Detailed Responsibilities. — ^The Fifth Operation in the Analysis. — Just as general responsibilities can be divided into specific responsibilities, so the analysis method can be applied to any specific responsibility to divide it into detailed respon- sibilities. If, as in previous cases, we study the "bunch" of responsibilities that belong In one specific responsibility, we wiU. find that they, In turn, are not all the same, because, if we regard them as "responsibility jobs," all of them do not have the same "specifications" ; that is, each responsibility re- quires, for Its discharge, a different way of going at It, owing to the particular results that must be obtained. For example, one specific responsibility might be (In the general responsi- bility for the distribution of the working force) transferring.

100 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

and this specific responsibility might include the follpwing:

1. Promoting.

2. Demoting.

3. Shifting from one job to another of the same grade, which would be three of the detailed responsibilities in the specific responsibility for transferring.

Again, if one specific responsibility were for protecting finished departmental stock while in storage, we might have any of the following "responsibility jobs" or detailed respon- sibilities, according to the nature of the stock in question.

1. Protecting from light, as in the finished film depart- ment of a plant making photographic supplies.

2. Protection from rats and mice, as in a flouring miU.

3. Protection from fire, as in a powder null, or an oil refinery.

4. Protection from theft, as in the case of whiskey in a bonded warehouse, or stock in a silverware factory, or gold in a mint.

5. Protection from moisture or water, as in the case of armature coils or sugar.

It is evident that, as stated above, each of these detailed responsibility "jobs" calls for a different kind of auxiliary information, as to the nature of the precautions that must be taken, and while all are carried on (the detailed responsibility is discharged) for protection (the specific responsibility), the sort of protection is different in each case, and the stock that has to be protected is different in each case.

Detailed Responsibility Defined. — ^A detailed responsi- bility, or a "responsibility job," can be defined as follows: A detailed responsibility is one of the responsibilities in a spe- cific responsibility.

The Complete Analysis. — ^As explained up to the present time, the complete analysis scheme is as f oUows :

1. The fields are determined. (The first operation.)

2. Fields are divided into blocks. (The second operation.)

THE FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE ANALYSIS 101

3. Blocks are divided into general responsibilities, (The third operation.)

4!. General responsibilities are divided into specific re- sponsibilities. (The fourth operation.)

5. Specific responsibilities are divided into detailed re- sponsibilities, or "responsibility jobs." (The fifth operation.)

Responsibility Jobs. — ^Any foreman's job can, therefore, be analyzed into a set of classified responsibility jobs just as the production work of a plant can be analyzed into a set of classified work jobs, and when a foreman knows all his respon- sibility "jobs" he has a detailed or specific lay-out of his job, according to whether he stopped the analysis at specific re- sponsibilities or carried it through to detailed jobs.

SECTION IV. THE ANALYSIS OF A DETAILED KESPONSIBILITY INTO EESPONSIBILITY POINTS

The method of laying out a work job into human and machine operating points has already been described. In the same way it is possible to divide any given detailed responsibility into what may be called " responsibility points." A responsibility point may be defined as some one thing that must be looked out for in discharging a detailed responsibility. While this further extension of the analysis is seldom necessary the following illustration will show how it may be done.

The Analysis.of a Detailed Responsibility Into Responsi- bility Points. — ^As an example of how such an analysis can be made the -following wiU serve as an illustration. In a chemical plant alum was made by " attacking " " ore " ( a sort ofl clay) with acid, the action being carried on in lead- lined tanks. This " ore " was stored in bins located some two hundred feet from the attacking tanks and a work job for that department was getting this ore in the right quan- tity from the bins to the tanks, where it was dumped on the

102 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

flooi- as close to the tank as possible, so that the men on the attacking job could readily get at it in charging the tanks.

The foreman in charge had a responsibility job to see that this transporting job was properly done. Among the responsibility points into which that foreman's job might analyze are:

Point 1. Seeing that men used full shovels.

Point 2. Seeing that ore was not spilled on the floor in filling the wheelbarrows.

Point 3. Seeing that wheelbarrows were full before men started to wheel them.

Point 4). Seeing that material was not spilled while wheeling it.

Point 5. Seeing that each barrow and load was weighed.

Point 6. Seeing that ore was dumped in the right place.

Point 7. Seeing that men did not loaf on the job.

Point 8. Seeing that the equipment was in good condition. While a careful analysis might show other responsibility points, the above are enough to illustrate how such an analysis can be carried out.

Job Operations and Responsibility Points. — ^It will be noted that many of the responsibility points as given above covered seeing that some work job operation was properly carried out, but this is not true for all of them, for example, point 7. In making such an analysis of a responsibility job, which the foreman does, care must be used not to get "switched" onto the analysis of the work job which the man does. It will also be of interest to note that nearly all of the responsibility points, but not all, bear upon human rather than machine operating points in the work job.

The Work Job Analysis and the Responsibility Job Anals^is. — ^In analyzing a responsibility job that runs par- allel to a work job, one of the best starting points is the analysis of the work job.

THE FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE ANALYSIS

103

SECTION V. THE APPLICATION OF THE METHODS OF THE EX- TENDED ANALYSIS TO THE JOBS OF A GIVEN POKEMAN IN A GIVEN DEPARTMENT IN A GIVEN PLANT

Making the Specific and Detailed Lay-out. — The start- ing point is, of course, the general responsibility lay-out for the jobs of that particular foreman. He first determines the specific responsibilities in each general responsibility as it appears on his general lay-out and so gets a specific respon- sibility lay-out. Sometimes this is as far as he needs to go to get his jobs laid out as closely as is necessary for his pur- pose. In most cases, however, he must take the next step and determine the detailed responsibilities in his specific responsi- bilities, thus securing his detailed supervisory lay-out.

In general, it is not necessary to analyze all of a fore- man's "responsibility jobs" (detailed responsibilities) into responsibility points, but it is frequently necessary to do this for certain responsibility jobs. For example, this might be true in making a safety analysis on some work jobs in a department.

The Detailed Supervisory Lay-out. — The detailed super- idsory lay-out is, of course, made as just described, by work- ing from the general responsibility lay-out for supervisory responsibilities and needs no further explanation. A sample of a part of such a lay-out may make the matter a little clearer and so is given below, for the general responsibility for equipment in service.

Adjusting Repairing Condemning Inspecting Carrying Reserve

Equipment I Protection [Protecting from Damage

in Service. | Protecting from Abuse

Controlling Output Assigning to Jobs Balancing Assigned Units Making Special Lay-outs

Maintenance

Use

104 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

The Detailed Managerial Lay-out. — ^The detailed man- agerial lay-out is made in exactly the same way from the detailed supervisory lay-out, as the general managerial lay- out was made from the general supervisory lay-out. For each detailed supervisory responsibility there is a corresponding detailed managerial responsibility, a corresponding set of detailed cost elements, a corresponding detailed managerial problem and corresponding ways and means for dealing with that detailed managerial problem.

In the same way for each specific responsibility there are corresponding specific cost elements, a corresponding specific managerial problem, specific ways and means for dealing with that problem, all coming out of the specific managerial responsibility that goes with the specific supervisory responsi- bility. The method of mating the detailed! and specific managerial lay-outs is so plain that it is not further de- scribed here.

The Specific and Detailed Managerial Lay-out. — ^If it is desired to go beyond the general managerial stage of the analysis, while it is, of course, quite possible to stop with the specific managerial lay-out, experience has shown that it rarely pays to do so. The practical method is to work di- rectly from the list of general supervisory responsibilities and make up a detailed managerial lay-out directly without working through the specific responsibility stage. For real practical discussion it almost always happens that practical ways and means for dealing with cases on the managerial side have to be based on detailed rather than specific man- agerial problems and responsibilities. The specific stage of the analysis does not get sufficiently "down to brass tacks."

The Specific and Detailed Instructional Lay-out. — ^Just as in the fields of supervision and management the analysis can be extended through general, specific and detailed responsibilities, so a corresponding specific and detailed

THE FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE ANALYSIS 105

analysis can be worked out for instructing responsibilities. This can be readily done by using the chart in Appendix B as a starting point and following the same general methods as have just been described for the other two fields.

Methods of Making the Analysis. — ^It has already been pointed out that in making the detailed and specific analysis there were two methods of doing it — ^what was called, for convenience, the "cafeteria method," or the method of selec- tion, and the "special order method." It was also pointed out that there might be a combination of the tvfo methods by using a classified analysis of possibilities, selecting from that list all that belonged in the particular foreman's job that was under consideration (the cafeteria method) and then adding any further responsibilities that went with the job. (The special order method.)

Evidently the "cafeteria" method is the easiest when it can be used, but the difficulty with it is that it is practically impossible to secure a complete detailed analysis, because nobody can make such an analysis except the man who is on that particular job. It is, however, often possible to secure a fairly complete analysis of the more probable and common responsibilities made up from the responsibilities reported by various foremen in analyzing their own jobs.

It is a comparatively easy matter for the job of any foreman to be analyzed as far as general responsibilities, but for the further extension of the analysis the use of the straight "special order" method is a long and difficult piece of business, and if a partial list of possibilities can be used for a "starter," the work is made much easier.

The method adopted in this book is, therefore, that de- scribed in the next paragraph.

The Method Used in this Book. — Having in mind the facts just stated and also that foremen have little spare time at their disposal, the work in this book has been laid out as follows :

It has been assumed that any foreman using this book

106 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

■will make his own general responsibility lay-out for his spe- cial jobs by following the directions as given. So far he will use the "special order method." For the further extension of the analysis, however, the book has been written so that for all general responsibilities that appear on the general respon- sibility lay-out for any one foreman's job the "combination method" can be used by providing a fairly complete list of de- tailed and specific responsibilities for each possible general responsibility in the form of charts which are given in the appendix. These detailed analysis of responsibilities arc undoubtedly incomplete and possibly in some cases not accu- rate, they were made up, however, from information fur- nished by a number of foremen in connection with con- ferences and discussions, and should, at least, get a foreman started right on the detailed analysis of his own particular jobs. That is all that they are intended to do.

In making such detailed analyses of general responsibil- ities it is, therefore, assumed that a foreman will first check off all the specific and detailed responsibilities that he has from the charts and will then add such others as may go with his particular job, thus saving time and energy.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR USING THE METHOD OF ANALYSIS

PART II

1. Make a departmental analysis for your department.

2. Make a list of the payroll jobs or of the work jobs that go with one of your departmental production jobs.

3. Make operation analyses of several simple, everyday "jobs" such as opening a pocket knife, opening a door, unlocking a door, tying a four-in-hand tie.

4. Make operation analyses of several jobs in your department.

5. Make an analysis of any of the following managerial

THE FURTHEK EXTENSION OF THE ANALYSIS 107

jobs that may apply to your department, or of some similar jobs that these may suggest. ,

a. An emergency shut down.

b. A case of excessive breakage in trucking inside of the department.

c. A case of a man being seriously injured in the yard where quick action is needed.

d. A case where the product of a given job in your department is not coming out of the right quality.

e. A case where a man should or should not be dis- charged for failure to obey orders or directions.

f. A case where stock must be protected.

6. Make a general responsibility lay-out for your own supervisory job.

7. Using the " combination method " and the " sugges- tive list of possible supervisory responsibilities " given in Appendix B, make a detailed and specific responsibility lay- out (analysis) for one of your general responsibilities.

PART ni PUTTING OVER THE SUPERVISORY JOB

CHAPTER VIII TYING UP PROCEDURE/ AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Preliminaiy. — Almost all plants prescribe some method by which at least certain detailed responsibilities are to be dis- charged. Certain reports are to be made on certain forms : records are kept on cards or by some standard device; job tickets are made out in a certain way. As will be discussed more in detail later, some detailed responsibilities are to be discharged by reporting to somebody, others by making sug- gestions, others by direct action. This means that while in the case of many detailed responsibilities a foreman dis- charges them in any way that he sees fit, according to the conditions that may happen to prevail at that time ; in other cases there is prescribed a procedure, that is, there is a stand- ard way of doing things that everybody is expected to follow. In many cases in connection with the laying out of supervisory and managerial jobs, it is desirable to add to some or all of the responsibility jobs as they appear on the classified list, or the analysis, the special form of procedure prescribed for their discharge. This section, therefore, takes up the matter of tying up the detailed responsibilities with the procedure.

Information as to Procedure. — In general there are cer- taip kinds of information that may be taken into considera- tion in making such an addition to a job lay-out. Among the more important of these might be for each detailed responsibility :

1. Whether there is or is not any fixed method of pro- cedure. If so,

2. The method prescribed for its discharge.

3. The special material to be used, if any.

What is Meant by Procedure.^-The term procedure, or standard practice, as used here, means whatever "regu- lar" method is set up in the organization which all are

111

112 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

expected to follow whenever a given detailed responsibility is to be discharged.

For illustration, when making reports on stock on hand to inunediate superiors, the proper method, according to the special procedure in that particular plant might be to make all reports in writing, which would be one possible form of procedure, or to make reports "by word of mouth" (verbal reports) , which would be another form of procedure. Again, in connection with keeping up the working force, in securing additional men, one form of procedure might be to hire di- rectly at the gate, another to draw a requisition on an em- ployment department. For all the different responsibilities that may appe'ar on the responsibility lay-out of a foreman's job there are always corresponding procedures of some kind by which those responsibilities are discharged.

Standard Practice. — In most well organized plants for each responsibility there is a uniform procedure provided for the discharge of each responsibility ; that is, the same respon- sibility is always supposed to be discharged in the same way whenever it comes up, no matter who has it in charge. In other words, any given responsibility is always to be dis- charged by the same procedure throughout the whole organ- ization. Under such conditions we have what may be called uniform procedure, or standard practice. In many cases however, it happens that while the responsibility is clearly defined the particular method of discharging it has not been set up as standard practice and each foreman discharges that responsibility according to his own idea as to how it can best be carried out, that is, no standard practice has been established.

The Advantage of Including Procedure in the Lay-out.— Of course, it is evident that this auxiliary information has nothing to do with the supervisory "lay-out" itself, and the lay-out can be cofnplete without it. Among some advantages in considering proper procedure in connection with the super- visory lay-out might be the following :

' TYING UP PROCEDURE AND RESPONSIBILITIES 113

(1) It gives a check up on the degree to which the pro- cedure for all responsibilities is definitely laid out.

(2) It will be of service in connection with recording and reporting.

(3) It may bring out points where the procedure is not fully provided for or where no standard procedure has been established and should be established.

Possibilities as to Procedure. — In considering the relation of procedure to detailed responsibilities, in general, there are three possible methods by which any given responsibility can be discharged: action, recommendation and suggestion, and, according to the practice, a foreman may discharge different responsibilities in any of these three ways. It has already been pointed out that a recommending or suggesting respon- sibility is just as important as an acting responsibility, and that where a foreman is expected to suggest or recommend, such responsibilities should be included in the lay-out.

Special Material. — In addition to setting up a standard procedure most plants provide special material in the form of forms, blanks and so on each of which is designed to be Tised in connection with the discharge of some specific respon- sibility. Here again tl^ere are generally three possibilities.

(1) A standard -material for all departments.

(2) Different standard material for different de- partments.

(3) Each foreman makes up his own material.

As an example of these three possible cases, take the case of making a daily production report. Under the first set of conditions, a form is provided for all departments ; under the second set of conditions, each department uses a different form ; in the third case, a foreman writes out the information according to his own special ideas, or, perhaps, some foreman writes out the information and others go to the office and tell a clerk what the day's production has been.

Tying Up. — ^Whatever the special procedure may be. Since each responsibility that appears on the lay-out must be

114 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

discharged somehow, and any foreman knows either his owp special procedure or the standard practice, it is an easy matter to note, against each item on the lay-out, the particu- lar procedure by which that responsibility is discharged by that particular foreman, and when this has been done the responsibilities have been "tied up" with the procedure and the detailed responsibility lay-out has become, in fact, an operating sheet for the foreman's job.

An Illustration. — ^Let it be assumed that one detailed supervisory responsibility in a given foreman's job is to in- spect the condition of all stock that comes into the depart- ment and report the results of that inspection to his imme- diate superior by ten o'clock each morning, the inspection to be for breakage. Assume further that this foreman, in mak- ing out his responsibility lay-out, has used cards and has made a card catalogue of his detailed responsibility jobs. The information might appear on such a card as shown below.

SUPERVISION

No._ilL

TqU Report on stock coming in.

Nature. As to breakage.

Report to ^■•- ^'°'*'^-

Material Form No. 153-a

Specifirati"ns "^^ ^ *" ^^ *'^° o'clock each day imtil fur- ther notice.

Remarks To be attended to personally.

Block. M G. n Reporting.

gp JJ To Immediate Superior.

TYING UP PROCEDURE AND RESPONSIBILITIES 115

Responsibility and Procedure. — In making a responsi- bility lay-out foremen are often confused between responsi- bilities and methods by which those responsibilities are discharged according to the special procedure called for in the particular plant in question. For example, in many plants where a foreman does not have an acting responsibility he does have a recommending or a suggesting responsibility, but he is apt to think that because he does not have full acting power he has no responsibility at all. As an illustration, many foremen have a recommending responsibility for the employment or the transfer of men where the actual action is taken by the Employment Department, but in such cases there is just as much responsibility on the foreman to dis- charge this recommending responsibility as there would be if he acted directly.

In making out a responsibility lay-out, responsibilities should, therefore, be included whether they are acting respon- sibilities, recommending responsibilities or even suggesting responsibilities. There are even cases where a foreman has responsibilities that he has always discharged without think- ing of them as responsibilities at all. For example, all fore- men have a deep sense of responsibility for the reduction of accidents, yet in many cases they will not include these re- sponsibilities in their lay-out, because they have never been specifically told that accident prevention was something for which they were responsible; they have accepted the re- sponsibility and discharged it without thinking anything about it.

In making a responsibility lay-out a foreman should, therefore, be careful to include all points, regardless of the particular way in which the responsibility is discharged or whether he has or has not been definitely told that the par- ticular point under consideration is a part of his job.

CHAPTER IX THE CONDITIONS OF EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION

SECTION I. PEELIMINAKY

Preliminary. — ^A foreman may have his supervisory jobs fuUy defined; he may have listed out aU the responsibilities that he considers go with his job, under his special condi- tions ; he may have tied up his different responsibilities with the standard practice, but he still has to consider how he can put his various supervisory jobs "across" to the best advantage.

This chapter takes up the question of the putting over of supervisory responsibilities without regard to the special field in which they may lie whether the supervision be direct supervision or human factor supervision as these terms are explained below.

What is Meant by Human Factor Supervision. — ^As is discussed in later chapters a part of the duty of any fore- man is to observe conditions as to such things as the interest, the physical condition of the members of his operating force, or their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their jobs or with the working conditions. In noting these conditions he acts as a supervisor just as much as he does when he checks up a process or operation, or notes the cohdition of a machine. Since however in doing this he is noting conditions that are due to human and not mechanical factors, this sort of supervision may be called human factor supervision to distinguish it from direct supervision as taken up in the next paragraph.

What is Meant by Direct Supervision. — ^As indic£<ted in the last paragraph, a foreman's responsibilities may be con- sidered as of two kinds, those relating to securing production by taking material, doing something to it through operations and processes, with the aid of tools, equipment, knowledge, skill and strength, and so turning out a required or standard

lie

THE CONDITIONS OP EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION 117

product and dealing with such information as may be re- quired in connection with that work— that is, dealing with things that are not alive. The second kind of responsibilities are in connection with what has been called "the human fac- tor," involving such things as satisfaction and interest. As the term is used here, direct supervision refers to those re- sponsibilities that do not deal with the human factor, but do deal with the five blocks, material, tools and equipment, operations and processes, the distribution of the working force, and the handling of information.

Kinds of Direct Supervision. — In general, direct super- vision can be divided into two kinds, as follows :

(1) Regular, or routine, supervision.

(2) Emergency supervision.

Regular or Routine Direct Supervision. — In any depart- ment, according to the responsibility lay-out, there will be ' certain regular responsibilities that go with the job. As long as the character of the work is the same, these responsibil- ities remain the same. For example, a "regular" responsi- bility might be to inspect twice a day, the condition of smoke- less powder in storage. This would be a regular or routine supervisory job. Another regular supervisory job might be to order the starting or stopping of certain processes in a chemical plant, as in crystallizing out a product (say, alum), or in roughing off a casting in a machine shop.

In all such cases a foreman can determine by his respon- sibility lay-out what these regular responsibilities are, and his problem is to cover them so as not to miss any of them and to cover them effectively, but "he knows what is coming to him" in all cases of this kind of supervisory responsibility.

Emergency Supervision. — ^In addition to the regular supervision described in the last paragraph unexpected mat- ters, or emergencies are continually coming up that require a foreman's attention. This sort of supervision differs from the regular supervision because nobody can tell in advance when it will' be called for and, in the great majority of cases.

118 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

whatever calls for such emergency supervision happens with- out warning and calls for quick action.

A complete responsibility lay-out would show all the dif- ferent sorts of regular supervision that went with a given foreman's job, but would not show the emergency supervision because nobody can tell what it might be. It is true that a foreman who knows his department can often teU what are the more probable emergencies that are likely to come up, because he has had so much experience in dealing with them, but even then he can never tell when some new one may come about for the first time or when any of them are sure to happen.

Supervisory Responsibilities.— A foreman has certaio re- sponsibilities of both kinds, regular and emergency, and this chapter takes up some of the more important points as they apply to supervision of the five blocks already mentioned.

These Responsibilities Independent of What is Super- vised.— ^It should be noted that the points taken up in this chapter have nothing to do with the particular character of what is supervised, as, for example, the particular nature of operations or processes in any given department, or the special kind of work jobs, or the particular kind of units of which the departmental equipment may be made up. They apply regardless of these matters, and so affect all foremen regardless of the special job of their department. For ex- ample, they would apply equally to the head of the shipping department, the foreman in charge of a maintenance de- partment or an engineering department, or to the supervisor in charge of any sort of a production department.

SECTION n. KEGULAB, SUPERVISION

Two Important Points on Regular Supervision. — ^No matter what sort of work is supervised, there are two import- ant points that any supervisor should observe in connection with his regular supervision :

1. His supervision should be complete.

2. His supervision should be balanced.

THE CONDITIONS OF EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION 119

And supervision will be efficient if these two points, or super- visory elements are observed.

Complete Supervision. — In connection with the carrying on of any piece of work, such as a work job in a department, there are certain points where the foreman must do something if the work is to continue to go on at aU or to go on right. To put it the other way, if, at those points, the foreman does not do something, the job either stops or goes wrong. Such a point will be called, for convenience, a supervisory responsi- bility point. Such a supervisory responsibility point might be the necessity of seeing that a certain product was up to specifications^ it might mean giving certain orders or direc- tions, it might mean seeing that stock was renewed in time to prevent the necessity for shutting down the job; but whatever it happens to be it calls for some action on the part of the foreman.

Now there are, in any given supervisory job, a certain number of these points that call for some action on the fore- man's part, and if they are not all "covered" the supervision is not complete. If, in a given foreman's department, there are, say, one hundred of these acting points, and he only covers eighty of them, he has done a poor supervising job from the standpoint of completeness, because he has left twenty points uncovered.

Complete supervision, therefore, means that all super^ msory responsibilities are discharged. Incomplete super- vision means that all responsibilities are not discharged, no matter why. For example, if a foreman had some supervisory responsibilities in his supervisory job that he never knew that he had, and so had never discharged them, nevertheless his supervision would be incomplete.

A plan for getting all the responsibilities in a supervisory job is described in other chapters, but however it may be got at, any foreman can properly be held responsible by Ms superiors for making his supervision complete.

Balanced Supervision. — Jobs or processes, whatever they

120 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

may be, are carried on by people of different degrees of skill, intelligence, reliability, vary greatly in their simplicity or difficulty, are carried on under widely varying working condi- tions and so call for different amounts of supervision. There may be certain points on a work job where any slip wiU mean a considerable loss or possibly loss of the whole job, there may be points on other jobs where "the job can't go wrong if it tries." The time to find the captain of a steamer on the bridge is when there is danger of trouble, and the time to find him off duty is when there is no trouble in sight, and the same principle applies to a foreman. His supervision should be properly distributed. He has only a certain amount of time that he can give to supervision, and it is up to him to dis- tribute this supervision, or this time, to the best advantage, especially with regard to what may be called high and low supervisory points.

High and Low Supervisory Points. — ^All points calling for supervision can be classified into what were just referred to as high or low supervisory points, with regard to the care- ful supervision and the amount of supervision required to properly take care of them.

For example, in a paint mill, a drawing off job might include opening and shutting a gate on a paint mixer. If the man in charge of this work did not open the gate entirely, the results would be merely a slight time loss, not, of course, desirable, but not very serious, but if he failed to fully close the gate after he had fiUed a container with paint and, while he took that can away and got another, more or less paint ran on the floor, the resulting loss might be considerable. The responsibility for seeing that the gate was shut would be a higher supervising point than that of seeing that it was fully open.

In the same way, in a machine shop, the operation of taking a rough cut on a lithe might call for less careful super- vision than the final cut to accurate dimensions.

In building a house, nailing on covering boards might be a low supervisory point, but building the front stairs a high one. The second point for which any foreman can properly

THE CONDITIONS OF EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION

121

be held responsible is, therefore, how he distributes his super- vision with regard to high and low operating points, that is, the degree to which his supervision is balanced.

Balanced Supervision. — ^Balanced supervision, as dis- cussed in the last paragraph, therefore, simply means dis- charging each supervisory responsibility with regard to the time and careful attention that are required to look out properly for that special part of the supervisory job, and is evidently quite a distinct matter from completeness, as al-

12 3456 7a

ready discussed. A foreman might make his supervision entirely complete, and yet it might be very badly balanced, as illustrated in the figure above:

Assuming that there are eight supervisory responsibil- ities, of different "heights," and three foremen: Foreman A distributes his supervision equally on all responsibilities ; his supervision line would appear as in A, giving too much supervision to responsibilities 2, 4 and 7, and not enough to 1, 3, 5 and 8, only hitting it right on 6.

Foreman B distributes his supervision with regard to high and low points, and his supervision line shows that he has hit things about right. Foreman C, taking things as they come, might have a supervising line which, as shown, fails to give to any of his supervisory responsibilities the proper value.

Summary — Regular Supervision. — The two points for which any foreman can be properly held responsible are, therefore, for supervision that is complete and balanced, and

122 THE FOEJEMAN AND HIS JOB

if his supervision is either iacomplete or badly unbalanced, he can properly be held responsible by his superiors.

Emergency Supervision. — Section I pointed out that, in addition to routine supervision, where the responsibilities were aU known, there were always responsibilities for what is called emergency supervision.

In many cases, such emergencies cannot be foreseen, but, when an emergency arises, it is evidently the duty of a fore- man to act at once, so that it is necessary that while he is on the job, a foreman should never be "lost," that is, it should always be possible for him to be reached at once by anyone in his department. In proportion as he takes measures to see that this is possible at all times, he is doing a good super- vision job from the standpoint of emergency supervision.

As an example of this, it is a standing rule in aU well administered organizatiops that "the ofBce is never vacant." If, for illustration, the Chief of Division in a Government de- partment is away from the office some one else is always dele- gated to be the Acting Head, so that some one is always on the job with authority to act in case of emergency.

A foreman can, therefore, be properly expected to always see to it that he is not "lost" in the sense that if he is not where he can act in an emergency some arrangement has been made for some one to act at once. The job should not be left "vacant."

A Foreman's Supervisory Responsibilities. — In carrying on his supervision, a foreman can, therefore, be held respon- sible for three things :

1. Balanced supervision.

2. Complete supervision.

3. Being always on the job, either directly or by deputy. These three points may be called the elements of proper

supervision without regard to the special lines of work that are to be supervised. The question as to cost elements, man- agerial problems and suggestion for dealing with these prob- lems so as to secure balance, completeness and availability in case of an emergency are taken up in the next chapter as belonging in the managerial field.

CHAPTER X

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON SUPERVISION

Preliminary. — The last chapter pointed out the condi- tions for effective supervision : completeness, distribution, ac- cessibility to the supervisor at all times, and stated that all foremen could properly be held responsible for so carrying on their supervisory work that these three points were taken care of in some way.

In the chapter on making the managerial lay-out* it was pointed out that for each supervisory responsibility there was a corresponding managerial responsibility, that this man- agerial responsibility was to get the supervisory job done as efficiently as possible, thus setting up a managerial problem, and that the managerial problem could only be dealt with by taking into consideration the cost elements that came into play.

This chapter, therefore, takes up the question of the cost elements and managerial problems on completeness and dis- tribution of regular supervision as well as that of avoiding excess cost due to absence in an emergency, and makes some suggestion as to ways and means that may be of assistance to foremen in working out their own managerial problems in this special part of their job.

Cost Elements — Completeness of Supervision. — ^Among the more common cost elements that should be taken into consideration are:

1. Damage or loss due to failure to cover all super- visory points.

2. "Rowing" as to why the thing went wrong or as to whose fault it was.

* Chapter IX, Part II.

123

124 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

3. Additional cost due to repairing the damage or loss.

4. Time lost because the worker knew that he needed supervision and hesitated to go ahead without it.

And a number of others that wiU readily suggest themselves.

The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here is simply to cover all points so that excess cost due to any or all of the cost elements will either be cut out entirely or, since one cannot expect 100 per cent, in real life, reduced to the smallest possible amount, that is, to a minimum.

Dealing with the Problem. — ^It is evident that any method that aims at dealing effectively with this problem must be based upon the fact that all responsibilities are known, since responsibilities that are included in the supervisory job, but that are not known to exist, of course, will not be discharged. The first step then is to know all responsibilities that go with the job as completely as possible.

In doing this there are practically two methods that may be called for convenience the "guess and pick up method" and the method by analysis, as already described.*

The "Guess and Pick Up Method."— According to this method a foreman first guesses that he knows all his responsi- bilities and, if his guess is not complete he figures that any uncovered points wiU make trouble and as fast as they do make trouble he can "pick them up," and add them to the list of responsibilities that he consciously or unconsciously car- ries in his head. Working in this way as time goes on he gradually builds up a fairly complete list 'of the responsi- bilities that go with his job, at the expense of the job. The longer he is on the job the more experience he has had, the more likely he is to come somewhere near finally knowing what his responsibilities are.

The Method of Analysis. — ^The second method makes use of the methods of analysis as described in Part II. By using such a classified list as is given there and working through the method as described, a supervisory lay-out can be worked out

•Chapters III and IV, Part II.

MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON SUPERVISION 125

to any desired degree of detail, can be checked up with other foremen, with superiors and with any others who may have something to do with the job, so that a fairly accurate lay- out or inventory of responsibilities can be obtained.

The Analysis Method the Better. — The only reaUy effec- tive managerial "tool" fdr securing complete supervision is to use the method of analysis. If this is done, supervision can, if desired, be checked up against a supervision schedule so as to be sure that practically all points are covered.

Disadvantages of the "Guess" Method. — The great dis- advantage of the "guess" method for handling balance and completeness is that the foreman has no guarantee either that he has completely covered his job or that he has dis- tributed his supervision according to the different require- ments of different operating points. He has only his past experience and his general notions to go by. He "guesses" that Bin Jones is "safe" for a while and that he has "to see what Sam is doing." He is liable not to "cover" points that especially need "covering" and put time on points that do not need covering. For example, in a pressroom it might be up to the foreman to O. K. the make-up on the press before the run was started. This might require careful supervision as the quality of the whole job is involved. After the run is started but little supervision is needed, and the pressman knows when the job is finished without any supervision. Working by "guess" the foreman might let passing on the make-up "get by" in the pressure of other work, then might remember just enough to tell him when the run was finished.

In a nitric-acid plant it might be very important to super- vise the gravity of the acid run into the retort because using acid of the wrong gravity might spoil the whole operation. This might be a "high" supervisory point, while the operation of the retort after the operation was started might be a "low" point ; that is, might require only occasional supervision. A foreman running by "guess" with a number of other jobs to supervise might well fail to give this particular high point proper supervision.

126 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

A good deal of the danger of the "guess" method lies in the fact that a man looking out for a number of j obs is very liable to lose his sense of relative values on supervisory points. Some men are liable to get into the habit of making their rounds and "picking things up as they come" instead of plan- ning their supervision according to "high" and "low" super- visory points as discussed in the last chapter.

Another difficulty lies in the fact that foremen who are thoroughly familiar with their jobs may have dropped into a certain routine based upon convenience, lay-out of the plant, etc., and which was not originally based on any definite study of the supervisory requirements of the job.

Still another form of the "guess" method is "living from hand to mouth." A foreman has no plan for supervision. He takes up points as they happen to come to his attention or are brought to his attention by his men.

The "guess" method has all the disadvantages of the old method of building a ship by whittling out a model, as com- pared with the present methods of naval construction. A man may do a good shipbuilding job, but he does not know how he did it or why he got a good job.

Of course, many intelligent and experienced foremen do do a good supervising job by the "guess" method, but, in general, they have to work harder and are always in danger of letting points get by, especially when the character of the work changes.

Another danger of the "guess" method is that it is liable to lead to a situation where "the work runs the foreman instead of the foreman ruiming the work." He loses his control of the job.

The First Analysis not Always Perfect. — ^While it is true that an analysis of a supervisory job as first made cannot always be expected to catch all points, it will come much nearer doing it because it is worked out carefully and all points are "naUed down." If some points are not included they can be, in turn, "nailed" the first time that they show up

MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON SUPERVISION 127

and need never be lost again, so that a practically 100 per cent, lay-out can be built up in a relatively short time.

Use of the Lay-out to Secure Complete Supervision. — Having once secured a supervisory lay-out, it is easy to see if, in practice, any points that appear on the lay-out are not being covered, and to cover them from that time on. Some other advantages that came out of the use of a lay-out have already been taken up in preceding chapters and so are not given here.

Checking Responsibility Points Against the Job Analysis. — The job analysis shows all operations in all jobs in all departmental jobs. The supervisory lay-out shows aU responsibility points, as far as they have been "spotted." If each operation, as shown on the departmental job analysis, is considered with regard to whether it does or does not call for direct supervision, some of the following situations may appear :

(1) Some operations calling for supervision may have been left out on the supervisory lay-out.

(2) Some points that appear on the supervisory lay-out may not be supervisory points after all.

For example, under many conditions, say in a small job machine shop or in tool making, a j ob is turned over entirely to a skilled man. While the foreman, of course, is responsible for the product, as a matter of trade custow,, when he- has once said, "BUI, get that out," the skilled workmen would be responsible for doing that job. The foreman would not "butt in" while the job was going on, but might (and prob- ably would) inspect the product.

Under such conditions, the foreman would assume no di- rect responsibility for the way in which the work was done, but would assume direct responsibility only for the product.

Of course, this condition of things is less likely to happen in a highly organized plant, or on highly specialized work in large plants, and is much more likely to happen in small plants employing highly skilled workers, but it is a condition

128 THE FOREMAN AND ms JOB

that may occur and often does occur, and where it does, may aifect the supervisory lay-out as originally planned.

An effective managerial device for back checking on the completeness and correctness of the supervisory lay-out as originally prepared, therefore, is to check the lay-out against a departmental job analysis.

The Method of Analysis not Conxmonly Used. — The method of analysis as applied to supervisory jobs is not com- monly used by foremen to secure complete and balanced supervision. There are a number of reasons for this, of which the most common is the simple fact that the value of this method has never been brought to their attention or they have had no experience in using it and so do not appreci- ate its value. Some other reasons why many foremen have not used an analysis are:

(1) It is a difficult thing to make an accurate and careful analysis, and the more experience a man has had on his super- visory job the more difficult he finds analysis work.

(This because the more familiar a man is with his work the more difficult it is for him to "stand off and look at him- self" and see what he actually does.)

(2) Many foremen think that the trouble will not pay in cost saving, which is not the case.

(3) Because the other way is the easiest and a foreman is often so hard pressed for time that he naturally takes the easier method.

In spite of all of these difficulties, wherever foremen have learned to make supervisory analyses and to use them in their work their almost universal testimony has been that they have been well repaid for their time and trouble. The remain- ing chapters in this book are intended to aid foremen in using the methods of analysis in connection with their work, in making and using analyses in the ways in which they can be used to help in carrying on a foreman's various jobs to better advantage.

Cost Elements — Balance of Supervision. — ^Among the cost elements that may come up here are:

MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON SUPERVISION 129

(1) Loss or damage due to failure to give sufficient at- tention to "high" superAdsory points.

(2) Loss of time through giving more attention than is necessary to "low" supervisory points.

(3) Time spent on things that do not require supervision instead of on points that do need it ; that is, wasting super- visory time. Where a supervisor spends time on something that does not need supervision, even if he thinks that it does, he is doing the same thing that a workman does when he "sol- diers on.the job." It looks as though he were doing something when really he is doing nothing that counts on the job. This might be called imitation supervision.

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here is to reduce cost by getting the best possible balance of super- vision, that is, by making the most of supervisory time.

Dealing with the Problem. — ^As in the case of complete- ness of supervision, the "guess method" or the method of analysis can be used, and, as in the other case, is far more effective. Where there is a good supervisory lay-out and a good departmental and job analysis is available it is a com- paratively easy matter to determine the relative "supervis- ory value" of all supervisory responsibilities and locate all the "high" and "low" supervisory points. This usually calls for at least a detailed responsibility lay-out and, in certain cases, may require analyzing some detailed responsibilities into responsibility points by the method already described. Once worked out, however, it gives a permanent control sheet on the distribution of routine supervision that wUl always be of service in keeping the job much better balanced than it is likely to be where the " guess " method Is relied upon.

Cost Elements— "Getting Lost."— The cost elements here are so numerous when one considers what may happen in an emergency that no attempt is made to suggest any special ones. This is a case where such cost elements should simply be cut out.

The<Managerial Problem.— The managerial problem here

130 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

is to plan in some way so that the department is never left so that the foreman cannot be quickly reached, or so that some one in the department has authority to act in an emergency during his absence.

Dealing with the Problem. — As just indicated, the only eifective way of dealing with this problem is, first, to avoid getting "lost," that is, never to allow a situation to come about where nobody in the department knows how to reach the foreman in an emergency, and second, if that is not possible, to have some one in the department designated to act in his absence and have everybody Tcnow who that indimdual is. Of course conditions vary, but in general the two methods sug- gested are at least worth consideration under any conditions. It should be clearly understood that the chief reason for the precautions suggested is not what does happen, but what may happen. Many departments can run along for a good while without needing any special supervision, but the range of what may happen is what makes it necessary to consider the problem of emergency supervision as so important.

The Value of Anticipating and Planning. — ^Another valu- able managerial device in connection with emergency super- vision is, so far as it can be anticipated, planning in advance to deal with the emergency if it happens. This is why steamers carry boats which everybody hopes will never have to be used. First aid kits are provided with the same idea. While, as already stated, a supervisory lay-out would not include emergencies, it might be an excellent idea to also list out probable emergencies and to plan for dealing with them if they happen ; if they don't, no harm has been done ; if they do happen, advance planning may not only greatly reduce cost but, in some cases, may save life. A number of sugges- tions as to such advance planning to meet emergencies will be found in the following chapters and it is hoped will be of value as suggestions.

From the standpoint of emergency supervision, any fore- man will do a better supervising job in proportion as he sees

MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON SUPERVISION 131

that he is always where he can be reached, and so far as he can anticipate possible emergencies and plans his action in advance. A good example of planning, or not planning, in advance would be in the case of fire.

It may never happen, but sometimes it does happen, and if it does, we know that certain things are likely to occur, panic, for example, unless steps have been taken to prevent it. One foreman, we will say, has done nothing ; another fore- man has seen to it that his force have had fire drill and that all fire escapes are known and, in general, has done all that he can to prevent damage and loss of life, if a fire occurs. The second foreman has evidently discharged his responsi- bility for emergency supervision for this particular emer- gency better than the first and will be more than repaid for his time and trouble if, as a result of his planning, when a fire does come, there is no panic, no loss of life, and, as a secondary consideration, minimum damage.

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION PART III

1. The following is the lay-out for a job in a chemical plant.

a. FiU with liquor.

b. Boil out.

c. Drain.

d. Fill with water.

e. Test gravity of liquor.

If under a certain gravity drain to one set of tanks, if over, drain, to another tank.

Which of these operations would you consider as high and which as low supervisory points?

2. In making alum the following are the essen- tial operations.

132 THE FOREMAN A>fD HIS JOB

1. Mix the ore, the acid and water in the attack- ing tanks.

2. Heat with steam coils.

3. Allow to settle.

4. Draw off clear liquor.

6. Let liquor cool and crystalize out the alum, in lead lined ^tanks.

6. Draw off the mother liquor.

7. Break up the crystalized alum with picks. Which of these operations would you consider as high

and which as low supervisory points ?

3. In a machine shop which would you consider the higher supervisory point, seeing that a planer job was set up right or seeing that the job was got out within the limits of tolerance.''

4. In a pressman's job on a job press which would be the higher supervisory point, seeing that the make ready was right or the feeding.''

6. Which would you consider the higher supervisory point, seeing that there were workers enough to hold all jobs or that all machines were in good condition?

6. Taking an analysis of a job in your own department spot the high supervisory points. The low supervisory points.

7. What do you consider some of the high supervisory points on the different jobs in your department.'' Why?

8. Which do you consider the more important, well- balanced supervision or emergency supervision?

9. Which would you consider the higher supervisory point, looking out for any cases where men are overfatigued or looking out for cases where they fail to follow instruc- tions? Why?

10. As between the human elements and the mechanical elements on the jobs in your department which do you think have the greater nmnber of high supervisory points? Why?

11. In your opinion what might be some of the cost ele-

MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON SUPERVISION 133

ments that might come up if supervision was incomplete on routine work?

12. In a certain plant the finished product of one depart- ment was taken out of that department and placed on a loading platform outside of the shop where transportation came and got it at certain times. Between these times the material accumulated on the loading platform. One day, while material was on the platform but before it was time for the truck to come around, a rain squall came up and the material was wet down and damaged.

Investigation showed that neither the foreman in charge of the shop where the material was made nor the foreman in charge of transportation considered that they were responsi- ble. What does this case indicate as to completeness of somebody's supervision? Whose's?

13. How would you designate a failure to take steps to quickly put out a fire if it got started?

14. In a certain plant it was found that, in some cases, fire extinguishers were used and then were put back without reporting the fact that they had been used. Would you say this was due to incomplete supervision or to unbalanced supervision? Why?

15. Using a work job analysis as a starting point note on it the high and low supervisory points. Give reasons why you rate the different points as you do.

16. A certain job calls for weighing different quantities to make up a mixture and then for mixing these quantities in a mechanical mixer. Which of these operations would you say had the higher supervisory value? Why?

PART'IV

THE ANALYSIS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORKING FORCE BLOCK INTO SPE- CIFIC AND DETAILED RESPONSIBILITIES

CHAPTER XI

DETAILED AND SPECIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORKING FORCE

SECTION I. PKELIMINAEY

Preliminary.— The preceding chapters have described the methods by which the supervisory and managerial jobs of a foreman can be laid out up ta the determination of the general responsibilities. It was moreover, pointed out that the lay-out could be extended further in detail by laying out the general responsibilities into detailed responsibilities and then laying out the specific responsibilities that go with each detailed responsibility. For each detailed responsibility there can also be determined the detailed cost elements, the detailed managerial problem and the detailed ways and means for dealing with that problem to the best advantage. As an illustration of how this further extension of the lay- out can be made the following chapters take up such an extension of the lay-out for a number of general responsi- bilities, including those on the distribution of the working force and on the handling of information.

With the aid of the charts the other general responsibili- ties can be laid out for specific and detailed responsi- bilities in the same way wherever that further extension of the lay-out seems desirable, for either supervision, manage- ment or for both. The general responsibility lay-out on page 61 showed one block on the working force and two general responsibilities: (1) for keeping up the working force, and (2) for the distribution of the working force. This chapter deals with some of the more probable specific and detailed responsibilities that may come into these general responsi- bilities, as a suggestion to foremen who may wish to carry the analysis of their jobs beyond the point of the general responsibilities as given in Part II.

1S7

138

THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

SOME DETAILED AND SPECIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE WORKING FORCE BLOCK

Keeping up the Working Force

Dealing with Per- manent Labor ' Loss

Dealing with Tem- porary Labor Loss

Hiring '

Discharging '

Securing transfers of

workers from other

departments * Transferring workers to

other departments *

" Doubling up " Making temporary trans- fers

Covering all Jobs I As to number of workers

Distributing the De- partmental Work- ing Force

Covering all jobs (Qualifications of ■workers)

As to necessary strength As to necessary job

knowledge As to necessary job skill On highly skilled jobs On medium skilled jobs On specialized jobs On machine tending jobs On laborers jobs

Making transfers from one grade of job to an- other

Promoting + Demoting +

Shifting from one job to another of the same grade

* By recommendation, direct action or suggestion, as the case may be. + By recommendation, direct action or suggestion, as the case may be.

Labor Loss. — In any concern there is always some amount of labor loss due to various causes, but whatever the cause there is always a responsibility on somebody to see that this loss is made up in some way, and this responsibility for dealing with labor loss may be a part of the foreman's job.

The Two Kinds of Labor Loss. — There are two kinds of labor loss, that is, the department may be "shy" on labor in two ways :

1. The department may actually lack a sufficient number of workers to cover all jobs on account of what may be called permanent loss. In this case the loss is due to the fact that somebody has gone off the departmental payroll for good. He has been fired, has quit, or for some other cause

DISTRIBUTION OP THE WORKII^G FORCE ISO

has gone for good so far as the departmental operating force is concerned.

Evidently loss of this kind must be made good by bring- ing new workers into the department from somewhere : by hir- ing, by transferring from some other department, or in some other way.

One specific responsibility, as indicated on the chart, might therefore he in connection with dealing with permanent labor loss. This form of labor loss is discussed in Section II.

2. A different case would be where somebody is still on the payroll but is not on the job : Although he is still theoreti- cally employed, as a matter of fact his place is empty. He may have "taken a day oif," he may be sick, he may be laid up on account of accident, but, whatever the cause, there is a temporary hole to "plug" in some way, but not by per- manently taking on new workers. This sort of loss may be called temporary loss.

Distribution of the Working Force.— The general re- sponsibility for the distribution of the working force as given above can be subdivided into three specific responsibilities, as indicated.

1. Covering all jobs. That is, a responsibility for seeing that no job in the department stops because there is nobody on it. This possible responsibility is taken up in Section IV.

2. Providing the necessary minimum strength, knowledge or skill on all jobs. Any job requires a certain kind and degree of "job" knowledge or skill and often requires a cer- tain amount of physical strength. If the worker on that job does not possess these qualifications sufficiently to meet the minimum requirements, the job cannot go on — it stops. Somebody must be responsible for seeing that no job stops because the worker assigned to it cannot put over the job at aU, and this responsibility may be a part of the foreman's job, to be put across either through action, recommendation, or suggestion, according to the procedure. This possible responsibility and some possible detailed responsibilities in this connection are discussed in Section V.

140 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

3. Making transfers from one grade to another. One possible way of adjusting the working force to meet labor loss is by transferring from one j ob to another.

SECTION n. KEEPING UP THE WORKING FORCE PERMANENT

U\.BOS LOSS

Preliminary. — ^This section discusses some of the possible detailed responsibilities that may come out of the specific responsibility for dealing with permanent labor loss. Some of the more probable of these that may come into a foreman's job are, as indicated on the chart:

1. Hiring;

2. Discharging.

3. Securing transfers from other departments.

4. Getting workers transferred to other departments. These possible responsibilities are so evident that they need little discussion and are only noted very briefly in the fol- lowing paragraphs.

Hiring. — The only point worth drawing attention to in connection with this special possible detailed responsibility is that there is a responsibility here whenever a foreman's job includes anything to do with the securing of help. Whether he is expected to get his men himself, or even to "hire at the gate," or whether a part of his job is to suggest desir- able employees to an employment department, or where he sends in requisitions for new workers, he has responsibilities under this heading.

Discharging. — The same general statement applies here as in the case of hiring.

Securing Transfers. — ^As in the other cases there is a responsibility here if the foreman's job includes any action as to transfers, whether it is by direct action with other fore- men or through an employment department, or in any other way.

In all the three cases noted above the only question is whether the job of the particular foreman under considera- tion does or does not include detailed responsibilities with

DISTRIBUTION OP THE WORKING FORCE 141

regard to hiring, firing and transferring. In considering this point many foremen are liable to think that they have no responsibilities in this connection, because they do not act directly, but, as has been repeatedly stated, if there is any recommending or even suggesting responsibility it should be included in the specific and detailed responsibility lay-out for that particular foreman's job. So far as the department is concerned it must be remembered that loss by discharge, by quitting, by transfer to other departments or by promo- tion out of the department means permanent labor loss to the department, if not always to the plant as a whole, so that any responsibilities that affect any of these points should be listed under one of the detailed responsibilities given. Thus, for example, a foreman may have the responsibility for rec- ommending for promotion out of the department, although the actual action may come from "higher up," or he may have the responsibility for finding out why a worker quit, or he may be expected to "scout around" for additional help, even if the actual formal responsibility is on an employment department. In all such cases there would be responsibilities under the headings given, though, at, first, a man would be likely to say that matters of that kind were outside of his job and leave them out of his lay-out.

SECTION m. KEEPING UP THE WOEKING FOECE TEMPOEAEY

LABOE LOSS

Preliminary. — ^As pointed out in the preliminary section, another set of detailed responsibilities may come into the job of a foreman in connection with temporary labor loss. These are taken up so far as they are suggested on the chart, in the following paragraphs.

"Doubling Up." — In cases of temporary absence it is sometimes necessary to put one worker on all or a part of the job of the absentee in addition to his own job in order to keep all the work going. This is, of course, an inefficient device, but it may be the only thing that can be done. Where a fore-

142 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

man has the responsibility of deciding when such "doubling up" is necessary, he has some form of responsibility under this heading, whether he acts directly or by recommendation. Temporary Transfers. — ^In the same way as in "doubling up," it may be necessary to take somebody away from a less important job in order to deal with temporary absence on a more important job. Where the responsibility of doing this, or recommending that it be done, is up to the foreman, he has a detailed responsibility under this heading.

SECTION rv. DISTKIBUTING THE WORKING FORCE COVERING

ALL JOBS

Prelirtjinary. — This section discusses some possible de- tailed responsibilities in connection with covering all jobs as noted in Section I.

Skill, Knowledge and Strength on the Job. — ^Practically all jobs are carried on partly by the worker and partly by the machine or the tools, in fact, it might be said that the worker does whatever the machine or the tools cannot do in helping the worker to do the job. The machine or the tools may aid the worker to a greater or to a less extent, but in practically all cases the machine cannot entirely supply all the strength, may supply a part of the "skill" and can supply no knowledge. For practically all jobs, therefore, there must be provided workers who can supply the necessary strength, knowledge and skill, and in assigning workers to jobs it is evident that these "job requirements" must be known and taken into consideration to the extent of seeing that whoever is put on the job possesses the necessary strength, the special knowledge and the special skill to "hold down the job." If this is not done the work will not be done. Under the detailed responsibility for covering all jobs there may, therefore, be possible detailed responsibilities, as indicated on the chart for :

1. Covering all jobs as to necessary strength.

DISTRIBUTION OP THE WORKING FORCE • 143

2. Covering all jobs as to necessary special knowledge. (Job knowledge.)

3. Covering aU. jobs as to necessary special skill.

Where a foreman finds that he has a specific responsi- bility for covering jobs he probably has all three of these detailed responsibilities.

Different Grades of Jobs. — ^Different jobs vary in the relative amounts of strength, knowledge and skill, and this fact is commonly indicated by the use of the terms "skilled," "specialized" and "unskilled." The terms as used on the chart are somewhat more specific and are used here in thfe sense given below.

Highly Skilled Jobs. — Jobs designated by this term are those that belong to what are commonly called skilled trades, such as "all around" machinists, pattern makers, etc., where both the amount and the degree of knowledge and skill are high.

Medium Skilled Jobs. — Jobs designated by this term are those that belong to what are commonly called "semi-skilled" trades. These jobs often require a high degree of skill but do not require as wide a range of knowledge.

Specialized Jobs. — Jobs designated here by this term are jobs or operations that belong to a skilled or semi-skilled trade, such as operating one machine in the machine shop (lathe hand, miller hand, planer hand) or other similar jobs.

Machine Tending Jobs. — ^As used here, this term refers to jobs where the machine does nearly all the work, as in the case of tending an automatic screw machine or gear cutter, or a ring spinning frame in a cotton mill.

Laborers' Jobs. — ^As used here, this term refers to jobs that require only the use of the simplest tools and machines, if any. The term is used in its ordinary sense and needs no special explanation.

Why it is Worth While to Distinguish Between Grades of Jobs in Making the Lay-out of Specific Responsibilities. — The distinction between the different grades of jobs is worth making in the detailed responsibility lay-out because the

144 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

grade of the jobs for whose covering the foreman may be responsible "cuts considerable ice" in connection with the managerial side of the job, and often affects the conditions under which the responsibilities must be discharged. This matter is taken up in the discussion on managerial responsi- bilities and so is not considered further here.

SECTION V. DISTEIBUTION OF THE WOEKJNG FORCE MAKING

TRANSFERS FROM ONE GRADE TO ANOTHER

Preliminary. — One possible method of dealing with the question of the distribution of the working force is to transfer either from one job to another or to transfer from jobs of one grade to those of another grade. Some possible detailed responsibilities that may come into the foreman's job in this connection are discussed in this section as suggested on the chart.

Promoting and Demoting. — ^If a foreman has any respon- sibilities in this connection, either by direct action, by recom- mendation or by suggestion, he should include these items in his detailed responsibility lay-out. This matter should be given careful attention, because many foremen feel, at first thought, that unless they have direct acting authority in the matter they have no responsibility, which is, of course, not the case. This is especially important, because, as is dis- cussed in the chapters on the human factor, the manner in which these responsibilities are discharged sets up some of the most difficult managerial problems, so that any foreman should be very sure that he has no responsibilities under these headings before he omits them from his responsibility lay-out.

Shifting Jobs. — This is often a very important responsi- bility in connection with the distribution of the working force and, in some form, comes into the job of almost all foremen. It is important for much the same reasons as were given for promoting and demoting, and, according to the way that it is handled, may greatly affect the cost of labor in the depart- ment, as is fuUy discussed in the chapter on the human factor. A foreman should be very sure that he has neither acting, recommending or suggesting responsibilities before he omits this detailed responsibility from his lay-out.

CHAPTER Xn

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS

ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE

WORKING FORCE

SECTION I. PaEUiaNABY

Preliminary. — ^It has already been pointed out that a foreman's supervisory job might include a number of de- tailed and specific responsibilities in connection with the distribution of the working force. This chapter suggests a number of corresponding possible cost elements and manage- rial problems in this part of the foreman's job.

As in other cases, these managerial problems are not fuUy considered nor would all of those mentioned probably come into the managerial job of any one foreman. It is also true that there are probably cost elements and corresponding managerial problems that are not included. As in all other cases, each foreman must make up his own set of cost ele- ments, and the corresponding managerial problems from his own supervisory lay-out.

This Chapter Deals With Worker Distribution Only. — It should be noted that this chapter deals with "worker dis- tribution" only, that is, with the cost elements and man- agerial problems that come up in connection with "covering" aU human operating points in the department with workers possessing the necessary strength, knowledge and skill. The questions relating to dealing with workers as men or women are taken up in the chapters on " The Human Factors."*

SECTION n. cbvEUING AIL JOBS

It was pointed out in the last chapter that one possible

specific responsibility in the case of any given foreman might

be to see that all human operating points on all the jobs in

•Chapters XV, XVII and XXII.

10 145

146 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

his department were properly covered, and this responsibility was taken up under "The Distribution of the Working Force," and the term is used in that sense here.

This section therefore, suggests some of the possible cost elements and managerial problems in connection with the distribution of the working force.

Cost Elements on the Distribution of the Working Force. — ^Among the more important cost elements in connec- tion with the distribution of the working force are :

1. The number of workers employed.

2. The necessary knowledge, strength or skill required to cover the human operating points in the department.

3. The number of human operating points that must be covered in the department.

4. The number and kind of reserve workers carried, if any.

The cost will, therefore, be increased or reduced in pro- portion as :

1. The degree to which the number of workers employed is what may be called the economic number, the cost going up whenever that number is exceeded or when less than that number are employed, that is, a foreman can increase his cost by employing too many workers or by not employing enough.

2. The degree to which each human operating point is covered with the minimum Tiecessary job knowledge or skill,-. or even, in some cases, the least necessary physical strength. That is, a foreman can increase his cost by putting too high grade a worker on a given job or by putting on a man that is of too low a grade.

3. In general, it costs less to cover machine operating points than it does to cover human operating points, since human knowledge or skill is usually more expensive than machine work, so that whenever a foreman can choose between making a given operation a human or a machine operating point and makes it a human operating point as a general proposition he increases his cost, although there are many

COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 147

exceptions to this rule, and, in many cases there is no choice, in the matter so far as the foreman is concerned.

3. It is evident that the greater the number of human operating points in the work jobs in the department the greater the cost as a general proposition, since this means doing more work with men and less with maciiines.

4. On account of absenteeism and other causes, it is often necessary to carry more workers than are required to handle the work of the department at any one time. Evidently, in this case, if this "reserve" is too small and jobs have to stop on account of lack of workers the cost goes up, and if too many reserve workers are employed the cost also goes up, so that, where this matter comes into the job of a foreman he will hold down his cast in hitting what may be called again the "economic point on reserve operating force."

Since these matters may be of considerable importance in some cases, they are taken up in some detail in the fol- lowing paragraphs.

A. THE NUMBER OF WORKERS EMPLOYED IN A DEPARTMENT

The Number of Employees. — Since all employees are paid, the greater the number of men employed on any given job the greater the cost on that job, so that, all other things being equal, the fewer the men employed on the job, provided they are not overworked, the less the cost of production.

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem, so far as the number of men employed is concerned, is to hold the size of the force down to the point where all human oper- ating points can be covered to the best advantage.

Dealing with the Problem. — ^It is evident that the man- agerial problem here is a very complicated one, because so many of the human factors come in, such as fatigue. Interest, satisfaction and so on, as discussed in other chapters. So far as the matter is taken up here, it is only considered from the "non-human factor" standpoint, leaving the other side of the matter to be discussed later.

Serial and Simultaneous Operating Points. — In any job

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analysis the human operating points may come along one after the other, or there may be cases where we find at the same time more than one point at which a man's services are required. That is, we may or may not have simultaneous operating points. In such a case cost is evidently increased if only one man is put on the job, because either the job cannot be done, or two operating points that should be covered at the same time must be covered one after the- other. If this number of absolute requirements is' exceeded, the cost naturally is increased. For example, in a case of excavating for a ditch, there may be three human operating points :

(1) Throwing the dirt out of the ditch.

(2) Loading into the cart.

( 3) Dumping from the cart.

If the conditions are such that only one man can suc- cessfully be used at each point and an attempt is made to put a second man on that point, not only is cost increased in point of money expended, but the time is increased because the men get in one another's way. If, on the other hand, one man was expected to cover all the points, one by one, it would take him longer, which would probably increase the cost, on account of the increased time required.

The Economic Point for the Number of Men on the Job. — The degree to which exactly the right number of men are used and the degree to which each man is assigned to a point where a man can most effectively work, will keep costs at a minimum. It may be possible to have the correct number of men on a job and have them so distributed that at some points a greater number than are required will be working, while at others a not sufficient number might be used ; that is, the distribution of even the correct number can very often cause costs to be increased.

The Use of the Job Analysis. — As in a number of cases already discussed, while the special means adopted for deal- ing with cost elements due to the number of workers employed will va»y according to the special conditions, the problem

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will, in general, be better handled if the necessary number of workers is determined for any given set of conditions from a study of the actual facts rather than as a result of mere "guessing." This means that the necessary information must be collected by somebody if the job is to be handled in good shape. As in a number of cases already noted, one of the most effective managerial "tricks" is the use of the job analysis as a starting point. With a good lay-out of jobs, operations and operating points worked out as described in Chapter III, it is possible to accurately determine the vari- ous human operating points and their requirements, whether they are serial or simultaneous and so on, and so determine just how many men will be required and where they are re- quired. While, as everybody knows, this sort of thing can- not be worked out to a mathematical point, such a "dis- tribution lay-out" as suggested is a great help in dealing with this problem from the managerial standpoint and will enable any foreman who has responsibilities of this sort to distribute his working force at all times so as to cover his operating points on his departmental work jobs with the least waste of knowledge and skill. That is, with the fewest cases of workers standing around with nothing to do, and with all human operating points covered at all times.

SECTION in. KEEPING DP THE WORKING EOKCE IN THE DEPAET- MENT TEMPORARY LOSS

Preliminary. — The last section took up the distribution of the working force as if the make-up of this force always remained the same and the managerial problem was merely to properly distribute all workers with regard to the human operating points on the different work jobs in the depart- ment. In practice, of course, this condition rarely if ever exists. There is always more or less change in the force, a greater or less amount of turnover. For various reasons the operating force always tends to become smaller; workers leave, are transferred or are discharged; men are laid off

150 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

when work . is slack and are taken on when work comes up again.

All of this means that in addition to the matter of proper distribution of the working force there is always the responsi- bility of keeping up the force and, either by direct action, by recommendation or by suggestion this responsibility often comes into the foreman's job.

This section, therefore, discusses some of the cost elements and managerial problems that come out of the necessity for keeping up the working force in which, as wiU be pointed out, a foreman, if he has any responsibility in the matter, can do much to increase or cut down costs, according to the care that he gives to the way in which these responsibilities are discharged.'

Keeping up the Working Force. — Since for any depart- ment there must be a certain number of workers to "man" all operating points, this number must be kept up, and if, due to any cause, discharge, quitting, absence and so on, the force drops below this point some part of the work must stop. That is, if all the work is to be kept going the number of workers must be somehow kept up to the necessary working minimum. Whatever the special cause for the operating force falling below the minimum necessary to carry on the work, practically all causes can be "headed up" into one of two cases :

1. Permanent loss of workers.

2. Temporary loss of workers.

These two kinds of loss are taken up in the following para- graphs. Although these terms have already been explained, they are repeated here for convenience.

What is Meant by Permanent Loss. — ^As the term is used- here, permanent loss means that the worker is gone for good, has quit, been transferred or has been discharged.

What is Meant by Temporary Loss. — ^As the term is used here, temporary loss means that the worker is out, but, so far as anybody knows, is coming back ; he has taken a day off,

COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 161

is ill, or for some other reason is temporarily out of the de- partment and therefore off the job.

Cost Elements. — The general cost elements here may be as follows :

For temporary loss, the temporary replacement cost.

For permanent loss, the permanent replacement cost.

Cost Elements — ^Temporary Loss. — ^Among the more common cost elements on temporary labor loss are :

1. Production loss on operating equipment while some- body else is put on the j ob.

2. The cost of carrying extra workers.

3. Possible falling off in quality or quantity of produc- tion due to the necessity of putting less experienced workers on the job.

4. Increased possibility of accidents and damage to tools or equipment due to the putting on of workers who are less used to the job.

5. Possible dissatisfaction on the part of workers who are transferred or who have to "double up" to meet the emergency.

6. In case of serial jobs, as in a shoe factory or a gar- ment factory, loss of production on several jobs that depend on the job of the absentee.

7. Time lost in arguments and discussion as to whether the absence was really necessary.

These, of course, are general possibilities, all of which might not come up in any one case and, for any given case, there would probably be others not given here, which will readily occur to any foreman, but those given are enough to form a basis for the following suggestions as to dealing with the problem.

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problems here are really of two kinds :

(a) To reduce loss due to absenteeism to a minimqm.

(b) To plan in advance, so that loss due to necessary absence is made as small as possible.

152 THE FOREMAN AND EOS JOB

Dealing with the Problem — Reducing Absenteeism. — ^In general, absenteeism is either necessary or unnecessary. Necessary absenteeism might be due to such causes as sick- ness, either of the worker himself or in his family, accident, really important personal matters that must be attended to during working hours, and, of course, when really necessary, cannot be reduced.

Unnecessary absence, of course, in theory, can be entirely cut out, but in practice can only be held down. Some workers wiU always stay out for unnecessary reasons, and the best that can be done is to reduce this sort of thing as much as possible.

Among the managerial devices for doing this are those suggested in the following paragraphs : , Unnecessary Absenteeism. — ^Unnecessary absence is al- most always due to mental attitude, as discussed in Part VII and, of course, if the mental attitude of all workers was right on this point there would be no unnecessary ab- sences. Unfortunately, however, this condition of mind rarely exists in all members of the working force and so the matter of unnecessary absenteeism becomes an important managerial problem for most foremen.

Some of the causes of unnecessary absence are;

(a) Ignorance.

(b) Lack of sense of responsibility.

(c) Laziness.

Unnecessary Absence Dpe to Ignorance. — ^In many cases, especially with young workers, unnecessary absence is due to the fact that they really have no idea that absence makes any difference to anybody but themselves. For example, a girl employed on a serial operation in a garment factory and working on piecework often thinks, "If I stay out I lose my money and that is nobody's business except my own."

She may be perfectly honest in this belief, because she is entirely ignorant of the fact that her absence not only costs the concern money, but may cost some of her fellow-workers

COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCHE 153

money, by tying up their operations as well as her own. Under these conditions, if she knew, in some cases, at least, she would be less likely to "take a day off," whenever she felt like it. Therefore, absence due to ignorance can be sometimes reduced by seeing that each worker understands the relation of his job to other jobs and the effect of unnecessary absence on the work of the "team." While, of course, this will not work in all cases, it will never do any harm to see that all workers are informed as to such matters and in many cases it will do good. This may well become a part of the fore- man's instruction responsibilities.

Unnecessary Absence Due to Lack of Sense of Responsi- bility.— This is largely a matter of interest, especially as regards job and plant pride. Of course, it is affected by such things as general intelligence and maturity. Many cases that are assumed off-hand to be due to lack of any sense of respon^ sibUity, and which are often handled on that basis, are really due to ignorance.

In considering such cases here, it will be assumed that the possibility of ignorance has been cut out, since in many cases apparent lack of sense of responsibility has been removed by proper instruction.

Where there is actual lack of sense of responsibility in connection with unnecessary absenteeism, it is probably due to lack of interest or dissatisfaction, as discussed in Part VII, and the methods for promoting interest and satis- faction suggested there can be used here to advantage.

Unnecessary Absence Due to Laziness. — ^As an example of this, a number of cases are known where workers can earn enough money in two or three days to last them through the week, and as soon as they have enough to go on, they "knock off until they are broke." In other words, "they only work as much as they have to." Of course, this situation is most likely to come up with certain classes of workers, who are, as a whole, ignorant and immature. For example, it is said to be true of certain kinds of Negro help in the South.

154 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Of course, such a condition is hard to handle and, in theory, the obvious way of dealing with it is not to employ such people, but sometimes this cannot be avoided, and a foreman may have to deal with the problem of reducing absences due to laziness by other means.

Among the most effective means of dealing with such a situation are the qualities of personal leadership. As a rule, ignorant and immature workers are very responsive to good leadership. They wiU work for a man that they like and admire, and a foreman who can do it, can improve the situa- tion greatly if he knows how to "get" this class of workers. For example, in one large concern in the South, employing many workers of this type, the majority of them worked hard and steadily during the war because the management was made up of men whom they trusted and believed in. They would not work for themselves, but they would work for the men who were responsible for the success of the plant. It was a personal matter.

Handling Cases. — ^The preceding statements indicate cer- tain things that a foreman can take into consideration in dealing with absenteeism. In the first place he can study the case and make sure that it is or is not a case of ignorance. If it is, the first thing to do is to see that the worker under- stands the results of absenteeism on the work of the depart- ment or on the work of other workers. If, after a reasonable attempt to make this clear, unnecessary absenteeism con- tinues, the case can be classed as either due to lack of sense of responsibility or to laziaess, and must be handled along Kuman factor lines as discussed in the chapters on those subjects.

The underlying principle, however, is that replacement cost always comes into consideration, and if absenteeism can be reduced without losing the worker, a good managerial job has been done. Of course, when it becomes evident that un- necessary absenteeism is persistent and that the absentee can- not be reached by the use of managerial methods, the problem

COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 156

merely becomes one of replacing that worker with another who is more reliable and standing the replacement cost.

The great danger is that the case will be handled off-hand, and the plant will be put to unnecessary replacement cost where careful study of the case and good management would save the experienced worker to the concern, and so reduce cost.

Dealing with the Problem — Necessary Absence. — ^As al- ready pointed out, necessary absence cannot be avoided, but can be anticipated and planned for so as to reduce the neces- sary cost elements to a minimum. Among the managerial de- vices for doing this are, as is well known to all foremen :

1. The organization of a "flying squadron" or a "swing- in gang."

2. The training of "understudies."

3. "Doubling up."

Since all of these devices are well known to all foremen, they are only suggested for the purpose of pointing out cer- tain facts in connection with their use that may be of value in using them. Of course, with a properly balanced and dis- tributed working force, any absenteeism means an excess cost and the use of any of these schemes is only a means of reduc- ing this cost ; not cutting it out, so that, in a way, it is always a "choice between evils," and each special case must be con- sidered with regard to the special conditions, the particular job, etc. It may be that the cheapest thing to do is to do nothing; this might be true, for example, where the job was on piecework and the only loss was the loss of production on that special job; whereas, in another case, the job might be a "key job" that must be covered if a considerable excess cost is to be prevented. In deciding on ways and means, each case must be worked out with regard to all such points.

The "Swing-in Gang." — ^Where there are a number of jobs in the department, as in the case of serial operations, in a garment factory, or a series of assembling jobs, as in a shipyard, one managerial device for dealing with absenteeism is to have, in the departmental operating force, a certain

156 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

number of workers who can do a number of different jobs and "swing them in" to take care of jobs where the regular workers are absent. Of course, this plan works the best where the work jobs in the department are specialized.

Where such a plan is tried it means, of course, an excess cost, if the members of this "swing-in gang" are regularly carried on the payroll* and the question is to consider the excess cost against the cost of absenteeism that shuts down certain jobs entirely.

The value of such a deAace to meet the cost elements due to absenteeism depends on the degree to which the make-up of the gang and the different jobs that they can do is based upon a careful study of the special nature of the work jobs in the department, the amount of absence and the character of the operations and processes, and any foreman who is interested in this device must determine for himself whether or not it would work well in his special case. It is mentioned here because it is a not uncommon plan in certain cases with certain lines of production.

"Understudies." — ^Another managerial device that may sometimes be of service in reducing cost due to absence of certain workers is to provide "understudies" for workers on what may be called "key" jobs. By a "key job" is meant a job that will hold up one or more other jobs if it stops. This might be true, for example, in the case of an inspector or possibly a cutter in a garment factory or a shoe factory, or in the case of a special pattern maker or tool maker on special hurry up work.

Since with a properly balanced operating force there is no excess of workers, at least in theory, when an understudy is put on a job, he must evidently be pulled off some other job, so that the cost saving comes in keeping the key job going at the expense of some job that is less important. Whether this plan will, or will not work to advantage in the

• Where this plan is used it is customaiy to pay such " all around " workers some additional rate.

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case of any given foreman that may have this special respon- sibility included in his job is a question of the nature of the product and the special organization. It is evident, how- ever, that the least cost increase will be involved where the understudy is taken from a group of workers where the "hole" made by the temporary transfer can be filled by "doubling up" or by some other managerial device.

The General Advantage of Understudies. — In the sense in which the term is used here, "understudy" means somebody regularly employed on some other job who is sufficiently up on another job to be able to keep it going when the regular individual on that job is absent. The value of having such "understudies" for every job in the department is evident since the necessity is avoided of putting on an untrained worker when a "swing-in worker" is not available or when such a gang is not a part of the organization.

The great difficulty in developing understudies for the different work jobs in the department is that the regular worker usually gets the notion that the understudy is "in line" for his job and naturally resents it and sometimes "lays" for him in various ways well known to shop workers. The handling of this problem calls for very careful man- agement on the part of the foreman if he undertakes to include this managerial device in his organization. Its suc- cess or failure depends almost entirely on the degree to which he has the reputation of being "square" and of telling the truth as discussed in Part VII. If he has not that repu- tation, he would better not undertake the job; if he has, he can get the regular worker, under most conditions, to see what the purpose of the arrangement is, and to stand for it. Of course, in some cases, he cannot allay the suspicions of the regular worker, and in that case he may have to hold off till there is a change, but the attempt to put the thing over by the mere arbitrary exercise of authority is not likely to work well. The question as to whether this particular device

158 THE FOREMAN AND ms JOB

should be tried in any given department is a question to be worked out by each foreman on the basis of careful considera- tion of the special conditions as to the character of the jobs, the relations that exist between himself and the working force and other conditions that count.

Doubling Up. — As used here, this term means giving a worker who, under proper conditions, has all that he should be expected to do, additional operating points to cover so that the absentee's job can be kept going. Of course, this can only be done at a production loss and is merely choosing the lesser of two evils, crippling two jobs or stopping one en- tirely. Such a managerial device to deal with temporary loss may, or may not, greatly increase cost, according to the degree to which the worker who doubles knows the second job or requires little instruction on it to enable him to carry it well enough to meet the emergency.

• In doubling up, the more the additional job is like the "original" job the less the excess cost. For example, in a textile mill, a weaver can double up on sets of looms, and the only loss would be on idle looms waiting to be pieced up, but if he were asked to cover spinning frames as well as looms (practically an impossible combination) and Jaquards as weU as plain looms, trouble would be much more likely to ensue.

Where this device has to be resorted to, there are some points that, if taken into consideration, will reduce the in- evitable excess cost on operation. Among the more import- ant of these is the fact that among all the jobs in the depart- ment, especially in the case of machine tending jobs or of specialized jobs, some have many more similar or common operations than others, so that, in doubling up, if the extra job is partly like the regular job the cost is less than where the worker is entirely green on the additional job.

As in a ^jumber of other cases, the job analysis vill show such "overlaps" on different jobs and is the best aid in work- ing out doubling up problems to the best advantage.

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SECTION IV. KEEPING IIP THE WOEKING FORCE IN THE DEPAKT- MENT PERMANENT LOSS

Preliminary. — The last section dealt with cost elements and managerial problems on temporary loss where the prob- lem is to keep the work going, but not to add to the working force because the absentee has not quit, and so the working force has not been permanently reduced. As pointed out in Section I, the second class of loss is where this loss is per- manent: the worker has quit, been transferred, or has been discharged.

This condition sets up a totally different set of cost ele- ments and corresponding managerial problems for a foreman to deal with where he has any responsibilities in this connec- tion, and some considerations relating to the effective dis- charge of these possible responsibilities are therefore pre- sented in this section.

Cost Elements — Replacement Cost. — ^The essential final cost element here is what is known as replacement cost, and it is only recently that much attention has been given to its cost producing effect.

The idea involved in the use of this term may be stated as follows: "Whenever a worker quits for any cause what- ever, if his job must still be carried on in the same way, that person carries with him a certain amount of plant knowledge, job knowledge and job skill that it costs money to replace unless he can be replaced at once by an equally competent and equally well informed worker."

This is true, because under practically all circumstances,

a new worker on that job must be trained somehow, and that

training costs money, no matter how it is done. Of course,

the amount of this replacement cost depends upon the nature

of the job, but it always exists, and recent studies have shown

that, in many cases, it is much larger than has been supposed,

especially on specialized jobs.* _^

* For a fuller discussion of replacement cost, see " The Instructor, The Man and The Job."

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Cost Elements— Permanent Loss. — ^Among the more common cost elements that may come into the matter of keeping up the working force when it is reduced below oper- ating needs through permanent loss are :

(1) The promptness with which a new worker is put on the job.

(2) The degree to which the new worker can do the job without instruction, that is, he already knows that job.

The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem, therefore, is to fiU immediately any vacancies with competent workers, at the least cost for finding the worker and getting him on the job at once.

Dealing with the Problem. — ^WhUe the problem, as just stated, is simple enough, dealing with it sets up one of the most difBcult managerial problems that come up in connec- tion with keeping up the working force, and one, which, in many plants, is handled at unnecessary cost, owing to a num- ber of reasons, some of which are considered in the following paragraphs. Among these reasons, or specific cost ele- ments, are:

(1) Where there is an employment department, lack of cooperation between foremen and that department, sometimes going so far as to become actual antagonism.

(2) Lack of advance planning to reduce replacement cost to a minimum.

Since these specific cost elements may be of great import- ance, they are discussed in some detail in the following para- graphs, with regard to the specific managerial problems, the detailed cost elements, and questions of dealing with these problems.

Lack of Cooperation. — ^Where there is an Employment Department that has the direct responsibility of securing workers it is not uncommon to find that there is more or less lack of cooperation between this department and the fore- men who take these workers into their departments to hold down the work jobs. In some cases this is especially true

COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 161

where a foreman has the responsibility of requisitioning on the Employment Department for help or is expected, under the procedure, to advise that department as to the require- ments of the job for which the additional workers are needed. This lack of cooperation between the Employment Depart- ment and the foreman is often an important cost element in keeping up the working force and so is discussed here in some detail.

While the general principles of cooperation, as discussed in Chapter XXII, apply here as well as anywhere else, and cost wUl go up or down in proportion as the cooperation is good or bad, there are some causes that are worth mention- ing and discussing here because the special conditions often prevent the matter from being looked at in its true light.

Some Reasons. — ^Among the reasons for this lack of cooperation or effective discharge of "team responsibilities" are the following :

1. Some foremen feel that the Employment Department does not act promptly enough in securing men when they are needed and holds up production by leaving them with uncov- ered jobs for a greater or less time, thus hampering them in getting out the work.

2. In some cases foremen feel that they could get addi- tional workers quicker and better than any other agency could because they are closer to the situation.

3. In other cases foremen feel that an Employment De- partment is "butting into their job" and so are not inclined to cooperate as they should.

Of course, the following discussion has no application if the foreman, under the standard procedure, hires directly, but since in most large plants his responsibility is a recom- mending one rather than an acting one, in many cases the points raised here will have some application and are worth consideration.

The first case suggested in the last paragraph really turns upon the fact that the business starts mth the foreman

11

168 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

and the degree to which he can anticipate any need for taking on additional workers and get his requisitions in promptly, even in advance if possible, makes a great deal of difference in the time required for the Employment Department to "fill the order." If a foreman waits until the job is standing vacant and then shoots in a requisition he cannot fairly blame the Employment Department if the necessary help is not produced in ten minutes.* Where delay is due to this cause a foreman had better consider ways and means for dis- charging his responsibilities in better shape before he "bawls out" the Employment Department for being "dead on the job." Of course, in many cases a foreman does the best he can and the delay may be straight up to the Employment De- partment; they may have really fallen down on the job, but wherever a foreman feels that he is all right and the other fellow is all wrong in this matter, he will do well to be sure that his skirts are clear before he blames the whole matter on the other fellow.

The second case is often due more to a failure to under- stand why the job of hunting up additional workers is turned over to somebody else instead of being left to the foreman as in the old days and even sometimes now in the case of small shops or plants that are less highly organized. It is, of course, perfectly natural for a man to think, "I need a man right away; there is BiU Jones, just the man that I want and I can get him without any trouble; he is looking for a job, why in thunder need I go through the red tape of putting in a requisition and waiting for the 'machinery to revolve' instead of attending to the job myself." Now it is quite pos- sible that, in that particviar case, the job might be done cheaper by the "direct" method, but multiply that case by any number, and how is a foreman to attend to his regular job and also run around looking up Bill Joneses. If he has

*It should be noted that the discussion as it is put up here, does not include the question of providing the necessary job Icnowledge, job skill or other special qualifications, as this part of the matter is taken Up in a following section. This section deals only with the matter of securing additional workers, without regard to special job requirements.

COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 163

a real job as a foreman, he can't do it, and, if he has really studied his responsibilities and knows what his job really is, he knows that he can't do it, and is glad to have the detailed work of keeping up his working force attended to by some- body else, provided he can get good service in that way. In fact, an Employment Department is reaUy only a service de- partment for the foreman just as much as a maintenance de- partment or a transportation department ; it relieves him of some details so that he can attend to his real job easier and more efficiently, but in order that this service can be rendered effectively, the two must puU together, and not pull apart.

SECTION V, PKOVIDING THE NECESSARY KNOWLEDGE AND SKILI. ON ALL WOKK JOBS IN THE DEPARTMENT

Preliminary. — ^In discussing possible responsibilities in Chapter XI it was pointed out that one specific responsibility might be to cover all operating points with workers who have the necessary minimum strength, knowledge or job skill and that, since if this was not done, the job must stop: such responsibilities, if they came into the job of any given foreman, would constitute supervisory responsibilities. This section considers some of the possible cost elements that may come up in connection with the discharge of such supervisory responsibilities, and the corresponding managerial problems that come out of them. As in all other cases, the discussion is not complete nor are all possibilities, either as to the man- agerial problems themselves or as to the possible ways and means of dealing with the problem completely considered. Each foreman whose responsibility lay-out includes such re- sponsibilities must work out his own problems, according to his special conditions, and the discussion is intended to help him to handle his own special problem rather than to tell him exactly what to do.

"Richard's Formula." — In the chapter on job analysis it was pointed out that in doing any job we really had to deal with a "team" made up of the worker and the tools or the

164 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

machine and that, in analyzing the job of this team, the opera- tions could be divided into two kinds of operating points, human and machine. The lay-out of human operating points can be conveniently expressed by what is known as Richards' formula,* which is as follows :

E=:M-|-T+I

where E stands for the ability to do the job, whatever it may be, in first-class shape, JM stands for the necessary j^b skiU with the hands (manual skill) , T stands for the necessary spe- cial "job" knowledge (technical knowledge), and I stands for the necessary ability to use one's "head on the job" (trade intelligence). In discussing matter in connection with job analysis, it is customary, for brevity, to speak of the "M," "T" and "I" "values" on the j ob, using these terms in the sense in which they are discussed in the following paragraphs.f

Job Skill or the "M" Values on the Job. — ^Any given job requires some sort of special skill that goes with that par- ticular job and any worker who can properly cover the human operating points on that job must possess that special skill. This job skill is, of course, different for different jobs, but is always present to some extent. For example, in a machine shop, when a piece of work is to be scraped to a surface, scraping skill is required. A carpenter, putting in a window casing, possesses the special skiU necessary for setting up and fitting. In a boiler shop cutting a sheet of steel with an acetylene torch calls for a high degree of skill in handling the torch, regulating the fliow of gases, etc. Even a "pick and shovel job" calls for a special skiU. in handling the tools to the best advantage.

When we speak of the "M values" on the job we, there- fore, simply mean whatever special "hand skill" goes with the human operating points on that job. If that special

* So ceilled because it was first developed by Professor Charles R. Richards, of Cooper Union, New York.

f Foremen who may be interested to follow this matter further will find it taken up quite fully in Bulletin 52, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, and in " The Instructor, The Man and The Job."

COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 165

skill is not possessed by a worker who is assigned to that job, the result is an increased cost due to less work being turned out, or to poorer quality of work, or to a total loss on the job according to luck and the special conditions.

Job Knowledge or the "T" Values on tihe Job. — ^In addi- tion to the "M values," as described in the last paragraph, on all operating points, some particular knowledge must be possessed by the person who has to cover them. Different jobs in the same trade and different trades call for entirely different kinds and degrees of this trade or job knowledge. For example, in hanging wall paper, the kind of knowledge used by a paper hanger in allowing for the lapping of courses, in matching designs, and in figuHng the number of rolls re- quired, goes with his job but with nobody else's job. A machinist, in operating a lathe, knows how to read his gear table, how to tell when he is getting the right cut, how to read micrometers or vernier calipers, etc., which are examples of the special kind of job knowledge that goes with that job.

Trade or job knowledge might, therefore, be called the "know how" or the "T values" that go with any given trade or job, and which are only required in that trade or on that job, but without which the trade cannot be followed or the job cannot be done. If this "T value" is not possessed by whoever is assigned to a given job, cost goes up just as in the case of the "M values," and if it is absolutely lacking, the job cannot be done at all.

Trade or Job Intelligence— The "I" Values on the Job. — In addition to the M and T values as just discussed, the "I" in Richard's formula stands for the ability to '*use one's head on the job," that is, for trade or job intelligence. On any given job this "I" value may be large or small, but it is rarely entirely lacking. It is the possession of this "I" value that gives an experienced man an advantage over an inexperienced man, even when the job is a very simple one or one that is mainly machine in its operating points.

Indexing Jobs. — ^A convenient means of indicating the

166 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

various degrees to which different jobs require M, T and I values is by using what is called an index figure for any given job or occupation. In considering any given trade or job, in proportion as these M, T and I values are high, the index figure would be high ; in proportion as they are low, the index figure would be low. For example, in operating an automatic gear cutter the M, T and I values are much smaller than in getting out the same gear on a universal miller, and this fact could be indicated by giving the miller job a higher index figure.

It will be noted that the use of the index figure is merely a device for expressing more quickly and somewhat more ^ accurately what we mean when we talk about "skilled jobs," "semi-skilled jobs" and "unskilled jobs."

Use of the Index Figure. — ^The device of the index figure can be used both to indicate the M, T and I values in trades and in jobs. As a matter of convenience, it is customary to index on a scale of 100, although any other base, say 10 or 1000, might be used as well. In general, where there is a great deal of skiU (high M) and a great deal of technical or job knowledge (T and I) the index figure is high; under the reverse conditions, low. For example, as between jobs, tending a ring spinning frame or an automatic screw machine would be indexed lower than cutting a spiral gear on a uni- versal miller or doing a fine piece of jointry work. In the same way what are commonly known as skilled trades would be indexed higher than "semi-skilled" occupations, and these, in turn, indexed higher than "unskilled" occupations. An occupation requiring the ability to do a great many jobs calling for much skill and knowledge would be indexed higher than one calling for a command of only a few jobs demanding less skill and less knowledge, although, within those limits, the skill might be as great and the knowledge as important.

It should be clearly understood that this index figure is not a mathematical value or a percentage, but merely a con- venient device for roughly indicating, in a general way, cer-

COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 167

tain facts as to the M, T and I values in the job or trade or occupation under consideration and merely enables one to put over quickly what would otherwise require a considerable statement. For such use, in discussion, it has proved useful and so is described briefly here as of possible use in fore- men's conferences in connection with such matters as train- ing, job requirements and so on.

General Qualifications. — In addition to the M, T and I values in Richard's formula, which stand for what the worker can do and what he knows about doing the j ob, it is a matter of common knowledge that most jobs also call for certain general qualifications, as, for example, the sense of accuracy, the ability to read or write, reliability, quickness in an emer- gency and so on. Certain jobs, such as those of pilot on a steamer or engineer on a locomotive cannot be safely given to men who are color blind and so cannot distinguish red from green signal lights. The following list of possible gen- eral qualifications is merely intended to be suggestive of a similar list that might be made up to indicate the general requirements of the jobs in any given department in any particular plant, and does not pretend to be either complete or correct for any one set of working conditions. It will be noted that these general qualifications are classified under two headings. Physical requirements and Mental requirements. Physical. Mental.

Heavy Ability to read

Light Ability to write

Short Ability to speak a foreign

Tall language

Quick Abiljty to use arithmetic

Slow Mental quickness

Eyesight (keen) Reliability

Hearing (keen) Nerves

Physical Handicaps (handi- Disposition caps that prevent a man Adaptability from being able to hold Personality that job) Nationality

168 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

As stated above these are merely suggestive and, for pur- poses of illustration, a few of them are considered in the following paragraphs.

Physical Qualifications. — On most jobs a man has to use some physical equipment ; he must see, or hear, or in general perform some physical actions in covering the human operat- ing points. The special demands made in any given case vary with the nature of the operating points and cost is affected by the degree to which any given person possesses the necessary physical qualifications required in that special case. A blacksmith's striker must have the physical strength to strike a solid blow and endurance to keep up the job dur- ing the working day. A man operating a linotype must have quick fingers and good eyesight. A truck driver must be able to think quickly in an emergency if he is to prevent ^ smash- up. A man with only one hand would evidently be at a great disadvantage in attempting to handle a job that called for the use of two hands at the same time, say in operating a car with change gear levers, but might be all right on a Ford. On some operating points a man who is slow and "heavy" but sure may be just what is wanted, while, on another job, a man who is "quick as a cat" is the fellow to fill the bill, say as catcher on a baseball team. Of course, such facts as are given above are well known to aU foremen and are only men- tioned here for illustration as distinguishing such physical qualifications from mental qualifications as discussed in the next paragraph.

Mental Qualifications. — ^In assigning workers to jobs, the matter of mental qualifications is likely to receive less con- sideration than that of physical qualifications, because this side of the matter has only recently been given much atten- tion, although, as a matter of fact, it is possibly the more important of the two.

On some jobs, or operating points, the best person to cover them may be somebody who thinks slowly, does not get rattled, and who can be depended upon to always follow

COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 169

routine exactly. Such a case might be that of taking samples for chemical testing in a chemical plant where the amount taken is standardized, the procedure is prescribed and no variation from that procedure is wanted. The same might be true in tending looms in a cotton miU or in operating automatic gear cutters. On the other hand, in the engine room the chances of sudden emergencies coming up that may call for quick action to prevent serious damage requires that the man on the job can do some things on the " mental jump " and do them right.

Again, in some cases, nationality counts, especially where certain jobs have been taken over by certain nationalities or where the job is a "team job" as in riveting or in piling pots for making white lead by the Dutch process, or in any other case where a crew is required. Under such conditions the introduction of a worker of a different nationality into the gang will often seriously break up the work.

Physical Strength. — In addition to the M, T and I values on the job, it is also true that practically all human operating, points on jobs call for some exercise of physical strength, sometimes very little, but sometimes considerable. Wherever this matter of physical strength comes in it also becomes a job requirement, although, of course, in the case of most pro- duction j obs it is not important because anybody who would be employed on the job would possess the necessary strength, as, for example, on operating looms in a cotton mill or in running a linotype or a monotype, or an automatic gear cutter.

Job Requirements. — ^It is evident that for any given job there are certain requirements as to M, T and I and as to physical make-up and mental qualifications that must be met if the job is to be properly done or done at all and that who- ever is put on that job must be able to meet those special job requirements, that is, must be able to "hold down the job," because he does possess them.

Cost Elements. — In connection with the distribution of the working force from the standpoint of the elements of

170 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Richard's formula, and with regard to general qualifications and strength, where this comes in as an important factor, some of the more important cost elements may be :

1. The degree to which the right kind of special M, T and I values and general qualifications are secured for that job.

2. The degree to which they are completely secured,

3. The degree to which no excess vcHues are used on the' j ob.

The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem, therefore, is to secure as nearly as possible on each depart- mental job aU the necessary general qualifications and M, T and I values, and the necessary physical strength but not to put on any job a worker who possesses excess values of M, T and I for that job.

Dealing with the Problem. — ^In dealing with this prob- lem, whether by direct action, recommendation or suggestion, it is evident that a foreman must take into consideration, for each job in his department :

1. The trade or job skill required (M).

2. The trade or job knowledge required (T) .

3. The trade or job intelligence required (I).

4. The physical requirements necessary (if required).

5. The general qualifications necessary.

And make his assignments as nearly as working conditions will admit so as to get fuU values of the right kind but not to pay for wrong value or excess values.

Since assignments are in practice by jobs and not by operating points the aim of a foreman would be to cover the job as a whole by making assignments to the best of his ability so as to meet the requirements of aU the operating points on the job, basing his action on the actual job require- ments and doing the best that he can with the qualifications of the workers available ; that is, in practice, he is confronted "by a condition and not a theory."

As in other cases that have been considered, this prob- lem can be handled by guess or by definite study. For ex-

COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 171

ample, it is quite possible to use the job analyses in this con- nection by determining, from the lay-out of the human oper- ating points on any given job, what the requirements are and to assemble these requirements so as to get a fair state- ment of the conditions that must be met if the job is to be well done so that man qualifications can be matched against job requirements and requisitions for workers can be based on a definite knowledge of what is needed to get good results. There is danger of carrying this thing too far, so far as a foreman is concerned, but, if in the discharge of any responsi- bilities that he may have in connection with the assigning of workers to jobs he gives consideration to this matter he can reduce cost very materially and, where there is an employ- ment department, he can cooperate with it much more effec- tively and intelligently if he reaUy knows what he wants and why he wants it in asking for additions to his operating force.

Tests for Job Requirements. — ^Very many tests have been devised for trying out prospective workers on given jobs which are intended to indicate the degree to which a given person possesses the desirable qualifications for a given job. Any foreman who is interested in this matter wiU find ample de- scriptions of such tests in trade publications. It is not assumed in this discussion that a foreman would have the responsibility of using such tests, if they were employed in his plant, but, if any special tests of this character are used, he might well inform himself as to what they were so that he could cooperate more intelligently with the department that was using them.

It is assumed, however, that where a foreman has any responsibility for assigning men to jobs in his department either by direct action, by requisition or otherwise, he will, as a good manager, make an attempt to match man qualifica- tions to job requirements as suggested in the follow- ing paragraphs.

"Elxcess Values." — Knowledge, skill and job intelligence cost monev and this cost varies with the amount of such

172 THE FOKEMAN AND HIS JOB

knowledge, skill and intelligence, as well as with the special kind, so that, if an individual possesses more M, T or I than is required on that job and this "excess value" could be used on some other job, cost has evidently been increased, thus put- ting a "higher index man" on a "lower index job." Thus it would be poor economy to put an expert tool maker on an automatic gear cutter, or a weaver who could run Jaquards on plain looms on low counts, or a cabinet maker on shingling a roof. It might be done, but it would be expensive, either to the man who was not getting paid for aU. his trade knowledge and skill or to the employer who was paying him for only a part of what he knew — ^in either case a bad business deal.

As a manager, a foreman will do a good job in proportion as he so assigns jobs that there is no "excess"; he will not put an eighty-cent man on a forty-cent job, or if, under spe- cial circumstances, he has to do it, he will see that that condition only lasts until he can make a cheaper arrange- ment by getting that worker back on work commensurate with his ability.

Values Lacking. — On the reverse of the situation just discussed, it is equally true that if any of the necessary re- quirements are lacking the cost of the job goes up and we have poor management. Since this is self-evident it calls for no consideration and so is merely mentioned here as another situation to be watched out for in assigning workers to jobs.

SECTION VI. THE XUMBEE AND KIND OF OPERATING POINTS IN THE DEPAKTMENT

Preliminary. — Since it is evident that, all other things being equal, the number of operating points in a department and their character affects cost, so far as any responsibilities in that connection come into a foreman's job, he has corre- sponding managerial responsibilities and problems. Some of the more probable of these are discussed in the follow- ing paragraphs :

Cost Elements. — The cost elements here are :

COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 178

( 1 ) The number of operating points or j obs.

(2) The relative number of human and machine oper- ating points.

(3) The grade of the jobs (index value).

In general, the greater the number of human operating points, the greater the cost, and the higher the grade of the human operating points, the less the cost. This means that it is cheaper to have few human operating points whose index value is high than many human operating points with low index values.

The Managerial Problem. — ^The problem here is to reduce to the minimum the number of operating points, either ma- chine or human and to make the human operating points as high index as possible under the working conditions.

Dealing with the Problem. — The first part of the prob- lem isynot likely to fall within the field of the foreman's job, as it is a matter for technical experts under most conditions, but the question of the relative number of machine and human operating points and the index values of the human points may, in some cases, have a connection with the managerial responsibilities on a foreman's job. Where such is the case, the following may be suggestive:

Human vs. Machine Operating Points. — In general, it may be said that human operating points whose index figure is low represent some point in the operation, process or job, where, up to this time human inventive power has not been able to devise a way of doing the thing mechahically on a com- mercial basis, or has not as yet done it at all, but that the cost of such operating points is, in general, higher than if they were machine operating points. In other words, on low index operation points human operation costs more than machine operation. On the other hand, where the index value of the operation is high, it is on such points that human knowledge, skill and intelligence can be concentrated to the best advan- tage. This amounts to saying that a manufacturing process that could be carried on with only high index operating points

174 TBE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

on the human side, all the rest of the operating points being covered by machines, would, in general, be less expensive than if a large number of low index jobs were carried on the pay- roll. The statement "Never ask a man to do what a machine can do" embodies a general principle that applies in general to the matter under discussion.

THE NUMBEE OF EESERVE WOEKEKS CARKIED IN THE DE- PARTMENT

Preliminary. — Among the managerial devices for keeping up the working force already considered has been the carry- ing of reserve workers. This section takes up some of the cost elements and managerial problems in that connection.

Cost Elements. — ^Among the possible cost elements where reserves are carried are :

1. Carrying too many.

2. Not carrying enough.

3. Carrying the wrong kind.

The Managerial Problem. — The problem here is to carry the necessary minimum of the right kind.

Dealing with the Problem. — The only effective method of dealing with this problem is to make a careful study of the way in which reserves are likely to be required and determine, as nearly as possible, on the basis of the job analyses, the probable extent and nature of the demands, both as to the number of jobs and the kind of jobs, so that the cost of carrying such reserves may be held down to a minimum, yet the work wiU not be held up for lack of workers. Since this is really a job for an expert and, where the problem is one of any size, does not fall within the fields of a foreman's job, except in a cooperative way, it is merely mentioned here and is not discussed in detail.

COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 175

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION PART IV

1. In your department would it pay to carry a swing- in gang?

2. Under the particular organization in the plant where you are employed do you consider that you have any responsi- bility as to hiring men? If so, what are they?

3. Would you rank the jobs in your department as highly skilled, medium skilled or low skilled jobs? Why?

4. Form a list similar to that of job qualifications given on page 167. Check off the qualifications that you consider essential to one of the jobs in your department.

5. Would you consider that the fact that a man wore glasses would make him undesirable for any of the fol- lowing jobs in your department?

a. A crane operator. •

b. A laborer.

c. A time keeper.

d. Any given job in your own department.

6. For what jobs, if any, in your department would you consider an extra heavy man desirable? Why?

7. Is it possible to double up in your department with- out appreciable loss of production? Why?

8. In employing a man should consideration be given to just the job that he is to be placed on first, or should con- sideration be given to jobs to which he might be transferred?

9. In what ways can a foreman aid an employment department in connection with the hiring of men?

10. In your opinion are there objections to training up understudies? If so, what are they?

11. Under what conditions would it pay to employ a man for a job for which he had "excess values"?

12. Under what conditions is it practically impossible to secure men having satisfactory M, T and I for given jobs? How does this work out in your department? Why?

PART V

THE ANALYSIS OF THE INFORMATION

BLOCK INTO SPECIFIC AND DETAILED

RESPONSIBILITIES

CHAPTER XIII

SPECIFIC AND DETAILED RESPONSIBILITIES FOR THE HANDLING OF INFORMATION

SECTION I. PRELIMINARY

Preliminary. — ^As has already been pointed out, a very important part of any foreman's supervisory job is in con- nection with the handling of information. This chapter takes up the possible specific and detailed responsibilities that may come into the supervisory job of a foreman, Section II taking up the matter of recording responsibilities and Section III in the same way dealing with the handling of information as be- tween the different members of the team.

Recording Information. — ^While the matter of recording was taken up in a general way in a previous chapter, it is again brought up here for convenient reference. It is evident that, in a general way, whenever there is a given responsibility to be discharged in seeing that something is dpne, or, whenever, as the result of the discharge of that re- sponsibility something happens, such things can be made matters of record, that is, they can be set down on paper for future reference by a foreman himself or by anybody else who may need that information later. In theory, anything that is done or that happens can be made a matter of record, but in practice only such matters are recorded as are considered necessary for the efficient carrying on of the work of the team, because, as pointed out in the next chapter-, records cost money and are only justified where they save more than they cost. These points are taken up in Section II.

Reporting Information. — It is often necessary that in- formation should be furnished to somebody else who is not on the spot but who has to use it in doing his own job. Wheref this is done we have a report, and it may be noted here that

179

180 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

a report is a report, whether it is written or only spoken. Whenever reporting is spoken of the understanding always IS that the report is made to somebody outside of the depart- ment: an immediate superior, the Greneral Management or some one else besides the person who makes that report. In the ordinary sense of the word, a foreman could not make a report to himself. Some possible responsibilities in this con- nection are taken up in Section III.

"Giving and Receiving Information." — Quite distinct from recording and reporting is the matter of giving and receiving information in the ordinary run of the work. In the carrying on of any team job, there must be a continual passing out of information as well as a receiving of informa- tion with regard to the work. Since this sets up diiFerent responsibilities in some ways, it is taken up in Section IV.

Methods of Giving and Receiving Information. — ^As has already been pointed out, there are, in general, three methods of giving and receiving information, orders, directions and suggestions, and these are worth distinguishing from each other because they set up different managerial problems as is pointed out in the following chapter.

SECTION n. BECOKDING INFOBMATION

Preliminary. — ^In practically all plants there is some sys- tem of recording, and the carrying on of this system almost always brings some detailed responsibilities Into a foreman's job. This section points out a nmnber of possible responsi- bilities that may come under the general responsibility for recording all the information block.

In a general way, it is evident that wherever a specific responsibility comes into a foreman's job, there may be a cor- responding responsibility for keeping a record. For example, a foreman may have to keep a set of records on stock in process, material on hand, or finished stock. He may have certain forms to fill out and file in his office. He may have to record the amount of product or of waste. He may have

HANDLING OF INFORMATION

181

Recording

Information

Stock

SOME POSSIBLE RESPONSIBILITIES AS TO RECORDING INFORMATION

Amount on hand Amount in process Amount ready for delivery Amount delivered up to a

certain date Progress of production Inspection records Records as to condition Records of stock orders Records of rework tickets Records of job tickets Records of stock requisi- tions Special records

Records on operating waste Records on operating time Records on operating power Records on results of rou- tine tests Records on results of special

tests Conversion records Records of yield Special records

Inventories of equipment in

service Requisitions for mainte- nance work for new tools for tool repairs for replacements Inventories of complete equipment of tools and acces- sories Special records

Operations Processes

and

Tools and Equip- ment

The Working Force

Number Number Number Number Number Number Number Number Special

at work taken on discharged that quit of transfers of absences late

of accidents records

the responsibility of recording the date of receiving material, or when finished product was delivered to some other depart-

182 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

ment, or as to the condition of material at any stage as deter- mined by inspection or test.

In any such cases, he has supervisory responsibilities that should appear on his lay-out under the proper detailed classi- fication headings and, as an aid to doing this, a number of possibilities are suggested on the chart. It should be noted that those possibilities are only given as suggesting the kind of recording responsibilities that a given foreman might have. The list is not complete, nor is it expected that all those re- sponsibilities suggested wiU come into the job of any one foreman.

Regular and Special Records. — ^It wiU be noted on the chart that it is suggested that any records that a foreman may be responsible for keeping, or for seeing that they are kept, are given as either regular or special records. • Regular records require no explanation, but special records may sometimes be omitted from the lay-out because a foreman does not think of them as belonging there as he does not keep them all the time. If at any time he is liable to be called upon to keep special records, and knows what they are, he should include them in the lay-out. If he does not know what they will be, he can include the note "special records as called for." Most foremen know whether it is the custom of the plant to call for special records from time to time and so can deal with this question in a satisfactory way.

Records. — In whatever special form it may be kept, a record is merely a memorandum intended to prevent any chance of a memory slip. Records may be of two general kinds, original and transferred.

An original record is one made by the person who got the information: it is a first hand memorandum. A transferred record is one that has been copied from the original record. For example, some castings come into a department and some one counts them and notes down the number; countiag and recording'are done by the same person. This would be an original record. If this original record were then given

fiANDLING OF INFORMATION 183

to some one else to be copied, say on a card for an inventory card catalogue, the record on the card would be, not an orig- inal, but a transcribed record, because the person who put the figures did not make the count. It is very common to trans- fer records into some sort of consolidated form, as when the production records of a number of machines are added up to make a total production record for a day.

Records on Stock. — ^Among the more probable specific responsibilities under this heading are :

(1) Amount on hand.

(2) Amount in process.

(3) Amount finished.

(4) Amount ordered.

(5) Progression records or reports.

(6) Inspection records or reports.

(7) Records or reports as to condition of stock. Numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 are perfectly plain and call for

no discussion, as the special form or manner in which such records are kept is a matter of special procedure. However, a foreman should have no difficulty in determining whether he has, or has not, responsibilities under these headings.

The question of progression records may be a little more difficult to "spot." For example, in a department where a series of operations were carried on, it might be necessary to keep track of the stage of procedure in which any particu- lar batch of stock was at any given time. In assembly work, notably in shipbuilding, such progression records are com- monly made to enable the percentage of completed work to be figured at any time, and such records are often consoli- dated into reports.

Records on Equipment. — ^A number of the more probable are suggested on the chart. As a rule, such responsibilities are easy to locate if it is borne in mind that records of sug- gestions or recommendations might be included if necessary.

Records on Operations and Processes. — There should be no difficulty here and no special explanations are called for.

184 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Records on Tools and Equipment. — ^Evidently the list of records for any one foreman's job will vary so widely with the nature of the product that very special lists of detailed re- cording responsibilities will have to be made up in each case. For this reason, the suggestions made on the chart are some- what general in their character and are intended to suggest some possible kinds of detailed responsibilities rather than the detailed responsibilities themselves. Each foreman must work out his own special lay-out.

Records on the Working Force. — ^There should be no spe- cial difficulty here and so no explanations are necessary.

SECTION m. EEPOETING INFOEMATION

Preliminary. — ^It was pointed out in Section I that the difference between recording and reporting is that in report- ing the information goes to somebody who is away from the department, usually, in the case of routine reports, to an immediate superior. Since the fact that a person to whom a report is sent must rely entirely on that report, and this therefore, affects some of the managerial problems to some extent, the matter of reporting as against recording is taken up in this section.

Possible Responsibilities for Reporting. — ^Since any in- formation that may be a matter of record may also be made a matter for reporting the possibilities suggested on the chart for recording will serve as well for suggestions as to reporting responsibilities, and the same general considerations will apply. Certain points that have sometimes caused some con- fusion in working out a lay-out and in discussion are how- ever touched upon in this section.

Reports. — As distinguished from recording, reporting, as the term is used here, means transmitting, or "passing along" information to somebody else. As far as a foreman is con- cerned, any records that he may be responsible for keeping stay in his department ; any reports the he may have to make go out of his department. It is evident that records might

EtANDLING OP INFORMATION 18S

be kept and no reports called for (though this is unlikely), but that, in general, any report must be based on some sort of a record.

Recommendations and Suggestions. — ^It should be noted that recommendations or suggestions are really forms of reports, and where a foreman has any responsibility in this connection, they should be included in the lay-out under "Reporting."

Verbal and Written Reports. — Two kinds of reports are possible, spoken, or verbal reports, and written reports, and written reports may, or may not, be in some prescribed form. Since in making the responsibility lay-out, confusion often arises here, these possible forms are considered in the fol- lowing paragraphs.

Verbal Reports. — ^In many cases, information is passed along merely by telling, that is, by verbal report, and in making the lay-out, foremen often omit responsibilities for making verbal reports, because they do not think of such cases as making reports. As a matter of fact, however, the form of the report makes no difference, and if a foreman is responsible for giving the information as a part of his job, it makes no difference, so far as the responsibility is con- cerned, whether he writes it, or gives it by word of mouth.

Where yerbal reports are required, or are the custom under the procedure, such items should be included in the re- sponsibility lay-out.

Regular and Special Reports. — ^Under most conditions, the job of a foreman includes responsibilities for making certain reports that are a regular part of the job, and a number of possibilities are indicated on the chart. Such regular reporting responsibilities can be determined and noted on the lay-out. In many cases, in addition to such regular reports, a foreman may be called upon, from time to time, to make special reports, such special reports lying out- side of the regular responsibilities as just discussion. Since such special reports cannot be anticipated, responsibilities

186 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

in this connection cannot be noted in detail in the lay-out, but if it is customary for such reports to be called for from time to time, the specific responsibility can be noted. As an ex- ample of a case of special reports, suppose that a new process was being tested out and while that test was going on, reports, that were an addition to those regularly made, were asked for, as in the case of a boiler test in a steam plant, or that the rate of production of a new machine was to be determined, and so special reports were kept of the hourly production.

Written Reports. — ^In making the responsibility lay-out, foremen are liable to omit some responsibilities for written reports, because they do not think of some things that they do, as reports. It must be remembered that making a written report ife merely passing some kind of information over to somebody else in writing. If the information is partly printed in advance, as in the case of forms, and only a part of the information has to be written in, it is a report just the same, and this is true, whatever may be the special name given to any particular form of report. Thus, for example, when a foreman makes out a requisition for small tools, what he really does is to inform the purchasing department, or the general stores, or whoever receives the requisition, that these small tools are required.

The same would hold true for a requisition for repair work on equipment, or for additions to the working force. In making the responsibility lay-out, any form of written com- munication, work orders, requisitions, etc., therefore should be classified as reports and so included in the responsi- bility lay-out.

Procedure and Responsibility. — ^In "tying up the pro- cedure and responsibilities" in the case of responsibilities for recording and reporting, the following cases, among others, are likely to come up :

1. Checking records made by others.

2. Transmitting records to others.

3. Filing records.

HANDLING OP INFORMATION 187

and a foreman may discharge these and similar recording and reporting responsibilities by prescribed or devised procedure.

Prescribed and Devised Procedure. — In most large con- cerns, records and reports are made on special forms pro- vided for the purpose, that is, the procedure is prescribed. In many cases, however, the foreman has to get up his own particular form for records and reports, and in such cases he devises some way of doing it. This distinction is import- ant, mainly, as affecting the management side of the work, and is mentioned here with the suggestion that, where a foreman has to devise his own procedure, he will note that fact on his lay-out.

Making the Responsibility Lay-out. — ^In making that part of his responsibility lay-out that deals with reporting, a foreman should include any responsibilities, whether they are

(a) For verbal or written reports;

(b) For direct reports, suggestions, or recommendations ;

(c) For checking, receiving, or transmitting reports; and should indicate the special form of the responsibility on his lay-out.

SECTION IV. OaDERS, DIEECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

Orders. — All foremen have responsibilities for giving orders, and this point needs no explanation. An order, of course, is the standard method for giving information to a member of the working force as to jobs. While there is quite a little managerial responsibility in the giving of orders as taken up in the next chapter, the supervisory responsibility is merely to give orders when necessary. It is, of course, evi- dent that in making a supervisory lay-out no foreman would undertake to list out all the possible orders that he might have to give, and for any use that would be made of the lay-out in connection with managerial problems tliis would serve no useful purpose, even if it were possible, because it is not the special thing for which the order is given that counts,

188 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

but the way in which it is given. Of course, as a matter of fact, orders can be listed under :

1. Orders relating to stock.

2. Orders relating to operations and processes.

3. Orders relating to tools and equipment.

4. General orders, but this procedure is not advised, A foreman should simply put down "giving orders" on his lay- out and let it go at that.

Directions. — ^While a foreman is sure to have a responsi- bility for giving orders he may hold that he has none for giving directions : that he carries on all his work by ordering. As is pointed out in the next chapter, however, if he really does this he is a poor manager, and, as a matter of fact, prac- tically all foremen do include a directing responsibility in their jobs, although sometimes they do not think so.

The difference between an order and a direction is difficult to define, and the distinction has already been pointed out, but is briefly repeated here for convenience. A direction, while it is assumed that it carries the force of an order, also assumes a little more elasticity in the way that it is to be carried out. It assumes that the person receiving the direc- tion knows, in detail, what to do and will do it. A direction also does not carry the " slap " that an order does, hence most foremen, when they think that they are always giving orders, in many cases give directions instead, without think- ing anything about it, and so, at first, will say that they have no responsibilities for directing as distinguished from ordering.

As in the case of orders no attempt should be made to list out responsibilities for directing in detail, and, as a mat- ter of fact, under one set of conditions a foreman would use orders and under another set of conditions he might use directions on the same job.

If, after discussion, a foreman feels that he has directing as well as ordering responsibilities, he can state that fact

HANDLING OF INFORMATION 189

on his lay-out, but he should make no attempt to work out the details.

Suggestions. — The question as to responsibility for making suggestions is often a cause of much discussion, and it has already been pointed out that many foremen feel that they have no responsibilities in that line. This is not in general the case; a foreman has such responsibilities under at least the following conditions :

1. Where it is understood to be the policy of the Man- agement to desire to receive suggestions, even if no direct orders have been given to that effect.

2. Where the same is true of the immediate superior.

3. Where the making of suggestions has been actually asked for.

As these points are taken up in the chapter on coopera- tion, they are not developed further here.

Another case where a foreman may feel that he has re- sponsibilities for suggesting is in using suggestions in place of orders or directions in giving information to the working force under some conditions. Since this is also taken up in the chapter on Morale (Chapter XXVII), the matter is not followed up any further here.

CHAPTER XIV

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON THE HANDLING OF INFORMATION

SECTION I.

Preliiininary. — As discussed in Chapter XIII, under prac- tically all conditions a foreman has some responsibilities in connection with securing, transmitting and recording some sort of information in the form of records, reports and so on, and, in all cases, he has, as a part of his job, the giving of orders and directions, and usually, in addition, his job in- cludes some responsibility for making suggestions to his superior or to workers or to both.

The proper carrying on of his duty in connection with these matters, to the extent that they come into his job, according to the procedure, sets up a number of important majnagerial problems whose effective solution depends upon a determination of the cost elements that come into play and the working out of effective ways and means for handling them.

This chapter takes up a number of possible cost elements and managerial problems that come under these responsibil- ities which wiU. appear to a greater or less extent on the re- sponsibility lay-out of any given foreman.

As in all other cases, the discussion is not complete, and each foreman must work out his own particular problem to meet his own special conditions, but the points considered will prove suggestive and, it is hoped, helpful in the matter.

"What is Meant by "Passing Along Information." — ^In the sense in which the term "information" is used here it means any method or form of procedure whose purpose is to "pass along" information from somebody who has it to somebody who needs it in his business. It includes written information, such as reports, work orders, rework tickets, requisitions,

190

COST OP INFORMATION 191

time cards, job tickets, posted notices, and all other special forms by which written information is passed along from one member of the team to another. It also includes spoken in- formation, such as orders, directions, spoken reports and suggestions and, in general, any methods whereby informa- tion is passed along "by word of mouth."

What is Meant by Recording. — ^As this term is used here, it means any method used by any one who has obtained any sort of information for putting that information down in some form so that if he needs it later he will not have to depend on his memory and also so that anybody else can get it if he needs it.

The Two Steps. — From the above statements it is evident that this chapter discusses two distinct j obs :

1. Setting down or recording information.

2. Passing out or transmitting information in the form of reports, orders, directions, suggestions, etc.

Responsibilities as to recording may or may not come into the job of any given foreman, according to the procedure and the job analysis, but, in all cases, there are responsibil- ities as to transmitting information that must be included in the job of any foreman and which set up corresponding managerial responsibilities and problems based on the cost elements concerned.

This chapter, therefore, considers (1) Recording, (2) Reporting and (3) Directions, Orders and Suggestions.

SECTION 11. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON RECORDING INFORMATION

Preliminary. — As already stated, any responsibilities that cover the setting down of information either for the use of the person who makes the record {personal records), or for the use of anybody who may need to use it {general records), would come under this heading. Although records vary greatly in the kind of information recorded, since the cost elements and the managerial problems are the

192 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

same in all cases, this section discusses recording without reference to the special nature of the information that is set down.

The Two Steps in Recording. — ^In discharging any re- cording responsibility there are two distinct steps:

1. Securing the information to be recorded :

2. Recording the information after it has been secured.

Each of these "jobs" sets up its own special cost ele- ments and managerial problems as noted in the follow- ing paragraphs:

The Two Cases.— In the matter of recording we may have two cases:

1. Where the person who gets the information puts it down.

2. Where one person gets the information and somebody else puts it down in the final form.

The first case would be illustrated where a foreman makes certain observations and notes them down on a scrap of paper or in a notebook as the final record. The second case would be where he had a clerk whose business was to enter information, say the daily production in the department, on some form of permanent records (cards, forms, etc.), whether the information comes in "by word of mouth" or in the form of paper records that have to be copied.

In either case it is up to the foreman to see that this work is so carried out that cost elements are reduced to a minimum whether he does the recording himself or it is done by some one who is under liis authority.

Cost Elements — Securing Information. — ^This is really a matter of reporting, since the information or the facts are really secured either through a report made to a foreman by somebody else in the department or, if a foreman gets the facts by direct observation himself, he really "reports" to himself. These points are taken up under reporting In the section that follows this one.

f OST OF INFORMATION 193

Cost Elements on Recording Information Already Se- cured.—^Among the more important cost elements on re- cording are:

1. The accuracy with which the recording is carried out, that is, the degree to which the records, as made, are accurate.

2. The degree to which the records are complete, that is, the record contains all the information or facts that it is supposed to contain.

3. The legibility or illegibility of the records as made, that is, the degree to which they are so plain that there can be no possible mistake made in using them.

4. The degree to which the records are kept in stand- ard forms and the same procedure is followed in making them out.

5. The degree to which all records are kept up to date.

7. The degree to which the information can be easily se- cured by anyone having occasion to- use it.

A. THE ACCURACY OF ALL DEPARTMENTAL RECORDS

What is Meant by the Accuracy of Records. — ^As the term accuracy is used here, it means that all information, as recorded, is correct; that, so far as it tells any story, the story is true.

The Cost of Incorrect Records. — ^An mcorrect record, like any other lie, is a dangerous proposition and is, of course, worse than no record at all. If there is no record a^ all, at the worst, nothing is known about the matter ( so far as any record is concerned), which is bad enough, but if the record is there, and is false, whoever depends upon that record and properly thinks that it is correct, thinks that he knows cor" rectly when he is really incorrect and has no means of know- ing it. Hence no one can estimate the cost increasing dangers that go with incorrect records, especially if they are liable to be used by people who are not in direct contact with the work and who, in making them a basis for action, must take them at their face value, because they have no means of back-

13

194 THEPOREMAN AlSfD HIS JOB

checking and so possibly detecting any error until the mis- chief is done.

For example, in a stock inventory, if it is not accurate, it may easily happen that, if the record shows more of a certain kind of material than is actually in stock, say, for a machine shop, tool steel, the whole production may be held up later for want of that special material which was supposed to be in stock and which is found not to be there only when it is needed and the discovery is made that the stock room is all out.

Again, in the case of time records, or records on piece- work, errors in the record will lead to all sorts of possible cost increasing situations, especially where they affect the pay of men.

Holding up some part of the pay while the matter is chased up and corrected may lead to all sorts of disputes and dissatisfaction. The time spent in running down the case and making the corrections itself costs money, the general doubt cast on the reliability of the records by a case of this sort at least does no good and in a number of other ways that will readily suggest themselves to any foreman, cost win be increased.

One difficulty in this matter of inaccuracy of records is that the results of inaccurate records come out in so many ways that cannot be anticipated and whose cost increasing effects may be so far reaching that it is extremely important that all inaccuracy should be prevented or, at least, reduced to a minimum by the most careful management and the adoption of the best possible means of dealing with it, so that, so far as a foreman has acting, recommending or suggesting responsibilities he will do well to give the matter careful study and attention.

Cost Elements — Inaccurate Records. — Some of the pos- sible cost elements on inaccurate records are as follows and others will readily suggest themselves, some of them having been, of course, suggested in the preceding discussion.

1. The cost of chasing up and correcting errors.

COST OF INFORMATION 195

2. Damage or loss due to depending on inaccurate records.

3. The holding up of production due to the same cause.

4. Dissatisfaction and disputes due to inaccurate records.

5. The time spent in doing the job.

6. The labor cost in doing the job.

And, as suggested above, a number of others. i

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here is to reduce inaccuracy to a minimum, since, as long as human operation points must be included in the jobs of keeping rec- ords, absolute absence of slips cannot be hoped for.

Dealing with the Problem.— Among the managerial de- vices that are of service are :

1. The use of simple methods.

2. Making accuracy easy.

3. Knowing the job requirements and getting the right individual on the job.

4. Making the original record the permanent one.

5. Carrying duplicate records.

6. So far as possible, cutting out the human factor.

7. Not trusting to memory in securing the information that is to be recorded.

Using Simple Methods. — Of course, the following discus- sion only applies to cases where a foreman may keep records in any way that he chooses. Where the records are according to standard procedure, he has no managerial responsibilities as to form, except possibly a suggestive or recommending responsibility where he is expected to suggest or recommend as to changes in procedure.

The simpler the method, the less chance there is of un- necessary increased cost, provided the necessary information is recorded in usable form, and the less bother and complica- tion there is in connection with the job of recording, the less chance there is for error.

Sometimes a man who is responsible for records will evolve

19« THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

such a complicated system that, whfle it looks well, it swamps him, for it must not be forgotten that it is not so much starting a set of records as it is the keeping of it up that makes the trouble.

Such records as a foreman may have to keep, or has kept in his department, therefore, will best serve their purpose if the methods used are as simple as possible, easily under- stood, and easily carried out.

Making Accuracy Easy.— A second consideration that affects accuracy in fording is the degree to which accuracy is made easy both for the recorder and for the persons using the records. For example, the use of a standard form, so that the same kind of information wiU always appear in the same place, is of great advantage in this connection. Again, it is much more difficult to either record, or use records ac- curately, if the data is crowded together, or limited space requires very fine writing. In considering this matter, it is an interesting question whether the use of the typewriter does, or does not, make accuracy easier. Certainly, it malces records easier to read, but, for example, in recording num- bers, the chances that the operator hit a wrong key and not know it, may affect the first consideration.

It should also be noted that good working conditions help : if the light is poor, for example, accurate work is more difficult, and a number of other points of this sort would un- doubtedly come up in discussion, according to the special nature of the records and the working conditions.

The Job and the Individual. — This is merely a special case of "Matching Man Qualifications to Job Requirements," and so needs no discussion here beyond pointing out that where a foreman has the responsibility of putting some one on the recording job, he should use the same care as in the case of a production job, and this is particularly true, if, as is sometimes the case, he gets some member of the working force (generally a girl) to do the work, as an "extra."

Making the Original Record the Permanent One. — The

COST OF INFORMATION 197

habit of making records that have to be copied is one that is liable to affect accuracy. For example, some foremen, as they go about the department, wiU note information for rec- ord on scraps of paper and when they get back to their desks, turn these scraps of paper over to a clerk to record, according to the regular form. Of course, this practice in- troduces a number of additional chances of error. For ex- ample, suppose that records are kept on cards carrying a printed form: if a foreman carries these cards with him and enters the information on them, so that the original record is the final one, he is reducing chances of inaccuracy, and to that extent cutting cost.

Duplicate Records. — A loss of records is a serious matter and is liable to cause all sorts of trouble if it happens. One way of guarding against this is to keep all important records in duplicate, and sometimes keep the two sets in different places. For example, this practice is common in the case of Title Insurance Companies, complete duplicate records being kept sometimes at a place outside of the city where the com- pany is located. Of course, such extreme precautions would be taken only in cases where the loss would be practically ir- reparable, and probably would not be necessary in the case of departmental records. Under ordinary conditions, however, cards may be lost, sheets mislaid, etc., and the question of the value of duplicate records may be worth considering where records of any importance are kept permanently in the fore- man's office, or on his desk.

Cutting Out the Human Factor. — It is generally recog- nized that human beings are more likely to make mistakes than machines.

Perhaps in the matter of recording, this point is of no great importance, but may apply in certain cases. For ex- ample, where adding is required, an adding machine is more likely to be accurate than when the work is done by a clerk "in his head"; and in the same way, in special cases, there inight be other ways in which chances for errors might be

198 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

reduced bj using mechanical aids. It is enough here, however, to merely draw attention to the principle, since this discussion is carried somewhat further in connection with reports.

Not Trusting to Memory. — One of the most common causes of inaccurate records is the habit of determining a fact for record and then "carrying it in the head," for a while before recording it ; that is, depending upon memory. This is particularly likely to happen where the place where the rec- ords are kept is away from the "operating point" where the data are secured. The "putting it down when I get back to the desk" habit is a cost increasing one either for foremen or for workers who have recording responsibilities. The good managerial rule is "put it down as srfon as you get it," and if this is enforced, costs will be reduced in the long run.

B. THE COMPLETENESS OF DEPAKTMENTAL KECOEDS

The Cost of Incomplete Records. — ^The general cost- affecting elements on incomplete records are the same as for inaccurate records, except that they are perhaps, of some- what less value because an incomplete record is more likely to be spotted before damage is done than is one that is inaccurate.

In the same way the managerial problems are practically the same and the ways and means for dealing with them essen- tially similar, so that no special consideration is required under this heading.

C. THE LEGIBLLITT OP DEPAETMENTAL EECOKDS

The Cost of Illegibility. — ^If records are to be of value, they must be r6ad, and if they are not legible, they are liable to be read incorrectly and so for all practical purposes they become inaccurate records.

Among the causes of illegibility are "smooching" and dirt, due to handling, "scribbling," due to haste, and some- times poor handwriting.

"Smooching" is due, usually, to the use of improper pen-

COST OF INFORMATION 199

cils ; dirt is due to handling, cannot be always prevented, but care can be used to keep records clean, or to have copies made when the originals become too soiled. Sometimes, certain de- vices on the market, such as celluloid covers, are of service, and sometimes a coat of white shellac will give a surface that can be wiped off when necessary.

Of course, all such suggestions are of value only, and are, or are not, serviceable, according to the special condi- tions, the particular kind of records and the conditions under which they are used.

With regard to poor handwriting, it may be said that a man's own records which he himself cannot read when they are " cold " are bad enough, but when someone else has to puzzle them out, the situation is worse, and the chance of error is greatly increased.

n. THE FOEM IN WHICH DEPARTMENTAL KECOEDS AEE KEPT AS A COST ELEMENT

Preliminary. — ^Under most working conditions, records that are of importance or that are regular in their character, are kept in some special form, usually printed on the card, or sheet or whatever the special recording device may be. In the hurry of "getting the job done" there is often a tendency to disregard such prescribed forms and record the information "any old way so as to get it down." Supplies of forms are allowed to run out, or get lost, or the recorder "doesn't see what diiference it makes so long as it is put down." The question as to the cost value of following procedure is, there- fore, worth considering.

The Cost of Records not Kept on the Prescribed Forms. — Failure to use the prescribed forms in record keeping brings into play a number of cost elements among which are:

1. Increasing the chance of error in using records.

2. Requiring more time and energy than is necessary from anyone who has to use the records.

As an illustration of the cost increasing value of the first

200 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

case, it may be pointed out that if a number of records are to be looked over by some one, or have to be compared, or consolidated into a report, when the same hind of information always appears in the saine place on all record sheets or cards, the chance of error is greatly reduced. In the second case, if the same sort of information has to be picked out on different parts of the record sheet, this not only "slows up" the work but makes it very much more difficult and trying on the nerves.

Even where a foreman keeps records solely for his own use, if he keeps them in some uniform way, he will save cost for his own time and the decreased chance of error when he uses these records, whereas, if he keeps them on old scraps of paper, or in an old blank book, or chalked up on a board, or in some other "irregular" way, his cost will go up.

All of the points just noted and a number of others that will readily occur to any foreman justify the statement that, whether he does the actual recording himself or has it done by a clerk, it pays to keep all records in a uniform manner on proper forms and to see that these forms are properly filled out and are always used. By doing this not only is departmental cost reduced but, outside of direct depart- mental responsibilities, a foreman is giving better cooperation to the Greneral Management, to his immediate superiors and to anyone who has to use the records.

E. KEEPING KECORDS UP TO DATE

Preliminary. — Quite distinct from the question of keep- ing records in proper form is the matter of keeping them up to date. Very often the temptation to "let them run" and then "make them up in a bunch" is one that, if it not fought, is liable to cost money, and since it is so common it is worth some consideration, especially where the permanent record is not the original one.

The Cost of Letting Records Run Behind. — There are a number of cost elements that may come into play here. In the first place, records made in this way are much more liable

COST OF INFORMATION 201

to be incorrect or incomplete because of the time that elapses between the making of the original record and the transfer, with all the chances of loss, failure to spot errors when they are first made and so on. Temporary memoranda get lost, other matters force that particular incident out of the mind of the original recorder, guessing is substituted for certainty, all of which increases the chances of error and so of in- creased cost.

Where records of this kind are kept, it is up to any fore- man to see to it that they are always kept up to date, and that, where the original record has to be transcribed, the time between making the original record and the transcription is always as small as possible. By doing this he will be taking the least chance of increasing costs so far as these particular points are concerned.

SECTION in. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGEMAL PROBLEMS ON H.EPOETING INFORMATION

Preliminary. — As already stated, a report differs from a record because the information contained is for the use of those to whom the report is- made and not for the use of the person who makes it. As pointed out in the chapter on possible responsibilities, reports may be made to various people, such as immediate superiors, the General Manage- ment, other foremen, etc., and they may be routine or special in their nature, but so far as the points considered in this section go, the special nature of the report and the particu- lar person to whom it goes does not affect the cost elements or the managerial problems, though, of course, in minor ways, each foreman must make his own application to the special conditions that go with his special procedure and the par- ticular requirements of his own job.

Making and Receiving Reports. — Just as in the case of recording we have two cases :

A. Making reports, where a foreman, as a part of his duty, is required to forward reports to his superiors or to other departments, or to other members of the team.

i802 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

B. Securing or receiving reports from others The "job" in the first case is to furnish the information, and in the second case, to get it. Since these two j obs bring in different cost elements and corresponding managerial problems, they are discussed separately.

A. MAKING EEPORTS TO OTHEKS

Cost Elements. — ^Among the cost elements worth con- sideration are:

( 1 ) The degree to which reports are correct.

(2) The degree to which they are complete.

(3) The degree to which they are made on time.

(4) The degree to which they are made in the prescribed form, where one is laid down, or are always made in the same way, where no form is prescribed.

(5) The degree to which they can be easily read.

(6) The degree to which they reach all persons that they should reach.

(7) The degree to which they are written or spoken with regard to the special conditions.

The Accuracy and Completeness of Reports. — ^All that has been said with regard to the accuracy and completeness of records will apply equally well to reports, and so no great amount of discussion is required.

A few suggestions that apply especially to reports may be of value. Among the possible cost increasing factors in reporting are failure to include all the information required, because the person making the report does not know what the report is wanted for. This is more liable to be true in the case of special reports than in the case of regular routine re- ports and is more likely to apply to completeness than to accuracy.

Another difficulty in connection with reports not made on prescribed forms is a failure to make statements clear and specific, that is, to word the information in such a way that there is no doubt as to its meaning.

The Cost Value of Incomplete Reports. — The cost value

COST OP INFORMATION 203

of incomplete reports is nearly as great as for incorrect re- ports. Possibly they are more dangerous because less likely to be detected, as they may look right. As a matter of fact, reports areworthless unless they tell the whole story that they are supposed to tell. For example, a report is supposed to be kept of the conditions under which a man was discharged, is supposed to include length of service, nature of job, date of discharge, and cause for discharge. Some time later, the man claims that he was unjustly discharged, and on looking up the report, it appears that in his particular case no cause was given, and the foreman who secured his discharge is at home ill, or has left the plant. The man's story goes.

An incomplete time sheet can, in the same way, cause all sorts of cost troubles. It should be noted that no matter how many reports may be complete, one that is incomplete may start all sorts of trouble, and the fact that all others are complete will not help in that particular case.

The making of complete reports, as called for, is a "high" point in the cost values of reporting, and a foreman should so regard it, taking all possible precautions to see that all reports cover all facts that they are supposed to cover.

Making Reports Promptly.— While it is often a difficult thing to do, the value of any report from the cost standpoint is greatly affected by the degree to which it is turned in at the time that it is due.

Promptness is implied when a certain time is set for the turning in of reports, and when a foreman is called upon to furnish information; if he is a good manager, he gets it in on time by so planning his supervision and his time that all necessary information is on hand in time to meet any expected demands and to allow for compiling, if that be necessary. In proportion as he is able to report promptly, he cuts down cost in a number of ways which are so evident that they need not be mentioned here.

Following Procedure. — ^Where a standard procedure is called for in reporting, or a standard form is provided, any

204 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

departure from that procedure, or that form is liable to in- crease cost. Much trouble in connection with reports may come from- not doing this, and a little thought and planning devoted to the development of ways and means for doing this will enable a foreman to send in reports having a 100 per cent, value from this special standpoint, because they contain in- formation in the form in which it is expected by whoever is going to use it.

Getting Reports to the Right People. — ^All reports are asked for because some one needs the information in his busi- ness, and if the report does not reach him but goes to some one else who has no use for it, cost increasing elements im- mediately get to work. The man who should get the report is tied up on his job, the man who does get it and does not want it must send it back, and be set back on his job. One important managerial problem in connection with reporting, therefore, is to see that all reports- actually reach all the people whom they are supposed to reach. Of course, when it can be done, one of the best ways of doing this is by some sort of "back checking," in the form of a receipt, a state- ment by phone, etc., the point being that merely sending a report "on its way" is not the whole of the problem, but the sender, in some way, should be sure that it is properly de- livered. Only in this way can the chances of increased cost be avoided.

Verbal vs. Written Reports. — Many foremen do not think of spoken reports as reports at all, although whenever there is a passing on of business information, a report is really made. When a foreman says to his superior, "Mr. Smith, we can get those castings out by twelve o'clock," or "Mr. Jones, that man is no good on that job and I want you to transfer him to another department," he' is making a re- port, just as much as though he wrote it out on paper.

A subject that will bear much discussion is the relative cost values of written or spoken reports under any given set of conditions.

COST OF INFORMATION 205

Spoken reports are easier and quicker, written reports are more trouble, but have several advantages, among which are that they provide a permanent record and that they can be carefully studied. The tendency is to make too great use of spoken reports. As an example of a method of securing written reports instead of spoken reports, some concerns have substituted telautographs for telephones because the former gives a written record and the latter does not.

B. SECUKING HEPORTS FKOM OTHEES IN THE DEPARTMENT

Preliminary. — ^It will often happen that in carrying on the work of his department a foreman takes reports from members of the operating force, such as reports on tests, or on the condition of some part of the equipment or in regard to some operation or process.

While all of the previous discussion with regard to cost elements on reporting applies just as well here as to the case where a foreman makes reports to others, the managerial problems are somewhat different because, when a man reports himself, his problem is to make the report and make it right, whereas, when he gets a report from others, his problem is to get them to make it right, that is, it is one thing to do the job right yourself and another thing to get somebody else to do the job right. On this account it has seemed worth while to include some additional discussion with regard to this special form of the reporting problem. Since the cost ele- ments are the same they are not repeated here.

The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here may be stated as follows : To secure reports that are accurate, timely, complete, prompt, legible and that do reach the persons for whom they are intended.

Dealing with the Problem. — As already stated the difB- culties here come from the fact that somebody else does the work and is not, as a rule, checked up while doing it, for, if that were done, a foreman might as well do the work himself. Among the managerial devices that can be used to advantage are the following that may be at least suggestive. \

206 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

Making Clear the Importance of Reliable Reports. — One way in which this problem can sometimes be dealt with to advantage is by making clear to the reporter the importance and necessity for correct reports. If a member of the oper- ating force has the responsibility of making certain observa- tions or tests on which he reports and has no idea what it is for or what use is made of it, or what may happen if it is not correct, he is much more likely to be careless for two reasons, first, because he does not see "that it makes any difference anyway," and second, he will have less sense of responsibility.

A man who is simply told to "read that hydrometer once an hour" without any further explanation is much more likely to guess at a few degrees or hit the time somewhere near than he will if he knows that the exact time is important or that a diiference of a few degrees may make serious trouble, assum- ing that to be the case. This is really saying that he is short on the "I" value for Richards' formula on that job. In many cases careful explanation as to the why wiU help in securing proper reports from subordinates.

Making Accurate Reports Easy. — ^This has already been considered in the previous section, but is again referred to here for the special case where a report from a subordinate is based on some sort of an observation. The accuracy with which data on which such reports are based is often deter- mined by the easy or difficult conditions under which they are secured. For example, in a certain plant it was necessary to read and record a pressure gauge at certain timesl This gauge was set high up on a post in a dark comer and every time a man had to read it he had to get a stepladder, climb up on it and get his face close to the gauge in order to read it. Under these conditions, the temptation was always to stand on the floor, " take a squint," and " allow that he read about so much." This is human nature. The remedy here was to bring the gauge down, or, to use a large gauge with a shaded light in front of it, so that »f would be as easy to he accurate as to be inaccurate and so reduce possible costs.

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As a manager, in order to insure the greatest accuracy, a foreman should plan so that it will be as easy to make accur- ate records as to make inaccurate ones, and, in proportion as he can do this, he can reduce costs due to inaccuracy. By properly dealing with inaccurate reports, he can ■ make it evident that the easiest way to make reports is to make correct ones.

The Value of Forms. — The purpose for which any re- ports are made will be advanced, so far as such things as accuracy, legibility and so on are concerned, if well planned forms are used for recording the information on which the reports are based. Of course, where such forms are pro- vided under the procedure, this matter is taken care of, but where that is not the case and it is up to the foreman he can greatly reduce the chance of trouble by working out suitable forms and not leaving data to be set down on any sort of a piece of paper "in any old way."

The Value of Simplicity. — As in the discussion in the last section on this point, the simpler the form of the report the better, and for the same reasons as are fully discussed there.

Cutting Out the Human Factor. — ^As has already been mentioned in another connection, it is quite generally ac- cepted that, whenever the human factor can be cut out, accuracy in reporting is increased. That is, a recording machine is less likely to make a slip than a human being. It does not get tired, it is always on the job, and, if it goes out of business, it stops, gives no report, and under many condi- tions will not give a false report. The extensive use of adding machines illustrates this point. In general, whenever a fore- man has an opportunity to use, or to recommend the intro- duction of automatic devices to advantage, it will be an unusual case where their use won't help him as a manager in cutting down the chance of getting inaccurate reports.

However, a quite complete analysis of any given situa- tion should be made before requesting the use of automatic devices whose cost might be greater than an effective

208 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

carrying out of the regular procedure without them. Auto- matic reporters have a distinct value when correctly used, and are positive evidence of performance. Where such things as time, temperature pressure, weight, specific gravity, etc., form important parts of records, their registration by auto- matic devices is generally advantageous.

SECTION IV. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGEEIAI. FSOBI.EUS ON

OEDEB.S, DIEECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE

WORKING FORCE

Preliminary. — ^The terms orders, directions, suggestions were defined in Chapter XIII and are used in the same sense here. The discussion as to the way in which orders, direc- tions and suggestions may affect interest, satisfaction, turn- over, etc., and so become cost elements on the human factor side is given in Part VII. This section only deals with the question of orders, etc., so far as they may be considered as one means of conveying information from one person to another, in this case from the foreman to somebody else, usu- ally some member of the operating force of the department, though, in the case of suggestions, it may be to his superiors. In the following discussion it is to be understood that "orders" also cover directions and suggestions.

Cost Elements. — ^Among the cost elements that may be worth discussion might be :

1. The completeness of orders.

2. The clearness of orders.

3. The brevity of orders.

4. The degree to which orders are known to be fully understood.

5. The degree to which they are given to the right person or reach the person that they should reach.

The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here is to take as little time as possible in giving orders but to have them fully understood and to know that they are fully understood by the right person.

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SECTION V. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PEOBLEMS ON OKDERS, DIEECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

Preliminary. — Since orders, directions and suggestions all have the same purpose and are in reality only three dif- ferent ways of doing the same thing, they are taken up together, such minor differences as may come up being pointed out as they come along.

Giving and Taking Orders. — By virtue of his position, a foreman stands in two positions as regards orders, he takes them from his superiors and he gives them to the members of the operating force. Unless otherwise stated, it will be under- stood that the points taken up here apply to giving orders rather than to receiving them, although certain managerial problems in connection with carrying out orders are taken up.

Cost Elements. — ^Among the more probable specific cost elements that may come in in connection with the giving of orders, directions and suggestions are :

1. The degree to which only necessary orders, directions and suggestions are given.

2. The degree to which all orders and directions are fuUy understood.

3. The degree to which they are obeyed or carried out.

4. The degree to which a proper choice is made between written and spoken orders.

For receiving orders, directions and suggestions and for making suggestions to superiors some of the more important specific cost elements might be :

1. The degree to which orders are fully carried out, as intended.

2. The degree to which suggestions are given proper consideration.

3. The degree to which all directions are followed.

4. The degree to which all orders are fully under- stood before they are acted upon. (Also true for directions and suggestions.)

14

210 TEtE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Giving Only Necessary Orders, Etc. — ^It is quite possible to increase cost by giving unnecessary orders, directions or suggestions. Among the detailed cost elements that may come in here may be :

1. Wasted time and energy that could be put in better somewhere else.

2. Actual confusion on the part of the worker increasing the chance of misunderstandings and mistakes.

3. Resentment on the part of a competent worker at the implication that he does not know his job or "hasn't got anything above his shoulders."

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem is to give only necessary orders, directions or suggestions, as the case may be.

Dealing With the Problem. — ^Any time that a foreman spends in giving unnecessary orders is a waste of time, and the same is true of directions and suggestions. The more that any foreman can cut out uimecessary work of this kind the better. No standard rule can be set up to determine when orders are or are not necessary, but in general It may be said that when a worker is attending to his job all right and seems to know what he is about, the best thing to do Is to let him alone.

Unfortunately, some people in supervisory positions are so afraid that something will go wrong that they are continu- ally "butting in" where there is no reason for doing so. This habit is often due to the fact that such supervisors have no idea of what constitutes proper instruction and so are never sure that anybody knows how to do anything right.

One danger in this habit of continually "overordering" is that the worker gets so that he loses aU confidence In his ability to do the job anyhow, and this results in a poor men* tal attitude as taken up in Part VII. In most cases, after the order or direction has once been given so that it is clearly understood. If the worker knows the job, he can be

COST OP INFORMATION 211

trained to know when he needs additional help and got so that he knows enough to ask for it. The two main man- agerial devices here are therefore, first, such instruction as may be necessary to get competent workers and second, learn- ing to ten when additional orders or directions are required, and unless they are necessary, letting the man alone. A help in this would be a high and low point supervisory lay-out as described in Chapter IX.

The degree to which this can be accomplished will depend to a considerable extent on the degree to which orders are fully understood when given the first tvme.

Getting Orders, Directions and Suggestions Fully Un- derstood.— One very serious point in connection with the giving of orders, directions and suggestions is to get them understood the first time. A considerable amount of informa- tion that bears on this matter is given in the chapters on instruction and is not repeated here, but, as pointed out in the list of possible cost elements, if orders are not fully under- stood a very serious cost element comes into play. Among the detailed cost elements that may come in here are :

1. The work is done incorrectly, resulting in poor qual- ity, reduction in quantity.

2. Damage to the equipment.

3. Accidents.

4. Time and temper lost in repeating orders that should have "carried" the first time.

And many others that will suggest themselves.

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here is to get orders or directions understood the first time, or, strictly speaking, to get the job done right as a result of the first order or direction.

Dealing with the Problem.— The problem of getting orders understood is generally regarded as a very difficult one and rightly so, because of the difficulty of finding out positively that they have been really "taken in." This is especially true of new workers if they are scared, as many of them are, especially if they are not English speaking people.

212 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Whatever the conditions, however, there are some things that can be done in all cases, among which are :

1. Making orders or directions complete.

2. Making them clear.

3. Making them short.

4. Making sure that they are understood.

5. Giving them to the right person.

Making Orders Complete. — The "You know it and I know it and so we won't talk about it" habit in giving orders is liable to lead to increased costs in a number of ways, because often when it is assumed that the other fellow knows it he doesn't know it and sometimes he can't know it. This results in lost time, disputes ( "Didn't I tell you ! ! !" "How in blazes could I know what you wanted !" and so on) and sometimes lost production because the other fellow went ahead and "took a chance" when he was not sure, or thought he knew when he didn't. An example of this is the following case; A foreman was heard to say to a man, "Go up on that ship and chip down the hatch combing six inches," and later found the man loafing and "bawled him out" for not being on the jpb. As a matter of fact, in this case there were three decks on the ship and four or five hatchways on each deck. The foreman assumed that the chij)per knew which deck and which hatchway the order applied to, when he did not; was too lazy or stupid to ask until after the foreman had gone, and "loafed around" waiting for him to come back, possibly thinking that he had a clear alibi anyway for a " vacation," which, in a way, he did. Another illustration of an incomplete order is, "Some of you men do so and so," without indicating the men to whom the order is given.

The Elements of a Good Order. — An order is not com- plete unless it covers the following points which may be called the elements of a complete order,

1. How the job is to be done.

2. When it is to be done.

3. Where it is to be done.

4. Who is to do it.

COST OF INFORMATION 213

This does not mean, of course, that in all cases a foreman must tell a competent man exactly how a given job is to be done in great detail which would, in many cases be foolish, but it does mean that when he gives an order or makes a sug- gestion to a worker, he must be sure that these four points are covered between what he knows that the man knows about the job and what he tells him. In the first case given above the foreman slipped up in assuming that the chipper knew the deck and the hatch when he did not, and the chipper slipped up in not asking before the foreman got away. Of course, both were to blame, but, as the responsible party, it was up to the foreman to be sure that the order was completely covered.

Failure to make orders complete is, of course, due to a number of reasons, among which are "rush" and "taking a chance" that the man knows it without making sure that he does know it. This is especially the case where men have never been properly instructed on the job as discussed in the chapter on carelessness (Chapter XXIV).

It is good management, therefore, to be sure that all orders are thoroughly "put across" on all four points, espe- cially with men who are new to the job, or to the plant and to know your man before "cutting corners" in the giving of orders or making suggestions. Failure to do this will unquestionably increase cost in a number of ways which will readily occur to any foreman.

Making Orders Clear. — ^While this is not, under ordinary- conditions, as important a matter as that just considered, under some conditions it may have a considerable cost affect- ing value, especially in the case of young workers or green men. An order might cover all the points discussed in the last paragraph and yet fail to be put across because the per- son to whom the order was directed did not understand the language that was used. As an extreme illustration, the order, "Bill Jones, go aloft right away and splice in a new main upper topsail starboard buntline" would be "Greek" to a green hand on an old time ship, and to anybody except a

214 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

sailor who was used to "square riggers," yet it covers all of the four points necessary for a complete order. One common case where this comes up is in the case of foreign speaking workers who only know a little English. When an order ife given that they do not understand are afraid to say so and so get into trouble. This has been very noticeable, for example, in instructing or directing the attention of new workers to danger points in cotton mills.

The same difficulty is liable to arise in the case of young workers, especially girls, and for the same reason, with the additional difficulty that in such cases the young worker does not know enough tq know that he has not "got it."

In all cases of the giving of orders and directions, but especially in the cases just mentioned, it is especially desir- able that, in covering the four points, each point should be "cleaned up" before going to the" next, that there should be no "back tracking."

In general, therefore, a foreman has managerial problems to make all orders clear with regard to the special character of the people to whom he gives them and to the degree to which he succeeds in doing this he reduces cost.

Making Orders Brief. — If an order or suggestion is com- plete and clear, the shorter it is the better, because :

1. Time is saved and

2. There is less chance for confusion. The order is more easily taken in.

AU other things being equal, Finnigan's famous report, "Off agin, on agin, gone agin" in reply to the order "Boil 'em down" from the Division Super was good business on both sides. A famous naval writer once claimed that one of the reasons that, during the wars between France and England at the time of Napoleon, the English ships beat the French ships was because it took considerably longer to give an order in French than in English and that this fact counted in get- ting "quick action" in battle.

At all events the motto, "The less you talk the better, provided you say it all" is a good one to follow anywhere in

COST OF INFORMATION 215

business and is as good for a foreman as anybody else, and in proportion as he puts it into practice he reduces the chances of increasing cost. "Wind" is as expensive in giving orders as it is in an aii* hoist, especially a leaky one.

Knov^ing that Orders are Understood. — ^This point has already been discussed from one angle in a previous para- graph, but, in the sense in which it is used here, it refers to the necessity of being sure that orders are fully grasped before going on to some other part of the job. While an intelligent worker should know enough to say that he does not understand when this happens, many cases have come up where he did not get it, and a foreman cannot depend on the other fellow in this matter. Of course he will use his judgment as to how far to go when he knows his man, but, in the last analysis it is his responsibility and not the worker's and, according to the good or poor management with which this matter is handled by a foreman, costs will be increased or reduced. This point is worth careful consideration by all foremen, especially with regard to the type of worker, the length'of time that he has been on the job, the simplicity or complexity of the order and all other points that count.

Reaching the Right Person. — This case is most likely to come up in the question of written orders, such as work orders or other cases of this sort. For example, in one plant, defects in certain departmental products that only came to light after the material had left the department made necessary the returning of such defective material with rework orders, each, of which applied to one particular piece. Serious loss occurred because, in many cases, these rework orders were not firmly attached to the pieces and so were lost in transit and never reached the people who needed the information to rework the job.*

* It might be an interesting point to mention in connection with this case that a conference discussion brought out the fact that whereas wire holders had been provided to attach the rework orders to the mate- rial they were not used, but the rework orders were merely stuck into some hole in the articles so that they often fell out or were blown out in trucking.

216 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Since this case has been taken up in connection with re- ports it is not considered further here.

The Degree to Which Orders are Carried Out. — ^Assum- ing that only .necessary orders or directions have been given and that they have been fully understood, the degree to which they are carried out as intended is a cost element and so gives rise to a managerial problem to get orders correctly carried out.

Cost Elements. — The cost elements are so evident here that they do not really need any suggesting, but one point may be brought up, and that is that the cost comes .out, not on account of defiance of authority but in a failure to secure the purpose for which the order was given. If a man is ordered or directed to make a box 8 x 12 inches square and 16 inches high, and he actually makes one of some other dimensions the cost comes out of the fact that a box has been made that nobody wants : so much time and labor wasted, and not directly out of the fact that the workman "dis- obeyed orders."

Dealing wit*h the Problem. — ^The main point in dealing with this problem is to realize that a deliberate intention to disobey orders is very rare under most ordinary conditions and a case of apparent disobedience should be carefully analyzed before treating it as such.

For illustration, it should be made certain at least that the order was clear and was understood, that the worker knew how to do the job, and that the conditions were such that he could do it, and that if any of these cases were not true, he was not too scared or unintelligent to report the fact.

This point is brought out here because anybody in a position of authority naturally expects orders to be obeyed, and rightly so, yet when orders fail to be carried out it is a trait of human nature to make a personal matter of it. "The dignity of the position must be kept up." This idea is well illustrated by what is said to have been the procedure on some ships in the old days when the duty of a second mate was al- ways to hit a man before giving an order, "just to keep up

COST OP INFORMATION 217

the understanding that he was the mate." The point here is that a good manager will always make sure first that what seems like a case of disobedience is actual disobedience and then will handle that case impersonally.

Since this sort of management depends largely on human factors as taken up in another chapter, this point is not followed up any further here.

Written or Spoken Orders. — Orders can be spoken or written. When written they have the advantage of being permanent and leaving a record as to just what the order was. A man can refer to them over and over again, as in the case of a stock order on general stores, and a written order can be used for a checking list which cannot be done with aji order that is spoken. Under ordinary conditions in carrying on work it would, of course, be perfectly foolish to use written orders and nobody in his senses would think of going to such an absurdity.

It is true, however, that with spoken orders there is much more chance for misunderstandings and the omission of some important point, as well as a good deal of trusting to memory with the corresponding chance of error.

Cost Ellements. — ^The cost elements as between written and spoken orders might be stated, at least in part, as follows :

Spoken orders. Written orders.

Take less time. Take more time.

More chance of not being Can be made complete.

complete. Better chance of being un-

More chance of not being derstood.

understood. Leave a record.

Leave no record.

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem is to use written orders whenever necessary and not use them when not necessary.

Dealing with, the Problem. — In general, the more im- portant the matter, the greater the probability that it will

218 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

pay to use written instead of spoken orders or directions. In practically all cases suggestions made to subordinates in the ordinary run of the work can be spoken with safety.

In general, it may be said that where the matter is im- portant, where a record is desirable or where the orders oi" directions must go into great detail, written orders will pay. Where these conditions do not prevail, spoken orders and directions are plenty good enough.

Taking Orders. — The question as to management on taking orders "from above" brings up about the same sets of cost elements and questions of management except that a man holding down a foreman's job can be naturally ex- pected to take more initiative and deal with matters more intelligently than can be required of a member of the work- ing force. This fact brings up a number of considerations that have not been considered up to this time in connection with orders, directions and suggestions.

Special Cost Elements. — ^Among the special cost elements that may be worth considering might be :

1. The cost of not carrying out orders so that the de- sired results are obtained.

2. The cost of not using intelligence in carrying out orders.

3. The cost of not asking for additional or modified orders when necessary.

4. The cost of not "back checking" when necessary. Ceurying Out Orders. — Of course, a failure to carry out

orders means increased cost and no special discussion is re- quired. The more orders are carried out promptly, accu- rately, and intelligently the lower the cost. One important point in this coimection is that in any organization the whole efficiency of the work depends on orders being carried out, because an organization is a team, and in any team somebody must give orders and somebody else must carry them out. Of course, the above statement does not mean that the sub- ordinate is to obey orders blindly, but that with due regard

COST OF INFORMATION 219

for the points discussed below there "can't be two captains on one ship" and get anywhere.

Carrying Out Orders Intelligently.— The foreman is the man directly responsible for carrying out the job. If the job falls down he may share the responsibility, but he can not "duck it." As the man nearest to the job, knowing de- tails that no one "higher up" can know, he must take the responsibility of carrying out orders intelligently. He can not go on the principle of "obeying orders and breaking owners," as used to be said in the days of the old sailing clippers that ran between New York and Liverpool. This means that he must know what the orders mean — ^just what the superior wished to accomplish. In order to do this it is often necessary to know when to ask for further or sup- plementary orders.

Knowing When to Ask for Orders. — One of the most important cost elements in connection with taking orders is the degree to which a foreman knows when to ask for supple- mentary orders or new orders. In almost any work, cases wiU come up where the situation changes or some unforeseen conditions crop up. If, under such conditions, foreman A goes on according to his original orders and foreman B asks for revised orders, foreman B has cut costs more than fore- man A. Of course, in many cases a foreman handles the new situation himself, and it is as important to know when to act yourself as to know when to "send an S. O. S." Running back to superiors for orders when it is unnecessary increases cost ; not going back when necessary also increases cost.

Of course, in this nothing/ can take the place of "horse sense," but it is merely desired to call attention here to the cost elements involved in the exercise of judgment in such matters.

An example of this situation would be in the case of moving a house. The contractor tells the foreman in charge to go down a certain street. Later the foreman discovers that part way down the street there is a "soft spot" where a

2ieo THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

sewer has been put in. If he obeys orders he is likely to have the street settle on him and possibly put the job out of busi- ness. If he is intelligently following orders he stops the job and asks for further orders. It is a part of his job to do so.

This, of course, illustrates a case where something un- foreseen comes up that was not known when the orders were issued. Another case might be where the superior had for- gotten something which would call for "back' checking."

"Back Checking." — ^However carefully orders are drawn, there is always the chance of errors or omissions. For ex- ample, a foreman in a print shop gets an order for wedding invitations to be printed on news stock, or a foreman in a machine shop get§ an order to turn out a number of pairs of bevel gears, one set 37° and the other 90°. In both cases there is evidently an error, and it is up to the foreman to "back check" and get the error corrected before starting the job. Again, in the case of house moving, suppose careful directions were given as to placing j acks under the main siUs, but no directions as to an eU which, if directions were followed as given, would be unsupported when the house was lifted. It is up to the foreman to draw the attention of his superior to that omission before he starts the job.

The foreman, therefore, has a responsibility for "back checking" orders both to guard against errors and omissions and to "pool" his definite detailed knowledge of the job with that of the superior; if he is onto his job he can not merely take orders and follow them blindly.

Of course, the intelligent following of orders in the jvay it is done is largely a matter of cooperation, as discussed in the notes under that heading, but the responsibility is on the foreman to "use his head" in carrying out orders to what- ever extent is possible under the working arrangements.

Reducing Time Spent in Giving Orders, Directions and Suggestions to a Minimum. — ^The question of time which is to be spent by a foreman in getting his orders, directions and

COST OF INFORMATION 221

suggestions to his working force can be best solved after a good distribution of supervisory work has been laid out. With well-planned supervision the plans and points at which orders and directions are required suggest themselves, and by giving the required orders and directions sufficient time when they are issued, to make certain they "go over," time in going over the same ground more than once will be saved.

In general, the fewer the number of orders and the per- tinent nature of the directions and suggestions all help to keep the time required down to a normal rate.

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

PARTY

1. A foreman in making his rounds notices that a man is trying to handle a piece of stock that is too heavy to handle alone and not have a chance of breakage. He says to the man, " that piece is too heavy for you to handle alone, get somebody to help you." Anything the matter with that order?

2. A man right out of the Ford factory is employed in a Ford service station which also takes other makes of cars. A Dodge comes in with a broken drive shaft. The foreman orders this man to take out the broken shaft. Is that order all right?

3. A man has been employed as a helper on a job and is promoted to a worker on that job. When he goes onto the job for the first time the foreman simply tells him to " go to it. " Is that foreman taking any chance?

4. What is the easiest way in which a foreman can fall down in giving an order?

6. A man has been employed as a riveter in structural steel work. He was a good man on the job. During the war he was taken on by a shipyard. The first day that he

222 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

went to work the foreman ordered him to " rivet up those intercostals." Anything the matter with that order?

6. A man has been employed in a cabinet-making shop for several years. He is a fine workman. He is given a very fine piece of cabinet work to do that calls for doing a job that he never has happened to strike before and which calls for a dovetail joint where the ordinary method would be to use a half lap joint. The foreman knows this. Which would be the better, to say, " BiQ, make that joint with a dovetail " or " Bill, don't you think that joint had better be made with a dovetail".'' As a matter of manage- ment? Why?

7. What is liable to be the effect of a direct order on a competent workman? Why?

8. Can directions be made as clear as direct orders? ^Vhy?

9. A foreman gives the following order. " One of you men get that box out of that truck." If there is some delay whose fault is it? '

10. A man is quite new on the job. The foreman sees him handling a piece of stock in such a way that there is danger of breakage. The foreman says, " Don't break that "! What is the matter with that order? If the piece was broken who would be to blame?

11. A truck load of material is properly marked for delivery. The foreman orders the driver to deliver it as marked. The driver fails to deliver it where it should be delivered. Who is to blame?

12. When a foreman receives orders from his superior how does his responsibility differ from that of a workman when he receives orders from his foreman?

13. A foreman received a general order reading as fol- lows : " There has been difficulty in keeping machines prop- erly oiled by the men who operate them. Each operator is required to keep his machine properly oiled. Please attend

COST OP INFORMATION 223

to this matter with the men in your department." He posts this order on the bulletin board in his department.

a. Has he discharged his responsibility?

b. If not, has he failed as a manager or as a supervisor?

c. What should he do in addition to posting the order?

d. Any use in posting the order anyway? Why?

14. A communication comes down from above reading as follows : "On way 26 the riveting work is reported by the inspectors as unsatisfactory. Please attend to this matter."

a. What should a foreman do?

b. The foreman has had trouble with the number of defective rivets that have had to be cut out. Should he go ahead and assume that these poor rivets are what the communication refers to?

15. A foreman In a chemical plant gets an order as follows: "Too many leaky cranks are coming out of your department. Please attend to this matter." His depart- ment turns out gas in pressure tanks, and solid sulphur tri- oxide in cans. What should he do?

16. In carrying on a standard operation according to the regular procedure, in making sulphuric acid, a foreman notices that he is not getting his regular product although he is sure that all the proper materials have been used.

What should he do? Why?

17. If a foreman gets this order: " It is specifically for- bidden to converse with the operators of the freight elevators while said elevators are in operation." A number of his men are foreign-speaking people, but aU, can speak fair English.

He posts this notice in each elevator and thinks " I've done my duty."

a. Has he?

b. Why not?

c. What should he do? Why?

224 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

18. Orders are sent out to all foremen to see that all the men in their departments, making white lead by the Dutch process, wear masks while breaking down the pots. He posts this order.

a. Has he discharged his responsibility?

b. If so, why?

c. If not, why?

d. If not, what should he do?

19. In how many different ways can a foreman fall down in taking orders?

20. Is a foreman responsible for carrying out orders as he gets them or is he responsible for carrying them out as intended?

21. If the order is clear to him but has to be passed along to his men what is his duty?

22. If the order is not clear to him what is his duty?

23. Should the principle followed be to "Obey orders and break owners," or to know the purpose for which an order is given and make sure that the order is so carried out that the desired result is obtained?

24!. What are some cost elements on carrying out orders that are not clear?

25. What are the cost elements on orders that have to be transmitted to the men, that are clear to the foreman, but as he gets them, would not be clear to the men?

26. In transmitting orders has a foreman a duty to see that the men get the order as given so that they under- stand the order so that they will carry it out correctly?

27. What is the difference between an order and a direction?

28. Does a foreman lose any hold over his men by direct- ing instead of ordering? Why?

29. In a machine shop an order came in for making a tapered arbor 6 inches long and % inch in diameter. The

COST OF INFORMATION 225

foreman is quite sure that this should be 1%. What should he do ; go ahead or back check? Why?

30. The foreman in a print shop got an order that called for printing a set of circulars advertising the opening of a millinery sale on common book stock which would be contrary to all good practice in the trade. He knows that the job should go in a good quality of calendered paper. It is a hurry-up job. The man who knows about the original order cannot be reached. What should that foreman do ?

31. The case of giving only necessary orders and direc- tions. The foreman in a pattern shop gets an order for a standard pattern and gives that job to a competent man. He spends ten minutes telling that man just how that pat- tern should be got out. Is this good or poor foremanship from the cost standpoint? Why?

32. An order for a job that is different comes into a machine shop and the superintendent talks the matter over with the foreman. They agree that the job shall be done in a certain way with certain machines. Is there any cost increasing element in going at the matter this way? What is it?

33. What are the advantages of spoken orders and directions? When can they be safely used?

34. What are the advantages of written orders? When should they be used?

35. When would a foreman be justified in asking for written orders when he had received spoken orders?

36. What would be a good rule for determining how far orders as given must be detailed?

37. What is a foreman's managerial problem on the giv- ing of orders?

38. Provided the matter is fully understood, which is the better, a short order or a long order? Why?

39. What is the danger in talking too much in giv- ing orders?

15

226 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

40. What is meant by getting an order clearly understood?

41. What may be the cause of an order not being clearly understood?

42. How may a foreman know that an order has been clearly understood?

43. What is the danger here?

44. What are the responsibilities of a foreman when he gets orders from above that are to be passed along to the members of his operating force?

PART VI

THE ANALYSIS OF THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK INTO SPECIFIC AND DE- TAILED RESPONSIBILITIES

CHAPTER XV

SPECIFIC AND DETAILED RESPONSIBILITIES AS TO THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE MEM- BERS OF THE WORKING FORCE

SECTION I. PREMMINABY

Preliminary. — It has been pointed out that a foreman's job includes a general responsibility for the physical condi- tion of the members of the departmental working force. This section considers some of the specific and detailed responsi- bilities that may be included in that general responsibility. Among the more probable of these detailed responsibilities, as given on the chart, are :

1. Responsibilities for preventing actual physical in- jury to the members of the working force, commonly known as "safety."

2. Responsibilities in connection with illness or sickness among the members of the working force.

3. Responsibilities as to the general physical condition of the members of the working force.

4. Responsibilities as to the general working conditions so far as they affect the physical condition of the members of the working force.

As in all other cases, it should be understood that the specific and detailed responsibilities taken up here are only some of those that may come into the foreman's job and that some of those given may not come into the job of a given fore- man. Each man must, of course, work out his own responsi- bilities according to the requirements of his own par- ticular job.

229

230

THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

SOME POSSIBLE SPECIFIC AND DETAILED RESPON- SIBILITIES IN THE GENERAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE WORKING FORCE

Detailed

Specific

Actual Pliysical / Injuries to the worker Injury: Safety \ Injuries to otiiers

Illness

The Physical Con- dition of the Working Force

Working Condi- tions as to

General Physical Conditions

Temporary illness Incipient disease Acute lUness Chronic illness Infectious disease Contagious disease

' Physical handicap (V. R., I. R.)

Fatigue

Susceptibility to injury on account of special weak- ness

Concentrated attention

Over speeding

Personal habits outside the plant that interfere with work on the job

General outside conditions

General health

Retraining cases

Air

Light

Occupational dangers

Special job dangers

General surroundings

SECTION n. PHYSICAL INJURY ^ACCIDENTS

Safety. — This possible general responsibility is so gen- erally accepted by foremen, and they give so much attention to it that it needs but little further consideration. As given on the chart, some of the possible detailed responsibilities that may come in are:

1. Injuries to the worker, and

2. Injuries to others.

PHYSICAL RESPONSIBILITIES 231

Among the supervisory responsibilities in connection with safety might be suggested for consideration:

1. Knowing where the danger points are.

2. Seeing that accidents do not occur at those points.

3. Knowing danger points for others.

4. Seeing that "the innocent bystander" is protected.

5. In case of accident seeing that the results are as little serious as possible.

Injury to the Worker. — This is the more common form in which this responsibility comes in as a part of the foreman's job.

Injury to Others. — This detailed responsibility is not so commonly thought of, but there are a number of circum- stances where the "innocent bystander" is the only one who must be looked out for, or where -he needs protection as much as the worker. A good example of such a case would be where there was a case of "shooting the tool" in operating a riveting "gun." If the trigger is pulled when the tool is not held against something, the tool will be "shot" with great force. In this case the operator is in no danger at all, and if anybody is hurt it will be somebody else. Injuries of the same kind have happened in handling heavy material with cranes, and they might happen with the "snap back" on a buzz saw in a wood mDl.

Both detailed responsibilities, of course, belong in the responsibility lay-out where there is any possibility of either form of accident happening in the department.

SECTION in. ILLNESS AND DISEASE

Illness and Disease. — Since the members of the working force are human beings, they are liable to be attacked at any time by temporary illness or to suffer from some form of chronic disease. The question of the specific and detailed responsibilities of a foreman in connection with such illness or disease usually call for considerable discussion and thought. As already stated, the question of safety has been so thoroughly worked up in most plants that all foremen are

232 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

thoroughly alive in the matter, and it is not so much a case of accepting safety responsibilities as of devising ways and means to promote it and so cut accidents down to a minimum.

As a general thing, however, the question of a foreman's responsibilities as to illness and disease have not been as thor- oughly taken up and worked out in most plants for a number of reasons and so a foreman is usually not so clear as to his responsibilities along these lines as he is with regard to safety work and accident prevention.

A part of this uncertainty comes out of the fact that illness has, until quite recently, been largely considered as a man's private affair not only by the plant but by the man himself, and this has been especially true of chronic and contagious diseases, and a foreman has felt a natural reluct- ance to assume any responsibilities in connection with them on that account.

A second reason has been that it is only recently that matters of iUness and disease have been carefully studied from the standpoint of their cost effects, and it has been shown that, at least in many cases, responsibilities assumed by somebody in the organization for taking some action is, as a managerial proposition, good business.

A third reason for doubt on the part of many foremen as to their having specific and detailed responsibilities in con- nection with illness and disease, except possibly in cases of acute illness, has been that they have felt that any responsi- bilities along these lines were up to some other plant agency, a medical department or a welfare department, because they have thought of the matter from the medical side only, and, since they were not doctors, have felt that they could do nothing in the matter even if they wanted to.

Since, according to the newer view of these matters, a worker who is ill or is suffering from some disease is, on the one hand, unable to do first class work, and, on the other, if he knows his job, is too good a man to lose, if that loss can be prevented, a foreman, as a "key man," must assume and

PHYSICAL RESPONSIBILITIES 2S3

discharge a number of responsibilities which, under the older ideas would not have been considered as a part of his job, and this section undertakes to suggest some of these possible responsibilities for consideration and discussion.

Some Specific Possible Responsibilities. — ^Among these possible specific responsibilities might be :

1. Responsibilities as to temporary illness.

2. Responsibilities as to chronic disease.

3. Responsibilities as to infectious or contagious disease.

4. Responsibilities as to physical handicap.

Each of these includes a number of detailed responsi- bilities, some of which are suggested, and these supervisory specific and detailed responsibilities in turn set up corre- sponding managerial problems dealing with cost elements and ways and means, which are taken up in the chapter following.

A. TEMPOEAKY OE ACUTE ILLNESS

Temporary Illness. — ^This might mean, for example, a case where a man was coming down with an attack of the grippe and was trying to keep on working when he was in no shape to work, or where a man was suffering from a bad cold and headache, or from some other form of illness not re- garded as serious but which tends to prevent his doing first class work. Under many of these conditions a man will stick to his job, when the best thing for him and for the plant is for him to go home and get straightened out. A number of possible responsibilities will suggest themselves in this connection which each foreman may decide do, or do not, form a part of his job. Among these might be :

1. Knowing that the worker was ill.

2. Taking some steps to see that, as a result of his illness, there was no drop in quality or quantity of production.

3. Taking steps to see that accident risk was not in- creased under these conditions.

This amounts to saying that, when a man is iU, it is up to the foreman to "spot the case" as a supervisor and then, as a manager to see that cost is not increased as a result of that

234 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

case of temporary illness. The managerial side of this ques- tion is taken up in the next chapter, but the supervisory responsibility for "spotting" such cases belongs in the foreman's supervisory lay-out.

Incipient Illness. — ^This might mean, for example, a case where a man was in the first stages of "T. B." or typhoid, or some other disease that, if unchecked at the beginning, was bound to get worse and worse. As in the preceding case, a number of possible responsibilities may come up under this heading, but it is practically certain that some of them would come into the job of any foreman.

Acute Illness. — This might mean, for example, a case where a man was suddenly attacked with sunstroke or acute indigestion or appendicitis, where the attack came suddenly and quick action was needed. In such cases there are obvious responsibilities on the foreman and no further discussion is needed.

Incipient and Acute Illness.— As a supervisor, a foreman has some responsibilities in connection with incipient or acute illness on the part of members of the working force. Just what they would be depends largely on the special circum- stances and conditions, but it is evident that it is at least up to the foreman to "spot" such cases as well as a man without special medical knowledge can do it, and to do something to minimize the results. >As in the case just taken up, what he would do would be on the managerial side of the job, but "keeping an eye out" for such cases would be at least one part of his supervisory job, because, in practically all cases of incipient temporary illness a man will tend to try and stay on the job when many times he is a danger to the job. For example, a locomotive engineer may be "able to go on the run" when, on account of temporary illness he has no business to be on the run, and his superiors, who are responsible for the safety of the train and the lives of the passengers have no business to let him go on the rim. That is, in cases of tem- porary illness that do not actually incapacitate a worker.

PHYSICAL RESPONSIBILITIES 235

it IS not what he thinks that counts but what the foreman thinks, as the man responsible for getting the job done. If the job is in danger, or if the danger to the man himself or to others is increased by letting a man who says that he is "all right" when he isn't stay on the job, it is up to the fore- man to take some action.

The case of acute iUness is somewhat different because, if the attack amounts to anything, there is no question of staying on the j ob. The responsibilities here would come out of the fact that, as the leader of the team, the members of the team naturally look to the foreman to take the initiative and direct whatever can be done to relieve the sufferer. This re- sponsibility might be, for example, for seeing that an ambu- lance was called, where a plant maintained a hospital. It might mean a responsibility on a foreman to post himself sufficiently to give effective first aid, as in the case of sun- stroke, or it might mean a responsibility for being provided with such medical supplies as could be used by a man who was not a doctor, as was often the case in ships, where the captain had the responsibility of giving such medical aid as was pos- sible when no doctor was available.

The analysis of responsibilities for cases of acute illness will, therefore, vary so much according to the chkracter of the conditions, the organization of the plant, the conditions under which the work is carried on that each case must be worked out by itself, but it is quite certain that, on studying the situation, practically all foremen will agree that they have supervisory responsibilities of some kind in connection with acute illness.

B. CHRONIC DISEASE

Chronic Disease. — This case offers more difficulties be- cause the sjTiiptoms can often be noted only by a doctor. There are, however, some possible detailed responsibilities that may be considered in this connection. Among these might be :

1. Responsibilities in connection with looking out for such cases.

236 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

2. Responsibilities for seeing that such cases receive proper medical attention.

These responsibilities would again come out of the fact that a foreman has the general responsibility of looking out for his men and, on account of his position can be reasonably expected to have more sense and intelligence in such matters than the members of the working force can be expected to show. For example, certain types of workers don't know enough to know when they are suffering from the earlier stages of some chronic disease or are afraid of a doctor. In other cases they are exploited by quacks.

Of course, each foreman must decide for himself just what his supervisory responsibilities are, according to the particu- lar sort of workers in his department, the plant organization, etc. In general, the more ignorant the workers and the less provision made by the plant along medical service lines, the more it is up to the foreman to assume supervisory responsi- bilities and discharge them as weU as he can. Some points in this connection are taken up in the next chapter.

Infectious and Contagious Disease. — ^The question of a foreman's supervisory responsibihties for contagious or in- fectious disease is one that requires a good deal of considera- tion, especially in the case of the so-called "social diseases," tuberculosis and other diseases of that character that are not always regarded as serious and which in many cases people tend to conceal. This much can be said. Wherever a mem- ber of the team is a menace to the health of other members of the team, it is a supervisory responsibility of the foreman to "spot" such cases so far as he can and take some action. He must protect his men. That is a part of his job as a leader of the team. Just what should be the action taken will, as in other cases discussed, depend largely on the special con- ditions, and the subject will not be developed further here as a supervisory question, but it is quite certain that on giving the subject careful consideration any foreman will find de- tailed responsibilities that should go into his lay-out in con-

PHYSICAL RESPONSIBILITIES 237

nection with infectious and contagious diseases that menace the health of all the members of the operating force. Some suggestions from the managerial standpoint are, however, made in the following chapter.

SECTION IV. GENERAL PHYSICAL CONDITION

Physical Condition. — As suggested on the chart there are a number of possible specific responsibilities that may come under the general responsibility for the general physical con- dition of the members of the working force, including, of course, a number of possibilities that are not mentioned. Those given on the chart are:

1. Overfatigue.

2. Susceptibility to special injury due to some special weakness.

3. Jobs requiring especially concentrated attention on the -part of the worker and so causing mental overstrain.

4. Cases of overspeeding.

5. Personal habits on the part of a member of the work- ing force that interfere with doing his work properly.

6. Physical handicap.

These specific possible responsibilities are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Overfatigue. — Under some conditions it may be a part of the duties of a foreman to assume responsibilities for watch- ing out for cases of overfatigue on account of the resulting danger for accidents, slow production or for some other reason. Where the conditions are such, as in the case of most foremen in charge of production <^epartments, where this responsibility comes into the job, it should be included in the lay-out.

Susceptibility to Special Injury.— As discussed later, this specific responsibility comes into the foreman's job whenever he has any responsibilities as to the assigning of workers to jobs.

An example of such a case would be where a man was suffering from a rupture or where he had an artificial limb.

238 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

In such cases the foreman's responsibility would center around seeing that the working conditions for that man on whatever job he was assigned to would not expose him to special dangers of injury. Because of the number of injured men now being employed on account of the war and the " cripples in industry " legislation, responsibilities of this nature are likely to be given more attention in the future than they have been given in the past.

Concentrated Attention. — ^As is well known, some jobs require concentrated attention, as in the case of train dis- patchers or telephone switchboard operators during rush hours. Under some conditions, it may become a part of the duty pf the foreman to see that concentration is not carried so long that it breaks down with the accompanying danger of resulting trouble. Of course, only where such "concen- tration" jobs come under the foreman's supervision would this specific responsibility come into the lay-out of any one foreman's job.

Overspeeding. — In some cases, especially where operators are on piecework, some of them are likely to overspeed with the accompanying dangers of spoiled work and damage to machines. Under these conditions, a foreman may have spe- cific responsibilities under this heading. These conditions can, of course, only come about when operators can control the speed of their machines.

Personal Habits. — ^An example of a case where a foreman might have responsibilities under this heading would be where a man was in the habit of sitting up nearly all night playing cards and so was in no shape to work the next day, or where in some other way he did things in his own time that pre- vented him from doing a good job in the plant time. A num- ber of possible responsibilities will suggest themselves under this heading that can be worked out and included in the specific responsibility lay-out for any given foreman, accord- ing to the special conditions.

General Outside Conditions. — This term refers to the

PHYSICAL RESPONSIBILITIES 239

possibility that a worker may be living under such poor conditions that his value to the job is seriously impaired or he is in some way a menace to the rest of the team. For example, suppose that he has a case of smallpox in his home and, as is often the case, especially with some nationalities, will not observe quarantine regulations, and so is liable to bring the disease into the plant, although he has not got it himself. Has a foreman any responsibilities here, and if so, what are they? Again this question must be worked out according to the special conditions, but evidently he has some responsibilities because, as the team leader, it is up to him to protect his men.

It is, therefore, quite certain that on studying and dis- cussing the matter all foremen will decide that they have supervisory responsibilities in connection with outside con- ditions. Just what they would be must be left to each indi- vidual foreman to decide, but the point already brought up before comes up here again as to how far such matters are the private affairs of the man and how far they affect the well-being of the other members of the team and the general effectiveness of the plant, as well as of the department.

Phjrsical Handicap. — The retraining program of the Federal Government for disabled ex-soldiers, sailors and ma- rines has placed many ex-service men in plants for training to enable them to "get back" to a good earning power in spite of some handicap incurred in the service. Any foreman is likely to have such men in his operating force.

It is also true that the Federal Government and the dif- ferent states have recently united on what is called Industrial Rehabilitation work, or, for short, "I. R. work". The purpose of this legislation is to take care of people who may be dis- abled in some way so that they cannot continue to carry on their old jobs at all, or cannot carry them on as well as they could, by training them so that they can do good work on their old jobs in spite of their handicap, or to train them for some other job where the handicap will not interfere.

240 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

Since most of this retraining will be done in plants, and m many cases with employees who incurred the handicap or the disability in the plant, any foreman is likely to have such men and women in his department, and, where this is the case they wiU have certain supervisory responsibilities just as in the case of the ex-service men.* i

These responsibilities will probably be mostly along in- structing lines and so would not differ from instructing re- sponsibilities as given in later chapters, but, in addition, there may be set up certain supervisory responsibilities in connection with V. R. and I. R. members of the operating force that a foreman would want to include in his lay-out. These would be mainly as follows :

1. Seeing to it that the V. R. or I. R. individual was trained according to the understanding with the State Office and the Management.

2. Notifying the Management when the training was completed.

3. Seeing to it that the person under training got a fair show while in training.

SECTION V. WORKING CONDITIONS

Working Conditions. — Since the ability of people to do good work is affected by the conditions under which they work some responsibilities in this connection may come into the foreman's job. Some of the more probable are indicated in the chart as follows :

1. Responsibilities as to air, ventillation, etc.

2. Responsibilities as to illumination. (Lighting.)

3. Responsibilities as to occupational dangers.

4. Responsibilities as to general surroundings.

* Space will not allow any extended description of the work for training men and women who have incurred disabilities in thg service that is, the Vocational Rehabilitation Program of the Government (V. R. Work for short) or for the I. R. work. Foremen who are interested in this matter wiU find full information in bulletins published by the Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, and in other bulletins published by the different State Offices that have charge of the I. R. work in the different States that have undertaken to handle it.

PHYSICAL RESPONSIBILITIES 241

These possible specific responsibilities are taken up in the following paragraphs.

Air. — Since poor air affects the working ability of men working under cover, responsibilities for seeing that the con- ditions as to ventilation are made as good as possible may come into the foreman's job either by direct action, recom- mendation or suggestion. Of course, plants vary so much in this respect that attention can only be drawn to this pos- sible specific responsibility and to the fact that, in many cases, it may be a part of the foreman's job to assume and discharge certain responsibilities in this connection.

Illumination — Light. — The same statements can be made as to light as were just made to air. The special conditions would determine the particular responsibilities in the case of any given foreman.

Occupational Dangers. — There are certain occupations that carry with them definite dangers to the workers, such as making black powder or in working in quicksilver mines. These occupational dangers go with the job: they cannot be entirely avoided, but they can be reduced to a minimum by taking certain precautions. Where such occupational dan- gers exist in the work of a department it is one of the respon- sibilities of the foreman to see that all possible precautions are provided and used. The particular nature of these re- sponsibilities would, of course, depend on the special occu- pational dangers, and would have to be worked out by each foreman, but they would be there and should be included in the lay-out of the job.

In this connection care should be taken to distinguish between occupational dangers and possibility of accidents. An accident always means a slip: at least in theory it need not happen at all. An occupational danger goes with the job: it cannot be avoided, but it can be minimized.

Special Job Dangers. — The same statements will apply to the case of some jobs that carry "job" dangers where the occupation, as a whole, carries no special danger, but certain

16

242 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

jobs in that occupation do carry special danger. An example of such a case in the shipwright's trade would be knocking out the keel blocks in launching a ship.

General Surroundings. — ^Under some conditions the gen- eral surroundings may have an effect on the physical condi- tion of the working force, where there is no special occupa- tional danger and outside of the working conditions. This might be true, for example, where the building was not safe or where the sanitary conditions were so bad that there was danger of communication of disease or the starting of an epidemic, as during the "flu" a few years ago, masks were required in many plants. Supervisory responsibilities along these lines might be, in part :

1. Seeing that any special precautions were observed.

2. Improving conditions either by action, recommenda- tion or suggestion to superiors.

CHAPTER XVI

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS

ON THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE

WORKING FORCE

SECTION I. PEELIMINAEY

Preliminary. — Chapter XV discussed some possible supervisory responsibilities that might come into the fore- man's job from the standpoint of " the human factors," that is, those things that count in affecting the physical con- dition and mental attitude of the members of the working force. As pointed out there, these human factors lie outside of the questions of the M, T, I values and the general job qualifications and are concerned entirely with those elements that come out of the fact that workers are not merely "car- riers" of certain knowledge, skill, strength, etc., but are human beings with bodies that can be injured, impaired by illness, that are affected by the conditions under which they work, and who possess minds that think.

For example, a worker might possess all necessary knowl- edge, skill and so on required to put a job across in first class shape, yet, if he were sick, he could not use that skill and knowledge as effectively as if he were well ; if his mental atti- tude is such that he does not care whether he does the job well or badly, or dislikes the job, or is dissatisfied, or does not want to work at all, the quality or quantity of his work will be affected and so his physical condition or his mental attitude wiR become a very important cost element.

This chapter takes up some of the managerial problems and cost elements that come out of a foreman's responsi- bilities, in connection with the physical condition of the working force. The following chapter discusses the corre- sponding questions that come out of the corresponding responsibilities as to mental attitude.

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244 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

The Two General Human Factor Elements. — ^It has been pointed out that all production costs finally "head up" into material-time-power-labor cost, although the specific cost elements might vary widely, so, in the case of the human fac- tors, the different cost elements aU "head up" into two.

1. Physical condition.

2. Mental attitude, or, as it is often called, morale. Cost Elements. — The two cost elements, in general, are:

1. The degree to which any member of the working force is, or is not, in good physical condition, including sickness or injury.

2. The degree to which the mental attitude of all mem- bers of the force is, or is not, good.

The General Managerial Problem. — The general man- agerial problem for any foreman is to promote, by all means in his power, within the limits of his responsibilities, the de- velopment and maintenance of good morale and to protect the working force from injury and poor physical condition.

In the following chapters it is assumed that all foremen include these responsibilities in their jobs, which is a fact, and that they are always anxious to discharge these responsibil- ities as fuUy as they can, which is also a fact. The following paragraphs are therefore only intended to suggest points which may be profitably discussed in conferences and which, it is hoped, may be of suggestive value.

The Importance of the Physical Condition of the Work- ing Force. — Some of the most important managerial prob- lems that may confront a foreman on the human factor side of his managerial work are those connected with the physical condition of the members of the working force. He may have to deal with these problems both directly or by cooperating with other departments, such as the safety department or the medical service, but even where such departments are a part of the organization there are many cases where the degree to which a foreman senses his responsibilities in this connection and discharges them intelligently makes a great difference

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 24S

in the final production cost. It is only in recent years that the importance of this matter has come to be appreciated and to begin to receive serious attention and the cost elements connected with it to be studied out carefully. What may be called the "old biethod" of dealing managerially with matters of physical condition was to employ a man and then hold that his physical condition Was "nobody's business but his own." If he became ill or run down, he was either fired or "carried," according to the sympathy of the foreman or of the employer or the difficulty in fiUing his place. If he had to quit on account of sickness and was a "good man" or an old employee the matter was' simply treated as a piece of "hard luck all around" but something about which nothing could have been done. The man lost his job: the concern lost a good man, but nobody thought of handling the matter any other way.

Sometimes a sort of attempt was made to hold an extra good man by holding his job open for him while he got well or during acute sickness, but this was about as far as anybody got in those days.

The newer ideas that are now coming into practice are based upon a totally different way of looking at the matter of the effect of the physical condition of the members of the working force on the welfare of the employing concern and are based upon the notion that something can be done and should be done to reduce the cost elements that were dis- regarded under the older methods of handling such cases. It is now held, at least in many of the more progressive con- cerns, that it is up to anyone having any say in the matter to "get busy" and see what they can do to reduce these cost elements to a minimum. Since a foreman, by virtue of his position, can do some of these things better than anybody else, it is a part of his job to do them: that is, he has super- visory responsibilities as to the physical condition of the members of his own departmental force and therefore has corresponding managerial problems to reduce the cost ele- *ments due to this cause to a mvnimum.

246 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Cost Elements. — ^Among the more important cost ele- ments are :

1. Decreased quantity of production.

2. Decreased quality of production.

3. Increased danger of accidents to the worker himself.

4. Increased danger of injury to others.

5. Temporary labor loss due to accidents.

6. Permanent labor loss due to accidents.

7. Increased damage to tools and equipment.

All these things and a number of others mean increased or decreased cost, according to the way they are managed and the foreman's managerial problem, as already stated in general terms is to reduce them to a minimum.

The Foreman's Responsibility for Himself. — ^In the fol- lowing discussions it may be as well to state here that they refer as much to the foreman himself as to the members of the working force. If a sick worker cannot do a good job neither can a sick foreman do a good job. If a worker is injured, and so loses time, the same is true of a foreman who is forced to lay off on account of an injury. While the discussions are carried on in terms of the working force, they all apply equally well to the foreman and, in many cases apply even more strongly, because, as pointed out earlier, the foreman is a key man and any drop in his ability to do his job affects the whole plant.

The Detailed Discussion. — On account of their import- ance, each of the above cost elements is taken up separately in the following paragraphs.

Poor Physical Condition and Production. — ^As gen- eral propositions the following statements are worth consideration :

1. If a worker is sick he cannot do a first class job.

2. If a worker is physically "run down," even if he is not actually sick, he cannot attend to his job in first class shape.

3. Whether sick or "in bad shape" a man on a job will not only work to poor advantage but in addition is likely to

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make more "slips" that may result in damage to tools and equipment or injury to himself or to others,

4. If a worker becomes afflicted with a chronic or pro- gressive disease (as in the case of "T. B.," for example) where he will, if the case is not attended to, grow gradually worse, the falling off in his working ability and the danger of "slip" wLU go on steadily increasing until something happens: the man is discharged, goes home sick at increasing intervals, "hangs on" until he has to quit because he cannot work any longer or meets with an accident due to lack of care or other cause due to his condition.

5. If a worker is absent on account of illness we have absenteeism (temporary labor loss), or if he is lost to the plant through sickness or even death, we have permanent Islbor loss with the accompanying replacement cost in either case.

These facts being true, it is evident that illness, accident or disease affect production cost, so, from the managerial standpoint of management become very important matters for the foreman's careful consideration and study.

Poor Physical Condition and Quality. — ^AU that has just been said will apply to quality of production as well as to quantity, and so, in the following paragraphs the two are discussed together.

Illness and Injury. — ^As the term is used here, poor physi- cal condition means^anything that prevents a man from being in normal or first class shape and therefore refers both to illness or injury.

For the purposes of the following discussions a man that has lost an eye or a leg or a hand, or who is ruptured is just as much in poor physical condition as one that is suffering from tuberculosis or a bad cold, or Bright's disease or any other form of illness.

Since, however, the questions of dealing managerially with illness, whether temporary, that is, acute illness, or perma- nent, that is, chronic disease, are very different from the cor-

248 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

responding problems in the case of injury, the two are dis- cussed separately in this chapter.

SECTION n. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON

PHYSICAL INJURY TO MEMBERS OF THE WORKING

FORCE SAFETY

Preliminary. — ^This section presents some of the more important cost elements and managerial problems that may come up in connection with dangers of physical injury to members of the working force in the department, and deal, in general, with the corresponding responsibilities discussed in Chapter XV, that is, what is commonly referred to as "Safety."

As pointed out in that chapter, even if there is some special part of the organization that is particularly charged with the responsibility of promoting safety, that does not "let the foreman out" so far as doing his part is concerned, and, in many cases, he is the only person who can put over the job effectively : nobody else can do it. As a rule, foreman are keenly interested in this matter: they give much time and thought to it, and in the following paragraphs no attempt is made to go into the subject from the standpoint of safety engineering, but only to suggest some points that may be worth considering in discussion or conferences.

The Foreman and Injuries.— An "accident" means in- jury or death to another human being and in thinking about the problems of accident prevention, of course, the first thought on the part of anyone is from what may be called the "human" side, especially if they are in a position of responsibility with regard to the matter. Any foreman, and anybody else in the plant would rather see any amount of production loss or spend any amount of money rather than have people in their employ seriously injured or killed: there is, of course, no question as to that. For the purposes of discussion here it has seemed better to disregard the "human" side of the question, not because it is not the important side, but because one goes with the other, so that the improvement

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and control of safety conditions is not only good "humanity" but good business as well and can, perhaps, be better dis- cussed and thought out from the angle of cost control, al- though the double responsibility is always there, and any foreman would do as much to prevent accidents if there were no cost involved as he would if the cost were tremendous. Cost Elements on Safety, — ^WhUe, as pointed out, the final cost of poor safety conditions comes out in the form of temporary or permanent labor loss there are a number of more direct cost elements that may be considered, among which are:

1. Direct compensation cost.

2. Reputation cost.

3. Fear cost.

4. The attitude of the working force.

5. The attitude of the foreman himself.

All of which affect the cost due to poor working conditions and will be increased or decreased in proportion as their causes are reduced or removed or are allowed to exist, that is, according to the degree to which safety precautions are actually taken and are effective in the working conditions of the department.

Direct Compensation Cost. — ^By this is meant a direct charge against operating cost for damage due to injury in- curred while working in the plant. The general tendency of modem legislation has been to establish some form of com- pensation at the expense of the employing concern usually taking the form of what is often known as a "Workman's Compensation Act." At present some such form of legisla- tion has been enacted and is in force in some thirty states and is a coming thing, that seems likely to extend all over the country. Where such a law is in force it is evident that the cost of such compensation must come into the cost of miming the plant, and that this cost will be greater oV less according to the frequency and seriousness of any damage or injury that may occur. The fewer the accidents and the

250 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

less serious they are when they do happen, the less the cost ; the more accidents and the more serious they are, the greater the cost.

Reputation Cost. — ^Another way in which occupational dangers and accidents affect cost is in the effect of the repu- tation of the plant upon the employment of men, or upon the stability of the working force. If a plant has a reputation for being "safe," good men are much more likely to seek em- ployment and to remain in the plant than in the case of a concern with a reputation of being "unsafe," or where it is thought that there is no particular interest shown in accident prevention. This particular cost element is often not taken sufficiently into consideration by foremen, but it does affect to a very appreciable extent the interest and the satisfaction of the working force and, therefore, amounts to permanent labor loss.

Fear Cost. — Still another cost factor, not often suffi- ciently taken into consideration, is the effect of safe or unsafe working conditions on the mental attitude of the men. When a man working on a job is thinking aU the time about the chances of his being injured, he is not going to put the same amount of intelligence, time and energy on the job as he would if he were using the whole of his mind on it. This effect of safety on cost has often been given too little consideration. This point is of great importance in instructing as a cost cutting proposition.

The Attitude of the Working Force. — ^Probably this is one of the most serious cost elements in the majority of plants and one that is the most difficult to deal with.

For example, it is a well known fact that many workers will not protect themselves and sometimes seem to take a sort of pride in not taking precautions. This is particularly true of old and experienced workmen who not only will not pro- tect themselves but wiU tell new workers that "it's all fool- ishness anyway." In many cases the worker feels that taking precautions wiU interfere with doing the job as

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quickly as he wants to do it, as in the case of the use of guards on a number of wood working machines.

Whatever the cause, such a "state of mind" increases cost, because it makes for increased accidents and so must be reckoned with as a cost factor. It leads to "taking chances" and, in many cases, to apparent carelessness as discussed in the chapter on that subject, and so sets up a managerial problem as discussed later in this section.

The Attitude of the Foreman.— The attitude of the fore- man with regard to safety is as important as that of the working force, and it is not so much what he says as what he does that counts. Under the pressure of getting out the work a good many foremen who think right will neglect the same precautions that they are trying to get the men to take and so, often quite unconsciously, will make matters worse, because, as pointed out in another chapter, a foreman cannot get away from the fact that he is, to a greater or less extent, the leader, and men look to him "to set the example." For example, suppose that work is carried on under such conditions that a respirator should be worn by everybody in the room. The foreman comes in for just a few moments and, being in a hurry, thinks "I'm only going to be in that room for a minute and I won't be hurt in that time, too much bother to put that thing on," and so does not put "that thing on." So far as he is concerned, he may be right, but the men who are working in the room all the time tenll not think of that; they will only see that the "boss didn't bother with the thing," so they will attach still less importance to the matter than they did before.

Direct Production Loss Due to Accidents. — A cost ele- ment of less importance than the others that have been men- tioned, but nevertheless of importance, is due to the fact that where temporary labor loss is due to accident it may be that the worker who is injured cannot be replaced, especially if he is especially skilled on some particular job or process, and so that job has to be shut down while he is laid up. If this job

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happens to be one that ties up the whole production work in the department because it is what may be called a "key" job, the cost may be considerable. The same thing is true to a lesser extent when temporary absence makes it neces- sary to "double up" on work for the time being though, of course, this depends on the reserve help that may be available on that particular job and the degree to which doubling up slows down production.

There are a number of other ways in which unsafe condi- tions aflfect absenteeism and turnover, which will readily occur to any foreman, and which he should work out accord- ing to his particular working conditions, but those given above are some of the more important and include several to which, as a rule, too little attention is often given in con- sidering problems of safety control.

The Managerial Problem on Safety. — ^As the leader of the team, or the "boss," a foreman has responsibilities as to safety and so must have managerial problems corresponding to these responsibilities within the field of his responsibilities, so that the managerial problem as to safety can, in general, be stated as follows:

The foreman's managerial problem as to accident pre- vention is to reduce accidents to a minimum by all means in his power, by action, recommendation, suggestion and co- operation with other agencies where such other agencies exist, such as safety departments, hospital service, emergency medical service and so on.

Dealing with the Problem. — ^Among the ways and means for dealing with safety problems might be :

1. Knowing the danger points and "red flagging them."

2. Guarding danger points, seeing that guards are used and that they are in good condition.

3. Picking men for jobs with regard to the number and kind of danger poifits.

4. Choosing wisely between automatic and non-auto- matic safety devices.

5. Giving first aid in case of accident.

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6. In case of occupational dangers seeing that all pro- tective devices are used as they should be used.

As a preliminary to the following discussion it should be pointed out that the selection of ways and means in deal- ing with safety is largely determined by the cause of the injury, and that the first step is to decide whether a so-called accident that has happened or that may happen is really an accident at all. This means distinguishing between true acci- dents and injuries as considered in the following paragraph.

Injuries and Accidents. — Every time that anybody is in- jured it is commonly spoken of as "an accident," but this is not actually true, because an accident really means injury due to some cause that could not have been foreseen or due to failure to take known precautions. For example, when a man on a buzz saw loses a finger because he did not use the guard and the guard was of such a nature that its use would have prevented the injury, this should not be called an accident in the proper sense of the word. It is an injury, but not an accident. On the other hand, suppose that a tested chain breaks and as a result a sheet of steel falls from a crane and some one is injured, that is, all possible precautions within the scope of human power have been taken, we have what may be called a "true" accident. Again there are certain known precautions that make a given job safe so far as any human beiag can see, but the operator is ignorant of these precau- tions and is injured or killed, this is an injury but not an "accident" in the sense in which the word is used here.

The first step in dealing with the managerial problems of safety is to determine the causes of injuries and decide which of these causes will lead to true accidents and which to pre- ventable injuries and then to decide who will he to blame if an injury or an accident occurs.

When these points have been established the questions as to dealing with the problems of safety can be worked out much more effectively.

Causes of Injuries and Accidents. — ^Among the more com- mon causes of injury and accident are:

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1. Ignorance due to lack of proper instruction and train- ing in the special precautions that should be taken.

2. Failure to provide adequate safety devices.

3. Failure to provide automatic safety devices wherever such devices are possible and will work.

4t. Putting! the wrong man on the job.

In general, such causes of injury as given above may be said to be due to the plant and not the fault of the person injured. On the other hand, such causes of injury as the following :

1. Taking a chance.

2. Failure to use safety devices when provided. ,

3. Being in too much of a hurry, when not required. May, in general, be considered as due to a " slip " on the part of the person who is injured.

Straight Accidents. — ^After all sources of danger have been guarded against so far as human foresight can go and after all precautions have been observed, there will always be the "unexpected," the injury due to causes that no one has foreseen or possibly could foresee, that is, accidents pure and simple.

Injuries Due to Ignorance. — Evidently if it appears that an injury was due to failure to properly instruct, the respon- sibility is squarely up to somebody in the organization and not to the person injured, and this is a much more common cause of injuries than is often assumed, because, as taken up in the chapters on the instructing job, showing and telling is not instructing, and where a worker has been simply told or shown, it is often assumed that he bias been "instructed" when, as a matter of fact, he has not been instructed at all. The statement, "I told that fellow to keep his fingers out of the gears and he went and stuck them in " or some other corresponding statement is not uncommon in cases of in- juries, and is often assumed to "put the responsibility on the man and let the foreman or other responsible party out" when, as a matter of fact, it is "up to them" just the same.

As a matter of fact, where the cause of an accident is

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found to be due to the fact that the person injured had never been properly instructed as to safety precautions, the injury should not be classed as an "accident" at all :

Such cases are really due to the fact that somebody fell down on his job, but that "somebody" was not the individual who was injured, but the "somebody" whose business it was to see to it that the worker was actually instructed in the necessary precautions and that the instruction "took." For example, in diluting sulphuric acid the acid should be run into the water, not the water into the acid. A person unac- quainted with the facts would never suppose that it made any difference which way the job was done. A new man is put on this job and for some reason the necessity of strictly fol- lowing this procedure is not actually put over to him, so that he knows why lone way is safe and the other way is not. He does it the wrong way and an explosion results. Is he to blame or is the somebody who put him on that job without making sure that he understood how to do it right and would do it that way?

The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here is to cut out all injuries due to ignorance since they are due to a cause that need not exist at all, at least in theory.

Dealing with the Problem of Injuries Due to Ignor- ance.— Evidently the only remedy for injuries due to ignor- ance is to cut them out as thoroughly as possible by seeing that all safety instruction is so effective that accidents due to this cause do not occur. In order to make such instruction effective, the methods of good teaching as discussed in Part 9 on the instructing job must be used and since they are fully presented there, no further discussion of them is given here, but it is worth while to draw attention to the necessity of traiming in habits of safety as distinguished from merely telling or showing.

When a man is new on a job and has been properly in- structed as to safety precautions, he will, while he is "scared" of the job, observe those precautions, but as soon as he gets over his "scare" he is liable to get over looking out for safety

266 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

unless he has been given the safety habit. As a rule, after men have got used to working under conditions that involve danger, they will only take precautions in proportion as taking those precautions has become an unconscious habit.

For example, it is sometimes said that a man who is used to working with high tension currents can always be "spot- ted" because he always has one hand in his pocket. A man used to city traffic will unconsciously look both ways before he swings off a street or starts across the street, while a "rube" who is not trained in safety habits does not look both ways without thinking and so something very often happens.

It is not that both the "city feUer" and the "rube" may not both know what to do, they may both know, but that the city man looks out for himself without thinking because he has been trained and the other fellow has only been told.

It is much more difficult to get these unconscious habits after one is used to a job than when one is learning the job, so that the effective promotion of "safety first" depends largely on the degree to which men can be trained in safety habits when they first come on a new job. After the job has become routine, that is, in the case of experienced men, the formation of safety habits on that job is a much more dif- ficult matter and the matter of the promotion of safety must often be dealt with through other means, some of which are discussed later in this chapter.

Trusting Another Man, — One point worth mentioning in connection with injuries due to ignorance is that the common practice of putting a new man on a job with a man who has been doing that work for a long time, with the idea that the experienced man wiU post the new man, does not mean that protection against accidents has been really secured through instruction, because there is no guarantee that the "old hand" knows the dangers of the job himself with any degree of accuracy or completeness, or if he does know them, that he wiU be able "to put them over" to the new man, that is, that he can do a good teaching job. In many cases, his own attitude may be one of "contempt" for the dangers on the

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job and he may actually encourage or even instruct the "green" man not to take the proper precautions.

This method for cutting down accidents due to ignorance cannot be depended upon.

Injuries Due to Failure to Provide Adequate Safety Devices. — ^The second cause of injuries that cannot be prop- erly charged up to real accidents is failure tO provide ade- quate safety devices where such devices can be used. If, for example, a man were injured on a machine, say a lathe, by getting his fingers jammed in the gears, and the gears were ndt guarded, this is evidently due to a managerial slip some- where, not necessarily, of course, on the part of the foreman, but unquestionably on the part of somebody on the man- agement side.

The question of the special character of various safety devices and the degree to which they are efficient in actually preventing injuries is a matter of expert knowledge and so is not taken up here : that is a matter for any given foreman to deal with according to his responsibilities (his acting, recommending or suggesting responsibilities), or his special interest in the subject, but certain general principles may properly be made a basis for consideration or conference dis- cussion, and some of the more important of these are given in the following paragraphs. Among the more important of these are the relative values of automatic and non-automatic safety devices, and the conditions under which each form of device can be used to the best advantage, both on definite jobs and in the general working conditions in the plant. For example^ a department may have carefully guarded all ma- chines and yet have accidents due to poorly lighted stairways, or insufficiently guarded elevators or other things of that kind. The following discussion deals as much with gen- eral safety precautions and devices as it does with special devices that are intended to prevent or lessen the chances of damage to the worker on equipment units.

The Managerial Problem on Safety Devices. — ^The man- agerial problem here is to secure the use of the most effective

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258 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

safety devices wherever such devices will be of service and to choose between automatic and non-automatic devices with regard to their actual value for accident prevention.

Where safety precautions are required by law or by the insurance conditions, these requirements would, of course, be given first consideration but not the only consideration.

Dealing with the Problem — General Safety Devices. — By general safety devices is meant any special provision to promote safe general working conditions, such a fire exits, lighted stairways, protected elevators, etc.

Special Safety Devices. — This term refers to safety de- vices provided to prevent injuries on machines or other equip- ment units, such as guards, goggles, respirators and so on. In either case the devices may be automatic or non-automatic.

Special Safety Devices — Automatic and Non-Auto- matic.— One common method of reducing accidents is the use of safety devices, both automatic and non-automatic. An automatic safety device is supposed to prevent injury by making it much more difficult or impossible — ^its function is to relieve the man from "wa,tching out." Guards, raUirigs on stairways, automatic elevator gates, interlocking switches, automatic signals, etc., are types of automatic safety devices.

Non-automatic safety devices are those that require a man to set or adjust them if they are to be of value and to know how to do it. Common type of guards on buzz saws or jointer goggles, respirators, gas masks, etc., are examples of non-automatic devices requiring correct adjustment to be of service.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Two Types. — ^The great advantage of the automatic device when it is to be de- pended upon, is that it does away with the danger of injuries due to familiarity or absent-mindedness and reduces danger of injury due to ignorance. The surest way to cut down in- juries is to make working conditions such that they can- not occur.

The great difficulty with non-automatic devices is that

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they are of no value unless they are used and in many cases the majority of experienced workers will not use them.

Unless trained at the start a man employed where there is danger goes through three stages: first he is scared, and while in that state is overcautious ; as he learns his job, he gets over his first scare and becomes cautious ; when familiar with the work he becomes contemptuous of danger, so that usually the more experienced the man, the greater the danger of injury due to " carelessness."

Automatic Devices. — ^As just pointed out, automatic de- vices are designed to be "always on the job" and so to cut out the human factor by making impossible injuries due to negligence in taking precautions, or injuries due to igno: ance.

The idea is to remove the cause of danger, and, so far as such automatic devices actually do what they are supposed to do with 100 per cent, efficiency, they settle the question: in such cases there is no danger. As a matter of fact, how- ever, the device that is 100 per cent, effective does not always exist, but in many cases the device contributes a considerable part of the protection and the man must contribute the rest.

For example, an automatic stop on an elevator, assuming that it is in good condition, wiU hold the elevator if the cable breaks without any help from anybody, but a life preserver only works if it is put on properly. In many cases we have, therefore, a sort of partnership set up between the so-called automatic device and the man and, in such cases, the more the device does and the less required of the man, the more effective the protection.

The Managerial Problem on Automatic Devices. — ^The managerial problem for a foreman in this case is to recom- mend, suggest or secure and install, according to his particu- lar responsibilities, the most nearly 100 per cent, effective devices that can be obtained on aU danger points: this is, in general, the best that he can do.

Dealing with the Problem.— This is a question of "job knowledge" and so cannot be taken up here. A foreman should acquaint himself with the actual protection values

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of the different devices obtainable and use his judgment and experience in determining which of them will give the nearest to 100 per cent, protection under the special working conditions.

NON-AUTOMATIC DEVICES

Non-Automatic Devices. — The non-automatic device differs from the automatic device in that, unless it is adjusted or "set" it gives no protection at all or, in other words, it becomes an automatic device of a certain percentage of effec- tiveness only after it has been set. This fact changes the character of the managerial problem as considered in the following paragraph.

The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem in connection with non-automatic devices is, first, to secure and install the best devices obtainable and second, to get men to use them, and the second problem is much the more difficult of the two.

Dealing virith the Problem. — ^The determination of what sort of devices should be used is a matter of expert knowledge as to the special dangers under the particular working con- ditions. Such knowledge must be possessed by a foreman or by some other part of the organization, say a safety depart- ment, if one is a part of the organization, but when such devices have been installed, the job of the foreman is to get them used.

Using Non-Automatic Devices. — ^In getting experienced men to use non-automatic devices, the foreman must depend mainly on careful supervision and on fighting the effects of familiarity. Bringing cases of injuries, due to refusal to use safety devices, to the attention of the men may have some value, provided it "jars" them and while the effects of the "jar" last, this plan may be of some value.

Some concerns regularly post or print for distribution accounts of all accidents, pointing out just how the injury occurred, why it occurred, whose fault it was and how it might have been avoided. Provided these reach the right men,

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they probably have "jarring" value. Stuck up as permanent notices, they really have little value. Moving pictures show- ing an accident, the story of the results of the accident as carried into the family or even to the hospital and the cem- etery, have been used to advantage as methods of "jar- ring" men.

The point here is that whatever is effective in getting men to use "foresight*' instead of "hiadsight" must provide for continued "jarring." Permanent notices that "any man failing to use the guard on this machine will be discharged" or exhorting poster, such as one showing a man's hand with three fingers cut oif and reading, "This man thought he could run this machine without the guard. He did." are of value only so long as they do not become an old story,

" Red Flagging " Danger Points. — A common man- agerial device for reducing the chances for injuries is "red flagging" danger points. For example, all danger points on machine tools are sometimes painted yellow. Undoubtedly, such devices have a "jarring value" when first put on, and with new men, but they soon become a matter of course and then lose most of their effectiveness, thus ceasing to act as automatic safety devices.

It is not uncommon to see shops where some time in the past danger points were located and most elaborately marked, but where it is now evident that for a long time nobody has been interested enough to keep them up. This again illustrates the principle that permanent, unchanged notices, etc., gradually lose their punch.

The "Jarring" Value of Discharge. — One common method of attempting to insure the use of non-automatic safety de- vices is to discharge a man for not using them on the theory that the rest may be "jarred" into doing it. They may: for about half a day. In many cases, it is doubtful if the loss of an otherwise good man is worth the temporary "jar" value of this method. Of course, a case of persistent carelessness is an6ther story.

Probably in no field of the foreman's work has he a more

262 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

difficult problem than in getting men of experience to use non-automatic devices, but in proportion as he succeeds, he does a better job in accident prevention.

A second valuable means of reducing physical injury to members of the working force is through developing a greater interest in the prevention of injuries. After all pre- cautions have been taken in instructing as to danger points and guarding against injuries liable to occur in connection with them, the fact still remains that if a man is not inter- ested in taking care of himself, no one else can take care of him, hence the greater the degree to which a foreman can arouse and maintain the interest of his men in the reduction of accidents due to carelessness, the greater the cost reduc- tion and the better he can discharge his responsibility as the group leader.

Perhaps one of the best ways of promoting this is for the foreman to be careful himself, taking all the precautions that he expects his men to take ; if he is careless, he cannot blame his men for being so. Aside from "setting a good example," the question of how interest can be best promoted is based upon the skillful use of the interest factors.

In many concerns, safety committees have been of great value in arousing and maintaining interest in accident reduc- tion and departmental committees undoubtedly wovdd be of value in aiding a foreman in this matter. .. Preventing . Injury Through Selection , of Men. — ^A foreman can do much to reduce chances for injury by con- sidering special danger points in his selection of men for the jobs in which these special danger points lie. For ex- ample, a stiff, "logy" man does not belong on a job where things are likely to happen quickly. A "rattle-headed" young fellow is not a good one to put on a job where continual fore- sight is required.

By the method of comparing " man analysis " with " job requirements, " as discussed in another chapter, much can be done to select the best men with regard to

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 263

danger points, especially for those points that cannot be covered automatically.

First Aid. — Of course, the main reason for providing and giving first aid is because one man will and should do any- thing that he can to aid an injured fellow human being. Aside from the purely human side of the question, the rapidity and effectiveness of first aid has a cost-affecting value. A man has a bad cut. Foreman A lets him tie a dirty rag around it, with all the chances of infection, but Foreman B sees that it is disinfected and properly bandaged. Foreman B runs less chance than Foreman A of losing the services of that man for a period of time due to absenteeism because of illness. In cases of bad accidents, even life or death may hang on what is done "till the doctor gets there." A man cuts an artery in his leg : one foreman knows how to put on a tourniquet and saves the man; another foreman does not know how to do it and the man bleeds to death ( or is so weak- ened from loss of blood that he is a long time getting over it) before the doctor arrives.

As a purely cost proposition and, of course, in this case, more important considerations of common humanity, the degree to which a foreman knows how to render effective first aid affects 'cost because it affects labor loss and turnover.

The Use of Trade Literature. — The interest in accident prevention that has developed in recent years has brought out much information that a foreman will find of service in safety work. This information is continually appearing in the various trade publications and one important part of the managerial problem of a foreman who feels responsible for safety in his department is to keep posted on new devices and methods as they come up.

General Cooperation on Safety.— In addition to his man- agerial job on safety in his own department, any foreman has a general cooperative responsibility for promoting safety anywhere in the plant by noting danger points and acting, recommending or suggesting as the case may be. This is

264 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

merely an extension of the work that he does in his own de- partment and calls for no special consideration.

SECTION m. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PEOBLEMS ON ILLNESS AND DISEASE

Preliminary. — The questions taken up in the following section must be only discussed in a somewhat general and suggestive way, ovdng to the wide field of possible discussion and the degree to which the various cases as they come up under working conditions will offer special situations. In many cases only the use of great tact and sympathy wiU enable the situation to be dealt with effectively and probably in no part of his job wiU a foreman who has established the right relations with his men draw more "interest on his in- vestment" than in this field, and it may be worth pointing out here that, to be of real service, this tact must be real and the sympathy genuine.

Acute Illness. — ^Any man is liable to have an attack of acute LUness at any time, ranging from a cold in the head to pneumonia, and he is liable to come to work while suffering from such an acute iUness or, in some cases, the attack may come on while he is at work, as in the case of acute indigestion or coUapse.

Chronic Disease. — ^It is equally true that members of the working force may develop some form of chronic disease or may be employed while suffering from some complaint of that character, and where this happens it also calls for manage- ment on the part of the foreman, but the managerial prob- lems and the ways and means differ from those that come up in the case of acute illness.

Chronic vs. Acute Illness. — ^The essential difference be- tween these two types of illness is that, in acute cases, if a man recovers,, he is just as good as he was before while in the case of chronic disease the condition tends to become steadily worse and worse, it is progressive. It may be checked by proper treatment, so that a man suffering from such a complaint may possibly die of old age or from something else

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 266

before the chronic complaint finally "gets him," and the less care he takes of himself, the more rapidly he gets worse, but in few cases of chronic disease is there such a thing as an absolute recovery unless, as is true in some cases, the disease can be caught in its earlier stages. This is said to be true, for example, in T. B.

A Foreman not a Doctor. — ^In the following discussion it should be understood that a foreman cannot be expected to be a doctor, that is not his job; he cannot undertake to have expert medical knowledge, but if he knows something about such matters and has some knowledge of what can be done "before the doctor comes" and can give "first aid" in acute cases he can materially help.

The Foreman's Responsibility. — The question of ^the foreman's responsibility in this connection was discussed in a former chapter and so is not repeated here, but it may be pointed out that as the leader of the departmental team he must assume the responsibility of knowing more about such matters, of "taking charge" when necessary, and, in general, of knowing more about what to do and how to do it than can be expected of the members of the working force.

Since the cost elements for chronic disease and for acute illness are somewhat different although the general man- agerial problem is the same, the two sets of conditions are discussed separately, first for acute illness and second for chronic disease.

The Memagerial Job Largely Cooperative. — Except in the case of first aid, the managerial job of a foreman in con- nection with any form of sickness must be largely a coopera- tive one in which he cooperates with expert medical service of some kind. He can, for example, advise or urge a sick man to see a doctor, but he cannot himself prescribe medical treatment. If there is medical service available in the plant he can cooperate with that service in "spotting" what looks like cases of illness and "tipping off" the medical service. He can plan so that, in case of need, medical service can be secured quickly, but, as stated above, he is not himself a

266 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

doctor, although he should be able to render such emergency services as anybody can render if he knows how, and which, if they are rendered promptly, may save serious effects or, in some cases, even save life.

Cost Elements on Acute Illness. — These are practically the same as those already given and so are not repeated here.

The Managerial Problem. — ^The problem here is to re- duce the cost of acute illness in all possible ways.

Dealing with the Problem. — Of course, a number of cases of acute illness are self evident. If a man has "sunstroke," or acute indigestion or any other "attack" that "puts him out" there is no question as to what to do, and about all that can be done is to send for the doctor or get the man home and give what temporary relief can be given before the doctor comes. Probably the most effective means that a foreman can take to deal with such cases from the managerial point of view is to post himself as to what to do and what not to do in the way of temporary treatment by finding out what to do and how to do it. If there is a medical service this in- formation can always be obtained from that source, and if there is no medical service any doctor will usually be glad to give the information.

Whether a foreman does or does not secure this informa- tion is mainly a question of his sense of responsibility and the degree to which he is willing to give some time and effort to the matter.

The case of a man who is suffering from an acute sick- ness that is not severe enough to put him out of busiaess is a different matter, and perhaps, in some ways, one that calls for more managerial skill.

For example, a man is coming down with the grippe: he is unwilling to knock off or possibly is on a job where, if he does knock off, the work of the department wiU be badly set back. Now any doctor wiU say that the quicker a man in this condition knocks off, goes home and takes care of him- self, the quicker he is likely to be back on the job, and the easier time he will have of it while he is laid up. In man-

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 267

aging such cases a foreman has two managerial jobs, first, to be able to tell as well as a man who is not a doctor can teU when a member of his force is sick, and second, when a man is really sick to get him to take care of himself.

In some cases it may be possible to get a representative of the medical department or a local physician to put up a good plain sensible talk to the man at the noon hour, or at some other time.

This is one of the cases where if the foreman feels that he has responsibilities along this line he must often, as the leader of the team, help his workers to help themselves: he knows more than they do, and this is particularly true where the workers are comparatively ignorant or uneducated.

It is hardly necessary to point out that the success of the foreman who wants to assume responsibility for man- aging this special form of the physical condition of the work- ing force will depend almost entirely on the degree to which he has the confidence of the men and the extent to which they are working in cooperating with him. The establishing of such relations is, in itself, a managerial job as discussed elsewhere, but it is important in this connection. Without it, even with the best intentions, a foreman can do but little.

Chronic Illness. — ^As already pointed out, the character- istic of a chronic disease is that it is progressive; if left alone it grows steadily worse often by slow degrees, until the suf- ferer is finally unable to keep on working any longer. It was also pointed out that, at least in many cases, such chronic diseases, if caught in time, could be checked or even cured.

If a foreman feels responsibilities in this matter he has at least two managerial jobs, first, to learn what he can as to the symptoms of the more chronic diseases, so that he can spot them in their earlier stages and either tip off the medi- cal service or advise the man to see a doctor, and see him right away. Information can be obtained as in the case of acute illness as just suggested.

In case of chronic illness this is about all that a foreman can do in the matter except to help the doctor by possibly

268 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

"favoring" the man while he is under treatment or transfer- ring him to a job that is better for him.

It is evident that, as a pure matter of business, a man who is growing steadily worse and worse with a chronic dis- ease, say T. B. or Bright's disease, must become a poorer and poorer worker as time goes on, especially if the disease is allowed to go on unchecked, and that it is good business to make every effort to head it off in the beginning if that can be done, and this is quite aside from the fact that any man will do anything that he can to help another man that is in trouble.

The General Question of Disease and Illness. — ^There is one other point in which a foreman, if he cares to do so, can help managerially in the matter of illness and disease, espe- cially when the workers are more or less ignorant. If he has a hold on them so that they have confidence in him, he can sometimes advise them so that they will get real medical treatment instead of quack treatment or treatment based on tradition or superstition. When there is no medical de- partment in the plant there is often a free dispensary in the community and a foreman can inform himself as to where it is, what it can do, when it is open and so on.

If his influence over the men is good he can sometimes counteract the fear that many ignorant people have of a doctor or a hospital, which often prevents their taking ad- vantage of free service or refusing to see a doctor at all.

Susceptibility to Personal Injury. — ^It will sometimes happen that a man has some special difficulty, such as a rup- ture, which would make it dangerous for him to attempt cer- tain jobs, although he may be all right on the job that he is on. Of course, in a well organized plant such matters are a matter of record in the Employment or the Personnel Department, but in many plants such departments may not exist.

Whenever a foreman can secure information of this kind from any source, from the Employment or the Personnel Department, from the man himself, or in some other legiti-

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 269

mate way, it is a good plan to do so and bear the fact in mind if a case comes up where the man is to be changed to another job, especially under emergency conditions.

It may be argued in this connection that a man ought to know enough to take care of himself under such conditions, but as a matter of fact many men do not, they are careless or sometimes, in the case of ignorant men, they are scared to say anything about it for fear that they will lose their jobs, so that this is merely , another case where a foreman must think for his men.

Of course, it is evident that when a man is on a job that he can hold down all right, if, through shifting him on another job he is injured in the way under discussion here, costs have been increased and somebody has done a poor managerial job.

SECTION IV. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON

THE GENERAL PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE

WORKING FORCE

Preliminary. — The corresponding section in the last chapter drew attention to some possible supervisory respon- sibilities in connection with the general physical condition of the working force.

These responsibilities whenever they are included in the job of any foreman set up managerial problems, some of which are suggested in this section.

The general principle to be borne in mind in considering cost elements and managerial problems under this heading is that if anyone undertakes to do a job when he is not in first class condition, the cost of doing that job is almost certain to go up for a number of reasons, among which are decreased production, increased chance of errors which lower the qual- ity of the job, damage to equipment and sometimes injury to the worker or to others. In order to deal effectively with the various managerial problems in connection with the general physical condition of the members of the working force it is necessary to know at least some of the more common causes, or cost elements that must be given consideration. Some of

270 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

these are given in the following paragraph as suggestions. Some Points Affecting General Physical Conditions. — Among the points that may need to be given consider- ation are :

1. Overfatigue.

2. Excessive mental strain.

3. Special susceptibility to injury.

4. Personal habits.

5. General outside conditions.

6. Retraining cases, both V. R. and I. R.

It should be noted that the above points are not given as cost elements, but as possible causes for the physical con- dition of a member of the working force being "off" in some way, or, as a doctor would say, "abnormal." As a result of any of these points bringing about an abnormal condition the various possible cost elements come into play as they are suggested in this section.

Corresponding to the supervisory responsibilities for noting such abnormal physical conditions are, of course, the corresponding managerial responsibilities for doing some- thing about them, and, if something must be done, doing the things that will give the best results both from the stand- point of the plant and of the men themselves.

The Foreman's Responsibility for His Men.— .The state- ment made above again brings up the matter already referred to in a previous chapter as to the responsibility of a fore- man as the leader of the working group, and the degree to which, as a leader, he is called upon to represent them, to some extent think for them, advise them and in general "look out for them" in ways outside of straight supervision and management from the standpoint of getting out the product. The action of a foreman in many of the cases that come up in connection with the human factor as considered in the follow- ing chapters will be largely determined by the extent to which he senses and accepts this sort of "protective" responsibility.

Overfatigue. — ^Among the causes of increased cost that are now recognized as requiring consideration is plain over-

COST ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL CONDITION 271

fatigue: workers who are too tired are expensive. It makes no difference whether "the man drives the job or the job drives the man" the results are the same in the long run. Of course, under emergency conditions, men always have and al- ways win work far beyond the limits of ordinary fatigue and put over the job, but, in the long run of regular work, this sort of thing is not economy.

For example, during the war, under the pressure that existed for getting out tonnage and where different ship- lyards were competing with each other, certain ships were [turned out in a wonderfully short space of time and this was .undoubtedly of value, under the special conditions, as a stimu- lus, and so was worth while, but it was generally understood that, on a year's tonnage production, a spurt of this kind actually set the yard back. Again certain men who made the records on certain jobs "burned themselves out" and there- after, for at least a long time, were unable to turn out the standard amount of work, and, in some cases, were reported to have been obliged to quit altogether.

Cost Elements on Overfatigue. — ^Among the cost ele- ments on overfatigue may be the following:

(1) Increased "carelessness on the job."

(2) Decreased production.

(3) Increased chance of accidents.

(4) Increased temporary labor loss.

(5) Increased permanent labor loss.

The 'Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here is to prevent overfatigue or, in cases of emergency, reduce its cost increasing effects to a minimum.

Dealing with the Problem — Recognizing the Condi- tion.— The first step in dealing with this managerial problem is to be able to recognize overfatigue, and this cannot be done by merely asking a man if he is too tired, because, very often, the worker does not know when he has reached a con- dition of (Jangerous overfatigue himself and will go on when he is really a danger to the plant.

One indication of such dangerous overfatigue is increased

«72 THE FOBEMAN AND HIS JOB

temporary carelessness, another is a falling off in accuracy, where accuracy is inquired, a third may be increasing ab- senteeism, a fourth an increasing "slipping" on the part of an ordinarily reliable worker, a fifth, an apparently unaccount- able degree of stupidity in carrying out directions or orders, or an unexpected irritability. Of course, in taking such things into consideration, various conditions, such as the weather, personal make-up, etc., must be taken into consid- eration, but, in general, tired men tend to be cross, apparently stupid, careless and poor on the job, and the appearance of such symptoms in general will indicate an approach to a dangerous condition of overfatigue in the case of workers who are, under ordinary conditions, all right in this respect, and should lead a foreman to give careful attention to the matter if he wants to avoid increased cost due to this cause.

In this connection it may be well to give some considera- tion to some of the more common causes of overfatigue under ordinary working conditions.

Among the elements that may call for consideration are:

1. Too long a working period.

2. Absence of rest intervals during the working period,

3. Bad working conditions.

4. The degree to which the effect of monotony of work is not taken into consideration.

Length of the Working Period. — ^Under ordinary condi- tions the regular length of the working day is fixed and a fore- man has nothing to do with it, so far as any questions of management go, but in some special cases, such as overtime work, he may have a chance to exercise some managerial con- trol as to individuals, at least. For example, if he is watching out he may note that a certain worker is in a dangerou^ con- dition of overfatigue owing to the length of the working period, and in such a case good managerial procedure may be to lay that worker off. If, however, it should happen that the length of the working day were under discussion and a foreman was asked to make recommendations or suggestions, the following might be of interest.

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 273

With regard to the relation of the length of the working day to production, a numher of studies have been made that are javailable to anybody that is interested. The general re- sult of these studies may be summed up in the statement that, in generial, for any given job under given working conditions there is a certain length of working day that will enable an average worker to turn out the maximum daily production, though in many cases that length of working day is, as yet not known.

The only point of interest here is that, under any given set of conditions there is a limit on the length of the working day beyond which it does not pay to go. Of course, under emergency conditions, this period can be exceeded and the job dpne, but at an excess cost that may be justified by the emer- gency, but is, nevertheless, the price paid for the emer- gency job.

Since this matter of excessive length of the working day only affects a foreman under emergency conditions, and so gives him little managerial responsibility, it is not con- sidered in any further detail here. The matter of continuous work during the working day is quite another matter, is one in which a foreman can use a considerable amount of man- agerial ability and so is taken up in more detail in the fol- Ipiisfing paragraph.

Mental Strain.^Some jobs require continuous concen- trated attention, while others only require attention at inter- vals, and we know that where continuous attention is required after a certain period the worker "breaks down" and after that may make any sort of a mistake. For example, compare the job pf a locomotive engineer and that of doing a job on a machine t;opl. The engineer is constantly "on his nerve" from the beginning to the end of each run between stops: his attention cannot drop for a moment without danger. The machinist, while he must watch the machine, has intervals during which his attention can drop without danger to the job. The machinist, therefore, can safely carry a longer working day than the engineer because he gets rest intervals

18

274 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

from concentrated attention. Different jobs vary in the chance that they give for rest intervals ; in most cases the matter will take care of itself, but in some Cases, unless some managerial action is taken, there is danger of running up costs on account of too long working periods. This has been found to be true, for example, in the case of operators on telephone switchboards, especially under rush conditions. The operator must be laid off for a short time at frequent intervals or she "goes to pieces" under the strain of con- tinuous attention.

Physical Strain. — ^The last paragraph considered rest in- tervals where the strain was mental. It is also true that experience has shown that on jobs requiring hard physical work, properly spaced rest intervals actually enable more work to be accomplished. This is true, for example, in mak- ing forced marches, as military men know.

Applying the Principle. — So far as dealing with fatigue is concerned, with regard to length \of the working period, a foreman cannot undertake to be an expert in these matters. However, he can bear these principles in mind and to a cer- tain extent, apply them in the work of his department, espe- cially in cases of emergency or drive. In order to do this, he needs to bear in mind the general fact that continuous work does not mean always getting the job done at minimum cost, and he should have a general notion of how this prin- ciple works out in the jobs in his department. Among the points that he should take into consideration are the facts that mental and physical overfatigue do not go together and that mental fatigue is more dangerous.

A man may be tired mentally and yet not be physically "used up," through giving concentrated attention and this condition is more difficult to detect than plain physical fa- tigue because often the man himself does not know it until something "breaks" and the damage is done.

As a rule, hand or machine jobs give more chance for rest intervals than "head" jobs. For example, a man en- gaged in making a long calculation is more likely to make a

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 275

mistake than one working on the ordinary run of pro- duction job.

The Foreman and Overfatigue. — Since much of a fore- man's work is "head work," he is particularly liable to "run too long," with corresponding danger of a "break," and if he is a good manager, he will look out for himself as well as for his people for if he "makes a break," the cost results may be serious.

Special Susceptibility to Injury. — ^As pointed out in the last chapter, this refers to cases where if a man is put on certain jobs he is all right, but on account of some special weakness if he is put on others he will be injured. This might be true, for example, of a man just out of the hospital after an operation for appendicities, or in the case of a man suf- fering from a rupture, or in certain cases where women and girls are concerned.

Cost Elements. — The cost elements here are essentially the same as in other similar cases, temporary or permanent labor loss, poor work, a falling off in production, etc., as the special case may be.

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here is, so far as possible, to avoid putting anybody on a job where they are liable to suffer on account of some special weakness.

Dealing with the Problem. — The degree to which a fore- man can deal with this problem depends almost entirely on his sympathy and tact. If he has succeeded in establishing the right relations with the members of his operating force he can if he wants to do it, almost always find out about such special cases and take them into consideration in distributing the working force. One point here is worth bringing up. Once more it is a case where it is up to the foreman to protect his men, not to assume that "a man ought to have sense enough to look out for himself." In many cases they won't. Sometimes a worker will be afraid to protest for fear that he will lose his job, sometimes it is a matter of pride with a man not to seem to duck any job to which he may be as- signed, sometimes the worker does not know that the job is

276 THE iX)REMAN AND HIS JOB

"too much for him." Whatever the cause of the reluctance of many workers to tell about any special weakness if the foreman is a good manager he wiU, so far as he can, "spot" such cases and look out for them as a cost cutting proposition.

In many plants with weE organized employment depart- ments information of such cases can be secured there and can be transmitted to the foreman, which makes the man- agerial job very much easier, but in the ordinary run of plants a foreman must get this information as weU as he can, and will be able to get it in proportion as he has the confi- dence of his operating force and they believe that he wants to help them in any way that he properly can.

Excessive Mental Strain. — ^It is a well known fact that some jobs are liable to call for such concentrated attention for so long a time that the operator begins to "slip" or otherwise drop off in ability to carry the job in first class shape. This sort of a job often calls for little physical exertion, as in the case of a locomotive engineer or a tele- phone switchboard operator in a large exchange. While this mental fatigue is quite a distinct thing from physical fatigue, it results in doing things wrong, not in thinking wrong. An engineer who has been on the run too long runs by a signal not because he meant to run by it but because he "sayr wrong"; the telephone girl who, under the same conditions, plugs in the wrong number, or goes into hysterics, as has sometimes happened, before these facts were well understood, doesn't think wrong, she does wrong.

Wherever jobs require concentrated attention without any let up there is always danger of this continuous mental strain bringing about a dangerous condition, not on account of physical fatigue but on account of excessive mental strain.

Cost Elements. — ^The cost elements are, in general, the same as those already given and so are not repeated here.

The Managerial Problem.— The managerial problem here is to cut out increased cost due to excessive mental strain.

Dealing with the Problem. — In dealing with this prob-

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 277

lem it is first necessary to "spot" such jobs. In many in- dustrial departments there are no jobs of this character so that this problem would not come up at all. It should be remembered that the sort of a job under consideration here is not one that requires close attention but one that calls for continuous close attention without any let up.

The managerial devices here would be, in general, those already referred to, rest intervals, shifting to other jobs, etc., so they are not repeated here.

One other point worth mentioning is that people of differ- ent "make ups" will vary considerably in their ability to stand up under the strain of continuous close attention and this fact can be taken advantage of in distributing the working force.

The main managerial point, however is to be able to recognize jobs of this character when they are included in the work jobs in a department and then take the necessary steps to prevent excess cost from keeping workers too long on such jobs without let up.

Personal Habits and Physical Condition. — ^A man's per- sonal habits both on the job and outside the plant may seri- ously affect his physical condition and so affect costs, setting up a managerial problem for the foreman. For example, on a construction job in the summer a man may have the habit of working in the sun without any hat with the result that he gets through the day but is off the next day, or gets sun- stroke during the day. If a man's personal habits are such that he does not get sleep enough, or in some other way keeps himself in bad physical condition, say by going on a "spree" after each pay day ( as is often the case with colored workers in the South) it affects labor loss and so affects cost.

Dealing with the Problem.— What a foreman can do in such cases outside of firing a man if the case gets too bad, and standing the replacement cost, is a question that is open to considerable debate. Where an attempt is made to deal with the matter managerially, so much depends on the per- sonal relations between a foreman and the man in question.

278 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

so much depends on the special conditions, and so much de- pends on the make-up of the foreman himself, that this par- ticular matter is only suggested here.

Cost Elements, — ^No new cost elements are introduced here and so none are suggested.

General Outside Conditions. — In the corresponding sec- tion in the last chapter it was pointed out that the condi- tions under which workers live may affect the cost of operation, in various ways, and that as a result some super- visory responsibilities might come into a foreman's job.

Cost Elements. — The cost elements are, in general, the same as those already suggested and so are not repeated here.

The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here would be to reduce costs due to general outside conditions in any way that was possible.

Dealing with the Problem. — The conditions wonld vary so much under the various situations that might come up that but little can be suggested.

In some cases education will serve as a managerial de- vice when the trouble is due to ignorance, as is sometimes the case with contagious diseases in the home. In other cases it will do no good. It is doubtful if in many cases a foreman can do much of anything in the matter except to cooperate in any way that he can with other agencies such as a medical or a welfare department by the methods suggested in the chapter on cooperation. At all events there may be a managerial problem here that under some conditions would be worth con- sidering. One point is certain, if the situation can be handled without discharging good men it is good management to handle it that way.

Retraining Cases. — This special case was explained in the last chapter. In these cases no cost elements are involved in the sense in which that term has been used in this book. The cost elements are of a different kind and some of them might be stated as follows :

1. The degree to which the individual was actually retrained.

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 279

2. The degree to which the retraining was carried out in the least time.

3. The degree to which morale was kept up during the retraining period.

Each of these points sets up a sort of a managerial prob- lem and so are explained somewhat further below.

The Individual is Actually Retrained. — The purpose of retraining both for V. E. and for I. R. people is either to make them able to hold down their old job as well as they could before they incurred their disability or to train them so that they can hold down some other job in first class shape. If a man is told that he is going to be "put back on his feet" it is up to everybody connected with that work to see that he is put back. If he is to be trained for a certain job he must be so well trained that there will be no question of his being able to do as good a job as anybody else. This puts a man- agerial job up to any foreman who has to deal with retraining cases, not only in looking out for the efficiency of that train- ing from the instructing side, as taken up elsewhere, but to be sure that the man or woman is thoroughly competent be- fore reporting them as "O. K."

Retraining in the Least Time. — ^V. R. cases are taken care of by the Government as long as the training lasts, but most I. R. cases get no support while in retraining. la either case it is desirable that the training should be no longer than is necessary to do a good job. This is again largely a case for instructional management, but it is up to any foreman having such cases under his charge to do all that he can to see that a man has a chance to advance as fast as is possible, and not regard him as somebody to be merely put on one job and then kept there as long as he will stay without mak- ing too much of a kick.

Morale. — ^According to those who have had experience in the retraining of disabled men and women the great danger is that people tend to make special cases out of them: in a sense, they show too much sympathy. According to these experts the best way to deal with a retraining (5ase is to treat

280 THE FOREMAN AND.HIS JOB

it just like any other case and if any special allowances have to be made, do them as a matter of course and say nothing about it. This practically amounts to saying that the less a man has his attention drawn to his troubles and the less he is made to feel that he is a special case who is not to be treated as if he were a normal person, the better he wiU keep up his spirits and the less he will worry as to whether he can ever get back.

The managerial problem here isj therefore, to be sym- pathetic but not to show sympathy in a way that will tend to discourage the man.

SECTION V. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON THE GENERAL WORKING CONDITIONS

Preliminary. — One other element that may aiFect the physical condition of the working force is the working condi- tions, which set up cost elements and managerial problems that are different from those already considered in the previous sections.

This section deals only with working conditions so far as they affect the physical condition of the working force: the effect of good or poor working conditions as they affect the mental attitude of the members of the operating force being taken up in the following chapter.

As in the last chapter these points are taken up under two headings :

1. General working conditions.

2. Occupational dangers.

General Working Conditions. — ^The sense in which this term is used here was given in the last chapter and so is not repeated here.

Cost Elements. — ^Among the cost elements may be:

1. A necessary falling off in production ability due to the special working conditions, as in the fire room of an ocean liner where the temperature is unavoidably high.

2. Dissatisfaction and loss of interest as taken up in the chapters on those matters.

3. Where the working conditions are particularly trying

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 281

an excessive turnover and a high replacement cost on account of the difficulty of securing men who wiU stay on the job.

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here is to reduce excess costs due to poor working conditions.

dealing v^ith the Problem. — Probably no more difficult managerial problem can be up to a foreman than that of dealiijg effectively with excess costs due to poor working conditions. In many cases the matter is one that it is out of his power to deal with effectively, as where the working condi- tions go with the job. If he cannot act he can, in many cases, reconunend changes that will improve matters. Since many points in connection with this managerial problem are taken up in the chapters on satisfaction and interest, they are not given here.

With regard to such matters as illumination or ventila- tion he can often do a good deal to help matters. In the first place he can be on the lookout for cases where poor light or bad air are affecting the work and can often improve such matters within the scope of his authority, either by action or recommendation backed by sxfch facts that something is authorized. Where he recognizes that the conditions are bad he can allow for them and not drive so hard.

It should be remembered that bad working conditions are often the cause of fatigue to a much greater extent than would be the case where the working conditions good, and this fact is recognized in some cases by shortening the length of the shift. Sometimes this pays as a cost reducing man- agerial device.

Of course, the conditions will vary so much that only the most general suggestions can be made, but if a foreman gives some time and study to such cases of poor working conditions as may occur in his department he will almost always find that there are possible ways of reducing the excess cost, although such excess costs can never be entirely cut out. Ex- perience has shown that wherever bad working conditions can possibly be improved or entirely cut out it is good business to do it, although, as already stated, the doing of it may lie

282 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

outside of a foreman's job and become a matter of plant policy which lies outside of any matters that are taken up in t}as book.

Occupational vs. Working Dangers. — ^When the danger does not absolutely "go with the job," but is due to the fact that people will "slip up" in taking all the necessary pre- cautions, we have what may be called working dangers. The general idea of a working danger is that any injury due to this sort of danger is, at least in theory, preventable, and in practice is preventable except where it can be shown that aU known precautions were taken.

This distinction between occupational and working dan- gers is important because many workers and foremen regard many forms of working dangers as occupational dangers and so take more or less of a "what's the use" attitude in dealing with them, when as a matter of fact, they are working dan- gers and so can be cut down to a minimum or entirely cut out by studying out their causes and giving careful consid- eration as to ways and means for removing them and so removing the corresponding working dangers.

Cost Elements on Occupational Dangers. — ^Among the possible cost elements may be :

1. Temporary labor loss due to occupational dangers, accidents, etc.

Such loss may be due to Olness or to poor physical con- dition due to the special occupational danger of a given occu- pation, as in the case of lead or mercury poisoning, or as in the effects of the "dope" in covering aeroplane wings, or to accident.

2. Permanent labor loss due to permanent disability caused by occupational danger or by accident.

3. Permanent labor loss due to workers leaving to seek employment in other occupations due to fear of an occupational danger, of injury due to lack of safety pro- tection, or to general or definite dissatisfaction with the working conditions.

The Managerial Problem. — The general problem here is

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 283

to reduce temporary and permanent labor loss due to occu- pational dangers to a minimum and, if possible, remove any given occupational danger, so far as it may affect the mem- bers of the working force.

Dealing with the Problem. — ^The degree to which a fore- man can deal effectively with this problem depends largely upon:

1. His own attitude toward the whole question of occu- pational dangers and protection against them.

2. The extent to which he takes pains to inform himself fully and correctly as to the facts about any given occupa- tional danger and the best methods for securing protection against it.

3. The degree to which he sees that all possible precau- tions are taken to protect the working force (and himself) from any special occupational dangers to which they may be exposed, and see that they are trained to always take all possible precautions and to use intelligently any special pro- tecting devices that may be required and should be used.

The Foreman's Own Attitude. — ^A foreman's own atti- tude towards the question of dealing with protection from oc- cupational dangers is an important factor in the success or failure of any methods for minimizing its dangers. If he takes the attitude that "it is all foolishness anyway," his men will tend to take a similar attitude. If he is careless about observing precautions himself, his men will be equally careless. If he does not make use of special protecting de- vices when they ought to be used, he will find it hard to make his men use them. In other words, if the foreman as the "gang leader" sets the right example, he will find it much easier to get the working force to follow than if he tries to get them to do what he does not do himself. In the matter of precautions, he should "beat the gang to it" if he wants to deal effectively with his managerial problems on occu- pational dangers.

Securing Exact Knowledge. — A foreman should have

284 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

exact knowledge of the character of any occupational dan- gers in his department.

There are many trade and shop traditions as to the dan- gers of working with certain materials that are not always based upon fact. If a foreman goes by these, he is likely to miss both ways-r-taking precautions against occupational dangers that do not actually exist and not looking out for some that do exist. Where there exists a real occupational danger, the fact can always be confirmed and exact informa- tion secured by reference to competent medical authority. This can be done easily if the plant has a safety or medical service, but should be done anyhow.

The assumption that a certain danger is occupational when it is not gives an indifferent foreman an easy chance to get out of giving care and attention to the prevention of pre- ventable accidents. While the number of actual occupational dangers is smaller than is sometimes thought, they do exist and where that is the case they should be classed as such.

Taking All Possible Precautions. — ^Under all conditions, the special managerial problem here is to get men to protect themselves, because if they do not want to do this, no-amount of supervlsitin can make them do it all the time. Because the occupational danger does not show itself immediately or visibly, the tendency is to ignore it, especially if any special precautions interfere in any way with comfort or getting the job done.

The chief difficulty in this case, as in the case of experi- enced machine workers, often is that the more accustomed men are to working in occupational dangers, the less they are inclined to take care of themselves. This is another case of the job becoming routine.

Another reason why workers wiU not protect themselves from special occupational dangers is that they do not underr stand the relation of the special protection to the special danger. For example, during the war it required careful training in the use and value of masks before many men would

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 286

wear them unless they were compelled to, imtil the gas came; then it was too late.

Where a foreman undertakes to deal with this attitude, which resembles in a sense, "carelessness on the job" but with results affecting the worker instead of the equipment or the stock, he is faced with a most difficult piece of work. It seems to be agreed at the present time much more than in the past, that the most effective agency to combat this situation is education and training in the use of safety devices and in taking precautions combined with supervision.

As an example, during the war, an occupational danger for anyone crossing to France was the sinking of the ship by torpedoing. Supervision, which in this case meant in part seeing that boats were in good condition and that life pre- servers were in good shape and sufficient in numbers, under ordinary conditions had been considered sufficient precau- tions against the usual chances of shipwreck in peace times. With the greatly increased danger during the war, it was quite generally held thalt supervision was not enough, but that passengers must be informed as to the danger and carefully instructed how to use life preservers, how to get to their assigned places in designated boats and, in many cases, to drill them so that they would do the right thing almost with- out thinking. That is, when the danger of wreck became what was regarded as a serious "occupational" risk, supervi- sion was found to be not enough but had to be supplemented by education and training.

In general, supervision alone will not result in getting workers to take care of themselves, because, for one reason, if they do not understand, they will not cooperate. While there will always be individuals who will take a chance or who will be careless (and careful supervision is needed to catch such cases) in most cases, the main reliance must be in getting workers to really see why precautions are neces- sary for their own protection, and to see that they really do understand.

Since this brings in a number of points considered under

286 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Safety and under Instruction, the discussion is not carried any further here.

"Giving Away Occupational Dangers." — ^The statements just made implied that when there are occupational dangers they should be brought to the attention of the working force. There are, however, two theories with regard to the desir- ability of doing this : the first, that men should be kept in ig- norance, that is, that if there are occupational dangers they should not be "given away," the second that when there are occupational dangers the working force should be given the straight facts. The argument for the first theory is, in essence, that if they don't know that there is any danger they won't "get scared and quit," and that drawing their atten- tion to the danger will scare them and make them quit. The second theory, telling the truth, is, in the long run, the better one to go by. In the first place, if there is danger men wiU find it out anyway, but may not get things straight, and so be worse scared than if they had the "straight dope." Im the second place, if they are to be trained to take care of themselves, they must know what the danger is, how it is liable to come and the necessity and value of special precautions or protecting devices. In the third place telling the truth is the best policy anyhow.

The best managerial handling of the problems of occu- pational dangers is to teU the truth and then instruct, edu- cate and supervise, being sure that any instruction has been effectively put over by the methods described on the in- structing job.

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 287

SAFETY

Location of Possible Danger Points

Name Position — __

Department-

Departmental Job as part of Department

Job as part of Departmental Job

Oppratinn	_as part of Job
Dpsf>riptii")n nf Operator
Nature of Injury
Is injury apt to be caused by:

Ignorance ? Carelessness ?-

xWhy? Why? .

When injury occurs who may suffer physical injury?

Workmen? Other men?

Why? Why?

Will equipment be damaged? . Why? ^-:;

When accident occurs who will suffer money loss?-

Workmen ?

Why?

Other men?

The Company ?- Why?

288 THE FOBEMAN AND HIS JOB

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION PART VI

1. In an aeroplane factory the " dope " for the wings contains a liquid which is liable to cause dizziness when there is not a good current of air. Instructions are that at the first signs of being affected the worker is to get out into the open air. They tend to take a chance and stay on the job so as to make more money on piece work. The fumes will work no permanent damage under any ordinary circumstances. How should such a case be handled?

2. In a certain stage of the manufacture of white lead there is danger of lead poisoning unless men wash their , hands and clean their finger nails before eating. They are a rather ignorant lot. How should a case be handled? Lead (white) is a cumulative poison.

3. Where there is an occupationaj, danger as above should the workmen have the danger emphasized to them or should it be minimized so as not to scare them off the job?

4. In the yard of a certain factory the switchmen make a practice of getting on and off switch engines "flying." Is this a safe practice? If not, how would you break it up? Would you work differently with experienced and with green men? Why?

5. Why do more auto collisions happen out on the road than in congested traffic?

6. What is the value of making discharge the penalty for failure to properly observe safety precautions? What is the cost?

7. Which IS probably the greater source of danger, the job itself or dangerous surroundings?

8. An elevator that had been regularly inspected by the insurance company's men, dropped one story with no seri- ous damage. On investigation it was found that the auto- matic stops were installed to work the wrong way and had probably been in that condition ever since the elevator had

COST ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL CONDITION 289

been installed. Was the foreman to blame? Why? This condition could not be discovered on any casual inspection.

9. Where there is a safety department continually at work on the job what responsibilities has a foreman as to safety?

10. Under what conditions is a foreman responsible in case of an injury?

11. An accident happens when nobody had thought it possible for an accident to happen under those condi- tions. Never had happened before. Anybody responsible? If so, who?

12. A man is grinding a tool on a wheel running at high speed. The wheel bursts, the man is not hurt but another man at work on a machine near is struck by a piece of the wheel and is injured. Who is to blame? Why?

13. Is it possible to entirely cut out injuries due to the breakdown of the human factor? Why?

14. What are the most effective steps that can be taken to cut down injuries :

a. Occupational.

b. Due to lapse of attention.

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE WORKING

FORCE

1. How far can a foreman be expected to go in equiping himself to spot incipient disease?

2. How can a foreman cooperate with a medical depart- ment to the best advantage?

3. By virtue of his relations to his men what can a fore- man do in connection with the physical condition of his men that nobody else can do?

4. A good worker is known to be in the habit of sitting up till three o'clock two or three nights a week playing poker. This is interfering with his work because he has

19

290 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

not got enough sleep. As a result he is careless and his work falls off. Is this any business of a foreman or is it the mans own business? Can anything be done in such a case except discharge or lay off?

5. In the case just given the foreman takes the matter up with the man in a decent way and the man feels that as it is on his own time it is nobodys business except his own. If the man is a good man and he is to be saved to the plant, how could such a case be handled?

6. A man shows evidence of being " under the weather " and is advised to see the plant physician. He says that he is "all right and knows how to take care of himself." Would you go any further in such a case and if so what would you do?

7. A man who is a good worker begins to fall off in his work but insists that he is "all right, just a little tired." The foreman is afraid that this man is suffering from some sort of incipient disease. How should he handle such a case? How would it work to tell the man that he must see the Doctor if he wanted to hold his job? Could the matter be handled in some better way? How? Would the nationality make any difference? How?

8. How would you deal with a case where an ignorant foreigner was afraid of the doctor and you knew that he needed treatment? Any better way than scaring him into it? What is the objection to simply ordering him to see the doctor under penalty of discharge?

9. You have reason to believe that one of your men is suffering from incipient kidney trouble. You know that he should have his urine examined. He is afraid to have the examination made for fear that he will find that he has Brights Disease. He insists that he is all right. How handle such a case and get him to see the doctor?

10. A man cuts his finger and ties a dirty rag around it : says that it is "all right." You are afraid that he may

COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 291

get an infected hand. How would you get him to see the doctor?

11. A foreign worker has a sore throat. He claims that his wife is taking care of it with a receipt that they use in the old country that is a sure cure. You find that this cure is goose grease on red flannel. How would you get him to see the doctor and have his throat examined?

12. Certain races believe that everybody must have the smallpox and will take no steps to avoid giving it to some- body else. A workman of this nationality has smallpox in the neighborhood where he lives. You are afraid that he will expose himself and bring the disease into the plant. How are you going to handle the case?

13. What, in your opinion, is the value of posted notices regarding seeing the plant doctor instead of some quack in cases of iUness?

14. How far should a foreman go in equipping himself to give treatment in the following cases :

I 1. Slight bums,

2. Slight cuts,

3. Particles in the eye,

4. Heat prostration ;

or should he make it a rule to send all cases, no matter how trivial they may seem, to the doctor at once, even if the men themselves protest?

15. How far should a foreman go in dealing with cases of poor physical condition that are due to habits of living at home?

16. A man brings his lunch and the foreman can see that it is not suitable and that the man is not able to do a good job in the afternoon, on account of the character of his lunch. How can such a case be handled?

17. Which is the better in case a man is suffering from an incipient disease, say T. B., and has a job that is dusty, to transfer him to a different job where the working condi-

298 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

tions are better or to report him at once to the doctor? Why?

18. Is a foireman's job to educate his men to look out for themselves and make fuU use of the medical service or to watch them and see that they do? Why?

19. Many ignorant workers are afraid of a doctor and win try and use remedies that are based on superstition. How can such cases be handled? What can a foreman do in the matter if the men feel that it is their own per- sonal business ?

20. Has a foreman any business to butt in on a man's private habits outside of the plant? If so, how could such a case be handled so that the men would not resent it?

21. May a medical service become a source of dissatis- faction in a plant? How? What can a foreman do better than anyone else to prevent such w situation from starting? How can he do it?

PART vn

HUMAN FACTORS (CONTINUED)

CHAPTER XVII

SPECIFIC AND DETAILED RESPONSIBILITIES AS TO THE MENTAL ATTITUDE OF THE WORK- ING FORCE. (MORALE.)

SECTION I. PEELIMINAftY

Preliminary. — ^Among the general responsibilities that were given in Chapter jy was that for the general mental attitude of the members of the working force, or, as it is often called, the morale of the team. This chapter takes up a num- ber of possible specific and detailed responsibilities that might come into a foreman's job under that heading.

The cases taken up in this chapter are somewhat different from those already gone over in preceding chapters, because when it comes to the matter of what men and women are thinking about we have a very different sort of a problem from that of dealing with material, equipment, knowledge and skill or even physical condition. In those cases there is something definite to go on and so responsibilities can be much more definitely determined than in the case of men- tal attitudes.

When we begin to consider responsibilities for knowing what somebody else thinks about some matter, and further take to do something that wiU affect that thinking in a defi- nite way, we can only make the best guess that we can on the basis of whatever experience we have had in similar cases, or experiences obtained by other people in dealing with the same sort of cases. Responsibilities must, therefore, be considered as obligations to do the best possible with regard to matters that depend on morale, using our best judgment as to what to do and how to do it, recognizing the fact that no two cases will be exactly alike and that there can be no one way of going at it that will fit all cases.

In spite of what has just been said, however, we know

295

206

THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

that some people have been much more successful than others in dealing witti morale, and by studying their methods, what they did and how they did it, we can use this knowledge in dealing with our own morale problems to better advantage.

The chart suggests some of the possible obligations or re- sponsibilities that may go with a foreman's job, but are only intended to be suggestive of the sort of things that he must try to do if he intends to deal effectively with morale.

The Three Specific Responsibilities. — ^It will be seen from the chart that it is possible for a foreman's duty as to morale to head up into what would correspond to three specific re- sponsibilities : leadership, the promotion and maintenance of interest and the promotion and maintenance of satisfaction. This means that in proportion as men are satisfied and inter- ested and are well led, morale is high, and that it is a part of the duty of any foreman to endeavor to the best of his ability to be a good leader of an interested and satisfied team.

SOMB POSSIBLE ££SFONSIBIIJTI£S AS TO THE MENTAI. ATTITUDE OF THE WORKING FOKCE

Planning ahead.

Getting the right men on the right job.

Keeping up the organization.

Fixing responsibility.

Not trying to be "it."

Looking out for the " team."

Leadership

Interest

Noting the mental attitude as to: Interest in the work job. Interest in the departmental job. Interest in the plant job.

Satisfaction

Noting the mental attitude as to: Satisfaction with working conditions. Satisfaction as to general surroundings. Satisfaction as to the plant.

MENTAL ATTITUDE OF WORKING FORCE 297

What he can actually do along these lines depends upon himself but the statement just made states, in a few words, what he should aim at, and what he should feel under obliga- tion to attempt.

These three sorts of obligations are taken up in the foregoing sections in the order given above, the follow- ing chapter, in turn, dealing with cost elements and man- agerial problems.

SECTION n. LEADEESHIP

What is Leadership? — ^In its simplest sense, leadership means the ability of the head of a team "to get the team behind him." It implies that, in the case of a good leader, his men will go with him because they want to, not because they have to. It means that a good leader can get things done that no direct exercise of authority could get done, in fact, a man might have all the authority in the world, and yet be a very poor leader because all that he could get done was through the exercise of direct authority. A leader may exercise authority to any extent, in fact some noted leaders have been "martinets" but that seemed to have little to do with their power of leadership.

Therefore, we may say that a leader is a man in charge of a team who knows where he wants to go and gets the team to go there with him.

The Elements of Leadership. — ^A foreman, as a leader, must assume certain obligations as a part of his duty, some of which are suggested on the chart and so are not repeated here but are briefly taken up in the following paragraphs.

Planning Ahead. — One detailed responsibility that any leader must assume is planning ahead. He must see things coming and be ready for them when they come, especially as regards matters that affect the well-being of his men. Thus, for example, planning in advance to reduce accidents is a characteristic of leadership in any team leader.

Getting the Right Men on the Job.— This is often called "building up an organization." It means assuming the re-

298 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

sponsibility for building up a team that is so made up that while each member is a first class man on his particular job, they can all "pull together" to put the team job across, and, as a team, will pull with the leader.

Keeping up the Organization. — ^Another responsibility that a leader must assume is that of keeping up his organiza- tion after he has built it up. Having got the right people he must hold them except where the best interests of all con- cerned require that there should be a change, as in the case of promoting out of the team to some other place in the "big team," where the man will be of more value in putting over the "big team job."* In such cases a leader wiB- endeavor, by all means in his power, to secure as good a man as possible to fit into the team in place of the team member who leaves.

Fixing Responsibility. — ^Another responsibility that a leader must assume is that of fixing responsibility among the members of the team. This means that wherever he gives a man a job he holds him responsible for doing that job and sees that the man knows exactly what he is responsible for.

Not Being "It." — This responsibility comes out of the case just stated. Many men have failed as leaders because they tried to carry all the responsibilities themselves under conditions where they could not do it and also lead. "They tried to be "It," and so failed to be leaders. A man who tries to be "It" will never willingly let anybody go ahead and do a job: he will never, if he can possibly help it, delegate any authority to anybody else. He will try to attend to every last detail himself. If a man wishes to be a leader he must give up the idea of being "It" and must assume the responsibil- ity of deciding where and how he can safely delegate author- ity, what details he can turn over to others, and what are the duties that he must reserve for himself.

Looking Out For the Men. — One other responsibility

that goes with leadership is that of looking out for the

* The question that is likely to be raised here as to a case where a member of the team can better himself by leaving the organization en- tirely, and what should be the attitude of the leader in such cases is really a managerial problem, and is taken up in the following chapter.

MENTAL ATTITUDE OP WORKING FORCE 299

men. This comes up in so many ways that it is only possi- ble here to draw attention to the general proposition that a foreman has supervisory responsibilities for spotting chances to look out for his men in various ways and that his supervision will be good or bad in proportion as he does note such opportunities. As in the other cases, what he can do when he sees such chances is a managerial matter that is taken up in the next chapter.

SECTION in. INTEREST

What is Interest?* — In its simplest sense, interest means anything that causes a desire to do a good job, whatever that job may happen to be, and, in proportion as people are in- terested they will try and do "the right thing," whereas people who are not interested care little or nothing as to whether the job is well' done, badly done, or even not done at all. Since the whole matter of labor loss, quality of work and quantity of production depends largely on the interest of the members of the working force of any department, it is evident that any foreman has responsibilities for noting the state of mind of his men as regards their interest or lack of interest, and where the interest is poor, taking steps to improve it. Methods for doing this are taken up in Chapter XVIII, since this is a matter of management, but since lack of interest must be determined from things that can be noted a few of these " interest indications " are given here for illustration. Among the " interest indications " that a fore- man might note might be unnecessary absenteeism, a falling oif in quality or quantity of production, carelessness on the job and unsteady work on the job. Of course, there are a number of others and these are merely given by way of illustration. Whatever they may be a foreman must hold himself responsible for noting them and from what he

• For a much more complete discussion of interest and interest fac- tors than can be given in this book see " The Instructor, The Man and The Job," Chapter XXXVII.

300 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

observes determining the extent to which each of his men is interested or uninterested in his work.

Some Interest Responsibilities. — ^A number of responsi- bilities that must be assumed by any leader who undertakes to promote interest in the members of his team are suggested on the chart and are briefly taken up below.

The Reputation of the Plant. — ^In any plant, but espe- cially one doing business on its quality reputation, if the members of the working force have no interest in the reputa- tion of the plant that concern is in a bad way and, in prac- tically all cases, a foreman should include in his lay-out a specific responsibiUty for doing all in his power to promote interest in the reputation of the plant.

Job Pride. — ^A man who "believes in his job" takes more interest in doing good work than one who has no pride in his job. A foreman, therefore, has responsibilities for doing whatever he can to develop and keep up job pride on the part of the working force in his department.

Interest in Doing a Good Job. — One responsibility that a foreman must assume in connection with the promotion of interest is for getting men interested in their jobs. How he can do this is a managerial matter to be taken up in the next chapter, but seeing to it that men have a job interest is, in a way, a supervisory responsibility so far as we can speak of supervision in connection with morale.

Interest in the Departmental Job. — ^In addition to seeing to it that men are interested in their own individual jobs a foreman also may find it to be a part of his duty to see that all the members of his departmental force are interested in the doing of a good departmental job, and this may constitute another supervisory responsibility in connection with interest.

Interest in the Plant Job. — Still another responsibility in connection with interest may be that of seeing to it that the members of the departmental force are interested in the sue-

MENTAL ATTITUDE OF WORKING FORCE 301

cess of the plant as a whole and this responsibility may, also come into a foreman's job.

Keeping Up Interest. — ^Not only may it become a part of the duty of a foreman to develop interest as described above, but it may also be a part of his supervisory job to see that this interest is kept up : to spot and head off anything that would tend to reduce it.

As in all other cases, taken up in this chapter, the inten- tion here has been only to draw attention to the possibility of the responsibility: the question of how to discharge it most effectively being taken up in the next chapter.

SECTION IV. SATISFACTION

Responsibilities as to Satisfaction. — ^A foreman must not only assume responsibilities for interest but he must also discharge some sort of responsibilities with regard to noting conditions as to satisfaction or dissatisfaction in the minds of the members of his working force. Several of these possi- ble "satisfaction responsibilities" are suggested in the chart and are taken up in the following paragraphs.

Interest vs. Satisfaction. — ^Interest is not the same thing as satisfaction. An interested man wiU. want to do the best work that he can ; a satisfied man will be willing to stay on his job or, at least, will not " kick " about his job. He may be ambitious to secure some other job, say a better one, but while he is on a given job he does not feel dissatis- fied with it.

Just as in the case of interest a foreman must determine the mental attitude of his men as to satisfaction or dissatis- faction from different things that he can note, and, in many cases he will find it difficult to determine whether these things indicate lack of interest or dissatisfaction. Among these "satisfaction indications," may be unnecessary absentee- ism, quiting, a desire on the part of the man to get trans- ferred to some other job that is no better than the one that

302 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

he is on, " grouchiness " for no apparent reason and some- times deliberate failure to follow directions or orders.

Satisfaction as to Working Conditions. — It may become a part of the duty of a foreman to note the degree to which members of the operating force are satisfied with the working conditions, at least so far as he has any power to do anything by action, recommendation or suggestion.

The extent to which this particular responsibility would come into the job of any given foreman would depend on the special conditions, but since he can almost always do some- thing supervisory, this responsibility in some form is quite certain to come into his job in some way.

Satisfaction as to General Surrovindings. — ^A foreman not only has the responsibility for noting the state of mind of his men as to the working conditions on their jobs, but he may also be responsible for spotting their mental atti- tude as to satisfaction or dissatisfaction with regard to such general surroundings as the character of the washing facili- ties, the provision or lack of provision for locker space, the lighting conditions and so on. In this, as»in the case of working conditions he must be guided by such " satisfaction indications " as he may be able to note, in the case of different men.

Plant Satisfaction. — Satisfaction may be also affected by different things that go with the plant as a whole and that lie outside of the working conditions or the general surround- ings in the department, and it may be a part of the duty of a foreman to note indications of satisfaction or dissatis- faction with regard to such matters. For example, such a case might come up in connection with some matter of plant policies, say the way in which men were paid (cash or check), or with regard to who should be laid off in a slack time. As in the other cases already taken up, any super- visory responsibilities here would be discharged by noting " satisfaction indications " as already described.

CHAPTER XVIII

THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON THE MEN- TAL ATTITUDE OF THE WORKING FORCE. LEADERSHIP AND INTEREST.

SECTION I. PRELIMINARY

Preliminary. — ^It has already been pointed out that the two main human factor elements are :

1. The physical condition of the working force.

2. The mental attitude or "state of mind" of the working force.

Just as some of the cost elements and managerial prob- lems on physical condition have already been taken up, so this chapter deals with some of the possible cost elements and managerial problems that may face a foreman in connection with mental attitude, or morale.

Before this question of state of mind, or mental attitude, or morale, as it may happen to be called, can be discussed form the standpoint of cost elements or managerial prob- lems, it is necessary to point out and discuss a little some things that affect morale, because, without a clear under- standing of these "morale elements," as they may be called, a foreman cannot deal successfully with the managerial side of his job in discharging his general responsibilities in this part of the human factor block.

The following section deals with morale and some of its important elements, following sections taking up the matters of cost elements, managerial problems and ways and means.

SECTION n. MORALE AND ITS ELEMENTS

Preliminary. — One of the most difficult managerial jobs

that any group leader has to face is the successful handling

of morale, not only on account of its importance, but since

303

804 THF FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

it depends not on what men do, or what they say, but on what they think. The success of the leader must often depend on the degree to which he can "dope out" the real mental attitude of the members of his "team " from what they do or from what they do or do not say, and this is often a very difficult thing to do, with a liability of disastrous results if the "dope" is wrong.

For example, in one case, a man who was a good worker came in one morning in what seemed to be a very ugly state of mind. He was careless, failed to pay attention to direc- tions and did not f oUow them. Finally, on beiag reprimanded by the foreman, he turned on him and after the usual "cuss- ing match" that often results from such conditions, was fired, or fired himself. It subsequently appeared that for three nights that man had been sitting up all night with a child who was very ill, had had no sleep for that time, that he had left the child dead when he came to work that morning and had come to work because of loyalty to the plant and to his foreman. It was perhaps a human mistake for the foreman to "dope out" this case as one of "pure cussedness," or the effect of some sort of a "spree," but as a fact, his dope was wrong, and he not only lost a good man and caused dissatisfaction all through his department when the story got out, but what was worse, when he found out the truth of the matter, of course, he was all broken up over it, tried to find the man and straighten things out, and could not get any trace of him. The foreman was honest, but his "dope" on that particular situation was wrong, and this story is, of course, only told to illustrate the difficulty of dealing with these "mental conditions" or morale problems.

What is Morale? — ^The term morale has recently come into use as indicating the "state of mind" or mental attitude of the members of a "team" both as regards the job of the team and as regards dependability in an emergency, or under special strain. This "team" might be an army, the crew of a ship, the employees of a railroad, the operating force of a production plant, or, in general, any group of men

THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 306

whose various jobs were all a part of a big job. In the case of industrial teams, the term morale has, perhaps, come to be used more especially with reference to the interest of the members of the operating force in the success of the con- cern and their reliability, although the term, as originally taken from the French carried a military rather than an in- dustrial significance.

Good and Poor Morale.— If the "state of mind" of the members of a "team" is such as to make for the success of the job of the team this condition of things is expressed by say- ing that the "morale" is good; if the reverse conditions are true we say that the "morale" is poor or "low," and so, al- though a definite statement of all the conditions is sometimes rather difficult to make, the use of the terms "good morale" or "high morale" and "poor morale" or "low morale," enable us to refer to conditions we understand very well and that might take a long explanation to make clear if this "techni- cal term" were not used. The general sense in which the term is used may be made plainer by the following illustrations.

It should be understood that the term morale can be used to express the mental condition of any team. For example, when a baseball team "blows up" in the ninth inning and goes to pieces, it might be said that their morale broke down. On the other hand, where a team plays the best game that they can, even when they are outclassed and know that they cannot win, it might be said that they kept their morale up to the finish of the game, even though they lost. A team with poor morale is "licked before it starts," a team with good morale is never "licked" until the end of the game. A team with poor morale "can't stand punishment," a team with good morale can. A team with poor morale is liable to go back on the leader any time, one with good morale will "stand behind him" to the finish. For example, when the Cumber- land, a wooden ship, fought the ironclad "Merrimack" (the Virginia) to a finish, and went down with her flag flying, saving the wounded, and firing her last shot as the gun went under, a Naval man would express the behavior of the ofiicers

20

306 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

and crew by saying that it showed good morale. At the Battle of "Bull Run," on the other hand, when the Federal troops broke and ran, for no special reason, a Military man might express their "state of mind" that made the break possible, by saying that, being inexperienced, their morale was poor. In the first battle of the Marne it is said that the French kept their morale while that of the Grermans had been impaired by forced marches, looting and other reasons, and that one reason that they were driven back was that the morale of the French was better than that of the Germans.

"Working Conditions" and Morale. — ^While it is true that working conditions and surroundings do affect morale, they do not seem to be the chief factor, and mistakes have often been made in assuming that good working conditions, in themselves, insured good morale.

Conditions may be poor and yet the morale may be good : they may be good and yet the morale may be poor or break down in an emergency. For example, in the case of the Cum- berland the conditions were poor, her guns had no effect on the ironclad, her wooden sides were no protection against the heavy guns of the Confederates, "she was licked before she started to fight" but that did not make any difference. On the other hand, at Bull Run, the Federal troops were well armed, well fed and clothed, as well or better than the Con- federates, yet they lost their morale, and it was said that many of them "ran all the way to Washington without stop- ping," yet they fought well up to the time that their morale let go. Again, in the "Great War" the "Lost Battalion" kept their morale to the finish and "staid on the job" in spite of lack of food, water, shelter and sufficient ammunition and equipment.

While good working conditions may help morale, they do not make it, because morale is really the spirit of the team and that is, after all, independent of the surroundings, and we have all seen cases in our own experience that prove it. If a team leader has the responsibility of promoting morale

THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 307

he must do more than see that the working conditions and surroundings are good and if he banks on them alone he will fail in his management and is liable to get a disagreeable sur- prise some time.

The Recognition of Good or Poor Morale. — Since there is no way of "opening people's heads" to find out their state of mind as to morale, and, as a matter of fact, they do not often know themselves until the strain comes ; good or poor morale can only be recognized by the way that it "comes out in the wash," that is, by the way things go, as indicated by little matters in the ordinary run of the daily j ob, and a good supervisor will keep himself on the alert to spot conditions as he goes along. The more interested he is in this matter of morale, the more he knows about the underlying causes in the case of his own particular team, and the wider his experience, the more successful he will be in this part of his job. The condition of a team as to morale can be recognized in a hun- dred ways by an experienced supervisor, especially in propor- tion as he knows his men. If, for example, the members of the team are "jumpy," they cannot be depended upon, they are liable to "break" at any time, and the leader notes this, he knows that the morale is poor. If he knows that they can be depended upon, he knows that the morale is good. If the ability of a plant to do successful business depends upon the quality of its product, as in the case of an automobile factory or a shipyard, and nobody in the working force or none of the supervisors and managers care whether the autos give good or poor service, or whether the ships hold together or go to pieces in the first gale of wind, the morale in that plant is poor. If, on the other hand, the whole team intends to build good autos, or ships, the morale is good, and where this is the case it is always due to what may be called good morale man- agement on the part of the leaders.

For example, one of tHe test shipyards in the country is the Newport News Ship Building Company: for years they have turned out good ships and, under all the difficulties of

308 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

war work they kept on doing it. On a bronze tablet near the main gate is the inscription,

"Here we will build good ships, X At a profit if we can, at a loss if we must, but, good ships." and this inscription indicates the spirit of the morale in that yard, from rivet boy to the General Manager, and anybody who was in contact with that yard could sense that spirit even if he knew nothing about ship building.

The Foreman and Morale. — ^The question of morale is, of course, of interest and a matter of responsibility for every supervisor and manager, from the General Manager down, but it is of special concern to a foreman because, he is the man who is in direct contact with the working force, is in the best position to know them, to cooperate with them on the one hand and with the Management on the other, and so to know the situation at first hand. He can do more than anybody else to promote or to kiU morale and has a corresponding responsibility, so that the problems of the promotion of morale, as management problems are well worth the careful attention of any foreman.

On account of their importance, these problems are dis- cussed somewhat fuUy in the following section, but any super- visor will be able to deal with them effectively, no matter how much he may know about morale elements, only in proportion as he realizes that the members of the working force are more than "hands," that they are human beings, men and women, boys and girls, and so their attitude of mind, or their morale, is affected by many things that a foreman, by virtue of his position, can control to a greater extent than anyone else.

SECTION m. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGEKIAIi' FSOBI.EMS ON THE PROMOTION OF MORALE

The Elements of Morale. — ^While, as already pointed out, the things that affect morale are often difficult to get at in any given specific case, we do know, in general, that there are

THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 809

certain elements that always enter into the problem. Among the most important of these are :

1. Leadership.

2. Interest.

3. Satisfaction.

And these may be called, for convenience in discussion, morale elements.

In any team, if the leadership is poor, if there is lack of interest and dissatisfaction, the morale is sure to be poor. With good leadership, interest and satisfaction, men wiLL "take a dredger across the Atlantic."

These questions of leadership, interest and satisfaction are so important that they are taken up in the following paragraphs in considerable detail.

A. LEADERSHIP

Leadership. — The term "leadership" has recently come into use as indicating a managerial quality that everybody knows when they see it, but that is hard to define. It seems to be largely independent of the personal make-up, or even the desire to be a good leader on the part of any one indi- vidual, although, in the absence of these qualities, good lead- ership cannot be established or maintained. Nevertheless, it is a fact that men have been sincerely anxious to lead, have worked hard to that end, and yet have failed to make good on the leadership job, while others, without apparent effort, have succeeded.

The following discussion is not an attempt not to tell what leadership is, but to suggest some points worth thinking about and discussing.

If any man is interested in the question as to what makes a good leader, that is, a man who could get the team behind him, one of the best things that he can do is to study the characteristics, or the "make up" of recognized leaders and try to find out "how they do it." If he does this, the follow- ing paragraphs may be suggestive as to "where to look and what to look for."

310 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

What Constitutes Leadership. — ^If the suggestion just made is followed, it will be found that, whatever else these leaders possessed, there are always three points that stand out.

1. They could plan ahead.

2. They could get the right men to work for them, and could keep them.

3. They could get the team with them.

Evidently the first two are not of much use without the third.

Pleinning Ahead. — The ability to plan ahead depends upon the degree to which a man can see what is coming "down the road, and how it is coming" and plans in advance to take care of it when it does come. He does not wait until things happen before he does anything about them. For example, in the case of safety protection, one foreman notices a danger point, say a belt that is possibly not sufBciently guarded, but where no accident has ever happened. He says to himself, "Oh, well, nothing has happened there, and probably nothing ever will," and does nothing about it. At a later time some- body does get hurt there and then that foreman "gets busy" and fixes the thing up. Another foreman, imder the same conditions, says to himself, "That thing is, dangerous, some- body is Uable to get hurt even if nobody ever has been hurt," and fixes it up at once. The second foreman is a better leader than the first. It must always be remembered in such cases that the foreman has one of the three possible means of deal- ing with the matter, action, recommendation and suggestion. Again a piece of incorrect gossip gets started in the plant and comes to the attention of the foreman: one man thinks that it is harmless and pays no attention to it until it "breaks," the other foreman sees that as it grows, like all gossip will, it may make a lot of trouble and cause a great deal of demoralization, and he heads it off in the beginning. The second man is the better leader.

Again, a foreman sees that, as tHe work is going, he is going to run short of work and must redistribute his work-

THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 311

ing force; possibly lay off some of his workers or get them transferred to other departments. He makes his plans in advance, finds out where he can transfer and determines whom he wUl get transferred. If he has to lay off some men, he makes up his mind who they will be, and even perhaps tells them that there is a chance that they may have to be laid off and that if that comes about he wiQ let them know as soon as he can and will try and help them to get another job. Another foreman does not see what is coming so that, when the "pinch" comes, he has no plan, "gets all fussed up," and being in a hurry with no plan, fires the wrong men, can't get transfers and generally does a poor leadership job.

"Taking Care of the Men." — One special form of plan- ning that seems to go with good leadership is "taking care of the men." This is well illustrated by the story of "Theo- dore Roosevelt and the Beans." In the Spanish War his regi- ment was on the firing line and the Commissary failed to get up the food. As the story was told at the time, he decided that his men should not have to fight on empty stomachs, stole some pack mules, went down to the base, broke into some freight cars and got the hearts. Probably no one quality of successful leaders stands out more strongly than the fact that they "took care of their men" and as a result the men were behind them all the time, in whatever was attempted.

Of course, all foremen do look out for their men, but many do not realize to what an extent such a reputation increases the morale of the team, and the value of such a reputation in securing cooperation from the working force. They think of it more as a "duty" and not as a leadership element.

Getting the Right Men and Keeping Them. — ^Andrew Carnegie has been quoted as having said that his success was not due to his having any special knowledge of the steel busi- ness, but to the fact that he knew how to find and keep men who did know that business. General Grant is said to have claimed that his success as a military man was not so much due to any special ability that he possessed as to the fact that he knew how to pick out the right men for his generals.

312 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

This ability to get the right men on the right jobs and hold them in the team (though not necessarily on the same jobs) is what is often called "building up an organization," and is one of the marked points that most recognized leaders have possessed.

While a foreman has a more limited field than a General Manager or a Lieutenant Creneral, still, within that field, he can build up his departmental organization along the same lines, and in proportion as he does this, he shows one of the qualities of good leadership.

"Getting the Team with Them." — The last and the most important quality shown by all recognized leaders has been their ability "to keep the team mth them." While this in- cludes the idea of cooperation, as already discussed, it means more than that. It means that the "team" will follow the leader wherever he will go. They wiU "back him to the limit," as the expression goes. When he says, "Come on, boys," they come, and, it may be said in passing, that a good leader always says, "Come on," and not "Go on." He is a leader and not a driver. A straight driver may get out the work, but he can never be a let^der as the term is used here. Perhaps two of the men who have shown this quality in a re- markable degree are Roosevelt and Hoover; both could get their team to "work their heads off" on any job that they tackled, and keep at it until the job was finished.

Cost Elements on Leadership. — ^The cost elements that may come into play in connection with good or poor leader- ship may include almost any of the human factors, as they are discussed in different parts of this book, and they vary so much according to circumstances that only a few can be suggested here. Among the cost elements due to poor leader- ship, or lack of leadership, might be :

1. Indifference, or lack of interest, on the part of the members of the team, resulting in such things as reduced pro- duction, poor quality, carelessness, absenteeism and so on.

2. Disorganization, due to lack of planning in advance, especially in emergencies, resulting in "crossed wires," dis^

THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 813

satisfaction, unnecessary "rows," and waste of time and material.

3. Demoralization, especially in emergencies, due to lack of confidence in the leader.

The Managerial Problem. — ^While, in the sense in which this term has heen used, there can hardly be said to be a "managerial problem" in connection with leadership, except so far as a man may "manage himself," in this sense, anyone having supervisory and managerial responsibilities has the problem of becoming as good a leader as he can, and this is his job: nobody can do it for him.

Dealing with the Problem. — The preceding discussion has indicated some of the "ways and means" that a foreman or other executive might employ in working out his own "man- agerial problem on leadership." In this connection the fol- lowing may be suggestive, if nothing more.

Reference has already been made to the value of studying the way in which recognized leaders have worked, and while no man could become a leader by copying the work of another man, he can sometimes get pointers that may be of value to him on his leadership "managerial job." If we take a look at the "working methods" of such men we wiU almost always find that they did certain things, among which were :

1. When they put a man on a job they made sure that he knew what the job was and knew how to do it, and then did not interfere except to help by suggestion. That is, they did not oversupervise. They made the man feel that the job was his job and not their job. They made the man feel that he had "the goods" and could deliver them.

2. They saw to it that every member of the team saw how his job was necessary to the job of the team, and just how it fitted into the "team job."

3. They were human and considerate in dealing with sub- ordinates but were not "slack."

4. They were willing to listen to subordinates and take advice and suggestions even if they did not follow them.

5. They knew their men.

314 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

How far any of these leadership points might fit the case of any one foreman under his special conditions is, of course, a matter for study and discussion, they are only put up as sug- gestions, but they are some of the things that have gone with leadership, and it is certain that within the limits of his job a foreman can, if he has it in him, become a leader for his oper- ating force, just as must as if he were a man "higher up." There is no need for him to think "If I were the General Man- ager, or the President of the Company, I could be a leader, but I can't do it as a foreman." As has been pointed out, as a matter of fact, a foreman has a better chance to put over a real leadership job than anybody else, and he should not think that he has no job in this way if his operating force happens to be made up of foreign born people, or ignorant people, or boys and girls. Really this sort of a situation gives him the best chance for he has the sort of people who need leadership the most and who will often respond the best to it. For example, in the shipyard to which reference has already been made as having such good morale, much of the labor was Negro, and, although many of these Negroes were skilled workers, they were in many cases ignorant, yet they abso- lutely believed in the General Manager, believed in the "Yard," and were "behind" their superiors on any job that had to be done, and the quality of leadership that made this possible came not only from the General Manager but ran all the way through the executive staff. For an example of one way in which this showed, on a morning when the ther- mometer was somewhere near zero, a group of men had gath- ered around a forge to warm themselves, many of them shiver- ing from the cold that was very much worse than anything that they were used to, for such cold is very uncommon in Southern Virginia. One of the superintendents came along and, as the men saw him coming, some of them hesitated and then started to move away from the fire to go back to their jobs. The Super saw this and called to them, "Come back, boys, and get warm before you go back to work, none of you shall work when you are cold if I can help it." Was this

THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 316

leadership? Might not that count some other time in a "pinch"? It is worth discussing and thinking about anyway.

B. INTEREST

Interest. — While nobody can tell exactly how some other fellow's mind will work under a given set of conditions, ex- perience has shown that certain things do affect the mental attitude of the members of any team and among these is what is commonly called interest. We know that if a man is inter- ested in his work, in his job and in the success of the big job of the team, he wiU work better and more intelligently. This matter of interest is well known to all good teachers and they use it continually in getting their students to do their learn- ing jobs better. It will work just as well in a plant on pro- duction jobs as on learning jobs, so that it is worth consider- ing from the standpoint of the use that a foreman can make of it in discharging his managerial responsibilities.

What is Interest? — ^In general, when a man wants to do a good job or wants a good job done, we say that he is interested in the job. If he does not care how the job is done, or how it comes out, we say that he is not interested, or that he is indifferent. An interested person is "alive on the job," an uninterested person is "dead on the job." An interested worker "uses his head on the job," an uninterested person works from "his shoulders down." An important general cost element is therefore the degree to which all members of the operating force, and the foremen and other members of the team for the matter of that, are interested in their jobs and in the success of the plant.

Cost Elements on Interest. — Evidently interest, as a cost affecting element, runs all through the human factor part of the foreman's job. Practically any problem with which he has to deal, if it touches men or women, and does not deal only with dead things, such as stock, equipment or operations and processes, as such, brings in the matter of interest. Even a partial list of the possible cost elements on interest would therefore include all of those that have been suggested in con-

316 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

nection with human factors, and so would be too long to repeat here. Among some of the more important results of lack of interest are, however, the following:

1. Low production. (Loafing on the job.)

2. Unnecessary accidents.

3. Poor quality.

4. Labor loss.

^ 6. Failure to follow instructions.

6. Failure to cooperate.

The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here is evidently to promote and maintain interest in aU possible ways that fall within the authority of a foreman and within the field of his relations with his men.

Dealing with the Problem — ^Interest Factors.* — ^In order to deal effectively with the managerial problems of interest, it is necessary that a foreman should know something about the causes of interest, or, as they are sometimes called, inter- est factors, and some of the more important of these interest factors are therefore discussed before the management side of the matter is taken up. One of the most difficult managerial jobs that a foreman is up against is the development of inter- est, and the degree to which he can do this successfully depends upon:

1. His knowledge of the different interest factors and their value.

2. His ability to use the right interest factors under a given set of conditions.

The first might be called "job knowledge," the second "job skill." If he has the knowledge without the skill he can't do a good job, and if he has the skill without the knowledge he can't do much better: he needs both.

What is Interest. — ^It is evident that the term interest

is used here in exactly the same sense in which we use it in

every-day conversation. For example, we say that we are

interested in the movies, and we simply mean that we like to

• For a fuller discussion of interest and interest factors see the com- panion book to this, "The Instructor, The Man and The Job."

THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 317

go and will go when we can. When we say that we are not interested in the movies we simply mean that we don't want to go and won't go unless we have to. If we are "interested in politics" that merely means that we want to "mix in" and do something. If we are "not interested in politics," we will stay out if we can: we won't "mix in" any more than we can help.

What are Interest Factors? — ^As the term is used here interest factors means, for interest just the same thing that cost elements means for cost. Just as cost goes up or down, according to the way that cost elements are taken into con- sideration in working out a managerial problem, so interest in any particular proposition goes up or down according to the interest factors that come into play in that case. Just as we may have diiferent cost elements in different managerial problems and these cost elements be of different importance, so, in the case of a given managerial job on the promotion of interest we can have different interest factors and, for that case, some factors will work better than others. Interest factors may, therefore, be thought of as those things that affect a man's interest on his job and which, according to their kind and the degree to which they are present or absent, affect the degree to which he is interested.

Kinds of Interest Factors. — ^Just as all cost elements can be finally headed up into time-power-labor-material loss, so practically all interest elements can be "spotted" as being one of a few interest factors, among the more important of which are:

1. Ambition.

2. Responsibility.

3. Job pride.

4. Departmental and plant pride.

5. Self-respect.

6. Curiosity.

7. Fear.

There are other interest factors, but those given above are the more common interest factors, or motives, that come

818 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

into play in the case of interest or lack of interest in the work job or in the job of the team.

Ambition. — ^Almost all men have some kind of ambition in connection with their jobs : they "want to get ahead," and their interest in their job is often largely affected hj the degree to think that they have a chance to get ahead. A man without ambition or who feels that he has no chance to gratify that ambition, who feels that "he never can do any better" or that he wiU "never have a chance" on his job is not, as a rule, as interested in that job as where he feels that he has a chance, even if it is only a chance. This feeling that there is a chance to get ahead, while not the only important interest factor, is a very important one, especially with certain types of people, and realization that there was a chance to get ahead has often converted an uninterested man into an interested one.

The recognition of the value of this interest factor in certain cases is well illustrated in many advertisements, not- ably in the advertisements of opportunities for improvement, such as evening schools, correspondence schools, in advertise- ments for selling agents and in the way in which the pros- pective customer for promotional schemes "yielding a large return on a small investment" is appealed to in their advertis- ing literature. It is by appealing to this interest factor that the villain in the story persuades the victim to sell his bonds, or mortgage the old home, and buy worthless stocks. It is the interest factor that has recently been used successfully to persuade people to sell their liiberty Bonds and invest the money in some more speculative business.

From the above discussion it is evident that the realiza- tion by any worker that the job that he is on, if done well, will aid him in accomplishing something that he wants to accomplish, as when he feels that it will "put him in the line of promotion," either to another better job of the same kind, or to another sort of a job, will tend to promote his job interest, and the degree to which this factor can be honestly and truthfully used is an important consideration from the managerial standpoint as regards interest. For

THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 319

example, it was said under Napoleon First, "every soldier carried a marshall's baton in his knapsack," because he knew that the line of promotion was open from the bottom to the top.

Responsibility. — ^It is a well known fact that responsi- bility rouses interest. As a rule, in proportion as a man feels no responsibility for his job he has little interest in the job. This fact was touched upon in discussing leadership in the preceding section, in mentioning some of the characteristics of leaders. The sort of responsibility referred to may be of two kinds, first, a sense of responsibility for the job itself, and second, a sense of responsibility as regards the relation of that job to the job of somebody else. An illustration of the first kind of responsibility can be seen whenever a child is sent on an errand to the grocery, and its mother says, "Now you must be very careful and get all of these things." Under these conditions the average kid will be very interested in the job because it has a sense of responsibility for doing the job right. An illustration of the second kind of sense of responsibility was in a shoe factory where the amount of defective material that was run through the different ma- chines was reduced after each operative had been shown how allowing a defective part to come out of his operation made trouble for the fellow on the next operation. All other things being equal when it is possible to say to a man, "There's the job, it's your job, go to it, all I want is results," his interest will be increased, or it wiU be increased if he understands the relation of his job to the jobs of the other members of the team.

The putting on of responsibility is, therefore, one way of developing interest and is one that can often be used effectively.

Job Pride. — ^The other day this matter was taken up in a foreman's conference, the discussion running along the line of the cost value of warranted praise. One foreman, as a result of that discussion, decided to try the thing out a little and, as he went through his department, to keep an eye for a

SiO THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

chance to say "something good." He happened to spot a man who was carrying on a very difficult job of machine shop work and, after watching him for a little while saw that he was doing a remarkably workmanlike job. He said to him, "Bill, you're doing a mighty good job." The man said to him, rather sharply. "What's that you said.^"' "I said, 'You're doing a mighty fine job.' " The man stopped his machine, stepped back and said, "I've worked in this plant for sixteen years, I'm a good mechanic and I know it: I know I'm doing a good job, but this is the first time anybody like you has ever told me so." This man had job pride and was justified in having it, yet would anybody doubt that the recognition of his good work stimulated his interest in doing a good job? Or that he perhaps did a still better job after that conversation?

Job pride is, therefore, a feeling on the part of a worker that he can "hold down the job" as weU as any other man. He knows that he knows his job or knows his trade. A man who has job pride wiU always be more interested than a man who knows that he does not know his job.

A "half baked" mechanic will never be as interested in his job as a competent mechanic, because the "half baked" man cannot have job pride and the competent workman has. As will be pointed out later, this matter of job pride may become an important matter in connection with certain managerial problems on interest.

Departmental and Plant Pride. — Somewhat different from job pride and yet working along the same lines is departmental or plant pride as an interest factor. A man who is proud of the department in which he works, or who is proud of the plant where he isi employed will be more inter- ested in his job than a man who has no departmental pride or who feels that he has no reason to feel proud of his plemt. Under many conditions this interest factor can be used very effectively in arousing and keeping up interest.

Self Respect. — Quite outside of the matter of job pride

THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 321

is that of self respect as an interest factor, and it is one that is too often overlooked, especially with certain kinds of workers. Any man has some respect for himself. His self- respect may be along different lines from those of his supe- rior, but he has it, nevertheless, and when that self respect is injured, even if he does not show it, his interest is decreased. Disregard of self respect was rather a characteristic on many American clipper ships in the old days. The story is told of a second mate who was directing a man aloft on some job. Noticing something out of the ordinary on the job the fore- mast hand called down, "Mr. Smith, I think," and when he had got so far the mate came back with, "Think, if you try to think you'll have brain fever and fall down on deck: do as I tell you." Here the man who had shown some interest was subject to an attack on his self respect that certainly did nothing to increase his interest on that job, and probably on any other job that he had during that voyage.

In general, the harder the "throw down" the greater the loss of interest and many supervisors recognize this with the sort of people that are like themselves, but forget that "dif- ferent" people have self respect, too, and in this way often reduce interest without knowing it.

Curiosity. — ^A common illustration of the use of curiosity to promote interest is the clock in the show window that ap- parently has no works and keeps time, or the ball that runs round and round without "any visible means of support." From the standpoint of interest on the job curiosity will sometimes rouse interest for a while, as in the case of putting a man on a new job, or breaking in a green man, but, as a rule, it is not a very important interest factor in industrial organizations.

Fear. — ^Fear of discomfort or suffering is often thought to be a very important interest factor, and is often assumed to be the only one that can be used. An example of the use of fear as an assumed means of arousing interest is the form of notice commonly seen around industrial plants, threaten-

21

322 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

ing discharge for the failure to obey some regulation. For example, on a freight elevator:

"Any employee, except the operator, using this elevator will be immediately discharged.

John Smith, Greneral Manager."

Here the idea is that if anybody undertakes to "sneak" a ride on that elevator the notice wDl scare him out of the notion, and everybody knows how such notices work that way. Again, a sign,

"DANGER. KEEP OFF THIS TRUCK."

is designed to frighten off anybody who starts to "jump" the truck to save walking.

Therefore, fear is often considered as an interest factor, and is used for that purpose to a great extent in plants, especially with what are considered ignorant help, be- cause it is assumed that fear is the only interest factor that will work in such cases, and also because the use of fear as a means of arousing interest is the "easy way" for a super- visor to attempt to handle the matter.

While, as is poin^d out later, fear is one of the least efficient interest factors in many cases, its use is so common that it must be included in the list of interest factors as discussed later.

The Relative Values of the Interest Factors. — ^While the value of the different interest factors that have been just discussed is undoubtedly different for different people, it is, nevertheless true that, taking things as they run, these factors can be set up in their order of effectiveness, or their relative values, as follows : Ambition, responsibility, job pride, self respect, departmental pride, plant pride, curiosity and fear, and in "feeling around" to find out what particular interest factors will give the best comeback it is a good plan to try them, so far as possible, in this order. That is, fear should be the last resort and ambition the first,with the others coming in between in the order given.

THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 323

The only question might be the order between job pride and self respect, and these two run so near together that it makes practically no difference which is tried first. From the standpoint of reducing cost by developing or increasing in- terest, a foreman wiU do a good managerial job in proportion as he can use these interest factors in the order named above, and since this is an important matter a number of these points are taken up in some detail in the following paragraphs, with some suggestions to their application to managerial problems in this section of the foreman's job.

Comparative Values — ^Ambition. — ^Where a man has a legitimate ambition and feels that that thing that he wishes to attain is possible of attainment, that he is on the road and is progressing in the right direction, we unquestionably have the strongest factor that can be used in arousing and main- taining interest. If John Smith wants a better job and knows that by securing certain additional training he can get con- sideration when the chance comes, he wiU be more interested in his present job and will work to get that additional train- ing, but if he feels, or knows, that he will get no consideration, or sees no way to get that additional training, or cannot find out what that training should consist of, he will not be inter- ested in his present job. This matter of ambition to attain a definite aim, provided the aim is clearly defined, and the man really "means business," is one of the strongest interest fac- tors known to good managers in all lines of work, and when it can be used is the one on which the most effective interest management can be based. As an example of the use of this interest as a managerial device for promoting and sustaining interest, reference might be made to the differing policy of some departments in the matter of job promotion. In what we may call "department A," it is understood that whenever there is a better job to be filled, if there are any members of the working force that can hold it down, they get the chance, and only after it is certain that nobody in the department can fiU the bill So they go outside. In "department B," on

324 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

the other hand, under the same conditions, the foreman always looks outside for somebody for the job. From the standpoint of interest management, "department A" is doing a better job than "department B."

Under good conditions of interest management, given an employee with a known legitimate ambition or one in which such an ambition has been aroused by the foreman, the prob- lem of effective interest management has been largely solved if the work of that man can be so arranged that it lines up to that aim, and the man knows it.

Of course, these conditions cannot always be brought about, but to the degree to which this sort of thing can be done, use is made of the strongest interest factor known to man.

Ambition and Management. — ^As has been already sug- gested, from the standpoint of interest, it is good manage- ment to use ambition as an interest factor wherever it can be used under the conditions. This can be done in several ways, among which are establishing a general understanding that, as a matter of departmental policy, so far as the fore- man has any recommending, acting or suggesting responsi- bilities, ability will be recognized, and actual evidence that it is recognized. If all the workers feel that, in the departmeiit, "merit counts," and that whenever opportunity comes the best man wins, interest is kept up. If the workers feel that when a chance comes, personal pull, or other improper rea- sons dictate any action that the foreman may take, interest win be reduced if not killed entirely. If a man feels that no matter how good he is on his job and no matter how hard he may work to fit himself for a better job, he has no chance, he is going to be looking for another job instead of doing his best on the job that he is on.

Where the policy of "letting the best man win" is in prac- tice, a foreman can often indirectly promote interest by assisting promising and ambitious men to get a clear under- standing of the requirements of the better job and advising them as to how to go to work to secure such additional train-

/ THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 826

ing as will help them to fit themselves for that job when the chance comes. '

Job Pride and Management. — The managerial means by which job pride can be appealed to as an interest factor are, among others, through recognizing job pride by seeing that the working conditions are such that a good man can do a good job. Where a man has job pride nothing injures it more than requiring him to work under conditions where he can't do a good job, except, of course, where it is understood that there is an emergency. In such a case sometimes a man's job pride is actually aroused, as when a good machinist has to rig up some sort of gadgets to get a job done at all. In general, however, if any of us have job pride and are asked to work regularly under poor working conditions we cannot help feeling that the job is not considered as of much import- ance and this hits our job pride, and so reduces our interest.

Among the things that a foreman can do, within the limits of his responsibilities to utilize job pride as an interest factor might be mentioned :

1. Seeing that good tools and equipment are provided.

2. Recognizing good work.

3. Helping men to do their jobs better.

4. Giving helpful suggestions rather than sharp criticism as to the skiU, knowledge or intelligence required on the job.

Since these points have already been taken up from other angles, they are not considered further here, but are repeated to show their value in building up interest from the angle of job pride.

Self Respect and Management. — The managerial side of the matter of self respect is one that is sometimes not fuUy recognized by all foremen. It is really merely a case of "put yourself in the place of the other fellow," but this is sometimes a somewhat difficult thing to do, because me do not know the other fellow, and so do not allow for his self respect as we should from the standpoint of interest management. Some- times things that would not affect our self respect will affect his, and we are totally unaware that we have injured his self

326 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

respect. Sometimes we do not realize that he has the same sort of self respect that we have.

In either case we fall down as interest managers. While it does not deal with self respect, a case of the same sort is given in one of Kipling's stories. An Englishman, in India, had a native servant who had served him faithfully for a long time. This servant had a young child and the Englishman had frequently run across the child playing in the courtyard, and, being fond of children, had patted it on the head or given it a little piece of money, or a sweetmeat. The child died of ' some common disease and the father, figuring along lines of native superstition, decided that his master had "put the evil eye" on the child by touching him and giving him gifts, and so killed his master.

Among the diiferent sorts of self respect that may have to be taken into consideration are racial pride and sometimes local pride. For example, a man may be as proud of his race as the foreman may be of his, and an Italian may resent being called a "Ginnie," or a Frenchman a "Froggie" as miich as an American would resent being called a "Pig."

If a supervisor wants to avoid cutting down interest he must be careful to look out for places where he may run against self respect and fail to pay regard to it. In general, it never does any harm to treat everybody with consideration and ordinary business courtesy, especially in dealing with some one who is under your authority. This is especially true because, in many cases, they may not dare to "come back."

One special case where racial self respect may come into play is where gangs are employed on jobs. Under such con- ditions a wrong mixture of nationalities may not only kill interest, the special point under consideration here, but may cause other trouble. Every foreman knows about such cases and so nothing further need be said here.

Curiosity and Management. — ^As a rule, a foreman can make but little use of curiosity in interest management except under some instructing conditions as taken up in the chapter on that subject, so that it calls for no discussion here.

THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 327

Fear and Management. — ^As a rule, this is the most com- monly used and the least effective of all interest factors. It is often assumed that fear is effective in arousing interest on the part of the men, especially in securing obedience to orders. A foreman will threaten to have a learner "fired" if he does not learn to do a job correctly, or will "bawl out" a man for not knowing how to do a piece of work the first time he is put on that job, or for not following instruction cor- rectly. He fires one man as an example to the others.

The use of fear as a means for developing interest is based on the assumption that a man who is scared can think more clearly or will work better than a man who is not ; this, of course, can not be true. A scared man will probably run faster or jump higher than a man who is not scared, but under the influence of fear a man wiU not work as intelligently or put his mind as completely on his job. His mental engine is more or less "stalled."

The appeal to fear is most commonly used by the inex- perienced foreman ; it is the only method he knows for devel- oping interest, hence the interest management conditions are very bad. The efficient foreman wiU not attempt to use fear, but wiU use other interest factors and will do a much better management job in consequence.

The foreman who is quiet, self-possessed, and sympathetic, who everybody knows "means business all the time," will in the long run do a better job than the type of foreman who is continually threatening, "bawling out," and stirring up his force in all sorts of ways. The first type is the modern type of foreman ; the second the older type that is now passing out of American industry.

CHAPTER XIX

THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON THE MEN- TAL ATTITUDE OF THE WORKING FORCE. (CONTINUED.) SATISFACTION

SECTION I. PRELIMINABT

Preliminary. — ^The third and, perhaps, in some ways the most important element affecting the mental attitude of the members of any team is the degree to which they are satisfied or dissatisfied, and just as any team leader has managerial problems on leadership and interest, so he has problems on satisfaction as well. This chapter takes up satisfaction in the same general way that interest was considered in the preceding chapter.

As will plainly appear later in connection with the man- agement responsibilities on satisfaction which every foreman has at least to some extent, it is very necessary to get the proposition clearly "lined up," especially so as to avoid con- fusion between satisfaction and interest, because in so many cases the two go together in actual practice, yet, if they are not "unscrambled" in managing the case, good results are not likely to be obtained. The first section, therefore, dis- cusses satisfaction in a general way, especially as to the dif- ferences between it and some other things that are sometimes confused with it ; following sections taking up the "satisfac- tion factors" and cost elements and managerial problems.

What is Meant by Satisfaction? — ^The term satisfaction is used here just as it is used in ordinary conversation. We know what we mean when we say that we are satisfied: we mean that we "have no special fault to find," or that we think that things are "all right," so far as the particular thing that we have in mind is concerned. When somebody says, "Have some more pie?" and we say, "I'm satisfied," we simply

32a

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 829

mean that we have eaten all the pie that we want : so far as pie is concerned we are full. When we say, "I'm not satisfied with that proposition," we mean that there is, as we see it, something wrong about it.

Satisfaction, therefore, means with regard to any par- ticular proposition or any special job that the person who is considering that particular proposition or who is on that particular job, thmks that the situation is as it should be: that it is "right."

Dissatisfaction, on the other hand, means that, as the person who is on the job looks at it, there is something wrong : that things ought to be different.

Satisfaction vs. Contentment. — ^In the sense in which it is used in this book satisfaction does not mean contentment, and these two situations should not be confused. A man might be satisfied with his job and yet not be contented. If he was satisfied with his job he would not "kick" about it, but he might be extremely anxious to get another job as soon as the chance came along, and might even be making special eifort to fit himself for that job. He would be satisfied but not contented. If he were contented he would not be inter- ested in any other job. A satisfied man may, at the same time be ambitious : a contented man has no ambition so far as the special point under consideration is concerned though he may have ambitions along other lines.

Satisfaction and Interest. — ^It is equally true that satis- faction does not mean the same thing as interest. For ex- ample, it is not uncommon to hear a man say, "I'm satisfied with my job, but I'm not particularly interested in it," and we know just what he means when he says it. He has no kick on the job : he goes along with it, but he does not care much whether it is well done or badly done, although perhaps a small interest factor, like fear of getting fired, or a sense of duty, perhaps a little job pride, or self respect, makes him do it well enough to get by with it.

Satisfaction is, therefore, a different thing from interest and, like interest, there are certain things that affect it in.

830 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

any given case that we may call satisfaction factors jtist as we had interest factors in the last chapter, and a foreman who has managerial problems in this part of the human fac- tor block needs to know something about satisfaction factors just as much as he needs to know something about interest factors or the elements of leadership. The term satisfaction factors will, therefore, be used in the following paragraphs to indicate anything that may cause satisfaction or dissatis- faction with the job.

Satisfaction Factors. — Satisfaction or dissatisfaction comes from a number of causes, many of which are hard to locate, so that "satisfaction management" is often a hardfer job than interest management, and calls for even more man- agerial skill on the foreman's part, because dissatisfaction often comes from causes that are purely "notions." If these "notions" are, however, in a man's head, it makes no difference whether they are real facts or notions, so long as they are there, they affect satisfaction with the job. A good example of this is what is said to have been the cause of the Indian Mutiny. According to the story as it is commonly told, this mutiny was caused by the "notion" that got spread around among the native troops that the cartridges that were served out to them were greased with pig's fat which their religion forbade them to touch. This was not true : according to the statements as made at the time the cartridges were greased with some other kind of fat, on account of this religious prejudice, and there was not a grain of truth in the notion. Nevertheless, it caused the mutiny, with all its attendant horrors. The truth or the falsity of the story had nothing to do with the resulting dissatisfaction that culminated in the mutiny.

For another illustration a man may get the notion that "he is being put upon" : "is being made the goat" when there may not be a particle of truth in the idea. He may even say nothing about it, but brood over the matter. So long as he feels that way he is bound to be dissatisfied.

In dealing with problems on satisfaction it is especially

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 331

difficult to get at the real situation because in so many cases it is not a question of the facts as they really are, but of an imaginary situation : that is, of the situation as it looks to the man, and this matter is often complicated by the fact that the man will not tell how the matter does look to him. This is one of the cases where good cooperative relations between the foreman and the men helps a great deal. In many cases the case must be handled on what a lawyer would call "cir- cumstantial evidence" which amounts to saying that you get all the facts that you can and then, on the basis of your experience, make the best guess that you can as to the true facts of the case.

The Foreman and Satisfaction. — Just as in the case of interest, under all ordinary conditions, any foreman has responsibilities on the managerial side of his job that require him to deal with cases of dissatisfaction more directly inside of his department but often, through cooperative responsi- bilities, anywhere in the plant. In proportion as he can recognize cases of dissatisfaction, knows the satisfaction fac- tors and can use them skillfully, he will be able to improve the mental attitude of the working force by promoting satisfac- tion and reducing dissatisfaction, and so cut cost, which is always his managerial job.

"Dissatisfaction Factors." — The following list of "dis- satisfaction factors" is, of course, only suggestive. As in the case of interest, the question of satisfaction or dissatisfaction comes in wherever the human factors come into play. In studying cases of dissatisfaction that have been discussed from time to time in foremen's conferences the following have often come up, and might be regarded as some of the more common and probable causes of dissatisfaction :

1. A man thinks that he is not getting' "what is coming to him" at that time.

2. A man does not think that he is "getting a fair show."

3. A man thinks that the working conditions are worse than they ought to be, or, if they have to be bad on account of

332 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

the nature of the job he thinks that proper allowance is not made for them by the foreman.

4. He thinks that he has not a sufficiently important job.

5. He thinks that his job is "beneath him."

6. "He knows too much for his job."

7. He dislikes his job.

8. He thinks that he is "being put upon."

9. He doesn't like the crowd that he is working with.

10. He is scared of the job or thinks that he can't do it.

Discussion. — ^It should be remembered that the "dissatis- faction elements" listed above and others of the same sort that may be puUed out in discussion have nothing to do with the facts of the case. It is not a question of whether a man is getting a fair show, but that he tJUnJcs, or has worked him- self into a state of mind where he thinks that he has not a fair show. As a matter of fact he may be getting all the show in the world, but that has nothing to do with his state of mind. Again, if a man thinks that he dislikes his job and thinks that he wants another, it makes no difference if the job that he is on is the one that he can do best of aU the different jobs in the department. The matter of dissatis- faction as considered here is always a question of state of mind, not a question of the actual facts in the case.

This dissatisfied state of mind is especially likely to come up in the case of young employees, boys and girls, par- ticularly in the case of young girls, always, of course, with exceptions.

Satisfaction Factors and "Dissatisfaction Factors." — While the real point of all managerial dealing with satisfac- tion is to improve conditions, as the cases usually come up in practice the situation is one where the man is dissatisfied and the problem is to locate the causes of dissatisfaction. The following discussion is therefore based upon causes of dis- satisfaction rather than upon those making for satisfaction, that is, on what may be called "dissatisfaction factors" rather than upon satisfaction factors as discussed in the previous section.

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 333

SECTION n. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PBOBIEMS ON SATISFACTION

Preliminary. — Where men are dissatisfied, good work cannot be done, or, at least, as good work cannot be done, and under such conditions cost will evidently be increased. A dissatisfied team, whether their dissatisfaction is justified or not, will not do a first class job. Nor are the team mem- bers likely to stay on their jobs. Therefore, whatever a foreman can do by action, recommendation, or suggestion, to reduce dissatisfaction among the members of his working force or to prevent unjustified dissatisfaction, is a part of his managerial job, and the degree to which he handles this job with regard to the cost elements and succeeds in reducing or heading off dissatisfaction is the measure of his managerial ability in that particular line. This section takes up some cost elements and managerial problems in this connection.

Cost Elements on Dissatisfaction. — ^Among the more prominent cost elements that may come into play in connec- tion with different cases of dissatisfaction, that is, real causes of dissatisfaction are :

1. The degree to which all men do not get square treatment.

2. The degree to which a foreman "plays favorites."

3. The degree to which all the men do not get considerate treatment all the time.

4. The degree to which men get "bawled out," especially when they do not deserve it. That is where the foreman has the habit of "going off at half cock."

5. The degree to which the foreman takes disciplinary action before aU the facts are known. (Another case of going off at half cock.)

6. The degree to which a foreman is "grouchy."

7. The degree to which a foreman sets a good example in dealing with the men.

8. The degree to which a foreman has too much dignity or not enough dignity.

334 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

9. The degree to which a foreman takes no interest in his men.

10. The degree to which a man is really on the wrong job.

11. The degree to which the working conditions are really bad or, if necessary, not taken into consideration.

12. The degree to which the working group is improperly made up.

13. The degree to which the man is really scared of the job.

14. The degree to which when a foreman teUs anything he tell the truth.

Of course, the above are not all the cost elements that may come into play in all the different cases of dissatisfaction, but those given are enough to suggest a number of others and to form a basis for conference discussion and thought.

Where Dissatisfaction May Originate. — On looking over such a list of possible causes of dissatisfaction as has just been given, it wiU. at once appear that dissatisfaction may origiaate in three distinctly different ways :

1. It may originate with the foreman himself.

2. It may originate with the man himself.

3. It may originate with the Management.

While, no matter where the dissatisfaction originates, it puts a managerial problem up to the foreman, nevertheless its origin affects the manner in which hef must deal with the problem, hence a brief discussion along these lines may be helpful.

Dissatisfaction Originates With the Foreman. — ^An example of such a case would be where the foreman had actually " played favorites," or was grouchy, or inconsider- ate, or used poor judgment in assigning workers to jobs within his department. In such cases it is evident that the whole matter of handling the problem is within the foreman's own control. " He started it and he can finish it." He can stop being grouchy, he can use better judgment in placing men on jobs, he can become more considerate. He can

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 335

handle the whole problem alone and handle it exactly as he wants to. Nobody else need know anything about it. Since this is so, it offers, in a way, the simplest managerial prob- lem of the three.

Dissatisfaction Originates With the Man Himself. — This would be illustrated by the case where the man thinks that he is worth more money, or that the foreman " has it in for him," or that he has been unjustly " called down." This state of mind offers a much more difficult managerial problem because it makes no difference whether the dissatis- faction is based upon fact or on imagination. If the man thinks these things he will be just as dissatisfied as if they were true, and, under most circumstances, he won't tell what the matter is. Such cases therefore offer the most difiScult managerial problems to any supervisor.

Dissatisfaction Originates With the Management. — ^An illustration of such a case would be where the Management had adopted a certain poHcy that was sure to cause some dissatisfaction but which the foreman had to carry out. For example, in a case of reduction of operating force the policy might be to lay off all single men before any married men were affected, or it might be determined that the best way was to put everybody on part time. Whatever the policy adopted, it is evident that any dissatisfaction that might result would originate in a cause that the foreman could in no way control ; he must deal with something that he did not start though he must " finish it." This sort of thing of course sets up a managerial problem that is entirely dif- ferent from either of the other cases, and offers in some respects the most difficult problem of the three.

Whatever the Cause the Foreman Must Deal With the Dissatisfaction. — ^Whatever the cause, the resulting dissatis- faction will come up to the foreman in some form and it wiU be up to him to do what he can to hold it down to the minimum. According to the origin as just discussed, the

336 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

cases must be handled very differently according to how they originated, so that what has been called here the origin of the dissatisfaction must be taken into consideration before starting to deal with the problem.

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here may be stated as follows : To reduce dissatisfaction to the minimum by "spotting" .such cases as soon as they develop and taking the best possible means to deal with them so as to substitute sati^action for dissatisfaction. Of course, this cannot always be done, but it is what a good manager will always try to do.

Dealing with the Problem. — The following paragraphs take up the cost elements just given and suggest some ways and means for dealing with them. Before taking up the de- tailed discussion, however, there should be pointed out a general method of procedure for dealing manageriaUy with such cases by the use of the method of analysis of cases, as is quite fully discussed and described in the chapter on care- lessness on the job. In general, there are two possible causes for dissatisfaction in any given case : first, the cause may be due to the foreman and the man may be all right : that is, the fault may lie with the foreman ; second, the foreman may be all right and the trouble may be with the man. Where the trouble lies with the man there may be real cause for dissatis- faction or the whole matter may be imaginary. So we have — as a sort of a chart of possible causes :

A Real Cause for Dissatisfaction

An Imaginary Cause for Dissatisfaction

A Case of

Dissatisfaction

"The Foreman's Fault"

The Man's Fault

The Job's Fault

Now it is evident that, in dealing managerially with a case of dissatisfaction the whole way of going at the problem would be different if it were the foreman's fault from what

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 337

it would be if it were the man's fault, and if it were up to the man, again the way of going at it would be different, according to whether the cause of dissatisfaction were real or imaginary. Evidently, if the ways of dealing with the case were based on the idea that it was the fault of the man when it was really the fault of the foreman, or the fault of the job, the results would not be likely to be very good and might make things worse instead of better. In general, therefore, there are two steps, and these two steps are just what a doc- tor takes with a patient.

First, find out the cause of the trouble (or make the diagnosis, as the doctor would say).

Second, take the necessary steps to improve the condition. (Determinine the treatment and apply it, as a doctor would say.)

The necessary steps are, therefore, as follows for any human factor case:

1. Determine whether the difficulty is an interest dif- ficulty or a dissatisfaction difficulty.

2. If it is dissatisfaction, determine whether it is your fault, the man's fault or the fault of the job.

3. If it is the man's fault, determine whether his dissatis- faction is due to real or imaginary causes. <

4. If it is the job's fault determine what the matter is and whether the trouble can, or cannot, be remedied.

5. The kind and cause of the dissatisfaction having been now determined, proceed to work out ways and means for dealing T^ith the problem.

6. If they don't work, "back check" and try again. While, in dealing with the human factors, nobody can

ever be sure w;here they are going to come out, the adoption of some such analytic method as is suggested above will greatly reduce the chances of going wrong as compared with the use of the straight "guess" method. "The percentage of hits will be considerably higher," as is always the case where some form of analysis is used instead of the "guess" method in working out any problem. 22

338 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

The following paragraphs take up the different cost ele- ments as given and make some suggestions that may be of service in working out problems on dissatisfaction as a part of the foreman's managerial job.

Square Treatment. — ^The value of this cost element is ad- mitted by everybody but the difBculty lies in the fact that it is not so much a question of a man's intending to be square as it is the other fellow's believing that he means to be square. A belief that a superior intends to be square will carry him over many a rough place, but "good intentions" alone wiE not do it. The value that subordinates set on square treat- ment was illustrated some time ago when about one thousand people who had graduated from high schools several years before were asked to name the teacher who, as they looked back on their school experience, had left the strongest im- pression on them and why. Something like ninety per cent, in teUing why they named the teacher that they did, gave as a reason: "He (or she) always meant to give us a square deal."

All foremen intend to be "square," that goes without saying, but in the hurry and drive of the work, unless a man is careful to stop and think, he may forget to seem to be square. That is where, so far as this cost element is con- cerned, he may run up cost due to dissatisfaction that is his fault, so that the best "ways and means" for "managing" in this case is "Never be in too much of a hurry to be sure that you are square" and get a justified reputation for being square that will carry you over in case you do slip up as anybody is liable to do.

"Plapng Favorites." — One of the surest ways of pro- moting dissatisfaction is to "play favorites." The problem here is all the more difficult because this habit is often an unconscious one. The playing of favorites works an in- justice to everybody concerned. Those who are not favored soon notice that they are not and as a result their attitude is one of "what is the use." The ones who are favored also soon notice it and their attitude is "what is the use, I am in strong

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 339

with the foreman ; no matter what I do it will be all right."

The foreman who plays the favorites knows in his own mind that he has no grounds for playing favorites and as a result of trying to bolster up his false position destroys more and more any attempts at cooperating from the rest of the force.

Showing Consideration. — ^Within the necessary limits of getting the job done, and with regard to all other conditions, the degree to which a foreman shows consideration in dealing with his men is an important cost element from the standpoint of the promotion of satisfaction and the development of leadership. This does not mean "babying" men, nor does it mean trying to "make popularity" by going easy, but, while, of course, the work has to be done, there are many things that a foreman can do if he wants to do them in the way of showing consideration.

Probably most of these things would be thought of as little things perhaps not worth considering, but in the matter of satisfaction and interest little things sometimes count more than big things. For example, during some very hot spells certain stores notified all employees that if they felt the heat too much they could go home at any time.

This was showing consideration as against some other stores that held their employees through the whole working day. Where the working conditions were such that men had to work in a high temperature on a certain job, the foreman made an arrangement whereby the men were sup- plied with cold drinking water. Many commercial establish- ments will show consideration for their office employees during hot weather by putting in electric fans.

Now all such things as these have a distinct cost reducing value because they promote satisfaction and increase interest, because they show the fact that those in charge recognize the fact that the members of the working force are doing their jobs under difficulties and, after all, consideration simply means doing something that shows that we "appreciate the other fellow's troubles." It is a curious trait of human na-

340 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

ture that most of us, if we are working under difficulties, appreciate recognition of that fact from our superiors much more if it comes in the way of something being done about it without our having complained than if we got it by "kicking."

Of course, chances for showing consideration came up in aU sorts of ways and the great majority of foremen are con- siderate but in many cases they have not thought of consid- eration as a cost factor. They have just shown consideration because they are decent men, and have done it as a matter of course. One thing is certain, however, a reputation for being considerate is a valuable item on the plus side of the turnover and cost production records, although it may never appear as a cash item on the books.

One further point may be worth bringing up. Many people who have charge of teams wiD say that consideration is all right for "intelligent" people, such as "so and so has" but that their people would not appreciate consideration if it were shown them. They are too "hard boiled," or are "a gang of ignorant foreigners" or are "too stupid" to appre- ciate anything of the kind. Of course, every man knows his own business best, but as a matter of fact in many cases such people have shown more appreciation of considerate treat- ment than some presvmiably "more intelligent" workers have done. The degree to which consideration counts with a man depends on what sort of a man he is and not oh the fact that he has, or has not a college education, or can, or cannot speak English.

The Value of Deserved Praise. — The degree to which a foreman recognizes the value of deserved praise is often an important factor in promoting satisfaction. If, when we have done a good job, the man for whom we work tells us that it is a good job any of us will "feel better."

If any man does a good piece of work and the foreman tells him so it does no harm, provided the job has been well done, and it will increase satisfaction or will tend to keep it up, perhaps especially in the case of rather ignorant workers or in the case of a beginner. Of course, this sort of thing

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 341

can be overdone, but a tactful, observant foreman can do much along this line if he studies his men and finds out which of them "respond to treatment" of this kind.

Criticising and Reprimanding. — ^Anybody who has super- visory and managerial responsibilities will have to criticise and reprimand, but the way that this is done may have much to do with both satisfaction and interest. In the first place a reprimand always lowers interest and satisfaction. This is true of everybody because none of us like to be in a position where we have to be reprimanded or punished. A helpful criticism, however, If rightly handled, will often increase Interest and satisfaction. The managerial job as to repri- manding is, therefore, to get the result for which the repri- mand Is given with the least loss of interest and satisfaction and to so handle cases of criticism that interest and satis- faction are increased rather than decreased.

Reprimanding. — ^Where reprimanding has to be done there are some points worth mentioning. In the first place, nothing wUl do more to Increase dissatisfaction and reduce interest than a reprimand that is undeserved. Even if the matter is ' straightened out afterwards. It leaves its effects. In the second place, reprimands, when given, should be clear and to the point, covering at least these points. What was done wrong, why it was wrong, and, if possible, how it should have been right. In the third place, to make reprimands effective it Is not necessary to "throw a man down" person- ally. Sarcasm, personal abuse, "bawling out" serve no useful purpose and generally do a great deal of harm from the standpoint of interest and satisfaction. They are "expen- sive luxuries" for any supervisor to indulge in. The situa- tion Is worse when we have the case of a subordinate who can't or dare not " come back." This is, in many cases, true of foreign speaking workers and green men.

If a foreman can succeed in so handling matters of neces- sary reprimands (and there will be cases where they wiU be necessary) so as to make them effective and yet not attack

S42 1 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

the self respect of his men he will cut dissatisfaction costs considerably.

Criticising. — Criticism wiU help or hinder interest and satisfaction in proportion as it is evident that it is intended to be helpful and not a reprimand in disguise. A common rule here is not to criticise unless at the same time you show how the thing can be done better. This is sometimes called constructive criticism as against destructive criticism. Con- structive criticism does not make a man feel "sore," but does make him feel that the foreman is willing to take time to show him where he is "off." Of course, it all depends on the way in which it is done. If criticism is put over in the wrong way, it can easily reduce a man's job pride and produce a very bad effect. Some points about helpful criticism are :

( 1 ) It should be square.

(2) It should be definite — the man shquld know exactly what is wrong.

(3) It should always include definite instructions as to how to do those particular things right.

(4) It should not be accompanied by any "bawling out." Taking Action Before all Facts are Known. — This pos- sible case has already been referred to. "Going off at half cock" in matters of disciplinary action is as unsafe a habit in a foreman as it is in a gun. If a man is reprimanded or laid off or fired on partial facts, on "snap action," and it later ap- pears that the action was not justified a very bad situation has 'been created as regards interest and satisfaction not only with the man but with the whole working force, because an injustice has been done and everybody resents injustice. Of course, a few cases of this kind may happen to anybody, we are aU. human and make mistakes, and when we do, the only thing that can be done is to straighten out matters as well as we can, but the habit of acting on "snap judgment" is another expensive luxury. As a habit it means labor loss, dissatisfaction and loss of interest.

Having a Grouch. — ^Everybody knows what is meant by "having a grouch." Sometimes a man is bom with a grouch

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 343

and never gets over it and sometimes he gets into a grouchy state of mind for a while, but whatever the cause, a grouch costs money. It is still another expensive luxury for any team leader to have around. Nothing will do more to create dissatisfaction and pull down interest than for a foreman to have a habitual grouch, or to act as if he had one, it makes little difference which. In the first place, if the team leader has a grouch the members of the team will quickly develop grouches too by what an electrician would call induction and then everybody has a grouch and goes around looking for trouble, and, of course, under such conditions, finding it easily.

This is merely another example of a number of cases where attention has been drawn to the fact that the team mem- bers tend to take their cue from the team leader, so that a special obligation rests on him to see to it that any "cues" are good ones and not bad ones. In this case the "cap- italization value" of the straight, steady going leader is more than is often realized, and this is especially true as regards grouches.

Any man is liable to suffer from a temporary grouch : his breakfast did not suit him, he had a family row just before coming to work, and he brings his grouch with him on the job. If he is wise he will leave it at the gate because nobody can teU how much that grouch may set things back in the way of morale and interest. In cases of a bad grouch of this kind it is possible that reaUy the cheapest thing for a foreman to do would be stay out of the plant until he was over it.

A permanent grouch is another question. All that can be said here is that a man who regularly carries a grouch around with him can never become a real leader and only by accident can such a man become a foreman anyway, so this point need not be taken up any further.

Setting a Good Example. — ^Mention has already been made in a number of places to the fact that the members of any team take their cue from the team leader so that he is under a special obligation to set a good example in things

S44 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

that count, such as observing special safety precautions, obeying rules and regulations, and so on. A number of illus- trations given in different parts of this book bring out this point for special cases, so that it is only necessary to draw attention to the general fact here. The old seafaring saying, "As the captain so the ship," applies to the case of a fore- man and his operating force just as much as anywhere else. Many foremen do not realize their influence in this way, especially with young and immature help, whose habits as to such matters are often in process of formation.

No attempt will be made here to suggest what a foreman should or should not do in connection with setting a good example : that is up to him, but there is one point to which it is worth while to draw attention. In such cases most of us tend to look at the matter from the standpoint of our own jobs and not from the eiFect of what we do on the state of mind of others, especially if we are hard pressed on our own job. For instance, take the case of a freight elevator where the rules require that it should not be used for passenger work. A foreman is quite likely to think, "By using this elevator and saving the climbing of four flights of stairs I can save a lot of time and I am able to take care of myself." So he breaks the rule for the sake of his job but forgets that some- body else who knows that the foreman broke the rule wiU figure that he might as well break the rule, too, and so, per- haps, eventually there is an accident.

In considering any given case a foreman can generally ask himself this question: "If I do this is there a chance that my example will result in cutting down morale.?" If it will, don't do it.

"Dignity." — Some men are afraid to be considerate, tact- ful or human because they are " afraid of their dignity." In some positions, fortunately not often in industrial plants, team leaders have been told by their superiors that they must always "keep up the dignity of their position." For example, this has been said by the principals of many schools to teachers. Just what is meant by the "dignity" of the posi-

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 845

tion nobody seems to exactly know, but in such cases it must be maintained at all costs. We see this idea crop up in such statements as that "a superior may make a mistake but he must never admit it, because it weakens the dignity of his position." Of course, this is all foolishness and every real man knows it. No man can maintain his dignity unless he has something to maintain it on, and that something must be something more than the name of a job or even authority, as such, that goes with that job. If a foreman, or any other team leader, is respected by his team, deals with them fairly and knows his job, his dignity will take care of itself. He will have no call to worry about it. On the other hand, if he does not command the respect of the team, or if he does not deserve that respect, no exercise of authority will enable him to keep up the dignity of his position because he has nothing to keep that' dignity up on. It can be safely said that a foreman who is on his job as a supervisor and manager has no need to worry about his "dignity."

Of course, the above statement does not mean that a foreman should disregard the difference between his job and the working jobs in his department, or that he needs to "play up" to his men. It does mean that he is a man working with a group of other men, each man on his own job, and that, as a manager, he will command respect in proportion as he is recognized as a man and as a man who is on his job just as he expects the men to be on their jobs.

If a foreman feels that he must continually be on the lookout for the protection of his dignity, he can be quite sure that that attitude is costing money in terms of labor loss. If he lacks the necessary respect of the men he had better get it ; there is no substitute.

Taking Interest in the Men. — Some foremen, while fair, just and efficient, regard the men only as so many "hands" and confine their interest to the purely supervisory side of the man relation field. In doing this they neglect an im- portant cost element in labor loss. As pointed out elsewhere in this book, a foreman stands in a way as the representa-

346 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

tive of the group, as the leader, as well as the producer. He can do much by taking a personal interest in his men outside of their purely working relations.

If Pete has a new baby it does no harm to know it and tell him so, but be sure that you know whether it is a boy or a girl. If Bill is in trouble, an offer of advice or help may do more good than one would think. For example, dur- ing the war many foremen employing foreign speaking help undoubtedly helped their men to understand about Liberty bonds or advised men having sons in the service as to allotments.

While the motive here was undoubtedly due to the gen- eral interest that one man takes in another when he is in difficulties, as a matter of fact such evidences of interest undoubtedly do form one of the strongest interest and satis- faction factors in many cases.

One point in this connection. Sympathy and interest, to be of any value, must be real. If a team leader is not really interested in the fact that Pete has a new baby, or Bill is in trouble, he had better not try to put up a bluff. It won't go. Unless the desire to help is real and the interest is real, trying to put across an imitation will do more harm than good.

The Value of Instruction. — ^In connection with this mat- ter of showing real interest in the members of the working force mention might be made of the value of helpful sugges- tions and instruction. If a worker is doing a job as well as he knows how but could do it better if he were given a few pointers in the right way he will take this as one evidence that the foreman takes an interest in him, and this will be reflected in an increased interest and satisfaction. He feels that the foreman thinks that "he is worth helping" and that increases his self respect and his job pride, both of which are morale elements.

Poorly Made Up Working Group. — ^It will often happen that dissatisfaction will come about through the fact that a man is working with the wrong group, especially where the job is being carried on by a team, as in the case of riveting.

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 347

Sometimes there are nationalities that do not mix well on the same work team, sometimes there are other reasons but it will often happen that in assigning workers to work teams, or even to jobs where they must work side by side, attention given to this matter may help matters as to satisfaction. For one example, a woman on a job might be working next to a man who tried to annoy her in some way and if this situation was not spotted it might result in the woman quitting on account of that annoyance. If she was a good worker, this would mean replacement cost and so increased overhead.

Since aU foremen are familiar with these matters they are not taken up any further, and are only referred to here because they may be important elements in connection with satisfaction and interest and perhaps are not always thought of in that light so much as merely sources of trouble and annoyance to the foreman. They are more important than that, and should in many cases receive more careful attention than they sometimes do.

Man on the Wrong Job.— It is a well-known fact that some jobs appeal to some people and the same job is very distasteful to others. This point is taken up in connection with matching job requirements to man qualifications and so is not gone into in any detail here.

It is a point, however, that is worth considering in con- nection with satisfaction and interest because a man who is in a job that he dislikes, even although he may stick to it, is never as satisfied or interested as he would be on a j ob that appealed to him.

Man Scared of the Job. — ^Another cause of dissatisfac- tion and loss of interest is where a worker is afraid of the job. This case almost always comes up in the case of new em- ployees and is taken up in connection with instruction, and so is only mentioned here.

Telling the Truth. — One other important point in con- nection with morale is the extent to which a foreman has a deserved reputation for telling the truth. His word can be depended upon. When he tells a man that he will take up

348 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

some matter that affects that man's interest he does it. When he is asked questions about what is going to happen, say as to lay-offs on account of slack work, if he says anything he tells the truth. Perhaps he doesn't know, perhaps he can't tell, but the worst thing that he can do is to lie about it.

Where any team leader has not the reputation of being reliable as to such matters he can be sure that the team morale is seriously impaired. While in many cases this will seem the easy way to get out of a difficulty, in the long run it is a costly method: it doesn't pay.

CHAPTER XX

THE HUMAN FACTOR. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON THE MENTAL ATTITUDE OF THE WORKING FORCE. ' SATISFACTION

SECTION I. PREIilMINAKY

Preliminaiy. — The last two chapters considered the three chief elements that affect the mental attitude of the members of the team leadership, interest and satisfaction. As a matter of actual practice, however, when "hmnan factor cases" have to be dealt with managerially, they are seldom clean cut, that is, the case is seldom 100 per cent, interest or 100 per cent, satisfaction, but is more or less mixed. The remaining chapters on the human factor discuss certain cost elements and managerial problems where both satisfaction and interest may come into play, this chapter taking up the working conditions and general surroundings, the following chapters dealing with management on orders, directions and suggestions and with certain cases involving the question of the saving or firing of men in cases of failure to obey orders or to follow directions, especially in connection with " carelessness on the job. "

Working Conditions. — Whenever a job is to be done, the working force, the stock, the tools and equipment must be got together somewhere, where the job can be done or has to be done. That is, people must work surrounded by what they work on and what they work with, at the place where the job is to be done. For example, a logging crew must work in the woods, work with logs, work out of doors and work with the special tools that go with their particular jobs, peaveys, cant hooks, axes and so on. A train crew works on the track and on the train, using the special tools that go with their jobs, the crew of a ship works on the ship, using

850 THE FOEEMAN AND HIS JOB

the special tools that go with their jobs and so all along the line.

Now this "mixture" of workers, tools, equipment, place where the work must be done, kind of stock worked upon, necessary hours and so on make up what is called, as the term is used here, the working conditions on any given job or in any one trade, and, of course, these working conditions vary greatly for diiferent jobs and for different trades.

General Cost Elements on Working Conditions. — ^In general, it may be said that poor working conditions increase cost and that good working conditions decrease cost because the nature of the working conditions affects both permanent and temporary labor loss.

They affect permanent labor loss because poor working conditions will, in the long run, increase turnover with the corresponding discharge or "quitting" cost and they affect temporary labor loss because they may result in men being off the job for a greater or less time or in preventing men from working to the best advantage.

As in a number of other cases, it is only recently that the cost value of poor working conditions has been fully under- stood and has been made the subject of careful study but they are now coming to be regarded as some of the most important elements in connection with the managerial problem of deal- ing effectively with the promotion of interest and satisfaction as affecting turnover and absenteeism, and so call for careful consideration on the part of any foreman whose responsibility lay-out shows any responsibilities in this connection.

How Poor Working Conditions May Affect Permanent Labor Loss. — ^Anything that takes a worker off the job when he could be on that job means labor loss, and if it takes him off the job for good it means permanent labor loss. There may be a number of ways in which poor working conditions may permanently separate the man and the job. For ex- ample, if he finds that no attention is paid to making the working conditions safe, he is liable to quit as soon as he can find a chance to work under safer conditions : if, as a result

SATISFACTION 861

of an accident, he is killed or permanently disabled, his knowl- edge and skill are permanently lost to the plant. If there are special occupational dangers, and especially if he does not know exactly what they are or just how to protect him- self from them, or if he finds that the conditions under which he has to work are especially dangerous, owing to lack of protection, he may quit on account of what may be called "job scare," especially if he is a new man on the job, and feels that all possible means are not taken to protect him. All such reasons as those just given and many others tend to run up cost due to permanent labor loss because of poor work- ing conditions.

How Poor Working Conditions May Affect Temporary Labor Loss. — ^Not only may poor working conditions affect permanent labor loss but they may affect temporary labor loss as well. For example, an accident that might have been prevented by the use of proper safety precautions may lay a man off for a time, or general dissatisfaction or loss of interest due to poor working conditions may result in in- creased absenteeism, in either case making for temporary labor loss.

How Poor Working Conditions May Affect Work on the Job. — ^Not only may poor working conditions affect tem- porary and permanent labor loss but where the worker stays on the job the quality or quantity of his work may be affected. Men cannot work to the best advantage under such condi- tions as extreme heat or cold, or where they cannot see, or where they have to work in uncomfortable positions, or where they are afraid of personal injury and so naturally think more of looking out for themselves than they do about the job. All such conditions prevent a man from "putting in his best licks" and to that extent result in a form of labor loss, not because the man is off the job but because he is not "all there."

The Foreman and Working Conditions. — Since, as has already been pointed out in an earlier chapter, a foreman may be able to affect the working conditions in his department,

352 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

either by action, recommendation or suggestion he has super- visory responsibilities and so managerial responsibilities as well. Not only may he have these responsibilities for his own department, but in many cases he would have cooperative responsibilities that might relate to working conditions any- where in the plant.

Cost Elements. — The general cost elements for poor working conditions have been indicated in the preceding para- graphs: reduced production, inferior quality, decreased in- terest and lowered morale, and in many cases increased acci- dent risk. Of course, there are others and more detailed cost elements can be analyzed out for any given situation, accord- ing to the special character of the plant and the detailed nature of the working conditions, but the above suggestions are enough to indicate the general nature of such studies as can be made.

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem in this case is to improve so far as possible any working condi- tions that are increasing cost.

Dealing with the Problem- — Conditions vary so much that only general suggestions can be made. The methods of analysis can be used to advantage here as in a number of other cases already taken up. The conditions that are affect- ing cost can be determined first and then such ways and means as are possible within the limits of a foreman's job can be worked out and applied. In doing this it wUl be of assistance to consider some of the more common kinds of working condi- tions that may affect costs. Among these are :

1. Working facilities.

2. Ventilation.

3. Lighting.

4. Temperature.

5. General surroundings.

Working Facilities. — Only in a few cases does a worker provide all his tools and equipment. In the majority of cases these are provided by the plant. The extent to which such tools and equipment as are provided by the plant are in good

SATISFACTION 353

condition and there are enough to go around, is an important element firom the standpoint of both satisfaction and inter- est. For example, during the war, in certain shipyards the provision for supplying air under pressure was not sufficient, and this resulted in an excessive turnover among the riveters, ''^because they could not make a full day's pay with the air failing from time to time and seldom up to good working pressure. A machine shop that is noted for its old and worn out equipment will always find difiiculty in getting and holding good workmen. If men are expected to work with inadequate tools, or have to lose time waiting for tools, or the tools that they have to work with are in poor condition, the tendency is to drive the good men out of the plant and also to increase dissatisfaction and reduce interest. A plant having a reputation for poor tools, "nothing that can be used to do a decent job with," poor machine equipment, etc., will inevitably su^er in comparison with a concern that has a reputation for first class facilities.

One detailed cost element is, therefore, poor working facilities.

Ventilation. — ^While in many cases these conditions are beyond the direct control of a foreman, as in the case of many old plants where only improvement can be through the install- ing of a special system of ventilation, which would lie outside of the foreman's job, except possibly on a recommending basis, there are other cases where he can do much to improve conditions. One thing is sure: workers who have to work with their lungs full of bad air, or in an atmosphere full of particles of dust, will never be able to do first-class work. These conditions unquestionably affect satisfaction and in many cases interest as well.

One tendency of such conditions is to prevent a sufficiently intelligent and in other ways desirable class of help from tak- ing jobs or, if they have to take them, staying on them any longer than they can help, all of which means increased cost.

The Importance of Good Ventilation. — In many plants, ventilation is an important factor, so much so that it is some-

23

354 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

times required by law in connection with certain occupations. For example, in certain states there is a legal requirement that an exhaust system shaU be connected with dry grindings, so that the dust shall not be breathed into the lungs of the workmen.

Cost Elements. — ^Among the more important cost ele- ments are:

(1) If the ventilation is such that workers ar^not prop- erly protected from injurious particles of dust, the ultimate result is that they become more or less physically incapaci- tated and we finally have absenteeism or permanent labor loss as in the case of accidents. The only difference between such a case as has just been discussed and an "accident" is that an accident happens suddenly, and cases of this kind happen gradually, but the ultimate results are the same.

(2) Where the general ventilation is poor, men become "dopey" ; their productive efficiency runs down with a corre- sponding increase in labor cost per production unit and in temporary, or even permanent, labor loss.

(3) Still another way in which ventilation affects cost is the fact that where ventilation is poor, turnover is in- creased inevitably. A good workman under poor conditions of ventilation, as a rule, will be looking for a job under better conditions, and if he finds such a job with some other concern he will take it.

The Managerial Problem. — The problem here is merely to do whatever can be done to improve conditions that are increasing cost due to poor ventilation.

Dealing wiih the Problem.^Since this depends on the special conditions it cannot be taken up here in any detail.

Lighting. — By lighting is meant, first, the general dis- tribution of light in a plant, and second, the specific lighting on necessary operating points whether the light be natural or artificial and it is not uncommon to find shops in which both or one of these conditions are bad.

Cost Elements. — If either the natural or artificial light- ing is poor, cost is increased wherever men have to use their

SATISFACTION 355

eyes in connection with their work. From the standpoint of general illumination, if, for example, stairways are badly lighted so that men stumble and an accident occurs, it means the same cost as that due to an accident arising from any other cause. Men handling heavy pieces of stock under poor lighting conditions are liable to injure themselves through not being able to see how to handle things properly. In the case of the illumination of specific operating points, the increased cost of the failure to provide such illumination usually comes out in an increased amount of inferior work, but also may result in personal injury, as when owing to poor lighting, a man lets a tool slip, or puts his face too close to the work to see, as might happen in turning up a short piece of stock with a dog.

Another cost factor due to poor illumination is one that is seldom given adequate consideration; men working in gloomy, ill-lighted shops are very likely to suffer from a cer- tain amount of general dissatisfaction which tends to in- crease quitting and so increases loss dlie to this cause.

The Managerial Problem. — The problem is to reduce costs due to poor lighting of :

1. The department in general.

2. Special operating points.

Dealing vidth the Problem. — In many cases authority to deal with lighting lies outside of the foreman's job, except possibly through recommendation. This is especially true in the case of daylight lighting in old plants where the win- dow areas are altogether too small according to modern ideas. With artificial lighting, however, many foremen can do much to improve conditions. For example, they can see that all operating points requiring special lighting are properly lighted, and, in connection with this they can make use of the job analysis, red flagging such points. It is often within their authority to change or extend electric lights to secure better conditions. Since, as a rule, lighting conditions have received but little attention in many shops, a foreman who is interested in this matter will usually find plenty of

856 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

chance to make improvements that will more than pay for themselves.

Temperature. — ^Under certain conditions, the tempera- ture may hecome an important factor from the standpoint of physical comfort and where it can be controlled, it is often a cost-cutting device to control it.

Cost Elements. — ^Among the cost elements due to physical discomfort due to temperature are:

(1) Absenteeism and permanent labor loss due to physi- cal conditions affected by extremely high or low temperature under which the work is carried on.

(2) Increased physical injury due to abnormal tempera- tures. Grenerally, abnormal temperature conditions, either very high or very low, tires men and tends to make them care- less, with the usual results.

For example, during the winter of 1917—1918 there were certain periods of time in which some shipyards were prac- tically unable to do any work at all, owing to the fact that men staid out or quit because of the extreme cold. This, of course, could not be prevented, but it illustrates the fact that men who are working under conditions where they are suffer- ing serious physical discomfort from cold are likely to stay at home to keep warm, or to seek other jobs. On the other hand, it is equally true that high temperatures affect costs.

For example, in certain operations where the temperature has to be kept up, it is a well-known fact that men will avoid taking such jobs, and if they do take them, will leave them as soon as they can, which, of course, increases costs due to absenteeism and turnover.

The Managerial Problem.— As in the other cases already taken up.

Dealing vwth the Problem. — Conditions are practically the same as in the cases already taken up. Much that might be done would lie outside of a foreman's job. In some small ways he can often make the conditions a little easier. All foremen who have to deal with jobs of this kind know what they can do.

SATISFACTION 357

Working Conditions and General Surroundings. — The points taken up in this section all related to the working con- ditions on definite jobs.

It is also true that interest and satisfaction are largely affected by the general surroundings so some matters in that connection are taken up in the next section.

SECTION n. GENEEAL SUBROUNDINGS

General Surroundings. — In addition to the specific work- ing conditions just mentioned, a number of general working conditions have a greater cost value than is often assumed.

While these conditions would vary too much according to the special nature of the work, to admit of any detailed dis- cussions, a few general points may be suggested to a foreman who is dealing with these matters managerially because he considers that he has a responsibility in their connection.

Among the more important of these are :

1. Modern surroundings.

2. The general condition of the department or shop. Modern Surroundings. — ^The general idea discussed in

the preceding paragraph also comes out with regard to the general surroundings, a modern, well-built, up-to-date plant will unquestionably attract and hold a higher grade of men than will an old type, dirty, broken-down establishment. Modern competitive methods can be much more easily met under up-to-date conditions as to equipment, housing, etc. Although matters of this kind are often considered as being entirely in the hands of another department, there are many things that a foreman can do through direct action or recom- mendation in his own department to improve these conditions, and in proportion as he does them, he reduces his production cost through absenteeism and turnover.

Some Points on Modem Surroimdings. — Among the points that may be worth drawing attention to in connection with modern vs. old type surroundings are the following:

1. Sanitation.

2. Physical comfort.

3. A chance to keep clean.

868 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Sanitation. — ^The old idea with regard to sanitary ar- rangements was that any dirty, filthy place was good enough. More modern ideas, however, have been based on the idea that hunan factors count here as well as elsewhere in the plant. Decent sanitary arrangements are now held to be a paying proposition on account of a number of reasons, among which are improved self-respect, more plant pride and hence more satisfaction, with its cost reducing results. In many of the more modern plants as much care has been taken with the sanitary arrangements as in some hotels.

The theory of this has just been pointed out, but for stating it in a somewhat broader way it might be put as fol- lows. In proportion as any group of men are treated like human beings they wiU act like human beings. Such pro- vision for decent sanitaries, for good wash rooms and for locker rooms, such as is found in many modern plants, is based on that theory. They are considered as cost cutting propositions.

The Managerial Problem. — ^As in the other cases, the managerial problem for a foreman is to do what he can to improve conditions as to sanitation. Of course, in an old plant he cannot do a great deal in many cases, but he can at least do whatever he can do within the limits of his job to see that things are kept as decent as possible.

Dealing with the Problem. — ^As just suggested, ia most cases a foreman cannot, as a rule, do much to change things very radically except perhaps through recommendations, but there are some things that he can do within the limits of his job if he feels that he has any responsibilities for the sanitary conditions in his department. For one thing he can generally see to it that sanitaries are kept clean and sweet. A coat of miU white or of whitewash wiU sometimes improve matters a lot. In many cases, if he cares to take the trouble, he can educate certain classes of help to treat better accommoda- tions decently. Much defacing of walls, obscene scribblings, etc., can be cut out in many cases by making the place decent and educating people to keep it decent.

SATISFACTION 369

The assumption that is often made that many classes of help are so naturally dirty and ignorant that they will not respond to better conditions is now regarded as incorrect by many people, and a good many concerns in recent years have had belief enough in the newer ideas to put their money into it.

Of course, but little can be brought up here except such general suggestions as have been made above. It is up to each foreman to decide whether he has managerial and super- visory responsibilities along these lines, and if he decides that he has, he must do whatever he can by suggestion, recom- mendation or action to improve matters.

Physical Comfort. — A second change in ideas has been with regard to the physical comfort of the operating force. In the olden days it was considered all right for a worker to go home covered with dirt. "If he wanted to wash up, he could do it when he got home." As in the case of sanitation the newer ideas hold that reasonable provision for comfort and convenience pays. More modern plants provide good wash rooms, locker rooms, cafeterias where men can eat decent food in some degree of comfort. All these things are regarded now by modem thinkers along these lines as good business, and, as in the case of sanitation, many concerns have backed this idea with their money in putting up newer build- ings or additions to their plants.

The Managerial Problem. — So far as a foreman has any managerial problem here, it is to do whatever he can to help to improve conditions.

Dealing vnth the Problem. — Since, as a rule, matters of this sort call for authority outside of the foreman's job, as a rule, he cannot do much except cooperate with the manage- ment in whatever may be done. In some cases he can do some- thing himself. Some foremen have found it possible to pro- vide some sort of wash rooms whert there were none at all. Some have been able to make a place where men could eat at noon under better conditions than alongside the machines or out in the yard. They have, at all events, recognized the

360 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

modem ideas as to their responsibilities for taking care of their men and have done what they could.

The General Condition of the Shop. — ^There is a great difference between different shop and work rooms as to the general conditions. Some shops are kept clean, neat and orderly: others are dirty, things lie around "any old way." They are "messy." As a rule, this condition of neatness or messiness does not seem to have much to do with the character of the work carried on. Some iron foundries are neat : some departments in garment factories are dirty and messy. The condition of shops in this matter is largely a reflection of the attitude of the foreman towards these matters.

Now a dirty, messy shop or department almost always means increased cost in a great number of ways. It' increases danger of damage to stock: it is liable to be the cause of excess depreciation of tools and equipment. Such things are self evident. It also affects morale. Almost any group of workers will work better in a place that is kept fairly clean and neat.

Cost Elements. — The cost elements are so evident here that none of them are suggested.

Dealing with the Problem. — This again is so plain that it needs no development. Such matters almost always fall entirely within the limits of a foreman's job and he can have a decent or an untidy shop just as he prefers.

Welfare Work vs. Direct Cost Control Through Work- ing Conditions. — Nearly all industrial concerns give a good deal of attention to what is commonly called welfare work, and it is desirable that a foreman should be able to distinguish between what can properly be called welfare work and what is really "good business" from the direct cost control stand- point. Within the last few years more and more attention has been directed toward the effect of the mental attitude of men on absenteeism and labor loss. More and more it has been possible to point out a direct connection between certain causes and their effects on the mental attitude of the men. For example, there is to-day no question but what decent sanitary arrangements actually directly affect turnover and that decent attractive wash rooms and locker facilities have

SATISFACTION 36X

the same effect. Nobody guesses now that these things affect turnover. We know it. There are a good many things which people still think have a value, but where the direct connection between those things and increased turnover cannot be di- rectly shown. For example, an industrial concern puts in a moving picture theater, the general idea being that it is going to make men more willing to stay with the concern because it affords a means of recreation of a good character. The argu- mept might be something like this: If these men can go to good moving picture shows where they can take their wives and families, it is going to prove an additional attraction to keep them in the neighborhod, hence they will be more likely to stay with the concern. Nobody can prove at present just how such a proposition affects the turnover; the reasoning appears to be sound, but we have, for example, no case on record where a man has refused to change his job because the concern for whom he was working maintained a moving pic- ture show. The same thing may be said of a number of other activities, such as the promotion of athletics, development of club-houses, the organization of a band or orchestra, or even the providing of certain forms of educational courses.

For the purposes of these notes, the item Welfare Work will be considered as referring to things which are done with the general purpose of promoting the stability of the work- ing force by indirect methods but where the direct relation of those things to decreased turnover cannot be directly estab- lished. Where the direct relation can be shown such work ceases to be welfare work and becomes good business practice. If a foreman has a responsibility in connection with absentee- ism and turnover and labor loss, he therefore has a responsi- bility for those things which affect turnover and labor loss as they affect the attitude of mind of the working force. He may have an acting responsibility, or he may have a recom- mending responsibility, or he may have both, but if he entirely neglects this responsibility point so far as good business practice is concerned in his own department and so far as cooperating with any welfare work that may be undertaken, he has to that extent increased his production cost.

CHAPTER XXI

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS

ON ORDERS, DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

AS HUMAN FACTOR ELEMENTS

Preliminary. — ^From the supervisory standpoint the mat- ter of orders, directions and suggestions has already been taken up in Chapters XIII and XIV, so far as their use as one means of dealing with information goes. In those chapters it was stated that the question of the handling of orders, directions and suggestions from the human factor side would be taken up in the human factor block. This chapter, therefore, suggests some points in relation to the managerial problem of using these three possible methods of giving information to best advantage from the human factor side.

The Nature of the Problem. — ^A foreman or other super- visor almost always has a choice between directing, ordering and suggesting. According to the degree to which he makes eiFective use of these possibilities he can considerably affect human factor costs. Therefore, he has a managerial prob- lem as to choosing wisely between ordering, directing and suggesting.

Orders, Directions, Suggestions. — Since these terms are often confused and in practice are often used in the same sense, it is worth while to point out the distinction be- tween them.

An order is essentially a military term and, strictly speak- ing, implies implicit obedience. Directions are usually given to men in connection with their work, and the term is dis- tinctly civilian. In a production plant orders generally refer to some phase of administration executive work, as when the general manager orders that there shall be no smoking in the plant ; directions refer to operating, as when a foreman tells

362

ORDERS, DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 363

a man to perform a certain operation a certain way. Both terms carry with them the implication of authority, but orders mean more telling what to do and directions how to do it. A truck driver might be ordered to take a load of freight from Philadelphia to New York but directed as to his route and method of delivery. In practice the two terms are often used in the same sense, but there is a distinction worth bearing in mind.

As distinguished from orders or directions, suggestions carry an entirely different meaning. A suggestion is made under such conditions that it "helps out," but the person to whom suggestions are made may or may not follow them. When one man says to another : "I would suggest doing it this way," the understanding is that the man who has the respon- sibility of doing the job, if he adopts the suggestion, does it because he thinks that it will help him. He uses his own judg- ment in adopting or rejecting the suggestion, and he has a right to do it. A man does not give up any responsibility for using his own judgment by acting on a suggestion. When he acts on an order he has no responsibility except to execute that order correctly and intelligently.

Knowing When to Use Orders, When to Make Sugges- tions, and When to Give Directions. — ^A good manager uses orders, suggestion, and directions as tools to accomplish some particular ends in getting managerial results. Just as for some kinds of work a good workman uses one kind of a tool and for others he uses a different one, a good manager will use an order to accomplish one end, a direction or set of direc- tions for another, and suggestions for another. By exercis- ing good judgment based on his experience with men he will know which of the three tools will accomplish the end best desired ; and if he has had the proper kind of experience and possesses the knack of dealing with men from the human factor side he can control the cost of production which goes with these human factors as already taken up.

The Characteristics of Orders. — The following can be said to be characteristics of an order :

364 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

1. It clearly sets up and emphasizes the distinction be- tween the superior and the subordinate.

2. It relieves the subordinate of any responsibility except to carry out the order as given, or at least to accomplish ex- actly the results that the order is intended to accomplish.

3. It keeps all final responsibility in the hands of the superior. If, as a result of giving a wrong order that is correctly and intelligently obeyed, damage results, the superior and not the subordinate is to blame.

The Characteristics of Directions. — The following can be said to be the characteristics of a direction :

1. It does not so sharply emphasize the distinction_be- tween the superior and the subordinate.

2. It implies that the subordinate is assumed to use some discretion in securing the intended results (doing the job), provided the job is done right.

3. It still leaves most of the responsibility with the supe- rior but puts some responsibility onto the subordinate as to just how minor details are to be carried out.

The Characteristics of Suggestions. — Suggestions are quite distinct from either orders or directions. The follow- ing can be said to be the characteristics of suggestion :

1. It does not set up the relation of superior and subordinate.

2. It puts all responsibihty onto the subordinate.

3. The superior. In making a suggestion, assumes no responsibility.

Some Illustrations. — Some illustrations may make these distifactions somewhat clearer. Take the case of the mailing of a letter from an office. An executive calls the office boy and says to him, "Take this letter to the post office right away and send it by registered mail." That is an order. Suppose, instead, he said to his stenographer, "Miss Smith, will you see that this letter is sent at once by registered mail?" That is a direction. Again, suppose that another executive calls on the phone and says, "Jim, don't you think that it would be a good idea to wire that party instead of writing

ORDERS. DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 365

him?" and Jim says, "No, I'm going to send him a letter by registered mail," that is a case where a suggestion was offered and not acted upon by the person responsible for getting the job done.

In shops employing high grade mechanics it is not un- common for a foreman to make suggestions as to how a job might be done but it is understood that the expert workman, as the man responsible for doing the job right, need not use those suggestions unless he approves of them. Under such conditions, where the foreman was an expert workman him- self before he became a foreman there may be a consultation as to the best way of doing some job in which suggestions are made both ways without the superior-subordinate thought coming in at all. It is just a case of two experts discussing a problem.

The Order of Progression. — ^What may be called the order of progression as regards authority exercised by the superior and the distribution of responsibility between the superior and the subordinate is as follows :

1. Orders.

2. Directions.

3. Suggestions.

The Managerial Use of Orders, Directions and Sugges- tions.— Evidently in many cases there can be a choice between the use of orders, directions and suggestions in carrying on the work, and if cost elements come into play, cost can be aifected by the degree to which, in any given case, the best choice is made between them. Since there is no question but what, at least in many cases cost elements do come in, this point is worth consideration by all foremen.

Cost Elements.— "Cases vary so much that the cost ele- ments here are difficult to state in any but the most general terms. Those most likely to affect the situation might be :

1. Job pride.

2. Self-respect.

3. Interest.

4. Sense of responsibility.

366 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

from the standpoint of the subordinate and from the stand- point of the superior.

The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem may be put in this way :

To get the job done right using direct orders as little as possible.

Dealing with the Problem. — This is entirely a matter of judgment. In general, in proportion as a man's job pride, his self-respect and his sense of responsibility can be appealed to cost is reduced, as has already been pointed out. The more that necessary information is put up to him in such a way that the implication is that he has no brains, does not know his job, can't be trusted and is not assmned to have any judgment, costs go up. On the other hand, if jobs are not done right, costs go up still more. Dealing with this prob- lem is almost entirely a case of using the best judgment, taking the special situation into consideration, and no rule can be given. A few points may, however, be of sugges- tive value.

It is undoubtedly true that whenever a superior substi- tutes directions or suggestions for orders he takes a certain risk because, to a greater or less extent, he puts responsibihty on the subordinate. Some men, on this account, never dare to depart from the practice of conducting all work by direct orders. They either do not realize the cost value of this method of procedure or they figure that this cost wiU be less than the cost of work incorrectly done. Other men when they think that it is safe to do so, substitute directions and even sometimes suggestions for direct orders, and figure that they save money by doing so. The real managerial problem in such cases is, therefore, to be able to determine when it will pay to direct or suggest instead of order. This will depend on a number of conditions, some of which are taken up below.

One point that may affect the situation is the grade of the job. In highly skilled trades the trade custom puts much more responsibility on the mechanic than in low grade jobs. Under such conditions, where the workman is known to be

ORDERS. DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 367

competent he can often be directed rather than ordered, job pride and trade respect be promoted and no risk taken. It is often assumed that in the case of low-grade jobs this situ- ation never exists on account of the grade of the job and of the class of workers employed on them. This is true in many cases, so far as the situation goes, but the reason as com- monly given is not always the true reason. But the condi- tion as noted is due to other reasons, some of which are given below.

One reason is that, in many cases, on jobs of this char- acter, the workers have never been properly instructed : they don't really know their jobs and the foreman knows it, so he does not dare to work except by the use of precise orders.

A second reason is that many of these jobs are so highly specialized that there is only one way of doing the job any- way ; no judgment or intelligence comes in, so there would be no advantage in using anything except orders.

A third reason is that it is often assumed that the class of help employed on this class of work have no job pride or "trade pride" anyway and so there is no use in considering the matter from that angle. This assumption is not true in all cases by any means, but it is often the reason why a fore- man win stick to ordering alone under such conditions. Ex- perience has shown that many classes of help, under good managerial conditions, have job pride and "trade pride," as in the case of the shipyard already used for an illustration.

The General Condition. — This much can be safely said : Under ordinary conditions directions rather than orders have a greater cost reducing value than is often supposed. Direc- tions can be used in many cases to advantage instead of or- ders, where the conditions are such that satisfaction and interest will be .promoted and the job will still be done right. The information can be conveyed as exactly, and the other advantages retained.

E^ch Case an Individual One. — In considering the rela- tive value of orders and directions, each case must be taken by itself. For example, a competent reliable employee gets a

368 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

job that is a little different from those that he has been working on. If he is given orders as to the necessary modifi- cations, his job pride and his "trade pride" are affected, and this could be safely avoided by using directions instead. In such a case, "Guess you'd better do it this way, don't you think," wiU save cost as against "Do it this way and no back talk."

The Matter of Suggesitions. — The matter of the man- agerial use of suggestions brings up other points. In general, the less the difference in authority and the more the subordi- nate is assumed to be able to do the job, the more suggestions wiU come in. For example, one foreman might suggest to another but he would never order. Probably as between a foreman and his immediate superior there would be, under good cooperative conditions, a good deal of suggesting in- stead of ordering or directing.

The same general situation would hold as between a fore- man and the members of his operating force. With a thor- oughly competent man, proud of his ability, there might be many cases where suggestion would be a good man- agerial device. '

Suggestions are the utility tool in a manager's kit for having certain things accomplished in regard to orders, etc. In proportion as a foreman can suggest to his force what he wants in such a way that they feel that they really are doing something about it themselves, he can get things done much more easily. These suggestions should be carefully handled, however, and only made when some actual need for them arises. Indiscriminate suggestions can very easily cause the men to resent them, and very often cause confusion where the need was for clear-cut action. Only the experience and judg- ment of the foreman will help him in this regard, and the intent of these notes is to direct his thought to using sugges- tions when they will be effective.

In the above discussion no attempt has been made to teU any foreman when he should use directions or suggestions in carrying on his work. He must decide those points for him-

ORDERS. DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 369

self. The general statements as made may, however, have a value as suggesting responsibilities and getting him interested in this managerial problem. Probably there are no depart- ments where directions and even suggestions cannot be used to some extent in place of direct orders, and, as a result, interest and satisfaction be promoted and, as a result, cost reduced.

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

PART VII

IiEADEHSHIF

1. A foreman is popular with his men because he is a " good mixer." Does this mean that he is a good leader.'' Why.?

2. A foreman is noted for being quick tempered and for " blowing up " easily and often bawling out his men when they don't deserve it. He is always sorry for it afterwards and tries to straighten things out. Can he be a good leader? Why.?

3. A general foreman is very arbitrary in dealing with his subordinates. He is the type of man that "wants no excuses." He is square. Can he be a leader for his subordinates? Why?

4. A foreman in a certain plant was noticed as having his men continually coming to him for advice about their private affairs. He advised them as to investing their money, fixed up rows between husband and wife, etc. Did this situation increase or decrease his position as a leader of his men? Why?

6. Can a man be a leader of his team and be a strong disciplinari an ? Why ?

6. A certain foreman was noted as a " driver." He got more work out of his men than any other foreman in the plant where he was employed. He was absolutely square, in all his dealings with his men but would have nothing to do with them outside of plant business. Is he likely to be a leader? Why?

84

370 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

7. If you were talking with another foreman about how he handled his men what would you notice in deciding whether he was or was not a good leader? Why?

8. Win being " easy on discipline " tend to increase leadership? Why?

9. A certain foreman is " snappy." AU of his orders are given with a " punch." He accepts no excuses for poor work if it is the fault of the man but is ready to take the blame if he is to blame. He never " passes the Buck " to a man when things go wrong and he is called on the carpet for it. Could such a man be a good leader? Why?

10. Will being personally familiar with workmen inter- fere with good leadership? Why?

11. Can a foreman who does not plan his work in advance be a good leader? Why?

12. Can a, man who is not personally known to his men make a good leader? Why?

13. Would you say that a team was well or poorly led in the following cases ?

a. The members of a team never know how the fore- man is going to come back on a slip. One day he says : " All right, don't do it again," the next day he may raise a big row about the same thing. Does this indicate good leadership?

b. The men have no confidence in the foreman; it is common talk among them that " Bill never knows what he is going to do next." What sort of leader- ship is indicated here?

c. The men feel that all the foreman wants of them is to get the last ounce of work out of them.

d. The men say among themselves : " Its no use going to the foreman about anything, you never get anything but a call down."

e. A man comes up to a foreman and says : " How should this job be done?" The foreman comes back

OBDERS. DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 371

with " Well, how do you think that it ought to be done?" They have a discussion on it. Under the same conditions the foreman teUs the man just how the job should be done. Which condition indicates the best leadership conditions? Why?

f. An emergency comes up and the foreman evi- dently does not know just what to do because he has not planned to deal with that special emergency because it has never happened before. ( This might be a prema- ture explosion in dynamiting a furnace.) The result is a great deal of confusion, aimless running about, etc. What conditions as to leadership are indicated here?

g. Men say among themselves that : " It don't make a bit of difference whether you make a special effort to do a good job or not; the foreman never knows if you do."

h. In the gang of a certain foreman the men are continually trying to get transfers to jobs that are no better in some other department. Does this indicate that the foreman in question is a poor leader?

i. On an emergency job it is necessary to push especially hard. Then men resent this and lay down on the job as much as they can without being caught. Does this indicate poor leadership?

INTEREST AND INTEREST FACTORS

WHAT INTEREST EACTOES COME INTO PLAY IN THESE CASES?

1. A teacher teUs a boy that if he doesn't study his les- sons he will not get promoted.

2. Anyone trespassing on this property will be prose- cuted according to law.

3. Anyone defacing the walls of this sanitary will be immediately discharged.

4. Piecework.

6. A profit-sharing plan.

6. A ball in a show window that runs round and round

372 THE FOEEMAN AND HIS JOB

without any visible connection with anything under the glass plate on which it runs.

7. A plant athletic team.

8. Calling a man iato consultation on how a job is to be done.

9. Putting up a prize for the department having the fewest number of accidents.

10. On the Santa Fe R. R. giving a flag to the section having the most clean and good looking stations.

11. Firing a man for impertinence.

12. Hanging a man for murder.

13. Giving a chromo with a pound of tea.

14. Posting pictures of the result of not using guards on machines.

15. Setting up the production records of different departments on a public bulletin board.

16. Bawling a man out in public for a mistake in follow- ing directions.

17. Taking a new man through the department where- he is to work and giving him a general idea of the different jobs that are carried on in that department before he is started in training on the job that he is to work on.

18. In some plants it is the custom to close the gates when the whistle blows and not open them for fifteen minutes so that a man who is tardy from one to fifteen minutes is docked for fifteen minutes. What interest factor is used here?

19. In one large shipyard the General Manager makes it a point to always know of any particularly good piece of work and to personally praise it to the men who did it. What interest factor comes into play here?

20. How might departmental pride be utilized as an interest factor by a foreman who knew how?

THE MANAGEaiAL HANDLING OF INTEREST

1. A foreign born workman, recently come to this coun- try, is taken on and put onto a job. He speaks only " shop

ORDERS, DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS S73

English." His work is poor because he does not seem to give enough attention to the details of putting his job over in good shape. He has been properly instructed. He seems willing and his general qualifications seem to fit well to the job requirements. Physical condition reported as all right. How would you go at this case to promote interest? What interest factor would you try first.-' Why.^" If that failed what interest factor would you try next.? Why?

Would it be economy to keep this man on the job and try and rouse his interest or to transfer him to another job or fire him? Why?

2. A man has been employed for a year on one job and has been doing fair work. His physical condition is good but he seems to have lost his interest. He is known to have told other men that the plant was a " bum plant to work for " and that the foreman was no good. He listens to the foreman when reprimanded but goes on in the same uninterested way. How would you handle this case? Should an attempt be made to save this man to the plant or should he be got rid of under normal conditions ? Why? If it were decided to try and save him what interest factors should be tried out first? Why? The man is a Russian who has been in the country five years and speaks good English.

3. A gang of men have developed the habit of knocking off before the whistle blows. They have been good workmen up to this time. They all speak fair English. There has been a recent wage cut in the plant. How would you attempt to handle this case along interest lines? What interest fac- tor would you try first? Why? Would it be good business to try and arouse interest in this case? Why?

4. A story gets around the plant that there is going to be another cut in wages but that only the workmen will be cut. How could the interest reducing effects of such a rumor be counteracted if:

874 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

a. The cut was to apply to everybody in the plant.

b. The rumor was not true.

c. It was true as reported.

In cases a, b, and c what interest factors could be best used and how could they be used to the best advantage?

5. It is desired to cut out obscene scribbling in the sani- taries which has become an epidemic. How would you deal with such a case? What interest factors would you try and use first? Second? Why?

6. A shift is made from piecework to day work in the case of certain men. As a result their production falls off since they feel that there is no more for* them on good than on poor production. How deal with such a case? What interest factors should be tried and in what order? Just how would you use these interest factors in this case?

7. A man thought he was sure of being transferred to a more desirable job but somebody else got it when the time came. No promises had been made and in fact, this man had no real reason to believe that he was to get the job. As a result he becomes uninterested, teUs other men that there is no us in trying for a better job anyway, and falls off in his own work. Normally he is a good man, American bom, and has been employed in the plant for ten years. Is it worth while to try and get him interested again? Why? How would you go at it? What interest factor would you use first in this case? Why?

8. A man was heard to say to other men " It don't make any difference to us whetheri we turn out more or less prod- uct. Our pay goes on just the same and the less that we do the more jobs for the gang." The man is an old employee and has been a good worker. How deal with this case? What interest factor could be used to the best advantage here? Why?

9. A man has been a good worker and suddenly his inter- est in his work seems to drop off. He gives no reason for it when asked what the matter is. Some days before this hap-

ORDERS, DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 375

pened he was in a row with the foreman over some small matter relating to the quality of the work that he was turn- ing out and the foreman had told him that a man of his intelligence and experience ought to know how to do a good job. What might be the cause of this falling off in inter- est? How might it be dealt with on this supposition? Why deal with it in that way? Should the policy adopted in this case be to save the man to the plant or to get rid of him? Why?

10. How would you go to work to secure a greater inter- est in holding up quality with a gang of men who were old employees and who knew how to do a good job? Why would you use the method that you give? What would be the interest factors that you would use? Why use these par- ticular ones?

11. The quality on a certain set of operations falls off with no change in the make-up of the gang. The foreman teUs all the men that unless the quality comes up they \^ill aU lose their jobs. Is this the best way to treat such a case? How could it be handled any better? Why?

12. What are some of the ways by which a foreman can cut down interest without knowing it?

13. How can dissatisfaction be distinguished from lack of interest?

14. A new man has made a good start but has gone to pieces. Says that he cannot hold down the job. He is all right physically and is well fitted for the job. How would you deal with such a case if the man were American? If foreign bom? If a new arrival in this country?

15. In what ways can the personality of a foreman affect the interest of his men? Is a foreman who is a good mixer likely to get and hold more interest than one who

I is not? Why?

16. A man has no evidence that he has any qualities that would fit him to hold down a better job that is in the line of his work. Under such conditions, should a. foreman

376 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

encourage him to try to fit himself for the better job on the chance that, under the spur of ambition, he may develop such additional qualities that he can fit himself for the job? Why?

17. A foreman in a certain plant had told a man that if he would leave his present job and come in with that plant he could get a job with him at a certain rate. After this man had thrown up his old job the foreman found that he had promised the man a rate that was higher than he could pay and that was higher than a number of old workmen on the same job were getting. It was an honest mistake on the foreman's part. How should this case be handled so as to reduce dissatisfaction to the minimum aU around?

OKDERS, DIBECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

1. A foreman in making his rounds notices that a man is trying to handle a piece of stock that is too heavy to handle alone and not have a chance of breakage. He says to the man, " That piece is too heavy for you to handle alone, get somebody to help you." Anything the matter with that order?

2. A man right out of the Ford factory is employed in a Ford service station which also takes other makes of cars. A Dodge comes in with a broken drive shaft. The foreman orders this man to take out the broken shaft. Is that order all right?

3. A man has been employed as a helper on a job and is promoted to a worker on that job. When he goes onto the job for the first time the foreman simply tells him to " go to it." Is that foreman taking any chance?

4. What is the easiest way in which a foreman can fall down in giving an order?

5. A man has been employed as a riveter in structural steel work. He was a good man on the job. During the war he was taken on by a shipyard. The first day that he

ORDEBS. DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 877

went to work the foreman ordered him to " rivet up those intercostals." Anything the matter with, that order?

6. A man has been employed in a cabinet-making shop for several years. He is a fine workman. He is given a very fine piece of cabinet work to do that calls for doing a job that he never has happened to strike before and which calls for a dovetail joint where the ordinary method would be to use a half lap joint. The foreman knows this. Which would be the better, to say, " BUI, make that joint with a dovetail " or, " Bill, don't you think that joint had better be made with a dovetail.?" As a matter of manage- ment? Why?

7. What is liable to be the effect of a direct order on a competent workman? Why?

8. Can directions be made as clear as direct orders? Why?

9. A foreman gives the following order. " One of you men get that box out of that truck." If there is some delay whose fault is it?

10. A man is quite new on the job. The foreman sees him handling a piece of stock in such a way that there is danger of breakage. The foreman says, " Don't break that!" What is the matter with that order? If the piece was broken who would be to blame?

11. A truck load of material is properly marked for delivery. The foreman orders the driver to deliver it " as marked." The driver fails to deliver it where it should be delivered. Who is to blame?

SATISFACTION

1. One man in a group is really entitled to a higher rate. The foreman has the authority to recommend rate changes. He refuses to act in this case because he considers that an increase in rate in the case of this man would cause dissatis- faction in the case of others on the same jobs. Is this good management? Why?

378 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

2. A plant is located at a little distance from a large city. It wishes to hold the operating force and therefore puts up a movie theater. What satisfaction factor, if any, was intended to be brought into play here? Was this good management? Why?

3. A foreman has the reputation of recommending trans- fers to better jobs on the basis of taking care of people that he likes. Whether this is true or not, would it affect satis- faction among the members of the working' force. Assuming that it was not true how could such a situation be effec- tively handled?

4. A man is suspected of stealing and is accused in pri- vate, he denies the charge. It subsequently appears that another man stole the material. Would this affect satis- faction? How could such a situation be best dealt with?

5. Are you of the opinion that any transfers to more desirable jobs should be based strictly on merit and that this policy should be a matter of general knowledge? Why?

6. In a heating room where the temperature ran around 90 degrees a foreman saw to it that the men had ice water on tap all the time. He did not pay for the ice water but did do the work of collecting ten cents a week from each man and seeing that the ice was delivered, pail and cup provided, etc. Was this better management from the standpoint of satis- faction than getting the plant to provide the ice water free? Why?

7. A new man has trouble in getting his job right; a foreman sees that he is in trouble and takes special pains to instruct him. Would this promote interest or satis- faction? Why?

8. Of two foremen, foreman A takes pains to instruct a new man so completely the first time that when he is put onto his own he can do a first-class job from the start. Foreman B on the contrary gives enough instruction to give a general idea as to how the job is done and then picks up the loose ends as the man goes along on his own. Which of

ORDERS, DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 879

these two methods is likely to produce the more satis- faction? Why?

9. In your opinion is quitting of good men caused more by lack of interest or dissatisfaction?

10. Could a foreman get good interest and still have much dissatisfaction? How?

11. Which is the more difficult, to secure interest or to secure satisfaction? Why?

12. How could you tell whether a man was dissatisfied or uninterested?

13. What is the effect of, a piece of plant gossip as to a reduction of force on interest? On satisfaction? Which will it affect most? Why?

14. In your opinion which will make for the more satis- faction, good tools and machines with an old type building, poor sanitary arrangements, no wash rooms, etc., or a build- ing of modern type, good wash rooms, etc., but worn out equipment and poor tools?

15. Does the operating of a restaurant by a plant which sells the food at a loss promote more satisfaction than where the food is sold at a high enough price to pay expenses? Why?

16. A certain plant has secured a building and has fitted it up as a club-house for its employees. The plant has borne the expense of this but the club has dues and is supposed to pay its own running expenses. Another plant suggested to its employees that a club-house might be a good thing and told them that if they wanted to form a regular incorporated club and build a club-house on a bond issue the Company would underwrite the bonds. Which method is likely to promote more satisfaction and which would tend more to keep the turnover down? Why?

17. In your opinion will poor tools and equipment create more dissatisfaction with men working on a piece rate, on a bonus, or on standing pay? Why?

18. A foreman Gomes' into his department with a grouch

380 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

on and as a result finds fault with some work that is good enough to be accepted and which he has accepted before. Will this affect interest or satisfaction?

19. Is concealed dissatisfaction more likely to exist among some foreign born people that among American born people? Under such conditions what can a foreman do?

20. Several good men quit within a few days of each other and when asked for a reason merely say that "they thought that they wovdd change to another plant." The jobs that they have been on are not bad jobs and there is no reason to suppose that in shifting to another plant they will be getting any higher rate. What would you do in such a case?

21. The equipment in a department is in such bad shape that the men cannot do a good job with it and are dissatis- fied with reason. The foreman tries to get things improved but is told by the G. M. that the financial conditions are such that no money can be put into repairs or replacements ; the department must get along as well as it can. How should such a case be dealt with?

PART VIII

THE DETAILED ANALYSIS OF THE TEAM

RELATIONS BLOCK

(COOPERATION)

CHAPTER XXII

SPECIFIC AND DETAILED RESPONSIBILITIES ON COOPERATION

A. COOPERATIVE RESPONSIBILITIES

Preliminary. — This chapter takes up a number of the more probable cooperative responsibilities that a foreman may find on making a responsibility lay-out for his job. Of course, there are no cases where a foreman has no cooperative responsibilities, but whether the particular ones taken up in this chapter come into his job is a matter foV him to decide. Of course, chances for cooperating will present themselves all the time to any man who wants to cooperate, while the man who does not want to do so wiU never see any chance at all.

Such possibilities as are taken up here are therefore to be regarded as given merely for their suggestive value.

Some of these possible responsibilities are taken up in the following paragraphs.

What is Meant by Cooperation. — Everybody knows, in a general way, what is meant by cooperating and yet the term is somewhat difficult to define. It might be expressed by saying that we cooperate when we "help the other fellow out when we don't have to," that is, cooperation lies outside of the duties that are defined and required. As the term is used here, we might say that cooperation means going outside of the strict line of duty to help somebody else for the general good of the team.

Cooperative Responsibilities. — ^What is cooperation? Cooperation means working together and therefore means working for the general object for which any group is brought together. As already stated, it means "team play" as contrasted with "playing a lone hand," Since any fore-

383

384 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

man, as repeatedly stated in this book, is a member of a tee^m, he cannot play a lone hand and do his full duty. The follow- ing paragraphs deal with some possible cooperative responsi- bilities on the foreman's job. The corresponding cost ele- ments and managerial problems are discussed in the next chapter.

Cooperation Works Both Ways. — Cooperation works both ways in the sense that any member of th^ organization can cooperate with any other members. A foreman can cooperate with the working force and the working force can cooperate with the foreman. In fact, whenever two or more people get together to put anything across we have cooperation.

While it is true that cooperation can come about between any two members of the "team" or between any number of members, the majority of the more common specific coopera- tive responsibilities can be classified under the follow- ing heads :

(1) Cooperation with General Superiors.

(2) Cooperation with Immediate Superiors.

(3) Cooperation with Other Foremen.

(4) Cooperation with the Working Force.

(5) Securing cooperation from the Working Force.

(6) Cooperating with special' departments.

These are considered under the above classification headings in the following paragraphs :

B. COOPEBATIVE EESPONSIBILITIES WITH GENERAL SUPEEIOBS

Giving Plant Information. — One of the most important ways in which a foreman can cooperate with the General Man- agement is by seeing that a considerable amount of what may be called "plant information" is correctly passed on to the members of the departmental working force. For example, in the majority of cases, new employees coming into the plant are left to find out as well asxhey can where they get their pay, whether it comes in checks or in cash, how often pay- ment is made, where pay checks can be cashed, and so on. If

RESPONSIBILITIES ON COOPERATION 885

lunch rooms, baths or other special comfort provisions are provided new employees can be told what they are and where they are. If there is free medical service, or a hospital in the plant where free medical attention can be secured, information as to where and when such service can be secured would be another form of "plant information" that a foreman can pass along, and, according to the special conditions as they exist in a given plant, a large number of such items of "plant information" can be passed out to new men and, in addition, from time to time various items of plant information can be passed out to the whole departmental working force.

By making a practice of doing this, a foreman can coop- erate in a very effective way with the General Management and where there are opportunities to do it, this specific responsibility should be included in the specific responsi- bility lay-out.

Not "Knocking." — One way in which any foreman can cooperate with the General Management is by not "knock- ing." As a member of the "team" it never does any good to knock the team or any part of it, especially if the "knocker" is in a supervisory relation to other members of that team, and they hear the knocking.

In most cases this sort of thing does not mean anything except a temporary "blow up" on the part of the foreman, but if he feels that he has responsibilities to the Management he will be careful not to "blow up" with regard to the short- comings of the "Office" on the floor of the shop, or any- where else, where he can be heard by the members of the operating force.

All foremen in their actual practice realize the undesir- ability of this sort of thing, and it is spoken of here chiefly because most foremen, while they do not knock the manage- ment in public, at least, do not think of this item as a co- operative responsibility and leave it out of their detailed lay-out unless their attention is especially called to the mat- ter. Of course, this is a responsibility that goes with the job of every member of the team, including the foreman.

iB

386 TEE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

"Standing Up for the Plant." — ^Another way in which a foreman can cooperate with the General Management is by standing up for the plant, at least in public. Even though he feels that the plant is the "poorest equipped in town," or that the conditions are "rotten," or that the machinery has "died of old age" and aU the other things that do exist in many plants, if he feels a cooperative responsibility to the Management he will refrain from making such comments in public. In most cases the Management knows the situation as well or better than anyotie else in the organization and are more anxious to improve conditions than anyone else : if they are not, public comment certainly does no good anyway.

The special specific cooperative responsibility is referred to here for the same reason that "knocking" was discussed. Not that foreman do not stand up for their plants but be- cause they seldom think of the matter as being the discharge of a cooperative responsibility.

"Being a Part of the Organization." — ^This term is hard to define but its meaning is generally understood. A man who is "a part of the organization" thinks of his job as a part of the job of the whole concern, and is ready and willing to help in any way that he can to improve the work as a whole. For example, it is the men who are a part of the organiza- tion that are willing to give time and thought in serving on special committees, attend and take part in conferences, and take part in general activities outside of their regular jobs, and who, in general, "have an eye out" for the good of the concern as a whole.

Of course, different foremen may have different ideas in this connection and it is for each one to determine his specific responsibilities in this matter, but some forms of cooperative responsibilities of this sort come into the job of practically all foremen.

Plant Gossip. — It often happens that some incorrect yam or piece of "plant gossip" gets started which, if not headed off, will make trouble for the plant. Where a foreman knows of this (as he usually does) and knows that it is not true

BESPONSIBILITIES ON COOPERATION 387

(as is often the case) he can render a great cooperative ser- vice by heading it oiF at once, since such things grow as they spread and the longer they run the more trouble they can make.

For example, a story gets started, with no basis of fact, that "the plant is going on half time next month" and a lot of men begin to worry about their jobs. If this gossip is not checked, it may mean the loss of good men through quitting to take other jobs as the chance comes. >

Where such a situation comes up and a foreman does not know the true facts in the case, but knows that there will be trouble if the gossip is incorrect, it is possible that, at least in most cases, that a foreman could render a distinct co- operative service by informing his superior of the situation as soon as it comes to his attention.

Any specific responsibilities that a foreman considers belong in his job under this heading should be listed in the lay-out.

C. COOPEKATIVE RESPONSIBILITIES WITH IMMEDIATE SUPEEIOHS

The same general conditions exist here as in the case of cooperating with the General Management, only, owing to the closer relations, there are likely to be more opportunities for cooperation and they are likely to be of a more de- tailed character.

D. COOPERATIVE RESPONSIBILITIES WITH OTHER FOREMEN

"Appreciating the Other Fellow's Troubles." — One co- operative responsibility that comes into the job of a fore- man may be called "appreciating the other fellow's troubles." A foreman under the pressure of his own work is liable to forget that another foreman is pushed just as hard and is worried just as much as he is, and he can cooperate by always remembering that fact in dealing with other foremen. This means a certain amount of "give and take" in relations be- tween departments and a willingness to help out the other fellow.

Conditions vary so much that this special cooperative re-

888 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

sponsibility can only be referred to in a general way, but it is there and belongs in the specific responsibility lay-out of all foremen's jobs.

Not "Knocking" Other Departments. — The same state- ments as made for the General Management and Immediate Superiors applies here and needs no discussion.

"Playing Fair" with Other Foremen. — ^In the relations between departments, there are many opportunities for dis- charging cooperative responsibilities in the way of "playing fair." For example, cases have been known where one fore- man "unloaded" ah undesirable man on another foreman by representing him to be a much better man than he actually was. This was not playing fair from the cooperative stand- point. An equally unfair case is "stealing" a good man from another department. Another case might be in "coraUing" all the available small tools for one's own department when doing so would put another department out of business. A number of other possible cases for cooperation will suggest themselves to any foreman.

As in the case of all other cooperative responsibilities, the cases for possible cooperation between foremen will be different in each plant and so can only be suggested here. Some sort of responsibilities along this line are sure to come into the job of any foreman.

Cooperating on Production. — Foremen, whose depart- ments turn out different parts of the same product, or whose departments "feed into one another" in any way, as in a textile mill, or a shoe factory, have many chances for cooper- ating, such as each foreman on serial production being care- ful not to hold up the work on the man in advance of him by not giving him material fast enough, or by not furnishing him with a product of satisfactory quality.

T, COOPERATIVE EESPONSIBILITIES WITH THE WORKING FOECB

Under any ordinary circumstances, a foreman has specific responsibilities, both for cooperating with the men under him and for getting their cooperation. As the team leader, he can almost always do some things to help the other members

RESPONSIBILITIES ON COOPERATION 389

of the team do their various jobs better, or to make things easier. For example, in one case, where the working tempera- ture was of necessity very high, a foreman made special arrangements so that ice water was always available.

Under many conditions, a foreman can help matters by taking special pains to see that necessary tools and equip- ment are available, especially when men are working on con- tract or on piecework.

For example, in a shipyard, it makes a great difference to riveters, or chippers and caulkers whether the air is, or is not, always available and up to pressure and foremen, who, by all means in their power see to it that air is kept up, cooper- ate with the workmen more effectively than foremen who do nothing about it. Where work may be held up by an insuf- ficient number of small tools, a foreman can cooperate by doing all that he can to see that a sufficient supply of these tools are on hand in the tool room.

According to special conditions, a number of possible specific responsibilities along this line will suggest themselves and can be included in the responsibility lay-out, and, in general, can be classified under one of the headings given on the chart.

The question of responsibility for securing cooperation from the working force is so largely a question of manage- ment that it is discussed under that heading in another chap- ter, and is only noted here.

Cooperative Responsibilities with Special Depart- ments.— Outside of the direct responsibilities already consid- ered, there are, in the majority of cases, numerous opportuni- ties for noting cooperative responsibilities in connection with special departments where such departments form a part of the organization. That is, there are a number of things that a foreman can or cannot do, as he pleases, which, if he does do, will help these departments to put over their work in the most effective way.

1. "Helping them along," and

2. "Backing them up."

390 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

A few illustrations may make clearer the sense in which these terms are used here.

One example of "helping along" would be, in the case of a safety department, where a foreman took special pains to see that any safety literature was actually brought to the attention of the force. As a direct responsibility he may be expected to receive and distribute it, but he may do this in such a non-cooperative way that much of its value is lost. A foreman who feels a cooperative responsibility wiU see to it that such notices are so posted that they actually come to the attention of the men : he will even talk to the men about the matter, or wiU even talk to the force as a whole. That is, he can go beyond the letter of his direct responsibilities in the matter. Again, in the case where free medical service is pro- vided, he can personally see to it that every worker under- stands about the matter, knows what the service can do and how to take advantage of it, when the dispensary is open and so on. If he makes a special point of this, he is assuming and discharging cooperative responsibilities in this connec- tion, whereas, if he merely sticks a notice on the bulletin board, he may have discharged his direct responsibility but he has not cooperated.

In the same way, a foreman can go beyond the direct responsibility in "backing up" a special department. For example, he can, as a matter of direct responsibility, dis- tribute safety leaflets, or post warning notices, but, if at the same time he "throws down" the department in talking with the men, or gives the impression that "it is all foolishness," he is not cooperating.

According to the special nature of the organization and the particular special departments, the specific responsibil- ities would, of course, vary, but wherever any special depart- ments exist a number of cooperative responsibilities can be analyzed out and included in the detailed responsibility lay- out for the foreman's job.*

* The special case of cooperating with training agencies, inside or out- side of the plant are discussed in the part on instruction, and should not be included here.

CHAPTER XXIII

COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION

Preliminary. — It has been pointed out that one of the general responsibilities of any foreman was for effective co- operation with other members of the "team" and Chapter XXII pointed out and discussed some of the more probable detailed and specific responsibilities under that general head- ing. As in all other cases any supervisory responsibilities carry with them corresponding managerial responsibilities that must be handled with regard to the cost elements that come into play. This chapter, therefore, takes up some of the cost elements and managerial problems that have to do with cooperation as distinguished from the organization re- sponsibilities as discussed in the last chapter.

Cooperation Works Both Ways. — Cooperation is evi- dently a mutual proposition. Just as "it takes two to make a fight," so it takes two to set up effective cooperation. A cannot cooperate with B unless B is willing, so that coopera- tion means as much securing cooperation from others as it means cooperating with others for the general good of the team.

Why Cooperation Especially Affects the Foreman. — Out of all the various positions in the organization, a foreman probably has more opportunity to help or hinder through good or poor cooperation than any other member of the team, because he has a position in the organization that places him between the Management and the working force. On this account he has more "cooperative contact points" than any one else. He is in direct contact with the members of the operating force and has responsibilities to them. He is, on the other side, in direct contact with his immediate superiors and has responsibilities to them. He is in direct contact with

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392 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

other foremen and has many cooperative contact points with them. In certain cases he represents the Management to the working force and in others he is the agency through which other departments must work. The problem as to how he can render the most eifective cooperation is, therefore, one to which any foreman may well give careful consideration since the degree to which he does or does not render effective co- operation and secure effective cooperation can very seriously affect the work of the team as a whole.

For example, he must give full cooperation to the men from whom he takes orders: on the questions of policies he must not "meddle" but must do all that he can to promote the best working relations and to make the carrying out of policies easy and effective, so far as he is expected to con- tribute to this problem. He must work in harmony with his fellow foremen and give full cooperation to them in such mat- ters as suggesting and advising on any matters that will help the general success of the different departments, as well as taking in the right way any suggestions or advice that may come from them. He must secure from his working force that sort of cooperation that will make his department operate most effectively by so dealing with them that they are willing to do all that they can to contribute to the success of the department, the plant, or the job.

Cooperation a Cost Factor. — Cooperation is considered here because good or poor cooperation affects cost of pro- duction in any plant. If, by effective cooperation, errors can be more quickly "spotted" and corrected, methods can be improved, more or better work can be done, then lack of cooperation must mean that operating costs are not as low as they can be made, so that, in general, the greater the co- operation all along the line, the lower the costs. For ex- ample, a foreman of a production department notices that where the maintenance department is pulling down a building a lot of boards have been left in the roadway with nails stick- ing up through them ready to catch a foot or a tire. If he says to himself, "That is none of my business, it's up to Bill,"

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 393

and, as a result, a workman's foot is damaged by a rusty nail, and there is a case for compensation or a damage suit, or a truck is put out of business when it is needed, evidently such a lack of cooperation has increased cost. Had the foreman in question gone out of his way to draw Bill's attention to the matter or in some way got those planks out of the way, it is equally evident that cost would have been reduced, or, at least, the chance of increased costs been cut down.

As anotheij' example, foreman A, for some reason, has adopted such an attitude towards his men that he has failed to get their cooperation and when a "pinch" comes, he can- not get out his production as rapidly as is necessary because his men do not "stand behind him." Foreman B who has secured more cooperation from his men gets their backing in the "pinch" and is able "to deliver the goods." Evidently foreman A has put more cost on the company than foreman B, and so, to that extent, the latter has done a better cost cutting job.

Cooperation, therefore, is an important cost factor, each kind of cooperation setting up its own special cost elements and managerial problems, some of which are considered in the following sections.

SECTION I. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION WITH THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT

Preliminary. — ^Among the possible ways in which a fore- man can cooperate with the General Management are, as given on the chart in Appendix A.

1. Giving plant information to workers.

2. Having plant pride.

3. Not "knocking."

4. Heading off incorrect plant gossip. 6. "Being a part of the organization."

And to these may be added as managerial responsibilities :

6. Transmitting general orders intelligently.

7. Knowing when to ask for orders.

8. Carrying out suggestions intelligently.

394 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

9. Being sure that orders are fully understood before they are acted upon.

Since each of these sets up its own cost elements and man- agerial problems they are taken up in order in the fol- lowing paragraphs.

A. GIVING PLANT INrOKMATION TO MEMBERS OF THE WORKING

FORCE

Preliminary. — ^Whenever a new worker comes into the plant, or even when he is transferred from one department to another, he must secure certain information somehow. He may get this information correctly and get it aU, or he may only get it in part and possibly get that part wrong, accord- ing to who he gets it from. As pointed out in the list of pos- sible responsibilities on page 526 one responsibility that is, in almost all cases, a part of the foreman's job is to see that such "plant information as is necessary to enable the new worker to take up and carry on his work and to fit easily into the organization is passed over to him correctly and completely.

What is Meant by "Plant Information." — ^As the term is used here, as indicated in the preceding paragraph, "plant information does not refer to job knowledge, which, if it has to be put over is a matter of training as discussed in the chapters on Instruction, but refers to such information as will aid a worker who is new to the plant or to the depart- ment to "fit in" easily and quickly. The exact nature of this plant information depends, of course, upon the particular plant or department, and so must be determined by each foreman for himself, according to the special working condi- tions, but there is almost always something. Such informa- tion might include, for example, how often wages are paid, where they are paid, whether by check or in cash, provision for accident insurance (if any), for retaining if injured (if provided by the State law), special departmental rules, spe- cial opportunities offered by the company in various ways, free hospital service or medical service and so on, depending in each case on the special plant and the department.

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 395

Cost Elements on Plant Information. — ^In a general way it may be said that cost is increased or reduced in proportion as the "green" worker gets all necessary plant information and gets it right and not wrong. Some of the more probable detailed cost elements, however, might be, no matter who gives him the information, the foreman, the Employment De- partment, the Welfare Department, etc.

1. Loss of time and aimoyance due to the deliberate giv- ing of false information by other members, such as the "left handed monkey wrench," the "round square bar," and so on.

,2. Mistakes due to lack of information, as where a man is told to get some tool at the tool room but has to "skirmish around" to find out where the tool room is, how to get his checks, etc., and often goes to several wrong places before he finds the right one.

3. Dissatisfaction due to being "run as a greenie,"

4. Apparent hesitation in going at work because of lack of information where to go to get tools, instructions, stock, etc., often with more or less of a "row" in consequence.

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here evidently is to determine what plant information is necessary and see that it is put across completely and correctly.

In the case of a foreman this problem may take either of two forms :

1. It is a part of his job to determine the information and put it across himself.

2. It is a part of his job to see that it has been put across, where it has been determined and passed out by somebody else.

Dealing with the Problem. — The first case would come up where no other agency had this responsibility and would be most likely to happen in a small shop or where there were no special departments having this responsibility. The sec- ond, as is usually the case, where there is an employment department or a welfare department.

Where the foreman has to do the whole job himself he must first carefully determine what information is required and be sure that he has it straight himself and then

896 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

devise ways and means for passing it out effectively and economically.

The sort of information must be worked out in cooperation with the other team members that possess some of it (General Superiors, Immediate Superiors, Other Departments, etc.) in order that it may be accurate and complete. Since it would be different for different conditions, this part of the job is not considered further here.

The effective passing out of the information, whatever it may be, sets up a different managerial problem, and involves the whole question of the selection of suitable methods and devices which is too much to go into in detail here. A few suggestions may be useful, however. Where the person who needs plant information can read in any language it has been found by some concerns that much of this information can be printed and put into the hands of the new worker. The great difficulty here has been to put up the information in such a way that the person who needs it really gets it: that is, thoroughly understands it. The question of how such information can be put up in a way that wiU be really service- able is worth careful consideration and study.

Signs, posters, etc., have also been tried with more or less success, but, where it can be done there is no question that, while printed information in proper form is of value, nothing takes the place at the beginning of direct spoken passing out of information in such cases. This is good management for a number of reasons. In the first place depending on printed stuff is a cold blooded proposition anyway. Any of us who came into a new job in a new place would feel better if the man that we were to work imder thought it worth while to take a little time to "put us wise." Again, if the information is of sufficient importance to be worth passing out it is worth while to be sure that it has been really understood. So, for a number of reasons, it is worth while to give attention and thought to this particular managerial job and to figure out ways and means by which it can be done in good shape.

Of course, the above statements are only made as sug-

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 397

gestions : each foreman must work out his own special job in this connection according to his own particular case, but it is a problem that is, in most cases, well worth consideration in conferences.

B. HAVING PLANT PRIDE

Preliminary. — One way in which any foreman can co- operate with the general management is to have plant pride, that is, to at least try to get himself into a state of mind where he is willing to admit that some things in the plant are as good or better as they are in other plants. Of course, no plant is perfect or ever wiU be, and some are better than others, but if a foreman will try to be an optimist (which has been defined as being able to make pink lemonade out of the lemons that are handed out to you) rather than a pessimist (a fellow who chews his quinine pills) he will be giving better co- operation with the Management and so wiU be cutting costs.

What is Meant by Plant Pride? — ^As the term is used here, plant pride means feeling that the plant is a decent con- cern to work for, and, on the whole, being ready to stand up for it, and, incidentally, being interested in its improvement, and being willing to say so.

Cost Elements on Plant Pride. — ^In this case it is almost impossible to set up definite cost elements, but the following may be suggestive. As between a foreman who has plant pride and one who has not it might be that :

1. A foreman who believes in the plant would take more pains to insure satisfactory quantity and quality of product than a foreman who thought that the plant "was no good anyhow."

2. If a foreman has no plant pride he is very unlikely to be able to develop either plant or departmental pride in the members of his working force. It is practically impossible to get into other people what you have not yourself.

3. If a man really thinks that the concern for which he is working is no good he finds that it is practically impossible to keep up his interest in his own job: in fact, if he really

398 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

feels that way it is a question if he can do a good job anyway. It is almost impossible to prevent getting into a "Oh ! What's the use" attitude, with corresponding tendencies to careless- ness, failure to cooperate and all the other cost elements that have been discussed.

In fact, if a foreman really thinks that the concern that he is working for is no good, if he really has no plant pride, and is not merely "talking through his hat" or "growling" almost any of the cost elements that are liable to come up anywhere may come into play to increase cost due to this cause. If a man does not really believe in the concern that he works for he cannot really believe in his job, and when this happens almost anything may happen in connection with his job.

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here is for any foreman to develop plant pride so far as he can under the conditions, and this evidently sets up a problem in man£|,gement that he must work out for hiinself.

Dealing with the Problem. — ^As just stated, this problem is one that a man must work out on himself not with regard to others. How he does it depends, of course, on his special make-up, and the following is only intended to be suggestive and to promote discussion.

In the first place, if a man has no plant pride it is a question whether he has any business to stay on the job, either for his own good or for the good of the concern. Per- haps the best cooperation that he can render is to find an- other job as soon as he can where he can feel that the concern is some good. This is, of course, a question that each man must answer for himself and is only mentioned here in passing.

Since, however, among foremen, entire lack of plant pride is very raye, the managerial question is rather one to have the most pride possible, and so this point may be worth some consideration.

The following statements are not set up as rules but merely as suggestions that may, at least, give rise jfco some discussion or thinking about the problem, as it comes up in

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 399

different plants under different conditions. Among the 'Seays and means" that a man can use on himself in promoting his own plant pride might be :

1. Realizing that in practically all plants the General Management wants to make the plant as good as possible: they have plant pride themselves and in most cases they are as anxious to make things as good as possible as anybody else, if for no other reason as a straight matter of business. The success of the business depends upon the reputation of the plant and of the product and the General Management knows it better than anybody else.

2. Realizing that the General Management has its troubles as well as other people, but they cannot always tell about them. For example, a building may be old and the working conditions poor in consequence. The Management may know this and be very anxious to improve the conditions, yet they may be tied up so that they can do nothing immedi- ately. It may be impossible to raise the money, that special case may be included in a general reconstruction program that depends on the condition of the money market, or other more important matters may be slated fojr action first. The point is that what may appear the one thing that ought to be done at once from the standpoint of the man who is in direct contact with the situation (the foreman) may not be immediately possible with regard to the good of the concern as a whole, but this may not mean that those in control are not anxious to do all that they can, and it may help a foreman if he realizes that he may not know the whole of the story.

3. All plants have their "bright spots" and their "dark spots." None are absolutely bad and few are absolutely perfect. As a rule, any plant is in a state of development and, just now, it is true that the majority are in more or less of a mixed up condition on account of the war. In "man- aging" himself on this plant pride problem, it will help a foreman if he will endeavor, so far as he can, to acquaint himself with the policy of the concern as to such things as affect plant pride and if he wiU consider what the concern

400 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

wants to do as well as what it is at the time : a man may be proud of a concern that is "down" but means to come up as well as of a concern that never was "down."

4. Another "managerial device" for a foreman is to look at the "bright spots" rather than the "dark spots." He can be an "optimist" or a "pessimist" as he pleases. If he sees only the dark side of things it wiU not help him to develop pride in the concern for which he works.

5. And lastly, if a man feels that he is cooperating eflfec- tively to improve the plant through any means that may lie within his power, and knows that he has helped to make things better, that he is really helping to get a plant of which all who are connected with it may feel more and more proud, that, in itself, wiU develop plant pride.

As already stated, the above remarks are not intended to tell any given foreman what he should do in regard to this problem of plant pride. It is up to each man to decide for himself and nobody can decide for him, or tell him just what he ought to do or what he ought not to do. All that can be done here is to make a few suggestions that may promote thinking and discussion and that is all that has been attempted.

C. NOT "kNOCKINS THE MANAGEMENT"

Preliminary. — ^It needs no discussion to convince anyone that "knocking" brings in cost elements, but just what they are may need some discussion. Everybody knows in a gen- eral way what the term means but for clearness it may be well to say that in the sense in which it is used here "knock- ing" means criticising in the wrong place or to the wrong people and often means merely finding fault without suggest- ing any way for improvement.

Knocking is really an "Indoor Sport" more than any- thing else and usually comes about when a man is mad, or upset over something. Usually he does not mean anything by it except so far as it gives him a chance to "blow off steam." It is, however, a habit that may bring into play

COST PBOBLEMS ON COOPERATION 401

some serious cost elements, especially in the case of knocking the Management, because of the degree to which these cost elements aifect cooperation, and so it is considered here.

Cost Elements. — This is another case where the cost ele- ments are hard to define because the results of "knocking" are so hard to foretell. In a case of this kind almost anything may come out of it, or nothing, according to the way that things may go. The following may, however, be suggestive :

1. Danger of promoting dissatisfaction among people who happen to hear "knocking," especially if it is done by their superior, as, for example, when two foreman have a "knocking party" where the members of the operating force can hear them.

2. Danger of promoting dissatisfaction and cutting down plant pride among the people who do the knocking.

3. The cost of the wasted time. It should be borne in mind that "knocking," as the term is used here, does not mean discussion among people who are really anxious to improve things, but means what is often called "chewing the rag." Since this sort of thing never gets anybody anywhere, time spent in this particular "indoor sport" is wasted whether it is a man's time or the company's time.

4. Danger of the spreading of the habit. It is unfor- tunately true that the habit of "knocking" is as catching as the measles, and the more one listens to a knocker the greater chance of getting the habit oneself. A chronic knocker in a bunch of men is as bad as a rotten apple in a basket of good apples. If the thing is kept up the result is likely to be a bunch of knockers instead of one.

Dealing with the Problem. — ^In dealing with this matter of knocking as a managerial problem, as already pointed out, a foreman must deal largely with himself, and the ways and means that he adopts to cut out the cost or reduce it are ones that he must work out for himself. The suggestions made below are, therefore, merely suggestive. Among the things that anybody can do if they want to are :

1. Head off knocking when you run into it. When another

S6

402 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

fellow starts in, start something else: switch the subject. Don't "foUow his lead."

2. If a fellow is bound to knock, try to get him where others will not hear him, especially where it is a case of a man with a real or fancied personal grievance because these are often the most dangerous cases from the cost increasing angle.

3. Keep out of the habit yourself: it is easy to acquire and hard to break off when you have it. Watch for the symptoms.

4. Be especially careful when you are tired or worried or mad. These are danger points. Keep away from temptation until you have cooled off. Under conditions of worry, or fatigue, or annoyance any man is liable to say things that he does not really mean and that he will be sorry for afterwards.

5. As already stated in the last section, be as much of an optimist and as little of a pessimist as you can make out of yourself.

6. Remember that, after all, knocking is only blowing off steam and steam that is blown off doesn't help to move the train: it does not get anybody anywhere.

7. Gret clearly in mind the difference between honest, helpful discussion and criticism made at the right time to the right people and just plain knocking made to the wrong people and carried on under conditions where nobody can tell what the cost may be with no gain.

8. Do what you can to cure others of the habit whenever you can do it tactfully. Remember that a gang of knockers never made a good team and cooperate with the organization by helping to keep it a team and not a "hammer association."

D. HEADING OFF INCOEEECT PLANT GOSSIP IN THE PLANT OE IN THE DEPAETMENT

Preliminary. — Every foreman knows that any plant is as bad as an old lady's home for gossip. Much of this gossip is harmless but some of it can do great damage if it is incor- rect and is allowed to go on unchecked. By virtue of his position as the man who stands next to the working force

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 403

a foreman is in a better position than anybody else connected with the Management to pick up such gossip first and head it off if it needs heading off. Possible responsibilities in this connection were pointed out in Chapter XXII and this section discusses some of the cost elements and the corre- sponding managerial problems.

Cost Elements. — The cost elements here are again hard to define, because no one can tell how far gossip will travel, or what may come of it. However, among the possibilities might be:

(1) A letting down of morale with the resulting cost elements. (Increased carelessness, decreased production, lowered quality, etc.)

(2) Increased absenteeism.

(3) Increased quitting, with the resulting replacement cost.

(4) Unnecessary trouble with the operating force, due to misunderstandings caused by unfounded gossip.

(5) Lost time, where people wasted time "passing along the news," instead of attending to the work in hand.

(6) Friction caused by attempting to get them back on their jobs.

The Managerial Problem. — ^In general, gossip is one of two kinds : it is either entirely untrue, or is a distorted version of the facts. In either case, the managerial problem is "to head it off" as soon as possible, since the longer it runs, the greater its cost increasing effect.

Dealing with the Problem. — As just indicated, the essen- tial method for dealing with unfounded plant gossip is to spot it and stop it.

The ability of a foreman to do this largely depends on the degree to which he has the confidence of his operating force and has secured their cooperation.

If there is no cooperative spirit and little or no confidence gossip may go on for a long time and a foreman never know it, but under the right conditions, some one is nearly always

404 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

sure to come to him for the facts if it is believed that the facts wUl be given.

For example, suppose in a garment factory a story gets started that the plant is going out of business and everyone is going to lose his job. Foreman A has not succeeded in setting up good relations — all the girls start looking for jobs in other plants and the labor loss begins to run up with no apparent reason. The girls "just quit" and the foreman has no idea why, because no one will tell him. Foreman B has established good relations, so that the girls are not afraid to talk to him, so when "Mary Jane" teUs him that she is quitting and he asks her why, he finds out at once that she is leaving because she expects to lose her job in that plant and is "looking out for herself." If he knows that the story is not true, he tells her so and she believes him; not only has he nailed that particular bit of nonsense with her, but she wiU pass the news along to the other girls and the gossip will be quickly smothered. As compared with Foreman A, Foreman B evidently has done a better cost cutting job.

Of course, in all these matters there are two cases. In the later case the foreman knows the truth, and, if he is in a position to do so, of course, tells it.

In the other case, the foreman does not know the facts, and so cannot act at once, but may find out. Anyway, there are only two square answers :

(1) "I don't know, but I'll find out if I can and let you know."

(2) "I don't know."

Under good cooperative conditions between a foreman and his superiors, the first answer might be necessary, but not the second.

In all cases, a foreman can cooperate to the extent of notifying his superiors of the conditions, even if he can do no more through lack of information.

E. "being a pakt of the oeganization"

Preliminary. — ^The meaning of this expression has al- ready been defined as referring to the degree to which a fore-

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 405

man sees cooperative responsibilities in various ways outside of his regular job, for giving time and work for the good of the concern as a whole. Suppose, for example, that a man is asked to serve on a committee that has to study and report upon some matter affecting the welfare of the concern: say a new method of routing material, or a change in operations, or a change in the organization.

If he takes the job and gives time and thought to it, he is much more a part of the organization than if he "ducks" the job, or only goes at it in a perfunctory way, without really helping the thing along. Perhaps the idea might be illus- trated by the story of the two men abroad, where one always registered from New York, and the other as from Boston, Massachusetts, U. S. A. Which one felt himself to be a part of the larger organization.''

While the cost elements here are again difHcult to pull out because "being a part of the organization" is almost the same thing as some other cooperative points discussed, a few are suggested in the following paragraph:

Cost Elements. — Among the cost elements here might be :

(1) The loss of any special knowledge, experience, judg^ ment, etc., that a man could contribute, but did not.

(2) The loss to the man himself in losing a chance to work with others on a job of general benefit, which always means that everybody on that job has gamed something for himself by giving to others.

(3) An increasing tendency to also fail to take the trouble to cooperate in other ways, with corresponding in- creased cost elements there.

The Managerial Problem.— Again this is largely a case where a man must "manage" himself. As a "problem" it may be stated as follows : to discharge any "organization responsi- bilities" as effectively as possible, according to one's ability and the opportunities that may come up to contribute.

Dealing with the Problem. — The degree to which this problem can be dealt with effectively depends largely on a

406 THE FOREMAN AND^fflS JOB

man's mental attitude, and this attitude, in turn depends upon a number of things among which are :

1. The degree to which his interest in his immediate job shuts out everything else. For example, many foremen who could contribute a great deal along this line say, "I can't do anything because my job takes all my time and energy," and so, for illustration, if they are called into a conference on production troubles that affect the work in their own de- partments, take an active part, but contribute little or nothing if the subject lies outside of their own direct depart- mental responsibilities.

2. The degree to which a man is too modest. Often a man that could contribute a great deal, who has had a lot of experience and has a lot of special knowledge that would be of great value wiU fail to "come across" because he thinks, "I don't want to mix into this thing: I don't know enough," while some "smooth talker" pitches in and really contributes little or nothing that is of real value.

3. A third element that sometimes comes up, though not very often, is a state of mind in which a man feels that he ought not to be asked to contribute to anything that he feels is "outside of his job."

Where it does occur this "That's up to the Management : it's none of my business : that's not what I'm paid for" state of mind, of course, prevents a man from properly discharg- ing the sort of cooperative responsibilities that are under discussion here.

Where a man sees his own job so big that he cannot see any of the broader responsibilities that go with "being a part of the organization," or is too modest to help when he could, his job is to get out of that state of mind. How he will do it is up to him, but that is his job. As long as he feels that way he cannot contribute effectively to reduce the operation of the cost elements that go with these particular responsi- bilities and so, to a greater or less extent, increases the cost due to poor cooperation.

Where a foreman has failed in these special lines, it is

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 407

almost always due to the fact that he has not thought of his responsibilities for being a parf^ of the organization as a part of his job rather than any deliberate unwillingness to help things along. It is really a question of the extent to which he sees the whole of his job, and sees the diiferent _parts in their true relations to each other. It is as if a man were playing first base on a ball team and saw only his job as a first baseman rather than seeing that job as a part of the job of the whole team.

Of course, the above discussion is only suggestive : in each case ways and means must be worked out by each foreman according to his special conditions and the organization of the plant, but the degree to which he "manages" himself so that he feels that he is a part of the organization, and is ready to assist in any way that he can to help improve things as a whole, because he has got himself so that he sees the whole of his job and see it as a part of the job of the whole con- cern, will be the degree to which he deals successfully with the problem of "being a part of the organization."

F. HANDLING ORDEES FROM "tHE OFFICE" INTELLIGENTLY

Preliminary. — There are two conditions under which a foreman receives orders : they may come :

1. From "the Office" usually transmitted through his im- mediate superiors, where the plant is of any size and

■2. From his immediate superiors.

That is, he may get "general orders" or "divisional" orders.

Since the cost elements and managerial problems are in- dependent of the source of the orders, so long as they do not originate with the foreman himself, but come from "above," they are not taken up here but in the next section under "Co- operating with Immediate Superiors."

SECTION n. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON CO- OPERATION WITH IMMEDIATE SUPERIORS

Preliminary. — ^As pointed out in previous chapters, a foreman stands between the actual operating force on the one

408 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

hand and the supervisory and managerial force on the other. To his superiors, he represents the men : to the men, he repre- sents the management.

His closest and direct contact point "above" Is his imme- diate superior, whoever he may be. From the "management side" a foreman's immediate superior is the one with whom he does most of his business, especially with regard to the carrying on of the work in his department. The degree to which a foreman and his immediate superior do, or do not, cooperate, therefore, is a very vital matter to the success of the plant and makes one of the important cooperative prob- lems with which a foreman must deal.

Cost Elements. — ^Among the more important cost ele- ments that may come into play in this connection are:

(1) Failure to fully understand orders, directions and suggestions before acting upon them, due to lack of "back checking."

(2) Failure to ask for additional orders when they are necessary.

(3) Carrying out the "letter" instead of the intent of orders and suggestions, "sticking too close to orders."

(4) Transmitting orders that are not fuUy understood.

(5) Failure to act in absence of orders; "ducking responsibility."

(6) Failure to transmit orders so that they are fuUy understood, or do not reach the people for whom they are intended.

(7) Failure to support the superior.

Dealing with the Problem. — Some points that may have a bearing on the question of cooperating with immediate superiors are suggested in the following paragraphs.

Orders Not Fully Understood — "Back Checking." — ^As the term is used here, "back checking" means, in a case where orders, directions or suggestions are not fully understood, going back to the person who issued the order and getting the doubtful points cleared up before acting. Back checking sltould be preceded by a careful study of the order, direction

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 409

or suggestion to make sure that there are or are not any such doubtful points.

The danger of the order that is not fully understood comes out in several ways. For example, in such a case, the order may be carried out wrong, because it was misunder- stood, or a foreman, in carrying it out, may find that he does not fuUy understand it, guess at what was meant and guess wrong. The damage is the same in either case. Some ways and means that may help in this matter are :

1. Making sure that orders and other communications are fuUy understood before acting on them and not being ashamed to go back for more information if there is any doubt. Of course, a man does not want to be running back to his superior every few minutes "to make sure he has got it just right," nor should that be necessary, but, on the other hand, it is cheaper to go back than do the wrong thing, nor need any man feel that, when the matter is not clear to him, his dignity or his brains are discounted if he does go back, and he is cooperating with his superior when he does it. Another point in this connection is taking sufficient time to "get" an order: being in too much of a hurry has caused many a slip in carrying out orders, directions and suggestions.

2. Taking a chance on incomplete orders is another point to look out for. Where such a slip has happened it should be another case of "back checking" and not guessing as good management on cooperation with the superior.

Asking for Additional Orders. — ^It will sometimes happen that in carrying out an order or a suggestion some unex- pected point will come up that calls for some action not contemplated when the orders or directions were issued, or when the matter was first talked over. Sometimes under these conditions a man must assume responsibility as discussed in the paragraph below, he can't stop, or he cannot get at his superior, he must go on, but in other cases good cooperative management would require going back for additional in- structions. This is a case where a man must use his best

410 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

judgment according to the special conditions, but the same general principle applies here as in the matter of understand- ing orders, a man will not cooperate in the best way with his superior if he is ashamed or reluctant for any reason to ask for additional orders or directions when he can do it and feels that he ought to do it.

Sticking to Orders. — ^A man who takes the position, "I get my orders and I foUow them no matter what happens," is not cooperating with his superior. Of course, no good fore- man takes this extreme attitude, but there is a question but what many men feel that when they have their orders and carry them out to the letter, they have done all that can be expected of them. It does sometimes happen, however, that the literal reading of the order or the absolute following of the directions as given will evidently prevent the result that the giving of the order was intended to secure. For an example, the mate of a ship is told by the captain, "I am going to turn in, don't take in any sail." Later in the watch the mate discovers that a spar is sprung and unless that sail is taken in serious damage may result. He knows that the intention of the order was to get the best speed out of the ship, and that carrying a certain sail is not the real point, he therefore takes in the dangerous sail and sets another in its place. He has followed the intention of the order. Had he taken the position of "Obeying orders and breaking owners" as it used to be called, he would have really defeated the intention of the order, for the loss of the sail and spar would have crippled the ship and have actually reduced her speed.

The point here is that, under good cooperative" conditions, there is a managerial responsibility for seeing that the intent of an order is accomplished. This may mean acting, back checking, getting additional instructions, and so on, accord- ing to conditions and judgment, but a good manager will try to see that it is done : a poor manager relies on the letter of the order or direction and feels that he has no further responsibility. If things go wrong, saying "I did it exactly as you told me to" does not entirely cover the case.

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 411

Of course, if a foreman's immediate superior says to him, "I want all orders followed exactly: I'll do all the thinking on this job," or, "You do as I tell you: that's all I want," the management is bad on the side of the superior, and all that the foreman can do is to obey orders even if he "breaks owners," but he would better make such an order a matter of record, because in case something happens that he could have prevented, he may get called "on the carpet," and the matter go "higher up."

"Ducking Responsibility." — ^Reference has already been made to the case where a man must either take responsibility or "duck" it.

Of course, this is practically a case of emergency, but under such conditions cases will come up where a subordinate must either modify orders or let things go wrong. Just what should be done under such conditions depends so much on the special case that no general rule can be set up, but there are sometimes situations where a man must act if he is going to cooperate. This subject is not carried further here but is suggested as one well worth discussion.

Transmitting Orders When They are not Fully Under- stood.— ^As already pointed out, under some conditions a foreman may have the responsibility for transmitting orders from his superiors to his operating force. Where this is the case the cost elements and the ways and means are essentially the same as in the case of receiving orders as just considered.

Backing Up Immediate Superiors. — ^This is another case of "knocking" and the discussion as given in the preced- ing section applies just as well here. It is, therefore, not repeated.

Transmitting Instructions so That They are Under- stood.— ^Under some conditions, a foreman may receive orders or directions from his immediate superior of a sort that make it necessary to reissue part of this order to his men. As in the case of orders when given directly,* the general points

• Chapter XIV.

412 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

apply and so are not taken up here, but, if the reissuing of a part of such an order is necessary, one important way in which a foreman can cooperate is to see that such orders as he reissues are so set up that the men who get them will understand them, A foreman is closer to the working force than anyone else and so knows them better and therefore knows how to word orders so that they will be clear. As an extreme illustration of what is meant, suppose all the operat- ing force spoke Italian, but little, or no, English, and a part of an order from above had to be reissued; the original order being in English, If the foreman spoke Italian, or could get the "reissue orders" put up In Italian, evidently they are much more likely to be understood than if they were given In English, and to do this would be good cooperation with the immediate superior.

Getting Transmitted or Reissued Orders to the Right People, — Again, this is another case of giving orders as al- ready discussed, and so is not taken up further here, except to point out that here again, under some conditions, "re- issued" orders may affect only certain people and a foreman will cooperate with his immediate superior in proportion as he sees that only those people get the orders,'' and that all get them who should.

For example, two foremen may have the job of trans- mitting, or reissuing orders to a part of their operating force: one foreman merely sticks the orders on a bulletin board and trusts that the right men will see them ; the other foreman sees to it that the right men get them by Issuing the orders directly to them. The second foreman has done a better cooperating job. Another case worth mentioning is that of telling one man to "tell the rest of the gang." For example. In a shipyard, the riveting boss Issues orders to the foremen of the chlppers and caulkers that all men on certain jobs must wear goggles, because the special steel to be worked on is particularly dangerous on account of flying chips. One foreman tells one of the chlppers to tell the other men on that job; the other foreman Instructs directly each

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPEBATION 413

man to whom thte order applies. The second foreman has given the better cooperation to his immediate superior and so has cut costs more than the first foreman has done,

SECTION ni. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PEOBLEMS ON COOPERATION WITH OTHER FOREMEN

Preliminai'y. — ^Working in cooperation with other fore- men probably calls for more good management than any other form of cooperation that comes up in "team work." Of course, no man wants to "meddle" with another man's job, or to "butt in," but, on the other hand, if he takes the position that "The other man's job is none of my business," or "I'll stick to my job and he can stick to his," costs are liable to be increased. Some points in connection with co- operating with other foremen are therefore considered in this section.

It is a fact that a man is often more sensitive to any "interference" by another man having equal authority than he is in the case of any superior, or even a subordinate, and this often makes matters of this kind particularly diiEcult to handle effectively, but the cooperative job is there and the degree to which matters of cooperation between foremen is well or poorly worked out may affect costs seriously, and so is worth careful consideration.

Cost Elements. — ^Among the cost elements that may affect this matter are :

(1) Where one department "feeds into another," failure of the foreman of the receiving department to promptly notify the foreman of the "feeding" department of any fall- ing off in quantity or quality, or to keep the right balance. (Failure to cooperate on production.)

(2) Failure of a foreman in one department to "tip off" a foreman in another department, when it comes to the attention of foreman number one that things are going wrong with foreman number two.

(3) Foreman in different departments "sticking" each

414 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

other (as in the case of "passing over" undesirable workers), each man "looking out for his own."

(4) Basing cooperation or lack of cooperation on per- sonal friendship or liking instead of on the good of the con- cern. (Making cooperation impersonal.)

(5) Not "appreciating the other fellow's troubles." The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here

is very plain and simple. It is to reduce costs by helping the other fellow all that is possible, but doing it in such a way that there can be no charge of "butting in."

Dealing with the Problem. — The successful management of cooperation between foremen, or any case of cooperation between people of equal but distinct authority, calls for so much tact and judgment applied to each special case that the matter can be taken up only in a general way. Each fore- man must act in each case according to his best judgment, but a few points worth considering with regard to the cost elements suggested are given in the following paragraphs.

Cooperating oh Production. — Some foremen, thinking only of their own department, feel that the more they can "j am" the next man the more they are helping the company, or they feel that if they fall off and so "starve" the next department it is just their own trouble. Of course, when a man sees his job as a part of the whole this sort of thing will not happen, but whatever the cause, where foremen are cooperating as they should good management will try to avoid either jamming or starving. Of course, where the pro- duction of each department is handled by a Production Con- trol Department it is a case of cooperating with another department, as considered in the following section, but, in many plants, balance of production is practically in the hands of the foremen and, in such cases good or poor co- operation makes a great difference in costs. For examplp, if it is good the "sumpage" (amount of material in depart- mental storage waiting to be worked up or piled up between operations) is kept down, the distribution of the working force is not upset, idle load is kept down to the minimum.

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 41S

Under such "feeding" conditions between departments one foreman can cooperate with another by setting up some ar- rangement whereby they keep posted on the condition in each other's departments and "one fellow looks out for the other," in a way. If a foreman is willing to cooperate he will handle his own production so far as he can so as to balance with the other fellow and he will not say, " My business is mine and his business is his, and that is where I get off." Of course, this point cannot be taken up from the standpoint of detailed ways and means because it calls for " job knowledge " as to how to do it, so the points can only be raised for discussion in conferences.

"Tipping Off." — Any foreman as he goes about the plant sees things that affect the effectiveness of the work of the other foremen. If he only feels responsibility for his own department and, when he sees something of the kind, thinks, "Well, that win make trouble for him, but it's none of my business," he is not cooperating.

These cases come up in all sorts of ways and in each case a foreman has to use his best judgment in dealing with them, but if cooperative conditions are good, there is always some way of managing the matter so as to prevent increased costs and at the same time keep from "meddling." The gen- eral managerial problem is for all foremen to set up such good cooperative relations that this can be done. One im- portant point here is that each fellow knows that all the other men are out to help him and not to get him: that is, there must be entire confidence in the good intentions and good faith of all concerned. There is no better way of bring- ing this about than conferences where matters of this kind are discussed frankly and honestly and men get to know each other, and this is one of the best ways of dealing managerially with the problem of cooperation between foremen.

"Sticking the Other Fellow." — A good example of this is where a foreman has a man in his department who, for some reason, he wants to get rid of but does not want to discharge. He goes to another foreman and tells him that this man is

416 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

just the man that he wants, although he knows that the man is no more use in the other department than he is in his own. He succeeds in getting the other foreman to get the man in question transferred and thinks that he has done a good job because he has got the man out of his own department and that is all that he cares about. He has failed to cooperate with the other foreman just as in any other case of "selling a gold brick" : he has "stuck" the other fellow.

A case of this kind must be carefully distinguished from the case where the first foreman actually believes that the man wiU. really make good on the job in the other depart- ment : such a case would be real cooperation with the other foreman and with the management. In such a case there is no gold brick involved.

The same thing might come up in regard to an equipment unit or in some other way "unloading" something undesii> able on the other fellow, but the underlying point is that when a man does this he sees only the advantage to himself and does not think of the damage to others.

A man who has the cooperative spirit will not resort to unloading or sticking : in proportion as he does it he is a poor manager: if he does not do it he is a good manager. It is up to any foreman to decide how good or poor a manager he will be in this respect.

Personal Friendship and Cooperation. — Some men think that cooperation is a matter of personal liking : they will co- operate with a friend, or with somebody that they like, but see no call to even try to cooperate with people whom they dislike or do not know. Such men reserve the right to co- operate or not, according to their likes and dislikes: they make cooperation a personal matter instead of a "team" matter.

Such people are looking at the matter of cooperation from the wrong angle : they think of it as doing a favor in- stead of discharging a responsibility. They have the wrong slant on the proposition and to the extent to which they base cooperation on personal friendship or liking they do a poor

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 417

managerial job so far as cooperative responsibilities are concerned. It is unquestionably easier to cooperate with a man that you know and like than it is to work with a man that you don't know or don't like, but this has nothing to do with the matter of cooperating.

The only true basis for cooperation between any two people is that they are both working on the same job: mem- bers of the same team and cooperation is necessary to get the job done cheaper. '

"Inability to Cooperate." — Sometimes a man will say, "Jones and I can't cooperate: we can't get along. It's no use to try. We have both tried to get together and we can't do it." Where such a condition has come about it can only, be said, first, that when two square men are on the same job and really want to get that job done as well as possible, they can get together on a cooperative basis. If they are so con- stituted for any reason that they can't do it, one or both ought to quit and let their places be filled by two people who can work together for the good of the team. As long as such a situation exists the team is damaged and costs are increased.

While the above discussion applies more especially to the case of cooperation between foremen it applies as well to any sort of cooperation as discussed in this chapter.

"Appreciating the Other Fellow's Troubles." — ^A man naturally feels "stirred up" about his own troubles and tends to forget that the other fellow is having just as many, and that he is just as worried. Stopping and thinking of this fact will often help a man to "keep cool" and sometimes allowing for the other fellow's "blowing up" or seeming un- reasonable. In all cooperation there must be "give and take" if it is to be the most effective. "Appreciating the other fellow's trouble," therefore, is one of the ways and means for getting and improving cooperation between foremen. For example, a foreman has a breakdown and puts in a work order to the maintenance department for repairs, his pro- duction meantime being held up. If the maintenance depart- ment does not get right on the job, or does not start in when

27

418 THE FOBEMAN AND fflS JOB

they said they would, because they got behind on another job and want to finish that, it is hard to keep from thinking sometimes that the foreman of the maintenance department is not doing all he can to help you out, though he undoubtedly is doing just that thing. He has his troubles, too. The story is told of General Grant that somebody asked him once how he got along with all his troubles and he said that it was because he had learned to realize that the enemy had just as many, and that when things went wrong he thought of that and it always made him feel better. Something of the same idea will help in keeping up good cooperative relations, especially when things go wrong. It may help to "put grease in the gear box" of the organization instead of sand.

Backing Up Other Departments. — ^The discussion as to "knocking" the management or immediate superior applies here as well. Some men have an unfortunate habit of uncon- sciously making remarks that disparage the work of other departments — "BUI is having a lot of trouble" if spoken where others, especially members of the working force, hear it, may hurt Bill and certainly will do no good, even if it is true. If it is true, the less said the better and if it is not true it ought not to be said at all.

SECTION IV. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGEBIAi FKOBLEMS ON COOPEEATION WITH SPECIAL, DEPARTMENTS

Preliminary. — ^The cooperative problems discussed so far have all been in what may be called direct relations on the production side, as, for example, cooperation between a fore- man and his immediate superior or the General Management. There is, however, another case worth consideration in which, while the same general responsibilities exist and the same managerial problems come up, the details work out some- what differently, and that is the case of cooperation with special departments. This case is, therefore, taken up sep- arately in this section.

"WTiat is Meant by Special Departments. — The sense in which this term is used is given in a former chapter and so is not repeated here except to state, for convenience, that it

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 419

refers to such departments as a Safety Department, a Per- sonnel Department, an Employment Department, etc., that is, a department established to render a special service.

Cooperative Responsibilities. — ^Where such departments are a part of the plant organization the same general mutual cooperative responsibilities exist as in the other cases men- tioned: their job is to help the foreman and his job is to help them, and the better both jobs are done the better for the concern.

Helping Them Along. — ^A foreman can do much or little to help along special departments. iMuch depends upon the interest that he takes in what they are trying to do. If their work bears upon the working force, as in the case of a medical or welfare department, on account of his close relation to his men, a foreman can do more than anybody else to help them along or to hinder them. Reference has been made in a num- ber of places to ways in which this helping along could be done, as in connection with a medical department and in- cipient disease, in spotting cases that may need medical atten- tion, and so on. Other cases have been brought up in various other chapters so that no special consideration of cost ele- ments and managerial problems is needed.

Where such departments are a part of the organization, if a foreman feels that he has a cooperating responsibility he can find aU sorts of ways of helping them along and so enabling them to do a better job. If he does not feel any cooperating responsibilities he may be sure that he is reduc- ing the value of their work and so increasing cost.

Cost Elements. — ^Among the more important cost ele- ments that may come into play here are :

1. Failure on the part of the foreman to acquaint him- self with the job that the special department is trying to do.

2. Failure on the part of the special department to ac- quaint itself with the foreman's job.

3. Feeling on the part of the foreman that the special department is "butting in" on his job.

4. Feeling on the part of the foreman that the work of such a special department is "none of his business anyway."

420 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB

Of course, all of the above cost elements will not come into play in any one case, and others will come up, but the above have come up in the conference discussion on many cases and so are considered in this section.

The Managerial Problem. — ^Wherever such special de- partments are a part of the organization the managerial problem for the foreman is to cooperate in all possible ways to help such a department to do its job as well as possible, in order to promote the success of the organization.

Dealing with the Problem. — ^Among the ways and means for dealing with this problem effectively are :

1. Taking time to find out what the special department is trying to do.

2. Seeing that the special depstrtment is "educated" as to the foreman's job.

3. Finding out where the special department can make the foreman's job easier : where it can help.

4. Helping the special department to do its job wherever possible, and taking pains to find out where it can be helped inside of the department.

Finding Out What the Special Department is Trying to Do. — If two people are to cooperate, each must know what the other is trying to do and one of the best ways and means that a foreman can use in cooperating with a special depart- ment is to find out what that department is doing and keep posted on its work. Conferences between foreman and who- ever is in charge of the special department in question will go far to bring about mutual understanding. If the foreman and the head of the special department could get together in an informal meeting once in a while, it would be a mighty good way to help things along.

For example, in some cases that have been discussed in foremen's conferences in the past, it has appeared that there was considerable friction between the Employment Depart- ment and the foremen: they were pulling apart instead of working together, because the foremen had never found out what Ihe Employment Department was trying to do in the

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 421

way of getting them the sort of help that could do the best jobs, and it was not until the matter had been thrashed out in conference that the foremen discovered that, if they would tell the Employment Department just what the requirements of the job were, that department would be only too glad to get that information instead of merely a requisition for so many men, and, with that information, could do its job very much better.

Another illustration of failure to cooperate because of ignorance as to what a special department was trying to do, came up in a shipyard during the war. A training depart- ment had been established to quickly and thoroughly train green men for the " yard trades " (riveting, chipping and caulking, etc.), and in order to make this training work effective it was necessary to secure certain kinds of jobs for training at certain times. The foremen felt that picking out certain jobs and giving them to the Training Department was taking away work for which they were responsible and holding back production, and It did unquestionably make more or less additional trouble. The foremen, therefore, would not cooperate: they would only do as much as they had to. It so happened, however, that there was In operation In that yard a Training Center operated by the Emergency Fleet that was showing some of the good workers how to apply some of the tricks of the teaching trade to the job of teaching green men, and some of the foremen became Inter- ested in what was going on there. As a result quite a number of them asked for some meetings in order that they might find out what the whole thing was about. When, as a result of those meetings, they found out that the Training Depart- ment was on the job to save them the drag of trying to build ships with perfectly green men and to give them men who could do a job, and that, in order to do its job it must have these special training jobs when a certain kind of a job was needed to further train a man who had reached a certain point in his training, they were perfectly ready to help, and to cooperate with the Training Department along any lines.

422 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

"Educating" the Special Department as to the Foreman's Joh. — ^Not only is a foreman often ignorant of the job of a special department, but it is often just as true that a special department tries to play a lone hand and does not know what the jobs of the different foremen are, what special conditions they have to work under and what are their managerial problems. In consequence, in some cases, such a department, say a Welfare Department, has tried to put over something that, as proposed, was quite impossible under the working conditions, and which could not be handled successfully as proposed. For example, in one shipyard, a service depart- ment undertook to stop aU gambling at the noon hour. Aside from the question as to whether gambling is, or is not, wrong, which does not enter into the discussion, with a force of twelve thousand men, many of whom had played craps since they were babies, the proposition was impossible of enforce- ment and every practical man in the yard knew it. This was a case where it was up to the foremen and other oflBcers to educate this department in the actual working conditions so that it would be plain to that department that the regulation, as proposed, could not be effective.

As another example, in one case it appeared that the Em- ployment Department was sometimes taking a week to act on requisitions for help and nobody in that department had thought that when a foreman needs men he needs them as quickly as he can get them. In this case the Employment Department, one that had been newly organized under the pressure of war conditions, evidently was not educated to the real conditions under which it could give effective service to foremen.

Since a foreman knows more about his job than anybody else can know it is up to him to go more than half way in educating special departments to see just how they can help him to the best advantage, and it is a part of his managerial job to do so.

Feeling that the Special Department is "Butting In." — In some cases, especially where some special department

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 423

comes into a plant that has been in operation for a long time, where the foremen have been used to talcing care of the whole job themselves, foremen feel that the new department is "butt- ing in" on their job. For example, a safety department is organized to make a special job of the promotion of safety. Although they may not say so, some foremen think that they have been taking care of the matter of safety all right and they rather resent giving that job to a special department. The same might be true of a special routing department and especially true in many cases where an Employment Depart- ment has been established in a plant where the foremen have been hiring their own men. In such cases some foremen feel that a part of their job has been taken away from them, or that the special department is only going to "gum things up." AVhen a man feels that way he naturally is not inclined to co- operate with such a special department in any whole hearted manner. He may do what he feels that he has to, but he is not going very far out of his way to help things along. Some- times a man really does not know that he feels that way : he honestly thinks that he is willing to cooperate but his uncon- scious feeling of antagonism holds him back.

Now such a situation is a bad one and real effective co- operation cannot come about as long as it exists, and a fore- man who feels that a special department is "butting into his job," or is unconsciously blocking it, has a managerial job on his hands to get himself straightened out. In the first place, no management is going to the expense of establishing a special department unless it thinks that the work of the organization will be helped : such departments are not set up just for fun. The responsibility for cooperating with the Management, therefore, requires that every member of the team shall cooperate to make the work of such a department as successful as possible. This is particularly true in the case of the foremen, because they can do far more to make or break the proposition than anybody else in the plant.

If they hang back, they can almost prevent any proposi- tion from being really successful. If they help it along it is

424 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

almost certain to be a success. A special responsibility, therefore, rests on the foremen in such matters to help a special department to make good, not so much for the sake of the department itself as for the good of the plant and for the sake of cooperating with the Management.

One way in which a foreman can help "manage" himself in such a matter is, of course, to find out what such a special department is really trying to do; this will help a lot, but in addition to that it is often worth while for a man to ask himself squarely, "Am I really cooperating as effectively as I might, and if not, why.'"' Such a self analysis is sometimes a hard thing to do but it pays. Sometimes, as a result of such an analysis, a man will find that he has, without thinking much about it, failed to cooperate as much as he knows that he could have done had he really wanted to.

Another point that may be worth thinking about is the fact that the real job of any special department is to enable the foremen to do a better job on the real job, supervision and management, and to relieve them of "side jobs" that make an additional drag. This is well illustrated by the case of the shipyard foremen and the training department de- scribed in the last paragraph. The whole purpose of this department was to ease up on the foremen, and as soon as they saw this they were for it.

Helping the Special Department to do its Job, — One of the most practical ways in which a foreman can cooperate with a special department is to help it to do its job where such a department tries to get information into the hands of the men, or is attempting some sort of an educational piece of work. For example, a Safety Department is promoting the use of safety devices and precautions, the most effective way by which a foreman can cooperate is to see that such notices, posters, etc., as come to him from outside of his department are effectively used.

A poster showing the result of carelessness comes in: Foreman A sticks it up anywhere and lets it go at that, or

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 426

chucks it into his desk and forgets all about it. Foreman B takes psins to see that it is put up in a place where every- body can see it and takes special pains to see that it is brought to-the attention of all of his men. Foreman B is doing a better cooperating job than foreman A and so is doing more to reduce accident cost. The same thing may be true for other cases. Perhaps some leaflets are sent in describing the new opportunities for securing training if injured, as is now provided under the National Act and the laws of many states. This is something new. One foreman not only sees to it that each man gets the leaflet but informs himself as to the matter and perhaps even calls his men together and explains it to them, the other foreman leaves them in a pile where the men can take one as they go out and does nothing more.

The first foreman has done a better cost cutting job than the second.

Another way in which a special department can be helped on its job is by making suggestions, just as in the case dis- cussed in a previous section.

Another way to help is to see that notices and posters are not left after they lose their value by becoming "old stuff." Bulletin boards in many plants will show many such notices and posters that have been left there for years, are dirty, defaced, damaged. Where this happens, whoever had the responsibility of putting them up did not think much of them anyway.

The way in which a foreman treats any material that may come to him from a special department gives the operating force an accurate idea of how much he thinks of it and a foreman can easily "queer" the Management or any special department by not taking pains to use properly any material that he receives from them for public use and information.

Backing Them Up. — It is also true that the success of almost any special department will be largely affected by the degree to which they are backed up by the foreman in the plant. The attitude of the foremen will be largely reflected

426 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

in the attitude of the members of the working force. This would be true, for example, in the case of a safety department or of a training department or a welfare department.

These points have been taken up elsewhere from a some- what different angle and so have not been gone into again here in any detail, but in general, if a foreman wants to cooperate with any special department the "Don't knock: boost" principle will apply here just as well as in any other case. A foreman can at least do these things. He can take time to find out what a special department is trying to do, he can give them the benefit of his experience to help them if they are on the wrong track, and he can give them useful pointers, and he can help the men to understand what they are for and what they can do for them. Any foreman who feels cooperative responsibilities can at least do this much. If he does, he cuts costs. If he sits like a crow on a rail fence and just cries, "Caw, caw, caw," that thing is no good,' the people running it don't know where they are at, it's only one more new f angled idea!" the chances are that the overhead is being boosted and not the special department.

' ft

SECTION V. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PB.OBLEMS ON

COOPEUATION BETWEEN THE FOREMAN AND THE

OPERATING FORCE

A.

Preliminary. — In a former chapter it was pointed out that among the responsibilities that appear on the lay-out of the foreman's job were those of cooperating with the oper- ating force and securing their cooperation.

This section takes up some of the cost elements and man- agerial problems that come up in connection with the dis- charge of these cooperative responsibilities, both from the standpoint of giving cooperation and securing cooperation between the departmental working force and the foreman.

Cooperation Always Mutual. — ^In the preliminary discus- sion on cooperation it was pointed out that cooperation al-

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 427

ways works both ways and this fact has been assumed all through the preceding sections, but in the case of coopera- tion between a foreman and his operating force this fact becomes so important that the two sides of the question are discussed separately in this section, first from the stand- point of giving cooperation and second from the standpoint of securing cooperation.

The reason for this is that, up to this time all the cases of cooperation considered were between foremen and other supervisors or executives : Immediate Superiors, the General Management, other foremen, etc., that is, between people whose duty was to cooperate and to manage so that mutual cooperation would be as effective as possible. All super- visors are supposed to have these cooperative responsibilities, are assumed to know that they have them and to know how to manage so as to get the best possible cooperation. In all cases discussed so far we have had two or more officers, both of whom had managerial responsibilities and who were as- sumed to know that they had them and to know how to manage so as to get the best results. We had cooperation between two managers. In the case of a foreman and the departmental operating force the case is somewhat different.

Cooperation Between a Foreman and the Operating Force. — In the case of any officer and the operating force the problem is different because the management part of the problem is up to the officer only. The members of the oper- ating force may have cooperating responsibilities but they are paid to carry on work jobs, not to manage, so that in this case the officer has the responsibility of managing on both sides, of cooperating and of securing cooperation from people who cannot be assumed to know how to manage and who cannot be held responsible for a failure along that line. They may feel that they should cooperate and they may want to cooperate, but it is the job of the foreman to supply the managerial knowledge and guide them in getting the most effective cooperation, as well as, in many cases, getting them

428 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

to feel that they have cooperating responsibilities at all. In this section the matter is, therefore, taken up in two parts, B, cooperating with the working force, and C, securing cooperation from the members of the operating force, each setting up its own cost elements and managerial problems.

B. COOPEEATING WITH THE WORKING EOECE

Preliminary. — ^Many foremen who are entirely clear as to the necessity for securing cooperation from the members of the operating force are not clear as to the possibility of cooperating with them. Of course, the point turns on what is meant by cooperation. In a number of conference discus- sions it has turned out that the very foremen who said that they did not see how it could be done and that they certainly were not doing any of it, were really doing a great deal in the way of cooperating with their operating force. They simply had not thought of it in that light.

If the definition of cooperation given earlier in this book, "Doing something that you don't have to do to help the other fellow do a better job," is correct, then all foremen are doing a great deal to cooperate with their men, and some consideration of the cost elements and managerial problems is worth while.

Cost Elements. — ^Among the cost elements here might be :

1. Making working conditions easier.

2. Making production conditions easier.

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem ,here might be stated in this way : to do whatever can be done to enable the working force to do their jobs as well, as easily and as comfortably as possible, or, as it is often expressed, "to look out for the men."

Dealing vdth the Problem. — ^A man has to do a job of a certain kind: he has to work on certain materials with certain tools or machines and carry out certain operations or processes. That is his job. Any job has to be carried on under certain working conditions. For example, in a shipyard riveting must be carried on out of doors; in the

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 429

fire room of a steamer the work must be carried on at a high temperature ; in a machine shop the work must be carried on under cover on account of the machines ; a sewer must be dug out of doors.

Now, while these working conditions cannot be changed, as such, riveting cannot be carried on in the winter in a steam heated shop, or digging a sewer in summer in a nice shady place, out of the sun, the leader can, if he wishes, do a good deal to make things easier within the limits of the necessary working conditions and to that extent help the men to do the j ob easier and better. The leader does not have to do this, he could not be "called down" by his superior for not doing it, but if he does^ do it he cooperates with the men : if he does not do it he does not cooperate in the sense in which the term is used here.

Again, the ease with which a job can be done often de- pends upon the condition of the tools or other equipment: it is harder to do a good job with poor tools than with good ones. The job can be done, but it is harder on the workers.

A foreman can take one of two positions, the first, "There is the job and there are the tools, go to it, it is none of my business whether it is hard or easy, so long as the conditions are such that the job can be done," the second, "There is the job, it's got to be done, but I'll do all that I can to see that it can be done as easily as possible."

As in other cases these illustrations are only sugges- tive possibilities.

C. SECUKING COOPERATION FEOM THE WORKING FORCE

Preliminary. — The last discussion was on the question of cooperating with the operating force and the question of securing cooperation from the force is now taken up in the same way.

The foreman is the leader of the team, he is responsible for getting the job done : if he is to do a good job he must have the team behind him, that is, he must secure their cooperation.

What is Meant by Cooperation from the Operating

430 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

Force. — ^The kind of cooperation that a foreman must secure from the members of his operating force is the same kind that he, in turn, gives to his superiors. He must get the men to go out of their way to help to make the work as good as possible. A man who cooperates with his foreman does some- thing besides carrying on the purely mechanical operations of his job and this additional something cannot be secured by any exercise of authority : nobody can make a man do it, if he does it he does it because he wants to do it and not because anybody can Tiiake him do it.

For example, a man might have the job of stamping out fancy tin cases or boxes. If the colors that are baked on the metal are coming in a variety of shades instead of run- ning true, not enough to be noticeable at first glance but quite plain on examination, the operator is not to blame, it is no part of his job to inspect : his job is to run the press, and a condition of this kind might go on until an inspector came around or the foreman noticed it, with corresponding loss. If, however, the operator voluntarily keeps his eyes out and spots the poor material as soon as it begins to come along and brings it to the attention of the foreman, that operator is cooperating with him in the interests of the job.

Again, in an iron foundry, a moulder might see that an additional pattern, for which he had the order on his next job could be put into a flask with the one that he was using at the time. If he drew the attention of the foreman to this, and it was advisable to put that pattern in with the other job, a saving of time and labor would come out of that moulder's cooperation.

Cost Elements. — Of course, the cost elements here are plain: they are all due to a failure to utilize any interest, knowledge, skiU and intelligence that the members of the working force may possess. The condition here is like that of a man having money in the bank that is drawing no interest.

The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here is to get all the gain possible out of the knowledge, skill,

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 431

intelligence and experience of the members of the working force. The more this is done, the more costs are reduced: the less it is done, if there is anything to draw on (and there always is) , the more costs are increased.

Dealing with the Problem. — ^The means of dealing with this problem have already been taken up in different parts of this book. In general, they are the promotion of interest and satisfaction by the various managerial devices already pointed out. In proportion as men are interested in their work and are satisfied they will be ready and anxious to contribute in any way that they can to the success of the work of the department and of the plant. Since these points have already been covered they are not taken up again here.

Being Square. — If any superior expects to get real co- operation from the members of his team he must be square with them. Everybody knows what that means and it doesn't need to be taken up here. One important point in cooperation between people is that each party must be abso- lutely sure of the good faith of the other. Any sort of "gold bricking" or bluffing, real or suspected, kills the whole co- operative relation.

Cost Elements. — These need not be taken up: they are self-evident. This is equally true of the managerial problem.

Dealing with the Problem. — This also calls for no dis- cussion. If a man does not know how to be square, sug- gestions are of no value. If he does, he won't need any suggestions.

Plant Pride — Departmental Pride. — These are important elements in securing cooperation from the working force. They have been taken up elsewhere and so are not taken up again here.

The Managerial Problem. — The problem here is to pro- mote plant and departmental pride in order to secure the most effective cooperation.

Dealing with the Problem. — These points have already been taken up. A very active means of securing cooperation

432 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

is to foster in the man by example and general cooperating methods a particular pride in the success of the work of the department. This departmental pride in its effect is much the same as the pride mentioned as plant pride previously, except that it is more intense inasmuch as it applies to a particular part of a plant where each man is more keenly interested. By departmental pride a man is led unconsciously to beKeve his department as distinguished from any other department of the plant is the best possible department for a man to work in and reflects credit on every man in it. This particular pride is one of the strongest weapons a foreman may have for developing cooperation.

Telling the Truth. — ^In order to secure cooperation, it is necessary for any foreman to secure the confidence of his men to the extent that they believe in him and are certain that he does not trifle with them. One means of securing this confidence is by consistently telling the truth about any matter that might arise. This does not mean, however, that the foreman must take his men into his complete confidence to the extent of all details of his work, but to whatever degree he does take them into his confidence, whatever he tells them must be the truth.

Giving Everybody a Square DeaL — ^When each man in the working force is certain that no matter what event occurs his foreman is certain to treat it justly to the extent of giving each man his just dues, or, in other words, giving everybody a square deal he has confidence in the foreman. If a workman has done a particularly good piece of cooperating his fore- man should give him the credit. If he has done a particularly good piece of work he should see to it that the man himself knows that he appreciates it. If, on the other hand, a man departs from his best efforts, in like manner his pimishment, if punishment there be, must be "square." A foreman in dealing with his working force must realize that they are entirely different from his equipment or material responsi- bilities, inasmuch as they are hiunan, have human failings and characteristics, and above all are most quick to see any de- parture from a squarie deal.

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 483

Getting the Confidence of the WorWng Force. — ^It can- not fail to be noted that practically all the points brought up in connection with securing cooperation from the members of the working force were brought out in the consideration of the elements of leadership and the whole matter could have been summed up in the statement that a good leader secures the best possible cooperation from his team and a poor leader can't get any. After all is said, the fact remains that the leader is the man who is tactful, considerate, knows human nature and realizes that he is working with human beings, not merely with machines and some "machine attachments" in the form of "hands."

All that could be done in this chapter has been to suggest to such a man a few things that might make a little clearer some of his problems and the reason why some things work out as they do.

No foreman can secure the real cooperation of his team through any sort of bluff. Sympathy must be real, interest must be genuine, not assumed. Many people who had to deal with team management have tried to work it "by a formula" but "canned" tact, sympathy, consideration and leadership comes about as near to being the real thing as canned corned beef comes to the fresh article, and there is no more danger that people will mistake one for the other on matters of cooperation than they do in buying in the market.

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION PART VIII

COOPERATION

1. In a certain plant the general foreman and the shift foremen got together and determined the most efficient pro- cedure in the case of certain possible emergencies. Was this cooperation? If so, with whom?

2. A has his opinion of certain orders that have been given with regard to fire rules. He thinks that they are no good. He expresses this opinion all over the plant wherever he meets anybody. B has the same opinion but says nothing.

28

4M THE FOEEMAN AND HIS JOB

He does however put the case as he sees it up to his superior with his reasons. Which of the two men is giving the better cooperation? With whom are they cooperating or not cooperating?

3. A foreman borrows a good man from another fore- man in a case where the first foreman has no work for the man at that time. The man turns out to be especially good in the new department. When work comes on the second foreman wants his man back. The first foreman does not want to lose him and so tells the man to quit and then he will hire him again in his department. The man does so and the second foreman secures a good man in this way. Is this a case of cooperation? If soj with whom? Would the case be any different if the man wanted to stay in the second department?

4. A general ruling is made that masks' must be worn on certain jobs. Foreman A issues an arbitrary order to his- men by posting a notice. Foreman B informs himself as to just the reasons for this order and puts these reasons) up to his men. Any difference in the degree of cooperation in these two cases? Why? Is the cost of enforcing the order likely to be the same in the two cases? Why?

5. A garment factory was employing rather ignorant women workers. One of these women bought a garment at a retail store in town. She and some of her friends figured up the piecework price on the garment by adding up what each got on her special operation and as a result they became convinced that the difference between that figure and the retail price meant that the company was making so much money that the piecework rate could be raised. They knew nothing of overhead, retailer's profit, etc. As a matter of fact the company in question was making a very moderate profit on the business. The fact that this thing was being talked up came to the notice of the foreman. Some dismissed it as "mere talk" but others thought that it might make unnecessary trouble, took the trouble to acquaint the

COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 435

Management with the state of affairs, get the facts, and see that these facts were made plain to the women. Was there any cooperation here? If so, with whom?

6. As a matter of cooperation would a supervisor ever be justified in giving orders or directions to men who were under the authority of another supervisor who was his equal or his superior? If so, under what conditions?

7. It is necessary to reduce the operating force in a plant. The policy adopted is to lay off all unmarried men and so far as possible keep men with families. One foreman takes pains to explain to every man that is laid off why he is laid off. Another foreman thinks that that is unnecessary and gives no explanation. Any difference in cooperation here? If so, how? With whom?

8. In what ways can a foreman cooperate with an employment department?

9. If all duties were clearly defined and provided for by standard practice, would there be any chance for cooperation?

10. A man who is responsibUe for getting out mixtures is very careful to see that there are no mistakes made. In doing this is he cooperating with the foreman in charge of the next department or is he only discharging his duty on his job?

11. A truck load of material that could be damaged by water was placed as directed by the planning department. While it was standing there an automatic sprinkler let go and nobody moved the truck on the ground that nobody had any authority to move it. Was this poor cooperation with the planning department? If not, was it a case of failure to cooperate with anybody? Or was it a plain failure to discharge a responsibility?

12. What are some of the ways in which a foreman can cooperate with the employment department? With the medical service?

13. A foreman gets a request from his superior for

436 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

suggestions on a certain point. In what way can he cooper- ate most fully?

14. You see something wrong going on in another man's department. In what way can you cooperate the best, by taking up the matter with the superintendent or directly with the foreman concerned.'' Why.?

15. Why is it more difBcult to cooperate with a foreman of equal grade than to cooperate with your superior.'' Is it.''

16. Give a case where you have secured cooperation from the members of your working force.

17. Give a case where you have cooperated with your men.

18. In your opinion is it possible for a foreman to cooperate with his men and still keep them up to fuU pro- duction and quality.'' Why?

19. Which would give better results a " loose " organiza- tion with good cooperative spirit all along the line or a " tight" organization with little or no cooperation? Why?

20. How can a supervisor cooperate with Americaniza- tion classes?

21. How can he cooperate with a vocational school?

22. How can he cooperate with an evening trade exten- sion school?

23. In your opinion would a knowledge of the plant as a whole, its departments, what they turn out, where the product goes, the order in which it goes through the plant, etc., affect the cooperative attitude of the members of the working force? Why?

24. A group of workmen stay overtime to finish a job and do not ask for overtime pay. Are they cooperating with somebody? If so, with their foreman, the G. M. or who?

25. A report on production is due at the office of the superior on Mondays at 10 o'clock. One man gets it in on time and sees that it is correct. Another man gets it in late and it is often incorrect owing to carelessness on the part of his clerk. Is this a case of cooperation? If so, with whom?

PART IX

AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE APPLICATION OF THE

METHODS OF ANALYSIS TO A MANAGERIAL

PROBLEM. CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB

438

THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

THE ANALYSIS LAY-OUT FOR A MANAGERLiL PROB- LEM ON CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB

IMITATION CARELESS- NESS.

NEVER BEEN INSTRUCTED.

ORDERS NOT

FULLY UN- DERSTOOD.

ACCIDENTS

TEMPORARY CARELESS-^

NESS.

DIFFICULTY CAN PROBA- B L Y BE REMEDIED

PERMANENT

CARELESS- NESS.

DIFFICULTY

CAN POSSI- B L Y BE REMEDIED.

fNO DIRECT WAY TO RE- MOVE CAUSE.

Not been prop- erly instructed.

Never been in- structed.

Orders not com- plete.

Poor command of English.

Failure to inspect for danger points.

Failure to note bad condi- tions.

Failure to cover high supervis- ory points properly.

Fatigue.

Taking a chance.

Temporary ill- ness.

Special operating difiSculties,

Change in the conditions not covered by the instructions.

Failure to under- stand the need of special ac- curacy or care at certain operating points.

Sense of accuracy lacking.

Job has become routine.

Man dislikes the job.

Sense of respon- sibility lack- ing.

Cannot do the

job. Don't want to

work.

WORKER NOT TO BLAME. FAULT OF THE FORE- MAN.

SAVE THE MAN.

FIND THE DIFFICULTY. AIM TO SAVE THE MAN.

FIND THE DIFFICULTY. TRY TO SAVE THE MAN FIRST. IP DIFFICULTY CANNOT BE REMEDIED. LET HIM GO.

GET HIM OFF THE JOB.

I

CHAPTER XXIV

AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE APPLICATION OF THE METHOD OF ANALYSIS TO A HUMAN FACTOR MANAGERIAL PROBLEM. CARE- LESSNESS ON THE JOB

Preliminary. — Some of the most common and most diffi- cult problems with which a foreman has to deal both as a supervisor and as a manager come out of what may be called "carelessness on the job." Somebody often regarded as en- tirely reliable, because he never did anything of the kind before, makes some sort of a "break" or a "bonehead play," causing damage or loss, sometimes of a most serious char- acter. Somebody fails to follow directions carefully, or does not pay attention to cautions, or does the wrong thing at an important operating point, and often, so far as the foreman can see, there is no reason on earth why he should have done it. For example, in a chemical plant, one operating point on a certain process might be to read and record temperatures at exact hourly intervals, and when the product does not come out right it is found that the operator had taken his readings at intervals of anywhere from three-quarters of an hour to an hour and a quarter and "didn't suppose it made any difference," or "didn't know why he didn't do it right." Again a man transporting cans full of paint from one point in the department to another packs his load so "carelessly" that he has a spill with corresponding damage and loss of stock, or, in operating a machine a man gets his fingers caught in the gears and so injures himself. In referring to anything of this kind, the general explanation would be that the man was "careless," which, if it got us anywhere in deal- ing with the problem would be a very good explanation, but unfortunately it does not, and when we lay a smash or an accident to "carelessness on the job" and let it go at that,

439

440 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

we have not got anywhere in dealing with it effectively as a managerial problem.

Reference has been repeatedly made in different chapters to the value of applying the methods of analysis to problems of management rather than to stick to what has been called the "guess" method. As an illustration of how this method can be applied to dealing with a managerial problem that is often not only a very difficult one to handle, but that is often handled very badly, this chapter takes up the question of carelessness on the job as a managerial problem.

Carelessness on the Job as a Cost Element. — ^The direct results of carelessness are so well known that they need no consideration; they are, of course, anything in the way of loss of material, damage to equipment and personal injury.

It may be well, however, to mention that many foremen think of carelessness almost entirely in terms of accidents. It is with them a "safety" proposition. While it is true that certain kinds of carelessness are the cause of accidents, causing personal injury, the carelessness discussed in this chapter is carelessness on the job, safety being discussed under the Physical Condition of the Working Force in Chapter XVI.

Carelessness on the job as discussed here means careless- ness that results in increasing the cost of the job, and it is taken up at some length, not because of the evident direct cost elements, but because according to the way it is handled as a managerial problem it can very seriously affect concealed costs that are often not connected with it in the minds of many people, especially in connection with discharge cost, reduced production and turnover.

The Need of Anticipating Carelessness. — A foreman as a manager can handle carelessness in two ways. First, he can wait until something happens through carelessness and then find some way to prevent the same thing happening again; and often his method of doing this is simply to fire the man, which, as pointed out later, is not dealing with the problem at all in a managerial way. Second, he can by study and plan-

CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 441

ning anticipate the points at which carelessness occurred, and the conditions under which it may occur, and by care- fully considering what special precautions should be taken, before the carelessness happens, may head it oS in any par- ticular form in which it happens to come up. He can "take out insurance in advance" by preventing the thing from hap- pening, which costs little or nothing, or deal with the results of carelessness after they have happened, which often means cost to an extent that no one can estimate in advance, and which may be out of all proportion to the apparent import- ance of the operating point at which it occurred.

The General Managerial Problem. — Carelessness is a human factor element and so can never be entirely cut out so long as men do work, but it can be reduced to a minimum and both in its direct and indirect cost elements reduced by care- ' ful and intelligent management, so that the foreman's general managerial job is: (1) to reduce carelessness to a minimum, and (2) when it does occur, deal with it so as to cause the least loss to the department and to the plant. In order to do this he must make a careful study of the kinds of careless- ness, their causes, and of the cost elements that will come into any action that he may take, and then determine how these different kinds can be most effectively handled.

If he goes at the job of handling carelessness in this way, he will find that, in general, th^ following facts are true :

1. What is often called "carelessness" is not really care- lessness at all but the difficulty is due to quite another cause.

2. In some cases the trouble is not due to any negligence on the part of the worker but is really the fault of somebody else, often the foreman himself.

3. Where it is true carelessness, it may be one of two kinds, each requiring different managerial handling on ac- count of the different cost elements involved.

What is carelessness ? Carelessness as distinguished from a number of other things that on first sight look like care- lessness may be defined as doing the wrong thing (or not doing the right thing) when there is no intention of doing

442 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

the wrong thing and there are no conditions that prevent doing the right thing. For example, when a shortstop is "asleep" and so lets a grounder get by him and a batter gets his base, nobody assumes that he intended to let the baU go by, and if the ball went where he could have reasonably stopped it, it is assmned that he ought to have stopped it, and that his failure to stop it was due to carelessness. If, on the other hand, he was "awake" and was watching a man trying to steal second base, he may have made a "bonehead play." His judgment may have been wrong, but he was not careless in the sense in which the term is used here.

Need for Distinguishing Between Real and Imitation Carelessness. — ^In dealing effectively with carelessness as a manager, a foreman must therefore foUow a certain pro- cedure consisting of a series' of steps as follows :

(1) Satisfying himself that what at first sight looks like carelessness is reaUy carelessness.

(2) If it is true carelessness, determining the kind of carelessness.

(3) Dealing with each kind of carelessness in the best way from the standpoint of costs.

The determination of (1) and (2) often calls for care- ful study and analysis of the case and as in a number of other cases, a foreman can go at the matter by offhand guess with the corresponding chance of doing an injustice to some- body, losing a good man, cutting down interest and pro- moting dissatisfaction, or he can, so far as any human being can, by studying out each case, come as near as possible to getting the true facts and on those facts basing his action with the corresponding chance of reducing injustice, giving a fair deal, which every foreman wants to do, promoting satisfaction and in many other ways cut out costs.

The simple fact that something wrong is done does not of necessity mean that it is a case of carelessness, and it is necessary to distinguish between true carelessness and imi- tation carelessness before any proper action can be taken in dealing with it managerially.

CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 443

Some forms of "imitation" or apparent carelessness are discussed below. There are, of course, others, and a fore- man in studying cases of apparent carelessness must take all possible means to find out that it is not apparent careless- ness, but the "genuine article" before he deals with it on a straight "carelessness" basis.

Of course, so far as results go, it makes no difference whether carelessness is or is not the genuine article. The damage is done or the accident takes place just the same, but it is important to distinguish between true carelessness and apparent carelessness on account of the very different ways in which it must be handled managerially if the cost elements are to be cut down or cut out.

B. APPARENT CAEEIESSNESS

Apparent Carelessness. — Among the more common causes of apparent carelessness are:

( 1 ) Ignorance.

(2) Misunderstanding of orders or directions.

(3) Accidents, pure and simple.

In the first two cases the man honestly thought that he was doing what he was expected to do ; in the third case no- body could have anticipated change in conditions that made the job go wrong.

Ignorance and Apparent Carelessness. — ^Apparent care- lessness on the job is often due to the fact that the worker has never been properly directed or thoroughly instructed or cautioned with regard to the particular points on which the "carelessness" occurs. He is really ignorant as to the proper procedure, or the fact that he should be especially careful or exact at some particular point on the job because nobody has ever told Mm about it. The foreman may think that he has put over the necessary information or has given the necessary instruction, but, as a matter of fact, he has not done it. This is usually due, as discussed fuUy in the chapters on instruction, to the fact that the foreman is trying to carry two jobs at once, supervision and instruction,

444 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

and while, in the pressure of getting the work out he fully intended to do a good teachiag job he actually failed to put it over properly. This slip up in teaching under production conditions is much more common than many foremen realize and is one of the reasons why some knowledge of teaching is an asset to any foreman.

As examples of apparent carelessness on the job the two cases given below may be of service.

In the case of a train stopping between stations the job of a trainman is to go back with a flag to protect from a rear end collision from a following train.

If the job is to be done in such a way as to prevent a rear end collision, the man must go back a certain distance. A smash-up occurs, and an investigation shows that he was green on the job and that all he was ever told was *'to go back a ways," and that he never knew that it requires a cer- tain distance to stop a train.

The same point is brought out in the story of the man who for forty years had tested car wheels with a hammer and, being retired for long and faithful service, was asked at a little ceremony to describe the job that he had held down so long and so well. "When the train comes in I takes my ham- mer and hits all the wheels and I've never missed one." "Fine, and what do you hit them for.? " " Hanged if I know."

A very good example of apparent carelessness that was really not carelessness, but was due to a failure to properly instruct, is the following :

In a certain chemical plant acids were stored in earthen- ware tanks which, of course, had earthenware spigots for drawing off. A workmen, whose job it was to draw off from various tanks, came to one where the spigot spindle stuck; he undertook to loosen it by tapping with a hammer, broke the spigot and naturally caused a considerable loss. On the face of it this appeared a plain case of "bonehead" careless- ness. A study of the case, however, brought out the fol- lowing facts :

(a) The man has been on the job only a few days on

CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB MS

acid tanks, but had worked for a long time drawing off liquid from various steel or wooden tanks having metallic spigots.

(b) The earthenware tank and the spigot were so cov- ered with dirt that nobody by looking at them could tell what they were made of.

(c) Nobody had ever told the man that these particular tanks and spigots were of earthenware.

(d) The man walked a hundred feet across the shed to find a hammer.

After these facts had been brought out it was agreed that this was not a case of carelessness at all on the part of the man, that he had not, with the information at his disposal, made a "bonehead play" but that he had shown intelligence and zeal in hunting up a hammer, and that the real cause of the smash and resulting damage was a failure to fully instruct the man. That is, it was the foreman's fault, he was the careless man, not the workman. The foreman was the fellow who had fallen down on his job, the man had not.

As a contrast with this another case may be quoted: A man had for a long time had the job of carting a liquid in cans from one department to another in a two-wheeled hand- cart, and had to deliver half of his load at one point and the rest at another. His instructions were, after delivering his first half, to rearrange his load so as to keep the cart bal- anced properly. He delivered his first half from the front of the cart and, instead of rearranging, got a "friend" to ride on the front end to keep the balance. Friend saw the foreman coming, made a flying jump to get back to his own station, cart tipped load out, doing considerable damage.

In this case it is evident that the carelessness was the fault of the man. He knew his job and "took a chance" be- cause he was in too much of a hurry or too lazy to attend to his job properly.

The two illustrations given will illustrate the fact that, in handling cases of carelessness the first question to be de- cided is to determine the real cause, as, until that cause is known, carelessness can be neither anticipated correctly nor

446 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

dealt with effectively, when in spite of all attempts to antici- pate and prevent it in advance it does occur.

Whose Fault? — ^Evidently if a man fails to do the correct thing because he was put on the job when he did not know the job, who is to blame, the man on the job or the man who put him on the job and neglected to find out whether he knew the job or not?

There is only one answer to this question. Apparent carelessness due to ignorance is the foreman's fault and not the worker's fault. It is the foreman who takes the chance when he puts him on the job without knowing that he knows that job. Hence: if this is true then the determination as to whether a case of "carelessness" is really carelessness or is, in fact, apparent carelessness due to ignorance is of the highest importance in dealing with the problem since it fixes the responsibility either on the man or on the foreman, as the case may be, at the beginning.

Apparent Carelessness Due to Misunderstanding of Orders or Directions. — This is a much more common cause of apparent carelessness than is often supposed. On giving directions or orders there is often a "you know it, and I know it and so there is no need of talking about it" assumption on the part of the foreman and the workman that often leaves some points to guess. The common omissions in giving orders and directions and their effects on cost are discussed else- where, and so are not brought out in detail here, but again the fact remains that apparent carelessness due to misunder- standing of directions or orders is, in general, up to the fore- man because a part of the job of a supervisor is to know that any orders that he issues or directions that he gives are fully understood.

Failure to Fully Understand Orders or Directions. — This is a much more common cause of apparent carelessness than is generally supposed. In the hurry of the work directions are not fully given, or, if given, the foreman does not take the time to make sure that they are fully understood, or that the worker fully understands just how the operation is to be

CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 447

carried out. For example, a man might be told to weigh each wheelbarrow of material, but might not understand he was to do the weighing himself or that a weigher was to do it for him.

Another common cause of apparent carelessness is lack of command of English. This cause of carelessness is par- ticularly likely to occur in cases where foreign speaking help are cautioned as to danger points. The man does not fully understand, but is afraid to say so. For example, in a wire mill a man may be told that he is liable to have his clothing caught on the blocks in the frame or on the wire going to the dies and if he is caught to press on the stop with his foot. In many cases the man, not knowing English very well, when he is asked, "Do you understand?" will say "Yes"- when he has not really taken it in, and as a result he is "careless," gets caught and is injured more or less seriously. Or he may be warned by a sign printed in English about using a freight elevator, particularly about danger while it is moving, but through not being able to read and not knowing that a slow- moving elevator is just as dangerous, if not more so, than a fast one, he tried to get on or oif when it is moving and is caught.

Whose fault.''

Apparent Carelessness Due to Accident. — After all questions of carelessness, real or apparent, have been cut out, there still remain some cases that must be considered as acci- dental, that is, the damage or loss is due to causes that could not have been foreseen or guarded against. Inspected boilers will let go, tested chains will break away, even where all pos- sible human care and foresight has been used.

Of course, an accident is, in the last analysis, somebody's fault, but, in practice, the cause may have been out of con- • trol of whoever was on the job when it happened, and at all events, true accidents should be distinguished from the dam- age, injury or loss due to carelessness as the term is used here.

The Managerial Problem on limitation Carelessness. — The general managerial problem on imitation carelessness is

448 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

first to be sure that it is imitation carelessness and ascertain and remove the cause.

Dealing with the Problem. — Since, in the majority of cases, the causes of imitation carelessness can be ascertained, the method of dealing with the problem is to find out the cause and remove it, as indicated above, by not "blowing up" or fir- ing a man offhand, but by making a study of the case, that is, by again applying the analysis method instead of the "guess" method. For example, if the apparent carelessness was due to lack of instructions on some point, as in the case of the man and the acid tanks, already described, the only thing to do is to "cover" that point and try to anticipate such cases thereafter. The majority of cases discussed here under this heading are not the fault of the worker but of somebody else (often the foreman) who honestly thought that the matter had been properly taken care of. The only thing in many cases is to charge iii up to experi^ce, make up one's mind not to let that particular thing happen again and note one more retailed responsibility point to be more carefully looked after in the future. The main thing is to so handle the case that satisfaction and interest are not reduced, that injustice is not done in blaming the man before one knows that the trouble is his fault, in keeping cool until the case has been studied out and in waiting till you know what you are dealing with before taking any disciplinary action, for you may find that you are the one to be called down.

Real Carelessness. — ^If the previous discussion and the illustrations used have served the purpose for which they were intended, the point has been brought out that many cases of apparent carelessness are not carelessness at all but are due to other causes in many cases due to negligence on the foreman's part, not the worker, or due to "unavoidable" accidents. The following paragraphs discuss true careless- ness as distinguished from apparent carelessness as the term is used here.

Real Carelessness and its Causes. — ^The general tendency on the part of some foremen is to lay carelessness on the job

CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 449

to one of three causes: plain "boneheadedness" or "cussed- ness" or "laziness," which lets the foreman out easily, but dogs not help the situation from the managerial standpoint. Most foremen, however, try earnestly by every means in their power to handle carelessness effectively, but often find it a very difficult problem to deal with, largely because so many of the causes of carelessness are so concealed that in any given case what at first sight would seem to be the cause is not the real cause at all.

True Carelessness Without Intention. — Carelessness has a cause : it does not "just happen," though sometimes it seems so. It is safe to say that carelessness as such is not due to intention and is not wilful. Nobody means to cause loss or damage either to the plant or to themselves under circum- stances where the results can be properly defined as due to lack of care. In dealing with carelessness the first step is therefore to determine that it is carelessness, that intention was lacking. If intention existed, it is not a case of care- lessness but of something else.

In the following paragraphs it is assumed that there was no intention of causing a damage or loss, but that, whatever the cause, the trouble was due to carelessness as defined here.

Kinds of Carelessness. — In dealing with carelessness as a manager, the foreman must first determine certain facts be- fore he can act intelligently. Among the more important of these facts are :

( 1 ) The kind of carelessness as between :

(a) Temporary carelessness.

(b) Permanent carelessness.

And it is important to make this distinction at the beginning, because the causes of the two kinds of carelessness are differ- ent and the managerial methods of dealing with them must, as taken up later, be based on very different principles.

Temporary and Permanent Carelessness. — ^As just stated, carelessness may be either temporary or permanent, and in many ways it is important in the beginning to dis- tinguish between the two. Temporary or accidental care-

29

450 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

lessness happens once or twice, usually in the case of green men or men new on the j ob, or, strangely enough, in the case of men who have been on the job for a long time. Permanent or persistent carelessness continues after every reasonable attempt has been made in the way of special caution and in- struction. The case of the man with the tip cart quoted a few pages back is a good illustration of temporary careless- ness. For another example, if a man who has operated an electrically driven machine for some time one day closes the switch on a direct-current motor circuit with the starting resistance out, and blows out the fuses, or injures the appa- ratus, this is temporary carelessness. But if in the same shop there was a man who "regularly" managed to do some damage to the machine on which he worked, then his case is entirely different from the first one. He is permanently careless. In the one instance the lack of care was temporally; in the other, persistent.

Dealing with the Problem — General Method. — ^A very serious managerial problem for the foreman is the handling of either temporary or permanent carelessness, owing to the danger that it may become a high cost factor. A slight de- gree of carelessness iu a powder plant, for example, may result in wiping out the whole plant, and in a high-grade machine shop may cause the ruin of valuable machines or of valuable stock, or, in either ease, may cause loss of time, money, or life.

The General Managerial Problem. — The general man- agerial problem as between temporary and permanent care- lessness, of course, in both cases is to reduce it to a minimum. In dealing with the problem of temporary and persistent carelessness there are certain general principles which, since they apply in all the special cases discussed later, are pre- sented here for consideration.

Dealing with Carelessness. — The first important point to determine is whether the carelessness is temporary or per- sistent. Where such a case is discovered, it should be first assumed that the carelessness is temporary, because if it is

CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 461

it can be remedied and the man saved without much difficulty, which is an important point in connection with cost of turn- over as discussed in the notes on that cost element. If, after trial, it becomes evident that it is a case of persistent care- lessness, probable causes must be considered, and those that would not call for discharging the man tried out first before deciding to get rid of him altogether.

(1) Temporary carelessness. In general the problem here is to remove the cause and save the man, since, if this can be done, the "quitting" cost is saved and the losses due to this form of carelessness are also removed.

(2) Persistent carelessness. In this case the general principle is that the man must he got off of that job, since it has been demonstrated that so long as he is on it loss and damage will continue.

^This means that so far as the job is concerned, intelli- gent managerial aims are, in cases of temporary careless- ness, save the man for the job and avoid the cost of training a new man on that job. In cases of persistent carelessness get the man off the job, but save him to the plant if this can be done to advantage. This depends on the special conditions as taken up later in this chapter.

Permanent Carelessness. — ^Where carelessness persists it is evidently not due to any of the causes that go with "imi- tation" or temporary carelessness. Among the causes of persistent carelessness may be:

(1) The man lacks what is sometimes called the "sense" of accuracy or some other special qualifications for that special job.

(2) Job has become routine.

(3) The man dislikes the job.

(4) He lacks a sense of responsibility on his job.

(5) He does not want to work.

(1) Sense of Accuracy or Other Qualifications Lack- ing.— It is well known that different men differ in their sense of exactness or accuracy, or, in other words, in the degree to which they can think accurately or can carry out accurate

462 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

operations. Some people simply cannot notice beyond cer- tain accuracy limits. Such a man, for example, might read a thermometer, yet it might be impossible to make him grasp the necessity of reading the instrument at any given time or the scale to one-tenth of a degree. He simply cannot see why reading somewhere near the proper time or within a degree or so is not just as all right as reading to exactly the right fraction of a degree. Sometimes he realizes the neces- sity of doing it, but simply does not seem to be able to do it. In either case he will make a case of persistent carelessness on that job.

In some cases a job calls for special qualifications and where these are lacking we have a case of persistent careless- ness, a standard example of this would be a girl in a millinery shop who persistently got the wrong colors In trimming hats. Investigation might show that she was color blind and did not know it. As is well known this matter of possible "care- lessness" resulting from color blindness is so important in the case of pilots that special qualifying tests are used.

The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here is to get the worker off of any job where he cannot meet the accuracy or other special requirements, and if he is other- wise aU right, get him on to a job where he can hold it down properly, but save the man.

Dealing with the Problem. — This simply means an intel- ligent use of transfer rather than of discharge and needs no special consideration here.

Dealing with the Problem. — The only practical way to deal with cases of lack of "accuracy sense" is by getting someone on the job who has enough sense of accuracy to hold it down. Such a case gets us into the problem of "matching man qualifications to job qualifications," already taken up in another chapter, and so needs no further con- sideration here from that angle.

In such cases, a man often can be transferred to work that does not make demands on him beyond his "accuracy limits," as, for instance, a man failing on a machine job

CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 453

gauged to 1/10000 inch, might do entirely satisfactory work on rough facing, or a pressman who failed on making up forms containing half-tone cuts might do good work on straight matter.

(2) J oh Has Become Routine. — Just as temporary care- lessness may be due to being new on the job, permanent care- lessness may be due to having been on the job so long that it has become routine.

One illustration of this is the case of tack-machine oper- ators or "feeders." The operation of putting strips of plate into the machine requires the use of a brake for stopping the barrel; and after operating the machines for a while the habit of not stopping the barrel, or "feeding on the fly" is apt to be formed. This carelessness is very often the cause of breaking the "nosepiece," which results in laying up the machine until a new one is made and put on.

In the case of safety the lack of care due to routine is most apparent. A workman on a band saw becomes unduly familiar with brushing off with his hand small pieces which collect on the saw table. Knowing the danger full well, he becomes careless through routine, permanently, with the result that most operators of band saws have missing fingers to show just how serious this carelessness is.

The Managerial Problem. — The problem here is to break up the routine by transfer to another job, or to another department but to save the man.

Dealing viath the Problem — Transferring Men. — ^Where permanent carelessness is due to the job having become routine to the man the situation can often be cleared up by a transfer either to some other job in the department or to some other department. The value of transferring rather than discharging is discussed fully in the notes on turnover, so that it is enough to point out here that if transferring will cure the trouble it costs the concern less than discharge, and, unless usual conditions should be tried first.

(3) Man Dislikes the Job. — Persistent carelessness is often due to the fact that the man is on the wrong job and

464 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

this statement does not refer to the working conditions, as already discussed, but to something much more diffi- cult to determine. It is a fact, however, that certain kinds of jobs seem to appeal to certain people and not to others. This is often quite independent of the individual's qualifica- tions for the job. A job may appeal to a man when he is not fitted to do it well and may not appeal to him when he is able to hold it down in good shape, though this case is not as com- mon as the other. In some cases a man may even want to tackle a job when it is perfectly evident to everyone else, and should be to him, that he cannot make a success of it. How- ever that may be, a man will often show persistent careless- ness on work that does not appeal to him and that careless- ness wiU disappear if he gets a job that does appeal to him.

The Managerial Problem. — ^The problem here is to find a job that the man likes and get him on to it wherever pos- sible, or in some way stop the "quarrel between the man and his job."

Dealing with the Problem. — This is again a case of the intelligent use of transfer or in some cases, by talking things over with the man, changing his attitude towards the job. For example, men have overcome their dislike to the job they were on and stuck to it when they found that it put them in the line of promotion, but in general, the more nearly a man and his job can "live together" the less chance for per- sistent carelessness.

(4) Sense of Responsibility Lacking. — This is often the result of "sending a boy," that is, this form of persistent carelessness is particularly liable to come up in the case of young employees and of inexperienced men and in both cases for the same reason; "they don't know enough to be care- ful," that is, they fail to realize what the results of careless- ness may be because they never have seen the results. The persistently careless automobile driver is the one who has never had a bad smash-up. He is careless because he has no sense of what may be the results of careless driving and in most states children are not allowed to drive cars because of their lack of experience.

CABELESSNESS ON THE JOB 4S6

The Managerial Problem. — The problem here is to get sufficiently mature and experienced workers on to the job to secure the necessary sense of responsibility.

Dealing with the Problem. — Some possible methods of dealing with this managerial problem are :

a. If more or less irresponsible workers must be used, to be especially careful to cover all "high supervisory points" and to "red flag" these points by the use of a suitable job analysis for supervisory value.

b. From a study of job requirements and man qualifica- tions, so far as the limits of the job will permit, to "match" the worker and the job.

c. The Man Does Not Want to Work. — ^Persistent carelessness may sometimes be due to the fact that the man does not want to work. He has no interest — ^he has no job pride. He simply does not care.

While such cases do occur, they are much less common than was formerly supposed, and when they do occur are often found to be due to the physical condition of the man as discussed in Chapter XVI. This is so true that many large concerns have found that it paid to provide medical service and observation, as a means of reducing, among other things, apparent persistent carelessness, that seemed at first glance to be due to plain unwillingness to work.

The Managerial Problem. — The chief part of the man- agerial problem here is to be sure that it is a case of "don't care" before taking action on that basis, bearing in mind the statements made above.

Dealing with the Problem. — ^Where permanent careless- ness is definitely determined as due to the fact that the man does not want to work, the only remedy Is discharge, with its accompanying cost. The danger here is that the foreman will often assume permanent carelessness as due to this cause without having thoroughly studied the case. In proportion as he discharges men who could be saved by proper handling, he has increased his cost and his management has been poor.

456 THE FOREMANAND HIS JOB

D. TEMFOBABY CAKEI.ESSNESS

Preliminary. — Section C discussed persistent careless- ness, some of its causes and some suggestions and methods of dealing with it. This section, in the same way, takes up tem- porary carelessness on the job.

Some Possible Causes of Accidental or Temporary Care- lessness.— ^Among the more common causes of temporary carelessness are:

1. Fatigue.

2. "Taking a chance."

3. Illness.

4. Difficulties in being careful.

5. Temporary inattention.

6. Changes in conditions not covered in instructions.

7. Failure to understand the need of special accuracy or care on some special point on the job.

Temporary Carelessness — Fatigue. — Often a man who is temporarily careless is overtired; that is, the cause of his carelessness is fatigue. Of course, this fatigue may be the result of overwork due to "work" conditions in the depart- ment, or of overtime, or failure to secure proper rest or relax- ation outside of the department.

A case of this kind would be one where, after putting in a regular day's work, a draftsman undertakes to work three or four evenings a week until eleven o'clock. The chances of his making an error through carelessness is much more than if his regular working day was all he undercook. Often a workman is prevented by home conditions, such as sickness or accident, from getting proper rest and comes to his work in the morning after having been up all night with a sick wife or child, and as a result, he is temporarily careless dur- ing working hours the next day.

Temporary Carelessness — Spotting the Real Cause. — The first step in working out the managerial problem in all these cases is to spot the true cause, in order that the right action may be taken. For example, in a case of temporary carelessness that was under analysis it might appear that the carelessness was due to working overtime or to doing addi-

CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 4fi7

tional work outside as in the case of the draftsman just de- scribed. It might be due to taking a chance, as where a man is in a hurry and tried to "short circuit" a job. It may be due to some form of temporary ilhiess as discussed in a pre- vious chapter. It may be due to some temporary loss of attention as some group of distinguished visitors coming into the department. Causes of this kind are usually easy to locate, but some of the other possible causes are likely to make more trouble. For example, in some cases unexpected conditions may come up that were not covered by the instruc- tions or that the worker does not know how to deal with but thinks that he does. He goes ahead and as a result there is trouble that is evidently due to some form of carelessness. Under these conditions the worker is not likely to willingly admit what the matter was, and so a case of this kind may be difficult to spot. The same statement is likely to be true for the last possible cause as given and for the same reasons.

The Managerial Policy. — ^What may be called the man- agerial policy in such cases, after having decided that the case is one of temporary carelessness, and spotted the cause, is to remove the cause and do it at minimum cost. This means, first, saving the man for the plant. Second, adjusting the difficulty without losing anything on the human factor elements. In this connection one or two suggestions may be of service.

(1) Making it Easy to he Careful. — It is quite often pos- sible to remedy temporary carelessness by making it easy to be careful. The use of automobile safety devices, or of jigs and fixtures, or templets, illustrates this point. As another example, there might be a pressure gauge that it was im- portant to have read accurately, and that gauge might be located in an inaccessible place, so that a man had to climb a ladder or stand in an awkward position to reach it, or might be in a dark corner where it was very difficult to see to read it. Bringing the gauge down to eye level and putting a shaded electric light in front of it might entirely remedy the difficulty.

(2) Seeing that Instructions are Clearly Understood. —

458 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

No matter how much a man has been told about a job, unless he has "got" it he is liable to show temporary carelessness. In such cases it is of very little use to reinstruct the man unless means are taken to be sure that he has "got" the in- struction. Questioning him on his job or taking time to watch him on his job wiU usually show whether the necessary points have been "put over" effectively. Under the pressure of getting out products, foremen are liable to neglect this "checking up" part of instructing men, with a corresponding increase in operatiag costs as a result.

(3) Seeing that the Need of Accuracy or Care is Fully Understood. — ^In almost any job there are some operating points that, from the standpoint of accuracy or care re- quired, "stick out," that is, many operating points only re- quire ordinary or even little care, while certain points require great care. An illustration would be the difference in care required in taking a rough cut or a fine cut in the machine shop, or, in an alum plant, in getting crystallized alum out of the tanks, where the center can be broken out with little care but when working near the sides or bottom great care is required not to break the lead lining. Men will often get the general idea of how to carry on the different operations on their jobs without fully understanding where the "high- care" operations are as distinguished from the "low-care" operations and this is usually due to a failure to make the man understand why accuracy or care is necessary at those points. In instructing or directing the men, sufficient em- phasis has not been laid on these points, or the man has failed to get them. Under these conditions, temporary careless- ness can often be remedied by getting the men to thinking about why certain operations require extra care, so that when they reach that point the need of care wiU. come up in their minds.

PART X THE INSTRUCTING JOB

CHAPTER XXV THE INSTRUCTING JOB

Preliminary. — As stated in Chapter II the third fore- man's job is instructing or training (both words mean the same thing), and is quite a distinct piece of work from either supervision or management, calling for a different kind of responsibility as to auxiliary information, different "job knowledge " and different " working conditions." This dif- ference is so marked that a good supervisor may be a very poor instructor, and, in fact, this is very often the case. A good manager is more likely to make a good instructor but even then he is likely to do some pretty poor instructing unless he has, in some way, learned something about the " teaching trade " as it is practiced by good workers in that trade, that is, by good teachers.

Why Foremen Dc Not Often Think of Themselves as Instructors. — ^An instructor or a teacher, for both Vords mean the same thing, is simply somebody who can do some kind of a job and who, in some way takes hold of someone else who cannot do that job and gets them so that they can do it. It makes no difference how, when or where this "putting over" of job ability was done; whoever did it, was an instructor and did an instructing job. Most fore- men do some sort of an instructing job all the time but they do not think of themselves as instructors because they do not instruct in a " school," nobody calls them " teacher," they do not have " classes." These have nothing to do with the question as to whether a foreman does, or does not have instructing responsibilities. This fact must be determined by asking the question : " Does he have to put over to others any sort of ability to do a job, never mind how, when or

461

468 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

where? " and if the answer is " Yes " that foreman is an instructor and has some sort of instructing responsibilities.

The Instructor and the Learner. — So far as this book is concerned, anybody having instructing jobs, no matter what he may be called, is an instructor. Anybody who has job ability put over to him is a learner. An instructor does an instructing job with a learner and he does a good job or a poor job in proportion as that learner can or cannot do a first-class piece of work when the instructor has finished with him.

The Foreman's Instructing Job. — ^In almost all cases a foreman must do more or less instructing or " breaking in." Whenever new workers come in they must be instructed in something before they are thoroughly competent. This is true even when a man is transferred from another depart- ment, or comes from another concern doing the same sort of work. There are always some things that are different, or that are done differently, or a difference in shop practice or procedure, that the new man must somehow get from somebody, and that somebody is an instructor, so far as he has the job of putting over what he knows, and this instruct- ing job often falls upon the foreman.

Instructing as Distinguished From Ordering or Direct- ing.— The term " instructing " is used so much by foremen in the sense of ordering or directing, that its meaning when used in that way must be carefully distinguished from its use as meaning teaching. A man who knows the job can be instructed to do it and so, in this case, he is really directed or ordered. A man who does not know the job may be instructed on how to do it, that is, he can be taught. Instructing, as the term is used in this chapter and in those following, always means " putting over " and not order- ing or directing.

Instructing Always a "Side Line" for Foremen. — The instructing job of a foreman must always be more or less of ft " side line " because he cannot neglect his two main

THE INSTRUCTING JOB 468

jobs, supervision and management, in order to do much training. If any great amount of training is required, it becomes a " drag " on the foreman, and since he naturally feels that his first responsibilities are on his work in connec- tion with his regular jobs, he is unable to give the training proper attention. In this case, if men have to be trained, they are either trained badly, or slowly, and in either case, this is poor instructing management and other methods for securing efficient training should be adopted. Under these conditions many concerns have found it advisable to arrange to have certain people work entirely as instructors and so relieve the foreman of the direct responsibility for teaching. Such instructors are sometimes called "instructing fore- men " to distinguish them from the regular, or production, foremen and are also often called " instructors." What- ever their name, the point is that their job is to put over to workers what they need to get before they are competent on the jobs to which they are assigned.

Such instructors may be attached to the force of the department and work under the foreman, or may be attached to a distinct department, a trammg department whose busi- ness is to see that workers are properly trained before they are turned over to regular production work. When the job of the training department is only to train green help, it is sometimes called a Vestibule School.

So far as they are considered in this book, the questions of training assume that it will be given by the foreman, as a " side line."*

Some Possible Instructing Responsibilities. — ^Among the

more important kinds of instructing responsibilities that may come into a foreman's job are the following:

1. Responsibilities in connection with some plan of organized instruction.

• A foreman, who is interested in the question of training in relation to the foreman's two regular jobs, will find a full discussion of this question in " The Instructor, The Man and The Job."

464 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

2. Hesponsibilities in connection with unorganized irir struction.

3. Cooperative responsibilities with instructing agencies not wnder Ms direct control.

Since these terms may require some explanation they are taken up in the following paragraphs.

What Is Meant by Organized Instruction. — ^This has been called training by intention. Under this' plan some- body has the job of training (instructing) whoever needs to be trained and he knows that it is either all of his job, or a part of it. In either case instructing responsibility is fixed. Some illustrations! of training by intention would be, an apprentice scheme, or some sort of a special training plan for new employees, with somebody whose job it was to take care of them during the training period. Definite training departments whose business is to see to it that aU untrained or partly trained employees are " fixed up," so that they are competent, before they are turned over to the foreman, and trade schools are other examples of organized in- struction or training.

Responsibilities Under Organized Training. — In general a foreman may have either of two kinds of responsibilities in connection with organized training.

1. Responsibilities for giving the training himself.

2. Responsibilities for supervising the training as given by somebody else.

An example of the first case would be where a group of apprentices were to be given instruction on the job by the foreman, or where he had the responsibility for the breaking in of green men himself.

An example of the second case would be where a green operator was placed with a good worker and the good worker was told to show the green employee how to do the job. In such a case, while the foreman would not have the responsi- bility of actually giving the instruction, he might be responsi- ble for knowipg that it was given or that it had been

THE INSTRUCTING JOB 466

thorough. The same would be true if the training were given by an instructor who was responsible to the foreman.

What is Meant by Unorganized Instruction? — This has been called training by absorption. Where this method is used there are no definite .arrangements made for training and whatever a man gets he " absorbs " from others, the foreman or from his fellow workers. New men "pick up their work " as well as they can, hence this is sometimes called " the pick-up method." Men get what information they can from others on the same kind of jobs. Perhaps they find a " good fellow " and get next to him at the noon hour. Perhaps they don't. " They use their eyes and their mouths." In this way they gradually get so that they can do some sort of a job or else get fired. If they are able to hold the job while they are learning they are finally absorbed in to the regular working force, hence the name.

It will be noted that, under] this method, it is absolutely nobo<^y's business to look out for the learner while he -is learning. He is left entirely on his own. He gets what he can anyway that he can.

A second difference between organized and unorganized instruction is in the way that the instruction is, or is not laid out. For example, in the case of training apprentices there may be an agreement that an apprentice is to have a certain number of weeks on different machines, or there might be an arrangement whereby apprentices were to put two hours a week on drawing or mathematics, according to some sort of a schedule specifying what subjects were to be taken up and in what order. This amounts to saying that, where there is organized instruction there is some sort of a routing sheet laid out that shows that the instruction is to be given in a certain order and what the subjects to be taught are to be. A regular school teacher would call such an instructional routing sheet a program or a course of study.

As against that, an unorganized piece of instructional work would be where any instruction that was given would

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486 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

be incidental, that is, if somebody did not happen to know how to do something, someone else who did know would instruct him. A good example of this sort of instruction is the common case where a workman gets a job that is a little different from what he is used to and the foreman instructs him how to make any special changes or adaptations of tools or machines that may be necessary.

Organized instruction therefore always has definite instructing responsibility fixed on somebody and has some sort of a schedule (program) through which the learner is put.

Unorganized instruction has no fixed responsibility and no program. Instruction is incidental and anybody gives it who happens to be around and who knows enough. If they have time or are good-natured or interested in the learner.

Cooperating With Other Instructing Agencies. — ^In addi- tion to possible responsibilities as to organized or unorganized instruction it is quite possible that a foreman may have cooperative responsibilities with regard to other instructing agencies, and these may, in general be of two kinds :

1. Cooperating with plant agencies.

2. Cooperating with outside agencies.

For example, a plant may offer a course in Mechanical Drawing for its apprentices or may operate a training department. In either case it is up to the foremen to do whatever they can to help and not hinder. They can "throw it down" or help it along with those that it is intended to help or with those who have the work in charge. For example, during the war many plants did set up some sort of organ- ized training to take care of the great number of green workers that were taken on and who, if they had been turned loose into a production department would have swamped it. Without regard to the instructional efficiency of such schemes (some were good and some were bad, for that matter), in many cases foremen did all they could to keep such plans from being successful although, as a rule

THE INSTRUCTING JOB 467

they did not look into the matter at all. If they thought the thing was not being carried on right they did not oifer any suggestions for improvement; in some cases, if they knew that a worker had been trained in the training scheme, whatever it was, they discriminated against him in every possible way, they never lost a chance to throw the propo- sition down before the men. This was certainly not coopera- tion but quite the contrary. On the other hand, other fore- men took pains to find out what the training scheme was for, how it was doing its job, and helped those in charge by suggestions based on their knowledge of shop requirements and working conditions. The second type of foremen recognized their cooperative responsibilities and discharged them. The first type either failed to recognize them, or deliberately refused to discharge them for various reasons not worth giving here.

The case of cooperating with outside instructing agencies is somewhat different. For example, there are now in many communities educational and training opportunities such as free evening classes both in trade work and in general education. Sometimes such courses are conducted by insti- tutions that charge only a nominal fee. A foreman who feels that he has cooperative responsibilities in this matter will, for example, inform himself as to the opportunities and their value, and will advise his men, if they are ambitious, as to where they may get such education or training as they may need or may desire. To the extent to which he does this sort of thing he recognizes this cooperating responsibility and discharges it.

CHAPTER XXVI SECTION I. EFFICIENT INSTRUCTION

Cost Elements on Instruction. — ^When we come to con- sider the matter of cost elements in instruction we have to look at the matter in a different way from what we have been doing up to this time. In aU matters relating to mana- gerial responsibilities up to this time the one managerial problem has been to cut cost, but when we get into the instructing field the basic cost elements change. While cost is an important matter, the main managerial problem is to secure efficient instruction, and it often happens that the cheapest instruction is the least efficient.

The cost elements in instruction may therefore be set down as follows:

1. The degree to which the learner is thoroughly instructed, so that he can do a 100 per cent. job.

2. The time spent in instructing him.

3. The cost of that time.

4. The degree to which the instructing job is put across easily.

The Problem. — ^What may be called the instruction managerial problem for anybody that has responsibilities for putting over instructing jobs might be stated as fol- lows : To secure as nearly one hundred per cent, job ability with the least necessary expenditure of time and at the least necessary cost.

That is, the better the learner can do the job on which he was instructed, the quicker he gets so that he can do it and the less it cost, provided the other two results are obtained, the better the instructing job has been handled from the instructional managerial standpoint.

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EFFICIENT INSTRUCTION 469

The Completeness of Instruction. — The purpose of any instruction that is given in connection with the work jobs of any kind is either to make a better man out of a man who is already employed on that job, or to make a competent worker out of a man who is green on that job. That is, the purpose if aU instruction! is to add to the knowledge, or skiU or intelligence that is required to do a job in first-class shape. If the instructing job has been attempted and a first-class worker on that job has not been obtained, the time and the effort expended have, to that extent been wasted just as much as, in a production job, when time, power, material and men have been used on a job the result has been a product that did not meet specifications or had to be junked. In either case there is an increased overhead. The money has been spent and " we have not got a full return on the investment." Instructional cost, as the term is used here, will therefore be reduced in proportion as the instructed learner becomes a one hundred per cent, worker on whatever job he was instructed upon.

Time Cost — Evidently, all other things being equal, the less time used up in instruction, the more quickly the instruct- ing job is put across, the less the cost. The more time spent in putting over the instructing job, the greater the cost. The second cost element is therefore tiine, and, pro- vided the instructing job is properly done, the less the time the less the cost.

The second time-cost element is first the actual value of the time of the person who gives the instruction compared with the value of his time if used for some other purpose, and second, the time of the learner himself. In general, if a man all of whose experience has been on production jobs undertakes to put across instruction jobs, it may be a ques- tion but what the cheaper way is to have that man save all his time to attend to production jobs, or to whatever jobs he may be an expert at doing, and give the instruction

470 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

jobs to somebody who makes a business of handling instruction work.

The Instructing Process. — ^Whenever we have the in- structor-learner relation it means that some sort of an instructing job has to be done. Like any other job, it may be done poorly, in which case the product is of poor quality, that is, the learner only partly " got " what was to be put over, or it may be well done, in which case the product will be "up to specifications," that is, the learner will have " got " completely whatever was to be put over. The instructing job may be so badly done that the product is only " spoiled material," as where the learner has learned nothing at all, or has learned something wrong and so is worse off than he was when he did not know anything. That is, it is just as possible to do a good job, or a fair job, or a poor job in instructing as it is in production work, and when we say that a man is a good, poor or average instructor we mean, for instructing jobs, just what we mean for pro- duction jobs when we say that a man is a good, poor or average workman.

We aU know that a production job is always carried out by performing certain operations or carrying out certain processes that belong with that job, and that though the same job often be done in different ways in many cases there is always a best way of doing it that an expert workman will always use. This is exactly as true of an instructing job; it can be done in a number of ways, but there is always a best way, and that way will be used by an expert instructor. Just as a first-class workman will turn out a first-class prod- uct because he knows the best way of doing the production job, and has the necessary skill, while an inferior workman will turn out a poorer product, so an expert instructor will do a first-class instructing job because he knows the best way of doing it and has the necessary instructing skill.

It has just been pointed out that whenever a man does a production job he must do something. In the same way.

EFFICIENT INSTRUCTION 471

when a man does an instructing job he must do scnnething. Whatever he does in connection with a putting over job is an instructing operation, that is, he carries on some kind of an instructing process.

The mstructing process^ is therefore whatever a man who has an instruction job does to put that job across.

Good and Poor Instructing Processes. — Just as it is possible to look at a workman on a job and tell whether he is doing a good job or a poor job, so it is possible to watch an instructor at work and tell whether he is doing a good or a poor instructing job. That is, it is possible to spot the characteristics, or " ear marks " of a good instructing job just as it is possible to spot the " ear marks " of a good production job. Some of the more important of these are taken up in the following paragraphs.

The Evidence of Good Instruction. — ^Whenever an instructing job is being carried on, if it is being well done at least the following things can be noted.

1. Both the instructor and the learner know exactly what the particular putting over job is. The instructor knows exactly what he is trying to teach and the learner knows exactly what he is trying to learn. In instructing language this situation would be expressed by saying that the aim of the instruction was clearly understood both by the instructor and the learner.

2. The learner is interested. This term is used here in exactly the same sense that it was used in connection with the human factor block. When we say that a learner is interested we simply mean that he wants to learn.

3. The instructor takes up what is to be put over point by point and sees that each point is cleared up before he goes onto the next. For example, if he is instructing on a job having four operations, according to the analysis, he thoroughly covers operation number one before going onto operation number two, and so on through the successive

472 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

operation number two, and so on through the successive operations in that job.

4. Whenever possible he makes the learner think, or do. For example, in instructing on a machine operation, the instructor does not simply tell the learner how to do it, and let it go at that, but he makes the learner do it, and think while he is doing it.

6. Before he finishes the instructing job the instructor tests out the learner to make sure that he has entirely got what was to be put over. He " inspects his product " just as any good workman would do.

The Evidence of Poor Instruction. — ^If we observe the work of a poor instructor we will notice at least the follow- ing points.

1. The instructor does not know exactly what he is trj'ing to put over.

2. He does not take up the instructing job point by point.

3. The learner is confused as to just what is being put over.

4. There is no final check up.

6. The instructor does all the talking, doesi all the work and does all of the thinking.

Good and Poor Instructing Processes. — From the above statements and examples it is evident that instruction can be carried on in different ways, this is, that different instruct- ing processes can be used with correspondingly different effi- ciencies as to the result of the instrusting job. That is, some instructing processes are more effective than others, and that a good instructor must know the most effective instructing processes and be able to use it in his instruct- ing jobs.

While, as will be explained a little later there is only one effective instructing process, there are a number of proc- esses that the people who use them think are instructing

EFFICIENT INSTRUCTION 473

processes. Among the more common of these " fake " instructing processes are showing and telling.

Why Telling is Not Instructing.— This is one of the most common imitation instructing processes. A great many people who have instructing responsibilities honestly do not see why when they have told a learner how to do a job they have not instructed him and are often very much disturbed because it appears afterwards that he cannot do that job. Telling is often a part of the work of an instructor, but mere telling, in itself, is not a real instructing process. It wont " deliver the goods."

Mere telling is not a true instructing process because the real instructing process always makes the learner think, or do something, or in most cases, makes him do both. Merely saying to him, " This is a StiUson wrench," and stopping there does not make the learner either think or do. He just takes in a name, that is all. On the other hand a learner can be instructed in the proper methodj of using a Stillson wrench to set up a threaded joint, and he can be made to think about such matters as the danger of stripping threads, not crossing threads and so on, and he can be made to set up that joint. Unless this is done, and he is merely told how to do it, he may have been given a lot of informa- tion about the job, but he, himself, has not learned how to do that job. For example, he has never " felt " the thread set into the elbow, or the coupling, or the " feel " of the wrench when it grips the pipe right.

Telling therefore is not a true instructing process because it requires no " come back " on the part of the learner.

Why Showing is Not a True Instructing Process. — Showing is not a true instructing process because, as in the case of telling, showing does not make the learner either do or think about the job that is being taught. He can just look on and think about his best girl, or what movie he is going to that evening or anything else that he wants to, while he is being shown how to do something. As will be

474 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

pointed out later there are ways of keeping his mind on the job that go with the true instructing process, but they call for something more than just showing.

The Real Instructing Process. — Since instructing has been going on for a very long time, ever since the beginning of mankind as a matter of fact, some people have had the job of instructing, or working at teaching jobs. They were teachers, for after all, a teacher is anybody who has instruct- ing responsibilities. Now these people who have made a business of teaching have gradually found out the best ways of carrying on the instructing process just as in production work best ways of carrjdng on operations and processes have been worked out, but while different jobs call for dif- ferent processes, for the instructing process there is but one right way of carrying it out, and this is described in the following section so far as it will be of service to a fore- man in discharging any instructional responsibilities that may come into his job.

The Need For Using an Efficient Instructing Process. — The preceding statements should have made plain that wherever any instruction has to be carried on the cost will be reduced in proportion as the most effective instructional process is used. As has already been stated there is only one real instructing process and, if cost is to be held down, that process must be used and not any of the " fake " proc- esses used in its place.

This instructing process is described in the follow- ing chapter.

CHAPTER XXVII THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS

Preliminary. — This chapter describes the real instruction process as it is used by all efficient instructors, so far as it comes into the instructional work of a foreman. Since, as has already been pointed out, a foreman cannot be an instructor to any great extent and a supervisor and manager too, considerable information is omitted here that would be of value to a regular instructor who made a regular busi- ness of instructing and had no other responsibilities. *

The Lesson. — In its simplest sense a lesson is merely a teaching job. In teaching practice, however, the term lesson is used to designate the whole procedure followed in putting over a teaching job. It includes not only the job to be taught but the way in which it is put over. The particular thing or job that is to be put over is called the instruction unit or, as a regular teacher would call it, the content or the subject of the lesson. For example, if it were desired to instruct in the proper method of sharpening a plane iron, we would say that the teaching unit was " How to sharpen a plane iron." If the teaching job was to put over the proper method of bisecting an angle, we would say that the teaching unit was " The method of bisecting an angle," or that " The content of the lesson was on the bisecting of an

-* A foreman who may become interested in taking up the matter of instruction more fully than it is covered in the following chapters can find very complete information in "The Instructor, The Man and The Job," to which reference has already been made. That book deals entirely with the job of instructing in plants, and the various matters that are gone into here briefly are there gone into very fully.

475

476

THE FOREMAN AND ms JOB

PRODUCTION AND INSTRUCTION

Purpose or aim.

To turn out a defi nite article from a given piece of stock.

To instruct a given individual in a definite thing.

Man responsible.

Workman.

Instructor.

Material worked upon.

Stock new or par- tially worked up.

Learner, green oi partially trained.

Procediu'e.

Successive produc tion operations in a determined order,

Successive instruc- tion steps in a de- termined order.

Means used.

Suitable tools and machines.

Suitable methods of instruction.

Character of product Inspection of prod- tested by. uct.

Inspection of learn- ers' ability to do the thing that the lesson was to teach him.

From The Instructor, The Man and The Job.

angle " or that " The subject of the lesson was the bisec- ting of an angle," according to the term that we preferred to use. In this book the term teaching unit will be used to designate whatever the instructor undertakes to put over to the learner. In the same way we can speak of putting over an instructing job or of teaching a lesson. Both mean the same thing.

The Instructing Process. — The instructing process as it is used by all good instructor^ consists of a certain num- ber of operations which are always carried out in the same order and none of which are ever omitted. According to diflferent instructing authorities there are from four to seven of these operations, but for the purpose of shopi instruction the " four-operation instructing job " is the most serviceable and so is the one described in this section.

THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS 477

The Four Instructing Operations. — ^According to the four operation lesson the job of putting over any teaching unit is carried out by going through four steps or instruc- tion operations that are designated as, Step 1, Preparation; Step 2, Presentation; Step 3, Application; Step 4, Testing or Inspecting. Each of the first three steps when properly carried out represents a " partial product " from the stand- point of the whole instructing job and the last step gives the " finished product," just as, in the case of four serial operations we have three intermediate products and a fin- ished product. It must be remembered however, that in the case of an instructing job the product is a trained learner, not a production product, though, as a " by-product " to the instructing job we almost always get a production prod- uct of some kind in all shop job instruction.

The Function of the Four Operations. — Stated briefly each of these four operations has its special purpose, or function, as follows: The function, or purpose of step 1, (Preparation) is to get the mind of the learner concentrated on what is to be put over. Step 2 (Presentation) is the operation where the instruction in the teaching unit is actually given. ' Step 3 is for the purpose of " back check- ing," to pick up any points that the learner may not have entirely got in step 2. Step 4 is an inspecting step in which the purpose is to test out the learner and make sure that he has got the lesson completely.

Since a full understanding of the functions of these four steps is essential to eifective instruction they are taken up in detail in the following paragraphs.

Step I. Preparation. — ^As just stated the purpose of an instructor in this step is, in some way to concentrate the mind of the learner on the lesson. The idea is to get him to thinking about what he is to be taught, and about nothing else. The function of this step is so well shown in the car- toon given below that but little further explanation is required. The two "opened heads" show plainly the "before

478 THE POREIVIAN AND HIS JOB

and after" effects of a well carried out step 1 on the head

of a learner in connection wiih. an instructing job on riveting.

This concentrated state of mind is brought about by the

instructor by getting the learner to think about some thing

BEFORE — MIND MffiTON JOB II AFTER— MIMD ON dCB

The results of doing a good job in step 1. (From "The Training of Shipj-ard Worliers," U. S. S. B. Emergency Fleet Corporation.)

that has something to do with the teaching unit for that particular instructing job. As in the picture, at the start, the learner has in his mind all sorts of recollections of past experiences and things that he has seen and heard most of which have nothing to do with the subject of the lesson in hand, but, except in very rare cases, he has, among those recollections, some which have a bearing on the subject of the lesson. By skillful preparation the instructor there- fore, in some way, makes the learner think about certain particular things which will aid him in comprehending the particular new thing which is to be taught. This may be

THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS 479

called a process whereby the learner is led to establish in his own mind " contact points " between what he already knows and the new ideas which the instructor plans to have him add to what he knows through the lesson that is to be taught.

The Teaching Base.— It will be noted that, in carrying out this first step, it is assumed that, somewhere is his past experience, the learner has had some kind of an experience or has some knowledge which can be used as a foundation for building up the proposed lesson. It should also be clear that, while the instructor knows, in a general way, what he can get from the learner, and selects those ideas which he thinks that he can best use for a teaching base, the learner is himself usually unconscious of the relation of what he finds himself thinking about, to the subject of the lesson which the instructor has planned to teach.

Preparation Must be Completed Before Presentation is Started. — The success of the following steps in the lesson is dependent on this first step being thoroughly carried out, and the instructor must be sure that this is the case before proceeding farther. One of the most common errors in instructing is the failure to thoroughly prepare the learner for the teaching unit to be put over in Step 2 (Presentation) , due to the fact that the instructor is in too much of a hurry ; he " skimps " this step. As a result Step 2 fails, this comes out in Step 3, and the whole instructing job has to be done over again. It pays to make a good job of Step 1.

No Standard rule can be given for determining when learners are prepared. An experienced instructor can tell — an inexperienced one had best err, if at all, on the safe side and, if anything, over-prepare.

The Learner Learns Nothing in Step 1. — It should be clearly understood that, in the work of preparation as com- monly carried out, no new ideas are added to those already in the learner's mind, and in no case are any of the new ideas which are to be taught in the lesson touched upon at this

480 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

stage. The instructor does not undertake to add any new ideas to those already in the learner's mind. He does (often by skillful questioning) lead the learner to select from all the ideas in his mind certain particular ideas which he has con- sciously or unconsciously " picked up " at some previous time. These ideas are those which the instructor has deter- mined to make the teaching basis of the lesson in hand.

Exceptional Instances. — ^In rare instances when there is absolutely nothing that can be used as a teaching base the instructor must provide something that can be used for that purpose. Experience has shown that this is rarely neces- sary in shop training, especially if the instructor is experi- enced and ingenious. When a teaching base cannot be found the learner must be given an experience which can be used. Until this has been done it is practically useless to try to teach the lesson. Of course, when an instructor is forced to do this additional time and energy are consumed and so he never does it unless he has to.

Step 2. Presentation. — Just as step 1 is for the purpose of getting the learner ready to " take " the lesson, so this step is the one in which the lesson is put over by the instruc- tor. It is during this step or instructing operation that the instructor is supposed to impart to the learner the skill on the job, the knowledge that he must apply in doing the job, and the ability to apply that knowledge. In other words the learner is supposed to be able to da the job at the end of this instructing operation.

If step 1 has been properly carried out the learner now has his attention concentrated on what is to be put over, he is interested and wants to learn and he is clear as to what the lesson is about. Assuming that all this has been done, the next step is to put over the " new stuif " that is contained in the teaching unit. Various ways for doing this are given later, and it is only necessary to point out here that a method that is the most suitable to the particular lesson that is to be taught must be used in each case. For

THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS 481

example, if one purpose of the lesson was to turn out a man that would think intelligently on the job, it is evident that different means would have to be employed from those that might be used if the purpose were only to get a man so that he could perform certain operations in one way only.

A skillful instructor will always know what particular ways of handling this operation will give the best and the quickest results according to the requirements of the special job that is to be taught. This question of ways and means for putting over this step is taken up in the next section, under methods of instruction and so this matter is not taken up any further here.

The distinction between the purposes of steps 1 and 2 must be clearly understood however, because any " mixing " of the two operations wUl always make trouble. As already stated, step 1 (preparation) does not add anything to the learners knowledge or skill on, the job that is to be taught, but merely gets him ready to be taught by getting him to thinking exclusively about certain things which the instruc- tor has already determined to use for the teaching base (J. O. P.). Step 2, on the other hand, has for its only pur- pose the imparting (putting over) of the necessary job knowledge and skill and the ability to use that knowledge and skill in doing the job according to the requirements of the department as to accuracy, speed, etc. At the close of step 1 the learner knows no more about the job that is to be taught than he did before. At the close of step 2 he is supposed to be able to do it, though, as a matter of fact, he usually cannot do it just right, which is the reason why step 3 is necessary, as is explained later.

At this stage of the process there is, at the close of step 2, no evidence that the learner can fully apply what has been put over ; that is, that he has " got " the whole lesson. In fact, as just stated, it may safely be assumed that he has not ; that there are some weak points where the instruc- tion has wholly or partly failed to " carry." If the instruc-

31

482 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

ting operation were left at this stage (which many men who have instructing responsibilities do) it would, mean that the instructor would never know whether he had or had not done an effective instructing job nor would he know whether the learner could or could not do the job that was to be taught without any help. In other words, if the instructor stopped the instruction process at this point he would not know whether the learner, if left to go it alone, could or could not do the job. The two remaining steps in the instructing process are for the purpose of enabling the instructor to be sure that he has done a complete 100 per cent, instructing job, and to give the learner sufficient confi- dence to go it alone, for a green learner may be able, as the result of good instruction, to do a job in first-class shape and yet fall down on it the first time that he is left " on his own."

Step 3. Application. — ^As already briefly stated this step serves three purposes.

(1). Since what the man has learned is of no value to him unless he can apply it, and since power to apply a thing is different from simply knowing it, he must be trained in actually applying, or putting into practice what was pre- sented to him in the preceding step of the less9n.

(2). A second, and equally important, purpose to be accomplished by this step is to check up the degree to which the learner has grasped all the points in the lesson which has been taught, whether processes or ideas. From this standpoint this step, application, corresponds to a road bed inspection on a railroad whose purpose is to detect " bad spots " which should be fixed. In the same way, no matter how carefully the man has been taught, there will be some "weak points," some "holes in the road" which must be located and made good before going any further. A common illustration of this would be an arithmetic lesson on interest at 6 per cent. After the teacher has presented the method of doing it, he will then have the pupil solve a series of prob-

THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS 483

lems in interest at 6 per cent. If the lesson were on figu- ring the offset for a taper, the learner would then be given a series of problems in figuring offsets. If the teaching unit were on how to correctly mark templates, the learner would be given a template to mark. If it were on assembling, the man would be given an assembling job. During this process of application, however, the instructor watches the man while he is working at the job, notes where he fails to grasp some points in the problem, or has not " caught on " to some part of an operation, and gives him additional instruction on that part then and there.

(3). When this step has been properly carried out the learner has acquired enough confidence to be able to go ahead and do the job when he is left to go it alone.

The instructor therefore uses this step not only to give the learner training in applying, but also to find weak points in his work in step 2 as to the learners knowledge or compre- hension, confidence or job ability. At the close of this step the instructor should be sure that the man has thoroughly " got " the lesson which is to be taught. Carrying out this step effectively requires care and skill on the part of the instructor to determine just when to assist the learner and just how to assist him ; but in no case should the instructor do the work for the man. Of course he might show him how to cover some particular operating point correctly, which it might appear that he did not fully understand, but the learner should be required in this step to go through the whole job and to go through it a sufficient number of times so that the instructor is reasonably sure that all points have been mastered. Various methods can be followed in this step which are discussed in the following paragraphs.

How to Know When Step 3 is Completed. — ^In this the instructor must depend upon his judgment and experience. No set rule can be given. Whatever the method used, this operation is continued until the instructor is satisfied that the teaching unit has been completely put over. Wherever

484 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

he finds a weak spot the instructor goes over that part of the preceding step which covers that particular part of the teaching unit, in this way filling up the gaps. However that may be, he finally comes to a point where he is willing to take a chance that the man has " got " the thing that was to be taught.

This step may be compared to trying out an assembled machine, where the machine is run under careful observation. Any imperfections are noted, and faulty parts replaced until the adjuster is ready to O. K. it, that is, he is ready to take a chance on its being right. Instructors are very liable to be in too much of a hurry in carrying) out this step and to let a man go onto the final step, or test, before he is ready for it. The adjuster who lets imperfect machines go out of his department has done a poor j ob and the same may be said of the instructor who lets the learner out of this stage, before he is ready.

Step 4. Inspection or Testing. — ^If the instruptional process has been properly carried on up to this point the instructor is ready to take a chance that the learner has been properly taught, and if he is right the teaching job is finished, the learner is instructed, he can do what the instruc- tor intended that he should be able to do or he knows what the instructor intended that he should know. The teaching unit has been put over and the teaching process is at an end. But while the instructor may feel sure that this is the case he does not know it because this fact cannot be assumed. During the preceding step he undoubtedly found many cases where additional instruction on some parts of the lesson was necessary, and he therefore has assisted or directed the man more or less during that step. Although he carried on this phase of the instruction process until, in his judgment, the man had got the entire unit that was to be taught, neverthe- less he has been going over it piecemeal, and not as a whole.

He cannot, therefore, assume that, unaided and undi- rected, the man who is under inspection can apply intel-

THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS 485

ligently the subject of the teaching unit. That unaided, and absolutely on his own feet he can go through the whole process correctly.

This step, therefore, may be regarded as fulfilling a function strictly comparable to that of final inspection. The instructor must now stop being as an instructor and, becom- ing an inspector, proceed to inspect the results of his teach- ing by testing in some suitable way, the ability of the learner to do the entire job alone.

As already stated the purpose of this step is to afford an opportunity for a final tryout or inspection. The instruc- tor should regard the result of the test as more or less a failure if the learner fails to do this work unaided. It indi- cates that the teaching process was not well carried out, that the instructor's judgment was incorrect and the teaching must be repeated. While this wiU often occur in practice, it is nevertheless true in theory that if the lessons were per- fectly planned and perfectly taught inspection would show that all learners could successfully meet the test with 100 per cent, efficiency.

CHAPTER XXVIII THE INSTRUCTOR'S " TOOLS "

METHODS AND LINES OF APPEOACH

Preliminary. — The last chapter took up the question of the four operations or steps in the instructing process and pointed out the purpose, or function of each step. Mention was made there of the fact that there were different ways of performing each of these steps and of carrying out the instructing process as a whole. This chapter takes up these points so far as they may affect the work of a foreman as an instructor.

The Instructing "Tools."— The various "instructing tools " or devices which instructors use in putting over the instructing process are of two kinds :

1. Methods of instruction.

2. Lines of approach,

A good instructor will select for any given instructing job (lesson) the line of approach and the method of instruc- tion that will, in his judgment, give the best results with the particular sort of learner and the special sort of lesson. For example, if he were giving some incidental instruction to an experienced man on some detail slightly different of an old job he would use a different method and line of approach from what he would if he were instructing a green man on an entirely new job. These different methods and lines of approach are to the instructor just what a kit of toolsi are to a mechanic. Just as a good mechanic will size up a job and determine just what tools will give him the best results on that job, so a good instructor will size up his instructing job and will pick out for use the methods of instruction and line of approach that will give him the best

486

THE INSTRUCTOR'S "TOOLS" 487

results on his instructing job. Hence the term, " the instruc- tor's tools."

The InstrxKtor's " Tools " : Lines of Approach. — ^What- ever methods may be used in putting over an instructing unit (a lesson), the first thing that an instructor considers is his line of approach. This is what may be called his " policy " in handling the whole lesson. There are two such policies or lines of approach that will be of use to a fore- man in carrying out any instructing jobs that he may have. These two lines of approach are called:

1. The development line of approach.

2. The informational line of approach.

An instructor uses one or the other according to what he wants to have the learner get out of the lesson. Since a clear understanding of these two lines of approach is very necessary for anyone having to handle instructing jobs they are explained quite fully below.

The Informational Line of Approach. — ^In using this line of approach the whole instructing process is carried through on the basis of the instructor giving information to the learner or the learner giving information to the instructor. All that is asked of the learner is memory. Any questions that a learner is asked he can answer simply by recollecting. He does not have to " think anything out." The instructor may ask all sorts of questions of the learner but all they are intended to make him do is to remember.

The entire lesson or any step in the lesson can be handled in this way according to the judgment of the instructor, but, as pointed out later, as a rule, it is not good " business " to change the line of approach in the course of putting over the same teaching job; that is like " swapping horses in the middle of the stream," it can be done, but under most con- ditions it is not the best place to make a horse trade.

The Development Line of Approach. — ^In handling a lesson by this line of approach the intention of the instruc- tor is always to make the learner think out the proper pro-

488 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

cedure, or the reason why a certain operation is carried on in a certain way, or, in some other way think the thing through. In other words, when this line of approach is used, the instructor makes the learner do as much of the thinking as possible and does as little thinking for the learner as possi- ble. In doing this the instructor leads the learner to think out the problem and the method of solution, guides his think- ing by the use of thought stimulating questions or sugges- tions, but practically never tells the learner anything that he can think out for himself. According to this line of approach, questions asked by the instructor are so framed that the learner cannot answer them just from memory, but must think out the answers. In this way, with the help of the right kind of questions a learner can be made to think through to a correct method of solving a problem or of carry- ing through an operation.

The Purpose of the Two) Lines of Approach. — ^It is evi- dent from the description of the two lines of approach just given that the purpose of the development line of approach is to make the learner think about the job in order that he may be intelligent in doing the job. He will " use his head on the job " if this line of approach is used in instructing him. It must be equally evident that the purpose of the informa- tional line of approach is to inform the learner as quickly as possible just how a job should be done, or as to the cor- rect method of solving a problem. The aim of an instructor using the development line of approach would be to turn out a learner who could do a job that required some judgment and intelligence on the part of the worker. The aim of an instructor using the informational line of approach would be to turn out a learner who could do a job correctly but where the job did not require a worker to use very much intelligence of a general character, and where there was little or no opportunity to use judgment in "carrying out the work.

Line of Approach and Methods. — ^The distinction between lines of approach and methods of instruction must be kept

THE INSTRUCTOR'S "TOOLS" 489

clearly in mind. As already stated, the line of approach always refers to the general purpose that the instructor has in mind as between straight job ability and job ability plus intelligence. Methods of instruction do not refer to lines of approach at all, but to the special instructing devices used in putting over the different steps in. the instructing job, as taken up in the following paragraphs.

The Instructor'si "Tools": Methods of Instruction. — If the first sort of instructing tools are the lines of approach, the second set of tools are the methods of instruction used in the different steps in the instructing job. As already sug- gested, these different methods are, to an instructor what various sets of tools are to a mechanic. Just as a mechanic wiU size up a job, or better, for illustration here, some opera- tion on a job, and wUl select the special tool that wiU work best under those conditions so a good instructor will size up the particular instructing operation that he has to put over and will determine what method of instruction will be the best to use in that particular step.

The Different Methods of Instruction. — Teachers who have to teach all sorts of lessons under all sorts of conditions make use of quite a number of different methods of instruc- tion, but, of these, only a few wiU be of service to a foreman under the conditions under which he discharges any instruct- ing responsibilities that he may have.* For convenience these are given in the table below and are described in the following paragraphs.

The following paragraphs take up these different meth- ods of instruction as they would apply to the instructing job of a foreman.

STEP I. A. THE DEVELOPMENT LINE OF APPEOACH

Methods of Instruction: Step 1. — The suggestive ques-

* The foreman who is interested in going further into this matter of methods of instruction will find the list of practically all the methods that are of use in industrial instruction in Chapters XXIII to XXVII of " The Instructor, The Man and The Job."

490

THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

POSSIBLE METHODS OF INSTRUCTION FOR THE DIFFERENT STEPS EST THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS.

Steps in the Process.	Lines of Appioach.
Development.	Informational.
Step 1. Preparation. Foundation.	The suggestive ques- tion. Demonstration with suggestive ques- tions.	The informational question. Informational dem- onstration. '
Step 2. Presentation. Putting over the Teaching Unit.	Demonstration. (With suggestive questions.) (Learner active.) Illustration.	Demonstration. (Plain showing.) (Learner passive.) Demonstration with questions. Illustration. Lecture.
Step 3. Application. Checking up.	On the job.	On the job.
Step 4. Inspection. Final test.	On the job.

tion and the suggestive demonstration are the two methods oi instruction that a foreman will find the most useful when he uses the development line of approach in carrying out step 1. They are therefore described here.

The Suggestive Question. — As already mentioned ques- tions may be so framed as to make the learner think, and, in addition, they may be so formulated that the learner unconsciously thinks of something that the instructor intends that he shall think of. If the instructor is skillful in this way he can almost always make the learner think of what he wants him to think about, so long as the learner is not aware of the fact that his thinking is being directed in a particular

THE INSTRUCTOR'S "TOOLS" 491

direction. If he does become aware of the fact, the scheme will stop working. Where such questions are used they are based on what is called suggestion. Suggestion merely means the well-known fact that anybody can prove for themselves, that if Smith says something to Jones; Jones in turn will do some kind of thinking. If Smith is skillful in what he says he can almost always make Jones think of things that he (Smith) wants Jones to think of. For example, if Smith says "Jones, I just saw a cow," a picture of a cow will flash up in Jones' mind, if Jones has ever seen a cow. If Jones has never seen a cow Smith is " out of luck " and draws a blank so far as suggestion goes. Now if the questions are so worded as to " start " not merely a " mind picture " but a line of thought, and that line of thought is kept going by further questions asked at the right time as " boosters," an instructor can make a learner think along to the point at which the instructor wants to arrive in his thinking. In such a case the questions do not merely call for remembering but force thinking. An example of such a question would be, " How do you think such and such a thing was done.'' " or " Why do you think it was done that way.'' " Questions of this sort that suggest lines of thought are the sort of suggestive questions that would be used with the development line of approach. Evi- dently this sort of question can only be used when the instruc- tor knows that the learner has something to think about, that is, he knows something about the thing on which the ques- tions bear.

The Suggestive Demonstration. — ^When the learner has nothing that the instructor can use for the work of step 1, that is, where the learner " has never seen a cow," it is evi- dently necessary to "show him a cow," that is, for the instruc- tor to show him something or do something that will give something to go on. For example, suppose the case of a perfectly green learner, who had never heard of a plane and no idea how it worked, and that the instructing job was to instruct him in the job of setting a plane. This, of course, is a very improbable supposition, but it will do for the illus-

492 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

tration. Under these conditions the iastructor might find it necessary to show the learner a plane that was set right and one that was not set, and by some suggestive questions get the learner to see that the plane could be set by some- body who knew how, and so get his mind onto the teaching unit and his interest or curiosity aroused. Where this was done the instructor would have used a suggestive demonstra- tion as a method of instruction.

As a rule in shop instruction the suggestive demonstra- tion is not required. There are very few cases where the learner has not had some sort of an experience that the instructor cannot use for his purpose. Since it takes more time and makes more trouble it is only customary to use it when absolutely necessary, although, of course, it can be used as a " breaker in " in any case in putting over step 1.

STEP I. B. *FHE INFOEMATIONAL LINE OF APPBOACH

Methods of Instruction: Step i. — ^As the last paragraph took up the possible instructional methods for step 1 when the development line of approach is used, so this paragraph takes up the corresponding methods that may be used when the instructor prefers, to use the informational line of approach. As given in the table, these are the informational question and the informational demonstration.

The Informational Question. — ^Another kind of question from the suggestive question gets its " action " not through suggestion but through pure memory. For example, going back to the same illustration as was used before, suppose Smith holds up a tool in front of Jones and says, " What is the name of this ? " and Jones comes back with, " That's a monkey wrench," all that Smith has asked of Jones is memory. Jones did not have to do any thinking, he only had to remember. He either did remember or else he didn't. Now the process of remembering will also arouse interest and center the mind on what is remembered. The same result can be obtained by asking a person what they know about something; the act of trying to remember what they know

\

THE INSTRUCTOR'S "TOOLS" 493

will tend to fix their attention on Tfhat they are asked to talk about. For example, an instructor, in carrying out step 1 on a lesson on the use of a crosscut saw with a learner who knew something about rip saws, might ask the learner to tell what he knew about a rip saw, not caring very much what he told, so long as he told something. There would be no suggestion here, the learner would simply be asked to give some information that the instructor knew he possessed. AU that the instructor wanted was to make him go through a remembering process so as to center his mind on a saw, the lesson to be put over dealing with the points where a rip saw and a crosscut saw differ iri the way that they are used on the job. Such questions as those suggested here, whose purpose is merely to make a learner recall something that the instructor already knows that he knows, and whose answer calls for no thinking but just for recollecting may be called informational questions to distinguish them from suggestive questions as already described.

The Informational Demonstration. — ^Under the same conditions as have been described for the development demon- stration, that is, where there is " nothing doing " so far as the use of informational questions is concerned, it is possible for the instructor to furnish some information by either tell- ing something or by showing something. For example, he can tell an experience that he has had that bears on the subject of the lesson, or he can do the job himself while the learner watches him, not with the idea of teaching the learner any- thing at this stage of the game, but simply to give him a notion as to what is to be taught him in the lesson.

As an example of the difference between the two sorts of demonstrations, in the case of the crosscut saw used as an illustration, if the instructor, were to show both kinds of saws, and say to the learner, referring to the crosscut " Would this saw be good to use for cutting with the grain? Why?" he would be using a development question in connec- tion with his demonstration, but if he showed the crosscut

494 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

saw alone and said " Is this a rip saw?" he would be using an informational question in connection with his demonstration.

STEP 2. A. THE DEVELOPMENT LINE OF APPROACH

Methods: Step 2. — ^In using this line of approach the methods that a foreman will find most serviceable for handling step 2 of an instructing job are the demonstration with suggestive questions and the illustration, handled in the same manner.

The Demonstration. — The demonstration method con- sists essentially in either showing the learner how the job is done with the real tools, stock, etc., just as he will have to do it when he is out in the shop " on his own," after he has been instructed, or in making the learner do the job himself under the supervision and direction of the instructor. Put- ting him onto the job, giving him a few general directions, going off and leaving him for an hour to fend for himself or pump what he can from other workers is not carrying out this method. As an example of the use of this method an instructor in printing may operate the press in instructing a learner in feeding. In doing this, if he were using the demon- stration method he would use a real job. After feeding a little while he might let the learner try his hand at iti stand- ing by to prevent any slips and to keep the learner from getting scared. In using this method in putting over a lesson on an assembling job the instructor would use the necessary parts, bolts, nuts, wrenches, etc., and would do a real assembly job or would have the learner do it under direction.

It is evident that provided a real job is done the demon- stration can be carried on either by the learner, or by the instructor, or by both, turn about. When the learner does the job under the supervision of the instructor, he is his own demonstrator. He demonstrates to himself. That is the way that most of us learned the job of falling downstairs when we were kids. In some cases a learner may work from printed or written directions. In this case he is still demon- strating to himself.

THE INSTRUCTOR'S "TOOLS" 496

The Method of Illustration.— This method differs from the demonstration essentially in that instead of using the real thing that would be used on the job the instructor uses things that make the learner see the real things in his mind. For example, every time that a man reads a blue-print whkt he sees with his eyes are white lines on blue paper, but what he sees in his mind are the real things that those white lines represent. Some illustrations may make this point clearer. For example, suppose an engineer was to be taught how to set a valve by a method with which he was not familiar, and the instructor instead of using a real engine used a wooden model, or used diagrams. In such a case he would be using the method of illustration instead of the method of demonstration.

This method is used every day in shops where, in talking over a job with a workman, the foreman will make a sketch on a scrap of paper, or sometimes with pencil or chalk on the stock itself.

The method of illustration can be carried out by models, pictures, diagrams, sketches, etc., but for any instructing work that a foreman may have to do probably only the sketch and the diagram would be used. It must be remembered that a sketch is made whenever marks are made on something, no matter what. A foreman in a foundry can make a sketch on the floor by using a stick and making marks in the sand.

The Development Demonstration or Illustration. — ^When used in connection with the development line of approach the instructor will keep the learner " alive " by questions that will keep him thinking or by making him do some of the work, or both. For example, the instructor will ask the learner " What do you think that I ought to do next? " or " Why do you think that that operation was carried out that way.?" or " Could it have been carried out any other way?" As a definite example suppose that in an assembly job the instructor was teaching the learner how to set up a nut, and when it comes to the final setting up, says to the

4S6 THE^FOKEMAN AND HIS JOB

learner " Do you think that this nut could fee set up too hard?" " What might happen?" " Suppose it was not set up hard enough, what might happen? ", and so on.

As already stated while there are other methods that can be used the two given above are the only ones that are likely to be of service to a foreman in any instructing work that he may have to do where the development line of approach is used.

STEP 2. B. THE INFORMATIONAL LINE OF APPEOACH

The Demonstration Method. — ^Where this method is used with the informational line of approach the instructor makes the demonstration (does the job) and the learner watches him do it. While doing the job the instructor may or may not ask questions but if he does they are memory questions such as « What did I do last?" « What did I tell you was the name of this tool? ", and so on.

It will be noted that in carrying on the work in this way, the learner is practically passive. He absorbs but does not have to give down except as he may be requested to furnish information. He has to use memory but does not have to think in the way that he would have to under the other line of approach.

The Method of Illustration. — This method would be con- ducted in the same way using sketches or diagrams instead of the real things.

The Lecture Method. — This method of presentation con- sists in simply talking about the job. Telling how it should be done without either demonstrating or illustrating with any sort of real things. Good examples of straight lectures can often be heard in popular lecture courses. For example, when some one tells his experiences in foreign travel.

Step 3. Both Lines of Approach.— While other methods are known and are commonly employed in schools, there is only one method for a foreman to use in this step and that is to put the learner on the job, watching him and checking him up if he starts to go wrong. According to the line of

THE INSTRUCTOR'S "TOOLS" 497

approach development or informational questions are used i as necessary. If, for example, the instructor says " Hold on, you did something wrong, then find out what it was and fix it before you go any further." He is using the development line of approach. If he says, " What did I tell you to be careful about at this point," he is using the informational line of approach. As already stated the instructor will have the learner work at the job in this way until he is willing to take a chance that the learner has got the whole job.

STEP 4. NO LINES OF APPEOACH

Testing On the Job. — This is the last step in which the instructor tests or inspects his own product, who he now assumes to be competent to do the job unaided and do it right, though not perhaps at fuU commercial speed as taken up later. He therefore has the learner do the job and inspects the product. If his guess as to the learner having been thoroughly instructed in the two preceding steps was correct, the product is 0. K. and the lesson has been put over. If the product is not O. K. the instructor guessed wrong in step 3, must go back to it, do some more checking up and straightening up and then inspect again. He must not " let go " on his instructing job until the learner has demonstrated beyond question that he can do that job unaided, and can be depended upon to keep on doing it when he is " on his own."

It is evident that in step 4 the instructor uses no line of approach since this is only a testing step. By the way that he does the job unaided' the learner does inform the instructor as to the results, of the " inspection."

CHAPTER XXIX

PICKING OUT THE BEST METHODS AND LINES OF APPROACH FOR A GIVEN INSTRUCTING JOB

Preliminary. — ^The last section described what were called the instructor's "tools" (methods and lines of approach), and poiated out that an instructor would select and use those that would give the best results for the particu- lar instructing job under consideration, with regard to whether the lesson was on a production job or on a technical job and with regard to the learner. This section makes some suggestions along that line, that are intended to be of service to a foreman who may have instructing responsibilities.

Different Kinds of Instructing Jobs. — In general there are two things that determine the particular character of an instructing job, the kind of a teaching unit and the kind of a learner.

A. KINDS OF LESSONS

The Kind of a Teaching Unit. — So far as a foreman's probable instructing responsibilities go he may have to instruct in two different kinds of jobs, production jobs and technical jobs. As the distinction between these two kinds of jobs is sometimes rather important it is taken up here.

Technical and Production Jobs. — ^As already defined, a job, as the word is used in this book, means anything that a worker is paid to do, but in production work there are some jobs that, when completed, bring the stock one step nearer to the finished product of the department. Such jobs always in some way affect stock. Such jobs may be called produc- tion jobs. There are in practically all plants a number of jobs that do not directly affect stock but are a necessary step in the ^tting out of the stock. Such jobs may be called

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PICKING OUT BEST METHODS OF APPROACH 499

technical jobs. Fot example, making a blue print is a pro- duction job for the blue print room, but figuring the correct number of gears on a lathe, or getting those values from a gear table would be a technical job. Making a working drawing in the drafting room would be a production job for that department but reading the blue print in the shop would be a technical job. Estimating the post of certain repairs would be a technical job, but actually making the repairs would be a production job. A pattern maker, in making his lay-out would be doing a technical job, but making the pat- tern from the lay-out would be a production job.

Characteristics of the Technical Job. — ^In general this sort of a job presents these characteristics:

( 1 ) It is not a direct production j ob.

(2) It requires the application of special knowledge.

(3) It is a necessary part of getting out production, though not itself a production job.

(4) It need not be done where the production job to which it contributes is done.

Thus, for example, the figuring on a steel bridge might be done in Chicago, the drawing made in Middleton, Ohio, and the bridge built in California, but the figuring and the drawing would have to be done before the bridge could be built. The majority of technical jobs call for the exercise of intelligence and judgment in the use of mathematics, draw- ing or other educational " tools." Often there is more than one way of doing the job and the method must be selected that is the best under the special conditions. In few cases are techincal jobs carried out in a purely automatic way. To make a general distinction it might be said that a technical job is almost always either a planning job or a laying-out job, and are commonly spoken of as problems rather than jobs.

Characteristics of the Production Job.— As distinguished from the production job the technical job presents these characteristics :

600 THE FOBEMAN AND HIS JOB

1. The job gives a definite production product.

2. It requires the use of tools or machines, that is, what would be commonly called mechanical equipment.

3. It requires mechanical skill and job intelligence in the use of these tools and machines.

4. As a result of the doing of a production job, depart- mental stock is changed in some way. (Moved, shaped, formed, etc., as the case may be.)

While a technical job calls for the intelligent use of such " technical tools " as mathematics, drawing science, etc., a production job calls for corresponding intelligence and skiU in the use of actual mechanical tools and machines.

The Two Possible Instructing Jobs. — A foreman may therefore have instructing responsibilities for putting over either technical or production lessons, though, under most conditions he is likely to have to deal with instruction on pro- duction jobs much more than with the teaching of technical jobs, though this wiU depend, of course, on the particular character of the departmental jobs under his supervision.

B. KINDS OF LEAENEES

The Kind of a Learner. — ^It was pointed out in Chapter XXV that a foreman might have to instruct :

(1) Apprentices, on either technical or production jobs.

(2) Green workers, usually taken on for special jobs.

(3) Regular workers, on points on their regular jobs. Apprentices are as a usual thing supposed to be

instructed in all the production and technical jobs that go with the trade and, except where some special arrangement is made, such as a part time class, all this instruction is up to the foreman. They get it from him, get it themselves or don't get it at alL

Green workers are usually taken on for special shop jobs or for specialized jobs according to the character of the plant, and the foreman is in most cases obliged to instruct them unless there is a training department, or he has special instructors to relieve him of that additional work.

PICKING OUT BEST METHODS OF APPROACH

601

Regular workers, assumed to be able to do their jobs will nevertheless need more or less incidental help from time to time. A foreman may therefore have instrucing responsi- bilities as to :

Kind of Learner. Apprentices.	Kind of Lesson. Production. Technical.	Kind of Job. Trade Jobs (All kinds.)
Green help.	Production.	Mostly specialized. A few trade jobs.
Regular Workers.	Production. Technical.	Trade Jobs. Specialized Jobs. Laborers Jobs.

The Selection of Lines of Approach. — On any instruct- ing job there is always the choice between the two possible lines of approach. From the descriptions already given it must be evident that the development line of approach takes more time and requires greater instructing skill than does the informational line of approach. From the instructing standpoint the question is always " Will it pay in terms of time and effort to use the development line of approach.? " Now as has already been stated in a general way this depends on the kind of a teaching job that has to be done and the kind of a learner. While each case must be considered "on its merits," the following statements will generally apply.

(1) The more thinking required on the job the more likely is the development line of approach to be the more desirable to use. This will be true in general for:

(a) Jobs in skilled trades.

(b) Jobs where there may be possible modifications in the way that operations may be carried out and the man on the" job must therefore use judgment.

(c) Jobs where worker must exercise ingenuity in dealing with situations that may come up.

fi02 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

This practically amounts to saying that where a worker "must use his head on the job" the development line of approach should be used. It will " pay " under these con- ditions, so far as the nature of the job goes.

(2) As regards the kind of learner it is in general true that the more he already knows about the job, the more experience he has had, the greater the probability that the informational line of approach will work all right and be safely used. Such cases might be :

(a) Giving incidental instruction to generally competent workers.

(b) Giving instruction to learners on jobs that are very much like jobs that they have already learned how to do.

The Selection of Methods. — ^As given there are practi- cally four methods that require consideration ; the demonstra- tion, the illustration, the question, and the lecture, as possi- ble methods that can be used in steps 1 or 2. As already pointed out there is no chance as to methods in steps 3 and 4, so the matter is not taken up so far as those st^ps are con- cerned. As these methods were described in the last section the only points taken up here are their relative advantages for different sorts of teaching jobs.

The Demonstration Metiiod. — The demonstration is unquestionably the proper method to use whenever possible when instructing green learners on production jobs. Under these conditions there is practically no other method that can be used to any advantage. In the case of giving incidental instruction to competent workers the method of illustration can be sometimes substituted for it, as is taken up later, but, in general, it is the standard method for all shop instruction and a foreman should be very sure of his ground before he substitutes either of the other methods for it in instructing on shop jobs.

The case of technical jobs is somewhat different. Although the same general principle holds there are many

PICKING OUT BEST METHODS OF APPROACH 503

cases where illustration can be substituted for demonstra- tion. This is most likely to be true on technical lessons with workers of considerable experience, where the techni- cal job to be taught is very much like jobs that they already knew how to do. For example, suppose the techni- cal job of taking an indicator card from a new type of indi- cator was to be put over to a group of steam engineers. Probably under these conditions time would be saved and the instructing job would be done as well by using diagrams as by using the real indicator.

The Method of Illustration. — This method should always be regarded as a substitute for the demonstration method. It must always be remembered that this method requires the learner to look at one thing which is not the real thing, and at the same time see the real thing in his mind. Evidently he can only do this when he is familiar with the real thing. This is why this method will work well in many cases with experienced men but will not work well with green men. In all cases there is an additional mental eiFort required of the learner to make the " carry over " from the picture or dia- gram, or sketch, or model that is used to make him think of the real thing. Since this always means a greater or less additional " learning friction," which is, of course, less as the learner is more familiar with the real thing. Great care should be taken to use this method only when an instructor is sure that the " learning friction " will be so slight that it will be more than compensated for by the gain in time in putting the lesson over.

Dangers in the Use of the Method of Illustration. — The great danger in connection with this method is that it is often easier for an instructor to use than the demonstration method, and so he tends to use it in cases where it wont work, especially if he is hard pressed for time or is plain lazy, when with a little special effort he could use the demon- stration instead.

The choice between the two methods should therefore be

604 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB

based not on which is the easier for the instructor but on careful decision as to whether, with regard to the sort of learner and the sort of job to be taught, time can be saved and the instructing job be put over just as effectively. That is, the method of illustration should be regarded as an instruc- tional time-saving "tool," where it will work. In case of any doubt as to this point use the demonstration method, if it can possibly be done even at the expense of more time and trouble.

The Lecture Method. — ^This method has no place in instructing on shop or on technical j obs. It has been included in the list of possible methods mainly because many foremen do tend to use it in instructing on jobs of this character. It may happen however that, in addition to instructing on jobs, a foreman may have occasion to " put over " certain infor- mation to a group of his men, where the lecture method combined with the development line of approach may be of service. The same dangers exist here as in the case of the method of illustration, only because lecturing is even more easy than illustrating, these dangers are even worse.

Bearing in mind that each case must be decided on its merits the following table suggests the general principles that should be borne in mind in determining what method to use for a given kind of lesson and a given kind of learner.

PICKING OUT BEST METHODS OF APPROACH

505

:: Kind of Learner.	Kind of Lesson.	Method.
Green Learner.	Production Job. Technical Job.	Demonstration.
Experienced worker.	Production Job. Technical Job.	Demonstration or Illustration.
Very Experienced Worker.	Production Job. Technical Job.	Illustration in most cases. Discussion.
Anybody.	General Information .	Lecture, in some cases with de- velopment line of approach. Lecture.
Very Experienced Worker.	Very slight addition to knowledge.	Lecture.

APPENDIX

APPENDIX A '

THE USE OF THIS BOOK IN CONNECTION WITH FOREMEN'S CONFERENCES

Preliminary. — ^As stated in the preface this book is essen- tially a compilation of points that have been brought up and discussed in conferences of foremen where the purpose of the conference was to provide an opportunity for the "pooling" of experiences and the free discussion of matters affecting the foreman's job.

This material was brought together to serve two pur- poses, first, to assist anyone who might have the responsi- bility for conducting such conferences, by placing at their disposal a considerable amount of information on which they could draw in making up programs and in planning the work for a series of such meetings and second, to provide printed material that could be, under suitable conditions, placed in the hands of the conference members.

These matters are therefore taken up in the two follow- ing sections : Section 1 indicating briefly some ways in which a Conference Leader may use this material to advantage and Section 2 giving certain information based on the experi- ence of those who have been conducting such conferences, as to the most effective way in which it can be used when placed in the hands of the men.

A considerable amount of information bearing upon the initiation and conduct of such conferences wiU be found in Bulletin No. 86, Trade and Industrial Series No. 7, Part 1, issued by the Federal Board of Vocational Education, Washington, D.C., and the information contained therein is therefore not repeated here.

SECTION I

THE USE OF THIS MATEEIAX BY A CONFEEENCE LEADEB

In general, as stated above, this book contains a large amount of material which foremen have found interesting

509

filO APPENDIX

and profitable to discuss. In addition, it indicates the gen- eral'way in which the discussions have gone and the points brought out.

It can therefore be used by a conference leader as a source from which he can draw in laying out a program or in planning for a given meeting. No attempt has been made to make the discussion complete or to cover all pos- sible points, or even to completely cover the entire fore- man's job, and it wiU undoubtedly be necessary to both select and supplement.

It has been assumed that while the different chapters take up the different subjects in a certain order, this order would not, of necessity be followed. For example, while the matter of job analysis is taken up almost at first it is quite possi- ble, and often desirable, to take up first work in the human factor field, while with certain groups it may be possible that it would be inadvisable to go into the matter of job analysis at all.

Again, while the order of the presentation is, in general, first the discussion of supervisory responsibilities, following this by a corresponding discussion of cost elements, mana- gerial problems, and in some cases, ways and means, it by no means follows that this would be the most effective order for a given group.

The material is therefore put up with the idea that it will serve a conference leader essentially as a " cafeteria " from which he can select whatever he considers desirable for his purpose, and which he can take up in any desired order.

It is on account of the assumption that the order of presentation as given will not be of necessity followed, that in a number of chapters there is a certain amount of repeti- tion, so that to a certain extent, each chapter could be regarded as an independent unit.

From the standpoint of a conference leader this book is therefore intended to be of service in the following ways.

APPENDIX 511

First, as suggesting subjects for conferences, and second as providing suggestive and more or less complete material from which individual conference programs may be made up, and third by providing suggestive samples of other material such as points for discussion, cases for discussion, forms, etc., which under ceotain conditions are extremely serviceable, but which each conference leader must to a considerable extent develop in accordance with the special make-up of his groups and the special character of his program.

Suggested Subjects for Conferences. — ^In considering setting up a program for a series of conferences the sut jects cannot be taken from the chapter headings but must be drawn from the text itself. For instance, under coopera- tion, these chapters deal, with a number of possible subjects such as, for illustration, cooperation with superiors and pos- sible responsibilities for noting chances for cooperation with equals. It might well be that one of these possible subjects would be of interest to a given group and the other would not, so that either chapter as a whole would not be desir- able for use. Since this whole question is affected by the methods used in laying out the program of conference sub- jects two of the more common methods of procedure are briefly described in the following paragraphs. These two methods may, for convenience, be designated as the "general covering method " and the " specific improvement method. "

The General Covering Method. — ^In making up a pro- gram by this method the program is made out with the idea of covering, so far as possible, all responsibilities that may come into the duty of the members of the group. In this case the selection of subjects would be determined by the particular duty of the men as fixed' by the organization and procedure of the plant or plants in which they were employed This would, of course, have to be determined by informa- tion securedl from the plants and by some sort of a prelimi- nary investigation.

Sli APPENDIX

The Specific Improvement Method. — In making up a program by this method, the subjects selected are those which it is believed would be of special interest when discussed in conference. This program would be also based on some sort of a preliminary study, but in this case this study would take into consideration the relative "interest values" of the different subjects. The selection of subjects in this case would therefore be based on the special value of some possible subjects to the plant or to the men, either because these subjects were of special interest at that special time or because they were "low" in that particular plant, or for some other valid reason.

Where such a program is to be set up it wiU also be found that a very considerable number of the desired points are included in the discussions in the text.

Making Up Programs for Individual Conferences. — Experience has shown that the successful conduct of a con- ference depends very largely upon the degree to which careful planning is carried on in advance of the meeting and this planning is incorporated into what has come to be called an operating sheet. Such an operating sheet contains cer- tain information to which the conference leader can con- veniently refer and which serves as a guide during the prog- ress of the discussions. The information and other material that it has been found desirable to include in such an opera- ting sheet will vary somewhat according to circumstances, but will, in general contain at least the following:

1. The general objective of the meeting.

2. The sub-objectives that have been determined upon to lead up to the general objective.

3. A number of such suggestive questions as may have been considered desirable to use.

4. If cases are to be used, a sufficient number of cases to serve the purpose for which they are to be used, these cases having been carefully selected and thought out in advance.

6. If points for discussion are to be used, a corresponding number that have been carefully worked out in the same way.

APPENDIX 613

6. If certain points are to be developed in discussion, say cost elements, a sufficient number to enable the confer- ence leader to check up as the development goes on.

7. Such other memoranda as may be necessary.

Use of the Material In Working Up An Operating Sheet. — The material that is brought together in this book can be used in a variety of ways in working out an operating sheet. Among the points that wiU be found serviceable are the following:

1. A number of formulated definitions and defined terms that when used and accepted, tend to reduce unprofitable discussion due to lack of clear understanding as to the point of the discussion or to different words being used to express the same idea. The gradual setting up of a common nomen- plature for use in discussion, is, in itself, a desirable piece of work.

2. Fairly complete lists of points that have been usually brought out in discussion, as in the case of ways in which one foreman can cooperate with another foreman, or as in the case of cost elements. While it must be clearly understood that such lists are by no means complete, and that numerous other points may, and probably will, be brought out in the discussion, nevertheless the majority of those that are given are likely to come out, and the lists as given will at least give the conference leader an idea of what to expect and will give him something to go on when entered on his operating sheet. Moreover, the lists as given will be in themselves suggestive of others that he can add to those that he may find in the text.

3. The cases and points for discussion, and the cases that are given at the end of the different parts are intended to be suggestive in indicating the types that have been found to work well. Of course many more such cases and points for discussion must be worked out by the conference leader

33

614 APPENDIX

although those that are given will serve as something to start on.

4. In a number of cases suggestive forms are also given at the end of certain parts. Those that are given have been found to work well but where it is desired to make much use of forms their value will be more along the line of sug- gestion as to the manner in which other forms can be laid out.

5. The general classified lay-out of possible supervisory responsibilities given in Appendix B will serve to show the relations between any special set of objectives that may be included in a given program.

There are a number of other minor ways in which the text will be found to be of help in working out an operating sheet for a given conference, but those given above are the more important aids.

The Necessity of Carefully Planning for Each Con- ference.— Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the necessity ' for careful planning for each conference. Unless this is done, the results are almost certain to be unsatisfactory. As a rule two or three hours of hard thinking are none too much for such advance planning.

SECTION II

THE USE OP THE TEXT IN THE HANDS OF THE MEN

The second use that was in mind in bringing this material together was to present "notes" that could, under proper conditions, be placed in the hands of the men who attended the conferences. Since, if used wrongly, such printed material will not only fail to be of service but will do actual harm, certain important points are taken up in this section.

Purposes for Which the Text Can Be Used.— Used as a text, or rather as "notes," the different points taken up in this book may be used for the following purposes :

1. After discussion it may be used as a "report of the

APPENDIX 515

meeting" or as a review of the discussion and the conclusions put in permanent form for future reference.

2. In many cases it can be successfully used as a refer- ence during discussion in the meeting.

3. After the particular points in question have been thrashed out in conference it may be used in future confer- ences as a "back reference," when some question comes up that refers back to something that was discussed at a previous meeting.

When used for these purposes it is usually necessary to supplement the text by a report of the meeting which covers any important points that were brought up that are not covered in the text.

Purposes for Which the Text Should Not Be Used. — This material was not prepared with the idea that it would be used as a " text-book" from which " assigned readings " jvere to be given or " lessons " to be assigned, hence it should never be used for advance assignments in the ordinary school sense of the word. The different subjects are not completely treated, the discussions are not complete, and the whole arrangement is intended to be suggestive rather than authoritative. In the case of certain types of groups it is true that men can be asked to look up certain points in advance but the purpose of such work would be to rouse interest and to get some advance thinking on the subject rather than to secure any definite advance study.

Points for Discussion and Cases. — In general, points for discussion and cases should be taken up in the confer- ence. Occasionally it is possible to give out a few in addition to those taken up in the meeting for the men to take with them and work up for the next meeting, that is, they can sometimes be used on a "follow up" basis, but like the text, they can rarely, if ever, be used outside of the meeting in advance of discussion.

The Use of Forms. — The same statements just made as to points for discussion and cases will apply to forms. They

516 APPE>fDIX

can rarely if ever be used effectively except in the meeting or on a foUow-up basis.

Use of the Text by Parts. — Experience has shown that it is undesirable to give men a considerable amount of mate- rial at once. If, for example, the entire book were placed in the hands of the men at the beginning of the meeting unsatis- factory attempts to "read ahead" tend to produce more or less confusion of thought, interfere with sticking to the point in discussion, and in general make for inefficiency in the work. In order to meet this situation and at the same time allow for considerable latitude in both the selection and and the order of subjects, the material has been made up in parts that can be procured in sets, and it is far better to "feed out" these sets one at a time as the work goes on.

The General Object of Foremen's Conferences. — The special type of conference that was in mind when this mate- rial was brought together was a conference attended by fore- men who were employed as such, and the object of such a conference was assumed to be the development through dis- cussion of what, as a result of their experience, they, in a sense, already knew. It was not assumed that the work would be for the purpose of preparing men and women to act as foremen when they never had been foremen. In other words, this material was intended to be used in connection with trade extension work in foremanship rather than in preparatory foreman training.

This accounts for its special form which would have been very different had it been intended for use in preparing for foremanship. It would probably be serviceable in such work, but, up to the present time has not been used for that purpose.

APPENDIX B

A CLASSIFIED LAY-OUT OF SOME POSSIBLE

SUPERVISORY RESPONSIBILITIES IN A

FOREMAN'S JOB

The following pages contain a list of possible supervisory responsibilities that may be included in the foreman's job, classified according to the classification system described in the body of the text. This list was compiled from the state- ments of a considerable number of foremen as to their super- visory responsibilities. There is no reason to think that this is complete and it is very improbable that aU the responsi- bilities given would come into the job of any one foreman. It does, however, make a suggestive lay-out on which the body of the text has been based, and should serve as a basis for working out programs for series of foremen's confer- ences. As such, it is hoped that it will be of value to conference leaders.

It will also be found of value in making analysis of super- visory jobs by the " cafeteria method " as described in the text.

SOME POSSIBLE 6ENEEAI., DETAILED AND SPECIFIC RESPONSI- BILITIES THAT MAT COME INTO A FOKEMAN's JOB

Raw Departmental Stock

Receiving from Last Custodian:. Taking over

One kind only

Different grades of one kind

Several kinds

Different grades of different kinds

Different quantities of dif- ferent kinds

Different quantities of dif- ferent grades

In bulk: in containers

617

518

APPENDIX

Raw Departmental Stock (Continued)

Inspecting pre- vious to accept-

Unloading and transporting to storage by use^ of

Putting into stor-, age by the use of

And Storing in

Kind of stock Quantity of stock Quality of Stock Grade of stock Condition of stock Condition of containers

Hand work

Wheel barrows

Man trucks

Teams

Motor trucks

Mechanical conveyers

Elevators

Etc

Hand work

Wheel barrows

Man trucks

Horses, hoisting engines, motors, etc.

Motor trucks (small elec- tric)

Mechanical conveyers ele- vators, etc.

Bins Cans (sealed) Barrels Cans (open) Boxes Tanks

Packages Barrels (powder) Racks Barrels (liquid) Drums Pressure tanks Out of doors Under cover

Storing to providej Arrangement [ Accessibility

for

Protection while in storage

Stock in Process

Getting out storage

of I

Transporting to | first operating-^ point I

Damage

Loss

Theft

Adulteration

Special protection

Condition of stock

Condition of containers

Weather

The right quantity The right quality The right grade The right size

Transporting

Protecting while in transit

APPENDIX

519

Stock in Process (Continued)

Handling inter- mediate products

■{

Transportation from one operating point to another operating point

{Protecting while in transit Protecting while stored Arranging Classifying

Finished Stock

Inspecting pre- vious to passing '

Storing in

Transporting storage by

to

Protecting while in transportation

Storing in

Delivery in

Delivery by

. Protecting from

' Quantity Grade Quality

Bulk

Bins

Racks

Cans

Tanks

Man Trucks

Electric trucks Conveyers

Fire Loss Theft

Adulteration . Moisture

Bins Bulk Packages Cans

Bulk Package Open cans Closed cans Boxes Barrels

Trucks

Men

Electric trucks

Teams

Cranes

Weather

Loss

Theft

Fire

Damage

fiSO

APPENDIX

Equipment in Service

Maintenance

Protection

Use

Securing

Handling

Adjusting

Repairing

Overhauling

Condemning

Replacing

Inspecting

Carrying reserve

Protecting from damage

Protecting from abuse

Controlling output

Making special volume ar- rangements to meet an emergency

Rearranging equipment

Assigning equipment units

to jobs Balancing equipment units

when assigning to jobs Laying out specied assi{

ments of units for jobs

{

Selecting types

Buying

Installing

J Receiving Inspecting Laying out Grouping Balancing

(Recommending, Suggesting, Acting)

Operation Control

Operation control

Production methods

Starting jobs Stopping jobs ChecMng jobs while in

operation Looking out for operating

conditions while job is

going on

{Determining operations Determining processes Determining special proc- esses or operation

APPENDIX

£21

Securing the Re- quired Product ■

•Operation Control" (Continued)

•New operations and processes

Production Control

Changing opera- tions

Working out new operations

' Covering all jobs "

Keeping up the working force

Making transfers from one grade- of job to another

Getting the necessary or re- quired amounts of inter- mediate products.

Getting the necessary or re- quired amount of final product

Getting the necessary quali- ties or grades of inter- mediate and final prod- ucts

Inspecting intermediate

products Inspecting final products

Operating waste Operating yield Conversion By-products

Changing processes Changing operations

Changing working conditions

Supervising experimental work

Making suggestions

As to necessary strength As to necessary job knowl- edge As to necessary job skill On highly skilled jobs On medium skilled jobs On specialized jobs On machine-tending jobs On laborers jobs

Promoting *

Demoting

Shiftings from one job to

another of the same grade • By recommendation, direct

action or suggestion as to

the case may be

•NoTK. — Since this question of responsibilities in this part of the fore- man's job goes over into the field of job and technical knowledge the analysis is not carried out further in this set of possible specifi<; responsibilities..

£22

APPENDIX

Distributing the working force

Dealing with per- manent labor loss

Hiring

Discharging • Providing understudies Securing transfers of work- ers from other depart- ments. * By recommendation, direct action or suggestion as to the case may be

Dealing with tem- porary labor loss

{

"Doubling up"

Making temporary transfers

•Stock

Recording

Operations and processes

Tools and equip- ment

Amount on hand Amount in process Amount ready for delivery Amount delivered up to a

certain date Progress of production Inspection records Records as to condition Records of stock orders Records of rework tickets Records of job tickets Records of stock requisitions Special records

Records on operating waste Records on operating time Records on operating power Records on results of routine

tests Records on results of special

tests Conversion records Records of yield Special records

Inventories of equipment in

service Requisitions for maintenance work for new tools for tool repairs for replacements Inventories of complete equipment of tools and acces- sories Special records

APPENDIX

523

Recording (Continued)

{

The working force.

Giving information -■

Orders

Directions

Suggestions

{

Number at work Number taken on Number discharged Number that quit Number of transfers Number of absences Number late Number of accidents Special records

Direct to the working fortB General orders

To the working force

To the working force To immediate superiors To the management To other foremen . To other departments

Reporting on

Stock

Operations and processes

Tools and equip- ment

Amount on hand Amount in process Amount finished Amount ordered Progress

Reports as to conditions Rework tickets Requisitions _ Job tickets

Operating waste Time reports Power reports Special tests Routine tests Production Conversion

Equipment in service Maintenance requisitions Requisitions for new tools Requisitions for replace- ments Reports on condition of

equipment Reports on general, repairs

or alterations Requisitions for general re- pairs or alterations

624

APPENDIX

The working force jWork^rs'""'"''^

Number at work Workers taken on

Absences Accidents

Deferred responsi- bilities set up by _ the organization

The general man- agement

Immediate superiors

Other foremen

Making suggestions Carrying out policies Protecting tools and

equipment General plant protection Transmitting general orders _ Carrying out policies

Making suggestions Making recommendations Carrymg out orders Transmitting orders " Backing up " Getting out the product Seeing that all jobs are properly carried out

{

Furnishing information as requested

f Transmitting orders The working force J Giving orders

(_ Giving directions

Special depart- ments

r Furnishing information as ■i requested 1^ Transmitting information

The physical con- dition of the working force

Actual physical injury: safety

Illness

Injuries to the worker Injuries to others

Temporary illness Incipient disease Acute illness Chronic illness Infectious disease . Contagious disease

APPENDIX

525

General physical conditions

The physical con- dition of the working force (ConUnued)

Working condi- tions as fo

Physical handicaps (V. R., I. R.)

Overfatigue

Susceptibility to injury on account of special weak- ness

Concentrated attention

Over speeding

Personal habits outside the plant that interfere with work on the job

General outside conditions

General health

Retraining cases

Air

Light

" Occupational dangers I Special job dangers I General surroundings

Leadership

The mental atti- tude of t h e^ working force

Interest

Satisfaction

Planning ahead

Getting the right men on

the right job Keeping up the organization Fixing responsibility Not trying to be "it" Looking out for the men Getting the " team "

with him

Noting the mental attitude as to: Interest in the work job Interest in the depart- mental job Interest in the plant job

Noting the mental attitude

as to: Satisfaction with working

conditions Satisfaction as to general

surroundings Satisfaction as to the

plant

fi26

APPENDIX

SOME POSSIBLE COOPERATIVE RESPONSIBILITIES

Detailed Specific.

General

cooperative responsibilities

The general management

Immediate superiors

Other foremen

The working force

Special departments

Giving plant information to workers

Having plant pride.

Not " knocking "

Heading off incorrect plant gossip

" Being a part of the organi- zation "

As for general superiors

- Appreciating the other fel- low's troubles

Not knocking other depart- ments

Playing fair with other foremen

Cooperating on production

Securing the best possible working conditions as to:

a. Condition of tools

b. Condition of equip-

ment Securing the best possible general surroundings

Helping them along Bac^ng them up