prevents Soparan resaratela tay Soe Fe pooper Sate New York State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. Library Cornell Universit Profitable poultry production, Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003691957 SINGLE COMB WIHLITE LEGILORN PULLET Profitable Poultry Production By M. G. KAINS Poultry Editor American Agriculturist Weeklies NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 1913 Copyright, 1910 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY NEw YORK Printed in U.S. A, PREFACE OULTRY production is commonly practiced on every farm, but profitable poultry produc- tion so far as the farm is concerned, is rare indeed. No one, as a rule, has better natural conditions for poultry raising than has the farmer. It is only a matter of embracing opportunities that is want- ing. ; This book, Profitable Poultry Production, is written to present the case fairly and squarely so the farmer may see the advantages that poultry offers as a means of making money. The book lays special emphasis upon all the important prac- tices and new wrinkles that have been found profitable by professional breeders and poultry- men. It shows how these can be easily applied by any one and what may be expected in the way of results. From cover to cover it is intended as an encouragement and a stimulus to everyone in- terested in poultry. Not only does it indicate which are the lines likely to be most profitable, but it points out those branches of the business not likely to be remunerative, except under special conditions. When one is telling his own experience or is compiling the experience of others, his words neces- sarily carry much more weight than if he adopts lil iv PREFACE the preacher style and says that his hearers should or must do thus and so. The fact that what he writes about has been or is being done is evidence that cannot be set aside. For this reason the author has endeavored to present his subject from the results standpoint. With the conviction, therefore, that application of the principles herein laid down will make farm poultry production far more profit- able than it at present is, the author commends these pages to the thinking farmers, farmers’ wives and farmers’ children. M. G. KAINS. New York, October 1, r9to. Table of Contents CHAPTER I. industry—Importance of good breed—Improved methods of hatching and rearing—Possible limit of the market—Farmers’ attitude toward fowls. CHAPTER II. BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS..........+-006 Eggs for home use—for market—for hatching— Guaranteeing hatches—Bad and good advertising— Day old chicks—Broilers—Roasters—Soft Roasters apons—Layers—Breeders for sale—Ducks— Geese—Turkeys— Guineas— Squabs—Systems of poultry raising. CHAPTER III. LOCATION AND SITUATION....... 0.0 cece cee cuceccnee Where to place houses, etc.—The soil factor—Con- venience of water supply. CHAPTER IV. POULTRY QUARTERS. s0560eG06 Cao oh ww hase yale war Styles of houses—Parts of the house—Model poultry house—Open front poultry house—Knock-down colony house. CHAPTER V. Pouttry FIxTURES AND DEVICES.............0.0008 Roosts—Dropping boards—Nests—Trap nests— Feeding vessels—Fountains—Grit and shell recep- tacles—Coops—Colony houses—Incubators and pbrooders—Bone and hay cutters—Grit crushers, Feed mixers and cookers—Prowler traps—Egg cabi- net—Poultry gates—Shipping coops—Trap nest made from one board. v Page 4 15 45 53 66 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER VI. BREEDING AND BREEDS....... 0... ccc eee ete eeeeeee What to select—Causes of failure—Utility breeding —Line breeding—Common mistakes in breeding Importance of constitutional vigor—Danger of in- creased productiveness—Value of vigorous parents —Experiments prove theory—Requisites of the trap nest—Kind of fowl to keep—Barred Plymouth | _Rock—Leghorn fowls—Light Brahma—Wyandotte —Rhode Island Red—Other breeds. CHAPTER VII. REEDING AND FEEDS 44.645 ecaaeavess Ss vane ves is Sista Feed affects quantity of eggs—What hens put in eggs—Composition of poultry feeds—Nutritive ratio —Individual feeds—Importance of animal feeds— Green feed Essential Necessity for grit—Value of method—Grain ground or unground—Dry mash or wet mash—Value of skim milk—Feeding capons. CHAPTER VIII. EXGGU PRODUCTION sjat anes oraye ocean tes eas Cl dbee a tea oR Hens total yearly peoduction—Selecting layers— Laying ability improved—Management of laying stock—Spring and summer care—Autumn care of layers—Gentleness affects egg yield—Broodiness a natural characteristic—Record of 600 hens. CHAPTER IX. TNCUBATION- Wao iiie fas s chone eco aes bet au eee ne Interior structure and development of egg—Why exercise care in handling—Shipping eggs for hatch- ing—Classes of incubators—Moisture essential— Methods of management—Testing the eggs—Care of incubators. CHAPTER X. VBA RING thls ty eis Graal. cei ain aes ues coisa ee Ste ace Managing the brooder—Compare natural methods— How often to feed—Rearing chicks with hen— Chickens in hot weather—Care of little chicks 141 159 175 "TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER XI. Marking and shipping—Dressed poultry—Selecting stock for market— Killing and dressing—Packing for shipment—Cold storage poultry and eggs—Egg marketing methods—How to improve—Co-operative oultry associations—Honesty essential to success— reservation of eggs—New York State experiments _—Egg gathering. CHAPTER XII. "ESSENTIALS OF POULTRY FATTENING.......c00005 sieisre Desirable type .of fowl—Feeds for fattening— ‘Methods. of killing. . CHAPTER XIII. HEALTH AND SANITATION. . 20s cece rece cee eect ce eees Penalties for uncleanness—Disinfection—Rémedies vs. preventives—Iidentifying diseases—Cholera— Diarrhea—Feather pullmg—Roup—Pests—Mites— Lice—Worms. CHAPTER XIV. Water Fow........... Ae a rR toe err arcane or ree Ducks—Care of ducklings—Localities for duck ards—Cleanliness essential—Hatching in incu- Patard= Selection of breeders—Breeds of ducks— Geese—Geese need pasturage—Profits in goose growing—Selecting breeders— Rearing goslings— Breeds of gee: oose and duck feathers. ‘CHAPTER XV. TuRKEYS..... Bal saoncg Spe octane cece eievah Saige Miedsomierenins ile Range essential—_Temporary confinement—The lay- ing season-—Hatching-—Rearing—Feeds—Profits in -turkey raising—Varieties of turkeys. 216 221 238 264 List of Illustrations Page Single Comb White Leghorn pullet......-..... Frontispiece Australia beats United States in egg production...... 8 Crate for chick shipping.............. Stele tuetexeie aeicare 25 Elevated. water (Cams isnsasss sie cise 010 sie osld P prele sie wees « 26 Compact house for small space............2-0.0e2 eee 29 Coop for broddiés 525 sas Sysle nse Su wh. cos Keele wil 32 Barred Plymouth Rock hen ..............4. halftone insert Light Brahma cock ..... Deed Saguatene hoes Mon eee halftone insert Lice preventer 0. | Ne y | Coy =a] Ed tq 7S aT y / 2a Ve eee ar 6 ae : * o” Wy eae p12 ~~ POULTRY HOUSE, ELEVATION AND GROUND PLAN &6 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION the original cock in group 1, and 3-32 of the blood of the hen in group 2. From the foregoing discussion it is evident that great care must be exercised to prevent breaking up the system of breeding; for by carelessness all the good results may be lost, since the progeny will be thrown back into one family and thus indis- criminate breeding result in ultimately spoiling the flock. It is highly desir- able, therefore, that the plan be definitely laid out beforehand and followed without deviation in any respect. If the best re- sults are to be attained, the chart should be made and its tracings followed systematically from year to year. Without the aid of the chart careless breeding is sure to result and the whole system be Ir spoiled by injudicious | matings. If the lines of | OILED MUSLIN the chart are carefully ee studied and followed, a eae great improvement may be shown in the ordinary VENTILATING DOOR farm flock as instanced iat tices tbe. dare above. Thus flocks may panels of oiled muslin and hinged window, protected be made more profitable by “wire screen. “Suitable at the cost of only a Pace ee little thought and care. There is only one more caution to be made and that will be guessed from other portions of this BREEDING AND BREEDS 87 chapter. It is essential to select the best individuals in each generation so as to secure the largest pro- portion of improvement. By this system, it will be seen that while no brother and sister matings are made, the system is practically that of in-breed- ing. On this account any faults in the parents are likely to be exaggerated in the progeny, just as excellencies are. For this reason too much care cannot be taken to avoid mating individuals which exhibit the same kind of faults. COMMON MISTAKES OF BREEDING As ordinarily managed, poultry quickly degen- erates. This is largely due to mistakes of breeding. When a small flock is kept, the poultry raiser may purchase or select a good male bird to head the flock. This in itself is not necessarily bad, but the way it too frequently works results disadvan- tageously. Suppose a case in which the hens have different ability as to good laying; some lay well, some poorly. It is likely with such a flock, unless an incubator is used for hatching and care is exercised to select eggs from the good layers alone, that when the good layers sit they will hatch eggs which the poor layers have laid. Thus the chances for rearing a good laying flock for the succeeding year are reduced at the very outset. But suppose that some of the eggs set are laid by the best layers. These eggs are by no means the best that the hens have laid; the chances are they are the poorest, because the hens may have been laying for weeks, or even months, and may be tired. Thus the chances of producing good layers are very slim. In fact, a 88 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION, great majority of the chicks raised will be the progeny of the poorest hens in the flock. On this account, more than for any other reason, the grading up of a mongrel flock by the introduction of new blood through a rooster is far less satisfac- tory than is usually supposed. The obvious way of overcoming this difficulty is to remove the best layers from the balance of the flock and to keep their eggs separate for hatching. In order to be sure which are really the best layers, one of the trap nests should be used or close watch should be kept upon the fowls. The same sort of thing occurs in the ordinary farmer’s flock where 100 or more hens are kept, and where half a dozen or more cheap cockerels are allowed to run at large with the hens. In this case, the chances of securing really desirable eggs are greatly reduced, because there is no certainty what- ever about the mating, and just as in the former case the chances are strongly in favor of spoiling the results of any breeding that may have been emphasized by the breeder of the cockerels. Very few eggs laid by the best layers mated with the best cockerels will be set, so that in this case the chances of improving the flock are far less than if the same amount of money had been spent for one really superior cockerel or cock and this bird mated to half a dozen or a dozen of the best layers on the place. It is better to put $5 or $10 into one superior cock and use this bird with the selected hens than it is to spend the same amount of money on half a dozen or more cheap cockerels to practice the foolish method herein condemned. From these foregoing paragraphs, the importance of culling cannot be too strongly emphasized. It BREEDING AND BREEDS 89 is much more to the farmer’s interest to raise a small brood of really superior fowls which will lay well and therefore pay well than it is to raise a large number of inferior fowls which unless sold for meat will not only lay poorly but will actually eat food that might be fed to the smaller flock at a profit. It is idle to say that close culling will pre- vent the rearing of sufficient numbers of chicks. On the contrary, it is highly probable that with breeding stock of a superior character and in ample room, especially where well cared for, the breeder will hatch and rear a large percentage of chicks, and such chicks will be of greater commercial value because more likely to be productive. IMPORTANCE OF CONSTITUTIONAL VIGOR There is no question that there is an intimate relation between the physical characters and the constitutional vigor of fowls. From appearance alone a careful observer can pick out weak fowls from strong ones. None but strong ones should be used for breeding, because the trans- mission of strong points from parent to offspring is more likely to result favorably both in the hatchability of the eggs, the livability of the chicks and the strong constitution of the offspring than where weak chickens are used as parents. For these reasons a system of the most rigid selection should be practiced in every poultry yard. This selection should begin as soon as chicks are hatched and continue until the breeding pens are made up. As soon as weakness is observed in growing chicks, these chicks should be separated so there can be no possible mixing of them with the breeding stock and so they may be disposed of through Go PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION market channels. The production of a larger pro- portion of eggs of strong, healthy chicks, and conse- quently a greater net profit, depends very largely upon the selection. This question of selection is one of the most important the poultryman has to answer. The reason is that more is being required of the flock today than formerly. We are demand- ing more of the hen in proportion to her live weight than from any other domestic animal. Because of this, fowls frequently break down or show lack of vigor in their offspring. Much of the infertility, the low-hatching power of eggs, weakness of chicks and mortality in full-grown stock is traceable to the impaired constitution of the parent fowls, due in a large measure to the strain of producing abundant eggs under intensive methods. Hens in commer- cial poultry yards are expected to lay about five times their weight of eggs annually. This means an egg at least every third day, or perhaps even every second day. According to Dr. W. H. Jordan, of the New York state experiment station, a Leghorn fowl weighing 3% pounds and laying 200 eggs which weigh 25 pounds may be compared with a Jersey cow weigh- ing 1,000 pounds and giving 7,000 pounds of milk containing 14% of solids during the year. If the dry matter of the hen be compared with that of the eggs there will be 54 times as much in the eggs as in her whole body. In the cow’s body the weight of the dry matter to that in the milk is I to 2.9. Hence the hen does twice as well as the cow upon ‘the dry-matter basis. She is therefore “the most efficient transformer of raw material into a finished product that there is on the farm.” In her physio- logical activity she stands in a class by herself. BREEDING AND BREEDS OI It is very evident that strong and weak fowls are found in nearly all flocks, and strong and weak strains in all varieties of poultry. This fact is so well recognized that it is not safe to judge of the merits of any variety without knowing how it has been bred and handled. Variation in constitutional vigor applies equally to all domestic fowls kept under unnatural or forced conditions. No matter how important it may be to secure a variety or strain with certain attributes of size or productive capacity, it is far more important to have fowls of strong constitution with appetites to consume large quantities of food and digestive power to assim- ilate well. Pure-bred fowls of strong constitutional vigor are especially desired. DANGER OF PRODUCTIVENESS Impaired vitality of flocks may be due to increased productiveness, in-and-in-breeding without regard to vigor, use of pullets instead of hens for breeding, heavy feeding to induce large egg yields in fall and winter when egg production is not seasonable, crowding of breeding stock in limited quarters, lack of exercise for the breeding stock, carelessness in methods of keeping eggs for hatching, defective systems of incubation, brooding and rearing, espec- jally under crowded conditions, violation of sanitary requisites and failure to select breeding stock of recognized vigor. As to increased productiveness, it is evident that: there must be a proportionate increase in the physi- cal strength to make the fowl thrive while meeting the demand for increased consumption of food and heavier production of eggs. The practice of in-and- 92 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION in-breeding which is often adopted to develop high production or other qualities can be followed with success only when special attention is given to mating strong individuals. Breeders frequently Jack the courage to sacrifice weak individuals which show other desirable qualities. Pullets which have produced large quantities of eggs in fall and winter may have lowered their vitality before the breeding season begins, so that the breeder will be running a risk to use such fowls as parents. By using these birds and their progeny for a succession of genera- tions, it is thought there may be a tendency to shorten the natural life of the race of fowls and also lower the vigor. When breeding from mature fowls two or more years old, the tendency should be to increase longevity and vitality. Trouble is likely to arise from heavy feeding for large egg yield during fall and winter, because egg production is not natural at that season. Hens or pullets so fed should not be expected to produce eggs for hatching. Fowls under normal and natural conditions, when allowed to stand most of the year storing up energy for reproduction, are almost sure to do far better. For breeding purposes they should be selected long before the breeding season, fed and housed without regard to market, but with an eye single to the production of numerous hatchable eggs during the natural mating season. There is no question that congestion or crowding of the breeding stock is one of the most serious causes of impaired vitality. Fowls kept in large numbers should be on extensive farms rather than in crowded quarters. Land occupied by fowls should also be used for grass, grain and fruit crops; ‘the poultry department being’ incidental. This BREEDING AND BREEDS 93 method will provide ample free range and prevent soil contamination. No matter how the fowls are kept there should be extremely careful grading as to vigor and size so as to reduce the contest as much as possible between the physically strong and the physically weak. Where crowding is practiced overfeeding is common. Plenty to eat and little to do is one of the surest and strongest factors for producing infertile eggs and weak chicks. Plenty of deep litter for the fowls to scratch in and whole grain scattered in it to encourage exercise are used; preventing or reducing the dangers from over- feeding, and, to a certain extent, taking the place of free range and exercise in the open air. Numerous experiments have shown that the fer- tility and hatchability of eggs can be injured or lost by wrong methods of keeping eggs for hatch- ing, and it is presumed that chicks hatched from poorly kept eggs have a vitality inferior to those hatched from eggs properly kept. As a general rule, eggs should be kept in a cool place 45 to 55 degrees, turned daily and not set when more than a week old. Defective incubation, natural or arti- ficial, is also likely to impair vitality. The artificial methods are probably more often at fault than natural ones; poor operators may fail with good machines; good operators may fail with poor ones; and then, of course, there is the combination of poor machines and poor operators. All three combina- tions will produce poor chicks. Good machines, however, and good operators can be relied upon to produce good results from properly managed eggs laid by vigorous stock. It is essential that chicks be raised in a healthy environment upon the best rations and with free range. They need not be 94 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION forced on rich food with lack of exercise, but a rapid development is highly desirable. Excessive coarse feed which is slow to assimilate is likely to retard and stunt growth. VALUE OF VIGOROUS PARENTS To maintain or increase the physical vigor of a flock none but the most vigorous parents should be used as breeders. The chicks of inferior consti- ROBUST AND INFERIOR TYPES OF FOWLS tution should be removed. Chicks conspicuously weak upon hatching should be destroyed at once, or should be marked in such a way that there will be no risk of their being selected should they seem to overcome their physical weaknesses. They should go to market at the earliest opportunity ; for though BREEDING AND BREEDS 95 they may seem to overcome their weaknesses there is the risk of transmission to progeny. Even when such a move may demand the disposal of an entire flock and the commencement with new blood, this will be found desirable and economical in the end. One of the best ways to mark such fowls is with aniline dye. The color will remain until new feathers come in. According to Prof. J. E. Rice the more important characteristics which distinguish weak from strong fowls are as follows: “The actions of a fowl probably best indicate the physical condition. The physically weak is inactive and dopey and more likely to squat than to stand. It does not scratch or forage actively. It is the last to get off the perch in the morning and the first to go to roost at night, and frequently is found on the perch during the day. “The loudness and the frequency of the crow of the male or the song or cackle of the female is a remarkable indication of strength. The weak fowl seldom crows or sings and is less likely to do so in the presence of a strong individual of the same sex. Gallantry on the part of the male is shown in generosity and consideration toward the females as indicated by his calling them and giving them the tenderest morsels to eat. This is one of the surest indications of physical vigor on the part of the male. The shape of the body is closely related to the health and physical vigor of the individual. The deep, thick, compact body with large fluff shows greater vigor than the slender, long-jointed, more delicate body of the same variety. This is particularly noticeable in comparing strong and weak males. (See cut on preceding page.) “There is an interesting correlation between the g6 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION various parts of the fowl. This is one of the safest guides in selecting fowls on the basis of vigor. For. example, a fowl of low vitality is likely to have a long, thin beak and head; long, thin neck; long, slender body; long, thin thighs and shanks; and long, thin toes. The reverse is true of the physically strong. To examine a fowl in detail for physical vigor we may begin at the head. This in the phys- ically strong should be medium to large, short and broad, while in the physically weak it is more likely to be long, flat and thin, with long, flat beak, pro- ducing a crow-headed appearance. “A strong fowl should have a medium to large, bright red comb and wattles. The fowl carries its health certificate on top of its head. The eye is the mirror of the body. It shows unmistakably the condition of health and disease. A fowl in good health should be of a bright color, round eye, which should stand out prominently. The lids should not droop, giving the appearance of a snake or a turtle eye. The size and the way the tail is carried is also an indication of vigor. A fowl having a strong con- stitution has a full development of tail feathers. These normally are carried erect. A fowl of the same variety having a weak constitution, especially if suffering from disease, is likely to have tail feathers less developed, and to carry them on one side, or drooping. This is more apparent when the weak fowl is suffering from fright, which usually will be the case when placed in the presence of the strong. The breast should be round and full, the keel bone well covered with meat. This indicates good muscular development. A fowl shows ill- health and weakness quickly and unmistakably by a shrinking away of the muscles about the keel. BREEDING AND BREEDS 97 “The shanks are a conspicuous indication of the strength of a fowl. They should be of pronounced color characteristic of the variety, large and plump as compared with the faded out, thin shanks of a fowl of low vitality. Cold shanks are a very common accompaniment of low vitality. The quantity, bril- liancy and nature of the plumage are very reliable indications of constitutional vigor. The feathers ofa fowl of low vitality grow small. They are likely to be dull and ruffled as compared with the close-fitting, smooth, fully developed bright plumage of the vig- orous fowl. The color pigment, so pronounced in the feathers of the brilliantly colored, does not develop to perfection with physically weak fowls. Fowls that lack vigor do not, as a rule, have the necessary surplus fat in their bodies to supply the gland at the base of the tail. This gland furnishes the material to oil the plumage. “The appetite is also a good indication of vigor. A vigorous and strong fowl consumes large quan- tities of food. It is usually found with a full crop if suitable food is available. A fowl constitutionally weak seldom carries more than a small amount of food in the crop no matter how much may be accessible or how attractive it may be. “In breeding fowls for high egg production, we must develop a sexual character. It is the first stage of reproduction. Hence if we would succeed in increasing production we must be skillful in recog- nizing and in selecting only individuals whch are physically and sexually vigorous for a breeding flock. When either physically or sexually weak fowls are discovered, they should be removed from the breeding flocks. Any single evidence of physical weakness alone may not necessarily be conclusive, “a 98 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION but a combination of several weak characteristics is absolutely reliable.” EXPERIMENTS PROVE THEORY To prove the truth of the foregoing statements and to show that it pays to select breeding fowls according to their vigor, Professor Rice tried three experiments at the New York state agricultural college. In one, 50 White Leghorn chickens were selected when about the size of quail. They were divided into two lots of 25 each. In the second experiment $0 others in two lots of 25 were selected in the fall and placed in winter quarters. In the third, 50 Barred Plymouth Rock pullets were divided in the fall into two pens. In each experi- ment there was one flock of weaker vitality than that of the other of the same variety. These con- trasts were not conspicuous to the casual observer, but could be recognized by any one familiar with the characteristics mentioned. During a full year records were kept of the food consumed, the eggs produced, the mortality and health of the fowls, the fertility and hatching power of the eggs and growth of chicks. In all three experiments the fowls were kept under the same conditions as to feeding and housing. An equal number of eggs from each flock in each experiment was carefully selected and placed in the same incubator, hatched in pedigre2 trays, the chicks leg-banded, placed in the same brooder, fed together and allowed to run in the same ‘corn field during the summer. They were weighed at frequent intervals, newly leg-banded as they grew, and in the fall after weighing were placed an winter quarters. BREEDING AND BREEDS 99 So far as records of production are concerned, the fowls selected in the spring, when chicks appar- ently overcame their weakness by reason of special care, gave practically the same results in production during the first year as did their sisters chosen at the same time for vigor and kept without further — selection. In the other two experiments, however, | in which the selections were made in the fall the contrast between weak and strong flocks was very marked, both as to the number of eggs laid, the profits for each fowl, the fertility and hatching power of the eggs and the growth of the chicks. The net results of the experiments, however, show that fowls in the three strong flocks averaged about one dozen more eggs in a year than those in the weak flocks, and produced a profit of 41 cents a hen over and above the cost of food more than the fowls. in the weak flocks. Eggs from the strong hens averaged nearly 11% greater fertility and 4% better hatching power than eggs from the weaker ones. But the most striking contrast was shown in the difference in the size and appearance of the pullets reared from the strong and from the weak flocks of fall-selected Barred Plym- outh Rock fowls. The results for the White Leghorn were nearly as striking; the chickens from the strong stock averaged over %4 pound more than the pullets hatched at the same time from the low vitality stock. They had also larger, deeper bodies, larger bright red combs and appeared to be at least four or five weeks older. REQUISITES OF THE TRAP NEST To be thoroughly practical a trap nest must be constructed so it will be impossible for a hen to too PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION enter without closing and locking the nest itself. The trigger, spring or treddle must never fail. These must be so sensitive that even the lightest hen as well as the heaviest will make them work. It must always lock and remain locked after it has been closed, so a second hen cannot enter while the first one is on. Preferably it should be built with two DOUBLE TRAP NEST When the hen steps on the nest proper the cord pulls a pin and the door falls shut. compartments—the rear containing the nest itself and the front a vestibule in which the hen may stand after the egg is laid and before she is taken out. Without a front compartment there is danger that the hen will break the egg. There should be no danger, however, that the hen will lay in the front compartment without causing the trap to BREEDING AND BREEDS IOI operate. Many trap nests now on the market are defective in this way. Some hens seem to prefer the front compartment to the apparently more comfortable rear one. Unless the trap closes it will be impossible to secure a proper record of the egg. Simplicity of construction and operation are high- ly desirable. Many nests now on the market are so com- plicated that it gptdt ty Des would be impos- E SSS Z sible to operate and es keep them in repair RELEASING TRAP NEST when working a Door at right closes ante ale large flock. In or- Sets itself when hen escapes throug! 2 rear door into another yard. der to be effec tive, the nests, if used on a large scale and constantly, should be so easily tended as to take a minimum amount of time to empty and re-set. At best, trap nesting is expen- FRAME Canvas or paper. Top and gable on light frame make this coop easy to carry. sive; hence the question of labor must be reduced as much as possible. Trap nests should always be durable and unlikely to get out of order. 102 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION KIND OF FOWL TO KEEP The choice of a variety of fowl for any purpose depends largely upon the preference of the poultry raiser, the purpose sought and the locality. Some people prefer white fowls, some black, some buff, some mottled; others have as decided preferences for still different kinds. The color of plumage, the size of bird and all other considerations are indi- vidual. Such being the case, no discussion will be given here as to mere preferences. The points that will be emphasized are flesh and egg production in utility points. Probably the most popular breeds for table pur- poses are the Barred Plymouth Rock, the White Wyandotte, the Rhode Island Red and the Light Brahma. These varieties are all large, and the first three are at almost any age excellent for the table. The last one is slower growing, but attains the largest size of all. These remarks must be modified by saying that much depends upon proper manage- ment. Among other table breeds are various varieties of Plymouth Rock, notably the White and the Buff. Then, too, there is the Houdan, the Faverolle, the La Fleche—all French breeds. The Dorking and the Orpington, English varieties; the Langshan and the Cochin, Asiatic fowls. These are all more or less popular, but have never gained the wide favor in America that the first four have. The only one of the last mentioned that has been gaining very rapidly in popular estimation is the Orpington. This group of varieties has not been long enough in this country to supplant our principal favorites. It may be taken as a general proposition that any variety of poultry, well managed, will produce as BREEDING AND BREEDS 103 desirable poultry flesh as any other, though the quantity may not be as great in some cases as in others. As to egg production, the Mediterranean class is well in the lead, and among the varieties of this group the White Leghorn stands probably first, with the Brown Leghorn and the Minorca as close rivals. Doubtless the White Leghorn is the most widely popular among egg farmers, especially in the East and in California. Though it is reputed as an excellent summer layer, it is also good when properly managed for winter egg production. The same remark applies to other breeds of the Medi- terranean group. Among other noted layers are the Ancona, the various Hamburg and Polish varieties, but these have not become widely popular in the United States. The eggs of the last two are rather small. The Black Spanish, famous more than a generation ago both as a table fowl and a prolific layer, is not as popular now because it has been badly managed. Good management should make it good in both respects again, but for the egg pro- ducer this is a venture not to be recommended. For general farm use, probably the Barred Plym- outh Rock, the Wyandotte and the Rhode Island Red are the favorites, all breeds considered. These breeds when bred for utility purposes will be found useful not only for table purposes but for egg pro- duction. Whichever breed is selected, the poultry raiser should choose only those specimens that have been bred for utility purposes and true to its variety characteristics. The initial cost is not so great that one cannot afford to pay for good breeding and thus. encourage himself to take the keenest kind of in- terest in his poultry. With poor stock, interest is. 104 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION likely to flag. Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the fact that there is a satisfaction which comes from the knowledge of possession of good stock that cannot be gained in any other way. It is need- less to say that stock should be bought from breeders who have their reputation at stake, and that it is in the highest degree desirable not to mix strains, but to purchase new blood from one breeder from time to time so as to prevent the breaking up of strains and the loss of valuable characteristics, especially with respect to egg laying. Probably it is most economical in the spring to buy eggs for hatching and in the fall to purchase cockerels and pullets. Above all things, it is desirable to keep only one breed at a time on the farm. In raising poultry for market or egg production the purchase of cull fowls is not necessarily un- desirable. Culls are frequently fowls that show a defect only in plumage or form, and are not dis- qualified for anything except the show room. It is highly undesirable to do any cross breeding, because the ideals of different breeders are often so radically unlike that the cross secures few of the best points of either parent. This subject is already evident from the discussion on breeding. THE BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK is undoubtedly more extensively bred and used for general utility purposes than any other breed. It has won its way in popular favor strictly on its merit. Some qualifications which make it so desir- able for farm purposes are: Size, which is the happy medium between the heavy Asiatic and the light- weight breeds. The standard weights are cock, BREEDING AND BREEDS 105 9% pounds; hen, 7% pounds; cockerel, 8 pounds; pullet, 614 pounds. The growing chicks possess a characteristic rarely found in such desirable per- fection in any other breed. When properly managed they are in splendid table condition from the time they are eight weeks old up to maturity. It is also claimed the old fowls easily get in fat condition and are superior in quality to other breeds at the same age. The hens are excellent mothers, and will often recommence laying in eight weeks, and still continue attentively to mother their broods. They are good winter layers; and it is the winter eggs that make poultry keeping pay. The eggs are of good size and are classed as brown. The breed is a vigorous one, prolific, and the percentage of fer- tility of the egg is always high. The chicks are sprightly and strong from the very start. Pullets will often commence egg laying when they are six months old; even those that are hatched late in the season will do so when their six months end as late as December, providing, of course, they have been properly cared for. One of the excellent features about their laying is that when they com- mence they make a business of it. They do not, like some of the Asiatics, lay less than a dozen eggs, and then persist in sitting. LEGHORN FOWLS For the production of large numbers of eggs, the White Leghorn is most popular the country over. The breed is a hardy one of small to medium size. The weights seldom exceed seven pounds unless the fowls are specially bred for size. Probably the generality of people succeed better in getting good 106 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION egg yield from this breed than from fowls of other breeds. The reasons are because of the activity of the fowls and because the Leghorn is hardier than other varieties of the Mediterranean class. Then, too, the fowls are less likely to become fat, even when over-fed, than are the fowls of the American and the Asiatic breeds. The cockerels make excel- lent broilers, especially when the poultryman has aimed for size in his breeding, but where fowls for roasting are desired the Leghorn is not as con- spicuous a success as the Plymouth Rock, the Rhode Island Red, the Wyandotte, the Orpington and the Asiatic breeds. Like its relative, the Brown Leg- horn, the White variety has two: sub-varieties, namely, Single Comb and Rose Comb. Probably the Single Comb is the more popular of the two. Besides the White and the Brown Leghorn, there are other breeds of this group—the Black, the Buff, the Dominique, the Silver Duckwing, ete.—but these are much less popular than the White and the Brown. They are all characterized more or less as egg producers and as good foragers. Because of their active habits, they do best on wide range. Where such cannot be given the fowls must have abundant opportunity to take exercise. LIGHT BRAHMA The Light Brahma is without exception the largest fowl raised. It is most noted as a meat pro- ducer, mainly because of its size, but also because it is probably the most popular variety for produc- ing South Shore Soft Roasters for the Boston market. It is a fairly good layer of large, brown eggs, and though noted more for its meat, it will BREEDING AND BREEDS 107 yield under proper management a goodly number of eggs while prices are highest. The standard weight of the cock is 12 pounds, that of the hen 9% pounds. The hens are good sitters and mothers, but are rather heavy and clumsy. They are often used for hatching duck, turkey and goose eggs, be- cause they can cover more than hens of ordinary size. Brahma chicks are slow in developing their feathers, but in spite of this they are good growers and gain weight more rapidly than many other varieties fed equally well. As farm fowls they are not as successful as many of the other varieties, because they are not quick enough to be good insect catchers and are not otherwise as good foragers as most popular farm breeds. For this reason they must be fed more carefully. These characteristics of slowness and weight favor their being kept in confinement. A low fence is sufficient. Their color is mainly white, though the hackle, the tail and the flight feathers of the wing are mainly black. They have pea combs and red ear lobes, yellow skin and legs, the shanks feathered down to the ground. WYANDOTTES The Wyandotte has a half dozen well-known varieties. Among these, probably the most popular are the White, the Golden and the Silver, though Buff and Black Wyandottes are also well known. Probably the most important is the White, which, in the leading poultry shows, is a close second to the Barred Plymouth Rock. Not only is this so in the poultry show, but throughout the country the White Wyandotte and the Rhode Island Red are 108 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION unquestionably the strongest competitors in popular favor that the Plymouth Rock has. The Wyan- dotte breed as a whole is a hardy, general purpose breed which lays brown eggs; the hens make good sitters and mothers. The recognized standard weights are 814 pounds for the cock and 6% for the hen, but greater weights than these are com- mon. Like the Plymouth Rock, the fowls are good foragers, good layers and good table birds. They are characterized by compact bodies with yellow skin, and on this account are highly popular in the markets as table fowls. RHODE ISLAND RED The two sub-varieties of the Rhode Island Red, the Rose Comb and the Single Comb, are almost equally popular. The breed, as its name implies, originated in New England, where its hardiness, its brown eggs and its general utility have appealed to popular taste. The hens are good sitters and mothers. The breed is noted for its ability to for- age and also for the ease with which it may be kept in confinement. The sizes compare with those of its chief rivals, the Plymouth Rock and the Wyan- dotte. The color is a peculiar reddish buff with mixtures of black, more especially in the wings and tails. It is claimed that the chicks mature more rapidly than either Wyandotte or Plymouth Rock chicks, and that they make more meaty broilers at the same age. This is probably due more to man- agement than to the breed itself. Some people consider the Rhode Island Red inferior to other American varieties as table fowls, but superior as layers, more especially during the winter. BREEDING AND BREEDS 109 OTHER BREEDS The Hamburg varieties are good layers of small eggs, but, like the Polish varieties, are less seen on the farm than among fanciers. The Polish varieties are all excellent layers. They are not only small, but they lay small eggs. They are especially fanciers’ fowls and are rarely seen on farms except as pets. Among the less widely known American breeds the Mottled and the Black Java are popular in some sections. They compare in size with the Plymouth Rock, and are good both for table and for egg laying. The American Dominique was at one time very popular as a general purpose fowl because of its hardiness. The Barred Plymouth Rock, which it somewhat resembles, has replaced it to a very large extent. Houdans are French fowls noted for their flesh. They are good layers, non-sitters and excellent where there is no danger of attacks from hawks and other birds of prey. Their crests are an objec- tion where hawks are to be feared. The White Wonder is a brown egg laying, hardy, general-purpose breed somewhat larger than the White Wyandotte which it resembles, except that it has feathers on the shanks. The variety is popu- lar in some sections as a farm fowl because of its hardiness, ability to forage and fair prolificacy. The Langshan is a fairly hardy Asiatic fowl which lays dark brown eggs in moderate abundance. Probably this is the best laying variety of the Asiatic class. The standard weight of the cock is 10 pounds and that of the hen 7. The hens are good sitters and mothers, less clumsy than other Asiatic IIo PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION fowls. The more popular variety of Langshan is the black. The Dorking has several well-known varieties, the most popular are White, Silver Grey and Colored. This group is noted for the small number of eggs the hens lay and for persistent sit- ting. In England they have long been the leading table fowl. In America they are less popular be- cause they do not lay enough eggs. This is due principally to the methods employed in breeding. The Dark Brahma resembles the Light Brahma somewhat in size, but not in plumage, which, as its name implies, is dark, with considerable penciling as in the Partridge varieties of Cochin, Wyandotte, etc. The breed is not quite so large as the Light Brahma, but it is equally hardy. The hens are fair layers, sitters and mothers, but like their cousins are rather awkward on the nest and with chicks. Other remarks concerning the Light Brahma apply more or less generally to this breed. The Cochins, like the Brahmas, are heavy breeds of the Asiatic class. There are several varieties, viz.: The Buff, the Partridge and the White. They all have profusely feathered legs, are very hardy, very docile but very determined sitters. On this account they are not popular as farm fowls. Like the Brahmas they are poor foragers and must be fed liberally. Most people consider them inferior to the Brahma as layers and as table fowls, but when well bred and managed they make both good toasters and layers. The Minorca has two leading varieties, viz.: Black and White. The former with two sub- varieties, the Rose Comb and the Single Comb. These are fairly hardy fowls. The hens rarely sit. BREEDING AND BREEDS IIt They lay particularly large white eggs in abundance under good management, but these eggs are mainly produced when prices are low. The breed is espe- cially valuable for the home flock, largely because of the size and high quality of the eggs. Like the Leghorns the Minorcas are good foragers, but of a reputed nervous disposition. This nervousness, however, is due more to the poultryman than to anything else; even the docile Cochin may be made nervous by bad management. The Orpington has several varieties. It is an English breed which has been introduced in America only a short time, but during this period has become very popular, mainly because of the extensive advertising it has had. Among its prin- cipal varieties are Buff, Black and White. Some of the varieties are sub-divided into Single and Rose Comb. The Black and the Buff are most widely popular in America. The breed is of large size and compares with the Plymouth Rock, the Wyandotte and the Rhode Island Red for the table. The hens are good layers of rather large eggs, good sitters and mothers. Wherever tried the breed has proved acceptable. 7 SS PROTECTED WATER PAN CHAPTER VII Feeding and Feeds Next to breeding and housing, the feeding of fowls is perhaps the most important essential in poultry raising. Poultry keepers, as a rule, do not realize the importance of good feed. Others place RAW MATERIAL, EGG MACHINE AND FINISHED PRODWCT The Oregon experiment station thus graphically teaches what a utility fowl does. too much responsibility upon the feed and feeding. Let it be remembered that no amount and no quality of feed or anything else will make all hens lay or all poultry profitable. The factor of indi- viduality must be considered. Some hens will lay 150 to 200 eggs in a year and others treated the same will not lay an egg. On the other hand, no 112 FEEDING AND FEEDS 113 amount of good feeding will make up for lack of good breeding or good housing. It is now recognized that food affects the quality of eggs. While it is doubtful if the hen could lay eggs wholly unfit for food, it has been shown by experiment that the quality of eggs can be injured, especially in flavor. Onions and fish have both been found to give an unpleasant flavor to eggs when fed to excess; so will beef scrap. Doubtless other feeds will do the same. It is not necessary that these feeds should be discarded, because when fed in normal amounts they will not perceptibly flavor the eggs. When hens have been starved for want of green food or animal food and then get a chance to eat to excess they will produce unpleasant results in the eggs. This shows that hens put into the eggs what they find in the feed. Hence the impor- tance of supplying good, wholesome feed at all times. Skillful feeders can vary the shade of yellow in the yolk of the egg by the feeding, but not alter the color of the shell. Dried alfalfa has been found to produce eggs with good yolk color. Sugar beets produce a pale tint. Kale makes a good yellow. Some people hold that yellow corn will color the yolk, but this has not been credibly verified. Pale yolks indicate that hens are not getting sufficient green feed. Probably clover, vetch, rape, grass and other green feeds will all produce yellow yolks. FEED AFFECTS QUANTITY OF EGGS There is no question that food affects the quantity of eggs. Good feeding will help to make good hens productive. In one instance a pen of four fowls laid over 800 eggs in one year. Another pen of full IIld4 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION sisters, but fed differently, laid only about 530.’ The difference in the feeding is accountable. It has also been shown that feeding will influence the size of the eggs. Neither the hens nor the breed are responsible. A correct study of feeds and feeding must neces- sarily include cost and profit as well as composi- tion of the feeds them- selves. Though a ‘ration may give good results in a yield of eggs, it may not be profitable because of its high cost. It is not essen- tial to use any special brand or kind of feed, nor is it necessary to pay more for a feed than for the food of the home table. Many rations are impracticable, simply because they are too costly. Knowledge of poul- try feeding has not gone STOVE PIPE HOPPER far enough for anyone to Selnid. Gaui connate oe that certain results can May be hung from ceiling be secured from certain or as shown. : feeds or rations, yet much valuable information has been secured by experi- mental feeding, and through the experience ot practical poultry keepers. The chemist classifies the composition of feeds into protein, fat, carbo- hydrates and ash constituents. These are all con- tained in all feeds, but in varying proportion. The chemist also tells us that eggs contain the same constituents, but with a larger proportion of pro- x FEEDING AND FEEDS I1§ tein. Eggs are more valuable as a market com- modity than grain. A pound may be worth from Io to 25 cents in the market, whereas a pound of wheat would rarely exceed two cents in market value. The hen may convert this comparatively cheap wheat into a product of much higher value. For this reason she may be looked upon as a manu- factory. Still she can utilize at least a pound of water for every pound of wheat she puts into the eggs, and thus the poultryman can sell water for a good price. WHAT HENS PUT IN EGGS It must be remembered that the hen puts into the egg what the poultryman gives her. No one can say definitely what kind or combination of feed will give best results in good yield. The chemist does not tell and practical feeders do not. Nothing but experimental work can solve this problem. It is known, however, that eggs have a certain com- position and to produce them the hen must have certain elements in her feed. The composition of the egg varies scarcely at all. The hen must, there- fore, have the proper feeds to supply the demand of the egg. If she cannot get these she will stop laying. If fed exclusively on wheat she may eat a quarter of a pound a day. Of this she will probably consume three ounces to supply the demands of her body, thus leaving I ounce with which to make eggs. In this ounce there is about one-tenth of an ounce of protein. Supposing that this were all digested—which is never the case—there will not be enough protein to make an egg, because each egg contains about one-quarter ounce of protein. 116 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION A hen so fed would require two or three days to secure enough protein to make an egg. Eggs contain also one-quarter ounce of ash, mostly in the shell. An ounce of wheat contains less than one-tenth as much lime and other ash con- stituents as the egg contains. Eggs also contain fat, less than one-quarter of an ounce; wheat con- tains three-quarters of an ounce. When fed as above hens would not get egg constituents in prop- er proportions to make an egg a day. It is just as poor economy to feed corn or any other feed ex- clusively. The rations must be balanced. If left to herself the hen would secure what she needs if such raw material were available. The following suggestions will prove helpful: The hen first supplies the needs of her body. This demands constant rebuilding because of the con- tinual wearing out or breaking down of animal tissue. The poultryman must therefore feed more than enough to supply this waste. He must feed a growing ration to the chicks and other young fowls. He must compound rations to insure health and vitality and then supply enough raw material of the various kinds for the hen to make eggs. Eggs are made from surplus food. After the hen has supplied her body wastes, she may devote the balance to egg production. It is therefore poor economy to feed just enough to keep the hen in health and vigor. Heavy feeding, however, does not necessarily mean heavy egg yield. While the heavy layer must consume abundant. food, the manner of feeding and the kind of feed must be reckoned because the efficiency of feed depends largely upon the kind of the feed itself and the skill of feeding. FEEDING AND FEEDS Ili? Poultry feeds contain various quantities of pro- tein, carbohydrates, fat and water. The water is frequently overlooked by the feeder. Even wheat contains about 10%; clover and alfalfa 75% and in skimmed milk there is about 90%. No poultryman should pay more for water in the feed than as water from his well or spring. Grain feeds are also defi- cient in ash. Hence the hen must secure grit, oyster shell, etc., to supply this lack. The ash, therefore, need not be considered of high value because of its cheap source. Carbohydrates and fat furnish the fuel necessary to keep the body warm. It is necessary for the hen to be warm in order to produce eggs. Unless warm and energetic she cannot digest the food as well. As a rule poultry feeds contain larger percentages of carbohydrates and fat than are required for best results in egg production. Usually they are defi- cient in protein, which is the most valuable con- stituent. This substance makes the lean meat and the muscle and a large percentage of the egg, espe- cially the white. The value of the feed must be determined largely by the percentage of protein it contains. A high price, therefore, should not be paid for feed unless this has a high percentage of protein. In general feeds may be considered ex- pensive or cheap in proportion as they contain small or large proportions of protein. In studying feeds digestibility must be con- sidered. Composition does not necessarily indicate the true value of feeds, because these may not be digestible. The digestibility of poultry feeds has not been studied sufficiently. There are consider- able difficulties in the way. Probably, however, these studies will be made in the future and better 118 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION systems of feeding will be worked out. So far the chemical composition of feeds and the analogies between poultry feeding and animal feeding are the only guides for working out balanced rations for poultry. In the table given below Prof. James Dryden, of Oregon, shows the composition of feeds com- monly given to poultry: Percentage Composition of Feeds KIND OF FEED Water | Ash |Protein|Caboby-| Fat Wheal..scvsenxnaadcraunae ny 10.5 1.8 11.9 re Pia 2.1 On se assed: deoa rh Sraecerearee <3 10.9 1.5 10.5 71.7 5.4 Oats 2a ave cous sentecgtttesiaceleergheesce 11.0 3.0 11.8 69.2 5.0 PO ASi aca gidals ssa sialec. sos see bees =" 10.5 2.6 20.2 65.5 1.8 Barley ise di soia sieves edie wsetaseiere 10.9 2.4 12.4 72.5 1.8 Wheat bran.........ee ee eee 11.67 5.18 | 14.5 65.5 3.6 Wheat middlings............ 11.8 2.8 15.22 65.7 4.5 Sunflower ............000.- 12.8 2:1 9.1 51.3 21.2 Linseed meal (N.P.)*........ 9.9 5.6 35.9 45.6 3.0 Gluten meal .......ccaseeee 8.1 1.0 28.3 51.9 10.7 Brewers’ grains, dried........| 8.0 3.4 24.1 57.8 6.7 Alfalfa... 71.8 2.7 4.8 19.7 1.0 Clover, red 80.9 ES 3.1 13.6 aa ale... 88.2 1.82 2.57 6.79 6 Vetch 69.2 2.7 3.76 14.22 .49 Rape --{ 85.7 2.0 2.4 9.3 6 Mangel-wurzels..........+.-- 91.2 1.0 1.4 1.2 +2 Cabbage... «cis eviews sete 90.5 1.4 2.4 5.40 4 Skins milks... eee esse corneas 90.6 0.7 3.3 5.3 al Cottage cheese .........+4-- 72.0 1.8 20.9 4.3 wk Buttermilk. os oscas ceaeices 90.3 0.7 4.0 4.5 5 Beef Scrap -siciee sisss clase ee scoas 10.7 4.1 66.2 3 1327 Cut bones. ........ cee ee eee 32.8 33.0 28.4 2.5 36.6 Dried blood. ...........-005 9.95 3.68 | 72.0 1.68 3.15 *New Process. NUTRITIVE RATIO What is called the nutritive ratio is the proportion existing between the content of protein and that of fat and heat-producing constituents. To produce eggs, what is called a narrow nutritive ratio should FEEDING AND FEEDS Tig be fed; that is, a proportion of one part protein to four or five of carbohydrates and fat. In figuring the ratio the fat is multiplied by 2%4, because 1 pound is estimated to be equivalent to that amount ' of carbohydrates. It must be remembered, how- ever, that a nutritive ratio in itself does not neces- sarily indicate the true value of a ration. Pal- atability, digestibility and other factors must be reckoned with. Even a proper ratio does not guar- antee a good egg yield. The kinds of feed must be considered, and the feeder must be guided by results that indicate the value of the different feeds. INDIVIDUAL FEEDS ‘Wheat is more widely used than any other cereal throughout the country for poultry feeding, because it is safer than most other grain feeds and is relished better by the fowls. Its nearest competitor is corn. Which of these should be fed depends largely upon price. If fed wheat alone, hens would probably lay better than if given corn alone, be- cause the composition of wheat is slightly better for egg production than that of corn, which latter is more favorable for fattening. No one, however, should expect a profit from fowls fed one kind of food to the exclusion of others. When fed with other feeds, there is dispute as to whether wheat or corn is more economical at the same price a pound. The market price of grain may be taken as a safe basis for selecting wheat and corn. Slightly frosted wheat is of as high feed- ing value as good wheat and may be substituted for even the highest-priced grade. Shrunken wheat, in fact, has a higher protein content than plump ‘120 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION wheat, and thus a saving may be made by purchas- ing such grain at reduced prices. Wheat screenings of good quality may also be substituted for high- priced wheat. Bran and middlings are richer in protein than wheat, since there is 14% of protein in bran and about 12% in wheat. Bran is also richer in fat. On these accounts it is usually an economical feed. Analysis has shown that corn contains more fat- forming elements than wheat. For this, reason it HOPPERS REACHED FROM ALLEY For quick feeding and watering openings are made in sides of pens; hoppers and fountains placed over them. became unpopular among poultry feeders. Actual feeding tests, however, show it to be equal to wheat when fed in rational combinations. As good results have been secured in egg production as from wheat. It is, however, an imperfect feed and other feeds FEEDING AND FEEDS 12Tt must be used to balance it. Those states which produce the largest quantities of corn are the greatest producers of poultry and eggs, a fact which seems to disprove the notion that corn is not good for poultry. Oats are not relished by fowls as much as other grains, nor are they worth as much as corn or wheat. The large proportion of hull is an objection since hulls are largely indigestible. Without the hulls oats would be excellent both for laying and fatten- ing. They are not as fattening as corn or wheat and many poultrymen feed them, largely to pre- vent hens becoming too fat. Great care should be used in selecting oats because of the quality. None but heavy, plump oats should be used. Light oats contain too much hull. Oats furnish a useful variety to the ration. Were hulled oats. procurable at reasonable prices, they would probably be better than wheat or corn. Barley is fed to poultry to a very limited extent. Fowls will usually leave it if they can secure wheat or corn. It may be fed for variety. Peas, where they can be secured at reasonable prices, should be fed extensively because of their richness in protein. They contain twice as much protein as corn and therefore are worth more pound for pound. Where linseed meal can be secured at reasonable prices, it may be profitably fed to poultry because it contains more than 30% protein and is also rich in fat. On this account it is an excellent addition to mash feeds, but must be fed sparingly. IMPORTANCE OF ANIMAL FEEDS It is believed that animal food of some sort is necessary to maintain fowls in vigorous health and "122 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION productivity, whether the aim be flesh or eggs. Probably no one thing has done more to increase profits than feeding animal food. Scarcity of eggs during winter is largely due to deficiency in this line. Chickens when at liberty during the summer secure abundant animal food in the form of bugs and worms. Something to take the place of this feed is necessary, especially when snow is on the ground. Doubtless lean meat is the best form to feed. It furnishes ample protein. The presence of a little fat does no harm, but may be an advantage. Fresh meat scrap from the butcher’s is an excellent egg maker. Butchers. often keep bone cutters to sell ground meat and bones to poultrymen. When flocks of 25 hens or more are kept it will then pay to own a bone cutter. These butcher scraps contain large quantities of bone, which the fowls eat very greedily along with the meat. Much of the mineral matter for making shell and other parts of the ash of the egg may be secured through bone. Skim milk is a good substitute for animal feed if given liberally, but it is not concentrated enough. It contains about 90 per cent water or only about Io per cent of food. When used as a drink hens will not take enough of it to supply their demand for animal feed. Milk is well used for mixing the wet mashes, by feeding it clabbered, and best in the form of cottage cheese, which is a particularly good form when well made. A good way to make cottage cheese is to set the dish of skim milk where the temperature will range between 75 and 80 degrees for 18 to 24 hours, by which time the milk will have thickened. It should then be broken up into pieces about the size of peas or smaller. The dish should then be FEEDING AND FEEDS 123; set in a pail of hot water and the curd stirred until its temperature is 90 or 95, when it should be held at this heat for 15 or 20 minutes without stirring. The contents of the dish should then be poured into a cotton sack and hung up where the whey may drain off. Care must be exercised not to allow the milk to boil. After the whey has drained off a little salt should be added. This cheese will keep in mild weather for a day or two; longer in cool weather. Doubtless the most con- venient form in which to esses feed animal food is beef scrap, a by-product of the large packing houses. It has been boiled and dried, and as it reaches the poul tryman contains meat and bone in varying propor- tions, but should analyze ess 50 to 60 per cent protein. >= It also varies in quality, but should always be light colored, have a meaty flavor and be rather oily to the touch. When boiling , ,pogueamdnensed eee water is added to it, it should smell like fresh meat. If a putrid odor is given off it should not be fed. es KY) leo \) hy GREEN FEED FREE GREEN FEED ESSENTIAL It is essential to the fowls’ well being and egg production to have green food every day. Lack is sure to affect egg production unfavorably. Flocks. at range can secure abundant green food, but flocks 124 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION in yards and in winter quarters must be supplied. It may be fed without stint at all times. Among the best feeds are clover, alfalfa, grass, vetches, pea vines, rape, rye, mangels, kale, cabbages, sugar beets, turnips—in fact anything and everything the hens will eat. During the winter cabbage is spe- cially useful. Root crops are good also. The leaves and broken heads from the hay mow may be steamed if desired. Kale and alfalfa contain espe- cially large amounts of protein and ash. The latter and clover give a good flavor and quality to the eggs; but kale, cabbage, turnip and other plants of the mustard family are likely to impart a slightly disagreeable flavor if fed too abundantly. According to Prof. J. E. Rice, oats and peas sown together very thinly with a liberal seeding of red clover and a very little rape make a good combina- tion. The oats and peas furnish a rapid growth of green feed. Much of it will get tramped down and some go to seed, but will serve to protect the clover and the rape, which will make good feed late in summer and fall. Three pecks of oats, two of peas, a pound of rape and 5 quarts of red clover seed make a good proportion for sowing an acre. The oats and peas should be first harrowed in deeply, then the clover and rape sown mixed and lightly scratched in with a weeder. The potatoes may be fed for variety boiled and mixed with a mash, but they are not very useful as an egg food. They do better for fattening. Sour apples should not be fed unless sparingly. NECESSITY FOR GRIT At all times chickens need grit. Opinions differ as to the function of grit. One view is that grit is FEEDING AND FEEDS 125 to grind the food; the other is that grit itself is a food. It is not necessary to argue on this point, but it is necessary to supply the grit. Fowls at liberty usually pick up enough grit except where the land is deficient in sand and gravel. When con- fined they must have a liberal supply. When gravel is close by the grit ques- tion is easily answered. Plenty of sharp sand for the hens to scratch in is all that is necessary. Where gravel is scarce grit must be purchased. It is very cheap. Besides ordinary grit, it is desir- able to supply other mate- rial for forming the egg shells. Grain does not con- tain sufficient lime for great egg layers. Oyster and other sea shells are largely used for this pur- pose, since they are very readily dissolved in the gizzard. Lack of lime or Hole tn, foor ts tan other shell material in the ration often leads to the egg-eating habit among hens, because soft-shelled eggs are laid and broken in the nest. Charcoal is believed to be useful as a bowel regulator. Most successful poultrymen keep it constantly before the hens. Salt in moderation aids digestion. An ounce or two daily is sufficient for 100 hens. Pepper, which acts as a stimulant, should be fed sparingly. Vigorous hens do not need it. BE. 2 GRIT OR SHELL HOPPER 126 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION The following table prepared by Prof. James Dryden, of the Oregon agricultural college, gives five rations for laying fowls: Ration No. Ts S2> (2c «qe 65, Wheat. ccsinseos — 60 30 30 20 Corn, onG eae sks 60 — — 10 20 Oats s:dsax este aes - — — 15 I10 I0 Bian. vatican alee a — — 10 10 10 Middlings ......... —-— — 5 5 5 Linseed meal ...... oo — — 5 5 Skim milk, or....... 30 30 30 30 30 Cut bones, or....... T2 CI@> <2! Te, 12 Beef scrap ......... 8 8 8 8 8 Alfalfa or clover, or. 15 15 15 15 15 KAI hos cues oceans 20 20 20 20 20 No. 1 is considered the poorest and No. 5 the best. Corn is the only grain fed in No. 1; wheat in No. 2. This ration is placed ahead of No. 1, be- cause it contains some more protein. Both are deficient in egg-making material, viz.: protein. Either would be an improvement on the average farm ration, but neither is ideal. No. 3, which contains a variety of grains and somewhat more protein, is better than the first two. Nos. 4 and 5 should give abundance of eggs if properly fed. They do not equal the amounts of protein, but No. 5 has more meat-producing food. It is not definitely known to what extent fat in- fluences egg yield, but it has been found that rations containing plenty of fat give better results than rations with little. Since fowls eat more food during cold than during warm weather, heat-pro- ducing foods are more necessary and can be made to FEEDING AND FEEDS 127 replace the more expensive protein food to a certain extent. More corn should be fed during winter. On this account No. 5 will be found a better winter ration than No. 4. No. 1 will also probably give better results than No. 2 during the winter. VALUE OF GOOD METHOD Unless properly fed no ration, however well balanced or mixed, will give best results. Method of feeding plays an important part. It is necessary that the hen be kept robust. This can best be done by keeping her active. Hens on free range often do better than confined hens solely because of the active life they lead. Poultrymen need not trouble much about the vigor of their hens if the flocks are kept under the free-range system, but when con- fined in yards great care must be taken to en- courage exercise. The lazy hen is the unproduc- tive hen. Exercise is best supplied by providing a roomy scratching shed covered deeply with even 8 to 12 inches of straw. This straw should be rather dry and whole grain should be scattered in it. There will be no waste; the fowls will find the last kernel. The poultryman’s skill will be tested to feed enough at a time without having to feed too often, so as to keep the hens busy most of the day. When too much feed is given at a time the fowls soon be- come satisfied and will stop eating. It is not essen- tial to keep fowls scratching all the time. The more active breeds, especially Leghorns, do nearly as well when fed from hoppers. When given a yard and a floor they will take sufficient exercise whether forced to scratch for feeding or not. For 128 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION the larger, less active breeds, however, it is neces- sary to force exercise. Experiment has shown that enforced idleness ruins both health and egg pro- duction. On the other hand, Leghorns have thrived and even done well though compelled to scratch for every grain they eat. With every breed a happy medium should be struck between idle- ness and too much exercise. No breed of fowls is injured by hav- ing exercise and most breeds profit decidedly. The principal FEED HOPPER disadvantage of feeding in litter is that grain may become con- taminated with the droppings of the fowls, but with proper care in removing the straw as soon as it begins to be soiled this can be largely obviated. GRAIN GROUND OR UNGROUND Poultrymen find that it pays to grind part of the grain feed because this saves energy. Since the energy is furnished by the food there is an actual saving in the food itself, and this can thus be util- ized by the fowls for other purposes. Ground grain is more quickly digested and assimilated than whole grain, and hens can manufacture eggs quicker with it. It has been shown that fowls, half of whose grain was ground and moistened, required 20% less feed to produce a dozen eggs than fowls fed on whole grain alone. Fowls, however, enjoy whole grain, therefore probably one-third should be fed in this form. If fed one-half or more of whole grain they would likely lose their appetites and not eat sufficient to meet the demand for heavy egg FEEDING AND FEEDS 129 T TTI T + + | + + SCRATCHING H ls SNE HOUSE OUSE a L-i~Jf \ 12’ 12° 12° 12° ‘o ~” - ‘o ° ° ° ~ ~ 2|4’ ‘ol N GROUND PLAN OF HOUSE AND YARD Space-saving arrangement of ground area. production. If more than a third of the grain is fed ground it should be supplied preferably in the afternoon. If fed wet mash in the morning, the fowls are likely to gorge themselves and not be as active as ELEVATIONS OF POULTRY HOUSE 130 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION spa oe eee SPSS DELILE pee PSS LE SOOO LG OMI OOK LPL SILA ARSG SEES a <6Ft ae canes SaaaniwN a4 = L274 LOR ZZ TR ZZ LZ 2 S22. K-"As Ye a a 2 Ft VENTILATED COOP AND DETACHABLE RUN Slide door closes coop at night. they should be during the day. Hence a light-grain ration in the litter should be given in the morning. ‘About an hour before going to roost, a good mash feed, followed by a liberal supply of whole grain, will give satisfactory results. Feeding whole grain liberally toward the close of the day in cold weather is a good practice, because the grain will “stick to the ribs” bet- ter during the night than will the mash and will help to keep up the heat of the body better. Another good practice is to scat- ter enough grain in the litter at night so as to encourage the fowls to scratch for it early in the morn- ing. This practice will also save time in the early, morning. Of ‘course, double quantity of grain should be scattered in the evening. iWhen light mashes are fed in the morning, it is best to feed immedi- ately after the fowls come off the roost, but to feed no more than the birds will eat. As to feeding rations 4 and 5 mentioned above, 7 WEIGHTED GATE Second hand piping frame, cov- ered with netting. L_ joints. Large staples in wood posts serve as hinges. Pulleys, weight and cord close gate. FEEDING AND FEEDS 132 the following remarks will be found useful: Mix the ground ingredients with water or skim milk and a little salt until the mass is crumbly. Feed first thing in the morning just what will be eaten up clean in ten minutes. Soon after scatter a little wheat or oats in the straw, just enough to keep the fowls, busy till noon. Then scatter some more grain. About an hour before sundown feed wheat er corn, enough to fill the fowls’ crops. Fowls on free range will not require such frequent feeding. DRY MASH OR WET MASH Fowls enjoy wet mash more than dry, but dry mash saves labor, since enough may be put in the hopper to last a week. When fed wet, at least one feeding must be given daily. Since fowls eat wet mash more greedily than dry, more care must be exercised to avoid overfeeding. Where skim milk is available the ration may be cheapened by using it to wet the mash. Bran and middlings may be made to take large quantities of milk and thus to balance out and cheapen the ration. Thus it can be made to save more costly feeds. When skillfully fed, wet mash should give better results in egg yield than dry. Cut bone may be fed daily or three times a week, just what the fowls will eat up clean in 10 or 15 minutes. Each hen can use 3 or 4 ounces a week to advantage, though more should be fed dur- ing heavy laying and in winter than at other times. As a rule it does not pay to boil poultry feed, besides, most feeds give better results when fed raw. This does not apply to potatoes and similar starchy feeds, which are improved by boiling. No radical changes should be made in the ration. ‘A definite plan should be well worked out before 132 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION feeding starts and should be adhered to so as to get best results. Feed and feeding are not all; when fowls are not laying, it must not be thought that the ration is necessarily at fault unless there is good reason to believe so. Even though some other ration may be better, it is not advantageous to make a sudden change in its favor, because such changes are sure to upset egg production for greater or less time. Any changes found necessary should be made gradually. It is just as important also to feed at regular times and in regular amounts. “A feast and famine” will never produce best results. Every night the hen should go to roost with a full crop and should find her breakfast ready for her when she gets up. Success in poultry feeding, especially for eggs, depends upon wholesome food fed liberally, regularly and in variety, and upon plenty of activity for the fowls. VALUE OF SKIM MILK At the West Virginia experiment station Profes- sors Stewart and Atwood sought to determine the value of skim milk for laying hens. On most farms skim milk is fed to calves or pigs. Can fowls use it to better advantage? Separator skim milk was used. Generally during the colder months it was sour when fed, and during the warmer periods thick also. Two experiments were conducted, one for 122 days, the other for three months. In the first, two lots of Single Comb White Leghorn fowls were used, each lot containing 20 hens and 2 cocks. In the second each lot consisted of 60 hens and 6 cocks. The skim milk was used to moisten the ground feed. This was usually fed in the morning, while FEEDING AND FEEDS 133 the whole grain was scattered in the afternoon in the litter covering the floors of the poultry houses. At no time were the fowls fed heavily, as the eggs which were laid were used for hatching and it was not considered desirable to become too fat. Weight of Fowls PEN 1 PEN 2 Average weight at the Hens Cocks Hens Cocks beginning of the test.. Average weight at the end of the test....... 3.50 lbs. 4.25 Ibs. 3.62 Ibs. 4.50 Ibs. 2.77 lbs. 4.75 lbs. 2.90 Ibs, 4 65 lbs. The table shows that the hens in each lot lost in weight about seven-tenths of a pound each, while the cocks gained slightly. The following table shows the amount and kind of food consumed by each lot of 22 fowls during the 122 days of the test. Both lots were fed exactly the same except that lot 1 received in addition 2 quarts of skim milk daily, or 244 quarts during the experi- ment: Food Consumed in 122 Days Gluten feed ... 60 lbs at $1.275 100 lbs....$ .765 Wheat bran .. 60 “ at 1.20 Cy Ground oats ...60 “ at 140 “ “.... .84 Oil meal ..... 20 “ at 140 “ “ .... .28 Beef scrap ... 20 “ at 200 “ “.... .40 COM nieces s TiSt oats 805. We 5.4. 2120 Wheat ....... t115 “ at 166 “ “ .... Lor Oatsnieeeesee 115) “at “m25- Se “se. Teer 134 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION If the skim milk be valued at 1 cent a quart, which is practically equivalent to 50 cents a hun- dred pounds, an extremely high valuation for feed- ing purposes, then the total cost of food for pen 1 was $10.19 and for pen 2, $7.75. The following table shows the number of eggs laid by each lot: PEN I PEN 2 February 29—March 31..... 364 327 March 31—April 30......... 297 262 April 30—May 31........... 319 207 May 31—June 209.406.0068 264 200 ota lie aia is aeveerctonsin et 1244 996 The pen which received the skim milk laid 248 eggs more than the other, or practically an extra egg for every quart of skim milk they received. Valuing the skim milk at 1 cent a quart, the food cost of 1 dozen eggs was 9.8 cents a dozen for the fowls fed the skim milk and 9.3 cents for the other lot. During the time covered by the experiment the eggs produced were actually worth 20 cents a dozen. The 248 extra eggs produced by pen I when valued at this price were worth $4.13, which would give to the skim milk a value of 1.6 cents a quart. In a second test 6 pens of Single Comb White Leghorn fowls were employed, each pen containing 20 hens and 2 cocks. The experiment was divided into two periods, June 30 to August 5, and August 6 to September 30. During the first period pens I, 2 and 3 each received two quarts of skim milk daily to moisten the ground feed, as in the earlier experiment, while during the second period pens 4, 5 and 6 received the skim milk. It was found that FEEDING AND FEEDS 135 all the hens increased slightly in weight during the tests. The following table shows the amount, kind and cost of food consumed during the first period of 37 days: Food Consumed by Pens 1, 2 and 3 Gluten feed ....54 Ibs at $1.275 100 Ibs. - 688 Wheat bran ...54 at 1.20 ities, 3043 Ground oats ...54 “ at 140 “ “ .... .756 Beef scrap ....18 “ at 200 “ “ 36 COM eaiessiesaves On a vats bio5., (f° oe 619 Wiheat scsvcises 50. Sat, 1.66. < 979 Oats: scsnceienins 590 “ at 125 “ “ 737 POCA”) cyerevcvateuereecncovstanesaiele,etovetors ele teiersieles $3.87 Food Consumed by Pens 4, 5 and 6 Gluten feed ....60 Ibs at $1.275 100 Ibs. Sky 76 Wheat bran 60 at 1.20 sees ye Ground oats ...60 “ at 140 “ “ .... 84 Beef scrap ....18 “ at 2.00 “ “.... .36 Gon aracits 60:° “at. op) "sas 263 Wheat ........ Go) at 06. 8 aes 209 Qats: ace cesses Gom Sf at: P25) sya, 275 Total. COSt oiiis ocrauere sie cee aw aioe ease $5.05 Valuing the skim milk at 1 cent a quart, the cost of food for pens 1, 2 and 3 was $6.09, and for pens 4, 5 and 6 $5.05. The following table shows the number of eggs laid by each pen of fowls during the period: Pens ....+. I 2 3 4 5 6 Eggs ..... 337 279 246 207 202 223 Totals .. 862 632 136 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION The balance in favor of the milk-fed fowls was 230 eggs, which extra egg production was brought about by feeding 222 quarts of skim milk, or slightly more than an extra egg for every quart of skim milk fed. Valuing the skim milk at 1 cent a quart, the food cost of the eggs from the milk-fed fowls was 8.4 cents a dozen; and 8.3 cents for the other lot. The eggs produced during this period were worth in the local market 25 cents a dozen. At this price the 230 extra eggs were worth $4.79, which would give to the 222 quarts of skim milk an actual feeding value of slightly more than 2 cents a quart when fed in small quantities as in this experi- ment. During the second period of 56 days skim milk was fed to pens 4, 5 and 6, instead of pens 1, 2 and 3. During this period the hens which received the skim milk increased in weight slightly more than those whose mash was moistened with water. The following table shows the kind, amount and cost of the food consumed during this period: Food Consumed by Pens 1, 2 and 3 Corn meal ..... 105 lbs at $1.25 100 Ibs ....$1.31 Wheat bran ....105 “ at 1.20 “ “ .... 1.26 Ground oats ...105 “ at Igo “ “ .,,, 1.47 Beef scrap .... 33 “ at 200 “ “ .... 66 COMms seseiu see ¢ 180°" at “105 “one 80 Oats: acceseieiees Too Zath eti25- i for see ais FEEDING AND FEEDS 137, Food Consumed by Pens 4, 5 and 6 Corn meal ....101 Ibs at $1.25 100 lbs . me 262 Wheat bo sev IOI Ate T2008 SS) 583 eon 212 Ground oats ..tor “ at 140 “ “ 4... 1.414 Beef scrap .... 33 “ at 200 “ “ ..,. .660 Gorn ses se.55,0 149: sat. “Tog os. 1.564 Mats .teceekieens 149° "* “at, “125. “rw -2 es 862 Mea S CORE: weaxwate eeu eae ween es . $7.74 * Valuing the 6 quarts of skim milk fed to pens 4, 5 and 6 at I cent a quart, the total cost of food for these pens was $11.10 and for the other fowls $8.84. The following table shows the number of eggs laid by each pen of fowls during the second period: Pens vaicsisss I 2 3 4 5 6 Eggs ..... 302 363 313 452 382 386 Totals .. 978 1,220 During this period there were fed 336 quarts of skim milk, which increased the egg production 242 eggs, or at the rate of three-fourths of an egg for every quart of skim milk fed. The eggs produced during this period were worth 25 cents a dozen in the local market. Valuing the 242 extra eggs at this price, it is seen that the skim milk had a feeding value in this case of 1% cents a quart. In both experiments more eggs were produced when skim milk was substituted for water for mois- tening the mash. Under the conditions prevailing in these experiments and with eggs selling for 20 or 25 cents a dozen the skim milk had a feeding value 138 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION of 114 to 2 cents a quart. In these trials 802 quarts of skim milk were fed, resulting in an increase in the egg production of 702 eggs. FEEDING CAPONS The unusually high prices quoted for capons has led to considerable discussion in the agricultural and poultry press relative to the profit in this branch of poultry raising. The discussion is not free from exaggerated statements of interested individuals, and little satisfactory information is available. To get data concerning the growth and food cost several feeding experiments have been made by the New York experiment station. Six lots of capons and one of cockerels were fed for several months and several lots of capons for shorter periods of several weeks. Birds of several breeds and crosses were used, chiefly Asiatics, but none of the smaller breeds. No special comparison of breeds was attempted, although for the most part each lot was of one breed. To all of these fowls sweet skim milk was fed nearly all of the time in place of water. Much of the time it constituted about 60% of the total food, supplying generally from 12 to 15% of the total dry matter in the ration. For the eight lots for which records were kept the longest time, from hatching to maturity, the lowest pound cost, live weight, was at the average weight of 4 pounds. Largely because the market prices were always lower for the emmalles fowls the cost of food to grow the birds 4°4 pounds repre- sented the highest proportion (a little over 50%) of the market Wale found at any time from earliest FEEDING AND FEEDS 139 marketable size as broilers to the heaviest capons. From the time the capons weighed 5 pounds until they weighed 10%4 pounds the total cost of food consumed did not at any time reach half of the market value. Although the cost of every pound added to the weight was greater as the birds ap- proached maturity than it had been for any earlier increase, the prices for the largest fowls were so much higher than for the smaller that the margin over cost of production was always greater with the nearly full-grown capons. On this account the later feeding was justified, so long as there was a regular increase in weight, until the spring months, at which time the greatest demand for capons and highest prices usually prevail. One lot of capons was fed for comparison with a lot of cockerels taken from the same flock of chicks. For the whole period that record was kept, nearly six months, the cockerels increased in weight about 20% faster than the capons, but the rate of growth was much more irregular. At the average weight of 6 pounds the capons had cost for food 12% more than the cockerels; but more food was required on the average by the cockerels, so that at 9g pounds weight these had cost over 8% more than the capons. As the cockerels grew faster and larger than the capons, they averaged about 10% pounds before the capons had reached the weight of 91% pounds, and at the heaviest weights had cost no more for food. At the average prices then existing in New York state markets the cockerels could have been sold at the greatest profit at about 6 pounds weight, and the capons not until they had reached the weight of 9 pounds, at which weight the difference be- 140 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION tween the cost of food and the market value was two and one-half times as great as for the cockerels. In some markets and more generally in recent years better relative prices have prevailed for such poultry as well-fed cockerels, so this difference found at the time in favor of capons would often be much smaller. CHAPTER VIII Egg Production While it is true that a small yield of eggs is likely to be unprofitable, it does not necessarily follow that a large yield is invariably profitable. This may be because the cost of production is dis- proportionate to the amount realized, but since the aim of egg production is usually profit, it is highly desirable to increase the egg yield as much as possible within reason- able limits. It often happens that in striving to attain this end a poultry raiser who has made a good profit out of a small flock may lose by keeping a large one, because the egg yield may Ne ace be increased only at unreason- corrugated paper. able expense. The great majority of farmers’ flocks lay eggs. only during what may be called the “natural sea- son” of the year, mainly in the spring and early summer. One of the principal reasons for this is that the fowls are usually kept in an almost natural state. They do not receive the special attention that the egg farmer gives his flocks. Doubtless the great majority could be made to yield eggs well throughout the year by proper management—man- agement such as the egg farmer gives his flocks. But where it would be profitable to the ordinary farmer to give the extra care essential to such egg produc- tion can only be determined by the farmer himself. The cost of production on the general farm is 14] ems 142 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION practically nothing in actual cash outlay, that is, where the flock is not large. The eggs in such cases are looked upon as just so much money lying loose and are gathered to keep it from being lost. In such cases, it is highly probable that fowls could be made to pay well by giving them a reasonable amount of attention, especially as the season thrives, when eggs sell at high prices. A HEN’S TOTAL YEARLY PRODUCTION is not invariably the most desirable measure of egg- producing capacity. Actual production is less im- portant than the season during which the eggs are laid. According to Raymond Pearl and Frank M. TRAP NEST BETWEEN PENS After hen has laid she passes into empty pen through door, b. Layers thus separate themselves from general flock. Door, a, closes as hen enters and opens when she leaves by door b. ‘Time saver for busy farmer. Surface of the Maine experiment station “the measure of an individual hen’s egg production in any given time may be taken to be the percentage which the number of eggs actually laid is of the maximum number of eggs which might have been laid by the individual in this given length of time, assuming the production of one egg a day to be the EGG PRODUCTION 143: maximum ot which a hen is capable.” A hen which lays 20 eggs during June would, therefore, have an egg-production record of 6634 per cent for June. If she lays 31 eggs during December and January, 62 days, she would have a 50 per cent record for those months. The above rule thus puts egg records on a comparative basis. This is of great. advantage in calculating the value of the hen. SELECTING LAYERS Laying hens are nearly always singers. They work and hunt for food all day, and are the first off of the roost and the last to go to roost. They; are nervous and very active, keeping them- selves up to the greatest possible pitch. Below the tail at the end of the side pieces of the back are two somewhat bony protuberances called the pelvic or “lay” bones. They are just above the vent through which the eggs must pass. TRAP NEST DOOR When an egg is_ laid, they are forced apart to allow free passage. When these bones are soft and pliable, and spread suf- ficiently to allow three fingers to be placed be- tween them, it is an indication that the hen is laying. If they are hard and bony and close to- gether experience has shown the hen is not laying at the time the examination is made. The ideal laying hen should, therefore, conform 144 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION as nearly as possible to the following: She must be healthy; comb, wattles and face red; eye bright and lustrous; neck not short, but medium to long; breast broad and long, sloping upward; back, long and broad; abdomen, wide and deeper than breast; shanks, well spread and rather long; V-shaped in three ways, viz. on sides (front to rear), top and bottom (front to rear), base of tail (downwards) ; well-spread tail. NEST TO CURE EGG EATING Placed with slight tilt from left to right so egg will roll under covered part where sawdust or chaff checks rolling and protects from injury. LAYING ABILITY IMPROVED Since egg production when eggs bring high prices is the leading desire of the poultryman, it is highly important that the hens be brought into laying as early as possible. The reason for this is that when hens begin to lay in the fall they are more likely to continue than if they are counted upon to start about the beginning of the new year —that is, under ordinary farm care. Many pullets EGG PRODUCTION 145 that begin to lay in the fall are naturally poor layers and soon play out. The sooner such fowls are taken out of the flock, the better. They should not be used for breeding. An important thing to remember in rearing fowls for winter laying is to have the pullets mature between September and November. This can be determined by the date of hatching and by the method of rearing. The ‘Asiatic breeds require much longer than the Mediterranean classes. The American fowls hatched between late March and early May will usually begin laying during October, provided they are properly managed, but too much confidence must not be placed in this statement, because hens differ so much individually and also because methods of management vary greatly. The only thing that can be said definitely on this point is that such calculation helps in the long run and it is better to have some system that embraces as many helpful features as possible, than to have no system at all. It must be remembered that the winter is not the season which is favorable to egg production. Therefore, the poultry raiser has to contend with unfavorable conditions, es- pecially the condition of cold and wet, to say nothing of the natural tendency. MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK So far as egg laying is concerned, the egg farmer’s year begins in October. Of course, circumstances may alter cases, but this is the usual time. Every- thing should then be put in readiness for egg pro- duction. The pullets and hens should be placed in their permanent winter quarters and special care 146 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION taken to prevent overcrowding. The sooner the flocks are made up, the better as a rule, because they then get accustomed to their quarters and there is less danger of upsetting them when they begin to lay. None but mature pullets should be selected for laying. All that are puny, undersized, lazy, weak or otherwise undesirable, should be weeded out and sold for the table. They will not pay their board. Of course, this statement does not apply to late- hatched pullets; only those that are inferior to other stock hatched at the same time. Only such hens as have proved their worthiness in the previous season should be kept over for a second or third winter. They usually make good breeders and the breeding flock should be selected from them rather than from pullets. Too often, however, in the farm flock, the reverse practice is followed, namely, of selling off the hens that are in best condition and using inferior ones for egg production. This is suicidal to profit. It should be reversed. It is just as important to feed well for eggs as it is to breed well for them. As soon as cold weather approaches, corn must be added more freely to the ration than during the warm weather. Contrary to popular opinion, hens that are molting should be fed well. It does not pay to stint them. How- ever, they should not get a ration too rich in nitrog- enous matter, because they are not, as a rule, laying and they do better when given a ration richer than usual in carbonaceous ingredients. Even if this is a fattening ration, it will do no harm. By this, it is not meant that the nitrogenous matter should be cut out of the ration altogether. Feather produc- EGG PRODUCTION 147 tion demands protein which must not be fed too sparingly. It is superior, as a general rule, to have the fowls somewhat too fat than poor or even in merely good condition. By proper management, many good laying hens will lay an occasional egg even while going through the molting, but this is not general. Pullets can be fed more highly than hens during the early fall months, because they already have their feathers and are still growing. At this time, they need abundant protein, because they are not only growing in flesh but are filling out their bones and either preparing for, or actually laying. A pullet is by no means fully matured when she starts to lay. It needs ample food to com- plete its development. For best results, how- ever, pullets, should not be unduly forced to begin laying early. Indeed, it is often disadvantageous to delay laying somewhat by frequently changing the pullets’ quarters. This is the only method that can be practiced with safety. It will not do to withhold food. This statement has special applica- tion to the temperature, for as the weather grows colder, larger and larger quantities of feed, es- pecially all the carbonaceous kinds, is used to main- tain the heat of the body. For this reason corn should be given more liberally, and kale, cabbage, alfalfa, clover, etc., should be given without stint. By proper management, egg production may con- tinue without interruption during even extremely cold weather, but, in order to maintain the flow of eggs, the hens must be protected as indicated else- where, against sudden change. Properly housed fowls will usually lay well no matter what the char- acter of weather, provided the poultryman is deft 148 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION in offsetting excessive fluctuations of temperature and moisture. Because large quantities of car- bonaceous matter are used in maintaining the heat, a carbonaceous ration may be better for egg pro- duction during very cold weather than a nitrog- enous one. This will be gathered from the discus- sion in the chapter on feeding, but it needs to be emphasized here. So much carbonaceous matter is used up to maintain the heat of the fowl that there should be still enough surplus of protein to meet the demands of egg laying. SPRING AND SUMMER CARE This matter is of great importance, because, as a rule, the poultryman is likely to overlook the fact that hens lay more naturally in the spring than during the winter and, therefore, he may jump to the conclusion that his method of feeding is correct, whereas it may be positively detrimental to his best interests. For this reason, it is best that hens be allowed to become broody in early spring, so that they may have a rest of a few weeks. They will be all the better for hatching a brood of chicks and can be brought back into laying condition again even while they are running with their broods. Of course, this remark does not apply to the Mediter- ranean and other laying classes. Laying hens should invariably be given the utmost care to keep them in prime condition. This cannot be too strongly emphasized. During the summer, hens usually take a rest from laying, but there will still be individuals in the flock that continue, and proper feeding will keep them in laying condition. Large numbers of eggs, however, must not be expected. EGG PRODUCTION 149 Plenty of shade should be provided during this time and the houses kept as open as possible so as to be cool and comfortable for roosting. Where it is not convenient to have the hens run in orchards or small fruit plantations, convenient shade may be provided by quick-growing annuals such as sunflowers, corn, vines of various kinds or artificial shelters made of canvas, illustrated on other pages. During the heat of the day they should be encouraged to occupy these quarters, and dur- DOUBLE POULTRY HOUSE AND RUN The run may have canvas top and back or wood, as pre- ferred. It should be removable, so houses may be used in sum- mer for colony coops if desired. ing the mornings and evenings take other exercise. At these times the feeds of grain may be given, the mash feed at noon, except where hopper feed- ing is the method practiced. About midday also they should be given other green feed, unless they are at range. As a general proposition, it may be said that fowls do best when given plenty of space to forage in. Since green feed is more or less cooling, it may be given twice a day in the hottest weather. At all times during the summer there should be abundant pure water always where the hens can reach it. Milk, as much as the hens will drink, is 150 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION always acceptable, especially during hot weather. It should not, however, take the place of water. During the hot weather, too, the corn part of the ration should be reduced even to total exclusion. When hens cease laying unduly early in the summer, when managed in the usual way, these should be culled out and managed differently from SIDE HILL POULTRY HOUSE Lower floor, a scratching shed; upper, for laying, roosting, etc. the balance of the flock. Asa rule, a heavy laying ration, with reduced exercise, may start them lay- ing again. Those that do not begin within a rea- sonable timé should be marketed, and even the ones that lay for only a few weeks and then BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK HEN LIGHT BRAHMA COCK EGG PRODUCTION I5r stop, should also be sold. Only the ones that show a willingness to continue laying should be kept. It may be taken as a general rule that it is not desirable to part with a hen so long as she will lay a profitable number of eggs. She will pay for her keep as long as she lays. AUTUMN CARE OF LAYERS When making up the flock in the fall, the hens that began laying earliest and laid best with the least fussing should be chosen first. Next to this should come the hens that did best during the sum- mer. It is a much disputed question whether pullets or hens do best as layers. Many poultry- men claim that pullets are superior and, therefore, the more profitable, but there is nothing decided on this subject. Many egg farmers get excellent egg yields from hens two to four years old—fully as good as from pullets. Because of this fact, it is evident there is much in the method of management and in the breeding. For this reason the statement may be repeated—not to part with a hen so long as she lays well. A hen on the nest is worth two pullets in the field. GENTLENESS AFFECTS EGG YIELD Probably few things work so much against the well being of the fowls as excitement, due to rough handling or to fear from any cause. At no time should the fowls be unnecessarily excited. Often the entrance of a dog or a cat or visitors in the pens will disturb the fowls, so these should be kept out as much as possible. Fowls on free range are not so likely to be disturbed because they get 152 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION around and see the world more. At all times the attendant should avoid making sudden motions, calling loudly, or otherwise startling the fowls. He should always control his temper and try to govern even the most annoying fowls without force. It is desirable to enter the pens as quietly as possible and even to presage entrance by making some noise such as low whistling, so the hens will know that he is approaching. When it is necessary to carry some unfamiliar object among the flock, this should be done gradually. Even the wearing of a different style of suit than usual, especially if this is of some gaudy color, will disturb the fowls until they are accustomed to it. Hens, especially laying hens, become attached to their quarters. They, therefore, should not be un- necessarily moved because this also affects the lay- ing, whether from homesickness or what is purely speculative, but the fact is the egg yield often suf- fers. Where it is absolutely necessary to make a change, this should be done with the least possible disturbance, preferably by driving the fowls gently to the new quarters. When hens must be handled or carried, this should always Aa be done at night and the y Pra fowls should be held gently with the hand beneath the breast; never by the feet. CE noeE No more than two fowls should be carried at a time in this way—one under each arm. If a considerable num- ber must be moved at a time, they must be placed in coops and so carried. HN Prevents fowls soiling feed. EGG PRODUCTION 153 BROODINESS IS CHARACTERISTIC of hens of the so-called general purpose breeds. It is not necessarily dependent upon the condition of the hens nor is it certainly dependent upon the method of feeding, though both of these may have some influence. It is a popular notion that fat hens. become broody because of their fat. This is not necessarily so, though it is a fact that hens fed liberally on grain often do go broody, but so they do without just as often. It may be taken as. axiomatic that hens will go broody when they want to, whether fat or lean. Occasionally it is reported that a hen dies on the nest and the poultryman asks why. Investigation generally shows that these hens were sick before they started to sit. Such hens should not be given an opportunity to sit. Their condition should be noted by the poultryman and they should be brought back to health by rational management. Hens kept mainly for producing eggs often annoy the poultryman by persistent broodiness. They . should, therefore, be culled out and never used for , breeders. In otherwise normal hens, broodiness may be broken when necessary. It is, however, usually an advantage to allow the hens to hatch broods, since this gives them a rest from laying. Hens of the general purpose varieties usually lay better during the molt than hens of the noted egg breeds. These egg layers generally take a long rest, the sitters two or three short ones. In order to break up broodiness, one of the quickest ways is to confine the hens with a reserve male in a pen where there are no nests. While so confined, the hens should be fed well on an egg ration. This 554 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION ‘method is more effective, as a rule, than the com- mon way of confining hens in a slatted coop above the floor. Often the hens will begin to lay within a week or ten days. Under no condition should starving be practiced. It is not only cruel, but it is not effective and the poultryman who practices it pays the penalty by injuring the laying proclivities of the hen. RECORD OF SIX HUNDRED HENS Among the questions for the poultryman to answer are: When fowls are kept in large numbers what is the average egg production? How much does it cost for feed? How much for labor to care for them? What per cent of the fowls die each year? How should fowls be fed and handled so as to give the greatest net profit, the cost of feed, the cost for feeding, the egg production and the mor- tality all being taken into consideration? These questions Professors Stewart and Atwood of the West Virginia experiment station have sought to answer by keeping a record of a flock of 600 Single Comb White Leghorn pullets for one full year. ‘The pullets were brought in from the colony houses which they had occupied during the summer and placed in a long laying house. This house was of the curtain-front, shed-roof type, 180 feet long and 16 feet wide and divided by solid board partitions into nine compartments each 20 feet long. The middle compartment was reserved as a feed room. The curtain-front house is dis- tinguished by an opening, preferably facing the south or east, which, on cold nights in winter and in stormy weather, may be closed by a framework EGG PRODUCTION 155 covered with canvas or duck. This curtain is pref- erably hinged at the top and when not in use can be swung up to the roof and hooked out of the way. A few months after the test began the dirt floors in the houses were covered with cement. The house was constructed of rough oak boards and 2 \ i “y y a ee. SELF-CLOSING GATE Hither springs or weights may be used. roofed with three-ply tarred roofing paper. The contract price for erecting was $200, and the house complete cost about $700. The average weight of the pullets when the test began was 2.53 pounds, and the average age about five months, consequently many were not old enough to lay at the beginning of the experiment, and few eggs were obtained during the first two months. The floors were covered with straw litter 150 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION in which the whole grain, consisting of corn and wheat, was scattered. Ground feed was fed dry in hoppers which were constantly open to the fowls. (The dry mash consisted of a mixture of cornmeal, wheat bran, wheat middlings, oil meal and beef scrap. On pleasant fall and winter days the fowls were allowed to run outside the house in one large flock where they had free range. Amount and Cost of Feed Consumed Pounds Cost Corn meal ....sscccccoes Ws) Sai Rinie-s, o3e'e: wreveyeyare 3,441 $42.88 Wheat Dran ...ccccccccresscccccvccssccces 71.74 Wheat middlings = ‘| 39.82 Oil meal .......00- Fiat 18.72 Wheat ....cscvee . 152.21 COMM ees a eisvaveere wie'e ee ; 103.81 Beef Scrap ..cccccceee ; 57.70 Green cut bone...... 1.33 Ensilage ....... S 3.75 RYO a scaswieciersee 16.80 Ground oats .... aes 5.73 Oyster shell ........ i 8.30 Mica crystal grit 7.70 Skim MilK nc cece ccc eve vevcvevccreeccces 4.10 Total. ..cccccsvece a tetovauase/ siaveiat sheidrarsilets tee brecnalaw mens $534.59 The table shows that it cost $534.59 to feed the flock for the year, or an average of 89 cents a head. ‘The fowls consumed 36,296 pounds of grain, beef scrap and ground fresh meat and bone, or an average of 60 pounds a head; also an average of about 5 pounds of oyster shell and grit. The highest egg production for any month was during March, when the fowls averaged 1634 eggs a head. After that month there was a gradual dropping off until the close of the test. The fol- lowing table shows the number of eggs produced during the year. The prices used in this calcula- tion are retail prices which prevailed in Morgan- town for strictly fresh eggs during period shown. EGG PRODUCTION 157 Number and Value of Eggs Produced eee Monthly Price on Total of Dozen Eggs a:Dazen Value 85 3-4 35 $ 30.01] 40 112.40 387 1-12 35 135.48 481 11-12 .30 144.58 231 7-12 30 69.47 125 3-4 -22 27.66 3- .20 91.95 737 11-12 -20 147.58 722 7-12 .20 144.51 295 11-12 -20 59.19 321 1-6 25 80.29 552 2-3 25 138.16 435 6-12 25 108.86 baa 72 1-2 +28 20.3 September 1-23. 264 .30 79.20 Bopesmber fs: 3916 2 i ae es ctober 1-7..... 6 S- 16.39 October Matt] $1542 { 82 1-4 40 32:90 Total : 4 DSSSPSSIGSSDHH9> H le.) I- CHICK MARKING Holes punched etween toes of newly hatched hicks. it out. There is not much danger of overfeeding after the chicks are 12 days old. From that time on it should be the object to have them eat the largest possible amount of proper feed. They grow rapidly 182 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION and need to be well nourished. The foodstuffs must be highly digestible and should furnish as nearly as possible every element needed by the system of the chick. Large amounts of the carbonaceous, ‘ or energy-giving material ) are needed, because the chick is a lively, energetic fellow; also an abundance of protein, the blood-build- ing, muscle and feather- making material, and enough of mineral matter to build bone and help the protein build the feathers. This is best secured in freshly cracked corn, a mix- ture of beef scrap and ace in OP SHOWS BY bean, on abundance -of green cut grass, sand ‘oyster shells, charcoal and crushed raw potatoes. TRIANGULAR COOP AND YARD REARING CHICKS WITH HENS A good beginning in rearing chicks with hens is to have a proper kind of coop, one with a remov- able floor bottom that can be easily cleaned and one that can be easily and securely closed at night to guard against the various kinds of night prowlers which may come around. The coop should be tight, so as to remain perfectly dry inside in wet weather. It should have a closed front, excepting an opening about 1 foat square in which is fitted a sliding wire screen door and also a tight floor if _ for early chicks. The coops should be placed on new ground, WHITE CHINESE GEESE AWALISVd NI ONILSAY SMONG NINAd REARING 183 either in a place which has not been used before or where the soil has been plowed or spaded. If this precaution is taken, together with the use of board floors and proper care, there may be no fear of gapes. The location should be in a good-sized yard with grass and some shade, or else at a little dis- tance from where the old flock is in the habit of running. To feed young chicks among a lot of hungry fowls is provoking, to say the least. An orchard is an excellent place to put the coops, as there they may have plenty of shade and plenty of range. It is advisable to watch the hatching closely when it is about time for the young to appear, so the chicks may be removed to a warm place and wrapped in flannel or cotton until the hens are ready to come off. If this is not done and the hatch is uneven, the mother hen may become rest- less and either trample some of the chicks to death or leave with some and cause the remainder to perish. If good coops have been provided the chicks may be placed there with the hen as soon as they are all out and dry and can walk. By this time they will begin to pick around for something to eat. Crumbs of stale bread may be given for a day or two. There are many things recommended for young chicks, and no one thing may be said to be best. A bread made by mixing three parts of corn meal, one part wheat bran and one part wheat middlings, baked until it is crumbly, and to which is added a little hard-boiled egg, is one of the best things for the first few days. After that chief reliance may be placed in a prepared chick food made up of cracked corn and various kinds of small grains. It is always ready and handy 184 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION to feed. Care must be taken to avoid overfeeding any kind of sloppy mixture,as much trouble has been caused in that way. After four days, if the ground is dry and there is warm sunshine, the old hen may be let out and allowed to take a hunt with her brood. There is nothing like a sensible mother hen to look after the wants of her young. She will scratch faithfully and find just the kind of grit, small seeds and grass conducive to the proper development of the baby birds. With good foraging ground, supplemented with good food, it will be pleasing to see how bright and smart the young chicks will be and how they will grow day by day. Of course, fresh water should be supplied them every day. When the mother hen is first turned out it is well to look after her and see that she gets back in her place before night. She may be found sitting on her brood in some corner, but if she is not wild it will be no trouble to get her to coop and in a night or two she will go to it of her own accord. CHICKENS IN HOT WEATHER If the best results are desired, growing chicks should have proper care and attention during the summer months. It is important that clean and comfortable quarters be provided for them. Coops so placed as to get the sun in the morning and shade in the afternoon will be found desirable. This will prevent the coop from getting so thor- oughly heated as to make it uncomfortable at night. Habit is strong in chicks which will return to an overheated or foul coop, when they should be in more comfortable and roomy quarters. They may REARING 185 not die, if left to themselves; they will probably take to the fences or trees to escape from such a coop, but for this lack of care in their owner’s part, they will pay the penalty in poor growth, lack of vigor and weakness, either at that time or later. PORTABLE COOP AND RUN Coop, raised during day. Triangular latch holds top up. It is well to remember that chicks grow fast, Dy ~d a coop that had been plenty large enough fch a brood when young will soon become too small, and overcrowding, and, in consequence, injury to health and growth will result. More room should be given at once if overcrowding is noticed, either by providing larger coops or dividing the broods. If coops and brooders are cleaned frequently little reason will be found to complain of that great pest, lice, which otherwise might be the cause of weak- ness and stunted growth. Not only is it important that the coops be kept clean, but the ground in their immediate vicinity should not be allowed to become foul. It will be found best to give growing chicks as 186 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION much range as possible. If necessary to confine them, have as large yards as can be provided. Chicks should be fed apart from the older fowls. If all are fed together they will be apt to get an insufficient amount of food and the older fowls will receive too much and, in consequence, become too fat. The chicks seem to get plenty of grain on account of their activity, but when one thinks that this activity is, in a great measure, caused by their having to dodge the pecks of older fowls, it will be seen that they are not allowed to pick up as much food as they have the appearance of doing. Regularity in feeding is another important matter. If chicks are fed at certain times when on free tange, it will be found that they will be near or about the feeding place at that time and all will share alike; whereas, if fed at any old time, some may have wandered off in search of bugs and in- sects and, therefore, miss their portion. After a certain age a mash is a help to the de- velrpment of the growing chicks. If given for a change and in moderation, however, it will be found best to confine one’s self in the main to dry feed- ing as in the earlier stages of a chick’s life. One of the most important things to be con- sidered during the summer is the water supply. The water should be kept in some vessel or foun- tain that will prevent the chicks from walking in it, or else it should be changed frequently. The foun- tain should, of course, always be placed in a shady spot. Late chickens, when properly cared for, often make as nice fowls and lay nearly as soon as the earlier ones, as they have the advantage of settled warm weather and generally not so much dampness. REARING 187 Set the hens all in the same room or building, in which they can have a good dust bath every day, and which can be closed to make sure that all re- turn to their nests. Feed only corn and clean water and take them off at a regular hour each day. = U U eee Al i i Qo Ls = PORTABLE COLONY HOUSE Sills are runners, to which frame is bolted. Walls, tongue and groove siding. Floors tight. Ventilators and other open- ings screened to keep out rats, etc. Size 6x 8 feet, 6 feet high in front, 4 at back. Painted. Cost about $15. CARE OF LITTLE CHICKS ‘As the chickens hatch, remove them from under the hens every hour or two to make sure that none get trampled to death in the nest. When at least one day old, feed millet seed and oatflake five times a day and give clean water as often. One of the safest ways to vary this diet later is a johnnycake made of two parts cornmeal, one of middlings and a fourth part made up of oilmeal and meat scraps. Stir in some finely broken egg shells so that the food will not harden in the crop, and feed dry. 188 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION Have a board floor to the coop, so a heavy shower some night will not drown the chicks. Always close the coop tightly at night to exclude rats. After the chicks are a week old let the hen out with them every day a few hours while it is dry. Never turn them out in the mornings until all dampness has left the ground. A few days before hatching rub sulphur thor- oughly through the hen’s feathers and sprinkle it in the nests. When the chicks are two days old examine them for lice. Unless accustomed to this, one may decide that a poor little chick which really is being eaten alive with them is comparatively free from lice. It must be learned what to look for and how. The large gray louse is the most common. Dip the finger in kerosene and draw it first around the’ chick’s neck, next to the body. This will start the lice all on a run for the head, ears and under the bill. Follow them up with the oil and every one touched by it will be killed instantly. It is not necessary to saturate the down, and care must be exercised to get no oil in the ears or the eyes. This treatment will not hurt the chicken in the least. In 15 minutes he will be as dry and fluffy as ever if he is not allowed to run directly under the hen. That would prevent evaporation and he might get a blister. This is greatly to be preferred to kerosene mixed with some other grease, as that prevents rapid evaporation. Never grease the chicks under the wings, as they are too sensitive there. CHAPTER XI Market Methods Coops should be high enough to permit the poultry to stand easily upright without bending their legs and with space enough between slats to pass their heads through. The coops should be strong but light; heavy wood can be dispensed with if long nails are used. They should not be so large as to be awkward and cumbrous to handle. Where large coops are used they should have par- titions, so that when the coop is accidentally tilted the whole weight of poultry will not be thrown upon those at the side and end. The poultry should have plenty of room. Crowding too many into a coop causes loss by suffocation. Only one kind or size of poultry should be sent in a coop. All poultry reaching market the following day after shipment should be fed only lightly before being placed in the coop, so as to avoid any in- fringement of the law regarding food in the crops of poultry. Western and southern poultry is gen- erally shipped in carloads accompanied by a man to feed and water the fowls. The first day or two after the car starts the fowls should be fed lightly; after they have become accustomed to their new quarters the quantity of food may be increased with good results. Overfeeding on the start makes the fowls dumpish and sick, from which they do not recover on the journey. The rule of New York is to let the coops go with the poultry free. Where the patent wire cars are used either new or second 189 190 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION hand coops are furnished at the shipper’s expense. The principal market days are from Monday to Thursday inclusive. There is seldom much trade on Friday or Saturday. Shipments of live poultry are seldom made dur- ing cold weather. They do not pay well then be- cause they compete with dressed fowls. April to October is the usual season. Live poultry should pay as well as dressed, especially if the shipper has little or no skill in dressing. MARKING AND SHIPPING For the best results the cover of every pack- age should be plainly and neatly marked with the gross weight and tare, or number of dozens, pairs, or pieces of and the kind of contents, whether broil- ers, roasters, ducks, etc. The name, initials, or shipping mark of the shipper and the address of the firm to which the packages are sent should also appear. Where large lines of goods are shipped, simpler marks may be used by agreement. The shipper should always get receipts from the trans- portation company, and send immediately full ad- vices by mail, with correct invoice of shipment. When poultry and game are forwarded by express, put a letter of advice in one of the packages, and mark plainly on the outside, “ Bill,” advising by mail also. Nothing is so vexatious to a commis- sion house as the receipt of consignments not prop- erly marked and advised. Every shipper who designs to make a business of forwarding good articles should have a brand or mark of his own. Thus he may establish a reputation for his goods. Perishable articles should be shipped so as to arrive not later than Friday morning. MARKET METHODS 19l None but very neat packages, as light as is con- sistent with carrying the contents perfectly, should be used. In a lot of goods all the packages should be of uniform size, shape and style. In shipping articles that require air, ventilation must be pro- vided. When articles are sold by the package only standard size should be employed. DRESSED POULTRY The great end to aim at is to have the poultry reach market in perfect order—firm, bright and sound—and that it may present as handsome ap- pearance as possible. There is almost always abundance of stock of inferior quality and unat- tractive appearance, the value of which would have been greatly increased by more care and attention to details in preparing for shipment. Shippers who get their goods to market in uniformly fine order, and whose study of all the details of killing, dress- ing and packing result in uniformly fine quality, soon acquire a reputation for their goods among buyers. This is of great value to shipper and buyer. An ordinance in force in New York prohibits the sale of all turkeys and chickens the crops of which are not free from food. This law makes it impera- tive that poultry should be kept from solid food long enough before killing to insure the crops being empty. It is best to keep from food 12 to 24 hours before killing, but during this time the poultry should have plenty of water. In case any fowl should be found to have food in the crop after kill- ing this food should be removed by making a clean- cut incision in the back of the neck and the contents worked out under the skin. Never try to force the ‘192 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION food out through the mouth, as this is likely to cause discoloration. There are two methods of dressing—dry pick- ing and scalding. As a general rule the chickens, fowls and turkeys that command the highest prices are dry picked. But by no means do all dry-picked Jots sell higher than scalded. Lean poultry always looks much thinner when dry picked than when scalded and plumped, and thin poultry commands more when scalded than when dry picked. For this teason chickens and turkeys should be dry picked only when very fat and of fine quality. Ducks and geese should always be scalded. The method of packing poultry for shipment depends upon the weather and the purpose of the shipper. Stock intended to be frozen for future use is always packed dry. That intended for im- mediate shipment and use may be packed dry or in ice, but should be packed dry only after settled cold weather. SELECTION OF STOCK FOR MARKET For market no poultry should be killed which is not of reasonably good size and in good condition. Small, thin, framy turkeys, such as are often received very early in the season, are always a drug in the mar- ket and are unprofitable. Even in September, none which weighs less than 7 pounds should be dressed, and later 8 pounds should be the bottom limit. Spring chickens should never be killed before they attain a weight of at least 1 pound. This size is profitably salable only very early in the season; as soon as supplies become at all liberal, 114 pounds. This weight should be the bottom limit. MARKET METHODS 193 Spring ducks should be kept back until almost full grown. Commission houses receive full-grown spring ducks from the great duck farms very early in the season, and these bring high prices. West- ern packers, seeing the high quotations for these, often send very small, young ducks about the weight of broiling chickens. Such are usnalable at any reasonable price. Spring ducks are never used to broil, always to roast, and there is no call whatever for stock weighing less than 3 pounds. KILLING AND DRESSING Immediately after killing, the feathers must be carefully and very cleanly removed, taking especial pains to avoid tearing the skin. When dry-picked poultry is to be packed dry for cold-weather ship- ment it should be hung up head down in a cold place (but not cold enough to freeze), and left until thoroughly cold and dry. Any animal heat left in the body when packed, and any moisture on the skin, is sure to cause bad condition in a short time. When the dry-picked poultry is to be packed in ice for warm-weather shipment it should be thrown into water of natural temperature and left there for 15 to 20 minutes, then removed to ice water, _where it should remain eight to ten hours, when it will be ready to pack. For scalding, the water should. be just at the boil- ing point, but not actually boiling. The birds held by legs and head should be immersed and lifted in the water three or four times. Immediately after scalding chickens and turkeys remove the feathers, pin-feathers and all, very cleanly and without break- ing the skin. After scalding wrap ducks and geese 194 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION immediately in a cloth for about two minutes; then the down will roll off with the feathers. All scalded poultry should be “plumped” after picking by dipping for about two seconds in very hot water—just under the boiling point—and _ then | thrown into cool water of the natural temperature, where it should remain for I5 or 20 minutes. When the scalded poultry is to be packed dry for cold- FRAME OF SHIPPING COOP weather shipment it should be taken from the first cold plumping water and hung up by the feet until thoroughly cold and dry; it will then be ready to pack. But when it is intended to pack in ice for warm-weather shipment, the poultry should be transferred from the first cold bath to another of colder but not ice-cold water and remain there for half an hour to an hour, after which it should be placed in ice water and left for eight to ten hours, when it will be ready to pack. I PACKING Barrels and cases hold- ing about 200 pounds are COOP COMPLETE commonly used; the latter Frame and floor of light ee Material. Sides of strong are the best for turkeys Canvas. Size to accomme and geese. If any packing Whee ee is used it should be only clean, dry and hand-threshed wheat or rye straw. A layer of straw should be placed in the bottom of MARKET METHODS 195 the package, then alternate layers of poultry and straw, stowing very snugly, backs up and legs out straight, filling so full that the cover will draw down firmly upon the contents. Some successful shippers use no packing, filling the packages solidly full of poultry, but using waxed or parchment paper around the sides, bottom and top of the case or barrel and between the layers of poultry. If this method is adopted the utmost care should be taken to have every fowl perfectly dry before packing. The use of straw packing is generally preferred and is considered safe, unless goods are destined for storage. All blood remaining about the mouth and head should be removed with a damp cloth. For shipment in ice only poultry or sugar barrels should be used; if the latter, they should be thor- oughly washed with hot water to remove all traces of sugar. A layer of cracked ice is placed in the bottom of the barrel and alternate layers of poultry and ice until the package is nearly full. Over the top layer of poultry a layer of cracked ice is also placed, then a piece of burlap and again a layer of cracked ice, topped off with a large chunk of solid ice, fastened in place with a piece of burlap secured under the top hoop. The poultry breasts are down and. backs up, with legs out straight toward the center of the barrel, making a ring of fowls side by side around the staves, backs sloping inward so that the next layer of ice will work in between the poultry and the staves. The middle of the layer may be filled in with the fowls at will. Poultry frozen during the winter for later use should always be dry picked. Only the very choicest goods should be selected for this purpose, and extraordinary care must be taken that the stock 190 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION be thoroughly cold and dry when packed. The: treatment varies according to circumstances of weather, etc. Probably the best results are ob-| tained when the stock can be frozen by natural out- ‘door temperature. But in seasons and localities where this is impossible the freezer may be used successfully. Only cases of planed, well-seasoned lumber should be used. For old tom turkeys the ,size in popular use is 36 by 22 by 18 inches, and for young toms 36 by 22 by 15 inches; these should -be of inch lumber. For chickens, ducks and geese the size is 30 by 20 by about Io inches, or deep enough to allow for two layers, made of 54-inch lumber. Two layers of poultry should be packed in each case. The poultry is stowed snugly and closely so as to present as regular and handsome appearance as possible. Turkeys should be packed backs up and legs out straight. Chickens and ducks and geese should have the breasts down on the bottom layer and up on the top layer. Old toms should be packed separately, never with young toms and hens. Old fowls and young chickens should never be packed together, Each should be packed separately. COLD-STORAGE POULTRY AND EGGS When stock is frozen in natural outdoor tem- perature the cases may be filled at once when the. thermometer is below zero, but if above zero only one layer should be frozen at a time. No packing |material whatever should be used and the packer ,should be sure to protect from wind while freezing. , When frozen solid the stock should be put away \and kept where it will not thaw out, preferably in, MARKET METHODS 197 cold storage. When the poultry is to be frozen artificially the cases may be filled full and placed at once in the freezer. In this case it is well to construct the cases so that a slat in the sides of j the box may be removed and left off until the stock is frozen solid. The quicker the freezing the better. In the freezer the cases should be separated by slats to permit free DETAILS OF LATCH circulation of air around them. Some packers get excellent results by freezing poultry separately and packing after. Some of the very finest frozen poul- try is handled in this way at nearby points, and is not packed at all | until ready for market, when it is packed in straw and shipped for immediate sale before warm weather. But for large lots which have to be placed in storage again upon ar- rival in market, it is best to pack in LATCH FOR DOOR OR GATE Z- CASES before free Oak handle, 8x2x1 inches; latch, 5x1 ing. x% inches; catch, 8x2x% inches. One- : : inch hole in door for handle 3 inches While the Pptin- from edge of door. Hole %-inch in . Id handle for latch. Assemble parts and ciple of cold stor- peg together. 198 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION age is correct, its abuse is responsible for much un- fair discrimination against cold-storage eggs. Let it be granted that the cold-storage people are not in business for fun or to see how long eggs can be kept and still pass as eggs. They wish to make a profit. If eggs are not good when removed from storage these people must lose money because they can’t make sales. Experience has taught them that eggs can be kept in practically the same condition as when received, but storage does not improve the quality of eggs improperly handled before reaching the warehouse. Much of the trouble arises in the bad methods of handling before the eggs reach the warehouse. This largely occurs where eggs are held for a raise of prices. Wherever this is done, under ordinary cellar storage conditions, whether on the farm or in the country store, there is always deterioration. If this common storage and rehandling were eliminated, and were eggs put in cold storage with less delay after being laid, farmers would be able to command higher prices, because losses would be less serious, and the disfavor in which storage eggs are held would be largely reduced. It is to his interest, therefore, that the farmer devise plans for getting eggs to the nearest cold-storage ware- house, unless it is possible to develop a satisfactory local market for fresh eggs. In cold-storage warehouses poultry is kept con- tinuously at a temperature considerably below zero, even as low as 10 below. At such a temperature no changes occur, and the birds remain sweet and wholesome indefinitely. The meat of such fowls, if properly handled after removal from cold stor- MARKET METHODS 199 age, will be found unimpaired in flavor and indis- tinguishable from that of freshly killed birds. EGG MARKETING METHODS Selling eggs is one of the handiest ways to get a cash or trade return for farm produce, and wher- ever farmers can increase the efficiency of the ma- chinery which produces and handles eggs, they will put hard cash into their pockets. In Kansas, which may be taken as one of the typical egg-producing states, the methods in vogue are generally bad. In order to determine how im- provements could be made, A. G. Phillips sent a long list of questions to more than 70 egg handlers for comments. They _ repre- sented an estimated annual : == output of over 900,000 cases HEN GATE of eggs. Thirty-three of these men purchased by the opeine%o .£2te ee ate method called “case count” 22¢ {swing shut when the year round. Forty do not. By case count is meant that eggs are counted just as they are received. During hot weather, that is between July and September, the usual plan is to buy “loss off;” though some buy in this way from May until December. The term “loss off” means that inferior and cracked eggs are not paid for. When eggs are bought in the loss-off way, a dif- ference of I to 5 cents in price is made, the average being about 2 cents. During the hottest month 58 buyers purchased 100,000 cases or more. During that month the 200 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION usual run of “rots” is from Io to 20 per cent, though some buyers who have a superior trade report 5 per cent, and others who have an in- ferior trade, 75 per cent loss, due to spoiled eggs. During the period when buyers purchase in the case-count way, 57 buyers reported a loss of from one to three dozen to the case, and only seven men reported a smaller loss. The average is at least two dozen to a case for the year round. _ Of the more than 70 buyers 69 say that they ‘could afford to pay a higher price if they did not have to allow for these losses, and not one of them says he could not afford to pay a higher price. The advance in price ranges from I to § cents and aver- ages 2 cents. Sixty-eight men say that the usual run of eggs they buy is of only fair quality, and 37 report that the cause of spoiled eggs is due to the farmers not giving the eggs proper care. Thirty- three say that both farmers and storekeepers are to blame because they hold for higher prices. Twenty-three buyers declare that they could afford to buy loss off the year round, but 4o claim they could not. The ayes say that it would be jus- tice to all, that they would get a better grade of eggs and the farmers would get more money. The nays say that competition prevents, that the eggs are good enough in winter, that they have no mar- ket for seconds, that the farmers are dissatisfied and that hot weather prevents. Sixty-three buyers say that if a farmer or a community of farmers iwould follow instructions as to the kind of eggs best to sell and would ship only first-class eggs, they could afford to pay a premium upon the eggs above the regular price. Only five buyers claim MARKET METHODS . 201 that they could not. The price ranges from I to 5 cents, with an average of 2 cents. HOW TO IMPROVE EGG MARKETING Buyers offer many suggestions as to the way farmers should handle eggs for market. Farmers | should be less intentionally careless; they should | not wash the eggs; they should keep eggs not, strictly fresh at home; they should market their | eggs frequently; should learn the difference in price. that could be obtained for good eggs over bad ones; carefulness in details should be practiced ; | the nests should be kept clean; the eggs kept in a’ dry place and covered when being brought to town; the cocks should be disposed of at the end of the breeding season; the eggs should be gathered fre-' quently, and be graded; and that farmers should recognize that when they trade eggs with the mer-' chant, they are doing so almost always at a loss. | From the foregoing answers it is evident that there is considerable loss of money to farmers each year. One year, to use Mr. Phillips’ figures, when the output was 146,381,180 dozens of eggs marketed, an average loss of two dozen rots to the case would mean a total loss of 9,758,745 dozen eggs. These were irretrievable losses, partly on account of carelessness. This number does not in- clude eggs classed as seconds. There is not the least doubt that 50 per cent of the rotten eggs could be eliminated, and if this were done, taking eggs at 16 cents a dozen, a fair average price for the year, the farmers of Kansas would have saved nearly $780,700; the complete elimination of bad eggs would increase the income by over $1,500,000. | If | 202 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION the second-class eggs could be sold as first-class, a very considerable additional sum could also’ be saved. No one viewing these figures can fail to see the advantage of taking the trouble to adopt better methods. It is hardy reasonable to expect anyone to im- prove his business conditions unless he can realize a financial benefit therefrom. Everyone likes to produce the best of anything. But if he can make more by selling an inferior grade, it is natural and reasonable that he should do so. In the matter of handling eggs, however, improve- ments mean more profit and should, therefore, be made. ‘Three ways are open whereby poultry raisers may market eggs: First, by selling to the buyer who either ships without grading or candles and disposes of the stock according to quality. By SUSPENDED ROOST this method a producer is able to take advantage of the intense competition generally present among local buyers that raises general prices until some merchant complains that prices are too high to leave any profit after the eggs have been candled. WILL IT PAY TO IMPROVE Number one eggs which farmers bring every week should command more than older eggs. At present they do not, and the tendency is to let the care of the eggs slide. The average increase would be 1% to 2 cents a dozen. If the average Kansas hen produces I00 eggs in a year, the farmer who MARKET METHODS 203 keeps 200 hens would thus gather 20,000 eggs yearly. If one-fourth of these were consumed at home, 15,000 or 1,250 dozen, would still be salable. A premium of 2 cents a dozen on this lot would mean $25. Whether this amount would be worth the slight trouble taken to secure it is, of course, a matter for each individual to decide for himself. The way to get the buyer to pay a premium is a question to be decided. If the storekeeper will not do it he should lose the trade and the farmer should ship to a nearby large buyer who will be willing, even glad, to get this trade, and he will treat his customers in the best possible way so as to hold it. Such a buyer will probably quote market prices only until he is satisfied that the quality is as represented. Then he can be made to pay the desired premium. There is no reason why several farmers in a community should not ship eggs together in lots of 15 dozen or more and work up a business large enough to make a buyer want to hold their trade. CO-OPERATIVE POULTRY ASSOCIATIONS could easily be managed where hens are numerous enough to make a profit for all concerned. The following suggestions will be of benefit to such Prospective associations. A number of farmers who are interested enough to stick together should form an association and should maintain their com- pact whether they lose a little or not. It is char- acteristic of buyers to try to break up such organ- izations by various tricks, and farmers are too prone to condemn organization hastily ; that is, before they 204 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION have given it a thorough trial. After they have passed over the first rough water and are living up to their agreements, keeping their grades well, they can make money if properly managed. They should be organized under a simple constitution, which shall give the name, object, membership dues, officers and their duties, meetings and rules. Under the rules. should be given the grades of eggs and of poultry and the proper way to handle, mark and market. The co-operative system can be made highly suc- cessful, even in small communities. Another way that farmers can market eggs to advantage is to sell at retail or at a slight premium to a hotel or a restaurant, where large quantities are in demand and yet where high quality is sought to cater to an exacting table. A farmer who keeps 300 White Leghorns says that this method of sup- plying one good restaurant netted him a clear profit of over $1 a hen during a year. The third method is to sell to a private trade by peddling to small customers and selling at a premium. The best instance I know is that of R. P. Ellis, who does business in Brooklyn, N. Y. Mr. Ellis has not only worked up a considerable trade, but has been obliged to associate several farmers with himself in order to supply the in- creasing demand for his output. His method is based on the general principle that the nearer the producer can get to the actual consumer the higher he can sell, because he can eliminate most of the middlemen. Besides this, the sooner the egg can be placed on the consumer’s table after being laid and the more pleasing its appearance, the better will be the price. A controlling factor in all marketing is the dis- MARKET METHODS 205, tance the consumer is from the source of supply. In large cities where eggs are purchased from grocers after being handled by wholesalers, com- mission men, shippers and country gatherers the prices which really fresh eggs bring are consider- ably higher than in the small towns. It stands to reason that if the purchaser can raise chickens in the country and can grow much of the food they need and then sell his eggs in the large city direct to the consumer he will get the maximum profit. Because of the co-operative ar- rangement Mr. Ellis has made with farmers asso- ciated with him, all clear about $2.50 a hen an- nually, whereas $1 a hen is the general estimated income on most egg farms. The rules under which their operations are made may be summarized as follows: Eggs must be spotlessly clean and of uniform size and color. This means that all the laying stock must be pure bred, of the same breed, for in no other way can uniformity be secured. For this purpose the White Leghorn stands pre-eminent. The representative or salesman must be patient and courteous with the skeptical, and willing to submit produce to a comparative test, confident of the outcome. The price is never cut to secure a customer. It is well to have a scale of prices printed on the inside of the cover of the egg box, stating what will be charged each month of the year. The salesman is always politely indifferent to the current prices on eggs, and tactfully makes. people feel that the eggs he sells are in a class by themselves. They really are a superior article. The producer believes in himself and in his product. Faith is the essence of all salesmanship. = em an ~ "1ay}BeM plod UY W1s}shS suyeip Snid ysn[wT “7Q3]1 18 AOPISAO PIBAMO} [IBZ INSTIS 7391 18 CATA. yeou Aq posvuBul Ul9}SAS BUlI9}VA OIN}Bey upeyL ASNOH AXLINOd AO NOILOUS-SSOYD MO14 “NT nes il il -. tT! a ay Mt ee EE ee / De pan MO13-43A0 Nn, SIV ONUANING JANWA INOT4 Teal ISIN FF QYuVOEd SNIddOY | = = Is00u ic ON N3d VON N3d Se | ee in TL IL ] MARKET METHODS 207: The eggs are boxed and delivered in a style and manner befitting the pre-eminence claimed for them. Broken-down wagons and worn-out horses do not inspire the public with an abiding faith in the pro- gressiveness of any concern. Much as some may despise it, appearance counts for a great deal in modern business advertising, especially in large cities, where an individual cannot expect to be: widely known. HONESTY ESSENTIAL TO SUCCESS It is necessary to be honest and not to be tempted. to abuse the people’s confidence. Customers are always given what they pay for, and their orders, great or small, are accorded marked personal atten- tion. There is too little courtesy on the part of tradespeople; hence it is the salesman’s cue to be different. Should he, therefore, run short of eggs, he never substitutes. Grocers do that. Mr. Ellis has a neatly printed postal notice in which he cour- teously regrets that the hens are not doing quite as well just now, and that he cannot fill the regular order when due, but that on such and such a date he will deliver. He leaves blanks on the cards to be filled in with dates. This pleases customers, who may be relying on getting eggs and impresses them that such eggs are not always obtainable, and hence most desirable. There is a lot in this. It is equally necessary to be square with the as- sociate farms. Only mutual interest can keep them together. The success of one means benefit to all, and the failure of one works an injury to all. Those who handle the selling should not seek to “hog” the profit a good private trade yields. Pass most of it along where it belongs, to the producer! ] 208 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION The matter of drivers of delivery wagons should receive careful attention. Mr. Ellis did not take a driver similar to the average grocery delivery boy, but has a uniformed man, or young fellow, equal in intelligence and manner to the best deliveries in the city. It pays. He pays a salary and a com- mission on all eggs delivered. This nets the de- liveryman between $18 and $25 a week. It pays in the end. A discourteous, untidy deliveryman will spoil a good many dollars’ o” worth of advertising in one day. The men who Cloth on rollers passes make the maximum pay firm when cloth moves." do it by securing a few new customers each week. and the commission paid them on these is much less than cost of securing a customer by publicity. The business done is strictly cash. His prices EGG-TURNING TRAY ‘run from 40 to 60 cents, averaging 47.8 cents to the consumer. He finds that boxing and delivering, ,which includes other labor, such as bookkeeping and necessary correspondence, cost 5 cents a dozen. He is spending regularly 5 cents a dozen ‘on advertising, which in greater New York is a ‘very expensive thing. For instance, street car ad- \vertising costs $5 a day for 400 cars, or $150 a month, and 400 cars barely represent the number running into one depot. In the advertising ex- pense is included the cost of canvassing the pros- pective customers who answer advertisements. The proprietor himself attended to this until the busi- ness grew beyond him, when he made a careful selection of a representative. MARKET METHODS 209 There are over 200 cities in the United States with a population exceeding 25,000. In each of these a profitable private egg trade can be estab- lished. What Mr. Ellis is accomplishing others can do. The associated farms net between 30 and 50 cents a dozen the year round. They average better than 37 cents a dozen, 3 cents an egg, the year round. PRESERVATION OF EGGS The following precautions are suggested by G. H, Lamson, Jr., of Connecticut: Keep the whole flock of hens in as perfect a state of health as pos- sible. Give enough shell-forming food to form strong shells of uniform thickness. Make proper nesting places and keep nests clean, so eggs may not be infected while in the nests. Gather the eggs each day and keep them in a cool, dry room or cellar where the sun’s rays do not fall directly upon them. Use only clean eggs and place them in the preservative within 24 hours after they are laid. Preserve only April, May and early June eggs. As to methods of preserving undoubtedly cold storage at a temperature of 34 degrees is the best and practically the only method used commercially. But it is too expensive to be practiced on a small scale. Formerly dry methods such as packing in grain or salt were used, but these are no longer recommended, as the eggs lose much of their moisture by evaporation. Among the liquid preservatives, water glass has been very generally and successfully used because it is reliable, easily prepared and comparatively 210 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION cheap. Water glass can be bought at most drug stores for $1 or $1.25 a gallon. A gallon will make 1o gallons of preserving fluid. Eggs have been kept in this mixture for three or four years with- out developing an unpleasant taste or smell, but when kept any longer the yolk becomes pink and very liquid. The white coagulates in the usual manner in cooking. To preserve eggs by this method, a cellar should be used where the temperature does not go above FENCE PROTECTS COOPS AT NIGHT 60 degrees. Any clean water-tight receptacle will do; kegs or stone jars are commonly used. Each receptacle should be scalded thoroughly two or three times to make sure that it is perfectly clean. The preserving fluid should be made from water that has been boiled and allowed to cool. This is mixed at the rate of nine parts water to one of water glass, and thoroughly stirred. The quantity needed for each receptacle should be mixed in that receptacle so as to insure the proper strength of solution, When mixed in one and then poured into several others there is a likelihood of getting different strengths. It is desirable to label each crock or keg with MARKET METHODS 2It the date the eggs are put down. When filled the receptacle should be kept out of the sun’s rays and covered with loose boards. Water should be added from time to time to supply the loss by evaporation and to keep the eggs always beneath the surface. The preservative never should be stirred. When desired for use, the June eggs should be taken first, May eggs next, and April eggs last, because their keeping qualities are different. If eggs are to be sold they should be washed. One man who has practiced. preserving on an extensive scale found that the eggs cost 15 cents a dozen to produce as an average. His market price was 18 cents during spring. The margin of 3 cents profit did not appeal to him, so when eggs came down to 18 cents in March he began preserv- ing. He used only the eggs produced by his own flock. By Thanksgiving time when eggs are sell- ing at 50 and 60 cents a dozen in Boston, he sold these eggs as “storage extras” at an average of 32 cents a dozen, some as high as 40 cents. As the eggs were all produced by his own hens, he could guarantee the quality. This is very im- portant. The cost of storing was about $2 for 200 dozen. Had these eggs been sold in March at 18 cents they would have brought only $36. By preserving they brought $64, or an apparent net gain of $28. There is, however, another way to look at this which is even more startling. As the average cost to make the eggs was 15 cents, at 18 cents there would have been only 3 cents a dozen profit, or only $6 on the 200 dozen. By holding until prices were high he actually made 17 cents a dozen instead of 3 cents, or a total profit of $34. 212 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION It would not be advisable to preserve eggs on @ large scale at first. There is a good deal to be learned before one can venture upon this business. The family supply will be enough to lay down as an experiment. After a year or two of experience and confidence will be soon enough to start pre- serving for the market. NEW YORK STATE EXPERIMENTS At the New York experiment station a number of methods that could be used with little expense on a small scale for preserving eggs, and also some modifications of these methods, show that na method of dry packing gives satisfactory results ‘whether the eggs are turned regularly or not. The best results were secured by keeping the eggs immersed in solutions either of lime, lime and salt, lwater glass, from Io to 20 per cent solution, or a proprietary solution consisting largely of water glass. On the whole, preference is given to a solu- ition of lime and salt to which a little boracic acid was added of a specific gravity somewhat lower than that of eggs. The common materials can be cheaply obtained in pure condition, and the pre-, served eggs were easier to clean than those from more costly solutions which gave no better results. Though, of course, no preserved egg could grade with a fresh one, little difference in quality of eggs, as tested by many individuals, could be detected be- tween those preserved in the few efficient solutions.: EGG GATHERING Clean eggs always sell at higher prices than soiled ones. In order to secure them, eggs should \MARKET METHODS (213, be gathered at least'twice a“day; and oftener when the ground is muddy. This. applies especially to. the summer weather. Eggs quickly begin to decompose when the temperature is high and should, therefore, be removed as soon as pos- sible to a cool dark place. Fertile eggs begin to de- teriorate sooner than sterile ones; hence, unless needed ‘So for hatching, hens and pullets should be kept by ggapy For MOVING themselves. Fertile eggs, even when fresh laid, may be considered as already started in development. For this rea- son it is highly desirable that the eggs be gathered frequently, because the warmth of the bodies of several hens on the nest will hasten de-- velopment of the embryo, and if eggs are allowed to stay in the nest for several hours under such conditions they cannot be considered as strictly fresh. Until marketed, the clean, fresh eggs, frequently gathered, should be kept in a cool place. Even though this place is clean and cool and it is not dry, the eggs are likely to be injured by mold. If they become damp and then happen to touch colored material. they are likely to become stained. The best way of holding is to store the eggs in good egg cases in a cool, dry place above the floor. Prior to mar- keting, the eggs should be graded. All small, dirty,, stained eggs as well as those which have been in the incubator or which are doubtful or rotten should be removed. The small and dirty ones, if fresh, 214 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION are just as good as the large, clean ones, but they will not sell as well, and if sent to market will in- jure the price which would be paid for large eggs. Large eggs, among which small ones are mixed, will sell for the price of the small ones and the buyer, after grading, will sell the large ones at advanced prices and the small ones for what he paid, or better. Therefore, small and soiled eggs should be used at home. Never should eggs be washed, because washing injures the keeping qualities. Every egg from a stolen nest, unless its freshness PORTABLE COOP AND RUN Packing case coop and wire fence covered run. is unquestionable, should either be thrown away or used at home. The man who wishes to build up a trade cannot afford to risk his chances by letting any such eggs go to market. Eggs handled as suggested should be marketed two or three times a week, oftener if convenient. When so many MARKET METHODS 215 trips cannot be made, it is well to co-operate with some neighbor to go on alternate days. In autumn and spring, eggs should be marketed not less fre- quently than once a week. It is bad policy to hold eggs in the hope of ad- vancing prices. Evaporation always takes place and the chances are that the grade and the price will be lower than if the eggs are marketed at once; besides, the man who gets the reputation of mar- keting frequently will always command the respect of his buyers. In hot weather the cases should always be covered to protect them from the heat. N eee ua — ———————_—. =H z ———- = ————— —SS=S——= — SS KNOCK DOWN POULTRY HOUSES For tenant heuses, whose. sides, top, floors and roofs bolt together are convenient for moving from farm to farm. CHAPTER XII Essentials of Poultry Fattening Crate fattening of market chickens, which has recently been growing in popularity, can be carried on with profit by almost any farmer, says F. C. Elford of the Ontario experiment station. The work is simple; chickens gain in live weight 1% to 3 pounds and each can be sold for a much higher price than lean ones because they supply, weight for weight, three times as much edible meat and of superior quality. The breast meat is the most palatable part of the chicken, hence large-framed chickens with prominent breast bones cannot be satisfactorily fatted. The legs, largely composed of sinews, the meat of which is inferior, should form as small a proportion of the weight as prac- ticable. Feathers on the legs are an objection, also black or dark-colored shanks and any develop- ment of the spur in cockerels. Color is secured by feeding mashes, composed mainly of ground oats and skim milk. Smallness of bone, head and comb, and a minimum of offal, are important requirements. Plump chickens of any weight up to 5 pounds each dressed are more readily disposed of than large fatted chickens; 4 pounds is the preferred weight. Early chickens should be marketed either as broilers, weighing 1 to 1% pounds each, or roasters, weighing 3 to 4 pounds. High prices are generally paid for such. _ In crate fattening pure-bred chickens make greater gains in live weight than scrubs, and the 216 ESSENTIALS OF POULTRY FATTENING 217, cost of feed for a pound of gain is less. At four months, the pure breeds are fatted, of uniform qual- ity and appearance and ready for market. At no age are scrub chickens as salable as pure breds. The type of fowls to be selected can be had in Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red and Buff Or- pington; or if preferred, in a medium sized fancier’s breed. Plymouth Rock or Wyandotte may not be satisfactory on account of great size, heavy bone, length of leg, or narrowness of body. Hence, it is of primary importance to have a definite concep- tion of the proper type to select. The breed is of secondary importance. DESIRABLE TYPE OF FOWL Table type fowls should conform to the follow-, ing standard: Mature weight, cock, 7 to 814 pounds ;' hen, 5% to 7 pounds; shape of body, broad, blocky and of medium length; breast, carried well for-| ward, full and broad, of medium depth; breast bone, long, straight, not deep nor pointed at the front; legs set well apart, short, stout, white or yellow, | without leg or foot feathering; head, medium size > comb and “wattles small; plumage, close feathered preferred; color not important; color of flesh un-. important. To have chickens plump and well fatted, at the’ most profitable age, they should be placed in fat- tening crates when three to four months old. This does not mean that chickens cannot be fatted prof- itably when more than four months old; suitable market chickens of any age will show gains. It is advisable to use fattening crates, but if only a smal? number of fowls are to be fatted, packing boxes of 218 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION suitable dimensions can be adapted for the purpose. In a series of experiments in fattening at the Canadian experimental farm, a gain of 214 pounds each was made in a total of over 350 birds of large and good breeds. The average cost for food con- sumed was 5% cents a pound of increase in live weight. The ground grain was valued at $1.20 for 100 pounds and the skim milk at 15 cents I00 pounds. Oats finely ground, or with the coarser hulls sifted out, should form the basis of all the grain mixtures; ground corn fed in excess results in yellow flesh of an inferior quality; ground peas impart an undesirable hardness to the flesh. Ground oats, buckwheat, barley and low-grade flour are the most suitable meals for fattening. FEEDS FOR FATTENING Some satisfactory meal mixtures are: 1. Two parts ground oats, two parts ground buck- ywheat, one part ground corn. 2. Equal parts ground oats, ground barley and ground buck- wheat. 3. Two parts ground barley, two parts low- grade flour, one part wheat bran. The ground meal should be mixed to a thin porridge with thick, sour skim milk or buttermilk. On the average, 10 pounds of meal require from 15 to 17 pounds sour skim milk. A small quantity of salt should be added to the mash. When sufficient skim milk or buttermilk cannot be obtained for mixing the ‘mashes, a quantity of animal and raw vegetable food should be added to the fattening ration. It is necessary to feed lightly the first week. A small quantity of the fattening food is spread along the troughs, and as this is eaten more food added, ESSENTIALS OF POULTRY FATTENING 219 but not as much as the chickens would consume. The food should be given three times a day, and, after feeding, the troughs cleaned and turned over. After the first week, feeding twice a day as much food as the birds will eat is practiced. Half an hour after feeding, the feed troughs should be cleaned and turned over. Water twice a day and grit two or three times a week should be supplied. Chickens should remain in the fattening crates not longer than 24 days. Some chicks will fatten more readily than others. These should be picked -out a week before finished and a little beef tallow,. shaved into the trough, given with the mash. About I pound tallow to 50 or 60 chickens daily, is. ample. Before being placed in the crates the chickens should be well dusted with sulphur to kill the lice, and again three days before being killed. Chickens should be starved 24 hours before killing to prevent food remaining in the crop and intestines ; such would decompose and spoil the flavor of the birds. Several hours after feeding give water. METHOD OF KILLING Sticking in the mouth is the usual method of kill- ing. The large arteries at the sides of the neck, just below the ears, are cut by a couple of quick motions inside. The blade is then forced through the roof of the mouth into the brain. This makes. plucking easier, since it relaxes the muscles. The bird must hang head down till plucked. As the bird hangs on a level with the operator’s chest, the wing is grasped between the thumb and first two fingers of the left hand, holding the neck between the third and little finger. The large wing feathers ‘220 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION are removed with the right hand, and also the stiff feathers at the shoulder joints. Tail feathers come | next, with one quick twisting motion. The right hand is then passed rapidly down the back, from rump to neck, removing the feathers with thumb and forefinger. The bird is then shifted to the right hand, and the left hand used in picking the soft feathers from the breast. If the sticking has been done properly the feathers will all come out easily. The bird is again held in the left hand while the feathers are quickly stripped except the upper 3 inches on the neck, the feathers on the outer joints of the wings and a narrow ring around the hocks. ' Shaping gives chickens a compact, plump appear- ance, and the returns received are greater than from those shipped rough and unprepared. The shaper is made by nailing two 7-inch boards together at right angles, so as to form a trough of 6 inches, inside measurement and of desired length. Assoon as the chicken is plucked, its legs are placed along- side its breast; then, with its breast downward, it is forced down into the angle of the shaper, covered with paper and a brick put on top to shape it, also one against its side to hold it in position. It is allowed to remain thus for at least six hours. After being thoroughly cooled and its skin being thor- oughly dried, the chicken should be packed. CHAPTER XIII Health and Sanitation It is the right of every creature to be healthy. Health is natural under normal conditions. Unless health is maintained, it will be impossible to suc- ceed in poultry raising. It should, therefore, be the object of every poultry raiser to keep his fowls in vigorous condition so that they may thrive and produce the marketable products sought. Probably the majority of failures in poultry keep- ing’ is due to neglect or disobedience of those natural laws upon which normal conditions of health depend. It is a thousand times more im- portant to understand and enforce these laws upon which health depends, than it is to be posted on poultry diseases. The truth of this statement is evidenced by the fact that the most successful poultrymen rarely have cases of disease in their establishments. When diseases do appear, they immediately hunt until they find the cause rather than dope the bird or birds and allow the bad practice or neglect to continue. Fowls may be considered to be in health when they have clear, bright red combs, are quick and active in their movements, have good appetites and when the organs of the body act in a normal way. From what has been said in previous pages as to management in breeding, feeding, housing, etc., it may be seen that diseases may result from bad methods of breeding, of feeding, of ventilation; from impure food, impure air, impure water; from 204 222 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION filth and from neglect of the comfort of fowls, es- pecially with respect to the dust bath and the roost- ing quarters. Lack of exercise is also productive of disorders. Lack of grit and shell-forming ma- terial likewise give rise to various troubles. All of these and other neglects and bad practices are easily within the control of the poultryman. The situation of the poultry house and yards (see chapter on Location) may result unfavorably upon the health of the flock; so may the lack of sunshine and of drainage. Overcrowding is likely to pro- SHED FOR COLONY HOUSE Protection adds greatly to the life of colony houses. If desired these houses may be used for autumn and winter quarters. Note three styles of front. duce unfavorable results; fowls should not be kept closely confined in large numbers or in crowded quarters. It is best to allow Io to 15 square feet, or even more, for each adult bird in confinement. Where there is partial freedom, the area of the house may be reduced a third or a half from the above figures. The yard should be from 75 to 150 feet square for each fowl. The larger area will not be too much where grass is expected to grow in the run. All poultrymen agree that it is best to avoid draughts in the poultry house, at least draughts which strike the birds, especially during roosting time. The dif- HEALTH AND SANITATION 223 fusion system and the open front and fresh air houses obviate this defect. PENALTIES FOR UNCLEANNESS At no time of the year are fowls so likely to be neglected as during the hot summer months when the farmer is making least out of them and sees smallest prospect of returns. No matter how well they may have been managed the previous winter and spring, interest in them is likely to lag when they lessen their laying. Neglect is most commonly evidenced in careless feeding and watering and in allowing the poultry houses and yards to become WIRE NETTING | AND CURTAIN WIRE NETTING COMBINED SCRATCHING SHED AND HOUSE Fresh-air house. Fowls have all floor space (16x12 feet), except 4-foot alley behind roosts. Curtain at peak for use when desired. About 600 feet lumber, four rolls paper, and half roll netting, four hinges, needed for 50 or 60 fowls. Cost of material about $25. unclean. If the birds have free range the care- less feeding may produce no apparent serious ef- fects; but this kind of luck seldom follows neglect of sanitary conditions. 224 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION More than 75 per cent of the ailments with which poultry are troubled are due to unsanitary condi- tions of the premises. And the foundation of a large proportion of this is laid during the hot months when the fowls should be in most vigor- ous health and be preparing for the work of the winter when eggs are high. Chicks cannot thrive in a small, tight, sun-heated coop, especially when their droppings are allowed to accumulate and the coop is kept in the same place from week to week. Disinfectants, such as carbolic acid or a commer- cial article, may be used after the premises has been made clean, not before. They are not remedies for the results of neglect, nor do they make it possible for a man to keep filthy quarters and still make poultry pay. The man who thinks to avert the penalty due to carelessness by using disinfectants, lice powders or other so-called remedies, is penny wise and pound foolish, for he must sooner or later pay the penalty. DISINFECTION Many people believe in using disinfectants freely. There is no objection to this, but there is a better system; namely, the maintenance of cleanliness which precludes the necessity for disinfection. Sometimes, however, maladies may be introduced unsuspectingly and the quarters become foul, in spite of ordinary precautions. The whole premises should be made scrupulously clean before any dis- infection is started; then the disinfection should be exceedingly thorough and preferably repeated two or three times in the case of serious trouble. Fowls that die from any disease considered con- tagious should be destroyed, preferably by fire, or HEALTH AND SANITATION 225, be buried so deeply that dogs and other animals will not dig them up. The danger of infection in-: creases with the length of time that fowls are kept, especially in confinement, on the premises. For this reason, measures which make for cleanliness cannot be emphasized too strongly. Among the | best disinfectants are hot whitewash made of quick- ' lime. This wash should be used at least twice @ year; once each quarter is better. To increase its disinfecting power two to four ounces of crude carbolic acid may be added to each gallon of the mixture. Kerosene oil and crude petroleum are often applied to the roosts, but these are not in as great favor as the lime wash. Wherever possible, the yards should be dug or plowed in order to bury the droppings. If it is possible they should be planted to quick-growing crops so as to sweeten the land and also supply some green feed. Wherever possible, also, the flocks should be moved to new quarters every two or three years, so as to get the benefit of fresh ground. Preferably none but young birds should be moved to the new quarters. This will prevent contamina- tion by old birds which may have been affected in the old yards. REMEDIES VS. PREVENTIVES The adoption of remedies rather than the elimination of bad practices may be considered the entering wedge of failure for any poultryman, be- cause it means the constantly increasing reliance upon a futile agent. The poultryman who adopts such practice is sure to neglect the conditions which make for health, because he is deluded with 226 PPOFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION the idea that he can cure his fowls by fussing and drugging. The result invariably is a larger and larger number of cases to treat, and a smaller and smaller balance in the ledger. For this reason special emphasis is laid through- out this volume, and more particularly in this chap- ter, upon conditions which make for health. Only Two shoe boxes nailed together and provided with two roosts eack. Canvas makes shade for sunny days. sufficient hints are given to enable the poultryman to identify some of the common ailments and to ferret out through this identification the bad prac- tice that has produced the trouble. In a general way, it may be said that sick fowls should be re- moved from the balance of the flock and nursed rather than drugged, but whether it will pay in the Jong run to do even this will depend upon the value HEALTH AND SANITATION 227° placed upon the individual fowl or fowls. It is much better, as a rule, to kill a few fowls and thus save the time and worry of nursing and also the possible risk to the balance of the flock, than to coddle and waste time with them. The more rigidly the poultryman observes com- mon sense rules of cleanliness, both in feed and quarters where the fowls are kept, the less will be his losses. These facts are well emphasized in the larger and more important poultry yards and stock farms all over the country. In such places where sanitation and pure food and drink are in- sisted upon, sickness is of very rare occurrence, and can nearly always be traced to carelessness in some respect. In every case it is essential to remove the cause before the effect, disease, can be destroyed. There is no use, therefore, in doping birds or animals with drugs so long as the external cause of their discomfort remains. IDENTIFYING DISEASES When fowls are discovered to be ailing, the poultryman may be able to identify the trouble and thus trace the difficulty back to its cause, which, it is needless to say, should be eliminated. Let it be emphasized again that disease is due, as a rule, to something within the control of the poultryman and that it is folly to attempt removing anything without first rectifying the management or other factor at fault. Sneezing, with watering of the eyes and nostrils, and with puffing of the face are indicative of 2 simple cold. Fowls in well-ventilated houses, especially open '228 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION front and fresh-air houses, are not subject to colds. Rattling in the throat with other symptoms of cold. indicates bronchitis, due to the same causes as colds. Ill-smelling discharges from the nostrils indicate roup. (See special discussion. ) ' Looseness of the bowels with smearing of fea- thers around the vent indicates diarrhea. (See special discussion.) Droppings, greenish, becoming white and frothy, are characteristic of cholera; but when greenish yellow, are often a supplementary symptom of roup. (See discussion of cholera.) Little lumps beneath the skin on the face often occur in roup. Listlessness without other symptoms of disease usually indicates indigestion. This is caused by overfeeding and can be corrected by rectifying the diet, especially by feeding green stuff more liberally. Increased exercise is helpful. Lameness may be caused by an accident. Acci- dent may result in bumble foot, which is an abscess on the sole. It may be prevented by providing a runway to the roosts or making the roosts low. Twisting the neck and head may indicate a giddi- ness or cramps. Sudden death may be due to heart failure or apoplexy, but frequently it results from allowing some other disease to go unchecked. Inability to eat food may be due to an obstruc- tion between the crop and the gizzard or in the ‘crop itself. Usually gentle kneading of the crop will permit the contents to be removed from the mouth or will remove the obstruction. Sometimes the crop may be opened by a short cut close to the HEALTH AND SANITATION 229 top and then sewed up again. Care must be taken not to sew the skin of the crop to the outside skin. Hardened droppings indicate constipation, due to lack of green feed and of exercise, or in young chicks to binding feed such as boiled milk. Ample green feed and exercise are the best correctives. Bareness of head of feathers, due to feather pull- ing and eating. (See special discussion.) i, Gaping of little chicks, as if obstructions were in their throats, is due to small Y-shaped worms in the windpipe. Characteristic of flocks kept on the same soil from year to year. Give flocks of little chicks new ground annually, or at least not less often than once in three years. Weakness of the legs indicates a lack of bone- forming ingredients in the feed. Reduce the pro- portion of carbohydrates and fat and increase the proportion of animal food, especially bone meal. Alfalfa and clover also help. Plenty of grit should be supplied. CHOLERA No form of medical treatment has proved satis- factory, though many preparations have been recommendea for the eradication of fowl cholera. ‘No confidence can, therefore, be placed in internal medication. The proper way to fight cholera is by carrying out the strictest sanitary methods. Affected birds must be promptly isolated at least ten feet away from the flock. Dogs and other animals must be fenced out of the poultry yards if possible, and birds exhibited at poultry shows and elsewhere, as well as fowls brought from other places, should be kept separate for at least ten days. 230 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION so as not to spread the disease if possibly they have it. Attendants should also be similarly careful. Constant disinfection should continue until all signs of trouble are passed. A solution of one pound carbolic acid in 25 pounds, or 12 quarts, of water should be used everywhere in the sheds and poultry houses, and every part should be thus disinfected. We - “2 = Fog 3Ft: : Ft. q COOP WITH DETACHABLE RUN Upper part of coop with canvas or wire netting front. Useful at first for young chicks; later as roosting quarters for cockerels and pullets. DIARRHEA In every case what is called the white diarrhea in young chickens can be traced to mismanagement of some kind, either in the parent stock, the in- cubator, or chicks themselves after being hatched. The poultryman is generally not aware of the trouble being with his methods or with those of the men from whom he purchased the eggs, and is, therefore, likely to search for some remedy to cure the cases under his notice, when the whole matter lies in prevention. It is the experience of practical poultrymen that remedies are unavailing, but that prevention is HEALTH AND SANITATION 231 satisfactory. One man who has incubated more than 30,000 eggs during the last few years has re- duced his losses from white diarrhea to less than I per cent; in fact, during the last two years the trouble has been almost unknown in his yards. Foremost among preventive measures is the selec- tion of healthy, mature stock, which has not been forced to produce eggs for market prior to the use of eggs for hatching purposes. These birds should be kept in strictest cleanliness, with abundant fresh air, and an opportunity to exercise, preferably on free range. Food and water supplied should be such as the poultryman himself would be willing to eat or drink. After the chicks are hatched the trouble may arise from improper management, either in feeding or brooding. The chicks should not be disturbed for at least 48 hours after hatching, nor should they be fed during this time. The yolk has been sur- rounded and is sufficient food to keep them going for several days. In fact, some poultrymen say that chicks will not starve if left without food for ten days. However, three days is recognized by men who ship day-old chicks for considerable dis- tances. One of the very worst practices is to feed grit to chicks just out of the shell, as it is sure to irritate their tender intestinal membranes. Most important during these early days is water. This should always be pure and in abundance. FEATHER PULLING Feather pulling, a so-called bad habit, is fre- quently observed in poultry yards during the late winter and early spring. Many people believe it to 232 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION be due to idleness in the flock, and they recommend exercise as the cure. There is a good deal in this, and flocks have been helped by being obliged to scratch in straw or leaves for the greater part of ' their grain food. It is believed, however, that the cause is not so much lack of exercise as lack of salt in their feed. Idle fowls will pull the feathers from one another’s necks and get a little flavor of the salt in the soft part of the base of the feather. This taste prompts continued pulling, and often the fowls’ necks are bare almost their full length. The remedy is to give abundant opportunity to exercise and feed a small quantity of salt in the wet mash, just enough to season the mixture. The habit is rarely observed when fowls have free range. ‘At least, it is far less common among them than among those shut up in city yards. ROUP The fundamental cause of roup can always be traced to filth of some kind; it may be no fault of the owner of the poultry, since the birds may eat putrid food or drink foul water while out on range, when visiting a neighbor’s premises, or when ex- hibited at some poultry show; but usually the trouble lies in the home poultry quarters, especially if the birds have not free range. The source of infection may be in the water, the feed dishes, the yard or other places where the fowls are confined. For this reason it is imperative that the premises and vessels be thoroughly cleaned as soon as any trouble is discovered. After being made pure, the whole place may be sprayed with a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid in water, care being taken HEALTH AND SANITATION 233 to fill every crack, as well as the whole surface of walls, ground and floor. The yards should be spaded up or plowed and planted to some crop, such as mustard, turnips, rape, clover, or, in fact, anything that is quick growing. If the yards are small, and the fowls would prevent the young plants from growing, one- half of the yard may be sown, and then covered with poultry netting held up from the ground about See 6 inches by a framework See of wood; the fowls can then pick out the leaves as these reach the wire, but will not be able to injure the roots of the plants. As for the affected birds, it is doubtful if any, remedy would pay to ap- ply, unless the fowls are very valuable, and as long as they remain on the place the owner runs the FOUNTAIN FOR CHICKS risk of having still more Saucer or pan placed on’ fowls: sick. by coming in Glee Peneath suspended contact with them. How- ever, whenever it is desired to save them they should at once be removed some distance from the healthy ones, fed a well-balanced ration, containing a small proportion of meat. None of the remedies recommended have been found satisfactory so long 234 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION as the cause of the trouble remains, but by evaporat- ing oil of turpentine in a close room, so that the birds will be forced to breathe the vapor, is one of the most commonly applied remedies. Professional poultrymen have found that cleanliness, good ven- tilation, plenty of sunlight and exercise are positive preventives of roup. PESTS As the warm spring weather approaches it is well to plan a little in anticipation of the annual campaign against the insect pests which infest poultry kind. Much of the ill luck complained of by beginners is traceable to lice. These get at the young chick almost as soon as it comes from the shell, and unless something is done to keep them down the chick will have a poor show. MITES Mites do not live on the body of the fowl. They ,hide during the day in the crevices about the perches and adjacent parts. The perches should be ‘movable, so they can be turned over or taken from the house. So also should be the nest boxes. The best nest receptacle is one of wire to be hung on 'a peg. It can be purchased of a dealer in poultry ‘supplies. Boxes about 1 foot square can be used in the same way by nailing two cleats to the back. There should be a hole on each cleat by which to hang on nails driven in the wall of the house. The plainer a hen house is and the smoother the interior surface the better. There should be no permanent fixtures or partitions; then fewer hiding places for HEALTH AND SANITATION 235 the mites, and the house can be more easily rid of or protected from them. Mites can be readily exterminated by brushing the roosting poles or exposed parts with a mixture of three parts kerosene and one part of crude car- bolic acid. How often to do it can be determined by examination. It seems hardly practicable to get rid of them entirely, but they can be easily con- trolled in the manner stated. A good plan is to spread coal tar on the support on which the perch tests. It is well to place sitting hens in new boxes, as, if there should be any of the mites about, they will be apt to increase and drive the hens from the eggs be- fore through hatching. LICE Body lice, which lay their eggs and pass through their various stages of existence on the body of the fowl, are much harder to deal with. As a rule, active, healthy hens having free range or access to a good dust bath may be depended upon to keep them- selves fairly well rid of body lice. It is recommended to dust them GRANARY with insect powder, and some- Shoe box; hinged times this may become neces- (224° over grain sary, but it is a tedious and difficult job at best, and it is utterly impossible to kill all the vermin by one or two applications. It is well to examine the hens occasionally to see 236 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION how they are faring in regard to body lice. IE, present they will be found only on certain portions ' of the body, usually about the vent. Warm lard, to which has been added a few drops of kerosene, is useful. I To keep chickens free from lice it is sufficient to grease them two or three times with melted lard, according as they may seem to require it. They should be looked after closely and not be left until they begin to get mopy and stand around all drawn up ina heap. Some advocate using insect powders. These are all right if one can get good, fresh stock. Much of it that is sold at the stores is worthless. A dust bath made of equal parts of sifted hard coal ashes and land plaster is said by Prof. J. E. Rice to be the best thing tried at the New York State Col- lege poultry yards. WORMS No remedy of any kind is so effective in destroy- ing worms as to warrant its recommendation, because the only true way to deal with such condi- tions is to remove the cause. Howevey, as a make- shift, the liberal use of cultivated or wild garlic in the mash is often adopted by poultrymen when their birds suffer from worms in any part of the digestive tract. Garlic must not, however, be looked upon as a remedy, because the fowls are left unprotected and liable to later attacks so long as the cause of the infestation exists. This cause is invariably filth of some kind. It may be that the birds have been confined on the same area for some time, and that the food thrown to them has become contaminated. This is the most common condition. HEALTH AND SANITATION 237 On the other hand fowls that have free range may pick up some filthy food, such as decayed meat, musty corn, etc., on which the eggs of worms may have been deposited. In either case the trouble is beyond control after the fowl has once eaten the food. The first thing to do, where possible, is to give the birds new quarters, keeping them, however, in some intermediate place for a few weeks where they may be fed liberally, as already indicated, with garlic. After they seem to have recuperated and have become vigorous, they should be removed to the new quarters. Where this cannot be done, the whole premises should first be thoroughly cleaned; then a spray of carbolic acid and water at the rate of one to ten parts, should be made to reach every crevice and every surface of the entire poultry yard, buildings and runs. This spraying should be repeated at intervals of two days for at least two weeks, preferably in the early morning during bright, sunshiny weather, and during this time the litter in which the birds scratch, the dust baths, and the droppings should be removed daily and burned or deeply buried. If it is possible, the - yard should be spaded up after the first spraying. When the two weeks of treatment are concluded the supply of litter and dust should be changed once a week or oftener if a large number of fowls are kept in the yard, and every precaution should be taken to maintain the strictest cleanliness at all times. CHAPTER XIV Water Fowl Not a few farmers seem to be prejudiced against water fowl, especially ducks. Geese are tolerated because they forage for themselves very largely and live on what they pick up from waste lands such as marshes and wet pastures. They are es- sentially grass-eating birds. From the time vegeta- tion starts in spring till killed by frost in autumn, geese demand almost no attention. Goslings, after they are four weeks old, will also shift for them- selves. Ducks, on the other hand, will not stand neglect so well, and they are more likely to wander and get lost or be killed by prowlers, such as foxes; then, too, the ducklings, if allowed on streams and ponds, are likely to be eaten by turtles and preying fish. Another objection is that ducks improperly managed often lay their eggs in the water. Unless they have desirable quarters and are given proper attention they are rather troublesome to look after. Besides this, they are very noisy, especially if dis- turbed at night. The careless farmer is most likely to be prejudiced against ducks for the above reasons, and also because half-fed ducks will overeat them- selves when they do get a chance at food. DUCKS As noted in Chapter II, it will not pay the farmer to go into duck raising on an extensive com- mercial scale unless he is situated within easy ac- 238 WATER FOWL 239 cess of a large city not well supplied with ducks. On the other hand, many farmers who have a good local market can make very nice profits out of ducks, even on a small scale. There are no special difficulties in the way; in fact, anyone can succeed with ducks. The brooding time is only half as long as that for chickens and the ducklings do not need nearly as much heat in the brooders. Where only a small number are to be raised, hens will do the hatching very successfully. The duck has so many good qualities, it matures so early and furnishes such excellent meat and is so DUCK FOUNTAIN easily reared that every wire frame over gravel jatmer should keep at least PE ee woe? Oe a few to supply his own table and make a little money from surplus ones. This applies especially where the older ducks can have access to a marsh, a pond or a stream, but where their wanderings may be restricted. Duck flesh is one of the greatest delicacies that can be raised on the farm. A good deal of the trouble in raising ducks is due wholly to neglect, and to the unjust reputation of the duck as a gormandizer, a reputation based largely on irregularity of feeding. Half-starved ducks are not slow to take advantage of an oppor- tunity to eat, so if grain or other food is acciden- tally left within reach they will surround as much of it as possible. On the other hand, if food is con- stantly before them, especially if they have a chance to forage, they will not, as a rule, eat more raven- ously than other fowls. Usually under good man- 240 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION agement, especially feeding, they attain their growth in four months, though under commercial conditions they are marketed at two or three months. For best prices August and September is the favorable season when one has access to summer resorts. During October and November later broods may also be disposed of at a profit, but for the ordinary farmer it is best not to keep ducks for a later market unless they have been hatched late in the season. If ducks can be hatched during March they may be disposed of at good prices during June or even earlier. Ducks need no more water than chickens until they are three months old. Neither pond nor stream is necessary until the ducklings have their feathers. In fact, until the ducklings are well fea- thered, it is best that they be not allowed to get their down wet. For this reason their drinking fountains should be such that the little ducks can- not get more than their bills into the water. Thrifty ducks can easily be raised on a yard one-quarter of an acre in extent. When properly treated they should be no more troublesome than little chicks. Hens, especially the more docile breeds, such as the Cochin and the Brahma, make excellent mothers. ‘Another advantage of these breeds is that their large size enables them to cover several more eggs than Plymouth Rock and Wyandotte hens or hens of the lighter varieties. They will easily cover nine or ten eggs. If set very early, however, they should not be given quite so many unless their quarters are warm. No special remarks need be made concerning the hatching of eggs under hens. The period of incubation is 28 days. The eggs should be aired oftener and longer than hens’ eggs WATER FOWL 241 and not allowed to get as dry as hens’ eggs while hatching. None but fresh eggs from healthy parent stock should be used. By fresh eggs is meant eggs not over ten days old. It is true that eggs, even three weeks old, have been set under hens, but these do not usually give as good results; the duck- lings are likely to be weak. Preferably the hen should be taken from her nest at noon when the temperature of the air is warmest. A half hour off the nest will be sufficient for the hen to range, secure green food, grain, water and dust herself. CARE OF DUCKLINGS As the ducklings hatch they should be put in a warm place, preferably near the kitchen stove, and kept warm just as little chicks are managed. When the hatch is over the ducklings may be put under the hen in a coop or in a brooder; preferably they should be kept confined for two or three days and then allowed to roam in a small yard as soon as the weather is warm. Many farmers who raise ducks on a small scale believe it absurd to allow a nice hen to run her legs off with a brood of ducklings. The ducklings are never still a minute. They care nothing for the mother except to use her at night as a hover. If one has not enough ducklings to justify a brooder, a small box lined with old woolen or flannel goods will be found satisfactory. Heat may be supplied by a jug of hot water placed pref- erably above the heads of the ducklings. The little ducks may be fed at first with hard-boiled eggs, bread crumbs, clabber or other soft food. Mush and milk are also good, but preferably this food 242 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION should not be given before the second week. After they are two or three weeks old raw cornmeal, moistened with milk or water, may be fed, also scraps from the table. When scraps are fed the ducklings may be given some fresh animal feed, chopped cabbage, turnips, etc. Liver and lights are very good when finely mixed. Ducklings and older ducks do better on soft feed than on grain. In the soft feed should be some grit not too fine. Grit should also be within reach at all times. LOCALITIES FOR DUCK YARDS Where one is situated on a tidewater stream or cove he should take advantage of the opportunity to raise ducks. There is in such a situation a con- stant succession of sea food which the ducks can secure with every ebb of the tide. All that is neces- sary is to supply a house or a pen on the shore,’ hoppers with ground grain and drinking fountains for the ducks to help themselves. When such are supplied the ducks will come home every night without trouble. Usually duck eggs are laid at night or in the early morning, and where the flock is properly managed there will be little danger of loss from laying in the water. If desired, the ducks may be kept shut up until, say, 10 o’clock, by which time practically all the eggs will have been laid. Next to a tidewater situation comes a marsh, a stream or a pond, especially a marsh through which a stream flows. The ducks will pick up a large portion of their living, but in the absence of any of ‘these advantages the farmer may easily keep ducks without trouble. He may make an artificial pond \for the ducks to paddle in. This may be in any WATER FOWL 243 convenient place, preferably not too near the house. It need not be expensive. Concrete may be used where the formation of the ground is not suitable for making a pond by means of a dam across the spring. The depth need not be more tha 18 inches, and even that depth is not necessary so far as the water itself is concerned. Probably a foot will be ample depth for the water. The pond need be sup- plied only for the breeding ducks which mate in the water. While it is possible for ducks to get along with-’ out water to swim in, yet they certainly do better when supplied with a place to paddle, and best where they have a chance to forage. Foraging for a duck is what scratching is for a hen. It supplies exercise and interest in life. If not given water tange, ducks should have fresh water to drink al- ways within easy reach. The duck fountain, placed upon a gravel pit, is one of the best arrangements, because it does not allow the ground around it to become muddy. Ducks splash a good deal of water around their drinking fountains and some means of drainage must be supplied or the place will be- come very foul in a short time. In a general way ducks can be profitably raised wherever hens can be. CLEANLINESS IS ESSENTIAL at all times. The feeding and drinking vessels should be kept clean constantly, the floors should be littered with absorbent material such as shav- ings, waste hay or straw and this replaced before it becomes damp and foul. While it is a fact that ducks and geese also naturally spend time in the water, yet they like to have their sleeping and resting ‘244, PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION places dry. The yards where ducks are kept should be scraped from time to time and fresh sand or earth thrown upon them. It is a good plan to have the yards plowed or spaded and sown to rye in the fall, or in the spring where the fowls have access during the summer, but not in the winter, to water range. Not only does this purify the soil, but it helps to supply feed. ’ No special remarks need be made concerning the quarters for ducks. Houses and yards may be practically the same as for hens, except that nests and roosts need not be supplied. Preference should always be given to well-drained soil, so that when rain falls the yards may not be sloppy and so that the droppings may be washed into the soil rather than over it or made into puddles. Shade is essen- tial in the summer time. If there is no natural shade, artificial shade must be supplied. Ducks are very sensitive to the sun’s heat. They will naturally take care of themselves in a marsh where there is shrubbery, but where shrubbery is absent they should have a simple shed or canvas cover under which they may take refuge. At all times it is essential that ducks be treated kindly and quietly. Gentleness and quietness are absolutely necessary to the best development of the duck. As a rule, ducks are fearless until they are once frightened. When one is frightened fear rapidly spreads among the flock. If it is necessary to catch any duck it should always be caught by the body, never by the neck, and the person who does the catching should never be careless or rough in handling the ones caught. The same remark made concerning visitors and dogs with respect to hens applies even more forcibly to ducks. Never WATER FOWL 245 "should dogs or visitors be allowed in the breed-, ing yard because the egg yield is sure to be re- duced. After the breeding pens are once made up the groups should be maintained without change. Ducks quickly miss one of their companions, so if stock is to be kept for sale it should be separate’ from the breeding flocks. Breeding ducks should be given free range or at’ least water in which to swim. They may be fed on almost any kind of mill feed. When they can-, not have free range and thus pick up animal and vegetable life, they should be supplied with animal | and vegetable food of some kind. Chopped clover, | cabbage, kale, alfalfa; in fact, almost any vegetable, will do. This should be mixed with the wet mash to which bone meal or beef scrap and grit have been added. There is no reason why duck food should be cooked. Ducks do fully as well on raw feed. It is best that they do not have whole grain, be- cause they cannot grind it as well as hens and tur- keys do. At all times they must be supplied with water close to their feeding troughs. A reasonably full meal morning and evening is all that is neces- sary, especially where the ducks have free range. When ducks at range are to be fattened for the table, they should be removed from the general flock and fed only such food as will not give the flesh an unpleasant flavor. Fish and some of the vegetable matter that they might get in the marshes and ponds often impart unpleasant flavors to the. flesh. For breeding ducks Long Island growers use a’ mixture of one pailful each of wheat, oats, mid-| dlings, two pails of bran, four of cornmeal and two bushels of cut clover grass or other green _thor- 246 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION oughly minced, mixed and wetted. The ducks are allowed to eat as much as they wish. It is neces- sary to feed some special formula like this only where it is impossible to give the ducks free range and an opportunity to balance up the food them- selves. HATCHING IN INCUBATORS Where duck eggs are hatched in incubators care ‘must be given as to ventilation; since duck eggs ‘are considerably larger than hen eggs they are ‘more difficult to handle. The air space in the in- cubator is smaller proportionately for duck eggs than for hen eggs; hence, if one is going into the hatching of duck eggs, he should give preference to a machine with a larger air space than when hatch- ing hen eggs. When such a machine is not used the ordinary incubator will do, provided it is run with greater care as to ventilation. Never should duck and chicken eggs, duck and turkey eggs, or duck and goose eggs be placed in the machine at the same time. Only one kind of egg should be used at a time. Duck eggs should be cooled longer than hen eggs. Some duck raisers believe in sprinkling the eggs with tepid water, especially during the last two weeks. Others think it advis- able to dip the eggs in tepid water daily; still others do not practice either method. Much de- pends upon the way the machine is managed and the amount of moisture in the air of the egg ,chamber. As a rule, ducklings break their shells 30 to 48 ‘hours before emerging. If unable to get out with- ‘out aid_after the twenty-eighth day, they should, ‘WATER FOWL 247 be given some help. In this respect they are less Sensitive than chicks. For at least 24 hours the ducklings should be allowed to remain in the ma- chine. When removed they should be taken to brooders in flocks not exceeding 50. Forty would be better. Management is practically the same as for chicks, excepting that the ducklings, at first, must be kept closer to the heat. Usually they will not need heat after six weeks old when hatched in the early spring; three weeks will be all that is necessary when the season becomes warm. After weaning the management of ducklings is the same no matter how raised. For market the ducklings should be confined in smaller yards than for breeding purposes. They may be fed more liberally of fattening materials. ‘When about six weeks of age they may be put in the fattening pens and fed a mixture of two-thirds of cornmeal with equal parts of bran, middlings and greens. To this 10 or 12 per cent of beef scrap may be added. Preferably ducklings intended for mar- ket should not be given water range. For breeders ducklings should be given their liberty as soon as weaned. Most commercial duck raisers allow the ducklings to run together in close quarters until they are old enough for marketing, then the best are sorted out, the home flock given wider liberty, a grass range or a pond, and encouraged to develop strength rather than fat. SELECTION OF BREEDERS In sorting out ducks for breeders, females may be recognized from the males as early as six weeks old. When caught the ducks quack loudly. -The 248 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION drakes, however, give a sort of a hissing quack or they may not be able to make a sound. Later on the characteristic curled tail feathers distinguish the drakes. The usual method of killing ducks is the same as for chickens, except that after the veins and ar- teries are cut in the mouth, a sharp blow upon the head is given by striking against a post. This re- duces undue movement and consequently soiling of the feathers from the blood. Since duck feathers command good prices they form an item of revenue not to be neglected. It is necessary to pick dry in order to get the best prices. Asa rule, the sale of feathers will about pay for the cost of picking. Another advantage about dry picking is that dry- picked ducks usually sell for better prices than scalded ones. The best time to kill ducks for market is at about ten weeks old or before a new crop of pin feathers appears. This reduces the amount of work con- siderably. Pin feathers may be removed more easily if wetted, since they may be caught between the thumb and a knife blade held in the hand. Usually the soft feathers from the wings are not removed, neither are the head and neck plucked. Ducks are rarely drawn or beheaded for market. After plucking the wings are brought close to the body and held in that position by strings or band- ages. All the blood is removed by washing and the ducks are then placed in fresh water to cool down and later put in ice water. Generally it is thought best to place them breast downward so as to make the breasts look more attractive when ex- posed for sale. WATER FOWL 249 BREEDS OF DUCKS Unquestionably the Pekin is the leading breed of ducks in America. It is a white-feathered bird, which may be easily kept in inclosures. The beaks are yellow. This breed is very large, uniform in size and rapid in development. At four months the ducklings should weigh 5 pounds each. In America they have no successful market rivals. This is because of their hardiness, quickness of growth and prolificacy of large, usually white, eggs. Standard weights are 8 pounds for the mature birds and 7 pounds for the duck. The carcass is very long and deep and contains a goodly pro- portion of meat both on the breast and behind. The Aylesbury resembles the Pekin in general appearance and size, but the bodies are somewhat oval. The plumage is white and not so soft. The bill is flesh colored and the feet yellow, instead of reddish as in the Pekin. The Aylesbury stands with its body more horizontal than the Pekin. The breed is the leading market favorite in England. It is about as quick growing as the Pekin, but has not proved as satisfactory among American duck raisers. According to the standard of perfection, adult drakes weigh 9 pounds and ducks 8 pounds. The Rouen ducks, which are given the same standard weights as the Aylesbury, look much like the common puddle ducks of the farm. When well bred, however, their colors are more pronounced and their size much larger. They are also better layers and quicker to mature. There is nothing to” indicate that they are in any way inferior to Pekin or Aylesbury ducks for the table, but their color is against them for the general market. For home, 250 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION use they are fully as valuable as either of the otlier varieties mentioned. The Muscovy, in two varieties, Colored and White, is a particularly unpleasant looking creature because of its featherless face covered with warty skin. This repulsive appearance is more than borne out by the viciousness of the males. The ducks are perhaps as pugnacious as the drakes when they have their broods. Adult drakes weigh Io pounds; ducks 8. Prior to the importation of the Pekin, the Muscovy was popular among the commercial duck growers, but its poor-laying abil- ity, its viciousness and its color all being against it, made it easy for the Pekin to replace it. Besides these four principal ducks there are many others, but almost all are much lighter weight. ‘Among them are the Cayuga, which is a hardy, early maturing, good layer, with greenish-black plumage and flight feathers in the female, some- times more or less brown. Indian Runner is another small variety introduced ‘within recent years. The drakes rarely weigh more ‘than 5 pounds and the ducks 4. They are usually light fawn colored, sometimes grayish. Their chief walue is in their prolificacy. They have been called the Leghorns of the duck family. It is said they are more home loving than most other breeds. Besides these varieties, there are several others, among them the Buff Orpington, a variety of recent origin and little known in this country. It hails from England. Gray and White Call Ducks, Black East Indian ducks and Crested White ducks are all little varieties raised particularly for orna- ment. WATER FOWL 251' GEESE While it is true that geese cannot be profitably raised in confinement (see page 39), it is a fact that on every farm a flock may be profitably reared CELEBRATED TOULOUSE GANDER For years this bird was first prize winner at Madison Square Garden Poultry Show. It was bred and owned by Cc. W. King of Seneca county, N. Y. each year. Geese need not have access to a swim- ming pool, though, like all other water fowl, they enjoy water, and a pool is of great benefit 252 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION especially during the breeding season. They are very thirsty creatures and should always have abundant drinking water, especially during the warm weather. Geese are by far the cheapest and easiest of all domestic fowls to raise. They require but little shelter at any time, and if given plenty of pasture will gather the larger portion of their food from the fields. An ideal pasture, such as is not desirable for animal grazing—a marsh, especially one with a stream running through, or bordering a pond—is admirable. Farmers are realizing the fact that it pays to utilize such waste land by raising geese upon it. Not only does such land not pay taxes ordinarily, but it is often a distinct disadvantage to the farm. When used for a goose pasture the loss can be wiped out completely and the geese sold from it made to yield a handsome profit. In fact, since the original breeding flock may be kept for many years, the only cost of keeping a flock of geese would be for the winter care and for the attention demanded by the goslings until they are able to take care of themselves. The goslings would pick up nearly all of their living from the waste land, and nearly all the money they would bring in the market or when sold for breeding purposes would be clear profit. Many more geese could be raised in this country and still the demand would not fail. Each year geese are becoming more popular as table fowls. iVery large, young geese, when well fattened, com- mand a premium in the markets. In goose grow- ing as well as in other lines of poultry production the value of good breeding stock cannot be over- _estimated. Good stock is as easily fed and cared WATER FOWL 253 for as are inferior birds and give very much better results. Where farmers have been raising common geese at a profit there are excellent opportunities for them to raise pure-bred geese at a greater profit, because the pure breds not only attain larger sizes and, as a rule, lay larger numbers of eggs, but the young are easier to rear and there is a fairly good demand for both eggs and birds for breeding. The prices for market geese, breeders and eggs are all excellent, so that there is every reason why pure- bred ones should replace inferior geese. GEESE NEED PASTURAGE As already indicated, geese cannot be kept in confinement, because, like turkeys, they must have range, but, unlike turkeys, they are not rovers. They can be counted upon to come to their shel- ters regularly; they have a great love for home. For this reason they are easily kept on even small range and with almost no trouble as to fencing. Their chief food is vegetable matter which they prefer to pick in their wanderings. They also enjoy water, animal life, snails, slugs, worms, in- sects, etc., which they can secure. While it is true that they enjoy water and marshy places, they greatly prefer dry quarters in which to sleep. Since they are hardy, their shelters need not be as carefully constructed as those used for chickens. The principal thing is to secure dryness at all seasons and shelter from winds during cold weather. Geese do not make their quarters foul so quickly as ducks do, but it is just as essential that their shelters be kept clean. Straw and refuse hay, sawdust or shavings are equally useful in the sheds. What- 254 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION ever material is used should be removed and re- placed before it becomes foul. From what has been said, it may be correctly in- ferred that geese are kept in much smaller numbers than chickens or even turkeys, yet they reach the market in considerable quantities, especially in the western states. Along the Atlantic seaboard there are some farms where goose growing is made a specialty. Except for these farms there are very few places where geese are raised extensively. The great majority of market geese are raised in small numbers on ordinary farms, which, as a rule, still cling to flocks of inferior breeding. Though the market demand is by no means as great as for the other three great classes of poultry, yet this de- mand is not nearly met by the supply of stock. For this reason anyone situated near a good market and provided with a favorable site for goose grow- ing should embrace his opportunity to supply this demand, but no desire for making money should tempt anyone not supplied with good grazing ground to begin goose growing, because while he may succeed in raising the geese he could not com- pete with farmers who have better facilities. PROFITS IN GOOSE GROWING As to the amount of money that can be made from geese, much, of course, depends upon the market. Growers calculate that geese pay propor- tionately better than ducks, but since they cannot be grown in such large quantities nor by such machine methods the facilities sooner reach their profitable limit. The cost of producing young geese for market is estimated at less than Io cents a pound, even when the goslings are fed heavily for WATER FOWL 255 fattening during the last few weeks. This estimate of course does not apply to the special feeding methods practiced in Wisconsin. For the Jewish demand (see page 39), prices in the East usually start in the early season at 30 to 35 cents a pound; and sometimes fall as low as 15 cents during autumn. The season begins in June. As a rule, good prices are realized during the holiday season. The sale of goslings at five or six weeks old to fatteners is rather common. Where there is not much demand for geese, profits are not as large as these figures might seem to indicate. It is believed that the production of mongrel geese (that is, crosses of the Brown China, African or Tou- louse geese with wild ganders) is more profitable than ordinary goose growing. The goslings from these crosses, though sterile and therefore useless for breeding, are excellent for the market because of their large size—i12 or 14 pounds—and because of a greater demand for them at advanced prices during the holiday season. It is not usual to make the reverse cross, that is, a domestic gander on wild geese, because the wild birds are much less prolific of eggs than the domestic geese. Generally the wild gander will mate with only one goose; domes- tic ganders will take two, three or even four geese. When one plans to start goose raising he should buy his stock birds in the autumn, because that is the usual season for mating and also because the birds take some time to become accustomed to their new homes. If bought shortly before the breeding season the results are almost sure to be unsatisfac- tory. Either the birds will not mate or when they do the goose will not lay as early nor as well as she otherwise would, and the hatches may not be as 2506 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION large, to say nothing of the delay likely to occur on account of the dislike for her new quarters. It is highly desirable to buy old rather than young birds for breeding. No fear need be enter- tained that old geese will not do well. Much more may be expected of them than from old hens. Geese are considered profitable until ten or even 15 years of age, and ganders six or seven. For this reason a breeding flock need not be increased from year to year unless desired, and all the young progeny may be sold as soon as it reaches marketable size. Breeding stock may be purchased usually from $3 to $5 for each bird, or if eggs are desired from 25 to 50 cents each or $2.50 to $5 a dozen. SELECTING BREEDERS Since geese are not usually very prolific breeders it is customary to remove the eggs as fast as laid for hatching under hens. This keeps the goose laying longer than she otherwise would. Incuba- tors, as a rule, have not proved very satisfactory for hatching goose eggs. Hens may be given from four to seven eggs each, according to the season and their size. Testing for fertility should be made on the seventh or eighth day and infertile eggs re- moved. Incubation generally last 30 days, al- though sometimes longer. Since many hens do not take kindly to goslings they must be closely watched when the goslings are hatching, otherwise they may kill their foster children. As soon as hatched, therefore, the gos- lings should be removed to a box lined with flannel and kept in a warm place. Ina day or so they may be given to quiet hens that do not object to them. WATER FOWL 257 Geese make good mothers, and when they show a' decided disposition to set may be given a dozen to I5 eggs each. As a rule, they do not like to be moved from their regular places of laying and re-— sent any interference while setting. It is a good plan to have several hens at the same time that the ' goose is to set and to give the goslings all to the ~ goose. The brood should be placed in warm quarters and care taken that the goslings do not run too much at first. They should be kept warm and quiet at least a week and not allowed to run around much nor to become excited. After they are four VEHICLE COOP Packing case with attached run. Handles used to wheel coop about. or five weeks old they will not need much atten- tion, since the mother goose will take care of her brood. Goslings raised without mothers soon be- come self-dependent. It is important that the pens be upon rather short grass and moved at least once a day or as soon as the grass shows signs of be- coming short. It is essential that shelter be pro- vided from the sun and storm. Contrary to the popular belief, goslings should be kept from water, 258 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION except for drinking, until they: have produced feathers. REARING THE GOSLINGS Little goslings are very dainty eaters at first; their appetites will come in due time. During the first few days bread crumbs, soaked in milk or water and squeezed nearly dry are very good and are relished. This feed may be given three or four times a day with plenty of water to drink. The drinking foun- tain should be arranged so the goslings cannot wet more than their bills. During the second week a mash of equal parts ground oats, bran and cornmeal mixed with hot water may be fed cold five times a day and continued until the goslings are a month old. After the first few days they may have the freedom of a small pen where there is plenty of grass, and when two weeks old, their range may be extended. Clover and alfalfa are especially good. When one month old the same mash may be used morning and evening with perhaps a meal at noon. Some breeders, however, prefer to feed the mash at morning and noon with cracked wheat at night. Until the goslings are fully feathered they should be kept out of the water and only those that are in- tended for breeding purposes should learn to swim. When two months old, feeding may be reduced to twice a day—soft feed in the morning and cracked corn or wheat, or a mixture of these two grains, at night. From this time forward the goslings may be allowed to roam at will. About three weeks before killing, those intended for market should be penned in a small space and fed a mixture of two parts corn- meal one part bran and one part beef scrap, with WATER FOWL’ 259} corn at night, and oats and wheat at noon. Grit" should always be placed where goslings can reach it. The most important point next to feeding when rearing goslings for market is to keep the little birds tame and gentle. They should also be kept inclosed at night. When preparing for market, feed should be withheld for 12 hours before killing. After they are killed, an operation managed the same as for ducks, the carcasses should be plucked and singed. This singeing makes all the difference between an at- tractive and an unattractive looking carcass. Gos- lings of such breeds as Toulouse, Embden, African and some of the cross-bred geese weigh eight to 12 pounds when ten weeks to three months old. In- dividual specimens may weigh even more. It is generally more profitable to market them at that age than to hold them for a later market; prices are usually higher and there is less likelihood of running up the cost of feed. It is considered best, however, to hold mongrel geese for the Thanks- giving and Christmas markets, because of the higher prices they command. The season for geese begins in early June and continues until March of the fol- lowing year. One of the important sources of income from geese is the feathers. These, when properly man-, aged, often sell for 50 cents or more a pound. Many goose raisers still practice the barbarous custom of plucking live geese. Whether this is a profitable practice or not is not the question. It is cruel, especially if plucking is resorted to frequently. This practice is probably responsible for the low prices often paid for certain classes of geese and for the poor condition that many geese are in when they reach the market. It is one thing for a goose @60 YPROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION to molt naturally, but quite another to have the feathers pulled out every six weeks during the ‘warm weather to force a new growth of feathers. Feather pulling is especially bad for geese used for breeding. Geese which have to grow extra crops of feathers cannot be expected to start laying as early, to lay as many eggs nor to have such good hatches as when Nature is allowed her own way. The practice is condemned by all the best breeders of geese. BREEDS OF GEESE Probably the most popular breed of geese in ‘America is the Toulouse. It is not only the largest but possibly the best adapted for general farm conditions, especially where the range is not ideal. It is thought to do better without a swim- ming area than other breeds. Its standard weights are 20 pounds for adult ganders and 18 for the geese. In general appearance it resembles the ‘common farm goose more than the other breeds, ,but is much larger than these scrub geese. It is gray, though beneath and behind there are white areas in the plumage; the legs and the bill are orange. During their first year young geese lay 15 to 25 eggs. When older they may lay from 25 to 40. The breed is very quiet, but in spite of its wide popularity, is not ranked very high in the market. _ The Embden is the chief rival of the Toulouse. While its standard weights are the same as for the ‘Toulouse, a smaller proportion of the birds attain these weights. The plumage is white; legs and bill yellow. The Embden when well bred and properly WATER FOWL 261 prepared not only makes the best-looking carcass but is superior to other breeds for marketing. One of the chief disadvantages in purchasing specimens is that there are many poor flocks in this country, poor not only in breeding, but poor in ability to lay. Intending purchasers should be careful in buying for these reasons. Chinese geese are of two varieties—Brown and White. Their form and carriage is different from that of the two breéds already mentioned. They stand much more erect, have much longer and slenderer necks. In the Brown Chinese, at the base of the bill is a peculiar dark-colored knob, as will be seen in the half-tone picture of the breed. The standard weights are 14 pounds for the adult gander and 12 for the geese. The Brown variety is con- sidered the most prolific of all geese. Under or- dinary management the females will lay 40 to 50 ‘eggs or even more, and these eggs are noted for their fertility. One of the chief disadvantages is that the carcasses are exceedingly hard to pluck and, when dressed, make the poorest appearance of all kinds of geese. In the White Chinese the plumage is white throughout, the bill and legs are orange colored and so is the knob at the base of the bill. While the geese lay as well as their brown cousins, their eggs are less fertile. White Chinese geese rival the Embden geese in the market. Their carcasses make a far better appearance than those of the Brown. African geese are not nearly as common as other large varieties. Their color is gray, dark above, light below. On the back of the neck there is a dark stripe. Their weights are the same as for Embden and Toulouse. The bill is black and has 262 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION the same kind of black knob characteristic of the Brown Chinese variety. The legs are orange colored. As a rule, the geese lay better than the Embden, but not as well as the Toulouse, and the carcasses, especially of old birds, are hard to make look well for the market. The skin is dark, and this unfavorable color is not improved by the presence of down and pin feathers which are usually very hard to remove. Besides the market varieties of geese described, there are several used for ornament, among them are the Egyptian. One of these varieties, the Wild or Canadian geese, however, is used for breeding mongrels, as already noticed. The Egyptian is purely ornamental. GOOSE AND DUCK FEATHERS Generally speaking there is probably less waste of geese and duck feathers than of chicken and turkey, because the prices are considerably higher and the uses more numerous, and yet it is prob- able that many bring a lower price than they should because of the imperfect methods of sorting and curing. In the first place, the birds should be dry picked, so as to save the animal oils which give the feathers their “life.” The reduction in grade be- cause of scalding is not so great with geese and duck feathers as with turkey and chicken, pro- vided proper care has been exercised and the birds immersed for only a very short time and the drying properly attended to. The feathers from the two kinds of birds should be kept separate, but other- wise the method of handling is simple. A leading dealer writes as follows concerning the WATER FOWL 263 handling of these products: Dry-picked goose and duck feathers should be placed on the floor and spread out for two or three days. The feathers from white birds should be kept by themselves. Special care should be taken to have the floors scrupulously clean, for white feathers especially, since the whiteness increases value. Each day until thoroughly dry, the feathers should be turned over. The quills and coarser feathers should never be included with the body feathers. Burlap or cotton sacks are best for shipping the small feathers, which unless perfectly dry, are apt to become mildewed very rapidly and to command a reduced price. In the autumn, pure white goose feathers dry and in good condition are worth about 60 cents a pound. Gray goose and white duck 40 cents each, gray duck 32 cents. Scalded stock brings from 3 to 5 cents less a pound. CHAPTER XV Turkeys ‘As already indicated on page 40, the turkey readily fits in with farm work and yet not everyone can engage in turkey business because much depends upon surroundings. The laws of trespass do not permit animals and poultry to roam over the fields of one’s neighbors, so unless the neighbors are willing to permit the wanderings of turkeys over their fields, this branch of poultry raising had better not be undertaken. It is essential that tur- keys have range, and if one finds fields are not large enough to permit ample forage, turkey raising had best be abandoned as a leading branch of poultry raising. To be sure, a few turkeys can be grown on a small farm, even with limited range, but usually it is not safe to grow in restricted quarters more than will supply the demands of the home table. So far as locality is concerned, turkeys can be raised anywhere. It is not safe, however, to at- tempt keeping them in damp places, nor heavy soils. Light soils, well drained, especially on up- lands, suit them best. Where such conditions can be provided with abundant foraging ground, there is no reason why the turkey should not prove prof- itable. It does remarkably well in grain and stock sections, since the fowls can pick up much of the broken heads of grain left in the field and also secure abundant insect diet, particularly after the hay crop has been harvested. It must be remem- 264 TURKEYS 265 bered, however, that turkeys are a side line; they have not been raised in commercial quantities like ducks or chickens. One advantage of turkey raising is that expensive and extensive coops are not required. Probably the majority of turkey raisers permit their turkeys to roost in trees no matter what the weather may be. This is not considered as desirable as formerly. There is no question <#a that turkeys intended for market FEED TROUGH cannot make as good growth when For TURKEYS exposed as when protected, at AND ROOSTERS least somewhat, and it is just as unlikely that stock birds will do well when forced or permitted to roost in trees where, during a sleet storm they may freeze to the branches. On these accounts, shelter of some sort should be provided and the birds taught to roost under cover. The sheds need be only sufficient to keep out snow and rain and the severe wind. They may be somewhat after the order of the open-air house illustrated on page 60. These turkey sheds should, however, be more lofty than for chickens and the roosts should be several feet above the ground, preferably rather close to the roof. There is no reason why a turkey should not adopt more rational methods than it did in the forest and the fact that it can be taught to do so is distinctly in favor of the turkey raiser. TEMPORARY CONFINEMENT During the laying season, many turkey raisers confine their flocks to comparatively small yards at least until their hens have decided upon a place 266 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION to lay. After the first two or three days of laying the hen turkey will rarely desert her nest, so that when the whole flock has begun to lay it may be allowed full freedom. As a modification of this plan, breeders keep the flock confined until about noon each day, until all the hens are laying. This practice saves the turkey raiser much time which would otherwise be needlessly wasted in watching turkeys to find out their nesting places and then walking daily from nest to nest to collect the eggs. A score of hens may be kept without difficulty in a yard 75 feet square. This inclosure need not be fenced very high. Few turkeys will attempt to fly over a woven wire fence 5 feet high. The same practices in breeding discussed in Chapter VI apply to turkeys. It seems advisable, however, to lay special emphasis upon the selection of breeding turkeys because throughout the coun- try the practice of breeding from inferior stock is the general rule. Most farmers select their best turkeys for the Thanksgiving market so as to get the high prices. This is well enough so far as the market is concerned, but if it leaves the slower growing stock for breeding, it is to be condemned. The best way in order to improve one’s own flock is to select the breeding stock first of all, irrespec- tive of any market considerations. None but the very choicest, quickest growing, best birds in every respect should be selected from each year’s young flock to replace the old ones that have survived their usefulness. In this way, one can be continually improving, especially in size, pre- cocity of development and stamina. Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon this fact. For best results turkey hens should be two years old and TURKEYS 267 cocks three years old or more. They will prove useful for eight or ten years or even longer. The customary size of a flock is ten to 12 hens to one tom, though often as many as 18 or even 20 hens are used. THE LAYING SEASON As a rule, turkey hens begin to lay in the latter part of March or early April. Both season and latitude vary this considerably. For best results it is desirable that they be encouraged to lay in places convenient for the poultryman. Boxes, barrels, coops, etc., may be placed where desired or hay, straw, shavings, or other conven- SHELTERED ient material left in piles par- WATER tially concealed by bushes. If the hens find such places ready, they will usually choose them in preference to wandering away, but if they do show a tendency to wander they should be confined as already noticed. During the breed- ing season grain should be fed in fairly liberal quantity. Corn, wheat and oats are all good, pro- vided the fowls have free range. Many turkey raisers soak the grain for a day or more before feeding, others feed mash in the morning and grain at night. If turkeys are confined, great care should be exercised to supply not only plenty of grain and grit but animal feed, cut clover, alfalfa or other green feed and ample fresh water. Turkey hens, especially young ones, rarely lay more than a dozen eggs before becoming broody. They may then be broken and made to lay a second 268 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION clutch of eggs. Older hens seldom lay more than a dozen and a half for their first litter and not quite so many in the second of the season. As an average, 20 eggs is probably the usual aver- age of a hen turkey, though specially good hens may lay 30 or even 40. The eggs should be col- lected daily and stored in a cool place until they can be set. Eggs from specially productive and otherwise desirable hens should be marked and set separately, so their progeny can be marked when hatched and thus given preference when selection for breeding takes place the following autumn. It is a safe precaution to put a few hen’s eggs in the turkey nests to keep the turkeys contented when laying. HATCHING It is customary to set the early turkey eggs under chicken hens. While these hens make good sitters, even for the 28 days that turkey eggs require to be hatched, yet they are not as desirable mothers as turkey hens. They are more or less restless and less effective protectors against birds of prey, rats, etc.; they wean the little turkeys too soon and are harsher in their treatment of little turkeys, es- pecially those that do not belong to their own flocks; they do not forage as well as turkey hens and the little ones, therefore, do not get as much insect food as they would with their natural mothers. Perhaps worst of all they are more likely to be troubled with lice. During the first few days while the little turkeys should be mothered a great deal, the chicken hen is likely to keep them roam- ing more than they can stand. She can be pre- TURKEYS 26g vented from doing this, however, by keeping her cooped or tied up. On the other hand, the chicken hen is more easily handled and thus is more likely to encourage tameness in her flock. She is far more certain to mother her brood in her coop than the turkey hen is. The turkey hen has to be carefully taught to bring her brood to the brooding quarters at night. Because of objections to the chicken hen the prac- tice is common of setting several hens at the same time that a turkey, hen is set, so that the little ones may be given to the turkey either as soon as hatched or when the chicken hen weans her brood. There is no special objection to this latter practice, be- cause turkey hens are not so averse to taking alien broods as are chicken hens, especially if the broods are brought together during the night. No special directions need be given as to setting hens on turkey eggs; the practice is the same as for hen’s eggs. Usually ordinary hens will cover eight to ten eggs; large ones perhaps two or three more. It is generally necessary to let turkey hens sit where they wish. They choose their own nests and object to being moved. This applies with special force to turkey hens that are more or less wild. Turkey hens may be moved in much the same way that chicken hens usually are, viz., at night, supplied with nest eggs for a day or so and when found satisfied given the regular clutch. Small turkey hens will cover 13 to 15 eggs; large ones perhaps 18 or 20. It is usual for turkey eggs to be fertile. On this account it is not essential to test them, as chicken eggs are tested. Ordinarily, the only test is made about the twenty-sixth day. Then the eggs are placed 270 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION in warm water and the dead ones removed. Live ones can be recognized from the fact that they move in the water. Hatching usually commences on the twenty-eighth day, though it may last or even not start until the thirtieth day. It is just as important to remove the hatchlings as little chicks. They should be placed in a box lined with flannel or woolen goods and kept in a warm room. REARING During the first day or two the turkeys do not need any food. The mother hen must, however, be fed liberally. It is a decided advantage to place the coop over the nest if possible so the turkey will feel at home and contented. Where this is not possible the brood and mother should be moved to desirable quarters; a coop with a board bottom should be given preference. After the first three days when the young ones are beginning to run around a small yard should be provided. A con- venient yard may be made of three boards 14 inches wide set up on edge in the form of a triangle with a coop in one corner and the mother turkey allowed her freedom. She will not go far from her brood. The little ones may be kept in this kind of inclosure until they are large enough to jump up and make their escape. As with chicks, the coops should be moved from place to place frequently. A space inclosing about 100 square feet will be ample for the ordinary sized brood. Where the coop cannot be placed upon short grass, ample green feed should be supplied daily. It is also important to give plenty of grit and charcoal and especially necessary to fight lice TURKEYS 27I from the very start; in fact the fight should begin when the hen or hen turkey is set and as much headway made as possible in the way of preven- tion—before the shells are pipped. It is not safe to use kerosene on turkeys. Insect powder is satisfactory and harmless. Pens should always be situated on dry soil, pref- erably where there is no danger of flooding duringa rain. Nothing is so im- portant as to maintain sor “handles sists, wie cleanliness at all times, (ikea fo cooine, Raper unless it is to keep the $004, 2 8** tesG yard little ones dry until after ; their heads have become red. Up to this time of “shooting the red” is considered a trying period for poults. After they have passed it they are much more hardy. During the develop- ment of the red itself more animal feed than usual should be given. From the time that the little ones. begin to wander they should be taught and en- couraged to come to roosting quarters in the even- ing.. This may be managed very easily by accus- toming them to an evening feed of grain. About the time that they shoot the red or a little after they usually begin to roost. Roosts should be placed 3 or 4 feet above the ground where there is plenty of protection, preferably in regular turkey quarters. Various breeders have their preference as to tur- key feeds. Perhaps the most general favorite for turkeys a day old is hard-boiled eggs and stale bread soaked in milk but squeezed comparatively dry. Generally the egg is fed a day or two before the bread. When a week or ten days old clabber PORTABLE CHICKEN COOP 272 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION is often used. When about two weeks old many breeders give a mixture of equal parts of milk and cornmeal, middlings or some other meal. This is allowed to swell for several hours before being fed so as to prevent any possible danger of swelling after being eaten. About this time cracked corn and wheat are often given in the evening. Three times a day seems to be enough to feed little turkeys until they are well grown, especially if allowed more or less range and given an opportunity to pick grass, insects, etc. In fact, it is almost essential that they have something to pick at all the time. ‘GRIT, SHELL AND For this reason a grass yard CHARCOAL should be given the preference to HOPPER all other quarters. Milk may be given instead of driking water if desired, but it seems best to have ample pure water before the brood at all times, whether milk is fed or not. It is also essential to have grit. Some turkey raisers, especially those who do not have grass runs, consider it necessary to feed every two or three hours until the birds are ten days or two weeks old. No more should be fed at a time than the poults will eat without waste. Many poultrymen feed johnnycake made of cheap flour, preferably of the whole grain and cornmeal mixed with milk and infertile eggs from the in- cubator, but without soda or baking powder. The ingredients may be of almost any ratio, but prefer- ably about equal parts. After mixing toa rather soft batter, the cake is thoroughly baked and allowed TURKEYS 273 to become rather dry. It is then allowed to become stale before being crumbled for feeding. This prac- tice eliminates the danger of swelling after being eaten. The swelling takes place in the oven. Gradually after the first week small seeds, such as millet, cracked wheat and corn may be added to the daily ration according as the poults grow in size. A good mixture of grains for fattening con- sists of one bushel each of whole and cracked corn and one-half bushel each of kafir corn and oats. While this is being fed the fowls should be some- what confined. Feeding of the fattening ration begins about the first of November. Some raisers prefer to feed whole corn exclusively three times a day and some object to confining the birds at all. When fed liberally on corn they do not forage as much as usual. PROFITS IN TURKEY RAISING The profits in turkey raising for the market range, as a rule, between 75 cents and $1 a head. The opportunities for the sale of breeding stock are much less than with chickens, so there is not much money to be made in this direction, though it is a decided advantage to keep good stock. From about the last week in November until New Year’s is the best season for marketing turkeys. Rarely are turkeys kept over this period unless they hap- pen to be late-hatched ones. These may be de- veloped for the January, February or even March markets. During these months such fowls will command good’ prices, but, as a rule, it will not pay to keep turkeys this late if they are ready for the holiday market. The advance in price would be more than offset by the cost of feed. 274 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION In a few cases there is a small demand for specially young turkeys, say three months old or perhaps a little younger, but it will not pay to cater to this market unless one knows beforehand that there is a definite demand. The only places there is such a demand is at a few of the fashionable summer resorts in the East. The greatest demand is for turkeys of medium size, ten to 15 pounds, for home tables. Such turkeys sell best about Thanks- giving time. Extra large birds are in smaller de- mand and at lower prices, as a rule. They are used mainly in restaurants and hotels. VARIETIES OF TURKEYS There are six leading varieties of turkeys. Be- sides these there are also scrub turkeys which are altogether too common and are not nearly as de- sirable to keep as birds of good breeding. As a rule, they are not as robust, as large nor as prolific, nor do they make as good an appearance when dressed. One of the principal reasons for this is that the best birds have been sold annually for market instead of being kept for breeding. About the best way to improve a farm flock of no special breeding is to purchase a well-bred tom in the autumn and mate him to a dozen or a score of the choicest hens, young and old, on the place. From the progeny select the very best young hens to take the place of the less desirable ones in the previous season’s flock. All young males should be disposed of and preferably a new male intro- duced, one not related to the male purchased the first year, but of excellent breeding. By excellent breeding is meamt a bird with good stamina, good weight and preferably two years or more old. If TURKEYS 275 two neighbors would agree on changing males every second year, only two males need be purchased and the danger of close inbreeding could be avoided, to the great benefit of both flocks. Unquestionably the leading variety is the Bronze or Mammoth Bronze. This is also the largest and most profitable. The adult tom has a standard weight of 36 pounds and the hen 20 pounds. Much greater weights than these are often reached. Usually, however, these heavy weights are bred for sale to fanciers. One objection to the Bronze variety is that the hens are considered poorer layers than hens of other kinds. The Narragansett is a close second to the Bronze in size and popularity. Its standard weights are 30 and 18 pounds for the tom and hen respectively. in general, their color is gray, mixed with black. Black, Buff and Slate turkeys are uniformly colored as their names imply. Whey weigh 27 and 18 pounds respectively for cock and hen. Though fairly well distributed throughout the country they are by no means as popular as the Narragansett, the Bronze and White Holland. The White Holland is the smallest variety of turkey. Its standard weights are 26 and 16 pounds for tom and hen respectively. Locally in many places they push the Bronze variety in popularity. They are reputed to be better layers and more home loving than some of the other breeds. ” \ Index Page Page Advertising ....... center evan: 21, 22 Chinese Geese.........-..-0005 261 African Geese. S ieee DOL Cole Tar oS AG sensrantnarevane tren catreca eae 229 Air, Badisccc ies cais .. 221 Cleanliness Essential........... 223 ‘Alfalfa, Composition...... ~< AIS ISVS ALES. 5 con Gobet the atecs veuased oy aed 46 American Class Discussed. 4ar AOS: Clover, Composition ........... 118 Animal Feed............. 121 Cochinis. 2s scsewtine dace mewe sk Wee Apoplexy: eiicns eve caa wen 1) 228 Cold sissies ns Appetite Indicates Vigor.. ais OD Cold Storage.... Arrangement of Pens. 57 Colony: Systeris: cies oa sci’ ccc o sie aceiie 53 Ash in Feeds......... % . 114 Colony vs. Permanent House.... 54 Associations, Co-operative...... 203 Comb, Color of.. 96 Atwood, Prof., Milk Experiments 132 Concrete Houses 56 ‘Aylesbury Ducks cccvewicaeak 249 Confinement of Turkeys........ 265 Barley’. ccjeuesacs ea) tre ...118, 121 Conn. Egg Preservation........ 209 Baskets for Eggs.............. 164 COnstipatiOnis scc-c2isc a. acs qoavecdae-ecaha sa 229 Beef Scrap........ ..113, 118, 123 Construction of Houses......... 55 Black Turkeys................ 275 ICONCALION: 6.sjeve rd een de oa eee 224 Blastoderm ........ .. 160 ICOOPS hae saa asad eos etka 70 Blood, pe ae eres ~. 118 COOps: Brood: 4.352545 cee s RNS ees 73 Bone, Composition. . 118 Coops, Knock Down ........... 73 Boxes for Eggs. . .. 163 Coops, Shipping............... Brahma, Dark...... .. 110 (COTA Miieva etineeeiavsnata oa Beis es Brahma, Light...... ~» 106 Corning System. Brand, Composition. 118 Courtesy .. Breeders for Sale.......... 36 Cramps . Breed, Importance of Good..... 9 Crop- bound ee Breed, to Keep............ zee S102 Cropping Yards. 225 Breeding, Bad...... Beran 44: CYOW GING is co seedis ice ny drsyae wee e 92, 222 Breeding Ducks..... ea Bad Culling, Importance of......... 88 Breeding Geese. . 256 Cutters Hayes. gid cnse-oeuaveiere 71 Breeding, Live...... 82 Delaware Climate.........----- 46 Breeding, Mistakes in. 87 Diarrhoea Breeding Utility... s0...% «3 81 Digging Yards .. Breeds, Most in Demand. . yr 1 Disease, Identifying............ 227 Breeds of Ducks............... 249 Diseases Due to Faults......... 221 Brewer’s Grains, Composition... 118 Disinfectants se crs.0ie.ssnwied ve see 224 Broilers: capcac esas oews vee oes 27 Dominique ..... ae 109 Bronze Turkeys. . « 295. Dorking... rile tats 110 Brooder, Managemen’ Serene iy Drainage . . 49 Broodiness ........... . 178 Dressing’ a2 yoda Bo 4 Sead ones 192 Brick: Houses)... .oeasie aoe cease ofece 56 Dropping Boards. . 67 Buff Turkeys......... oe 275 DES Sin Be Fis icegtice oo ehesleccnn eescars 226 Cabbage, Composition. ~. 118 Dryden i Grates heaectdtsesaves 118, 126 Call Ducks. o.5 see5 0 sce .... 250 Duck Eggs, Market............ 15 Capons sis oscccu sae 5 138 Duck, Feathers................ 262 Carbohydrates ...... -. 114 Ducklings, Day Old............ 15 Carbolic Acid....... opeie, 229. DUCKS is xs sis Sarees cocfs, ce aes Care in Spring....... .. 148 Dust Bath... ee Case Count...... is 199 Egg Buying Cayuga Ducks Cellar for Incubators. . Charcoal iaescxccess 250 Egg Composition. 173 Eee Gatherings oii ccsseeie cae 125 Egg Marketing, to Improve Cheese, Composition. . 118 Egg Production Unbroken Cheese, Making Cottage. «22 Egg Structure. See Chesapeake cians dh ses Coats anal t6 45 Bigg Destine ssc < 64. c0s elena GHICKS oc suessnece AR, 182, 184, 188 Egg Yield and Gentleness....... Chickens, Maitet: Gert reer rn 191 Egg Yield, Annual.........00--5 142 276 INDEX Page Eggs, Advertising............65 21 ggs, Census Averages......... 7 ges, Duck, Market....... : 15 Eggs, Feeding for. ....iseccesns 146 Eggs for Hatching............. 19 Eggs for Home..... eyeibges Ga arecene 16 Eggs for Market..........e000e 17 Bees, Hennery yg ecacxawkchavon 4 Eggs in Demand.............+. 2 Eggs in Storage............... 196 Eggs, Managing.............. 4, 199 Eggs on Commission........... 3 Eggs, Preservation of.......... 209 Eggs, Shipping Eggs, Storage... Bees Tre yy ce tict'e scabies aheleceus Elford, on Fattening ........... 216 Ellis, Egg Methods............. 204 Embden Geese ................ 260 Exercise Essential.......... 127, 222 Failure, Causes of............. 80 EG 58 sale Bay ails Ra ae wae 114 Fattening, Crate.......e.esc0es 216 Reather Pulling 20/3 .crcsiea acy cece 231 WGA Hers) eains8ai ve eae citar tery 262 Feed Affects Color of Yolk...... 113 Feed Affects Egg Quality ....... 113 Feed Affects Egg Yield......... 113 Feed, Composition............. 114 Feed, How Often. 180 Feeding Chicks. . 178 Feeding for Eggs. 146 Feeding, Improper 221 Feeding in Transit. . 189 Feeds, Composition o: -- 118 Feeds for Chicks...............% 179 Feeds for Fattening Feeds for Turkeys............. Penalty ene err rrce, Fish Affects Egg Flavor Flock, Record sss scicas osoen sos x Fountains ........... Fowl, Kind to Keep Fowl, Type for Fattening...... 217 Fowls, Farmers’.............-. 13 Fowls, Fattening.............. 13 Fowls in Demand.............. 14 Freezing Poultry.............. 195 GADESS Uses ok se aitG sh Sree 229 GBT ese af sce itnccnys.ouosanoases, snaipeeneas sak 236 GATOS ha.F seie. ee scacorerae ery lave eeacensis's 74 Geese yiircar cnet sank ares Geese, Breeds........ Geese, Toulouse 260 Gentleness Affects Egg Yield.... 151 GIGINGSS. cov cvensins sere eee ws's 228 Gluten Meal, Composition...... 118 Goose, Feathers.............45 262 Goose Profits.a34s casmetiumrgts 254 Goslings, Day Old............. 15 Goslings, Rearing............6. 258 Gowell, Quoted............000. 43 Grain, Ground or Not.......... 128 Greases. seiaiaiscccsicenun acne ver 236 277 ck Page Grit Crushers .,.....++. saowieeers Grit, Necessity for..........124, 222 Guaranteeing Hatches.......... 1 GUINOAS sy 45 cha dae as Kaxwes . 41 Hamburg Varieties............ 109 Hatchability Injured........... 93 Hatches, Guaranteed........... 21 Hatching Ducks............... 246 Hatching Turkeys............. 267 PMA th 5d crc scaevate aeivestened 2 ake 221 Heavy Feeding, Danger of...... 92 Hens, as Layers wcccsiedcaisede< 149 Hens, Disposal of.............. 29 FR QUOAM ois se -wsey-avetade ersininxennerey nus 109 House, Curtain Front ......... 154 House, Knock Down........... 63 House, Open Front ........... 60 Houses, Colony.............005 71 Houses, Permanent............ 54 TM GuBA tio ai. wie d.scee eeeaven 159 Incubation, Defective..... 93 Incubation of Turkey Eggs. . 269 Incubator, Care of........ 172 Incubator Record .... 168 Incubator, Setting up. 170 Incubator, Starting. 170 Incubator, Storing. . 173 Incubators, Classes of. 16¢ Indian Runner Ducks 250 Indigestion. +. 66.0 sce eie ocd wes ove 228 TMPeCtionl yg evacsacdadebraws act iave eo arere 225 Jaséct POWder eiisieseceses aeeae 235 ANAS cs Sieg canahss cescausass thedeise rye 109 ohnnycake for Turkeys........ 272 Jordan, Quoted ............... 90 Kale, Composition............. 118 Kansas Chick Experiments..... 179 KLCTOSENE. oeaieis aa scene awe i 225, 235 ea ta sano coves xscape coasts teeter gr 193, 219 King’s Toulouse Gander........ 251 AGATMENIESS fscricise ms sna Siena alata 228 Lamson on Egg Preservation.... 209 Land, Detrimental............. 49 Tangshan 5 acsisisacsyse arene teeremsscs 109 AGAVETS! aioe scccisnnanns eve. scass Weeteaidee 35 Layers, Autumn, Care of....... 151 Layers, Management of........ 145 Layers, Selecting.............. 143 Leghorn Discussed............. 105 Leghorns, Experiments with..77, 98 DCC: 205s: tuewe aise ew eee es ecanae 235 Bice: oni ‘Chick sos: <.ciscsase ssa weds 188 Linseed Meal Composition...... 118 Litter, Importance of.......... 130 LOSS Ofh a, iis wale eras aaa sien dada 200 Maine Experiments............ 142 Mammoth Bronze Turkeys..... 275 Management of Incubators..... 167 Mangel Composition........... 118 Market: Bees. s cavisctaelersidie-nc nies » 17 Market for Eggs............... 3 Market Limits ......... Saeewace 12, 278 INDEX Page Page Market Stock wc cca cise cwree vee 192 Record of 600 Hens...........- 154 Marking Packages..........0+% 190 Remedies... cgeicneiceam ne ewe 225 Mash, Dry or Wet...........+- 131 Rhode Island Red Discussed. 108 Mediterranean Fowls.......... 103 Rice, on Green Feed........... 124 Method, Value of Good......... 127 Rice, Quoted. «61. seecweeesece 95 Middlings, Composition......... 118 Roasters a Oe ehichuidointunhavece 28 Milk, Composition .........+.+.. 118 RGasters; Slt seesns ee eer a es 29 Milk, Discussed............... 122 “ROOStSiaisreasaecainwees qaw wntiea ae 66 Milk, Value of Skim... ......... 132 Rouen Ducks..........--..00. 49 Minorca Gwe sins hoes eraerae 110 ROWD ea suaea ea wiaterd ae aI araea 228, 232 EMUIEGS ss scssiads tare gnssaconeashacachoarsne ee Onn 234 Salesmanship .......0++ 0020008 207 Moisture in Incubators......... 166 Sales, Privatésacsn v.02 iesecars oe 204 Molt, Feed During............. 146 Satlitation: sinc nestesite amines 221 Muscovy Ducks...........-+08 250 Scaldin gy sj. esata peaesa oan 192 Narragansett Turkeys.......... 275 Secrets, Poultry.............6. 43 IN GSES i coracepincgdtecsrire codcravenalouas 6: 4vece 68 “Selection ccs cc: syareacecd ie gieieceaienies 79 Nests, One Board Trap......... 79 Shade Necessary .........00. 05 149 Nests, Requisites of Trap....... 99 Shaping: acces wataas caeeaaesis 220 Nests, Trapieacnweus smvedciecs.s oss 68 ELLs atassecavel sora sh ecatcne saree erewmuseocsaeatv 125 New jersey Climate............ 45 Shell Necessary ........----05. 222 N.Y. Experiment Sta., Quoted.. 90 Shipping to Market............ 190 Oats and Peas for Feed......... 24: —“Sittiation. 64 we ctewse a sicmietatoue atc 47 Oats, Composition............. Slate Turkeys: .2.05.saseceeens Oats, Discussed.............4. Soil, Detrimental.............. Onions Affect Egg Flavor..... Soil, FactOmiciciccienseosacacs Ont., Fatteni Experiments. SUA DS fae Sse ratiors: cnosniepashinnaieieya ames Oregon Trap Nest..... Stewart, Prof., sa Orpington..... 111 Stone Houses Orpington Ducks. Packages, for Eggs. . Hi 163 PaClcim ge lakba aiskortar ta tials ee AOE Parents, Value of Vigorous..... 94 Pasture for Geese.......+..0425 253 Pearl ,, Quoted s 26: .45564.%%5 08% 142 Peas and Oats for Feed........ 124 Peas, Composition iiss Pekin Ducks...........scc0ee SP OD DOT wc, 3055 saincncherrecsmitensivahherar seomrens POSES cit na on gueserrueraceisunss Pebrolete: | juve dacsseavnes wnlaee Phillips on Egg Marketing PICK! os ies css yaad sinh stapes See. shen Ptr Pim Bs saskesasieacvaeowe eigeesial ars ate Plymouth Rock Discussed...... 104 Plymouth Rock Experiments. . 98 Polish Varieties ............... 109 Poultry Branches.............. 15 Poultry Dressedi i a.ecsunce ved oind 191 Poultry for Home............. 16 Poultry, Frozen............... 195 Poultry Industry, Growth...... 6 Poultry in Storage............. 196 Preservation Experiments ...... 212 Preventives.........2. 000 eee 225 Production, Annual............ 142 Productiveness, Danger of...... 91 Profit from 600 Hens........... 158 Profit from Turkeys........... 273 Protein, :02 sadesa co wseeisaw sales Pullets as Layers Range Advisable. Rape, Composition. . Rations Recommende Ratio. Nutritive. ‘Record Incubator .........0005 Summer Care.... Sunflower, Compo Surface, Quoted .. Systems ........ Testing’ Hees ies aan a tawveseuete Toulouse Geese. ........ eee eee Traps: cece yiaaiwedtrieswt rade 73 Troughs, Feeding.............. 69 Turkey Profits...c 6.60 gcse. caren 273 AL MATICE ViSistacnuisuais aegiataneraseetuacr 40, 264 Turkeys, Day Old............. 15 Turkeys, Market .............. 191 Turkey Varieties ..s.ccecess > .. 274 Variety to Keep............... 102 Wegetable Feed oasis as oncne case 123 Ventilation: 5 sscossiai 6 410.4 aceon 56, 221 Ventilation for Incubators...... 167 Vetch, Composition............ 118 Vigor Constitutional........... 89 Vigor of Progeny.............. 99 Virginia Climate............... 45 Vitality Impaired.............. 91 Water, Impure................ 221 Water Supply cis. cise sienna es tecs ona St Wattles;. Color Of 2 cs scdieneen sods 96 Weakness, Eliminating......... 89 Weakness of Legs.............. 229 West Virginia Experiments. .77, 132 Wheat, Composition........... 118 Wheat, Discussed.............. 119 White Holland Turkeys..... a eine Wie WASH ics cide, cscs sce 225 White Wonder... 109 236 i Dis ice . 107 Wield Base ccc oo sn eg pansies 142 Yolk, Color Affected .......... 113 aartcocereneteserecacaiesta : Seti eee