Pe ee ey ne ee eon eT es eee me SITET) PE A RI a Le Ng eee 


Fears Vdoduing Koo 


FUERTES ROOM 


(CORNELL 
LAB of ORNITHOLOGY 


LIBRARY 


at Sapsucker Woods 
i 


Illustration of Bank Swallow by Louis Agassiz Fuertes 


f,Aaene 


“TORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 


“ILL UNIVERSITY 


waiuaCA, 


Cornell University 


The original of this book is in 
the Cornell University Library. 


There are no known copyright restrictions in 
the United States on the use of the text. 


http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022524106 


SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS 


OF THE 


UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 


1868-1918 


UNIV. CALIF. SEMICENT. PUBL. [GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 1 


CALIFORNIA QUAIL, MALE 


THE GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


CONTRIBUTION FROM THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
MUSEUM OF VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY 


BY 
JOSEPH GRINNELL 


HAROLD CHILD BRYANT 
AND 
TRACY IRWIN STORER 


UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS 
BERKELEY 
1918 


ORNITH 
FYERTSS 


QL 
696 


ce. 
a 


338670 


COPYRIGHT, 1918 
BY 
J. GRINNELL 


ISSUED DECEMBER 28, 1918 


PREFACE 


In the fall of 1912 it was decided that the staff of the California 
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology should begin to apply a portion of its 
knowledge of the vertebrate natural history of the state along prac- 
tical lines, more particularly in an active effort towards conserving 
the native fauna. In the course of extended field work throughout 
California we had been forcibly impressed with the rapid depletion 
everywhere evident among the game birds and mammals, but at the 
same time we found reason to believe that a careful study of the 
situation would reveal some effectual means of retarding this down- 
ward trend. 

After observing the course of legislation for several months during 
the season of 1913, and recalling the popular indifference we had 
encountered in various parts of the state toward existing game laws, 
we had come to the conclusion that however numerous or stringent 
the game laws might be, they of themselves could not be expected to 
furnish adequate protection. The people at large must be apprized 
of the facts, and shown the need for, as well as the most effective means 
of, conserving our game resources. 

About this time our plans became known to a Berkeley gentle- 
man who was already intensely interested in any and all agencies for 
the protection of wild life. It was through the financial aid tendered 
by this man, whose name I am pledged to withhold, that the beginning 
of our work along economic lines was made possible. The actual task 
of writing the present book on the status of the game birds of Cali- 
fornia was begun on June 1, 1913, when Dr. Harold Child Bryant 
joined the staff of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology under salary 
provided as above indicated, and, in collaboration with the director 
of the museum, devoted his time exclusively to this enterprise. 
Bryant’s services formally terminated on August 1, 1914, when he 
was called to a position as director of education, publicity and 
research, under the State Fish and Game Commission. He thereby 
carried the slogan ‘‘Game Conservation through Education’’ into 
a sphere of application the scope of which he has been able steadily 
to enlarge and perfect. 

The work on the game-bird book was immediately taken up where 
Bryant had left off, by Mr. Tracy Irwin Storer, and the latter, under 
salary at first supplied from the anonymous source above alluded to, 
and later by Miss Annie M. Alexander, has, again with the collabora- 
tion of the director of the museum, faithfully and unremittingly 
labored on the book until its completion at the end of 1916. 


[ iii] 


Meanwhile, Bryant’s interest in the undertaking has not flagged, 
and he has embraced opportunities in connection with his new work 
under the Fish and Game Commission, to secure information for use 
in our general chapters, as well as here and there throughout the 
accounts of species. 

It is but just to state here that the whole game-bird book has 
been brought to a conclusion only through the opportunities afforded 
under the auspices of the University of California Museum of Verte- 
brate Zoology; and the maintenance of this museum in all its func- 
tions has been due to the continued financial support furnished in 
generous measure by Miss Alexander. 

The arduous typing and retyping of the manuscript was a neces- 
sary labor, done faithfully by Miss Margaret W. Wythe, of the 
museum staff. Corrections in the phrasing were suggested by Mr. 
Aubrey Boyd, instructor in English in the University of California. 
Mr. Albert H. Allen, manager of the University Press, evinced personal 
interest in the enterprise in many ways during the process of compila- 
tion. The line drawings were done by Miss Frieda Lueddemann, 
directly from museum specimens. Of the sixteen colored plates, nine 
were done specially for this book by Louis Agassiz Fuertes; three 
colored drawings, also by Fuertes, were loaned for our use by the 
California Fish and Game Commission; and the use of four colored 
drawings done by Allan Brooks was allowed by their owners, two 
of them by Miss Annie M: Alexander, one by Mr. A. Brazier Howell, 
and one through Mr. W. Leon Dawson, the latter from the stock of 
Brooks drawings owned by the Birds of California Publishing Com- 
pany, and intended for use ultimately in Dawson’s Birds of California. 

I would like to repeat here a principle in which I fully believe; 
namely, that the highest plane of scientific output can be accomplished 
only through codperative effort. If the present contribution proves to 
have reached an unusually satisfactory plane in any respect it will be 
because the attention of several workers rather than of a single indi- 
vidual has been devoted to it. Where one author working alone would 
make mistakes unawares, two or, better, three, are able to check one 
another’s output to advantage. The best results, always granting 
mutually sympathetic interest, will follow organized codperative toil. 


JOSEPH GRINNELL 


Director of the California Museum 
of Vertebrate Zoology. 


Transmitted November 30, 1916. 


[iv] 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Preface iii 
Table of contents v 
List of colored plates vii 
List of figures in the text viii 
List of tables x 
Introduction 1 
Decrease of game and its causes 6 
The natural enemies of game birds 19 
The gun club in California iso 228 
History of attempts to introduce non-native game birds into California ........ 29 
The propagation of game birds 45 
Legislation relating to game birds in California 55 
Glossary of special terms used in this book 62 
Method of taking measurements 66 
Key to the game birds of California 67 
General accounts of the game birds of California 79 
American Merganser 79 
Red-breasted Merganser 84 
Hooded Merganser 89 
Mallard 92 
Black Duck 101 
Gadwall 103 
Baldpate 106 
European Widgeon 111 
Green-winged Teal 113 
European Teal 119 
Blue-winged Teal 120 
Cinnamon Teal 123 
Shoveller 129 
Pintail 134 
Wood Duck 140 
Redhead 146 
Canvasback 150 
Greater Scaup Duck 156 
Lesser Scaup Duck 159 
Ring-necked Duck 164 
American Golden-eye 167 
Barrow Golden-eye 173 
Buffle-head 177 
Old-squaw 181 
Harlequin Duck 186 
King Hider 192 
American Scoter 194 
White-winged Scoter 197 
Surf Scoter 201 


re] 


Ruddy Duck 
Lesser Snow Goose . 


Ross Snow Goose 


American White-fronted Goose 
Canada Goose 


Hutchins Goose 


Cackling Goose 


Black Sea Brant 


Hastern Sea Brant 
Emperor Goose 


Fulvous Tree-duck 


Black-bellied Tree-duck 


Trumpeter Swan 


Whistling Swan 
Roseate Spoonbill 


Wood Ibis 


White-faced Glossy Ibis 


Little Brown Crane 


Sandhill Crane 


California Clapper Rail 


Light-footed Rail 


Virginia Rail 


Sora Rail 


Yellow Rail 


California Black Rail 


Florida Gallinule 


Mud-hen 


Red Phalarope 


Northern Phalarope 
Wilson Phalarope 


Avocet 


Black-necked Stilt 


Wilson Snipe 


Long-billed Dowitcher 


Knot 


Pectoral Sandpiper 


Baird Sandpiper 
Least Sandpiper 


Red-backed Sandpiper 


Western Sandpiper 
Sanderling 


Marbled Godwit 


Greater Yellow-legs 


Lesser Yellow-legs 


Western Solitary Sandpiper 
Western Willet 


Wandering Tattler 


Upland Plover 


Spotted Sandpiper . 


Long-billed Curlew 


Hudsonian Curlew 


[vi] 


Black-bellied Plover 452 
American Golden Plover -.0.--.cccsccccsccscccssssssssseseesesonessesuessoeesusesseseecscecsessessesees 458 
Killdeer 463 
Semipalmated Plover 2.0.0.0. 469 
Snowy Plover 473 
Wilson Plover . w-- 479 
Mountain: (Plover® s.2..20:005 caucnseie ae een 481 
Surf-bird 485 
Ruddy Turmstome 220.2... occ ceecec ccc cce cc eceeeceeeceeeeeteeeeeeees 489 
Black Turnstone : _.. 493 
Black Oyster-catcher 498 
Frazar Oyster-catcher 502 
Mountain Quail a 504 
Painted Quail fe 513 
"Wearlley Quan 6 222.252.5235 28 asc harlot tg ks nO Neg ea oie 514 
California Quail 537 
Catalina, Esland. Quail cc. one uee aise ee ee eS Asche aeeesn as 537 
Deserts Quads cc:: csv hoa ool el hed osc eB a et aeh os ea eh A A ae 538 
Sierra Grouse : 544 
Sooty Grouse 552 
Oregon Ruffed Grouse 552 
Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse 558 
Sage-hen -- 564 
Ring-necked Pheasant 572 
Band-tailed Pigeon - 575 
Western Mourning Dove 588 
White-winged Dove 603 
Mexican Ground Dove 606 
Literature cited i 611 
Index 633 


CoLORED PLATES 


1. California Quail (drawn by Louis Agassiz Fuertes) ...............-.----- Frontispiece 
2. Mallard, male and female (Fuertes) facing page 94 
3. Baldpate, male and female; European Widgeon, male (Fuertes)...............- 110 
4. Cinnamon Teal, male and female (Fuertes) 126 
5. Canvasback and Lesser Scaup Duck, males and females (Fuertes) 150 
6. American White-fronted Goose and Lesser Snow Goose (Fuertes) ............ 214 
7, Fulvous Tree-duck (drawn by Allan Brooks) 246 
8. White-faced Glossy Ibis (Fuertes) : 270 
9. California Clapper Rail (Fuertes) -.... 286 
10. Mud-hen (Brooks) 318 
11. Avocet and Black-necked Stilt (Fuertes) ...... 342 
12. Snowy Plover (Brooks) 478 
13. Surf-bird (Brooks) fs 486 
14. Mountain Quail (Fuertes) 510 
15. Sierra Grouse, male and female (Fuertes) 550 
16. Ring-necked Pheasant (Fuertes) 574 


[ vii ] 


‘ Text FIGURES 


Nore.—Numbers in parentheses following titles of figures, and usually accom- 
panying the figures in the text, are those of the specimens in the Museum of 
Vertebrate Zoology from which the drawings were made; figures drawn from 
specimens in private collections have numbers followed by initials of owners 
(e.g., 209 H.8.8.). All figures natural size except as noted. 


PAGE 

1. General outline of a Mallard showing names of parts and areas referred 
to in describing a game bird; X 4 62 

2. Outer surface of spread wing of Green-winged Teal showing names of 
regions and feathers employed in descriptions (24635); X 1% .......-.--- 63 

3. Under surface of spread wing of Black-bellied Plover showing axillars 
and lining of wing (24868); X % 64 

4, Side view of Hudsonian Curlew showing method of taking the measure- 
ments used in this book (6940); K 4 66 
5. American Merganser, side of bill (21609) 80 
6. American Merganser, top of bill (21609) 80 
7. Red-breasted Merganser, side of bill (18814) 86 
8. Red-breasted Merganser, top of bill (18814) 86 
9. Mallard, side of bill (21615) 93 
10. Mallard, top of bill (21615) 93 
11. Mallard, side of tarsus and foot (21615) 94 
12. Gadwall, top of bill of female (21643) 104 
13. Green-winged Teal, side of bill of female (21699) 116 
14. Cinnamon Teal, side of bill of female (21739) 125 
15. Cinnamon Teal, top of bill of female (21735) 125 
16. Blue-winged Teal, top of bill of female (1647 H.S.8.) _u ee 125 
17. Shoveller, side of bill (21768) 131 
18. Shoveller, bill from below (21768) 131 
19. Pintail, top of bill of female (21827) 136 
20. Redhead, side of bill and head (585) 148 
21. Canvasback, side of bill and head (10607) 153 
22. Canvasback, side of foot and tarsus (10607) 153 
23. Buffle-head, head of female (18825); X % 179 
24, Old-squaw, head of female (111); X % 183 
25. Harlequin Duck, head of male; xX % 188 
26. Harlequin Duck, head of female (74); X % 189 
27, American Scoter, side of bill of male (4847) 196 
28. White-winged Scoter, side of bill and head of male (18826) .............-....- 199 
29. Surf Scoter, side of bill of male (113) 202 
30. Lesser Snow Goose, side of bill (5493) 212 
31. Ross Snow Goose, side of bill (21905) 216 
32. Canada Goose, side of bill (21949) 224 
33. Hutchins Goose, side of bill (22001) 224 
34. Cackling Goose, side of bill (22028) 225 
35. Canada Goose, side of tarsus and foot (21949) 226 
36. Hutchins Goose, side of tarsus and foot (22001) 227 
37. Cackling Goose, side of tarsus and foot (22028) 227 
38. Fulvous Tree-duck, side of tarsus and foot (21578) 2... ..ecececeeececeeeeeeeee 248 
39. Fulvous Tree-duck, side of bill (21573) 249 
40. Whistling Swan, side of bill and head (21284) 257 


[ viii ] 


. Whistling Swan, side of tarsus and foot (21284) 
- Roseate Spoonbill, side of bill (23325) 
- Roseate Spoonbill, top of bill (23325) 

. White-faced Glossy Ibis, side of bill (6188) 
. Little Brown Crane, side of bill and head (1125); x %4 
. Sandhill Crane, side of bill and head (X2067 J. & J. W. 
- California Clapper Rail, side of foot and tarsus (6995) 
. California Clapper Rail, side of bill (6995) 
. Light-footed Rail, side of bill (3497) 
. Virginia Rail, side of bill (4071) 
. Sora Rail, side of bill (5486) 
. Yellow Rail, side of bill (17250) : 
. California Black Rail, side of bill (16701) 
. Mud-hen, head showing ‘‘shield’’ (22149) 
. Mud-hen, top of foot showing lobes on toes (22148) 
. Red Phalarope, tarsus and foot showing webbing and lobes (4804) ........ 
. Red Phalarope, side of bill (4804) : 
. Northern Phalarope, side of bill (18932) 
. Wilson Phalarope, side of bill (14018) 
. Avocet, side of bill (22169) 
. Avocet, top of foot showing webs between bases of. toes (22169) .......... 
. Black-necked Stilt, side of bill (22183) 
. Black-necked Stilt, top of foot showing practical absence 
. Wilson Snipe, side of bill of female, with sense pits near tip (1068) ........ 
. Long-billed Dowitcher, side of bill of female (22232) 
. Knot, side of bill (24578) 
. Least Sandpiper, side of bill (3482) 
. Western Sandpiper, side of bill (165) 
. Least Sandpiper, top of foot showing absence of webbing (3482) ............ 
. Western Sandpiper, top of foot showing webs between bases of toes (165) 
. Red-backed Sandpiper, side of bill (9835) 
. Western Willet, outer surface of spread wing showing color patches 


. Long-billed Curlew, side of bill of female (24867) 
. Hudsonian Curlew, side of bill of female (3997 J. G.) 
. Black-bellied Plover, side of bill (22342) 
. Black-bellied Plover, side of tarsus and foot, showing presence of small 


. Black Turnstone, side of bill (107) 
. Black Oyster-catcher, side of bill (19016) 
. Mountain Quail, head 
. Valley Quail, head of male 
. Valley Quail, side of tarsus and foot (11955) 
. Curve showing by half-month periods the time when Valley Quail begin 


PAGE 


M)5 XY sone 


of webs (22183) 


(24783) 


hind toe (22342) 


. Killdeer, side of tarsus and foot, as typical of Plovers (18983) ................ 
. Surf-bird, side of bill (9875) 


to lay their eggs 


. Sierra Grouse, side of tarsus and foot, showing feathering (14076) ........ 
. Band-tailed Pigeon, head (15619) 


. Map showing distribution of the Band-tailed Pigeon in 
. Band-tailed Pigeon, lower surface of tail (238 H.S.8.) 


[ ix ] 


California ........ 


259 
265 
265 
271 
275 
280 
284 
285 
285 
293 
298 


.. 303 


306 
315 
316 
322 
322 
329 
334 
340 
341 
346 
347 
352 
361 
365 
378 
378 
379 
379 
384 


417 
440 
447 
454 


455 
465 
488 
495 
499 
506 
516 
517 


89. 
90. 
91. 
92. 


93. 


94, 


Western Mourning Dove, lower surface of tail (209 H.8.8.) --.-.-...-------- 
White-winged Dove, lower surface of tail (239 H.S.8.) ...--.------------- 
Western Mourning Dove, head (209 H.S.S.) 
Graph showing nesting season of the Western Mourning Dove in Cali- 
fornia, according to opinions of deputies of the California Fish and 
Game Commission 
Graph showing changes in open season for hunting doves in California, 
1880-1915 : 
Graph showing open season for hunting doves in states which allow 
these birds to be shot (1915) 


TABLES 


Table 1. Game birds shot on the grounds of the Empire Gun Club (EIk- 


horn, Monterey County, California) in four seasons between 
1905 and 1913 


Table 2. Estimates of numbers of ducks sold in the markets, between 1911 


and 1916 


Table 3. Ducks received by the American Game Transfer Company at San 


Francisco in the season of 1910-11 


Table 4. Geese received by the Independent Game Transfer Company, of 


San Francisco, during the season of 1909-10 .........-.----++--------0- 


Table 5. Ducks received by the Hunters Game Transfer Company of San 


Francisco, during the five seasons, 1906-11 


Table 6. Ducks sold on the markets of San Francisco by five game transfer 


companies during the season of 1910-11 


Table 7. Showing open seasons for hunting game birds in California, 1852- 


Table 8. Data relative to the nesting of the Mallard in California 
Table 9. Data relative to the nesting of the Gadwall in California 


1915 (opposite) 


Table 10. Data relative to the nesting of the Cinnamon Teal in California 
Table 11. Data relative to the nesting of the Ruddy Duck in California 
Table 12. Data relative to the nesting of the Virginia Rail in California 
Table 13. Data relative to the nesting of the Mountain and Painted quails 


Table 14. Crop contents of Mountain Quail 


in California 


Table 15. Data relating to nesting of Valley and California quails in Cali- 


fornia 


Table 16. Sets of eggs of Valley Quail examined by C. S. Sharp in the 


vicinity of Escondido, San Diego County, California, 1896- 
1913 


Table 17. Sets of Valley Quail eggs showing more than one type of colora- 


tion 


Table 18. Data relative to the nesting of the Band-tailed Pigeon in Cali- 


fornia 


Table 19. Data relative to the nesting of the Western Mourning Dove in 


California 


[x] 


601 


10 
13 
13 
13 
14 
14 
60 
96 
105 
126 
207 
294 


507 
512 


522 


525 


528 


582 


594 


INTRODUCTION 


In preparing the present volume the authors have attempted to 
meet the requirements of a varied public. The hunter wishes informa- 
tion concerning the haunts and habits of our game birds; the naturalist 
wishes to have the completest possible data regarding their life 
histories ; the legislator who appreciates the necessity of judicious game 
laws wishes to have the facts that are relevant to his purpose presented 
in concise form ; and the conservationist desires that information which 
will assist him in his efforts to perpetuate our bird life for the ultimate 
benefit of the greatest number of people. Whether the needs of these 
various classes have been adequately met in the following pages 
remains to be proved, but it may at least be stated here that none of 
them has been overlooked. To each of'the four categories of persons 
above mentioned, this book is offered as a working manual. 

The authors also have appreciated the fact that the literature 
relating to California game birds is widely scattered, and not accessible 
for immediate use by the public; an exhaustive review and compilation 
was’ necessary to make it easily available. Furthermore, they have 
realized that many California game birds are rapidly disappearing, 
and that any postponement of the time of writing the histories of 
these species might mean losing entirely the opportunity to record 
much that pertains to them. An effort has been made to organize 
the material at hand in such a form as to provide a convenient sum- 
mary of our knowledge of the subject to date. While the book may 
thus prove of positive value to the active field naturalist, the writers 
hope that the deficiencies apparent in the data presented will of them- 
selves furnish an incentive to further research. A more thorough 
observation of the bird life within our boundaries is urgently needed. 

In comparison with the Atlantic states California has thus far 
produced but a small number of careful observers, and many more are 
needed for the purpose of watching and recording the changes in 
the population of the birds from year to year, of chronicling their 
migrations, learning their food habits, and determining their relation 
both to sport and agriculture. Should the present volume succeed 
in enlisting even a few intelligent and active recruits in this work, an 
excellent end will have been served. 

Many game birds in eastern North America had almost or entirely 
disappeared before their value was realized or any attempts were 
made to conserve them. Adequate knowledge and forethought would 
have prolonged the life of these species and perhaps have saved many 


[1] 


2 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


of them for all time. Here in California the situation has not yet 
become so serious; we are in a somewhat earlier stage of development. 
We have still an opportunity of studying the circumstances, learning . 
the facts, and taking the remedial measures indicated thereby. But 
the time for action is short; already one species, the Columbian Sharp- 
tailed Grouse, is gone, and certain others are threatened. The neces- 
sity of calling attention to this danger is another reason for the 
publication of this book now. 

The authors fully recognize the fact that there are a number of 
people in this state who by reason of their long experience as hunters 
possess, in this regard, better qualifications for the authorship of a 
book on game birds than the present writers. But these persons are as 
a rule so engrossed in business that they themselves have not sufficient 
time to put through such a work. Some of them, however, together 
with certain other interested people, have placed the necessary means 
at the disposal of the authors, who, realizing their own shortcomings, 
have utilized their opportunities to the best of their ability. They 
have attempted to compensate for their lack of direct knowledge in 
the field of hunting by conversing and corresponding with sportsmen 
of experience, and they have each visited hunting grounds at the 
opening of different shooting seasons, with the object of learning 
something of the viewpoints, methods, and field-lore of Californian 
gunners. 

As regards the technical handling of the book the authors feel 
themselves on much surer ground. They have been able to derive 
first-hand information for almost all of the technical descriptions from 
museum specimens or from live or freshly killed birds in the field, 
and they have reviewed the literature of the subject in an exhaustive 
and discriminating manner. They are accordingly reasonably confi- 
dent of the accuracy of their descriptions of birds, nests, and eggs, 
places of nesting, and of the habits of the several species. But with 
regard to the sportsman’s notions and evaluations of the several 
species, and his preferred methods of hunting them, they have had to 
rely chiefly on second-hand information. 

The authors have been fortunate in having at their disposal a large 
amount of museum material. The specimens contained in the Cali- 
fornia Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, and in the private collections 
of J. and J. W. Mailliard, J. Grinnell, H. S. Swarth, and G. F. Morcom, 
have provided a basis for almost all assertions, independently of what 
has been previously published on the subject. When western mate- 
rial failed to supply needed facts, recourse has been had to eastern 
collections. Among eastern institutions which have granted the use 
of specimens or given information are the United States National 
Museum and Bureau of Biological Survey, in Washington; the 


INTRODUCTION 3 


Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; the Jonathan Dwight, 
Jr., collection in the American Museum of Natural History, New York 
City; and the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College, 
Cambridge. To all of these institutions and their officers we express 
our appreciation of the spirit of cordial codperation they have shown. 

In response to our direct request a great, many persons have 
furnished specific information. Wherever such information has been 
used it has been credited to the individual contributor. Much use has 
been made of Lyman Belding’s manuscript Water Birds of the Pacific 
District, now on deposit in the Bancroft Library of the University of 
California. The field observations of the three present co-authors and 
of W. P. Taylor and R. H. Beck have been taken from the note books 
of these persons on file in the California Museum of Vertebrate 
Zoology. All of these various sources of information are referred 
to in the text as ‘‘MS.”’ 

The hearty codperation of the California Fish and Game Commis- 
sion has been of great assistance in assembling data. Much new 
material has been obtained by means of circular letters to the com- 
mission’s deputies, as in the cases of the Mourning Dove and Valley 
Quail. Mr. Ernest Schaeffle, former secretary of the commission, 
assisted us in a multitude of ways both official and personal. 

Finally, Mr. Harry 8. Swarth, curator of birds in the California 
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, has read the entire proof of the book, 
and by reason of his extensive knowledge of western birds has been 
able to make important corrections and improvements. 

It was found necessary arbitrarily to set a date beyond which no 
new information should be incorporated into our manuscript. This 
date was fixed at June 30, 1916. Work done subsequently, and up to 
the time of going to press, consisted solely in revision. 

The list of ‘‘literature cited’’ at the end of the book must not be 
taken as a complete bibliography of the subject; it contains titles only 
of those articles or books from which material is actually taken either 
indirectly or by quotation. 

Many of our readers will probably disapprove of our frequent 
use of direct quotations. In’ defense of this practice we urge the 
greater accuracy thereby obtained. Experience has taught us that 
rewording an account often leads unintentionally to a perversion of 
the original author’s exact meaning, and we believe that scientific 
accuracy of fact should take precedence over smoothness of diction or 
an appearance of originality. We also recognize the fact that inter- 
polation of citations in the text mars its typographical appearance ; 
but their presence makes verification possible, and, together with the 
list of articles and books under the heading ‘‘literature cited,’’ they 
serve to assist those readers who are interested in following the sub- 


4 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


ject farther. We believe that placing citations in the text rather than 
in footnotes results in a smaller percentage of error even though it 
somewhat interrupts the smoothness of the printed page. 

The order in which the species chapters follow one another is essen- 
tially that used in the American Ornithologists’ Union Check-list of 
North American Birds (1910). 

The small-type paragraphs at the beginning of each species chapter 
are intended primarily for reference purposes, as for example in com- 
paring two or more species, and are consequently reduced to essentials. 
Many of the points briefly given in these paragraphs are elaborated 
upon in the general (large-type) account which follows. 

Each species chapter is headed by the most generally accepted 
common name, followed by the current scientific name and its author. 
Under ‘‘other names’’ are included, as a rule, only those names by 
which the species has been called in California, either colloquially by 
sportsmen or naturalists, or more formally in published articles. Mere 
variations in the spelling of names have not been listed. For a few 
common or widely distributed species, names used in other parts of 
North America are included, as a convenience in referring to other 
books. The word ‘‘part’’ indicates that the name which it follows has 
also been used for one or more other species in California. 

Under ‘‘description”’ are included only details of plumage (color) 
and size (measurements). Peculiarities in the structure of feathers, 
bill and feet are rarely mentioned because if important in diagnosis 
they are clearly shown in the accompanying illustrations or discussed 
in the running account. For each plumage a specimen has always 
been selected showing typically the particular phase to be described. 
Many species which occur in California, such as certain shore birds, 
are, in migration time, in a mixed transitional state between the winter 
and summer plumages. Of course these, and such additional variants 
as are produced by wear or fading of the feathers, are not ordinarily 
mentioned in the description. 

Under ‘‘marks for field identification’’ are mentioned such char- 
acters as will be of service in long-range observations. In most 
instances are included characters which will separate a species under 
discussion from others with which it is likely to be confused. In the 
running account there will usually be found one or more paragraphs 
discussing these field characters in greater detail. 

A number of our game birds differ slightly in color and measure- 
ments in different parts of the country and naturalists are accustomed 
to recognize such geographic races as subspecies. In some instances 
it is known that such races exhibit marked differences in behavior, 
so that we do not feel justified in citing the habits of eastern races in 
illustration of the behavior of western birds (e.g., see Oregon Ruffed 


INTRODUCTION 5 


Grouse). However, in the case of certain birds which are represented 
in California by two or more subspecies, such as the valley and the 
mountain quails and the ‘‘blue’’ grouses, our knowledge of the birds 
has led us to believe that there are no important differences in the 
behavior of the different races, and we have consequently combined 
the general accounts under that of the more widely distributed race. 
For example, in the account of the Valley Quail the habits of the 
California and Catalina Island quails are to be considered as covered. 

Whenever a bird in hand cannot be identified by the use of the 
‘‘key’’ or does not fit any of the descriptions, the specimen should be 
sent at once to some natural history museum for identification. Such 
a bird may be a representative of a rare species or of one new to the 
state, and so of particular value to science. The California Museum 


of Vertebrate Zoology stands ready at all times to receive and identify 
such specimens. 


JOSEPH GRINNELL, 
Haroup C. Bryant, 


Tracy I. Srorrr. 
MUSEUM OF VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY, 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, 
BERKELEY, September 15, 1916. 


6 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


DECREASE OF GAME AND ITS CAUSES 


It is easy to make statements to the effect that game has either 
increased or decreased ; but to find reliable figures with which to sub- 
stantiate such statements is well-nigh impossible. Yet the material 
gathered under this heading, even though fragmentary, seems not 
unworthy of consideration. The evidence we have been able to obtain 
may be grouped under four headings: the judgments of dependable 
observers; the records of the kills of waterfowl on gun-club grounds; 
the records of market sales and shipments of game; and the toll taken. 
by various agencies, natural as well as artificial. 

The decrease in the numbers of game birds in California began 
to arouse comment more than thirty-five years ago. In 1880 that 
pioneer ornithologist, Dr. J. G. Cooper, stated (1880, p. 243) that 
game birds had already ‘‘very much diminished’’ locally. In his 
opinion this reduction was due to ‘‘persecution by the gun,’’ and to 
poisoned grain intended for ‘‘vermin’’ (probably squirrels and 
gophers). 

In 1913 letters of inquiry on this subject were sent out from the 
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology to responsible observers throughout 
the State. Questions were asked as to the status of ducks and geese, 
shore birds, quail, and other game birds. Seventy replies were 
received, representing twenty-seven counties of the State. Many of 
these reports covered periods of ten to forty years, and one observer 
stated that he had kept track of game conditions for sixty-one years. 

A compilation of these reports showed that sixty-eight of the 
seventy observers had noted a decrease in ducks and geese. The other 
two reported that these birds were ‘‘holding their own.’’ Not one 
reported an increase! The estimates of the decrease in ducks ranged 
from twenty-five per cent to ninety-nine per cent, and average close 
to fifty per cent. The same observers agreed in reporting the greatest 
decrease in the case of geese; six stated that the birds had entirely 
disappeared from their accustomed localities, and five said that they 
were now seldom seen. The percentages of decrease for geese were 
given as fifty per cent and more, the average being about seventy-five 
per cent. 

Forty-one reports on the status of quail showed a considerably 
smaller decrease. Thirty-six observers reported a decrease, four 
stated that the birds were ‘‘holding their own,’’ and one reported an 
increase. Of eleven reports relative to the Mourning Dove, seven indi- 


DECREASE OF GAME 7 


cated a marked decrease, and four no change. The amount of decrease 
ranged from twenty-five to seventy-five per cent. 

A few excerpts from the letters received are given here to show 
the general character of the reports. Mr. Henry Grey, writing of 
San Diego and vicinity, under date of March 17, 1913, says: 

Eight and nine years ago I could go down to a pond near my house and 
shoot six Widgeon in twenty minutes. After shooting what I wanted, ducks 
would come streaming in from the ocean and the water-hole would soon 
be so filled with ducks while I stood in full view that they hardly had room 
to flap their wings. ... Now all is changed. ... A nearby resident declared 
that in the season of 1911-12 there was only one duck for over 100 seen in the 
same place four years before, and this season (1912-13) I failed to see even 
that proportion. 


Mr. Samuel Hubbard, Jr., under date of March 12, 1913, writes us: 


In 1876 ducks were very plentiful in all the marshes from Sausalito north 
to Petaluma, Napa and Vallejo. In those days it was easy for a boy to kill 
from twenty to thirty ducks in a day’s shooting and very much larger bags 
were obtained by experienced hunters. Today, in the region between Sausalito 
and Novato, I think it is safe to say there is not one duck in the marsh now 
where there were a hundred then. Beyond Novato there is still some shooting, 
but it is mostly confined to baited ponds where the birds are regularly fed. 
There are still large flocks of Canvasbacks and Bluebills on San Pablo Bay, 
but nothing like as many as in former years. On Oakland Creek where ducks, 
rail, curlew, and shore birds were formerly plentiful, they are seldom seen 
today. I have killed as many as forty rail on one tide in Oakland Creek but 
I doubt if there is a single one there today. 


The same observer has told us that many Wood Ducks were form- 
erly killed along Oakland Creek. But none has been seen in this 
vicinity for ten or fifteen years. 

Mr. C. I. Clay, under date of March 16, 1913, states that the 
Canada Goose was not uncommon on Humboldt Bay seven to ten 
years ago. Duck hunters frequently killed fair-sized bags from their 
hunting boats. But he has not seen or heard of a Canada Goose being 
killed on Humboldt Bay within the past five years. 

Mr. W. E. Unglish, under date of March 10, 19138, says that geese 
were once abundant on the plains between Gilroy and Hollister, San 
Benito County. Now, although the fields are still sown to grain, there 
are not a dozen geese killed there in a year. 

Mr. T. M. Lane writes: 

Twenty years ago wild geese came to the grain fields near Reedley, Fresno 
County, by the thousands. It would be a safe estimate to say we have seen 
at least five or six acres of ground covered with them. They were so thick 
they looked like scattered banks of snow with the ground showing through 
in black streaks. We have seen them covering a strip over a half mile in 
length. As the country was settled up and put out to fruit they gradually 
disappeared, but for several years we would see many flocks flying over; today 
we scarcely ever see or hear any. 


8 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Mr. A. D. Ferguson, also speaking of the Fresno region, states 
(November 30, 1912) that flocks of geese may yet be seen in certain 
sections along the San Joaquin River and in some grain fields many 
miles from the river. But ten to twenty years ago the whole San 
Joaquin Valley literally swarmed with wild geese during midwinter. 
From the windows of a moving train myriads of geese were to be 
observed, reaching as far as the eye could see on either side of the 
railroad from Fresno to Stockton—certainly a thousandfold more geese 
than can be seen today along the same route. 

Some published statements concerning the decrease of ducks and 
geese in the central and northern parts of the State may be introduced 
here. Tyler (19130, p. 7) says: 


It is with regret that we note a gradually diminishing number of waterfowl 
returning to us each fall.... While it is probably true that gunners are in 
a large measure responsible for the decrease in numbers of many species, par- 
ticularly of the ducks and geese, yet a changed environment has been a potent 
factor in bringing about the present condition. ... The large grain and stock 
ranches are being subdivided, reclamation work is steadily reducing the 
swamp-covered areas, vineyards and orchards are springing up everywhere 
with a consequent great increase in population. Even the tule ponds that 
remain are often unsuitable for a nesting place on account of the custom of 
using them as foraging grounds for bands of hogs. 


As early as 1890 the decrease in the numbers of geese had begun to 
attract attention. W. E. Bryant (1890, pp. 291-292) makes the 
following statements: 


There has not, so far as J am aware, been a very marked decrease in the 
number of geese which annually visit California, but the area over which they 
now feed is considerably less than in 1850. In the fall of that year, my father, 
while going from San Francisco to San José, met with acres of white and gray 
geese near San Bruno. They were feeding near the roadside, indifferent to 
the presence of all persons, and in order to see how close he could approach he 
walked directly towards them. When within five or six yards of the nearest 
ones they stretched up their necks and walked away like domestic geese; by 
making demonstration with his arms they were frightened and took wing, 
flying but a short distance. They seemed to have no idea that they would be 
harmed, and feared man no more than they did the cattle in the fields. The 
tameness of the wild geese was more remarkable than of any other birds, but 
it must be understood that in those days they were but little hunted and 
probably none had ever heard the report of a gun and few had seen men. This 
seems the most plausible accounting for the stupid tameness of the geese, forty 
years ago. What the wild goose is today on the open plains of the large interior 
valleys of California those who have hunted them know. By 1853 the geese 
had become wilder and usually flew before one could get within shotgun 
range, if on foot, but in an open buggy or upon horseback there was no diffi- 
eulty. There was a very marked contrast between the stupidly tame geese 
after their arrival in the fall and the same more watchful and shy birds before 
the departure in spring of the years 1852 and 1853. 


DECREASE OF GAME 9 


H. L. Bryant, an early settler in southern California, has told us 
of thousands of geese which formerly fed on the open fields of Los 
Angeles County and describes the snow-like effect produced there by 
the herds of white geese. Few feed in the same localities at the present 
time, and comparatively few can be seen flying overhead. 

Mr. Henry Grey, under date of March 17, 1913, states: 

There are no geese to be seen in the vicinity of San Diego now. Although 


fifteen years ago numbers of Black Brant came into San Diego Bay, the 
numbers are hardly noticeable at the present time. 


Additional testimony that certain species of ducks have noticeably 
decreased is to be found in magazines devoted to field sports, where 
attention is continually being called to the lessening numbers of the 
more desirable species. For instance, Hinman (1903, p. 179) speak- 
ing of marshes in southern California, states that Mallards and 
‘*Cans’’ seem to be getting scarcer every year, and the Redhead is a 
very rare visitor in that vicinity. P. G. Clark (1905, pp. 110-112) 
describes the killing of 279 ducks in one morning in a favorable sec- 
tion of the San Joaquin Valley, 179 of which were Mallards. There 
are many complaints to the effect that Mallards are now scarce in the 
same vicinity ; comparatively few of these birds are taken there each 
year. 

Mr. W. H. Bastian, keeper of the Santa Barbara Gun Club at 
Guadalupe, Santa Barbara County, wrote in February, 1914, as 
follows: 

I shot here for the market twenty years ago. Then it was no trouble to 
kill fifty to seventy-five ducks a day, mostly ‘‘Cans,’’ and using no decoys. 
At present, it is a scratch to kill twenty-five birds per day, and when that 
does happen, half are usually Ruddies. 


The marked decrease in the Band-tailed Pigeon is indicated by 
the following statements: 

We have had no pigeons near Gilroy for several years. Formerly we had 
large flights, and the birds were slaughtered by the thousands (W. E. Unglish, 
March 10, 1913). The Band-tailed Pigeon is so scarée here in Humboldt 
County that it is hardly worth one’s while to try to get a mess for the table. 
One can see the numbers diminish almost year by year (C. I. Clay, March 
16, 1913). 


Many other instances of decrease will be found cited under the 
general accounts of the different game birds, in the chapters follow- 
ing, notably in the cases of the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse, the 
Clapper Rails, and the Wood Duck. 

Present conditions are such that they often lead to exaggerated 
estimates of the relative numbers of birds existing now and formerly. 
The ducks and geese which were once distributed throughout the state 


10 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


are now crowded into the few ponds and marshes which are not yet 
reclaimed. It now takes a scientifically managed gun-club pond with 
every attraction that can be offered to wild fowl to bring the birds 
in large numbers. The same numbers of birds that can now be seen 
on baited ponds were present formerly on every small natural pond 
in the state. An example of this concentration is to be found in the 
vicinity of Gridley, Butte County, where geese still congregate 
annually in immense numbers; but most of the localities in the San 
Joaquin and Sacramento valleys which formerly favored the winter- 
ing of these birds, are completely devoid of them now. Many observers, 
seeing thousands of ducks on a few sections of overflowed land, fail 
to realize that the same sort of ground once extended far and wide 
through the valleys, and that these immense areas were then as well 
populated as are the smaller areas at the present time. 

The annually diminishing kills on club grounds also indicate that 
both waterfowl and upland game birds have decreased in this state. 
Although the gradual reduction that has been made in the bag limit 
might be expected to favor the maintenance of an adequate supply 
of ducks, the increase in the efficiency of firearms and methods of 
attracting waterfowl has undoubtedly facilitated their capture. The 
old-timers continue to complain of the decreasing number of birds 
brought to bag. The following table (no. 1) compiled from the books 
of the Empire Gun Club, one of the best managed clubs in California, 
will serve to indicate the changes in abundance of the several species 
of game birds visiting those grounds. Of course the figures do not 
take into account the varying number of shooters each year, nor the 
fewer shooting days from year to year. A noticeable decrease in the 


TaBLE 1.—Game birds shot on the grounds of the Empire Gun Club (Elkhorn, 
Monterey County, California) in four seasons between 
1905 and 1913 


1995-06 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 
Mallard -sessnvecseceesciers 106 18 13 22 
Gadwall ........... 5 7 1 10 
Widgeon ...W. 525 537 328 227 
MOA. cesceeaitavie oo 2028 436 780 1198 
Spoonies .... 905 332 881 651 
SPlig’ eee ve eas 449 1839 1660 1645 
Canvasback .............-.... 251 8 87 23 
Bltiebull «2:24. 91 125 44 29 
Black-jack . 28 5 5 
Quail 776 600 382 
Snipe 189 95 24 
Sundry 34 38 16 


Totals 0.2... 5266 4329 4532 4232 


DECREASE OF GAME lL 


number of large ducks such as Canvasback and Mallard, is, however, 
indicated. The kill of quail and snipe also shows noticeable decrease. 

In 1913 and again in 1914 a questionaire was sent out by the 
writers to different gun clubs asking for reports of the kills on the 
opening day of the season. Among the questions asked were: Number 
of hunters on hand; number of hunters securing the limit; number 
of ducks in each bag examined; total number of ducks for the day; 
kinds represented ; and, how the birds were shot. Most of the reports 
returned, show a preponderance of small ducks such as teal, and also 
of the less desirable species such as the Spoonbill. The larger ducks, 
especially the Mallard, are relatively few in numbers. It also appears 
from these reports that although about as many limit bags are pro- 
cured as in former years it takes more hours to secure the full quota 
of birds, notwithstanding the increased facilities for shooting and the 
increased efficiency of the firearms used. 

Sale of game on the open market has been fundamentally the most 
important factor in reducing California’s supply of game birds. So 
great has been the depletion from this cause in past years that it has 
been found necessary to prohibit the sale of all kinds except ducks 
and geese. These, too, should be removed from the sale list. All our 
neighboring states now prohibit the sale of all game, as do most of 
the eastern states. Were it not for certain San Francisco café and 
hotel men who reap a rich harvest from the retailing of game, Cali- 
fornia would have done likewise in 1913, when a ‘‘no-sale’’ bill passed 
the Legislature, but was nullified by referendum. The high prices 
offered the market hunter usually tempt him to go beyond the legal 
limit. So long as a market demand exists men will continue to hunt 
the birds regardless of any law. Government authorities are right in 
saying that ‘‘the free marketing of wild game leads swiftly to exter- 
mination.’’ California must prohibit the sale of all game species, if 
all are to be conserved as natural resources. 

The type of market hunter, who in former days took the largest 
toll of wildfowl used an animal blind in approaching his quarry. This 
“‘bull hunter,’’ as he was called, proceeded to the hunting-ground 
leading a trained steer or cow. After a good-sized flock of ducks or 
geese had been located, he proceeded to ‘‘walk a shot.’’ Moving along 
behind the animal, which was easily guided, he approached the birds 
by a process of ‘‘tacking,’’ each tack bringing him nearer his game. 
A direct approach would have tended to frighten them, but this 
indirect method rendered them unsuspecting. Throughout the process 
of ‘‘working the shot,’’ which required an average period of from 
two to three hours, an attempt was made to bunch or ‘‘bank’’ the 
birds as much as possible. When the birds were finally in proper 
position, the hunter whistled, whereupon the birds would raise their 


12 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


heads; then aiming over the back of the animal with his large-bore gun 
or automatic, and bracing himself for the recoil, he fired the first 
shot or shots while the birds were sitting, and the second or subsequent 
shots while they were rising. Formerly a 2-, 4-, or 8-bore gun was 
used, but most commonly a double-barreled, number 4, muzzle-loader ; 
in more recent years, a 12-gauge automatic with an extension magazine 
carrying from seven to nine loads, has been employed. The resulting 
slaughter was simply enormous. Mr. M. Becker is authority for the 
statement that he watched Sischo, a famous market hunter of Los 
Bajios, Merced County, with two assistants kill 400 ducks with six 
shots from number 4 guns. Two shots were fired from the animal 
blind while the birds were sitting on the ground, and four while they 
were rising. Mr. Becker was rewarded with twenty-two ducks for not 
disturbing the flock before the shot. Mr. Ralph P. Merritt tells us 
that a single bull hunter in the same vicinity killed 104 ducks with 
two shots from a number 4, and Mr. J. Walter Scott, president of the 
Los Bafios Gun Club, reports a kill of 108 geese with four shots. 

Hunting by means of an animal blind was first discouraged by the 
establishment of a bag limit of twenty-five birds; but for several years 
the difficulty of apprehending the violator and the practical impossi- 
bility of procuring a conviction after his apprehension prevented the 
elimination of bull hunting. Then, too, the men employing this method 
of hunting continually threatened the lives of those who attempted to 
enforce the law. Several shooting frays between game deputies and 
bull hunters took place near Los Bafios, and in 1915 a deputy was- 
killed there while attempting to make an arrest. After the law pro- 
hibiting bull hunting for ducks was passed, this sort of hunting was 
still continued under the guise of hunting for geese. It was not until 
1915, when all hunting with animal blinds was prohibited, and the 
market for birds was largely destroyed by the elimination of the 
illegally formed game transfer companies in San Francisco, that bull 
hunting became a thing of the past. 

The automatic shotgun allowed the market hunter to reap a copious 
harvest. Hornaday (1918, p. 148) records the killing of 218 geese in 
one hour with automatic guns in Glenn County, and 450 on the same 
day, by the two men concerned. The use of the automobile has also 
reacted against the birds. Some market hunters at Los Bajfios killed 
198 white geese from automobiles in less than an hour in February, 
1918. 

The sale of game birds on the market, then, has been a large factor 
in the general decrease of game. This is well shown by statistics relat- 
ing to San Francisco. The figures for the following tables, heretofore 
unpublished, were secured by us direct from the records of the game 
transfer companies named, and show the magnitude of the business 
which existed during the period from 1906 to 1912. 


DECREASE OF GAME 13 


TABLE 2.—Estimates of numbers of ducks sold in the markets, between 1911 
and 1916. Data from J. S. Hunter, Assistant Executive Officer, 
California Fish and Game Commission 

1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 1915-16 
San Francisco markets...... 250,000 150,000 82,000: 81,000 75,000 
All markets in California.... 350,000 200,000 160,000 150,000 125,000 


TABLE 3.—Ducks received by the American Game Transfer Company at San 
Francisco in the season of 1910-11 


a. ae g ¢ 3 ka 

e aS bm Sb S be a 5 4? 5 4 

3 a 8 = F B 3 g sy § g 

A = 6 5 a a ae co ms & a 

1910 
Oct. 21 541 14 424 1489 1685 21 235 68 143 4620 
28 485 1 260 856 1224 27 169 20 241 3233 
Nov. 4 472 3 445 1089 1330 10 4137 49 248 3783 
11 382 3 693 1485 1097 23 69 35 438 4225 
18 1010 3 11385 1359 651 6 4163 24 372 4723 
25 1027 3 1254 1522 964 9 30 29 620 5458 
Dec. 2 452 6 784 944 769 1 27 382 277 3292 
9 796 ... 773 1410 568 1 £55 118 486 4207 
16 672 ... 904 9296 468 1 156 77 431 3635 
23 700 1 1205 1345 725 <1 4115 98 244 4434 
30 404 ... 884 746 630 2 65 78 324 3133 
1911 

Jan. 6 456 ... 783 862 613 3 4107 45 353 3222 
13 486 4 4511 905 640 7 +4100 12 321 2936 
20 471 #7 «+736 880 872 2 188 50 404 3610 
27 «+547 _. 840 1242 1500 1 184 25 705 5044 
Feb. 3 225 ... 484 664 823 3 £62 21 341 + # 2613 
10 67 ... 322 481 606 1 31 14 #4129 1651 
17 186 ... 866 639 #731 +... #+4138 4138 4151 2549 
24 300 ... 1322 1396 1262 ... 11 6 280 4577 
299 38 ... 2138 264 274 ... 1. 8 G61 848 


Totals .....- 9562 45 14,838 20,504 17,432 119 1917 807 6569 71,793 


TaBLE 4.—Geese received by the Independent Game Transfer Company of 
San Francisco during the season of 1909-10 


Gray Honker Brant Totals 
October ..... 2847)... 1442 4832 
November 1673 19 2196 4890 
December 1256 125 1592 3502 
JANUary  --n-n-nseeeneneeee 929 151 1578 3325 
February 1027 135 1225 3033 
Mareh 1-5 ............ 82 321 5 116 524 


GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


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DECREASE OF GAME 15 


Occupation and settlement of a country by white men affects game 
birds in many other ways than through hunting. The reclamation 
and cultivation of the land not only introduces such major disturb- 
ances as a decrease in the birds’ food, but involves minor dangers to 
bird life in the form of telegraph wires, oil pools, and so forth. The 
rapid-flying birds are the most frequent victims in the former case, 
particularly during seasons of wind and fog. Many birds which do 
not meet death immediately suffer injury and are later caught by 
predacious animals. Among waterfowl the Mud-hen is the bird which 
most often meets death by flying against a barbed wire fence or tele- 
graph wire. In Los Bajios marshes it is not uncommon to see a Mud- 
hen still hanging from the barbed wire of the fence it struck, or lying 
beneath a telegraph line. There are several records of the Sora and 
Virginia rails having met death by striking a wire. Among the shore 
birds phalaropes are common victims of overhead wires. H. C. Bryant 
(MS) found one live Northern Phalarope and two dead ones, each 
with a wing completely severed from the body, beneath telegraph wires 
west of Madera, Madera County, May 14, 1915. F. H. Holmes found 
two or three dozen phalaropes beneath telegraph wires near San José, 
in November, 1898 (Emerson, 1904, p. 38). Emerson (1904, pp. 37- 
38) contributes considerable information in this regard. On Septem- 
ber 8, 1898, he found several dead sandpipers and a phalarope with a 
broken wing under some telegraph wires in a salt marsh near Hay- 
ward, Alameda County. Furthermore, several sandpipers were seen 
to meet death by flying against the same wires. In all, on this one 
day, forty dead birds were picked up beneath the wires. A trip to the 
same place the next day revealed thirty dead birds, mostly Northern 
Phalaropes, and Red-backed, Western and Least sandpipers. Again 
on March 11, 1903, he found a number of birds of each of the above 
species at the same place. It is apparent that only species that fly 
at heights corresponding to those of the wires are exposed to this 
danger. The birds chiefly affected are species also of migratory and 
gregarious habits. The large number of Mourning Doves reported 
as found beneath telegraph wires in southern California shows that 
even this species suffers in the same way. 

Ponds of crude oil, such as are common in the oil fields and near 
pumping stations, constitute a menace to bird life, and in some locali- 
ties the toll exacted of game birds is considerable. H. C. Bryant 
(1915d, p. 184), on May 11, 1915, found the bodies of more than three 
hundred birds in an oil pond about 50 by 150 feet in extent, at Brito, 
Merced County. Along the shores of the pond there was a winrow 
made up of bones and feathers of many other birds that had met the 
same fate. Among the game birds noted were five different species of 
ducks, one goose, several Mud-hens, some Avocets, Black-necked Stilts, 


” 


16 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Killdeer and sandpipers. Ducks appeared to have been trapped most 
frequently. The moment a bird’s feet touch the sticky oil its doom 
is sealed; for each of its successive efforts to free itself with its wings 
involves these members more completely in the oil. Even if a bird 
were able to reach shore the adhering oil would prevent flight, and on 
penetrating into its body would soon cause death. Rescued birds, even 
when well cared for, die quickly. 

The old practice of dumping waste oil into bays and estuaries 
resulted in the death of many waterfowl. Many birds dead, or dying 
and unable to fly because of the oil they have collected on their 
plumage while swimming, have been noted along beaches by different 
observers. To obviate the danger to fish arising from the dumping of 
refuse oil into state waters, a law was passed prohibiting this practice. 
As a result, there will be a saving of fish and also a saving of water- 
fowl. There still remains a considerable danger to the sea-ducks on 
the open ocean, where ‘‘tankers’’ (oil ships) are accustomed to flush 
out their tanks into the water. Many dead and dying birds, believed 
to be victims of this practice, are at times cast up along the sea-facing 
beaches of San Mateo, Marin, and Los Angeles counties. 

There are many reports to the effect that nests of upland game 
birds are broken up by the trampling of cattle or sheep. The scarcity 
of grouse and sage-hen in certain closely ‘‘sheeped’’ localities has been 
attributed to this cause. There are also here, of course, the factors of 
reduced food-supply and cover. 

On the overflowed pasture lands in the vicinity of Los Bajios, 
Merced County, the herds of cattle do some destruction to nests of 
ducks and shore birds by trampling (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 237). 
In this particular locality, also, the raising and lowering of the water 
accompanying the process of irrigation, alternately inundates nests 
and exposes them to discovery by predatory enemies such as raccoons 
and skunks. 

Where ducks, quail and pheasants (see p. 33) resort for nesting 
purposes to grain and alfalfa fields there is plentiful testimony to 
prove that many nests are broken up when mowing-time coincides 
with the breeding season of these birds. In some instances the incubat- 
ing bird has been actually cut to pieces by the knives of the mower. 

During the extensive campaigns against the spread of plague by 
rodents, statements (no doubt considerably exaggerated) have been 
given publicity, to the effect that many game birds have fallen victims 
to the poison used. Mourning Doves and Band-tailed Pigeons in small 
numbers have been found dead on poisoned ground. As regards quail, 
tests made by the United States Public Health Service show that this 
bird, at least, is not easily susceptible to the action of strychnine. 
Pierce and Clegg (1916, p. 13) state that poisoned barley as used for 


DECREASE OF GAME 17 


ground-squirrel eradication does not cause the death of California 
Valley Quail under natural feeding conditions. 

Game birds are as a rule remarkably free from disease in Cali- 
fornia. Only one serious point of outbreak is known to us, and water- 
fowl alone were here affected. In 1908, an epidemic broke out among 
the water birds (especially ducks) in and around Tulare Lake, Kings 
County, and Buena Vista Lake, Kern County (see Clarke, 1913, pp. 
214-226), and this has recurred during the summer and fall months 
of each year since that time. The disease first appears during the 
hot summer weather, about August, and has run its course at the 
advent of the cooler weather of October. It then rather suddenly 
abates, and no more sick birds are to be found until the following 
summer. It has generally, though not always, been confined to areas 
of stagnant water. 

Most of the ducks that die are fat and have the appearance of 
being in normal condition. The first symptoms of the disease are loss 
of the power of flight; following this, the ability to walk is lost. 
Finally in the later stages, the sick birds sit with their breasts on the 
ground or mud, and after a few days, during which time a diarrhoea 
develops, they die, apparently of paralysis. 

During an investigation in 1913 careful counts and estimates were 
made of the numbers of dead ducks on Buena Vista and Tulare lakes. 
A conservative estimate for the former lake was 15,000, and 25,000 
for the latter. Thus a total loss of over 40,000 ducks was sustained 
in 1913, in the two counties of Kings and Kern, besides many hundreds 
of other water birds. 

Experiments carried out there seemed to prove that the water in 
Tulare Lake, which is heavily charged with mineral matter, is respon- 
sible for the death of the birds. However, during other years many 
birds have been found dead in this and some other lakes when the 
water was comparatively fresh. The place where infection occurred 
during those years is not definitely known, but is currently supposed 
to have been near where the birds were found dead. 

Investigations by the United States Biological Survey (Wetmore, 
1915, pp. 6-7) of a similar disease occurring around Great Salt Lake, 
Utah, also indicate an alkaline poison, the exact nature of which is 
yet to be determined. As was the case in California, a large percentage 
of affected ducks recovered when placed on fresh water. The increased 
leaching of the adjacent lands by irrigation may be responsible for 
all these outbreaks. The only remedy yet suggested is to capture the 
sick birds and place them on fresh water. 

We know of no other instances of game birds dying as a result of 
disease except quail which in captivity often fall victims to a ‘‘quail 
disease.’’ This disease is known technically as coccidiosis. No cure 


18 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


is known, but good sanitary surroundings appear to be a preventative. 
There are no recorded instances of the disease becoming epidemic 
among wild birds in this state. Although quail and other game birds 
are often infested with tape worms and round worms, these parasites 
seldom, if ever, cause death directly. 

The array of evidence above given shows beyond question that 
waterfowl and upland game birds have both on the average decreased 
by fully one-half within the past forty years. Very likely the reduc- 
tion totals much more in many individual species. Obviously, from 
the nature of the data which we have been able to assemble, accurate 
estimates of comparative population are now impossible to give. Cer- 
tain it is, that one game species has totally disappeared from its former 
range in California—the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse, in the Modoc 
region. The Trumpeter Swan, if it ever occurred here in sufficient 
numbers to rank as of game value, must also be set down as vanished. 
Some other waterfowl and shore birds, which are so seriously depleted 
as to warrant alarm as to their persistence, are the Wood Duck, Ring- 
necked Duck, Redhead, Mountain Plover, and Long-billed Curlew. 

The causes of this decrease are many and diverse, but all are 
due in last analysis to the settlement of the state by the white man. 
Some of these factors, such as excessive hunting and sale of game, are 
subject to control; but others, such as reclamation of land, and over- 
head wires, are inevitable. The reduction in natural enemies by man’s 
agency is a factor favorable to some game birds. But this must not 
be overemphasized; hunting has intensified the decrease far beyond 
any balancing compensation from this factor. The game supply of 
the future must rely upon correct inductions based upon careful study 
of the entire problem, and final adoption of those means which it is 
found feasible to employ. 


THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF GAME BIRDS 


Many people have mistaken ideas regarding the general effect of 
predacious animals on wild game. It is true that certain hawks and 
predatory mammals prey extensively upon game, but that they con- 
stitute the most important or critical factor in reducing the numbers 
of individuals of game species we believe to be untrue. We need but 
point to conditions as they exist in the wild to prove that this idea is 
erroneous. Where game is abundant predacious birds and mammals 
are also abundant; where game is scarce (due probably to a lack of 
food) predacious birds and mammals are also scarce. In other words, 
the number of predacious animals is controlled by the supply of game. 
It can be seen, therefore, that a certain balance exists between wild 
game and its enemies. Forbush (1912, p. 541) says: ‘‘It is the mis- 
sion of the native natural enemies to help preserve birds, to keep 
them up to full efficiency and at the same time to prevent their 
increase in numbers beyond the limit of safety.’’ 

Predacious birds and mammals are to be looked upon as constitut- 
ing but one of many factors which affect the numbers of game birds 
and mammals, and care should always be taken that the importance 
of this factor be not overemphasized. No attempt is being made here 
to underestimate the actual damage to game caused by any of its 
enemies, but rather to point out that there is a tendency among many 
people at the present time to interpret wrongly the relative importance 
of the different categories of enemies. 

However, at times and under more or less artificial conditions, 
control of enemies may be advantageous to game birds. Destruction 
of predacious animals is of value when they have become abnormally 
abundant due to a destruction of their enemies, or to their taking 
advantage of the increased food supply furnished by cultivated crops. 
The crow in the eastern United States is a case in point. In Africa, 
where numerous game refuges have been established in the Transvaal, 
it has been found that the systematic destruction of certain predacious 
birds and mammals has been distinctly beneficial in increasing game. 

Destruction of mountain lions here in California has tended to 
eliminate one of the chief factors in the decrease of deer and hence 
increased the supply of the latter animals for the use of man. But 
in most attempts at control, many really, though indirectly, beneficial 
animals are destroyed, while some of the worst enemies of game go 
free. The reason for this is that in but few instances can friend and 
foe be so easily distinguished as in the case of the mountain lion. It 
is very easy to Jump to a conclusion in regard to the effect of any 


[19] 


20 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


given predator on game. But that such a conclusion is the correct 
one can be decided only after careful and far-reaching study of the 
problem. We would urge extreme caution in declaring sweeping 
destruction of supposed enemies of game birds, except in the few well 
established cases. It is hoped that the following comments on some 
of the enemies of game in California may be of help to those who wish 
to distinguish foe from friend. 

Three typical bird-destroying hawks are unprotected by law in this 
state. All three of them prey systematically upon game and insecti- 
vorous birds. The best known of these hawks, and apparently the 
most destructive, because of its habit of feeding upon Valley Quail, 
as well as poultry, is the Cooper Hawk, or ‘‘bullet hawk,’’ as it is 
commonly called. This bird has a dark-barred tail as long or longer 
than its body, and in silhouette against the sky, in flight, the wings 
show bluntly rounded at the ends, and the tail also is rounded rather 
than squarish at the end. The bird flies with a quick darting flight 
and usually perches in some nearby tree, or flies along through the 
trees, suddenly darting down and carrying off its prey with lightning 
speed. It does not as a rule soar about in plain sight overhead. This 
is the real ‘‘chicken hawk,’’ and should be carefully distinguished from 
the larger Red-tailed Hawk. The latter species sails about high in the 
air like a buzzard, but its food consists almost entirely of ground 
squirrels. In the hand these two birds can readily be distinguished 
by a comparison of their feet. The Cooper Hawk has very slender 
legs and feet, whereas the Western Red-tailed Hawk has very heavy 
legs and feet. 

A near relative of the Cooper Hawk, called the Sharp-shinned 
Hawk, is closely similar to it. The main points of difference are the 
much smaller size of the Sharp-shinned, and its square-ended rather 
than rounded tail. In flight as well as in habits the Sharp-shinned is 
practically a small edition of the Cooper Hawk. It is to be seen beat- 
ing along over the brush and trees, especially along streams, and not 
infrequently alights on the limbs of trees beneath concealing foliage. 
In these situations the Sharp-shinned Hawk preys upon small birds 
of every kind and will not infrequently help itself to young game birds 
and to chicks in the barnyard. 

The Duck Hawk, a true falcon, is the most powerful of the three 
species unprotected by law and is able to attack birds even as large as 
ducks. This hawk is said to kill more birds than it can eat, apparently 
killing for the pleasure it finds in the sport. The Duck Hawk is not 
now very common and is found chiefly about marshes and along the 
sea coast where it preys upon water birds. Fairly large size,:sharply 
pointed wings, a slaty back, and black patches on the face help in 
identification. At Santa Cruz Island in November, 1907, Linton 


NATURAL ENEMIES 21 


(19080, p. 127) observed a pair of Duck Hawks capture a Red Phala- 
rope. Black Turnstones ‘were considered the favorite prey at one 
locality on the island. 

A fourth species, the Western Goshawk, which is rare in California 
except in the extreme northern and northeastern portions of the state, 
should also be ranked among the harmful species. It is similar in 
form to the Cooper and Sharp-shinned hawks but is of much larger 
size. The adults have bluish gray backs and gray-and-white breasts, 
while the immature birds have brown backs and streaked bellies. 
Where it is abundant the Goshawk is known to do serious damage to 
grouse and quail. 

The two members of the cat family found in California, the moun- 
tain lion, ‘‘puma”’ or ‘‘cougar,’’ and the wildeat, ‘‘bob-cat,’’ or ‘‘lynx- 
eat,’’ are both enemies of game. The mountain lion is accused on good 
evidence of killing an average of at least one deer a week throughout 
the year. In addition it probably kills the larger game birds. It can 
readily be seen, therefore, that the systematic destruction of the moun-. 
tain lion means the saving of a large number of deer, and perhaps 
some game birds. The wildcat feeds habitually upon birds, and it is 
doubtful whether the number of rodents eaten compensates for the 
destruction of quail and other valuable birds. There is considerable 
evidence that the wildcat is, in certain localities, a very important 
enemy of quail. For instance, a wildcat killed at Petaluma, December 
29, 1908, contained a recently caught California Quail (Dixon, MS). 

These, then, are the principal undoubted enemies of game birds in 
California. To the mammals might be added, according to local cir- 
cumstances and season, the weasel, skunk, coyote, and raccoon; but 
all of these, especially the first two, do considerable good by destroying 
small rodents and in most instances probably do more good than harm. 
Before any of these mammals are killed an attempt should be made to 
determine whether or not, in the particular locality and as regards 
other interests than those of the game, they are doing more harm than 
good. Circumstances sometimes alter cases, however, and the system- 
atic destruction of coyotes in Modoc County in 1916, because of the 
spread of rabies by them, was to be favored. Also, on occasion, indi- 
vidual animals, as when found destroying ducks’ nests, should be 
destroyed. An account of such depredations by a coyote in Sutter 
County is given by Neale (1916, p. 161). In certain localities raccoons 
rob the nests of ground-nesting birds. The breaking up of the nests 
of ducks and other water birds in the Los Bafios district of the San 
Joaquin Valley has been attributed to these animals (H. C. Bryant, 
1914e, p. 237). 

The only bounty paid by the state on any of these animals is twenty 
dollars each for mountain lions. Several of the counties offer bounties 


22 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


on coyotes, and a few also on wildeats. Whether the bounty system is 
the best means of attacking the problem is still in doubt. It can be 
justified only when the animal on which the bounty is paid is 
individually of great destructiveness, and at the same time not so 
abundant that the paying of bounties is too great a tax on the treasury. 
When the average hunter becomes able to distinguish between friend 
and foe there will probably be a large enough toll of predacious birds 
and mammals taken voluntarily by him to enable game to hold its own, 
without resort to bounties or other special means (see Forbush, 1916, 
p. 56). 

There is danger that some of the introduced game birds may become 
enemies of native game birds, not so much because of any predacious 
habits of the former or of their pugnacity, as because of usurpation 
of food supply. This matter has been covered in our chapter on ‘‘ His- 
tory of attempts to introduce non-native game birds into California”’ 
(p. 48). Although it has been suggested that the Ring-necked Pheasant 
would not only appropriate the food supply of Valley Quail but also 
by its pugnacity drive it out of its habitat, what little evidence is at 
hand points the other way. The Valley Quail can apparently hold its 
own, and it is even said to drive out the pheasants (Neale, 1915, pp. 
158-155). What effect the few introduced game birds have actually 
had on our native species we are unable to state. 

The ground-foraging Roadrunner has been accused of destroying 
the eggs and young of Valley Quail. An attempt to obtain light on 
this point brought little positive evidence. The investigation included 
a review of every published reference to the food of the Roadrunner 
in California, as well as the analysis of eighty-three stomachs of Road- 
runners taken in southern California (H. C. Bryant, 1916). The 
investigation showed that, although the Roadrunner may occasionally 
attack small birds, its bird-eating and egg-eating habits have been 
exaggerated, and that the killing of this bird as an injurious species 
is wholly unjustified. It is only in very rare cases that young quail 
are molested. The benefits conferred by the Roadrunner in the 
destruction of insect and rodent pests plus its great esthetic value 
leave a balance greatly in favor of the bird and mark it as a beneficial 
rather than injurious species. Here, again, decisions were jumped 
at, which subsequent careful study failed to support. 

Among reptiles, a few of the snakes are commonly believed to rob 
the nests of birds. There is no doubt that individual gopher snakes 
do resort to a diet of quail’s eggs when opportunity offers. Four well- 
attested cases of this sort are on record (Hoover, 1899, p. 75). But 
here, as with most predators, the normal or usual toll, of the species 
as a whole, should be taken into account, and the service of this snake 
as a rodent destroyer compels favorable consideration. 


THE GUN CLUB IN CALIFORNIA 


The last twenty years has seen a great change in the attitude of man 
towards wild game. In the early days game was so plentiful that no 
thought was taken for its preservation. As a result it was slaughtered 
without restriction. Two instances are typical. One is the well known 
case of the Passenger Pigeon in the East; the other a less known and 
much more recent one relating to geese in California. Here more 
than two hundred geese have been killed within a few hours by a 
single hunter using a large-bore gun. 

Now that game birds have become so scarce that they cannot be 
secured with ease in large numbers, a reaction has set in, and the public 
at large does not countenance such wholesale slaughter. In consequence 
restrictive laws have been enacted. A further, less formal, step has 
been taken locally in attempts to attract birds in various ways. These 
efforts are at present chiefly confined to so-called gun clubs, and much 
ingenuity, as well as considerable sums of money, is used to bring 
about the desired results. The process of game extermination is being 
succeeded on a small scale by game conservation. 

There are many problems which must be carefully worked out in 
determining methods of game conservation. Of first importance are 
those which bear directly on the survival of the species: market hunt- 
ing, natural enemies, disease, safety of breeding places, and native 
food supply. Other problems must be considered from the standpoint 
of the citizen—public rights to wild game, equable legislation, and the 
like. There is one important problem that must be looked at from 
both points of view, for it intimately concerns both the bird and the 
citizen. This is the problem of the private and club game preserve, 
best illustrated at the present time by the familiar ‘‘duck club.’’ For 
a long time the duck preserve has been an object of contention among 
sportsmen, the outsider maintaining that the preserve curtails his 
liberties by usurping all the available shooting grounds and hence the 
birds, and the clubman defending his point of view by pointing out 
the advantages to the duck population afforded by his preserve. In 
fact, the gun-club question must take first rank, if the importance of 
the problem be judged by the amount of protest raised against such 
preserves. 

Every one of the conditions which assail the native game popula- 
tion and which are due to the settlement of the country by man, such 
as the effacement of breeding, feeding, and loafing grounds for ducks, 
the replacement of native vegetation by introduced plants, the destruc- 


[ 23 ] 


24 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


tion of game, for food or sport, the introduction of exotic birds and 
mammals, and the introduction of diseases, are all affected by the 
preserve. Thus we see that the problem is a complex one and needs 
careful treatment. The present brief discussion can be considered’ 
as only a very inadequate contribution to the subject. 

Preserves are really of three kinds—public, club, and private. 
The first, a far different type from the other two, is exemplified in 
the state game refuge now being established in different parts of 
California, and of the utility of this there can be no question. Let 
us examine somewhat critically the club and private preserves as they 
exist at the present time. 

Club preserves are tracts of land, either rented by groups of men 
or owned by them for the common advantages they offer for exclusive 
hunting. Every degree of equipment may be found, from a rented 
house-boat on some slough at the edge of a bay marsh to an elaborate 
shooting lodge situated on a valuable tract of land owned jointly by 
the club members. A representative instance of this last type is the 
Empire Gun Club, which consists of about twenty business men of 
San Francisco, and whose holdings are located along the Elkhorn 
Slough, near Castroville, in Monterey County. The land is largely 
marsh, such as is suitable for ducks, but some of the adjoining hill 
land affords favorable ground for quail. The improvements consist 
of a house for the keeper, who patrols the grounds the year round, and 
a substantial clubhouse for the accommodation of the members at 
shooting time. Expenses are met by dues and assessments. 

The most necessary improvements connected with this type of pre- 
serve are those concerned with the furnishing of attractive places for 
the ducks. These consist chiefly of a number of fresh water ponds 
made by constructing levees and flooding the enclosed land with fresh 
water. This water is piped from springs, or pumped in‘from wells. 
In a short time the fresh water drives out the salt marsh plants, such 
as ‘‘pickle weed,’’ and their place is taken by a better type of vegeta- 
tion. The ponds are kept free from rank or undesirable growths, and 
are in other ways made attractive for the more desirable kinds of 
ducks. An effort is made to keep the ponds deep enough to attract 
Sprig, rather than Spoonbills or other less desirable ducks, which 
prefer shallower water. The ponds are baited twice a week. Wheat, 
whole corn, and maize, are used to the amount of a carload and a half 
each year. The slough itself affords excellent Canvasback and Blue- 
bill shooting during the latter part of the season, so that the club is 
ideally situated from the standpoint of the hunter. 

The rules of the club are few but well observed. Shooting is 
allowed on two days of each week only—Wednesday and Sunday. The 
use of pump guns and automatics is prohibited. Trained dogs are 


THE GUN CLUB IN CALIFORNIA 25 


kept for retrieving. Blinds are chosen by lot, and a regular order 
followed in rotation throughout the season. Each bag is recorded by 
species in a ledger, so that the shoot for each year since the organiza- 
tion of the club can be ascertained. It is of interest to note that in 
the twelve years of this club’s history there has been no marked dim- 
inution in the total annual bag. There has, however, been a change in 
the make-up of the bag in that certain larger ducks are now taken 
in smaller numbers (see table 1, p. 10). 

This particular club is looking forward to the complete reclama- 
tion of its land in the more or less distant future; in other words, 
the property will sometime be sold for agricultural purposes, so that 
the initial outlay is looked at in the light of an investment. It is to 
be observed that the large sums of money now invested in duck pre- 
serves, although primarily for sport, are secondarily for the purpose 
of obtaining land capable of reclamation. Whenever the growth of 
the country demands it, these lands will be available for agriculture. 

Differing but slightly in the method of operation is the preserve 
owned by only one individual, or but two or three. Let us take as an 
example that owned by Mr. W. W. Richards at Cygnus, Solano County, 
one of twenty or more shooting preserves on the Suisun marshes. 
The equipment is similar in a general way to that of the club-owned 
grounds just described. The locality offers slightly different condi- 
tions so that we find the ponds made both by excavation and by the 
building of levees, the slightly brackish water being admitted by 
means of head gates at high tide. <A further step is taken to attract 
ducks by flooding large areas which are diked off to afford loafing and 
feeding grounds. In addition to grain, ‘‘grit,’’ or crushed quartz, is 
put out. Useless vegetation is burned off and every favorable con- 
dition maintained for the growth of those native plants which furnish 
food for ducks. In the ponds thrives the California fennel pondweed 
(Potamogeton pectinatus), sometimes locally known as ‘‘nutgrass,’’ 
which is the best of the natural food plants for many kinds of ducks, 
both surface feeders and diving ducks. An attempt has been made 
to introduce Vallisneria, the famous duck food of the Atlantic coast, 
but this has proven unsuccessful. 

The blinds used on the preserves are usually of two kinds, the 
barrel or box blind consisting of a large barrel or box sunk nearly 
to the level of the ground, and the platform blind which is a wooden 
platform surrounded by high brush or tules. These blinds may be 
elaborately equipped to insure the comfort of the occupant as well 
as to render his location invisible to the game. The hunter wears 
inconspicuous clothing and is careful not to make quick movements or 
to allow the sun to shine on his face when ducks are flying overhead. 
Calling the ducks in by imitating their call-note is a method considered 
‘‘unprofessional’’ on some preserves, but is in common use on others. 


26 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Wooden decoys are always employed. Sometimes they are placed 
on the ponds previously to the day’s shoot, at other times put out 
by the hunter himself when he goes to his blind. The decoys are put 
out in groups, each species by itself, and each individual decoy is 
anchored by a leaded string. About half a dozen each of Green- 
winged Teal, Sprig, and Widgeon are sufficient to attract ducks of 
these species, but for Canvasbacks a larger number of decoys is used. 

The storm of protest which arises from the unattached hunter tends 
to place gun clubs in a position which our own investigations fail to 
substantiate. It is true that the very best hunting grounds are pre- 
empted by the gun clubs. And, in light of the fact that the game of 
the state belongs to the people as a whole and not to any one individual 
or group of individuals, this would seem radically opposed to the prin- 
ciple of democracy. Yet there is something to be said even on this 
score in defense of the gun club. One stock argument, and a valid one, 
that is repeatedly propounded at the present time in connection with 
other natural resources, is applicable here as well. It concerns a 
fundamental economic relationship. The expenditure of large sums 
of money for any sort of commodity (commercial or recreative) is 
considered helpful to the whole social body. The establishment and 
the upkeep of the preserves requires the employment of large sums 
of money which would not otherwise be spent in the same field of 
labor. Invested capital is increased thereby. For instance, on one 
preserve of which we know, the cost of the bait used in a single year 
was greater than would have been the cash value that could have been 
realized if all the ducks shot had been sold at current prices on the 
market! There is a statement current on the Suisun marshes that the. 
ducks there shot cost their weight in silver. In other words, a duck 
shot on a preserve is worth vastly more than one shot on open ground, 
because of the expense incident to its killing. Surely this is a point 
that must in all fairness be considered. 

If we stop to think, it seems remarkable that this adverse point 
of view should be entertained regarding the duck club, when the same 
arguments are seldom applied to the roughly analogous case of the 
automobile. We hear little complaint against the man who is able to 
own an automobile and therefore able to get a disproportionate amount 
of use out of the good roads which are supported by every taxpayer. 
Nor do we find people criticising the national government for main- 
taining Yosemite Valley as part of a national park in spite of the fact 
that comparatively few persons can afford to visit it. We simply have 
to admit the general truth that some men have superior advantages 
in many things—access to game included. 

The following are the factors which are detrimental to, and favor- 
able for, the duck population, and which are concerned with the pre- 


. 


THE GUN CLUB IN CALIFORNIA 27 


serve as it is being conducted today. If we look at the problem strictly 
from the conservation standpoint the evidence is fairly in favor of 


the preserve. 


EFFECTS OF THE GUN CLUB ON OUR DUCK SUPPLY 


DETRIMENTAL 

Concentration.—The best natural lo- 
cation is selected and conditions 
made still more attractive for ducks. 
As long as there are any ducks at 
all, they will concentrate upon such 
favorable grounds. In other words, 
the preserve may be looked upon as 
hastening the decrease of the duck 
supply because it leads to a continual 
concentration of population in a place 
where regular and heavy toll is levied. 

Heavy toll—On the preserve there 
is systematic hunting every favor- 
able shooting day during the season, 
and under the best devisable condi- 
tions. Hence very large annual bags 
are appropriated. 

Marksmanship. — The highest type 
of marksmanship is always to be 
found on the preserve and _ this 
makes for limit bags. 

Efficiency of firearms.— The best 
grades and most expensive guns and 
ammunition are used. 

Personnel.—The highest grade of 
intelligence is brought to bear on 
ways and means of procuring the 
ducks. 


FAVORABLE 

Increased and better feeding 
grounds.—These are secured by diking, 
flooding, and the construction of arti- 
ficial ponds. Increased breeding and 
loafing grounds are also furnished. 

Maintenance of favorable grounds. 
Much land is appropriated and re- 
tained in the preserve which other- 
wise would be made unfit for ducks 
through reclamation for agricultural 
and pastoral purposes. 

Additional food.—Additional food 
supply is furnished in the form of 
bait, and by the encouragement of 
native food plants. 

Restricted hunting.— Hunting is 
often limited to but two days a week 
and to relatively few shooters. 

Indiscriminate hunting prevented.— 
By a system of posting and patrol of 
lands undesirable hunting is elimin- 
ated. Illegitimate shooting during 
closed season is also prevented. 

Refuge for ducks.—During the 
closed season, on non-shooting days, 
and during rough weather, the pre- 
serve affords an ideal refuge for the 
birds. 

Cripples not wasted.—The habitual 
use of trained dogs assures the re- 
covery of practically all cripples, and 
thus lessens the total number of 
birds killed. 

Most deadly guns not used.—On 
most preserves use of the pump gun 
and automatic is prohibited. 


In our minds, the most important count against the duck preserve 
is not so much the preémption of the most desirable hunting grounds, 
as the improved conditions offered to the ducks, which cause them to 
‘congregate at points where a severe toll is exacted. The unavoidable 
concentration due to the reclamation of marsh land is undesirable 


28 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


enough; intentional concentration is to be still more deplored when 
advantage is taken of it, and excessive depletion results. The failure 
of many persons to appreciate the diminution in duck population is 
due chiefly to the fact of this concentration of all the ducks which 
under former. conditions wintered over a great extent of territory, 
within a few localities made favorable to them by artificial means. 
The other factors concerned, such as the efficiency of the firearms used 
and the high degree of marksmanship, are really but supplementary to 
this more fundamental factor. 

On the other hand, many conditions are afforded by the preserve 
which favor the persistence of our duck supply. Some of these serve 
directly to offset the detrimental effects of concentration. Probably 
the most important of these is the maintenance of favorable feeding- 
grounds which otherwise would be much sooner appropriated for 
agriculture. The provision of a refuge during the closed season and 
on non-shooting days, and the restriction of hunting, also detract 
greatly from the evil effects of concentration. In fact, if we study 
the problem entirely from the standpoint of the effect on the duck 
population, we are led to the conclusion that the duck preserve is an 
institution which at the present time is to be fostered rather than dis- 
couraged. With plenty of available natural feeding grounds for ducks 
this judgment would have to be reversed. But present conditions 
certainly justify the conclusion. ; 

It would appear that the institution of the well regulated gun club, 
occurring, as it has, at a critical stage in the adjustment of artificial 
to natural conditions, is to be looked upon as a propitious rather than 
as an adverse factor in the conservation of our duck supply. Whether 
or not, as further changes result from increased human population, 
this valuation of the preserve will persist, remains to be seen. 


HISTORY OF ATTEMPTS TO INTRODUCE NON-NATIVE 
GAME BIRDS INTO CALIFORNIA 


Even before our native game birds had become so far reduced 
in numbers as to alarm greatly those most interested in their mainten- 
ance, attempts were made to introduce species from other states and 
countries. This was done for a variety of reasons. Some persons 
believed that by increasing the number of kinds of game birds we 
could increase the total number of individuals; others thought that 
foreign species would prove more prolific than our native kinds; and 
some hoped that species ‘‘bigger and finer’’ than any of our native 
ones could somehow become established here. But the proponents of 
these several hypotheses were all doomed to disappointment. The 
faulty reasoning which underlay these notions will be demonstrated 
later. First let us review the history of the introduction of alien birds 
into California. 

The first attempts to introduce foreign birds into the United 
States were made more than a hundred years ago. Since that time, 
and for one reason and another, efforts to establish exotic species in 
this country have been numerous. A brief review of some of these 
attempts shows that there is great contrast in the results obtained 
in different places. On the one hand stands Oregon’s extraordinary 
success with the Ring-necked Pheasant, a success which has stimulated 
interest in acclimatization throughout the United States; on the other 
hand we find many failures. For example, Illinois has spent many 
thousands of dollars in an almost wholly futile attempt to stock the 
state with pheasants. Between these two extremes there have been 
all degrees of success and failure. 

Neither the large expenditure involved, the danger attendant upon 
the introduction of a species which might later prove undesirable (as 
did the English Sparrow), the possibility of replacement of a native 
species by a foreign one, nor the possible introduction of diseases fatal 
to our native game, seems in any way to have halted the mad rush 
to introduce and attempt to establish foreign game birds. State after 
state has carried on haphazard and poorly managed experiments, in 
most instances without paying any attention to the experiences of 
other states. Few seem to have codified the knowledge concerning 
acclimatization as it applies to game birds, and those who have done 
so have found the effort an exceedingly difficult one because of the 
incompleteness and unsatisfactory nature of the records. 


[ 29 ] 


30 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The success of Oregon in introducing pheasants, and the similar 
success which attended the introduction of exotic fishes into the waters 
of California have both been incentives to experiment in acclimatiza- 
tion with game birds in this state. Within eight years after shad had 
been planted in the Sacramento River at Tehama they became so 
abundant that thousands were caught and sold in the markets of San 
Francisco. Carp became numerous soon after they were planted, and 
the same was true with black bass. It is not to be wondered at that 
the same sort of results was looked for by those who sought to restock 
the depleted game covers of our state. 

More than a quarter century has passed since the first private 
attempts were made to introduce foreign game birds into California, 
and more than two decades have gone by since the matter was given 
serious consideration by the State Board of Fish Commissioners, the 
predecessor of our present Fish and Game Commission. In view of 
the length of the period which has elapsed since then, and the number 
and extent of the trials which have been made, it seems that a time 
has arrived for reviewing the work performed, for judging the results 
obtained, and for attempting to find out what will be the best course 
for the future in this direction. The present chapter aims to do this, 
and also to place data and materials for studying the problem in more 
detail than is here possible at the disposal of those who are most 
interested. 


PHEASANTS 


California’s most persistent attempt to bring in and establish a 
foreign species appears in the case of the Ring-necked Pheasant 
(Phasianus torquatus). The earliest efforts to this end were made 
by private individuals, but unfortunately the accounts of these first 
attempts are incomplete, and it is probable that we have record of 
only a small proportion of the total number of importations that were 
made. The first published statement we have been able to find which 
pertains to this subject is that made by Belding in 1890 (pp. 8-9) in 
which he says: 


Some years ago a flock of English pheasants was put out in the woods of 
Santa Cruz County, but nothing has been seen nor heard of them since. Colonel 
Haymond of San Mateo has a number of these birds, English and Japanese, 
but he has had no success in raising them; when let out they suddenly disappear 
and nothing is seen or heard of them. Mr. Howard, near by, has experimented 
with the same bird. A few weeks since he informed me that his foreman 
told him he had seen a flock of twenty-two birds. The birds mentioned are the 
only ones experimented with. Certainly thus far the experiments are not a 


success. In Oregon they have met with great success, with both quail and 
pheasants. 


NON-NATIVE GAME BIRDS 31 


The Country Club of Marin County is known to have introduced 
‘‘English’’ Pheasants prior to 1889, but the birds soon disappeared. 
W. E. Gerber, at one time a Fish and Game Commissioner, in 1904 
began to propagate pheasants of several species on his country place, 
the Del Paso Ranch, near Sacramento. Ring-necked Pheasants were 
imported from China and Oregon and placed in charge of a game- 
keeper. Hundreds were reared and most of them liberated on the 
ranch, but all subsequently disappeared. 

The following statement by Mrs. Denny, wife of Judge 0. N. Denny 
who was instrumental in introducing the Ring-necked Pheasant into 
Oregon, indicates that an early semi-official effort was made to obtain 
birds from China. 


Before returning to the United States, my husband communicated with Mr. 
Redding [one of the commissioners] of San Francisco, asking him if he would 
like to have a shipment of game birds sent to California. Mr. Redding was 
very enthusiastic and made all arrangements to take care of them on their 
arrival. He arranged with the Spring Valley Water Company of California, 
who were also in sympathy with the movement, and who arranged to have 
the birds turned out upon their grounds. They sowed buckwheat seed in differ- 
ent places and promised that every facility for the feeding and comfort of the 
birds would be attended to. Between eighty and ninety birds were shipped, 
extreme care being taken so that they would reach San Francisco in good 
condition. The ship arrived at the wharf as the funeral procession of Mr. 
Redding was taking place. He had died suddenly and no arrangements had been 
made to receive the birds. In fact, no one knew anything about it. The birds, 
of course, had to be taken from the boat, and, no one seeming to know any- 
thing about them, the sailors finally gave them away along the waterfront and 
some of them were sold to the city markets. California never knew of my 
husband’s splendid gift, and the state received no benefit from it (Simpson, 
1914, pp. 17-18). 


The first consistent public effort was begun on March 16, 1889, 
when an appropriation of $2000 was made by the Legislature to pur- 
chase foreign game birds for planting within the state and for pro- 
tecting birds so planted. W.H. Shebley was sent to Oregon to procure 
Ring-necked Pheasants and obtained from farmers and others who 
were breeding the birds about 140 at ten dollars a pair. The pheasants 
were liberated in Monterey, Sacramento, Marin, and Nevada counties, 
and in some localities in the San Joaquin Valley. This constituted the 
first plant made by the California Fish Commission. 

Further distribution of Ring-necked Pheasants by the Fish Com- 
mission took place in the spring of 1894, when sixty-seven of these 
birds were obtained and distributed in various counties of the state 
where it was thought they would thrive. The pheasants were placed 
in charge of citizens who had met the commission’s requirements and 
built suitable aviaries. It was understood that all the birds produced 


32 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


from this parent stock were to be liberated on public lands. Owing 
to the fact that the female pheasants would not incubate their own 
eggs and that hatching had therefore to be done py domestic hens, 
few birds were reared and liberated. A year or two later a number 
of imported pheasants were liberated in Santa Clara, Kern, and 
Tehama counties. In 1897, an agent was again sent to Oregon and 
323 Ring-necked Pheasants were obtained. These were distributed 
in five-pair lots to many different parts of the state. In 1898, 93 
‘Mongolian’? (— Chinese Ring-necked) and 150 ‘‘English Ring- 
necked’’ pheasants were purchased and liberated. Later, favorable 
reports stating that young birds had been seen came from Humboldt, 
Santa Clara, and Fresno counties. Most of the ‘‘Mongolian’’ Pheas- 
ants were brought over from Hongkong, China, and were purchased 
for seventy-five cents each.* 

During the next few years the commission was unable to secure 
pheasants from the Orient because of the fact that a demand had arisen 
for pheasants for table use on steamers stopping at Asiatic ports, and 
the resulting increase in cost was prohibitive. By 1906, interest had 
centered in the Hungarian Partridge, and attention was for the time 
withdrawn from pheasants. 

When the State Game Farm was established, in 1908, a breeding 
stock of Ring-necked Pheasants was secured, and during the next few 
years hundreds of pheasants were reared and planted throughout the 
state. The largest distribution took place in 1912, when 1398 Ring- 
necked Pheasants were planted in twenty different counties in the 
state.2 The total number of pheasants liberated by the Fish and Game 
Commission up to 1916 was approximately five thousand. One or more 
plants have been made in at least thirty-seven of the fifty-eight counties 
of the state. 

More than twenty-five years have passed since Ring-necked Pheas- 
ants were first introduced into California by private enterprise and 
more than twenty years since they were introduced by the Fish and 
Game Commission. In this time the repeated efforts which have been 
made seem to us to have sufficiently tested the pheasant’s ability to 
become acclimated to Californian conditions. The species should have 
become well established throughout the state; but it has not done so. 
The birds are now reported as established in about twenty localities, 
but in scores of places where large plants were made not a single wild 
pheasant is to be found at the present time. In certain localities where 
at first they thrived, they eventually disappeared. Some have, of 
course, been killed by uninformed or malicious gunners; but in com- 

1 Calif. Fish Com., 1894, p. 29; ibid., 1896, p. 33; ibid., 1900a, p. 10; ibid., 
1900b, p. 41; ibid, 1902, p. 44. 

2 Calif. Fish and Game Comm., 1910, pp. 54-55; ibid., 1913, pp. 60-62. 


NON-NATIVE GAME BIRDS 33 


paratively few, if any, instances can the total disappearance of birds 
be attributed to this cause. 

Localities where Ring-necked Pheasants are now known to exist 
in the wild, together with an estimate of the number of birds present 
in 1916, according to figures furnished by deputies of the Fish and 
Game Commission, are as follows: 


Eureka, Humboldt County 700-800 
Fortuna, Humboldt County 500 

Fort Jones, Siskiyou County -.........22.200cee 75-100 

Yreka, Siskiyou County 200 

Greenview, Siskiyou County Several hundred 
Williams, Colusa County 200-300 
Cloverdale, Lake County 500 

Napa, Napa County 300-500 
Susanville, Lassen County 100 

Grass Valley, Nevada County ...........22222.0--- 100-200 

Lodi, San Joaquin County 75-100 
Snelling, Merced County 150 

Porterville and Lindsey, Tulare County .............. Several hundred 
Milpitas and Coyote, Santa Clara County ............ 2000 


Watsonville, Santa Cruz County Several hundred 
Pacifie Grove, Monterey County 200 
Big Pine, Inyo County 1000 


Reviewing their present status in detail, we find that Ring-necked 
Pheasants are now well scattered over the Santa Clara Valley, espe- 
cially north of the city of San José. Deputies I. L. Koppel and J. H. 
Hill saw about fifteen (not over four together) on or near the road 
between Alviso and Milpitas on one day in the fall of 1915. During 
the previous summer Mr. Koppel saw a flock of between thirty-five and 
forty pheasants at the Katz place, between Berryessa and Milpitas. 
In 1912, the same observer saw a flock of at least one hundred and 
fifty pheasants south of Coyote. They ranged from one-fourth grown 
to adult birds. In August, 1913, two nests were discovered in a hay 
field near the same town. The eggs were sent to the Game Farm where 
they were successfully hatched. In May, June, and July, 1916, no less 
than a dozen nests of pheasants were discovered near Alviso and San 
José. Many of these were broken up in the mowing of alfalfa and 
hay fields. Sixty-three eggs in good condition were taken from these 
nests and sent to the State Game Farm. Nests and broods of young 
were also observed near Coyote. The above observations, coupled with 
the breeding records, show that the Ring-necked Pheasant may be 
considered fairly established in the Santa Clara Valley. It was from 
this same section that the first encouraging reports were received more 
than twelve years ago, after fifty birds had been liberated near Coyote 
Lake. All of the localities mentioned in this paragraph are in Santa 
Clara County. 


34 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Mr. J. S. Hunter reports that he saw two broods of young and 
several adult pheasants on the Forgeus Ranch near Williams, Colusa 
County, in June, 1916. The birds in this locality appear to be 
thriving. 

The increase in number of pheasants in Owens Valley, Inyo County, 
has been such as even to lead to some complaint of depredations in 
grain fields. 

On April 22, 1914, Wall (1915, p. 59) found a wild pheasant’s nest 
with twelve eggs at the edge of a swamp near San Bernardino. 

The Macomber Ranch, at Paicines, San Benito County, has been 
stocked year by year with hundreds of propagated birds, and pheasants 
are now reported as abundant throughout the neighborhood of the 
ranch. 

The present writers are frank to say that their own field experience 
inclines them to the belief that most of the estimates above listed are 
more or less padded; and it seems to us probable that there are less 
than 15,000 wild birds all told in the state at the present time. In 
spite of the favorable nature of the reports, pheasants are nowhere 
considered to be abundant enough to warrant an open season or even 
to give promise of the possibility of an open season within the near 
future. 

Attempts to rear fancy breeds of pheasants, such as the Reeves, 
Lady Amherst, Swinhoe, Bohemian, and Copper, in California, have 
mostly met with failure. The Golden and Silver pheasants, alone, 
have been successfully reared in captivity. A few of these, from the 
State Game Farm, were liberated on Goat Island, San Francisco Bay, 
in 1915. 

The attempts to acclimatize pheasants in other states have met with 
varied results. Oregon stands out as the one state which has been 
really successful. From twenty-six Ring-necked Pheasants imported 
from China in 1882, and planted in the Willamette Valley, the whole 
state west of the Cascades has been stocked (Shaw, 1908, pp. 12-15). 
By 1892, pheasants had become so abundant that an annual open 
season of two and one-half months was declared, and 50,000 birds 
were reported to have been killed on the opening day. In 1896, 
10,000 pheasants were marketed within a single month. A short 
open season on cock birds still prevails. In Washington and British 
Columbia the Ring-necked Pheasant is also well established. 

On the other hand, many eastern states have had little or no 
success in establishing any species of pheasant. The ease with which 
the ‘‘English’’ Pheasant could be procured has led to the importation 
of this bird for stocking purposes in the East, rather than the Chinese 
Ring-necked Pheasant. Illinois has spent many thousands of dollars 
in attempts to stock the state, but the results to date have been alto- 


NON-NATIVE GAME BIRDS 35 


gether disappointing. Maine, New York, New Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, 
and Minnesota have had similar experiences. Massachusetts imported 
pheasants from Oregon as early as 1889. The birds established them- 
selves rapidly, an open season being soon declared; but they failed 
to maintain their initial vigor. Oklahoma planted thousands of Eng- 
lish Pheasants, and between 1910 and 1913 distributed 20,000 pheasant 
eggs to persons who pledged themselves to hatch, rear, and liberate 
the birds when mature. In spite of this endeavor few, if any, pheas- 
ants are now to be found in Oklahoma. In practically all cases, 
promising reports were received during the first year after planting; 
but with the second year reports were less encouraging, and by the 
third year the birds had disappeared. . 

It is seen, therefore, that California’s experiences with the Ring- 
necked Pheasant have been somewhat intermediate between the utter 
failures of eastern states and the marked successes of Oregon, Wash- 
ington, and British Columbia. 


HUNGARIAN PARTRIDGE 


In 1905 attention began to focus on the Hungarian, or common 
European, Partridge (Perdix perdix). For a time attempts to pro- 
cure birds for planting here failed. Finally W. E. Gerber succeeded 
through his personal efforts in purchasing in Hungary and shipping 
to California, fifty-four of these partridges. Half of the birds died 
in transit; the remainder upon arrival were placed in an aviary on 
his ranch near Sacramento (Calif. Fish Comm., 1907, pp. 64-65). 
No success attended the effort to propagate the birds in captivity ; in 
fact only two eggs were laid. The birds were finally liberated, but 
nothing further was heard of them. 

In the spring of 1908 the Fish and Game Commission purchased, 
from eastern game dealers, for stocking purposes, 395 Hungarian 
Partridges, and in the following year 2,127 more. These birds were 
planted in lots of 20 to 50 in more than ninety localities in the state, 
from San Diego County to Siskiyou County and from sea level to 
high in the mountains. During the same year 65 Hungarian Part- 
ridges were received for propagation purposes at the State Game 
Farm; in 1910, 9983 were received there, and in February, 1912, 24 
more. Notwithstanding this large breeding stock, not a single young 
bird was reared at the Game Farm. The birds died off rapidly, and 
by 1914 not one remained. During the first year after planting, 
broods of young were reported to have been seen in many parts of 
the state, but such favorable reports soon ceased. As an example 
of the result of California’s attempts to establish the Hungarian 
Partridge we quote a report from George Neale: ‘‘About the year 


36 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


1910 I received a small shipment of Hungarian Partridges from the 
Fish and Game Commission. I liberated these birds on the Haggin 
Grant about eight miles from Sacramento. About a month after the 
liberation I saw one male bird. This was the last seen of any of 
them.’’ Indeed, in the attempt to establish the Hungarian Partridge, 
California has sacrificed over 3,500 birds costing over $3.50 each. 

A recent experiment under private auspices is that of King 
Macomber who, in 1914, imported fifty pairs of Hungarian Partridges 
and confined them on his ranch in San Benito County in a large out- 
door aviary extending over about an acre of natural cover. Small 
rodents were said to have destroyed the few eggs laid in 1915, but 
several clutches of eggs are reported to have been deposited in 1916. 

In contrast with the failure to acclimatize this species in Cali- 
fornia and also in several eastern states is its apparently successful 
establishment in British Columbia. In 1915 an open season of one 
month was declared, and a large number of birds was killed. Despite 
the toll which is expected to be taken each year, it is thought that 
the birds will continue to increase. 


Wiww TuRKEY 


Ag long ago as 1877 turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo, subspecies?) 
were introduced on Santa Cruz Island. This was done at the instance 
of Judge J. D. Caton. The two male and four female birds which 
were placed there produced sixty-one young the first year and 120 
the second. It was reported that the birds gradually decreased in 
size until the males which normally weighed eighteen pounds weighed 
no more than six pounds (Caton, 1887, pp. 350-354). No recent 
visitor to Santa Cruz Island has reported the presence of wild turkeys 
there. 

In March, 1908, W. E. Van Slyke of San Bernardino was detailed 
by the Fish and Game Commission to procure from Mexico as many 
wild turkeys as could be obtained in four months. He delivered 22 
turkeys and 11 ‘‘chachalacas’’ at San Bernardino on June 15, 1908. 
They were liberated in two places in the San Bernardino Mountains 
at an altitude of about 4,000 feet. Encouraging reports were received 
from these plants, and a shipment of thirty young turkeys which 
were raised at the State Game Farm was made to the same locality 
in August, 1910 (Calif. Fish and Game Comm., 1910, p. 57). Never- 
theless naturalists who visited these mountains in the summers of 
1915 and 1916 failed to find any trace of turkeys. 

Mr. Van Slyke was engaged again in October, 1908, to procure 
additional stock for breeding at the Game Farm. He shipped 26 
birds, which cost close to fifty dollars each. Their high cost prohibited 


NON-NATIVE GAME BIRDS 37 


further importations. From this stock there were raised at the Game 
Farm in the spring of 1909 more than one hundred strong young 
birds. Of these, 48 were sent to Wawona and liberated in the southern 
part of the Yosemite National Park. Conditions seemed favorable 
and the birds were subsequently seen on various occasions, but no 
increase in their numbers was noted, and they all finally disappeared. 

Thirty-four birds were sent to Sequoia National Park, Tulare 
County, in November, 1909. In February, 1910, Walter Fry, acting 
superintendent of the park, reported finding a nest with five eggs; 
in March, two nests, one with 11, the other with 16 eggs. On March 
21 he reported the wild turkeys to be doing finely. One hen had seven 
young birds. On May 21, many tracks of young birds were noted. 
Under date of July 14, 1910, referring to that season’s shipment, he 
said: ‘‘Wild turkeys were this day liberated in the Sequoia National 
Park at the mouth of the Marble Fork of the Kaweah River. They 
were in good condition and no losses were sustained.’’ 

During the season of 1910 more than two hundred young wild 
turkeys were reared at the Game Farm. Of these, eighty-five were 
sent to the Sequoia National Park and ten to citizens of Porterville, 
Tulare County, who liberated them in a particularly favorable section 
near there. In 1911, five wild turkeys from Virginia were added to 
the breeding stock at the Game Farm, but only a few birds of this 
latter race were reared. Propagation of wild turkeys was finally 
abandoned in 1913 after the larger part of the breeding stock had 
died from blackhead. 

There are reports to the effect that when liberated many of the 
wild turkeys reared at the Game Farm sought some nearby farmyard 
and there mingled with the domestic stock. Recent reports from the 
Sequoia National Park indicate that some of the wild turkeys in the 
park are semidomesticated; they have become very tame and forage 
near the camp of the Mount Whitney Power and Electric Company. 
Another band, which appears to be firmly established near the junc- 
tion of the Middle and Marble forks of the Kaweah River, is very wild. 

From the foregoing accounts of the introduction of turkeys into 
California there is one outstanding inference to be drawn: the condi- 
tions in the localities where the birds were liberated were not suited 
to the stock used. 


Bos-W HITE 


Some of the first attempts to introduce non-native game birds into 
California were made with the eastern quail, the Bob-white (Colinus 
virginianus) . 

Mr. Ramon E. Wilson, of the California Sportsman’s Association, kindly 
furnishes the following [information] concerning introduced game birds; date, 


38 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


October 12, 1885: ‘‘Our efforts in that direction have resulted in failures, 
except as I will state. Mr. Estee, some years ago, placed two dozen bob-whites 
on his farm in Napa County. Every precaution was taken to protect them 
from hunters, and they were carefully looked after. They all soon disappeared, 
the theory being that they were destroyed by vermin. I learn that last 
February some of the same kind of birds were placed on the farms of Mr. 
Miller, Mr. Samuel Rea, and Mr. J. P. Sargent, along Carnedero Creek, near 
Gilroy. It is said they have bred the past season, and their numbers mate- 
rially increased. The experiments, however, from the length of time can hardly 
be called a success. ... Some bob-whites were placed on General Bidwell’s 
place near Chico, but I understand they have disappeared also. Bob-whites 
roost on the ground and are therefore unable to protect themselves from the 
vermin which is so plentiful everywhere in California’’ (Belding, 1890, p. 8). 


Between 1904 and 1906 fifty dozen Bob-white were brought into 
the state by the California Fish Commission. Two shipments came 
from Michigan, one from Massachusetts, one from Alabama, and the 
fourth from Texas. The birds were liberated in lots of a dozen each 
in a number of widely separated localities. In only one section, the 
Del Paso Rancho, near Sacramento, did the birds increase. Here two 
dozen were liberated and a special effort was made to protect them by 
killing off the vermin and establishing a close season of a number of 
years (Calif. Fish Comm., 1907, pp. 65-66). George Neale reports 
that during the first few seasons after they were introduced a number 
of nests were found. The increase was but temporary, for after four 
years not a single Bob-white remained in this locality. Attempts to 
propagate the Bob-white at the State Game Farm likewise failed. 


CHINESE QUAIL 


Beginning about 1900 large numbers of Chinese Quail (Coturniz 
japonica) were imported for restaurant purposes. Between 1901 and 
1908, 16,609 of these quail were brought into the United States. 
Because the birds were used as a cloak for the sale of native game, the 
importation of the birds into California was stopped by law. Before 
this law went into effect, large numbers of the birds were purchased 
by private breeders and were planted in various parts of the state. 
None of the birds are known to have survived. In 1903, a number 
of confiscated Chinese Quail were liberated by the Commission, and 
these, too, were seen but a short time. In 1904, ten dozen were con- 
fiscated from a Chinese restaurant and liberated in Mendocino County 
on a large tract of land where every protection was accorded wild 
game (Calif. Fish Comm., 1904, p. 67; ibid., 1907, p. 65). No encour- 
aging reports were received, and there is no evidence that the birds 
here or elsewhere survived the first year. 


NON-NATIVE GAME BIRDS 39 


OTHER QUAIL 

Attempts to transplant our native species from place to place have 
also been made. For instance, the Gambel or Desert Quail (Lophortyx 
gambeli) found on our southeastern deserts, early proved incapable 
of withstanding the cooler climate and widely different conditions of 
the north, as is evidenced by the following statement by Belding (1890, 
p. 8): ‘‘Some years ago some Arizona [Desert] quail were put out 
near Folsom, but they all soon disappeared, and nothing has been 
heard of them since.’’ This failure did not prevent further attempts. 
An editorial in Western Field (Anonymous, 1907, p. 208) reports that 
a large number of Gambel Quail obtained in Arizona were liberated 
on the grounds of the Country Club in Marin County, but that in less 
than two years not one could be seen. 

In January, 1912, at the instance of the California Fish and Game 
Commission, more than 700 Gambel Quail were trapped in Coachella 
Valley, in southern Riverside County. Three hundred were liberated 
in three different places in Los Angeles County, one hundred in 
Orange County, and a similar number in Ventura and San Benito 
counties, while another hundred was sent to the State Game Farm at 
Hayward. 

All of the attempts to introduce the Gambel Quail into northern 
California have met with failure. Nor did success attend the effort 
to breed this quail at the Game Farm. All but three of the female 
birds died, most of them when containing eggs ready to be laid. 

Early in 1904, Deputy H. T. Payne, of the Fish and Game Com- 
mission, was sent to Mexico to secure some of the quail of that country, 
believing that they would be likely to find congenial conditions in our 
interior valleys. About four dozen Elegant Quail (Lophortysx elegans) 
were brought from the State of Sonora, and were placed in seemingly 
suitable localities in California (Calif. Fish Comm., 1904, p. 67). The 
birds quickly disappeared and nothing was ever heard of them. 

Acting on the current popular belief that ‘‘new blood’’ was neces- 
sary in order to prevent in-breeding and thus to stimulate increase, 
efforts were made in 1908-1909 to trap Valley Quail in sections where 
they were abundant and distribute them to localities where their 
numbers had been greatly reduced. In 1908 about 2,000 Valley Quail 
were thus transferred. At the same time efforts to obtain quail from 
Mexico resulted in the trapping of 1,500 birds (Valley Quail?) in 
Lower California. These birds were retained for a time in a public 
park in Los Angeles and subsequently liberated (Calif. Fish and Game 
Comm., 1910, p. 57). This practice has been abandoned of late years. 
Present knowledge discloses no scientific basis for the belief that 
in-breeding has any deleterious effect on rate of increase among wild 
species. 


40 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


PTARMIGAN 


In 1908 and again in 1904 and 1905, attempts were made to secure 
ptarmigan from Alaska for planting on Mount Shasta and in the Lake 
Tahoe region. Although fifty pairs at $10.00 per pair were contracted 
for, not even one pair was forthcoming. From a scientific standpoint 
the ptarmigan seems to be a species likely to thrive on the high Sierra 
Nevada above timberline; the conditions there closely resemble those 
of the ptarmigan’s native habitat and no other grouse or quail is 
present there with which it would have to compete. The failure to 
make the trial is therefore particularly regrettable. 


Factors CONCERNED IN ACCLIMATIZATION OF GAME BirpDs 


With the above review of attempts to acclimatize non-native game 
birds in California before us, let us try to determine what has pre- 
vented their success. Palmer and Oldys (1904, p. 27) name three 
factors which seem to them of special importance as obstacles to the 
introduction of foreign species. 


Migratory habits, cost, and inadequate protection . . . tend to restrict suc- 
cessful acclimatization of game birds. Little, if any, success, has resulted from 
the introduction of migratory species and even in the case of resident birds 
preference for certain kinds of food or cover enter largely into the question 
of success. Present prices of pheasants .. and of certain kinds of water- 
fowl are so high that they practically prevent the importation of these birds 
in large numbers. Most foreign birds require special protective legislation, 
but many of the laws thus far enacted are unsatisfactory. 


Tested by these three factors we must admit that the birds selected 
for introduction into California show themselves to have been well 
fitted for the enterprise. The pheasants, quails, and wild turkeys 
were all of non-migratory races, were not unreasonably expensive 
(with the possible exception of the turkey), and were given special 
legislative protection. What, then, was at fault? 

The inherent ability of a bird to adapt itself to a new and different 
wild environment is the principal matter for consideration in any 
attempt to acclimatize it. This adaptability cannot be suddenly 
altered by human effort. Man-controlled factors, such as cost and 
protection, are of secondary importance. The only remaining factor 
is that of external environment, and though we cannot directly control 
it, we can do so indirectly by a proper selection of locality. Just as 
the Caucasian race of man thrives best in a certain restricted climatic 
belt the world around, so do animal species prosper most under cer- 
tain limited conditions of temperature and humidity. The most 
important single factor controlling the distribution of animal life in 


NON-NATIVE GAME BIRDS 41 


the world is temperature; and this applies fully to game birds. The 
chief reason why the Gambel Quail of the southeastern deserts did 
not thrive in central and northern California was that the temperature 
conditions differed from those to which it had been accustomed in 
Arizona. The same is true of the Elegant Quail from Mexico. Almost 
as great a degree of control is to be observed in the ease of humidity 
as in that of temperature. For example, the Ring-necked Pheasant 
thrives in western Oregon where the relative humidity is greater than 
in most of California. But the places where these birds have thriven 
here, namely swamps and tule thickets, afford conditions of high 
humidity, which compensate for the lack of general atmospheric mois- 
ture. The same factor was also probably associated with temperature 
in killing off the Gambel Quail which were introduced into Marin 
County. Thus climate must be taken seriously into account. 

Finally there are certain factors which are inseparably bound up 
with the habits of the birds. These pertain to the type of country 
which the birds inhabit as it relates directly to their modes of life. 
Grinnell (19140, p. 96) has pointed out the following three factors in 
the last named category : 


1. Kind of food supply afforded, with regard to the inherent structural 
powers of each of the animals concerned to make it available. 


2. Presence of safe breeding places, adapted to the varying needs of the 
animals, in other words, depending upon the respective inherent powers of 
construction, defense and concealment in each species concerned. 


3. Presence of places of temporary refuge for individuals, during day 
time or night time, or while foraging, when hard pressed by predatory enemies, 
again correlated with the respective inherent powers of defense and conceal- 
ment of each species involved. 


An examination of the failures that have attended California’s 
experiments in introduction show that these ‘‘associational’’ factors 
were probably of much less importance than were temperature and. 
humidity. Possibly the associational elements counted for most in the 
cases of the Bob-white and turkey. 

Criticism of the trials made in California leads us to two main 
causes of failure: lack of preliminary investigation of the points just 
discussed, and improper methods of introducing and liberating the 
birds. 

In the introduction of foreign species three methods have been 
used: the immediate liberation of imported adult birds; the retention 
of adult birds for a time by responsible parties in aviaries, with sub- 
sequent liberation of either the adults or young reared by them; and 
lastly, the planting of young birds which have been reared in captivity 
on a game farm. Records show that the first named method, which 
was that originally employed in Oregon, has given the best results. 


42 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


A modification of this method, which consists in retaining the birds 
under semi-wild conditions until they have ‘been partially acclimated, 
would probably produce still more satisfactory results; but this and 
many other feasible experiments have not been systematically tried 
out. 

The liberation of birds which have been propagated in captivity 
almost always results in failure. The successful maintenance of 
foreign species in aviaries is no test of their ability to establish and 
maintain themselves when released in the wild. Unless birds reared 
on a.game farm can be brought up under semi-wild conditions nothing 
but unfavorable results are to be expected when they are liberated. 
The complete change that occurs, in the nature of their food and their 
method of procuring it, and the presence of enemies which they have 
not encountered in captivity, are circumstances which birds that have 
been propagated under artificial conditions cannot be expected to 
contend with successfully. Failure to recognize these principles has 
made many attempts at acclimatization unsuccessful. A state game 
farm can be of value to game breeders as an experiment station for 
testing the practicability of methods of rearing game in captivity; 
but its service as a means of rearing birds suitable for liberation in 
the wild has yet to be demonstrated in this state or elsewhere. 

Here, then, are the factors of climate, of food, of safe breeding 
places, and of safe cover from enemies, conditions that must be con- 
sidered when an attempt to introduce an exotic species is made. These 
are precisely the same factors which prevent the spread of a species 
beyond a certain normal boundary, and they affect its persistence in 
like degree when it is transplanted to a new locality. There are 
doubtless many foreign species that possess an inherent ability to 
adapt themselves to one of the changed conditions represented among 
these factors; but the possibility of finding a species which can adapt 
itself to all of the changed conditions is extremely small. With the 
increase in the number of limiting factors there is a decrease in the 
number of species capable of successfully meeting all of them. Few 
species can ever be considered as candidates for introduction into any 
one new locality. 

The possibility of failure is not the only objection to projects 
of introducing foreign game birds. Three others are yet to be men- 
tioned: the possibility that the species introduced may later become 
undesirable; that it may completely replace some native species ; and 
that it may bring in some infectious disease such as will spread to 
native species. No instance of the introduction of a wholly unde- 
sirable species of game bird is known to us, but the conspicuous cases 
of the English Sparrow and Starling among small birds: should warn 
us of grave consequences in this connection. 


NON-NATIVE GAME BIRDS 43 


As an example under the second point, it is well known that the 
English Sparrow and our native Linnet do not get along well together. 
The former is aggressively pugnacious in disposition, and drives the 
Linnet off the premises by individual combat. In any case it is certain 
that, since at the season of minimum food supply, about February and 
March, the struggle for existence is very keen, both because of food 
shortage and because of persecution by carnivorous enemies, and since 
the number of birds that can persist through this critical season 
depends absolutely upon the amount of sustenance then available, the 
introduction of foreign birds will inevitably bring injury to the native 
species. Some peculiar advantage in food-getting power on the part 
of the introduced birds may increase this peril still further. 

Finally, there is the question of disease. Parasites and disease 
organisms are very likely to be brought in by exotic birds, and the 
conditions may prove favorable to their spread among our native game 
species. Because of the abruptness of the exposure, our birds will 
not have acquired immunity from those parasites and diseases, and 
wholesale mortality is likely to result. It is undesirable that the exist- 
ence of our native birds should be jeopardized in this manner for the 
mere chance of a successful introduction of any sort of foreign game. 
In 1916 quail from Mexico were prohibited entry into the United 
States because of the prevalence of a ‘‘quail disease’’ in their native 
country. 


SUMMARY 


A review of the attempts to acclimatize foreign game birds in 
California shows that the success attained has not been commensurate 
with the money and energy expended, and that two of the underlying 
causes of failure have been the lack of careful preliminary investiga- 
tion of the factors controlling acclimatization, and the improper 
method of liberation. Every introduced species must meet certain 
requirements, the chief of which relate to the climatic conditions of 
temperature and humidity, the food supply, the safety of breeding 
places, and the availability of suitable cover for protection from 
enemies. Not one, but many, limiting conditions must be satisfied ; 
hence the chances that a given species will succeed in a new environ- 
ment are small, and, also, the number of species possessing the neces- 
sary all-around adaptive ability is small. The possibility of establish- 
ing a foreign game species has been demonstrated in the case of the 
pheasant in Oregon, and more carefully planned undertakings here 
might lead to success in the case of other game species. Even though 
a foreign species proves to be desirable, there is always the attendant 
danger that the introduced bird will wholly supplant some native one, 


44 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


an event the full consequence of which must be carefully weighed. 
The chances of failure in acclimatizing the immigrant, of introducing 
an undesirable bird, of wholly supplanting some native species, and 
of introducing some contagious disease fatal to native species, all 
emphasize the great need of directing effort and money toward the 
conservation of native game birds rather than toward the introduction 
of foreign ones. Conserve our native species! There are none whose 
qualities are superior; they are part of the natural heritage of our 
land, and have been serviceable to us in the past; we are responsible 
for their preservation. 


THE PROPAGATION OF GAME BIRDS 


In several European countries the supply of game both for sport 
and for the table is furnished almost wholly by propagation. In Great 
Britain, for instance, game covers are systematically restocked with 
pheasants by breeding these birds in large numbers and then liber- 
ating them. Ducks are reared in large numbers and made to furnish 
sport for the gunners. The consequence of this sort of game admin- 
istration is that few persons are allowed the privilege of hunting, 
and no public lands are open to the hunter at large. Even now, 
in Scotland, the right to hunt is, theoretically at least, reserved to 
persons who have inherited that unknown quantity, a ‘‘plowgate’’ of 
land, and in Ireland qualifications of estate are necessary for killing 
game and keeping sporting dogs. In Great Britain the right to take 
or kill wild animals is treated as incidental to the ownership or 
occupancy of land on which they are found, and the general public 
has not the right to take them on private land or even on a right of 
way. (For further discussion of conditions abroad, see Westerfeld, 
1916, pp. 1-10.) 

In the United States, where all of the people have rights to game, 
we have administered our game resources in an entirely different way. 
Instead of increasing the breeding stock by artificial methods or by 
large game preserves we have heretofore, where anything has been 
done at all, simply encouraged the breeding of our game birds and 
mammals under natural conditions. Little attention has been paid 
to restocking depleted covers with birds reared in captivity, save as 
concerned with the introduction of non-native species (p. 30). It may 
be that as our supply diminishes we will be forced to turn seriously 
toward artificial propagation as one means of replenishing game in 
the wild. That an increasing number of individuals is becoming 
interested in this phase of the subject and rearing game for profit or 
pleasure is evidenced by the growing output of articles and books on 
game breeding. 

California has slowly been awakening to the fact that some meas- 
ures must be taken to increase her supply of game. Breeding as a 
means of bettering game conditions has not been altogether over- 
looked, but as yet very few adequate experiments have been performed’ 
to ascertain whether or not the breeding of game in captivity would 
be feasible under the conditions obtaining here. The hitherto ade- 
quate supply of game has doubtless been largely responsible for this 
neglect of an important remedy, and most of the experiments thus far 


[ 45 ] 


46 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


tried have given discouraging results, as will be learned from the 
following paragraphs. 


Tue State Game Farm 


Believing that the establishment of a state farm for the rearing of 
game birds in captivity, operated along the same lines as fish hatch- 
eries, would be of help in restoring depleted game covers, the Cali- 
fornia Fish and Game Commission founded such a farm in September, 
1908, at Hayward, Alameda County, and has maintained it for some 
eight years at a total expense of over $50,000. The farm was imme- 
diately stocked with Ring-necked Pheasants, Valley Quail, and a few 
Hungarian Partridges. During the operation of the farm perhaps 
3,000 Ring-necked Pheasants have been reared and distributed 
throughout the state. In most instances, however, it has been found 
that the birds become very tame in captivity and that when liberated 
they seemed to be incapable of taking care of themselves. In spite 
of the large numbers planted, there are at the present time but few 
places in the state where the birds have gained a foothold. 

The efforts to propagate quail in captivity have for the most part 
been unsuccessful. In 1915, about 300 young birds were reared. 
‘Quail disease’’ gave continual trouble and large numbers of the birds 
died before reaching maturity. A few Mountain Quail have been 
kept at the farm but they have not bred. The eggs of a few captive 
Desert Quail have been hatched in incubators, but none of the chicks 
survived. No Hungarian Partridges have been successfully reared 
on the farm and those which were purchased and planted in different 
parts of the state soon disappeared. 

In response to requests and suggestions from a number of sports- 
men, efforts were made to secure from Virginia and from Mexico some 
Wild Turkeys, in the hope that propagated birds might establish 
themselves if given reasonable protection. A few were reared at the 
farm from the stock secured and were planted in different parts of 
the state. No turkeys are believed to exist in a wholly wild state in 
California at the present time, although favorable reports were at first 
received from the Sequoia National Park, where some were placed 
(see p. 387). The breeding stock at Hayward was constantly reduced 
in numbers by blackhead, a disease very fatal to turkeys. 

In all the above breeding experiments the birds with the exception 
of the turkeys, were kept in small wire cages. Eggs have been col- 
lected and hatched in a few instances under bantams but more fre- 
quently in incubators. Most of the young birds have been reared in 
brooders. Eastern game farms have abandoned the incubator in 
favor of bantams, but there seems no good reason why equal success 
could not be obtained through the use of incubators and brooders. 


PROPAGATION 47 


In 1914 a pond at the farm was stocked with wild ducks in order 
to determine whether or not these birds could be easily propagated. It 
was found that pinioned Mallards would breed readily and would 
successfully rear their broods. But out of the twelve species of ducks 
kept in captivity, the only ones which nested under the artificial con- 
ditions provided were Mallards, Cinnamon Teal (one pair) and 
Shovellers (one pair), and Mud-hens. No attempts have been made 
to liberate any of the Mallards thus raised. Attempts to hatch, by 
means of incubators, eggs collected in nearby marshes met with success, 
but only a part of the ducklings so hatched survived. 

In March, 1916, the Fish and Game Commission decided that the 
game farm was not a paying proposition, and, desiring to retrench in 
some direction, ordered the farm abolished. It had become evident 
that the adobe soil on which the farm was situated was a constant 
hindrance to success. 

Though it seems reasonable to believe that with more experience 
and better conditions a larger percentage of birds could be reared, 
yet it has everywhere been growing more manifest that birds so reared 
are not suitable for stocking purposes. The only apparent justification 
for a state farm is that it may be a useful ground for experiments in 
the breeding of captive game birds. In furnishing the knowledge thus 
acquired to game breeders, a state game farm might prove of con- 
siderable value. 


PrivaTE GAME Farms 


Game propagation as carried on by private individuals still appears 
to be in the experimental stage. Though a number of people have 
established small game farms, they have usually done so for pleasure 
rather than for profit. Many people rear a few pheasants each year 
in their back yards, or in aviaries, but without any idea of making 
money. Even the offer by hotels in San Francisco of $2.00 apiece for 
Ring-necked Pheasants has not greatly increased the number of pheas- 
ant breeders. A possible indication that the rearing of fancy breeds 
is not fast increasing is evidenced by the fact that breeding birds of 
eertain races still bring the high price of $10.00 a pair. 

The equipment needed in order to rear pheasants successfully 
deters many from engaging in their propagation. Wire for pens is 
expensive. The hen birds do not properly incubate the eggs, and it 
is necessary to use either incubators for hatching purposes and 
brooders for rearing the chicks, or else employ bantam hens. The 
young need a great deal of insect food and this is difficult to supply. 


48 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Tur Bowman Law 


An attempt to encourage the breeding of game in captivity was 
made in 1913 when the Bowman Law (Stats. 1913, Penal Code, §631d), 
providing for game farming, was passed by the State Legislature. 
This law, although not an ideal one, provides for the selling under the 
tag system of game reared in captivity. It had, when passed, the dis- 
advantage of prescribing a large license fee—$25.00. This burden- 
some condition has prevented most breeders in the state from availing 
themselves of the provisions of the law, and unless the license fee be 
reduced, it will continue to discourage rather than encourage game 
farming. 


PROPAGATION OF UPLAND GAME Birps 


Of all our native game birds, the Valley Quail has been most 
widely reared in captivity. If the first eggs deposited be removed, 
the female bird will lay as many as sixty or seventy eggs during a 
season. The first eggs secured can be set under bantam hens, and the 
quail may be allowed to hatch the last fifteen or twenty eggs. No one, 
so far as we know, has been successful in rearing Mountain Quail. A 
number of these birds have been kept in captivity by breeders, but in 
the lower altitudes they show no tendency to breed. No similar trial 
of grouse has been attempted. The latter birds are almost impossible 
to obtain alive, and judging from experiments with Ruffed Grouse in 
the East, efforts in this direction would promise only failure. A few 
persons living in the Sage-hen country have attempted to rear Sage- 
hens, but without success. 

The Mourning Dove is kept as an aviary bird and proves prolific. 
Mr. L. W. Hammond, of Fillmore, Ventura County, has informed us 
that this dove breeds readily in captivity, rearing at least two broods 
a year; and Mrs. Elizabeth Grinnell, of Pasadena, has also been suc- 
cessful in rearing these birds. Wounded birds captured in the shoot- 
ing season and housed by Mrs. Grinnell in large open cages through 
the winter bred the following spring. One such pair nested several 
times from early spring to October and produced many young, but 
there were never more than the usual two eggs laid for one setting. 
The parent birds were successful in raising every squab that was 
hatched. It was found possible to transfer young from nests found in 
the wild to the care of the captive adults, always with favorable results. 
Squabs found in deserted nests after the opening of the hunting season, 
and whose parents had probably been shot, were reared on a diet of 
“‘chewed-up’’ nuts and similar material. 


PROPAGATION 49 


During the season of 1916 a few attempts have been made to breed 
the Band-tailed Pigeon. Three men in the San Francisco Bay region 
have secured birds from Oregon and are experimenting with them. 
All three men are experienced aviarists and will certainly meet with 
success, if success be possible. In the first season a deserted egg was 
hatched under a domestic pigeon, and one pair of Band-tails them- 
selves successfully incubated a set of eggs. 


PROPAGATION OF WATERFOWL 


Experiments by private individuals have demonstrated the fact 
that of all the waterfowl the Mallard is the easiest to breed in captivity. 
This might have been expected from the fact that all or most of 
the breeds of tame ducks are descendants from wild Mallard stock. 
Wild Mallards have been bred in numbers even in city yards. For 
example, Mr. Theodore Kytka has for several years reared wild Mal- 
lards in his backyard in San Francisco. Better results are obtained 
as the birds become tamer; those which have been reared in captivity 
nest more readily than captive wild birds. Hence there is a tendency 
among breeders to direct their efforts toward the increase of breeding 
stock rather than toward the rearing of birds for the purpose of 
restocking wild land. We are not aware of any instance where Pin- 
tails, Shovellers, Teal, or other ducks have been successfully reared in 
any numbers under artificial conditions. The sea-ducks, which include 
the Redhead, Canvasback, Scaups, Golden-eyes and Buffle-head, are 
very difficult to handle in captivity, in that they require animal food 
which they are accustomed to obtain only by diving. Pinioned Lesser 
Scaup Ducks on Stow Lake, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, have 
nested and brought off broods, but in every case the young have failed 
to survive. : 

Several attempts to rear Canada Geese in captivity have met with 
success where the birds were kept at high altitudes. Mr. Henry Shook, 
of Yreka, Siskiyou County, succeeded in rearing six young from a 
pair of pinioned birds during the first season they were in his posses- 
sion. Eggs taken from Lake Tahoe marshes have been hatched and 
the young reared by residents of El Dorado County, and reports have 
been received to the effect that eggs secured at Honey Lake, in Lassen 
County, were successfully hatched by residents of the vicinity. On 
the other hand, decoy geese which have been kept in captivity for 
many years in the Sacramento Valley have shown no desire to breed. 
Canada Geese hatched from eggs secured at Lake Tahoe have been 
bred to a Chinese Horned Goose by Mr. Chase Littlejohn, of Redwood 
City. The hybrids very closely resemble the Canada Goose. 


50 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Tue Furure or Game BREEDING 


With increasing knowledge of the subject game breeding promises. 
to become a well established industry. Situations can be found in the 
different parts of the state which offer ideal conditions for rearing the 
various types of game birds. The market is continually improving 
because of the diminishing supply of wild-killed game. Without doubt. 
a few more years will see the passage of a non-sale law, after which 
any game offered for sale in the markets will necessarily have been 
reared in captivity. Prices even now are high enough to encourage 
any resourceful person in starting a game farm. 

As more people become interested in the subject many of the 
problems which now discourage the breeder will probably be solved 
and the business of rearing game for the market be made easier and 
more profitable in consequence. 


BreepiIng UNDER NatuRrAL CONDITIONS 


It is difficult to improve on nature and hence game covers can, as a 
rule, be restocked more easily by a stimulation of breeding under 
natural conditions than by propagation in captivity. When an area 
is set aside and the birds encouraged by being given the best of food 
and cover, and by adequate protection from their enemies, a remark- 
able increase in numbers follows. A knowledge of this fact has led 
to the inauguration of the preserve system by wealthy land owners, 
and later to the idea of game refuges. Under the private preserve 
the birds are usually better cared for than under the game-refuge 
system, since in the former case, all their needs are attended to by 
expert caretakers, and in the latter the only assistance usually given 
them is protection from hunting. But although in most instances the 
preserve system is the better method of rearing game birds, it has 
certain drawbacks. The most obvious of these is the difficulty of secur- 
ing the large area required for the enterprise. Hundreds of acres are 
needed to rear birds under natural conditions, whereas a few acres are 
sufficient for a game farm. Moreover, if the birds are to be marketed 
or distributed, it is difficult to trap them: In spite of these difficulties, 
however, there is no doubt but that the restocking of depleted covers 
can be realized more satisfactorily in this way than through the arti- 
ficial propagation of the birds on game farms, where ease of living 
makes them tame and incapable of properly caring for themselves 
when turned loose in the wild. 

There are few places in California where game conditions are 
better than on certain large ranches. Here the birds may be given 
adequate protection without a radical change being made in their 


PROPAGATION 51 


normal conditions of life. On the Macomber ranch at Paicines, San 
Benito County, quail have been carefully protected and regularly fed, 
and as a result are very abundant, two or three hundred of them 
gathering to feed in front of the ranch house each morning. 

Game birds may be attracted to a locality by using appropriate 
food as an enticement. Quail may be attracted with patches of buck- 
wheat or other grain. Wild fowl may be brought to a pond by plant- 
ing Egyptian corn around the edges or by scattering wheat or barley 
on the banks and in the water. Still better for this purpose are such 
natural forage plants as pondweed (Potamogeton sp.), ditch-grass 
(Ruppia maritima), tule potato. (Sagittaria latifolia), bulrush 
(Scirpus sp.), sedge (Carex sp.), water-cress (Nasturtium officinale), 
or knotweed (Polygonum sp.). Seeds or plants of wild rice, wild 
celery, and other water or bog plants suitable for attracting water- 
fowl can be purchased from dealers whose addresses can be secured 
through the University of California. Although many attempts have 
been made to grow wild rice and wild celery in this state, the results 
have so far been negative. Mr. R. W. Skinner of Eureka, Humboldt 
County, writes us that he was successful in getting wild rice to grow 
in a small fresh-water pond one foot deep, but that the drying up of 
the pond the following year unfortunately ended the experiment. He 
believes that this plant will grow in the Humboldt Bay section in fresh 
water that has little current, and is not too deep, and where the soil 
is rich. Mr. W. W. Richards of Oakland, who has experimented with 
wild rice in the Suisun marshes, calls attention to the fact that fresh 
running water such as is suitable for wild rice is seldom found in our 
duck marshes. 


How to Start A GAME Farm 


Upuanp Game Birps.—Prerequisites—A permit or license from 
the State Fish and Game Commission. Five or more acres with sandy 
or loamy soil; movable pens for quail 4 by 8 feet or, better, 10 by 12 
feet; for pheasants, large stationary pens, for bantams and chicks, 
coops about two feet square with removable tops, and each connected 
with a small pen. Sun and shade, abundant insect life, and well 
drained soil are necessities. 

Breeding Stock—-Should be procured in late fall or early winter, 
preferably from a locality of similar climate. Quail should be pro- 
cured in pairs; with pheasants, which are polygamous (excepting the 
Silver Pheasant), one male to six females is the rule. Purchase birds 
rather than eggs. 

Food.—Adults do well on almost any sort of grain if fed regularly 
and moderately. Ordinary commercial ‘‘chick-feed’’ is good for quail. 


52 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


In addition, green feed is important, and a certain amount of animal 
matter, such as meat-scrap preparations, is essential. Newly hatched 
chicks should be fed four times a day on hard-boiled eggs mixed with 
finely powdered cracker-crumbs. A constant supply of grit is essential. 
Water should also be furnished. After the fifth day, flies or fly larvae 
should be added to the diet. A mash of prepared ‘‘pheasant meal,’’ 
middlings, etc., may take the place of the insect food. After the 
sixteenth day some ‘‘chick-feed’’ may be added to the diet. 

Rearing.—Neither quail nor pheasants readily incubate their own 
eggs; hence it is advisable to use incubators and brooders, or else 
bantam hens. The latter are now considered preferable. About 
twenty quail’s eggs can be covered by one hen. The nest should be 
made from a square of sod, grass-side down, hollowed out, and lined 
with soft hay. During the period of incubation the hens should be 
removed regularly each morning for food, drink and exercise. When 
the chicks are from 24 to 36 hours old they should be removed to a 
fresh coop and pen. Later, the brood together with their foster parent 
should be given a larger range. 

Disease—According to Job (1915, p. 37), the principal disease 
of captive quail is an acute enteritis, which, once introduced, becomes 
epidemic and will spread through an entire flock. Formerly this 
‘disease was supposed to be due to a micro-organism found only in 
certain regions, but it or a closely similar malady is now known to 
occur in quail and other gallinaceous birds in widely separated locali- 
ties. Errors in the feeding or housing of captive birds, such as that 
of overfeeding them, or of confining them in dirty eoops or in yards 
fouled by poultry, usually result in an outbreak of this distemper. 
Moderation in feeding and cleanliness about the yards and houses 
are the best ways of preventing the disease from getting a start. 

WATERFOWL.—Prerequisites—A permit or license from the State 
Fish and Game Commission. A small freshwater pond, or section of 
a stream, well fenced to exclude ‘‘vermin’’ (weasels, skunks, rats, 
ete.), and capable of being drained and cleaned at intervals. At least 
two square yards of water should be allowed for each duck. The pro- 
portion of land to water should be at least two to one. Both meadow 
and brushy or grass-covered land should be included. 

Breeding Stock—Procure the progeny of pure wild birds from 
dealers during late fall or early winter. Mallard ducks cost about 
$5.00 to $6.00 a pair; Pintails, $7.00 to $20.00. On receipt, the birds 
should be given a rest in a dry enclosure for several days before being 
allowed on water. They should all be pinioned, unless the breeding 
season is near, in which event they should be merely wing-clipped. 

Food.—Grain either once or twice daily, preferably a mixture, in 
equal parts, of wheat, barley, buckwheat, and Kaffir corn or cracked 


PROPAGATION 53 


corn. Drop the food in water six inches to a foot in depth. Chopped 
raw meat or fish should be given occasionally, as also green vegetable 
matter of almost any sort, such as grass cuttings and cabbage. Grit, 
such as marble dust mixed with charcoal, and ground oyster shells, 
are indispensable to good health. In early spring a richer food is 
required to stimulate egg-laying. A mash meets this need; for 
instance, Spratt’s duck meal, or a mixture of cornmeal, bran, mid- 
dlings, and crissel. Ducklings should be given food for the first time 
when they are one day old. This food should consist of finely ground 
hard-boiled egg mixed with cracker-crumbs or rolled oats, and a little 
coarse grit or sand. At first, feeding should be frequent but in small 
quantities. After the second day a ‘‘duck-meal,’’ either of the com- 
mercial variety or mixed according to an accepted formula should be 
provided. Vegetable food is important from the first, and insect food 
of some form should not be omitted. 

Rearing—tThe eggs of some wild fowl can be hatched by the 
parents themselves, but in the case of the wilder species better success 
is attained by hatching them in incubators or under bantams. The 
eggs of the Mallard should be collected systematically each day; but 
those of the other species, after the clutch is completed. When the 
eggs are removed regularly, the number produced by the Mallard is 
increased from about ten, the average clutch, to about forty. Duck- 
lings should be placed with bantam mothers in small pens on grass 
and should not be allowed near large bodies of water until they are 
well feathered, although pure water should be available for drinking 
purposes. ; 

Pinioning.—Wild birds may be rendered incapable of flight either 
by wing-clipping or pinioning. The former operation consists in 
merely snipping off the primary flight feathers near their bases, and 
of course must be repeated after each molt. This method is preferable 
for females of the less easily tamed species. In pinioning, the operator. 
should be provided with a pair of gardener’s pruning shears and 
some powdered tannic acid or boric acid. Two of the innermost 
primary wing quills should be pulled out, as also the nearby smaller 
feathers. A cord should be tightly tied around the end joint of the 
wing well up under the little thumb or ‘‘bastard wing.’’ With the 
shears the bone can then be snipped off cleanly and evenly within a 
quarter of an inch beyond the ligature. An application of the tannic 
or boric acid will check the bleeding. After the operation the bird 
may be liberated at once. The pinioning of ducklings is a simple 
affair, almost bloodless, and may be done when they are four to seven 
days old. A bird successfully pinioned is permanently flightless. 


54 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Sources OF BREEDING Stock 


Difficulty is likely to be experienced in procuring the proper breed- 
ing stock with which to start a game farm. Breeding stock should 
be secured in late fall or early winter. It can be obtained in one of 
three ways: by capturing the birds in the wild under permit from the 
Fish and Game Commission; by purchase from some one of the large 
game farms in the East; or by purchase from breeders in this state. 
Addresses can be secured through enquiry from the Museum of 
Vertebrate Zoology, University of California. 


INFORMATION ON METHODS oF GAME BREEDING 


The following works should be consulted for detailed information 
on game breeding: 


Jos, H. K. 
1915a. Propagation of wild birds. (New York, Doubleday, Page & Co.), 
Xxvii+276 pp., illustrated. 
1915b. Propagation of upland game-birds. (New York, National Association 
of Audubon Societies), Bulletin 2, pp. 33-72, illustrated. 
1915c. Propagation of wild water-fowl. (New York, National Association 
of Audubon Societies), Bulletin 3, pp. 73-104, illustrated. 
QuARLES, E. A. 
1916a. American pheasant breeding and shooting. (New York, American 
Game Protective Association), xii+128+8 pp., 50 figs. in text. 
Free on application to publishers. 
19160. The mallard—its breeding, shooting and preserving. (New York, 
American Game Protective Association), Bulletin 5, no. 1, pp. 
4-7, 15-19, 7 figs. in text. 
Simpson, G. M. 
1914. Pheasant farming. (Salem, Oregon, State Printing Dept.), Oregon 
Fish and Game Commission, 50 pp., many illustrations. 
Hornapay, W. T., and CRANDALL, L. S. 
1912. Breeding mallard ducks for profit. (Albany, New York State Con- 
servation Dept.), 24 pp., 8 pls. 
CRANDALL, L. 8. 
1913. Wild duck farming a new industry. Outdoor World and Recreation, 
vol. 48 (new series), pp. 268-270, 279-280, 4 figs. in text. 


LEGISLATION RELATING TO GAME BIRDS IN 
CALIFORNIA 


The history of game-bird legislation in California has been long 
and varied. From the time when the first law on this subject was 
passed at the third meeting of the State Legislature in 1852, up to 
the present, hardly a session of that body has convened without some 
changes in or additions to the game laws, so that they are now numer- 
ous and detailed. No constant policy seems to have dictated these 
amendments and alterations, and the majority of them have shown 
but little regard for the results of scientific investigation. In earlier 
years no appreciable attention was given to the conservation of game 
birds; in fact, very few people seem to have urged the economic bene- 
fits to be obtained by appropriate protection. The more recent laws, 
as they finally appear on the statute books, represent compromises 
between the efforts of the modern conservationists, who would use 
only the natural surplus over and above a normal breeding stock, and 
the efforts of the more selfish element among the hunters, who seek 
only to gratify their own immediate desires, without any regard to 
the needs or rights of posterity. ; 

The earliest game-bird legislation was more or less local in its 
application ; but in 1880 all counties in the state were brought under 
uniform treatment. The County Government Act of 1897 provided 
means whereby boards of supervisors could shorten, but not lengthen, 
the seasons in their respective counties. Considerable use was made 
of this act up to 1905; in that year a decision of the District Court 
of Appeal rendered county legislation unconstitutional. 

In 1901 an amendment to the State Constitution was proposed for 
the purpose of enabling the Legislature to divide the state into fish 
and game districts. This amendment, although soon after adopted, 
was not made use of until 1911, when six districts were established. 
In 1913 these districts were altered somewhat, and their total num- 
ber increased to seven; and a further change was made in 1915, 
when the state was divided into four major and twenty-five minor 
districts. All of the above changes were made in response to an 
increasing recognition of the diverse natural conditions obtaining in 
different portions of California, and were in the nature of attempts to 
meet this diversity by providing open seasons appropriate to the sev- 
eral climatic areas of the state. The difficulty has been, and always 
will be, that the political boundaries made use of in connection with 
the game laws, and the natural boundaries along which districts 


[55 ] 


56 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


should, ideally, be divided from one another, rarely coincide. The 
ideal arrangement would be to give full recognition to the several 
natural ‘‘life-zones’’ in which the different kinds of game exist. 

There has been a gradual increase during the past sixty years in 
the number of species of game birds protected under the laws of 
California. At first (1852) only the most desirable ones, the quail 
and Mallard and Wood Duck, received recognition. In 1861 several 
other ‘‘broad-bill’’ ducks were included, as were also grouse, and in 
1866 ‘‘ prairie chickens’’ [—Sharp-tailed Grouse] and Sage-hens were 
given protection in Siskiyou County. The Gadwall, Cinnamon Teal 
and Redhead were recognized in 1878, and in 1880 the duck law was 
made general to include all wild species. From 1883 to 1887 all 
species of ducks were, for the time being, without protection of any 
sort. Doves first received protection in 1878; in San Joaquin County, 
and two years later a state-wide closed season of six months was 
extended to these birds. Rails were first protected in the same year 
(1880), snipe in 1893, robins (as game, but for two years only) in 
1895, ibis, curlew and plover in 1901, and other shore-birds in 1905. 
Not until 1909 did any geese receive mention, and then only the. 
Black Sea Brant; and only in 1915 were the other species of these big 
birds given any protection. The Band-tailed Pigeon first received 
legislative recognition in 1915. The two groups of quails, Valley and 
Desert, and Mountain, were not treated separately until 1895. 

While the whole scheme of closed seasons was, and is, designed 
directly to enable our game birds to maintain their numbers, other 
restrictive measures, with a similar purpose, have been applied. 
Among these the following may be mentioned: Protection of nests 
and eggs (1878, 1893); prohibition of trapping (1880) ; restriction 
in bore of gun used (1893) ; prohibition of sale (1895, 1901, 1913) ; 
bag limits (1901) ; prohibition of extra-state shipment (1895) ; pro- 
hibition of night hunting (1901); and closed terms (grouse, 1907— 
1911; Mountain Quail, 1909-1911; Wood Duck and Band-tailed 
Pigeon, 1915 to date). , 

The Federal Migratory Bird Law, and the regulations promul- 
gated under it since 1913, assisted materially on points where the 
citizens and Legislature of California had been too lax. The protec- 
tion afforded shore-birds, the Wood Duck and the Band-tailed Pigeon 
by these regulations has probably prevented the extirpation of several 
of the species concerned. 

The chronology of legislation and the table of open seasons which 
are presented herewith have been compiled chiefly from the Statutes 
and Amendments to the Codes of California, 1850-1915. The annual 
summaries of game legislation issued since 1901 by the United States 
Bureau of Biological Survey have also been consulted. 


LEGISLATION 57 


CHRONOLOGY OF LEGISLATION RELATING TO GAME BIRDS IN 
CALIFORNIA, 1852-1915 


1852. Open season for quail or partridges, mallard duck and wood or summer 
duck, September 20 to March 1 in counties of Contra Costa, Marin, 
Monterey, Napa, Sacramento, San Francisco, San Joaquin, Santa 
Clara, Santa Cruz, Solano, Sonoma, and Yolo; penalty upon conviction 
of: violating law, $50, one-half to be paid informer. 

1853. Open season: quail or partridge, mallard and wood duck, September 1 
to March 20. 

1854. Open season: quail, mallard, and wood duck, September 15 to March 1; 
penalty upon conviction $25 for each individual bird, fines to go to 
county treasurer for school fund. Protection extended to birds named 
above in Colusa and Tuolumne counties. 

1855. Protection extended to birds named above in Shasta and Trinity counties. 

1857. Act of 1854 amended: one-half of fine to be paid informer, one-half to 
school fund in county where conviction is had. 

1860. Counties of Los Angeles, Mendocino, San Diego, San Luis Obispo, and 
Santa Barbara, exempted from acts of 1854 and 1857. 

1861. Open season: all counties except Los Angeles and San Bernardino, quail, 
partridge or grouse, mallard, wood duck, teal, spoon-bill and all other 
broad-bill ducks, September 15 to March 15; Los Angeles and San 
Bernardino counties, August 1 to April 1. Act of 1860 repealed. 

1866. Open season: Siskiyou County, grouse, sage-hen, prairie chicken [sharp- 
tailed grouse], August 1 to April 1; quail, October 15 to March 15; 
mallard, wood duck, teal, spoonbill and all other species of wild ducks, 

: September 15 to April 15. 

1870. Open season: Lassen, Plumas and Sierra counties, mallard, wood duck, 
teal, spoonbill and other broad-bill ducks, August 15 to March 15, Lake 
Merritt, Oakland, and its shores declared a game preserve. 

1872. Hunting in Butte County on private lands or within 500 yards of dwell- 
ing of another person, prohibited. Hunting on enclosed lands in San 
Francisco County, or in Napa County east of Napa River, prohibited. 
Hunting in Yolo County, about houses, or in October on cultivated 
lands, or anywhere in the county during the months of June to Octo- 
ber, inclusive, prohibited. Hunting on private lands without per- 
mission prohibited in Alameda, Colusa, Contra Costa, Humboldt, Los 
Angeles, Marin, Nevada, Sacramento, San Bernardino, San Diego, San 
Luis Obispo, San Mateo, Santa Barbara, and Sonoma counties. 

1874. Hunting on private lands without permission prohibited in Mendocino 
County. 

1876. Open season: Lassen, Plumas and Sierra counties, quail, partridge and 
grouse, September 1 to March 15. Hunting on private lands unlawful 
in certain counties. 

1878. Gadwell or gray duck, redhead, and blue-winged [cinnamon] teal speci- 
fically mentioned among species protected during closed season. Doves 
first protected; open season: San Joaquin County only, July 1 to 
January 1. State Board of Fish Commissioners required to provide 
for distribution and protection of imported game birds. Gathering 
or destroying eggs of wild ducks prohibited. 


58 


1880. 


1881. 
1883. 


1887. 
1889. 


1891. 


1893. 


1895. 


1897. 


1901, 


GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Open season: all counties, quail, partridge, grouse, all kinds of wild 
ducks, and rails or marsh hens, September 15 to March 16; doves, all 
counties, July 1 to January 1. Trapping of quail, partridge, or grouse 
prohibited. 

Giving away of trapped quail, partridge, or grouse, prohibited. 

Open season: quail, partridge, grouse, and rail, October 1 to March 1; 
doves, June 1 to January 1. Gathering of quail, partridge or grouse 
eggs prohibited. Trafficking in or possession of trapped quail, part- 
ridge, or grouse prohibited. No close season on ducks. 

Open season: quail, partridge, grouse, and rail, September 10 to March 1. 

State Board of Fish Commissioners authorized to import game birds: 
wild turkeys, prairie chickens, bob-white quail, pheasants, grouse and 
skylarks mentioned; $2,000 appropriated for the work; closed season 
for such species as might be introduced until January 1, 1895. 

Open season: ducks, October 1 to March 1; doves, July 1 to January 1. 
County boards of supervisors given right to make game laws for 
counties and these to supersede state laws. 

Open season: quail, bob-white, partridge, grouse, wild duck, snipe, rail, 
September 1 to March 1; doves, August 1 to March 1. Gathering eggs 
of bob-white, pheasant, or dove prohibited. Hunting pheasants or 
their possession (except for purposes of propagation) prohibited until 
1895. Hunting duck, rail, quail, partridge, grouse, or pheasant with 
shotgun of larger bore than 10-gauge prohibited. Cold storage of 
quail, partridge, bob-white, pheasant, grouse, dove or wild duck during 
closed season prohibited. Hunting game birds on lands posted against 
shooting prohibited. 

Open season: valley quail, bob-white, partridge, robin, wild duck and 
rail, October 15 to February 15; mountain quail and grouse, August 
15 to February 15; doves, July 1 to February 15. Possession of game 
species for propagation under permit made legal. Gathering eggs of 
robin prohibited. Hunting or possession of pheasants, except for 
propagation, prohibited until March 27, 1898. Possession or sale of 
game during closed season prohibited; sale of quail, bob-white, part- 
ridge, pheasant, grouse, dove or wild duck prohibited except between 
November 15 and January 15. Common carriers prohibited from trans- 
porting any quail, partridge, pheasant, grouse, prairie chicken, doves, 
or wild duck, out of the state except for purposes of propagation and 
then only under permit. 

Open season: valley quail, bob-white, partridge, wild duck, and rail, 
October 1 to March 1; mountain quail and grouse, September 1 to 
February 15; doves, July 15 to February 15. Protection for pheas- 
ants extended until March 1, 1899. Robin removed from list of game 
birds. Cold storage of rail prohibited. County boards of supervisors 
given right to enact county laws for shortening seasons, ete. 

Open season: quail, partridge, grouse, sage-hen, wild ducks, rail, ibis, 
eurlew, and plover, October 1 to February 1; doves, August 1 to 
February 1, Constitutional amendment proposed permitting division 
of the state into fish and game districts. Complete protection for 
introduced species: Mongolian or English pheasant, English part- 
ridge, eastern or Chinese quail, bob-white. First daily bag limits 
established: doves or ducks, 50; quail, partridge, snipe, ibis, or 
curlew, 25; rails, 20. Sale of quail, partridge, pheasant, grouse, sage- 


 & 


LEGISLATION 59 


hen, ibis, or plover entirely prohibited. Hunting between one-half 
hour after sunset and one-half hour before sunrise prohibited. Trap- 
ping or netting game birds except under permit for scientific pur- 
poses or for use in propagation prohibited. Bore of guns used in 
hunting no longer restricted. Common carriers prohibited from 
transporting more than one bag limit of game for one person on any 
one day; game required to be exposed to view and labeled with name 
and address of shipper. Taking specimens for scientific purposes 
allowed under permit. 

1903. Open season: valley quail, partridge, wild duck, rail, curlew, ibis, plover, 
October 15 to February 15; mountain quail, grouse, or sage-hen, 
September 1 to February 15; doves, July 1 to February 15. 

1905. Shorebirds (Limicolae) other than plover and curlew first protected; 
open season: October 15 to February 15; Wilson snipe, October 15 
to April 1. Swan, pheasant, bob-white quail, or any variety of 
imported quail or partridge protected at all times. Bag limit: doves 
reduced to 25; for all shorebirds and rail, set at 25. Sale of doves and 
all shorebirds (in addition to those mentioned in laws of 1901) pro- 
hibited. Hunting on private lands without permission prohibited. 

1907. Open season: ducks, October 1 to February 15; doves, July 15 to 
October 15. Closed season on grouse and sage-hen until September 
1, 1909. System of annual hunting licenses inaugurated: $1 for resi- 
dents of California; $10 for citizens of the United States not residents 
of California; $25 for aliens. Bag limit on ducks reduced to 35. 
The following groups mentioned as game birds: Anatidae, Rallidae, 
Limicolae, Gallinae, and Columbidae. Provision made for registering 
private holdings as game preserves [refuges] under supervision of 
Fish and Game Commission for periods of one to five years. 

1909. Open season: wild duck, black sea brant, rail, ibis and all shorebirds 
(except snipe), October 1 to February 15; desert and valley quail, 
October 1 to February 1; Wilson snipe, October 1 to April 1. Closed 
season on grouse and sage-hen extended until September 1, 1911, and 
mountain quail protected until that time. Bag limit on ducks and 
black sea brant reduced to 25; quail, snipe, ibis, rail, shorebirds, and 
doves reduced to 20. Use of animal blinds, and hunting from power 
boats in motion, prohibited. Pinnacles National Monument made a 
game refuge. Hunting permitted on navigable waters within any 
game refuge. Resolution passed to appoint committee to consider 
dividing state into fish and game districts. 

1911. Dealers in wild game required to obtain licenses and to keep record of 
game received, together with names and addresses of shippers. Use 
of animal blinds permitted in hunting geese. Rearing of pheasants 
in captivity permitted, and birds so reared allowed to be sold at any 
time under permit. State divided into six fish and game districts, viz: 
1. Del Norte, Siskiyou, Modoe, Lassen, Shasta, Trinity, Humboldt 
and Tehama counties. 2. Mendocino, Glenn, Colusa, Lake, Sonoma, 
Napa, Yolo, Solano and Marin counties. 3. Plumas, Butte, Sierra, 
Yuba, Sutter, Nevada, Placer, El Dorado, Sacramento, Amador, 
Alpine, Calaveras, Tuolumne, Mariposa and Mono counties. 4. San 
Joaquin, Stanislaus, Merced, Madera, Fresno, Kings, Tulare and Kern 
counties. 5. Contra Costa, Alameda, San Francisco, San Mateo, 
Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, San Benito, Monterey and San Luis Obispo 


60 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA 


counties. 6. Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles, Orange, San 
Diego, Imperial, Riverside, San Bernardino and Inyo counties. Open 
season: wild duck, ibis, shore birds (except Wilson snipe, plover 
and curlew), Districts 2 to 5, October 15 to March 1; Districts 1 and 
6, October 1 to March 1. Black sea brant, District 1, October 1 to 
April 1; Districts 2 to 6, November 1 to March 15.. Wilson snipe, 
plover, curlew, November 15 to April 30. Desert and valley quail, 
Districts 1 to 5, October 15 to February 15; District 6, October 15 
to November 15. Doves, Districts 1 and 3, July 15 to October 1; 
Districts 2 and 5, August 1 to October 15; Districts 4 and 6, Septem- 
ber 1 to November 1. Mountain quail, grouse, and sage-hen, Septem- 
ber 1 to December 1. Closed season on rail until November 1, 1912; 
open season after that date, November 1 to December 1. Bag limits: 
wild ducks, black sea brant, daily 25; weekly (=sunrise one Sunday 
to sunrise the following Sunday) 50; desert or valley quail, Wilson 
snipe, curlew, ibis, plover, rail, doves, 20; mountain quail 10; grouse 
and sage-hen 4. ‘ 

1913. Sale of game prohibited, except of ducks (during November) and geese 
at all times; later repealed by referendum. Hunting in certain 
parts of Cleveland National Forest prohibited. Provision made for 
converting private lands into game preserves (refuges) under control 
of State Fish and Game Commission for period of not less than ten 
years; hunting on navigable waters or on tide lands not interfered 
with by this. Provision made for rearing game in captivity and 
selling same (Bowman Act). Fish and game districts rearranged and 
a new one added, viz: 1. Siskiyou, Modoc, Lassen, Shasta, Trinity, 
and Tehama counties. 2. Del Norte, Humboldt, Mendocino, Sonoma, 
Marin, Glenn, Lake, Colusa, Napa, Yolo and Solano counties. 3. 
Plumas, Butte, Sierra, Yuba, Sutter, Nevada, Placer, Sacramento, 
El Dorado, San Joaquin, Amador, Calaveras, Tuolumne and Mari- 
posa counties. 4. Eastern Stanislaus, eastern Merced, Madera, east- 
ern Fresno, eastern Kings, Tulare, and eastern Kern counties. 5. 
Contra Costa, San Francisco, San Mateo, Alameda, Santa Clara, 
Santa Cruz, western Stanislaus, western Merced, San Benito, Monterey, 
western Fresno, western Kings, San Luis Obispo, western Kern, and 
Santa Barbara counties. 6. Ventura, Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, 
San Bernardino, Riverside and Imperial counties. 7. Alpine, Mono 
and Inyo counties. 

1915. Open season: wild duck, geese, brant, mud-hen, gallinule, Wilson snipe, 
black-breasted or golden plover, yellowlegs, October 15 to February 
1; desert or valley quail, October 15 to January 1; mountain quail 
and grouse, Districts 2, 3, 4, and all other districts south of the 
northern boundary of Mendocino County, October 15 to January 1; 
mountain quail, grouse, and sage-hen (except as above), September 
1 to December 1; doves, September 1 to December 1. Bag limits: 
honker geese and black sea brant, daily 12; weekly (between sun- 
rise one Sunday and sunrise the following Sunday), 24. Other geese 
and ducks, daily 25; weekly 50; desert or valley quail, black-breasted 
or golden plover, jack snipe, yellowlegs, daily 15; weekly (—between 

i sunrise one Sunday and sunset the following Sunday), 30; mountain 
quail, daily 10; weekly 20; grouse and sage-hen, daily 4; weekly 8. 
Doves, daily, 15; no weekly limit. Indefinite close season on rail, 


1852? 
Ducks aeeeecceccecencceeecenee 
Mallard and Sept. 20—Mar. 1 

Wood Duck ¥ si 

oT) ccc ee 
Quail? Sept. 20—Mar. 1 
Grouse a eeeeceeccnceeccecceneee 
Sagehen haeesecececcseceseneceeee 
DOVE gees esl eels 

1891 
Ducks Oct. 1-Mar. 1 
Wood Dek ——— sesesestscscsesresinuuutions 
Geese 


Black Sea Brant 


Swan 


Ibis 


Cranes 
Rail 


Sept. 10—Mar. 1 


Mud-hen, Gallinule 


Wilson Snipe 


Yellow-legs 


COTO | Witectaetermancadoce 


Plover 


Shorebirds" 


Quail? 


Mountain 


Valley and Desert ............22.....2000005 
Grewse = weesawsetyeramnaevermenes 
Sage-hen 
Band-tailed Pigeon 


Dove 


July 1-Jan. 1 


Sept. 1—Mar. 20 


Sept. 1—-Mar. 20 


1893 
Sept. 1-Mar. 1 


Sept. 1-Mar. 1 


Aug. 1—Mar. 1 


1Including “partridges’”” and sometimes bob-whites. 
2 1852-80, close season applied only in certain counties. 


8 Including all ‘‘broad-bill’’ ducks. 


TABLE 7—SHOWING OPEN SEASONS FoR HunTING GAME BirDs IN CALIFORNIA, 1852-1915 


1854 


Sept. 15—Mar. 1 


Sept. 15—Mar. 1 


1895 
Oct. 15—Feb. 15 


Oct. 15—Feb. 15 


Aug. 15—Feb. 15 
Oct. 15—Feb. 151? 
Aug. 15—Feb. 15 


July 1-Feb. 15 


1861 


Sept. 15—Mar. 153 
(Aug. 1-Apr. 1) 


Sept. 15—Mar. 15 
(Aug. 1—Apr. 1) 

Sept. 15-Mar. 15 
(Aug. 1—Apr. 1) 


1897 
Oct. 1—Mar. 1 


Oct. 1—Mar. 1 


Sept. 1-Feb. 15 
Oct. 1—Mar. 1 
Sept. 1—-Feb. 15 


July 15-Feb. 15 


41866, close seasons mentioned in this year applied only in Siskiyou County. 


5 Including 


“prairie-chickens” [—=Sharp-tailed Grouse]. 


1866* 
Sept. 15—Apr. 15 
Sept. 15—Apr. 15 


Oct. 15—-Mar. 15 
Aug. 1-Apr. 1 
Aug. 1—Apr. 15 


1901 
Oct. 1—Feb. 1 


Oct. 1-Feb. 1 


Oct. 1-Feb. 1 
Oct. 1-Feb. 1 


Aug. 1—-Feb. 1 


61870, 1876, close seasons mentioned in these years applied only in Lassen, Plumas, and Sierra counties. 
71878, close season on doves applied only in San Joaquin County. 


8 1880-1911, close seasons on all species mentioned applied in all counties. 


Including all ‘will’ ducks. 
10 Including ‘‘marsh-hens.” 


11 Other than those specifically mentioned above. 


12 1895-97, including robin. 


143 1911-15, for districts see Chronology of Legislation. 


14 Close season on certain species established under Federal Migratory Bird Law in 1913. 


1% Others, Sept. 1—Dec. 1. 


18708 
Aug. 15-Mar. 15 


1903 
Oct. 15—Feb. 15 


Oct. 15—Feb. 15 
Oct. 15—Feb. 15 


Sept. 1—Feb. 15 
Oct. 15—Feb. 15 
Sept. 1—-Feb. 15 
Sept. 1-Feb. 15 


July 1-Feb. 15 


1876° 
Aug. 15—Mar. 15 


Sept. 1—Mar. 15 
Sept. 1—Mar. 15 


1905 


. 15—Feb. 15 


Closed 


. 15—-Feb. 15 
. 15-Feb. 15 


Sept. 1—-Feb. 15 
Oct. 15-Feb. 15 
Sept. 1-Feb. 15 
Sept. 1-Feb. 15 


July 1—-Feb. 15 


1878 


July 1—Jan. 17 


1907 
Oct. 1—-Feb. 15 


Oct. 15—Feb. 15 
Oct. 15—Feb. 15 
Oct. 15—Feb. 15 


Sept. 1—-Feb. 15 
Oct. 15—Feb. 15 


Closed until 
Sept. 1, 1909 

Closed until 
Sept. 1, 1909 


July 15-Oct. 15 


18808 
Sept. 15—Mar. 15° 


Sept. 15—Mar. 157° 
Sept. 15—Mar. 15 
Sept. 15—Mar. 15 


July 1—Jan. 1 


1909 
Oct. 1-Feb. 15 


Oct. 1—-Feb. 15 
Closed 
Oct. 1-Feb. 15 


Oct. 15—-Feb. 15 
Oct. 15—Feb. 15 
Oct. 1—-Feb. 15 


Closed until 
Sept. 1, 1911 
Oct. 1.-Feb. 1 


Closed until 
Sept. 1, 1911 

Closed until 
Sept. 1, 1911 


July 15-Oct. 15 


1883 
No protection 


Oct. 1-Mar. 1 
Oct. 1—Mar. 1 
Oct. 1—Mar. 1 


June 1—Jan. 1 


19113 


2-5: Oct. 15—Mar. 1 
1 and 6: Oct. 1— 
Mar.1 


1: Oct. 1—Apr. 1 
2-6 :Nov.1—Mar.15 
Closed 


2-5: Oct. 15-Mar. 1 
1 and 6: Oct. 1- 
Mar. 1 


Closed until Nov. 1, 
1912, then Nov. 
1-Dec. 1 


Nov. 15—Mar. 30 

Nov. 15—Mar. 30 

2-5: Oct. 15—Mar. 1 

1 and 6: Oct. 1- 
Mar. 1 


Sept. 1-Dec. 1 

1-5 :Oct. 15—Feb. 15 

6: Oct. 15—Nov. 15 

Sept. 1—Dec. 1 

Sept. 1—-Dec. 1 

land 8: July 15— 
Oct. 1 

2 and 5: Aug. 1— 
Oct. 15 

4and 6: Sept. 1- 
Nov. 1. 


1887 


No protection 


Sept. 10—Mar. 1 
Sept. 10—Mar. 1 
Sept. 10—Mar. 1 


June 1—Jan. 1 


19154 
Oct. 15—Feb. 1 


Closed** 

Oct. 15—Feb. 1 
Oct. 15—Feb. 1 
Closed 
Closed"* 


Closed** 
Closed** 


Oct. 15—Feb. 1 
Oct. 15—-Feb. 1 
Oct. 15—Feb. 1 
Closed** 
Oct. 15—Feb. 1 
Closed** 


2, 8, 4, ete.: Oct. 
5—Jan. 1 
Oct. 15—Jan.1 
2, 8, 4, ete. 5 . 
15-Jan. 1 
Oct. 15—Jan.1 
Closed** 


Sept. 1-Dec. 1 


LEGISLATION 61 


wood duck, wild [band-tailed] pigeon, shorebirds other than those 
mentioned above, and sandhill, whooping and little brown cranes. 
(The above changes were chiefly for the purpose of making the 
California law conform with the regulations issued under the Fed- 
eral Migratory Bird Law.) Use of animal blinds entirely pro- 
hibited. Fish and game districts rearranged and increased in num- 
ber. Four principal districts: 1. Del Norte, Siskiyou, Modoc, Hum- 
boldt, Trinity, Shasta, Lassen, Tehama, Butte, Sutter, Plumas, Yuba, 
Sierra, Nevada, Placer, Sacramento, El Dorado, Amador, Calaveras, 
Alpine, eastern San Joaquin, eastern Stanislaus, Tuolumne, eastern 
Merced, Mariposa, Madera, Mono, eastern Fresno, Kings, Tulare, 
eastern Kern, and Inyo counties. 2. Mendocino, Sonoma, Marin, 
Glenn, Lake, Colusa, Yolo, Napa, and Solano counties. 3. Contra 
Costa, Alameda, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Cruz, Santa Clara, 
western San Joaquin, western Stanislaus, western Merced, Monterey, 
San Benito, western Fresno, San Luis Obispo, and extreme western 
Kern counties. 4. Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles, Orange, 
San Diego, San Bernardino, Riverside, and Imperial counties. Also 
twenty-five minor districts (numbers 5 to 29, inclusive), embracing 
the coast line, the main interior waters, and certain forest areas. All 
game protected in minor districts 24 to 29, inclusive, except that 
waterfowl may be hunted in District 28. 


62 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


GLOSSARY OF SPECIAL TERMS USED IN THIS BOOK 
(See figs. 1-3) 


ABDOMEN—See BELLY. 

AxILLARS—A group of feathers situated beneath the wing in the ‘¢arm-pit,’’ 
at the junction of the wing and side of body; they are usually narrow and 
often much elongated. 

Back (of body)—The area on the upper surface included between the neck, 
wings and rump. 


Me, 
‘s aes \ 

ok S. Gr 

A te-nL, We 
Set oy eg iChin, > 
FAA 5 < ra, 
oe 7 a Low, OL 
Ss ‘ manaipe—we 


Sik Nail 


Back 


. ie 
f 
¢ CC. siaputars Raeies 
eee covert fS, 


Cus <A 
SEES 
7, 


Greater covers 


sy Inner toe 


Hind toe 4 ‘ x ( 


Querrey -\ Middle toe 
J Outer toe 


Fig. 1. General outline of a Mallard showing names of parts and areas 
referred to in describing a game bird. One-fourth natural size. See 
Glossary (pp. 62-65) for definitions of terms used. 


Bar—A narrow transverse mark of color across an individual feather, or across 
wing or tail. 

Base or Bint—Where the bill is joined to the skull; in most birds, where the 
feathers of the forehead end. 

BELLY—The hinder middle portion of the lower surface of the body, included 
between the breast, sides and flanks, and vent. 

Breast—An area on the middle of the under surface of the body, between the 
fore-neck and belly; not capable of exact definition. 

CrrE—The naked skin at the upper base of the bill, through which the nostrils 
open. 


GLOSSARY OF SPECIAL TERMS 63 


CHEEK—The area on the lower side of the head between the eye and throat. 

CHEST—The upper part of the breast, just below the fore-neck. 

CuiIn—The area on the under side of the head included between the branches 
of the lower mandible or jaw. 

Ctaw—The horny sheath on the terminal joint of any toe. 

Crest—A more or less lengthened tuft or group of feathers on the top of the 
head, which is either permanently erected (Hooded Merganser, male), or 
capable of being elevated at will (Mountain Quail). 

CrissuM—See LOWER 1aIL CoveERts. 

CROSS-RIDGES (on bill)—The horny flutings on the sides of the bill in ducks, 
geese and swans; these are not to be confused with the sharper ‘‘teeth’’ on 
the opposed surfaces of the mandibles of mergansers. 


Fig. 2. Outer surface of spread wing of Green-winged 
Teal showing names of regions and feathers employed in 
descriptions. One-half natural size. 


CuLMEN—The upper ridge or profile of the bill. 

Ear Coverts—See Ear REGION. . 

Ear Recion—The area over which the feathers (ear-coverts) which cover the 
external ear opening are distributed. 

FLAnKs—The hindermost feathers on the side of the body, included between 
the rump and belly, and overlapping the thigh. 

ForEHEAD—The area just above the base of the upper mandible of the bill; 
situated in front of the ‘‘top of head.’’ 

Forr-NEcK—The lower throat, between the throat proper and the breast. 

Forrepart or Bopy—That part of the body nearest the head; in general, the 
region forward of the bend of the wing. 

GREATER (WING) CoverTs—The hindmost row of covering feathers on the outer 
side of the wing, overlying the bases of the secondaries and tertials; the 
outer margins of these feathers are exposed. 

Hinp-necK—The middle of the neck behind. 


64 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Hinppart or Bopy—That part of the body nearest the tail; in general, the 
region behind the bend of the wing. 

LESSER (WING) CoverTs—The several rows of small covering feathers on the 
outer surface of the wing, from the bend of the wing to the side of the 
-body and forward of the middle coverts; like the greater coverts, the outer 
margins of the lesser coverts are exposed. 

Linine or Wine—The feathers on the under surface of the wing covering the 
inner bases of the flight feathers, 

Lopes (oN TOES)—A series of thin, membrane-like flaps on the sides of the toes 
(fig. 55). 

Lowszr Tat Coverts—The feathers behind the vent and immediately under- 


neath the tail. 


tua iprer 
lr AK ay Se 
; Wires 


Us 


Fig. 3. Under surface of spread wing of Black- 
bellied Plover showing axillars and lining of wing. 
One-half natural size. 


ManpDIBLE—Hither the upper or the lower half of the bill; the jaw. 

Marcin or Winc—The edge formed by the outermost primary feather and the 
smaller feathers overlying it, from the bend of the wing backward. 

MIDDLE (WING) CovEerTS—The series of covering feathers lying immediately for- 
ward of the greater wing coverts on the outer surface of the wing; the 
middle coverts have their inner margins exposed while both the greater and 
lesser coverts have their outer margins exposed. 

Nai, (OF BILL)—In ducks, the smooth, rounded and slightly raised portion on 
the end of the upper mandible. 

NalIL (OF TOE)—See CLaw. 

Nape—See HIND-NECK. 

OvuTER SURFACE OF CLOSED WING—AII of the several series of covering feathers 
on the outer surface of the wing, collectively. 

PLUME (ON HEAD)—A slender tuft of elongated feathers on the top of the head. 

PoinTeD TaIL—One in which the central pair of feathers are the longest and the 
outer ones shorter in regular order so that, when spread, the tail is wedge- 
shaped as seen from above or below. 

Primarigs—The outermost and longest series of flight feathers of the wing; 
the wing ‘‘quills’’ attached to the outermost (the ‘‘hand’’) of the three 
‘*joints’’ of the wing. 


GLOSSARY OF SPECIAL TERMS 65 


PRIMARY (WING) CoverTs—The series of rather stiff covering feathers overlying 
the bases of the primary flight feathers. 

Rurr—A bunch of elongated feathers on the sides of the neck, which by reason 
of their length (and often color) stand out distinctly from the surrounding 
‘feathers. 

Rump—tThat portion of the upper surface of the body lying just forward of the 
base of the tail between the back and upper tail coverts. 

Rump ParcH—Any contrasted area of color occurring on the rump, or upper 
tail coverts, or both. 

ScaLes—The small horny plates on the tarsus or ‘‘leg’’ of birds; in the duck 
and shorebird families the shape of these plates is important in classification. 

ScapuLars—The group of feathers at either side of the back, on the ‘‘shoulder,’’ 
just above the wing; they often overlie some of the tertial feathers. 

SECONDARIES—The next to the outermost series of flight feathers on the wing; 
they are attached to the middle section of the wing (the ‘‘forearm’’) and 
form a series continuous with that formed by the primaries. 

SHAFT (OF A FEATHER)—The quill or midrib to which the two webs are attached. 

SHarr StrEaAK—A line or narrow stripe of contrasting color running lengthwise 
along the middle of a feather. 

SIDE (OF BODY)—The area on either side, between the ‘‘arm-pit’’ and flank, 
and back and belly. 

SPEcuLUM—A brightly colored area on the terminal portions of the outermost 
secondary wing feathers of most ducks. 

Spur—A horn-covered projection on the back of the tarsus of the male Ring- 
neck Pheasant and of the male Wild Turkey. 

SQUARE-ENDED (TAIL)—Said of a tail in which the feathers are of such lengths 
that when lying parallel they end evenly; not wedge-shaped or pointed. 
STREAK} 
STRIPE 
Tarsus—The ‘‘leg’’ of a bird; that portion from the heel joint to the base of 

the toes. 

TrETH—The sharp horny projections on the opposed surfaces of the two mandi- 
bles in mergansers. 

TrerTIALS—The innermost series of flight feathers on the wing, between the 
secondaries and the body; they are attached to the innermost section of the 
wing (‘‘upper arm’’). 

Turoat—The area on the lower side of the head, between the chin and fore- 
neck. 

UNvDER SuRFACE (oF BoDY)—The whole of the body below lines drawn along 
either side from the corner of the mouth to the side of the tail. 

UnvER, OF INNER, SuRFACE OF FLIGHT FratHEeRS—The surfaces of the flight 
feathers which are next to the body when the wing is closed. 

Upper SURFACE (OF BoDY)—The whole of the body above lines drawn along 
either side from the corner of the mouth to the side of the tail, and, where 
the tail is of the same color, including the upper surface of it as well. 

Upper Tait Coverts—The feathers immediately behind the rump, and covering 
the upper bases of the tail feathers. 

Vent—The anus. 

Wes (oF FEATHER)—Hither half of the vane of a feather, each side of the shaft. 

WEB (BETWEEN TOES)—-A membrane-like extension of skin between the front 
toes in all members of the duck family and in certain other birds. 


Mark of contrasted color running lengthwise of a feather. 


66 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


METHOD OF TAKING MEASUREMENTS 


As a rule, only adult birds have been used in securing the measurements 
given in this book; but in a few cases (which are designated) full-grown 
immature birds have been included. In every instance the region of capture of 
the specimens used is indicated. Occasional individuals are likely to be found 
which do not come within the limits of the measurements here given, and of 
course specimens with tail or wing feathers badly worn or in process of molt 
will give total lengths and wing lengths below normal. 

Wherever measurements were taken by us originally in millimeters, the 
equivalents in inches and hundredths have been secured by mechanical con- 
version, double checked; and the converse is true of measurements taken orig- 
inally in inches, as well as of all those quoted from published literature. 


Middle toe 
&—Withoul—_», 
i claw, ke’ 


; 
‘<— Bill along culmen ——> 


w--|---> 


Folded wing 


es 


Total length 


Fig. 4. Side view of Hudsonian Curlew showing method of taking the 
measurements used in this book. One-fourth natural size. 


Tota, LenctuH—With the bird laid flat on its back, the head straight out, 
and the neck not unduly stretched, measure from the tip of the bill to the end 
of the longest tail feather. 

FoLpED Winc—With the wing folded naturally against the side of the bird, 
measure in a straight line from the bend of the wing (‘‘wrist joint’’) to the 
tip of the longest primary flight feather. 

Birt ALong CuLMEN—Measure in a straight line from the last feathers on 
the middle of the forehead to the tip of the bill. This is really the ‘‘chord of 
the culmen,’’ and does not take into account any irregularity or curve in the 
profile of the bill. 

Tarsus—Measure from the notch in the ‘‘hock’’ or ‘‘heel’’ at the upper 
end of the tarsus to and over the rounded knob on the front of the lower end 
of the tarsus at the base of the middle toe. 

MipvLe Tor (without claw)—With the foot pressed against some flat surface 
so that the toes are spread out, measure from the angle just below the lower 
end of the tarsus to the base of the claw. 

Eces—Measured with calipers; specimens with holes in their ends are likely 
to fall short of the measurements given for the longer dimension. 


KEY TO THE GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


It is believed that the following key will prove sufficient for identi- 
fying any game bird heretofore found in California. We would warn 
our readers, however, not to depend upon it for the determination of 
species outside of our own state, and to use it only for birds in hand, 
either freshly killed or stuffed as specimens. The key is ‘‘artificial,’”’ 
in that it makes use of any serviceable character, whether or not that 
character be important in a natural classification of birds. If informa- 
tion be desired as to the technicalities of systematic ornithology, then 
recourse must be had to other works than the present one. 

The kind of key here employed, except in two places, is that which 
is called ‘‘dichotomous,’’ that is, it is two-branched, the members of 
a larger group being separated into two lots according as they possess 
or lack a certain character or group of characters. In determining 
to which of two groups a specimen belongs, both headings should be 
read—that is, read 1 and 1’, and 2 and 2’, even if from first inspec- 
tion it is certain to which group the bird belongs. Reférence to the 
figures cited will often assist in deciding doubtful points. If any 
difficulty be found in identifying a specimen by means of the key, 
appeal to the descriptions of species will soon settle the question. 
Measurements have been used in the key only where there were no 
convenient color or structural features. The methods of taking the 
measurements used in this key are the same as those employed in the 
descriptions of species (see page 66 and fig. 4). 

A concrete example will best show the manner of using the key. 
Suppose we have in hand a specimen of one of our commonest upland 
game birds and wish to identify it. In the ‘‘Key to the Main Groups’’ 
we read: 

1. Feet fully webbed between front toes, ete. 


1’. Feet without webs (or else only partly webbed); bill without cross-ridges 
or ‘‘teeth,’’ and never ‘‘duck-like’’ in shape. 


Our specimen has no webs and therefore belongs in group 1’. 
Proceeding : 


2. Legs and feet short, tarsus (leg) never more than one-tenth total length 
of bird; ends of claws never reaching beyond ends of longest under 
tail coverts; claw of hind toe reaching to base of claw on outer toe. 

2’. Legs and feet longer, tarsus (leg) always more than one-tenth total length; 
ends of claws reaching to or beyond ends of longest under tail coverts; 
claw of hind toe never reaching to base of claw on outer toe. 


Our bird belongs to group 2’, as it has longer feet, ete. Continuing: 


3, Area between bill and eye and space around eye naked. 
3’, Area between bill and eye and space around eye always feathered. 


[ 67] 


68 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The specimen in hand has the area between bill and eye fully 
feathered and therefore belongs in 3’. Next: 


4, Wing more than 17.00 inches (480 mm.) long; bill more than 3.00 (76 mm). 
4’, Wing less than 13.00 inches (328 mm.) long. 


The short wing of our bird places it in group 4’. Then: 


5. Bill ‘‘chicken-like,’’ never more than one-third as long as head (except 
in Ring-necked Pheasant); tip of upper mandible curved abruptly 
downward, covering ,tip of lower mandible. 

Pheasant, Quails, and Grouses. 

5’. Bill never ‘‘chicken-like,’’ always more than one-third as long as head, 
and tip of lower mandible never covered. 


The short bill on the bird being identified, places it in group 5. 
Turning to the key for the Pheasant, Quails and Grouses, we proceed, 
beginning there with 1 and 1’ again: 


1. Wing more than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long. 
1’. Wing less than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long; tarsus never feathered. 


Our specimen has a wing less than 6.00 inches long and an un- 
feathered tarsus and hence goes under 1’. Continuing: 


7. Head with a straight, slender, tapering plume more than 2.00 inches (51 
mm.) long; flanks rich chestnut brown broadly barred with black and 
white; throat brown in males. 

7’. Head with a short, curved, broad-ended plume, less than 1.50 inches (38 
mm.) long; flanks without black and white barring; throat black in 
males. 


Our bird belongs under 7’, as it has a short plume and black 
throat. Then: 


9. No scale-like markings on belly, ete. 
9’. Forepart of belly sealed with narrow blackish cross-bars, ete. 


Evidently our bird comes under 9’. Then: 


10. Ground color of upper surface and flanks deep olive brown. 
California Quail. 
10’. Ground color of upper surface and flanks grayish brown. 
11. Smaller: wing averaging less than 4.35 inches (110 mm.) long. Mainland 


species. Valley Quail. 
1l’. Larger: wing averaging more than 4.35 inches (110 mm.) long. On 
Santa Catalina Island only. Catalina Island Quail. 


Our bird shows a grayish rather than olive tinge on the back, so 
we have a Valley Quail. Such characters as the last (under 10 and 
11) are often difficult of determination and in the absence of speci- 
mens of both races for comparison dependence must be placed upon 
the locality of capture of the bird. After finding a name for any 
specimen by use of the key, reference should always be made to the 
full description of the species so as to verify the determination. 


KEYS 


KEY TO THE MAIN GROUPS OF CALIFORNIA GAME BIRDS 


1. Feet fully webbed between front toes (fig. 1); bill usually broad and 
flat (figs. 9 and 10), rarely slender (figs. 7 and 8), and always pro- 
vided either with cross-ridges or ‘‘teeth.’’ 

Ducks, Geese, and Swans 

1’, Feet without webs (or else only partly webbed [figs. 56 and 61]); 
bill without cross-ridges or ‘‘teeth’’ and never ‘‘duck-like’’ in 
shape. 

2. Legs and feet short, tarsus (leg) never more than one-tenth total 
length of bird; ends of claws never reaching beyond ends of 
longest under tail coverts; claw of hind toe reaching to base 
of claw on outer toe. Pigeons and Doves 

2’, Legs and feet longer, tarsus (leg) always more than one-tenth total 
length; ends of claws reaching to or beyond ends of longest 
under tail coverts; claw of hind toe never reaching base of claw 
on outer toe. 

3. Area between bill and eye and space around eye naked (figs. 
42-44), Ibises and Spoonbill 
3’, Area between bill and eye and space around eye always feathered 
(feathers sometimes bristle-like). 
4. Wing more than 17.00 inches (430 mm.) long; bill more than 
3.00 (76 mm.) (fig. 45). Cranes 
4’. Wing less than 13.00 inches (328 mm.) long. 

5. Bill ‘‘chicken-like,’’ never more than one-third as long as 
head (except in Ring-necked Pheasant); tip of upper 
mandible curved abruptly downward, covering tip of lower 
mandible (fig. 81). Pheasant, Quails, and Grouses 

5’. Bill never ‘‘chicken-like,’’ always more than one-third as 
long as head, and tip of lower mandible never covered. 

6. Wing less than four times as long as middle toe without 


claw. Rails, Gallinule, and Mud-hen 
6’. Wing more than four times as long as middle toe without 
claw. Shore Birds 


DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS 


1. Plumage (including all flight feathers) entirely white; neck as long 
or longer than body; area between bill and eye naked (fig. 40). 
2. Larger; bill entirely black; hind margin of nostril more than 2.50 
inches (63.5 mm.) from tip of bill. Trumpeter Swan 
2’, Smaller; a yellow spot (in adult) on side of bill in front of eye; 
hind margin of nostril less than 2.35 inches (59.7 mm.) from tip 
of bill (fig. 40). Whistling Swan 
1’. Plumage never entirely white; neck shorter than body; area between 
bill and eye always feathered. 
3. Bill at least three times as long as height at base; no cross-ridges 
on sides of lower mandible, but ‘‘teeth’’ present (fig. 5). 
4. ‘*Teeth’’ on bill conspicuous, sharp, and inclined backward at 
tips; wing more than 8.00 inches (203 mm.) long; head crest 
various, but never with white. 


69 


PAGE 


69 


78 


73 


74 


77 


74 


74 


70 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Key To Cauirornia Game Brrps—(Continued) 


5. Larger; wing of male more than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long, 
of female more than 9.00 (228 mm.); no reddish brown 
band on breast of male; nostril (both sexes) nearer middle 
of bill than base of bill (figs. 5 and 6). 

American Merganser 

5’. Smaller; wing of male less than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long, 
of female less than 9.00 (228 mm.); breast of male crossed 
by a broad reddish brown band; nostril (both sexes) 
nearer base of bill than middle of bill (figs. 7 and 8). 

Red-breasted Merganser 
4’, ‘‘Teeth’’ blunt and not inclined backward; wing less than 8.00 
inches (203 mm.) long; head of male with a large erect, 
compressed, black and white crest. Hooded Merganser 
3’. Bill never as much as three times as long as height at base; the 
sides of lower mandible cross-ridged or fluted (figs. 9 and 39). 
6. Wing more than 12.00 inches (305 mm.) long; tarsus longer 
than middle toe without claw (shorter in Canada Goose). 
7. Plumage chiefly white (grayish in immatures), some-: 

times stained with rusty. 

8. Larger; bill more than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long; the 
margins of the two mandibles widely separated 
and a large black area showing between them (fig. 
30). Lesser Snow Goose 

8’. Smaller; bill less than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long; 
margins of the two mandibles almost meeting, no 
large black area between them (fig. 31). 

Ross Snow Goose 
7’. Plumage various, never predominantly white. 
9. Bill and feet never wholly black. 

10. Top of head and hind neck never white though 
area around base of bill usually white; breast 
usually marked irregularly with black. 

American White-fronted Goose 

10’. Top of head and hind neck white; breast bluish 

ash, with regular dark bars. Emperor Goose 
9’. Bill and feet entirely black. 
11. Broad band across cheeks and throat white 
(sometimes interrupted on throat). 

12. Large; bill 1.88-2.31 inches (47.7-58.6 mm.) 
long; tarsus usually shorter than middle 

toe and claw (figs. 32 and 35). 
Canada Goose 
12’. Medium; bill 1.37~1.80 inches (34.8-45.7 mm.) ; 
tarsus about as long as middle toe and claw 
(figs. 33 and 36). Hutchins Goose 
12’. Small; bill 1.04-1.44 inches (26.4-36.6 mm.); 
tarsus much longer than middle toe and 
claw (figs. 34 and 37). Cacklmg Goose 


PAGE 


79 


84 


89 


210 


215 


218 


243 


230 


234 


KEYS 


Key To Cauirornia GAME Birps—(Continued) 


11’. Head entirely black; no white on cheeks or 


throat. 
13. A series of white streaks on each side of 
neck, Eastern Sea Brant 


13’. A broad white collar around middle of 
neck, incomplete behind. 
Black Sea Brant 
6’. Wing less than 12.00 inches (305 mm.) long; tarsus shorter 
than middle toe without claw. 
14. No broad thin lobe on hind toe (compare figs. 11 and 22). 
15. Tarsus 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long or more. 

16. Belly black. Black-bellied Tree-duck 

16’. Belly hazel brown like breast, not black (pl. 7). 


Fulvous Tree-duck 
15’. Tarsus less than 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long. 

17. Head crested; speculum deep steel blue. 

Wood Duck 
17’. Head not crested; speculum variously colored. 
18. Bill spoon-shaped (fig. .18), about twice as 
broad near tip as at base. Shoveller 
18’. Bill nearly straight-sided, never greatly ex- 
panded at tip. 
19. Speculum purple or violet. 
20. Speculum pordered with white (pl. 2). 
Mallard 
20’. Speculum without white border. 
Black Duck 
19’. Speculum not purple or violet. 

21. Speculum white. | Gadwall 
21’. Speculum not white (though there may 

be white elsewhere on wing). 
22. Larger; folded wing 9.00 inches (228 

mm.) long or more. 

23. A large white patch on fore part of 
wing; top of head white or cream- 
color in males; bill less than 1.75 
inches (44 mm.) long; middle tail 
feathers never greatly elongated. 
24, Head of male cinnamon (pl. 3), of 
female ochre flecked with blackish. 
European Widgeon 
24’, Head not cinnamon, but white 
flecked with black in both sexes; a 
streak of green behind eye in 
male (pl. 3). Baldpate 
23’. No light patch on fore part of wing 
or on top of head in male; bill 
more than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) 
long (fig. 19); middle tail feathers 
of male in winter very long (pl. 
3). Pintail 


71 


PAGE 


237 


246 


140 


129 


92 


101 


103 


111 


106 


134 


72 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Key To CALIFORNIA GAME Birps—(Continued) 


22’. Smaller; folded wing less than 8.25 
inches (210 mm.) long. 
25. No blue patch on wing. 
26. A white bar on side of breast of 
+ male. Green-winged Teal 

26’. No white bar on side of breast of 

male. European Teal 
25’. A large blue patch on forepart of 
wing. 

27. A crescent-shaped white patch on 
cheek of male; under surface 
never cinnamon brown; bill usu- 
ally less than 1.60 inches (40.5 
mm.) long (fig. 16). 

Blue-winged Teal 

27’. No crescentic white patch on 
cheek of male; under surface of 
male chiefly cinnamon brown 
(pl. 4); bill usually more than 
1.60 inches (40.5 mm.) long: (fig. 
15). Cinnamon Teal 

14’. A broad thin lobe on hind toe (fig. 22). 
28. Speculum gray. 
29. Larger; folded wing more than 8.50 inches (216 
mm.) long. 
30. Forehead high and prominent (fig. 20); bill bluish 
gray, black at tip; iris yellow. Redhead 
30’. Forehead sloping (fig. 21); bill uniformly colored 
(pl. 5); iris red. Canvasback 
29’. Smaller; folded wing less than 8.25 inches (210 
mm.) long. Ring-necked Duck 
28’. Speculum various, but never gray. 
31. Speculum white. 
32. Wing more than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long; 
head of male dull black, never iridescent. 
White-winged Scoter 
32’. Wing less than 9.50 inches (242 mm.) long; head 
of male more or less iridescent. 
33. Bill (viewed from above) broader near tip than 
towards base. 
34. Larger; folded wing more than 8.25 inches 
(210 mm.) long; head of male glossed with 
green. Greater Scaup Duck 
34’. Smaller; folded wing less than 8.25 inches 
(210 mm.) long; head of male glossed with 
purple (pl. 5). Lesser Scaup Duck 
33’. Bill (viewed from above) narrower toward tip 
than at base. 


PAGE 


113 


119 


120 


123 


197 


156 


159 


KEYS 


KEY To CALIFORNIA GAME BrrpS— (Continued) 


35. No white behind eye; folded wing more than 
8.00 inches (203 mm.) long; male with a 
white patch between bill and eye, female 
with whole head dull reddish brown. 

36. Head of male glossed with green; white 
spot between bill and eye, rounded. 

American Golden-eye 

36’. Head of male glossed with purple; white 

spot between bill and eye triangular, 

higher than wide. Barrow Golden-eye 

35’. A single patch or band of white behind eye 
(fig. 23); folded wing less than 7.25 inches 
(184 mm.) long; no white spot in front of 
pill of male. Buffle-head 

31’. Speculum never white (but white patches may be 
present elsewhere on wing). 
37. Wing less than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long. 


Ruddy Duck 
37’. Wing more than 6.50 inches (165 mm.) long. 
38. Lower tail coverts white. Old-squaw 


38’. Lower tail coverts not white. 
39. Wing more than 10.50 inches (266 mm.) long. 
King Hider 
39’. Wing less than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long. 
40. Feathering at base of bill never extending 
as far forward as within 0.25 inch (6.3 
mm.) from nostril (fig. 27). 

American Scoter 
40’. Feathering at base of bill approaching to 

within 0.25 inch (6.3 mm.) of nostril. 
41. Wing more than 8.50 inches (216 mm.) 
long; bill more than 1.25 inches (31.8 
mm.) long (fig. 29). Surf Scoter 
41’. Wing less than 8.50 inches (216 mm.) 
long; bill less than 1.25 inches (31.8 
mm.) long. Harlequin Duck 


IBISES AND SPOONBILL 


1. Bill not flattened, rather slender and curved downward toward tip. 

2. Plumage chiefly white; larger; bill more than 8.00 inches (203 mm) 
long; folded wing more than 16.00 inches (406 mm.) long. 

Wood Ibis 
2’, Plumage chiefly deep brown; smaller; bill less than 6.00 inches 
(152 mm.) long (fig. 44); folded wing less than 12.00 inches (305 
mm.) long. White-faced Glossy Ibis 
V. Bill straight, flat and broad, much expanded at tip (figs. 42 and 43); 
plumage pinkish. Roseate Spoonbill 


73 


PAGE 


167 


192 


194 


201 


186 


266 


269 


262 


74 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Key To CALIFORNIA GAME Birps—(Continued) 


CRANES 
1. Larger; folded wing more than 21.00 inches (533 mm.) long; bill more 
than 5.00 (127 mm.). Sandhill Crane 
1’. Smaller; folded wing less than 20.50 inches (520 mm.) long; bill less 
than 4.50 (114 mm.). Little Brown Crane 


RAILS, GALLINULE, AND MUD-HEN 


1. No ‘‘shield’’ on middle of forehead. 
2. Bill as long as, or longer than, tarsus. 
3. Folded wing more than 5.00 inches (127 mm.) long. 
4. Averaging slightly larger; upper surface grayish brown; under 


surface dull cinnamon brown. California Clapper Rail 
4’, Averaging slightly smaller; upper surface olive brown; under 
surface bright cinnamon brown. Light-footed Rail 


3’. Folded wing less than 4.50 inches (114 mm.) long. Virginia Rail 
2’, Bill not more than three-fourths as long as tarsus. 

5. Under surface with little or no black; folded wing more than 
3.00 inches (76 mm.) long. 

6. Breast gray; no white on wing feathers; folded wing more 

than 3.75 inches (95 mm.) long. Sora Rail 

6’. Breast yellowish brown; patch on secondary wing feathers 

white; wing less than 3.75 inches (95 mm.) long. 


Yellow Rail 
5’. Under surface of body chiefly blackish; folded wing less than 
3.00 inches (76 mm.) long. California Black Rail 


. 1’. Middle of forehead covered by a horny, shield-like extension of the 
bill (fig. 54). 

7. Toes slender, without any marginal lobes; bill of adult chiefly red. 

Florida Gallinule 

7’. Toes with thin, broad, marginal scallop-like lobes (fig. 55); bill 

whitish. Mud-hen 


SHORE BIRDS 


J. Tarsus more than 3.25 inches (82.5 mm.) long; bill black, and more 
than 2.25 inches (57 mm.) long, never curved downward; some 
solid black in body plumage at all times of year. 

2. Top of head, neck and back, black; bill almost straight (fig. 62); no 
hind toe; webs between front toes very small (fig. 63); legs pink. 

Black-necked Stilt 

2’. No black on head or neck; bill decidedly curved upward (fig. 60); 
hind toe present; extensive webs between front toes at bases 
(fig. 61); legs blue. Avocet 

lV’. Tarsus less than 3.25 inches (82.5 mm.) long (if more than 3.25 [82.5 
mm.] then bill curved downward); bill various. 

3. Front toes with lobes or webs on margins and webbed at bases; 
tarsus conspicuously compressed; under surface of body never 
streaked or barred. 

4. Bill blunt (fig. 57); wider than high at base; marginal webs on 
front toes scalloped (fig. 56); under surface of body cinnamon 
red in spring. Red Phalarope 


PAGE 


283 


289 
291 


344 


337 


320 


KEYS 


Kery TO CaLirorNIA GAME Birps—(Continued) 


4’. Bill slender and needle-like (figs. 58, 59). 
5. Bill less than 1.00 inch (25.4 mm.) long, not longer than head; a 
white stripe on wing; middle of rump not white. 
Northern Phalarope 
5’. Bill more than 1.00 inch (25.4 mm.) long, longer than head; no 
white stripe on wing; upper tail coverts chiefly white. 
Wilson Phalarope 
3’. Front toes without lobes on margins (but sometimes with webs be- 
tween bases); tarsus never conspicuously compressed; under 
surface of body often streaked or barred. 
6. Hind toe present (very small in Black-bellied Plover). 
7. Axillar feathers solidly black. 

8. Bill less than 1.50 inches (38 mm.) long; hind toe very small 
(less than .10 inch [2.5 mm.] long). Black-bellied Plover 

8’. Bill more than 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long; hind toe more than 
0.25 inch (6.3 mm.) long. Western Willet 

7’. Axillar feathers never solidly black. 

9. Upper tail coverts solidly white, or black and white in solid 
patches, never barred; bill less than 1.25 inches (31.8 mm.) 
long. 

10. A single patch of solid white on upper tail coverts. 
Surf-bird 
10’. Two solid patches of white, separated by black, on rump 
and upper tail coverts. 
11. Throat and breast entirely black. Black Turnstone 
11’. Throat and breast of mixed pattern. Ruddy Turnstone 
9’. Upper tail coverts never solidly black or white, often barred. 
12. Bill curved decidedly downward toward end, and more 
than 2.50 inches (63 mm.) long. 
13. Larger; bill more than 4.50 inches (114 mm.) long; top 
of head of mixed pattern like back. 
Long-billed Curlew 
13’. Smaller; bill less than 4.00 inches (102 mm.) long; top 
of head blackish brown with middle stripe of lighter 
color. Hudsonian Curlew 
12’. Bill straight or slightly curved upward (if curved slightly 
downward at tip then bill less than 2.00 inches [51 mm.] 
long). : 
14. Bill more than 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long. 
15. Bill stout, curved slightly upward, and more than 
3.50 inches (89 mm.) long. Marbled Godwit 
15’. Bill never curved upward, and never more than 3.00 
inches (76 mm.) long. 
16. Bill tapered from base to tip and smooth; a whitish 
area on upper tail coverts. Greater Yellow-legs 
16’. Tip of bill slightly enlarged and pitted (fig. 64); 
upper tail coverts completely barred. 
17. Head and back with conspicuous longitudinal 
streaks of buffy yellow; upper tail coverts 
barred with buffy yellow. Wilson Snipe 


PAGE 


416 


485 


493 
489 


438 


445 


596 


401 


350 


76 


GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Key To CaLirornia GAME Birps—(Continued) 


17’. Head and back without longitudinal streaks; 
upper tail coverts barred with white. 
Long-billed Dowitcher 
14’, Bill less than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long. 
18. Tail feathers barred. 
19. Breast white, unstreaked, but marked in summer 
with rounded black spots. Spotted Sandpiper 
19’. Breast variously streaked, on buffy or gray ground. 
20. Wing more than 5.70 inches (145 mm.) long. 
21. No white in tail barring. Upland Plover 
21’. Tail barring with considerable white. 
' Lesser Yellow-legs 
20’. Wing less than 5:60 inches (142 mm.) long. 
Western Solitary Sandpiper 
18’. Tail feathers not barred. 
22. Whole upper surface from head to tail, uniform 
grayish brown, without trace of streaking. 
Wandering Tattler 
22’, Upper surface of body never colored uniformly. 
23. Bill more than 1.30 inches (33 mm.) long. 
24, Axillars and upper tail coverts both barred; 
bill not bent downward near tip (fig. 66). 
Knot 
24’, Axillars white; upper tail coverts like back, 
not barred; bill bent slightly downward near 
tip (fig. 71). Red-backed Sandpiper 
23’. Bill less than 1.30 inches (33 mm.) long. 
25. Front toes webbed at bases (fig. 70). 
Western Sandpiper 
25’. Front toes not webbed at bases (fig. 69). 
26. Wing less than 3.75 inches (95 mm.) long. 
Least Sandpiper 
26’. Wing more than 4.25 inches (108 mm.) long. 
27. Feet greenish; tarsus and bill both more 
than 0.95 inch (24 mm.) long. 
Pectoral Sandpiper 
27’. Feet black; tarsus and bill both less than 
0.95 inch (24 mm.) long. 
Baird Sandpiper 
6’. Hind toe absent (see note under no. 6). 
28. Bill less than 1.25 inches (31.8 mm.) long; never red. 
29. Axillar feathers gray; belly black in spring. 
American Golden Plover 
29’, Axillar feathers white. 
30. Breast crossed by two blackish bands; rump tawny. 
Killdeer 
30’. Breast with one or no black band; rump never tawny. 
31. Breast crossed by a single black band. 
32. Bill orange at base; forehead black. 
Semipalmated Plover 


PAGE 


358 


363 


381 


386 


376 


368 


373 


458 


463 


469 


KEYS 


Key To CaLirornia Game Birps—(Continued) 


32’. Bill entirely black; forehead white. Wilson Plover 
31’. Breast never crossed by a complete black band. 
33. Larger; folded wing more than 5.25 inches (133 mm.) 


long. Mountain Plover 
33’. Smaller; folded wing less than 5.25 inches (133 mm.) 
long. 


34, Neck encircled behind by a white collar; folded 
wing less than 4.25 inches (108 mm.) long; bill 
less than 0.75 (19 mm.). Snowy Plover 

34’. No white collar around hind neck; folded wing 
more than 4.25 inches (108 mm.) long; bill more 
than 0.75 (19 mm.). Sanderling 

28’. Bill red, more than 2.25 inches (57 mm.) long. 
35. Whole belly and base of tail white. Frazar Oyster-catcher 
35’. Whole plumage brown or blackish appearing; no white 
markings anywhere. Black Oyster-catcher 


PHEASANT, QUAILS, AND GROUSES 


1. Wing more than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long. 

2. Tarsus altogether unfeathered; toes never with horny fringes; male 
with spur on tarsus. Ring-necked Pheasant 
2’. Tarsus (at least the upper half) feathered; toes (in winter at least) 

with horny fringes; no spur on tarsus of male. 
8. Middle of belly solidly black; feathers of tail conspicuously 
pointed; tail longer than wing; wing over 9.75 inches (248 
mm.). Sage-hen 
3’. Middle of belly not black, but of same color as most of under 
surface; feathers of tail not pointed; tail shorter than wing; 

folded wing less than 9.75 inches (248 mm.). 
4. Tail not square-ended, middle pair of tail feathers longer than 

the rest; middle of belly solidly white. 
Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse 

4’. Tail square-ended; belly not pure white. 

5. Each side of neck with a ‘‘ruff’’ of black or copper-colored 
feathers; lower third of tarsus naked; tail crossed by a 
broad dark band near end; plumage mostly reddish brown 
in both sexes, Oregon Ruffed Grouse 

5’. Sides of neck without ruffs; tarsus completely feathered; end 
of tail crossed by a broad light band; body plumage (of 
male) chiefly dark bluish gray. 

6. Adult male darker colored; less white on chin and throat. 
Sooty Grouse 
6’. Adult male lighter; more white on chin and throat. 
Sierra Grouse 
1’. Wing less than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long; tarsus never feathered. 
7. Head with a straight slender tapering plume more than 2.00 inches 

(51 mm.) long; flanks rich chestnut brown, broadly barred with 

black and white; throat brown in both sexes. 

8. Darker; back and tail deep olive brown. Painted Quail 


481 


473 


572 


564 


558 


513 


78 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


KEY TO CaLIFORNIA GAME BirpS— (Continued) 


8’. Lighter; back and tail grayish brown. Mountain Quail 
7’. Head with a short, curved, broad-ended plume, less than 1.50 inches 
(38 mm.) long (fig. 82); flanks without black and white barring; 
throat black in males (pl. 1). 

~ 9. No seale-like markings on belly; flanks streaked with cinna- 
mon and white; males with back of head cinnamon 

colored, and with a black area on middle of belly. 
Desert Quail 
9’. Forepart of belly scaled with narrow blackish cross-bars; no 
cinnamon streaks on flanks; males with back of head 
grayish brown, and with a cinnamon colored area on 

middle of belly. 
10. Ground color of upper surface and flanks deep olive brown. 
California Quail 
10’. Ground color of upper surface and flanks grayish brown. 
11. Smaller; wing averaging less than 4.35 inches (110 mm.) 
long. Mainland species. Valley Quail 
1l’. Larger; wing averaging more than 4.35 inches (110 mm.) 
long. On Santa Catalina Island only. 

Catalina Island Quail 


PIGEONS AND DOVES 


1. Tail pointed (fig. 89). Western Mourning Dove 
1’. Tail square-ended. 

2. Tail crossed by a blackish band near middle but not white at end 
(fig. 88); total length of bird over 13.00 inches (330 mm). 

Band-tailed Pigeon 

2’. Tail white-ended (fig. 90); wing with a large white patch; total 

length of bird under 13,00 inches (330 mm.). White-winged Dove 

2”, Tail without either dark cross band or white end; total length of 

bird under 7.00 inches (178 mm.). Mexican Ground Dove 


PAGE 
504 


514 


537 


GENERAL ACCOUNTS OF THE GAME BIRDS OF 
CALIFORNIA 


American Merganser 
Mergus americanus Cassin 


OTHER NAMES—Fish Duck, part; Sawbill, part; Goosander; Sheldrake; Mergus 
merganser americanus ; Merganser americanus. 

Descriprion—Adult male: A single short crest on top and back of head; 
head and crest metallie greenish black; chin and throat dull black; bill red, ridge 
and tip black and provided with backward-projecting, sharp-pointed, tooth-like 
serrations on opposed surfaces of the two mandibles; nostrils nearer middle of 
bill than base (figs. 5 and 6); iris carmine; back black; rump, upper tail coverts 
and tail ashy gray; outer surface of closed wing mostly white, crossed by a 
single bar of black; flight feathers dull brownish black; speculum white; 
axillars and lining of wing white; hind neck, and whole lower surface of body, 
including sides, creamy white to salmon buff; feet deep red. Total length 
“¢25.00-27.00’? inches (635-685 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 88); folded wing 10.15- 
10.75 (258-273); bill along culmen 2.06-2.28 (52.4-58.0); tarsus 1.86-2.09 (47.3- 
53.2) (six specimens). Adult female: Slender feathers of head crest longer 
than in male; whole head reddish brown except for chin and throat which are 
white; upper surface of body ashy gray; outer surface of closed wing chiefly 
gray like back; speculum white, outlined with sooty brown and crossed by a 
single bar of dusky; flight feathers blackish brown; axillars and lining of 
wing white; under surface of body creamy white to salmon buff; hind neck, 
sides, and upper breast indistinctly barred with gray and white; iris and feet 
red as in male,“but paler. Total length ‘‘21.00-24.00’’ inches (533-609 mm.) 
(Ridgway, 1900, p. 89) ; folded wing 9.22-10.12 (234-257) ; bill along culmen 1.74— 
2.08 (44.3-53.0); tarsus 1.80-1.95 (45.7-49.5) (five specimens); all from Pacific 
Coast, California to Alaska. Juvenile plumage of male: Similar to that of 
adult female. Natal plumage: Whole top of head reddish brown; stripe from 
base of bill to below eye, white; beneath this a deep brown stripe from angle 
of mouth, joining head-color behind eye; this stripe contrasts markedly with the 
white of chin and throat; the reddish brown of héad and hind neck fades into 
cinnamon where it meets white of throat; upper parts clove brown relieved by 
four white spots, one at hind border of each wing and one on each side of rump; 
whole lower surface white. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—The slender, cylindrical, ‘‘toothed’’ bill, 
with its sharp-edged and hooked tip, distinguishes mergansers from all other 
ducks. At a distance male mergansers appear black and white and both sexes 
show white on the wing when in flight. American Merganser is distinguished 
from Red-breasted by somewhat larger size, a head crest with but one point, 
by Jack of reddish brown collar on breast (of male), and (in hand) by the 
nostril being nearer middle than base of bill (see figs. 5 to 8). 

Vorce—Of female: a coarse masculine ‘‘quack’’ (Law, 1912b, p. 42). 

NeEst—Usually in hollow trees along wooded streams, less frequently on the 
ground; made of twigs, grass, lichens, etc., lined with down. 


[79] 


80 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA — 


Eces—10 to 16, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.50 to 2.80 by 1.70 to 
1.80 (in millimeters, 63.5 to 71 by 43.2 to 45.7); pale buff in color (Davie, 1900, 
p. 76 and authors). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds from southern Alaska, 
southern Yukon, central Keewatin, southern Ungava and Newfoundland south 
to central Oregon, southern South Dakota, northern New York and Maine, and 
in the mountains to central California, central Arizona and northern New 
Mexico. Winters from Aleutian Islands, British Columbia, northern Colorado, 
southern Ontario and New Brunswick, south to northern Lower California, 
northern Mexico and the Gulf states (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, 


p. 66). 


we 


AMERICAN MERGANSER 


Fig. 5. Side of bill. > 


21609 


21609 


Fig. 6. Top of bill. Both drawings natural size. 


Note slender outline (length more than three times height 
at base), sharp ‘‘teeth’’, absence of cross-ridges on sides 
(compare with figs. 9 and 17), and situation of nostrils rela- 
tively far from base (compare with figs. 7 and 8). 


DISTRIBUTION IN CaLiForNIA—Fairly common winter visitant to interior 
valleys and the entire coast region; partial to the vicinity of fresh water. 
Occurs in summer and breeds about lakes and along streams of the Sierra 
Nevada from the McCloud River, in Shasta County, south to the upper Kern 
River in Tulare County; also in the Humboldt Bay district. 


The American Merganser, sometimes referred to as the hand- 
somest of swimming birds, is to be looked for during the winter in 
pairs or small flocks along rivers, in lakes and with less certainty on 
the ocean or on salt marshes. It is occasionally found summering 
about lakes and along streams in the high mountains. At no time 
or place in California can it be said to be actually common as com- 
pared with other ducks, unless at Lake Tahoe, as described beyond. 


AMERICAN MERGANSER 81 


The narrow bill with its sharp horny ‘‘teeth’’ and hooked tip, 
and the crest on the back of the head, help to distinguish the mer- 
gansers from other kinds of ducks. The American Merganser, about 
the size of the Mallard, is the largest of the fish ducks or sawbills. It 
can be distinguished from the Red-breasted Merganser, the only one 
with which it is likely to be confused, by the position of the nostrils, 
which are nearer the middle of the bill than the base (see figs. 5 to 8). 
In the field the male American can be distinguished by the shorter, 
single crest and the absence of a reddish brown band across the breast. 
The females and young of the two species are difficult to tell apart 
at any great distance. 

The sawbills are excellent swimmers and divers, and are able not 
only to pursue their prey under water but to remain beneath the 
surface for considerable periods of time, even as much as one or two 
minutes. When wounded, they have been known to dive to the bottom 
and cling to the grass. Eaton (1910, p. 179) states: ‘‘On one occasion 
[in New York] I fired into a flock of Sawbills at close range, bringing 
down four of the birds, but all of them plunged into the water like so 
many stones, and only one of them ever so much as gave me a glimpse 
of himself again.’’ The small mark which the birds present when 
swimming and their ability in diving makes them hard to shoot, and, 
like the grebes, they are popularly said to be able to ‘‘see the shot 
coming.’’ When rising from the water they, like the mud-hens, patter 
along the surface with their feet for some distance before gaining 
sufficient impetus to rise in the air. Once well started they are swift 
fliers. 

Most of the migrant birds of this species found in California breed 
in the far north, in British Columbia and Alaska, although some have 
been found breeding along the larger streams and lakes of the Sierras. 
C. H. Townsend (1887, p. 198) says. ‘‘This sheldrake breeds 
regularly on the lower McCloud [Shasta County], where it is present 
the year round. Young birds in the down were obtained on May 21, 
and several flocks of young were seen on Eagle Lake [Lassen County], 
late in June. Fish ducks were not observed elsewhere than on the 
larger mountain streams and lakes.’’? Sheldon (1907, p. 185) records 
having seen two or three broods at Eagle Lake, Lassen County, and 
a young one was collected in June, 1905. Law (1912b, p. 42) reports 
this bird as nesting commonly at Lake Tahoe. A female followed by 
eighteen or twenty young was noted there on June 24, 1911, and 
several pairs and a female with six young on June 28. A. K. Fisher 
(1893a, p. 15) says: ‘‘A flock of a dozen or more sheldrakes was 
seen at Soda Springs (locally known as Kern River Lakes), in the 
Sierra Nevada the first week in September, and a specimen [was] 
shot there by Mr. Bailey August 15... .’’ Evidence obtained by a 


82 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


field party from the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology indi- 
cates the breeding of this bird in small numbers in the same general 
locality, namely, on the upper Kern River, in Tulare County. Ac- 
cording to Wilder (1916, p. 127), this species is to be found at all 
seasons on the rivers of Humboldt County. Young as yet unable to 
fly have been observed there in summer. 

The courtship of the American Merganser as observed in Massa- 
chusetts has been carefully described by C. W. Townsend (1916, pp. 
10-12). The essential features are as follows: 


The courtship of the Merganser . . . is fairly spectacular and differs widely 
from that of its red-breasted cousin, MU. serrator.... A group of five or six 
male Mergansers may be seen swimming energetically back and forth by three 
or four passive females. Sometimes the drakes swim in a compact mass or in a 
file for six or seven yards or even farther, and then each turns abruptly and 
swims back. Again they swim in and out among each other, and every now 
and then one with swelling breast and slightly raised wings spurts ahead at 
great speed by himself or in the pursuit of a rival.... They frequently 
strike at each other with their bills, and I have seen two splendid drakes rise 
up in the water breast to breast, and, amid a great splashing, during which it 
was impossible to see details, fight like game-cocks. The pursuit is varied by 
sudden, momentary dives and much splashing of water. 

The smooth iridescent green heads, the brilliant carmine bills tipped with 
black nails, the snowy white of flanks and wing patches and the red feet, which 
flash out in the dive, make a wonderful color effect, contrasting well with the 
dark water and white ice. The smaller females with their shaggy brown heads, 
their neat white throat-bibs, their quaker blue-gray backs and modest wing 
patches, which are generally hidden, are fitting foils to their mates. The male 
frequently raises himself up almost on his tail and displays the beautiful salmon 
yellow tint on the whole under surface of his body. Most of the time he keeps 
his tail cocked up and spread, so that it shows from behind a white centre and 
blue border. Every now and then he points his head and closed bill up at an 
angle of forty-five degrees or to the zenith. Again he bows or bobs his head 
nervously and often at the same time tilts up the front of his breast from 
which flashes out the salmon tint. From time to time he emits a quickly 
repeated purring note, dorr-dorr or krr-krr. 

The most surprising part of the performance is the spurt of water fully 
three or four feet long which every now and then is sent backwards into the 
air by the powerful kick of the drake’s foot... . 

During all this time the female swims about unconcernedly, merely keeping 
out of the way of the ardent and belligerent males, although she sometimes, 
joins in the dance and bobs in a mild way. At last she succumbs to the captivat- 
ing display and submerges herself so that only a small part of her body with a 
bit of the crest appear above the water, and she swims slowly beside or after 
her mate, sometimes even touching him with her bill. Later she remains 
motionless, flattens herself still more, the crest disappears and she sinks so that 
only a line ...is seen.... The drake slowly swims around her several 
times, twitches his head and neck, picks at the water, at his own feathers and 
at her before he mounts and completely submerges her, holding tightly with 
his bill to her neck meanwhile. Then she bathes herself, washes the water 
vigorously through her feathers and flaps her wings; the drake stretches himself 
and flaps his wings likewise. 


AMERICAN MERGANSER 83 


Judging from observations made elsewhere in North America, the 
nest is usually placed in a hollow tree or stub. Dawson (1909, p. 759) 
records one as having been found at the top of a stub one hundred 
feet high and suggests that the young in such cases are carried to 
the water in their mother’s bill. Other observers state that the young 
tumble from the nests into the water ten or fifteen feet below without 
injury to themselves. The ten to sixteen pale buff-colored eggs are 
protected by a lining of down plucked by the female from her own 
breast. The young are especially good swimmers and the oarsman 
who succeeds in catching them must be an expert. Their speed in 
eluding a pursuer is often greatly increased by flapping along the 
surface, something which they are able to do when but a few days 
old. When pursued, the mother is said to allow the more fatigued 
ones to ride on her back. An instance in point is recorded by Law 
(19120, p. 42) as follows: 

Several times the mother raised almost out of the water and dashed quickly 
along for fifty feet or so, every chick rising and skipping after her, flapping 
their little wings and paddling the surface of the water with their little feet. 
After three of these spurts the youngsters seemed to tire, and one climbed on its 


mother’s back, and soon several had done so, and rode securely there as long 
as they were in sight. 

Swarth (1911, pp. 39-40) records an interesting method of obtain- 
ing food as observed in Alaska, which has also been recorded for the 
Red-breasted Merganser (C. W. Townsend, 1911, p. 343). The former 
writes : 

I was concealed in the shrubbery at the water’s edge examining a large 
flock of ducks for possible rarities, when a dozen or more mergansers (M. ameri- 
canus and M. serrator) began swimming back and forth but a very short dis- 
tance from my blind. They swam slowly, with neck outstretched, and with 
the bill held just at the surface of the water, and at a slight angle, so that the 
head was submerged about to the level of the eyes. The water was evidently 
filtered through the bill, as a slight ‘‘gabbling’’ noise was quite audible, and 
‘obviously something was being retained as food, though just what it was I 
could not tell. 


As one of its vernacular names (fish duck) signifies, the regular 
diet of the American Merganser is made up chiefly of fish, which it 
devours in great quantities. The gullet of an individual killed at 
Los Bafios, Merced County, February 19, 1912, contained five carp 
about four inches in length. If carp were the only kind of fish eaten 
this would be considered a useful bird; but the merganser is also 
known to eat salmon and trout fry. Mr. W. H. Shebley, superin- 
tendent of hatcheries for the California State Fish and Game 
Commission, (in letter) says: ‘‘The sawbill or fish duck is very 
destructive to trout and other fish. I have killed individuals on our 
trout ponds gorged with trout so that they were unable to swallow 
another one. We consider them one of the worst of the fish-eating 


birds.’’ 


84 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


This bird is usually considered poor food, as it is pronounced 
tough, and at most seasons, has an unpleasant fishy taste. When 
properly prepared, however, its ‘‘gamy’’ flavor can be appreciated 
with the aid of a hearty appetite. But the skill needed to bring it to 
bag, therefore forms its chief claim to being classed as a game bird. 

American Mergansers have been occasionally seen on the market 
in San Francisco and Sacramento along with other ducks, and hunters 
are sometimes seen carrying them. No information regarding their 
comparative numbers now and formerly has been obtainable. But 
as the hunter often passes them by, and as they are wary and difficult 
to shoot, it seems probable that there has been no marked decrease in 
their numbers. 


Red-breasted Merganser 
Mergus serrator (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAmMES—Fish Duck, part; Sawbill, part; Red-breasted Sheldrake; 
Merganser serrator. 

DEscription—Adult male: Head with much elongated, double-pointed crest 
of very slender feathers; whole head black, dully so on throat and crown, but 
with strong metallic green wash on sides of head behind eye; a conspicuous 
white collar completely encircling neck save for black stripe down hind neck, 
connecting black of head with that of back; bill red, dusky along top, and 
with tooth-like serrations, sharp pointed, backward projecting and claw-like; 
iris red; whole back together with flight feathers black; rump, upper tail 
coverts and tail feathers brownish gray; rump varied with finely broken narrow 
black bars; outer surface of closed wing white, crossed diagonally by two black 
bars, and with white feathers of hinder portion of speculum outwardly edged 
with black; a tuft of broad feathers on sides of breast overhanging bend of 
closed wing, these feathers being white with wide black borders; sides other- 
wise finely and irregularly barred with black and white; under surface white 
except’ for broad band across chest separated from black of head by white 
collar; this band is reddish brown mottled with black; feet red; nostril 
relatively small, located near base of bill (see figs 7 and 8). There is in the 
adult male in midsummer a brief-lived ‘‘eclipse’’ plumage in which the head 
becomes dull brown and the breast dull gray (Stone, 1900, pp. 15-16). The 
total length (both sexes): ‘‘20.00-25.00’’ inches (507-635 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, 
p. 89). Males: folded wing 8.75-9.55 (222-242); bill along culmen 2.13-2.32 
(54-59); tarsus 1.73-1.81 (44-46) (nine specimens from California). Adult 
female: Sides of head and neck cinnamon brown, grading into whitish on chin 
and throat, and into dark brown on top of head and crest; bill and iris red 
(Eaton, 1910, p. 179); whole upper surface including rump and tail ashy brown, 
the feathers having darker centers; flight feathers dull black; closed wing 
gray like back; speculum white, crossed by one diagonal bar; lower surface 
white, the brown of head fading gradually over the fore neck through a faintly 
mottled area; sides and flanks dull grayish brown; feet dull red. Folded wing 
8.25-8.80 inches (209-224 mm.); bill along culmen 1.93-2.13 (49-54); tarsus 
1.62-1.69 (41-43) (four specimens from California). Juvenile plumage of male: 
Similar to that of adult female but tuft of black-and-white-marked plumes in 


RED-BREASTED MERGANSER 85 


evidence on side near bend of wing, and rump and sides showing traces of 
fine irregular barring. Natal plumage: Top of head clove brown; a white stripe 
below eye to base of bill; beneath this a cinnamon stripe from angle of mouth 
to side of neck, where it broadens; chin, throat and breast, white; upper sur- 
face clove brown relieved by four white spots, one at hind border of each wing, 
and one on each side of rump. Downy young of the American and Red-breasted 
Mergansers are indistinguishable save for the. position of the nostril. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Smaller than American Merganser (for 
general characters of mergansers see that species). Male: Reddish brown 
band across breast, and two black bars across speculum. Female: Cinnamon 
brown of neck not abruptly ended and back brown-tinged rather than blue- 
gray. Both sexes have head crest of two points, one behind the other, and nostril 
nearer base of bill than middle (see figs. 5 to 8). 

Vorce—Of female with young: A low, distinct, but husky khd-khd-kha 
(Nelson, 1887, p. 67). 

Nrest—On marshy land in the vicinity of salt water, usually under the 
shelter of a rock, bank, or branch of a tree. A simple structure of leaves and 
grasses, lined with down from the breast of the female parent. 

Eecs—6 to 12, ovate in shape, measuring in inches 2.45 to 2.65 by 1.70 to 1.85 
(in millimeters, 62.2 to 67.2 by 43.2 to 47.0); color cream, buff, or greenish buff 
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, pp. 118-120; and authors). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northern portion of Northern Hemisphere. In North 
America breeds from Arctic coast of Alaska, northern Mackenzie, Cumberland 
Sound, and Greenland (lat. 73° N.), south to southern British Columbia, and 
extreme northern United States; winters from southern British Columbia and 
northern United States, south to southern Lower California, Louisiana and 
Florida, and also in Greenland and the Commander Islands (modified from A. 
O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 67). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common winter visitant along the entire sea- 
coast, occurring both on the open ocean about rocky headlands and islands, and 
on bays and salt lagoons; less numerous interiorly where it occurs at times on 
the larger bodies of water, as on Lake Tahoe and Owens Lake. 


In California the Red-breasted Merganser is a better known ‘‘fish- 
duck’’ than its larger relative, the American Merganser, for it is 
found plentifully on hunting grounds adjacent to the sea coast and 
occasionally on the larger bodies of water in the interior. To the 
north, in southern Alaska, the species is very abundant. At the base 
of the Alaska Peninsula, Osgood (1904, p. 55) states that this mer- 
ganser is outnumbered among water birds only by the larger gulls. 
In California the bird associates in flocks of from a dozen to a hundred 
individuals. 

At Monterey the first autumnal appearance of the species in 1896 
was on October 9 (Cooke, 1906, p. 21) ; from about that time on, it is 
common on the larger bays and lagoons and about rocky headlands 
on the ocean shore. In 1911 birds of this species were present at 
Monterey until April 10 (Mus. Vert. Zool), and at other points along 
the coast individuals have been seen in May. At Saint Michaels, 
Alaska, the species arrives about the middle of May and leaves by 


86 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


the first week in October (Nelson, 1887, pp. 66-67). The birds winter- 
ing in California probably nest in British Columbia and Alaska; and 
the instances recorded of nesting in Washington and Oregon (Dawson, 
1909, p. 762; Cooke, 1906, p. 20) may also pertain to mergansers 
which winter in our state. 

In addition to a considerable difference in size, there are other 
characters which enable one to distinguish the American and Red- 
breasted mergansers. The most useful of these is the presence in the 
male Red-breasted Merganser of a reddish brown breast band streaked 
with black, and of a double rather than single head crest. Of less 
utility for field identification is the color of the back and the presence 


ea 


O 


f" 
RED-BREASTED MERGANSER / 


Fig. 7. Side of bill. 


1881+ 


188l4 
Fig. 8. Top of bill. Natural size. 


Note slender outline (length more than three times height 
at base), sharp ‘‘teeth’’, absence of cross-ridges on sides 
(compare with figs. 9 and 17), and situation of nostrils rela- 
tively near to base (compare with figs. 5 and 6). 


of two dark bars in the speculum of the wing. In the hand the nostrils 
lying closer to the base of the bill than the middle easily identifies 
either sex of this species (figs. 5 to 8). 

Although lacking the brighter colors of the American Merganser, 
the Red-breasted also presents a beautiful appearance. Graceful as a 
swimmer, it is strikingly adept as a diver. In diving it disappears 
below the water instantly and almost without rippling the surface. 
After returning to the surface some distance away the bird often 
flaps its wings as if to stretch itself, or more probably to shake its 
plumage free from water and to readjust its feathers. Individuals 
of. this species have been seen to dive repeatedly through advancing 
waves during rough weather. On land this merganser is said to 
progress on its feet more rapidly than the diving ducks. On the 


RED-BREASTED MERGANSER 87 


wing it is swift and unusually silent. When closely pursued’ while 
swimming it secures partial concealment by lying low in the water 
with only its bill and head showing. A wounded bird nearly always 
uses this ruse. 

The courtship of the Red-breasted Merganser as observed on the 
New England coast has been described by C. W. Townsend (1911, 
pp. 341-343) as follows: 


The nuptial performance is always at its best when several drakes are 
displaying their charms of movement, voice and plumage, before a single duck, 
and each vies with the other in the ardor of the courtship. The drake begins 
by stretching up his long neck so that the white ring is much broadened, and 
the metallic green head, with its long crest and its narrow red bill, makes a 
conspicuous object. At once the bill is opened wide and the whole bird stiffly 
bobs or teters as if on a pivot, in such a way that the breast and the lower part 
of the neck are immersed, while the tail and posterior part of the body swing 
upward. . .. All of the motions are stiffly executed, and suggest a formal but 
ungraceful courtesy. 


The nuptial ‘‘song,’’ which is emitted while the bill is open, is a 
loud, rough and purring, slightly doubled note resembling the syllables 
da-ah. 


... The female merganser . . . sometimes responds by a bobbing which is 
similar to that of the male, but of considerably less range. ... She emits a 
single note at this time, which is somewhat louder . .. and is of a different 
quality as it is decidedly rasping. ... When the female responds in this man- 
ner she appears to be very excited, and the ardor of the drakes is correspond- 
ingly increased. ... Every now and then she darts out her neck and dashes 
at the ring of suitors. ... During the courtship actions the tail [of the male] 
is elevated at an angle of forty-five degrees.... This bobbing courtship of 
the males, although sometimes directed toward the female, is as often directed 
towards another male or even the empty water. The males not infrequently 
rush at one another with powerful leg-strokes making the water foam about 
their elevated breasts. Sometimes they raise their wings slightly or splash 
along violently using both wings and feet for propulsion. Now and then a 
male pursues a female, and she, to avoid capture, may dive and is at once 
followed by the male. In flight the female generally precedes by a short 
interval the male. 


The habit of lying flat in the water and of rising up and flapping 
the wings is indulged in at all times of the year. 

In Alaska the Red-breasted Merganser breeds from Sitka and 
Kodiak Island north to Iey Cape and perhaps to Point Barrow (Nel- 
son, 1887, p. 66). The nests are as a usual thing carefully concealed 
under dead leaves or in grass, and sheltered by a log or bank. A nest 
observed by Grinnell (1900, p. 14) on Chamisso Island, Alaska, was 
situated on an exposed sea wall about fifty feet above the surf and 
hidden among clumps of tall grass. The nest often consists largely 
of down, and the eggs are usually covered over by the female when 


* 


88 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


she leaves the nest, provided she is not routed out too suddenly. The 
eggs number from six to ten in a set and are laid early in June. 
Downy young are most commonly seen during July. The incubation 
period is 26 to 28 days (Strong, 1912, p. 482). The male takes no 
part in the duties of incubation, and it is doubtful whether he assumes 
any of the care of the young. 

Concerning the behavior of the females and young, Grinnell 
(1900, p. 15) says: 


At Cape Blossom on August 1, 1899, I encountered a brood of six downy 
young with the female parent. They were out in the middle of a lake, and 
the juveniles swam in a close bunch. The parent kept diving at short intervals, 
and whenever she reappeared, which might be at a considerable distance from 
where she dove, the band of young with one accord scrambled over the water 
towards her, with flapping arms, and almost running on the surface. .The fore- 
most chick, probably always the hungriest of the lot, was apparently the one 
to obtain the prey which in all cases observed was a small fish. 


Dawson (1909, p. 762) states that a female when surprised with 
her brood played dead as a ruse to deceive her pursuers. 

The food of this duck consists almost entirely of fish. In Alaska, 
according to Nelson (1887, p. 67), ‘‘. . . in the brackish ponds and 
tide creeks of the marshes they find an abundance of food in the 
myriads of sticklebacks which swarm in these waters.’’ In the Hast 
it is said that the bitds also eat crustaceans and shellfish. Mr. F. A. 
Shebley, of the Brookdale Hatchery, Monterey County, California, 
says he has shot fish ducks along the stream so gorged with fish that 
by holding them up by the feet, the fish would fall from their mouths. 
He states further that birds of this species stay mostly in the lower 
courses of the streams, and in the lagoons of his vicinity. Linton 
(1908b, p. 126) saw them frequently feeding in tide pools in the 
vicinity of Northwest Harbor, Santa Cruz Island. The stomach of 
a bird taken there December 2, 1907, contained nine ‘‘rock bass and 
one spotted shark,’’ each two to four inches long. 

This duck cannot be considered an important game bird (a state- 
ment which applies also to the American Merganser) as the fish taint 
in its flesh caused by the fish diet makes it undesirable for food. 
However, during the season of 1895-96, 217 ‘‘sheldrakes’’ were sold 
in the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles (Calif. Fish Comm., 


* 1896, p. 40). Since then, birds of this species have rarely been seen 


in the markets of San Francisco and Sacramento. As this merganser 
is shy and hard to approach it is only obtained with difficulty. Con- 
sequently there seems to be no immediate danger of its extermination. 
And yet the very fact that it is difficult to shoot gives it a certain 
value in the eyes of the hunter. The increasing efficiency of firearms, 
will also have some effect on the numbers of this species. 


HOODED MERGANSER 89 


Hooded Merganser 


Lophodytes cucullatus (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NaMES—Hooded Sheldrake; Oyster Duck (Napa County); Mergus 
cucullatus. 

Description—Adult male: Head and neck chiefly black; conspicuous, vertical, 
compressed crest of hair-like feathers; this crest chiefly white but set in black, 
giving the effect of a black-bordered white fan; feathers around base of bill 
dark brown blended into black of rest of head; bill short, black, with nostrils 
near base, and with ‘‘teeth’’ short, obliquely set, and not claw-like; iris yellow; 
fore back, black, continuously so with hind neck; lower back, rump and tail dark 
brown; forepart of closed wing dark grayish brown and gray; speculum white, 
margined in front by black bar, and crossed centrally by a similar bar; primary 
flight feathers dark brown; secondary flight feathers black, each with a sharply 
defined central white stripe; sides and flanks cinnamon brown finely barred 
with black; breast and under surface white; sides in front of wing with two 
black half-crescents originating from the black of the back and extending 
diagonally downwards and forwards; legs and feet ‘‘yellowish-brown,’’ webs 
“*dusky’’ (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 406). Total length (both sexes) ‘‘17,.25-19.25’’ 
inches (438 to 489 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 89). Male: folded wing 7.80 (198); 
bill along culmen 1.54 (39.1); tarsus 1.24 (31.5) (one specimen from California). 
Adult female: Head, neck, chest and whole upper surface grayish brown; throat 
paling to whitish on chin; top of head clove brown shading to reddish hair brown 
on crest; crest of looser texture than in male and less conspicuous; bill black with 
base of lower mandible orange; iris hazel; wings and tail dark brownish; 
speculum white, with two bars of black as in male; lower surface white, with 
sides, flanks and under tail ecoverts clouded with brown; legs and feet dusky. 
Folded wing 6.85-7.40 inches (174-188 mm.); bill along culmen 1.48-1.64 (37.7— 
41.6); tarsus 1.22-1.31 (31.0-33.2) (five specimens from California and British 
Columbia). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female but with crest 
poorly developed and under tail coverts more distinctly brown (Ridgway, 
loc. cit.). Natal plumage: Top and sides of head brown, paling to cinnamon 
color on cheeks; chin and throat white; upper mandible blackish, its tip and the 
whole lower mandible yellow; upper surface of body dark brown; five pairs of 
small spots on back, rump, and wings, white; band across foreneck, pinkish 
brown; rest of under surface white. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Small size (for a duck), slender short bill 
(shorter than head), narrow, erect, black-bordered white-patched head crest 
(in the male), and brown sides. Distinguished from other mergansers by much 
smaller size, and from all other ducks by the size and shape of bill. 

Voice—‘‘ A hoarse croak’’ (Forbush, 1912, p. 68); ‘‘a variety of guttural, 
chattering notes’’ (Bowles, in “Dawson, 1909, p. 763). 

Nest—In hollows of trees high above ground and near or over water; built 
of grasses and weeds and lined with down from the breast of the female. 

Eees—5 to 12, nearly globular in shape, measuring in inches, 2.05 to 2.15 by 
1.70 to 1.75 (in millimeters, 52.0 to 54.6 by 43.2 to 44.5); in color pure ivory 
white (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 124; and authors). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds on the north from central 
British Columbia, Great Slave Lake, central Keewatin, central Ungava, and 
Newfoundland, south to southern Oregon, northern New Mexico, southern 
Louisiana, and central Florida; winters on the north from southern British 


90 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Columbia, Utah, Colorado, Nebraska, Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Massa- 
chusetts, south to Lower California, Mexico and the Gulf States; rare in the 
northeastern part of its range; casual in Alaska, Bermuda and Europe (A. O. U. 
Check-list, 1910, p. 67). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Rather rare fall, winter and spring visitant to 
salt marshes along the seacoast, and on the lakes and slower streams of the 
interior. 


The Hooded Merganser is at the present time the rarest of the 
three mergansers belonging to California. The other two are typically 
northern species, whereas the Hooded is southern, breeding largely 
south of the Canadian boundary. It is a notable circumstance that 
the Hooded Merganser and the Wood Duck appear to frequent the 
same type of locality. In California during the fall, winter and 
spring the former species occurs sparsely in the salt marshes along 
the coast and on the lakes and streams of the interior. In southern 
California it has been stated to arrive in November and to leave by 
February (Grinnell, 1898, p.10). It is evident that museum collectors 
have rarely encountered the species in the field as but few specimens 
have been available for study. 

The following are all the definite records for the state known 
to the authors: Humboldt Bay, McCloud and Pit rivers (C. H. 
Townsend, 1887, p. 193); Mark West Creek, Sonoma County (Mail- 
liard, MS); Suisun Marsh and Putah Creek, Solano County (Mus. 
Vert. Zool.) ; San Franciseo (Newberry, 1857, p. 104); San Fran- 
cisco Bay (Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; Marysville, Yuba County (Belding, 1879, 
p. 447); Paicines, San Benito County (J. Mailliard, 19026, p. 46) ; 
Ventura County (Evermann, 1886, p. 89) ; Fillmore, Ventura County 
(Willett, 1912a, p. 22); Del Rey, Los Angeles County (Chambers, 
1914, p. 92); Alamitos Bay, Los Angeles County (Grinnell, 1898, p. 
10); Westminster, Orange County (Grey, 1915, p. 59); vicinity of 
Los Angeles (Willett, loc. cit.) ; San Diego (Belding, MS). 

It is impossible to confuse the male of this duck with that of any 
other species. Aside from the small size of the bird, its vertical, com- 
pressed, black and white crest, composed of hair-like feathers, serves 
to immediately distinguish it. This fan-like crest is frequently raised 
and lowered as if to display the unusually conspicuous ornament. 
The Hooded Merganser almost equals that handsomest of the ducks, 
the Wood Duck, in its splendid coloration. It can always be separated 
from the other mergansers by its bill which is chiefly black in color, 
and shorter than the head. The female can be recognized by her 
short bill and dark grayish brown chest. 

Although no description of an eclipse plumage has been located 
by us, and no birds in such a plumage are to be found in available 
collections, yet the following quotation from Widmann (1895, p. 851) 
suggests that there is such a plumage in this species as is the case 


HOODED MERGANSER 91 


with most other ducks: ‘‘At this season [June, in southeastern Mis- 
souri] the beauty of the male’s dress and coiffure is entirely gone; 
both parents resemble each other so much that they are generally mis- 
taken for female Wood Ducks, which are also very common breeders 
in these swamps.’’ 

Little is known of the life history of the Hooded Merganser on the 
Pacific Coast. It is said to begin nesting in Washington in April 
(Bowles, in Dawson, 1909, p. 763). The nests are located high in 
hollow trees over or near water and are composed of weeds and 
grasses, and lined with down. The eggs are variously reported as 
numbering from 5 to 12; they are ivory white in color, and more 
nearly globular in form than those of other ducks. The following 
notes on the nesting habits of this bird are recorded by Spreadborough 
(in Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 77): ‘‘A pair has built in an elm 
stub for four years, at about thirty feet from the ground, at the mouth 
of Sharp Creek, Bracebridge, Ontario. The stub is on the bank of a 
stream. The old bird carries her young from the tree to the water 
in her bill. At first the young are rather helpless and are very easy 
to catch, but in a few days they are well able to take care of them- 
selves.’’? As is the case with the other mergansers, the male leaves 
the duties of incubation and the rearing of the young entirely to the 
female. Flocks of males are generally the first to be seen in the fall 
migration. 

Hooded Mergansers are swift fliers and make less noise with their 
wings than almost any other duck. Bowles (loc. cit.) says: ‘‘Its 
flight is very swift and eccentric, resembling greatly that of the Green- 
winged Teal, for which the bird is easily mistaken in the faint light 
of early morning or evening.’’ 

Instead of frequenting swiftly running streams as is the case with 
the American Merganser, the Hooded prefers the quieter streams, 
sloughs and small ponds. In such places it is said to feed upon tad- 
poles, small fish and water insects, even taking some vegetable food. 

The smaller size of the bill of this merganser, as well as its habitat, 
would seem to indicate that it is not so destructive of valuable fish as 
the other two mergansers. Its diet also makes it more palatable, and 
in the middle west wherever it is plentiful, it is used for food. 

All the evidence at hand points to a great reduction in the numbers 
of this species during recent years. Henshaw (1876, p. 275) says 
that at the time of his travels through California in the early seventies 
the Hooded Merganser occurred ‘‘in fall in large numbers as a 
migrant.’’ No recent observer has offered a like statement. In former 
years (1870-1885) this merganser was occasionally seen along the 
ereeks of Marin County and along Mark West Creek, Sonoma County, 
but it has long since been shot out of this region (J. and J. W. Mail- 


liard, MS). 


92 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA : 


Mallard 


Anas platyrhynchos Linnaeus 


OTHER NaMES—Greenhead; Wild Duck; Gray Mallard (female) ; Anas boschas. 

Description—Adult male: Head and neck brilliant metallic green, with 
purple reflections at certain angles; forehead and crown overlaid with black; 
green of head succeeded by a narrow white ring around lower neck interrupted 
behind; bill chiefly greenish yellow; iris brown; middle of back between 
shoulders brownish gray with paler feather edgings; sides of back silvery 
white minutely barred with dusky; back, rump and upper tail coverts black, 
with steely blue reflections; tail feathers mostly white with the two middle 
feathers black and slightly curled upwards, and the two longest upper tail 
coverts conspicuously curled up; outer surface of closed wing in general 
brownish gray; axillars and lining of wing white; speculum metallic violet 
approaching purple, bordered in front and behind with black and white 
feathers, a black and white bar being thus formed at both front and hind 
margins; breast dark chestnut; sides and rest of under surface silvery gray 
undulated with dusky; under tail coverts black; feet orange red, nails dusky. 
Total length 23.50-25.25 inches (596-640 mm.) (four specimens); folded wing 
10.85-11.55 (276-293); bill along culmen 2.13-2.44 (54-62); tarsus 1.62-1.83 
(41-46.5) (seven specimens). Adult female: Head and whole upper surface 
chiefly deep brown, but variegated with abruptly paler feather edgings; gen- 
eral tone of head paler, with finer, more streaky pattern than on back; top 
of head darkest, sides of head lighter with dusky streak through eye; throat 
very light brownish white scantily or not at all streaked; wings much as in 
male; ground color of under surface brownish white, deepest in tone on breast, 
but black feather centers giving a streaked or mottled appearance; sides and 
chest most heavily marked, belly lightest. Total length 22.25-23.25 inches 
(565-590 mm.) (two specimens); folded wing 9.95-10.80 (252-274); bill along 
culmen 1.89-2.27 (48.0-57.5); tarsus 1.63-1.77 (41.4-45.0) (ten specimens); all 
from California. Eclipse plumage of male (assumed in July and August): 
Closely resembles dress of female but darker; lacks green of head. In full 
eclipse plumage male and female can be distinguished only with difficulty. 
In partial eclipse or post eclipse enough old or new feathers are present on 
wings to identify the male. Juvenile plumage (at least of female): Similar to 
that of adult female but dusky mottlings and streaks duller, less clearly 
defined; those on breast simple shaft streaks instead of horseshoe-shaped 
figures as in adult female; wing markings same as in adult. Natal plumage: 
Whole back and top of head dark brownish green fading to lighter color on 
forehead; side of head light yellowish brown, stripe through eye, and spot on 
cheek dusky; brown of back relieved by two pairs of yellowish spots, one at 
hind border of each wing and one on each side of rump; under surface yellow- 
ish buff; sides shading to gray and invaded by two brown patches of same 
color as back. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—The large size (total length over 22 inches 
[558 mm.]), metallic green head, white ring around neck, and violet-colored 
speculum identify the male. The violet or purple speculum bordered along 
both edges with black and white distinguishes both sexes in all plumages 
(pl. 2), except, of course, the natal. In flight the white under wing coverts 
show forth. The female can be distinguished from the Black Duck, a near 
relative, by its much lighter color. 


MALLARD 93 


Vorce—Of female: a loud, oft repeated ‘‘quack,’’ like that of the domestic 
duck. Of male: similar but much softer, more wheezy. 

NeEst—Generally on ground near water, hidden in clumps of willows, weeds, 
tules, but more often in tall grass; crudely made of leaves and grasses but 
warmly and copiously lined with down; about seven inches in inside diameter. 

Eees—5 to 14, bluntly ovate, measuring in inches, 2.06 to 2.55 by 1.50 to 1.80 
(in millimeters, 52.3 to 64.7 by 38.0 to 45.7); in color yellowish drab or pale 
greenish white (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 499; and one set from 
Alaska). Eggs of the Mallard resemble those of the Gadwall enough for the 
two to be confused. Mallard eggs average slightly larger, and have a greenish 
rather than buffy tone of coloration. 


MALLARD 


Fig. 10. Top of bill. Natural size. 


Note broad outline (height at base more than one-third 
total length), and presence of cross-ridges on sides of lower 
mandible as showing near base (compare with figs. 5-8). 


GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—The Northern Hemisphere generally. In North 
America breeds from western Alaska, east through Canada to Hudson Bay, 
and in Greenland; thence south through the United States to Lower California, 
southern Kansas, southern Indiana, and (rarely) Maryland; winters from 
Alaska (sparingly), and the northern United States, south to Mexico and 
Panama; casual in Bermuda and Hawaii. In the Old World also migratory, 
wintering south to northern Africa and India (modified from A. O. U. Check- 
list, 1910, p. 68). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common resident in suitable localities through- 
out the state, but much more abundant in winter than in summer. A typical 
fresh-water duck, occurring but sparingly on salt water. Most abundant 
around fresh-water ponds and streams in the interior valleys. Breeding 
stations numerous and widely distributed. 


94 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The Mallard is the largest and most highly prized of the resident 
ducks in California, and is widely distributed throughout the state. 
A typical river duck, it is seldom found on salt water and only 
sparingly on the marshes along the seacoast. It is most abundant on 
the rivers, lakes and ponds of the interior, being partial to the freshest 
water. A large number of Mallards breed within the state, but 
their numbers are greatly augmented during the winter season by 
migrants from the north. This is a common breeding bird in Oregon, 
Washington, British Columbia and southeastern Alaska; in each of 
these regions the species occurs in varying numbers in winter also, 
but in northern and western Alaska it appears merely as a summer 
resident and even then only in limited numbers. It is also one of 
the commonest ducks of the middle west but is only a straggler in the 


Fig. 11. Side of tarsus and foot of 
Mallard. Natural size. 


Note that tarsus is shorter than middle 
toe without claw (compare with fig. 37), 
and that there is no large lobe on hind 
toe (compare with fig. 22). 


states of the Atlantic Coast where its place is taken by the Black 
Duck (Anas rubripes). 

For the majority of the people of the state the Greenhead or 
Mallard is the duck most easily recognized, and it has been domes- 
ticated to such an extent that it is familiar to many people who have 
never seen it in the wild. The green head and white ring around 
the neck easily identifies the male, while the large size together with 
the violet wing-speculum bordered on both sides by black and white, 
are sufficient to distinguish either sex of the Mallard from all other 
ducks (pl. 2). In flight the white under surface of the wing often 
helps in identification. When flushed at close range the white of the 
spread tail in the male shows as a white band. Not only do the plainer 
hody colors of the. female easily separate this sex from the male, but 
its much louder call is by common testimony a noticeable trait. The 
female Mallard when flushed in the open can be readily distinguished 
from the female Pintail by its larger size, shorter neck and white 
under surface of wing. At close range the conspicuous violet speculum 


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MALLARD 95 


of the Mallard contrasts markedly with the dull brownish speculum 
of the Pintail. The Mallard’s nearest relative, the Black Duck, is of 
very rare occurrence in California; it is easily distinguishable from 
the Mallard by its much darker general color in both sexes and by 
the lack of the metallic green on the head in the male. 

As a general rule this duck is monogamous in its native estate, 
although some authorities contend that polygamy occurs where there 
is a dearth of males. The courting anties of the wild Mallard in Cali- 
fornia have never been described; but they are doubtless of the same 
type as observed by C. W. Townsend in Massachusetts. According 
to that author the drake swims restlessly about following or sidling 
up toa duck. She may lead him a long chase before he is able to press 
his attentions closely. He then begins a continual bowing to her, 
bobbing his head up and down in nervous jerks so that the yellow 
bill dips into the water for a quarter of its length and comes up 
dripping. He also rears himself up in the water and from time to 
time displays his breast. The female shows little concern at first, 
but occasionally turns her head to one side and carelessly dabbles her 
bill in the water. ‘‘. . . Sooner or later, if all goes well, she begins 
to bow also, less vigorously at first—not touching the water at all— 
and to the empty space in front of her. Suddenly she turns and the 
pair bow to each other in the same energetic nervous jerks, and, 
unless a rival appears to spoil the situation, the drake has won his 
suit’’ (C. W. Townsend, 1916, p. 13). 

The Mallard is one of the earliest ducks to breed. ‘‘By February 
nearly all have selected their partners for the nesting season. They 
still travel in large companies; but watch a flock of them after they 
have settled down in the open water. At once they separate into 
pairs, every handsome ‘Greenhead’ swimming in close attendance 
wherever his modestly garbed mate shall lead. Should one of the 
pair be killed, the other will not mate again that season. . .’’ (Bowles, 
in Dawson, 1909, p. 767). 

In California Mallards breed wherever suitable conditions are 
afforded. There does not seem to be in the lowland districts any 
difference in the time of nesting which can be correlated with differ- 
ences in latitude. The earliest record is that by Belding (MS) who 
found eggs at Gridley, Butte County, March 25, 1890. In Los Angeles 
County, Grinnell (1898, p. 10) gives the nesting season as extending 
from the first of April to the end of June, and this probably would 
apply to other portions of the state as well. The latest report, season- 
ally, is that by A. K. Fisher (1893a, p. 15) who records downy young 
at Walker Basin, Kern County, July 13, 1891. 

The data brought together in the accompanying table (no. 8) 
are all that have been found by the authors as applying to California. 


96 


GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


TaBLE 8.—Data relative to the nesting of the Mallard in California 


LOCALITY 
Gridley, Butte Co. 
Los Angeles Co. 


Lake Merced, 
San Francisco Co. 


San Diego 


Hueneme, Véntura Co. 


Near San José, 
Santa Clara Co. 


Olancha, Inyo Co. 


Wheeler Island, 
Solano Co. 


Alvarado, Alameda Co. 
Alvarado, Alameda Co. 


Stockton, 
San Joaquin Oo. 


Hayward, Alameda Co. 
Los Bajfios, Merced Co. 


Los Baiios, Merced Co. 


Gridley, Butte Co. 
San Diego 
Merced Co. 
Merced Co. 
Gridley, Butte Co. 


Gridley, Butte Co. 
Gridley, Butte Co. 


Lake Tahoe 


Lake Valley, 
Lake Tahoe 


Los Bafios, Merced Co. 


Stow Lake, 
San Francisco 


Willow Creek, Lower 
Klamath Lake 


Willow Creek, Lower 
Klamath Lake 


Lake Tahoe 


Bear Valley reservoir, 
San Bernardino Co. 


Rowlands Marsh, 
Lake Tahoe 


Tulare Lake, Kings Co. 


Kern Valley, Kern Co. 
Chowchilla, Merced Co. 
Fresno district 

Eagle Lake, Lassen Co. 


Eagle Lake, Lassen Co. 


Walker Basin, Kern Co. 


Bakersfield, Kern Co. 

Escondido, San Diego 
Co. 

Santa Barbara 


Santa Cruz 


DATE 
Mar. 25, 1890 
First of ‘April 


to last of 
June 
Apr. 28, 1915 


Apr, 24, 1862 


May 1, 1910 

May 1, 1893 

May 6-11, 
1891 


May , 1914 


8 
May 9, 1914 
May 9, 1914 
May 9, 1878 


1884 
1914 


May 
May 


11, 
12, 


May 18, 1914 


1897 
1896 
1896 
1914 


May 
May 
May 
May 
May 


19, 
19, 
19, 
19, 
25, 
May 


26, 1914 


May 27, 1914 
May 
May —, 
1901-02 
1915 


—, 1901 


June 1, 
June 5, 1915 
June 6, 1914 
June 7, 1914 


1911 
1886 


June 9, 
June 14, 


June 16, 1903 


June 18—July 
12, 1907 


June 22, 1891 
June 24, 1900 
June 26, 1906 


June 26, 1905 
(or later) 


June 27, 1884 


July 13, 
July 19, 


1891 
1891 


—. 1896 


Eaes or YOuNG 
Eggs 


Breeding 
10 eggs (7 on Apr. 22) 


Female with egg nearly 
matured 


11 eggs, partly incubated 


11 eggs 
Believed to be breeding 


Four broods about one 
week ol 


11 eggs 
14 eggs 
A brood of young 


Half-grown young seen 


Brood of half-grown 
young 
10 downy young 


Young a month old 
Eggs 

9 eggs, 
8 eggs 


fresh 


Brood of young 10 inches 


long 


Nest found from which 
young had hatched 
Brood of young 7 inches 

long 
Nest; eggs hatched later 
Bred in this month 


9 eggs, incubation 
various 


70 young seen with 66 
adults 


5 eggs, bird sitting 


9 eggs, incubated 


half incubated 
fresh 


9 eggs, 
8 eggs, 


7 eggs, practically fresh 


Large young 


Present 

Young 3 days old 
Female with brood 
Half-grown young 


8 eggs 


Broods of downy young 


Brood of young nearly 
grown 


One nest found 


Breeds on estuary, 6 
miles away 


Eggs found 


AUTHORITY 
Belding, MS. 
Grinnell, 1898, p. 10 


Squires, 1915, p. 234 
Cooper, 1880, p. 251 


Willett, 1912a, p. 22 
Barlow, 1893, p. 38 


A. K, Fisher, 1893a, p. 15 
Fair, MS. 


Dirks, MS. 
Dirks, MS. 
Belding, 1879, p. 446 


Emerson, in Belding, MS. 

H. C. Bryant, 1914e, 
p. 219 

H. C. Bryant, 1914e, 
p. 219 

Belding, MS. 

Reed, 1904, p. 

Mailliard coll. 

Mailliard, MS. 

H. C. Bryant, 
p. 227 

H. C. Bryant, 
p. 227 


70 


1914e, 
1914e, 


H. C. Bryant, 1914e, 
p. 227 

Ray, 1901, p. 116 

Ray, 1903, pp. 48-49 


Mailliard coll. 
Squires, 1915, p. 234 


H. 
Pp 
H. 
Pp 
Carriger coll. 
Stephens, MS. 


C. Bryant, 1914e, 
. 231 


C. Bryant, 1914¢e, 
. 231 


Ray, 1905, p. 367 
Goldman, 1908), p. 201 


A. K. Fisher, 1898a, p. 15 
Mailliard coll. 

Tyler, 1913b, pp. 15-16 
Sheldon, 1907, p. 186 


C. H. Townsend, 1887, 
p. 193 
A. K. Fisher, 18934, p. 15 
A. K. Fisher, 18934, p. 15 
Sharp, 1907, p. 86 
Streator, 1886, p. 90 


Skirm, 1884, p. 150 


MALLARD 97 


The table suggests that the height of the nesting season is in April, 
perhaps the latter part of the month. Many of the nests which are 
found after this time probably represent instances of second laying 
where the first clutch was destroyed. 

The Mallard nests with equal freedom in the marsh lands sur- 
rounding our bays, the rivers and ponds of the great interior valleys, 
and the mountain lakes of the Sierra Nevada even as high as Lake 
Tahoe, elevation 6,225 feet. A secluded spot, usually not far from 
- water, is most often selected for the nest site. Advantage is taken of 
any shelter such as willows, tules, weeds or tall grass in which the 
structure can be concealed. At Lake Tahoe, Ray (1903, pp. 48-49) 
found Mallard nests in the wiry grass which grew on sandspits, and 
about Lower Klamath Lake, Siskiyou County, H. C. Bryant (1914e, 
p. 231) found the species nesting on dry flats covered with sage brush, 
though not far from water. More rarely nests are located in grain 
fields and may then be some distance from water. In many ‘instances 
marsh nests are on such damp ground that the eggs may be stained 
by contact with the moist nest materials. About Stow Lake, in Golden 
Gate Park, San Francisco, nests are hidden in the shrubbery which 
lines the inner shore of the lake. The nest itself is constructed of 
plant materials of various sorts such as fresh and dried grasses and 
clover, and to these is added a warm lining of down feathers from 
the breast of the female. The structure is large; one found by Bar- 
low (1893, p. 38) near San Jose, Santa Clara County, measured 
eighteen inches in diameter. 

The eggs in a complete set number from five to fourteen. The data 
at hand do not permit of obtaining a satisfactory statistical average, 
but our impression is that the average number in a set is about nine 
or ten. 

The female alone incubates the eggs. She guards them very 
solicitously, seldom leaving the nest voluntarily except under cover 
of darkness and then only after carefully covering the eggs with 
down. When on the nest she will even cover herself with leaves and 
grasses to assure better concealment, though her own dull mottled 
plumage would seem alone sufficient for this purpose. Occasionally 
a female will sit so closely that she will allow herself to be taken on 
the nest, or the eggs to be removed from beneath her. On being 
flushed from the nest or when with young, the female nearly always 
employs the ruse of lameness or of a broken wing to lead the intruder 
away. The period of incubation is four weeks. During incubation 
the male can usually be found in the near vicinity of the nest, but he 
takes no part in the duties of incubation or of rearing the young. It 
is during this period that he begins the molt into the eclipse plumage. 
The Mallard returns to the same locality to nest year after year. 


98 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Young Mallards are found in greatest abundance in May. They 
are led to water by the mother soon after hatching. The mother care- 
fully tends the young, and aids them in obtaining food so that they 
soon learn to find their own provender. As far as known under 
normal circumstances but one brood is raised each year. The broods 
of young as a rule keep themselves well concealed among the tules and 
grass. When surprised in open water the ducklings scurry to cover 
and conceal themselves so artfully that they are very difficult to find. 
After diving, a young bird either clings motionless to the weeds on 
the bottom or swims for a long distance under water. When coming to 
the surface the bill alone is exposed above the water. For this reason 
a whole brood may disappear as if by magic and the closest search 
result only in failure. Unlike the adult, the young Mallard is said 
to obtain much of its food by diving. This habit would be of value 
also as a means of escape from enemies during the considerable period 
of time before flight becomes possible. 

Mallards in California seldom gather in large flocks as do many 
of the other ducks. As a rule, they are found in pairs or at best in 
small flocks. Their ability to walk on land is far superior to that of 
most other ducks. In flight they progress by continuous rapid strokes 
of the wing, no sailing being evident. The wing beats are accom- 
panied by a distinct whistling sound. A speed of nearly a hundred 
miles an hour is said to be attained (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, 
I, p. 498). 

Among most male ducks a remarkable change in plumage takes 
place during the summer months. Because this plumage overshadows 
the brighter plumage of the spring months it is known as the 
‘‘eelipse’’ plumage. In such a bright colored bird as is the drake 
Mallard in spring, the change to the eclipse plumage is particularly 
noticeable. The change is first to be noted in June; a few birds seen 
on Lower Klamath Lake, June 5, 1914, were already assuming the 
eclipse plumage. The old feathers of the head and breast gradually 
drop out and new ones take their places. By August first the green 
of the head has been entirely replaced by brownish feathers and the 
bird looks at a little distance very much like the female, except that 
it is darker. 

During August the regular annual molt takes place and the sombre 
brown of the eclipse plumage in turn gives place to the brighter colors 
of the plumage worn throughout winter and spring. There are thus 
two molts during the year, and two plumages, one of which is worn 
for only a few weeks in the late summer. During the late summer 
molt, which involves the entire plumage, the Mallard hides away in 
rank vegetation, concealing itself so well that it is seldom seen. The 
flight feathers are among the last to be molted. Since the bird loses 


MALLARD 99 


the power of flight by the almost simultaneous molt of the wing 
feathers, its only means of protection rests in its ability to hide or to 
escape notice because of its dull coloration. Thus the dull eclipse 
plumage is supposedly for protective purposes. 

The following interesting note on the use of protective coloration 
by the Mallard is recorded from Alaska by Osgood (1904, p. 56) : 


Expecting the bird to rise at any moment, we paddled on but were begin 
ning to feel baffled, when just before the canoe touched the bank, we found our 
game giving a very pretty exhibition of its confidence in.protective coloration. 
It was a female Mallard, and lay on the brown mud bank, strewn with dead 
grass and decaying matter, which blended perfectly with the markings of its 
back. It was not merely crouching, but lay prostrated to the last degree, its 
wings closely folded, its neck stretched straight out in front of it, with throat 
and under mandible laid out straight, and even its short tail pressed flatly 
into the mud. The only sign of life came from its bright little eyes, which 
nervously looked at us in a half hopeful, half desperate manner. When a 
paddle was lifted, with which it could almost be reached, the bird started 
up and was allowed to escape with its well-earned life. 


Most of the food of the Mallard is obtained in shallow water, but 
the bird often forages on shore and even at some distance inland 
when desirable food is obtainable there. When feeding in shallow 
water it not only skims the surface of the water but every now and 
then turns tail up and searches the bottom. The latter mode of food 
getting is sometimes called ‘‘tilting,’’ and the Mallard, like the 
other river and pond ducks which often feed in this manner, is called 
a ‘‘tip-up’’; the adult bird seldom dives, however. It discovers 
its food by means of touch rather than sight, so that it can feed 
equally as well at night as by day (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 
1884, I, p. 497). ~The food consists largely of vegetable matter in 
the form of grass, aquatic plants, weed seeds, and grain. So fond 
is this bird of grain that in some localities the loss it occasions the 
grain grower is no small one. Nevertheless, the Mallard can be said 
to be fairly omnivorous, for it also feeds on larvae of aquatic insects, 
worms, grasshoppers, small molluscs and crustaceans. A. K. Fisher 
(18984, p. 15) records that a juvenile Mallard taken at Walker Basin, 
Kern County, July 13, 1891, and still in the down, had its stomach dis- 
tended with grasshoppers, insects which were abundant at that time 
in the neighborhood of the sloughs. W. HE. Bryant (1893a, p. 55) 
reports the following from the stomachs of four specimens secured in 
the Suisun marshes: ‘‘a. Small univalve shells in gullet. 6. Bearded 
barley and barley heads. c. Small sprouted seeds. d. Half a teacup- 
ful of barnacles in the gullet.’’ McAtee (19116, pp. 1, 2) states that 
the Mallard eats a larger percentage (17.13%) of wild rice than any 
other duck, the Black Duck and Wood Duck ranking next. Wild 


100 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


celery was found to make up 2.48% and pond weeds 12.67% of the 
food for the year, in the 209 stomachs examined from all over the 
United States. 

Its large size and delicious flavor make this the most valuable game 
bird of its kind in the state. While feeding on grain it becomes 
excessively fat, attaining a weight of over three pounds. Its palata- 
bility also increases at this time and it then brings the highest price 
in the market, even the famed Canvasback taking second rank. In 
the season of 1895-96 there were 47,565 Mallards sold in the markets 
of San Francisco at twenty-five cents apiece (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, 
p. 42). During the season 1911-12 the markets paid an average price 
of fifty cents apiece for them, and at one time as high as eighty cents. 

Owing to its habit of foraging far from water the Mallard affords 
ideal ‘‘pass shooting.’’ In addition it is easily decoyed. Thus it 
has every requisite of a fine game bird and is consequently the favorite 
of the sportsman. 

The Mallard breeds readily in captivity and for that reason has 
been widely domesticated. A pond, seclusion, and plenty of weeds 
and grass are the chief needs. On the State Game Farm at Hayward, 
Alameda County, Mallards rear broods each year. Several fanciers 
have also been successful in raising the bird in this state. There is 
every indication that this species can be propagated for the market 
on a large scale. The increasing prices obtainable from year to year 
point towards this as a profitable industry. 

In England Mallards have been raised regularly in captivity and 
made to fly in a straight line over guns to afford sport. 

Both in the wild state and in captivity this bird readily hybridizes 
with other near-related species. A highly esteemed variety of barn- 
yard duck is a hybrid between the Mallard and Muscovy Duck. 
Hybrids ‘also occur between the Mallard, and the Pintail, Gadwall, 
Shoveller, and Black Duck, respectively. 

In 1889 A. M. Shields (Davie, 1889, p. 62) stated .that, during 
the summer, the Mallard was, ‘‘perhaps, the most common of the 
ducks in the vicinity of Los Angeles.’’ But of recent years accord- 
ing to H. J. Lelande (in letter), very few if any breed in Los Angeles 
County. A brood was known to have been reared in 1904 at Little 
Elizabeth Lake. Filling-in of swamps and close settlement of the 
territory has its inevitable effects on birds of this class. In the San 
Joaquin Valley the Mallard is certainly outnumbered in summer by 
the Cinnamon Teal. But whereas the latter may be found plentifully 
about both alkaline and fresh water ponds and marshes, the Mallard 
shows a decided preference for fresh water. 

That the numbers of Mallards have been greatly reduced is evident. 
Anyone conversant with game conditions will name this species as one 


BLACK DUCK 101 


of those which have been most noticeably reduced. As the supply of 
Mallards in California is probably dependent to a large extent on the 
birds raised within the state, it is only natural that the annual toll 
taken by the hunter has caused a very noticeable decrease. Compared 
with such ducks as the Redhead and Wood Duck, however, the decrease _ 
in the number of Mallards has been slight. 

Two things, at least, give hope that this duck will continue to 
exist in large enough numbers to supply the demands of the sportsman, 
if these demands are reasonable. One is the fact that this duck soon 
learns to keep out of gunshot and the other the fact that the bird will 
content itself with a small amount of water and will even nest where 
the only water is an irrigation ditch some distance away. This latter 
point suggests that the increase of agriculture, with the attendant 
development of irrigation, may not have so deleterious an effect on the 
Mallard as would at first be supposed, especially if the birds are not 
molested during the breeding season. Although the Mallard is in no 
immediate danger of extermination in this state, yet the present 
annual toll taken is too great to be maintained very many years with- 
out endangering the existence of the species. By reducing the bag 
limit and shortening the season it should be possible as with other 
game to adjust the annual toll to the rate of production. 


Black Duck 


Anas rubripes Brewster 


OTHER NAMES—Black Mallard; Dusky Duck; Anas obscura. 

DESCRIPTION—Adults, both sexes: Whole head and upper surface dusky brown, 
variegated with pale rusty brown feather edgings; top of head darker than 
sides and throat, the latter narrowly streaked with dusky on a pale brownish 
gray ground; a dusky stripe back from eye; iris brown; bill yellowish green; 
outer surface of closed wing like back but with a faint gray tinge; flight 
feathers blackish; speculum changeably steel blue and violet, framed in black; 
under surface of wing mostly white; under surface of body like back but 
paler, due to wider edgings of dusky on feathers; feet orange red, webs darker. 
Total length ‘‘21.00-24.50’’ inches (533-622 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 91.) 
Female: folded wing 10.60 (269); bill along culmen 2.02 (51.3); tarsus 1.63 
(41.4) (one specimen from California). Juvenile plumage: ‘‘Similar to adult, 
with bill more of a greenish hue and streaked with dusky’’ (Sanford, Bishop 
and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 79). Natal plumage: Whole top of head dark brown, 
with a yellow cast on forehead; side of head, chin and throat, brownish white; 
stripe from side of bill through eye to above ear region, brownish black; above 
this a stripe of pale yellowish brown; rest of upper surface, brown; hind 
margin of wing yellowish white, as also a pair of spots on back behind wings 
and another pair on each side of rump; foreneck pale yellowish brown; rest 
of under surface dull white. 


102 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Both sexes resemble female Mallard but 
are darker in coloration; the general blackish coloration, the white wing 
lining, and violet speculum framed in black are distinctive. 

Vorce—A loud resonant ‘‘quack’’ like that of the Mallard (Chapman, 
1912, p. 193). 

Nest—On the ground; constructed of weeds, grass, and feathers (authors). 

Eees—8 to 12, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.22 to 
2.44 by 1.63 to 1.83 (in millimeters, 56.5 to 62 by 41.5 to 46.5), and averaging 
2.36 by 1.69 (60 by 43) (28 eggs in U. S. National Museum); in color white 
or creamy white; the shell having an oily texture. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Eastern North America. Breeds from central Kee- 
watin and northern Ungava south to northern Wisconsin, northern Indiana, and 
southern Maryland; winters from Nova Scotia south to southern Louisiana 
and Colorado; west in migration to Nebraska and central Kansas; casual in 
Bermuda, Jamaica and California (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, 


p. 68). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—One instance of occurrence: A single bird, 
presumably a female, taken at Willows, Glenn County, February 1, 1911 (now 
no. 17198 Mus. Vert. Zool.). 


The Black Duck, a near relative of the Mallard, is a species of 
the eastern and middle western United States, and eastern Canada. 
In the North Atlantic States it entirely replaces the Mallard as a 
breeding species. There is but one record of its occurrence in Cali- 
fornia. <A bird, evidently a female, although the sex was not deter- 
mined by dissection, was taken by a hunter at Willows, Glenn County, 
February 1, 1911. This individual was mounted by Vernon Shepherd, 
a San Francisco taxidermist, and later presented to the Museum of 
Vertebrate Zoology. This bird was evidently a straggler; and the 
Black Duck cannot be considered of more than accidental occurrence 
in California. 

‘‘The Black Duck breeds so early that young have been found at 
Old Saybrook, Conn., May 5, and eggs at Rehoboth, Mass., April 30’ 
(Cooke, 1906, p. 25). 

‘Tt is more common in the Atlantic Coast States than inland, and 
when molested will sometimes pass the day at sea returning at night 
to feed in the ponds and marshes’’ (Chapman, 1912, p. 193). 

‘Hike the Mallard, the Black, or Dusky Duck, feeds on wild rice, 
buckwheat, weed seeds and nearly all manner of vegetable substances, 
also devouring snails, frogs and other aquatic animals with a glut- 
tonous greed, especially in the springtime’’ (Eaton, 1910, p. 186). 

The Black Duck resembles the Mallard in general habits and it is 
to be looked for in situations frequented by the latter bird. Loveland, 
Colorado, is the nearest place where this typically eastern species has 
been previously recorded and it is not probable that any great number 
of individuals will ever wander so far west as California. Additional 
instances of occurrence should be reported for their scientific value. 


GADWALL 103 


Gadwaill 


Chaulelasmus streperus (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Gray Duck; Gadwell; Anas strepera. 

DEScRIPTION—Adult male: Whole head and neck pale brown finely mottled 
with black, the brown being darkest on top of head with less distinct spotting; 
throat very pale brownish gray minutely flecked with dusky; bill bluish black; 
iris reddish hazel; back and sides with fine undulating, transverse bars of 
brownish black and white; outer surface of closed wing ashy brown with a 
chestnut patch on middle wing coverts followed behind by a black bar; 
speculum pure white; rump dull slate color; upper and lower tail coverts 
velvety black; tail drab gray faintly edged with whitish; whole breast 
mottled in intricate pattern with crescentic bars of black and white, with a 
suffusion of pale brown; rest of under surface pure white, save for faint dusky 
barring in the region of the vent; sometimes a strong suffusion of rusty over 
whole lower surface; feet dull orange yellow with dusky webs. Total length 
‘19,.25-21.75’’ inches (489-553 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 95); folded wing 
9.75-10.90 (248-277); bill along culmen 1.63-1.78 (41.4-45.3); tarsus 1.53-1.67 
(38.8-42.4) (ten specimens). Adult female: Head and neck colored as in 
male, but otherwise decidedly different; upper surface and sides coarsely and 
irregularly barred and mottled with dark brown and dull white; wing as in 
male but with markings less clean and chestnut entirely lacking; rump and 
upper and under tail coverts brown, the latter mottled with dull white like 
flanks; breast heavily mottled with black on a rusty brown ground; lower 
breast and abdomen white often more or less obscured with rusty. Total 
length ‘‘about 18’’ inches (457 mm.) (Ridgway, loc. cit); folded wing 9.62- 
10.12 (244-257) ; bill along culmen 1.52-1.70 (38.6—43.2) ; tarsus 1.42-1.58 (36.1- 
40.2) (nine specimens) ; all from California. Eclipse plumage of male: Top of head 
brownish black with a greenish tinge; indistinct dark brown streak through eye; 
rest of head and neck dull brownish white marked with blackish brown as in 
regular plumage; back, rump and upper tail coverts, blackish brown, each 
feather margined with rusty red; wings and tail as in regular plumage; breast 
dull rusty red with central black spot on each feather; flanks dark brown 
broadly marked and margined with dull rusty brown; rest of under surface 
dull white with a blackish brown spot in center of each feather (see Sharpe and 
Dresser, in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 506). Juvenile plumage 
(both sexes): Closely resembles that of adult female. Natal plumage: Top 
of head and line from bill through eye, dull brown; sides of head and neck, 
dull creamy buff; spot over ear, dusky; upper surface of body dark brown; 
paired spots on hind margin of wing and sides of rump, light buff; throat 
and foreneck pale buff; under surface of body buffy white; band across chest 
buff. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Slender appearance, long pointed wings, 
general gray coloration, and pure white speculum (the only river duck so 
marked). Under tail coverts black in male. 

Vorice—In flight, an oft repeated ‘‘quack,’’ resembling that of the Mallard, 
though higher pitched and less in volume (Eaton, 1910, p. 189). 

Nest—In grass on dry ground but usually close to water; composed of grasses 
and tules and lined with down; resembles that of Mallard. 

Eees—7 to 13, bluntly ovate, or nearly oval, measuring in inches 2.02 to 2.18 
by 1.48 to 1.57 (in millimeters, 51.5 to 55.5 by 37.5 to 40.0), and averaging 


104 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


. 2.11 by 1.53 (53.5 by 39.0) (18 eggs in U. S. National Museum); color creamy 
white. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Almost throughout the Northern Hemisphere. In 
North America breeds from southern British Columbia and central Keewatin 
south to southern California and east to southern Wisconsin; winters from 
southern British Columbia and the central-eastern United States south to 
southern Lower California, central Mexico and Florida; rare in migration on 
Atlantic Coast, and of casual occurrence in Bermuda, Cuba and Jamaica (A. 
O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 69). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Fairly common resident in fresh water tule 
swamps particularly of the great interior valleys. More numerous in winter 
when the numbers are augmented by migrants from the north. Recorded as 
breeding, west of the Sierras, from the Sacramento Valley south to San Jacinto 
Lake, Riverside County. 


The Gadwall or Gray Duck is essentially a river or freshwater 
duck and is to be found in many parts of the interior of California. 
It exists in greatest numbers about 
those ponds, lakes and rivers where 
there are plenty of tules and weeds. 
a It is seldom, if ever, found on salt 
is water or. on alkali ponds and lakes. 

ie 1 "Weprod Bill of tomate Practically all of the Gadwalls sold 

Gadwall. Natural size. on the markets have been procured in 

Note slender outline as com. the Sacramento and San Joaquin 

pared with bill of female Pintail valleys. 

Vig: 19). This duck, like the Mallard and 
Cinnamon Teal, breeds regularly within the state. Although there are 
not many records of its nesting, yet it is commonly understood among 
hunters that the supply of Gadwalls is largely dependent upon the 
birds raised in California. The fact that this duck is usually seen in 
pairs or in small flocks even in winter also lends support to the belief 
that it breeds in the immediate neighborhood. The species of ducks 
which breed in the far north usually gather in large flocks during 
migrations and in the winter. Nevertheless, the considerable increase 
in the numbers of the Gadwall found here in winter is certainly the 
result of an influx of birds which breed farther to the north. If the 
number of these ducks sold in the markets of San Francisco is a 
criterion, the Gadwall is only one-twentieth as numerous as the Mal- 
lard. But as the former is less sought after as a table bird, this is not 
perhaps a fair basis of comparison. 

In habits the Gadwall resembles the Mallard. But it is distin- 
guished from the latter by its smaller size and gray coloration, and 
by its more slender outline when on the wing. In the hand, the 
Gadwall can be distinguished in all its plumages from all other ducks 


GADW ALL 105 


by the pure white of its speculum. The females of the Gadwall and 
Baldpate resemble each other very closely, but the former is darker 
on the back and rump and does not show the conspicuous white 
patches on the wings which mark the Baldpate in flight. The female 
Gadwall and Pintail are closely similar and may be confused, espe- 
cially on the wing. The Pintail has a longer neck and is lighter colored 
beneath ; in hand its green speculum and relatively broad bill (see figs. 
12 and 19) make identification easy. 

Chapman (1912, p. 194) describes the courtship flight of the 
Gadwall in the East as follows: ‘‘The male pursues the female often 
high in the air and for some time, on a course as erratic as that of a 
Barn Swallow.’’ Secluded places in fresh-water marshes are usually 
selected as nesting sites. The nest is placed on the ground, some- 
times in a depression, and usually in grass in relatively dry situations 
though close to water. The structure is composed of any available 
vegetable material such as grass and tules, finely shredded, and is 
lined with very dark-colored down. The eggs, numbering seven to 
thirteen in a set, and averaging about ten, are bluntly ovate or almost 
oval in shape. They are of a pale creamy white tint. Eggs of the 
Gadwall closely resemble those of the Baldpate. From the latter’s 
eggs those of the Gadwall may usually be distinguished by their 
shorter length and more oval shape and by their paler, less deeply 
cream color; but the identification cannot always be made with cer- 
tainty. As compared with eggs of the Mallard those of the Gadwall 
are smaller and less ovate in shape. The nest down of the Gadwall 
is darker than that of the Baldpate. As with the Mallard the female 
alone cares for the young. The downy young of the Gadwall are 
stated to be among the palest colored of our river ducks. The accom- 
panying table (no. 9) gives records of nests which have been reported 
in California. 


TaBLE 9.—Data relative to the nesting of the Gadwall in California 


LOcALITY DATE CONTENTS OF NEST AUTHORITY 
Near Los Angeles April 16, ........ 11 eggs, considerably Davie, 1900, p. 79 
incubated 
Los Bafios, Merced Co. May 12, 1914 9 eggs : H. oe aah; 1914e, 
p. 
Los Bafios, Merced Co. May 16, 1914 12 eggs, slightly in- H. C. Bryant, 1914e, 
cubated p. 222 
San Jacinto Lake, June 8, 1897 12 eggs, incubation com- Ingersoll coll. 
Riverside Co. menced 
Chowchilla, Merced Co. June 24, 1901 8 eggs, incubation begun Mailliard coll. 
San Pedro, July 20, ........ 9 eggs Baird, Brewer and Ridg- 
Los Angeles Co. way, 1884, I, p. 508 


The Gadwall is a shy species, hiding away in the tules and weeds 
during the daytime and even when foraging for food remaining close 
to cover. Its long pointed wings give it rapid powers of flight; and 


106 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


a whistling sound, not so loud as that made by the Baldpate, is to 
be heard under favorable conditions. When flushed it is said to rise 
into the air almost perpendicularly. ; 

Its food is made up largely of the seeds, leaves, buds and roots 
of water plants. These it obtains along the shores of ponds, lakes 
and rivers by ‘‘standing on its head,’”’ or ‘‘tilting,’’ and searching 
the bottom as does the Mallard. McAtee (19116, p. 1) states that 
an examination of stomachs has shown that the food comprises a 
lesser number of seeds but a larger per cent of pond weeds than that 
of other ducks. W. E. Bryant (1893a, p. 55) found small seeds and 
sand in a stomach which he examined. 

Although usually considered an excellent bird for the table, Beld- 
ing (MS) agrees with Bendire that its flesh is at times very inferior. 
He says: ‘‘I have known it to be so oily and have such a fishy taste 
that I could not eat it [even when] nicely roasted.’’ If this be true 
the small numbers sold in the market (671 in season 1895-1896) 
(Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 42) might be attributed to this fact 
rather than to actual numbers of the species obtainable. The well- 
nigh exclusive vegetable diet of the Gadwall, on the other hand, would 
appear to recommend it as a desirable bird for food. 

Almost as many Gadwalls were sold in the season 1911-1912 by 
one game transfer company in San Francisco as were sold in all of 
the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles in the season 1895- 
1896. If this be at all indicative, there can not have been a very 
great diminution in their numbers during the last fifteeen years. The 
greater decrease in more desirable ducks, however, will in time 
increase the demand for the Gadwall and so increase the annual kill. 


Baldpate 


Mareca americana (Gmelin) 


OTHER NAMES—American Widgeon; Widgeon; Anas americana; Mareca pene- 
lope, part. 

Description—Adult male: Broad streak from forehead over top of head, 
white; rest of head and neck thickly speckled with black on a white ground; 
streak behind each eye metallic green, the two often joining on hind neck; 
bill light bluish ash, the tip, extreme base, and lower mandible, black; iris 
hazel; back pale pinkish brown, delicately undulated with black; rump ashy 
brown, sometimes minutely undulated with white; middle upper tail coverts 
pale ashy, the basal ones finely undulated with dusky; lateral ones velvety 
black contrasting conspicuously with white patch at side of base of tail; tail 
slaty black above, ashy beneath; large area on forepart of wing pure white, edged 
in front and above with ashy brown; speculum metallic green, bordered in front by 
a narrow black bar and shading behind into a broad area of velvety black; tertials 
black, narrowly edged with white; rest of flight feathers slaty brown; axillars 


BALDPATE 107 


white; lining of wing pale ashy gray; breast, sides and flanks, pinkish brown, 
the breast washed with ashy and the sides and flanks irregularly barred with 
blackish; lower tail eoverts velvety black; rest of under surface pure white, 
sometimes suffused with rusty; legs and feet greenish slate, claws and joints 
dusky. Males: Total length 19.30-20.44 inches (490-520 mm.) (two specimens) ; 
folded wing 9.85-10.35 (250-263); bill along culmen 1.36-1.57 (34.7-40.0); 
tarsus 1.41-1.58 (35.8-40.2) (ten specimens); weight 22.65-23.20 oz. (641-656 
gm.) (two specimens). Adult female: Whole upper surface dull grayish brown; 
barred with yellowish brown; head and neck thickly mottled with blackish 
on a whitish ground; rump and upper and under tail coverts dark brown, with 
whitish feather margins and the coverts pervaded with reddish brown; wing 
as in male but white area chiefly replaced by white-edged ashy brown feathers; 
speculum dull black, occasionally with « small patch of metallic green; sides 
and flanks deep reddish brown; breast dull brown, mottled with blackish and 
tinged with ashy; rest of under surface white, sometimes tinged with rusty. 
Folded wing 9.00-9.80 inches (228-249 mm.) bill along culmen 1.22-1.55 (31.1- 
39.4) ; tarsus 1.37-1.55 (34.8-39.4) (ten specimens) ; all from California. Juvenile 
plumage: Similar to that of adult female but colors more pronounced, and 
the pattern better defined, especially on the wing (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 
1884, I, p. 521). Natal plumage: Top of head and stripe down hind neck, dark 
sepia brown; sides of head and neck cinnamon buff; back light brown; pair of 
spots at base of tail, white; hind margin of wing pinkish buff; throat creamy 
buff; rest of under surface dull creamy buff, suffused with cinnamon buff 
on chest. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Medium size, white axillars, and more or 
less white on forepart of wing. Males have top of head white, sides of head 
mixed black and white, a green patch behind eye, green speculum, white 
flank patch, and black under tail coverts. Both sexes distinguished from 
European Widgeon by pure white rather than grayish axillars, and male by 
lack of reddish brown on head (pl. 3). The wings make a whistling noise 
when the birds are in flight. 

Voice—Of male: a mewing whistle resembling the syllables whew whew; 
of female: a loud kaow, kaow, or hue, hue, hue, with a strong accent on the 
second note (Eaton, 1910, p. 191; Nordhoff, 1902, p. 213). 

Nest—Usually on high dry ground, and often a considerable distance from 
water; a slight depression well lined with dry grass and weed stems and abun- 
dantly supplied with light gray down (Bent, 1901, p. 335). 

Eees—6 to 12, elliptical ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.00 to 2.37 
by 1.42 to 1.60 (in millimeters, 51.0 to 60.1 by 36.2 to 40.1), and averaging 
2.17 by 1.53 (55.1 by 38.8); color deep cream to nearly white (Bent, 1901, pp. 
335-336; and fifty-four eggs in U. S. National Museum). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds from northwestern Alaska, 
northern Mackenzie and central Keewatin south to Oregon, Colorado, Kansas, 
and northern Indiana; winters from southern British Columbia, southern 
Tllinois, and Maryland south to southern Lower California, the West Indies 
and Costa Rica; rare in migration in maritime provinces of Canada, and 
casual in Hawaii, Bermuda and Europe (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 70). 

DISTRIBUTION IN, CALIFORNIA—Common winter visitant to suitable localities 
throughout the state, chiefly on fresh water, but occurs occasionally along the 
coast, especially in the shoal waters of Humboldt, Tomales and San Francisco 
bays. Recorded as breeding on Davis Creek, Modoc County. 


108 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The Baldpate, or American Widgeon, is one of the best known 
and most numerous of the river ducks in California during the winter 
season. It begins to arrive in numbers in October, and leaves again 
for the north in the early part of March: From the numbers sold 
on the market in California, one might judge the species to be most 
abundant in November. Although preferring the fresh water lakes, 
ponds, rivers, and sloughs of the interior, the Baldpate is sometimes 
found in considerable numbers on the shallow water of the bays. 
Often the latter location is used as a loafing ground, at least during 
the day. The species is ‘‘very common along the coast from Crescent 
City southward during October. Widgeons usually [form] . . . the 
largest part of every duck hunter’s bag. They often spend the day 
in the open ocean and return to the marshes to feed at night’’ (Ferry, 
1908, pp. 38-39). 

A large area of white on the top of the head of the male has given 
this duck its common name of Baldpate (pl. 8). This white patch 
together with a broad metallic green streak behind the eye helps to 
distinguish this duck from others. The large amount of white on 
the fore part of the wing, especially in the male, the white axillars, 
and the conspicuous white under surface of the body also aid in identi- 
fication. The speculum is peculiar, that of the male being green, 
bordered in front and behind with velvety black, while that of the 
female is usually altogether dull black. In most ducks it is the same 
in both sexes. The lighter color of the lower surface and the white 
axillars and dark speculum serve to distinguish the female Baldpate 
from the female Gadwall, our only other duck of comparable size 
and coloration. Were it not for the gray under surface of the wing 
in the female Baldpate, visible in flight, she might be mistaken for a 
female Mallard; but the latter bird has a pure white under wing 
lining, and no patch of white on the outer surface of the wing. 

The Baldpate breeds later than most other ducks, as it apparently 
does not begin laying until late May or early June in Alaska. Accord- 
ing to Nelson (1887, p. 68) small ducklings are to be seen there at 
various times in July, and young only half-grown as late as the middle 
of August. There is only one record of this duck nesting in Cali- 
fornia: Dawson (1916, p. 24) says that it was ‘‘breeding commonly 
at Davis Creek in Modoe County,’’ where he found a set of nine fresh 
eggs on June 20, 1912, and another of eleven, advanced in incuba- 
tion, June 24 of the same year. Birds seen by him at Eagleville, 
Surprise Valley, in the same county, July 12, 1912, were thought to 
be breeding. Belding (MS) saw a pair of Baldp&tes at Stockton, 
San Joaquin County, as late as May 28 (1878), but found no definite 
evidence that they were breeding there. 


BALDPATE 109 


For its nest the Baldpate usually selects a place on high, dry 
ground often some distance from water. Sometimes the nest is placed 
at the foot of a tree or shrub; at other times it is situated in weeds, 
grasses or bushes. In either event there is little or no attempt at 
concealment. The nest is lined with dry grass and weed stems, and 
is abundantly supplied with light gray down by the female parent. 
In Alaska the place selected for nesting is said to be exactly like that 
chosen by the Pintail. 

No complete account of the courtship of the Baldpate has yet 
been published. C. W. Townsend (1916, p. 15) says of the male bird 
in Massachusetts: 


In his courting he continually emits gentle but eager whistling riotes, and 
with neck extended and head low, bill wide open and wings elevated behind 
so that the tips are pointed up at an angle of forty-five degrees, he swims 
rapidly over the water beside or behind the duck. Occasionally he pecks 
playfully at the side of her head, and now and then in his excitement jumps 
clear of the water and flies for two or three yards. 


Evidently the female alone performs the duties of incubation. 
The males remain in the vicinity for some time after their mates begin 
to sit, but when the time of moulting arrives they retire to grassy 
marshes and edges of lakes for concealment and there for the time 
being lead solitary lives. If the female be surprised while on the nest 
she usually rises silently into the air and flies to the nearest water, 
although sometimes she will alight on the ground only a short distance 
from the nest. 

The young, before they are able to fly, seek the shelter of grass- 
bordered lakes. But as soon as they can fly they repair to river- 
shores and other open feeding-places, where they obtain aquatic 
insects, small shells, and seeds and roots of various plants. The 
broods often separate before leaving for the south in September 
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 524). 

Nelson (1887, p. 68) gives the following facts regarding the 
behavior of a female Baldpate and her young in Alaska. He came 
suddenly upon a bird, with her brood of ten or a dozen little duck- 
lings, in a small pond. As he approached, the parent uttered several 
low, guttural notes and suddenly fluttered across the water and fell 
heavily at his feet. Meanwhile the young swam to the opposite side 
of the pond and began to scramble out into the grass. Wishing to 
observe the old bird’s manoeuvers, he poked at her with his gun as 
she fluttered about at his feet, but she always managed to elude his 
strokes and, just as the last of her brood climbed out of the water, 
she slyly edged off, and suddenly took flight to another pond some 
distance away. As quickly as possible he ran to the point where 
the ducklings had left the water; yet, though but a few moments had 


110 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


elapsed, the young had concealed themselves so effectually in the 
grass which was only three or four inches high that a half hour’s 
search was unavailing. 

Bowles (in Dawson, 1909, p. 772) says that ‘‘their principal call 
is a lisping, throaty whistle, repeated three times in quick succession. 
It is surprisingly light in character for the size of the bird and serves 
to confirm the bird’s position on the list next to the Teals.... The 
only other note I have heard them utter is a low, short chattering, 
somewhat resembling that of the Pintail, but greatly reduced in 
volume. Their quacks, or squawks, of alarm also express the limit 
of terror, but are still pathetically inadequate in comparison with 
those, say, of a hen Mallard.’’ 

While the Canvasback and the Scaups dive and pull up by the 
roots the vallisneria or eel grass, the Baldpate manages to obtain 
a large share indirectly through theft, and at times succeeds in rob- 
bing them of all they bring up. In Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, the 
Baldpate is said to be the constant companion of the Canvasback, the 
latter possessing great superiority in its diving powers (Baird, Brewer 
and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 524). To what extent they are similarly 
parasitic in California is not known to us. Here, Baldpates are 
occasionally found in company with Pintails. 

‘‘Almost strictly a vegetarian as to diet, their food in fall and 
winter consists of seeds, water-weeds, soft roots, and an occasional 
insect, thus making them more desirable as table birds than the 
average duck. In late January and February, however, they con- 
fine their feeding largely to the water-soaked fields, digging up the 
young grass with their bills and eating roots and all’’ (Bowles, in 
Dawson, 1909, p. 771). Near Los Bafios, Merced County, Beck (MS) 
says the Baldpates were feeding in close companies upon green grass 
near sloughs. Although the grass was less than an inch high,.it was 
pulled off close to the ground. Feeding is done chiefly at night. 
Stomach examination by us has shown that the Baldpate eats a larger 
percentage of grass than any other California duck. 

“In wing shooting it [the Baldpate] is regarded by the hunters as 
a great nuisance. It is not only so shy that it avoids the points of 
land, but by its whistling and confused manner of flight it alarms 
the other species’ (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit.). How- 
ever, it may be decoyed within gunshot by imitating its notes or 
with well-placed wooden decoys. Its curiosity as well as its sociability 
cause it to return again and again to decoy ponds. 

In California the Baldpate is considered as inferior game in spite 
of the fact that large numbers have been annually sold on the market. 
Nevertheless, when in good condition, its flesh is hard to distinguish 
from that of the Canvasback. Over 52,000 Baldpates were sold in the 


UNIV, CALIF, SEMICENT. PUBL, 


[GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 3 


KG ee 


eee YU s 


BALDPATE, MALE AND FEMALE, EUROPEAN WIDGEON, MALE (AT RIGHT); PINTAIL IN MIDDLE DISTANCE 


EUROPEAN WIDGEON 111 


markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles during the season 1895- 
1896 (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 40). In San Francisco nearly 
15,000 were sold by one game transfer company in 1909-1910, while 
but 9,254 were reported as sold in 1911-1912. The decrease here 
shown would seem to indicate that there has been a marked decrease 
in the general abundance of this duck during the two years specified. 
The species has held its own to a greater degree than some other 
ducks in spite of the large number killed annually. Nevertheless it 
needs adequate protection such as would be afforded by a no-sale 
law, shorter season, and smaller bag limit, to assure its preservation 
as a game bird. 


European Widgeon 


Mareca penelope (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Red-headed Widgeon; Anas penelope. 

Description—Adult male: Head and neck bright rufous red, except crown 
and forehead which are creamy white; lower eyelid white, upper black; numerous 
minute black or iridescent flecks on sides of head; chin and narrow line down 
throat dull black; bill ‘‘ ‘light grayish blue, with the tip... black’ ’’; iris 
““ ‘hazel brown’ ’’ (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 518); back undu- 
lated with fine zig-zag bars of black and white, resulting in a general gray 
east; base of rump grayish brown; middle upper tail coverts like back, but 
lighter; lateral upper and whole under tail coverts black; tail feathers above 
blackish, beneath ashy; outer surface of closed wing mostly white but edged 
anteriorly with ashy brown, and the tertials black edged with white; flight 
feathers plain ashy brown; speculum metallic green bordered both in front and 
behind with velvety black; under surface of wing shining ashy gray; lower 
surface largely pure white; broad area on chest extending high on the shoulders 
pinkish brown; legs and feet ‘‘ ‘light grayish blue’’’ (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, loc. cit.). Total length (both sexes): ‘‘18.00-20.00’’ inches (458-508 
mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 96); male: folded wing 10.00 (254); bill along culmen 
1.47 (37.3); tarsus 1.62 (41.2) (one specimen in Grinnell coll., in Mus. Vert. 
Zool.). Adult female: Head and upper neck yellowish red with small greenish 
black spots most numerous on the upper part of head; upper surface dusky 
brown, each feather edged with brownish red or whitish, giving a barred 
appearance; bill and iris as in male; outer surface of closed wing dusky gray, 
the white feathers of male being replaced by dusky gray ones tipped with 
white; only an indication of a dark terminal bar on secondary coverts, and 
black of inner secondaries as found in male replaced by dark gray; tail 
feathers brownish gray edged with lighter; under tail coverts white barred 
with brown; sides and fore part of chest obscurely barred with reddish brown 
and brownish gray; breast and belly white. Folded wing 10.00 inches (254 
mm.); bill along culmen 1.50 (38.2); tarsus 1.50 (38.2) (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 518). Juvenile plumage: ‘¢Head, neck, jugulum [foreneck], 
sides and flanks, umber brown, varying to a cinnamon shade, the head and 
neck thickly streaked with black, and the feathers of the jugulum, sides, ete., 
eentered with dusky. Back and scapulars dusky, the feathers broadly 
bordered with dull fulvous; crissum [under tail coverts] irregularly streaked 
and spotted with dusky; rump and upper tail coverts slaty brown, bordered 


112 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


with dull whitish. Wing as in the adult, except that the coverts are dull 
cinereous broadly bordered with white. Lower parts except as described, pure 
white’’ (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit.). Natal plumage: Top of head 
brownish black; forehead, sides of head, and hind neck, light cinnamon brown; 
whole back brown, with a spot of straw yellow on each side near base of tail, 
and one of light tawny on hind border of each wing; lower surface of body 
dull straw yellow, with an obscure wash of light cinnamon brown across 
foreneck: 

Marks FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Similar to those for Baldpate. In hand 
the male European Widgeon can be identified by the bright rufous red instead 
of white and black speckled head, by lack of a green patch behind eye, by 
grayish rather than pinkish brown tone of back, and by entire absence of 
brown on sides of body (pl. 3). Both sexes possess gray axillar feathers; in the 
Baldpate these are white. 

Voice—‘‘ The call note of the male is a shrill, whistling whee-you, whence 
the local names ‘Whew-Duck’ and ‘Whewer’; but the female utters a low 
purr or croak’’ (Saunders, 1899, p. 438). 

Nest—On ground near water; built of grasses and dead plants and well 
concealed. 

Eees—5 to 10, pointedly ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.13 to 2.30 by 
1.50 to 1.53 (in millimeters, 54.3 to 58.4 by 38.2 to 38.8); in color buffy white 
(authors). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northern part of the Eastern Hemisphere. Occurs 
occasionally in winter and in migration in North America, from Wisconsin, 
Michigan, New York, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Greenland south to 
Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, North Carolina and Florida, and in Alaska, 
British Columbia and California (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 69-70). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—A not infrequent winter visitant. Definite 
records known to the writers, of its occurrence within the state are: Rio Vista, 
Solano County, two specimens (Belding, MS); San Francisco market, several 
specimens (Cooper, 1868, p. 9; W. E. Bryant, 1886, p. 426; Ridgway, 1880, p. 
231); Eureka, Humboldt County (C. H. Townsend, 1886, p. 491); Humboldt 
Bay, Humboldt County, two specimens (F. J. Smith, MS); Bixby, Los Angeles 
County (Grinnell, 1904b, pp. 383-384). 


The European Widgeon is one of the few species which really 
belong to the Eastern Hemisphere but of which stragglers occasionally 
reach America. There are no records of its breeding within the United 
States or anywhere else in North America. Cooke (1906, p. 28) 
points out that most of the California records are in February, those 
in British Columbia from December 25 to February 9, and the two 
Alaska dates October 12 and May 27. Our birds probably come from 
eastern Siberia. 

All the California records are from near the coast. Mr. F. J. 
Smith of Eureka writes us that three Red-headed Widgeons have 
been taken on Humboldt Bay. One is an adult male in the collection 
of birds mounted by Mr. Chas. Fiebig and now in the public library 
at Eureka. This is doubtless the specimen recorded by C. H. Town- 
send (1886, p. 491). A second adult male in faded plumage was taken 


GREEN-WINGED TEAL 118 


about 1905 and is in the collection of Dr. F. H. Ottmer. The third 
specimen was taken by an expert hunter, Alden Trott, from a flock 
of Baldpates on Arcata Bay, October 20, 1911. Mr. Chase Littlejohn 
has told us that when his brother was hunting for the market in the 
eighties, Red-headed Widgeons were frequently secured on south San 
Francisco Bay. 

There is a considerable difference in coloration between the male 
European Widgeon and our Baldpate, so that there is no need of 
confusing the two, at least when in hand. The male European 
‘Widgeon can always be distinguished by the rich brown color of the 
head and neck, and both sexes by the gray instead of white axillary 
feathers. In the full plumaged male bird the head and neck are almost 
uniform rufous red in color, there is no brown on the sides, and the 
back lacks the pinkish brown tone to be observed in the Baldpate. 
The top of the head is creamy white, slightly rusty on the forepart. 
The throat is largely blackish, while minute flecks of black dot the 
cheeks and loral region. Back of the eye the chestnut ground-color 
is overlaid by numerous flecks of metallic green. A specimen pro- 
cured in Los Angeles County was taken for a hybrid between a Red- 
head and Baldpate by local sportsmen. 

In all its habits the European Widgeon is said by competent 
authorities to resemble closely the American Widgeon, or Baldpate. 

It has been suggested that probably many instances of occurrence 
of this species have been overlooked by sportsmen and market hunters, 
who usually make no attempt to pick out unusual birds unless the 
difference is very noticeable. Owing to the rarity of its occurrence 
the European Widgeon can hardly be reckoned upon as one of Cali- 
fornia’s regular game ducks. 


Green-winged Teal 


Nettion carolinense (Gmelin) 


OTHER NAMES—Green-wing; Common Teal; American Green-winged Teal; 
Anas carolinensis; Querquedula carolinensis. 

DeEscrIPTIoN—Adult male: Head and upper neck chiefly rich chestnut brown, 
darkest on forehead; a broad patch of metallic green on each side of head 
extending from eye to hind neck, shading into black under eye and bordered 
below by a buffy white line; on back of head the two green patches are 
separated, by a black patch, the latter involving the hinder part of a short 
crest which is otherwise chestnut brown in continuation with same color on 
top of head; chin and upper throat dull black; bill black; iris dark brown; 
upper surface of body, a narrow collar around foreneck, sides, and flanks, 
finely and irregularly undulated (cross-barred) with black and white; rump 
slate brown; upper tail coverts dull black with ashy edgings which have a 
suggestion of fine black and white undulation; tail slaty brown; outer surface 
of closed wing (including elongated tertials) slate brown; speculum bright 


114 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


metallic green, appearing violet at certain angles, bordered in front by a 
vertical bar of buffy brown and above and below by horizontal plack bars; a 
conspicuous transverse bar of white on each side of body near ‘bend of wing; 
breast pinkish brown, distinctly spotted with black; middle under tail coverts 
and patches at sides of vent, black; lateral under tail coverts creamy white; 
under surface of tail ashy; rest of under surface dull white often more or less 
obscured by rusty; legs and feet olive gray, darker at joints; webs brownish 
black. Total length 14.75-15.75 inches (375-400 mm.) (six specimens); folded 
wing 6.90-7.50 (175-190); bill along culmen 1.40-1.48 (35.6-37.6); tarsus 1.11- 
1.26 (28.2-32.0) (ten specimens); weight, 12.5 oz. (355.5 gm.) (one specimen). 
Adult female: Top of head and upper surface dark brown, the feathers edged 
with pale ashy brown giving a barred or mottled appearance; top of head 
more nearly uniform brown, the narrow light feather edgings giving an effect 
of fine streaking; sides of head buffy white closely flecked with dusky; stripe 
through eye dusky; chin, throat and lower eyelid dull white, more or less 
speckled with dusky; iris yellow; outer surface of closed wing nearly as 
in male but slate brown feathers edged with ashy; sides, breast, and flanks 
similar to back, but of lighter general tone; rest of under surface as in male 
except that the indistinct spotting of the breast sometimes extends onto belly; 
under tail coverts like sides and back but still lighter. Total length 14.50- 
15.25 inches (368-387 mm.) (three specimens); folded wing 6.62—-7.00 (168- 
178); bill along culmen 1.35-1.49 (34.3-37.8); tarsus 1.07-1.18 (27.2-30.0) (ten 
specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult 
female, but lower surface lighter, and spotting on belly very faint or absent. 
Natal plumage: Top of head and hind neck, line from bill through eye, and 
spot on ear, dark brown; sides of head dull yellow; back brown, with four 
spots of straw yellow, one on each side at base of tail and one on each side 
near wing. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Very small size (for a duck); male, 
chestnut brown head with green patch back of eye, white bar across side of 
breast and bright green speculum bordered above and below by black. Dis- 
tinguished from the rare European Teal by presence of white bar across side 
of breast, and from Cinnamon and Blue-winged teals by absence of blue on 
wing. Flanks of female and young Green-wing more heavily marked than in 
Blue-winged Teal. 

Votce—Of male: a short mellow whistle; of female: a high pitched and oft 
repeated ‘‘quack’’ of slight volume (Eaton, 1910, p. 193; Bowles, in Dawson, 
1909, p. 774). 

Nest—On the ground near water; constructed of grass and feathers placed 
in a thick growth of grass. 

Eees—5 to 12, bluntly ovate in shape, measuring in inches 1.60 to 1.83 by 
1.22 to 1.34 (in millimeters, 40.7 to 46.5 by 31.0 to 34.0), and averaging 1.72 by 
1.27 (43.7 to 32.2) (fourteen eggs from Arctic America and one set, seven 
eggs, from California, all in U. S. National Museum); pale olive or greenish 
buff in color. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds from northwestern Alaska, 
central Keewatin, and Newfoundland south to California, northern Nebraska 
and New Brunswick; winters from the Aleutian Islands, British Columbia, 
Nevada, northern Indiana and western New York south to southern Lower 
California, Honduras and the West Indies (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 
1910, pp. 70-71). 


GREEN-WINGED TEAL 115 


DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA— Abundant winter visitant- throughout the 
state, chiefly on fresh water. Summers in small numbers locally; has been 
recorded as breeding only in Ventura County (Evermann, 1886, p. 89); at Tulare 
Lake, Kings County (Goldman, 1908a, p. 129); in Sierra Valley, Plumas County 
(Belding, MS); and near Alvarado, Alameda County (Dirks, 1916, p. 46). 


The Green-winged Teal’ is probably the commonest and most 
widely distributed duck in western North America, and during the 
winter season is one of the most abundant species in the southwestern 
United States. Along the Atlantic Coast it is now exceeded in num- 
bers by the Blue-winged Teal, but in former years Green-wings were 
fairly abundant there. The general breeding range of the Green- 
wing extends from the central United States to Alaska and New- 
foundland, but it is not common in summer south of the Canadian 
boundary. Most of the birds nest in west-central Canada, from Mani- 
toba to Lake Athabasca. The winter range is very extensive, reaching 
from British Columbia and New York to Mexico and even Central 
America. As with certain other ducks it is probable that the indi- 
viduals of this species wintering in California breed in British 
Columbia and Alaska. 

The Green-winged Teal is among the earliest migrant ducks to 
arrive here in the fall and also one of the last to depart in the spring. 
On August 12, 1905, a flock was flushed at Cushenbury Springs, San 
Bernardino County (Grinnell, 1908, p. 53), and as early as September 
15 it has been noted at Stockton (Belding, MS). On the Pacific slope 
of southern California it arrives in late September or in October and 
leaves in March (Willett, 1912a, p. 23). It occurs in greatest abun- 
dance here during November and December, to judge from the 
numbers to be seen in the city markets. 

This teal prefers the smaller bodies of fresh water to the larger 
lakes and rivers. The Green-wing is the species which so often drops 
into temporary ponds, irrigation ditches, small evanescent desert 
pools and the innumerable little lakes that form during wet weather 
in the hill country, and is the duck most often shot on the small 
meadow ponds of the interior. In the coastal lowlands, and marshes 
adjacent to the lower reaches of the large rivers, it is also abundant. 
As a rule it avoids salt water, but occasionally, during the daytime, 
it is to be seen rafted with other species on the smooth water of the 
ocean just outside the surf. 

Among the smallest of our ducks, and considered by many to be 
the fastest of them in flight, the Green-winged Teal is still an easy 
bird to recognize. Its small size, and in the male the chestnut brown 
head relieved by green patches behind the eyes, the white bar in front 
of each wing and the bright green speculum together with the absence 
of a large blue patch on the wing make identification easy. Both the 


116 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Cinnamon and Blue-winged teals, in addition to their green speculums, 
have large patches of light blue on the wing, while the rare European 
Teal lacks the white bar across each side of the breast. The small 
body size, close flock formation, and erratic flight serve as good field 
marks in separating teal from other ducks. 

Green-winged Teal are known to nest in small numbers within the 
state. Goldman (19084, p. 129) found a nest with seven eggs at 
Tulare Lake, Kings County, July 7, 1907, and several other birds of 
this species were also present in the vicinity. There is also a report of 
two sets of Green-winged Teal eggs secured at Tulare Lake in June, 
1910, which were sent to Judge F. W. Henshaw and hatched out on 
his place at Redwood City. This additional instance strengthens a 
surmise which Goldman makes that there is a breeding colony in the 
vicinity of Tulare Lake. Evermann (1886, p. 89) states that a few 
bred in Ventura County in former years. Belding (MS) states that 


Fig. 13. Side of bill of female Green-winged Teal. 
Natural size. Compare with bill of Cinnamon Teal (fig. 14). 


he found a few nesting in Sierra Valley, Plumas County, in June, 
1885. This was after a dry winter. Residents told him that in 
seasons following abundant rainfall many more representatives of 
the species nested there. 

In eastern Oregon during the breeding season this teal is said to 
prefer the smaller mountain streams to the larger bodies of water 
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 4). The nests of this 
duck resemble those of other species. One found by W. P. Taylor 
(1912, p. 357) in northwestern Nevada at Quinn River Crossing, 
Humboldt County, on June 4, 1909, ‘‘. . . was located in a depres- 
sion on moist ground, and surrounded by the tall grasses of the marsh. 
The nest was composed of willow twigs and grass stems so loosely 
felted together that the structure could not be picked up intact. The 
cavity measured 127 mm. (5 inches) in diameter and 70 mm. (234 
inches) deep. Four eggs were found in the nest, and one other on the 
ground at a distance. .. Strangely enough, no down feathers were 
noted anywhere in the vicinity.’’ McGregor (1906, p. 119) describes 
a nest from the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, as being ‘‘. . . on the 
ground beneath the overhanging trunk of a twisted willow; it was 


GREEN-WINGED TEAL 117 


thinly furnished with down about the top and the eggs rested on the 
ground.’’ The inside dimensions of this nest were about 544 by 314 
inches. Farther north, at the mouth of the Yukon River, Alaska, 
Nelson (1887, p. 69) says the nests are placed on dry knolls near 
small ponds, and are composed of grass stems and feathers. The 
seven eggs referred to above as collected by Goldman at Tulare Lake 
are bluntly ovate in shape, and decidedly smaller than those of the 
Cinnamon Teal. In color they are pale olive buff. They measure in 
inches 1.60 to 1.69 by 1.22 to 1.26 and average 1.65 by 1.24 (set now 
in U. S. National Museum). 

The only description we have of the behavior of the female when 
with a brood is that by Bent (1902, p. 1) who came upon a parent 
bird with eight ducklings in a rush-bordered pond in North Dakota. 
The female made a considerable demonstration, flapping and drag- 
ging herself about as long as the observer remained. The young 
meanwhile sought safety in the adjacent rushes. In Alaska, accord- 
ing to Nelson (loc. cit.), the old and young may be found feeding 
together by the last of August. They then forage in the mud at the 
edge of small secluded tide creeks or in the grass-covered margins 
of pools in the marsh land. The downy young of the Green-winged 
Teal, as compared with those of related species, exhibit one feature 
by which they can be distinguished even if color characters cannot be 
remembered. The bill is notably long and parallel-sided, giving an 
effect of extreme slenderness. 

The Green-winged Teal is distinctly a gregarious species and, 
during the winter season, flocks have been observed, of as many as 
several hundred individuals. In fact this has been referred to as 
the most gregarious of ducks. Another striking feature of this bird’s 
behavior is its extremely high rate of speed on the wing. Bowles (in 
Dawson, 1909, p. 773) says: 


Moving at a rate of certainly not less than one hundred miles an hour, 
the evolutions of a large flock of these birds are truly startling. They fly 
in such close order that one would think their wings must interfere, even on a 
straight course; yet of a sudden the whole flock will turn at a right angle, 
or wheel and twist as if it were one bird. The looker-on can only wonder what 
the signal may be which is given and obeyed to such perfection, for the least 
hesitation or mistake on the part of a single bird would result in death or a 
broken wing to a score. 


When flushed from the ground or water these teal usually ascend 
to a considerable elevation before flying off. When not disturbed 
they like to spend a large share of their time on land and seem to 
enjoy this ‘‘loafing’’ more than the great majority of wild ducks. 
The Green-wing is a rapid swimmer, but it seldom dives except when 
wounded. 


138 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Ordinarily Green-winged Teal feed during the daytime, but if 
molested they forage chiefly at night. Their favorite feeding ground 
is along the shore of a pond where they search about the mud (that 
is, ‘‘puddle’’) for insects and seeds. Like the Mallard and other 
pond and river ducks, the Green-winged Teal feeds in shallow water, 
searching the bottom by ‘‘standing on its head’’ and sifting out the 
seeds and other food materials from the mud and water. While 
thus ‘‘tilting’’ a bird often kicks the water vigorously to help it in 
maintaining the desired balance. Occasionally it may be seen wander- 
ing about on the grass-grown banks searching for insects. In fact 
the Green-wing is almost as omnivorous a feeder as the Mallard; 
for it will take aquatic plants, snails, crustaceans and all sorts of 
insects along with the commonest element of its food—weed seeds. 

Some persons consider the Green-winged Teal the most desirable 
duck as far as flavor is concerned. Its tender juicy flesh is certainly 
of a sort to be relished by anyone. This duck is also very attractive 
from a sportsman’s standpoint ; indeed many hunters consider it their 
‘‘best’’? duck. It is both fast flying and wary and this makes it 
difficult to hit. A long lead and a quick shot are necessary to bring 
it to bag. However, it is fond of company and in consequence is 
easily attracted by the decoys. Even when it has been shot at several 
times this desire for company will cause the birds to return repeatedly 
to the same pond. The close formation is maintained both when in 
the air and on the water, thus affording opportunity for ‘‘pot shots.’’ 

In this state, the numbers of Green-winged Teal shot each year 
exceed those of any other single species of duck. This is because of 
its greater abundance and also its desirability as a table bird. In 
1909-1910 each of the game transfer companies of San Francisco 
handled from 5,000 to 20,000 ‘‘teal,’’ while in 1895-1896 more than 
82,000 were sold in the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles 
(Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 40). There were probably some Cinna- 
mon Teal in these lots, but by far the greater number were Green-wings. 
In 1886 several species of ducks on the San Francisco market sold for 
the following prices per dozen: Canvasback, $3.50 per dozen; Mall- 
ards, $2.50 and $3.00; Sprigs, $1.50 and $2.00; Widgeon, $1.25; Teal, 
$1.50 to $1.75; ‘‘small ducks,’’ $1.00 (Belding, MS). Thus it will 
be seen that, taking size into account, teal were greatly preferred. 
As long as the breeding grounds in the far north are well protected, 
and the toll taken each year is not too great, we can expect this duck 
to continue to visit us in numbers. That the toll is now in fact too 
great is the contention of many hunters in this state, who maintain 
that the numbers of this bird are steadily decreasing from year to 
year. 


EUROPEAN TEAL 119 


European Teal 


Nettion crecca (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAME—Anas crecca. 

Description—Adult male: ‘‘Similar to... [the Green-winged Teal] but 
no white bar on side of breast, black and whitish undulations of sides, etc., 
much coarser, inner webs of outermost scapulars wholly, and outer webs 
partly, white, the exposed portion of outer webs mostly black . . .’’ (Ridgway, 
1887, p. 94). Total length ‘‘about 14.00’’ inches (356 mm.); folded wing 
**7,00-7.30’? (178-186); bill along culmen ‘‘1.45-1.50’’ (36.8-38.2); tarsus 
“*1,10-1.25’? (28.0-31.8) (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 7). Adult 
female: ‘‘Not distinguishable with certainty from that of [Green-winged 
Teal] N. carolinensis???’ (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit.). ‘‘Females 
and young of this teal can scarcely be determined unless by careful com- 
parison with authentic specimens, but seem to be browner and less finely 
variegated than the American bird’’ (Haton, 1910, p. 191). Natal plumage: 
See Green-winged Teal. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Adult male: as for Green-winged Teal 
but white bar on side of breast lacking. Female cannot be distinguished from 
that of Green-winged Teal (Chapman, 1912, p. 195). 

Voice—Like that of Green-winged Teal. 

Nest—In bogs and marshes in grassy fields; formed of grasses and reeds, 
warmly lined with feathers (Davie, 1889, p. 64). 

Eees—8 to 10, sometimes 15, oval in shape, measuring in inches 1.75 by 1.30 
(in millimeters, 44.5-by 33.0); color yellowish white (Davie, loc. cit.). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northern part of Eastern Hemisphere. Occasional 
in North America; recorded from the Aleutian Islands, California, Greenland, 
Labrador, Nova Scotia, Maine, New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut and 
Virginia (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 70). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Known chiefly from Cooper’s statement (1886, 
p. 125) that in his time it had been ‘‘found not rarely in California.’’ 


The European Teal is widely distributed over the Old World, 
breeding throughout Europe and Asia. The records of its occurrence 
in North America are very few. Specimens have been taken along 
the Atlantic Coast from Labrador to the District of Columbia; several 
have been found in the markets of New York City. On the Pacific 
Coast but two records are known, one for the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, 
and the other for California. The latter record, as far as we are 
aware, is unfortunately not substantiated by specimens in any collec- 
tion. The dates of capture elsewhere in America are for every month 
of the year, except January, August, and October; those from the 
United States range from November to April (Cooke, 1906, p. 30). 
This teal is known to be abundant on the eastern coast of Asia as far 
north as Kamchatka and Bering Island. 

Although Cooper (1886, p. 125) records the European Teal as 
having been ‘‘found not rarely in California,’’ no other record of 
its occurrence within the state is known to us. Belding (MS) thought 


120 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


that individuals of this species bred in the marshes near Stockton. 
But since this belief was based on sight determination, it can hardly 
be given weight as conclusive evidence. This duck certainly cannot 
be considered as more than an extremely rare straggler within the 
borders of the state, if it now occurs here at all. 

In habits the European Teal doubtless so nearly resembles the 
Green-winged Teal that the account of the latter will serve to give a 
fair idea of the former. One of the peculiar habits for which the 
European Teal is especially noted in England may be mentioned 
however. When startled it flies up almost perpendicularly to a con- 
siderable height, then starts off in a straight line, afterwards return- 
ing at a great height. When about to alight the birds dive down 
almost perpendicularly from overhead. Their speed in flight is said 
to be remarkable, and has been estimated at over a hundred miles an 
hour. Millais (1902, p. 82) says: ‘‘Whilst on the wing the male 
oceasionally utters his low double whistle, but Teal are silent birds 
at all times, and the female rarely calls unless frightened, such as 
when the brood is threatened, when she emits a subdued little quack.’’ 


Blue-winged Teal 


Querquedula discors (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—White-faced Teal; Anas discors. 

Description—Adult male: Head and neck dull lead color, slightly glossed 
with purplish on the sides; top of head from base of bill to hind neck, black; 
conspicuous crescent on side of head extending from above eye around in 
front of eye and downwards and backwards past chin, white, bordered with 
blackish; chin black; bill ‘‘bluish-black’’; iris ‘‘dark hazel’? (Audubon, 1843, 
VI, p. 291); upper surface dark brown, the feathers lighter-edged, and those 
of back and scapulars variegated with horseshoe-shaped markings of light 
rusty brown; rump and tail nearly uniform dark brown, but with pale feather 
edgings; forepart of outer surface of closed wing pale blue; flight feathers 
dark brown; tertials long and narrow and striped with light rusty brown and 
black; speculum metallic green, bordered in front by a white bar, above by a 
blackish stripe, and behind by a very narrow white border; most of lining of 
wing, and axillars, pure white; under surface of body and sides, reddish brown, 
spotted with black; under tail coverts brownish black; spot at base of tail on 
each side, white; under surface of tail feathers, ashy; feet ‘‘dull yellow,’’ 
webs ‘‘dusky,’’ claws ‘‘brownish black’’ (Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length 
(both sexes): ‘‘14.50-16.00’’ inches (368-407 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 92). 
Males: folded wing 7.50 (190) (adult), 7.00 (178) (immature); bill along 
eulmen 1.55 (39.4) (adult), 1.52 (38.6) (immature); tarsus 1.22 (31.0) (adult), 
1.17 (29.7) (immature); one specimen of each from California. Adult female: 
Upper surface dark brown, with dull buff feather edgings; sides of head and 
neck finely streaked with same color; stripe before and behind eye, dusky; 
rest of head and neck pale brownish white; chin and throat almost pure 
white; bill, iris, and outer surface of closed wing as in adult male, but green 
of speculum much duller and tertials colored like back; under surface of body 


BLUE-WINGED TEAL 121 


dull white, with grayish brown feather centers, giving a spotted or mottled 
appearance, coarsest on sides of body and least distinct on belly. Folded wing 
6.83-6.88 inches (174-175 mm.); bill along culmen 1.48-1.51 (37.6-38.4); tarsus 
1.16-1.24 (29.4-31.5) (two specimens from California). Juvenile plumage: 
Similar to that of adult female but wing like that of adult male. Natal 
plumage: ‘‘Top of head and upper parts, brown; buff spots in front of wing, 
across wing, and at side of rump; forehead, line to eye and lower parts, 
pale buff; sides of head and hind neck, ochraceous buff’’ (Sanford, Bishop and 
Van Dyke, 1903, p. 99). Adult males at close of breeding season assume an 
‘‘eclipse’’ plumage resembling plumage of female. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Small size. Male has large blue patch 
on forepart of wing, green speculum, white crescent on cheek and no deep 
cinnamon color on under surface. Female distinguished with difficulty from 
female Cinnamon Teal: chin and throat much lighter, no rusty on chest or 
sides, and head and neck more heavily speckled. 

VoiceE—Of male: a whistling ‘‘peep,’’ repeated five or six times; of female: 
similar to ‘‘quack’’ of Green-winged Teal (Eaton, 1910, p. 195). 

Nest—Usually on dry ground near fresh water, and hidden in tall grass; 
made of grass or reeds and lined with down. 

Eces—6 to 12, bluntly ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.71 to 1.93 by 
1.26 to 1.36 (in millimeters, 43.5 to 49.0 by 32.0 to 34.5), and averaging 1.81 
by 1.30 (46.0 by 33.0); in color pale olive buff (forty-one eggs in U. S. 
National Museum). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Western Hemisphere, but most numerous in the 
eastern portion of North America. Breeds from central British Columbia and 
Newfoundland south to northern Nevada, southern Indiana and Maine, but 
most abundantly between the Rocky Mountains and Great Lakes. Winters 
from southern British Columbia, Arizona, southern Illinois, and Delaware south 
to central America and northern South America (modified from A. O. U. 
Check-list, 1910, p. 71). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Rare transient and winter visitant, occurring 
exclusively on fresh water. The following are the only records from Cali- 
fornia known to the writers: Napa, Napa County (W. E. Bryant, 1891, p. 
128); Stockton, San Joaquin County, San Diego, and Agua Caliente [= Palm 
Springs], Riverside County (Belding, 1891, p. 97); Weaverville, Trinity County 
(Salvadori, 1895, p. 299); Vallejo, Solano County (Kobbé, in Bailey, 1902, p. 
xlix); Little Owens Lake, Inyo County (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 16); Santa 
Barbara (Torrey, 1909a, pp. 173-174; Dawson, 1916, p. 24); El Monte and 
Los Angeles, Los Angeles County (Grinnell, 1898, p. 11; Swarth, 1910, p. 107); 
Los Angeles County (Willett, 1911, p. 76); Bolsa Beach, Orange County 
(Grinnell collection); National City, San Diego County (Willett, 1912a, p 23); 
Colorado River, Riverside County, opposite Ehrenberg, Arizona (Stephens, 
1903, p. 76). 


The Blue-winged Teal, although a common duck of the east and 
still more common in the middle west, is a rare species on the Pacific 
Coast. Its breeding range includes the northern United States and 
extends northward to central Canada. It is to be found breeding most 
abundantly in south-central Canada and in the middle western states 
between the Rocky Mountains and the Great Lakes. It is rare in 
British Columbia and has been recorded but once from Alaska. Dur- 


122 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


ing the winter it is distributed from the south-central states to north- 
ern South America. Consequently it must be classed along with the 
Cinnamon Teal as a southern duck which comes north through the 
United States for the summer. 

The Blue-winged Teal has been taken but comparatively few times 
in California and the majority of the records are from south of 
Tehachapi. Of twenty individual specimens recorded, three are of 
January date, one of February, eight are of ‘‘spring’’ dates (March 
to May, inclusive), the other eight of ‘‘fall’’ dates (August to October, 
inclusive). From these facts it would appear that the Blue-winged 
Teal oceurs in California as a transient, and casually as a midwinter 
visitant. 

The adult male is distinctive among American ducks by reason of 
the crescent-shaped patches of white on the sides of its head, and this 
feature gives it the name of White-faced Teal. The large area of 
light blue on the wing will separate the Blue-winged Teal from all 
other ducks of similar size except the Cinnamon Teal. The males of 
these two species are readily distinguished because of the bright 
cinnamon, almost chestnut color, of the Cinnamon Teal. The females 
and young, however, are very similar. Those of the Blue-winged 
Teal have a slenderer bill (compare figs. 15 and 16), constricted at 
the base, and they lack the slight tinge of chestnut to be noted on the 
sides of the breast in the Cinnamon Teal. The feathers of the breast 
of the Cinnamon Teal are commonly marked with horseshoe-shaped 
markings of pale rufous, whereas those of the Blue-winged Teal are 
simply edged with ashy. 

According to Davie (1889, p. 65) the nest is made on the ground, 
in a thick patch or tussock of grass, usually in meadows, the borders 
of ponds, or streams, and swampy places. It is composed of soft 
pieces of grass and weeds and lined with down and feathers from 
the breast of the bird. The eggs are six to twelve in number, bluntly 
ovate in shape, and are lighter in tint than those of the Green-winged 
Teal; they are distinguishable from those of the Cinnamon only by 
their slightly smaller size. In the middle west this duck is said to nest 
in thickly settled localities and even on embankments beside railroad 
tracks. 

Like the Green-winged Teal, the Blue-wing flies with great speed 
and in close flocks. On approaching a pond it drops quickly into 
the water or into the reeds much as do some of the shorebirds. 

The habits of the Blue-winged Teal are almost identical with those 
of the Green-winged Teal. Individuals found in California have 
nearly always been mixed in with flocks of Green-winged Teal and 
have not been recognized until shot. 


CINNAMON TEAL 123 


Where abundant this duck affords the same sport as does the 
Green-wing and makes just as difficult a mark. Like the latter bird 
the Blue-wing readily decoys, and it is just as desirable as the Green- 
wing for the table. 

It is not probable that the Blue-winged Teal will ever become 
common in California. Certainly the. records do not show that it 
is becoming more abundant at the present time. An increase in the 
number of records at some future time might result from an increase 
in the number of people who are able to recognize the species, and 
from a keener watch being kept for unusual occurrences among the 
ducks killed in the state. 


Cinnamon Teal 


Querquedula cyanoptera (Vieillot) 


OTHER NAMES—Red-breasted Teal; Western Blue-winged Teal; Anas cyanop- 
tera; Pterocyanea coeruleata; Pterocyanea discors. 

DescripTion—Adult male: Head rich chestnut, washed with black on crown 
and chin; iris orange; bill black, margin of upper mandible and whole of 
lower mandible tinged with pink; back brownish black with U-shaped bars 
and feather-edgings of chestnut; rump and middle upper tail coverts dark 
brown edged with lighter brown; lateral upper tail coverts and upper surface 
of tail brownish black; forepart of outer surface of closed wing and outer 
webs of scapulars, clear light blue; flight feathers slate brown; speculum 
metallic green, separated from blue area by a white bar and bordered above 
by brownish black; tertials striped with buff; axillars white; lining of wing 
white and dull brown; whole under surface of body rich chestnut, washed 
with blackish on belly; under tail coverts black; under surface of tail feathers 
ashy; feet greenish orange, joints, webs and claws dusky. Total length 15.95— 
16.20 inches (405-412 mm.) (three specimens); folded wing 7.25-8.00 (184- 
203); bill along culmen 1.67-1.88 (42.4-47.7); tarsus 1.21-1.32 (30.7-33.5) 
(ten specimens); weight 10.3-11.3 ounces (290-320 gm.) (three specimens). 
Adult female: Top of head blackish brown, each feather narrowly edged with 
brown; rest of head ashy cinnamon, finely streaked with dark brown; chin 
sometimes unstreaked; whole upper surface blackish brown, with buffy or 
ashy feather edgings; iris hazel; outer surface of closed wing as in male, but 
speculum dull black, showing only a trace of green, and white bar reduced or 
absent; scapulars dark brown streaked and edged with paler brown; lining of 
wing and axillars as in male; breast buffy, heavily mottled with blackish and 
more or less suffused with light cinnamon brown; rest of under surface like 
breast, but less heavily mottled and ground color paler sometimes almost white 
on middle of belly; feet dull green, webs and claws dusky. Total length 15.75 inches 
(400 mm.) (one specimen); folded wing 6.90-7.45 (175-189); bill along culmen 
1.63-1.85 (41.4-47.0); tarsus 1.21-1.26 (30.7-32.0) (ten specimens); weight 10.8 
oz. (305.7 gm.) (one specimen); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar 
to that of adult female, but under surface of body less suffused with cinnamon 
brown, and markings narrower, giving more of a streaked appearance. Juvenile 
males can be distinguished from females by the green speculum and white wing 
bar being as in adult males. Females have speculum dull black with faintest 
trace of green and white bar but brokenly indicated. Natal plumage: Top of 


124 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


head dark olive; sides of head, chin and throat, yellowish buff; stripe from 
base of bill near nostril to eye and two streaks back of eye, dark brown; upper 
surface of body dark olive; spot on each side of back and one on each side at 
base of tail, yellow; whole under surface yellowish buff. 

Marks FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Small size (but large for a teal), and 
large blue patch on wing in front of green or blackish speculum. Male dis- 
tinguished from all other ducks by rich chestnut brown body color (pl. 4). 
Female and young can only be separated from those of Blue-winged Teal in 
hand and then only with difficulty; the Cinnamon has head and chin more 
speckled, and distinct diffusion of light cinnamon brown and U-shaped markings 
on breast. 

VorcE—Similar to that of other teal; a miniature ‘‘quack,’’ given by the 
female. 

Nest—Situated in grassy fields or among tules, sometimes above shallow 
water but more often above damp ground, at times some little distance from 
water; made of grasses or tules compactly woven together and deeply saucer- 
shaped. 

Eees—6 to 13, ovate or elongate ovate in shape; measuring in inches 1.73 to 
2.09 by 1.18 to 1.88 (in millimeters, 44.0 to 53.0 by 30.0 to 35.0), and averaging 
1.87 by 1.36 (47.5 by 34.5) (seventy eggs in U. 8. National Museum); in color 
creamy white or pale buff. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds in North America 
from southern British Columbia, southwestern Alberta, southeastern Wyoming, 
and western Kansas south to northern Lower California, northern Chihuahua, 
southern New Mexico, and southwestern Texas; winters from southern Cali- 
fornia, central New Mexico, and southern Texas south to southern Lower 
California and central Mexico. Occurs in South America from Peru and Brazil 
south to the Falkland Islands (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 71). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Abundant spring, summer and fall visitant 
throughout the state, breeding throughout its summer range; restricted to the 
vicinity of fresh water. Scattered individuals winter in the central and 
southern portions of the state, the following definite instances of occurrence 
being known: Vallejo, Solano County (Kobbé in Bailey, 1902, p. xlix); Los 
Baiios, Merced County, November to February, inclusive, 1911-1912 (twelve 
specimens in Mus, Vert. Zool.); Riverdale, Fresno County, January 10, 1912, 
a dozen (Tyler, 1913b, p. 16); Tulare Lake, Kings County (Cooke, 1906, p. 35); 
Newport Slough, Orange County, December and January, 1884 (Belding, MS); 
and near Salton Sea, Imperial County, December 16, 1910, one (Van Rossem, 
1911, p. 130). The spring migration begins about the first of March and the 
southward movement commences in September, the breeding grounds being 
almost deserted by mid-October (Cooke, loc. cit.). 


The bright coloration of this duck has attracted much popular 
attention and has been the basis for its several vernacular names. 
The chestnut or cinnamon color of the under surface has given rise 
to its accepted vernacular name, Cinnamon Teal, also a common 
hunter’s name, Red-breasted Teal; while the large patch of blue on 
the wing is responsible for its being called Blue-winged Teal. Use of 
the latter name, however, is confusing, as a related bird abundant in 
eastern North America, and even reaching California, has proper 
claim to this name (see preceding account). 


CINNAMON TEAL 125 


The chestnut color of the lower surface serves to easily distinguish 
the male Cinnamon Teal from all other ducks (pl. 4). The females 
and young closely resemble those of the eastern Blue-winged Teal. 
The heavier speckling on the head and chin, the strong suffusion of 
rusty or cinnamon on the 
breast, and the U-shaped 
markings of pale rusty 
brown are never present 
in the Blue-winged Teal. 
Close examination of the 
bills will show that of 
the Blue-wing to be smal- 
ler, although relatively 
broader at the base (figs. 
15 and 16). From the Green-winged Teal the Cinnamon Teal may be 
distinguished in hand by the larger size of the latter, longer bill and 
neck, darker color, presence of blue on forepart of wing and, in flight, 
by the last named character and 
also by the less rapid beating of 
the wings. 

The Cinnamon Teal must be 
considered the commonest breeding 
duck as regards the whole of Cali- 
fornia, although the Pintail or Mal- 
lard may possibly outnumber it in 
certain localities. In southern Cali- 
fornia there is hardly a ranch of 
any size offering suitable conditions 

1647 HSS where a pair or more of these birds 
Fig. 16. Blue-winged Teal. is not to be observed at the proper 

Tops of Pills. Both females, ma season. It is the Cinnamon Teal 

outline shown will serve to which is the usual duck found nest- 

Separate the {wo species when ing in the marshes of the San Joa- 

quin and Sacramento valleys. The 
artificial ponds in the form of reservoirs, found so commonly through- 
out the state, often furnish a home for it. 

In California the nesting season of the Cinnamon Teal extends 
from April into July. The bulk of the nesting occurs in May and 
June, chiefly the former month. There is no difference in time of 
nesting correlative with latitude, but nesting at high altitudes occurs 
later than in the lowlands. The accompanying table (no. 10) gives all 
the data known to the authors relative to the nesting of the species 
in California. 

While Cinnamon Teal have been found nesting in such widely 


Fig. 14. Side of bill of female Cinnamon Teal. 
Natural size. 


126 


GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


TABLE 10.—Data relative to the nesting of the Cinnamon Teal in California 


LOCALITY 


DaTE 


Stockton, San Joaquin Co. Apr. 13, 1878 


Escondido, San Diego Co. 


Newport Bay, Orange Co. 
Newport Bay, Orange Co. 


Near College Park, 
Santa Clara Co. 
Near College Park, 
Santa Clara Co. 
Near College Park, 
Santa Clara Co. 
Near College Park, 
Santa Clara Co. 
Vicinity of Los Angeles 


Compton, Los Angeles Co. 
Wheeler Island, 
Solano Co. 


Fort Crook (near Pitt- 
ville), Shasta Co. 


Sierra Valley, Plumas Co. 


Los Bafios, Merced Co. 


Los Bafios, Merced Co. 


Near College Park, 
Santa Clara Co. 


Los Angeles Co. 


Merced Co. 


Buena Vista Lake, 
Kern Co. 


Lathrop, San Joaquin Co. 
Dos Palos, Merced Co. 
Los Bafios, Merced Co. 


Nigger Slough, 
OS Angeles Co. 


Gridley, Butte Co. 
Sugar Hill, Modoc Co. 


Merced, Merced Co. 


Tule [Rhett] Lake, 
Siskiyou Co. 


Lower Klamath Lake, 
Siskiyou Co. 


San Jacinto Lake, 
Riverside Co. 


Lake Tahoe 


Tulare Lake, Kings Co. 


Lake Valley, near 
Lake Tahoe 


Chowchilla, Merced Co. 
Chowchilla, Merced Co. 


San Luis Rey, 
[San Diego Co.?] 
Eagle Lake, Lassen Co. 


Rowlands Marsh, 
Lake Tahoe 


Palo Verde, Imperial Co. 


Bear Lake, 
San Bernardino Mts. 


Apr. 18 to 
May 138 
1897 


1897 
1893 


Apr. 
Apr. 
Apr. 


20, 
20, 
29, 
1893 


Apr. 29, 


Apr. 29, 1893 


Apr. 29, 1893 
First week in 
May 
May 
May 


1895 
1914 
May 1861 


May 9, 1891 
May 10-14, 
1915 


May 11-24, 
1914 


May 13, 1893 

Mid-May 

May 20, 1896 

May 20-380, 
1907 


1911 
1912 
1914 
1911 


May 22, 
May 22, 
May 22, 
May 25, 
May 1914 
May 1910 


May 
June 


1898 
1914 


June 1914 


June 1897 


June 14, 1915 


June 1907 


. 


June 1902 


1901 
1901 
1861 


June 
June 
June 


21, 
21, 
22, 


June 26, 
or later 


June 30, 1903 


1905 


July 14, 1916 


July 30, 1905 


. Nest CONTENTS AND 
ConDITION 


Breeding (male taken) 
Nests found 


fresh 
fresh 
fresh 


7 eggs, 
9 eggs, 
8 eggs, 


10 eggs 
11 eggs 
11 eggs 


9-13 eggs; nesting 
commonly 


12 eggs, fresh 
Newly hatched brood 


3 eggs (set incomplete?) 
3 eggs (set incomplete?) 
1 egg (set incomplete) 


23 nests found and 4 
broods of downy young 
seen 


11 eggs, deserted 


Young birds seen by this 
time 


9 eggs, fresh 
Fresh eggs and young 


6 eggs 

11 eggs, nearly fresh 

11 eggs, fresh 

5 eggs (set incomplete) 


9 eggs, fresh 


10 eggs, incubated 


8 eggs 
9 eggs, female sitting 


Brood of 5 or 6 downy 
young 


11 eggs, incubation com- 
menced. 


11 eggs, incubation com- 
mence 


Nesting completed; many 
broods; some nearly 
full grown 
4 eggs (set incomplete?) 


9 eggs, fresh 
10 eggs, incubation begun 
Female with matured egg 


7 eges, 8 eggs, 10 eggs 

10 eggs, practically fresh 
7 eggs, hatched on this 
date 


Small young seen 


AUTHORITY 
Belding, 1879, p. 446 
Sharp, 1907, p. 86 


Grinnell, 1898, p. 11 
Grinnell, 1898, p. 11 
Schneider, 1893, p. 21 


Siinesdes, 1893, pp. 21- 
Schneider, 1893, p. 21 
Schneider, 1893, p. 21 
Davie, 1889, p. 66 


Grinnell, 1898, p. 11 
Fair, MS 


Set in U. S. National 


Museum 


Set in U. S. National 
‘useum 


H. C. Bryant, 1915e, 

p. 193 

H. C. Bryant, 1914e, 
pp. 222-223 

Schneider, 1893, p. 21 

Willett, 1912a, pp. 23-24 


Mailliard coll. 
Linton, 1908c, p. 196 


H. C. Bryant, MS. 
Carriger coll. 

Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Willett, 1912a, p. 24 


H, C. Bryant, 1914e, 
p. 227 

W. P. Taylor, MS, in 
Mus. Vert. Zool. 


Mus. Vert. Zool. 
H. C. Bryant, 1914e, 
p. 230 


H. C. Bryant, 1914e, 
p. 231 

Ingersoll coll. 

Carriger coll. 


Goldman, 1908), p. 202 


Ray, 1908, p. 49 


Mailliard coll. 
Mailliard coll. 
Cooper, 1880, p. 251 


Sheldon, 1907, pp. 
186-187 

Ray, 1905, p. 370 

Wiley, MS. 


Grinnell, 1908, p. 53 


UNIV. CALIF, SEMICENT, PUBL. [GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 4 


CINNAMON TEAL, MALE AND FEMALE 


CINNAMON TEAL 127 


separated and diverse localities as Lake Tahoe, the San Joaquin 
Valley, and the coastal marshes of southern California, the site chosen 
for the nest is always in the vicinity of fresh water. On salt marshes, 
fresh water oases are sought out. The immediate site chosen differs 
markedly in the numerous instances recorded. Sometimes the nest 
is placed in grass land or a grain field a hundred yards or so from 
water ; more commonly, it is in a damp situation, as in tules or marsh 
land, and at the edge of some small pond or stream. The nest itself 
is usually a compact structure made of grass stems and weeds and, 
less often, tules; but occasionally it is nothing more than a slight 
hollow in the ground. After the full complement of six to thirteen 
eggs is laid, the nest is always well lined with down of a dark gray 
hue; as a rule, until the set is complete, little or no down is to be 
found in the nest. While sitting, the female is secretive, and only 
flushes when an intruder is close to the nest. A nest found by H. C. 
Bryant (MS) near Lathrop, San Joaquin County, May 22, 1911, 
from which the female had departed before his approach, was found 
to have the eggs covered and completely concealed by the down. 
Speaking of the Cinnamon Teal in the nesting season at Los Bajfios, 
Chapman (1908, p. 290) says that ‘‘the drake was always within a 
few feet of the duck, when she was off the nest, and invariably sprang 
into the air a foot or two behind her when she took wing. We made 
this habit a subject of special observation without ever seeing the 
male bird fly first.’’ 

At Los Batios, Merced County, in May, 1914, H. C. Bryant (1914e, 
p. 222) found no less than twenty-three nests of this species. Of these, 
eighteen showed evidence of destruction of the eggs by some pre- 
dacious animal, and from three others the young had already hatched. 
A nest which when first found contained but a single egg, four days 
later held five eggs, showing that one egg was laid each day. Con- 
cerning nests found at this locality the same author says: 


The inconspicuousness of a nest when covered with its blanket of down 
was significantly impressed upon us on returning to « nesting site we had 
previously marked. Although we went directly to the small islet on which 
the nest was situated and looked carefully for the nest it took several minutes 
to desery it, and when found was in exactly the position we had pictured it 
in our minds. The dusky-hued down of the Cinnamon Teal harmonizes wonder- 
fully with the damp black earth on which the nest is most often directly placed 
(H. C. Bryant, 1914e, pp. 222-223). 


The method most frequently used in locating nests of this and 
other species of ducks is for two persons to drag a long rope over 
an area in which nests are to be expected. As the rope, passing over 
the grass, approaches a sitting bird she will usually flush directly 
and thus give a clue to the exact location of her nest. 


128 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


As is shown by the accompanying table (no. 10) the number of 
eggs in a complete set ranges from 6 to 13, the average being between 
9 and 10. The eggs are ovate or elongate-ovate in shape, and measure 
in inches 1.73 to 2.08 by 1.18 to 1.38, averaging 1.87 by 1.36. The 
color is creamy white or pale buff. The eggs of the Green-winged 
Teal are decidedly smaller, but similar in tone of color. Those of 
the Pintail, Gadwall and Shoveller are much larger. 

A. M. Shields (in Schneider, 1893, p. 22) has given the following 
notes as to the habits of the young: 


After being hatched, the mother duck (joined by her mate) escorts the 
young brood to the nearest body of water and manifests the greatest solicitude 
for the well-fare of the little fellows, giving a signal upon the slightest 
approach of danger, which is followed by the almost instant disappearance of 
the entire brood, as if by magic. 

If on the shore, they disappear in the grass; if in the water, they dive, and 
that is generally the last seen of them, for the time being at least, as they 
swim under water for great distances until reaching the edge of the stream or 
pond, when they imperceptibly secrete themselves among the water moss or 
grass. , 

I once watched a little fellow as he made his way under the clear water. 
He went straight for a little bunch of floating moss, and by gazing intently 
I could just distinguish the least possible little swelling of the moss; a 
small hump, as it were, about the size of a marble. He had come to the 
surface (as intended) under the patch of moss, and his head and bill were 
responsible for the little hump in the moss. 

Possibly one thing more than anything else helps the little fellows to dis- 
appear in such marvelously quick time and before you can realize it. The 
old duck flutters and falls around you just out of your reach and most success- 
fully imitates a fowl badly winged, hardly able to rise from the ground. 

Her actions are bound to more or less avert your attention for a moment 
at least, and it is just that moment that the little fellows disappear, as the 
mother Duck undoubtedly intended. 

After a short time, when the little ones are all securely hidden, the mother, 
feeling no further anxiety, gracefully recovers from her crippled condition, 
flies off a few hundred yards, and there awaits your departure, when she 
returns to her family, who soon gather around her one by one till they are 
all assembled and everything goes on as though nothing had happened—until 
the next intruder appears, when ‘‘presto! change!’’ and the same actions 
are repeated. 


Writing of the Cinnamon Teal at Los Bafios, Merced County, 
Chapman (1908, p. 290) says that the agility of the ‘‘freshly hatched 
ducklings was remarkable. Almost on emerging from the egg they 
took to the water, swimming and diving freely.’’ 

The Cinnamon Teal is one of the tamest of the ducks and can 
often be approached to within a few yards. The species often asso- 
ciates with other ducks, especially with the Green-winged Teal, but 
without appearing to be as sociable as the latter and never gathering 
in such large flocks. After nesting time, family parties are the rule, 


SHOVELLER 129 


but upon first arrival in the spring and when leaving in the fall 
larger flocks are common. It is, however, to be observed that even in 
flocks the individuals consociate in pairs. 

The food of the Cinnamon Teal, as well as its method of feeding, 
is like that of other teals. In the shallow water along the borders of 
ponds it may be seen ‘‘tilting’’ in its attempt to obtain insects and 
seeds from the mud on the bottom. It is often seen searching for food 
in the grass on shore. 

The Cinnamon Teal is usually rated as inferior to other teal as 
a table duck. However this may be, this bird was, in the early days, 
killed in numbers for the market. Its flesh is said to be sweet and 
full of blood (like a dove’s), but its keeping qualities are poor. As 
the Cinnamon Teal migrates south in September and October, being 
almost altogether gone before the opening of the shooting season, it 
receives a much greater degree of protection than in the case of resi- 
dent or wintering ducks. So long as suitable breeding places are 
furnished this duck, and so long as conditions in its winter home 
remain favorable, it will, therefore, continue to be a common species. 
The great amount of land reclamation which is now being carried 
on would seemingly tend to reduce the appropriate nesting grounds 
to a minimum, so that the breeding species of ducks might either be 
driven elsewhere or might be correspondingly reduced in numbers. 
On the other hand the construction of irrigation canals and reservoirs, 
with their overflow seepages, must to a considerable extent counter- 
balance the above tendency. The Cinnamon Teal can be credited with 
an esthetic value, because of its natural tameness and beautiful 
plumage ; and it is to be hoped that its existence as a regular member 
of our avifauna will never be endangered. 


Shoveller 


Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Spoonbill; Spoonie; Rynchaspis clypeata. 

DeEscription—Adult male: Whole head and neck metallic green with violet 
reflections at certain angles; top of head, throat and area about base of bill 
approaching dull black or brown and showing least of metallic lustre; 
bill almost black, lower mandible paler; iris yellow; middle of back slate 
brown, each feather edged with white or light brown; rump and upper tail 
coverts black, with metallic green lustre; tail feathers brown, conspicuously 
edged with white; front portion of outer surface of closed wing clear light 
blue; primaries slate brown; speculum brilliant metallic green bordered in 
front by white bar which separates speculum from blue area; innermost secon- 
daries black, tinged with metallic green and each with a streak of white towards 
tip; scapulars long, and streaked with white and black or brown; under 
surface of wing and axillars mostly pure white; whole breast pure white, 
sometimes obscured by a brownish stain and not infrequently showing black 
spottings; this broad white area almost completely encircling the body as a 


130 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


wide collar; rest of lower surface rich cinnamon; a white spot on each side 
at base of tail; area behind vent finely barred with black and white, tinged 
with brownish; under tail coverts black with metallic green lustre; under sur- 
face of tail white; legs and feet orange red. Total length (both sexes): ‘‘17.00- 
21.00’’ inches (432-533 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 97). Males: folded wing 
9.56-9.95 (243-252); bill along culmen 2.48-2.69 (63.0-68.4); tarsus 1.46-1.54 
(37.2-39.2) (ten specimens). Adult female: Whole head and upper surface of 
body brown, each feather edged with ashy, and those of back with irregular 
light bars; bill olive gray, edges of lower mandible orange, its under surface 
pale gray; tail feathers grayish brown edged with white, sides of head grayish, 
finely streaked with dusky; chin nearly white; throat minutely streaked with 
dark brown; outer surface of closed wing as in male but duller colored; 
speculum with much less metallic green, and bounded behind by a white line; 
breast, sides and area behind vent grayish brown, each feather with a lighter 
edging, giving a spotted or mottled appearance; belly less prominently or 
not at all marked, but usually obscured by a more or less deep suffusion of 
rusty; under surface of tail ashy white. Folded wing 8.78-9.32 inches (223- 
236 mm.); bill along culmen 2.30-2.51 (58.4-63.8); tarsus 1.38-1.47 (35.1-37.4) 
(ten specimens); all from California. Eclipse plumage (of male): Much like 
plumage of adult female but enough of wing pattern and patch of white on 
breast remain to make identification certain. Juvenile plumage—Male: Similar 
to that of adult female but lighter in tone and breast usually tinged with 
chestnut. Female: Wing dull slate color instead of blue; speculum dusky, 
with very little metallic green, and bordered behind by a faint white line. 
Natal plumage: Top and back of head dark brown; stripe from base of bill 
over eye, and side of head below eye, pale buffy brown; stripe from bill 
through eye, brownish black; chin and throat buffy white; rest of upper 
surface brown; spot on side of back, stripe across hind border of wing, and 
spot at side of rump, white; under surface of body grayish white; breast tinged 
with brown. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—-Broad spoon-shaped bill (figs. 17 and 18), 
much wider near tip than at base (whence the names ‘‘spoonie’’ and shoveller’’), 
chunky head, short neck and blue patch on wing. Male distinguished by dark 
green head and cinnamon colored belly bounded in front by a white breast patch. 

Vorce—A feeble quack (Forbush, 1912, p. 100); in breeding season note 
resembles the syllables took, took. Notes of any kind are seldom uttered. 

Nest—Usually on dry ground, sometimes at a considerable distance from 
water; constructed of grass and weed stems, and sometimes lined with down. 

Eees—9 to 14, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.00 to 2.28 by 1.38 to 
1.50 (in millimeters, 51.0 to 58.0 by 35.0 to 38.0), and averaging 2.18 by 1.46 
(55.5 by 37.0) (twenty eggs in U. S. National Museum); in color pale olive 
buff or greenish gray. The shells are comparatively thin, with but a slight 
surface gloss (authors). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northern Hemisphere. In North America breeds 
from northwestern Alaska, northwestern Mackenzie, and southern Keewatin 
south to southern California, central New Mexico, northern Texas, northern 
Missouri, and northern Indiana; winters from southern British Columbia, 
Arizona, New Mexico, southern Missouri, southern Illinois, Maryland, and 
Delaware south to the West Indies, Colombia, and Hawaii (A. O. U. Check- 
list, 1910, p. 72). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Abundant winter visitant, chiefly on fresh 
water, throughout the state. In some years the spring migration does not 


SHOVELLER 131 


begin until late May. Remains through the summer in small numbers locally, 
and has been found breeding at the following localities: Gorman Station, Los 
Angeles County (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 17); near Los Angeles (Willett, 1912a, 
p. 24); Tulare Lake, Kings County (Goldman, 1908b, p. 202); near Jamison, 
Fresno County (Ingersoll coll.); near Chowchilla, Merced County (Mailliard, 
MS); near Hayward, Alameda County (Emerson, 1901, p. 116); and Wheeler 
Island, Solano County (Fair, M8). 


The Shoveller, or Spoonbill Duck, the ‘‘Spoonie’’ of hunters, has 
the widest distribution of any of the ducks so far treated, for it is 
found throughout Europe and Asia and parts of Africa as well as 


SHOVELLER 


Fig. 18. Bill from below. Natural size. 


Note broad, spoon-like end, whence the name ‘‘Spoonbill,’’ 
and the cross-ridges or ‘‘strainers’’ on sides of mandibles. 


throughout North America and portions of Central America. In 
North America the principal breeding home of the Shoveller is in the 
prairie region of the interior from the northern United States to 
Saskatchewan. Along the Pacific Coast this duck is an abundant 
winter visitant from central British Columbia to Panama and parts 
of Central America. Large numbers also winter in the Hawaiian 
Islands. The spring migration into the Mackenzie region begins 
about the second week in May, and October 16 to 18 are some dates 
for the fall migration into Mexico (Cooke, 1906, p. 37). In Cali- 
fornia it is common from the first of October till late in April, and 
even until the first part of May, after other species of migratory ducks 
have all gone north. 


132 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Shovellers ‘‘are usually found in pairs or small flocks, sitting on 
banks or puddling in shallow water close to shore, skimming flies 
and larvae from the surface with their spoon-like bills, or with head 
and neck under water, sifting seeds, mollusks and crustaceans from 
the muddy bottom’’ (V. Bailey in Bailey, 1902, p. 54). 

The male Shoveller, with its bright green head, pure white breast, 
deep cinnamon belly and light blue patches on the wings, is, to say 
the least, a strikingly marked bird. The additional character of a 
broad, spoon-shaped bill (see figs. 17 and 18), makes it one of the 
easiest of the ducks to recognize. The female and young, although 
roughly similar in coloration to the Blue-winged and Cinnamon teals, 
especially in the possession of blue patches on the wing, are easily 
separated from the teals by larger size, and still better, by the shape 
of the bill. On the wing the comparatively huge bill, thick head and 
short neck, make good field marks. The flight of the Shoveller is 
something like that of the teal but is less direct, more of a hesitating, 
hovering sort. 

In California the nesting season of the Shoveller commences in 
April. Emerson (1901, p. 116) found two nests near Hayward, 
Alameda County, one on April 25, 1901, with fourteen eggs, and 
another (number of eggs not stated) on March 28, 1886. On Wheeler 
Island, Solano County, Fair (MS) found a nest with eleven eggs on 
May 8, 1914. In the Ingersoll collection there are two sets, of nine 
and ten eggs, respectively, with incubation begun in both cases; both 
were taken near Jamison, Fresno County, May 21, 1916. Farther 
south, at Tulare Lake, Kings County, Goldman (19080, p. 202) found 
small young between June 18 and 24 (1907), at Chowchilla, Merced 
County, two downy young were found June 25, 1900 (Mailliard coll.), 
and near Gorman Station, Los Angeles County, the species has been 
reported as breeding during the ‘‘last of June’’ (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, 
p. 17). 

The nest, constructed of dried grasses and weeds, with an occa- 
sional lining of down, is usually placed on dry ground, and often at 
some distance from water. Emerson (loc. cit.) deseribes the nest 
found near Hayward, Alameda County, April 25, 1901, as being on 
the bare ground among salt weed. ‘‘It was not over four inches off 
the ground and... was composed of dry stems of the salt-weed, 
lined with down and a few feathers from the parent bird, and 
measured fourteen inches across the top with a depth of five inches.”’ 
Another nest discovered on March 28, 1886, by the same writer and 
in the same general locality, was placed under a low bush, 150 yards 
back from the bay shore and was of similar construction to the one 
just described. 


SHOVELLER 133 


The eggs of the Shoveller are similar in color to those of the 
Mallard and Pintail, being usually pale olive buff or pale greenish 
gray, and have thin shells with very little lustre. They are smaller 
in size, however, and slightly different in shape. They are distin- 
guishable from the eggs of the Mallard by their paler tint as well as 
by their smaller size (Bent, 1902, p. 4). 

The downy young cannot be readily distinguished from other 
ducks in that stage, for the bill at first shows little indication of the 
broad spoon-like form which it takes on gradually as the bird ap- 
proaches full size. 

The molt into the breeding plumage is slow. Beck (MS) states 
that as late as January 2, 1911, Shovellers collected at Los Bafios, 
Merced County, were still molting on the head and that but few were 
in perfect feather. Young males often show curious combinations of 
the juvenile and adult patterns of coloration. 

Shovellers are swift fliers and make a noticeable flapping noise 
with their wings when rising from the water’s surface. During 
certain seasons they are restless and spend much of the time on the 
wing. 

Nordhoff (1902, p. 213) states that on Elsinore Lake, Riverside 
County, Shovellers were much tamer than other species of ducks, 
sometimes allowing approach to within twenty or thirty yards. They 
do not gather into large flocks consisting purely of their own kind, 
but both forage and travel in pairs or small companies, often associat- 
ing with other species of ducks. 

As is evidenced by the character of the bill the Shoveller obtains 
much of its food by skimming the water. The comb-like fringes along 
the edges of the sensitive upper mandible, sometimes called lamellae, 
are especially well developed and enable the bird by skimming the 
surface to strain out plants and animals of very small size. The birds 
ean often be seen swimming with their heads partially submerged, 
‘‘gabbling’’ or sifting the water as they go, and seldom raising the 
head unless some large object is captured. In addition to the insect 
food obtained on the surface of the water, the Shoveller feeds on 
aquatic plants, grasses, and seeds which it procures in the mud near 
shore. At Owens Lake, Inyo County, Nelson (in A. K. Fisher, 18932, 
p. 17) found the Shoveller feeding extensively on the larvae and pupae 
of a small fly (Ephydra hians) which abounded at the time in the lake. 

As a general rule this duck does not acquire much fat. When it 
does, however, it makes as fine a table bird as exists in the state, and 
by some is even considered superior to the Mallard. Its food insures 
a good flavor as a rule, and the birds are usually nice and juicy at 
least at the beginning of the hunting season. As the season advances 
it is said to become somewhat poorer in flesh and in flavor. Its small 


134 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


size is one of the things that rates it as a second-class duck on the 
markets. 

The Shoveller falls an easy prey to the market hunter, for it comes 
readily to decoys and is not so wary as most other species. In most 
parts of the state, it is always to be seen in any good bag and very 
often is the principal species represented. Two transfer companies in 
San Francisco which recorded the number of Shovellers sold during 
the season 1910-1911, disposed of 5,855 of these ducks. Although 
considerably reduced during the past few years, Shovellers continue 
to appear in large numbers during the winter season. The toll upon 
this species taken by the hunter is determined by the supply of more 
desirable ducks. As the more valuable table ducks become reduced 
in numbers, the Shoveller tends to rise in popularity. 


Pintail 
Dafila acuta (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Sprig; Sprigtail; Dajfila caudacuta. 

DESCRIPTION—Adult male: Head bister brown, darkest on top, each feather 
black centrally with pale tip, the whole giving a faintly scaled‘ appearance; 
a similar but more finely scaled effect on cheeks and throat; feathers of hind 
neck black, washed with metallic green and separated from brown of head 
on either side by a conspicuous white stripe which extends upward and. 
forward from white of breast; feathers on sides of hind neck washed with 
metallic pink; iris dark brown; bill blackish gray on culmen, nail and lower 
mandible, lead color at sides; upper surface and side of body with fine irregular, 
wavy bars of black and white; longer scapulars velvety black edged with 
ashy white; rump nearly uniform ashy brown; upper tail coverts blackish 
brown, edged with white, lateral ones having outer webs deep black; tail 
feathers blackish brown edged with white, the central elongated ones black; 
outer surface of closed wing clear brownish gray; primary flight feathers 
darker brownish gray; tertials long and black, broadly edged with ashy gray; 
speculum iridescent, varying from green to bronzy purple at different angles; 
speculum edged in front by a bar of pale rusty brown, behind by a bar of black 
followed by a bar of white, and above by a broad band of black; under sur- 
face of wing grayish brown; axillars dull white, finely mottled with dusky; 
under surface of body pure white save for belly which is faintly and dully 
barred with dusky; lower surface often discolored with rusty; a conspicuous 
white patch at base of tail on each side; under tail coverts black, the outer- 
most ones outwardly edged with white; feet olive gray, dusky at joints. Total 
length ‘‘26.00-30.00’’ inches (660-762 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 97); folded 
wing 10.30-10.80 (262-274); bill along culmen 1.93-2.16 (49.0-54.8); tarsus 
1.59-1.74 (40.3-44.2) (ten specimens). Adult female: Top of head reddish 
brown, narrowly streaked with black; sides of head and whole neck lighter 
buffy brown and more finely streaked with black; chin and throat white; 
rest of upper surface and sides, dark brown, each feather marked with 
U-shaped bars of light reddish brown and with whitish marks on outer margin; 
upper tail coverts more broadly edged with white; tail feathers dark brown 
irregularly barred with light rusty brown; wing as in male except that 


PINTAIL 135 


speculum is dull brown, showing but faint green or purple reflections, and with 
bars of color adjoining speculum less contrasted; tertials and scapulars dull 
brown, like flight feathers; under surface of wing and axillars as in male; 
under surface of body dingy white, often stained with rusty; feathers of fore- 
neck with U-shaped brown markings and those of rest of under surface with 
grayish centers, giving a more or less mottled appearance; under tail coverts, 
white with brownish centers. Total length ‘‘21.00-23.50’’ inches (533-597 
mm.) (Ridgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 9.64-10.42 (244-265); bill along culmen 
1.83-1.96 (46.5-49.8); tarsus 1.56-1.67 (39.6-42.4) (ten specimens); all from 
California. Juvenile plumage: ‘‘Young male, similar to the female, but mark- 
ings on upper parts more bar-like, and lower parts sometimes nearly wholly 
streaked’’ (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 512). Natal plumage: 
Top of head brown, palest on forehead; stripe over eye, lower part of cheek, 
and chin, dull white; stripe behind eye running around back of head, and 
patch on ear region, light brown; neck white save for narrow brown stripe 
down hind neck; rest of upper surface light brown; streak down side of back, 
and large patch across end of wing, white; under surface of body white, tinged 
more or less with brownish. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size (at least as to length), narrow 
head and long slender neck. The long central tail feathers, dark brown head 
with white neck stripes, and white under surface easily identify the male. 

Vorce—Of male: a loud qua, qua, uttered in flight; also a mellow whistle. 
Of female: a hoarse muffled quack; and several low notes (authors). 

Nest—Usually in tall grass on dry ground but near water; a crude structure 
of dry grasses lined with down. 

Eees—5 to 12, ordinarily 6 to 8, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 
2.06 to 2.26 by 1.39 to 1.59 (in millimeters, 52.3 to 57.4 by 35.3 to 40.3), and 
averaging 2.18 by 1.51 (55.4 by 38.3); in color dull grayish olive or pale olive 
green, often discolored with clay-toned markings (Grinnell, 1900, p. 15; and 
authors). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northern Hemisphere. In North America ‘breeds 
from Arctic Coast of Alaska to Keewatin, and south to southern California, 
northern Nebraska and northern Illinois; winters from southern British 
Columbia, Nevada, southern Wisconsin, southern Ohio and Delaware, south 
to Porto Rico and Panama, and in Hawaii (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 
1910, p. 73). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common winter visitant throughout the state, 
but more abundant in the southern portion. Migrants from the north begin 
to arrive in September and usually leave in March. An inhabitant of fresh 
water and found but rarely in salt water situations. Small numbers remain 
throughout the summer and breed in suitable localities; the following are 
the only definite records of nesting known to the writers: Pennington, Sutter County 
(H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 223); Hayward, Alameda County (Mailliard coll.) ; 
Los Bafios, Merced County (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 220; Carriger coll.); Tulare 
Lake, Kings County (Goldman, 19086, p. 202); Buena Vista Lake, Kern County 
(Linton, 1908a, p. 50); Los Angeles (Davie, 1889, p. 66); Alamitos, Los Angeles 
County (Cooke, 1906, p. 38); Bear Lake, San Bernardino County (Willett, 
1912a, p. 24); and San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County (Willett and Jay, 1911, 
p. 158). 


The Pintail or Sprig is usually. one of the commonest ducks in 
the hunter’s bag and it is always to be found on the market during 


136 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


the open season. Even during the severest winter weather this duck 
is found in numbers on any sizable body of fresh water. Only rarely 
is it found ‘‘rafted’’ on the bays along the coast. Bailey (1902, p. 
55) states that at Point Reyes large flocks of Pintails were seen by 
J. A. Loring lying out in the bay. As soon as the tide covered the 
salt grass flats the Pintails would follow in and commence feeding. 
Pintails in the north begin to move south in August, but they do not 
appear in great numbers in California until well along in September, 
and the full quota does not arrive until the latter part of October. By 
the end of March most of the migrants have left for the north. 
Whether resting on the water or in flight the Pintail may be 
recognized by its considerable size and by its slender head and long, 
graceful neck. If it is disturbed while feeding in the grass its long 
neck stretched almost straight upward is an easy mark of identifica- 
tion. The long middle tail feathers, 
— : dark brown head, white stripe on 
an — rs neck, pale rusty wing bar and pure 
. ae a white under surface are excellent 
Sa iN distinguishing characters in the 
a ‘. male (pl. 3). The female, although 
71827" much like the female Mallard, is 
eo Poe oe of female readily distinguished by her slender 
Note breadth as compared with form, dull brownish speculum, 
bill of female Gadwall (fig. 12). more pointed tail, and long neck. 
(See also figs. 19 and 10.) The 
mellow whistle of the drake and the hoarse muffled ‘‘quack’’ of the 
duck are so rarely given that the voice is seldom useful for field identi- 
fication. According to Brooks (1899a, p. 19) the note of the male, gen- 
erally heard only in spring, is a soft rolling whistle, exactly like that 
of the Green-winged Teal, but in a lower key. The same author says 
that while feeding with Mallards, Widgeon or Teal, the Pintail does 
not turn tail uppermost as these ducks do, its longer neck ordinarily 
enabling it to reach the bottom when sitting flat on the water. The 
eye of this duck is smaller in proportion than that of any other sur- 
face-feeding duck except the Shoveller. The habit of ‘‘slanting in’’ 
to a pond with wings set, is a field mark used by almost every hunter. 
Although the favorite breeding grounds of the Pintail lie far to 
the north of California, yet some individuals of this species remain 
and breed within the state. It is one of the earliest of our ducks to 
breed, for usually it lays its five to twelve eggs in late April or 
early May. A set of eight eggs, partly incubated, was collected by 
W. O. Emerson near Hayward, Alameda County, as early as April 


PINTAIL 137 


18 (1909) (Mailliard coll.), and from a set of eight collected April 
21, 1916, on the Alvarado marshes, seven were hatched on April 26 
(Dirks, MS). Willett and Jay (1911, p. 158) record having seen a 
female with young at San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County, on May 
28, 1911, and Linton (1908c, p. 197) records a brood as hatching on 
June 4, 1908, at Buena Vista Lake, Kern County. Goldman (19085, 
p. 202) found the Pintail the commonest breeding duck in the vicinity 
of Tulare Lake in 1907. A female shot there June 21 contained an 
egg ready to be laid. On the same date several adults with young 
large enough to make short flights were seen. 

The following description of mating behavior as observed in Alaska 
is given by Nelson (1887, p. 70): 


On May 17, while sitting overlooking a series of small ponds, a pair of 
Pintails arose and started off, the male in full chase after the female. Back 
and forth they passed at a marvelously swift rate of speed, with frequent 
quick turns and evolutions. At one moment they were almost out of view 
high overhead, and the next saw them skimming along the ground in an 
involved course very difficult to follow with the eye. Ere long a second male 
joined in the chase, then a third, and so on until six males vied with each 
other in the pursuit. The original pursuer appeared to be the only one capable 
of keeping close to the coy female, and owing to her dextrous turns and 
curves he was able to draw near only at intervals. Whenever he did succeed 
he always passed under the female, and kept so close to her that their wings 
clattered together with a noise like a watchman’s rattle, and audible a long 
distance. The chase lasted half an hour, and after five of the pursuers had 
dropped off one by one the pair remaining (and I think the male was the same 
that originated the pursuit) settled in one of the ponds. 


The nest is nearly always placed on dry ground, more often near 
the edge of a pond or lake, but occasionally at some distance from 
water. The nest itself is seldom more than a hollow in the ground 
scantily lined with a mixture of dry grass and down, and is ordi- 
narily not so well concealed as the nests of other ducks. In Alaska 
bodies of water with a broad margin of marsh grass are usually 
selected as the rendezvous for the future brood. In the Kowak Delta, 
Pintail’s nests were found far out on the bare, mossy tundra, in two 
cases fully 400 yards from the nearest pond (Grinnell, 1900, p. 14). 
The first brood of downy young in this locality was noted June 23. 

The eggs are pale olive green or dull grayish olive in color and 
vary in shape from ovate to elongate ovate. They measure, in inches, 
2.06 to 2.26 by 1.39 to 1.59, and average 2.18 by 1.51. They are 
similar to the eggs of the Mallard in color but are smaller, more 
elongated and a little more glossy. Davie (1889, p. 67) states that in 
the far north as many as twelve eggs are to be found in a single nest, 
but six or eight seems to be nearer the average number. It is also 


138 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


stated that if the eggs are taken, the bird will immediately deposit 
a second set which is seldom more than five or six in number. 

‘‘As the young are hatched they are led to the small creeks and 
rivulets, where the birds remain until the young take wing, after 
which all pass to the great marshes, where they grow fat feeding upon 
the roots of the horsetails (Equisetum)’’ (Nelson, 1887, p. 70). The 
young take wing early in August, before those of any of the other 

_ species. Grinnell (1900, p. 15) says of a female with a brood of 
downy young which he found at the edge of a pond in northern 
Alaska: ‘‘The old bird tumbled away through the grass in frantic 
efforts to distract my attention, [while] the brood of young with one 
accord scurried across the water to a small islet, and in a moment 
were scattered through the short grass and completely hidden from 
view.’’ 

Coues (1874, p. 562) found the males unable to fly during the molt 
in July in the northern parts of Montana. Many were killed with 
sticks or captured by hand at this time. Brooks (1899a, p. 19) says 
that like the Shoveller, the male Pintails seldom get into really per- 
fect plumage before January, the bulk of the males shot in the fall 
being in ‘‘female’’ (eclipse) plumage or changing, with the long 
central tail feathers not yet developed. Old females sometimes acquire 
tails of considerable length. Their plumage then partakes a good 
deal of the character of that of the males, the under parts being 
spotless and the upper surface having a good deal of whitish flecking. 

Coues (1874, p. 563) says that hybrids of this species with the ' 
Mallard are of comparatively frequent occurrence and that in at 
least one instance such hybrids have proved fertile inter se. There is 
a stuffed specimen of a hybrid of this origin collected at Los Bafios, 
Merced County, and now in the Los Bafios Hotel. 

Pintails fly very fast, at a great height, and usually in V-forma- 
tion. When ‘‘slanting in’’ to a pond, the distinct noise made by 
the wings can be heard at quite a distance. The habit of sailing long 
distances with wings set and curved downwards is a notable character- 
istic of the species. The birds gather in flocks of as many as fifty 
individuals, and when flushed crowd close together thus offering good 
‘“pot shots.’” They spend much time on shore preening their feathers. 
On the water they sit high and are graceful swimmers. While the 
Pintail does not resort to diving as a method of securing food, it will 
when wounded in such a way that the wings are useless, submerge 
itself readily and travel beneath the surface of the water for a long 
distance. 

The food of the Pintail is largely vegetable. Beck (MS) speaks 
of this duck as feeding on snails and weed and grass seeds at Los 


PINTAIL 139 


Bafios, Merced County, during the winter of 1911. Like the Mallard, 
Pintails glean in the grain fields, and in the middle west they feed 
largely on wild rice. In Alaska, Grinnell (1900, p. 14) records them 
as feeding exclusively in the fall on the seeds of a kind of grass which 
bordered the sloughs and ponds; and Baird, Brewer and Ridgway 
(1884, I, p. 514) state that they feed on the roots of the horsetail 
rush. 

As a table duck the Pintail ranks with the Mallard and Canvas- 
back, both as regards size and flavor. Consequently it is widely sought 
after. A wary bird, flying high and with great speed, this species 
makes an ideal game bird. It is a favorite not only with the hunter 
who shoots over decoys but with the pass shooter as well. In southern 
California it is often considered the ‘‘best’’ bird, for very soon after 
the opening of the season it is in prime condition. This is due to 
the fact that immediately upon their arrival from the north the birds 
resort at night to the stubble fields and soon become grain-fattened. 
A grain and seed eater by choice, the Sprig is uniformly fat and 
delicious. Certain sportsmen advocate allowing drawn birds to hang 
for several days before cooking. The concensus of opinion among 
epicures is that young drakes are superior to young ducks. The 
former can be selected from the bag by the mottled color of their 
plumage and because the pin-feathers are just bursting out into the 
ragged patches of their winter color (Hedderly, 1912a, p. 490). Beld- 
ing (MS) alone, considers it an inferior table duck. He says that its 
flesh often has an earthy taste acquired by feeding in muddy ponds. 
This may be true locally. 

The numbers of Pintails sold in the market (over 40,000 in San 
Francisco alone in 1910-1911) suggests that this is one of the species 
which cannot long exist in numbers if something is not done at once 
to conserve the breeding stock. Sportsmen have noted a distinct 
decrease in its numbers during the past ten years. In spite of the 
fact that most of the Pintails killed breed outside: of the state, yet 
the fact that there is a constant diminution of its numbers from year 
to year shows that the breeding stock of the north is being seriously 
depleted. We believe that the report of relatively large numbers of 
Pintails from some localities in late years is due to the disproportion- 
ately greater rate of reduction of one or two other species more popu- 
lar with the sportsman. Our three best table ducks, the Mallard, 
Canvasback and Pintail, are all regularly diminishing in numbers and 
their survival as game birds can only be assured by a more rigid pro- 
tection than they now receive, to the end that the annual toll taken in 
hunting and the normal rate of reproduction may strike a somewhat 


closer balance. 


140 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Wood Duck 


Aix sponsa (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAME—Summer Duck. 

DescripTIoN—Adult male: Top of head and front of crest metallic green; 
tip of crest metallic violet; cheeks black tinged with violet; region around 
eye and base of crest metallic reddish purple; chin, throat and foreneck, pure 
white, from which area two crescentic bars of the same color extend upwards 
on éach side, one onto side of head just behind eye, the other onto hind neck; 
a narrow white line on each side of forehead extends from base of bill back 
over eye along each side of crown to tip of crest; a similar stripe begins a 
short distance behind eye and extends along lower edge of crest to its tip; 
iris ‘‘bright orange red’’; eyelids ‘‘deep vermillion’’ (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 12); bill pinkish white, lake red at base; ridge, tip and 
lower mandible, black; upper surface of body sooty brown, lustrous with 
bronzy green, most vivid on rump and tail; a vertical crescent of enlarged 
black and white feathers in front of wing; outer surface of closed wing dark 
brown with more or less steel blue iridescence particularly on greater and 
middle coverts, these latter also narrowly tipped with black; flight feathers 
slaty brown with exposed inner webs steel blue and outer webs becoming 
silvery gray toward tips; feathers of speculum steel blue narrowly tipped 
with white, bordered above by a broad black band which pertains to the much 
expanded innermost secondaries and scapulars; lining of wing and axillars 
irregularly barred with brown and white; sides and flanks pale buff, minutely 
undulated (cross-barred) with black; terminal feathers of flank expanded at 
tips, and marked with conspicuous bars of black and white; breast rich 
purplish chestnut, the forepart with a purple gloss, and marked with arrow- 
points of white; rest of under surface pure white; a patch of metallic pur- 
ple on each side at base of tail; lateral upper tail coverts marked with narrow 
central stripes of light brown; under surface of tail and lower tail coverts 
dark brown, the latter with iridescent green toward tips; legs and feet orange 
brown, webs olive black, nails black. Total length ‘‘19.00-20.50’’ inches 
(482-520 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 99); folded wing 8.75-9.40 (222-238); bill 
along culmen 1.28-1.50 (32.5-38.1); tarsus 1.34-1.44 (34.0-36.5) (three speci- 
mens from California and Oregon). Folded wing 8.05 (204); culmen 1.27 
(32.2); tarsus 1.38 (35.0) (immature male no. 3739 Mailliard coll.). Adult 
female: Top of head and small crest dark gray, glossed with metallic violet; 
sides of head and whole neck ashy gray; chin and throat white; a white ring 
around eye, continuous with a white patch behind eye; eyelids yellow; bill 
‘‘dark lead color,’’ nail ‘‘black’’ (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 
114); back, rump and upper tail coverts brown, slightly glossed with bronze 
and reddish purple; tail brown, glossed with greenish bronze; outer surface 
of closed wing as in male but secondaries more widely tipped with white, and 
the four upper greater coverts rich metallic reddish purple, more bluish toward 
the centers, bronzy toward edges, and narrowly tipped with velvety black; 
fore breast dark brown, each feather with a shaft streak of brownish white; 
sides and flanks brown; rest of under surface white, the feathers centered 
coarsely with light brown or whitish; legs and feet ‘‘yellowish brown’’ 
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit.). Total length ‘‘17.00-19.50’’ inches 
(432-495 mm.) (Ridgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 8.35-8.90 (212-226); bill 
along culmen 1.15-1.30 (29.2-33.0); tarsus 1.25-1.52 (31.7-38.6) (three specimens 


WOOD DUCE 141 


from California). Juvenile plumage: Top of head dark brown; stripe over eye, 
eyelid, and area between bill and eye, dull white; side of head otherwise brown; 
chin, throat and foreneck, white; upper surface of body brown; forepart of 
breast mottled with yellowish brown and dark brown; rest of under surface 
dull white, mottled with dusky feather centers. Natal plumage: Top of head 
(from base of bill), hind neck and whole upper surface of body, brown, palest 
on forehead and wings; bill (dried) blackish, nail horn-color, lower mandible 
yellow; stripe behind eye, side of head, spots at side of rump and below 
wing, and whole lower surface of body, dull yellowish white; feet (dried) 
blackish. ey 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IWENTIFICATION—The most beautiful and brightly marked 
American duck. Medium size, conspicuously crested head, mottled breast, and 
pure white under surface of body. Plumage of male variegated, head and 
erest green, chin and throat white, crescents in front of wing white and black, 
speculum dark blue. Female duller colored, with conspicuous white eye-ring 
and stripe behind eye. 

Votce—Of male: a watch-note hoe-€ék, rarely uttered. Of female with 
brood: a low, soft, prolonged pe-éé, pe-éé€. Of downy young: a mellow pee, pee, 
pee-e, often and rapidly repeated (Audubon in Coues, 1874, pp. 572-573). 

Nest—In a hollow in a tree usually over or near water, but occasionally 
some distance from it; composed of twigs, grasses and leaves, and lined with 
down. 

Eees—8 to 12, or more, short elliptical in shape, measuring in inches 2.01 
to 2.19 by 1.50 to 1.61 ( in millimeters, 51.0 to 55.5 by 38.0 to 41.0), and averag- 
ing 2.05 by 1.58 (52.0 by 40.0) (twenty-nine eggs in U. 8S. National Museum); 
in color creamy white, with a glossy surface; more globular than those of 
most other ducks. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Temperate North America. Breeds from southern 
British Columbia, central Saskatchewan, northern Ontario, New Brunswick 
and Nova Scotia south to central California, southern Texas, Florida and 
Cuba; winters chiefly in the United States, from southern British Columbia, 
Kansas, Indiana, and New Jersey, south to southern California and the Gulf 
of Mexico (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 73). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Resident in suitable localities throughout the 
state but chiefly in cential and northern portions. Formerly common and 
widely distributed west of the Sierras, but now rare anywhere in its range. 
A few additional migrants appear in the fall (October). Southernmost record 
station at any season: Ramona, San Diego County (Sharp, 1906, p. 75). The 
following are all the breeding records known to the writers: Ventura County 
(Cooke, 1906, p. 40); near Lathrop, San Joaquin County (Wheeler, MS); 
Forest Lake, San Joaquin County (Sampson, 1901, p. 95); Isleton, Sacramento 
County (Wheeler in H. R. Taylor, 1897, p. 110); Gallinas Creek, Marin County 
(Mailliard, MS); Lake Tahoe (Ray, 1901, p. 116). 


It is universally accepted that the Wood Duck is the handsomest 
of all the American ducks. Its near relative, the Mandarin Duck of 
Asia, is its only near competitor for honors, and so far as brilliancy 
of coloration is concerned even that species must be given second 
place. The Wood Duck’s habit of making special display of its 
bright colors but adds to its ever evident beauty and grace when on 
the water. 


142 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


This species is found only in temperate North America and indeed 
is more nearly restricted to the United States than any other single 
duck. There is but one instance of its occurrence in Mexico (at 
Mazatlan). In California the Wood Duck was formerly well dis- 
tributed throughout the low country west of the Sierras. Now it is a 
rare local resident of the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys and 
westward to the coast, frequenting the secluded, slow-flowing, timber 
bordered streams and fresh water sloughs, especially in the oak belt. 
Although permanently resident within the state the species appears 
to be to a slight extent migratory, moving toward the north in April 
and southward in October. It is rare in southern California where 
conditions favoring its existence are now lacking. The southernmost 
record station for any season is Ramona, San Diego County. 

So conspicuously and distinctively colored is the male of this duck 
that field marks are scarcely necessary, even for the novice. The 
green crested head relieved by white stripes, the pure white under 
surface and chin, the chestnut colored breast, and blue speculum, 
easily identify the male. Although lacking the bright coloration of 
her mate, the female displays more color than the females of most 
other species; in addition she can be recognized by the white eye-ring 
and streak behind the eye. 

Wood Ducks seldom stray away from the secluded, wooded streams 
and sloughs which constitute their habitat. ‘‘A mossy log in a pond 
is a favorite resting place for the ducks, but as you walk through the 
woods in spring a pair will often fly from a branch overhead, utter- 
ing their shrill, plaintive cry as they dart through the trees’’ (Bailey, 
1902, pp. 55-56). 

Writing of his observations in Massachusetts, C. W. Townsend 
(1916, pp. 15-16) says: 


The courtship of the Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) is a pretty sight. The 
gorgeously colored drake swims close to his modest little wife who is dressed 
in quaker gray and wears large white spectacles. If she swims too fast for 
him he is apt to touch her head with his bill, and when she stops he jerks his 
head up and down in an abbreviated bow. At the same time he whistles in 
a low sweet way as if he were drawing in rather than blowing out his breath. 
The feathers of his crest and head are at the same time erected. 


Most ducks nest on the ground, but this species selects hollows in 
trees which may be either living or dead. Often the nest is situated 
over water but sometimes is at a considerable distance from it. Occa- 
sionally the entrance to the nesting cavity is forty or fifty feet above 
the ground, and the nest itself may be several feet below the entrance 
to the hollow. Twigs, grass and leaves are used as building materials, 
with down feathers for lining. The hollow end of a broken-off branch 
is said to be frequently selected, and occasionally use is made of a 


WOOD DUCK 143 


deserted woodpecker ’s nest enlarged through decay. Sampson (1901, 
p. 95) found a Wood Duck’s nest located in the deserted home of a 
Red-shafted Flicker about twenty-five feet above the ground in a 
valley oak tree at Forest Lake, San Joaquin County, April 29, 1900. 
The nest contained twenty-one eggs. A difference in size and colora- 
tion was noticeable in these eggs, so that it seems probable that the 
set had been laid by two females. 

Messrs. Wheeler and Sampson found a set of fifteen eggs of this 
species in 1896 at a point on the San Joaquin River a short distance 
above Lathrop, San Joaquin County. The nest was in a hollow tree 
close to the overflow from the river, and the tree was infested with 
ants, which, however, did not appear to have in any degree disturbed 
the ducks. Wheeler (in H. R. Taylor, 1897, p. 110) has also reported 
the nesting of a pair of Wood Ducks in a barn on the Sacramento 
River, near Isleton, Sacramento County. The birds entered the barn 
through a hole in the boards and built their nest in the hay. The 
farmer who owned the hay guarded the nest and allowed the eggs to 
hatch. 

Mr. Joseph Mailliard tells us of having found in 1872 or 1873 a 
nest of the Wood Duck in a hole in a dead tree on the bank of Gal- 
linas Creek, Marin County. One of the parents was frightened from 
the nesting cavity. The nest contained not less than eight eggs, 
though no accurate record was kept of the circumstances. 

This duck returns to the same nesting site year after year. Incu- 
bation lasts for a period of four weeks. The female alone attends to 
this duty, the male usually being found standing guard on a near-by 
limb. Some observers say that the male deserts the female during this 
period. The young either tumble out of the nest and are led to water, 
or are carried to the water one by one in the bill of the mother 
(Sandys, 1902, pp. 166-167; and others). 

We have no good general account of the habits of the Wood Duck 
since the days of the famous naturalist-artist, Audubon. Writing of 
observations made in the southern states he says: 


No sooner has the female completed her set of eggs than she is abandoned 
by her mate, who now joins others, which form themselves into considerable 
flocks, and thus remain apart until the young are able to fly, when old and 
young of both sexes come together, and so remain until the commencement of 
the next breeding season. In all the nests I have examined, 1] have been 
rather surprised to find a quantity of feathers belonging to birds of other 
species, even those of the domestic fowl, and particularly the Wild Goose 
and Wild Turkey. On coming upon a nest with eggs when the bird was 
absent in search of food, I have always found the eggs covered over with 
feathers and down, although quite out of sight, in the depth of a... hole. 
... If the nest is placed immediately over the water, the young, the moment 
they are hatched, scramble to the mouth of the hole, launch into the air with 


144 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


their little wings and feet spread out, and drop into their favourite element; 
but whenever their birth-place is at some distance from it, the mother carries 
them to it one by one in her bill... On several occasions, however, when 
the hole was thirty ... or more yards from . .. water, I observed that the 
mother suffered the young to fall on the grasses and dried leaves beneath the 
tree, and afterwards led them directly to the nearest edge of the next pool 
or creek (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 273). 


‘‘The Wood Duck is conspicuous for the swiftness, ease and 
elegance of its flight. It can pass through woods, and among the 
branches of trees, with as much facility as the Wild Pigeon. While 
flying it is rarely ever heard to utter any ery’’ (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 14). This species is to be found in pairs or at 
most in small flocks. 

The Wood Duck does not limit itself to the aquatic insects and 
plants found along the stream near its regular abode, but often forages 
about the woods in search of other food. Belding (MS) says that on 
the Feather River he found it feeding in corn and wheat fields after 
harvest and also on wild grapes and acorns. J. Mailliard saw quite a 
number feeding on acorns at Paicines, San Benito County, October 
13,1900. The stomach of a female taken near Laytonville, Mendocino 
County, in November, 1913, contained a large number of acorns, as 
also that of one taken near Santa Rosa, Sonoma County. Acorns 
would appear therefore to form a very general article in its diet. 
Stomachs of eastern Wood Ducks examined by the United States 
Biological Survey (McAtee, 1911b, p. 1) showed that over fifteen 
per cent of the food is made up of wild rice and celery and over six 
per cent of pondweeds. 

At the present time the Wood Duck exists in such small numbers 
that it should not properly be considered a game bird of the state. 
Yet, as its flesh is declared to be delicious, and since it has proven itself 
readily domesticated, there seems no good reason why it cannot be 
raised in captivity as a commercial proposition and sold on the market. 
At present there is a brisk demand from breeders and pleasure parks 
for this, the handsomest of the duck tribe. 

Early writers report the Wood Duck as common in California. 
C. H. Townsend (1887, p. 194) says that it was observed on the lower 
McCloud River at various times from October 1 until March 1, often 
in quite large companies, and was seen in April and May at Red 
Bluff, where it frequented the sloughs in the timber belts along the 
Sacramento River. Heermann (1859, p. 68) gives it as ‘‘abundant, 
breeding in the hollow trees bordering the streams of California.’’ 
J. Mailliard (1911, p. 49) says that as late as twenty-five years ago 
it was no uncommon thing to see Wood Ducks scattered in small 
groups along such a stream as the Paper Mill or Lagunitas Creek, 


WOOD DUCK 145 


Marin County, or anywhere along Laguna de Santa Rosa, Sonoma 
County, even where quite a number of people lived in the vicinity and 
where there was a good deal of travel along the streams. Often the 
ducks were found in small tributaries and diminutive ponds along 
these waterways. The last one killed in this vicinity was taken on 
October 23, 1898. Mr. A. Jackson reports that a limit of Wood Ducks 
could often be obtained fifteen years ago along the Napa River, but 
that now not a single Wood Duck is to be seen there. 

George Neale reports (October 1, 1914) that he used to hunt 
Wood Ducks on Elk Slough, Yolo County, where he has bagged thirty 
or forty in an afternoon. A few are still to be found there. W. W. 
Richards states (October 15, 1913) that Wood Ducks were formerly 
common on Sherman Island, Sacramento River, where ‘‘as many as 
a hundred”’ were shot in a single day. The last one killed there was 
shot about 1908. Streator (1886, p. 90) records the species as rare 
near Santa Barbara but says that birds were occasionally met with 
beyond the Santa Ynez Mountains about ten miles from that city. 

Practically no Wood Ducks are to be found in these old haunts 
at the present time. An individual is oceasionally reported as being 
seen in the locality above mentioned by Mailliard, and in the vicinity 
of Gridley, Butte County; but beyond these, and an occasional one 
reported by a collector or market hunter, the species is now almost 
unknown. Dr. W. F. Badé reports that he saw numbers of Wood 
Ducks on the Sacramento River on a trip from Tehama to Chico in 
1905. When the same trip was taken in 1911 not more than six were 
seen. The more recent records of its occurrence are as follows: 
Ramona, San Diego County, November, 1905 (Sharp, 1906, p. 75) ; 
Redlands, San Bernardino County, October 2, 1909 (Willett, 1912a, 
p. 24); Banning, Riverside County, April, 1907 (Willett, loc. cit.) ; 
Oxnard, Ventura County, November 6, 1905 (Grinnell, 19065, p. 29) ; 
Reedley, Fresno County, April, 1910 (Tyler, 19136, p. 17); Stani- 
slaus County, fall of 1910 (J. Mailliard, 1911, p. 49); Live Oak, 
Sutter County, November 28, 1914 (specimen in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; 
near Castroville, Monterey County, October 20, 1908 (Silliman, 1915b, 
p. 207) ; near Laytonville, Mendocino County, November, 1913 (F. C. 
Clarke, MS). Mr. J. S. Hunter, Assistant, State Fish and Game 
Commission, has stated to us that whereas this species came to the 
market in considerable numbers several years ago, not more than 
two or three have been seen during the past few years. Four hundred 
and forty Wood Ducks were recorded as sold in the markets of San 
Francisco and Los Angeles in the season 1895-1896 (Calif. Fish 
Comm., 1896, p. 40). The records of sale in the markets of San Fran- 
cisco during the season 1910-1911 show a total of six birds. 


146 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


From the foregoing evidence it can be seen that the Wood Duck, 
although existing in California in considerable numbers in the early 
days, is now nearly extinct. A number of the eastern states have 
found it necessary to give it complete and permanent protection in 
order to save it. California’s only hope of saving this species is to 
do likewise. Although the Wood Duck is migratory in most states, it 
remains with us throughout the year and so gives us an added respon- 
sibility. The federal regulations regarding migratory birds which 
went into effect in the fall of 1913 placed a closed season of five years 
on the Wood Duck. At the end of this period a renewal of total pro- 
tection will be necessary. 


Redhead 


Marila americana (Eyton) 


OTHER NAMES—Red-headed Duck; Pochard; Aythya americana; Aythya 
erythrocephala; Nyroca americana; Nyroca ferina; Nyroca_ erythrocephala; 
Fuligula- ferina americana. 

DeEscription—Adult male: Whole head and upper neck rich reddish chestnut, 
glossed with reddish purple; bill bluish gray, nail black; iris lemon yellow; 
lower neck and forepart of upper surface of body, black; rest of back and 
rump ashy brown; middle of back finely ecross-barred with dull white; upper 
tail coverts and tail dull black, fading into dull white at tip of tail; outer 
surface of closed wing lead gray; scapulars vermiculated with irregular white 
and black bars, those of black widest; flight feathers slate gray; speculum 
pale bluish gray, bordered behind narrowly with white, the three upper 
feathers edged with black on outer webs; axillars pure white; rest of under 
surface of wing gray; lower neck and breast blackish, with ashy feather- 
edgings giving a mottled appearance; forepart of belly pure white; sides, flanks 
and hinder portion of belly, dusky, with white vermiculations as on scapulars; 
under tail coverts blackish brown; legs and feet bluish gray, darker at joints; 
webs blackish. Total length 19.87-21.00 inches (506-533 mm.) (three speci- 
mens); folded wing 8.50—9.33 (216-237) ; bill along culmen 1.89-2.05 (48.0-52.0); 
tarsus 1.61-1.66 (40.8-42.2) (four specimens). Adult female: Top of head and 
whole upper surface, brown, darkest on crown; sides of head and area at base 
of bill, much lighter in tone; chin white; bill lead color, tip black; upper tail 
coverts dusky brown; terminal portion of tail dull white; wing as in male; 
scapulars like back, lacking vermiculations, but each feather broadly tipped 
with ashy; breast much as in male but of lighter tone, the feathers being 
more extensively tipped with reddish brown and ashy. Total length (both 
sexes): ‘‘17.00-21.00’’ inches (432-533 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 101); folded 
wing 9.00 (228); bill along culmen 1.77 (44.9); tarsus 1.57 (39.8) (one speci- 
men); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Not known to us. Natal plumage: 
Whole upper surface olive brown; spot back of base of each wing, one on hind 
border of each wing, and one on each side of rump, yellow; side of head and 
whole lower surface deep buff yellow, paler and less yellow behind; no distinct 
streaks on side of head although a buffy line above and below eye is to be 
noted on close inspection; bill and feet (dried), light brown. 


REDHEAD 147 


" MARKS FoR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size, abruptly elevated forehead and, 
in the male, reddish head. Distinguished from Canvasback by high instead of 
sloping forehead (see figs. 20 and 21), darker coloration, smaller general size, 
and yellow iris. Female Redhead can be separated from female Canvasback 
by the high forehead, smaller bill (about one-third shorter), and absence of 
barring on feathers of back; from female Scaup by gray on speculum ‘and 
smaller amount of white around bill; from female Ring-necked Duck by larger 
size (wing 8.50 inches, 216 mm., or more in Redhead); from female Golden-eye 
by absence of white patch on wing. 

Voice—Of male: in spring (and rarely in fall) a peculiar qué-quaa. Of 
female a quack of distinctive tone and quality (Eaton, 1910, p. 203). 

Nest—On ground among thick weeds or grass, or in rushes and over water; 
constructed of weeds, grasses or rushes. 

Eees—10 to 16, oval to elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 2.30 to 2.58 
by-1.67 to 1.73 (in millimeters, 58.5 to 65.5 by 42.5 to 44.0), and averaging 2.40 
by 1.71 (61.0 by 43.5) (twenty-seven eggs in U. S. National Museum); color 
greenish drab or light buff. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION — North America. Breeds from southern British 
Columbia, central Alberta, central Saskatchewan and southwestern Keewatin 
south to southern California, southern South Dakota and southern Wisconsin; 
winters from southern British Columbia, Utah, Kansas, Illinois, and Delaware 
south to central Mexico and Florida (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 74). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Fairly common resident in suitable localities 
throughout the state; more numerous in winter than in summer and formerly 
more abundant than at present. Inhabits both salt and fresh water. Breed- 
ing stations known to the writers are as follows: Lower Klamath and Tule 
lakes, on Oregon line (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, pp. 229, 231); Sacramento Valley 
(Heermann, 1859, p. 70); Sacramento (Cooper and Ridgway, 1886, p. 403); 
Alvarado, Alameda County (H. C. Bryant, MS); Buena Vista Lake, Kern 
County (Linton, 1908c, p. 197); Ventura County (Evermann, 1886, p. 89); Los 
Angeles (Davie, 1889, p. 68); Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County (Willett, 
1912a, p. 24); San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County (Willet and Jay, 1911, p. 
158; Ingersoll coll.). 


The Redhead, although classed as a typical sea duck, because of 
the large lobe or flap on the hind toe (the presence of which dis- 
tinguishes the sea ducks from the fresh water ducks), differs from the 
others of its relatives in that it is chiefly an inhabitant of fresh water. 
It is, however, found also in considerable numbers on salt water 
along the sea coast. In early spring numerous Redheads can be seen 
mixed in with the great numbers of Canvasbacks which dot the shallow 
waters of San Francisco and San Pablo bays. In the interior it 
prefers the deeper bodies of fresh water. Although most abundant 
here during the winter months, this is nevertheless a resident species, 
for a certain proportion remain during the summer and breed in 
suitable localities throughout the state. 

Like the Cinnamon Teal, the Redhead is essentially southern in its 
distribution. The only record of its occurrence on the Pacific Coast 
north of Vancouver Island is of a stray taken in 1896 on Kodiak Island, 


148 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Alaska. The greater number of Redheads summer in a restricted area 
in west-central Canada. It is less common on the Pacific slope locally 
from Lac la Hache, British Columbia, south to southern California 
(Ventura and Los Angeles counties) and east to Ruby Lake, Nevada, 
and Rush Lake, Utah. The principal winter home of the Redhead 
extends from Texas, along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts to Chesapeake 
Bay; a few winter on Long Island, while in the west it winters north 
to New Mexico, Arizona, Utah (rarely), Nevada, and southern British 
Columbia, which is almost as far north as it breeds. The Redhead. is 
not uncommon in winter in the Valley of Mexico, but is quite rare on 

- the west coast of Mexico where it has been found south to Manzanillo 
and southern Lower California (Cooke, 1906, p. 42). 


Fig. 20. Side of bill and head of Redhead. Natural size. 


Note high forehead. Compare with sloping forehead of 
Canvasback (fig. 21, p. 153). 


The Redhead is very similar in structure and appearance to the 
famed Canvasback. The most dependable method of distinguishing 
the two species is by the profile of the forehead. The Canvasback’s 
forehead is low and slopes backward in line with the top of its bill, 
while the forehead of the Redhead is high and meets the bill at a 
considerable angle (see figs. 20 and 21). Other characters of the 
Redhead are the smaller size, yellow instead of red eye, darker color, 
and higher extension of black on the neck. The female Redhead 
and the Ring-necked Duck are rather easy to confuse, but may be dis- 
tinguished by the difference in wing length, the Redhead having a 
folded wing more than 8.50 inches long while that of the Ring-neck 
is 8.25 or less in length; also by the former having a relatively broader 
bill, darker throat, and lighter back. The only other sea ducks with 
reddish heads are the male Canvasback and the female golden-eyes. 


REDHEAD 149 


The female Redhead resembles a female Scaup Duck but has less white 
on the face and about the bill. 

The Redhead breeds in fresh-water marshes, often in company with 
Mallards and Canvasbacks. In fact it is well known that elsewhere 
than in California eggs of the latter have been taken in nests of 
Redheads. The nest is built either on the ground in thick grass or 
weeds, or in tules or grass above water, and is lined with white down 
taken from the breast of the female bird. In the former case it is 
composed of weeds and grasses, whereas in the latter case it is often 
built of tules and looks something like a Mud-hen’s nest. Bowles (in 
Dawson, 1909, p. 791) describes the Redhead’s nest as being a deep 
basket of rushes, placed in the thickest sort of growth, either upon a 
small muddy island left by the receding water, or built up among 
the flags upon the matted dead stems which cover the surface of the 
water in favorable places. 

Ten to sixteen greenish drab or light buff eggs are laid. ‘‘The 
eggs of the Redhead can generally be distinguished from those of 
any other species, as they are usually quite different in color, size 
and texture. The shell is extremely hard and flinty, with a smooth, 
slightly glossy surface, and quite thick; ... In shape they vary 
from a somewhat rounded to a considerably elongated elliptical ovate, 
sometimes nearly oval. ... The eggs are entirely different in color 
from those of the Canvasback, which builds a somewhat similar nest 
and in similar situations, but lines it with gray down’’ (Bent, 1902, 
p. 9). 

Willett and Jay (1911, p. 158) found the Redhead breeding very 
commonly at San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County, on May 28, 1911. 
Four nests found contained respectively, fifteen, seventeen, eighteen 
and twenty-seven eggs. The last set was undoubtedly the product of 
two females, as there were seventeen eggs of one type and ten of 
another. At the same place A. M. Ingersoll took a set of twenty-one 
eggs advanced in incubation on June 7, 1897. Shields (1899, p. 9) 
found a nest in central California on June 25, 1898, containing twelve 
Redhead eggs and three of the Fulvous Tree-duck. A Redhead’s nest 
was found by H. C. Bryant (MS) in some tules at the end of a pond 
near Alvarado, Alameda County, April 23, 1915. Tall tules had 
blown over a fence making a dark sheltered nook beneath, and here 
the nest was placed. Twelve well-incubated eggs and a little whitish 
down were contained in the nest. The eggs were hatched out at the 
State Game Farm four days later, and the appearance of the downy 
young made the identification complete. 

The Redhead is so similar to the Canvasback both in coloration 
and habits that it is often mistaken for it. ‘‘Its flight is hurried, 
the bird rising from the water in a confused manner, but being able 


150 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


to continue long on the wing’’ (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, 
II, p. 89). It travels in V-shaped flocks like geese and flies with great 
rapidity. A loud whistling or roaring noise is produced by the wings 
in flight. 

The Redhead is an expert at diving and gains most of its food in 
this manner. It is naturally a deep water species, rarely found along 
the margins of ponds or streams; yet individuals may occasionally be 
seen dabbling, about in the mud of the shallower pools. This duck 
is said to subsist largely on vegetable food such as the various kinds 
of aquatic plants; small mollusks, crustaceans, fish, frogs, and water 
newts are also taken. Where available it feeds extensively on wild 
celery, eating the blades of the plant when the roots are not obtainable. 

As a game duck the Redhead ranks with the Canvasback. Since 
it has similar food preferences, there is very little choice between 
the birds for table use. On the markets Redheads when separately: 
specified, are listed as cheaper than ‘‘Cans’’; but they are commonly 
sold under the name of the more desirable bird and then, of course, 
bring the same price. 

Redheads have been greatly reduced in numbers during the past 
ten years. H. J. Lelande (MS) says of this duck in southern Cali- 
fornia: ‘‘The Redhead, once fairly common during the breeding 
season, is now seldom seen at any time of the year.’’ Judging from 
the progressively smaller numbers sold on the market, as well as from 
direct observation, we are justified in stating that this duck next to 
the Wood Duck demands absolute protection to save it from the 
fate of total extermination. The great decrease in its numbers can 
be partly accounted for by the ease with which it is killed. It is 
sometimes called ‘‘Fool Duck’’ by sportsmen because of its fearless- 
ness or apparent indifference to their approach. As with the Mallard, 
we have here a resident duck much hunted for the market. The num- 
ber of migrants coming in during the winter is small and the annual 
kill has depleted the local breeding stock. Hence the Redhead is 
rapidly decreasing in numbers, and the critical point as regards its 
survival has already been reached. 


Canvasback 


Marila valisineria (Wilson) 


OTHER NAMES—Can; Aythya vallisneria; Nyroca valisneria; Fuligula vallis- 
neria. 

DEscription—Adult male: Whole head and neck dark reddish chestnut, 
shading to almost black around base of bill and on top of head; bill black, 
tinged with green; iris bright carmine; base of neck completely encircled by 
broad black collar; back and seapulars white, with fine, irregular, dusky bar- 
rings; rump black; upper tail coverts and tail blackish slate; outer surface 


UNIV. CALIF. SEMICENT. PUBL. [GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 5 


— * si BARES a PURTTES. 
aan AND MALES IN BACKGROUND 


CANVASBACK (AT LEFT), LESSER SCAUP DUCK (AT RIGHT); MALES IN FOREGROUND, FEMALES 


CANV ASBACK 151 


of closed wing gray, with minute white dots or vermiculations ; flight feathers 
slaty brown; speculum pale bluish gray bordered behind by a bar of white, 
and uppermost two or three feathers narrowly edged with black; axillars 
white; lining of wing pale gray; sides, flanks and belly like back but more 
nearly white; under surface otherwise pure white or with faint suggestion of 
dusky vermiculation; under tail coverts blackish; feet ‘‘greyish-blue’’ tinged 
with ‘‘yellow’? (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 309). Total length (both sexes): 
‘*20.00-23.50’’ inches (507-596 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 102). Males: Folded 
wing 8.98-9.50 (228-241); bill along culmen 2.36-2.47 (59.9-62.7); tarsus 1.70- 
1.81 (43.2-46.1) (four specimens from California). Adult female: Head, neck 
and breast dull reddish brown, darker on top of head, and lighter, almost 
white, on chin and throat; an indistinct whitish spot behind eye; back and 
scapulars slaty brown, with traces of white vermiculations; rump blackish; 
upper tail coverts and tail dusky brown; outer surface of closed wing uniform 
slate gray without vermiculations; flight feathers, speculum and under surface 
of wing as in male; whole under surface of body dull white, mottled with 
grayish brown; sides with meagre white and dusky vermiculations. Folded 
wing 8.50 (216); bill along culmen 2.36 (59.9); tarsus 1.64 (41.6) (one speci- 
men from California). Juvenile plumage: Like that of adult female. Natal 
plumage: Top of head, stripe down hind neck, and most of back, greenish 
brown; side of head deep straw yellow, washed with dusky; paired spots on back 
at base of tail, behind wing, and on hinder margin of wing, bright straw 
yellow; whole lower surface deep yellow. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size, reddish brown head and neck, 
eanvas-colored back and low forehead sloping down to long slender bill (see 
pl. 5 and figs. 20 and 21). Distinguished from Redhead by larger size, espe- 
cially of head, blackish coloration around base of bill, red iris, and sloping 
forehead and bill (which meet without evident angle between the two). 

VorcE—Of male: ‘‘a peeping or growling note.’’ Of females: a loud quack 
and, when startled, a screaming curr-row (Eaton, 1910, p. 205). 

Nest—In a clump of reeds or tules in a shallow pond or slough but gen- 
erally near a larger body of water; a large structure of reeds or tules well 
lined with gray down (Bent, 1902, pp. 11-12). 

Eaes—6 to 10, ovate to elliptical ovate in shape, measuring in inches 2.36 to 
2.57 by 1.68 to 1.80 (in millimeters, 59.9 to 65.3 by 42.6 to 45.7), and averaging 
2.48 by 1.75 (62.8 by 44.4); color rich grayish olive or greenish drab (Bent, 
loc. cit.). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds from central British Columbia, 
Fort Yukon, Great Slave Lake and southwestern Keewatin south to Oregon, 
northern Nevada, Colorado (rarely), Nebraska and southern Minnesota; 
winters from southern British Columbia, Nevada, Colorado, Illinois, Pennsyl- 
vania and western New York, south to central Mexico and the Gulf coast (A. 
O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 74). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common winter visitant (October to March) 
both interiorly and along the seacoast. Most numerous about salt water bays 
and coastal sloughs and marshes, seeming to prefer the deeper waters to the 
muddy margins. The marshes about San Francisco and San Pablo bays con- 
stitute a feeding ground for great numbers of this species. No definite breed- 
ing records are known for California. 


The Canvasback, the far-famed ‘‘Can’’ of the hunter, is probably 
the best known of all American ducks, not excepting even the Mallard. 


152 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


This reputation has largely been built up in eastern North America 
where, by reason of its vegetable diet and the consequent fine flavor 
of its flesh, it is very highly prized as a table bird. In California the 
Canvasback is strictly a migrant, arriving during October and usually 
departing by the end of March. The earliest fall record is from Stock- 
ton, San Joaquin County, October 6, 1881 (Belding, MS) ; southern 
California is usually reached about October 20 (Cooke, 1906, p. 44). 
Observations made by E. W. Gifford (MS) over a term of years on the 
arrival and departure of ducks about San Francisco Bay yielded the 
following dates for Canvasbacks: 1903-1904, last seen April 4; 1904— 
1905, first seen December 8, last seen May 6; 1906-1907, first seen 
December 26, last seen April 14; 1907-1908, first seen January 18, 
last seen April 22; 1908-1909, first seen November 11, last seen April 
3; 1909-1910, first seen, October 27, last seen, February 28. Most of 
the Canvasbacks to be found in California are on the bays and coastal 
marshes, from which places the bulk of the market supply, which is at 
a maximum during November and December, is secured. 

The close similarity between the Canvasback and the Redhead 
sometimes leads to confusion in distinguishing these two ducks. No 
better worded diagnosis is known to us than that of Coues (1874, pp. 
575-576) : 

Some persons experience difficulty in discriminating between the Canvas- 
back and Red-head, but there is no occasion for this, at least in the case of 
males. In the Red-head, the whole head is clear chestnut red, with coppery 
or bronzy reflections, and the bill is clear pale grayish blue, with a dark tip. 
In the Canvas-back, nearly all the head is obscured with blackish-brown, and 
the bill is dusky throughout. There is also a marked difference in the shape 
of the head and bill; in the Red-head, the head is puffy and globose, sloping 
abruptly down to the base of the bill; in the Canvas-back, the head is longer 
and narrower, and slopes gradually down to the bill, which rises high on the 
forehead [pl. 5 and figs. 20 and 21]. These distinctions of form hold with the 
females, though less evident in that sex. In the Canvas-back, moreover, the 
back has much more light than dark color, instead of an equal amount, or 
less, the fine black lines being very narrow and mostly broken up into minute dots. 


Although reported as breeding rarely in Oregon and Nevada 
(Cooke, 1906, p. 43), there is no record of the nesting of this duck 
within our own state. Brooks (1903, p. 278) records it as breeding 
commonly in British Columbia. He describes the nests as being bulky 
platforms of reeds, similar to those of Coots, and to be found gen- 
erally on small swampy ponds, away from the larger lakes where the 
males associate in flocks. Bent (1902, pp. 11-12), in North Dakota, 
found the nests of Canvasbacks almost invariably located in isolated 
clumps of reeds surrounded by water in large, deep sloughs. He 
describes one nest as being built upon a bulky mass of wet dead reeds, 
measuring eighteen by twenty inches in outside diameter, the rim 


CANVASBACK 153 


being built up six inches above the water, and the inner cavity being 
about eight inches across by four deep. It can be seen, therefore, 
that the Canvasback is unlike the Mallard, Teal, and other fresh water 
ducks, in that it chooses growths of reeds rather than grass as locations 
for nests. Gray down is used to line the nest. 


Fig. 21. Side of bill and head of Canvasback. Natural size. 


Note low, sloping forehead. Compare with high forehead 
of Redhead (fig. 20). 


Fig. 22. Side of foot and tarsus of Canvas- 
back. Natural size. 


Note presence of broad lobe on hind toe (com- 
pare with figs. 11 and 38), and that tarsus is 
shorter than middle toe without claw (compare 
with fig. 37). 


The finding of the eggs of other ducks in the nests of the Canvas- 
back appears to be of common experience. Bent (loc. cit.) found one 
or more eggs of the Ruddy Duck or of the Redhead in every Canvas- 
back nest examined by him, but did not find the eggs of the Canvas- 


154 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


back in the nest of any other species. The eggs number six to ten. 
They are grayish olive or greenish drab in color, of a darker shade 
than the eggs of other species of ducks, and measure in inches, 2.36 
to 2.57 by 1.68 to 1.80 and average 2.48 by 1.75. 

The Canvasback is an excellent diver, often descending to a depth 
of twenty or thirty feet to obtain its food, and is said to use its wings 
for propulsion when beneath the water. This species gathers in large 
flocks on the bays where it sleeps during the day on open water, mov- 
ing nearer the shore when wishing to feed. The Canvasback is a 
strong, swift flier and makes a loud noise with its wings which is 
clearly noticeable when a flock passes immediately overhead. The esti- 
mated speed of the Canvasback is greater than that of any other 
duck—130 to 150 feet per second (Askins, 1911, pp. 556-560). When: 
coming to decoys in a pond the birds arrive with a rush of sound 
like that made by the wind and they settle into the water with great 
splashing. 

Canvasbacks decoy very readily. On the open water they are 
usually wary and hard to approach. On the decoy pond, however, 
they are said to be more easily obtained than teal or Mallard. By 
carefully choosing the last one to dive each time, a whole flock can 
sometimes be brought to bag. This duck is often hunted not only from 
blinds on the marshes but also from brush blinds built up over the 
shallow waters of the bays, and from brush-covered boats sculled near 
the birds when they are at rest on the open water. 

In the east the Canvasback feeds almost exclusively on a plant 
known as Vallisneria, often called wild celery or eel grass, hence the 
specific name of the bird—valisineria. Stomach examination has 
shown that over twenty-three per cent of its food is made up of the 
roots, leaves and seeds of this plant (McAtee, 1911b, p. 1). A much 
larger per cent of pondweeds is also taken by this species than by any 
other duck. It is also said to feed on fish, tadpoles, leeches, mollusks, 
and insects, when these are available. In California the Canvasback 
partakes of more animal food, for wild celery does not grow in this 
state. On the shallow waters of the tidelands and marshes, it feeds 
extensively on crustaceans and shellfish, thereby acquiring a ‘‘fishy’’ 
taste and thus becoming undesirable as a table bird. The stomachs of 
some Canvasbacks collected on San Pablo Bay contained clams (Mya 
arenaria), and snails (Odostomia sp.) ; one stomach from Tia Juana 
Slough, near San Diego, contained periwinkles (Cerithidea califor- 
nica), and another from the same place contained grass-blades, stems 
and roots. A stomach from Guadalupe, San Luis Obispo County, was 
filled with barley, there being twenty-two whole kernels and many 
hulls; but there is a possibility that this was bait put out by hunters. 


CANVASBACK 155 


In the east the Canvasback is the most highly prized of all the 
ducks; for its habit of feeding on wild celery makes it of prime flavor. 
Largely because of its eastern reputation it is also considered the best 
of the game ducks almost everywhere in the west. The hunter with . 
a bag of Canvasbacks is always the hero of the day. As a matter of 
fact the west coast Canvasback does not ordinarily surpass the Mallard, 
and is sometimes less desirable. A few days’ diet on shellfish makes 
an inferior table bird of either duck. When killed in the interior or 
on mountain lakes, however, the Canvasback is invariably reported to 
be of fine flavor. Its large size coupled with its aristocratic reputation 
makes it bring the highest price on the market. In early days many 
were netted by Italian fishermen and the drowned ducks were sold in 
the markets for twenty-five cents a pair. In the season of 1910-1911 
the price paid by market men of San Francisco for this duck ranged 
from four to nine dollars a dozen, averaging about six dollars. The 
Mallard brought about the same price. Heermann (1859, p. 70) 
reports having seen a single Canvasback sold for twelve dollars in the 
‘*hoom’’ times of 1849. 

The Canvasback is a much hunted duck throughout its winter 
range. On Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, where it used to congregate in 
vast numbers it has been decimated by excessive shooting. Now it 
seldom appears in any quantity on this body of water. In California, 
also, the numbers on our waters have conspicuously dwindled of late 
years. In times past ‘‘Cans’’ were killed in very large numbers on 
the Sonoma marshes. There is one record of two hundred and sixty- 
eight drake Canvasbacks to a double-barreled gun in one day (Beitch, 
1912, p. 13). Occasionally, at the present time, one will hear of a 
limit (25) killed at the rate of a bird a minute, such being reported as 
recently as 1912. This is the exception, however, though the rarity 
of the occurrence gives the report such wide circulation that people are 
led to believe it common. 

The numbers appearing in the state vary greatly from year to 
year, as this is a bird which shifts its movements according to the 
abundance of food supply. A common saying among sportsmen is 
to the effect that every fourth year is a good ‘‘Can’’ year. A typical 
migrant, passing through two states before reaching California, and 
hunted everywhere it goes, the Canvasback is subjected to a con- 
siderable depletion in its ranks before returning to its northern breed- 
ing grounds. The danger of great depletion in the numbers of this 
species lies in its popularity as a table bird, and in its consequent high 
market value. Where there is sale of game the rate of destruction 
for any game species is largely determined by the market demand 
for it. 


156 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Greater Scaup Duck 


Marila marila (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NaMES—Scaup; Big Black-head; Greater Black-head; Big Blue-bill; 
Broad-bill; Shuffler; Black-jack, part; Raft Ruck; Aythya marila; Aythya marila 
nearctica; Fuligula marila; Fulix marila. 

Drscription—Adult male: Whole of head, neck, breast, and fore part of 
back black; sides of head and neck with metallic green reflections; iris lemon 
yellow; bill pale bluish gray, nail black; back and scapular region white with 
zig-zag barrings of black; rump, upper tail coverts and tail dull black; outer 
surface of closed wing slate brown mottled sparsely with fine white dots; 
flight feathers slate brown; speculum pure white; sides and long feathers of 
flanks pure white, in some specimens showing faint dusky undulations; hind 
part of belly, black; rest of under surface white, faintly undulated with 
dusky behind; legs and feet ‘‘plumbeous’’ (lead gray) (Sanford, Bishop and 
Van Dyke, 1903, p. 134). Total length 18.50-20.00 inches (470-508 mm.) 
(Eaton, 1910, p. 206); folded wing 8.35-8.95 (212-227); bill along culmen 
1.70-1.90 (43.2-48.3); tarsus 1.50-1.57 (38.1-39.8) (nine specimens from Alaska 
and California). Adult female: Whole of head, neck, breast and fore portion 
of back dusky reddish brown; a dull white area about base of bill; outer 
scapulars show faint traces of whitish undulations; back, rump, upper tail 
coverts, and tail, blackish brown; outer surface of closed wing plain slate 
brown; flight feathers dusky brown; speculum pure white; sides, flanks, and 
under tail coverts coarsely mottled with light and dark reddish brown; rest 
of under surface pure white shading behind into color of under tail coverts. 
Total length 17.00-18.12 inches (432-460 mm.) (Eaton, loc. cit., and two speci- 
mens from California); folded wing 8.27-8.53 (210-217); bill along culmen 
1.64-1.82 (41.6-46.2); tarsus 1.47-1.53 (37.3-38.8) (six specimens from Alaska 
and California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female, but wing 
of young male like that of adult male and with head darker than the female. 
Natal plumage: ‘‘ ‘Crown, nape [=hind neck], and upper parts uniform dark 
olive-brown; throat, sides of the head, and fore part of the neck, yellowish 
white; a dull grayish band crosses the lower neck, rest of the under parts 
dull yellowish, the flanks grayish yellow’ (Dresser).’’ (Ridgway, 1900, p. 102). 

MarKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Medium size, stout build, dark-colored 
head and neck, broad ‘‘blue’’ bill, conspicuous white speculum, and white 
under surface. Male Greater Scaup distinguished from male Lesser Scaup 
in hand by larger size, greenish instead of purplish gloss on head, and by 
tendency to white on outer webs of innermost primaries. Female Greater 
Scaup separable from all other ducks (save Lesser Scaup and Ring-neck) by 
conspicuous white area encircling base of bill. Female Greater Scaup distinguished 
from female Lesser Scaup only in hand, by larger size and by tendency to white 
on outer webs of innermost primaries; from Ring-neck by greater size and by 
gray instead of white speculum. 

Voice—A soft purring whistle; also, when excited, a loud discordant scaup 
(Eaton, 1910, p. 206). 

Nest—In tall grass on dry ground, usually not far from water; made of 
grass and weeds, and well lined with down. 

Eees—6 to 11, elongate ovate or elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 2.26 
to 2.70 by 1.69 to 1.73 (in millimeters, 57.5 to 68.5 by 43.0 to 44.0), and averag- 
ing 2.46 by 1.72 (62.5 by 43.5) (twenty-seven eggs in U. S. National Museum); 
in color olive buff (authors). 


GREATER SCAUP DUCK 157 


GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northern part of Northern Hemisphere. In North 
America breeds from northwestern Alaska, Great Slave Lake, and central 
Keewatin south to southern British Columbia and northern North Dakota; 
winters from Maine to Florida and from the Aleutian Islands, Nevada and 
Colorado south to southern California and southern Texas (modified from 
A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 75). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Fairly common winter visitant locally and 
irregularly on salt and brackish water along the sea coast. Recorded south to 

+ the vicinity of San Diego (Willett, 1912a, p. 25). Rare inland, as at Stockton, 
San Joaquin County, and northward in central California (Belding, 1879, p. 
446; and Belding, MS). 


The Scaup Ducks, or Blue-bills, are among the commonest of the 
sea ducks. The Greater Scaup, however, is not so plentiful in most 
parts of the United States as is the Lesser Seaup Duck, for the former 
has a more northerly winter range. This statement holds for Cali 
fornia, for whereas the Greater Scaup is but occasionally met with, the 
Lesser Scaup is found abundantly in winter on all of the coastal bays 
and marshes, and often in the interior. Doubtless the Greater Scaup 
is a commoner bird than is indicated by the comparatively few records ; 
its habit of congregating with the smaller species, from which it 
differs very slightly except for size, makes it easy to confuse with the 
latter species. Records of the Greater Scaup in California. are limited 
to the midwinter season save for a single bird taken at Stockton, San 
Joaquin County, April 1, 1878 (Belding, 1879, p. 446), though there 
are general statements to the effect that it occurs from October until 
April. 

The black head with a slaty blue bill, the white belly and mantle, 
and pure white speculum, conspicuous in flight, enable one to dis- 
tinguish the male Greater Scaup from all other ducks except the 
Lesser Scaup. In addition to a considerable difference in size, the 
Greater Scaup can be separated from the Lesser by the metallic green 
reflections on the sides of the head instead of the purplish ones to be 
found in the Lesser Scaup Duck. The white mask formed by patches 
of white about the base of the bill in the female separates her from 
all other ducks except the female Lesser Scaup and Ring-necked. 
Greater size alone is usually sufficient to separate her from either of 
these two near-related species. In common with the male, her con- 
trastedly dark head, and white belly and speculum, distinguish her 
from most other ducks. 

The following description of the nesting site and nest of the 
Greater Scaup in Alaska is given by Nelson (1887, p. 71). 


The nesting sites chosen are such as the Pintail and most other ducks 
choose—a dry, grassy tussock or knoll close to some pond—the only difference 
being that the present species appears to desire a position nearer water, ... 
and the nest is frequently at the point.of some small jutting cape and so near 
the water that the parent can swim to and from the nest. The nest is com- 


158 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


posed of grass stems, gathered close at hand, and a large fluffy bed of down 
plucked from the parent’s breast. 


Three nests found in the delta of the Kowak River, Alaska, are 
thus described by Grinnell (1900, p. 15): 


The nest was on a high dry hummock, about ten yards from the edge of 
a lake. It was almost hidden from view by tall, dead grass of the previous 
year’s growth. The eggs rested on a bed of finely broken grass stems, while — 
the rim of the nest was indicated by a narrow margin of down. This nest 
contained eleven fresh eggs. A second set of ten fresh eggs was taken on the 
same day (June 14, 1899). The nest was similar in construction, but was 
out on the tundra between two lakes, and fully a quarter of a mile from 
either. A set of seven fresh eggs taken on the 15th was quite differently 
situated. The nest was almost without feathers or down, and consisted of a 
neat saucer of matted dry grass-blades, supported among standing marsh grass 
and about four inches above the water. It was in a broad marshy swale 
about thirty feet from a small pond of open water. 


The following paragraph provides facts as to the summer habits 
of the Greater Scaup in the Norton Sound region of Alaska: 

The first days of June is the time usually chosen for depositing the first 
eggs, and some are not laid until nearly a month later. On August 16, 1878, 
several broods of young, from one-half to two-thirds grown, were seen, and 
on August 30, half-grown young were found in company with the female, 
whose primaries and secondaries were just starting after her summer moult. 
In the north as in the south these birds show a predilection for the larger 
bodies of water, and at once after the young are hatched they are marshalled 
off to the largest pond in the vicinity, so that it is a common occurrence to 
find a pond with six or eight broods of these ducks united in a large flock, 
whereas the other fresh water ducks keep in smaller pools and more than a 
single brood in a pond is the exception (Nelson, 1887, p. 71). 


The eggs of the Greater Scaup Duck, in common with those of its 
lesser relative, can be easily identified in comparison with those of 
other ducks, by their darker and richer color which may be described 
as rich olive buff (Bent, 1902, p. 165). Sets taken in northern 
Alaska by the senior author are uniform deep olive buff. Twenty-one 
eggs average in size 2.46 by 1.73 inches. 

In flying the Greater Scaup Duck rarely utters any note, but 
when swimming leisurely about in calm weather it is said to give 
utterance to a quick rattling or rolling sound (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 21). Eaton (1910, p. 206) says that ducks of 
this species utter a soft purring whistle when excited or when calling 
to their mates, and rarely the discordant scawp, which when given is 
screamed out in an exceptionally harsh, coarse voice. He adds: ‘‘On 
two or three occasions I have heard a flock of scaups giving utterance 
to these notes and the effect was the loudest and most discordant 
chorus of bird notes to which I ever listened, coming as it did from 
scores of voices over the silent water.’’ 


LESSER SCAUP DUCK 159 


Due to its habit of ‘‘rafting,’’ or resting on the water in close 
flocks during the daytime, this duck has sometimes been termed ‘‘ Raft 
Duck.’’ It is a good diver and obtains practically all of its food in 
this way. When wounded it seeks safety in diving or skulking under 
overhanging rocks or banks. When a flock is flushed the birds imme- 
diately scatter so that a ‘‘pot-shot’’ is seldom possible. 

Greater Scaup Ducks are said to feed almost exclusively at night. 
Crustaceans, shellfish and the like form the principal part of their 
food, but pondweeds are not altogether neglected. In the east these 
ducks, like many of the other species which dive, feed to a large extent 
on wild celery the roots of which can be torn loose only by the more 
expert divers among the ducks. Three stomachs of Greater Scaup 
Ducks shot by Sam Hubbard on San Pablo Bay, December 5, 1913, 
contained many shells, mostly broken, of a small clam (Mya arenaria). 
A stomach obtained by W. Toms on Tia Juana Slough, below San 
Diego, December 7, 1913, contained over 450 seeds of ditch-grass 
(Ruppia maritima). 

The Scaups are among the less desirable ducks for table use, as 
their flesh is usually tainted by their shell-fish diet. On the market 
both the Greater and Lesser Scaup Ducks are known as ‘‘Blue-bills’’ 
and are sometimes classified with certain other inferior species, as 
‘“small ducks,’’ and sold wholesale for $1.00 to $2.00 a dozen. The 
Lesser, being abundant on the bays and marshes near San Francisco, 
can always be found on the market, and the Greater has been at times 
recognized among them. The rare appearance of the Greater Scaup 
on the market, as compared with the Lesser, is probably due to the 
fact that it affects more open and inaccessible waters. But it ranks 
equally with the Lesser Scaup from the sportsman’s point of view. 

The Greater Scaup Duck is, with us, preéminently a maritime 
species. It is a bird which evidently winters chiefly north of us. 
Hence its preservation is not a particularly urgent problem to Cali- 
fornians. It will probably never be an important game bird in this 
state for two reasons: first, it appears in but small numbers, irregu- 
larly and in inaccessible places; and second, it is not in great demand 
as a table duck, but is used merely as a makeshift when other more 
desirable species are not procurable. 


5 Lesser Scaup Duck 
Marila affinis (Eyton) 


OTHER NAMES—Bluebill; Little Black-head; Black-jack, part; Broad-bill; 
Aythya afinis; Fulix affinis; Fuligula affinis; Fuligula mariloides. 

DescripTion—Adult male: Whole of head, neck, breast and fore part of 
back black (some specimens show a dull brownish ring around the lower neck, 
put not of the chestnut color seen in the Ring-necked Duck); sides of head 


160 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


and neck with purplish reflections predominating; iris yellow; bill clear 
bluish gray, nail black; back and scapular region white with coarse zig-zag 
barrings of black; rump, upper tail-coverts and tail dull black; outer surface 
of closed wing slaty brown, mottled sparsely with fine white dots; flight 
feathers slaty brown; speculum pure white; sides and long feathers of flanks 
white, the latter finely vermiculated with dusky; hind part of belly blackish 
brown, finely barred with whitish; under tail coverts black; rest of under 
surface pure white, this sharply contrasting with the black on breast; legs 
and feet (dried) slaty black. Total length 16.50-18.00 inches (418-457 mm.) 
(Eaton, 1910, p. 207), and two specimens from California; folded wing 7.60- 
8.20 (193-208); bill along culmen 1.55-1.73 (39.4-43.9); tarsus 1.35-1.40 (34.3- 
35.6) (seven specimens). Adult female: Whole head, neck, breast, and fore 
back, dusky reddish brown; a conspicuous area (sometimes called a mask) 
around base of bill, white; lower back, rump and tail dark brown; scapulars 
finely peppered with white dots, this taking the place of the zig-zag barrings 
in the male; outer surface of closed wing and flight feathers plain slate brown; 
speculum pure white; sides, flanks, lower belly and under tail coverts more or 
less deeply brownish, with here and there traces of whitish vermiculation; 
rest of under surface white, not so abruptly marked off from brown of breast 
as in male. Total length ‘‘16.00-16.75’’ inches (406-425 mm.) (Eaton, loc. 
cit.); folded wing 7.42-8.00 (188-203); bill along culmen 1.56-1.65 (39.6-41.8) ; 
tarsus 1.27-1.40 (32.3-35.6) (nine specimens); all from Alaska and California. 
Juvenile plumage: Not known to us. Natal plumage: ‘‘Upper parts, dark brown, 
with buff spots on side of back and rump; lower parts, buff; forehead and side 
of head, brownish buff; narrow brown ring across neck in front connecting with 
-brown of upper parts’’ (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, pp. 137-138). 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Not distinguishable from Greater Scaup 
at gunshot-range. In hand, or within a few yards, the smaller size, purplish 
instead of greenish gloss on the head, somewhat coarser or more distinct black 
undulations on back and flanks, and lack of whitish on outer webs of innermost 
primaries identify the male Lesser Scaup (pl. 5). Females can be definitely dis- 
tinguished only by size differences. The Lesser Scaup averages nearly two 
inches shorter than the Greater Scaup and is proportionally smaller throughout. 

Votce—Same as that of Greater Scaup Duck. 

Nest—Concealed in grass near water; composed of dry grass stems and 
lined with down. 

Eees—6 to 11, elongate ovate or elliptical in shape, measuring in inches 1.97 
to 2.38 by 1.40 to 1.62 (in millimeters, 50.0 to 60.5 by 35.5 to 41.0), and averag- 
ing 2.22 by 1.56 (56.5 by 39.5) (fifty-two eggs in U. S. National Museum); 
color plain olive buff. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds, chiefly in the interior, 
from the Yukon Valley, Alaska, and Fort Anderson, Mackenzie, south to central 
British Columbia, southern Montana, and northern Indiana; winters from 
southern British Columbia, Colorado, Lake Erie and New Jersey south to 
Panama, but chiefly within the United States. Non-breeding birds summer 
far south of the breeding range (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 75). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common transient and winter visitant prac- 
tically throughout the state wherever favorable conditions obtain. The coastwise 
records are largely in the fall and winter and the interior ones in spring. A 
few non-breeders summer along the sea coast, as at Santa Barbara (Torrey, 
1910b, p. 204); has bred on lakes of San Francisco County (Squires, 1915, p. 
234; J. Mailliard, 1915, p. 235). 


LESSER SCAUP DUCK 161 


The Lesser Scaup Duck or Little Blue-bill is the commonest duck 
found on the salt water bays and marshes along the coast during the 
winter season. Rafts of Lesser Scaups are always to be found on 
San Francisco and San Pablo bays from October to April, and this 
is the duck most commonly seen resting on the water near the ferry 
moles or diving for mussels about the piling. Non-breeders are occa- 
sionally seen in California during the summer. They have been noted 
in June at Santa Barbara (Torrey, 19100, p. 204). Even as far 
south as San Diego large flocks have been known to remain until the 
first of May and individuals were seen there as late as May 7, 1885 
(Belding, MS). In 1881 Lesser Seaups were seen in the markets of 
Stockton as early as October 6. On San Francisco Bay E. W. Gifford 
(MS) has record of ‘‘Blue-bills’’ as follows: 1904-1905: first seen, 
November 28; last seen, May 13; 1906-1907: first seen, November 29; 
last seen, April 14; 1907-1908: last seen, May 20; 1908-1909: first seen, 
December 25; last seen, March 21; 1909-1910: first seen, November 7; 
last seen, February 28. They apparently follow the coast more gen- 
erally in their southward migration, and the interior in their northward 
migration; practically all of the records from the interior are in the 
spring. Inland this duck is found chiefly on the larger bodies of water. 

The breeding range of the Lesser Scaup is a little more southerly 
than that of the Greater Scaup, as Nelson and others have not found 
it in northern Alaska. The southern limit of its summer range is 
certainly far south of that of the Greater Scaup. The great interior 
plains region, from northern North Dakota and northern Montana 
to the edge of the timber near the Arctic coast in the Anderson and 
Mackenzie river regions, contains the principal breeding grounds. 
The migration carries most of these breeders southeast to the south 
Atlantic states and even to the Bahamas and Mexico. The birds found 
along the Pacific coast are thought to breed mostly in the interior of 
British Columbia, Alaska, and Yukon territory. 

As has been noted in the discussion of the Greater Scaup Duck the 
Lesser Scaup is practically indistinguishable from it at a distance of 
more than a few yards in spite of the fact that some observers claim 
to have noticed differences in habits. A Scaup is readily recognized 
from other ducks by the combination of black head, blue bill, white 
or light mantle and white speculum and belly (pl. 5). On close 
examination the male Lesser Scaup can be identified and separated 
from the Greater Scaup by the presence of a purplish instead of 
greenish gloss on the head, by lack of whitish on outer webs of inner- 
most primaries, and by heavier markings on the scapulars and flanks. 
But size is the main distinguishing feature, and females can nearly 
always be separated by this character if by no other. The Lesser 
Scaup averages nearly two inches less in total length and the folded 
wing is about an inch shorter. 


162 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


On the Pacific slope, save for the instance noted below, this duck 
has not been found breeding south of British Columbia. In the latter 
place Brooks (1903, pp. 278-279) found it breeding much later than 
the Canvasback or Ring-neck. The nests were usually placed in coarse 
grass, with a path to water, generally a muskrat’s runway, connecting 
with the nearest open water. The first eggs were taken on June 21 
and the clutches varied from seven to eleven in number. A nest with 
ten eggs found by Chase Littlejohn at Glacier Bay, Alaska, July 16, 
1907, was placed within a heavy growth of grass about a foot from 
the water’s edge and consisted of grass stems lined with a little down 
from the parent’s breast (Grinnell, 1909b, p. 195). Nests found in 
North Dakota by Bent (1902, p. 165) were ‘‘all placed on dry ground 
but never more than fifty yards from the water. They were gen- 
erally rather poorly concealed in the prairie grass, but in some cases, 
where the grass grew thick and high, they were fairly well hidden. 
The nest consisted of a hollow scooped in the ground, profusely lined 
with very dark colored, almost black, down, mingled with a little dry 
grass and occasionally a white feather from the breast of the bird.’’ 
Evidence was obtained that the Lesser Scaup sometimes lays eggs in 
the nests of other ducks. 

On Lake Merced, San Francisco County, Squires (1915, p. 234) 
observed a pair of Lesser Seaups in July, 1915, with three young not 
yet able to fly, and J. Mailliard (1915, p. 235) reports that two or 
three families of ‘‘scaups’’ with young only a few days old had been 
seen on Stow Lake in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, in the same 
month. So far as could be learned these broods were not reared to 
maturity. There is likelihood that these breeding birds had been 
crippled or pinioned and were thus prevented from undertaking the 
usual migration. 

Eggs taken in southeastern Alaska are plain olive buff and average 
2.34 by 1.58. Twenty-six eggs from North Dakota averaged 2.26 by 
1.59. ‘‘The lightest types approach somewhat the darkest types of 
the Mallard’s eggs, and the darkest types are rich dark buff or coffee- 
colored’’ (Bent, 1902, p. 165). The male Blue-bills flock together 
during the nesting season as is the habit in many other species of 
ducks. 

In habits the Lesser Scaup is almost identical with the Greater 
Scaup except that the former appears to be a little less restricted to 
salt water. It is nearly always found in large flocks and resorts to the 
larger bodies of open water. ‘‘Rafts’’ (large dense flocks) of these 
ducks can often be seen during the day on the surface of open water, 
with their heads tucked under their wings, sleeping. In spite of their 
seeming obliviousness to their surroundings they are difficult to ap- 
proach, and only a boat well concealed by brush or tules will enable 


LESSER SCAUP DUCK 163 


the hunter to approach within gunshot. On San Francisco Bay Blue- 
bills are often seen feeding about the moles and wharves where they 
obtain a fair living by diving for mussels which are attached to the 
piles. On Stow Lake, Golden Gate Park, and on Lake Merritt, Oak- 
land, Blue-bills become very tame and one can often approach to 
within a few feet of them. When flying over the larger bodies of 
water they usually move close to the surface. On San Pablo Bay 
Scaups and Canvasbacks are commonly observed associating together 
‘on their feeding grounds in February and March. 

The food of the Lesser Scaup, like that of its larger cousin, is 
made up almost entirely of shellfish, crustaceans, aquatic insects, and 
pondweeds, obtained by diving. Blue-bills can stay under water for 
some time and often remain above the surface for a few seconds only, 
before diving again for some other delectable morsel which they 
have previously sighted. Eight stomachs of this duck, from birds 
taken by W. Toms on Tia Juana Slough, near San Diego, contained 
quantities of the seeds of ditch-grass (Ruppia maritima) ; two of 
these stomachs also held parts of mollusk shells, and one contained 
over two hundred small water bugs (Notonectidae). 

The shellfish diet obtained along the coast often makes this duck 
undesirable for food. One man has described a scaup as tasting after 
a few weeks of shellfish diet like a pint of erude oil! When feeding 
on the lakes of the interior where fresh-water food is available it is 
said to make a more acceptable addition to the bill of fare. 

‘In spite of its inferiority this is a common duck on the market, 
where it is sold as ‘‘small duck.’’ The average wholesale price on 
the markets of San Francisco during the season 1911-1912 was $1.00 
to $2.00 per dozen. Because of its numbers it affords more sport than 
any other bay duck. It comes readily to decoys and is shot in great 
numbers from blinds built in the shoal waters of the bays along the 
coast. When taking flight the flock immediately scatters so that ‘‘pot- 
shots’’ are difficult. 

A-diminution in the numbers of this less-sought-for duck has not 
been particularly noted on the west coast as has been the case on the 
east coast. Nevertheless hunters with years of experience say that 
the numbers now appearing in California do not compare with the 
thousands which flocked to our shores formerly. 

There is no better example of the results to be expected from pro- 
tection than is afforded by a visit to Lake Merritt, Oakland, where 
ducks, including great numbers of Blue-bills, congregate by the thou- 
sands even though the lake is situated near the heart of a great city. 
The species is also found in some numbers on Stow Lake, Golden Gate 
Park, San Francisco, showing that by protection and the use of a 
few pinioned ducks a small reservoir can be made to teem with water- 
fowl even though it be in the midst of civilization. 


164 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Ring-necked Duck 


Marila collaris (Donovan) 


OTHER NAMES—Ring-bill; Black-jack, part; Black-head; Aythya collaris; Fuliz 
collaris ; Fuligula collaris. 

DEScRIPTION—Adult male: Whole of head, neck, breast and upper surface 
black, except for a triangular patch of pure white on the chin and a more or 
less distinct half-collar of chestnut brown around fore part of lower neck; 
sides of head faintly glossed with violet; low crest on head shiny black with 
faint greenish iridescence; iris yellow; bill lead color, with a narrow basal and 
broad subterminal band of bluish white, the end black; outer surface of closed 
wing and flight feathers slaty brown; speculum pearl gray, bordered above by 
blackish feathers with slight greenish reflections, and behind by a narrow 
margin of white; axillars and most of lining of wing pure white; tail slate 
brown; sides and flanks white, delicately undulated with dusky; under surface, 
including crescent-shaped extension upwards on each side in front of wing, 
satiny white changing behind through an undulated area like the sides and flanks to 
the black of the under tail coverts; legs and feet ‘‘greyish-blue,’’ webs 
‘¢brownish-black’’ (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 323). Total length 17.20-17.37 inches 
(437-441 mm.) (two specimens); folded wing 7.75-8.15 (197-207); bill along 
culmen 1.75-1.86 (44.4-47.2); tarsus 1.36-1.42 (34.5-36.0) (six specimens). 
Adult female: Top of head dark brown; sides of head lighter brown more or 
less mottled with whitish; an area at base of bill, chin, and throat dull white; 
bill usually, showing evidence of a light cross-bar; hind neck and whole of 
back dark reddish brown shading into the black of rump; outer surface of 
closed wing exactly as in male; breast, sides and flanks reddish brown, each 
feather edged with lighter brown giving a somewhat mottled appearance; 
lower surface otherwise white, shading into brown on the-lower belly and 
under tail coverts; longest under tail coverts whitish. Total length 16.75 inches 
(425 mm.) (two specimens); folded wing 7.26-7.62 (184-193); bill along 
culmen 1.73-1.90 (43.8-48.2); tarsus 1.27-1.40 (32.3-35.6) (eight specimens); 
all from California. Juvenile plumage: Male: Similar to that of adult female 
(authors). Natal plumage: Forehead straw yellow; top and back of head and 
most of upper surface of body, warm brown; sides of head and neck, and 
throat, straw yellow, palest below; chin yellowish white; iris hazel; bill lead- 
colored above, flesh-colored below; short narrow streak in middle of back 
and large patches on sides of back and rump, pale straw yellow; under surface 
of body, pale straw yellow, darkening on flanks and lower belly where some 
grayish brown down shows through; feet lead colored, toes tinged with 
yellowish. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Resembles Lesser Scaup but speculum 
bluish gray instead of white. Back of male black instead of whitish, and white 
of under surface extending upwards on each side to form a crescent-shaped mark 
in front of wing. At close range the combination of narrower dark bill with 
light cross-band near end, the light (chestnut) collar, and triangular white spot 
on chin is diagnostic. Female has white around base of bill less sharply defined 
than in Lesser Scaup, chin and throat continuously whitish, but lower surface 
of body darker, and speculum bluish gray instead of white. Female Ring-neck 
distinguished from female Redhead by smaller size, shorter wing, narrower bill, 
whiter throat, and darker back. 

Vorce—Said to resemble that of Greater Scaup Duck. 


RING-NECKED DUCK 165 


Nest—In grass of marsh land, over or near water; made of grass stems and 
sparingly lined with down. 

Eaes—6 to 12, elliptical in shape, measuring in inches 2.25 to 2.30 by 1.60 to 
1.65 (in millimeters, 57.2 to 58.3 by 40.6 to 41.8) (Davie, 1889, p. 70); color 
varying from greenish or grayish white to buff. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds from North Dakota and 
Minnesota north to Athabasca Lake, and less abundantly west of the Rockies 
from Lassen County, California, to southern British Columbia. Winters from 
southern British Columbia, northern Texas and New Jersey south to Porto 
Rico and Guatemala (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 75). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CaLIFoRNIA—Rather rare winter visitant, mainly in the west- 
central and southern parts of the state, and chiefly on fresh water. Southernmost 
record station: San Diego (Belding, MS). One breeding record: Eagle Lake, 
Lassen County (Sheldon, 1907, p. 187). 


The Ring-necked or Ring-bill Duck is the rarest of the Redhead- 
Canvasback-Scaup group occurring in California. Because of this fact 
ornithologists have taken especial interest in reporting instances of its 
occurrence, with the result that there are now more than fifteen 
definite records. It has been taken at least four times on San Fran- 
cisco Bay and there are other records from west-central California. 
It has been found at Eagle Lake, Lassen County, and at Lake Tahoe 
and also at several places in southern California, even as far south 
as San Diego. Belding (MS) states that in his experience the Ring- 
necked Duck was a winter visitor ‘‘in unknown quantity’’ south to 
San Diego and that it was a fairly common species in central Cali- 
fornia where he shot specimens repeatedly and saw it in the markets. 
As an instance of unusual occurrence, W. K. Fisher (1904, p. 25) 
secured a specimen from the ridge back of Black Mountain, nine miles 
west of Stanford University, on November 26, 1903. The species 
seems to prefer the vicinity of fresh water, in this state at least. Its 
principal winter home is the Gulf Coast from Texas to Florida where 
it is said to be the most abundant duck present (Cooke, 1906, p. 48). 

In general appearance the Ring-necked Duck resembles the Scaups. 
However, the speculum is bluish gray rather than white, and in the 
male the back is black and the white of the under surface extends 
upwards on each side to form a crescent-shaped bar in front of the 
wing. At close range, or in hand, the male may be known by the 
narrower bill, dark in color and with a light cross band near the end, 
by the light chestnut-colored collar, and the triangular spot of white 
on the chin. Females have white around the base of the bill as does 
the same sex in the Scaups; but the Ring-neck has this white less 
sharply restricted, the chin and throat are continuously whitish, the 
back is darker, the brown sides and flanks lack undulated markings, 
and the lower surface of the body is less whitish. The female Ring- 
neck can be distinguished from the female Redhead by smaller size, 
darker body color, whiter throat and narrower bill. 


166 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The summer home of the Ring-necked Duck seems to comprise two 
general areas on opposite sides of the Rocky Mountains. The majority 
of the birds breed in the interior plains region from North Dakota 
and Minnesota north to Athabasca Lake and the western side of Lake 
Winnipeg. West of the Rockies the species nests from Eagle Lake, 
Lassen County, California, north to the Cariboo district of British 
Columbia (Cooke, loc. cit.). 

At Eagle Lake, Lassen County, Sheldon records (1907, p. 187) 
that he found many Ring-necked Ducks in pairs, or old with young. 
This observation suggests that the species must nest locally about 
other large lakes in the northeastern part of the state. It is known 
to have nested in the vicinity of Fort Klamath, Oregon (Merrill, 1888, 
p. 142), and Brooks (1903, p. 279) has found it breeding in British 
Columbia. The latter author says: ‘‘I was able to take only one set 
of eggs, evidently a second laying as there was no down. This was 
on the 27th of June. The nest was in a tussock of grass, in eight inches 
of water ; it was composed of coarse green grass and arched over with 
the drooping blades of the tussock. The nine eggs contained small 
embryos. Young broods of this species were observed before the 
Lesser Scaup (A. affinis) had started to lay. The young in down 
are very light colored, resembling the young of the Canvasback and 
Redhead, and quite different from the dusky, unspotted young of 
the Lesser Scaup.’’ Roberts (1880, p. 61) describes a nest of the 
Ring-necked Duck found on June 1, 1876, in southeastern Minnesota, 
as follows: 


The situation chosen for the nest was a narrow strip of marsh bordering 
a large shallow pond or slough. About half way between the shore and the 
edge of the open water was a mass of sunken debris, probably the remnauts 
of an old muskrat house, which reached nearly or quite to the surface of the 
water, here about eight inches deep. On this foundation was the nest, a 
rather compact, bulky structure built mainly of fine grass with a little moss 
intermingled. Outside the grass is long and circularly disposed, while the 
bottom, inside, is composed of short broken pieces, and the inside rim of 
fine grass bent and loosely tangled together with considerable down among 
it. Measurements were not taken before removing the nest, but in its present 
condition the walls and base are two and a half inches thick, the diameter 
inside six inches, and the depth of the cavity three inches. The clutch was 
nine eggs which contained small embryos. The eggs were perfectly smooth, 
and of a light greenish-white color, wholly unmarked. 


Seven of the eggs out of the set just described measured 2.19 to 
2.27 by 1.58 to 1.62 and averaged 2.23 by 1.60 inches. According to 
Baird, Brewer and Ridgway (1884, II, p. 28) the eggs of this species 
are grayish ivory white, but sometimes the gray tinge is replaced by 
buff. 


AMERICAN GOLDEN-EYE 167 


At Eagle Lake, Lassen County, California, Sheldon (loc. cit.) 
found Ring-necked Ducks less shy than other ducks. They were 
always close to shore, usually where dead trees lay in the water, and 
often perched on limbs of dead pines which rose above water. 

As a rule birds of this species are seen singly or in pairs, and they 
do not resort to open water as much as their relatives, the Scaup 
Ducks. Brooks (1899b, p. 350) says: The Ring-neck ‘‘generally fre- 
quents smaller ponds and more rushy localities than the scaups, but 
I have seen both species of Scaups, Ringbills, Redheads and Canvas- 
backs (all five species of the genus Aythya found in America) in one 
enormous flock. Like the [other] members of this genus the Ringbill 
is a swift flyer. In fact I should class it as the fastest flying duck in 
America.’’ The swift motion of the wings produces a whistling sound 
as the birds pass overhead. In flight, too, the general behavior is 
like that of Scaups, in that the members of a band of Ring-necks 
spread out and do not afford opportunities for ‘‘pot-shots.’’ The 
feeding habits of the Ring-neck are similar to those of its nearest of 
kin. It dives easily and is able to stay under water for a considerable 
period of time. It eats snails, aquatic insects, and seeds. 

Belding (MS) says that the Ring-neck takes low rank among food 
ducks. It is too rare a duck to be of importance as a game bird. If 
it could be readily distinguished in the field it would be well to afford 
it special protection along with the Wood Duck and Redhead; but its 
similarity to the Seaup Duck precludes such a course. Better pro- 
tection in the states lying to the north, where it is found more abun- 
dantly, will favor its persistence within our own state. 


American Golden-eye 


Clangula clangula americana Bonaparte 


OTHER NAMES—Whistler; Whistle-wing; Copperhead (female only); Buce- 
phala americana; Clangula americana; Bucephala clangula; Clangula glaucion 
americana; Glaucionetta clangula americana; Bucephala clangula var. americana. 

Description—Adult male: Whole head, including moderately developed 
crest, and upper part of neck, black, glossed (except on throat) with dark 
metallic green changeable to violet at certain angles; a nearly circular spot 
of white (measuring about five-eighths by one inch) at base of bill on each 
side; iris ‘‘bright yellow’’ (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 367); bill deep black; pure 
white of breast and lower surface continuous clear around neck, contrasting 
abruptly with black of head; inner scapulars black, outer ones white with 
black edges; back, rump and tail, solidly black; outer surface of closed wing 
black and white; bend and edge of wing blackish, secondaries, greater and 
middle coverts (including speculum), pure white; primaries and tail blackish 
slate; sides pure white; elongated flank feathers, white, edged sharply with 
black; under tail coverts white; under side of tail ashy brown; feet ‘‘orange,’’ 
webs ‘‘dusky,’’ claws ‘‘black”’ (Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length ‘‘18.50— 


168 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


23.00’? inches (470-584 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 105); folded wing 9.12 (232); 
bill along culmen 1.45 (36.8); tarsus 1.58 (40.2) (one specimen from Alaska). 
Adult female: Whole head, including moderately developed crest, and hind 
neck continuously light brown (no circular white spot at base of bill); bill 
with parallel edges, symmetrically rounded at tip, and ‘‘dusky,’’ ‘‘dull yellow- 
ish orange’’ toward ends of both mandibles (Audubon, loc. cit.); broad collar 
around fore neck, white, incomplete behind; upper surface of body ashy 
brown, the feathers with blackish centers; rump black; tail ashy brown both 
above and below; outer surface of closed wing including flight feathers slaty 
black, many of the lesser and middle coverts with white tippings; secondaries 
and broad ends of greater coverts (including speculum) pure white; under 
surface of wing and axillars blackish brown; band across breast ashy gray, 
conspicuously outlined above by a white collar, and behind by the white of 
rest of under surface; sides and elongated flank feathers slate brown, nar- 
rowly tipped with white. Total length ‘‘about 16.50’’ inches (418 mm.) 
(Ridgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 8.12 (206); bill along culmen 1.28 (32.5); 
tarsus 1.37 (34.8) (one specimen from California). Juvenile plumage: Male: 
Like that of adult female but has white spot before eye more or less indicated, 
while gray band across chest is less conspicuous (authors). Natal plumage: 
Whole top of head to level of bill, and hind neck, very dark brown; throat 
white; back and sides dark brown, with paired spots of grayish white as 
follows: on hind margin of wing, behind wing, on flank, and at base of tail; 
whole lower surface of body white; band across foreneck light brown; iris 
brownish; bill blackish, tip of lower mandible flesh-color; feet olive ochre. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Medium size, stocky build, yellow eye, 
fluffy head, and notable whistling sound produced by wings in flight. Male: 
Black and white plumage, and conspicuous rounded white spot on side of 
head at base of bill. Female: Combination of general characters given above 
together with white speculum, abruptly and solidly brown head, and white 
collar, separate her from other ducks except the Barrow Golden-eye. From 
the female of the latter she differs slightly by paler head, shallower and 
broader bill at tip, lack of yellowish band across bill near tip, light band 
across chest, and lack of blackish bar across white of wing. 

Voice—Of male: In courting, a short flat vibrant paaap (Brewster, 1911, 
p. 25). Of female: When startled or lost a sharp cur-r-rew; in nesting season 
(at least) a low pitched quack (Eaton, 1910, pp. 209-210; and authors). 

Nest—In cavities in trees over water; a lining of down on the residual 
rotten wood or other debris. 

Eees—5 to 15, or more, rounded-oval in shape, measuring in inches 2.30 to 
2.55 by 1.70 to 1.78 (in millimeters, 58.4 to 64.7 by 43.2 to 45.2); color ashy 
green; thin-shelled with a glossy surface (measurements from Davie, 1889, 
p. 71). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds from southern British 
Columbia, southern Montana, northern North Dakota and northern New 
England north to central Alaska, central Keewatin and Newfoundland; winters 
chiefly in the United States from Utah, Nebraska, Minnesota and Maine 
south to southern California, central Mexico and Florida (modified from A. 
O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 76). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Fairly common winter visitant, chiefly in the 
northern half of the state; most numerous on coastal bays and salt marshes, 
occasionally straggling to the interior. Several instances of occurrence in 
southern California (Willett, 1912a, p. 25), the southernmost being at San 


AMERICAN GOLDEN-EYE 169 


Diego (Belding, MS). Some inland record stations are: near Daggett, San 
Bernardino County (Lamb, 1912, p. 34); Lone Pine, Inyo County (A. K. 
Fisher, 1893a, p. 18); and lower McCloud River, Shasta County (C. H. Town- 
send, 1887, p. 195). Other inland records nearer the coast. 


The Anierican Golden-eye or Whistler is to be numbered among 
the less common ducks in California. Several early writers give it 
as a common winter visitant, but recent records especially in southern 
California have been few. Littlejohn (1912, p. 41) says that it is 
often plentiful during the fall migration on the salt marshes of San 
Francisco Bay near Redwood City. From Oregon northward this 
duck is reported as regularly common in winter. It is with us found 
almost exclusively on salt water along the coast, but there have been 
several records. of its occurrence interiorly, for example, ‘‘central 
California in winter, but rare’’ (Belding, MS). The numbers decrease 
rapidly south of Monterey Bay. 

The medium size, stocky build, strongly contrasted black and white 
coloration, and large-appearing head of the male Golden-eye make 
him easily distinguishable from other drakes in the field, either when 
flying or at rest on the water. At close range or in the hand, the 
roundish white spot at the base of the bill on each side and the bright 
yellow eyes make identification certain. The extraordinary whistling 
sound made by the wings marks this bird in flight. Our other black 
and white ducks with which it is sometimes confused by the inex- 
perienced observer are the sawbills and the Bufflehead; but the longer 
body and slender beak of the mergansers give them an entirely dif- 
ferent appearance, while the Bufflehead is a much smaller bird and the 
head, though fluffy, has a large white patch behind the eye. The 
female Golden-eyes are more difficult to recognize than the males, as 
the head is brown instead of black, the upper surface is gray in color 
and there is no white spot at the base of the bill on each side. The 
stocky build, bright yellow eye, and whistling noise in flight still 
remain, however, and together with the white speculum, abruptly and 
solidly brown head, and white collar, combine to distinguish them from 
other-female ducks. 

Males of the American Golden-eye can be separated from those of 
the Barrow Golden-eye by the roundish white spot at the base of the 
bill instead of the narrowly triangular patch found in the same place 
in the latter species. Females and young of these two species are 
go similar in appearance that they are difficult to distinguish even 
in the hand. The decided reduction in the width of the bill near its 
tip in the Barrow Golden-eye is the most dependable character avail- 
able for discrimination. Other diagnostic characters of the American 
are the paler head, paler band across chest, lack of yellowish band 
across bill near tip, and lack of blackish bar across the white area on 
the wing. 


170 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The Golden-eye has not been found breeding in California. Being 
a distinctly cold-loving species, in summer as well as in winter, it 
nests almost entirely in the far north. As it requires hollow trees for 
nesting sites, its breeding range is of course limited to those areas 
where trees are found. It breeds commonly in the interior of Alaska, 
but is very rarely seen along the coast. The Golden-eye has been 
found breeding in southern British Columbia so close to the American 
line that it probably will be found to breed in northern Washington 
(Cooke, 1906, p. 49). Brooks (1903, p. 279) states that in the Cariboo 
district, British Columbia, it is seen during migrations but has not 
been found to nest there. The principal breeding grounds are in 
central Canada, but it has also been found nesting in the extreme 
north-central and northeastern United States, as far south as northern 
New York. 

More has been written on the life-history of the Golden-eye than 
on that of many of the commoner ducks. Unfortunately, however, 
little or none of this information pertains to the Pacific Coast. We 
can only infer a general similarity in behavior on the part of our 
birds. 

The Whistler is noted for its extraordinary mating antics. C. W. 
Townsend (1910, pp. 177-178) describes the typical courtship of 
this duck, as seen in Massachusetts, as follows: 


One or more males swim restlessly back and forth and around a female. 
The feathers of the cheeks and crest of the male are so erected that the 
head looks large and round, the neck correspondingly small. As he swims 
along the head is thrust out in front close to the water, occasionally dabbing 
at it. Suddenly he springs forward, elevating his breast, and at the same 
time he enters on the most typical and essential part of the performance. The 
neck is stretched straight up, and the bill, pointing to the zenith, is opened 
to emit a harsh, rasping double-note, zzee-at, vibratory and searching in 
character. The head is then quickly snapped back until the occiput touches 
the rump, whence it is brought forward again with a jerk to the normal 
position. As the head is returned to its place the bird often springs forward 
kicking the water in a spurt out behind, and displaying like a flash of flame 
the orange-colored legs. . 


Brewster (1911;pp. 22-30) has noted no less than six typical 
poses which are successively assumed while the males are displaying 
themselves before the females. The love note is described as a short, 
flat, vibrant paaap, accompanied by an upward kick of the feet which 
sends up a slender shower of water behind. There were often as 
many as nine males courting one female and yet the usual jealousy 
to be noted among males of other species of ducks appeared to be 
wholly lacking. 

Brewster has made an extensive study of the nesting habits of 
the Golden-eye at Lake Umbagog, Maine. In the course of his admir- 
able account, he states (1900, pp. 208-209) : 


AMERICAN GOLDEN-EYE 171 


All the Whistlers’ nests which I have examined [in Maine] have been 
placed over water at heights varying from six or eight to fifty or sixty feet 
and in cavities in the trunks of large hardwood trees such as elms, maples, 
and yellow or canoe birches. As the supply of such cavities is limited, even 
where dead or decaying trees abound, and as the birds have no means of enlarging 
or otherwise improving them they are not fastidious in their choice, but readily 
make use of any opening which can be made to serve their purpose. Thus 
it happens that the nest is sometimes placed at the bottom of a hollow trunk, 
six, ten, or even fifteen feet below the hole at which the bird enters, at 
others on a level with and scarce a foot back from the entrance, which is 
usually rounded, and from six to fifteen inches in diameter, but occasionally 
is so small and irregular that the Whistler must have difficulty in forcing its 
bulky body through. ... 

The eggs are laid on the rotten wood or whatever other debris there may 
be at the bottom of the cavity. When the set is complete (never before, so 
far as I have observed) the bird places under, around, and even over the eggs, 
down plucked from her breast. The quantity of down varies greatly in 
different nests. The down is very light gray, each down feather having a 
slightly paler center. 

The number of eggs in a completed set varies greatly. Occasionally there 
are but five or six, oftener from eight to ten, not infrequently as many as 
twelve or fifteen, while I once found nineteen, all of which almost certainly 
belonged to one bird.... The whole bottom of the nesting cavity, be it 
large or small, is usually covered with eggs, and they are often piled in two 
layers or set on end, and packed so closely that it is as difficult to remove the 
first as to take a book from a tightly filled shelf. 


An occupied nesting cavity can usually be located by the presence 
of white down on the edges of the aperture or on near-by limbs. 

Bent (1902, p. 170) describes the eggs as different from other 
ducks’ eggs in that they vary from a clear pale malachite green in 
the lighter specimens to a more olivaceous or pale chromium green 
in the darker specimens. Seventeen eggs from North Dakota measure 
in inches 2.37 to 2.58 by 1.66 to 1.77, and average 2.46 by 1.71. 

The ducklings are easily separated from those of other species. 
‘“‘The downy young have the upper parts, as well as a band across 
the breast and the sides and thighs, dark sooty brown, marked with 
several white spots; chin, throat, and cheeks pure white; belly grayish 
white’’ (Eaton, 1910, p. 210). Unlike the Wood Duck, the young 
apparently often tumble from the nest instead of being carried to 
water in the bill of the parent, for Brewster( loc. cit.) tells of seeing 
the young tumble out of a nest into the water after being called by 
their mother. All used their tiny wings freely, beating them con- 
tinuously as they descended so that they struck the water with very 
little force. On the other hand George A. Boardman (in Forbush, 
1912, p. 131) states that in Maine he saw a female Whistler pick up 
two of her ducklings and carry them, one at a time, across a lake, and 
he was told by his companion that the mother birds often took their 


172 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


young from one lake to another when they thought the little ones were 
in danger. Boardman’s companion also told him that the young were 
usually carried from the nest to the water in the bill of the parent, 
but to go any distance the feet were used in carrying them. Bailey 
(1916a, p. 55) says that at Stump Lake, North Dakota, parent ducks 
have been seen to fly down from nest holes with young birds on their 
backs, the ducklings steadying themselves by holding onto the mother’s 
feathers by their bills. 

Golden-eyes are generally found in small flocks on large bays, 
lakes or rivers. In flight this duck makes more of a noise with its 
wings than does any other duck. This peculiarity has given it the 
common name of ‘‘Whistler.’’ It seems to be otherwise perfectly 
silent in California during the winter, making no noise, except that 
produced by the whistling of the wings in flight. In a scattered 
company mixed with other species this duck is usually one of the first 
to give the alarm, for it is nearly always shy and difficult to approach; 
but on occasion, apparently trusting to its dexterity in diving, it 
will allow a near approach. Both when swimming and in flight it 
is a very active bird. 

The male Whistler floats lightly on the water. The female, how- 
ever, sits much lower in the water. Brewster (1911, p. 29) states that 
in diving the wings of this species are kept tightly closed whereas the 
tail is usually spread to the utmost width possible. As a rule the 
downward plunge is made without much apparent effort, the bird 
simply immersing its head and then vanishing with surprising if not 
mysterious quickness. Occasionally it springs upward and forward 
in the manner of a grebe or merganser, sometimes showing not only 
the entire outline of the lower parts of the body above the surface but 
also the whole of the legs and feet. This species dives so very quickly 
(at the flash of the powder) that, according to testimony, it could 
not be shot with the old-fashioned flintlock gun. The flight of the 
Whistler is powerful, rapid, and protracted. On rising from the 
water it proceeds at first very low, and does not ascend to its usual 
height until it has gone a considerable distance. 

Lamb (1912, p. 34) has recorded the following notes on a pair 
seen November 17, 1910, feeding in a small pond on the Mohave 
Desert. ‘‘At this place the water was about four feet deep. They 
‘would dive and stay under the water possibly forty-five seconds, and 
when coming up I could hear them breathe so plainly, it sounded to 
me as loud as a full grown man after a hard run. The birds remained 
on the surface, apparently to recover their breath, about half again 
as long as they stayed under water.’’ Bailey (1916a, p. 55) observed 
a female diving and feeding in Stump Lake, North Dakota. As the 
bird rose above the surface with a morsel of food she would throw 
her head up as she swallowed it. 


BARROW GOLDEN-EYE 173 


The food is made up largely of mussels and other shellfish obtained 
by diving. The stomach of a bird taken on San Pablo Bay, December 
5, 1913, by Samuel Hubbard, Jr., contained only broken clam shells 
(Mya arenaria). Some authors state that the Golden-eye also feeds 
on small fish. In the interior it is said to feed on aquatic insects and 
even such vegetable matter as grasses and roots. 

Like others of the rarer ducks the Golden-eye cannot be considered 
an important game bird. From the sportsman’s point of view it is 
almost negligible, for it seldom comes well to decoys. It has rarely 
been seen on the markets of San Francisco. As a table bird it is 
inferior, taking rank below even the Blue-bill. The young, however, 
are said to be fairly tender and well flavored. 

This lover of the far north will probably always be more or less of 
a rare duck in California. The size of the contingent reaching us will 
always be dependent on conditions obtaining farther to the north. 
Thus the numbers to be expected each year are variable. During mild 
winters in the north, the continued presence of open water makes it 
unnecessary for the birds to travel farther south. 


Barrow Golden-eye 


Clangula wslandica (Gmelin) 


OTHER NAMES— Rocky Mountain Golden-eye; Rocky Mountain Garrot; 
Whistler; Bucephala islandica; Glaucionetta islandica. 

DescripTion—Adult male: Head, including well developed crest extending 
to hind neck, and upper half of neck, black, strongly glossed, except on fore- 
head and throat, with steely blue showing violet reflections at certain angles; 
extreme point of chin flecked with white; an approximately wedge-shaped patch of 
white on each side of head between eye and bill, bordering whole lateral base 
of bill; upper part of this white patch forms an acute angle on each side of 
the forehead, the lower part broadest and rounded; bill goose-like, color 
‘“‘black’’; iris ‘‘yellow’’ (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 147); upper 
surface of body velvety black, with a faint steely gloss on scapulars; outer 
row of scapulars on each side white, with outer edge of outer web of each 
~ feather black and produced into an abruptly elongated spike; the mass effect 
of this scapular white is of a longitudinal series of roundish or oblong spots; 
outer surface of closed wing chiefly black; middle wing coverts white, together 
producing a broad white bar; exposed terminal half of greater coverts, and 
whole of exposed portion of five or six inner secondaries, white, forming a 
large patch, which includes speculum; black bases of greater coverts form a 
diagonal black bar separating the two above designated patches of white on 
wing; axillars and under surface of wing blackish brown; sides and flanks 
chiefly white, continuous with same color on lower surface, but upper feather 
edges widely bordered with deep black, and flank feathers also broadly termin- 
ated with black; thighs and marginal under tail coverts blackish brown; 
lower half of neck all around, and entire lower surface of body, except as 
above, pure satiny white; legs and feet ‘‘pale orange’’ (Sanford, Bishop and 
Van Dyke, loc. cit.). Total length ‘‘21.00-23.00’’ inches (533-584 mm.) (Ridg- 


174 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


way, 1900, p. 105); folded wing 8.95 (227); bill along culmen 1.37 (34.8); 
tarsus 1.62 (41.2) (one specimen, in Mailliard collection, from California). 
Adult female: Whole of head, including moderately developed crest, and upper 
neck, continuously dark brown; collar around neck white, interrupted behind 
by light brown, continuous with color of back; bill conspicuously high at base, 
narrow at tip, with large black nail, and mostly black with usually a yellow 
patch across each mandible near tip; upper surface of body ashy brown, with 
blackish feather centers; scapulars darker; rump dull black; tail ashy brown 
both above and below; outer surface of closed wing including flight feathers, 
slaty black; speculum pure white, bordered in front by a blackish bar formed 
by the tips of the greater coverts which are otherwise white on their exposed 
portions; many of lesser coverts also mottled with white; lining of wing and 
axillars, blackish brown; broad band across breast ashy brown, conspicuously 
outlined by the white collar above, and behind by the white on rest of lower 
surface; sides and elongated flank feathers slaty brown, tipped with ashy; 
under tail coverts pure white. Folded wing 8.25-8.65 inches (210-220 mm.); 
bill along culmen 1.27-1.50 (32.2-38.1); tarsus 1.43-1.60 (36.3-40.6) (two 
specimens from California and Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Not known to us. 
Natal plumage: Whole top of head, sides of head to level of bill, and hind 
neck, uniform very dark brown; throat white; iris brownish; bill blackish, 
tip of lower mandible flesh color; upper surface of body and sides, dark brown, 
with paired white spots as follows: on hind margin of wing, on flanks, behind 
wing, and at base of tail; whole lower surface white, with band across fore- 
neck light brown; feet olive ochre. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Similar to those for American Golden-eye 
from which not readily distinguishable except at close range or in hand. Male 
Barrow Golden-eye has white patch on cheek sharply triangular instead of 
rounded, head glossed with steel-blue instead of green, scapulars spotted instead 
of striped, black band across white wing patch, and bill deeper and narrower. 
Female Barrow Golden-eye, as compared with the American, has head darker 
brown, bill more goose-like and with yellowish band near tip, chest band darker, 
white collar narrower, and white wing patch usually crossed by a dusky bar. 

VoIcE—No description found by us. 

Nest—In hollows in trees; built of grass, sticks and other debris, and 
usually lined with white down. 

Eees—6 to 10, rounded oval in shape, measuring in inches, 2.40 to 2.60 by 1.60 
to 1.85 (in millimeters, 61.0 to 66.0 by 40.6 to 47.0), and averaging 2.48 by 1.71 
(63.0 by 43.4) (fifteen eggs); in color ‘‘grayish pea-green’’ or “‘pright sea- 
green’’ (Brewer, 1879, pp. 151, 152). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northern North America. Breeds from south-central 
Alaska and northwestern Mackenzie south to southern Oregon and southern 
Colorado; also from northern Ungava to central Quebec. Winters from south- 
eastern Alaska, central Montana, the Great Lakes and Gulf of St. Lawrence 
south to central California, southern Colorado, Nebraska and New England 
(A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 76). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNISA—Rare winter visitant to northern half of the 
state. The following definite instances of occurrence are known: Gridley, 
Butte County (Belding, MS); at or near (?) Nicasio, Marin County (Belding, 
MS); Ross Landing and Point San Pedro, Marin County shore of San Fran-, 
cisco Bay (J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 15); Stege, Contra Costa County (Mus. Vert. 
Zool.); San Francisco markets (Henshaw, 1876, p. 274); San Francisco Bay 
(Kobbé, in Bailey, 1902, p. xlix); San Francisco Bay near Redwood City, San 
Mateo County (Littlejohn, 1912, p. 41). 


BARROW GOLDEN-EYE 175 


Previous to 1876 the Barrow Goldén-eye was supposed to have 
a general far northern distribution. In that year the nest and eggs 
of this species were first found in the mountains of Colorado. Since 
that time it has been found breeding on a number of the sequestered 
mountain lakes of the Rockies from southern Colorado almost to the 
Arctic Coast although breeding records north of the United States 
are rare. On the northwest the breeding range extends to the base 
of the Alaska Peninsula and to Iceland on the east. The species also 
breeds about the mountain lakes of Oregon, Washington, and British 
Columbia. The cold of the winter season forces it but little south of 
its summer range. By frequenting water that is too deep or too 
rapid to freeze it is able to remain all the year as far north as 
Minnesota and the Great Lakes. 

Along the Pacific Coast the Barrow Golden-eye is to be found 
during the winter season from Alaska south to central California. 
In California it has never been taken south of San Francisco Bay 
and even to the north of this place it is a relatively rare bird. In all, 
less than a dozen specimens have been recorded from the state, all 
but one being from the vicinity of San Francisco Bay. This one, 
recorded by Belding (MS), was captured far from the seacoast—at 
Gridley, Butte County, February 26, 1895, where it accompanied 
two or three others in a flock of American Golden-eyes. This species 
apparently frequents salt water during its migrations and is to be 
found, at least sometimes, in company with the more common Ameri- 
ean Golden-eye. In Washington it is said to keep to the open lakes 
and rivers. 

The most recent specimens taken within the state were secured 
by Littlejohn (1912, p. 41) under the following circumstances: ‘‘ After 
examining hundreds of specimens of Golden-eyes for many years 
past, I at last succeeded in securing a young male in immature 
plumage on November 19, 1908, and a female on November 28, 1910; 
all others were of the common, or American Golden-eye, which are 
quite plentiful during the fall migration on the Redwood City 
salt marshes.”’ 

The white patch in front of the eye is sufficient for telling the 
males of either species of Golden-eye from other ducks; but to sepa- 
rate the Barrow from the American Golden-eye is somewhat more 
difficult, especially in the open. In flight the two are practically indis- 
tinguishable and when on the water a close view must be afforded in 
order that the shape of the white patch in front of the eye be made 
of use as a distinguishing character. By examination of specimens 
in the hand the male Barrow Golden-eye can be recognized by the 
following points: the vertical, upward pointing, wedge-shaped patch 
in front of the eye; the color of the head, on which the reflections are 
chiefly steely blue, the better developed crest, the more goose-like bill, 


176 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


the spotted instead of stripéd scapulars, and the black wing bar. 
Females are even more difficult to distinguish, as the general color- 
ation of the two species is the same. The Barrow Golden-eye, how- 
ever, has the white wing patch crossed by a blackish band formed 
by the dark tips of the greater wing coverts, the head is darker brown, 
the white collar narrower, the gray band across breast darker, and 
the bill usually shows a yellowish bar near the tip. The bill is rela- 
tively shorter and higher at the base and distinctly narrower towards 
the tip; the ‘‘nail’’ is larger and more hooked at tip. 

Although never found nesting in California, the Barrow Golden- 
eye has been found to breed at Pauline and Diamond lakes, Crook 
and Douglas counties, Oregon (Cooke, 1906, p. 51). It is possible, 
therefore, that this species may breed about the higher mountain 
lakes of northern California. Carter (in Brewer, 1879, p. 150), who 
first discovered a nest of this species in Colorado, states that this, like 
the American Golden-eye, nests in hollow trees and that it is surpris- 
ing to see to what small cavities, in some instances, they can accom- 
modate themselves. 

Brewer (1879, pp. 151-152) states that in Iceland the nest of the 
Barrow Golden-eye cannot be mistaken for that of any other duck, 
because of the pure white down with which the nest is lined. The 
female sits so closely that she can usually be captured upon the nest. 
The eggs, from nine to twelve in number, resemble those of the 
American Golden-eye but are slightly larger. 

Brooks (1903, p. 279) has found this a rather scarce breeding duck 
in British Columbia in the neighborhood of 158-Mile House, but more 
common in La Hache Valley. ‘‘One set of eggs was taken from a 
hole in a dead Douglas fir, fifty feet from the ground, probably the 
deserted nest of a flying squirrel. The tree stood about four hundred 
yards from the nearest water. The eggs (seven) at this date (17th 
June) contained large embryos.’’ From another nesting hole which 
Brooks was unable to reach, a female brought out fourteen young. 

Holboll (tn Brewer, 1879, p. 151) says that the Barrow Golden- 
eye is the most wary of all water-fowl and that it is with the greatest 
difficulty that one can approach even within gunshot of it. Collectors 
have had to station themselves in places where this bird feeds on 
moonlight nights in order to obtain specimens. In general habits it 
resembles the American Golden-eye but is said to be a less expert 
diver. 

As a game duck the Barrow Golden-eye must be considered along 
with the American Golden-eye; its extreme rarity in California makes 
it of even less importance. The one or two records of its occurrence 
in the markets of San Francisco are so exceptional as to have merited 
particular comment. In fact, its classification in California as a game 
species is hardly more than technical. i 


BUFFLE-HEAD 177 


Buffle-head 


Charitonetta albeola (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Butterball; King Butterball (male); Spirit Duck; Clangula 
albeola; Bucephala albeola. 

DEscripTion—Adult male: Plumage of head copious and fluffy forming a 
distinct crest of even outline; head and upper neck, black, glossed vividly with 
metallic green, violet-purple, and an intermediate greenish bronze, the green 
being most apparent about face and on hind neck, the violet-purple on crown 
and sides of head and neck; a large patch of white extends backward from 
immediately beneath eye and meets its fellow on back of head; iris ‘‘dark 
brown’’; bill ‘‘slate,’’ nail ‘‘black’’ (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, 
p. 150); back and rump black, separated from dark color of head and upper 
neck by a broad white collar; upper tail coverts and tail light gray; forepart 
of outer surface of closed wing chiefly white; flight feathers and inner 
seapulars black; outer scapulars white edged narrowly on outer margins with 
black; axillars and lining of wing mottled dusky and white; breast, sides, 
under tail coverts and expanded flank feathers pure white, the last narrowly 
bordered along upper edges with black; belly plain pale ashy gray, blending 
into white of breast; white of breast runs up on foreneck into an A-shaped 
invasion upon the dark head; legs and feet ‘‘flesh color’’ (Sanford, Bishop and 
Van Dyke, loc. cit.). Total length ‘‘14,.25-15.25’’ inches (362-387 mm.) (Ridg- 
way, 1900, p. 106); folded wing 6.50-6.97 (165-177); bill along culmen 1.06- 
1.17 (26.9-29.7); tarsus 1.27-1.36 (32.2-34.5) (nine specimens from California 
and Alaska). Adult female: Head (less puffy than in male), neck, and whole 
upper surface of body, dark grayish brown, approaching black on crown, 
middle of back, and rump; throat and whole neck lightest in tone; a white 
patch on each side of head behind and below level of eye (these patches much 
smaller and less sharply defined than in male, and not meeting on hind neck); 
iris dark brown; bill bluish gray; tail above and below grayish brown; outer 
surface of closed wing and flight feathers, slaty black; small, sharply con- 
trasted area on wing, including speculum, pure white, crossed by a black bar; 
breast, sides, flanks, under tail coverts and hinder part of belly, grayish, 
blending with the dull white of rest of under surface; legs and feet ‘‘slate’’; 
webs ‘‘dusky’’ (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, loc. cit.). Total length 
6¢12.25-13.50’’ inches (311-343 mm.) (Ridgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 5.95- 
6.50 (151-165); bill along culmen 0.96-1.08 (24.4-27.4); tarsus 1.11-1.27 (28.2- 
32.2) (seven specimens from California and Alaska). Juvenile and natal 
plumages: Not known to us. 

MarkKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Small size, chunky build, relatively 
large head, short bill, black (or dark) and white coloration, white patch on 
side of head, and white speculum, separate either sex from other ducks. Female 
slightly smaller than male, with much of black replaced by blackish brown; 
distinguished by white patch on side of head behind eye, and white wing 
patch crossed by a black bar. 

Vorce—Resembles quack of Golden-eye but feebler; on the wing a deep 
guttural note (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, pp. 50, 51). 

Nest—In hollow stump or tree, near water; lined with down. 

Eecs—2 to 9, averaging 8, nearly elliptical in shape, measuring in inches 1.75 
to 2.11 by 1.32 to 1.50 (in millimeters, 44.5 to 53.5 by 33.5 to 38.0), and averag- 
ing 1.99 by 1.44 (50.5 by 36.5); color creamy white or old ivory (measurements 


178 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


from eighteen eggs in U. S. National Museum, description from various 
authors). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds from Upper Yukon Valley, 
Alaska, Great Slave Lake and central Keewatin south to British Columbia, 
northern Montana, and central Ontario. Winters from Aleutian Islands, 
British Columbia, Colorado, Missouri, southern Michigan, western New York 
and New Brunswick, south to northern Lower California, central Mexico and 
Florida (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 77). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common winter visitant along entire seacoast; 
less numerous away from salt or brackish water. Interior records pertain 
chiefly to lakes and sloughs at low altitudes. Some record stations away 
from the seacoast are: Salton Sea, Imperial County (Van Rossem, 1911, p. 
134); near Daggett, San Bernardino County (Lamb, 1912, p. 34); Lone Pine, 
Inyo County (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 18); Los Bafios, Merced County (Mus. 
Vert. Zool.); Stockton, San Joaquin County, and Marysville, Yuba County 
(Belding, 1879, p. 447); and Fort Crook, Shasta County (C. H. Townsend, 1887, 
p. 195). Arrives in October and remains as late as April 20 (San Diego: 
Cooper in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 49). Not known to nest 
within the state. 


The Buffle-head, or Butterball as it is usually called, is one of the 
handsomest of the ducks to be found in California. It is commonly 
to be seen in pairs or small flocks on salt water bays and brackish 
sloughs, less frequently on fresh water in the interior valleys. Its 
stay in California is limited to the winter months from October to 
April. During the nesting season the Buffle-head is confined almost 
entirely to Canada and the extreme northern United States. It is a 
common breeder from Manitoba westward to British Columbia, thence 
north to the limit of trees. Most of the California birds probably 
breed in the western portion of this region, although some may breed 
farther south as for instance about the mountain lakes of Oregon and 
Washington. 

The small size, big head, conspicuous black and white plumage, 
with white patches on the sides of the head and body make the male 
Buffle-head easy to distinguish from all other ducks. The long brightly 
glossed feathers of the head form a sort of enveloping hood and con- 
trast strongly with the short white feathering of the lower neck. The 
female is slightly smaller and browner than the male, and lacks 
entirely the glossy sheen on the head; the white patch on her wing is 
smaller and is crossed by a black bar. The Hooded Merganser is the 
only duck with which the Buffle-head is likely to be confused. The 
male Hooded Merganser has a somewhat similar white patch on the 
head when the crest is raised, but the Buffie-head can be distinguished 
by the short, stubby bill and by the lower neck which is conspicuously 
pure white all the way around. The female Buffle-head can be dis- 
tinguished from the female Ruddy Duck, the only species which it 
at all closely resembles, by the white spot on the side of the head 
behind the eye, the white speculum, and the very much smaller bill. 


BUFFLE-HEAD 179 


The courting behavior of the Buffle-head in California has been 
only imperfectly described, but C. W. Townsend (1916, pp. 16-17) 
from observations in Massachusetts, writes of it in detail as follows: 


A group of thirty-five or forty of these birds with sexes about ‘equally 
divided may have been actively feeding, swimming together in a compact 
flock all pointing the same way. They dive within a few seconds of each 
other and stay under water 14 to 20 seconds and repeat the diving at frequent 
intervals. Suddenly « male swims vigorously at another with flapping wings, 
making the water boil, and soon each male is ardently courting. He spreads 
and cocks his tail, puffs out the feathers of his head and cheeks, extends his 
bill straight out in front close to the water and every now and then throws it 
back with a bob in a sort of reversed bow. All the time he swims rapidly, 
and, whereas in feeding the group were all swimming the same way in an 
orderly manner, the drakes are now nervously swimming back and forth and 
in and out through the crowd. Every now and then there is a commotion in 
the water as one or more drakes 
dive with a splashing of 
water only to come up again 
in pursuit or retreat. As the 
excitement grows a drake flaps 
his wings frequently and then 
jumps from the water and flies 
low with outstretched neck to- 
wards a duck who has listlessly 
strayed from the group. He 
alights beside her precipitately, 
sliding along on his tail, his : 
breast and head elevated to Fig. 23. Head of female Buffle-head. 
One-half natural size. 


their utmost extent and held 


erect. He bobs nervously. And Note single white patch below and be- 
so it goes. hind eye (compare with figs. 24 and 26). 


Swarth (1911, p. 43) says that in southeastern Alaska during 
April and May the preponderance of males was very noticeable. He 
further states: ‘‘The drakes were constantly exhibiting their plumage 
and competing for the favor of the females; sometimes when several 
were fighting together furiously the single female of the flock would 
quietly fly away and leave them, to be presently followed by the whole 
gathering as soon as her defection was discovered.”’ 

Brooks (1903, p. 279), who had excellent opportunity to study 
the nesting habits of this species in British Columbia, says that: 


Almost every lake has one or more pairs of these charming little ducks. 
The nests, unlike those of Barrow’s Golden-eye, were always in trees close 
to or but a short distance away from water. These nests were invariably the 
deserted nesting sites of flickers, and in most instances had been used several 
years in succession by the ducks. The holes were in aspen trees from five to 
twenty feet from ‘the ground, and the entrance [in each case] was not more 
than three and a quarter inches in diameter. The number of eggs ranged 


180 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


from two to nine, eight being the average; in color they resemble old ivory, 
without any tinge of green. I have several times seen the eggs of this duck 
described as ‘‘dusky green,’’ but these have evidently been the eggs of some 
species of teal. The female Buffle-head is a very close sitter, never leaving 
the nest until the hole was sawed out, and in most cases I had to lift the bird 
and throw her up in the air, when she would make a bee-line for the nearest 
lake, where her mate would be slowly swimming up and down unconscious of 
the violation of his home. In many cases the eggs had fine cracks, evidently 
made by the compression of the bird’s body when entering the small aperture. 


It is said that some nests have no other lining than down feathers 
from the female parent. 

The Buffle-head flies with notable speed, vibrating its wings with 
great rapidity, and usually travels close to the water. When alighting 
on the water it does so with a big splash, considering the size of the 
bird, and ploughs through the water for some little distance before 
its momentum is completely arrested. It associates in pairs or flocks 
of small size. Flocks do not fly in regular formation as is the habit 
with some ducks, but the individual members bunch closely together 
each disregarding the position of its companion. A deep guttural 
note is sometimes given when on the wing, but more often the birds 
fly without uttering any sound whatsoever. 

Next to its fatness, whence the name Butterball, the Buffle-head 
is famed for its expertness in diving. It is said to dive at the flash of 
the gun and consequently is difficult to hit when resting on the water. 
Although usually shy and not easily aproached it sometimes depends 
for its safety entirely upon its agility in diving and will then permit 
close approach. When wounded or pursued it swims great distances 
under water and upon rising to the surface will immediately dive 
again if danger is still near. 

So expert a diver is the Buffle-head that it can catch small fish 
easily, and this sort of food is said to be taken regularly. Like many 
other sea ducks, the Buffle-head varies its food with locality. Along 
the seacoast, it feeds upon small fish, shrimps and other crustaceans, 
and shellfish; in fresh water, crawfish, leeches and snails, and grasses 
and other water plants, are taken (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, 
II, p. 51). 

Despite its fatness the Buffle-head is not considered a very desirable 
table bird because its flesh is usually ill-flavored. Birds taken in the 
interior have been reported as palatable, and young birds taken along 
the coast are relished by people who know how to cook them. But as 
a general rule Buffle-heads taken along the sea coast have been sub- 
sisting on a shellfish diet so long that it has made their flesh taste 
“‘fishy.’’? This species is only incidentally sought for by the gunner, its 
small size, poor flavor, and its usual inaccessibility giving it low rank 


OLD-SQUAW 181 


as a game bird. But for the bird student or camera hunter, no more 
interesting or handsome duck can be found. 

Little need here be said as to the probable future status of this 
duck in California. It must simply be numbered with other migratory 
salt-water species which have shown some decrease in numbers. On 
the Atlantic coast, according to Forbush (1912, p. 138), the diminu- 
tion has been deplorably rapid. That there has not been a greater 
decrease here is due to its slight demand for table use, and also to its 
elusive habits. Nevertheless, the market hunter has sent regular 
quotas of these birds to the market each year. During the season 
1895-96, 328 Buffle-heads were sold on the markets of San Francisco 
and Los Angeles (Cahf. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 42). In more recent 
seasons this species has been classified along with other species as 
‘“small ducks,’’ so that the exact number sold on the markets is not 
known. 


Old-squaw 
Harelda hyemalis (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Long-tailed Duck; South Southerly; Clangula hyemalis ; 
Harelda glacialis. 

DESCRIPTION—Adult male in winter: Head and neck mostly white; cheeks 
ashy; a blackish brown patch on side of head and neck, and a blackish stripe 
from ridge of bill up over crown of head; eyelids white; iris ‘‘bright car- 
mine’’; bill relatively small, narrowed towards tip, with well-developed nail, 
basal half ‘‘black,’’ ‘‘orange yellow’’ near end, nail ‘‘bluish-grey’’ (Audubon, 
1843, VI, p. 383); upper part of breast and back, white, continuous with white 
of head; rest of upper surface sooty brown; outer surface of closed wing 
blackish brown, the speculum a little more warmly brown; lining of wing 
and axillars dusky; elongated and pointed scapulars pearl gray, some with 
dusky centers; breast and forepart of belly solidly blackish brown; sides, 
flanks, rest of belly and under tail coverts, white; middle tail feathers greatly 
narrowed and elongated (8.50 to 10.00 inches, 216 to 254 mm., long) and 
blackish brown in color, others white with dusky centers; legs and feet ‘‘pale 
slate,’’ webs ‘‘dusky’’ (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 153). Adult 
male in summer: Patch on side of head from bill to behind ear, encircling eye, 
ashy; area immediately around and behind eye more purely white; bill as in 
winter; rest of head and neck blackish brown except for patches of white on 
back of head (made up of long feathers probably remnants of winter plumage) ; 
back blackish brown, save for transverse area of reddish brown dark-centered 
feathers across shoulders, and for elongated scapulars which are reddish brown 
with blackish centers; outer surface of closed wing sooty brown; speculum 
more brownish and not well defined; lining of wing and axillars dusky; breast 
and forepart of belly solidly sooty brown continuous with same color on head; 
sides, flanks, lower part of belly and under tail coverts, white; elongated 
tail feathers as in adult winter plumage. Total length ‘‘20.75-23.00’’ inches 
(527-584 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 106); folded wing 8.53-9.40 (217-238); 
bill along culmen 1.04-1.14 (26.4-28.9); tarsus 1.35-1.48 (34.3-37.6) (seven 
specimens from Alaska). Adult female in winter: Most of head and neck 


182 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


white, but crown and sides of head and neck usually sooty brown; iris 
“‘yellow’’; bill ‘‘dusky-green’’ (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 384); entire upper sur- 
face of body dusky brown, many of the feathers with broad pale edgings; 
outer surface of closed wing dusky brown; some of wing coverts and scapulars 
with broad ashy endings, these wearing off towards summer; lining of wing and 
axillars, dusky; tail ashy brown; tail feathers pointed but not elongated; fore 
breast dull grayish brown; entire under surface white, tinged on forepart with 
gray; feet ‘‘dusky-green’’ (Audubon, loc. cit.). Adult female in summer: 
Head and neck dark grayish brown; large area containing eye, and another 
on side of neck, grayish white, the latter with extensions forward to each 
side of chin; upper surface as in winter plumage, but forepart of back and 
seapulars variegated with light brown. Total length ‘‘15.00-16.00’’ inches 
(381-406 mm.) (Ridgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 7.90-8.35 (200-212); bill 
along culmen 0.92-1.04 (23.4-26.4); tarsus 1.22-1.38 (31.0-35.0) (four specimens 
from Alaska). Juvenile plumage (both sexes): Somewhat similar to that of 
summer female, but nearly uniform above; head and neck light brownish 
gray, darkest on crown, and more or less indistinctly whitish between bill 
and eye, behind eye, and on side of neck; bill wholly dusky; back and outer 
surface of closed wing, blackish brown; scapulars and speculum slightly more 
brownish; tail, lining of wing and axillars dusky; tail blunt-ended; lower sur- 
face including under tail coverts, white; fore breast and sides light grayish 
brown. Natal plumage: Top and sides of head, hind neck and whole back, 
blackish brown, with many lighter hair-like yellowish brown lines; band around 
foreneck light brown; small spots above and below eye, lower cheek, chin, 
throat and rest of lower surface (except band on foreneck), white, clearest 
on chin and dullest on belly. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Stocky build (about size of Shoveller, but 
with small bill), no white or bright markings on wing, and in winter much 
white on head, neck, and under surface. Adult male with two middle tail 
feathers greatly elongated (8.50-9.50 inches, 216-241 mm.) and with scapulars 
conspicuously pearly white, strongly contrasting with blackish brown of back. 
Adult female and all immatures in winter strikingly similar to female Harle- 
quin Duck but with under surface including flanks and under tail coverts 
extensively white instead of deep brown, and white patches on side of head 
less conspicuous (see figs. 23 and 26). 

VorcE—Resembles the syllables south south southerly or old south southerly 
(Elliot in Forbush, 1912, p. 140); or d-léédle-d, G-lé’édle-d, frequently repeated in 
deep reed-like tones (Nelson, 1887, p. 73). Mellow call-note of male is aptly 
imitated by the native name 4r-hi’-l6dk (Grinnell, 1900, p. 16). 

Nest—On ground near water, built of grass and lined with dark-colored 
down. 

Eees—6 to 10, nearly elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 1.93 to 2.36 by 
1.42 to 1.54 (in millimeters, 49.0 to 60.0 by 36.0 to 39.0), and averaging 2.09 
by 1.46 (53.0 by 37.0) (139 eggs in U. S. National Museum); color dull grayish 
pea-green to dull light olive buff (Davie, 1889, p. 72). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northern Hemisphere. In North America breeds 
from islands of Bering Sea and Arctic coast of Alaska to northern Greenland, 
south to Aleutian Islands, east-central Mackenzie, northern Hudson Bay and 
southeastern Ungava. Winters from the Aleutian Islands south regularly to 
Washington, rarely to southern California, and from Gulf of St. Lawrence 
south to Great Lakes and North Carolina; rarely farther south (modified from 
A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 77). 


OLD-SQUAW 183 


DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Rare mid-winter visitant on bays along the 
coast as far south as San Diego. The known record statious are: Humboldt Bay, 
Humboldt County (T. S. Palmer, 1889, p. 88); Suisun Marshes, Solano County 
(J. W. Mailliard, 1916, p. 85); Point Reyes, Marin County (W. E. Bryant, 
1893b, p. 363); Marin County (J. Mailliard, 1902b, p. 46); San Francisco (New- 
berry, 1857$ p. 104; Loomis, 1901, p. 105); San Francisco Bay near Redwood 
City, San Mateo County (Littlejohn, 1912, p. 41); Monterey Bay, Monterey 
County (Beck, 1907, p. 58); Santa Barbara (Henshaw, 1876, p. 274); Los 
Angeles County (Willett, 1912a, p. 26); Newport, Orange County (Daggett, 
1901, p. 15); San Diego Bay (Belding, MS; Anthony, 1896, p. 172). 


The Old-squaw has an exceptionally wide general distribution. It 
is found throughout the Arctic regions of the Old World as well as 
the new. In North America it breeds most commonly along the 
Arctic coast from Hudson Bay to extreme western Alaska and the 


Fig. 24. Head of female Old-squaw. One-half natural size. 


Note white area behind eye and another on side of neck (compare with 
figs. 23 and 26). 


nearby islands. Along the coast of Alaska from the Aleutian Islands 
to Point Barrow this is one of the commonest ducks in summer. The 
Old-squaw is a hardy species, wintering from the Aleutian Islands 
southeast along the coast of southern Alaska to British Columbia and 
Washington. It is less frequent farther south on the Pacific coast, 
and the southernmost record station is San Diego Bay. Of the dozen 
or so records from California all except one (probably. of a disabled 
bird) are of late fall and midwinter dates and all are from along or 
near the sea-coast. Newberry (1857, p. 104) offers the suggestion that 
the Old-squaws appearing on our coast are driven this far south by 
bad weather, for he says that they are only found on San Francisco 
Bay during the ‘‘severest weather.’’ Certain it is that they are not 
regularly observed within the state, some years furnishing no record 
whatever. It is possible that they occur more regularly on the open 
sea and reach the inner bays only during severe storms. 


184 , GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The male Old-squaw may be known from all other ducks by its 
stocky build, white and blackish coloration, extremely long and nar- 
row middle tail feathers, and the orange-colored band across its bill. 
In both sexes the bill is small and narrowed towards the tip, there are 
no white or bright color markings on the wings, and, during the 
winter, the head is more or less white. The female is quite similar to 
the female Harlequin Duck, but has a much more extensively white 
under surface, though less conspicuously contrasted white patches on 
the sides of its head (figs. 24 and 26). Its peculiar, organ-like call- 
notes are specially good field characters, for the Old-squaw even in 
winter is a noisy duck. 

The plumage changes of this duck seem to be different from those 
of many other species, for no eclipse plumage is acquired during the 
late summer molt of the flight feathers (Stone, 1900, p. 20). On the 
other hand there is every imaginable gradation between the winter 
and summer plumage, with frequent so-called ‘‘arrested’’ stages. 

The courting antics of this species in southern Alaska are thus 
commented upon by Dixon (77 Grinnell, 1909b, p. 196) : 

They [the males] were all intonating ‘‘auck-quan-dee’’ to their utmost 
capacity and the one that holloed the loudest seemed to stand the best chance, 


so there was considerable competition. There seemed always to be about 
three males to one female. 


Nelson (1887, p. 73) gives the following deseription : 


The male is often seen swimming rapidly about the female, his long tail- 
feathers raised to an angle of about 75 degrees and vibrating rapidly from 
side to side as he passes before the female, uttering the love note at short 
intervals. If he becomes too pressing in his suit, the female suddenly dives 
and is instantly followed by her partner, and then a moment later they appear 
and take wing, and a playful chase ensues, the two diving at full speed and 
flying above or below in rapid succession until they are tired. It is common 
for two or three males to join in this follow-the-leader kind of game after 
the female, and in the end the latter usually flies to some secluded pool with 
her choice, while the discomfited suitors move off in search of some easier prize. 


In western Alaska nesting begins early in June and young are to 
be seen by the end of the same month. W. Palmer (1899, p. 378) 
found nests on the Pribilof Islands placed almost anywhere on the 
flat ground near ponds, but usually on some small rise. They were 
built of grass and lined with blackish down. 


From the Yukon delta along the coast in each direction their nests are 
almost invariably placed in close proximity to a pond or tide creek—the slop- 
ing grassy bank of the ponds being a favorable location. The parents always 
keep in the immediate neighborhood and swim anxiously about in the nearest 
pond when the nest is approached. An unusual amount of dry grass stems 
and down plucked from the parent’s breast composes the nest, and if the eggs 
are left they are carefully hidden in the loose material. 


OLD-SQUAW 185 


The young are found the middle of August about the ponds and marshy 
lakes, some only a week or so from the shell and others already trying their 
wings. As fall approaches young and old are most common along the shores 
of the inner bays and among the tide-creeks (Nelson, 1887, p. 73). 


The Old-squaw seems well adapted to its northern home, in which, 
winter and summer, it is exposed to extremes of rigorous weather. In 
its main winter habitat far to the north of us, it is most often found 
in good-sized fiocks and sometimes bands together in very large flocks, 
especially when there is little open water. Flocks may often be seen 
resting on cakes of ice. It is an extremely noisy duck, for besides the 
musical notes it keeps up a constant ‘‘gabbling,’’ especially at night. 
Arctie explorers weleome the Old-squaw, for, with the approach of 
summer, its notes are among the first to break the monotony of the 
northern solitudes. 

In flight the Old-squaw moves its wings with short, rapid strokes. 
Individuals of this species often circle high in the air, apparently in 
play, a habit which is called ‘‘towering.’’ So erratic is their flight on 
such occasions that birds have been shot in the back when flying 
overhead! ‘‘As spring approaches, whole flocks of Old-squaws may 
be seen to leave the water and ‘tower’ to the regions of the upper air, 
swinging in wide circles, surmounting height after height, until 
almost lost to view, when they turn and plunge downward, hurtling 
through the air in arrowy flight, sometimes straight downward, some- 
times zig-zagging wildly, until they rest again on the surface of the 
sea’’ (Forbush, 1912, p. 143). The manner of alighting on the water 
by suddenly dropping in with a great splash is very characteristic 
of the species. Not only is the Old-squaw noted for its swift flight, 
but also for its diving ability. So quickly does it dive at the flash of 
the gun that it is considered one of the most difficult of ducks to kill 
on the water. Its diving propensities are further evidenced by the 

" fact that it has been taken in gill nets set in deep water eighteen and 
twenty fathoms below the surface. At Erie, Pennsylvania, eight hun- 
dred of these ducks are said to have been netted in a single haul 
(Bacon, 1892, p. 45). 

As is the case with other ducks, the food of the Old-squaw varies 
with the feeding grounds. ‘‘In shallow water near the coast it collects 
mollusea, crustacea, fish, and marine insects. In a few instances the 
remains of the common mussel and shrimp are found. In the sum- 
mer its stomach is usually filled with fresh-water insects’’ (Baird, 
Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 61). In the interior (Akron, Ohio), 
angleworms and insect larvae have been found in stomachs (Haynes, 
1900, pp. 12-13). Certain marine plants are also taken as food. 

The flesh of the Old-squaw is tough and of very poor flavor. Yet 
in the eastern states, because of its abundance and the sport afforded 


186 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


in bagging the bird, it is locally considered a good game species. Its 
flesh is so dark and rank that shooters sometimes do not trouble them- 
selves to pick up the dead birds. Its down is said to be of excellent 
quality, but little inferior to that of the eider. 

Even if the Old-squaw were more numerous in California it would 
not be considered a desirable game bird because of its almost total 
unfitness for table use. This is especially true in this state, where 
many more desirable species yet remain. As it is, the status of this 
duck within the state has probably remained unaffected, for, as far 
as we know, it has never occurred in large enough numbers to attract 
the particular attention of the hunter. 


Harlequin Duck 


Histrionicus histrionicus (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES — Histrionicus torquatus; Histrionicus minutus; Cosmonetta 
histrionica, 

Description—Adult male: ‘Head and neck, dark slate blue, relieved by 
various conspicuous markings; stripe from base of bill over middle of crown 
to back of head, black, forming a low ridge on top of head; stripe on each 
side from above eye to back of head, reddish brown, the two almost meeting to 
form a V-shaped border about hinder portion of central black stripe; large 
triangular patch at side of bill in front of eye, straight-bordered behind, and 
narrow stripe from upper corner of triangular patch to above eye, both white; 
rounded spot below and behind eye, and oblique stripe on side of neck, white; 
all white markings black-bordered; throat sooty black; iris ‘‘hazel’’; bill 
‘¢bluish-black,’’ tip ‘‘bluish horn-color’’ (Nelson, 1887, p. 74); collar around 
lower neck, divided on breast and hind neck, white, bordered above by broad 
band of black with steel blue sheen and below by narrow band of dull black; 
rump black with steel blue sheen; tail rather long, conspicuously pointed and 
blackish slate in color; outer surface of closed wing deep slate; flight feathers 
blackish brown; two small roundish white spots on wing in front of speculum, 
one on greater and one on middle coverts, the latter often concealed; speculum 
dark metallic blue with violet reflections, bordered above by feathers having 
their expanded outer webs white, outwardly edged with black; axillars and 
under surface of wing dusky brown; feathers of scapular area centrally white, 
together forming a white stripe on either side of back; conspicuous transverse 
white bar on each side just in front of bend of wing, bordered in front and 
behind with paralleling black bands; sides behind bend of wing, and flanks, 
rich reddish brown; whole lower surface slaty brown, becoming dusky on 
belly, and clearer slaty blue on breast; under tail coverts black with steely 
reflections and with a small roundish white spot on each side near base of tail; 
legs and feet ‘‘dark olivaceous brown,’’ webs ‘‘black’’ (Nelson, loc. cit.). 
Eclipse plumage: Conspicuous head markings absent or replaced by duller 
colors. Similar to adult female; but general color of head darker; cheeks and 
crown approaching slaty black; whole back, rump and scapulars, dark brownish 
slate; wing, however, as in summer plumage, but ragged from wear and molt; 
new flight feathers almost black; whole lower surface slaty brown; white 
transverse bar across side of chest in front of wing and chestnut-colored area 


HARLEQUIN DUCK 187 


on side each represented by few feathers. Total length 17.75 inches (451 mm.) 
(one specimen from Alaska); folded wing 7.62-8.27 (193.5-210.0); bill along 
eulmen 1,04-1.18 (26.4-30.0); tarsus 1.45-1.52 (36.8-38.6) (ten specimens from 
Alaska). Adult female: Extremely somber-hued: Head and neck chiefly olive 
brown, darkest on crown, lightest on chin and throat; spot above and in front 
of eye, another below and behind eye, and broad area on cheek between base 
of bill and eye, dull white, more or less flecked with brown; whole of upper 
surface, wings, tail, sides, chest, and under tail coverts almost uniform olive 
brown; lower surface grayish brown, whitish towards mid-line, and usually 
with a mottled pattern due to broad white feather ends. Total length 15.50 
inches (394 mm.) (two specimens from Alaska); folded wing 7.00-7.55 (178- 
192); bill along culmen 0.95-1.04 (24.1-26.4); tarsus 1.34-1.38 (34.0-35.0) (five 
specimens from Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Male: Similar to that of adult 
male but with markings less distinct, white not well defined and blue-black 
absent; speculum dull gray without gloss; under surface grayish white, each 
feather marked with a transverse spot of grayish brown; sides and flanks 
grayish brown, without chestnut color; collar around lower neck imperfect. 
Female: Similar to that of adult female but upper surface darker and lower 
surface more brown-tinged (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 157). 
Natal plumage: ‘‘Top of head and upper parts, blackish brown; face and neck, 
white; under parts and a spot on each wing and thigh, white’’ (Sanford, 
Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 158). 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Size medium (about that of a Scaup), 
bill very small, tail short and pointed, general coloration very dark, below as 
well as above. Male has several conspicuous white patches on sides of head 
(fig. 25) and body, as also a white collar around hind neck, a white bar across 
side of chest, and a white patch on wing. Female dull brown with dull white 
spots on head, the most conspicuous one below and behind eye; no white on 
wing. Females of both Buffle-head and Old-squaw have white streak diréctly 
behind eye (compare figs. 23, 24 and 26). 

Vorce—Seldom heard; in flocks: ‘‘a confusion of low gabbling and chatter- 
ing notes’’ (Nelson, 1887, p. 74). 

Nest—On ground under logs, driftwood or rocks, sometimes in stump near 
water, and lined with down. 

Eees—5 to 10, rounded oval in shape, and averaging in inches 2.30 by 1.62 
(in millimeters, 58.5 by 41.1); color yellowish buff or greenish yellow (Davie, 
1889, p. 73; and authors). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northern North America and eastern Asia. In 
North America breeds from the Kowak and Yukon rivers, Alaska, the Arctic 
coast, and Greenland, south to southwestern British Columbia, central 
Mackenzie, northern Ungava and Newfoundland, and, in the mountains, south 
to central California and southwestern Colorado. Summers in flocks near 
Aleutian Islands and along coast of Washington. Winters on Pacific coast 
from Aleutian Islands to central California, in the interior to Colorado, and 
on Atlantic coast from Gulf of St. Lawrence to Maine, rarely farther south 
(modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 77-78). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Irregular winter visitant coastwise in northern 
and central portions of the state. Known instances of occurrence are: Hum- 
boldt Bay (F. J. Smith, MS); Bodega Bay (Belding, 1891, p. 98); Tomales Bay, 
abundant in fall (Mailliard, MS); Point Reyes, Marin County, flocks in June 
(J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 15); Monterey (Loomis, 1895, p. 222; 1900, ‘p. 362); 
Point Carmel, Monterey County (Beck, 1910, p. 69). Breeds sparingly along 


188 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 
> 


secluded streams of the Sierra Nevada in central California: on Stanislaus 
and Tuolumne rivers (Belding, 1891, p. 97); Griswold Creek, tributary to 
Stanislaus River, Tuolumne County (Belding, MS); South Fork of Tuolumne 
River, near Crockers, 20 miles northwest of Yosemite Valley (Belding, 1891, 
p. 97). Reported to have bred in Yosemite Valley (C. C. Bull, M8). 


No other duck has such an odd dress and few have such an extra- 
ordinary mode of life as the Harlequin Duck. Its rarity emphasizes 
its uniqueness to such an extent that it is a bird much sought after 
by the collector of game trophies. 

The breeding range of the Harlequin Duck is usually given in 
general terms as northern North America and eastern Asia; yet it is 
notably discontinuous. Records of breeding are known from such 
widely separated points as the Kowak and Yukon rivers, Alaska, 

Greenland and Iceland, south- 
western British Columbia, cen- 
tral Mackenzie, northern Un- 
gava, and Newfoundland, and 
the mountains of central Califor- 
nia and southwestern Colorado. 
Birds believed to be non-breeders 
have been reported during the 
summer season from the Pribilof 
. and Aleutian islands, the Sitkan 
ae be ead ae -aaaie Hapleiie district of Alaska, and the coasts 
Duck. One-half natural size. of Washington and California. 
This duck winters along the 
Atlantic coast chiefly from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Maine, and in 
the interior in Colorado and Missouri, and on Lake Michigan. On the 
Pacific coast it winters from the Aleutian Islands to Monterey Bay, 
California. Along the Asiatic coast it is to be found as far south as 
Japan, but it is of only accidental occurrence in Europe. 

The Harlequin is apparently a resident species in California. Dur- 
ing the winter season it occurs only along the seacoast, about rocky 
headlands as far south as Monterey Bay, and a few birds, probably 
non-breeders, are seen in these same haunts in summer. Many of our 
winter contingent of Harlequins probably migrate north of the 
Canadian boundary to breed, but a certain number repair for the 
summer to the swift-flowing mountain streams in the Sierra Nevada 
in the vicinity of which they nest. 

So distinctive is the male Harlequin in its coloration that after 
once being identified it is one of the easiest of our ducks to recognize, 
even at a distance. The general dark coloration, wholly blackish 
slate above and slaty brown beneath, with irregular and conspicuous 
lines and patches of white on the head, wings, and side of body, imme- 


15 acer 


HARLEQUIN DUCK 189 


diately separate this from all other ducks. The small bill, sharply 
pointed tail, and bright hazel brown sides, are also characteristic. 
The female and young are inconspicuous birds of plain coloration. 
The very small and short bill, pointed tail, lack of any sort of white 
markings on wing, and the two whitish spots on each side of head, 
are the only definite markings which distinguish the female. As com- 
pared with the Scoters the Harlequin when swimming is much more 
buoyant, its body appearing to sit higher out of the water. 

The seeker of rare birds eggs might well bend his endeavors to the 
discovery of a nest of the Harlequin Duck; up to the present time 
no one has found the eggs within this state, and indeed, sets taken 
anywhere are rare in collections. Belding (MS) says of the Harle- 
quin in California: 


I have noticed many of 
these ducks on the principal 
streams of Calaveras and 
Stanislaus counties in sum- 
mer in each of the past six ™ 
or seven years and sent a 
juvenile to the Smithsonian 
[Institution] which I shot 
here in 1879 or 1880. I 


find young broods from about . 
4,000 feet upward, the earli- Fig. 26. Head of female Harlequin Duck. 
: y One-half natural size. 


est apparently hatched about 

the first of June or earlier, Note white between bill and eye and white 
and have often surprised patch in region of ear. 

the mother ducks with their 

broods when hidden in Saxifrage (S. peltata) which grows profusely in parts 
of the mountain streams, sometimes approaching within a few feet of the brood 
ere I alarmed it, when all would hurriedly swim from-me, vigorously using 
both feet and wings to propel themselves against or with the rapid currents, 
not hesitating to tumble over a moderate sized cataract when anxious to 
escape from danger, or, even, when following the streams without such 
impetus. 

Dr. Huse saw a female Harlequin with a brood of ducklings on Griswold 
Creek [Tuolumne County] in 1881 or 1882, and J. Clarence Sperry and Horace 
Pillsbury caught a juvenile from a flock of the same, which could not fly, on 
the same creek, in the summer of 1889. The most southern point where it 
has been captured in California is the south fork of the Tuolomne River, 
where I got... a male and female—May 15, 1891 (Belding, 1891, p. 98). 


Belding (MS) thinks the California birds breed among the rocks. 
Kaeding states that he knew of two pairs of Harlequin ducks nesting 
in 1896 in Tuolumne County at an altitude of 4,600 feet. The nest 
site for the previous year was found but he was unable to locate the 
site of the 1896 nest. Later he found that at least one of these pairs 
had brought off a brood. On a mountain journey of a hundred miles 


[ 

190 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA ; 
the same year only three pairs were seen and these at widely separated 
localities. They frequent the icy, turbulent mountain streams, seem- 
ing to share with the Ouzels a love for the noisiest parts of the rivers. 
During the breeding season they are very shy and retiring, being 
seldom seen in pairs, the male and female remaining separated and 
frequenting different parts of the stream (Kaeding, 1898), p. 77). 

Raine (in Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 106) describes a nest 
found on the Mackenzie River as being ‘‘. . . built on a high bank 
near some ice-floes, under sticks piled up by the overflow water in 
the spring.’’ The eggs are described as being similar to those of the 
Gadwall and Baldpate, but are of a deeper buff tint and average 
larger. All accounts seem to agree that this duck nests as a rule on the 
ground near swiftly-running streams; yet in Newfoundland nests 
have been found in hollow trees. 


The Harlequin Duck is rare enough in the United States to excite keen 
interest, especially when found on its breeding grounds. A little flock of the 
richly barred and spotted beauties fishing in a foaming mountain stream, diving, 
bobbing on the rough surface, drifting or darting down over the rapids, and 
then gathering in a bunch below to fly back up stream for another descent, 
suggests a lot of schoolboys on a coasting party rather than a flock of birds 
engaged in the serious business of getting breakfast. They seem to enjoy the 
icy water and their power to dare and buffet its torrents (V. Bailey in Bailey, 
1902, p. 62). 


Belding (1891, p. 98) describes his first sight of this rare duck 
in California, discovered while hunting with a companion in the 
Sierras in 1879, as follows: ‘‘While we were separated, a strange 
duck which he had probably frightened, but did not see, flew down 
the canyon and alighted within twenty yards of me, bent its neck 
forward close to the water, lifted its wings and uttered a scream I 
had never heard.’’ Belding states further that he has often seen 
this duck since that time on the Stanislaus River, and has occasionally 
seen it on other neighboring streams but that of late years it has 
become rare owing to its destruction by fishermen, who shoot the birds 
on sight. \ 

Mailliard (MS) states that in the fall of 1913 hundreds of young 
Harlequin Ducks were to be seen in scattered flocks on Tomales Bay, 
Marin County. At the same time adult males were noted on the open 
ocean off Tomales Point. In June, 1880, many were seen on the water 
just outside the surf at Point Reyes. 

A further idea of their habits when found along the seacoast can 
be had from the following quotations, which apply to Alaska: ‘‘ At 
Coronation Island many were seen feeding among the rocks at the 
water’s edge, and were very tame and easily approached.... At 


HARLEQUIN DUCK 191 


this time, June 9 to 14, they were all in pairs, but usually two or 
‘three pairs seemed to stay together’’ (Swarth, 1911, p. 44). ‘‘They 
spend much time out on the open water with other species of ducks, 
but frequently leave their company to visit the mouths of small 
streams or to ascend them for considerable distances. When slightly 
startled on a stream they do not fly, but keep at a safe distance from 
danger by allowing the current to carry them down stream, uncon- 
- cernedly passing through riffles and rapids and deftly avoiding, with- 
out apparent effort, the rocks and whirlpools’? (Osgood, 1904, p. 58). 
“Mr. Elliott found them common on and around the shores of the 
Fur Seal Islands. There they were in the habit of ‘idly floating amid 
the surf in flocks of fifty or sixty, or basking and preening on the 
beaches and outlying rocks’ ’’ (Nelson, 1887, pp. 74-75). 

The Harlequin Duck is an expert swimmer and diver. It is even 
said to dive from the wing into the water and to emerge flying. Most 
observers testify to its being a playful duck, its every action betoken- 
ing the greatest enjoyment. Harlequins are more buoyant than many 
of the other ducks and consequently sit higher in the water. 

Belding (MS) states that when inland the food consists chiefly of 
aquatic insects, to judge from the few stomachs he examined. He does 
not believe Harlequins eat many trout, if they consume these fish at 
all. Along the coast this duck feeds largely on mussels and other 
shellfish obtained by diving. But other marine animals are appar- 
ently obtained in the surf. Grinnell (19096, p. 196) says that at 
Chichagof Island, Alaska, this species was found to feed extensively 
on isopod crustaceans which were gathered at high tide from under 
stones on the beach. 

Young Harlequin Ducks taken in the high mountains are said to 
be very palatable. Adults are rarely so because of their marine fare 
through the winter months. Neither is the species considered seriously 
as game—but this is because of its rarity here. The bird’s chief claim 
for interest lies in its striking coloration, and, with nature lovers and 
naturalists, in the peculiarities of its distribution in the state. 

The testimony of Belding, who knows most about this duck as a 
breeding bird of California, is to the effect that it has been greatly 
reduced in numbers. Present conditions favor still greater reduction 
so that the early extinction of the native contingent within the state 
seems almost a certainty. It is probable that a part, at least, of the 
coastwise representatives are migrants from the north, and these are 
more likely to hold their own. An absolute close season for a term 
of years might aid the Harlequin in recouping its numbers. Certainly 
no huntsman would have his sport greatly restricted by the establish- 
ment of such a season for this species. 


192 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


King Eider 
Somateria spectabilis (Linnaeus) 


Description—Adult male: Top of head uniform pearl gray, slightly deeper 
toned on hind neck; border along swollen base of upper mandible glossy black; 
iris ‘‘bright yellow’’; bill ‘‘flesh-coloured,’’ sides of upper mandible and swell- 
ings on each side of forehead ‘‘bright yellow’’ (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 348); 
cheeks pale sea-green; eyelid, small spot under eye, and V-shaped forward- 
pointing mark on throat, black; rest of head, neck, upper back and fore breast 
creamy white, the last named area tinged with buff; lower back, scapulars, and 
sides and under surface of body black; large patch on each side of rump 
white; wings and tail blackish brown; large patch on forepart of outer sur- 
face of closed wing white; feet ‘‘dull orange,’’ webs ‘‘dusky,’’ claws ‘‘brown- 
ish-black’’ (Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length 22.25-24.00 inches (565-609 mm.) 
(ten specimens in Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia); folded wing 11.15 (283); 
bill along culmen 1.40 (35.6); tarsus 1.77 (44.9) (one specimen from Alaska). 
Adult female: Whole head and neck, cinnamon buff, finely streaked with black, 
most thickly on top of head; iris ‘‘dull yellow’’; bill ‘‘pale greenish-grey’’ 
(Audubon, loc. cit.); back brownish black, with conspicuous feather edgings 
and tippings of ochraceous tawny and cinnamon buff; rump, cinnamon buff 
with U-shaped markings of black; outer surface of closed wing brownish black, 
with conspicuous feather edgings and tippings of ochraceous tawny and cinna- 
mon buff; flight feathers and speculum blackish brown, the latter outlined in 
front and behind with bars of white; tertials broadly edged on outer margins 
with cinnamon; axillars and part of lining of wing, white; rest of under sur- 
face of wing, brown; breast and sides and under tail coverts, cinnamon buff, 
with U-shaped markings of black; belly, sepia brown; feet ‘‘dull ochre’’ 
(Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length 20.75-22.25 inches (527-565 mm.) (six 
specimens); wing 10.75 (273); culmen 1.25 (31.7); tarsus 1.75 (44.4) (one 
specimen); all in Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, from Alaska. Juvenile plumage: 
Somewhat like that of adult female, but with head and neck pale gray dully 
streaked, axillars and area on lining of wing grayish white, and rump and 
whole lower surface obscurely barred with blackish brown and dull buff, the 
pattern finest on belly. Natal plumage: Whole upper surface, leaden brown; 
lower surface, a paler tone of same color, lightest (almost white) on lower 
breast and belly. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large stout body (resembling Scoters); 
male with chiefly whitish foreparts, the rest of body black, with white areas on 
wing and side of rump. Female with no white whatever, brown-toned, finely 
streaked on head and barred elsewhere. 

VoIcE—(?) 

Nest—On ground among rocks or shrubs, usually close to salt water; com- 
posed wholly of down. 

Eces—6 to 10, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches 2.77 to 3.08 by 
1.88 to 2.07 (in millimeters, 70.3 to 78. 3 by 47.7 to 52.5), and averaging 2.94 
by 1.95 (74.6 by 49.6); color light olive gray to grayish green (one set, six 
eggs, in Mus. Vert. Zool.). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northern part of Northern Hemisphere. In North 
America, breeds along Arctic coast from Icy Cape east to Melville Island, 
Wellington Channel, northern Greenland, northwestern Hudson Bay, and north- 
ern Ungava. Winters on Pacific coast from Aleutian Islands to Kodiak Island, 


KING EIDER 193 


in the interior rarely to the Great Lakes; and on Atlantic coast from southern 
Greenland and Gulf of St. Lawrence south regularly to Long Island, rarely 
to Georgia. Accidental in California and Iowa (modified from A. O. U. Check- 
list, 1910, p. 80). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CaLIrorNIA—Very rare winter visitant coastwise. Two 
definite records: One taken off Black Point, San Francisco, in winter of 1879-80 
(Henshaw, 1880a, p. 189); and female taken on Suisun Marshes, Solano County, 
between October 15, 1902, and February 1, 1903 (Loomis, M8). 


The King Hider is of but extremely rare occurrence in California, 
appearing here only as a straggler from the far north. Its breeding 
grounds are in the Arctic regions and south into Bering Sea. It 
winters abundantly among the Aleutian Islands south to the Shumagin 
Islands and Kodiak Island, and in smaller numbers to southeastern 
Alaska. 

There are but two definite records of the King Hider for Cali- 
fornia, the first of a specimen taken by D. 8. Bryant, off Black Point, 
San Francisco, in the winter of 1879-80 (Henshaw, 1880a, p. 189). 
The second and more recent instance, is of a female said to have been 
brought in from the Suisun marshes, Solano County, in the winter of 
1902-03. The bird was mounted and was on exhibition in Golcher 
Brothers’ store, San Francisco, until the fire of 1906 (Loomis, MS). 
A further rumor is at hand of an Eider of some species having been 
secured in January or February, 1910, off the heads west of Sausalito, 
Marin County. This was a male, and was mounted and reported to 
have been deposited in the Golden Gate Park Museum. 

Eiders are large, heavily built ducks, recalling the Scoters. The 
male King Eider has the fore part of the body (head, neck, upper back 
and breast) wholly white appearing, and there is a large white area on 
each wing and on each side of the rump. The rest of the plumage is 
black. The female and young are without conspicuous markings, and 
have a finely streaked pattern on the head and a barred pattern else- 
where. In hand, the King Hider in any plumage may be distinguished 
from other eiders by the extension of feathers on the culmen as far 
forward as the nostrils, while on the sides of the bill the feathering 
goes only about half way to the nostrils. 

The following description of the peculiar head of the male is given 
by Forbush (1912, p. 152): ‘‘The raised frontal processes at the 
base of the bill, which adorn the head, develop immensely in the 
breeding season, bulging high above the rest of the bill. These pro- 
cesses are soft, and are supported upon a mass of fatty substance. 
They shrink and become more depressed in winter, when the general 
formation of the beak is not much different from that of other eiders.’’ 

MacFarlane (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, pp. 87-88) 
found the King Eider nesting near the beach in the neighborhood of 


194 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Franklin Bay on the Arctic coast. The nest was a mere depression in 
the ground fifty yards from the beach and composed entirely of down. 


It [the King Eider] is a deep water duck and feeds mostly on mussels 
which it is able to procure, it is said, in water upward of 150 feet in depth, 
and occasionally is caught like the Old-squaw in the deep water gill nets of 
the lake fishermen. In the breeding season the males go into the ‘‘eclipse’’ 
plumage and flock together on the open sea. The female lines her nest with 
down as do the other species of eider, thus furnishing the famous eider down 
of commerce, which is gathered by the natives of Iceland, Greenland and 
Norway. This is taken chiefly from the Greenland and European eiders, each 
nest yielding about five ounces of down in a season (Haton, 1910, p. 220). 


The King Eider even in the far north is of little value as a game 
bird, so its extreme rarity within our state is of small consequence to 
hunters. Occurrences as far south as California are of interest chiefly 
because they are out of the ordinary. No economic importance can 
be ascribed to a bird of such rarity. 


American Scoter 


Oidemia americana Swainson 


OTHER NAME—Black Scoter. 

Description—Adult male: Entire plumage glossy black; wing and tail 
feathers becoming sooty brown with wear; swollen base of upper mandible to 
front of nostrils ‘‘bright orange,’’ rest of bill black; iris ‘‘brown’’ (Audubon, 
1843, VI, p. 345); legs and feet dull black. Total length (both sexes) ‘‘17.00- 
21.50’’ inches (432-545 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 111); folded wing 9.20 (233); 
bill along culmen 1.65 (41.8); tarsus 1.77 (44.9) (one specimen from Alaska). 
Adult female: Top and back of head, hind neck, and upper surface of body, 
dark brown, darkest on top of head and on tips of primary wing feathers; 
bill black; sides of head and neck and whole lower surface of body, mottled 
light brown and grayish white, lightest on head and neck and darkest on 
chest and under tail coverts, this pattern produced by feathers being brown 
at base with tips broadly dull white. Total length 18.75 inches (476 mm.) 
(one specimen); folded wing 8.30-8.87 (211-225); bill along culmen 1.60-1.62 , 
(40.6-41.2); tarsus 1.64-1.68 (41.7-42.7) (two specimens, one from California). 
Juvenile plumage: ‘‘Upper parts, jugulum [=foreneck], sides, and flanks, 
uniform dark grayish brown; sides of head and neck, chin and throat, dirty 
whitish, tinged with brownish gray, quite abruptly defined against the dark 
brown of the pileum and nape [=top of head and back of neck]; abdomen 
whitish, each feather marked with a-dusky grayish brown bar just beneath 
the surface, some of these bars exposed; anal region and crissum [under 
tail coverts] grayish brown, the feathers tipped with white. Bill and feet 
black’’ (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 89). Natal plumage: ‘‘ Upper 
parts and breast dark brown; lower parts, lighter brown; throat, white’’ 
(Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 175). 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—For Scoters in general: Large size and 
black or very dark coloration. For American Scoter: Male wholly black, and 
bill black with orange-colored base; female very dark brown above, without 


AMERICAN SCOTER 195 


white on wing or side of head, and under surface of body (including cheeks 
and chin) continuously pale colored, not broken into patches. 

Vorce—‘‘ A musical whistle of one prolonged note’’ (Mackay, 1891b, p. 284). 

NEst—On ground, sometimes hidden in cliffs or in hollows of steep banks; 
made of dry leaves, grass, feathers and down. 

Eees—6 to 10, ovate to elliptical ovate, measuring in inches 2.42 to 2.68 by 
1.79 to 1.81 (in millimeters, 61.5 to 68.0 by 45.5 to 46.0), and averaging 2.55 
by 1.80 (64.9 by 45.7) (five eggs in U. S. National Museum); color pale ivory 
yellow; surface smooth but not glossy. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northern North America and eastern Asia. In 
North America breeds from Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, south to the Aleutian 
Islands and also on west shore of Hudson Bay, in Ungava and Newfoundland, 
but unknown in the district from Yukon Territory to Hudson Bay. Winters 
on the Pacific coast from Bering Sea south to southern California; in the 
interior sparingly on the Great Lakes and casually south to Louisiana; and 
on the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to Florida. Non-breeding birds may 
remain during the summer as far south as Rhode Island and central California 
(modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 81; Cooke, 1906, pp. 59-60). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Rare winter visitant coastwise. Restricted to 
salt water. The following instances of occurrence are known: Arcata Bay, 
Humboldt County, February, 1914 (F. J. Smith, MS) and December 24, 1915 
(Mus. Vert. Zool.); San Francisco (Newberry, 1857, p. 104); San Francisco 
Bay near Redwood City, San Mateo County, January 17, 1909 (Littlejohn, 
1912, p. 41); off Point Pinos, Monterey County, November 1 and 4, 1909 (Beck, 
1910, p. 69) and October 27, 1910 (Beck, MS); Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo 
County ( A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 18); San Luis Obispo, spring, 1866 (Richmond, 
1916, p. 83); Santa Barbara (Cooper, 1887, p. 87); coast of Los Angeles County 
and Santa Catalina Island (Grinnell, 1898, p. 12). 


The American Scoter is a bird of the subarctic sea coasts and even 
in those regions is abundant only locally. On the Pacifie coast it 
breeds from the Aleutian Islands north to Kotzebue Sound and north- 
eastern Alaska. The American Scoter is the least common of the 
three species found in early spring in southeastern Alaska (Swarth, 
1911, p. 44). During the winter it migrates southward in small num- 
bers as far as California. Non-breeding birds are occasionally recorded 
from the winter range during the summer. First spring arrivals have 
been noted at St. Michael, Alaska, on May 16, and at Kotzebue Sound 
on June 3. On the coast of California records are too infrequent to 
warrant statements as to times of migration. There are no interior 
records for this state. : 

Scoters really deserve the name of ‘‘black ducks’’ for they are cer- 
tainly the blackest of their tribe. From their habits they are often 
called ‘‘Scooters.’’ Typical sea ducks, they are to be found almost 
entirely on salt water. All three species associate together more or 
less, and are of about the same size and general behavior, so that they 
would be difficult to distinguish were it not for certain prominent field 
marks that make identification of the males fairly easy. The male 


196 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


American Scoter is the only one which lacks any sort of white patch on 
its uniformly black plumage. The female and young of this species 
can be separated from those of the White-winged Scoter by the lack 
of white on the wing, and from the Surf Scoter by their dingy cheeks 
and throat instead of the whitish-patched ones found in the latter 
species. With specimens in hand, of any age, the squarely restricted 
feathering at the base of the bill is a good distinguishing feature of 
this species. 


In western Alaska ...a nesting site [is] chosen on the border of some 
pond. The spot is artfully hidden in the standing grass, and the eggs, if left 
by the parent, are carefully covered with grass and moss. As the set of eggs 
is completed, the male gradually loses interest in the female, and soon deserts 
her to join great flocks of his kind along the seashore, usually keeping in the 
vicinity of a bay, inlet, or the mouth of some large stream. These flocks are 


ae 


ee ; 


+847 


Fig. 27. Side of bill of male American Scoter. Natural size. 


formed early in June and continue to grow larger until the fall migration 
occurs.... At the Yukon mouth Dall found a nest of this species on 
June 17. The nest contained two white and rather large eggs, and was in a 
bunch of willows on a small island, and was well lined with dry grass, leaves, 
moss and feathers (Nelson, 1887, p. 80). 


At St. Michael, Alaska, a set of fresh eggs was taken on August 3, 
and a brood of downy young was obtained on September 9. 


Until the young are about half grown the female usually keeps them in 
some large pond near the nesting place, but as August passes they gradually 
work their way to the coast and are found, like the eiders of the same age, 
along the reefs and about the shores of the inner bays until able to fly (Nelson, 
1887, p. 81). 


Scoters feed almost entirely on mussels, and fishermen are said 
sometimes to locate beds of shellfish by searching out places where 
Scoters congregate. The birds are excellent divers and can forage 
in water forty feet in depth. ‘‘When wounded and closely pursued, 


WHITE-WINGED SCOTER 197 


they will frequently dive to the bottom (always using their wings 
as well as feet at such times in swimming under water) and retain 
hold of the rock-weed with the bill until drowned. ... I have also 
seen all three species [of Scoters] when wounded dive from the air, 
entering the water without any splash’’ (Mackay, 1891b, pp. 282- 
283). 

Scoters may be readily decoyed, and were it not for their oily, 
strongly flavored fiesh, they might be considered desirable game. 
But their unfitness for use as a table bird makes them of ordinary 
interest only in so far as they afford a mark for the gunner. As the 
American Scoter does not appear in any numbers on the California 
coast, it is negligible here from an economic standpoint. 


White-winged Scoter 


Oidemia deglandi Bonaparte 


OTHER NAMES—White-winged Coot; Black Surf Duck; Velvet Duck; Klon- 
dike Mallard; Oidemia fusca; Melanetta velvetina. 

DescripTion—Adult male: Uniformly black, tinged with brown on sides and 
belly; wings black, speculum abruptly pure white; crescentic spot immediately 
below and behind eye, pure white; iris ‘‘bright yellow’’; sides of upper man- 
dible feathered almost to nostrils; prominent knob at base of culmen, and 
margins of both mandibles, black; sides of upper mandible red, shading to 
orange on culmen and base; nail ‘‘flesh-colour’’; lower mandible black; feet 
‘‘orange-red,’’? webs ‘‘greyish-black’’ (Audubon, 18438, VI, p. 336). Total 
length (both sexes) ‘‘19.75-23.00’’ inches (501-583 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 
112). Males: folded wing 10.75-11.10 (273-282); bill from tip to limit of 
feathers on culmen 1.54-1.66 (39.1-42.2); tarsus 1.96-2.05 (49.8-52.2) (five 
specimens). Adult female: Head brownish black without any conspicuous 
white spots; rest of plumage dusky brown, lighter on lower surface; speculum 
pure white; bill dull black; iris ‘‘dark’’; legs and feet ‘‘brownish red’’; webs 
‘‘dusky’’ (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 178). Folded wing 10.40- 
10.75 inches (264-273 mm.); bill from tip to limit of feathers on culmen 1.41— 
1.58 (35.8-40.2); tarsus 1.78-1.81 (45.2-45.9) (three specimens); all from Cali- 
fornia. Juvenile plumage: Dark sooty brown, becoming black on top of head 
and back, and lightest on central part of lower surface due to narrow feather- 
edgings of dull white there; iris brown; speculum white as in adults; legs and 
feet (dried) dull black. Natal plumage: Black, chin white (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 96). Note.—By wear, juveniles become ashy white on 
lower surface of body and also locally on sides of head. At post-juvenal molt 
males assume only a partially black plumage, some of the old, worn, pale- 
colored, plumage persisting in irregular patches on lower surface of body. 
The bill gradually acquires adult form during the first year. Year-old birds 
in incomplete adult plumage are the ones most often found in California during 
the summer season. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size, thick body, short stout head 
and neck, black or black-appearing coloration, white patches on wings, and 
absence of white on back of head. Sits very low when resting on water. 


198 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


VoiceE—None, so far as definitely known; said to utter a low quack (Mackay, 
18910, p, 284). 

NEstT—On ground concealed by shrubs, and usually near fresh water; con- 
structed of ‘‘rubbish’’ and down (Bent, 1902, p. 171). 

Eecs—6 to 14, ovate in shape, measuring in inches 2.60 to 2.86 by 1.69 to 
1.85 (in millimeters, 66.0 to 72.5 by 43.0 to 47.0), and averaging 2.72 by 1.81 
(69.0 by 46.0) (twenty-one eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; eolor pale salmon 
buff or flesh-color (Bent, loe. cit.). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America and eastern Asia. Breeds from 
northeastern Siberia along Arctic coast of America to northern Ungava, and 
south to central British Columbia, northern North Dakota and southern Quebec; 
winters on shores of Pacitie Ocean from Aleutian Islands south to China and 
to southern Lower California, in the interior on Great Lakes, and on Atlantic 
coast from Gulf of St. Lawrence south to Florida (rarely). Non-breeding 
birds summer as far south as Rhode Island and southern California (modified 
from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. $1). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common winter visitant along entire seacoast. 
Restricted to salt water. Arrives in September and October and leaves in 
latter part of April. Non-breeders often remain here throughout the summer 
mouths, and have been recorded as far south as San Miguel Island (Willett, 
1910, p. 178) and Santa Barbara (Torrey, 1910b, p. 204). 


The White-winged Scoter or Velvet Duek is an abundant winter 
visitant along the whole coast of California. It has a wide general 
winter range on the Pacifie coast as it is found from the Aleutian 
Islands south to Lower California. In California it oceurs in greatest 
numbers on San Francisco and Monterey bays and on the waters 
about the Santa Barbara Islands, but small numbers are to be found 
in almost every little coastal bay. While called winter visitants these 
birds arrive here as early as the last of August and remain until the 
end of April, and some individuals even remain throughout the sum- 
mer. These latter are non-breeders and most of them are thought to 
be immatures, less than two years old. 

The birds which winter in California probably come from two 
breeding centers, in Alaska and in central Canada. In the latter case 
the migration, which is thought to take place at night, must have a 
decidedly westward trend and extend over land for a considerable 
distance. 

Among the big sea ducks the White-winged Seoter is the only one 
exhibiting a white speculum. This distinctive character shows well 
in flight or when the birds are at rest on the water and is possessed by 
all ages and both sexes. In the adult male the otherwise wholly black 
plumage, relieved only by a small white patch below the eye, is an 
additional character. At close range the bill is seen to be swollen 
at the upper base and the feathers extend forward on the sides of 
the upper mandible almost to the nostrils. 

While the White-winged Seoter is a salt water species during the 


WHITE-WINGED SCOTER 199 


winter months, it seeks fresh water situations for nesting. Near Fort 
Anderson and on the Barren Grounds of Arctic Canada, MacFarlane 
found this Scoter breeding in numbers, in both open and wooded 
situations. The nests were always near fresh water. They were 
placed in depressions in the ground at the bases of small trees and 
contained no other lining than feathers and down. Five to eight eggs 
constituted a set in the nests examined. Nests with eggs were found 
on various dates between June 14 and July 3 (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, II, pp. 96-97). 

Bent (1902, p. 171) and Job (1899, pp. 163-164) have both found 
White-winged Scoters nesting in North Dakota. The nests were 
placed on small islands and were admirably concealed, usually under 


Fig. 28. Side of bill and head of male White-winged Scoter. 
Natural size. Location of white spot behind eye is indicated. 


small bushes. The nests were lined with dry leaves, sticks, soil, and 
other available material, but on the whole were the poorest in con- 
struction of any «luck nests which they examined. No down seemed 
to be added until the sets were complete. Hight nests found by Job 
(loc. cit.) on June 27 (1898) contained 14, 13, 10, 10, 7, 6, 1, and 0 
eggs, respectively, and all the eggs were fresh, which shows that the 
breeding season of this species is about the latest of all the ducks. 
There is an earlier record of downy young found near Fort Yukon, 
Alaska, on June 23 (1866) (Cooke, 1906, p. 61). 

In California the White-winged Scoter is exclusively a salt water 
duck. Jt frequents the open bays and waters adjacent to the outer 
beaches, but we know of no instance of its appearing on fresh water 
here, even on ponds but a short distance from the beach. All species 
of scoters are probably most active at night, for during the day they 
often lie floating out in the center of a bay and remain asleep there 
for hours. At such times they may be closely approached, but usually 


200° GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


they are vigilant, soon putting themselves out of gunshot range by 
flight or by diving repeatedly and swimming rapidly away under 
water. Even by this second method they can easily outdistance a 
-row-boat. The White-winged Scoter appears to be.a perfectly silent 
bird, save for the flapping or whizzing sound produced by its wings 
as it rises heavily from the water. 

This species usually flies low over the water, but during migrations 
it attains considerable heights. It often exhibits curiosity and may 
be attracted within gunshot by the hunter waving some object in the 
air or even by firing off his gun. Baird, Brewer and Ridgway (1884, 
II, p. 94) say that ‘‘Hunters often resort to the expedient of shooting, 
in order to alarm the flock. This often has the desired effect; the 
foolish birds, alarmed at the unusual noise, make a sudden plunge in 
the direction of the water,-as if that element alone could give them 
safety, and in their descent present the opportunity desired by the 
hunter.’’ This habit is peculiar to the White-winged Scoter. On 
Monterey Bay, August 29, 1910, Beck (MS) saw a number of White- 
winged Scoters in molt. The birds had lost their wing quills and were 
unable to fly. 

The food of the White-winged Scoter consists of small fish, mol- 
lusks, crabs, and the like (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 
96). On San Francisco Bay the birds are often to be seen around 
the wharves diving for the mussels which cling to the piles. .Many 
of the people who daily cross the bay note these flocks of worthless 
scoters near the ferry moles, and some of them make covetous remarks 
about the availability of ‘‘roast duck.’’ <A little close observation 
would show these people that the scoters are foraging for a diet which 
is not conducive to a delicate flavor. A stomach from Monterey con- 
tained only the shells of univalve mollusks; one of the shells contained 
a hermit crab. The mollusks represented were 1 Olivella biplicata, 4 
Olivella intorta, 1 Nassa perpinguis and 1 Mangilia vartegata. An- 
other stomach contained several small ‘‘sand-dollars’’ (Hchinoidea). 
Stomachs of this duck from Massachusetts examined by the United 
States Biological Survey contained 44 per cent mussels, 22 per cent 
quahogs (a kind of clam), 19 per cent periwinkles, 9 per cent hermit 
crabs, and smaller percentages of algae and other vegetable matter 
(Forbush, 1912, p. 162). 

The Indians of the far north relish this scoter as an article of 
food, along with practically all other kinds of sea fowl. But to the 
white man it has the strongest and. most disagreeable taste of any of 
the ducks. Some hunters have told us that. by skinning the birds 
before they are cooked much of this disagreeable flavor can be elim- 
inated. Even a poor shot can hit this clumsy duck and as the birds 
decoy easily the ‘‘sport’’ afforded in shooting the White-winged Scoter 


SURF SCOTER 201 


attracts a few amateur gunners in places where the species is abundant, 
or where more desirable birds are lacking. 

The comparative present and past status of the White-winged 
Scoter in California is not known. Apparently it is maintaining its 
numbers. As it usually remains on open water and is there difficult 
to approach, and as it is a very poor offering for the table, this scoter 
is not greatly sought after by the hunter, and so at the present time 
its persistence seems assured. Also, its food-supply is not being 
reduced by encroaching civilization as in the case with the fresh-water 
ducks. 


Surf Scoter 
Oidemia perspicillata (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Surf Duck; Sea Coot; OFdemia perspicillata var. trowbridget; 
Pelionetta perspicillata; Pelionetta trowbridgei. 

DEscrIPTION—Adult male: Whole plumage deep black above and brownish 
black beneath, except for two triangular white patches, one across forehead 
in front of eyes, the other on back of head; top of bill feathered forward to 
nostrils; large squarish or rounded spot on swollen side of upper mandible near 
base, black, bounded behind by ‘‘orange,’’ top of bill to above nostrils ‘‘ deep 
reddish-orange,’’ nail ‘‘dingy greyish-yellow,’’ bill otherwise ‘‘bluish-white, 
yellow’’ or ‘‘flesh-coloured’’; iris ‘‘ yellowish-white’’; legs and feet ‘‘orange- 
red,’’ webs and joints ‘‘dusky,’’ claws ‘‘black’’ (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 341). 
Total length ‘‘about 20.00-22.00’’ inches (508-558 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 
112); folded wing 9.25-9.60 (235-244); bill from tip to limit of feathers on 
culmen 1.32-1.55 (33.5-39.3); tarsus 1.66-1.81 (42.2-45.9) (eight specimens 
from Alaska and California). Adult female: Top of head black; rest of 
plumage blackish brown, except for indistinct light areas on chin and between 
bill and eye, and two small white patches below and behind eye-and on back of 
head; iris ‘‘brown’’; bill ‘‘black, with greenish or brownish tinge’’; legs and 
feet ‘‘brown,’’ webs ‘‘black’’ (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 182). 
Total length ‘‘about 18.00-19.00’’ inches (457-483 mm.) (Ridgway, loc. cit.); 
folded wing 9.00-9.08 (228-231); bill from tip to limit of feathers on culmen 
1.49-1.63 (37.8-41.3); tarsus 1.61-1.71 (40.8-43.4) (three specimens from Cali- 
fornia). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female, but lighter in tone, 
approaching dull white on middle of lower surface of body; whole plumage of 
softer texture. Natal plumage: Not known to us. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size, stout build, short head and neck, 
black or black appearing coloration, presence of white patch on back of head 
in male (whence the name ‘‘skunk-head’’), and absence of white patch on wing. 
In hand the presence of feathers on top of bill (culmen) extending forward to 
nostrils easily identifies all ages of both sexes. 

Voice—‘‘ A low guttural croak like the clucking of a hen’’ (Mackay, 1891b, 
p. 284); in mating season a clear whistle (Nelson, 1887, p. 82). 

Nest—On ground near water, well concealed, usually built of grasses and 
lined with dark-colored down. 

Eees—5 to 8, ovate to elliptical ovate, measuring in inches, 2.25 to 2.30 by 
1.60 (in millimeters, 57.0 to 58.4 by 40.6); color ivory white to pale buff 


(authors). 


202 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds from Sitka to Kotzebue 
Sound, Alaska, and from Great Slave Lake and northern Quebec north to the 
Arctie coast; winters on Pacific coast from Aleutian Islands south to Lower 
California, interiorly on the Great Lakes, and on Atlantic coast from Nova 
Scotia to North Carolina, rarely to Florida. Non-breeders occur in summer 
far south of the breeding range (modified from A. O. U. Cheéck-list, 1910, p. 82). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Abundant winter visitant along entire sea- 
coast, exclusively on salt water. Migrants arrive in numbers during October 
and November and leave in March and April. Some non-breeders remain here 
during the summer months. : 


The Surf Scoter is the most abundant of the three species of black 
sea ducks which visit California during the winter season. From 
October until April it is found in considerable numbers on all of our 


Fig. 29. Side of bill of male Surf Scoter. Natural size. 


bays and also onthe adjacent ocean either inside or outside the surf. 
In the summer most of the birds of this species repair to their breed- 
ing ground in the far north in the northern portions of Alaska and 
Canada; but some non-breeding individuals, which are believed to be 
birds less than two years old, remain here throughout the season. 
During its sojourn here the Surf Scoter is restricted to salt water and 
has not been reported from any fresh water situation within the state. 

The general black plumage relieved by patches of pure white on 
the forehead and back of the head easily identify the male even at a 
distance. The white iris and the swollen black-and-orange-marked 
bill, which can be seen at moderate range, both add to its striking 
appearance. The female is less conspicuously marked and to her 
general brownish black coloration there are added only a few whitish 
patches on the head and chin. Her feet and bill are both black, and 
lack the brilliant colors displayed in her mate. In any plumage the 
absence of a white patch on the wing easily separates this species 


SURF SCOTER 203 


from the White-winged Scoter. In hand the presence of feathers on 
top of the bill extending nearly to the nostrils is the best character 
for positive identification. ‘‘The neck patch of the male makes a 
striking field character, as do the two white spots at the side of the 
head in the young; while the female, lacking the ear patch, can be 
told by elimination’’ (Bailey, 1916b, p. 108). 

For the nesting season this scoter seeks the vicinity of fresh water 
as does its white-winged relative. A nest of this species found by Mac- 
Farlane in the neighborhood of Fort Anderson, Canada, was situated 
on a ridge of ground at the foot of a dry stunted pine, where it was 
entirely hidden by the lower branches of the tree. It was constructed 
of dark-colored down. The nest is said to be indistinguishable from 
that of the White-winged Scoter (Baird, Brewer and Eadawey, 4864, 
II, p. 102). " 

The Surf Scoter is appropriately named as it appears to be 
thoroughly at home in the roughest surf of our ocean shore. For rest 
or sleep the birds resort to the smoother water outside the surf, and 
sometimes they come inside onto the beach, where they stand and 
preen their feathers. During the day time these birds are often to 
be seen sleeping on the quiet waters of San Francisco Bay in company 
with White-winged Scoters. When taking flight they rise heavily 
from the water, with apparent difficulty, running or kicking along 
the surface for some distance before gaining sufficient impetus to 
enable them to rise clear of the water. Once in flight they are able 
to travel with considerable speed. ' 

During an extended visit to the beaches of southern California 
Florence Merriam Bailey studied the habits of the Surf Scoter in 
some detail. The following paragraphs are excerpted from her 
account. 

One of the big sea birds ... did actually go through the breaking surf 
prow on, but .. . none of his fellows ever did. ... It was a pretty sight when, 
under a gray sky, the beautiful long green rolls of surf rose and combed over 
and the Surf Scoters came in from the green swells behind to féed in front 
of the surf and do skillful diving stunts to escape being pounded by the white 
water-falls. As the green wall ridged up over their heads they would sit 


unmoved, but just as the white line of foam began to appear along the crest 
they would dive, staying under till the surf had broken and the water was 
level again. ... 

A flock of about twenty-five Surf Scoters ... swimming Indian file, on 
reaching a certain point disappeared one after the other, doubtless going down 
to a-‘streamer of kelp under the surface. They were past masters in timing 
the breaking of the rollers, again and again riding over one the instant before 
the crest broke into foam. When feeding far out from the shore a few of the 
sea birds would sometimes get widely separated from the rest of the flock and 
after rising up to look over the water would swim or, if too far, fly across 
to rejoin their companions. 


204 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


One drizzly morning . . . the Scoters were in near shore. ... The surf was 
rolling in, sea after sea, and the great birds rode the green rollers. ... When 
a squad were down in front of the surf line and the foaming water-fall came, 
it was laughable to see the row of tails disappear below. ... When diving 
through the green rollers near shore the black bodies of the Scoters, paddling 
feet and all, showed as plainly as beetles in yellow amber (Bailey, 1916), pp. 
109-110). 


According to Cooper (in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit.) 
this species is but little hunted, and has but few natural enemies. 
Many individuals escape the usual dangers that beset birds, and, 
lingering along our southern coast finally die solely from old age. 
The long rainy seasons are said to be fatal to some decrepit individuals, 
as at such times the birds seem to be peculiarly subject to unfavorable 
influences. At the time of assuming their spring plumage, many 
become very thin, and even blind, and swim, unconscious of danger, 
near the wharves and shores, or after storms are found weak and dying 
along the beaches. 

When feeding, Surf Scoters dive so constantly that but few of 
the members of a flock are to be seen at the surface at any one time. 
They keep popping up and disappearing so that the observer some- 
times finds it impossible to count them. Swarth (1911, p. 45) found 
this species at Kuiu Island, southeastern Alaska, feeding close to the 
shore, in the shallow water. The drakes were constantly on the move, 
flying for a few yards and then sliding for eight or ten feet upon 
the surface of the water, with the wings held stiffly extended above 
the body. 

The food of the Surf Scoter is made up almost entirely of shell- 
fish obtained by diving. Stomachs examined by the United States 
Biological Survey contained 79.6 per cent of mussels, 13.8 per cent 
of periwinkles, and 6.6 per cent of algae and eel-grass (Forbush, 1912, 
p. 165). This species is also said to eat fish. The gullet of one shot 
near the edge of a California marsh, was so filled. with small crabs 
that they fell from its mouth when the bird was picked up. In this 
state, small crabs and mussels form a considerable portion of the food 
of this species (W. E. Bryant, 1893a, p. 55). 

The Surf Scoter is seldom shot for food as its flesh has a strong, 
fishy flavor that to most people is very disagreeable. It is said to be 
readily decoyed. within gunshot by imitating its call-note from a blind, 
so that it is sometimes killed for sport. The surf-riding propensities 
of this duck, which ordinarily keep it out of reach, and its poor food 
value render it of slight importance as a game bird, and in conse- - 
quence its numbers are likely to remain unchanged by human influence. 


RUDDY DUCK 205 


Ruddy Duck 


Erismatura jamaicensis (Gmelin) 


OTHER NAMES—Wiretail; Sprig-tail; Pin-tail, part; Dipper Duck; Spatterer; 
Spatter; Erismatura rubida; Erismatura dominicensis. 

DEscription—Adult male in spring and early summer: Top and side of head 
to below eye, and hind neck, glossy black, abruptly outlined; large conspicuous 
patch on each side of head from base of bill to behind ear, pure white, the 
two patches joined by narrow band of white across chin; iris ‘‘hazel’’ (Audubon, 
1843, VI, p. 327); bill slaty blue; whole neck, sides of breast, back and upper 
tail coverts rich reddish chestnut; rump dusky brown; upper tail coverts very 
short, leaving the narrow tail feathers exposed nearly to their bases; tail 
blackish brown; outer surface of closed wing dull dark brown, the coverts 
finely ‘‘peppered’’ with light brown; flight feathers blackish brown; lining 
of wing and axillars white, marked with grayish brown; under surface of flight 
feathers pale brown; sides of body (beneath wings), and flanks, deep chestnut; 
under surface of body grayish brown with broad feather tippings of silvery 
white, the whole giving an effect of light silvery gray; breast often tinged 
with pale rusty brown; under tail coverts pure white; feet ‘‘dull greyish-blue,’’ 
webs ‘‘dusky’’ (Audubon, loc. cit.). Adult male in winter: Top and side of 
head to below eye, and hind neck, blackish brown, minutely flecked with ashy 
brown; patch on side of head white, as in summer; whole upper surface of 
body dark brown, minutely peppered with ashy gray and chestnut; tail and 
wings and lower surface as in summer; throat and broad collar around neck, 
ashy brown. In any plumage wings and tail may be pale ashy due to wear 
and fading. Total length (both sexes) ‘‘about 13.50-16.00’’ inches (343-406 
mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 113); folded wing 5.65-5.92 (143.5-150.0); bill along 
culmen 1.48-1.68 (37.6-42.7); tarsus 1.27-1.36 (32.2-34.5) (ten specimens). 
Adult female at all seasons: Top and side of head to below eye, blackish brown, 
narrowly barred with reddish brown; rest of head grayish white except for 
dusky stripe from corner of mouth to hind neck, paralleling margin of dark 
area on top of head; bill slaty black; chin white; upper surface of body 
brownish black, finely variegated with ashy or buffy brown; tail brownish 
black; outer-surface of closed wing dark brown; lining of wing and axillars 
as in male; foreneck grayish brown; breast indistinctly barred with dull black 
and yellowish brown, sometimes appearing rusty; feathers of lower surface 
ashy brown at bases, tipped with silvery white, the former color sometimes 
showing through and giving a barred effect; middle of belly lightest; under tail 
eoverts white. Folded wing 5.50-5.75 inches (139.5-146 mm.); bill along culmen 
1.57-1.68 (39.8-42.7); tarsus 1.20-1.31 (30.4-33.2) (ten specimens); all from 
California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female. Natal plumage: 
Top and sides of head, whole upper surface of body, sides, flanks, foreneck, 
and upper breast blackish brown, darkest on top of head and lightest on fore- 
neck; stripe from side of bill below eye to ear region, lower part of cheeks, 
and chin, dull white; patch on side of back behind wing dull white; belly 
grayish white; bill and feet (dried) black. 

MarkKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Small size (slightly larger than a teal), 
stout chunky build, flat head, short neck, broad flat bill, conspicuously white 
cheek patches, short, exposed, ‘‘wire-like’’ tail, carried almost perpendicularly 
to back, and absence of contrasted patch of white or color on wing. 

Votce—None (?) 


206 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Nest—Always close to water, above or sometimes floating upon it, -and 
usually concealed in tules; constructed of dry tules and lined with dull whitish 
down. 

Eees—5 to 11, more in exceptional cases, short or elongate ovate in shape, 
measuring in inches, 2.44 to 2.62 by 1.75 to 1.89 (in millimeters, 62.0 to 66.5 
by 44.4 to 48.0), and averaging 2.52 by 1.82 (64.0 by 46.2); color grayish white, 
surface rough (twenty eggs from California). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds from central British Columbia, 
southern Keewatin and northern Ungava, south to northern Lower California, 
northern New Mexico, southern Minnesota and Maine, rarely south to Guate- 
mala and Cuba: Winters from southern British Columbia, Arizona, southern 
Illinois and Maine south to Lesser Antilles and Central America (modified 
from A, O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 82). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common resident throughout the state, chiefly 
on fresh water. Occurs on San Francisco and Tomales bays in winter. Breeds 
from San Francisco (Squires, 1915, pp. 234-235), south to Mission Valley, San 
Diego County (Belding, MS), but most abundantly in southern California and 
in the San Joaquin Valley; breeds also about Tule [Rhett] Lake, Modoc 
County (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 230). 


The Ruddy Duck is strictly a North American species and has 
not been taken, even as a straggler, in the Old World. East of the 
Alleghany Mountains it is a comparatively rare bird, but in the west 
and southwest it is locally abundant. The main breeding range is in 
the north-central United States and central Canada, but there are 
many isolated colonies far south of this area. In the western part 
of the Mississippi Valley it is found breeding in southern Minnesota 
and northwestern Nebraska. From here the southern boundary of 
the nesting range extends southwestwardly through the mountains of 
Colorado and northern New Mexico, to central Arizona and northern 
Lower California. Indeed there are records of nesting birds from 
localities as far south as the Valley of Mexico, Guatemala and Cuba. 
As a species, this duck does not perform any very extensive migration, 
the center of the breeding range lying but slightly north of the center 
of abundance in winter. 

The Ruddy Duck, the ‘‘Wire-tail’’ or ‘‘Spatterer’’ of the hunter, 
is one of the most widely distributed of our California ducks. In any 
one place it is never found in large numbers, as are some other species, 
but each little body of fresh water is apt to have from one to a dozen 
pairs of the birds. In general the Ruddy Duck is an inhabitant of 
fresh water. It may in winter occasionally be found on salt water 
in company with such species as the Canvasback and Seaups, but this 
is not a common thing. 

When resting on the water the Ruddy Duck may be recognized by 
its moderate size, ‘‘squat’’ appearance, short thick head and neck, erect 
tail, and in the male, by the white area on each cheek. The wings 
lack contrasted markings of any sort. On close examination a num- 


RUDDY DUCK 207 


ber of other distinctive characters can be seen. The upper tail coverts 
are extremely short and leave the eighteen stiff, narrow-webbed and 
pointed tail feathers almost without covering. The bill is broad and 
slightly turned upward toward tip and bears a conspicuous ‘‘nail.’’ 
It is not longer than the head. In spring and early summer the males 
have the whole neck and back a uniform chestnut or reddish brown, 
a distinctive feature. The brightly plumaged males in spring carry 
on various complex courting antics, in which the spread tail figures 
conspicuously. Brooks (1903, p. 280) records that while watching 
the curious antics of the male, through a binocular at very close 
range, he was struck with the peculiar formation of the head, there 
being distinct elevations over each eye resembling those on a frog’s 
head. These were evidently caused by inflation from inside the skin. 

The breeding season of the Ruddy Duck extends from the first of 
May to the end of July or even later (see table 11). 


TABLE 11.—Data relative to the nesting of the Ruddy Duck in California 


‘Locaniry 


Nigger Slough, 
Los Angeles, Co. 


Niles, Alameda Co. 


Mission Valley, 
San Diego Co. 


Los Bafios, Merced Co. 
Orange, Orange Co. 


San Jacinto Lake, 
Riverside Co. 


Near Los Angeles 


Bear Valley lakes, 
San Bernardino Co. 


Santa Cruz 


Tule [=Rhett] Lake, 
Modoe Co. 


Nigger Slough, 
Los Angeles Co. 


Santa Cruz 


San Pasqual. 
San Diego Co. 


San Jacinto Lake, 
Riverside Co. 
Wilmington, 
Los Angeles Co. 
Tulare Lake, Kings Co. 


Near Los Angeles 
Santa Cruz 

Santa Cruz 

Tulare Lake, Kings Co. 
Santa Cruz 


Point Pinos, 
Monterey Co. 


Seaside, Monterey Co. 


Date 


May 1, 1910 


May 28, 1911 


Last of May, 


June, 1886 

About June 1, 
1883 

June 1-3, 1914 

June 2, 1910 


June 3, 1896 
June 5, 1906 


June 7, 1897 

June 10, 1900 

June 18-24, 
1907 

June 25, —— 


June 26, 1883 
June 26, 1883 


July 7, 1907 


July 24, 1883 


Aug. 9, 1914 


Aug. 19, 1914 


NEST CONTENTS AND 
ConDITION 


7 eggs, half-incubated 


8 eggs, fresh 
Brood of young 


4 eggs 
12 eggs, considerably in- 
cubated 


Many nests 

5-11 eggs 

Breeding 

5 eggs 

Nesting 

17 eggs, slightly incubated 


14 eggs, incubated 


6 eggs, nearly hatched 
(in Coot’s nest) 


18 eggs, incubation 
commenced 


83 eggs (incomplete set) 
Several broods 


Fresh eggs 

19 eggs 

19 eggs 
Several broods 


10 eggs (second laying; 
incubation well ad- 
vanced ) 


8 young unable to fly 


3 young a few days old 


AUTHORITY 
Willett, 1912a, p. 26 


Mailliard coll. 
Belding, MS. 


Bryant, 1914e, p. 224 
Grinnell, 1898, p. 12 


Willett and Jay, 1911, 
p. 158 

Davie, 1889, p. 77 

Morcom, 1887, p. 38 

Ingersoll, 1884, p. 15 

Bryant, 1914e, p. 230 

Willett, 19124,’ p. 26 


Mailliard coll. 
Sharp, 1907, p. 86 


Ingersoll coll. 
Willett, 1912a, p. 26 
Goldman, 1908), p. 202 


Davie, 1889, p. 77 
Ingersoll, 1884, p. 15 
Ingersoll, 1884, p. 15 
Goldman, 1908b, p. 202 
Ingersoll, 1884, p. 15 


Squires, MS. 


Squires, MS. 


208 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The nest, which in California is usually composed of tules, is 
placed near the water’s edge or, more often, directly above the water 
of some deep, sluggish stream, lake or pond. Shields (in Davie, 1889, 
pp. 77-78) says there is evidence that this duck prefers the abandoned 
nests of Coots for nesting purposes, to those constructed by itself. In 
several instances he took eggs of this species from what appeared to 
be rehabilitated Coots’ nests. In one case seven eggs of the Ruddy 
Duck were found in a Coot’s nest from which, a few weeks pre- 
viously, a set of eggs of the Coot had been obtained. Sharp (1907, 
p. 86) found six nearly hatched eggs of the Ruddy Duck in a Coot’s 
nest near Escondido, San Diego County, June 5, 1906. 

Ingersoll (1884, p. 15) tells of a number of nests which he found 
near Santa Cruz: 


The nests were usually built near the center of the tules, and just above 
the water, which was two or three feet deep, and were inaccessible except 
by wading, as the tules were too thick to allow a boat to pass through them. 
The nests were all constructed of dry tules; those forming the lining were 
picked into fine shreds and slightly mixed with down of the parents. Nests 
were from eight to fifteen inches high, and ten to twelve in diameter. The 
cavity varied in size as much as the nests, but not in proportion to them, as 
the highest and most firmly built of any I saw had a cavity that was only 
large enough to hold two eggs in the first layer, and so shallow that the three 
other eggs it contained were above the level of the nest. This nest also 
varied from the others in having a slight covering of tules over the eggs. 


Two other nests found by Ingersoll on June 26 contained nineteen 
eggs each. The eggs in these nests were arranged in three layers. 
Nests of the Ruddy Duck are but sparingly lined with down and 
sometimes it is lacking entirely. The eggs of the Ruddy Duck are 
always recognizable. They are extremely large for the size of the 
bird, more rounded than most other duck’s eggs, and of a uniform 
dull white color. The thick, rough-surfaced shell is peculiar to the 
eggs of this duck. The shape varies somewhat from short ovate to 
elongate ovate. Twenty specimens from California average 2.52 by 
1.82 inches. 

According to Brooks (1908, p. 280) the young are very precocious 
and dive for their food soon after hatching, a habit not found in the 
young of other ducks, which take their food from the surface of the 
water for several weeks. Ingersoll (loc. cit.) surprised several families 
away from the tules, in which the parents invariably sought shelter, 
leaving the young to look out for themselves. The young were unable 
to fly but could dive and swim well. 

During the winter Ruddy Ducks are sometimes seen in small 
flocks numbering up to ten or twelve individuals, these forming: a 
compact company. But more often they are to be seen singly or in 


RUDDY DUCK 209 


pairs. They can often be closely approached, for they depend upon 
diving rather than flight for safety. If plenty of tules are at hand 
in which to hide, gunshots will not frighten them away from their 
favorite haunts. Their ability to dive and hide under water or 
beneath some floating object with only the head above water is unex- 
eelled by any other duck; in this respect they resemble the grebes. 
When wounded, they invariably try to escape in this way, and very 
often succeed. During the breeding season the female is said to be 
the shyest of all the ducks and it is almost impossible to surprise her 
on the nest. 

On the water at a distance the Ruddy looks like a floating block of 
wood, so stockily is it built and so low does it sit in the water. It 
rises with considerable difficulty, paddling along on the surface for 
some distance before getting clear of the water. It flies close to the 
surface of the water and its rapidly beating wings make a whirring 
sound. When well started the speed of this duck is great, but as it 
is slow getting under way this speed is not often evident. 

The food of the Ruddy, as reported by various observers, consists 
of seeds, roots, plant stems and shellfish. The stomach of a bird 
from Guadalupe, Santa Barbara County, California, was found by 
us to contain twenty-five seeds of ditch-grass (Ruppia maritima) and 
some green algae. Three other stomachs contained finely ground 
vegetable materials. 

The Ruddy Duck is so small and has such strange habits that it 
is not always considered a game bird by the sportsman. On many 
of the gun club grounds these birds are not counted in the limits, or 
else are killed only as a makeshift to complete the bag. Nevertheless 
the Ruddy is very good eating unless it has subsisted on shellfish for 
a long time. Many people do not use it for food simply because they 
do not know how to remove the feathers, an operation which is very 
difficult for the uninitiated. Experts dip the bird in boiling water, 
and withdraw it almost immediately, before the grease starts; then it 
is wrapped in newspaper soaked in hot water. The steam loosens the 
feathers and the bird is then easily picked (Hedderly, 19120, pp. 
50-51). When properly dressed the Ruddy makes an excellent table 
bird. It is fat and has a mild flavor. ‘‘Roasted Indian fashion in 
the fire with feathers on, its meat is juicy, tender and of delicious 
flavor .. .’’ (V. Bailey, in Bailey, 1902, p. 65). 

As a mark for the gunner this species takes second rank, for it 
is not regularly on the wing and is very difficult to kill on the water 
because of its thick plumage and its expertness in diving. But as 
the more desirable ducks become reduced in numbers there is no doubt 
that the Ruddy will be one of the first to take a respected place in 
the hunter’s bag. 


210 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


When unmolested this duck is likely to nest in any suitable locality, 
be it even a pond in a city park. Consequently the maintenance of a 
breeding stock and the regulation of the annual supply by this means 
would probably prove a simple matter. The Ruddy still exists in 
goodly numbers especially in southern California and can be expected 
to continue to hold its own until considerably greater numbers are 
taken by the hunter, or until the available breeding grounds are 
greatly reduced through reclamation or other causes. 


Lesser Snow Goose 
Chen hyperboreus hyperboreus (Pallas) 


OTHER NAMES—White Brant; White Goose; Anser hyperboreus ; Chen albatus: 
Anser albatus ; Chen hyperboreus nivalis. 

Description—Adults, both sexes: Whole plumage (except as mentioned 
below) snowy white; primaries black, becoming ashy at bases; primary coverts 
gray, with dusky shafts; lower surface of body often tinged with light yellowish 
brown; iris dark brown; bill lake red, nails whitish; edges of mandibles (forming 
‘‘grinning patch’’) black; feet dusky lake red; claws brownish black. Total 
length (both sexes) ‘‘about 23.00-28.00’’ inches (583-711 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, 
p. 115). Males: folded wing 16.65-17.12 (423-435); bill along culmen 2.19-2.40 
(55.5-60.9); tarsus 3.07-3.38 (77.9-85.8) (six specimens). Females: folded 
wing 15.20-16.65 (386-423); bill along culmen 2.00-2.26 (50.8-57.3); tarsus 
3.01-3.32 (76.5-84.3) (eight specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: 
Head, neck, back and scapulars, pale gray with brownish feather edgings; top 
of head darkest; primary flight feathers black; outer surface of closed wing pale 
ashy brown with broad white feather edgings; secondaries mottled darkly 
with drab, and margined with white; rump, upper tail coverts, tail and lower 
surface, white, the tail and breast faintly tinged with ashy; head and lower 
surface usually more or less strongly tinged with bright yellowish brown. 
Winter birds from California are mostly in more or less mixed transitional 
plumage from juvenile to adult. Natal plumage: No specimen or description 
available. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size, pure white body plumage, 
black flight feathers, and reddish bill and feet (pl. 6). Distinguished from Ross 
Goose by larger size, longer, smoother bill, and large black area (‘‘ grinning 
patch’’) exposed between edges of mandibles (compare figs. 30 and 31). Im- 
mature birds also appear white at a distance. 

Voice—In flight, a shrill howk (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 441). 

Nest—On wet ground; made of grasses, mosses and down (Hifrig, 1905, 
p. 237). 

Eees—s to 8, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 3.00 to 3.47 by 2.09 to 2.19 
(in millimeters, 76.0 to 88.0 by 53.0 to 55.5), and averaging 3.17 by 2.13 (80.5 
by 54.0) (nine eggs in U. S. National Museum); color creamy white (Eifrig, 
loc. cit.; Davie, 1889, p. 79). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds only along Arctic coast 
from mouth of Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay. Winters from southern 
British Columbia, southern Colorado, and southern Illinois south to northern 
Lower California, central Mexico and the Gulf States; rare on Atlantic coast 
(modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 83). 


LESSER SNOW GOOSE 211 


DistTRIBUTION IN CaLiFoRNIA—Abundant winter visitant to the interior valleys; 
less frequent near the seacoast. Recorded.south to San Diego (Belding, M8), 
and southeast to the Colorado River below Needles (Grinnell, 1914b, p. 116). 
Arrives soon after the first of October and leaves in March and early April. 


California probably surpasses any other state in the Union in the 
number and variety of geese which winter within its borders. The 
winter ranges of at least three species center within its confines, and 
as many as five different species have been taken in a single day, in 
1913, at Los Bafios, Merced County. To many people the geese are the 
most conspicuous examples of birds which migrate regularly with 
the changes of the seasons. 

The Lesser Snow Goose, often called White Brant, and pees 
by the Eskimo name, White ‘‘ Wavy,’’ is among the commonest of geese 
to be seen in the Pacific region. For instance, on December 9, 1911, 
in the vicinity of Los Bafios, Beck (MS) observed approximately 
5,000 White-fronted' Geese, 300 Canada Geese, and 50,000 white 
(Lesser Snow and Ross) geese. On December 29 of the same year he 
estimated that he saw 1,000 White-fronted, 100 Canada, and 50,000 
white geese. 

In migration the Lesser Snow Goose occurs more or less abundantly 
along the whole Pacific coast from Alaska to Lower California, but 
during the winter months almost the entire population concentrates 
in central and western California. These geese are most often seen 
passing overhead in long diagonal lines or V-shaped flocks; but on 
open level country, such as the plains of the Sacramento-San Joaquin 
Valley, it is not an uncommon thing, during the winter season, to see 
the ground fairly whitened with them as they rest or feed. 

So far as we know only two species of white geese occur in Cali- 
fornia. The Greater Snow Goose of the Atlantic coast has never been 
recorded from this state, and specimens which were first reported as 
instaneing the occurrence of the Blue Goose here have since been 
shown to be young of the Lesser Snow Goose (Swarth, 1913a, p. 43). 

The Lesser Snow Goose differs from the Ross Goose, the other 
white species occurring in California, by its much larger size, longer 
and smoother bill, and by the presence of a large black area (‘‘grin- 
ning patch’’) exposed between the two closed mandibles of the bill 
(compare figs. 30 and 31). The voice of the Lesser Snow Goose is more 
sonorous than that of the Ross Goose. 

Although the Lesser Snow Goose has been found breeding along 
the Arctic coast east of the Mackenzie River, yet great numbers of 
the birds have been seen to pass still farther north, to breeding 
grounds as yet unknown. Nelson (1887, p. 83) states that this species 
finds a nesting ground along the course of the lower Anderson River 
and the neighboring region along the Arctic coast; and Raine (in 


212 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 120) records several sets of eggs col- 
lected in Mackenzie Bay, in the middle of June, 1905, and says that 
this goose scrapes a hole in the sand and lines it with down and 
feathers. Eifrig (1905, p. 237) states that on Southampton Island, 
Hudson Bay, Lesser Snow Geese were found breeding in 1904. On 
June 22 a set of seven eggs was taken there. The nests which are six 
to eight inches high, are on wet ground and constructed of grass and 
moss and lined with down. The young are said to be able to fly by 
the middle of August and to keep in separate flocks. Many indi- 
viduals retain the grayish tinted (juvenile) plumage nearly through- 
out the winter, thus giving rise to the belief that this species does not 
attain its full snowy white plumage until at least the second year. 


. Fig. 30. Side of bill of Lesser Snow Goose. Natural size. 


Note ‘‘grinning patch’’ exposed between the bowed rims of the two 
mandibles (compare with fig. 31). 


The Lesser Snow Goose is not averse to associating with other kinds 
and it is not an unusual sight to see some of them mixed in with a 
flock of ‘‘gray’’ geese. C. H. Townsend (1887, p. 195) records having 
seen at Red Bluff, Tehama County, a triangle of Canada Geese headed 
by a single Lesser Snow Goose, the two waving lines of dark forms 
converging to a snow-white point. 

Between California and their breeding grounds Lesser Snow Geese 
appear to take the most direct route; they are seldom found in num- 
bers along the coast of Alaska, but are abundant during migration in 
the vicinity of Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie River. Although some 
of these geese may migrate across the northern border of the state 
from or into Oregon, yet a great many are known to cross eastward 


LESSER SNOW GOOSE 213 


or westward over the Sierra Nevada. Belding (MS) noted flocks of 
this species at Summit, Placer County, on October 5 and 10, 1885. 
They were flying above the highest peaks westward from Nevada 
toward California. They were again noted at the same place on 
October 6, 1896, flying high and going toward the Sacramento Valley. 
On April 8 and 16, 1886, thousands of white geese were noted by the 
same observer, at Murphy’s, Calaveras County, flying eastward over 
the Sierras in the direction of Nevada. The earliest arrivals of this 
species in west-central California, as noted by Belding, are: Stockton, 
San Joaquin County, September 28, 1886, September 29, 1881, and 
October 9, 1883; Gridley, Butte County, September 30, 1884. The 
first flock seen at San Diego in the winter of 1883-84 was on February 
17. The latest records are: Stockton, April 30, 1880; Gridley, April 
28, 1884; Chico, Butte County, April 27, 1884; Gridley, May 1, 1896. 

Writing from the vicinity of Fresno, Tyler (1913), p. 18) makes 
the following statements: ‘‘White geese swarm by thousands on the 
westside plains. No record has been obtained of their date of arrival 
in the fall, but as late as April 7 (1906) they were ‘congregated in 
large numbers on several hundred acres of grassy pasture near the 
Artesian Lake. Just before sundown, as I drove past, the ground 
was white almost as far as one could see and the noise was deafening. 
I have not had an opportunity of measuring any of these geese, but 
there appears to be a great variation in size. During January large 
flocks of Snow Geese move restlessly about, flying at a great height, 
and generally traveling toward the north.’’ 

The Lesser Snow Goose feeds largely in grain fields and pastures 
at night, spending the middle of the day on the sea or on some open 
body of water. Beck (MS) says that in the vicinity of Los Baiios 
this goose leaves for the grain fields early in the morning, returning 
between ten and eleven o’clock, and spends the rest of the day in wet 
marshy places. One bird shot after returning from feeding in the 
fields contained 1,581 grains of barley. On March 25, 1912, in the 
same locality, Lesser Snow Geese were seen feeding on the stalks of 
‘‘filaree.’’ They bit off the tops and ate the roots as well. One killed 
had 500 of the stalks in its gullet (Beck, MS). 


Various kinds of ordinary grass form a large part of this bird’s food, at 
least during their winter residence in the United States.... They alight 
upon a meadow or plain, and pass over the ground in broken array, cropping 
on either side as they go, with the peculiar tweak of the bill and quick jerk 
of the neck familiar to all who have watched the barnyard birds when similarly 
engaged (Coues, 1874, p. 552). 


While in California, this goose appears to feed largely on grass. 
Coues (loc. cit.) says that the short turfy grasses are highly relished 


214 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


and that the bulbous roots and soft succulent culms of aquatic plants 
are also eaten. The depredations of this and other geese in grain fields 
in California until very recently has prevented the placing of a closed 
season on these birds. In the north, their food in the summer consists 
of rushes and insects, and in the autumn, of berries particularly 
those of Empetrum nigrum (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, 
p. 441). 

In former years in the far north this species during the fall 
migration was killed and salted in great numbers for winter consump- 
tion, it being almost universally regarded as good eating. It has 
always been the commonest goose on the markets in California. 
Whether this is because it is more abundant, more easily decoyed, or 
because it is most desirable for the table is not known. During the 
season 1895-96, 10,251 ‘‘white’’ geese were sold in the markets of 
San Francisco and Los Angeles (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 41). A 
total of 3,649 were handled by one transfer company alone in San 
Francisco, in the season of 1906-07, and 3,800 similarly in 1910-11. 
In the season of 1910-11 the markets in San Francisco paid one to 
three dollars a dozen for them. During the season of 1913-14, they 
could be purchased regularly for seventy-five cents a pair retail. The 
young of this species are considered very good eating in spite of the 
fact that their meat is comparatively dry and dark and of a rather 
strong flavor. But our impression is that the other species of geese 
are held in somewhat greater esteem for table use. 

There has been a more conspicuous decrease in the numbers of 
geese than in any other game birds in the state. Many observers 
testify that there is only one goose now for each hundred that visited 
the state twenty years ago, and some persons aver that in certain 
localities there is not more than one to every thousand which formerly 
occurred here. Not only have these birds been slaughtered for the 
market, but gangs of men have been paid to destroy them where they 
were feeding in grain fields. Until 1915 they were afforded no pro- 
tection whatever and as a natural result their ranks have been so 
often decimated that, comparatively speaking, only a remnant now 
remains (see pp. 7-12). 

In former years, when passing through the Sacramento or San 
Joaquin valleys by train, great flocks of white geese in company with 
other, dark-colored species were often to be seen settling on the grain 
fields or pasture lands almost within gunshot of the cars. 

The days are past and gone when a man has to drive geese from 
his grain field. In many places where formerly the ground was so 
covered with white geese as to look snow clad, not a single goose is 
now to be observed feeding and but few flying overhead. In spite 
of the extreme shyness and watchfulness of these geese, the ingenuity 


| 


UNIV. CALIF. SEMICENT. PUBL. [GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 6 


AMERICAN WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE (TWO ADULTS AND A YOUNG ONE AT LEFT); LESSER SNOW GOOSE 
(FLOCK IN RIGHT FOREGROUND) 


ROSS SNOW GOOSE 215 


of the hunter and the increased efficiency of firearms has so far over- 
balanced the natural protection thus afforded that the birds are now 
actually threatened with extinction. Unless the protection now 
furnished proves adequate in the very near future, this state, which 
at one time appeared to have an inexhaustible supply of geese, will 
have entirely lost this valuable game resource. 

There is no reason why, with proper regard for the natural rate 
of increase, a certain toll might not be levied annually on the influx 
of geese from the far north. In their summer home they are doubtless 
largely free from human interference, so that the winter resort, which 
with snow geese lies chiefly within our own state, constitutes the 
critical area. It is in such cases as this that we are most favorably 
situated for putting into effect a system of regulation upon a sound 
economic and biological basis, so that we will secure the maximum 
returns. 


Ross Snow Goose 


Chen rossi (Cassin) 


OTHER NAMES—China Goose; Anser rossi. 

DEscripTion—Adults, both sexes: Entire plumage snowy white except for 
primary flight feathers and their coverts; primaries black, becoming ashy 
basally; primary coverts gray, with dusky shafts; bill ‘‘dull reddish,’’ nail 
‘‘white’’ (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 444), basal portion of upper 
mandible often wrinkled and warty; feet ‘‘dull reddish’’ (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, loc. cit.). Total length (both sexes) ‘‘20.00-26.00’’ inches (580-660 
mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 115). Males: folded wing 13.60-15.00 (345-381); 
bill along culmen 1.43-1.66 (36.3-42.2); tarsus 2.57-2.87 (65.2-72.8) (seven 
specimens). Females: folded wing 13.35-14.45 (339-367); bill along culmen 
1.42-1.55 (36.1-39.3); tarsus 2.38-2.68 (60.4-68.0) (nine specimens); all from 
California. Juvenile plumage: White, tinged with grayish on head and fore- 
back; wing as in adult but secondaries with blackish centers; bill and feet 
‘‘dusky’’ (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit.). Natal plumage: Not known. 

M4RKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Small size for a goose (but little larger 
than a Mallard), white plumage relieved by black primaries, and reddish bill 
and feet. Distinguished from Lesser Snow Goose by smaller size (about half 
the bulk of that species), and by much shorter bill, which is also more cor- 
rugated on surface and lacks broad black area between edges of closed mandibles 
(compare figs. 30 and 31). 

Voice—Resembles that of the Cackling Goose (Belding, MS). 

NEst AND EGGS—Unknown. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Western North America. Breeding range unknown 
but probably north of Mackenzie, Canada; winters in California. In migration 
occurs from Kent Peninsula, and Anderson River, on Arctic coast of Canada, 
south to Manitoba and Oregon (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 84). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Abundant winter visitant; most numerous in 
Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley and about Los Angeles. Southernmost record 
station: Newport, Orange County (Daggett, 1901a, p. 15). 


216 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The Ross or China Goose is the smallest, and one of the least known 
of our North American geese. Its winter range, so far as known, is 
restricted to central and western California, in which area it often 
associates with its larger relative the Lesser Snow Goose. The species 
arrives in mid-fall, as shown by the following dates for Stockton: 
October 6, 1880; October 6, 1881; October 26, 1896 (Belding, MS). 
At Grayson, Stanislaus County, one was taken October 29, 1908 (Mus. 
Vert. Zool.). In the winter of 1911-12 specimens were secured at Los 
Bafios, Merced County, from November 30 to March 16, and the 
species was present there: until April 2. During November and 
December, 1913, this goose was often seen by us in the markets of 
San Francisco. Belding (MS) states that in the winter of 1880-81 
Ross Geese were found in equal numbers with Lesser Snow Geese in 
the Stockton markets, and in 1896 exceeded the numbers of the latter 


Fig. 31. Side of bill of Ross Snow Goose. Natural size. 


Note rounded corrugations on side of upper mandible 
at its base (compare with fig. 30). 


species. Most of the birds secured at Los Bafios in 1911-12 were 
birds of the year, while in 1908 hunters reported that the birds then 
killed were mostly adults. 

The much smaller size of the Ross Goose readily separates it from 
the Lesser Snow Goose. When drawn, the Ross Goose seldom weighs 
more than two and one-half pounds. The comparatively short bill, 
only an inch and a half in length, with a warty appearance at the 
base in the adult, is a good character for identification when the bird 
is in the hand (see fig. 31). Young birds are distinguishable from 
adults by lack of the warty protuberances and by the presence of gray 
feathers on the head, neck and foreback. In flight the small size and 
the peculiar note, which is much like that of the Cackling Goose, are 
characters which help in identification. Belding (MS) says that the 
rusty color so generally found on the Snow Goose is nearly always 
lacking on the Ross Goose, but the specimens in the Museum of Verte- 


ROSS SNOW GOOSE 217 


brate Zoology do not confirm this statement, as many of them are 
suffused with rusty. 

The breeding grounds of this goose have not been definitely deter- 
mined, but apparently lie near the Arctic coast north of the region 
bounded by Fort Anderson on the west and Hudson Bay on the east. 
‘The path of migration of this goose seems to be different from that 
of any other species. It is a fair presumption that the principal route 
coincides with the districts in which the species is most common. The 
greater number pass from the breeding grounds to Great Slave Lake 
and Lake Athabasca, continue south to central and western Montana, 
and then turn southwest, cross the Rocky Mountains, and pass to 
central and southern California. ... The average date at which the 
last one was seen in central Montana is April 24,’’ and ‘‘the average 
date of arrival at Columbia Falls, Montana, is October 15’’ (Cooke, 
1906, pp. 69-70). Thus, instead of turning to the southeast, to winter 
on the Gulf coast with the other eastern geese and ducks which have 
been its traveling companions, the Ross Goose parts company with 
them at the national boundary line, and goes southwest across the 
Rocky Mountains to California. 

The food and feeding habits of the Ross Goose are believed to be 
very much like those of the Lesser Snow Goose, but no detailed acounts 
are available to us. 

Belding (MS) says that the Ross Goose has comparatively light- 
colored fiesh and makes very delicate, palatable food. During the 
proper season it has been found commonly in the markets of San 
Francisco, Sacramento, Stockton, and Los Angeles. 

A species with a restricted breeding range like that of the Ross 

Goose, and one which concentrates in a comparatively small area dur- 
ing the winter, is in an unusual position for total extermination at 
the hands of man. The one saving circumstance in the case of this 
bird appears to be its choice of breeding grounds, so remote as to have 
thus far escaped discovery by civilized man. In summer the species 
probably enjoys total immunity from human interference. But in 
winter it is fully exposed to the destructive agencies directed against 
“it by man. The numbers sold in the markets of California are alone 
enough to arouse the fear that the depletion of the species will, if much 
longer continued, shortly reach the danger point. As has been the 
case so often before, the realization of the danger of extermination may 
come too late. Some people hold to the view that as long as there are 
some birds left, the species will persist, forgetting the principle that 
when the breeding stock is depleted below a certain point further 
reduction ensues at an increasing rate, so that total disappearance 
comes rather abruptly. The citizens of California are almost wholly 
responsible for the preservation of this species. 


218 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


American White-fronted Goose 


Anser albifrons gambeli Hartlaub 


OTHER NAaMES—Speckle-breast; Speckle-belly; Checker-breast; Checker-belly; 
Laughing Goose; Gray Goose, part; Yellow-legs; Anser erythropus; Anser 
albifrons; Anser gambeli; Bernicla gambeli. 

DeEscription—Adults, both sexes: Head, neck and chest grayish brown; 
blackish-bordered area at base of bill, extending one-half to one inch up the 
forehead, and chin, white (in other words, a white border of varying width 
completely surrounds base of bill); iris and eyelid brown; bill yellow or orange, 
nail whitish; back dark brown, each feather tipped with ashy; rump slaty 
brown; upper tail coverts white; tail slate brown tipped with white; outer 
surface of closed wing slate gray; greater wing coverts tipped with white; 
secondaries blackish; primaries dark slate; under surface of wing and axillars 
slate gray; feathers of sides and flanks like back but with narrow white line 
along upper margin; breast and belly grayish white with irregular patches 
of dark brown or blackish, these varying greatly in extent from mere traces 
to a condition where lower surface is almost wholly black; under tail coverts 
white; under surface of tail feathers light slate color, tipped with white; 
feet reddish yellow. Females average less in extent of black markings on 
under surface. Total length (both sexes) 27.00-29.00 inches (685-736 mm.) 
(five specimens). Males: folded wing 15.80-17.00 (402-432); bill along culmen 
1.76-2.04 (44.6-51.7); tarsus 2.67-3.12 (67.8-79.3) (ten specimens). Females: 
folded wing 15.20-16.40 (386-416); bill along culmen 1.73-1.97 (43.8-50.0); 
tarsus 2.55-2.88 (64.7-73.0) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile 
plumage: Similar to that of adults, but region around bill wholly dark brown 
like rest of head, instead of white; wing coverts more brownish; no black 
blotches on under surface; nail of bill dusky. Natal plumage: Top of head and 
back olive brown; forehead, sides of head, hind-neck, chin, throat and whole 
under surface greenish yellow, yellowest on belly; stripe from base of bill 
through eye dusky; two yellowish spots on each side of back, one at hinder 
border of wing and one at side of rump. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size, white forehead, black speckled 
belly, reddish feet, light colored bill and general gray body color (pl. 6). 

VoicE—A loud, harsh wah, wah, wah, somewhat like the laugh of a man. 

Nest—On the ground, near water, often in wooded districts; made of grass 
and feathers and lined with down. 

Eees—6 to 7, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.93 to 
3.41 by 1.99 to 2.23 (in millimeters, 74.5 to 86.5 by 50.5 to 56.5), and averaging 
3.21 by 2.13 (81.5 by 54.0) (thirty-two eggs in U. S. National Museum); color 
dull white, with yellowish discolorations. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America and eastern Asia. In North America 
breeds on Bering Sea and Arctic coasts from mouth of the Yukon River, Alaska, 
north and east to northeastern Mackenzie. Winters chiefly from southern 
British Columbia to southern Lower California and Jalisco, Mexico; and less 
commonly east of the Rocky Mountains from southern Illinois and New Jersey 
south to northeastern Mexico, southern Texas, and Cuba (modified from A. 0. 
U. Check-list, 1910, p. 85). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common winter visitant to suitable localities 
throughout the state, on both the plains and swampy lowlands; most abundant 


AMERICAN WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE 219 


in the San Joaquin-Sacramento Valley. Arrives in early September and leaves 
in April.* 


The American White-fronted Goose is a common winter visitant 
in California, and is much prized here as a game bird. While it 
occurs almost everywhere in the lowland portions of the state the 
center of abundance is on the plains and marshes of the Sacramento- 
San Joaquin Valley. This species is the first of its tribe to arrive in 
the fall and the last to leave in the spring. Belding (MS) noted its 
arrival at Stockton, San Joaquin County, on September 7, 1878, and 
September 8, 1881. At the same place they were last seen by him 
April 27, 1879, May 2, 1880, and April 29, 1896. His latest date of 
spring occurrence is May 3. At Los Bafios, Merced County, Beck 
(MS) found this goose still present on April 22, 1912. The early 
arrival of this species from the north has doubtless been the basis for 
many of the predictions of an early winter which are sent to news- 
papers by local ‘‘weather prophets.”’ 

The irregular black markings on the breast and belly of this bird 
have given rise to such names as Speckle-belly and Checker-breast, 
while its general gray tone of coloration has suggested the name Gray 
Goose in contradistinction to the white Snow Geese and black-headed 
Canada Geese and Brant. The white area about the bill is the basis 
of the accepted common name, White-fronted Goose. The black 
blotched breast, gray back, and white ring on the face, together with 
the large size, and light colored bill and feet, make this goose very 
easy to identify (pl. 6). The Snow and Ross geese are chiefly white, 
the Canada geese and Brant have black heads, necks and feet, and 
the rather rare Emperor Goose has the whole top of the head white. 
The loud harsh call-note of the White-fronted is said by hunters to 
be distinctive. 

The American White-fronted Goose nests in northern and western 
Alaska and eastward along the Arctic coast of British America to 


* Since the above chapter on the White-fronted Goose was set in type, the discovery has 
been made that two subspecies of Anser albifrons occur in winter in California (see Swarth 
and Bryant, Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. vol. 17, October 19, 1917, pp. 209-222, pl. 18). The 
most abundant of the two is exactly as described above but its name should be Anser albifrons 
albifrons. The newly distinguished and relatively rare bird, the ‘‘Tule Goose,”’ properly bears 
the name Anser albifrons gambeli. 

The differences existing between the two subspecies may be summarized as follows: 

Anser albifrons albifrons 


Size small: wing'15.12-16.62 inches (384-422 mm.); bill small: culmen 1.73-2.05 
(44-52); weight 3 Ibs. 14 oz. to 5 Ibs. 8 oz. (five specimens) ; tail feathers, sixteen: 
coloration in general paler, head and neck grayish; naked skin at edge of eyelid, 
grayish brown. 

Anser albifrons gambeli 


Size large: wing 16.54—18.73 inches (420-475 mm.); bill large; culmen 2.08—2.45 
(538-62); weight 5 Ibs. 5 oz. to 7 Ibs. 8 oz. (ten specimens); coloration in gen- 
eral darker, neck dark brown, head blackich; tail feathers, male eighteen, female 
sixteen; naked skin at edge of eyelid, yellow or orange. 


The Tule Goose has been! reported only from the upper Sacramento Valley where, in the 
vicinity of Butte Creek, it frequents ponds and sloughs surrounded by tules and willows. 
It flocks separately from its smaller relative, and is often seen only singly or in pairs. Its 
notes are said to be peculiar. The summer home of the Tule Goose is unknown but is con- 
jectured to lie in Arctic America somewhere east of Alaska, 


220 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Mackenzie; also to some extent on the Asiatic coast bordering Bering 
Sea. Nelson (1887, p. 83) found eggs near the mouth of the Yukon 
River as early as May 27 (1879). From this time on until the middle 
of June, fresh eggs were to be found; but very soon after the latter 
date, downy young began to appear. These geese choose for a nest- 
ing site the grassy border of a lakelet, a knoll grown over with moss 
and grass, or even a flat, sparingly covered with grass. Along the 
Yukon, Dall found them breeding in colonies, the eggs being deposited 
in hollows scooped out in the sand. At the Yukon mouth and around 
St. Michaels they were found breeding in scattered pairs over the 
flat country. 


Every one of the nests examined by me in these places had a slight lining 
of grass or moss, gathered by the parent, and upon this the first egg was laid; 
as the complement of eggs is approached the female always plucks down and 
feathers from her breast until the eggs rest in a soft warm bed, when incuba- 
tion commences. The eggs vary considerably in shape and size. ... In color 
they are of a dull white, but ordinarily present a dirty brown appearance from 
being stained in the nest (Nelson, loc. cit.). 


The maximum number of eggs in a set appears to be seven. Seven 
eggs at hand from western Alaska are dull white, discolored somewhat 
to a yellowish tone, and measure in inches from 2.83 to 3.06 by 1.86 to 
1.98, averaging 2.94 by 1.93. 

Grinnell (1900, pp. 17-18) says that in northern Alaska flocks 
of from six to twenty are found in the fall up to September 12 on the 
grassy margins of lakes and on wind swept sand-bars along rivers. 
When they first arrive, about May 10, they are very quiet but later 
they become noisy. 


The following also concerns the habits of the White-fronted Goose 
in Alaska, whence probably come our winter visitants: 


All through September, old and young, which have been on the wing since 
August, gather in larger flocks, and as the sharp frosts toward the end of 
September warn them of approaching winter, commence moving south. The 
marshes [in the vicinity of St. Michaels] resound with their cries, and after 
some days of chattering, flying back and forth, and a general bustle, they 
suddenly start off in considerable flocks, and the few laggards which remain 
get away by the 7th or 8th of October (Nelson, 1887, p. 84). 


Indians imitate the call of this goose by patting the mouth with 
the hand while pronouncing the syllable wah (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 452). The notes of this goose are said to resemble 
the laugh of a man, and the species has been ealled, locally, the 
“laughing goose’’ on this account. 

Van Dyke (1904, p. 670) describes the manner in which the differ- 
ent species of geese come into a pond as follows: 


AMERICAN WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE 221 


Coming from afar in a big white cloud, the snow geese before reaching 
the edge of the pond mass suddenly up in a long column inclined some forty 
degrees from the vertical. Every black-tipped wing is thrown outward and 
downward and rigidly set, with the axis of the body about corresponding to 
the axis of the whole column. Anything like sailing is thus impossible and 
the whole descent is a slow settling or drifting downward, almost as gently 
as the fall of a gossamer skein on the still air of Indian summer.... The 
White-fronted Goose swings over it high in air as if he enjoyed the play. He 
is reasonably silent about it as he floats a thousand feet or more above the 
water, where he lines up for the great plunge. Then the edge of the line 
breaks, and as if struck suddenly by the thunderbolt, yet with every throat 
tuned to concert pitch, the birds dive, tumble, and gyrate sidewise, upside 
down, rolling over in the air in every imaginable way, a cataract of whirling 
life, down to within a few feet of the water. There the grand go-as-you-please 
march suddenly ends, the wild clamor of every throat is stilled, each goose 
rights itself in a twinkling, drifts into an orderly line, and floats a few yards 
along the surface of the water, then drops its feet, raises its neck and head, 
and throwing back its wings slides into the water as gently as the reflection of 
the fleecy clouds above it. Canada geese descend in long curling lines, as if 
the birds were descending an invisible flight of winding stairs with every 
wing stiffly set and every white-collared throat silent as the grave. 


This species of goose is said to be more exclusive than other species, 
staying more largely in separate or unmixed flocks. They usually 
frequent low marshy ground when loafing, but during hours of feed- 
ing may be seen.in stubble fields or on the open plains far from water. 

White-fronted Geese usually loaf on or near some body of water 
during the middle of the day, doing their feeding early in the morn- 
ing, in the evening, or during the night. Nordhoff (1902, p. 213) 
found that, at Elsinore Lake, Riverside County, they made four 
regular flights daily to the grain fields, ten miles away, never varying 
the time of arrival and departure more than fifteen minutes. ‘‘Dur- 
ing periods of stormy weather they often fly over in large flocks, 
apparently with no definite object in view other than a change of 
feeding grounds. Their cry is often heard at night, especially during 
moonlight evenings’’ (Tyler, 19130, p. 18). 

The food of the White-fronted Goose consists almost entirely of 
grass. Heermann (1859, p. 68). says that this goose is considered the 
most delicate for the table, as it feeds almost exclusively on the young 
herbage growing on the highlands and about the fresh water ponds. 
In years past this species, along with other geese, has been responsible 
for considerable damage to grain. 

The White-fronted Goose is one of the commonest geese on the 
market. ‘‘Gray geese’’ (under which term this species and perhaps 
also the Hutchins Goose is included) to the number of 19,419 were sold 
in the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles in the season of 
1895-96. The total amount paid hunters for these birds was $4,042.30, 


222 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


or about twenty cents apiece (Calif. Fish. Comm., 1896, pp. 41, 42). In 
1909-10 (October 2 to March 5) one company handled 8,053 of the 
birds. In 1910-11 the prices paid ranged from $1.50 to $7.00 per dozen. 
In 1912-13 these geese sold for 65 cents to $1.00 per pair on the Los 
Angeles markets (E. J. Fischer in letter). In 1850 these geese sold 
at $1.00 to $1.50 per pair (Newberry, 1857, p. 102) which, considering 
the high prices prevailing during the gold rush, suggests that these 
birds were then very easily obtained. 

This species is said to be easily approached by the gunner, and 
so is readily procured. Neévertheless some ruse, such as hiding behind 
a grazing steer, has usually been resorted to in order to make a big 
killing. This method of approach, known as ‘‘bull-hunting,’’ was 
formerly widely employed by market hunters in procuring geese. It 
is now prohibited by law. Pits dug in the ground in localities over 
which the birds are known to fly regularly, are most often used as 
blinds in hunting geese. 

A brisk market demand as well as ease of capture has been instru- 
mental in greatly reducing the numbers of this goose visiting Califor- 
nia. There is probably not now more than one bird to a hundred that 
used to be found in the state. With no protection whatever until 1915, 
it is no wonder that we have lost the greater proportion of these 
valuable game birds. It remains to be seen whether our present laws 
will be sufficient to enable the species to maintain itself or increase 
toward its former abundance. 


Canada Goose 


Branta canadensis canadensis (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NaMES—Honker; Hunter; Mexican Goose; Big Mexican Goose; White- 
cheeked Goose; Bernicla canadensis; Branta canadensis occidentalis. 

DeEscripTion—Adults, both sexes: Whole head and neck shiny black, except 
for large white patch on each cheek which usually meets its fellow across the 
throat; chin usually blackish; iris brown; bill black; general color of upper 
surface brownish gray, each feather narrowly tipped with gray or whitish; 
rump black; upper tail coverts white; tail black; outer surface of closed wing 
brownish gray, with pale feather edgings like back; primary flight feathers 
and inner webs of secondaries blackish; under surface of wing and axillars 
light grayish brown; under surface of body pale ashy gray, with whitish 
feather tippings giving an effect of obscure barring; flanks darkest colored, 
more brownish; lower belly and under tail coverts white; feet black. Total 
length (both sexes) ‘‘about 35.00-43.00’’ inches (888-1093 mm.) (Ridgway, 
1900, p. 117). Males: folded wing 16.50-20.75 (418-527); bill along culmen 
1.88-2.31 (47.7-58.6); tarsus 3.00-3.88 (76.2-98.5) (ten specimens). Females: 
folded wing 17.60-19.65 (447-499); bill along culmen 1.89-2.06 (47.9-52.4); 
tarsus 3.26-3.58 (82.7-90.8) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile 
plumage: Similar to that of adult but with colors duller and white cheek 


CANADA GOOSE 223 


patches speckled with black. Natal plumage: Top of head old gold; forehead, 
sides of head, throat, and whole neck, deep straw yellow; back old gold, with 
patch of straw yellow behind each wing; wings and tail, light brownish olive; 
lower surface of body dull cream color. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Very large size (largest of all our geese), 
black head, neck, bill and feet, white cheek patches, and uniform appearing 
gray body. Distinguished from Hutchins and Cackling geese by larger size, and 
from Sea Brant by presence of white patches on cheeks (see figs. 32-37). 
Recognizable in flight by abruptly black head and neck, gray body plumage, 
loud trumpet-like ‘‘honks,’’ and slow wing strokes. 

VoIcE—A hoarse, sonorous honk. 

NeEst—Usually in swampy situation, but on dry ground, more rarely on a 
stump or in a tree in an old nest of some other bird; constructed of twigs, 
weeds, grasses or reeds, with abundant lining of down. 

Eces—5 to 7, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches 3.06 to 
3.71 by 2.15 to 2.34 (in millimeters, 77.5 to 94.2 by 54.6 to 59.4), and averaging 
3.37 by 2.25 (85.6 by 57.2) (Ray, 1912a, pp. 68-69); color dull yellowish white. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Interior North America. Breeds from limit of trees 
in lower Yukon Valley, Alaska, east to northwestern Mackenzie and central 
Keewatin, and thence south to Indiana, northern Colorado, and north-central 
California. Winters from southern British Columbia, southern Colorado, south- 
ern Wisconsin and New Jersey south to southern California, Texas and Florida 
(modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 86). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common winter visitant throughout the low- 
lands but chiefly to interior valleys; southernmost record station, San Diego 
(Belding, 1892a, p 100). Fairly common in summer in lake region north and 
east of the Sierra Nevada. Has been recorded as breeding at the following 
localities: Lower Klamath Lake (Newberry, 1857, p. 100; H. C. Bryant, 1914e, 
p. 232); Eagle Lake (Sheldon, 1907, p. 187); Honey Lake (Cady, MS); and 
Lake Tahoe (Belding, loc. cit.; Ray, 1912a, p. 72). 


The migrating V-shaped flocks of the Canada Goose, or Honker, 
together with the sonorous call-notes while on the wing, are familiar 
to almost everyone, so that it is safe to say that this is the best known 
of American geese. It is the most widely distributed species in North 
America and is the one which is here most often brought into domesti- 
eation. Of the geese occurring in California it is the largest, but at the 
present time is least common of all, save for the rare Emperor Goose. 
In winter it is found in suitable localities almost throughout the state, 
but those birds which remain for the summer to nest within our bound- 
aries betake themselves to the vicinity of the large lakes in northeastern 
California east of the Sierra-Cascade divide. 

The Canada Goose is about the last of the wintering geese to arrive 
in California. It seldom puts in an appearance before the middle of 
November, or at least until unfavorable conditions drive it south from 
its breeding home. Belding (1892a, p. 100) noted the first birds of 
this species in the Stockton market on November 11 (1880), and 
November 23 (1881). In 1896 the first flock seen by him at Stockton 
was observed on November 27. At Gridley, Butte County, this goose 


224 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


was first seen on December 2, 1885, November 24, 1890, and November 
5, 1892 (Belding, MS). It is also among the first to leave for the 
north. As early as February 22, 1887, Belding (MS) saw flocks of 
Canada Geese going east over tle snow-clad Sierras of Calaveras 
County, and at Stockton he saw them going north on February 12, 
1896. Beck (MS) reports seeing two flocks February 23, 1911, at 
Los Bafios, Merced County, but says that hunters maintained that 


Fig. 32. Canada Goose. 


Fig. 33. Hutchins Goose. 


most of the Canada Geese had already left. The latest spring record 
is April 11, 1893, when five individuals were seen in a grain field at 
Gridley, Butte County (Belding, MS). 

The Canada Goose is easily separated from geese belonging to other 
groups by its abruptly black head and neck, white cheek patches, and 
black bill and feet. The three subspecies or varieties of ‘‘white- 
cheeked’’ geese (Canada, Hutchins and Cackling) intergrade with one 
another, and individuals are occasionally found which cannot be satis- 
factorily referred to one or the other of these races. As a rule, how- 
ever, they can be separated on the basis of the length of the bill, which, 


CANADA GOOSE 225 


of course, is an index of the general size. The Canada Goose has a 
bill 1.88-2.31 inches long; that of the Hutchins Goose is 1.37-1.80 
inches, and that of the Cackling Goose, 1.04-1.44 inches. In flight the 
Canada Goose can be recognized by its large size, its peculiar pattern 
of coloration, its slow, measured wing beats, and its sonorous honk, 
honk, 

Swarth (1913b, pp. 8-9) has recently shown that, contrary to 
the statements found in practically all ornithological books dealing 
in any way with the subject, the true White-cheeked Goose (Branta 
canadensis occidentalis) does not occur in California. The many 
references in literature to this goose really apply to the Canada Goose 
(Branta canadensis canadensis). The White-cheeked Goose is a large 
dark-colored northwestern race which occupies the immediate vicinity 


Fig. 34. Cackling Goose. 


Figs. 32 to 34 are natural size and serve to show the 
differences in the size and proportions of the bill which char- 
acterize average specimens of each race. 


of the seacoast, from Washington at least to Prince William Sound, 
Alaska, and which in summer probably does not occur farther south 
than the southern boundary of British Columbia. 

The Canada Goose is definitely known to breed in at least three 
localities in northeastern California—Lake Tahoe, Eagle Lake, and 
Lower Klamath Lake. The first record of nesting in California is that 
by Newberry (1857, p. 100) and pertains to Lower Klamath Lake. 
Belding (1892a, p. 100) states that, previously to 1892, this goose 
bred sparingly in a large marsh at Tallac Point, at the south end of 
Lake Tahoe. Numerous nests were found in the same neighborhood 
in 1909, 1910 and 1911 by Ray (1912a, pp. 67-71), and an old-time 
settler in Lake Valley told the last named author that this species had 
nested there almost every spring for the past thirty years. In all 
but one of the instances observed by Ray, the nest was composed 
entirely of dry marsh grass and down. In the exceptional case tules 
were used. One nest measured twenty-two inches over all, but the 


226 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


cavity in it was only eleven 
inches across and three inches 
deep. Five nests were found 
on May 15, 1911, while snow 1 
was still on the ground. The we 
number of eggs in the nests 
observed at Lake Tahoe, 
ranged from five to seven. In a 
a number of instances eggs of f & 
the Canada Goose gathered 
at Lake Tahoe have been 
sent elsewhere and success- 
fully hatched. Judge F. W. 
Henshaw has several adult 
Canada Geese on his place 
near Redwood City, San 
Mateo County, which were fw 
hatched from eggs collected at yee 
Lake Tahoe. Many half- & 
grown broods of Canada Geese 
were seen by Sheldon (1907, 
p. 187) at Eagle Lake in 
June, 1905. Farther north 
this goose does not lay until 
June (Cooke, 1906, p. 76). 

H. C. Bryant (1914e, p. 
232), during a visit to Lower 
Klamath Lake in 1914, found 
on June 6 a band of at least 
ten half-grown young Canada 
Geese accompanied by one 
adult. Probably two broods 
were represented. On June 7 
two other broods were seen 
near the mouth of Willow 
Creek, one containing four 
young and the other five or 
six. Ranchers of the vicinity 
reported that every spring 
Honkers nest in the tules bordering the lake, and that they are the 
first of the water birds to nest. 

‘Ray (1912a, p. 68) recounts that while rowing up a slough on 
Rowlands Marsh, Lake Tahoe, May 23, 1910, a goose ‘‘rose from her 
nest, took a short run, and rising with heavy flight and loud cries, flew 


21949 


Fig. 35. Canada Goose. 


. 


CANADA GOOSE 227 


Fig. 36. Hutchins Goose. 


Fig. 37. Cackling Goose. 


Figs. 35 to 37 are natural size and serve to show the 
relative length of tarsus to middle toe which characterizes 
average specimens of each race. 


out to open water, where she was joined by her mate. The cries of 
the pair echoed so loudly over the marsh that it seemed the whole 
region must be awakened.’’ The nest of this pair was situated on 


228 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


the ground at the base of a willow growing on a small island in the 
marsh. 

In the north the Canada Goose does not always build its nest on 
the ground. Several instances have been recorded where it has 
utilized stumps of trees and even deserted nests of birds of prey 
(Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 126). 

In California during the mid-winter months these geese inhabit 
the interior valleys rather than the neighborhood of the seashore. 
Their favorite resorts are the large open grain fields near some big 
river or other large body of water. Here they feed evening and morn- 
ing, spending the middle of the day and the night on the water itself. 
At Los Bajios, Merced County, they leave the marshes for the even- 
ing flight to the grain fields about two, three or four o’clock in the 
afternoon, and return about dark (Beck, MS). 


The flight of this species is firm, rapid, and protracted, the bird moving 
with great steadiness and regularity. Before rising it usually runs a few feet 
with outspread wings, but when surprised can rise with a sudden spring. In 
its migrations it is liable to be thrown into confusion by passing into a fog- 
bank, or over a city or place where there is much shipping.... Both keen- 
ness of sight and quickness of hearing are remarkable in this bird, and it is 
always vigilant and suspicious; so that it is with great difficulty taken by 
surprise (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 463). 


‘‘Wew wild bird notes are more inspiring than the honk, honk, 
ha wank, honk, of a long line of Canada Geese flying with apparent 
deliberation but with really terrific speed overhead, calling as they 
go in notes that carry for a mile over marsh, lake, and prairie. The 
big strong wings whish loudly overhead far out of shotgun range, 
and often a low conversational gabble can be heard under the loud 
honking’’ (V. Bailey, in Bailey, 1902, pp. 67-68). It is believed to be 
always an old gander that forms the apex of the V-shaped flocks. 
Before alighting a flock circles several times to investigate. "While 
feeding there appear to be several individuals who keep watch, thus 
making close approach in an open field almost impossible. In fact 
this goose has earned a well-deserved reputation for wariness. 

Much of the food of the Canada Goose is made up of grain gleaned 
from stubble fields or sprouting grain fields. Grass, especially the 
roots, also forms a staple article of diet, and a clean-cropped swath, 
like that made by sheep, is left where these geese have been feeding. 
During the summer they vary their vegetable diet with small animals 
to be found in their favorite marshes, such as snajls, tadpoles and 
minnows. 

Both as an object of sport and as a contribution to the table the 
Canada Goose, as a rule, surpasses all other geese. The young of 
this species are a real luxury, the flesh being very tender and sweet. 


CANADA GOOSE 229 


The weight of a Canada Goose is said to vary from eight to twelve 
pounds. A lean female, taken in late spring at Lake Tahoe, weighed 
eight and three-quarter pounds. 

The amateur hunter is likely to shoot behind his first geese, for 
the birds appear to be moving slowly. In reality they move very fast, 
and a long lead is required. Their habit of resorting to fields to feed 
morning and evening makes it feasible to use a blind beneath a regular 
line of flight known to have been established by the birds. On the open 
plains a pit dug in the ground is used as a blind, and the birds are 
decoyed by live domesticated geese or by decoys. As soon as some 
birds are killed they are ‘‘stooled,’’ that is, propped up with wires so 
as to appear life-like. In early days these geese were hunted from 
wagons which were driven along on the windward side of feeding 
birds until quite near when a dash would be made for them and 
the hunter would fire into the flock, the members of which had of 
necessity to rise into the wind. The call is imitated by giving a nasal 
pronunciation to.the syllable ‘‘wonk.”’ 

At the present time the Canada Goose must be considered the least 
common of the ‘‘gray geese’’ found in California. In many places 
where it was formerly abundant it has not been seen for years. 

During the season of 1895-96, 2,411 Honker Geese were sold on 
the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles (Calif. Fish Comm., 
1896, p. 41). Eleven years later (season 1906-07) there were sold on 
the markets of San Francisco by one transfer company 154 Honkers, 
and in the season of 1909-10 the same company handled 416. Probably 
not more than this last number were sold in all the markets of the 
state during the season of 1912-13. Even taking into account the 
shorter season which came into effect in 1913, the decrease has been 
serious. With the incentive of a high price offered (75 cents each in 
many cases) the market hunter does his utmost to procure this species 
of goose. Consequently the numbers sold on the market each year 
do not accurately indicate the comparative numbers of Honkers 
remaining from year to year. 

Among all the geese this is the one which most needs protection if 
it is to continue to exist as a game bird. It is the most southern breed- 
ing species, and in fact does not retire at any season altogether beyond 
the outposts of human habitation. The wariness of the Honker will 
help it to persist longer than some other species; but the demand 
for it as a game bird coupled with the ingenuity of man and the 
increased efficiency of firearms more than counterbalances the natural 
instinets which make for the preservation of the species. If people 
could only be brought to a realization of the true status of this species, 
more rigid protection would be forthcoming voluntarily, on economic 
grounds alone. 


230 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Hutchins Goose ; 


Branta canadensis hutchinsi (Richardson) 


OTHER NAMES—Gray Goose, part; Brant; Lesser Canada Goose; Medium- 
sized Honker; Little Honker; Anser hutchinsi; Bernicla hutchinsi. 

DEscRIPTION—Adults, both sexes: Practically the same as Canada Goose but 
size smaller. Under surface usually darker, varying from pale gray to dark 
brown; a black line down throat separating white cheek patches, and a narrow 
white collar at base of black neck may or may not be present. Total length 
(both sexes) ‘‘about 25.00-34.00’’ inches (635-863 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 
117). Males: folded wing 15.36-17.93 (390-455); bill along culmen 1.37-1.80 
(34.8-45.7); tarsus 2.68-3.40 (68.0-86.3) (ten specimens). Females: folded 
wing 15.25-16.60 (387-422); bill along culmen 1.46-1.58 (37.1-40.2); tarsus 
2.78-3.00 (70.5-76.2) (six specimens); all from California. Juvenile and natal 
plumages: Not known to differ from those of Canada Goose. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Similar to those for Canada Goose but 
size slightly smaller: total length 25 to 34 inches (635-863 mm.), weight 3 to 4 
pounds (1360 to 1812 gm.). On close examination the coloration is seen to be 
darker, the middle toe with claw about equals the tarsus in length, anc the bill 
measures 1.37-1.80 inches (34.8-45.7 mm.) (compare figs. 32-37). 

VoicE—Closely resembles that of Canada Goose but not so deep and 
sonorous; said to be distinguishable by experienced persons. 

Nest—On ground near water; composed of weeds, grasses or reeds, and 
profusely lined with down. 

Eces—4 to 6, in shape ovate to elongate ovate, measuring in inches, 2.84-3.27 
by 2.05 to 2.21 (in millimeters, 72.0 to 83.0 by 52.0 to 56.0), and averaging 3.12 by 
2.10 (79.0 by 53.5) (fifty-six eggs in U. S. National Museum); color white 
(Davie, 1889, p. 81). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Western North America. Breeds in far north, west 
in Alaska to Kowak Valley, and east along Arctic shores and islands to Hudson 
Bay. Winters from British Columbia, Nevada, Colorado, and Missouri south 
to Lower California, Texas and Louisiana; in migration rare east of Mississippi 
Valley, although recorded on Atlantic coast from Maine to Virginia (A. O. U. 
Check-list, 1910, p. 86). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common winter visitant to suitable localities 
throughout the state. Most plentiful in the Sacramento and San Joaquin 
valleys. Recorded east to Owens and Death valleys (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 19) 
and south to San Diego (Heermann, 1859, p. 67). 


Three varieties of Canada or ‘‘white-cheeked’’ geese are found 
in California during the winter months and of these the Hutchins 
or Medium-sized Honker is the most abundant. It arrives from the 
north about the second week in October and departs about the third 
week in April. The earliest fall record is for Gridley, Butte County, 
where the species was seen on October 9, 1884, and the latest spring 
occurrence, April 26, 1896, is for the same locality (Belding, MS). 
In Alaska, in the Kowak Valley, the first Hutchins Goose in the spring 
was seen on May 14, 1899, while the last in the fall of 1898, was 
observed on September 14 (Grinnell, 1900, p. 18). The species is 


HUTCHINS GOOSE 231 


found in very large numbers in the marshes of the great central valley 
of California, as for example at Los Bafios, Merced County; and it 
also occurs abundantly about certain of the lakes of high elevation 
such as Lower Klamath Lake (Ferry, 1908, p. 39). ‘ 

The Hutchins Goose is simply a slightly smaller ‘‘edition’’ of the 
Canada Goose, and the field marks of the latter species, except for 
size and weight, will apply equally well to the subject of the present 
account. A Hutchins Goose measures about six inches less in total 
length than a Canada Goose and weighs only about half as much. In 
hand the bill is found to measure 1.37 to 1.80 inches, and the almost 
equal lengths of tarsus and middle toe with claw also characterize the 
present race. The Cackling Goose is still smaller than the Hutchins, 
but has the same general color pattern. Occasional individual birds 
are found which cannot be satisfactorily classified with any of these 
three races (see figs. 832-37). 

Despite the fact that the Hutchins Goose nests over a wide extent 
of territory, from northwestern Alaska east to Hudson Bay, little has 
been published concerning its breeding habits. Nests are usually 
placed on the ground, in slight hollows lined with leaves, grasses and 
down. Of fifty nests found by MacFarlane (1891, p. 424) on the Lower 
Anderson River, Arctic Canada, all but one were on the ground and 
were composed of ‘‘hay, feathers, and down.’’ The exception was 
where a female had deposited her four eggs and was incubating them 
in an old crow or hawk’s nest nine feet above the ground in a pine tree. 
In the other nests six was the usual complement of eggs. In Alaska 
these geese sometimes choose hill tops for nest sites, but most generally 
sandy beaches and grassy situations near fresh-water lakes are chosen. 
Eggs were taken by Dall on June 15 and downy young on July 10 
(Nelson, 1887, p. 85). MacFarlane secured eggs on June 10 and June 
14, 1864-65 (Cooke, 1906, p. 78). 

Grinnell (1900, p. 18) found this a common goose in the Kowak 
Valley, Alaska, but did not see it along the seacoast. In the fall, 
flocks were to be found on the same feeding grounds as the White- 
fronted Goose, but companies of the two species did not intermingle. 
In the spring they had become very numerous by the latter part of May 
and had spread out in pairs among the tundra lakes. The natives of 
the Kowak Valley have a method of trapping geese, which is surer than 
shooting. Inconspicuous fences of willow saplings are built across a 
mud-flat known to be a favorite resort of the birds. Gaps are left in 
these fences and in these openings ordinary steel traps are set. 

Heermann (1859, p. 67) says of this species in California: 


Whilst hunting during a space of two months in Suisun Valley, I observed 
them, with other species of geese, at dawn, high in the air, winging their way 


232 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


towards the prairies and hilly slopes, where the tender young wild oats and 
grapes offered a tempting pasturage. This early flight lasted about two hours, 
and as far as the eye could reach the sky was spotted with flock after flock, 
closely following in each other’s wake, until it seemed as though all the geese 
of California had given rendezvous at this particular point. Between ten and 
eleven o’clock they would leave the prairies, first in small squads, then in 
large masses, settling in the marshes and collecting around the ponds and 
sloughs thickly edged with heavy reeds. Here, swimming on the water, bath- 
ing and pluming themselves, they keep up a continued but not unmusical 
clatter. This proves the most propitious time of the day for the hunter, who, 
under cover of the tall reeds, and guided by their continual cackling, approaches 
closely enough to deal havoc among them. Discharging one load as they sit 
on the water and the other as they rise, I have thus seen twenty-three geese 
gathered from two shots, while many more, wounded and maimed, fluttered away 
and were lost. At about one o’clock they leave the marshes and return to feed 
on the prairies, flying low and affording the sportsman again an opportunity 
to stop their career. In the afternoon, about five o’clock, they finally leave 
the prairies, and rising high in the air wend their way to the roosting places 
whence they came in the morning. These were often at a great distance, as 
I have followed them in their evening flight until they were lost to view. 
Many, however, roost in the marshes. Our boat, sailing one night down the 
sloughs leading to Suisun Bay, having come among them, the noise made as 
they arose in advance of us, emitting their cry of alarm (their disordered 
masses being so serried that we could hear their pinions strike each other as 
they flew), impressed us with the idea that we must have disturbed thousands. 
Such are the habits of the geese during the winter. Towards spring they 
separate into smaller flocks and gradually disappear from the country, some 
few only remaining, probably crippled and unable to follow the more vigorous 
in their northern migration. 


‘‘During the rainy season in California the plains and valleys, 
before brown and dry, become clothed in rich verdure, and the 
nourishing grasses afford sustenance to incredible numbers of these 
and other geese. Three kinds, the Snow, White-fronted and the pre- 
sent species, have almost precisely the same habits and the same food 
during their stay with us, and associate so intimately together that 
many, if not most, of the flocks contain representatives of all three’’ 
(Coues, 1874, pp. 555-556). Although the different species may 
feed together, other observers have noted that on being disturbed 
they immediately divide into flocks of their own kind. 

Specimens of this species collected at Los Bafios, Merced County, in 
November, 1911, had been feeding entirely on grain. The gullet and 
gizzard of one shot from a flock returning from foraging at 10:30 
A.M. contained 1,147 grains of barley by actual count; another 1,076 
grains of barley (Beck, MS). Thus it can be seen that where geese 
collect by thousands on newly planted grain fields the depredations 
are serious. Near Windfall Harbor, Alaska, the natives say that this 
species of goose stops in large numbers, for a short time, to feed on 


HUTCHINS GOOSE 233 


the herring spawn which is found adhering to rocks along the beaches 
which become exposed at low tide (Grinnell, 19090, p. 198). 
The Hutchins Goose, although not quite so desirable a bird for 
_the table as are some other species, is the goose which has afforded 
the greatest. amount of sport for the hunter because of its abundance. 
It has usually been a common goose on the market, where it is known 
as the ‘‘Brant.’’ In 1909-10 one transfer company in San Francisco 
sold the following numbers of Brant: October, 1,442; November, 
2,196; December, 1,592; January, 1,479; February, 1,226; March, 
251. Cackling as well as Hutchins Geese are probably included in 
these numbers. This makes a total of over 8,000 geese of only two 
varieties sold by the one transfer company. That season the same 
company sold more than 20,000 geese of all kinds. In 1906-07 it 
sold only 7,431. In 1895-96 there were sold on the markets of San 
Francisco and Los Angeles 48,400 geese of which 16,319 were 
Brant (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 42). There is little wonder that 
geese have decreased in numbers more than most other game birds. 
The markets of San Francisco during 1910-11 paid from $2.50 to $8.00 
a dozen for geese other than the Snow Geese. On the Los Angeles 
markets during 1912-13 the same geese sold at from sixty-five cents 
to one dollar a pair. 

Two things make geese less desirable than ducks for the table. 
One is the relatively strong flavor and the other is the dryness of the 
meat. Certain people in the state have discovered a way of making 
a goose palatable no matter how tough it may be or how strong its 
flavor. The bird is prepared by skinning, as much of the strong 
taste comes from the skin. The flesh is then ground up with fresh 
pork, and a game sausage is made. A few pieces of bacon laid over a 
goose while roasting also serves to remove some of the strong taste and 
add flavor to the meat. 

The following extract from one of the many letters which we have 
received gives a good idea of the immense decrease of this and other 
geese in different parts of the state. 

Where years ago there would be ‘‘settings’’ of geese covering as much as 
200 acres, and where the farmers around would furnish a man with horse, board, 
ammunition, and $20 « month to keep geese off of his grain, it is now rare to 


see more than 10 to 15 per cent of the former numbers (H. F. Duprey, Dixon, 
California, March 11, 1913). 


Tyler (19130, p. 19) says: 


Ten years ago when much of the country northeast of Fresno was given 
over to grain ranches these geese were seen very often and were sometimes 
noted in large numbers during late March when the spring migrations began; 
but during the last four or five years I have not seen half a dozen flocks any- 
where east of the city. 


234 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


In December, 1912, fourteen men worked continuously for two 
weeks in the Sacramento Valley to obtain 1,500 geese for a famous 
‘‘goose-stew’’ served at Sacramento. Twenty years previously, 
according to local statements, the same number of geese could have 
been procured in less than a day and by an even smaller number of 
men. 

Such, then, has been the history of this and other geese. At the 
present rate of decrease it will only be a few years before the occur- 
rence of the Hutchins Goose, once one of the most numerous of all 
the geese, will be noted with as much interest as is the occurrence of 
the Emperor Goose at the present time. The only hope of saving our 
geese lies in rigorous protection for a term of years. 


Cackling Goose 


Branta canadensis minima Ridgway 


OTHER NAMES—Cackler; Yelper; Little Squeaking Goose; Brown Brant; 
Bernicla leucoparia; Branta hutchinsi var. leucoparia; Branta minima: 

DeEscrIpTION—Adults, both sexes: Similar to Canada and Hutchins geese 
but tone of coloration usually much darker and size much smaller. Pattern of 
head and neck markings extremely variable; cheek patches often wholly 
separated by black on throat; white collar at base of black neck often con- 
spicuous, though sometimes wanting. Total length (both sexes) ‘‘23.00-25.00’’ 
inches (583-635 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 117). Males: folded wing 13.27- 
16.60 (337-422); bill along culmen 1.04-1.44 (26.4-36.6); tarsus 2.38-3.18 (60.4— 
80.7) (ten specimens). Females: folded wing 14.50-15.65 (368-398); bill along 
culmen 1.18-1.36 (30.0-34.6); tarsus 2.57-2.98 (65.2-75.6) (ten specimens); 


all from California. Juvenile plumage: ‘‘. .. Dull grayish umber-brown; the 
head and neck almost uniform with the rest of the body and without any 
trace of the white cheek-patches.... Feathers of head, neck, and much of 


the rest of the body are bordered with a lighter shade than the main part of 
the feathers’’ (Nelson, 1887, p. 87). Natal plumage: Not known to us; probably 
similar to that of Canada Goose. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Similar to those for Canada Goose but 
size considerably smaller (total length 23 to 25 inches [583 to 635 mm.]), and 
coloration darker. In hand the tarsus is seen to be much longer than the middle 
toe with claw, while the bill is less than 1.44 inches long (36.6 mm.) (figs. 
32-37). The high-pitched call-note (whence the name Cackling Goose) is easily 
distinguished from the notes of the Canada and Hutchins geese. 

Voice—An oft-repeated luk-luk (Belding, 1892a, p. 101). 

Nzest—On grassy border of a pond; a slight depression, sparsely lined with 
grass and down (Nelson, 1887, p. 86). 

Eccs—4 to 9, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.86 to 3.35 by 1.89 to 2.17 
(in millimeters, 72.5 to 85.0 by 48.0 to 55.0), and averaging 2.99 by 2.01 (76.0 
by 51.0) (twenty-nine eggs in U. 8. National Museum); color buffy white. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Western North America. Breeds only in Alaska, on 
Aleutian Islands and along coast of Bering Sea. Winters along Pacific coast 
from British Columbia south to southern California (modified from A. O. U. 
Check-list, 1910, p. 86). 


CACKLING GOOSE 235 


DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common winter visitant to interior localities, 
especially in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys; occurs also as far south 
as San Diego County (A. O. U. Check-list, loc. cit.). Arrives about mid- 
October and leaves about the middle of April. 


The Cackling Goose is believed to be about as abundant a winter 
visitant to California as the Hutchins Goose. Belding (MS) states 
that, on Butte Creek, Butte and Sutter counties, a favorite resort for 
these geese especially when they first arrive from the north, he has 
seen a half million of them in a single day. But this was over twenty- 
five years ago. At the present time, although reduced at least ninety 
per cent, this is to be still considered a common species of goose in 
favorable parts of California. The Cackling Goose appears to arrive 
before the Hutchins Goose; for Belding (MS) states that at Gridley, 
Butte County, October 12, 1892, the former was abundant though the 
Hutchins Goose had not arrived, and at Stockton, San Joaquin 
County, November 25, 1881, the Cackling was common whereas the 
Hutchins Goose had not yet appeared. The earliest records of arrival 
for the Cackling Goose are Gridley, October 1, 1884; Gridley, October 
12, 1892; Stockton, October 10, 1894 (heard at night); Stockton, 
October 12 (year not specified). For spring a late record is April 25, 
at Stockton (Belding, MS). A specimen was taken at Los Bafios, 
Merced County, on March 21, 1911 (Mus. Vert. Zool.). 

The Cackling Goose is the smallest of the geese belonging to the 
Canada group, and it is but slightly larger than even the Ross Goose. 
The high pitch of its call-note, which resembles the syllables luk-luk, 
is about the best character to use in the field after recognizing the 
bird to be of the Canada type. In the hand, measurements, particu- 
larly of bill and of tarsus, the latter being generally longer than the 
middle toe and claw, are the only satisfactory characters to use in 
separating this from the Hutchins Goose (compare figs. 32-37). Asa 
rule, the Cackling is decidedly darker-colored than either the Canada 
or Hutchins. 

During the breeding season the Cackling Goose is confined to 
western Alaska. It breeds abundantly on the Bering Sea coast, from 
the Seward Peninsula to the north side of the Alaska Peninsula, and 
has also been reported from the Aleutian Islands. Nelson (1887, p. 
86) says that many of these geese are already mated when they return 
north to the Yukon mouth in the spring. Others appear to be still 
unmated and such males fight hard and long for the possession of the 
unmated females. Of these combats he says: 

The females kept to one side and dozed, or dabbled their bills in the mud; 
the males were scattered about, and kept moving uneasily from side to side, 


making a great outcry. This would last but a few minutes, when two of the 
warriors would cross each other’s path, and then began the battle. They would 


236 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


seize one another by the bill, and then turn and twist each other about, their 
wings hanging loosely by their sides meanwhile. Suddenly they would close 
up and each would belabor his rival with the bend of the wing, until the sound 
could be heard two or three hundred yards. The wing-strokes were always 
warded off by the other bird’s wing, so but little damage was done, but it 
usually ended in the weaker bird breaking loose and running away. Just 
before the males seize each other they usually utter a series of peculiar low 
growling or grunting notes. 

From the seashore its breeding ground extends along the courses of the 
great rivers far into the interior.... While descending the Yukon, Dall 
found their eggs laid upon the bare sand-banks, as were those of the White- 
fronted species. 

The last of May finds many of these birds already depositing their eggs. 
Upon the grassy borders of ponds, in the midst of a bunch of grass, or on a 
small knoll, these birds find a spot where they make a slight depression and 
perhaps line it with a scanty layer of grasses, after which the eggs are laid, 
numbering from five to eight. These eggs, like the birds, average smaller 
than those of the other geese.... As the eggs are deposited the female 
gradually lines the nest with feathers plucked from her breast until they rest 
in a bed of down. When first laid the eggs are white, but by the time incuba- 
tion begins all are soiled and dingy. The female usually crouches low on her 
nest until an intruder comes within a hundred yards or so, when she skulks off 
through the grass or flies silently away, close to the ground, and only raises a 
note of alarm when well away from the nest. When the eggs are about hatch- 
ing, or the young are out, both parents frequently become perfectly reckless 
in the face of danger. The young are hatched from the middle of June until 
the middle of July (Nelson, 1887, pp. 86-87). 


In habits the Cackling Goose so nearly resembles the Hutchins 
Goose, that no one has been able to point out differences. As with the 
latter species, the Cackling Goose feeds largely on grass and grain 
during its stay in California. Along with other geese this species 
used to do much damage to young wheat in Colusa, Butte, Sutter and 
Yuba counties. But the ranks of the birds are so thinned at the 
present time, that the injury they inflict now is negligible. 

On the market this species is usually classified along with the 
Hutchins Goose as ‘‘Brant.’’ Very large numbers of Cackling Geese 
are to be found at times in the markets of our larger cities. 

The Cackling Goose, once just as numerous, if not more so, than the 
Hutchins Goose, is like the Hutchins, rapidly decreasing in numbers 
from year to year. Old residents in some parts of the Sacramento 
Valley say that now there is ‘‘not more than one of these Geese present 
where formerly there were hundreds.’’ To the work of the market 
hunter can be attributed much of this decrease, for this goose is one 
which is easily procured, and which finds a ready sale on the market. 
While still rated as common in restricted portions of the state, this 
goose is in a fair way to disappear completely unless enough of the 
birds are left each winter to guarantee the return of an adequate stock 
in the spring to the breeding grounds in the north. 


BLACK SEA BRANT 237 


Black Sea Brant 


Branta nigricans (Lawrence) 


OTHER NAMES—Sea Brant; Black Brant; Eskimo Goose; Bernicla nigricans ; 
Bernicla brenta. 

Descriprion—Adults, both sexes: Whole forepart of body including head, 
neck, breast and forepart of back, solidly black, except for incomplete white 
collar at base of neck; small narrow streaks of white run forward from this 
collar onto front and sides of neck; iris dark brown; bill black; back brown, 
abruptly defined against black in front, and each feather narrowly edged with 
lighter brown; middle of rump blackish brown; sides of rump and longer 
upper tail coverts pure white; tail black; outer surface of closed wing like 
back; flight feathers dull black; under surface of wing and axillars, brown; 
under surface of body slaty brown, feathers of sides and flanks broadly tipped 
with dull white; area in front of and behind vent, and under tail coverts, pure 
white; legs and feet black. Males: total length 23.75-25.50 inches (604-647 
mm.) (ten specimens); folded wing 12.40-13.40 (315-340); bill along. culmen 
1.25-1.41 (31.8-35.7); tarsus 2.14-2.48 (54.4-63.0) (nine specimens from Cali- 
fornia and Alaska). Females: total length 22.50-24.00 (572-610) (nine speci- 
mens from California and Alaska) ; folded wing 11.90-12.65 (302-321); bill along. 
culmen 1.20-1.33 (30.4-33.9); tarsus 2.16-2.46 (54.7-62.4) (eight specimens from 
California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adults but with white collar 
entirely lacking; general tone of coloration more grayish, especially on darker 
parts; secondaries, scapulars, and wing coverts tipped with dull white; feathers 
of lower surface faintly tipped with lighter color. Natal plumage: General 
tone of color light leaden brown, darkest on top of head and back and lightest 
(nearly white) on throat and middle of belly; a dark band across breast and 
light collar around hind neck at level of throat; entirely lacks any of the 
greenish or yellowish tinge found in other American species of geese. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderately small size (for a goose), with 
very dark coloration. Head and neck black, with white collar about front of 
neck; sides of rump white, bill and feet black. Flies in undulating course, 
close to water. 

Vorce—A low guttural gr-r-r-r-r, uttered when at rest or in flight (Nelson, 
1887, p. 88); a mellow cronk, cronk, cronk (Dawson, 1909, p. 836). 

Nest—On marshy ground; a simple depression, abundantly lined with down. 

Eces—4 to 8, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.64 to 3.09 by 1.75 
to 1.97 (in millimeters, 67.0 to 78.5 by 44.5 to 50.0), and averaging 2.82 by 1.85 
(71.5 by 47.0) (fifty eggs in U. S. National Museum); color grayish white 
(Reed, 1904, p. 86). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Western North America and eastern Asia. In North 
America breeds on Arctic coast and islands from Point Barrow east to near 
mouth of Anderson River, north probably to Melville Island; winters on Pacific 
coast from British Columbia south to San Quintin Bay, Lower California 
(modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 87). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFoRNIA—Abundant winter visitant in former years to 
Humboldt, Bodega, Tomales, San Francisco, Morro, and San Diego bays. Now 
occurs in numbers only on Humboldt and Tomales bays. Occasionally reported 
at other places along the coast such as: Point Pinos, Monterey County (Beck, 
1910, p. 69); and San Pedro, Los Angeles County, and near Newport, Orange 


238 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


County (Willett, 1912a, p. 28). Has been found in the interior on Klamath 
River near Beswick, Siskiyou County (Ferry, 1908, p. 39); and near Los Bajos, 
Merced County (specimen taken January 3, 1912, now in Mus. Vert. Zool.). 


The Black Sea Brant is notable for being the most maritime of all 
the species of geese which visit California. It does not occur along 
our whole seacoast, as do so many sea-faring birds, but restricts itself 
to certain coastal bays, especially those north of San Francisco. It is 
a wary species, difficult to shoot, it has peculiar habits, and in the 
opinion of many persons its succulent flesh renders it the most desir- 
able of all the geese for table use; hence it has been extensively sought 
after in past years, with the usual result that its numbers have been 
greatly reduced. 

In earlier years the Black Sea Brant visited all of our large coastal 
bays from the Oregon line south to San Diego, but more recently it has 
been found in numbers only on Humboldt and Tomales bays. Its 
close adherence to bay waters suggests that only in such situations 
can it find the food materials which it likes best. This Brant is strictly 
a winter visitant arriving in October and leaving in April. At San 
Diego, Cooper (in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 473) saw 
it first, in 1861, during October, and it left there by April 20 of the 
following year. The same writer saw the species on the water outside 
San Francisco Bay on April 24, 1863. Belding (MS) states that it 
was last seen at San Diego, in 1884, on April 15, and in 1885, on 
April 7. A few years ago a flock of about twenty-five of these birds 
was seen on San Francisco Bay near Redwood City—but this is the 
only recent instance of occurrence on this bay of which we have 
knowledge. A few straggling individuals are found rarely on interior 
bodies of water, as on Klamath River near Beswick, Siskiyou County, 
and at Los Banos, Merced County. 

The Black Sea Brant is a small goose, resembling the Ross Snow 
Goose in bulk. When at rest on the water it has a general blackish 
appearance. The solidly black coloration of the fore part of the 
body as well as of the bill and feet, and the white neck collar, are 
noticeable features. From all the several varieties of ‘‘Canada’’ Geese 
the Black Brant is best distinguished by the absence of white cheek 
patches, and from the Canada and Hutchins geese by its size. Its 
call-note, which has been described as a guttural croak, wah-ook or 
gr-r-r-r, and its habit of flying in flocks abreast close to the water in 
undulating lines, are both useful field characters. 

This Brant breeds along the extreme Arctic coast west of Hudson 
Bay. The following meager nesting notes are the only ones available: 
“Tt was seen breeding abundantly by Mr. MacFarlane near the 
Arctic Ocean. Some of the nests were found on small islets in fresh- 


BLACK SEA BRANT 239 


water. ponds; others on islands in the Anderson, near its mouth; and 
many others either on the shore or on islands in Franklin Bay, or 
other parts of the Arctic Sea. In some cases the nest was nothing 
more than a mere depression lined with down; but in some the 
quantity of down was quite large. The number of eggs in a nest was 
generally five; but in one case as many as seven were seen, and in 
Six or seven instances six’’ (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, 
p. 474). 
Writing from western Alaska, Nelson (1881, pp. 184-136) says: 


The flight of this species is peculiar among North American geese and 
bears a close resemblance to that of the Eider and other species of heavy- 
bodied short-winged Sea Ducks. It has a parallel in the flight of the Emperor 
Goose except that the latter is a far heavier bird and, in consequence, the wing 
strokes are less rapid. In B. nigricans the strokes are short, energetic, and 
repeated with great rapidity, carrying the bird with a velocity far greater than 
that attained by any other [American] Goose. 

The flocks ... have a protean ability to change their form without ever 
breaking the array or causing confusion. They are very gregarious and two flocks 
almost invariably coalesce when they draw near each other. This frequently 
occurs, until... it results in a single flock numbering between four hundred 
and five hundred birds. The usual size is considerably less, generally compris- 
ing from twenty to fifty or more, and it is rare to see less than ten or fifteen 
in a party. At times four or five individuals become detached and until they 
ean unite with a stronger party they fly irregularly about as though bewildered, 
continually uttering their harsh notes, and hurry eagerly away to join the first 
flock that comes in view. The order of flight is invariably a single rank, the 
birds moving side by side in a line at right angles to their course so that the 
entire strength of a flock is to be seen at a glance along its front, which, at 
times, covers several hundred yards. There is barely room enough between 
the individuals to allow a free wing-stroke. Thus ranged the flock seems gov- 
erned by a single impulse, which sends it gliding along parallel and close to 
the ground, then, apparently without reason, careering thirty or forty yards 
overhead only to descend to its former level as suddenly as it was left; now 
it sways to one side and then to the other, while at short intervals swift 
undulations seem to run from one end of the line to the other. These move- 
ments are repeatedly taking place... . 

The entire flock, consisting of perhaps over a hundred birds arranged in 
single line, is hurrying on, straight as an arrow, towards its destination when, 
without warning, it suddenly makes a wide curving detour of several hundred 
yards, then resumes its original course only to frequently repeat the manoeuvre, 
but always with such unison that the closest scrutiny fails to reveal the least 
break or irregularity in the line; nor does the front of the flock swerve, except- 
ing an occasional slight obliquity which is corrected in a few seconds. 

In addition to this horizontal movement is a still more interesting vertical 
one which often occurs at the same time as the other but generally by itself. 
A bird at either end of the flock rises or descends a few inches or several feet, 
as the case may be, and the movement is instantly followed in succession by 
every one of its companions till the extreme bird is reached and the entire 
flock is on the new level; or, it may be that a bird near the middle of the line 


240 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


changes its position when the motion extends in two directions at once. These 
latter changes are made so regularly and with such rapidity that the distance 
between the birds does not appear altered in the least, while a motion exactly 
like a graceful undulation runs the length of the flock lifting or depressing it to 
the level of the originator of the movement. These changes present to one’s 
eye as the flocks approach, keeping close to the ground, the appearance of a 
series of regular and swift waving motions such as pass along a pennant in a 
slight breeze. 

The Black Brant never wings its way far up in the sky, as many other geese 
have the habit of doing, but keeps, as a rule, between ten and thirty yards 
above the ground, with more flocks below these limits than above them. 


The Black Brant ‘‘rafts’’ far out on the sea during much of the day. 
Here the members of a flock keep up a constant gabble which is said 
to resemble somewhat the croaking of frogs. At certain changes of 
the tide the birds fly to the kelp-beds to feed. 


During the winter residence of this Brant upon the shore of California it 
is noted for its pertinacity in following the outline of the coast as it passes from 
place to place. In the north this habit still clings to them, and although they 
frequently pass over broad, marshy flats, yet a low ridge, but a few yards 
high above the general level, is sufficient to turn their course and send them: 
skimming along its base and around the obstacle rather than over it (Nelson, 
1887, p. 88). 


The food of the Black Brant is made up largely of marine plants 
for which it often dives as well as dips. The kelp beds off-shore offer 
the most attractive feeding grounds. In addition to the vegetable 
food, marine erustacea are probably eaten when available. Cooper 
(in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 473) says that in San 
Diego Bay the Brant fed almost exclusively on the leaves and roots 
of eel grass (Zostera marina). In Tomales Bay the birds also feed 
largely on this grass. A number of specimens from Humboldt Bay 
examined by W. E. Bryant (1893a, p. 55) had been feeding entirely 
on eel grass. 

According to Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke (1903, p. 544) this 
is the most ‘‘gamy’’ of all our waterfowl and generally the finest 
flavored. The slight marine flavor, is far from being unpleasantly 
fishy, and resembles that of the oyster. 

The Black Brant evades the devices of the hunter better than any 
other duck or goose. In very early days on San Diego Bay it was 
never seen to alight on the shore or near it. By 1875 it was almost 
impossible to obtain a shot at the bird from a boat, and even with a 
box sunk in the mud and concealed by sea-weed a good bag was secured 
with difficulty. In 1883 a floating battery with plenty of decoys alone 
would enable a hunter to obtain this much prized bird. A few years 
later many of the birds failed to put in an appearance at all off San 
Diego, probably going farther south, along the Mexican coast. 


EASTERN SEA BRANT 241 


Because of its habit of occasionally cutting across low sandspits 
to avoid a long detour in its flight, most of the hunting has been done 
from blinds situated beneath such a line of flight. On Tomales Bay 
hunters have sailed down on flocks with ‘‘blind-boats,’’ when the 
birds were at rest during a fog, their whereabouts being disclosed by 
their ‘‘gabbling’’ noises. ’ 

The Black Sea Brant has not been sold on the markets to any 
extent for a good many years. About twenty years ago consignments 
were shipped to San Francisco from Humboldt Bay and the birds sold 
for as little as 25 cents each. Even the high price that the bird would 
bring at the present time does not attract it to the market because of 
the difficulty now attached to obtaining it. 

There has been a marked decrease in the number of Black Brant 
visiting the coast of California in the last twenty-five years. They 
have apparently been driven away entirely from San Diego Bay and 
most of the other bays south of San Francisco. California is unique 
in the possession of this bird during the winter season so that the 
survival of the species depends almost entirely on the amount of 
destruction accorded it while it is within the state. Its extreme wari- 
ness together with its attachment to the open ocean has always been, 
and will continue to be, its chief protection, but we should supplement 
this with adequate legislation properly enforced. 


Eastern Sea Brant 


Branta bernicla glaucogastra (Brehm) 


Description—Adults, both sexes: Head, neck, whole breast and forepart of 
body entirely circled by solid black except for restricted areas of white 
oblique lines on each side of neck in a collar-like arrangement which, however, 
is broadly interrupted both in front and behind; bill black; iris ‘‘brown’’ 
(Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 244); back brown, abruptly defined 
in front, each feather tipped with lighter brown; sides of rump and upper 
tail coverts pure white; tail black; outer surface of closed wing like back; 
flight feathers black; under surface of wing and axillars brown; under surface 
of body ashy brown, sharply contrasted with black of fore-breast, and paling 
gradually behind into pure white of belly and under tail coverts; feathers of 
sides and flanks broadly tipped with white; legs and feet black. Male: 
total: length 26.31 inches (667 mm.); folded wing 13.37 (339); bill along 
culmen 1.36 (34.6); tarsus 2.37 (60.2) (one specimen from California). Juvenile 
plumage: Like adults but with ‘‘. .. wing-coverts and secondaries broadly 
tipped with pure white, forming very conspicuous bars. Lower parts paler 
and more uniform; white on middle of the neck reduced to small specks’’ 
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 468). Natal plumage: Not known to us. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Similar to those for the Black Sea Brant 
(which see). Distinguished from Black Sea Brant by much lighter color of 
under surface, more abrupt line of contrast between black of chest and light 


242 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


gray of under surface, and smaller amount of white on neck collar which 
consists merely of a restricted patch at each side. 

VoiceE—A guttural car-r-rup, or r-r-r-ronk; ruk-ruk (Forbush, 1912, p. 183). 

Nest AND EGGS—Like those of Black Sea Brant. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northern Hemisphere. Breeds on Arctic islands 
north of latitude 74 degrees and west to about longitude 100 degrees, and on 
the whole west coast of Greenland; winters on the Atlantic coast from Massa- 
chusetts south to North Carolina, rarely to Florida; has been recorded in the 
interior from Manitoba, Ontario, Colorado, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Michigan, 
Indiana, and Louisiana; accidental in British Columbia, California and Bar- 
badoes (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 87). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—One known instance of occurrence: A specimen 
taken on Arcata Bay, Humboldt County, January 30, 1914 (H. C. Bryant, 
1914d, p. 183). 


The Eastern Sea Brant is a common bird along the Atlantic Coast 
of North America but it has been recorded only once from California. 
Mr. West Dean of Eureka, while hunting near Bird Island, Humboldt 
County, on January 30, 1914, shot an adult male of this species from 
a flock of Black Sea Brant (Branta nigricans). It was prepared as 
a study skin by Mr. Franklin J. Smith, a taxidermist of Eureka; and 
then presented by the owner, Mr. Otto Feudner of Oakland, ‘to. the 
California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. 

The Eastern Sea Brant closely resembles its western relative, the 
Black Sea Brant, but can be distinguished from the latter by its 
lighter-colored under surface which contrasts strongly with the black 
breast, and by the white neck collar which is incomplete both in front 
and behind. The lower surface of the body of the Black Sea Brant is 
much darker and the collar is continuous across the front of the neck. 

The habits of this eastern bird are similar to those of its western 
congener. 

The Eastern Sea Brant is of no importance here other than for 
the general interest which attaches to a rare straggler. It is possible 
that individuals of this species have found their way to California 
previously and even that they have been shot by hunters, but, not 
being recognized, no record of their occurrence has been kept. Hunters 
will do well to keep a lookout for the species, especially when hunting 
Black Sea Brant, as instances of the occurrence of the eastern bird are 
of interest to science. We believe that there is no likelihood of the 
Eastern Sea Brant ever becoming numerous enough here to be classed 
as more than a rare visitant. 


EMPEROR GOOSE 243 


Emperor Goose 


Philacte canagica (Sevastianoff) 


OTHER NAMES—White-headed Goose; Beach Goose. 

DeEscrirtion—Adults, both sexes: Whole head (except throat) and hind neck, 
white, forming an extensive hood, often stained with rusty; chin, throat and 
foreneck blackish brown, abruptly outlined; iris ‘‘hazel’’; membrane about 
nostrils ‘‘livid blue,’’ rest of upper mandible ‘‘ pale purplish or fleshy white,’’ 
nail ‘‘white,’’ its edges ‘‘dark horn color’’; lower mandible ‘‘dark horn- 
color,’’ spot on each side ‘‘white’’ (Nelson, 1887, p. 91); back, sides and breast 
bluish ash, each feather with a subterminal bar of black or blackish brown 
followed by a narrower tipping of white, the whole giving a conspicuously 
sealed effect; rump, belly and under tail coverts barred with very pale brown; 
tail slate color at base, with terminal third white; outer surface of closed 
wing similar to back; terminal portions of primary and secondary flight 
feathers slaty black; legs and feet bright ‘‘orange-yellow’’ (Nelson, loc. cit.). 
Males: Total length 26.00—-28.00 inches (660-710 mm.) (Nelson, loc. cit.); folded 
wing 13.50-15.50 (343-394); bill along culmen 1.42-1.60 (36.1-40.6); tarsus 
2.50-2.98 (63.5-75.7) (four specimens from Alaska and California). Females: 
total length 25.60-27.50 (650-698) (Nelson, loc. cit.); folded wing 14.75- 
15.45 (375-392); bill along culmen 1.45 (36.8); tarsus 2.71-2.87 (68.7-72.8) (two 
specimens from Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult but white 
hood sprinkled with spots of dusky or black, barring on back and breast 
dull brown rather than black, bill duller colored, and legs and feet lighter 
colored. Natal plumage: No description available. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Medium size (for a goose) and short neck. 
Head and neck (except throat) white, plumage ashy blue barred with black, 
tail white tipped, bill and feet light colored. 

Nest—On the ground, usually in salt marshes and often among fragments 
of driftwood; made of grass, leaves and feathers (Nelson, 1887, p. 90). 

Eces—3 to 8, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.72 to 3.14 
by 1.91 to 2.09 (in millimeters, 69.0 to 79.7 by 48.5 to 53.0), and averaging 
2.93 by 2.00 (74.3 by 50.8); color white, but usually more or less stained with 
yellow (twenty eggs from Yukon Delta, Alaska). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northwestern North America and extreme eastern 
Siberia. In North America breeds in Alaska from north of Cape Prince of 
Wales south to mouth of Kuskokwin River and on St. Lawrence Island. 
Winters in southern Alaska from Bristol Bay to Sitka, but chiefly in the 
Aleutian Islands; casual or rare in British Columbia, California, and Hawaii 
(modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 88). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CaLIFORNIA—Rather rare winter visitant to fresh-water 
situations in northwestern half of the state. Recorded instances of occur- 
rence are: Humboldt Bay, winter of 1884 (C. H. Townsend, 1886, p. 491); 
Colusa, November, 1912; Dixon, Solano County, three specimens; Ingomar, 
Merced County, December, 1912; and near Modesto, Stanislaus County, Novem- 
ber 15, 1918 (H. C. Bryant, 19146, p. 92); Gridley, Butte County, fall of 1895 
(Loomis, 1901, p. 105) and November 1, 1915 (C. 8. Muller, 1916, p. 32); 
Rio Vista, Solano County, November 3, 1910 (Littlejohn, 1912, p. 41); near 
Davis, Yolo County, December, 1906 (H. C. Bryant, 1915a, pp. 58-59); and 
San Francisco markets, October 8, 1900 (Loomis, loc. cit.). Each record is 
of a single specimen except as noted. 


244 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The principal winter home of the Emperor Goose is on the sea- 
coast of southwestern Alaska, and only stragglers reach California. 
But it is probable that if all of the Emperor Geese ever observed in 
California had been recorded, it would be found that almost every 
year one or two of the birds had made their way within our borders. 
At least ten definite instances of the occurrence of the Emperor Goose 
in this state are known. In spite of the fact that this is a marine 
species most of the records are from the interior valleys. Mr. Vernon 
Shepherd, a taxidermist of San Francisco, informs us that he has 
known of the capture of at least a dozen specimens of this goose since 
1906. There is also an unconfirmed statement current to the effect 
that two Emperor Geese were taken from a small flock in the Alamitos 
marshes of Los Angeles County about twenty years ago (Payne, 1908, 
p. 770). 

Nelson (1887, p. 90) says that Emperor Geese may be distinguished 
at long distances by their heavy bodies, short necks, and by their 
short, quick wing-strokes, which very much resemble those of the Black 
Sea Brant. Although not as agile on the wing as the latter birds, 
or, in fact, as any of the other geese, they are swift fliers when under 
way. The bluish ash color of the plumage with scaling of black, the 
extensively white hood abruptly contrasted with black on the throat 
and foreneck, the white-ended tail, and the bright-colored bill and 
feet, easily distinguish this goose from all others. Its note is said to 
be shriller and clearer than that of other geese. 

Regarding the nesting of the Emperor Goose in Alaska Nelson 
(1887, p. 90) writes: 


Soon after their arrival they began to pair, and were seen flying about 
in couples, keeping close to the ground, rarely flying over 20 or 30 yards high, 
and often barely keeping clear of the surface. The males are extremely 
jealous and pugnacious, never allowing one of their kind to approach within 
a number of yards without making an onslaught upon the intruder. The same 
belligerent spirit is shown to the other species of geese should one of them 
chance to draw too near. 

While a pair is feeding the male keeps moving restlessly about, with eyes 
constantly on the alert, and at the first alarm they draw near together and 
just before they take wing both utter a deep, ringing “@-ligh, a-lagh. As in 
the case of the call-note, this has a peculiar, deep hoarseness, impossible to 
describe. 

The first of June they began depositing their eggs on the flat, marshy 
islands bordering the sea. At low tide the broad mud-flats on the shore were 
thronged with them, and after feeding until satisfied they congregated on 
bars until the incoming water forced them to disperse. They nested most 
abundantly on the salt marshes adjacent to these feeding grounds, and the 
eggs were often placed among fragments of drift-wood below the mark of 
the highest tides. Stray pairs were found nesting further inland on the 
marshy meadows, also frequented by the other species of geese, but on the 
salt flats, near tide water, the Emperor Geese held undisputed possession. 


EMPEROR GOOSE 245 


On June 5 a female was found setting upon her eggs on a little knoll, 
with a small fragment of bleached drift-wood within a few yards of her, and 
as she lay with extended neck, although the ground was almost bare, my 
Eskimo and I passed within a few feet of her on either side, without seeing 
her. We were about 20 steps beyond when she left the nest with a startled 
ery, thus drawing our notice. The three eggs were in full view when we 
turned. They rested in a depression with no sign of a lining. The same 
ruse caused us to pass other nests, but the birds betrayed them each time 
by flying off with a loud outcry almost as soon as our backs were presented. 


The majority of the nests found by Nelson contained from three 
to five eggs, but the full complement usually ranges from five to eight. 
A series of eggs in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology taken in the 
Yukon Delta are closely similar to those of the White-fronted Goose, 
and vary widely in size and shape. Some are much elongated, while 
others are obtusely pyriform. In color they are white, but all are 
more or less nest-stained with brownish. Twenty eggs measured by 
the writers showed length in inches from 2.72 to 3.14 and short 
diameters from 1.91 to 2.09, the averages being 2.93 by 2.01. Nelson 
(1887, pp. 90-91) further states that ‘‘as the complement of eggs 
approached completion, the parent made a soft bed of fine grass, 
leaves, and feathers plucked from her own breast. As a rule, when 
driven from her eggs, the female fiew straight away and alighted at 
some distance, sometimes half a mile from the nest, showing very little 
concern. The male was rarely seen in the vicinity of the nest. The 
young are hatched the last of June or first of July, and the adult 
birds undergo the summer moult from the last of July to the middle 
of August.’’ 

The Emperor Goose flies in pairs or in small flocks of four or 
five. A juvenile killed at Gridley, Butte County, was alone, being the 
second in a flock of White-fronted Geese. One taken near Modesto, 
Stanislaus County, came to the blind alone. Another taken near 
Davis, Yolo County, had been noted alone in the same pond for three 
weeks previous to capture. This species is said to be shyer than any 
other goose except the Black Sea Brant. 

In Alaska the Emperor Goose remains on its breeding grounds 
longer in the fall than any other species, lingering until the whole 
seacoast is fringed with ice before going to the slightly less rigorous 
Aleutian shores but a few hundred miles to the southward. In the 
north it feeds chiefly on shellfish, though at times it resorts to heath- 
berries which are available on the tundras closely adjacent to the 
seashore. 

As a game bird this goose is not highly prized, for its flesh has 
a disagreeably strong taste. It is said, however, that much of this 
taste is due to the skin and that the flesh proves palatable if the skin 
is carefully removed first and the bird well cooked. 


246 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


To our knowledge there has been no marked diminution in the 
numbers of Emperor Geese either in their northern home or in Cali- 
fornia. Those taken in this state in the past are in the category of 
mere stragglers, and it is reasonable to expect that such wanderers 
will continue to make their appearance from year to year within our 
boundaries. 


Fulvous Tree-duck 


Dendrocygna bicolor (Vieillot) 


OTHER NAMES—Mexican Duck; Squealer; Fulvous-bellied Tree-duck; Brown 
Tree-duck; Spanish Cavalier; Dendrocygna fulva. 

DescripTion—Adults, both sexes: Top of head reddish brown, running into 
a black stripe down hind neck; sides of head yellowish brown, paling to 
yellowish white on throat; iris dark reddish brown; bill bluish slate; broad 
collar around base of neck, incomplete behind, dull white streaked with 
brownish black; general color of rest of upper surface including tail, brown- 
ish black, feathers of back and scapular region broadly tipped with reddish 
brown; rump black; upper tail coverts creamy white; both outer and under 
surface of wing deep blackish brown, except for lesser (upper) coverts which 
are deep chestnut brown; under surface of body bright hazel brown becom- 
ing paler on breast and belly; elongated feathers of sides and flanks cinna- 
mon brown, each with central stripe of creamy white bordered by narrow 
dusky lines; under tail coverts creamy white; legs and feet heavy and long, 
extending far beyond end of tail, in color deep bluish gray. Total length” 
(both sexes): ‘‘about 20.00-21.00’’ inches (508-533 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, 
p. 119). Males: folded wing 8.00-8.60 (203-218); bill along culmen 1.71-1.84 
(43.4-46.7); tarsus 2.03-2.21 (51.6-56.2) (five specimens). Females: folded 
wing 8.00-8.30 (203-211); bill along culmen 1.82-1.86 (46.2-47.2); tarsus 2.05- 
2.16 (52.0-54.8) (two specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: 
“‘Similar to adult, but with little or no chestnut color on wing-coverts; under 
parts paler; the upper tail-coverts tipped with brown’’ (Sanford, Bishop and 
Van Dyke, 1903, p. 256). Natal plumage: Top of head clove brown; chin, 
throat and sides of head dull white, a streak of the same color extending around 
back of head on each side and meeting its fellow on hind head; a short, dull 
white streak on each side of head from side of bill to above eye; bill (dried) 
dusky brown with prominent yellowish nail; hind neck clove brown, a streak of 
same color invading side of head below streak of white which encircles head; 
rest of upper surface of body uniform bister brown; whole under surface of 
body dull white; feet (dried) grayish yellow. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Medium size (about that of Pintail), long, 
slim neck, extremely long legs (see fig. 38) reaching far beyond end of tail, 
cinnamon colored under surface, black-appearing back, and absence of any 
light markings on wings (pl. 7). Distinguished from Black-bellied Tree-duck 
by absence of black on belly and of white on wings. The squealing whistle, 
and down-curved pose of head and neck in flight, are characteristic. 

Vorce—A long-drawn, squealing whistle (Chapman, 1908, p. 292). 

NeEst—Usually on ground in marsh or near water, well built and often well 
concealed; reported as occasionally situated in hollow trees; built of grass 
and sparsely lined with down and feathers. 

Eees—Normally 12 to 17, elliptical ovate in shape, and measuring in inches, 


UNIV. CALIF. SEMICENT. PUBL. [GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 7 


FULVOUS TREE-DUCK 


FULVOUS TREE-DUCK 247 


1.85 to 1.65 by 1.98 to 2.20 (in millimeters, 34.3 to 41.8 by 50.3 to 55.8); color 
ivory white, surface texture rather rough (Shields, 1899, pp. 10-11). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Mexico and southwestern United States; also south- 
ern Uruguay and Argentina, South Africa and India. In North America breeds 
from central California and central Texas south to Valley of Mexico; winters 
from central California (rarely) and central Texas to southern Mexico 
(modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 88). 

DistRisuTION IN CALIFORNIaA—Common summer visitant to interior tule 
marshes in the southern coastal district and central portion of ‘the state; 
breeds in San Joaquin Valley north to Los Bafios, Merced County (Barnhart, 
1901, p. 67; and authors), and in a few suitable places in Los Angeles County 
(Willett, 1912a, p. 28). Northernmost records at any season: Marin County 
(J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 15); Marysville, Yuba County (Belding, 1879, p. 445); 
and Owens Valley (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 19). Several instances of occurrence 
on or near central seacoast: Carmel River, Monterey County (Beck, 1910, p. 69); 
Elkhorn, Monterey County (H. C. Bryant, MS); Salinas, Monterey County 
(Silliman, 1915}, p. 207); and Santa Barbara (Dawson, 1916, p. 25). A few 
occur in various parts of the summer range during the winter months. 


The term tree-duck, as applied to the Fulvous Tree-duck, seems 
to be an almost complete misnomer for the bird. As regards structure 
this species seems to be more closely related to the geese than to the 
ducks, and, at least in California, it seldom nests in trees but chooses 
the extensive tule marshes of our interior valleys. Birds apparently 
belonging to the same species of Tree-duck that occurs in this state 
are found in South America, in southern Uruguay and Argentina, 
and also in South Africa and in India—a very striking case of what 
is known as interrupted or discontinuous distribution. In North 
America the chief breeding ground of the species is in Mexico, but 
a considerable number of birds breed in the southwestern United 
States. The latter contingent is migratory, moving south for the 
winter season. 

In California, Fulvous Tree-ducks are most widely distributed in 
spring and fall, but are always found in fresh water situations. Some 
records of spring migrants are: Mecca, Riverside County, April 5, 
1908 (Mus. Vert. Zool) ; Los Angeles, April 18, 1898 (Swarth, 1900, 
p. 14) ; Los Baiios, Merced County, April 24, 1912 (Beck, MS) ; and 
Stockton, San Joaquin County, April 1 (Belding, MS). On May 5, 
6 and 7, 1879, Belding (1905, p. 112) witnessed a remarkable flight 
of these birds over a slough near Stockton. They were moving north 
and all followed the same general ‘‘fly-line.’’ 

Most of these ducks have finished nesting and have gone south 
before the opening of the duck season on October 15. A late record, 
which may possibly be for wintering birds, is November 1, on which 
date two immature birds of this species were found in the markets 
of Stockton. Thus it will be seen that the Fulvous Tree-duck is a 
rather late arrival in the spring and that it departs south compara- 
tively early in the fall. 


248 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Fig. 38. Side of tarsus and foot of 
Fulvous Tree-duck. Natural size. 


Note large size of tarsus and foot, 
and long hind toe without lobe (com- 


pare with figs. 11 and 22). 


While the bulk of the species 
is migratory, a few individuals 
may remain throughout the year 
in parts of the summer range. 
Thus there is a record from 
Marysville, Yuba County (Beld- 
ing, 1879, p. 445) of a bird 
taken in winter and this is, 
curiously enough, the northern-- 
most record for the state at any 
season. Hast of the Sierras a 
pair was taken at Little Owens 
Lake, Inyo County, May 8, 1891 
(A. K. Fisher, 1898a, p. 19) 
and one was seen over the Colo- 
rado River near Potholes on 
January 17, 19138 (Howell and 
Van Rossem, 1915, p. 232). The 
species is a common transient in 
the Imperial Valley. 

The Fulvous Tree-duck is so 
very un-ducklike in many re- 
spects that it has been variously 
classified, usually as a member 
of the goose tribe. Its long bill, 
with the large, sharply down- 
curved nail (fig. 39), the long 
slim neck, the very long legs 
(fig. 38), reaching far beyond 
the tail, and the reddish brown 
color (pl. 7), without white 
markings on head or wings, 
make identification easy. The 
erect pose when on the ground 
is goose-like, and in flight the 
head and neck are bent down- 
ward in a manner characteristic 
of geese. 

The following notes quoted 


from W. Otto Emerson would seem to show that the Fulvous Tree- 
duck occasionally, at least, nests in trees in California, and so rightly 
deserves its current name: ‘‘On May 23, 1882, while collecting with 
Wm. C. Flint at Lillie’s ranch near Tulare Lake I noticed a Fulvous 
Tree-duck sitting in the entrance hole of a large white oak near one 


FULVOUS TREE-DUCK 249 


of the ditches, but it was out of the question to reach it. Again on 
May 26 another was located sitting on the edge of a hole high up in a 
white oak. Lillie’s ranch is nine miles from Wildflower, Tulare 
County, and four or five miles southeast of the lake’’ (in Shields, 
1899, p. 11). 

However, the prevalent habit of this bird in California is to nest 
much as other ducks do, on marsh lands. Shields found a number 
of nests of the Fulvous Tree-duck in central California during June, 
1898. He states (1899, pp. 10-11): 


The nests were in main constructed of wire grass and sparsely lined with 
down and feathers; the eggs were invariably deposited in two layers and are 
of a pure white color, and as compared with the eggs of other ducks, possess 
a rather rough shell, sometimes even approaching a chalky appearance and 
being frequently slightly pyriform in shape. The measurements vary from 
1.35 x 1.98 to 1.65 x 2.20 inches, the majority of eggs being a mean average 


Fig. 39. Side of bill of Fulvous Tree-duck. Natural size. 


of these extremes. The eggs partake of the characteristics of both those 
of the goose and duck... . 


Shields also found that this species often laid its eggs in the nests 
of other ducks, for of six or eight nests of Redhead and Ruddy Duck 
which he discovered, more than half contained one or more eggs of 
the Fulvous Tree-duck. 

In all, Shields found about a dozen nests of the Fulvous Tree- 
duck, all similarly situated and most of them containing from 17 to 
28, and some even 30, 31 and 32 eggs. The smallest sets found were 
of 9 and 11 eggs respectively, both of which were apparently incom- 
plete. Such large sets are certainly unusual among ducks and as yet 
have not been satisfactorily explained. Either this particular species 
possesses a greater fecundity than others, or more than one female lays 
in the same nest. The latter is the more probable explanation; for in 
one case (Dawson, MS) a daily addition of three eggs was noted in 


a single nest. 


250 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


According to common report the Fulvous Tree-duck formerly 
nested in colonies, and from 30 to 100 eggs arranged in layers were 
found in a single nest (Barnhart, 1901, p. 67). There-is no recent 
instance or verification of such an extraordinary occurrence. Such 
reports are doubtless exaggerations, though they must have had some 
basis in fact. 

Sets of eggs have been collected at Los Baiios as early as April 28 
and May 5 (Barnhart, 1901, p. 68). A nest found in the same locality 
by W. L. Dawson June 4, 1914, contained nineteen eggs. 

‘Antonin Jay found a nest containing fourteen fresh eggs at 
Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County, May 30, 1903, and found another 
nest June 7, the same year, which contained thirteen eggs, incubation 
commenced’’ (Willett, 1912a, p. 28). A downy young specimen was 
collected at this same locality, July 8, 1903 (Morcom ecoll.). P. J. Fair 
found the species breeding plentifully at Los Bafios, Merced County, 
during the summer of 1912. In 1914 the same locality showed a slight 
apparent decrease in breeding birds. 

The downy young of this Tree-duck is readily distinguished from 
the same stage in other California breeding ducks by the uniformly 
colored upper surface, without any light spots, by the very large 
nail on the bill, and by the long legs and large feet. 

The Fulvous Tree-duck forages chiefly at night, and is equally 
at home in an alfalfa patch or on a body of water. It will even seek an 
oak grove if not far from the breeding ground, where individuals 
are said to assemble in numbers to feed on acorns (Shields, 1899, p. 
11). 

The Fulvous Tree-duck is more easily approached than many other 
waterfowl, but nevertheless is often difficult to find as it congregates 
among the dense tules or far out on the marshy ponds. On occasion 
a flock has been easily approached and a number killed at one shot. 
Sometimes, when Tree-ducks are surprised on grassy ground, they 
simply stand rigidly with their heads and long necks held straight up 
in the air, and at a distance, look more like stakes than birds. When 
wounded they are said to escape not only by diving but also by run- 
ning at great speed and hiding in the grass, and thus often baffle 
entirely the hunter’s efforts to recover them. 

The Fulvous Tree-duck feeds largely on the seeds of grasses and 
weeds. In Mexico and Texas it is said to visit the corn fields at night 
where it finds palatable provender. When feeding in muddy or 
marshy situations the birds thrust their bills deep in the soft mud 
on both sides and in front of them as they walk along (Brown, 1906, 
p. 218). The stomach of an individual obtained at Los Bafios, Merced 
County, in May, 1914, and examined by us, contained finely cut up 
grass and other vegetable matter. 


BLACK-BELLIED TREE-DUCK 251 


The flesh of the Fulvous Tree-duck is light-colored and juicy, and 
also free from the rank flavor possessed by sea-faring ducks and geese. 
On their arrival in California the birds are fat and eminently fit 
for the table; but since they are here in greatest numbers during the 
close season, they largely escape the slaughter levied on other wild 
fowl. The numbers of this species are, at best, small in comparison with 
many other ducks and geese. They could ill afford a heavy toll by the 
hunter during the period of their stay here. Any levy upon them dur- 
ing the actual breeding season would be contrary to all recognized 
principles of game conservation and humanity. As it is, but a few 
Tree-ducks are to be shot each year at the opening of the season, 
October 15. Those who are anxious to hunt the Fulvous Tree-duck 
in numbers must go to Mexico where the birds are to be found regu- 
larly in winter and where a certain toll may be levied with safety. 

There is a possibility that, instead of having to point to a decrease 
in the numbers of Fulvous Tree-ducks in California, we shall actually 
be able to record an increase. Barnhart (1901, p. 67) has pointed out 
that it is only of recent years that young Tree-ducks have been noted 
in the vicinity of Los Bafios, Merced County; in other words, since 
the extensive system of irrigation has been established there. Since 
that time they have continually increased in numbers in that vicinity. 
Mr. H. Wanzer, chief engineer for the Miller and Lux Company, first 
noted this duck there in June, 1895. It did not appear to increase 
notably in numbers until 1898, but since that time it has increased 
with rapidity, so that the birds are now common summer residents 
in the irrigated districts around Los Baiios. 


Black-bellied Tree-duck 


Dendrocygna autumnalis (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAME—Long-legged Duck. 

Description—Adults, both sexes: Structurally like Fulvous Tree-duck; top 
of head, neck, back, scapulars, and breast, bright cinnamon brown; forehead 
paler, and top of head darker, passing behind into black, which is continued 
as a narrow stripe down hind neck; narrow eye-ring ashy white; head and 
neck otherwise, pale ashy brown; iris ‘‘brown’’; bill ‘‘coral-red, orange 
above,’’ nail ‘‘bluish’’ (Merrill, 1878, p. 170); rump, upper tail coverts and 
tail black; outer surface of closed wing pale brown on lesser coverts paling 
to ashy white on greater coverts and secondaries; ends of primaries and 
secondaries deep black; basal parts of primaries and secondaries white, con- 
tinuous with the white on greater coverts; an additional whitish patch on 
outer webs of primaries near ends; axillars and under surface of wing black; 
belly and flanks, black, abruptly and squarely defined against cinnamon of 
breast; under tail coverts white, spotted toward bases with black; legs and 
feet ‘‘ pinkish-white’’ (Merrill, loc. cit.). Total length (both sexes): ‘‘19.75— 
24,00’? inches (502-609 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 119); folded wing ‘‘9.20- 


252 | GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 

9.70’? (233-246); culmen ‘‘1.90-2.15’’ (48.3-54.5); tarsus ‘‘2.25-2.60’’ (57,2- 
66.0) (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 482). Juvenile plumage: Much 
like that of adults, but with pattern less distinct and colors duller; cinnamon 
replaced by dingy gray, more or less tinged with rusty ochraceous; belly, flanks, 
and under tail coverts grayish white, tinged with deeper gray; bill dusky; 
feet dark reddish (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit.). Natal plumage: 
‘‘Upper parts, blackish brown, with patches of buff on side of back and on 
each side of rump; a bright buff stripe over the cheeks and one from cheeks 
... [running backwards], blackish brown; under parts, pale buff; belly, 
white’’ (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 253). 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Similar to those for Fulvous Tree-duck 
(which see), but lower half of belly black, and patches on wings white. 

Voice—A peculiar whistle: pe-che-che-ne (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, 
I, p. 483). : 

Nzest—Usually in hollow trees, often at a considerable distance from water; 
lining, if any, scant, consisting of feathers and down (Reed, 1904, p. 87). 

Eeas—10 to 16, bluntly elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 2.05 to 2.24 
by 1.50 to 1.63 (in millimeters, 52.0 to 57.0 by 38.0 to 41.5), and averaging 
2.15 by 1.53 (54.5 by 39.0) (twenty-one eggs in U. S. National Museum); 
color white (authors). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION — Southern Texas, Mexico, and Central America. 
Breeds from Corpus Christi, Texas, to Mazatlan, Mexico, and Panama; winters 
from central Mexico to Panama; accidental in southern California, Arizona and 
Jamaica (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 88). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Rare and sporadic visitant to extreme south- 
eastern portion of the state. One definite instance of occurrence: a bird 
obtained from bag of ducks sent from Imperial County to San Francisco 
market; now mounted and in collection of Vernon Shepherd, San Francisco 
(H. C. Bryant, 1914c, p. 94). The alleged record by KXantus for Fort Tejon is 
of doubtful authenticity. 


The Black-bellied Tree-duck is a resident of Mexico and Central 
America, and in only one state of the Union is it to be found in num- 
bers, namely in Texas. The fact that wanderers have been taken in 
Arizona (Brown, 1906, p. 218) and in extreme northern Mexico 
makes it seem quite possible that stragglers may occasionally reach 
California. A very doubtful record by Xantus of the occurrence of 
this species at Fort Tejon has often been quoted to substantiate the 
placing of this bird on the California list. A more dependable record 
has recently come to light. In the collection of Mr. Vernon Shepherd, 
a taxidermist of San Francisco, there is a mounted male specimen 
of the Black-bellied Tree-duck which was obtained from a sack of 
ducks sent to L. Scatena and Company from Imperial Valley in the 
early part of the season of 1912. This is just the region in which we 
would expect this species to occur as a straggler from beyond our 
southern limits. 

Both of the Tree-ducks are of moderately small size, have long 
necks, short tails, and very long legs, and so are easily distinguished 
from ordinary ducks and geese. From the Fulvous Tree-duck the 


TRUMPETER SWAN 253 


Black-bellied is easily separated by its black belly, which contrasts 
abruptly with the cinnamon-brown of the breast, and by the presence 
of conspicuous white patches on the wings. 


The following habit notes are quoted from Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway (1884, I, p. 483): 


This duck perches with facility on the branches of trees, and when in 
the corn-fields, upon the stalks, in order to reach the ears of corn. Large 
flocks spend the day on the bank of some secluded lagoon, densely bordered 
with woods or water-flags, also sitting amongst the branches of trees, not often 
feeding or stirring about during the day. When upon the wing this bird 
constantly utters its peculiar whistle of pe-che-che-ne, from which its native 
name is derived. Colonel Grayson noticed that it seldom alights in deep 
water, always preferring the shallow edges or the ground; the cause of this 
may be the fear of the numerous alligators that usually infest the lagoons. 


It nests in the hollows of large trees, laying from twelve to fifteen 
eggs and is said to carry the young to the ground in the bill. 

Nothing need be said as to the status of the Black-bellied Tree- 
duck in California further than that stragglers may be expected to 
appear occasionally in the extreme southern part of the state. It 
will probably never be of importance except as a curiosity. 


Trumpeter Swan 


Olor buccinator (Richardson) 


OTHER NAME—Cygnus buccinator. 

DeEscripTion—Adults, both sexes: Pure white; head and sometimes also the 
neck, or even the entire lower surface, tinged with rusty. Bill, legs and feet, 
deep ‘‘black’’; iris ‘‘brown’’ (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 265). 
Young: ‘‘In winter the young has the bill black, with the middle portion of 
the ridge, to the length of an inch and a half [38 mm.], light flesh-colour, and 
a large elongated patch of light dull purple on each side; the edge of the 
lower mandible and the tongue dull yellowish flesh-colour. The eye is dark 
brown. The feet dull yellowish brown, tinged with olive; the claws brownish- 
black, the webs blackish-brown. The upper part of the head and the cheeks 
are light reddish-brown, each feather having toward its extremity a small 
oblong whitish spot, narrowly margined with dusky; the throat nearly white, 
as well as the edge of the lower eyelid. The general colour of the other parts 
is greyish-white, slightly tinged with yellow; the upper part of the neck 
marked with spots similar to those on the head’’ (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 225). 
Total length ‘‘68.00’’ inches (1,725 mm.) (Audubon, loc. cit.); height, stand- 
ing 44.00 (1,117); folded wing 22.00-26.00 (559-660); bill along culmen (cal- 
culated) 4.26 (108.0); tarsus 4.00-4.50 (101.7-114.3); weight 20-31 pounds 
(about 9-14 kilograms) (Coale, 1915, p. 87). 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Similar to the white swans common in 
parks, but never with any knob on bill. Extremely large size, long neck (as 
long as body) and pure white plumage. Distinguishable from Whistling Swan 
by larger size, and upon close examination, by wholly black bill, longer and 
narrower-tipped bill and situation of nostrils farther back (hind margin more 
than 2.50 inches [63.5 mm.] from the tip of bill). 


254 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Voic—E—Very sonorous, resembling notes of a French horn (Baird, Brewer 
and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 431). 

Nest—Placed near water; large, composed of hay, down and feathers 
intermixed, or of sod, grass and rushes lined with feathers and down (Macoun 
and Macoun, 1909, p. 185). 

Eees—2 to 6, elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 4.03 to 4.50 by 2.50 
to 2.76 (in millimeters, 102.5 to 114.3 by 63.5 to 70.0); color chalky white, and 
with a rough surface (Davie, 1889, p. 85). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Interior and western North America. Breeding 
range formerly extended from Rocky Mountains to western shore of Hudson 
Bay and from about latitude 60° N., to the Arctic Ocean; south in northern 
United States to Indiana and Idaho; winter range extended from southern 
Indiana and southern Illinois south to Texas, and from southern British 
Columbia south to southern California; now very rare anywhere within its 
former range or else extinct (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 89-90; Cooke, 1906, 
pp. 86-87). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIrorNIA—Of regular occurrence, formerly, south through 
the interior valleys and southern coastal district. Some more or less definite 
records are: California (Newberry, 1857, p. 100); northern California (C. H. 
Townsend, 1887, p. 196); Suisun and Sacramento valleys (Heermann, 1859, p. 
68); general interior (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 431); Stockton, 
San Joaquin County (Belding, MS); Ventura County (Evermann, 1886, p. 91); 
Los Angeles County (Grinnell, 1898, p. 13). No records of occurrence within 
the state since 1898. 


The Trumpeter Swan is the largest of the water birds known to 
have, existed in California. It claims additional interest in that it 
must be numbered with those birds which have been exterminated 
within the lifetime of most of the citizens of the state. 

The breeding range of this swan was limited to the interior of the 
British possessions, in the district between the Rocky Mountains and 
Hudson Bay and chiefly north of the sixtieth parallel. During the 
winter season it was distributed south from the limit of open water 
through the western United States to Texas and southern California. 
On the Pacific coast it was formerly considered common from central 
British Columbia to southern California though less abundant than 
the Whistling Swan. Cooper (in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, 
I, p. 431) states that in California it was found in his day only dur- 
ing the winter, and in small numbers, and that it frequented the 
inland fresh-water lakes and ponds. OC. H. Townsend (1887, p. 196) 
records it as ‘‘rare,’’ though possibly only on the authority of New- 
berry. Heermann (1859, p. 68) states that he saw the species in the 
Suisun and Sacramento valleys, as well as frequently in the San 
Francisco markets; but since the Whistling Swan is not listed by him 
at all, this record may be open to query. Newberry (1857, p. 100) 
gives both swans, designating the Trumpeter as the least common, 
and as rare compared with the myriads of the other waterfowl which 
visited this state and Oregon in his time. Salvadori (1895, p. 35) 
lists a Juvenal specimen from ‘‘California’’ as contained in the British 


TRUMPETER SWAN 255 


Museum; this specimen came by presentation from J. Richards, Esq. 
Evermann (1886, p. 91) records the Trumpeter Swan as a winter 
visitant in Ventura County, ‘‘more common’’ than the Whistling. 
Grinnell (1898, p. 13) records two specimens as having been taken 
in Los Angeles County by A. M. Shields; but these were subsequently 
destroyed by fire and the identification has been questioned (Willett, 
1912a, p. 110). Belding (MS) identified three individuals ‘‘by 
description’’ in the markets of Stockton sometime previous to 1890. 
Lansing Kellogg has reported to us that a flock of Trumpeter Swans 
was noted by him on Buena Vista Lake, December 22, 1893. Dawson 
(1909, p. 841) says that there has been no definite record for the 
state of Washington for a number of years. 

In addition to the citations above given, there are a good many 
merely nominal ascriptions of the species to California. Actual speci- 
mens from California do not appear to exist in any American museum. 
It is quite possible that some of the records may really refer to the 
‘Whistling Swan which is still to be found in small numbers within the 
state; but that all of the records for California should have been at 
fault is searcely possible. The Trumpeter was once a member of our 
avifauna, but is now gone. 

In flight the Trumpeter Swan was recognized by its sonorous note, 
said to have been like a French horn in fullness of tone, as compared 
with the more whistle-like note of the Whistling Swan. In the hand 
this species may be identified by its large size (20 to 30 pounds, accord- 
ing to Huntington, 1911, p. 145), and by the entirely black color of the 
long and proportionally narrow bill. 

The Trumpeter Swan is recorded as breeding largely inside the 
Aretie Circle although it formerly bred much farther south. Mac- 
farlane (in Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 185) found several nests 
of this species ‘‘in the Barren Grounds, on islands in Franklin bay, 
and on the beach one was taken which contained six eggs.’’ Raine 
(in Macoun and Macoun, loe. cit.) describes a nest found on Buffalo 
Lake, Alberta, April 7, 1891, as being a large structure, three feet in 
diameter, composed of sods, grass and rushes and lined with feathers 
and down. During the molting season in August adult birds are 
unable to fly. 

In habits the Trumpeter Swan is said to be similar to the Whistling 
Swan. However, it appears to frequent the fresh waters of the 
interior to a larger extent than does the latter species, which may 
indicate a dislike for salt water similar to that shown by certain ducks 
which breed in the interior. The food consists of the roots, leaves, 
and seeds of various water plants, and the bird is said to occasionally 
take aquatic insects, snails and small reptiles, when this type of food 
is available. 


256 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Young birds are said to be decidedly palatable. Adults are also 
reported to have made excellent food when they had ‘‘hung’’ the 
proper length of time, this depending on the weather. The Indians in 
the far north formerly used the eggs for food. 

As above indicated, definite instances of the occurrence of the 
Trumpeter Swan in California are rare, although the concensus of 
evidence indicates that it was a more or less common bird in the 50’s. 
There is no record of the occurrence of this species within the state 
during the past seventeen years. Hence we must point to it as one 
which, like the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse, has been obliterated 
simultaneously with the settlement of the state by white men. 

Nor can we say that this species has simply been driven somewhere 
else. Coale (1915, pp. 82-90) has summarized the records of occur- 
rence of this swan down to date throughout its entire range. He 
finds that ‘‘of the great multitudes of Trumpeter Swans which 
traversed the central and western portion of North America sixty 
years ago, there are [but] sixteen specimens preserved in museums 
which have authentic data. These were collected between the years 
1856 and 1909.’”’ It would appear that the species is now nearly if 
not quite extinct. It is probable that destruction of the birds on their 
breeding grounds had as much or more to do with their disappearance 
as had the hunter in the winter home of the species. For, according 
to MacFarlane (1905, p. 754), between 1853 and 1877, the Hudson’s 
Bay Company sold a total of 17,671 swan skins. The number sold 
annually ranged from 1,312 in 1854 to 122 in 1877. The bulk of 
these are believed to have been Trumpeter Swans. 

Here, then, is a species the disappearance of which must be 
charged to commercialization. At any rate, the Trumpeter Swan is a 
vanished member of our original endowment of game species, though 
the circumstances indicate that citizens of California have not been 
largely responsible. This irreparable loss should teach us to avoid 
such a calamity with other game species in the future. Apparently 
the loss of entire species is necessary to wake us up to our duty toward 
the wild life, just as the lives of many people had to be sacrificed 
before we could realize our duty with regard to the social order. 


Whistling Swan 


Olor columbianus (Ord) 


OTHER NAMES—American Swan; Cygnus americanus. 

DEscrIpTion—Aduilts, both sexes: Entire plumage pure white often discolored 
at tips of feathers with rusty; iris ‘‘brown’’ (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 232); 
bill black; an oblong spot of yellow or orange on each side of upper mandible 
near base; legs and feet black. Males: Total length 51.00-53.40 inches (1,295- 


WHISTLING SWAN 257 


1,360 mm.) ; spread of wings 85.84— 
88.00 (2,180-2,235); weight 14-16 
Ibs. (6.34-7.25 kg.) (three speci- 
mens); folded wing 20.75-22.50 
inches (527-572 mm.); bill along 
culmen 3.80-4.06 (96.5-103.0); 
tarsus 4.18-4.54 (106.3-115.3) (five 
specimens). Females: Total length 
48.25-51.50 inches (1,225-1,308 
mm.); spread of wings 78,17— 
83.00 (1,985-2,108); weight 12% 
Ibs. (5.67 kg.) (two specimens); 
folded wing 20.35-21.60 inches 
(517-5.48 mm.) ; bill along culmen 
3.60—4.49 (91.4-114.0) ; tarsus 3.80- 
4.52 (96.5-114.7) (five specimens) ; 
all from California. Juvenile plum- 
age: Pale dull gray, nearly white 
beneath; head, neck and thighs 
darkest, approaching lead-color; 
head tinged with reddish brown; 
lower surface with more or less 
rusty feather-tipping; bill ‘‘red- 
dish flesh-colour,’’ tip ‘‘dusky’’; 
feet ‘‘dull yellowish flesh-colour’’ 
(Audubon, loc. cit.). Natal plum- 
age: Not known to us. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICA- 
TION—Similar to domesticated white 
swans. Very large size, long neck 
(as long as body), and pure white 
plumage. Distinguished from adult 
Trumpeter Swan at close range 
by smaller size, shorter, broader 
tipped bill, presence of yellowish 
spots on each side of base of bill 
in front of eye, and position of 
nostril (hind border less than 2.35 
inches, 59.7 mm., from tip of bill; 
fig. 40). When on water neck 
meets body at distinct angle so 
that profile of bird resembles the 
figure 2 (reversed) rather than 
the letter S. The latter profile is Fig. 40. Side of bill and head of 
characteristic of certain foreign adult male Whistling Swan. Natural size. 


swans commonly domesticated. Note area between bill and eye, where 
Voice —A high flageolet-like feathers are wanting, and that hind mar- 


note; varied murmurings from high ae aL less than 2.35 inches 


to low (Forbush, 1912, p. 194). 

Nest—Situated near water; a heap of rubbish gathered from the immediate 
vicinity, comprising grass, moss, and dead leaves (Nelson, 1887, p. 92); some- 
times lined with down. : 


iS 
nm 
ie) } 
4 


258 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Eecs—2 to 7, elongate ovate to elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 
4.08 to 4.48 by 2.58 to 2.83 (in millimeters, 103.7 to 113.9 by 65.5 to 71.8), and 
averaging 4.26 by 2.68 (108.2 by 68.0); color dull white, usually stained with 
clay color, and surface of shell pitted (twenty eggs from Alaska). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—-North America. Breeds from northern Alaska south 
to Alaska Peninsula, and on Arctic islands from about latitude 74° south to 
northern Mackenzie and northwestern Hudson Bay. In migration occurs west 
to Bering Island. Winters regularly on Pacifie coast from southern British 
Columbia to southern California, and occasionally in Lower California and 
Mexico; also on Atlantic coast from Delaware to South Carolina, rarely to 
Massachusetts and Florida; rare in interior of United States. Non-breeding 
birds have been known to remain through the summer on Lake Malheur, 
Oregon (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 89; Cooke, 1906, pp. 84-85). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Fairly common winter visitant to suitable 
localities (usually large fresh-water lakes and brackish headwaters of bays) 
south through the state at least to Orange County (Grinnell coll.). Numerous 
recent records and specimens from west-central California (Mus. Vert. Zool.), 
and southern California in vicinity of Los Angeles (Willett, 1912a, p. 28). 


The swans are the largest of all our waterfowl, and by some 
persons are thought to be also the most beautiful and graceful. Two 
species of wild swans have-been known to occur within the State of 
California, both during the winter season. The smaller of these, and 
that which has probably always been the more abundant of the two, 
is the Whistling Swan. 

This species is still fairly plentiful as a winter visitant, arriving in 
late fall or early winter, usually in November or December, and leav- 
ing by the first of April or earlier. The larger lakes and ponds are 
chosen for feeding and loafing grounds. Some of the more recent 
and conspicuous California records are as follows: A flock of fifteen 
to twenty Whistling Swans wintered on the Alameda Gun Club 
grounds in Sonoma County in 1905 (Bolander, 1906, p. 75). A num- 
ber were regularly to be seen near Los Baiios, Merced County, from 
February 15 to March 11, 1912, but by the latter date most of them 
had left for the north (Beck, MS). A flock numbering on one occa- 
sion thirty-one individuals, remained on Laguna Blanca, Santa Bar- 
bara, from December 22, 1908, to January 29, 1909 (Torrey, 1913, 
pp. 80-91). And in 1909 a flock of about forty birds wintered on 
Humboldt Bay (C. I. Clay, MS). In December, 1914, Foster (1915, 
p. 132) saw several flocks on Cache Slough and ‘‘Grizzly Bay.’’ One 
of these flocks numbered fifty birds and another between twenty 
and thirty. 

The resemblance of wild swans to the domesticated varieties found 
on ponds and lakes in our public parks makes general identification of 
the wild birds easy. Swans may be recognized in flight by their pure 
white plumage (no black on wing-tips), their large size, and their long 
necks. The formation of a flock in flight is in V-shaped lines as is the 
case with most geese. 


WHISTLING SWAN 259 


=a eee 


RE 
4° he 


A 


Fig. 41. Side of tarsus and foot of 
Whistling Swan. Natural size. 


Note that tarsus is shorter than middle 
toe without claw. 


Three characters are serviceable in dis- 
tinguishing the adult Whistling Swan 
from the Trumpeter Swan, the other 
species which was once found within the 
state, but is now thought to be extinct. 
The Whistling Swan is smaller, it has a 
yellowish spot at the base of the upper 
mandible on each side, just in front of the 
eye, and the bill is 
shorter, and broader, 
particularly towards 
the end (fig. 40). 
Birds of the year may 


x be readily distinguish- 
Pee ed from adults even 
Ss ire in flight and at con- 


siderable distance by 

the leaden cast of 
their coloration which con- 
trasts strongly with the snowy 
white plumage of the adults. 
In all the specimens at hand, 
of all ages, however, there is 
more or less rusty over-wash 
on the feathers, probably ac- 
quired from something in the water in which the 
birds almost completely immerse themselves when 
feeding. 

In Alaska the Whistling Swan frequents 
forest-bordered lakes in the interior as well as the open lakes which 
dot the lowlands of the delta country. The nest is a bulky affair con- 
structed of grass and moss, about three feet in diameter at the base and 
about 18 inches high (Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 134). Nelson 


260 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


(1887, p. 92) -says that in Alaska the nest is usually built upon some 
small island in some secluded lakelet, or on a rounded bank close to 
the border of a pond. The eggs are deposited in a depression made in 
a heap of rubbish gathered by the birds from the immediate vicinity. 
The young are hatched the last of June or the first of July, and soon 
afterwards the parents lead them to some large lake or stream. There 
also the old birds molt and while growing their new quill feathers are 
unable to fly. 


In moving from their arctic homes in autumn the Swans seemingly divide 
their forces; part going toward the Pacific coast, part southeastward toward 
the south Atlantic states and part south through the region of the Mississippi 
valley. They seem to fly undeviatingly across the country, crossing river valleys 
or mountain ranges, steering a course straight for their distant goal. When 
they arrive at their destination they pay little attention to decoys, but busy 
themselves by plunging their heads to the bottom in shallow water and 
digging up the bottom grass with their beaks. When they find the favorite 
morsels they often dig large holes in the bottom. The Swan does not dive, 
but can readily reach bottom in about three feet of water by standing on its 
head on the bottom and paddling with its feet to keep its balance. When 
undisturbed it is a noisy bird, though silent when alarmed. When a flock 
is at ease, their wierd, high-keyed calls and deeper tones may be heard in 
chorus (Forbush, 1912, p. 200). 

The first comers are in small flocks, composed of a few old birds with their 
eygnets [young]; these are augmented by others, and soon large numbers 
congregate. Their destination is often reached at night; discordant cries 
announce the arrival and tell the satisfaction of a long, tiresome journey 
ended. Few sights are more imposing than the lines of white, and the swan 
drifting majestically along the surface of quiet water is deservedly the emblem 
of beauty and grace. From afar the appearance is of a snowbank. If dis- 
turbed, and not hard-pressed, they swim off rather than take to wing. The 
flight is started with considerable effort; the bird rising heavily against the 
wind quickly mounts to an altitude far out of range, when the wings seem 
almost motionless and the white line sails through the air in striking distine- 
tion to the flapping flight of geese (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, 
pp. 262-263). 


Torrey (1913, pp. 86-87) describes as follows the habits of some 
Whistling Swans which were present on Laguna Blanca near Santa 
Barbara during the winter of 1908: 


As they fed, holding their heads under water for a surprisingly long time, 
a number of ducks collected in the vicinity, diving directly beside them, almost 
or quite under them, in fact, as if—what I doubted not was true—the long- 
necked creatures were stirring up the muddy bottom with a thoroughness 
which the ducks found highly to their advantage.... The swans made not 
the least objection to the ducks’ persistent and rather meddlesome looking 
activities, ... but now and then they indulged in what seemed like slight 
fallings-out among themselves. 

When they had fed thus for some time, they proceeded to bathe: after 
dinner the finger-bowl. And a lively performance it was, with a deal of 


WHISTLING SWAN 261 


noisy splashing as they threw themselves heavily and rather clumsily first on 
one side and then on the other. ... One of the adults (known for such by his 
clear white head) made a particularly brave show in drying himself, stretching 
up to his full height, and shaking his wings and tail in a most vigorous manner. 

In calling ... they hold the head straight up, and then at the moment 
of utterance raise it a little higher still with a sudden jerk. Their loud calls 
sound human. 


The Whistling Swan always feeds in comparatively shallow water, 
using its long neck to tear loose the various aquatic grasses and roots 
of which it is fond. Along the Columbia River swans are said to feed 
on the wapato or swamp potato (Sagittaria latifolia and 8. arifolia) 
(MeAtee, 1914, p. 5). Bendire (in Belding, MS) found the Whistling 
Swan feeding on bulbous roots on the shores of Malheur Lake, Oregon. 
The stomach of one killed at the same place contained twenty small 
shells. Belding (MS) says that in the winter of 1894-95 flocks of 
forty or fifty fed in grain fields near Gridley, Butte County, where 
they proved very destructive. One shot had a rank taste, not very 
different from geese which have been living on growing wheat or grass. 

Old birds are tough and not particularly attractive for the table, 
but the young are considered a delicacy. In spite of the fact that 
they are difficult to shoot, heavy loads and large shot being required 
to kill them, numbers of swans were sold on the markets, before they 
were protected by law. During the season of 1895-96 there were sold 
on the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles 518 swans, most of 
them probably of this species (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 42). Five 
individuals received at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology in 1912 
were carefully weighed and gave the following results: Two females 
each, 1214 pounds; three males, 14, 15, and 16 pounds, respectively. 
A full-grown juvenile bird received in 1916 weighed 814 pounds. 

It is the height of the ambition of most hunters to kill a wild swan. 
Increased desirability seems to accompany the bigness of the quarry 
no matter what the actual worth of the game as food may be. Even 
admitting that the swan comes under the strict definition of a game 
bird, yet its increasing rarity and its beauty rightly places it among 
those species which are now protected throughout the year. Its main 
enemy is the man who must shoot at something, law or no law, and who 
takes chances on making an extraordinary bag about which he can 
brag. 

The heavy drain on the swan population is due to the high estimate 
in which swans are held as game, and because of their value for feathers 
and down. This has brought one species, the Trumpeter Swan, near 
or quite to extermination; while the other, the Whistling Swan, is 
alarmingly scarce as compared with its former numbers. In many 
favorable places where swans regularly wintered in years past there 
are none at all to be seen at the present time. 


262 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


As an example of the persecution to which these birds have been 
subjected, we may cite the following: ‘‘Swans were common winter 
visitors on Humboldt Bay up to three years ago when a flock of about 
forty birds lingered here until all but about six or eight were shot by 
market hunters. I saw eighteen of these birds in the hands of a local 
taxidermist, all of which were shot within a period of less than two 
weeks. He had bought them cheaply, expecting to mount them, and 
sell them at a fancy price, but they were poorly mounted and most of 
them went to ruin right in his shop’’ (C. I. Clay, in letter of March 
16, 1912). It is to be observed that all of these birds were killed 
illegally. 

The Whistling Swan is now far from common in most parts of 
California, and it will certainly suffer the same fate as the now prac- 
tically. extinct Trumpeter Swan, if the rigid protection now accorded 
it is not enforced both here and in the other states and regions through 
which it migrates. Data accumulated since 1913 indicate that the 
Whistling Swan is holding its own and is appearing in even increasing 
numbers in west-central California. Such a gratifying situation is 
doubtless a result of the total protection given to swans in California 
beginning in 1905, and also of the aid extended them under the 
Federal Migratory Bird Law, and goes to show the effectiveness of 
such laws, especially when they are supported by popular sentiment. 


Roseate Spoonbill 
Ajaia ajaja (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Pink Curlew; Ajaja rosea; Platea mexicana; Platalea ajaja. 

DzscripTion—Adults, both sexes: Head yellowish green; space around eye 
and throat sac yellowish orange; band from lower mandible to back of head, 
black; bill yellowish gray at base, mottled with brownish black, otherwise 
pale greenish blue, light on margins; base of margin of lower mandible 
greenish yellow; iris bright carmine; neck white; back and wings rose color, 
deeper on under surface, wing, and hinder portion of body; shafts of scapulars 
and flight feathers light carmine; patch on each side of lower part of neck 
. pale ochre; tail roseate at base, otherwise ochre-yellow, shafts carmine; feet 
pale lake, claws brownish black. Male: Total length 30.75 inches (780 mm.); 
folded wing 15.25 (387); bill 7.00 (177.5); tarsus 4.00 (101.5); weight 4 pounds 
2 ounces (1.87 kg.). Female: Total length 28.00 (711 mm.); weight 3 pounds 
(1.36 kg.) (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 77). Juvenile plumage: Head feathered 
except around base of bill; general color white, more or less tinged with pink 
on wing, tail, and belly; outer margin of wing narrowly dark brown; more 
white and rosy the second year; full plumage acquired in third year (authors). 
Natal plumage: Not known to us. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Heron-like build, pink color, evident even 
at a distance, and conspicuously flat paddle-shaped bill (figs. 42 and 43). 
Much like: ibises in general habits. In flight the neck and feet are fully 
extended, and the wing-strokes are regular. 


ROSEATE SPOONBILL 263 


VoIcE—(?) 

Nest—In colonies in tropical swamps; a platform of sticks placed in a 
tree or shrub. 

Eees—Usually 3, nearly elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 2.44 to 
2.82 by 1.63 to 1.71 (in millimeters, 62.0 to 71.5 by 41.5 to 43.5), and averag- 
ing 2.56 by 1.67 (65.0 by 42.5) (twenty eggs in U. S. National Museum); color 
dull white or pale greenish blue with various brown markings (Reed, 1904, 
p. 90). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America, from Texas, Louisiana, 
Florida, and Georgia south to Patagonia and the Falkland Islands; formerly 
casual north to Pennsylvania and the lower Ohio Valley (Indiana and Illinois) ; 
more rarely to California, Colorado, Kansas, and Wisconsin (A. O. U. Check- 
list, 1910, p. 91). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIsa—Very rare summer visitant from the south. 
Has been definitely reported as follows: Several times as far north as San 
Francisco (Gambel, 1849, p. 222); one seen near San Bernardino, June 20, 1903, 
and one seen flying overhead at Riverside, in 1902 (Stephens, 1904, p. 139); 
along Colorado River near Palo Verde, Imperial County, during summer months 
of 1913 (Leo Wiley, in letter); but no California-taken specimens are known. 
Rumors are current of its presence in the Imperial Valley in the summer of 1909. 


The Roseate Spoonbill is typically a far southern bird, breeding in 
abundance in portions of Mexico, Central and South America. In the 
United States it is to be found as a resident in the Gulf region only. 
In summer, stragglers have occurred as far north as Pennsylvania, 
Wisconsin, Kansas, Colorado, and California. 

For some time the Roseate Spoonbill in California was known only 
from the statement of Gambel (1849, p. 222), that ‘‘small flocks of 
this beautiful bird have several times extended up the coast even as 
far as San Franciseo.’’ Although Cooper (1877, p. 95) has expressed 
misgivings as to Gambel’s identification, more recent confirmatory 
evidence to a degree tends to substantiate it. 

The following notes by Stephens (1904, p. 139) are to our knowl- 
edge the only published records of the Roseate Spoonbill in California 
within late years: 

Mr. R. B. Herron tells me that he saw a Roseate Spoonbill standing in a 
pond about four miles south of San Bernardino on June 20, 1903. It was 
feeding in the pond near the road and paid no attention as he drove past 
within gunshot. At first he thought it was a Wood Ibis, (Tantalus, loculator) 
put on coming near he saw the pink tinge of the plumage and the spatulate 
bill. On his return the next morning he brought a gun, but the bird was gone. 
On mentioning the matter to Mr. H. E. Wilder he told me that about a year 
previously (1902), when in Riverside, he saw a bird fly over that he felt sure 
was a Roseate Spoonbill. 


Roseate Spoonbills were reported to us informally from the Im- 
perial Valley in 1909; and Leo Wiley has written us that he finds this 
species appearing along the banks of the lower Colorado River in the 
vicinity of Palo Verde during the hot months of the summer season. 


264 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


It evidently comes north along with various herons and the Wood 
Ibis after the close of its breeding season in the south. 

In the field as well as in the hand the Roseate Spoonbill is easily 
recognized. The pink color of its plumage may be seen at a con- 
siderable distance, and the thin, flat, broad-ended bill (figs. 42 and 43) 
is totally different from that of any other bird found in the state. The 
flight is stated to be somewhat ibis-like, the neck being fully extended. 
The wing-strokes are, however, continuous, and not interrupted by 
short intervals of gliding. Spoonbills frequent the shores of ponds 
and streams, and in Mexico are also found along the seacoast. 

The breeding season appears to be exceedingly variable and greatly 
extended. There are records of eggs in Florida and Cuba from Jan- 
uary to August and young have been seen in the nest in December 
(Cooke, 1913, pp. 138-14). The following account of the breeding 
habits of this bird is given by Davie (1889, p. 86) : 


Marshy or muddy borders of estuaries, the mouths of rivers, shrubby 
islands of tropical seas, or some dense marsh, are the favorite breeding 
resorts. : 

Mr. R. E. Rachford visited a small colony of these birds in Southwestern 
Louisiana, June 2, 1886. The birds were found nesting in a clump of cypress 
trees in a low marshy place fully twenty miles from habitation. Here also 
nested the Snowy, Louisiana and Little Blue Herons and the Snake Bird. 

The nests of the Spoonbills were placed from eight to eighteen feet from 
the ground, and the usual number of eggs found in the nests was three or 
four; although from one nest seven eggs were taken, and five or six from 
several others. The nests were platforms of sticks, and for the most part were 
built close to the trunks of the trees; they were usually more massive than 
the Herons nests. 

The general shape of the eggs is ovate; and their color is white, or buffy- 
white, blotched, spotted and stained with various shades of brown; sometimes 
a pure white egg is found in a nest with spotted or marked examples. 


The general habits of the Roseate Spoonbill are evidently much 
like those of the ibises. Its manner of feeding, however, is different, 
for the bird immerses the bill and swings it from side to side to sift 
the food out of the mud (Chapman, 1912, p. 217). It is said to feed 
on insects and shellfish, and to forage almost entirely at night. 

Like the several species of ibises this bird is said sometimes to take 
wing without apparent provocation, and then ascend gradually, in a 
spiral manner, to a great height. It is often found in the company of 
herons, and it often happens that these, by their own natural vigilance, 
are able to warn it of the approach of danger. The Roseate Spoonbill 
can alight on a tree and walk on the branches with all the facility of a 
heron (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, pp. 105-106). 

The Roseate Spoonbill is not a true game bird, for it is a near 
relative of the herons. It chances to be included among the game 


265 


ROSEATE SPOONBILL 


RosEaTE SPoonBILL 


e.g A ie 
os: aa 
Fare 


Fig. 42. Side of bill. 


Fig. 43. Top of bill. Natural size. 


Note sense pits on upper surface of broad expanded end of bill. 


», 


yy 


RNs 


» 
ea 


266 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


birds of our state because it belongs to the same order of birds as the 
White-faced Glossy Ibis which has in California been ranked as a 
game species. The extraordinary appearance of this bird naturally 
attracts attention, but does not warrant the destruction of the species 
hy the hunter. 

In many parts of its general range the Roseate Spoonbill has been 
almost exterminated by plume hunters. But in California it never 
occurred in conspicuous numbers, and the probability is that it will 
always remain one of the rarest birds accredited to the state—a 
natural curiosity that should be conserved as such. 


Wood Ibis 


Mycterta americana Linnaeus 


OTHER NAMES—Water Turkey; Tantalus loculator. 

Descriprion—Adults, both sexes: Whole head and upper neck devoid of 
feathers (save for a few small scattering ones on fore and hind neck), and 
covered with a hard, scurfy skin of a dusky bluish color; top of head covered 
with a horny shield about one and three-quarters inches square; iris ‘‘deep 
brown’’ (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 70); bill stout, tapering, and curved down- 
wards at end, dull yellowish brown in color, edges and tip greenish yellow; 
whole of plumage white except for flight feathers, primary wing coverts, and 
tail feathers, which are black with metallic green and purple iridescence; legs 
bluish black; toes yellowish; claws black. Total length (both sexes) ‘‘35.00- 
45.00’’ inches (888-1,143 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 125); folded wing 19.00- 
19.35 (483-492); bill along culmen 9.00-9.12 (228-231.5); tarsus 8.25-8.50 
(209-216) (two specimens from Imperial County, California). Juvenile 
plumage: Head and neck feathered, save for region about base of bill-in front 
of eyes, and top of head between eyes, which are continuously naked; feathers 
of head and neck grayish brown, approaching brownish black on hind neck 
and sides of neck; otherwise as in adult, but with black portions of plumage 
showing less of metallic sheen. Natal plumage: Not known to us. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size (over three feet tall when 
standing), white plumage, black tail and wing tips, bare forehead, heavy bill 
down-curved towards tip, and long stout legs. 

Vorce—Usually silent; call-note: croak, croak, croak (Coues, 1874, p. 515). 
Utters a ‘‘rough guttural croaking note’’ when frightened (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 84). 

Nerst—In tall trees in dense cypress swamps; a platform of sticks loosely 
arranged and lined with moss. 

Eees—3, elongate or elliptical ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.57 to 
3.12 by 1.77 to 1.92 (in millimeters, 65.2 to 79.3 by 45.0 to 48.7), and averag- 
ing 2.75 by 1.84 (69.9 by 46.7); color white, without surface gloss (nine eggs 
in U.S. National Museum from Florida). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Temperate and tropical America from southern 
‘California, Arizona, Texas, Ohio Valley, and South Carolina south to Argentina; 
casual north to Montana, Wisconsin, New York, and Vermont (A. O. U. Check- 
list, 1910, p. 93). 


WOOD IBIS 267 


DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Regular and common summer visitant along 
lower Colorado River; irregular and less common visitant in midsummer 
through southern California. Recorded by Cooper (1887, p. 90) as having been 
seen north to San Francisco Bay and the San Joaquin Valley. No authentic 
instance of breeding on the Pacific slope north of the Mexican line. 


The Wood Ibis is a tropical species of wide distribution in Central 
and South America. In the United States it is common only in 
Florida and along the Gulf Coast to southern Texas. After the breed- 
ing season, and when the young are fully grown, both old and young 
are in the habit of moving northward to the swamps along the Missis- 
sippi River, particularly in southeastern Missouri and southern Illinois, 
which at this season of the year swarm with their favorite food. In 
similar fashion the breeding birds of the coast of western Mexico 
work northward in summer after the nesting season. They are espe- 
cially common in the valley of the lower Colorado River, and also 
appear, though irregularly, throughout southern California (Cooke, 
1918, pp. 22-24). 

The Wood Ibis is the only member of the family of true storks 
to be found in California. Along the lower course of the Colorado 
River it is regularly found during the summer season, but in other 
southern parts of the state it is more or less of a straggler. The most 
recent records of its occurrence within the state are: Daggett, San 
Bernardino County (Lamb, 1912, p. 34); near Long Beach, Los 
Angeles County (Law, 1912a, p. 41); and near Los Angeles (Willett, 
1912b, pp. 194-195). The earliest seasonal record within the state 
is for May 18, and the latest August 5. The northernmost record 
stations are on San Francisco Bay (Cooper, 1887, p. 90). 

The Wood Ibis cannot be confused with any other bird found in 
California; for no other large crane-like bird has a bald head, white 
plumage, and black-tipped wings and tail. The extremely long bill, 
stout at base and slightly curved downwards toward the tip, is like- 
wise diagnostic. This bird stands over three feet in height and thus 
presents a conspicuous figure about the open margins of shallow ponds 
and on marshy land and the shores of streams, where it forages. 

Nests of the Wood Ibis have never been found in California, the 
species apparently requiring a warmer and moister climate than ours 
during the breeding season. In the Gulf states the Wood Ibis like 
the herons selects dense cypress swamps for its breeding grounds, and 
nests in colonies. The nest is built of sticks and is placed in the 
tallest of trees. The cavity is deep and usually lined with moss. Eggs 
have been found in Florida as early as December 8 and January 5. 
Consequently this species must be considered one of the earliest of 
birds to breed (Cooke, 1913, p. 24). According to Audubon (1848, 
VI, pp. 68-69, 70) the young are entirely dusky gray, with brownish 


268 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


black wings and bill. The head is at first covered, but becomes 
partially bare after the first moult. Four years are said to be required 
for the bird to attain its full plumage. 

Wood Ibises seen by Stephens (1903, p. 76) along the Colorado 
River near Needles, in June, were not shy and were feeding in the 
shallower parts of the lagoons, wading about where the water was a 
few inches deep. Eight birds under observation by Feudge (1903, 
p. 79) in San Bernardino County midway between San Bernardino 
and Highlands, in the summer of 1901, and three seen in the same 
locality on June 5, 1902, were foraging in damp fields and in the creek 
bottoms, but were occasionally seen circling high in the air. Law 
(1912a, p. 41) describes the manner in which a Wood Ibis was feeding 
at Dominguez Station, near Long Beach, on July 2, 1911, in the follow- 
ing words: ‘‘It was standing almost knee deep in the muddy water, 
and would insert its bill almost up to the eyes and then, standing on 
one foot, would seem to be stirring up the water with the other foot.’’ 
The farmers in this vicinity stated that half a dozen of the birds had 
visited the slough almost every day for a month. ‘‘One was shot 
some years since at San Leandro... [Alameda County] having 
ineautiously alighted on a shade tree by the roadside’’ (Cooper, 1887, 
p. 90). 


The carriage of the Wood Ibis is firm and sedate, almost stately; each 
leg is slowly lifted and planted with deliberate precision, before the other is 
moved, when the birds walk unsuspicious of danger. I never saw one run 
rapidly, since on all the occasions when I have been the cause of alarm, the 
bird took wing directly. It springs powerfully from the ground, bending 
low to gather strength, and for a little distance flaps hurriedly with dangling 
legs, as if it was much exertion to lift so heavy a body. But fairly on wing, 
elear of all obstacles, the flight is firm, strong, and direct, performed with 
continuous moderately rapid beats of the wing, except when the birds are 
sailing in circles as above noted. When proceeding in a straight line the 
feet are stretched horizontally backward, but the head is not drawn closely 
in upon the breast, as is the case with Herons, so that the bird presents what 
may be called a top-heavy appearance, increased by the thick, large bill (Coues, 
1874, p. 516). 

The Wood Ibis ... feeds entirely on fish and aquatie reptiles, of which it 
destroys an enormous quantity, in fact more than it eats; for if they have been 
killing fish for a half an hour and have gorged themselves, they suffer the rest to 
lie on the water untouched, when it becomes food for Alligators, Crows and 
Vultures. ... To procure its food, the Wood Ibis walks through shallow 
muddy lakes or bayous in numbers. As soon as they have discovered a place 
abounding in fish, they dance as it were all through it, until the water becomes 
thick with the mud stirred from the bottom by their feet. The fishes, on 
rising to the surface, are instantly struck by the beaks of the Ibises, and on 
being deprived of life, they turn over and so remain. In the course of ten or 
fifteen minutes, hundreds of fishes, frogs, young alligators, and water-snakes 
cover the surface, and the birds greedily swallow them until they are completely 


WHITE-FACED GLOSSY IBIS 269 


gorged, after which they walk to the nearest margins, place themselves in 
long rows, with their breasts all turned toward the sun, in the manner of 
Pelicans and Vultures, and thus remain for an hour or so (Audubon, 1843, VI, 
p. 65). 


The crop of a Wood Ibis taken at Bixby, Los Angeles County, 
August 23, 1901, and examined by Daggett (1903, p. 19) was filled 
with aquatic insects. Leo Wiley (in letter of February 19, 1915) 
states that three Wood Ibises which were examined by him at Palo 
Verde, Imperial County, showed stomach contents as follows: (1) 
three tadpoles, four ‘‘pumpkin-seed’’ beetles (water beetles), two 
paddle bugs, and moss and slime; (2) nine tadpoles, one pumpkin- 
seed beetle, nine dragon-fly larvae, and one fish (a carp); (3) one 
water-cricket, ten carp, one catfish, and two bony-tails (a kind of 
fish). 

There seems to be a difference of opinion as to the value of the 
Wood Ibis as a bird for the table. Along the Colorado River, where 
it is known as the ‘‘Water Turkey,’’ it has been eaten with relish; 
but as a rule, north of Mexico it is classified along with the herons 
as being beneath the dignity of a game species. As far as California 
is concerned the Wood Ibis should be protected as a bird whose rarity 
makes it a subject of interest rather than an object of sport. 


White-faced Glossy Ibis 


Plegadis guarauna (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Bronze Curlew; Black Curlew; Falcinellus cayanensis; Ibis 
ordi; Ibis mexicanus ; Ibis thalassinus. 

Description—Adults, both sexes: Head, neck, and body in general, deep 
cinnamon brown; a narrow area about base of bill and extending back around 
each eye, white; bare naked skin about base of bill and including area about 
eye, reddish purple; iris blood red; bill slate-colored, slender, curved down- 
ward like that of a curlew; top of head, lower back, wings and tail giving 
metallic reflections of purple, pinkish bronze, and green; longer scapulars and 
outer surface of closed wing with purplish and greenish reflections predominat- 
ing; shorter scapulars and lesser wing coverts rich chestnut; primaries irides- 
cent green; secondaries mostly bronze; sides of body, axillars, and under 
surface of wing, bronze, purple and green according to angle of view; rump 
and tail mixed green and purple; lower tail coverts with steel blue and purple 
reflections; legs and feet varying from grayish brown to dark reddish purple. 
Males: Total length 23.75-24.00 inches (603-610 mm.) (two specimens); folded 
wing 10.40-10.75 (264-273); bill along culmen 5.25-5.67 (133-144); tarsus 3.90- 
4,15 (99-105.5) (six specimens). Females: Folded wing 9.45-9.75 (240-248) ; bill 
along culmen 4.30-4.55 (109-115.5); tarsus 3.35-3.40 (85-86.4) (two specimens) ; 
weight 13.6 oz. (386 gm.) (one specimen); all from California. Juvenile plumage: 
Cinnamon and chestnut hues wholly lacking; head, neck and lower surface, dull 
grayish brown, the head and upper part of neck streaked narrowly with 
white; back grayish brown, with green and steel blue reflections; outer sur- 


270 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


face of closed wing, and flight feathers, dusky, with green and steel blue 
reflections, but bronze and purple iridescence of adults lacking. Second-year 
(or winter?) plumage: Like juvenal in body plumage (that is, with grayish 
brown body and white-streaked head), but with lower back, wings and tail, 
more as in adult, differing only in lesser amount of rich chestnut, and purplish 
pink reflections. Natal plumage: ‘‘Uniform blackish .. . bill whitish, with 
dusky base’’ (Ridgway, 1900, p. 124). 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Curlew-like profile, bright iridescent chest- 
nut-colored plumage appearing black at a distance (whence the name Black 
Curlew), down-curved curlew-like bill about five inches in length (fig. 44), 
and long legs. Fly in orderly diagonal lines, each bird with legs and neck 
extended (pl. 8). 

Votce—A hoarse kd-6nk, several times repeated (Grinnell, MS); a jerky, 
squawking cry of three syllables, rapidly repeated when disturbed (Shields, 
1894, p. 108); a nasal ooh-ick-ooh-ick (Chapman, 1908, p. 292). 

Nest—Jn colonies in marshes, compactly built of dry tules, placed on a 
foundation of bent-over growing tules a foot or more above the water. 

Eees—3 to 4, rarely 5, elongate ovate and rather pointed, measuring in 
inches, 1.81 to 2.16 by 1.40 to 1.46 (in millimeters, 46.0 to 55.0 by 35.5 to 37.0), 
and averaging 2.03 by 1.42 (51.5 by 36.0) (forty-six eggs in U. S. National 
Museum); color dark blue fading to lighter blue during incubation. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION — Temperate and tropical America from southern 
Oregon, Arizona, Texas, and Florida south through Mexico; also in southern 
South America; migratory in the northern portion of its range; casual north 
to British Columbia, Wyoming, and Nebraska (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 92). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common summer visitant interiorly to south- 
ern and central portions of the state. Breeds in suitable swampy areas. Some 
northern record stations are: Lower Klamath Lake, Siskiyou County (H. C. 
Bryant, 1914e, p. 232); Sutter County (Belding, 1879, p. 443); Owens Valley 
(A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 19); casual on Farallon Islands (W. E. Bryant, 1888, 
p. 42). Some breeding stations are: Escondido, San Diego County (Sharp, 
1907, p. 91); San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County (Willett and Jay, 1911, p. 
159); Los Bafios, Merced County (Mailliard coll.; H. C. Bryant, MS). Winters 
occasionally in the southern coastal district, and in vicinity of Los Bajiios 
(Mus. Vert. Zool.) and Stockton (Belding, MS). 


Like the Cinnamon Teal, the White-faced Glossy Ibis furnishes a 
good example of discontinuous or interrupted distribution. Although 
found in both North and South America there is a great extent of 
country in Central and northern South America where it is not found. 
The two ranges are separated by 22° of longitude and 30° of latitude 
and there is but one record of the occurrence of even a straggler in 
this intervening territory (Cooke, 1918, pp. 19-21). 

In North America the White-faced Glossy Ibis is to be found 
from central Mexico north to Louisiana, Utah and Oregon, and occa- 
sionally as far north as Minnesota, Wyoming, Idaho and southern 
British Columbia. Its winter and summer ranges overlap to some 
extent, but most birds of the species winter south of the United 
States. There are records of its occurrence in winter at Tombstone, 
Arizona, and in San Diego, Los Angeles, Merced and San Joaquin 
counties, California. 


UNIV. CALIF. SEMICENT. PUBL. [GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 8 


WHITE-FACED GLOSSY IBIS 


WHITE-FACED GLOSSY IBIS 271 


In California this is a common summer 
visitant and breeder in the San Joaquin Val- 
ley. One or two colonies have been found in 
southern California. Elsewhere in the state 
the records pertain as far as known to birds 
in migration or on foraging expeditions. Thus 
the northernmost records of occurrence in 
California are probably of birds in transit to 
or from the known breeding colonies in eastern 
Oregon. 

Beck (MS) noted the first of these Ibises 
at Los Bajios, Merced County, in 1912, on 
April 22, when he saw two bands of about 
twenty each flying north. Lamb (1912, p. 34) 
noted the species as late as September 10 and 
24 at an oasis on the Mohave desert. <A re- 
markable flight of White-faced Glossy Ibises 
was noted by Belding (1905, p. 112) at 
‘‘Stockton on May 5, 6, 7, 1879, during a gale 
from the northwest which lasted for three 
days. During this time from 4,000 to 5,000 
of these birds flew north. They followed the 
eastern edge of the tule marsh as nearly as the 
strong wind would allow them to, going by 
sinuous flight up and down, to the right and 
left, with few wing strokes.’’ 

J.S. Hunter (MS) saw about 200 Ibises in 
one flock near Los Bafios on October 30, 1914. 
This is an exceptionally late date in this lati- 
tude for more than occasional stragglers. 
There are in the Museum of Vertebrate 
Zoology three specimens taken in the same 
locality on November 25 and December 4 and 
23,1911. One of these was plainly a cripple, 
and all were immature. But Belding (MS) 
saw a flock of more than a hundred feeding : ve TP unary Glens 
in a pasture near Stockton on February 9, Ibis. Natural size. 


1886, and several dozen were seen by him in ote qown-eurved itp 
the markets of Stockton during the winter of and naked area between 
1885. Small flocks were observed in the one ce oa 
winter of 1885 (January 1, ete.) near San 

Diego (Holterhoff, 1885, p. 312), and there are other reports of occa- 
sional winter occurrences in the southern coastal district; but the 


species cannot be considered as regularly present in winter north of 
the Mexican line. 


272 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The White-faced Glossy Ibis chooses dense tule thickets for its 
breeding grounds. The nests are built in colonies and are composed 
of dry tules and often lined with marsh grass. They are placed on 
broken-down growing tules one to six feet above the water. In 
‘‘northern San Diego County,’’ Shields (1894, pp. 108-109) found 
new nests and completed sets slightly incubated on May 29, 1893. 
The Mailliard collection contains a number of sets of two to four 
eggs taken in Merced County on July 4 and 12, 1913. These eggs 
varied from fresh to slightly incubated. The nests varied in height 
above the water from one foot to eighteen inches. 

Willett and Jay (1911, p. 159) give the following account of the 
nesting of the White-faced Glossy Ibis at San Jacinto Lake, River- 
side County, as observed there May 28, 1911: 


In nearly every patch of tules was a nest or two of this species, and in 
the patch farthest west which covered about a half acre, there must have been 
at least two hundred nests. They were built on bent-down tules, and were 
composed of tule stalks and lined with marsh grass. They were situated from 
two to six feet above the water, the average height being about four feet. 
About half the nests examined contained young and most of the others held 
badly incubated eggs. A very few fresh sets were found but the height of 
the nesting season was past. The sets almost invariably consisted of three or 
four eggs. In one or two instances sets of two incubated eggs were noted, 
and three nests contained five eggs each, two nests six eggs each, and one 
nest had seven. It is probable that sets numbering more than five eggs were 
deposited by more than one bird. In fact they invariably showed two differ-. 
ent types of eggs. The color of the eggs evidently fades with incubation, as 
the heavily incubated eggs are much lighter blue than the freshly laid ones. 
This is probably the largest breeding colony of these birds in southern Cali- 
fornia west of the mountains. 


The White-faced Glossy Ibis is usually to be found in or near 
marshes. It is ordinarily seen in small flocks wading in shallow 
water, probing into the soft muddy ground with its long sickle-shaped 
bill, or circling overhead with slow wing-beats and an occasional soar- 
ing flight. While on the ground, Ibises have the dignified pose of 
herons, but while on the wing more nearly resemble cranes. 

The White-faced Glossy Ibis performs interesting aerial evolu- 
tions. Chapman (1908, p. 292) describes this habit as witnessed near 
Los Bafios, Merced County, in the following words: 


In close formation, they soared skyward in a broad spiral, mounting higher 
and higher until, in this leisurely and graceful manner, they had reached an 
elevation of at least 500 feet. Then, without a moment’s pause and with 
thrilling speed, they dived earthward. Sometimes they went together as one 
bird, at others each bird steered its own course, when the air seemed full of 
plunging, darting, crazy Ibises. When about fifty feet from the ground, their 
reckless dash was checked, and, on bowed wings, they turned abruptly and 
shot upward. Shortly after, like the rush of a gust of wind, we heard the 


LITTLE BROWN CRANE 273 


humming sound caused by the swift passage through the air of their stiffened 
pinions. 


The food of this Ibis is composed of insects, worms, snails, 
crustacea, small fish, and frogs. Most of its food is apparently 
obtained by probing in the mud. Belding (MS) states that the 
stomach of a bird shot in some tules near Stockton March 18, 1886, 
was full of fragments of an aquatic plant among which were the legs 
of a beetle. 

The resemblance of this bird to a curlew has doubtless led people 
to suppose it related to the shore-birds, and hence of desirable table 
qualities. But judging from the food of the White-faced Glossy Ibis, 
which appears to be of similar nature to that of the herons, one 
would not expect to find the Ibis particularly palatable as an article 
of food. Belding (MS) states that he never knew of anyone eating 
Ibis in California excepting Chinese. Yet this species has been 
marketed in the larger cities with apparent regularity for many years, 
as witness Heermann’s report of its being sold here during the fifties 
(1859, p. 63). 

California is the only state in the Union that has ever ranked the 
White-faced Glossy Ibis as a game bird, and provided an open season 
for it. In three states, Nevada, Kansas, and New Mexico, the bird is 
unprotected, but in all other states where it is found it is protected 
by law the year round. The open season in California was from 
October 15 to March 1 in the northern part of the state, and from 
October 1 to March 1 in southern California. The bag limit was twenty 
birds. Even with this open season there was little drain on the num- 
bers, for, as a matter of fact, because of the marked migratory habit 
of this species, but few are to be found as a rule within the state during 
the open season. In 1915 ibis were removed from the list of game birds 
and thereby came under the laws protecting non-game birds. Large 
numbers of White-faced Glossy Ibis continue to nest in the larger 
fresh-water marshes, and the greatest danger to the species lies in the 
possible reclamation of these breeding grounds. 


Little Brown Crane 


Grus canadensis (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Sandhill Crane, part; Grus mexicana part. 

DESCRIPTION—A dults, both sexes: Large area on top of head to level of eyes, 
and including space between bill and eye, bald, with but scattering black 
‘chairs’? (hair-like feathers); the granulated skin of this area is ‘‘dull livid 
red’’ in life (Nelson, 1887, p. 96), and the feathers on hind head extend 
forward into it in the form of a wedge; bill black; iris ‘‘orange yellow’’ 
(Nelson, loc. cit.); whole of plumage light leaden gray, except for primary 
wing feathers which are brownish black with dull white shafts; gray clearest 


274 — GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


on neck and chest, while cheeks and throat are usually lighter, sometimes 
almost white; a rusty brown wash often covers parts of plumage; legs and feet 
black. Males: Total length 35.50-39.50 inches (901-1,003 mm.) (three speci- 
mens from Alaska); folded wing 17.40-20.20 (442-513); bill along culmen 3.22— 
3.98 (81.8-101.0); tarsus 6.58-8.35 (167-212) (nine specimens from California 
and Alaska). Females: Total length 33.70 (856) (one specimen from Califor- 
nia); folded wing 17.90-19.12 (455-486); bill along culmen 3.66-3.78 (92.8— 
96.0); tarsus 7.20-8.45 (183-215) (three specimens from California). Juvenile 
plumage: Similar to that of adult, but head entirely gray-feathered; back of 
head and neck with a rusty brown patch, and same tone conspicuous on feather 
margins of back and wing coverts. Natal plumage: Not known to us. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size, standing about three feet, 
long neck and black legs, and general bluish gray coloration, without any 
contrasted markings; forehead unfeathered in adults (fig. 45) ; neck straight out in 
flight, not drawn in or ‘‘crooked’’ as with Herons. With us in winter usually 
in flocks, rather than singly. The only distinguishing mark between the Little 
Brown and Sandhill cranes is size; see measurements of latter beyond. 

Vorce—‘‘ A loud, hard, rolling k-r-roo kr-r-r-roo, kit-kr-r-roo’’ (Nelson, 1887, 
p. 94). 

Nest—aA slight hollow in ground sprinkled with grass or twigs. 

Eees—2, elongately ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 3.29 to 3.88 by 
2.10 to 2.34 (in millimeters, 83.6 to 98.4 by 53.3 to 59.4), and averaging 3.62 
by 2.25 (91.9 by 57.2) (nineteen eggs from Alaska); color light buffy or olive 
brown, spotted and blotched, most thickly at large end, with reddish brown, 
grayish brown, and lavender; these markings have a distinctly longitudinal 
trend. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds from northern and western 
Alaska east to Baffin Land and central Keewatin; migrates south along the 
Pacific coast and through the interior of the United States, wintering from 
California and Texas south to Jalisco, Mexico. Has been recorded in summer 
from eastern Siberia (Cooke, 1914, pp. 7-9). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common migrant through interior portions of 
the state. Remains throughout winter in varying numbers north at least 
through San Joaquin Valley. Does not as a rule visit seacoast or affect 
vicinity of alkali lakes, preferring open plains or vicinity of fresh water. 


The cranes are among the largest of the long-legged game birds 
occurring in California. Their well-known rolling cries as they pass 
to and fro in migration most often bring them to popular notice. 
Because of their extreme shyness and habit of foraging far out on 
open plains they are usually successful in eluding the hunter, and, in 
spite of the good quality of their flesh, have come nearer maintaining 
their numbers than many smaller species. Among the near relatives 
of the Little Brown Crane only the closely similar Sandhill Crane can 
lay proper claim to a place among California birds. It is true that 
the Whooping Crane (Grus americana), of much larger size and chiefly 
white plumage, was thought by Belding (1891, p. 99; also MS) to have 
been seen by him on two or more occasions, in flight, in Butte and 
Sutter counties. But no specimens of this species from anywhere west 
of the Rocky Mountains are preserved in any museum. 


LITTLE BROWN CRANE 275 


The Little Brown and Sandhill cranes are identical in proportions 
and coloration, differing only in the decidedly greater size of the 
latter (see measurements). Neither of them should be confused with 
any of the herons, to which, especially the Great’ Blue Heron, they bear 
some general resemblance. The cranes have no sharply contrasted 
white or black markings, in the adult their heads are bald (down to the 
level of the eyes), their necks are held out straight in flight (not drawn 
in or ‘‘crooked’’), and their sonorous rolling cries are totally different 
from the guttural squawks of the herons. 

Writing from Montana, Cameron (1907, p. 251) says: ‘‘If un- 
disturbed the cranes fed in the morning and evening, strongly recall- 
ing turkeys in general behavior; their stately manner of walking and 


Fig. 45. Side of bill and head of Little Brown Crane. One-half natural size. 


Note hair-like feathers on forehead and smaller size as 
compared with Sandhill Crane (fig. 46). 


drooping tertiary plumes causing them to present a striking appear- 
ance.’’ 

During the breeding season the Little Brown Crane is confined to 
northern North America from the vicinity of Hudson Bay to Alaska, 
where it inhabits the great treeless tundras. It migrates through 
Canada and the western United States, wintering from California 
and Texas southward into Mexico. In California this crane is most 
abundant during the season of migration, but considerable numbers 
remain through the winter in the San Joaquin Valley and on suitable 
parts of the coastal slope.of southern California. As judged from the 
size of migrating flocks each year, there has been some diminution 
in numbers, though estimates are difficult to make. Formerly the 
term ‘‘thousands’’ was often applied to the migrating hosts. 

James A. MacDonald, Jr., of Lathrop, San Joaquin County, states 
(MS) that five flocks of cranes were seen feeding in that vicinity on 
February 4, 1914. In one flock which flew overhead 149 birds were 


276 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


counted, and it was estimated that at least 800 birds were seen inside 
of forty-five minutes. Persons in the neighborhood reported that 
flocks of cranes had been feeding in that vicinity for the two or three 
months previous to this observation. Six specimens now in the 
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology were collected at Los Bajios, Merced 
County, February 6, 1912. The following migration data gathered 
by Belding (MS), although attributed to the Sandhill Crane, prob- 
ably, in the light of our present knowledge, refer chiefly or altogether 
to the Little Brown Crane. The earliest fall records for Stockton, 
San Joaquin County, are: September 18, 1880, and September 23, 
1881, when cranes were seen flying south. At Campo, San Diego 
County, many flocks have been seen passing high overhead in a south- 
easterly direction which would have led them to the head of the Gulf 
of California where the species is known to winter abundantly. In 
early spring flocks have been noted traversing the same course in re- 
verse direction. In the vicinity of Volean Mountain, San’ Diego 
County, cranes were seen going north or northwest in flocks March 16 
and 20. At Tehachapi Pass, Kern County, April 4, 1889, many flocks 
were seen by Belding going west to the San Joaquin Valley, the flight 
continuing interruptedly for several days. They were first seen at 
Marysville, Yuba County, in 1884, on March 6, but the bulk did not 
arrive until May 1. The same year large numbers were seen going 
north at Chico, Butte County, on May 2; the last were seen on May 20. 
At Gridley, Butte County, large flocks were seen going north on 
May 10, 1884. 

The Little Brown Crane resorts to a far northern summer home 
where it can raise its young in safety from most of its enemies and 
where suitable food is to be found in abundance. The vast open 
tundras of western and northern Alaska and extreme northern British 
America afford these conditions. Because of the prolonged winters, 
the cranes do not arrive on their breeding grounds until some time 
in May, and this may account for the lateness of their departure 
from California. The earliest arrivals at Saint Michael, Alaska, have 
been noted. on May 7 (Nelson, 1887, p. 94); farther north, on the 
Kowak River, Alaska, the first birds in 1899 appeared on May 14 
(Grinnell, 1900, p. 19). 

Recording his experiences with the Little Brown Crane at St. 
Michael, Nelson (loc. cit.) says: ‘‘They come from the south toward 
the Lower Yukon, and on mild, pleasant days it is a common sight to 
see the cranes advancing high overhead in wide circuits, poised on 
motionless wings, and moving with a grace unexpected in such 
awkwardly formed birds... .. The air is filled with the loud, hard, 
rolling k-r-roo, kr-r-r-roo, kit-kr-r-roo, and either flying by, with trail- 
ing legs, or moving gravely from place to place, they do much to 
render the monotonous landscape animate.’’ 


LITTLE BROWN CRANE 277 


Immediately upon their arrival courtship begins. The mating 
antics of this species are thus described by Nelson (1887, p. 95). On 
May 18, while lying in a hunting blind, he witnessed the performances 
of two cranes which alighted near by: 


The first comer remained alone but a short time, when a second bird 
came along, uttering his loud note at short intervals, until he espied the bird 
on the ground, when he made a slight circuit, and dropped close by. Both 
birds then joined in a series of loud rolling cries in quick succession. Suddenly 
the new-comer, which appeared to be a male, wheeled his back toward the 
female and made a low bow, his head nearly touching the ground, and ending 
by a quick leap into the air; another pirouette brings him facing his charmer, 
whom he greets with a still deeper bow, his wings meanwhile hanging loosely 
by his sides. She replies by an answering bow and hop, and then each tries 
to outdo the other in a series of spasmodic hops and starts, mixed with ua set 
of comically grave and ceremonious bows. The pair stood for some moments 
bowing right and left, when their legs appeared to become envious of the 
large share taken in the performance by the neck, and then would ensue a 
series of stilted hops and skips.... Frequently others join and the dance 
keeps up until all are exhausted. 

The site for the nest is usually on the grassy flats, where the drier portions 
or the slight knolls afford them suitable places. The spot usually has an 
unobstructed view on all sides, and it is common to see the female’s long neck 
raised suspiciously at the appearance in the distance of anything unusual. 
If one approaches, the head sinks lower and lower to avoid being seen, but if 
the person, even though 150 or 200 yards away, should stop and look toward 
the bird, she will generally rise and skulk away, her neck close to the ground, 
wings hanging loosely by the sides, and legs bent, so as to avoid being ‘seen. 
When she is 100 yards or more from the nest she straightens up and stalks 
anxiously about, uttering her loud call-note incessantly, and is generally joined 
by the male; but it is rarely that either can, even then, be approached within 
gunshot.... The nest is frequently a mere hollow in the ground, and is 
commonly lined with more or less coarse grass-stems and straws. Jn one 
instance a nest was found on a bare flat, and was lined with a layer of straws 
an inch deep, all of which must have been brought for some yards; this is 
unusual, however. 


The breeding season is necessarily of brief duration. Eggs, partly 
incubated, have been found at Saint Michael as early as May 27 
(1879), and in the Kowak Delta, well-incubated eggs were found on 
June 14 and 15, 1899 (Grinnell, 1900, p. 20). The number laid is 
always two. They are elongate ovate in shape, and average in inches, 
3.62 by 2.25. In color the eggs are buffy or olive brown spotted and 
blotched with reddish brown, grayish brown and lavender. These 
markings are thickest at the large ends and have a decidedly longi- 
tudinal trend, reminding one in this respect of the pattern of markings 
on the eggs of the Ash-throated Fly-catcher. 

In the north the Little Brown Crane feeds on berries and grasses, 
with some insects. On this diet the birds become fat and are esteemed 
excellent eating, surpassing every other game bird there except 
ptarmigan. 


278 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The stomach of a crane taken at Ash Meadows, on the Nevada- 
California line, March 10, 1891, contained small bulbous roots, foliage 
of young plants, and a quantity of barley, which latter had been 
picked up from a place where horses had been fed (A. K. Fisher, 
1893a, pp. 20-21). The gullet of one killed at Los Bafios, Merced 
County, was found to be filled with large barley grains probably . 
obtained from sowed ground (Beck, MS). When feeding on the plains 
or in stubble fields these birds dig up the ground with their bills in 
such a way that it looks as though a pick had been used. In the tule 
country near Stockton Belding (MS) states that they used to feed 
extensively on sagittaria bulbs. In the Imperial Valley Van Rossem 
(1911, p. 129) observed cranes visiting the grain fields to forage, 
going and coming from Salton Sea morning and evening as regularly 
as though timed by a clock. In 1901 it was reported that cranes were 
so numerous in the wheat fields west of Tulare that they had to be 
seared away. The birds were seeking the newly sprouted grain, but no 
detailed account of the kind or amount of damage done has been 
obtained. 

“*In the early settlement of California by Americans, when turkeys 
were yet scarce, I have known a Sandhill Crane to command from 
sixteen to twenty dollars in the San Francisco market for the purpose 
of replacing, on the Christmas dinner table, that almost indispensable 
feature of this particular festival’? (Heermann, 1859, p. 62). More 
recently cranes were of regular appearance in the markets of San 
Francisco and Los Angeles. In the season of 1895-96, 385 cranes 
were sold, bringing to the hunter about 50 cents each, considerably 
more than any of the geese (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 42). All 
testimony agrees as to the edible quality of the flesh of the crane, 
and this is to be expected from its chiefly vegetable diet. 

As illustrating the craftiness of the Little Brown Crane, by which 
it insures its safety from even long-range molestation, there may be 
cited the experience of one of the present writers (Grinnell, MS). 
On March 10, 1910, camp was pitched on the California bank of the 
Colorado River about twenty-five miles below Needles. A large flock 
of cranes arrived at early dusk and took possession of a sand bar 
directly opposite camp. This bar was about midway from one wooded 
shore to the other, and fully three hundred yards from either. It was 
thus impossible to approach the birds under cover from any direction. 
They were evidently on their guard all night; every now and then 
something would disturb them, and a chorus of sonorous calls and 
wing-flappings would ensue for some minutes before quiet again 
reigned. At dawn they were up and off. 

There are a few of our game birds which, because of their extreme 
wariness, may be expected to survive in spite of the increased effi- 


SANDHILL CRANE 279 


ciency of firearms and the increasing number of hunters. The Little 
Brown and Sandhill cranes are to be included in this category. It is 
nowadays only by mere chance that the shotgun can bring one of 
these birds to bag. To get within range with a rifle, even, takes con- 
siderable ingenuity. This, with the protection afforded them by our 
closed seasons, should suffice to maintain the cranes indefinitely, as far 
as California is concerned. 


Sandhill Crane 


Grus mexicana (Miiller) 


OTHER NAMES—Grus canadensis, part; Grus canadensis meaicana. 

Description—Identical in coloration, as far as known, with the Little 
Brown Crane (which see). Size larger; bulk probably close to twice that of 
Little Brown Crane. Adults (both sexes): Total length ‘‘40.00-48.00’’ inches 
(1,015-1,220 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 135); folded wing 21.30-22.00 (540-558) ; 
bill along culmen 5.33-6.46 (135.4-164); tarsus 9.14-9.58 (232-243) (four 
specimens from California in Mailliard coll.). 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—See Little Brown Crane. 

Vorce—Probably not much different from Little Brown Crane; a raucous, 
resounding note (Forbush, 1912, p. 485); a prolonged bugle-like ery (Bailey, 
1902, p. 79). 

Nest—On ground in marshy places, usually surrounded by open water; 
made of grasses, weeds, moss or rushes (authors). 

Eecs—2, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 3.56 to 3.70 by 2.35 
to 2.41 (in millimeters, 90.3 to 93.8 by 59.7 to 61.2); ground color pale buff, 
spotted irregularly with light brown, most numerously about the larger end; 
deeper markings of pale lavender (two eggs from Iowa in Mailliard coll.). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Middle latitudes in North America, ranging from 
southern Canada south to Florida, Cuba and Mexico. Breeds from southern 
British Columbia, southern Saskatchewan and southern Alberta, south to Cali- 
fornia, northern Arizona, Colorado, Iowa, and northern Indiana; also in a 
detached area including Cuba, Florida, and the Gulf coast of Louisiana. 
Winters in California, the Gulf states, Cuba, and Mexico to the latitude of 
Yucatan. Most of intervening area covered during migration (modified from 
Cooke, 1914, pp. 10-13). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—At one time doubtless common in summer in 
northern and interior parts of the state, more particularly about elevated 
meadows east of the Sierran crest; now rare. A few are thought to winter 
in the San Joaquin Valley and southern California coastal district. Definite 
knowledge is wanting, because of confusion of this species with Little Brown 


Crane. 


The Sandhill Crane is the southern representative of the Little 
Brown Crane, supplanting the latter as a breeding bird in the United 
States and extreme southern Canada. For a long time the Little 
Brown and Sandhill cranes have been confused in western literature ; 
much of the published information attributed to the Sandhill Crane, 
we now believe refers to the Little Brown Crane. In coloration the 


280 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


two species are identical; and there remain only dimensions to furnish 
constant characters (see measurements of both). The Sandhill seems 
to bulk about twice as large as the Little Brown. While the breeding 
ranges of the two species are distinct, both oceur during migrations 
and probably also in winter on the same ground. The Sandhill’ Crane, 
in its general range, formerly existed much more widely than it does 
today ; in a number of the middle-western states where it was formerly 
found in numbers it is now extirpated. The Sandhill, with a southern 
breeding ground, has suffered largely through human occupancy of 
the country. 

In southeastern Oregon in the middle seventies, Bendire (1878, p. 
148) found this a common summer resident, breeding abundantly on 


Fig. 46. Side of bill and head of Sandhill 
Crane. One-half natural size. 

Note much larger size as compared with Little 
Brown Crane (fig. 45). 


? X2067U&UWM. 


a 


the lowlands as well as in the highest mountain valleys. Its hoarse cries 
could be heard almost everywhere in the vicinity of water so long 
as the locality remained undisturbed. Each pair appeared to own a 
certain district during the breeding season, and two pairs were never 
found nesting within half a mile of each other. In 1887, Merrill 
(1888, p. 144) found this crane breeding in the vicinity of Fort Kla- 
math, Oregon. 

In California the Sandhill Crane was formerly notably numerous 
in summer on the elevated meadows lying chiefly northeast of the 
Sierran crest. Henshaw (1880), p. 323), writing of his explorations 
in 1877 and 1878 in northern California and adjacent states, con- 
sidered Sandhill Cranes to have been so often met with as not to 
require specific mention of locality. ‘‘They breed in many of the 
sub-alpine valleys where are found meadows of sufficient extent.’’ 
Two partly grown young taken by Henshaw at Camp [Fort] Bidwell, 
Modoe County, July 29, 1878, are contained in the National Museum 
collection in Washington. C. H. Townsend (1887, p. 197) reports 
seeing a crane on a mountain meadow east of Mount Lassen in June. 


SANDHILL CRANE 281 


Coues (1874, p. 534) records eggs from Fort Crook, in northeastern 
Shasta County. In the San Joaquin Valley cranes have been observed 
during the summer months, and there is a chance that they may breed 
there, or at least have once done so. Goldman (1908, p. 202) saw 
three at Tulare Lake, July 8, 1907. L. Tevis (Grinnell, MS) reports 
their presence in the neighborhood of Buttonwillow, Kern County, all 
through the summer season ; a pair watched on April 30, 1912, behaved 
as if nesting. 

In winter the Sandhills breeding in California may or may not 
move south out of the state. In either case it is probable that some 
birds come into California from the Pacific Coast district to the north- 
ward, as far as the limit of the summer range in southern British 
Columbia. Again we have to point to the confusion which has pre- 
vailed in separating the Sandhill and Little Brown cranes. Tyler 
(1913b, p. 22) says that the birds he has examined in the Fresno dis- 
trict have all been Sandhill Cranes, and he believes that the majority 
of the cranes visiting that locality are Sandhills. Four specimens 
purchased in a San Francisco market, January 20, 1898, and thought 
to have been shot in the vicinity of Los Bafios, Merced County, are 
in the Mailliard collection (J. Mailliard, 1911, p. 50). There is a 
skin of the Sandhill Crane in the United States National Museum 
(no. 11927) taken by Lt. J. C. Ives, probably in 1857 or 1858, on the 
Colorado River, though whether or not in California is not clearly 
stated. The measurements of this bird are: wing 21.75 inches; tarsus 
10.60; culmen 5.40. 

In flight the Sandhill Crane flaps along heavily, as though the 
wings were hardly able to lift the large body. Except when launched 
for a long-distance journey these birds fly close to the ground. In 
migration they fly very high, and in lines somewhat like those of ducks 
and geese. The legs and neck are held'stretched out to full extent. 


On the big unfenced prairies and the treeless expanse of marsh where 
there is nothing to hide a lurking foe, you find the Sandhill Cranes, sometimes 
in small migrating flocks but usually in pairs, stalking about in dignified but 
ever watchful manner, stretching up to nearly a man’s height to survey the 
surrounding country, then stooping to probe the earth for worms, catch a 
distant grasshopper, or spear a luckless frog or minnow. Let an enemy appear 
in the distance, and the long necks are up, and one of the most powerful, far- 
reaching of bird-notes rings out with its alarm challenge, a prolonged bugle- 
like cry, deeper and heavier than the loon’s, and often heard a mile away. 
With a quick run the splendid birds mount on the wing, the bugle-notes 
resounding rhythmically with only the space of an inspiration between as they 
fly; and though their calls mellow in the distance, the cranes vanish as specks 
in the air before the sound of their magnificent voices is entirely lost (V. 
Bailey, in Bailey, 1902, p. 79). 


282 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Like the Little Brown Crane, this larger cousin is noted for its 
strange antics during the mating season which resemble a ‘‘war 
dance’’ of some sort. The ground selected for nesting is usually some 
extensive meadow, with small lakes here and there. The birds demand 
a broad outlook on all sides, and a slight elevation is often chosen 
for the nest, usually nearly or quite surrounded by water. The nest 
proper is a simple affair, of grass and other vegetation gathered 
together on the ground to form a shallow mat. The time of egg-laying 
in the west is indicated by the following data: Camp Harney, Harney 
County, Oregon, April 14 (1878) to May 2 (1875) ; Gunnison County, 
Colorado, June 5 (1903) (Cooke, 1914, p. 12). The two young birds 
in the United States National Museum, with down still adhering to 
the plumage, taken by Henshaw near Fort Bidwell, Modoc County, 
July 29, 1878, would indicate a nesting date comparable with the 
instances just cited. 

Judging from descriptions, the eggs of the Sandhill Crane closely 
resemble those of the Little Brown, differing only in somewhat larger 
average size. Chapman (1912, p. 280) gives 3.90 by 2.40 inches for 
the Sandhill, while Davie (1900, p. 122) gives the averages as 3.98 
by 2.44. Compare these figures with our average for the Little Brown 
Crane, of 3.52 by 2.24. 

The food of the Sandhill Crane is doubtless in all respects similar 
to that of the Little Brown. Both prefer vegetable substances, par- 
ticularly certain bulbous roots. In the lowlands of Kern County a 
kind of ‘‘little tule,’’ or ‘‘tulito,’’ is selected. 

The bill is an efficient tool in obtaining food, and also a powerful 
weapon of defense. A quick thrust of this long sharp beak will make 
a serious wound, and the hunter should take care in approaching a 
wounded bird. : 

There is reason to believe that the Sandhill Crane exists today in 
but a small fraction of the numbers once present in the interior valleys 
and plains. Its breeding grounds have been almost altogether taken 
up for farms and stock-ranching, and in consequence the species as a 
breeding bird in California is nearly or quite gone. It is likely that 
some still come to us regularly in the fall either as transients or to 
pass the winter within our boundaries. So seldom are specimens of 
cranes secured, that uncertainty obtains as to the actual numbers, 
relatively, of our two species. 


CALIFORNIA CLAPPER RAIL 283 


California Clapper Rail 
Rallus obsoletus Ridgway 


OTHER NAMES—San Mateo Rail; Water-hen; Marsh-hen; Salt-water Marsh- 
hen; Mud- -hen, part; King Rail; Rallus depinas 3 Rallus elegans var. obsoletus. 

DEScRIPTION—Adults, both sexes: Top and sides of head blackish brown; 
top of head with black, bristle-like feather tips; streak of cinnamon from base 
of bill directly backwards over eye; chin and throat white, bordered along 
sides and behind with light cinnamon, the latter blending with the duller 
tones of color elsewhere; iris dark brown or orange brown; bill reddish orange 
at base of lower mandible and along edge of upper, otherwise dusky olive 
brown; rest of upper surface including rump and tail grayish olive brown, 
streaked broadly with blackish as formed by darker centers of feathers; outer 
surface of closed wing chiefly cinnamon brown; inner secondaries like back, 
and rest of flight feathers dark brown; axillars and lining of wing brown, 
barred narrowly and irregularly with white; foreneck and breast clear light 
cinnamon, fading to pale buffy on belly; sides and flanks dark grayish brown 
barred sharply with white; lower tail coverts like flanks, except for outer- 
most feathers which are white; legs and feet dull orange brown, darkest at 
joints. Measurements:—Males: Total length 15.87-16.62 inches (403-422 mm.) 
(three specimens); folded wing 6.04-6.90 (153-175); bill along culmen 2.22— 
2.54 (56.4-64.4); tarsus 2.17-2.42 (55.0-61.5) (ten specimens). Females: Total 
length 15.12-15.62 (384-397) (three specimens); folded wing 5.75-6.08 (146- 
154); bill along culmen 2.17-2.32 (55.0-58.9); tarsus 2.10-2.24 (53.3-56.8) 
(eight specimens). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult, but with streak- 
ing on back duller, less strikingly contrasted, lower surface very much lighter, 
more buffy in tone, and barring on sides and flanks scarcely or not at all in 
evidence. Natal plumage: Black with a slight greenish iridescence except on 
belly; bill yellow; feet (dried) reddish brown. 

MarKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Of rails in general: Narrow (compressed) 
body, small head, slender bill, long neck and legs, short rounded wings, and 
extremely short tail. Of California Clapper Rail: Large size (largest rail in 
California), light cinnamon breast, and dark-toned, brown and black streaked 
back (pl. 9 and figs. 47 and 48). Skulks through marsh vegetation and when 
flushed rises nearly vertically several feet before flying off. Distinguished 
from Virginia Rail by much larger size; from Light-footed Rail of southern 
California by slightly larger size and lighter color. 

Voice—Often spoken of as a harsh cackle; a clattering, chuck, chuck, chuck, 
chuck, or a cheek-a-cheek-a-cheek, ete., rapidly uttered. 

Nest—In salt marshes; usually of pickle-weed (Salicornia ambigua), loosely 
laid together, and concealed in the same sort of vegetation or beneath some 
small shrub. 

Eces—6 to 12, usually 8 to 9, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in 
inches, 1.61 to 1.82 by 1.17 to 1.30 (in millimeters, 40.8 to 46.5 by 29.7 to 33.0), 
and averaging 1.72 by 1.23 (43.7 by 31.2) (Emerson, 1885, p. 143); color light 
creamy buff, spotted or blotched rather scatteringly with reddish brown and 
lavender. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Resident on salt marshes adjacent to San Francisco 
and Monterey bays, California; casual elsewhere along the Pacific coast north 
to Humboldt Bay, and even, possibly, to Gray’s Harbor, Washington. 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common resident on salt marshes bordering 


284 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


southern arm of San Francisco Bay (Alameda, San Mateo and Santa Clara 
counties). Formerly occurred also on bay shores of Marin and Sonoma coun- 
‘ ties, but no records from there within past 25 years (Mailliard, MS). Resident 
in small numbers in marshes bordering Monterey Bay near Elkhorn, Monterey 
County (Silliman, 1915a, p. 201). Recorded once from Tomales Bay (Storer, 
1915, p. 98) and twice from Humboldt Bay (Suckley, in Cooper and Suckley, 
1859, p 246; Storer, loc. cit.). Casual on Farallon Islands (W. E. Bryant, 1888, 
p. 42). 


No other game bird in California has so limited a distribution as 
has the California Clapper Rail. The salt marshes bordering the 
southern arm of San Francisco Bay and a few smaller nearby areas 
of the same character alone seem to afford the proper kinds of food 
and shelter necessary for its existence. It is found in small numbers 


6995 


Fig. 47. Side of foot and 
tarsus of California Clapper Rail. 
Natural size. 


Note slender form of all toes 
and entire absence of webs or 
lobes. 


on the marshes of Monterey Bay 
near Elkhorn, Monterey County, 
and individuals have been re- 
corded from Tomales Bay and 
Humboldt Bay. A single strag- 
gler was taken on the Farallon Islands, November 18, 1886 (W. E. 
Bryant, 1888, p. 42). Newberry (1857, p. 96) states that this species 
was common in his day around San Pablo Bay, and was particularly 
numerous at Petaluma. Also Messrs. J. and J. W. Mailliard have 
told us that Clapper Rails occurred on the bay marshes of Marin and 
Sonoma counties up to about twenty-five years ago. But there have 
been no recent records from these places. 

Rails in general are to be recognized by their narrow, compressed 
bodies, rather long bills, small heads, long necks and legs, large feet, 
slender toes, and small rounded wings. The present species is the 
largest of its kind occurring in California. In flight it may be recog- 
nized by its long bill (nearly two inches in length) (fig. 48), its long 
legs (fig. 47) (which dangle when the bird first starts in flight), its 
cinnamon-colored under surface and streaked back (pl. 9). In colora- 
tion the California Clapper Rail is practically identical with the 
Virginia Rail but is much larger in size (see measurements of both). 


CALIFORNIA CLAPPER RAIL 285 


The California Clapper Rail makes its permanent home on the salt 
marshes where the vegetation consists chiefly of pickle-weed (Sal- 
cornia ambigua) and an evergreen shrub (Grindelia cuneifolia). Here 
it may easily be found at any time of the year skulking along the banks 
of the small muddy sloughs which penetrate the marsh in every 
direction. 

Its very long and unwebbed toes make large chicken-like tracks 
spaced about ten inches apart in the soft mud of the slough banks 
and these are very easy to recognize. The voice, too, is characteristic. 
It is a harsh, mechanical cackling—chuck, chuck, chuck, chuck, or 
cheek-a-cheek-a-check—uttered rapidly for several seconds and sound- 


Fig. 49. Light-footed Rail. 


Both drawings are natural size and the two serve to show the 
differences in size of bill between these two closely similar species. 


ing as if two or more birds rather than a single one were participating 
in its production. When flushed this Rail jumps almost straight up 
into the air for six or eight feet and then flies off in a clumsy manner, 
its short narrow wings moving at the rate of two or three beats per 
second. These flights are usually short, the bird soon dropping down 
again into the protection of the marsh vegetation. 

Rails in general begin to nest rather early in the year. The breed- 
ing season of the California Clapper Rail commences about the middle 
of March, and by the first of April full sets of eggs are to be found. 
On March 31, 1912, H. W. Carriger (MS) found three sets of nine 
eggs each, all fresh, on the marshes near Redwood City, San Mateo 
County. On April 3, 1915, the writers found two fresh sets of nine 
eggs each on Bay Farm Island, Alameda County. April 18, 1885, 
Emerson discovered five nests near Hayward, Alameda County, two 


286 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


of which contained eight and nine eggs respectively. On May 11, 
1884, Emerson (1885, p. 142) found nine nests from which the young 
had hatched and departed, while on May 4, 1885, three nests of eight 
eggs each were found by him. On June 3, 1883, he found a nest of 
seven eggs on the point of hatching. The latest date of which we have 
record is June 29, 1894, when a set of six eggs with incubation com- 
menced was found by H. R. Taylor in the Alameda County marshes 
(Mailliard ecoll.). ‘Thus it will be seen that the breeding season extends 
from the middle of March to the end of June, but that the bulk of the 
birds nest between the middle of April and the middle of May. 

A high piece of marsh ground, usually on the bank of a slough, is 
selected for a nesting site. The nest may be concealed in salt grass 
or pickle-weed, or under a small bush. It is a platform built up three 
to six inches above the ground, and measures about ten inches across 
with a cavity in the center one and one-half inches deep. Grasses or 
dead and living stems of pickle-weed are used for building material. 
A well-marked trail leading off through the adjacent vegetation is 
usually discernible. A nest examined by the authors on May 7, 1914, 
was composed of closely matted Salicornia stems, some of the stems 
being bent over from the growing plants surrounding it. The struc- 
ture was well-saucered, the cavity containing the eggs being five and 
one-half inches across and one and one-half inches deep. The rim was 
two and one-half inches above the ground which was still wet from a 
recent high tide. The nearest slough was twenty feet away. 

Higlit or nine eggs constitute a full set; these are of a light creamy 
‘buff color, spotted, often blotched, with reddish brown and lavender 
markings, the latter appearing as if beneath the shell. These mark- 
ings are rather evenly distributed over the egg surface, perhaps a 
trifle more numerous on the larger end. The eggs are shaped like 
hen’s eggs, possibly slightly more pointed on the average; forty-one 
measured by Emerson (1885, p. 143) ranged in inches from 1.61 to 
1.82 by 1.17 to 1.30 and averaged 1.72 by 1.23. 

Like some other rails this one sometimes builds nests which it never 
uses. Three or four new nests, often uncompleted, apparently possess- 
ing all the advantages of the one used, are occasionally to be found in 
the near vicinity of an occupied nest. Nor is this bird averse to adopt- 
ing places out of the ordinary for building its nest. Nests have been 
found in old barrels, and one was found on a pile of hay near a salt 
marsh (H. R. Taylor, 1894, p. 154). Adams (1900, p. 32) states that 
both parents are often seen about the nest and that it is certain that 
the male assists in incubation. The female is a very close sitter and 
will sometimes remain on the nest until the intruder is within two 
feet of her. She will then jump from the nest and either fly away, 
or glide swiftly through the grass or along the edge of a slough. 


UNI CALIF. SEMICENT. PUBL, | GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 9 


CALIFORNIA CLAPPER RAIL 


CALIFORNIA CLAPPER RAIL 287 


H. R. Taylor (1894, p. 153) states that one he flushed from her nest 
fluttered and limped along, as if to lead him away. 


The following description of the downy young is given by Emerson 
(1885, p. 142): 


One nest of seven glossy jet black chicks was found, seemingly just out of 
the shell, one not quite dry. All but this one would hold their long necks 
out, moving them from side to side, and calling in a low plaintive tone pe-ce-ep, 
pe-ee-ep, very much like a weak young chicken.... On skinning one I 
noticed a small claw sticking out from the second joint of each wing, not more 
than a sixteenth part of an inch long, claw part turning down, of a light horn 
color and comparing only to a little kitten’s claw; it was found on all the 
chicks. 


Writing in 1880, W. E. Bryant (p. 124) said of the California 
Clapper Rail: 

I have found these birds abundant, at all seasons of the year, on the salt 
marshes of Oakland, San Mateo, and other marshes that are partially covered 
by the highest tides. At such times they may be shot by the dozen, as they 
sit upon floating drift-wood, the dead body of an animal, a fence, or, in one 
instance, a railroad bridge, from which they would not fly until nearly run 
into by an approaching train. Their tameness at all times, especially during 
the high tides, is remarkable. If obliged to fly, they start from either land 
or water as readily as a Duck. They swim well; but when wounded and 
closely pursued, they dive, and hold on to the marsh grass beneath the water 
to keep from rising. 

The birds are close sitters, and not easily flushed; but when once started, 
they seem to fly as long as they have the power, sometimes alighting in the 
middle of a slough, as though unable to reach the opposite bank. The only 
note that I have known them to utter is a harsh cackle, frequently heard at 
night. 


Like all rails the Clapper Rail is, when need be, very skillful at 
keeping out of sight. Sometimes individuals appear shy, flushing at a 
distance, or running toward the denser vegetation at great speed, with 
lowered head and elusive mien; at other times they walk out into the 
open in bottoms of sloughs at close range and view the intruder seem- 
ingly with perfect equanimity. They have a long running stride, and 
the body is held close to the ground. The narrowly compressed body 
enables them to slip easily between the rigid upright stems of a sort 
of rush which grows in thick beds along the larger salt sloughs. If 
not thoroughly alarmed rails will sometimes stop or hesitate on open 
ground, when the peculiar twitching movement of the tail may be 
clearly seen. This member is held vertically and the twitching of it 
is rendered conspicuous because of the white color flashed from the 
under tail coverts. When walking, the head and tail twitch forward 
in unison with each stride. When thoroughly alarmed this Rail will 
take to water and swim considerable distances, as, in one observed 


instance, across a thirty-foot slough. 


288 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


“In walking along the slough banks at low tide quietly, they can 
be seen wading through the soft mud, probing here and there for 
worms and insects, which mostly compose their food. I have also seen 
them come out of the long salt grass along the shore, feeding here and 
there at the edge of tide drifts’’ (Emerson, 1885, p. 142). The food 
is made up almost entirely of animal matter—worms, crustaceans, 
and the like, as afforded on the salt marshes. In the gullet of a bird 
shot on a salt marsh, near an artesian well, W. E. Bryant (189382, p. 
55) found a good-sized frog. Several stomachs from birds taken at 
Bay Farm Island, Alameda County, were found by us to contain only 
parts of crabs (Hemigrapsus oregonensis). 

The California Clapper Rail has long been considered an excellent 
bird for the table, and formerly great numbers were sold on the 
markets of San Francisco. Kennerly (1859, p. 34) says that in his 
day it was one of the most numerous of the water birds found in those 
markets. So also says Suckley (im Cooper and Suckley, 1859, p. 246). 
The weight of an adult bird, freshly taken by the authors, was three- 
fourths of a pound (340 grams) ; so that the food value of a Clapper 
Rail as regards size is not inconsiderable. 

The sport furnished in hunting Clapper Rails is of a rather tame 
sort; for the birds are ordinarily not wild, and, owing to their slow, 
or sluggish, straight-away flight, are easy to hit on the wing. Unlike 
many other game birds this one seems to be but slightly endowed with 
effective means of self-preservation. When pursued, a Clapper Rail 
is said to sometimes hide its head, ostrich-like, in a tuft of grass; and 
it is not an uncommon thing for dogs to catch the birds alive. For 
these reasons, as well as for the fact that they are considered by many 
to be excellent eating, these rails have been slaughtered in great 
numbers. 

Few game birds in this state were more surely on the road to total 
extinction than was this species just previous to the passage of the 
Federal Migratory Bird Law. The reclaiming of much of their former 
breeding grounds was concentrating them into smaller and smaller ' 
areas, where they were still more easily sought out and killed. Ray 
(1902, p. 24), speaking of the abundance of this bird in San Mateo 
County, says: ‘‘As late as 1889, I remember sportsmen returning 
with as many as 200 Clapper Rails while now one would find it exceed- 
ingly hard to bag a dozen ...’’. H. R. Taylor in 1894 (p. 153) 
reported that an old market hunter of Alameda told him that rails 
were becoming very scarce at that time in the Alameda marshes. 
Where they had formerly nested in numbers it was difficult to flush 
a single bird. This was believed to be due to persistent hunting 
throughout the year. (Since then a summer closed season was estab- 
lished.) Mr. Samuel Hubbard, Jr., of Oakland, has stated to us 


LIGHT-FOOTED RAIL 289 


that formerly during high tides as many as forty Clapper Rail could 
easily be killed along Oakland Creek. None of these birds are to be 
found in that locality at the present time. Accounts generally agree 
that the California Clapper Rail is much less abundant now than it 
once was. Even the extended annual close season, in force for a few 
years and now replaced by total protection, was not sufficient to pro- 
tect this bird; for its haunts are so readily accessible to the Bay 
cities that hunting remained excessive. In 1913, the Federal Migratory 
Bird Law was passed, and within two years a marked increase was 
observable locally on the Alameda County marshes: proof that ade- 
quate protection long enough continued will restore the species. The 
worst enemy of the rail now remaining is the Norway rat which 
infests many parts of the salt marshes, and whose depredations during 
the nesting season have come to our personal notice. 

The California Clapper Rail is truly a native of the Golden State, 
being found nowhere else in the world. It deserves protection on 
esthetic grounds, if not on economic ones. It is entirely within possi- 
bility that at the expiration of the present, closed term of years, hunt- 
ing can again be safely allowed—with of course, a small bag limit 
and short season. 


Light-footed Rail 
Rallus levipes Bangs 


OTHER NAMES—Southern California Clapper Rail; Clapper Rail, part; Bangs 
Rail; Rallus obsoletus, part. 

DESCRIPTION—Adults, both sexes: Similar to California Clapper Rail, but 
with back darker and more olive in tone, breast a richer tone of cinnamon, and 
size slightly smaller. Top and sides of head blackish brown; top of head 
with black, bristle-like feather-tips; streak of light cinnamon or dull white 
from base of bill backwards over eye; chin and throat white, bordered along 
sides and behind with cinnamon, the latter blending with the darker tones of 
sides of head and neck; iris dark brown; bill brownish orange at base, dusky 
along ridge and at tip; rest of upper surface including rump and tail, olive 
brown broadly striped with blackish; outer surface of closed wing chiefly 
cinnamon brown; inner secondaries like back, and rest of flight feathers dark 
brown; axillars and under surface of wing brown barred narrowly with white; 
foreneck and breast deep cinnamon, fading to buffy white on belly; sides and 
flanks dark grayish brown barred sharply with white; lower tail coverts like 
flanks, except for outermost feathers which are white; legs and feet dull orange 
brown, darkest at joints. Males: Total length 15.00-16.44 inches (381-417 
mm.); folded wing 6.08-6.27 (155-160); bill along culmen 2.22-2.37 (56.4-60.2) ; 
tarsus 2.24-2.35 (57.0-59.7) (six specimens). Females: Total length 14.75- 
15.19 (375-386) (four specimens); folded wing 5.48-5.87 (139-149); bill along 
culmen 2.05-2.14 (52.2-54.3); tarsus 1.98-2.14 (50.3-54.3) (six specimens). 
Juvenile plumage: Probably similar to that of California Clapper Rail (which 
see). Natal plumage: Wholly uniform glossy black; bill dusky, with yellowish 
white band near end, and yellow spot about nostril; feet (dried) blackish. 


290 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Same as for California Clapper Rail. In 
hand may be distinguished from that species by olive brown rather than 
grayish brown tone on upper surface, deeper cinnamon color of breast, and 
whitish instead of rusty stripe from bill over eye; also by smaller size, espe- 
cially of foot and bill (compare figs. 48 and 49). 

Voice—Like that of California Clapper Rail. 

Nest—In salt marshes (usually) along the seacoast; constructed of stems 
of marsh vegetation. 

Eees—6 to 9, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.69 
to 1.77 by 1.21 to 1.26 (in millimeters, 42.8 to 45.0 by 30.8 to 32.0), and averag- 
ing 1.72 by 1.23 (43.7 by 31.3); color creamy white, evenly and rather sparsely 
spotted and blotched with umber brown and lavender (one set, seven eggs, in 
Mus. Vert. Zool.). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Coastal region of southern California, and of Lower 
California south to San Quintin Bay. Casual at Yuma, Arizona. 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common resident on salt marshes of southern 
seacoast, from Santa Barbara to and including San Diego Bay. 


The Light-footed Rail, which inhabits the coastal marshes of south- 
ern California and Lower California, is so closely similar to the Cali- 
fornia Clapper Rail that it might be considered merely a southern 
race of the latter. Neither of them is migratory, and there is a strip 
of coast nearly two hundred miles in extent between the southern limit 
of the California Clapper Rail and the northernmost station for the 
Light-footed Rail. Practically all of the coastal marshes from the 
vicinity of Santa Barbara south to and including the vicinity of San 
Diego Bay are inhabited by the present species, and it is also found 
along the coast of northern Lower California. 

The Light-footed Rail is slightly smaller than the California 
Clapper Rail, is somewhat darker colored on the back and breast, and 
the light stripe from the bill over the eye is whitish instead of rusty. 
Since the ranges are so distinctly separated, these two species are most 
easily identified by locality, after they have once been determined as 
Clapper Rails. 

There are no essential differences in the general habits of the two 
species. The Light-footed Rail, however, has been found breeding in 
an inland brackish marsh, though, to be sure, this was not far from 
the seacoast. Willett (1906, p. 151) found a nest in some reeds at the 
edge of Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County, on May 29, 1906. The 
nest was a very loose affair, the foundation being composed of decayed 
tules and reeds, and the upper part, containing the cavity, of broken 
bits of tule stalks. When first found, the nest contained three fresh 
eggs, and when reéxamined on June 14 it held nine eggs partially 
ineubated. The eggs were creamy white, spotted and blotched with 
umber and lavender, principally around the large end, the lavender 
markings having the appearance of being beneath the surface of the 
shell. The eggs measured 1.56 to 1.61 inches long by 1.12 to 1.16 broad. 


VIRGINIA RAIL 291 


A set of seven half-incubated eggs in the Museum of Vertebrate 
Zoology was taken by F. Stephens on False Bay, near San Diego, 
April 10,1908. The nest was composed of rotting stems of pickle-weed, 
and was situated on the ground in a thick growth of the same plant 
at the edge of the salt marsh. The male bird was flushed from the 
nest. These eggs measure 1.69 to 1.78 inches by 1.22 to 1.26, and 
average 1.24 by 1.73, being thus decidedly larger than the set described 
above. Two other sets of seven eggs each were found on the same 
day (Stephens, MS). Eggs have also been reported as follows: Bal- 
lona, Los Angeles County, May 16, 1894, set of six slightly incubated 
eggs (Grinnell, 1898, p. 15); Bay City, Orange County, March 19, 
1910, set of nine fresh eggs (Willett, 1912a, p. 32) ; San Diego, April 
16, 1895, and April 8 to 10, 1900, sets in Thayer collection (Cooke, 
1914, p.18). Three small young (in Mus. Vert. Zool.), in the curious 
black natal dress, were taken near National City, San Diego County, 
June 11, 1908; these were part of a brood seen swimming just outside 
the marsh vegetation at the edge of the bay (Stephens, MS). 

Henshaw (1876, p. 273) states that, in 1875, in the vicinity of 
Santa Barbara, this rail was common, and that by the first of July 
the young were out and able to accompany their parents in search of 
food. They began to be active about sunset. 

Willett (1912a, p. 32) says that at extreme high tides the Clapper 
Rail swims on,the water after the fashion of Coots, and, as the Rails 
are at such times easily approached, they are killed in large numbers 
by the hunters. This pertained, of course, to the time before the. 
enactment of the Federal law providing a five-year close season. In 
many of the marshes in southern California where this rail was 
formerly common, as for instance around Santa Barbara, it has been 
practically exterminated. Like the California Clapper Rail this south- 
ern race should be accorded absolute protection until such time as its 
numbers return to normal, after which shooting might be allowed 
under conditions of moderation insuring the safety of the species. 


Virginia Rail 
Rallus virgintanus Linnaeus 


OTHER NAME—Sweetwater Rail. 

DescripTion—Adults, both sexes: Top of head and Hind neck blackish, nar- 
rowly streaked with olive brown; sides of head uniform lead color; patch 
between base of bill and eye blackish; above this patch a streak of brownish 
white; chin white, blending into cinnamon of throat and breast; iris ‘‘ bright 
red’’ (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 178); bill dark brown, the lower mandible and 
edges of upper mandible more yellowish brown; back, scapulars, rump, upper 
tail coverts, and tail, olive brown, broadly striped with black; outer surface 
of closed wing chestnut brown; flight feathers dusky brown; axillars dusky 


292 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


brown barred with white; under surface of wing plain dusky brown; breast 
and under surface cinnamon brown fading to lighter on belly; flanks blackish, 
barred narrowly with white; lower tail coverts mixed blackish, white, and 
cinnamon; legs and feet yellowish brown. Males: Total length 10.00-10.50 
inches (254-267 mm.) (two specimens from California); folded wing 4.14- 
4.33 (105-110); bill along culmen 1.53-1.71 (39.0-43.4); tarsus 1.40-1.49 (35.6- 
37.6) (nine specimens from California and Vancouver Island). Females: Total 
length 9.31-10.00 (236-254) (three specimens from California); folded 
wing 3.76-4.17 (95.3-106.0); bill along culmen 1.38-1.59 (35.0-40.3); tarsus 
1.30-1.45 (33.1-36.8) (ten specimens from California). Juvenile plumage: Top 
of head, hind neck, fore-back, and rump, dull black with traces of buffy 
feather-edgings; chin and throat extensively white; head otherwise as in 
adult; wings and tail as in adult; lower surface mixed black and white, the 
latter predominating down middle of breast and on belly; lower tail coverts 
dull cinnamon. Natal plumage: Entirely black, with greenish and steel blue 
reflections; bill scarlet or orange-red except for black band across upper 
mandible and black basal part of lower mandible. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Medium size (about that of a Killdeer), 
long, slender, brownish bill (fig. 50), cinnamon-colored breast, and olive brown 
back broadly streaked with black. Closely resembles Clapper Rail in pro- 
portions and coloration, but of less than one-third the bulk of that bird. 
Distinguished from Sora by much longer and slenderer bill (compare fig. 51), 
lack of black on face, and presence of bright cinnamon on lower surface; dis- 
tinguished from Yellow Rail by much larger size, longer bill, and absence of 
narrow white bars on back and wing coverts. 

VoIcE—Cut, cut, cutta-cutta-cutta; during the breeding season a rapid suc- 
cession of low, yet penetrating grunts not unlike those of a hungry pig 
(Brewster, 1902b, p. 47). 

Nest—Of dead grasses, sedges, or tules gathered in a heap, with a shallow 
depression on top; usually well concealed in dense vegetation. 

Eees—5 to 12, rounded oval in shape, measuring in inches, 1.18 to 1.36 by 
0.83 to 1.00 (in millimeters, 30.1 to 34.5 by 21.2 to 25.3), and averaging 1.28 
by 0.93 (32.5 by 23.7) (eighteen eggs from Utah); ground color pale buffy 
gray, with superficial spots and dots of reddish brown, chiefly around larger 
end, and deeper ones of lavender. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds from British Columbia, south- 
ern Saskatchewan, southern Keewatin, Ontario, southern Quebec, and New 
Brunswick south to southern California, Utah, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, New 
Jersey, and eastern North Carolina, and in the Toluca Valley, near the City of 
Mexico; winters from British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, Utah, and Colo- 
rado, to Lower California and Guatemala, also in the lower Mississippi states, 
and from North Carolina (casually Massachusetts) to Florida (A. O. U. Check- 
list, 1910, p. 103; Cooke, 1914, pp. 23-24). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common in summer throughout the state, 
chiefly in fresh-water marshes. Breeds south to Escondido, San Diego County 
(Sharp, 1907, p. 86). Also fairly common in winter, on both fresh water and 
salt marshes, west of the Sierras, north at least to Suisun Marshes, Solano 
County (Mus. Vert. Zool.), and Tomales Bay, Marin County (Mailliard, M8). 


Rails are so reclusive in their habits and frequent such dense 
marshy growths that most people know very little about them. In 
fact, people often live within a stone’s throw of the habitat of these 


VIRGINIA RAIL 293 


birds without being aware of their presence. Of the six species of 
rails occurring in this state the Virginia has the widest general range; 
it is found almost everywhere throughout California and in most other 
parts of North America as well. Even though it is a seemingly poor 
flyer it migrates south during the winter months and spends the cold 
season south of its breeding grounds. During the nesting season it 
is found as far north on the Pacific coast as British Columbia, but in 
winter it does not usually remain north of the latitude of central 
California. During the summer months it may be found nesting in 
almost any portion of the state where proper conditions offer. It 
frequents both fresh and salt water marshes although chiefly the 
former. 

As regards proportions of body and pattern of coloration the Vir- 
ginia Rail is almost a duplicate of the California Clapper Rail, but 
it is much smaller, being of about the bulk of a Killdeer. From marsh- 

inhabiting birds other than 
rails it may be distin- 
guished by its long, slender, 
brownish bill (fig. 50), 
bright red eye, short tail 
(which is usually held in a 
vertical position), cinna- 


mon-colored under surface 
: i Note slender form (compare with fig. 51) 
and olive brown back. The and small size (compare with figs. 48 and 49). 


flanks are blackish, barred 

with white. From the Sora Rail, a bird of about the same size as the 
Virginia and to be found in the same situations, the latter species may 
be known by its much longer and slenderer bill, by the lack of black 
on its face, and by the presence of cinnamon rather than gray on 
the under surface of its body. The Yellow Rail is much smaller than 
the Virginia, and has a shorter bill and narrow white bars on the 
upper surface of its body. 

The breeding range of the Virginia Rail in California extends 
almost the entire length of the state. Eggs were taken at Fort Crook, 
Shasta County, May 138, 1861 (Cooke, 1914, p. 24); and the species 
is known to have nested at San Pasqual, San Diego County (Sharp, 
1907, p. 86). As to altitude, it has nested from sea level, as at New- 
port, Orange County (Willett, 1912a, p. 32), up to at least 4,000 feet 
in Papoose Valley, Lassen County (Sheldon, 1907, p. 187). The 
nesting season extends from early April—April 13 in one instance 
(Willett, loc. cit.)—to late June (Sheldon, loc. cit.). The records at 
hand as shown in the accompanying table (no. 12) indicate that the 
height of the nesting season is between the middle of May and the 
first week in June. 


Fig. 50. Side of bill of Virginia Rail. 
Natural size. 


294 


GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


TasLe 12—Data relative to the nesting of the Virginia Rail in California 


LocaLity 


DATE 


Ballona, Los Angeles Co. Apr. 13, 1902 


Alvarado, Alameda Co. 


Fort Crook, Shasta Co. 
Newport, Orange Co. 

Los Bafios, Merced Co. 
Los Bafios, Merced Co. 


Ramona, San Diego Co. 


Near Coulterville, 
Mariposa Co. 


Sespe, Ventura Co. 


Papoose Valley, 
Lassen Co. 


Olema, Marin Co. 


Woodland, Yolo Co. 
San Pasqual, 


Apr. 23, 1915 


May 13, 1861 
May 13, 1906 
May 20, 1916 
May 20, 1916 
June 2, 1888 
June 5, 1916 


June .., 1907 
Late June, 
1905 


Spring of 1884 


Spring of 1886 
1900 and 1902 


Nest CONTENTS AND 


CONDITION 
Eggs, 2 sets, fresh 
1 egg; fresh-water 

marsh 
Eggs 
6 eggs 
10 eggs, fresh 
8 eggs, fresh 
Young seen 
10 eggs, fresh 


2 young and 1 egg 
Nesting 


About a dozen nests, 
5 to 9 eggs 


A nest 
Nested 


AUTHORITY 


Willett, 1912a, p. 32 
H. C. Bryant, 1915c, 
p. 194 


Cooke, 1914, p. 24 
Willett, 1912a, p. 32 
Fair, MS. 

Fair, MS. 

Willett, 1912a, p. 33 
McLean, MS. 


Willett, 1912, p. 32 
Sheldon, 1907, p. 187 


Ingersoll, in Belding, MS. 


Belding, MS. 
Sharp, 1907, p. 86 


San Diego Co. 


Ordinarily the Virginia Rail chooses drier ground on which to build 
its nest than does the Sora. Usually a pile of broken-down tules is 
used as a foundation, and on this the nest itself, which is often con- 
structed of the same material, or of dry grasses, is placed. Usually 
the nest is well concealed, even though its foundation may raise it a 
foot or more from the ground. A typical nest found by Sheldon (1907, 
p. 187) in Papoose Valley, Lassen County, was made of the dry husks 
of tule stems and placed among low tules. 

As reported by different observers the eggs number from five to 
twelve in a complete set. In shape they are roundedly oval, while in 
size they average 1.28 by 0.93 inches. The ground-color is pale buffy 
gray, with superficial spots of reddish brown and deeper ones of 
lavender. The markings are rather sparsely distributed except at the 
larger end of the egg. The eggs of the Virginia differ from those 
of the Sora in having a lighter ground color and more reddish mark- 
ings. Sets of eggs of the Virginia Rail usually number less than those 
of the Sora. 

Concerning the voice of the Virginia Rail, Brewster (1902b, pp. 
47-48), writing from Massachusetts, says: 


About the middle of April we begin to hear in our marshes, usually in the 
early morning, late afternoon or during cloudy weather, and coming from some 
briary thicket or bed of matted reeds, a guttural cut, cut, cutta-cutta-cutta 
repeated at brief intervals, often for hours in succession. This is occasionally 
interrupted or closely followed by a rapid succession of low yet penetrating 
grunts not unlike those of a hungry pig. The Virginia Rail is the author 
of both these sounds, the former appearing to be peculiar to the male and, no 
doubt, his love song. When heard very near at hand it has a peculiar vibrant 
quality and seems to issue from the ground directly beneath one’s feet. The 
grunting nates are given by both sexes, but, with rare exceptions, only during 
the breeding season. The female when anxious about her eggs or young also 
calls ki-ki-ki and sometimes kiu like a Flicker. 


VIRGINIA RAIL 295 


In a small fresh-water marsh near Coulterville, Mariposa County, 
Donald McLean (MS) discovered and watched a nest of the Virginia 
Rail during the season of 1916. It was a tower-like structure about 
eight inches in height and the same in diameter, and was composed 
of flat marsh grasses. On June 5 the nest held ten eggs which were 
just beginning to be incubated. Whenever anyone approached the 
vicinity of the nest the incubating bird (female?) would utter low 
clucking sounds. Sometimes she would slip quietly off and stand 
nearby in the marsh grass; again she splashed through the water as 
she departed. Nothing was heard or seen of the male until June 18 
when he made his presence known by an ear-piercing whistle which 
the female answered in a lower tone. He was more wary than she 
and did not come near the nest. On June 19 there were six coal black 
young in the nest. They had black-ringed pink bills and very large 
feet. With the hatching of the young, the deméanor of the female 
changed. Now she became quite fearless and would walk out to 
within three feet of an observer, fluffing out her feathers after the 
manner of a domestic hen, and uttering many elucks and whistles. 
The male answered these calls but would not show himself except 
momentarily. By the afternoon of the twentieth the last egg had 
hatched and the next morning the whole family had departed. 

Bowles (1893, p. 115) states that in Massachusetts he has found 
a Virginia Rail destroying her eggs after they were disturbed in her 
absence. In one instance when he returned to a nest which he had 
discovered a few minutes previously he found one of the parents 
driving her bill through the eggs in quick succession, and later he 
found another nest which gave evidence of the same sort of treatment. 
That this is a general trait seems doubtful. 

The Virginia Rail keeps well to cover, and like its allies is more 
often heard than seen. But if the observer will remain quiet for a 
short time the bird will sometimes become inquisitive and approach 
within a few feet. When frightened it seldom takes wing, but prefers 
to slip away through the close-growing marsh vegetation. Small 
stretches of open water form no serious barrier, for the bird is able 
to swim easily. It flies close to the ground, even in migration, and 
is consequently one of the birds which commonly meets death by 
flying against wire fences and telegraph lines. 

Rails are, partially at least, nocturnal in habits, and feed at night 
as well as in the daytime. Their food is made up almost entirely of 
small animals such as earthworms, snails, caterpillars, and insects, 
mostly beetles. Some vegetable matter, principally weed seeds, is 
probably taken when the supply of insects runs low (Forbush, 1912, 
p. 209). The stomach of a Virginia Rail taken at Los Bafios, Merced 
County, May 22, 1914, and examined by us, contained nothing but 
beetles (3 Carabids, 2 Sphenophorus sp., 1 Hydrophyllid). 


296 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


By some, the Virginia Rail is adjudged a delicious bird for the 
table, but it is of small size, not nearly as big as a Valley Quail. Where 
this species is abundant no skill whatever is required to kill a large 
number. For both these reasons it cannot be considered as important 
a game bird from the sportsman’s point of view as its larger relative, 
the Clapper Rail. Snipe.shooters often get a chance to shoot Virginia 
Rails, but seldom do so, and there are few men in this state who pur- 
posely pursue these birds either for food or for sport. 

This Rail has seldom been seen in the markets of California cities, 
and the small amount of shooting it has received has permitted it 
pretty well to hold its own. Even if hunted to a greater extent in 
the future than at present, the species would have a good chance to 
survive in numbers because of its generally seclusive habits. 


Sora Rail 


Porzana carolina (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Common Rail; Carolina Rail. 

Description—Adults, both sexes: Top of head olive brown, with median 
stripe of black; sides of head and neck, with extension above eye to forehead, 
lead color; whole face (that is, area between eye and bill, continuous across 
forehead) and a longitudinal stripe down chin, throat, and foreneck, black; 
iris ‘‘brown’’; bill ‘‘greenish yellow (more orange, especially at base in 
summer adults)’’ (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 370); upper surface 
olive brown, continuous up hind neck to top of head; back streaked broadly 
with black, and narrowly lined with white; outer upper tail coverts narrowly 
barred, black and white; tail feathers black, broadly margined with olive 
brown; outer surface of closed wing and flight feathers, nearly uniform olive 
brown, but with innermost secondaries and tertials showing white lines like 
back; breast lead color; sides, flanks, axillars, and under surface of wing 

. conspicuously barred with brownish slate and white; belly and central under 
tail coverts creamy white; under tail coverts otherwise pale buff; legs and 
feet greenish. Males: Total length 8.50-9.37 inches (216-237 mm.) (seven 
specimens from California and eastern states); folded wing 3.97-4.42 (101.0- 
112.4); bill along culmen 0.75-0.89 (19.0-22.7); tarsus 1.24-1.44 (31.6-36.7) 
{ten specimens from California). Females: Total length 8.00-8.97 (203-228) 
(four specimens from eastern states); folded wing 3.90-4.10 (99.0-104.2); bill 
along culmen 0.71-0.73 (18.0-18.7); tarsus 1.18-1.29 (30.0-32.8) (three speci- 
mens from California); weight 1.7 oz. (48 gm.) (one specimen from California). 
Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult, but with black and slaty areas on 
head and throat nearly or quite wanting; sides of head and forehead dull 
buffy brown; top of head duller olive brown, with narrow or interrupted black 
stripe; chin and throat whitish; rest of neck, and breast, light buffy brown. 
Natal plumage: ‘‘Bill short, ... high at base, rapidly tapering, the tip 
deflected. The whole body densely covered with dull black down, beyond 
which are produced abundant long, glossy, black hair-like filaments. Upon the 
throat is a tuft of stiff, coarse, bristle-like feathers of a bright orange-color. 
These are directed forward, and give the bird a most singular appearance’ 
(Brewster, 1879, p. 46). 


SORA RAIL 297 


MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderately small size (less than that of 
Killdeer), of usual rail aspect and habits; short, chicken-like greenish yellow 
bill (fig. 51), black throat, and slaty tone of under surface. Distinguished 
from Virginia Rail by somewhat smaller size, and much shorter bill (compare 
fig. 50). Both the Yellow and Black rails are much smaller. 

Voice—A clear whistled ker-wee, now and then interrupted by a high- 
pitched rolling whinny which, like a call of alarm, is taken up and repeated 
by different birds all over the marsh (Chapman, 1912, p. 234). 

Nrst—Made of dry grass, weeds, or rushes, placed on wet ground, or often 
supported upon vegetation above water, and usually well concealed in growing 
vegetation. 

Eces—4 to 15, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.14 to 1.29 by 0.86 to 
0.92 (in millimeters, 29.0 to 32.7 by 21.9 to 23.3), and averaging 1.24 by 0.89 
(30.6 by 22.5); ground color buffy drab marked scatteringly with spots of 
reddish brown and dull purplish gray (two sets, twenty-four eggs, from 
California and Nevada). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION — North America. Breeds from central British 
Columbia, southern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, and Gulf of St. Lawrence 
south to southern California, Utah, Colorado, Kansas, Illinois, and Pennsylvania ; 
winters from northern California, Illinois and South Carolina through the West 
Indies and Central America to Venezuela and Peru (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, 
p. 104). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common in summer in appropriate localities 
throughout the state; southernmost breeding station, Escondido, San Diego 
County (Sharp, 1907, p. 86). Fairly common in winter in interior valleys west 
of the Sierras, north at least to Butte County; northernmost winter record, 
mouth of Mad River, Humboldt County (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 197). Once 
reported from Farallon Islands (Keeler, 1892, p. 164). 


Throughout California the Sora is one of the commonest of the 
rails. It is most abundant in fresh-water marshes but it also occurs at 
times on the salt marshes. In summer it is apparently more abundant 
and widespread than in winter, and this fact has given rise to the belief 
that most of the birds of this species move southward out of the state 
during the winter months. During the spring and fall migrations 
Soras appear in many isolated localities where they are not known 
to breed and this but strengthens the idea that they pass out of the 
state for the winter. The species is common in Mexico and Central 
America during the winter months and at the same season is found in 
small numbers as far north as the Sacramento. Valley and Humboldt 
County, California. Belding (MS) found it at Stockton as late as 
October, 1880, and said that it wintered in fair numbers on suitable 
ground near San Diego. Winter specimens are in the Museum of 
Vertebrate Zoology from the following localities: Los Bafios, Merced 
County ; Modesto, Stanislaus County ; Martinez, Contra Costa County ; 
and the Suisun Marshes, Solano County. 

This rail is hardly as large as a robin and this fact alone will serve 
to distinguish it from either of our Clapper Rails. The short, chicken- 


298 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


like bill (fig. 51), the slaty tone of the under surface and the presence 
of black on the face and throat are enough to distinguish the Sora 
from the slightly larger Virginia Rail. From both the Yellow and 
Black rails the Sora is separable by its larger size, as well as different, 
coloration. In habits this species closely resembles the Virginia 
Rail. 

From records at hand, April and May seem to be the months when 
most birds of this species nest. In California the earliest date for 
eggs is April 18, and the latest June 10. These extremes are, in part, 
however, accounted for by differences in altitude, the early date being 
for Whittier, in the lowlands of Los Angeles County, and the late 
one for Lake Tahoe. 

The nest of the Sora is usually built on the ground and well con- 
cealed in tules or tall grass. One found by H. C. Bryant (1915c, p. 
194, and MS) in a small fresh-water marsh near Alvarado, Alameda 
County, on April 23, 1915, was situated in a clump of pickle-weed 

(Salicornia), and consisted of a large 


we === mass of dry sedge stems and grass 

O blades, the latter chiefly composing the 

. lining. The nest proper rested on a mass 

: 5486 of vegetation which raised it fully six 

Fig. 51. Side of bill of inches above the ground. Externally It 
Sora Rail. Natural size. was approximately seven inches in di- 
Note wlatively abou’ farm ameter and three and one-half inches 
(compare with fig. 50). high. The saucer-shaped depression 


holding the eggs was about four inches 
across and two and one-half deep. The fourteen eggs which this nest 
contained were arranged in a single layer except for one egg which 
topped the rest. The incubation of these eggs ranged from quite 
fresh to far advanced, showing either that some of the eggs had failed 
of sufficient warmth to carry on incubation, or that the birds had com- 
menced to sit as soon as the first few eggs had been deposited. The 
latter surmise is more probably the correct one. 

Ray (1913, pp. 112-114) records the discovery of ‘a nest among 
tall grass in Bijou meadow at Lake Tahoe, June 4, 1909. It held the 
unusually small complement of four eggs, and strange to say two of 
these were pipped while two were infertile. A second nest found at 
Al-Tahoe marsh, June 10, consisted of dry tules ‘‘laced to tules above 
water three feet deep.’’ This contained thirteen eggs in varying 
stages of incubation. The same author (Ray, 19120, p. 145) found a 
nest at Rowland’s, Lake Tahoe, May 31, 1910, also with thirteen eggs. 
Six sets of from seven to fourteen eggs, were taken by A. M. Shields 
in a marsh near Los Angeles in 1886 (Davie, 1889, p. 102). A set of 
six slightly incubated eggs was found near Whittier, April 18, 1896, 


SORA RAIL 299 


and another set of six eggs was found at Nigger Slough, also in Los 
Angeles County, May 13, 1911 (Willett, 1912a, p. 33). 

Merrill (1888, p. 144) writing from Fort Klamath, Oregon, in 
1887, says: ‘‘A nest found May 27 was among water grass near the 
edge of a shallow pool, and was supported by the stalks of the grass; 
the eggs were raised about six inches above the water, but the founda- 
tion of the nest was wet; it was composed entirely of the dead stalks 
and blades of the grass, and was rudely arched over with growing 
blades of the same. It contained twelve eggs from which the young 
would have soon appeared ....’’ Another nest similarly located 
and containing nine nearly fresh eggs was found in the same locality, 
June 15. 

W. P. Taylor (1912, p. 358) describes the nest of a Sora Rail 
found on Quinn River, Humboldt County, Nevada, May 22, 1909, 
as being built in an open bunch of marsh grass, with the bottom of 
the nest so near the water that it was damp. Marsh grass was its 
principal structural constituent, some of the stems being still green. 
The fragments incorporated into the lining were smaller than those 
in the main body of the nest. The whole structure was securely inter- 
woven among the grass-stalks which partly supported it. It was over- 
shadowed and effectively concealed by a frail canopy of broken-down 
stems. Ten eggs constituted the set. 

As indicated by the instances cited above, full sets of eggs number 
from four to fourteen; but ten or twelve would seem to be the average 
number per set. The eggs are of ordinary ovate shape, and measure, 
in inches, 1.14 to 1.29 by 0.86 to 0.92, averaging 1.20 by 0.88 (twenty- 
four eggs in Mus. Vert. Zool., from California and Nevada). The 
ground-color is notably dark, being deep cream or drab decidedly 
darker than that on the eggs of the Virginia Rail, and the sparsely 
distributed markings are of reddish brown and dull purplish gray. 

The young, like those of other rails, are of a general black color, 
and are capable of taking care of themselves soon after leaving the 
shell. 

The Sora contributes importantly to the medley of sounds which 
issues from the average marsh. The following two quoted paragraphs 
pertaining to Massachusetts afford the best description available to 
us, of the notes of this rail: : 


In the more open, grassy stretches of meadow, as well as among the beds 
of cat-tail flags, but seldom, if ever, in thickets of bushes, we also hear, after 
the middle of April, mingling with the notes of Virginia Rails and the din 
of countless frogs, the love song of the Carolina Rail, a sweet, plaintive er’-e 
given with a rising inflection and suggesting one of the ‘‘scatter calls’’ of the 
Quail. Such, at least, is its general effect at distances of from fifty to two 
or three hundred yards, but very near at hand it develops a somewhat harsh 


300 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


or strident quality and sounds more like kd-e, while at the extreme limits of 
ear range one of the syllables is lost and the other might be easily mistaken 
for the peep of a Pickering’s hyla [a species of tree-toad]. This note, repeated 
at short, regular intervals, many times in succession, is one of the most fre- 
quent as well as pleasing voices of the marsh in the early morning and just 
after sunset. It is also given intermittently at all hours of the day, especially 
in cloudy weather, while it is often continued, practically without cessation, 
through the entire night. 

Equally characteristic of this season and even more attractive in quality 
is what has been termed the ‘‘whinny’’ of the Carolina Rail. It consists of 
a dozen or fifteen short whistles as sweet and clear in tone as a silver bell. 
The first eight or ten are uttered very rapidly in an evenly descending scale, 
the remaining ones more deliberately and in a uniform key. The whole series 
is often followed by a varying number of harsher, more drawling notes given 
at rather wide intervals. Although it is probable that the ‘‘whinny’’ is made 
by both sexes I have actually traced it only to the female. She uses it 
apparently, chiefly as a call to her mate, but I have also repeatedly heard her 
give it just after I had left the immediate neighborhood of her nest, seemingly 
as an expression of triumph or rejoicing at the discovery that her eggs had 
not been molested. When especially anxious for their safety and circling close 
about the human intruder she often utters a low whining murmur closely 
resembling that which the Muskrat makes while pursuing his mate and some- 
times a cut-cut-cutta not unlike the song of the Virginia Rail, but decidedly 
less loud and vibrant. In addition to all these notes both sexes have a variety 
of short, sharp cries which they give when startled by any sudden noise 
(Brewster, 1902), p. 48). 

The flight of the Sora Rail among the reeds is usually low, and, shelter 
being abundant, is rarely extended to more than fifty or a hundred yards. 
When winged, and uninjured in its legs, it dives and swims with great rapidity, 
and is seldom seen again. On such occasions it has been found clinging with 
its feet to the reeds, under the water, or skulking under the floating vegetation 
with its bill just above the surface. This bird is apparently weak and delicate 
in everything except its legs; but these possess great vigor; and its body being 
remarkably thin, it is able to pass readily between the reeds. Though its 
flight seems feeble, yet it occasionally rises to a considerable height, stretches 
its legs out behind it, and flies rapidly across the Delaware where it is more 
than a mile wide (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 373). 


‘“To avoid flying, when their field is being mowed they will often 
stay in the fast narrowing strip of green until they must go or meet 
the sharp teeth of the sickle, when perhaps a dozen will rise one after 
another and fly to fresh cover’’ (V. Bailey in Bailey, 1902, p. 81). 
Ranchers have stated to us that these birds are often driven in like 
manner from California alfalfa fields. Soras are said to answer a clap- 
ping of the hands with a mocking, cackling laugh. In the marshes 
they are noisy birds especially towards sunset. ‘‘They seem so 
absorbed by their musical devotions that even when calling con- 
tinuously it requires endless patience and keen eyes to see the dull- 
colored, motionless forms in places where one would not suppose there 
was sufficient growth to conceal them’’ (Chapman, 1912, pp. 234-235). 


YELLOW RAIL 301 


The flight of the Sora is so slow and labored and the bird seems so reluctant 
to use its wings that some writers have supposed that it was unable to fly 
long distances and that its migration was therefore a series of short flights 
or even performed on foot. As a matter of fact the Sora is among the long- 
distance migrants, the most northern breeders traveling not less than 2,500 
miles to the nearest winter home; and those wintering south of the equator 
being at least 3,000 miles from the nearest breeding grounds. Thousands. 
make the hundred-mile flight between Florida and Cuba, and there is reason 
to believe that many individuals easily achieve the 500-mile passage from 
Florida to Yucatan, and the equally long journey from the West Indies across 
the Caribbean Sea to South America (Cooke, 1914, p. 4). 


The food of the Sora consists mainly of insects, but snails and 
other aquatic animals are taken. In the eastern states it is known to 
be fond of wild rice, and doubtless here, too, vegetable matter forms 
a good part of its food at certain times of the year. 

In the east thousands of Sora Rails were formerly killed by sports- 
men and market hunters during the fall migration, when the birds 
concentrated in the coastal marshes. Although easy to shoot, this 
bird has beenshighly prized by eastern sportsmen on account of its 
attractiveness for the table. In California this rail is so scattered 
in its distribution as not to have attracted concentrated attention from 
hunters, and its numbers here do not seem to have been much affected 
except as a result of the reclamation of marsh land. 

This species like the Virginia Rail seems to be pretty well able 
to take care of itself, and unless more aggressive means are taken for 
its destruction it may well be expected to persist in fair numbers 
within our state. There is no data at hand which. will allow of a 
statement as to the exact status of the Sora Rail in California at the 
present time. The rapid rate of reproduction, as indicated by the 
large average complement of eggs laid, would seem to guarantee a 
large annual crop of Soras, if breeding conditions were favorable 
over extensive areas. 


Yellow Rail 


Coturnicops noveboracensis (Gmelin) 


OTHER NAME—Ortygops noveboracensis. 

DeEscripTion—Adults, both sexes: Top of head and whole of upper surface 
including tail, blackish, broadly streaked with yellowish brown (as feather 
margins), and barred narrowly with pure white; the bars are sparsest, or 
even wanting, on top of head, and most distinct and widest separated on 
lower back; sides of head and neck, continuous with breast, yellowish brown, 
with regions immediately below eye and between eye and bill, dusky; chin 
white or buffy white; iris brown; bill ‘‘greenish-black, with the base dull 
yellowish-orange’’ (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 155); outer surface of closed wing 
like back; flight feathers slaty brown except for white patch formed by white 


302 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


ends of secondaries; axillars and lining of wing, white or mixed white and 
dusky; breast yellowish brown; belly white; sides and flanks blackish or 
dusky brown, narrowly barred with white; under tail coverts chestnut brown; 
legs and feet light brown. Some specimens have white bars on top of head 
broken into spots and occasionally extending down onto sides of head and 
even around onto breast. Whether this condition is a mark of old age or of 
immaturity is not apparent. Males: Total length 7.50 inches (190 mm.) (one 
specimen); folded wing 3.34-3.53 (84.8-89.5); bill along culmen 0.63-0.66 (16.0- 
16.8); tarsus 0.91-1.02 (23.1-25.9) (five specimens). Females: Total length 
6.50 (165) (one specimen); folded wing 3.20-3.36 (81.3-85.3); bill along culmen 
0.58-0.64 (14.7-16.3); tarsus 0.91-0.92 (23.0-23.4) (three specimens); all from 
California. Juvenile and natal plumages: Not known to us. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Rail characters of form, small size, yellow- 
ish brown cast of coloration, and presence of narrow white cross-bars which 
contrast conspicuously with the otherwise streaked upper surface, and white 
patch on wing shown in flight. In all our other rails, except the dark-colored 
Black Rail, the back markings run lengthwise. 

Voice—Not definitely known; thought to be similar to that of the Black 
Rail (Eaton, 1910, pp. 281, 282). 

Nest—Seems to be not yet described, but probably situated on the ground 
and similar to the nests of other rails. 

Eces—5 (?), ovate in shape, measuring in inches, about 1.06 to 1.16 by 
0.81 to 0.85 (in millimeters, 27.0 to 29.5 by 20.5 to 21.5), and averaging 1.11 
by 0.83 (28.2-21.0); ground color pinkish buff; a small dense cap of fine dots 
of orange cinnamon, mikado brown and vinaceous drab on large end; dots more 
sparingly distributed elsewhere on surface (5 eggs, a set?, in U. S. National 
Museum, taken in Illinois). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America from central Canada to the Gulf 
Coast. Occurs in summer from southern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, and 
Quebec south to North Dakota, Minnesota, Illinois, and Maine; winters in the 
Gulf states and California, visiting more rarely New York, North Carolina, 
Bermuda, Oregon, and Arizona (Cooke, 1914, p. 32). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Rather rare winter visitant to marshes of west- 
central California: Martinez, Contra Costa County (Cooper, 1868, p. 8); 
Alvarado, Alameda County (W. E. Bryant, 1886, p. 426); Alameda County 
(Kaeding, 1898a, p. 70); Sonoma County (Carriger, 1899, p. 72); Rincon Valley, 
Sonoma County (Mus. Vert. Zool.); Suisun Marshes, Solano County (Mus. Vert. 
Zool.); Los Bajios, Merced County (Mus. Vert. Zool.); Marin County (J. Mail- 
liard, 1901, p. 16); San Mateo County and Berryessa, Santa Clara County 
(Cooke, 1914, p. 32). Also recorded from Humboldt Bay (C. H. Townsend, 
1886, p. 491); Newport Bay, Orange County (Osburn, 1911, p. 108); and 
Corona, Riverside (Pierce, 1914, p. 182). 


The Yellow Rail in California must be classed purely as a winter 
visitant. Like certain geese and the Mountain Plover it seems to have 
a diagonal route of migration from the north-central portion of the 
continent. Its breeding grounds appear to lie mostly north of the 
United States in central and eastern Canada. Not all of the birds of 
this species winter on the Pacific coast, however, for a large contingent 
moves directly southward and spends the colder months in the Gulf 
states. West of the Rockies the species has been found only in Cali- 


YELLOW RAIL 303 


fornia, Oregon, and Nevada, and in but one instance in each of the 
latter two states. Even in California, the Yellow Rail is of extremely 
loeal occurrence, and at best cannot be considered common. The center 
of abundance here appears to be in the San Francisco Bay region, 
for it has been recorded but once north of this region and but twice 
from southern California. Not more than twenty specimens taken in 
California are known to be in collections, and as far as we know all 
of these were secured on fresh-water marshes. 

The Yellow Rail is of small size, being considerably smaller than 
a Virginia or Sora, and but slightly larger than the California Black 
Rail. Its general yellowish color, sharp, narrow, white transverse bars 
on the back, and white patch on the secondary wing feathers, showing 
during flight, are characters which not only distinguish the Yellow 
Rail from the Black, but from all our other rails. 

This bird has proven more difficult to find and flush than almost 
any other bird of the marsh. Most of those captured have been found 
unintentionally ; only a trained dog and pro- 
longed search at the proper season will be ise 
likely to reveal this will-o-the-wisp. KES €). 

Eges of the Yellow Rail have been taken SG 17250 
at Winnebago, Illinois, May 17, 1863, and . 
near Devils Lake, North Dakota, June 4, 1901, bin oe ae 
June 8, 1903, and June 9, 1910 (Cooke, 1914, Natural size. 

p. 82). The first of the latter three finds is 

referred to by Reed (1904, p. 105) as follows: ‘‘Their eggs are of 
a rich buff color, speckled in the form of a wreath about the large end, 
with reddish brown. They are rleatively narrower than those of 
other rails. Size 1.10 x 0.80 [inches].’’ The set consisted of ten eggs. 
The eggs of the set taken in Illinois and now in the United States 
National Museum have a pinkish buff ground color. At the large 
end of each egg there is a small dense crown of minute dots of orange- 
cinnamon, mikado brown, and vinaceous-drab; elsewhere on the sur- 
face there are scattering dots of similar color. 

Audubon (in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, pp. 376-377) 
observed the habits of this rail along the margins of lakes and swampy 
bayous in eastern Florida. He noticed that the birds were accus- 
tomed to follow the margins of the muddy shores with measured steps, 
until attracted by some object. The tail would then be suddenly 
jerked upward, followed by the disappearance of the bird for the 
moment. Each bird proved as a rule so unsuspicious that at times it 
could be approached within a few yards, when it would only rise more 
erectly, gaze at the observer for a moment, and then resume its occu- 
pation. The best way to obtain a shot at this bird was to lie concealed 
near an opening, and call it out of cover by imitating its notes, when, 


304 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


being very pugnacious, it would come to the open space and be easily 
shot. Its flight is said to be swift and more protracted than that of 
most rails, but it can seldom be driven to take refuge in flight. 

On December 28, 1883, W. E. Bryant secured a specimen of the 
Yellow Rail at Alvarado, Alameda County. Of this bird it was stated 
that it was pointed by a dog and picked up in the hand, whereupon 
it made a noise something like a young chicken (Belding, MS). One 
of the specimens in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology from the Suisun 
marshes was captured by a house cat. 

The stomach of a Yellow Rail collected by A. C. Shelton in Rincon 
Valley, Sonoma County, November 17, 1912, contained eighteen clover 
seeds (Trifolium sp.) and a quantity of grass (H. C. Bryant, 1913, 
p. 92). This is of course insufficient evidence to show that this rail 
subsists entirely or chiefly upon a vegetable diet. The scarcity of 
insects at this time of year was probably responsible for the lack of 
animal matter in this particular stomach. 

The only reason why the Yellow Rail is classed by law as a game 
bird is because it belongs in the same family with the larger rails 
which are legitimate objects of pursuit for food and sport. It is 
altogether too rare and too small properly to take rank as a game bird 
in this state. As the reader has doubtless already inferred, this bird 
is so seclusive in its habits that, as yet, very little is known of its life 
history. 


California Black Rail 


Creciscus coturniculus (Ridgway) 


OTHER NAMES—Farallon Rail; Porzana jamaicensis; Creciscus jamaicensis ; 
Porzana jamaicensis coturniculus; Porzana coturniculus. 

Descriprion—Adult male: Whole head, foreneck, and most of under surface, 
blackish slate, darkest on top of head; iris red; bill blackish; hind neck and 
back dark chestnut, brightest on hind neck and deepening to black on rump 
and tail; middle of back, rump, tail and outer surface of closed wing with 
small sharp dots and short irregular cross-bars of white; scapulars and outer 
surface of closed wing blackish brown; flight feathers dusky brown sparsely 
dotted with white; axillars, under surface of wing, and flanks, slaty brown, 
barred narrowly with white; belly pale slate barred with whitish; under tail 
coverts slate gray barred with white and more or less tinged with light cinna- 
mon brown; legs and feet ‘‘bright yellowish: green’’ (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 
158). Total length 5.37 inches (136 mm.) (one specimen); folded wing 2.56- 
2.81 (65.0-71.3); bill along culmen 0.55-0.60 (14.0-15.3); tarsus 0.76-0.85 (19.3- 
21.6) (ten specimens). Adult female: Similar to male, but duller colored on 
back, and lower surface somewhat lighter in tone, particularly on throat and 
belly. Folded wing 2.56-2.68 (65.0-68.1); bill along culmen 0.52-0.55 (13.2- 
14.0); tarsus 0.76-0.83 (19.3-21.1) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile 
plumage: Somewhat lighter in general tone of coloration than that of adults. 
Natal plumage: Probably as in the Eastern Black Rail which is ‘‘entirely 
bluish black’’ according to Baird, Cassin and Lawrence (1858, p. 750). 


CALIFORNIA BLACK RAIL 305 


MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Very small size (our smallest rail, about 
the bulk of a Least Sandpiper), black bill, and black-appearing plumage with 
small white dots. Young rails of all species are, as far as known to us, solidly 
black, without any white spots. 

Voice—Clee-cle, cleé-ee (accent falling on first syllable of last word) uttered 
chiefly during early mating season, and also in protest against intruders (Huey, 
1916, pp. 58-59). 

NEst—On salt marsh, composed of stems of pickle-weed (Salicornia) loosely 
laid together and situated on ground, or more often on a platform of matted 
pickle-weed a few inches above the ground, and usually concealed by arching 
stems of the same and other plants (Ingersoll, 1909, p. 124). 

Eces—4 to 8, bluntly ovate to almost elliptical in shape, measuring in 
inches, 0.87 to 1.06 by 0.69 to 0.75 (in millimeters, 22.1 to 27.0 by 17.5 to 19.0), 
and averaging 0.96 by 0.72 (24.4 by 18.3) (three sets, and one single, fourteen 
eggs, from San Diego County, California); ground color white with a scarcely 
perceptible tinge of pink, with surface spots of reddish brown and deeper 
ones of lavender. , 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Pacifie Coast of the United States from Puget Sound 
to northern Lower California. Only known breeding ground on salt marshes 
in vicinity of San Diego Bay, California (Cooke, 1914, pp. 35-36). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Fairly common fall and winter visitant to the 
salt marshes on the San Francisco Bay shores of San Mateo and Alameda 
counties, and at head of Tomales Bay, Marin County (many specimens). Also 
in smaller numbers interiorly: Martinez, Contra Costa County (Cooper, 1868, 
p. 8); Stockton, San Joaquin County (Belding, 1879, p. 443), and Suisun 
marshes, Solano County (Mus. Vert. Zool.); and southerly: Santa Cruz (Emer- 
son, 1904, p. 38); Hueneme, Ventura County (Willett, 1912a, p. 33); Orange, 
Orange County, and Ballona, Los Angeles County (Grinnell, 1898, p. 15); and 
Riverside (L. Miller, 1893, p. 104). Twice taken on the Farallon Islands 
(Brewster, 1907, p. 205; Mus. Vert. Zool.). . Fairly common throughout the 
year and breeds regularly on the salt marshes adjacent to San Diego Bay 
(Stephens, 1909, pp. 47-48; Ingersoll, 1909, p. 123; Cooke, 1914, p. 36; Huey, 
1916, p. 59). 


The California Black Rail is the smallest species of the rail family 
found in the United States, and differs but slightly from the Black 
Rail of the eastern states. Neither of these small species appears to 
be abundant, but as their habits are very seclusive their actual num- 
bers are probably greater than is generally believed. The range of 
the California Black Rail is limited to the Pacific coast and is separated 
from that of its eastern relative by a broad interval comprising the 
Rocky Mountain region. The present species has been recorded as a 
winter visitant from various points within this state. At San Diego it 
is evidently present throughout the year. 

The small size, dark coloration, white-dotted back, and black bill 
constitute a sufficient number of field marks to identify this rail under 
favorable circumstances of observation. But it keeps so to cover and 
is so seldom flushed, that a full view of it is rarely obtained, even 
when a person is making a Special search for the bird. It frequents 


306 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


low-growing vegetation and at first glance is likely to be taken for a 
mouse. 

The only known breeding ground of the California Black Rail 
is a limited area on the salt marshes of San Diego Bay between 
National City and Chula Vista. There, A. M. Ingersoll succeeded 
in finding three occupied nests of this species. But this much success 
was attained only by twenty-five trips to the locality. There are few 
birds the nests of which are so hard to locate. In regard to his finds, 
Ingersoll (1909, pp. 124-126) says: 


The salt weeds of this marsh are of an evergreen character and perennial, 
varying little from season to season. Old clumps of Salicornia [pickle-weed] 
become more or less matted down, forming an ideal retreat for this secretive 
little bird. A favorite nesting site is one formed by an old top-heavy weed 
falling over a growth of previous years in such a way as to leave a shelf-like 
space between the layers of stems and foliage. Away from the glaring sun 
on such a platform, is concealed a flimsy nest of fine dry weed stems. These 

weeds are too brittle to admit of weaving, and 


eee fall apart on being lifted from the sustaining 
ae : 
platform. ... 
The whitish eggs have a scarcely perceptible 
16701 tinge of pink. They are finely speckled with bright 


reddish-brown and obscure lilac dots. The average 
Fig. 538. Side of bill of measurement of the eggs is .95x.71 inches. The 
California Black Rail. Nat- eggs exhibit great variations in size and shape 
ural size. but are rather uniformly marked. I believe the 
eggs of this species could not be mistaken for 
those of any other bird. The shells are of close-grained hard texture. They 
possess greater durability than any eggs of similar size that I know of. One 
year’s exposure to the elements is not enough to destroy the shell. In 1908, there 
were many eggs of the California Black Rail floated out of the nests by the high 
tides, probably by those of March 30 and 31. I examined upwards of thirty 
‘*floaters’’ during May of that year. They were then rotten and partially dried 
up. Fourteen ‘‘floaters’’ that were whole and perfectly dry were picked up dur- 
ing the present season; most of them were bleacht entirely free of markings. A 
few that had lodged beneath the vegetation were still speckled. These dry eggs 
were at least ten months old; possibly the salt water acted as a preservative. 
Sixteen old nests were found in the immediate vicinity of ‘‘floaters.’’ On 
several occasions, eggs were found lodged in weeds at a higher elevation than 
the nest from which they had floated. About one-third of the nests were built 
on or within two inches of the ground. I am informed of one nest being 
placed at a height of eighteen inches. 
An accurate estimate of the number of birds in this colony is of course 
impossible; but judging from the number of floaters and old nests, I should 
say that in 1908, thirty pairs of birds resided there at that time. 


Huey (1916, p. 59) who has had considerable experience with this 
species on the marshes bordering San Diego Bay gives March 24 
(1912) for the earliest nesting date, a complete set of five eggs having 
been then secured. His latest record is for May 25 (1909) when a 


CALIFORNIA BLACK RAIL 307 


set of four partly incubated ‘‘runt’’ eggs was secured. This set meas- 
ured in inches. 0.87 to 0.95 by 0.69 to 0.74, and averaged 0.92 by 0.72. 
He says that normal eggs average 1.02 by 0.90. The smaller size and 
late date on which these eggs were found suggests that the set may 
have been of a second laying, the first having been destroyed or the 
nesting otherwise interrupted. Our averages for egg measurements 
are 0.96 by 0.72, as based on Huey’s set, one in the Carriger collection, 
a set taken by A. M. Ingersoll and presented by him to the Museum 
of Vertebrate Zoology, and a ‘‘single’’ in the same museum, fourteen 
eggs in all. 

Cooke (1914, p. 86) gives April 7 (1910) as the earliest nesting 
date known to him; while Willett (1912a, p. 33) says that the egg- 
laying period falls between April 1 and 10. Downy young of the 
Black Rail have not yet been reported from California, but they are 
probably entirely black like the young of the eastern Black Rail. 

The call according to Huey (1916, pp. 58-59) sounds like the 
syllables clee-cle, cleé-ee, and in an earlier account (Stephens, 1909, 
p. 48) it is said to be a sort of clicking sound. This accords with the 
nature of the voice of the eastern Black Rail as reported by Brewster 
(19020, p. 54). 

A bird which Ingersoll (loc. cit.) flashed from near a nest rose and 
flew off feebly for thirty or forty feet, hovered, and then returned to 
within sixteen feet of the nest. Until it hovered the legs were left 
dangling in the air, and as it alighted in the vegetation they were again 
dropped below the body. This species is exceedingly secretive in its 
habits, although it does not display any great amount of fear in the 
presence of human beings. It will crouch and almost allow itself to 
be stepped on before it will flush. A dog can easily capture one of 
the birds and individuals have even been picked up in the hand. 

The shyness of this rail is reflected in the regularity with which it 
abandons nests which have been discovered, even in the most casual 
manner, by a human observer. Huey (1916, p. 60) says he has never 
yet found a nest of this species that did not on a later visit prove to 
have been abandoned, even when the nest and surrounding vegetation 
had been left entirely undisturbed. 

A Black Rail which Huey (1916, pp. 61-62) captured was confined 
on a screened porch with a Sora Rail. ‘‘. . . The two birds proved 
quite companionable. They ate freely of the food offered them. . . . 
The Black Rail . . . seemed rather vicious at all times, pecking angrily 
at anything offered her—sticks, fingers and all.’’ In attempting to 
photograph these birds, ‘‘a small, round clump of salicornia, perhaps 
three feet in diameter, was selected for the background. ... The 
little rail proved the more elusive of the two. She would dive into the 
dense mass, exactly as a duck dives in water, and would then crouch 


308 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


motionless, as if hiding. The walking positions of the two species were 
noticeably different. The little Black was always proud, with head 
erect and no jerky movements while walking, but the Carolina [Sora] 
was a typical rail, head down, tail erect, and forever sneaking off 
sideways as though he were ashamed of himself.’’ 

H. R. Taylor (1898, p. 79) says that in San Mateo County 


The Black Rail we saw would fly up . . . with others and several alighted 
for refuge, after circling in irregular flight, in bunches of bushy weeds, being 
still within range. They are seldom if ever shot at by hunters and are very 
unsuspecting little creatures, allowing the boat to approach within a half an 
oar’s length from where they are hiding. In this way I struck the one I 
captured with the blade of the oar, and stunning it but for a moment, took it 
alive. This bird was kept in captivity where it was observed to be alert to see 
things and active with its bill. However, all its movements were notably 
deliberate. It made no attempt to escape and acted as though it had always 
known a prison. 

When the Black Rail is asleep he is no longer a rail. He has become simply 
a ball of feathers as big and almost as round as an orange, and coming upon 
one in such a position you would more readily believe it were some strange 
animal [mammal] than a bird. There is a gradual ruffling of the feathers until 
they are fluffed out all over the body and the rail is more than twice his 
usual proportions. Now the short wings are not noticeable and the little tail 
shows but slightly. The head is twisted about by slow degrees until like a 
flash it disappears. It has gone into that ball of feathers, but where? Of 
course, it is under the wing, but looking at the transformation you would never 
know. Where the neck was lost in the ball there is a circle which reminds 
you of the end of a lady’s muff, only the brown has harmonized beautifully 
with the black of the body and its dainty flecking of white. We touched the 
little fellow once while he was thus fluffed up. Out came his head but it was 
quickly popped into place again (H. R. Taylor, 1898, pp. 79-80). 


The bird held captive by H. R. Taylor was fed eight earthworms 
for one meal. Several stomachs of Black Rails taken by Huey (1916, 
p. 60) in San Diego County contained remains of Isopod crustaceans 
belonging to the species called Alloniscus mirabilis. A captive indi- 
vidual was fed upon bread crumbs, some of these crustaceans, and 
some ‘‘garden bugs.’’ 

This is another of the marsh birds which meets death to some 
extent by accident. There are two instances of the sort on record. 
A bird was found on the main street of Santa Cruz in September, 
1908, which had been killed by flying against a wire (Emerson, 1904, 
p. 38) ; and one was picked up August 4, 1876, beneath where it had 
been killed by flying against the Point Loma Light, near San Diego 
(Belding, MS). 

The California Black Rail, like many another of the rarer birds 
really merits but a casual place on any list of game birds. Probably 
not more than ten sportsmen in a thousand have ever seen this bird, 


FLORIDA GALLINULE 309 


and of these ten surely not one would raise his gun against such a 
mite of a bird, unless needed for a scientific specimen. To ornith- 
ologists the species is of interest because of its restricted range and 
eliisiveness. It seems probable that the reclamation of the marshes 
where it makes its home will be the only factor having to do with any 
change in its status in the future. 


Florida Gallinule 
Gallinula galeata (Lichtenstein) 


OTHER NAMES—Red-billed Mud-hen; Gallinula chloropus galeata. 

DEscrRIPTION—Adults, both sexes: Head and neck dull black, darkest above; 
iris ‘‘bright red’’ (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 136); large frontal shield above 
base of bill bright scarlet; bill bright red except for tip which is greenish 
yellow; whole of upper surface dark sepia brown, darkest on rump dnd upper 
tail coverts; edge of wing white; outer surface of closed wing sepia brown at base, 
otherwise slaty; flight fleathers blackish brown; axillars and under surface 
of wing ashy brown, with mottlings of white on former; under surface of body 
blackish slate; feathers of flanks elongated and with white shaft streaks; 
belly chiefly dull white; lower tail coverts white, the middle and basal feathers 
black; legs and feet greenish yellow, joints ashy blue; naked part of legs above 
heel joint, red; toes slender and without lobes. Males: Total length 14.75 
inches (375 mm.); folded wing 7.28 (185); bill along culmen (to top of shield) 
1.53 (38.9); tarsus 2.25 (57.1) (one specimen from California). Females: Total 
length 14.00-14.50 (356-368) (three specimens); folded wing 6.91 (176); bill 
along culmen (to top of shield) 1.32 (33.6); tarsus 2.16 (55.0) (one specimen 
from California). Juvenile plumage: Top and sides of head sooty black, paler 
on sides where also sparingly flecked with white; chin and throat white, flecked 
with slate gray; whole neck dull black; rest of upper surface brown, red-toned 
on back, more blackish from rump backward; breast and sides of body pale 
slate gray, many of the feathers extensively tipped with white; middle of belly 
white; flanks and rest of under surface pale brown; feet proportionately large, 
as in adults. Natal plumage: Black, the upper surface with a greenish cast, 
under surface with a brownish tinge; a few slender feathers on cheeks and 
chin, white-tipped; bill straw yellow, dark-banded across middle; legs and 
feet (dried) reddish. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Dark coloration, white under tail coverts, 
and flaming red frontal shield. Distinguished from the Mud-hen, which is of 
similar size, general coloration and habits, by red instead of white bill, white 
stripes on flanks, greenish legs (red above ‘‘heel’’), absence of white on 
wings, and entire absence of lobes on sides of toes. 

Vorce—A loud, discordant, hoarse, hen-like cuck, repeated slowly but in a 
connected series (Brewster, 19020, p. 51). 

Nest—In dense tule thickets in marshes, usually placed _ over water; con- 
structed of tules on a platform of the same material. 

Eces—6 to 13, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.54 to 1.95 
by 1.10 to 1.30 (in millimeters, 39.0 to 49.5 by 28.0 to 33.0), and averaging 
1.73 by 1.22 (44.0 by 31.0) (105 eggs in U. S. National Museum); ground color 
deep pinkish buff, with surface spots of chocolate and reddish brown, and 
deeper ones of grayish lavender. 


310 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


GENERAL DISTRIBUTION — Tropical and temperate America. Breeds from 
central California, Arizona, Nebraska, Minnesota, Ontario, New York, and 
Vermont south through the West Indies and Mexico to Chile and Argentina, 
and in the Galapagos and Bermuda islands; winters from southern California, 
Arizona, Texas and Georgia southward; casual in Colorado, Quebec, Nova 
Scotia, New Brunswick and Maine (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 105-106). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Fairly common summer visitant to fresh-water 
marshes in southern portion of the state west of the desert divides from Santa 
Barbara southeastward; also in the San Joaquin-Sacramento Valley north to 
Sutter County (Belding, MS). Several recorded breeding stations within 
these areas. Winters sparingly in southern coastal district, as at Los Angeles 
(Swarth, 1900, p. 15); possibly also in the vicinity of Fresno (Tyler, 19138, p. 23). 


Although the Florida Gallinule is a bird of wide distribution in 
both North and South America, it does not exist in great numbers 
anywhere in the western United States. Along the Atlantic coast 
it has been found breeding as far north as Pennsylvania and New 
York, but on the Pacific coast the northernmost station of record is 
Sutter County, California. South of the latter place, in the great 
interior valleys, and on the marshes of southern California from Santa 
Barbara southeastward, the species breeds regularly, and in the 
extreme south some individuals remain throughout the winter season. 
There is but one coastal record for the species north of Santa Barbara. 
This is for San Francisco (Newberry, 1857, p. 96), and might have 
been of a bird brought from some interior locality to the markets. 
The favorite haunts of this bird are the dense tule thickets to be found 
in fresh-water marshes. From these shelters it seldom ventures out 
into the open as does its relative, the Mud-hen. 

There is no definite midwinter record for the Gallinule north of 
Tehachapi, but Tyler (1913), p. 23) saw two individuals near Fresno 
on November 26, 1907, and a single one near Clovis, Fresno County, 
March 7, 1908, which led him to suggest that the species may be a 
permanent resident in that district. At Los Bafios, Merced County, 
the first spring arrivals in 1912 were seen on April 22 (Beck, MS). 
At Los Angeles, Swarth (1900, p. 15) says that ‘‘the young remain 
until late in the fall, when they nearly all disappear. Usually one or 
two remain through the winter.’’ 

No other California bird has a flaming red shield on the forehead 
such as is possessed by the Florida Gallinule. This shield is so con- 
spicuous, even at a distance, that there is usually no difficulty in 
recognizing the bird by this feature alone. The Gallinule resembles 
the Mud-hen in general build, color of plumage and habits, but can 
be readily distinguished from the latter bird by the lack of white on 
the wings, by the absence of lobes on the toes, by the red on the legs 
above the “‘heel’’ joint, by the presence of white streaks on the flanks, 
and by the red instead of white bill. The Gallinule has a rail-like 


FLORIDA GALLINULE 311 


mannerism of spasmodically jerking its tail upwards. This results in 
the white under tail coverts being intermittently flashed forth in a 
conspicuous manner. No account of the courting antics of the Florida 
Gallinule has been published from California, but Brewster has 
recorded the behavior of a pair of these birds seen near Cambridge, 
Massachusetts. After they had been under observation for some 
time a great outery was suddenly heard one afternoon, 


- and soon our pair of Gallinules appeared; the female, who was much 
the plainer-colored in every respect, swimming swiftly, her tail lowered and 
about in line with the back; the male flapping his wings on the water in his 
eagerness to overtake her. This he soon succeeded in doing, but just as he 
clutched at her with open bill... she eluded him by a sudden clever turn. 
He then swam round her in a narrow circle, carrying his tail wide-spread and 
erect, his neck arched, his scarlet front fairly blazing and apparently much 
enlarged and inflated. 


During the chase one of the birds, presumably the male, uttered 
a series of cries which sounded like ticket, ticket, repeated six or eight 
times in succession. This cry was evidently a wooing note as it was 
heard on no other occasion (Brewster, 1891, p. 4). 

Information concerning the nesting of the Florida Gallinule in 
California is rather meager. Wicks (1893, p. 363) records the find- 
ing of a nest with nine eggs near Los Angeles, April 27, 1890. The 
nest was situated in a clump of tules and composed of the same mate- 
rial. At Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County, Antonin Jay collected 
a set of eight fresh eggs on May 5, 1901, and a set of five with ineu- 
bation commenced, June 30, 1895 (Willett, 1912a, p. 33). A. M. 
Ingersoll took a set of six partly incubated eggs at Lakeside, San Diego 
County, on May 15, 1895, and another of nine eggs heavily incubated 
at San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County, June 7, 1897 (Ingersoll coll.). 
There is but one instance of nesting in the Central Valley of Cali- 
fornia of which we know. At Dos Palos, Merced County, a set of 
ten slightly incubated eggs was taken May 22, 1912 (Carriger coll.). 

The nest of the Florida Gallinule is always placed in a fresh-water 
marsh, sometimes on small islands but usually on a mass of dead 
tules and over standing water two or three feet deep. As elsewhere 
described (Brewster, 1891, p. 6), it is a bulky affair for the size of the 
bird, measuring 13 to 20 inches in diameter, and eight inches high. 
The central cavity which contains the eggs was found to be 23 inches 
deep by seven in diameter. As with the Mud-hen an approach or 
‘‘gang-way’’ of tules leads from the surface of the water to the nest. 
In the east, incubation is said to commence with the deposition of the 
first eggs, so that completed sets comprise eggs in all stages of incuba- 
tion from fresh to nearly hatching (Brewster, loc. cit.). 


312 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Brewster (1891, p. 4) says that the calls of these Gallinules were 
varied and complex. Sometimes they gave four or five loud harsh 
screams, again a series of sounds resembling those made by a brooding 
hen when disturbed, then a number of querulous complaining cries 
intermingled with subdued clucking. 


Again ... something which sounded like this: kr-r-r-r-r, kruc-kruc, krar-r, 
kh-kh-kh-kh-kea-kea, delivered rapidly and falling in pitch toward the end. 
Shorter notes were a single, abrupt, explosive kup, very like the ery given by 
a startled frog just as he jumps into the water, and a low kldc-klde or kléc- 
kléc-kléc. Speaking generally, the notes were all loud, harsh, and discordant, 
and nearly all curiously hen-like.... In the early morning and late after- 
noon their calls were frequent and at times nearly incessant. They ceased 
almost entirely after nightfall, for the Florida Gallinule is apparently much 
less nocturnal than any of the Rails... . 


Of the general habits of the Florida Gallinule in Massachusetts, 
Brewster (1891, pp. 3-4) says: 


His manner of swimming and of feeding from the surface of the water 
was very like that of a Coot. He sat high and accompanied the strokes of the 
feet with a forward-and-backward nodding motion of the head and neck, accent- 
uated at times as he reached out to sieze some tempting morsel. On land he 
walked like a Rail, treading his way deftly among the stems of the bushes and 
tall rushes, stepping daintily, lifting and putting down his feet slowly, and 
almost incessantly jerking up his tail with a quick, nervous motion which caused 
the under coverts to flash like the sudden flirt of a handkerchief. As he picked 
his food from the vegetation at his feet, the head and neck were shot forward 
and downward at intervals of about a second, with a peculiarly vivid, eager 
motion. His manner of walking and feeding also suggested that of the Guinea- 
hen, the body being carried low and in a crouching attitude, while the movements 
of the head partook of that furtive swiftness which is so characteristic of this 
barnyard fowl. 

Our Gallinule at most times, whether in action or repose, was a bird of 
slender shape and graceful outline, his carriage light yet firm, the play of the 
body lithe and strong. While preening his feathers, however, his attitude was 
often stiff and awkward, and the ruffling of his plumage made him appear 
nearly as portly as a duck. Again, the motion of flight was ludicrously awk- 
ward and uncouth. When, frightened by a glimpse of ... [the observers], 
he rose and flew with legs hanging down, wing-beats feeble and labored, the 
whole bearing was indicative of strain and exhaustion, which received an 
added emphasis from the abrupt reckless drop into the bushes which ended 
the flight. 


Almost every time the birds which Brewster was observing came 
to a small ditch in the marsh they would stop to bathe. The male 
would stand at the water’s edge where 


With a quick plunge and upward fling of the head he scattered the drops 
over his back in a shining shower, opening and trembling his wings as the 
water fell. After repeating this performance five or six times in rapid succes- 
sion, he rested a moment, and then went through it ounce more. After his 


MUD-HEN "818 


plumage became thoroughly soaked, he proceeded to dress it, running each 
feather separately through his bill. This elaborate toilet occupied a consider- 
able time, often lasting as long as fifteen minutes. When it was completed to 
his satisfaction, he would start off to feed again. 


This Gallinule frequents tule-bordered ponds and streams and may 
occasionally be seen feeding along with Mud-hens. Although the 
Gallinule is partially gregarious, it and the Mud-hen are never seen 
together in any numbers, usually not more than a few pairs of the 
former frequenting any one marsh in this state. 

Aquatic and other insects form the larger part of the food of the 
Florida Gallinule; but certain water plants and seeds are also taken. 
The stomach of a specimen taken in Nebraska contained seven grass- 
hoppers, twenty-nine other insects, some seeds and other vegetable 
matter (Barrows, 1912, p. 162). The birds forage more largely on 
the shores of ponds and among the vegetation, and less on the open 
water, than does the Mud-hen. 

Where known to sportsmen Gallinules are considered fine birds for 
the table, and were they more numerous here more would doubtless 
find places in hunters’ bags. But in California they are present in 
such small numbers as to be considered curiosities, and it is this fact 
which most often leads to their being shot. 

Near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Florida Gallinules have increased 
during recent years, and there is a possibility that by careful pro- 
tection their numbers might be made to increase in our own state. 
We have not been able to find a basis for any judgment as to com- 
parative abundance here, now and formerly, though it seems evident 
that they have never been notably numerous in California since 
natural history records began to accumulate. 


Mud-hen 


Fulica americana Gmelin 


OTHER NAMES—Coot; Chinese Mallard. 

DEScRIPTION—Adults, both sexes: Whole head and neck, black; iris bright 
red; frontal shield chocolate brown; bill whitish, with a brownish or blackish 
spot on both mandibles near tip; rest of upper and under surface of body 
ineluding wings and tail, dark slate, blending into black on neck; edge of 
wing narrowly white; secondaries tipped broadly with white; lower back tinged 
with olive brown; feathers of belly tipped more or less with white; longer 
under tail coverts white, forming a V enclosing the shorter black feathers; 
front toes broadly lobed ‘(see fig. 55); legs and feet greenish yellow. Males: 
Total length 15.00 inches (381 mm.) (one specimen); folded wing 7.40-7.90 
(188-200); bill along culmen (to top of shield) 1.62—-1.84 (41.1-46.7); tarsus 
2.21-2.36 (56.2-60.0) (ten specimens). Females: Total length 14.00-14.62 (356- 
372) (two specimens); folded wing 6.70-7.45 (170-189); bill along culmen 


314 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


(to top of shield) 1.53-1.85 (38.9-47.0); tarsus 1.86-2.19 (47.3-55.7) (ten 
specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adults 
but lower surface generally more suffused with whitish, frontal shield less 
developed, bill lighter in color and lacking blackish spots, and iris brown 
instead of bright red. Natal plumage: General color blackish slate; throat, 
cheeks, neck, wings and back covered with elongated, crinkled, bristly feather- 
tips of orange; top of head almost bald, but with a few black hair-like feathers; 
bill orange red, black at tip; legs and feet blackish. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Of small duck size and actions. Dark 
slate-colored plumage with whitish bill and white V under tail (pl. 10). Dis- 
tinguished in flight by labored efforts in leaving water, large feet extending 
bulkily beyond tail, and white patch on hind margin of wing. Walks and 
swims with distinct fore and aft movement of head at stroke of each foot. 
In hand the broad thin lobes on the front toes are diagnostic (fig. 55). Sepa- 
rable from Florida Gallinule by whitish instead of red bill (fig. 54), presence 
of lobes on toes, presence of white on secondaries, and absence of streaking 
on flanks. 

Voice—An explosive, cackling, pulque, pulque, pulque, or plop, with a hollow 
intonation. 

Nest—Of tules, reeds, or sedges, most often floating on the water, or built 
up in tules; seldom well concealed in thick growth. Often several nests are 
found close together. 

Eaes—6 to 15, pointedly ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.76 to 2.05 
by 1.25 to 1.36 (in millimeters, 44.8 to 52.0 by 31.7 to 34.7), and averaging 1.96 
by 1.30 (49.8 by 33.1) (thirty eggs from California); ground color creamy 
white, spotted and speckled in fine pattern with dark brown or blackish. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds from central British Columbia, 
southern Mackenzie, Manitoba, Quebec, and New Brunswick south to northern 
Lower California, Texas, Tennessee, and New Jersey, and also in southern 
Mexico, southern West Indies, and Guatemala; winters from southern British 
Columbia, Nevada, Utah, the Ohio Valley, and Virginia, south to Panama; 
casual at Fort Yukon and Sitka, Alaska, and in Greenland, Labrador and 
Bermuda (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 106; Cooke, 1914, p. 43). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA— Abundant resident, of suitable localities 
throughout the state, breeding at very many points, both east and west of 
the Sierras. Distinct local migrations, which may be altitudinal rather than 
latitudinal, are often in evidence; at the higher stations there are local 
increases in numbers in spring and corresponding decreases in fall. 


The Mud-hen, commonly known in booklore as the Coot, ranges 
over much of the North American continent. It breeds as far north 
as British Columbia and southern Mackenzie and has been taken twice 
in Alaska. It is perhaps more common in the west than in the east, 
but there is hardly a favorable marsh in the whole country that does 
not support a few birds of this species at least during the summer 
season. In Lower California it has been found breeding as far south 
as Purisima (Cooke, 1914, p. 48). 

In most places in California the Mud-hen nests in far greater 
numbers than does any native species of duck. Although remaining 
within the state during the whole year, a partial migratory movement 


MUD-HEN 315 


is to be noted. It may be that this migration is more largely alti- 
tudinal than latitudinal; in other words that bodies of water above 
the winter snow line are largely deserted in the fall. Along with 
the fall migrants of the duck tribe, Mud-hens appear in the lowlands 
in very great numbers. In certain places in southern California they 
are much more abundant in winter than in summer. Belding (MS) 
says that in the tule districts of central California the Coot does not 
migrate, in the accepted significance of this term, but that in winter 
when deep and often muddy water covers their feeding grounds they 


SSS 


SS 


7 
| 
Ml 


: i 
| ! | 


Fig. 54. Head of Mud-hen showing ‘‘shield’’ on forehead. 
Natural size (no. 22149). 


spread out into the cultivated fields and cause some damage by eating 
sprouted grain. Tyler (19130, p. 24) found a stray or migrant in 
a peach orchard two or three miles from the nearest water. It was 
so confused that it was easily captured, but when released flew away. 

To the average boy in California the Mud-hen is more familiar 
than any species of duck. And any person with even the slightest 
possible knowledge of waterfowl can distinguish the bird, aside from 
its general duck-like appearance, by a single character—the short 
whitish bill. The plumage is of a dark slate color shading into black 
on the head and neck (pl. 10). In flight a white patch on the hind 
margin of each wing shows conspicuously, and the large feet protrude 
clumsily beyond the end of the tail. In the hand the flat lobes of skin 


316 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


along the joints of the toes make identification certain (fig. 55). Ata 
distance the bird may be distinguished from ducks by the fore-and-aft 
bobbing motion of the head, in unison with that of the feet. This is 
observable when walking on land or when swimming in the water. 

Almost any large or small marsh, or a pond with more or less of 
a border of tall grass or tules, may be selected by the Mud-hen as a 


Dy 


Ny 


Y 


a 
at 


aaa 
eee 


vee 2uas 


y) 


y 2 
Valsane sees’ 


) +) 


reat 


Br | 
D 


Q 


) 


oO 
<—o 


Fig. 55. Top of foot of Mud-hen. Natural size. 
Note broad lobes on sides of toes (compare with figs. 11 and 47). 


nesting site. The Mud-hen is a gregarious species and frequently 
nests in colonies, the nests being placed even as close as ten feet from 
each other. Davie (1889, p. 105) says that five hundred Coot eggs 
were taken from a single marsh near Los Angeles. At Los Baiios, 
Merced County, nests are so common that it would be a comparatively 
easy matter to obtain even a larger number of eggs in a single season. 
Courtship is evidenced by persistent pursuit of the female by the male, 


MUD-HEN 317 


and this is as often carried on under water as above it. The female 
appears to be able to elude the pursuer just as long as she wishes to 
do so. ; 

The nest nearly always consists of a platform of vegetation, ‘‘float- 
ing’’ in the sense that the mass of broken-down reeds upon which it 
rests lies in the water; but it is occasionally situated high and dry 
on a sedge-covered island, though always near the water. Perhaps 
the most common nesting site in California is in the edge of a tule 
thicket. Often the nest is in such an exposed situation that the sitting 
bird may be seen at a considerable distance. The usual material enter- 
ing into the composition of the nest proper, is the green stems of 
tules or sedges, the smaller stems often forming the semblance of a 
lining. These are sometimes woven into a firm, deeply-cupped or 
basket-shaped structure. The drying out of the fresh stems during 
incubation has led to the popular idea that the birds use dry stalks 
in constructing their nests. There is.usually a sort of gangway, com- 
posed of bent-over tules, leading to the nest, and the parent bird 
enters and leaves the nest by this one route. : 

Six to fifteen eggs are laid. Morcom (1887, p. 39) records a nest 
found in Bear Valley, San Bernardino County, which contained 
twenty-two eggs; but doubtless this was the product of more than 
one female. The eggs are creamy white in color, finely and uniformly 
speckled with dark brown or blackish. In shape they are much like 
hens’ eggs but usually more pointed at the small end. As compared 
with eggs of the Florida Gallinule those of the Mud-hen are slightly 
larger and have a less reddish tone of coloration. The eggs of the 
Mud-hen are occasionally used for food, but they are less palatable 
than those of domestic fowls. 

Incubation often begins as soon as the first few eggs are laid and 
consequently the last egg hatches several days after the first one. 
Broods have been seen as early as the first week in April. In the 
lower country the birds usually nest from April 15 to June 15; at 
high altitudes the season is later. Eggs were found at Lake Merced, 
San Francisco County, July 23, 1911 (Carriger coll.), and at Bear 
Lake, San Bernardino County, altitude 6,750 feet, as late as July 27 
(Grinnell, 1908, p. 54). 

The young take to the water within a few minutes after hatching. 
Here they seem to be perfectly at ease as they swim and dive with 
agility and are expert in hiding in the vegetation. Their ability to 
remain beneath the surface of the water for a long period of time is 
remarkable. In two instances youngsters not more than a day old 
were observed to remain under water nearly three minutes, as timed 
by a watch. They could be seen clinging to vegetation beneath the 


318 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


surface until apparently forced to come up for air (H. C. Bryant, 
MS). 

In contrast to the sombre hue of the adult the downy young is a 
most brightly colored bird. The general color is shiny black, but on 
the throat, neck, wings and back there are patches of ¢rinkled fuzzy 
feathers with hair-like terminations which are of a chinese orange 
shade, brightening to orange vermillion on the head. The bill is a 
bright vermillion except for the tip, which is black. The top of the 
head is at first bare except for a few short black bristles. 


A quite significant and interesting fact was noted in that the feet of the 
young grew far more rapidly in proportion than the rest of their body. A 
half-grown Mud-hen has astonishingly large feet, and after observing the 
ease with which the youngsters swam and dived (apparently just as well as the 
adults), the relative importance of those members to the early success of 
the individual seemed plain. The young of a family near camp returned with 
both parents to the old nest each evening at dusk, but much squabbling and 
jostling, accompanied by various toots, grunts, and cries, took place before 
they were all finally settled for the night (Grinnell, 1908, pp. 54-55). 


Rich (1907, p. 247) writes concerning the Mud-hen in the East: 
‘‘In summer the separate families keep by themselves, but when in the 
fall the young are fully fledged and ready for business flocks of con- 
siderable size are formed preparatory to migrating.’’ The same is 
true of California birds. 

Coots are noisy birds and their explosive cackling notes are the 
commonest sounds emanating from our tule swamps. The usual call- 
note is a pulque, pulque, pulque, often with a peculiar resonant quality. 
When alarmed a flock breaks out into a great chorus of these cackling 
notes, and this seems to act as a warning, as most of the birds in the 
vicinity at once scurry for cover. 

The Coot is an excellent swimmer and spends much of its time 
on the water. It prefers the margins of shallow lakes and ponds, 
however, and often wanders about on the shore. Safety is more often 
sought by. swimming than by flight. When forced to fly a bird 
‘‘runs’’ along on top of the water for some distance before gaining 
headway enough to rise from the surface. Both wings and feet make 
the water fly in every direction, producing a characteristic sound 
and wake. Even when well started, the flight is labored, and as soon 
as fairly out of danger’s way, the bird usually drops back into the 
water with an appearance of complete exhausion. Yet it must be 
remembered that in parts of its range the Coot undertakes extensive 
annual migrations. Rich (1907, p. 247) states that it swims well 
under water, ‘‘using its wings in conjunction with its long, lobed feet, 
which are a most serviceable pair of paddles.’’ Coues (1874, p. 543) 
says of a flock on open water: ‘‘They swam with ease and gracefully; 


UNIV, CALIF, SEMICENT. PUBL. [GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 10 


MUD-HEN 


MUD-HEN 319 


the head now drawn back and held upright over their plump bodies, 
that floated lightly and changed their course at a movement of their 
broad paddles, now stretched out to full length as the birds hurried 
about, throwing off the ripples from their half-submerged breasts, 
crossing and recrossing each other’s path, in wanton sport, or attracted 
by some delicacy floating at a little distance.”’ 

The barbed-wire fence has introduced a new element of danger 
into the lives of these low-flying birds, and it is not an uncommon 
thing to see one or more individuals hung on the barbs (Chapman, 
1908, p. 292). 

The Coot is a splendid diver and obtains much of its food from 
under the surface. The bird is almost omnivorous and although it 
feeds most extensively on seeds and aquatic plants, it is not averse to 
taking insects, tadpoles, or even, on occasion, to eating dead ducks. 
Pondweed (Potamogeton) is a favorite food in most localities. Ander- 
son and Jenkins (1903, p. 154) found Coots feeding on green grass 
near shore on a lagoon in San Mateo County. Grain is relished when 
obtainable. 

Many gun-clubs consider the Mud-hen an enemy, because it 
destroys both the natural and artificially supplied food on the pre- 
serves. In some localities clubs hold a ‘‘Mud-hen shoot”’ at the begin- 
ning of the season so as to rid their grounds of these so-called pests 
and as many as 5,000 Coots have been killed in a day on one preserve 
in Merced County (Tyler, 1913d, p. 23). Some far-seeing sportsmen, 
however, are averse to these harsh measures, for they are inclined to 
think that at some not far distant day, when the supply of ducks is 
exhausted, our sportsmen will of necessity turn to this less desirable 
game bird as has been done in certain eastern localities. 

Many people think as little of the Mud-hen as an article of food 
as they do of a crow. On the other hand we have heard it asserted 
that young Coots, skinned and fried, or even old ones parboiled, are 
quite as delicious as most ducks. The story is current that this bird 
has for many years been sold by the hotels of San Francisco and other 
large cities as ‘‘duck.”’ 

At present the Mud-hen is very tame and is an easy mark for 
the gunner. Whether increased attention would make it a wary bird 
is problematical. 

As far as we can find out there has been little or no diminution in 
the numbers of Mud-hens. Through the decrease of more desirable 
birds it is possible that it will be more largely shot as a game bird, 
and in that event we may expect this species to decrease just as the 
ducks have done, unless the shooting be judiciously regulated. 


320 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Red Phalarope 


Phalaropus fulicarius (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Gray Phalarope; Sea Goose; Whale-bird; Bow-fin Bird; 
Crymophilus fulicarius. 

Description—Adult male in spring and early summer: Top of head, hind 
neck and back, sooty black with broad feather marginings of buffy brown, 
giving a streaked appearance; region around eye dull or buffy white, most 
extensive below and behind eye; area about base of bill, and chin, mixed 
reddish white and black, white predominating on chin; bill dull yellow at 
base, brownish black at tip and about nostrils; iris ‘‘brown’’ (Audubon, 1842, 
V, p. 293); rump slate-colored; upper tail coverts tawny, with some dark shaft 
streaks; tail above sooty brown, the feathers with narrow tawny or whitish 
margins; outer surface of closed wing brownish slate; edges of coverts white, 
those of greater coverts extensively so, forming a conspicuous white band, 
this being continued along tips of secondaries; flight feathers sooty brown, 
shafts of primaries and bases and shafts of secondaries, white; tertials 
margined with dull tawny; under surface of wing and axillars white; margin 
of wing at and below bend, mottled white and dusky; under surface of flight 
feathers dusky, becoming brownish toward tips; sides of neck and under sur- 
face dull cinnamon red with more or less white scattered along middle of 
belly; feathers of sides and flanks with dusky shaft streaks; under tail coverts 
like under surface, but with some of the feathers white; feet dark brown, 
darker at joints, webs lighter. Total length 7.90 inches (200 mm.) (two speci- 
mens from California); folded wing 4.77-5.18 (121.7-131.8); bill along culmen 
0.82-0.95 (20.8-24.3); tarsus 0.83-0.90 (21.1-22.9) (ten specimens from Cali- 
fornia and Alaska). Adult female in spring and early summer: Top of head, 
chin, and area about bill, deep brownish black, darker above than below; 
area around eye, white, more extensive below and behind eye; hind neck and 
back dull black; feathers of back extensively margined with light buffy or 
pale tawny; rump slate colored; middle upper tail coverts pale buffy with 
brownish black shaft streaks; outer tail coverts clear cinnamon red; inner tail 
feathers brownish black with narrow light brown edgings, outer ones lighter 
with whiter edgings; wing as in male; side of neck, and whole under sur- 
face including sides, flanks and under tail coverts, uniform deep cinnamon 
red, approaching chestnut, with a very few white feathers on belly. Total 
length 7.96-9.00 inches (202-228 mm.) (seven specimens from California and 
Alaska); folded wing 5.06-5.48 (128.4-138.6); bill along culmen 0.82-0.96 
(20.8-24.5); tarsus 0.79-0.89 (20.0-22.6) (ten specimens from California). 
Adults, both sexes, in late fall and winter: Head white, except for blackish 
area almost encircling eye and extending backwards over ear region; back 
of head and hind neck blackish; back and scapulars pearl gray with narrow 
white feather tippings; rump dusky brown; middle upper tail coverts blackish, 
with buffy edges, lateral ones white with gray shaft-streaks; tail and wing as 
in summer except that lighter margins are lost or reduced by wear; sides of 
chest, sides of body, and flanks, grayish; whole lower surface otherwise white. 
Juvenile plumage: Top of head mixed black and tawny; cheek and stripe from 
side of bill running over eye, buffy white; chin white; back and tail, black with 
broad feather margins of tawny; rump gray; outer surface of closed wing 
largely dull grayish brown; greater coverts and secondaries broadly tipped 
with white, forming a broad bar across wing; breast pale brown; rest of under 


RED PHALAROPE 321 


surface white, washed with brownish on flanks. Natal plumage: Ground color 
of head buff, darkest and most reddish on forehead and crown; narrow stripe 
from bill to eye, and broad stripe on each side of crown black; eye region 
whitish; bill yellowish, dark at tip; back a mixed pattern of black, reddish 
buff and white; chin, throat and breast buff; belly whitish; flanks washed with 
buff; legs and feet (dried) yellowish brown. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Small size, chunky form, absence of spot- 
ting, streaking or barring on under surface, white bar across wing, under sur- 
face chiefly reddish brown in spring, with white cheek-patch, mixed white and 
dull red in fall, and pure white in winter; neck short and thick (thicker than 
in Northern Phalarope); wings not markedly different in color from back; 
spends much of time swimming on water, and, within our borders, is rarely if 
at all, found feeding on shore; ‘‘spins’’ about rapidly from time to time 
while feeding on surface of water. 

Vorce—A low and musical clink, clink (Nelson, 1887, p. 97). 

Nest—Close to or in near vicinity of small fresh or brackish pools; com- 
monly only a moderate depression in damp ground, without lining, or else a 
rather deep depression sunk in the top of mossy hummock, with a thin lining 
of dry grasses (Nelson, loc. cit., and Grinnell, 1900, p. 20). 

Eees—3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.07 to 1.33 by 0.85 to 0.90 
(in millimeters, 27.2 to 33.8 by 21.6 to 22.8); ground-color greenish olive, light 
or dark buff, or even a grayish olive with large or small markings of dark 
brown, sometimes aggregated about the larger end forming a zone of dark 
color, or else rather evenly distributed over the whole egg; differ from eggs 
of Northern Phalarope only by slightly larger average size (authors). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Almost world-wide. Breeding range circumpolar; 
in North America extends north to Ellesmere Land, Melville Island, and 
Point Barrow, and south to St. Michael, Alaska, central Mackenzie, central 
Keewatin, Hudson Strait, and southern Greenland. Winters in Eastern Hemi- 
sphere south to Morocco, India, China and New Zealand. In Western Hemi- 
sphere probably winters in large part on southern oceans. Common offshore 
in both migrations on Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to vicinity of Massa- 
chusetts, but not known between that region and coast of Argentina. Common 
at times, chiefly during migration, on Pacific coast from Alaska to southern 
end of Lower California, and again off coast of Chile (Cooke, 1910, pp. 14-16). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Abundant transient along the seacoast during 
both migrations. Northward spring migration lasts from late April to early 
June. Southward migration lasts from first of August to late November or 
early December. A few stragglers have been taken near Monterey in Decem- 
ber and January (Beck, 1910, p. 70), and some probably winter around the 
Santa Barbara Islands and off the coast near San Diego. Recorded inland 
only at Stockton, one specimen, October 10, 1890 (Belding, MS), Pasadena 
(Grinnell, 1898, p. 16), and Los Angeles (Willett, 1912a, p. 34). 


The Red, or Gray, Phalarope is the most maritime of the three 
species of phalaropes and for that reason comes under observation 
of fewer persons. The migrating flocks begin to pass northward 
about the last of April, and from that time to the first of June (in 
two cases June 3), the species is abundant in the bays along our 
coast and on the adjacent ocean. The return migration sets in early 
in August (earliest instance August 2) and lasts at least through 


322 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


October. The November and December records of this species prob- 
ably indicate that some individuals winter on the ocean off the south- 
ern California coast and even as far north as Tomales Bay. The 
collection of the California Academy of 
Sciences contains fifteen specimens taken at 
Monterey during December .and January 
(Beck, 1910, p. 70). In this respect the Red 
Phalarope differs markedly from the North- 
ern. At the height of the migrating season 
the former species is exceedingly abundant 
offshore, sometimes occurring in flocks be. 
lieved to number thousands of individuals. 
In breeding plumage the Red Phalarope 
can be easily identified by the uniform dull 
cinnamon red of its under surface, and the 


Fig. 56. Side of conspicuous white patches on the sides of its 
tarsus and top of head; but in the fall identification is not so 
foot of Red Phala- 
rope. Natural size. easy. From the Northern Phalarope the Red 


his be Bae may then be distinguished at a distance only 

bases of toes and with some difficulty, by its thicker neck, 

mig on miagging: pf heavier bill (fig. 57), and chunkier appear- 

ance. From many of the shore birds it may 

be told by its small size and dense duck-like plumage, and from 

others by its rather thick head and neck, tawny upper tail coverts, 

and by lack of streaks, bars or spots on the under surface. Often, 

gee especially early in the fall migration, the 

plumage of the under surface is mixed 

C) red and white, but never with a definite 
pattern. 

The note is described as a low and 

; .. 4804 musical clink, clink, sounding very much 

aut eae like the noise made by lightly tapping to- 

Ree eee aia elegance gether two small bars of steel. When the 

form as compared with bills birds are disturbed the note is repeated 
of other Phalaropes (com- oftener and becomes harder and louder 
pare with figs. 58 and 59). (Nelson, 1887, p. 97). 

In our latitude this species is noted most commonly on the surface 
of the water, usually on the ocean, either resting quietly or else 
actively whirling about and dabbing the bill rapidly into the water 
from side to side after the small forms of animal life on which the 
birds feed. On rough water the birds often take wing to avoid curl- 
ing waves, alighting immediately on smoother water. Streator (1888, 
p. 54) saw numbers of these Phalaropes standing on floating kelp 
near San Nicolas Island; and individuals are not infrequently seen 


RED PHALAROPE 323 


standing or walking on mud flats or the seabeach close to the surf. 
Dawson says (1911, p. 178) that when feeding, they work at the rate 
of 300 dabs per minute and that the excrement is voided at two or 
three minute intervals when so feeding. 

McGregor (1898, pp. 87, 88) says concerning the habits of the 
species as a visitant along the coast of California: 


...I have repeatedly seen them in deep water feeding and swimming. 
... Near San Diego the Red Phalarope remains all winter at times and 
swims about on the ‘‘tide slicks’’ feeding ... [and] swimming nervously 
here and there with a peculiar jerky movement [of the head] .... [At Santa 
Cruz it was] busily feeding, gathering as I afterwards found, small crustacea 
from the surface of the water. As I attempted to approach them the whole 
flock arose and circling rapidly for a few seconds lit again a long way off. 
Another time, apparently forgetting my presence, they would light only a few 
feet from their starting place.... The head moved as if on a spiral spring 
and food was secured by quick dabs at the surface of the water. I found 
their time was spent either at the edge of the salt water, or, as likely in 
swimming on small brackish lagoons, just back of the sand beaches.... In 
the Bay of San Diego they are often seen, and a flock of eight or nine Red 
Phalaropes was seen in Lower California on a fresh water lagoon some twelve 
miles from the coast. This was the middle of April and several showed red 
blotches on the white plumage... . 

The Phalaropes usually feed near the water’s edge when they are not 
actually in the water. Not a moment is lost as they run hurriedly back and 
forth, now following a receding wave to catch a belated Hippa and again 
industriously turning over decaying algae in order to capture the small crus- 
taceans (Orchestia) which are ... lurking there.... They feed on minute 
particles of animal matter. ... [One] may approach to within a few feet of 
a feeding flock, perhaps, but Crymophilus [= Phalaropus] is notional and if 
you get too near, away goes the whole flock as a single bird, with no warning 
that we can detect. A killed or crippled Phalarope is almost sure to decoy the 
remainder of the flock. ... Whether on the wing or running along stretches 
of white sand beach or whether rapidly paddling over the water, the Phalarope 
is always neat and careful of its snowy feathers. 


In northeastern Greenland, Manniche (1910, pp. 152-159) im- 
proved an excellent opportunity to learn something of the habits 
of this Phalarope. Of a pair seen June 19, 1907, he says: 


At first they were entirely occupied in searching for food. Swimming on 
the water and going amongst the tufts they eagerly hunted for gnats and 
larvae.... They caught the larvae by swimming swiftly with the neck 
stretched out towards the selected prey. They would often keep the bill 
vertically and—reconnoitring the water just in front of them—pick up the 
prey ... with the greatest dexterity. Between the tufts the Phalaropes would 
especially hunt flying insects. [They were evidently afraid of the larger shore 
birds such as, for instance, Knots.] Several times I saw them rush together in 
terror and lie motionless on the water with their heads pressed down to their 
backs until the supposed danger—a passing Knot—was past... . 


324 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


When the Red Phalarope first arrives on its breeding grounds in 
the far north, during the latter part of May or the first few days of 
June, flocks of fifty or more individuals are the rule. A little later 
the birds pair off, but are still to be found associated together and 
feeding in scattering companies on the slightly flooded grassy flats. 
A vivid description of their behavior at this season was secured by 
Nelson (1887, p. 97) in western Alaska, and is as follows: 


A little later in the day, as their hunger became satisfied, they began to 
unite into parties until fifteen or twenty birds would rise and pursue an erratic 
course over the flat. As they passed swiftly along stray individuals and pairs 
might be seen to spring up and join the flock. Other flocks would rise and 
the smaller coalesce with the larger until from two to three or even four 
hundred birds were gathered in a single flock. As the size of the flock 
increased, its movements became more and more irregular. At one moment 
they would glide straight along the ground, then change to a wayward flight, 
back and forth, twisting about with such rapidity that it was difficult to follow 
them with the eye. Suddenly their course would change, and the compact flock, 
as if animated by a single impulse, would rise high overhead, and, after a 
series of graceful and swift evolutions, come sweeping down with a loud, 
rushing sound to resume their playful course near the ground. During all 
their motions the entire flock moves in such unison that the alternate flashing 
of the under sides of their wings and the dark color of the back, like the play 
of light and shade, makes a beautiful spectacle. When wearied of their 
sport the flock disbands and the birds again resume their feeding. 


The nesting habits of all the Phalaropes are peculiar in that the 
male performs most of the duties in other birds alloted to the female. 
In complementary fashion it is the female that does the courting. 
From his observation of the Red Phalarope in northeastern Greenland, 
Manniche (1910, pp. 153-154) writes: 


When the male had been eagerly searching food for some twenty minutes, 
often standing on his head in the water like a duck to fish or pick up some- 
thing from the bottom, he would lie down on a tuft stretching out his one 
leg and his one wing as if he would fully enjoy the rest after his exertions. 
The female for some moments was lying quietly and mutely in the middle of 
the pool; suddenly she began with increasing rapidity to whirl around on the 
surface of the water always in the same little circle, the diameter of which 
was some 10 cm. [214 inches]. As the male seemed to pay no attention to her 
alluring movements she flew rapidly up to him—producing as she left the 
water a peculiar whirling sound with her wings and uttering short angry 
eries—pushed him with her bill, and then she returned to the water and took 
up her swimming dance. Now the male came out to her and the two birds 
whirled around for some moments equally eager and with increasing rapidity. 
Uttering a short call the female again flew to a tuft surrounded by water and 
waited some seconds in vain for the male; again she flew to the water to induce 
him with eager pushes and thumps to accompany her. They again whirled 
violently around, whereafter she, uttering a strong alluring sound flew back to 
the tuft this time accompanied by the male—and the pairing immediately took 
place. 


RED PHALAROPE 325 


While the Red Phalarope remains in northern latitudes for a 
longer period than does the Northern, usually from late May to the 
middle of October, the nesting period is quite restricted. Nelson 
(loc. cit) found that the bulk of the species nested at St. Michael 

during the first two weeks of June, while Grinnell (1900, p. 20), just 
north of Cape Prince of Wales, found slightly incubated eggs on June 
27 and 28. 

The species varies somewhat in its nesting habits, according to 
Nelson and Grinnell, the nests sometimes being situated close to bodies 
of water and at other times at considerable distances from water. The 
nest itself is a slight depression in the top of a grassy hummock or 
on the surface of the bare ground, usually with a sparse lining of 
dry grasses or leaves. In some cases the nest is rather well concealed 
behind drooping grasses or willows. 

Manniche (1910, pp. 154-155) says that in northeastern Green- 
land 


... the nest building was executed by the male. He was busy in build. 
ing the nest on a low bank covered with short grass, while ... [his mate] 
paid no attention to his labour, but swam around the beach searching food. 

The male shaped a nest-hollow by turning round his body against the 
ground on the place selected, having first by aid of the feet scraped away and 
trampled down the longest and most troublesome straws. He diligently used 
feet and bill at the same time to arrange the shorter fine straws, which are 
carefully bent into the nest hollow and form the lining of this. The nest was 
much smaller than that of Tringa alpina and contained one egg the next day. 


A brooding ‘‘Phalarope will lie motionless with his head pressed 
deep down against his back. He is almost fully covered by straws, 
which surround the nest, as he with the bill bends these over himself ; 
besides he is so similar to the surroundings, that no human eye is 
able to distinguish him from these, if the spot is not known before- 
hand’’ (Manniche, loe. cit.). If disturbed, the male will perform the 
broken-wing ruse used by females of other species in decoying an 
intruder from the vicinity of the nest. 

Three or four pear-shaped eggs comprise a full set in the Red 
Phalarope. They measure in inches from 1.07 to 1.33 by 0.85 to 0.90. 
The ground-color is a greenish olive, light or dark buff, or even a 
grayish olive. The markings consist of large or small spots of dark 
brown, sometimes equally crowded over the entire surface. They are 
to be distinguished from those of the Northern Phalarope only by 
slightly larger average size. 

The period of incubation is not known but probably is about three 
weeks, as Nelson (1887, p. 98) states that ‘‘. . . toward the end of 
June most of the young are hatched and, by the middle of July, are 
on the wing.’’ The young, when they are able to fly, form flocks in 


326 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


company with the adults. Whether these mixed flocks break up dur- 
ing migration is not known; but the extensive series of this species 
obtained by Mr. R. H. Beck for the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology 
at Monterey in August, 1910, does not contain a single immature 
bird. So far as we can determine all are adults, and the males and 
females are about evenly divided as to numbers. 

Some of the food of this species has been indicated in the fore- 
going account, as quoted from McGregor. Beck found the birds at 
Monterey in 1910 feeding, as he supposed, upon small jellyfish which 
were numerous along ‘‘slicks.’’ This is unusual as most of the food 
of the species is probably made up of small erustacea. The forage 
grounds include brackish ponds, as well as the kelp beds and tide 
slicks (‘‘whale grease’’) of the open ocean. 

This phalarope, as in the case of some of the other smaller shore 
birds, has been killed in considerable numbers by flying against tele- 
graph wires where strung out across a marsh. For instance, near 
Alameda, May 15, 1896, fourteen individuals were found dead, having 
been killed in this manner (Cohen, 1896, p. 15). 

The Red Phalarope, being a more maritime species than either of 
the other two, and than most of the shore birds, has probably suffered 
but little diminution in its numbers. The fact that its breeding range 
is in the extreme north, farther toward the pole than either of the 
other two species, has probably also contributed to its protection. It 
is a small species, not worth the shot of the hunter, important neither 
as a game bird nor economically. 


Northern Phalarope 


Lobipes lobatus (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Mono Lake Pigeon; Lobefoot; Sea-goose; Phalaropus lobatus ; 
Phalaropus hyperboreus ; Lobipes hyperboreus. 

DEscrIPTion—Adult male in spring and early swmmer: Top of head and 
hind neck, dull sooty brown, the feathers with or without whitish or brownish 
tips; spot in front of eye, whitish; upper and lower eyelids white; sometimes 
a dull whitish spot behind eye; chin and upper throat pure white; bill black; 
iris ‘‘dark-brown’’ (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 298); patch on each side of neck 
bright rusty brown; back sooty brown, feathers widely margined with light 
buffy brown, and extreme edges white until lost by wear; upper tail coverts 
dull dark brown or blackish with narrow light brown edgings; tail feathers 
blackish, lateral ones lighter and margined with white; outer surface of 
closed wing sooty brown, except for tips of greater coverts and bases of 
secondaries, which are white; in unworn condition there are slight white 
tippings on rest of coverts; shafts of outer primaries light buff to white; 
elongated tertials more brown in tone than rest of wing; axillars and most 
of lining of wing white; bend of wing beneath mottled with dusky; under 
surface of flight feathers dusky, shafts white; lower throat and breast grayish 


NORTHERN PHALAROPE 327 


brown with feathers more or less white tipped and central portion of the 
area more or less suffused with rusty brown; rest of under surface white; 
feathers of sides and flanks with dusky shaft streaks; feet dusky with pale 
webs. Total length 6.40-7.75 inches (163-197 mm.) (ten specimens from Calli- 
fornia); folded wing 4.04-4.35 (102.8-110.5); bill along culmen 0.79-0.93 (20.0- 
23.7); tarsus 0.78-0.84 (19.7-21.5) (ten specimens from California and Alaska). 
Adult female in spring and early summer: Like adult male in corresponding 
plumage but with bright rusty brown on sides of throat deeper in tone and 
more extensive, reaching farther around toward middle of chest, and running 
down outer edge of scapulars as a duller streak; top of head, hind neck and 
back, nearly uniform slate, with a longitudinal buffy brown stripe on scapulars 
of each side; rump and upper tail coverts nearly black; general color of wing 
blackish. Total length 7.37-8.00 inches (187-203 mm.) (ten specimens from 
California); folded wing 3.91-4.29 (99.2-109.0); bill along culmen 0.84—0.96 
(21.4-24.4); tarsus 0.76-0.86 (19.2-21.8) (ten specimens from California and 
Alaska). Adults, both sexes, in fall and winter: Head and whole lower surface 
white, except for spot of dusky just below and behind eye; back and scapulars 
pearl gray with broad white feather margins; wings as in summer, save as 
modified by wear. Most late summer birds observed in California are in 
mixed, transitional plumage, from summer to winter. Juvenile plumage: 
Similar to summer plumage of adult male but with brown of neck and throat 
wanting, grayish brown of chest and sides replaced by pale drab, and edgings 
of scapulars and tertials bright rusty brown. Natal plumage: Ground color 
of upper surface, sides and chin, tawny, paler on lower back and chin; white 
spot over eye; stripe from side of bill to eye, dusky; top of head striped with 
black and tawny; ear region, middle of hind neck and side of neck, black; a 
median stripe, and two lateral ones on each side of back, black; throat suffused 
with tawny, fading to dull white on under surface, which is in turn replaced by 
drab in the region of the vent; feet (dried) yellowish. 

MarRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Small size, needle-like bill (fig. 58), 
slender head and neck, white under surface, and, in summer plumage, absence 
of conspicuous streaking or barring on back of head and back, and reddish 
sides of neck. Frequents open water, either salt or fresh; swims gracefully 
and with quick movements. Among Phalaropes, distinguished by smaller size, 
short, slender bill, dark rump, and in summer plumage by blackish head and 
back. The phalarope most commonly met with on inland waters. 

Voice—A plaintive ‘‘pé-ét, pé-ét,’’ or ‘‘pleep, pleep,’’ or ‘‘wit, wit.’’? As 
the birds take wing from the water, these notes may be uttered at intervals 
of one or two seconds. 

Nest—On banks of sloughs or near shores of small lakes; a depression 
molded in grassy sod and situated on top of a small hummock; sometimes a 
small collection of marsh grass, but arranged with little care. 

Eaes—3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.10 to 1.30 by 0.75 to 0.85 
(in millimeters, 28.0 to 33.0 by 19.1 to 21.6), and averaging 1.20 by 0.82 (30.5 
by 20.8); ground color greenish-olive, light or dark buffy, or even grayish olive, 
with either large or small markings of dark brown, sometimes aggregated 
around larger end to form a dark zone, or else rather evenly distributed over 
the whole egg (authors). Slightly smaller and less coarsely or deeply marked 
than those of the Red Phalarope. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Both hemispheres. In North America breeds from 
northern Alaska, Melville Island and central Greenland, south to the Aleutian 
Islands, valley of the upper Yukon, northern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, 


328 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


and northern Ungava; in the Old World from the limit of tree growth north to 
the Arctic coast. Winter range in Western Hemisphere unknown, but prob- 
ably on ocean south of equator; in Eastern Hemisphere winters in northern 
tropics. During migration occurs in almost all localities between breeding 
and winter ranges (Cooke, 1910, pp. 16-18; A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 107~ 
108). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Spring and fall migrant coastwise,; less com- 
mon in the interior. Occurs abundantly both in northward migration in May 
(extreme dates May 1 and June 19), and in southward migration from late 
July (earliest, the 11th, at Monterey) to late October (November 16, latest 
at Santa Barbara). Stragglers may winter within the state, as suggested by 
the records from Humboldt Bay (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 198); Stockton, in 
January (Belding, MS); and San Diego (McGregor, 1898, p. 88). Interiorly, 
in spring migration seems to keep to west side of San Joaquin Valley (east 
to Fresno), but in fall migrates down Sierras (Lake Tahoe) to southern San 
Joaquin Valley and western side of Mohave Desert. 


Among the shore birds there are none more dainty, more unsus- 
picious and more entertaining than the Phalaropes, of which the 
Northern is the smallest and most widely known. With its nesting 
range centering almost on the Arctic Circle and its winter home 
somewhere in the vast expanse of the Southern Hemisphere, the 
Northern Phalarope presents one of the most interesting problems 
in migration. Among the fishermen of the North Pacific Ocean these 
birds together with the Red Phalaropes are known as ‘‘Bow-head 
Birds’’ by reason of their feeding on the same small marine animals 
as the bow-head or right whale. They are also known in these regions 
as ‘‘Sea Geese’’ because of the erect posture of their head and neck 
while they are on the water. Hast of the Sierras in the region of Mono 
Lake they have been called ‘‘Mono Lake Pigeons.’’ ‘Writers have 
also referred to them as ‘‘Lobe-foots,’’ a name which they might 
appropriately share with the other two phalaropes. 

Northern Phalaropes begin to appear off our coast by the first day 
of May, becoming abundant by late May or early June from which 
time on they rapidly decrease in numbers until about the middle of 
the month when they disappear. Dawson (1916, p. 25) records seeing 
five on Goose Lake, Modoe County, June 24, 1912. As with many 
other shore birds the breeding season of the Northern Phalarope is 
exceedingly short, the great bulk of the individuals beginning to nest 
within a few days of one another. This accounts for the fact that 
barely five or six weeks elapse between the time that the last of the 
north-bound migrants disappear in June, and the time when the 
advance guard of the south-bound host reaches our latitude in the 
latter part of July. From this time on, the species increases in abun- 
dance; its numbers are maintained during August and September, 
after which time it again becomes rare. The last of the birds disappear 
by late October or early November. The few records of birds having 


NORTHERN PHALAROPE 329 


been seen within our boundaries during the winter season are prob- 
ably cases of stragglers that have been detached from the migrating 
flocks. The winter home of the species is not definitely known but 
it is believed to be the open ocean south of the equator and the birds 
are thought to feed and sleep on the water during the winter months 
(Cooke, 1910, p. 16). 

The Phalaropes as a group may be distinguished as the only wad- 
ing birds which habitually swim or rest on the surface of the water. 
This, coupled with the peculiar whirling motion, characteristic at 
least of the Red and Northern, will serve to identify them on the 
water. In flight their small size, direct course, and color markings 
must be depended upon. The Northern Phalarope may be dis- 
tinguished from the Wilson by its smaller size, and, in the breeding 
season, by the relatively larger amount of 
reddish on the neck and throat. From the oS 
Red it may be distinguished in the breed- O- 
ing season, of course, by the restriction of 
reddish to the neck and throat, but in the 
fall and winter plumage chiefly by its Fig. 58. Side of bill 
smaller head and extremely slender neck of Northern Phalarope. 
(Torrey, 1913, pp. 52, 53). Natural size. 

The Northern Phalarope is at nearly all Note slender form, and 
times of the year a gregarious species espe- eee ee 
cially in feeding and migrating. Even and 59). 
when nesting, pairs remain in the near 
neighborhood of one another. While it resorts to the shores of inland 
ponds or streams to nest and may sometimes be found in such locali- 
ties at other seasons of the year, it spends the greater part of the 
year in the vicinity of or on salt water. At times this bird associates 
with the Red Phalarope, occasionally in large numbers, especially 
while out on the ocean, as for example near Monterey. It may also 
join with some of the sandpipers in feeding, but the species is more 
commonly found in flocks containing only those of its own kind. The 
eall-note of the adult Northern Phalarope may be described as a 
plaintive pleet, pleet, or peet, peet. It is also credited with a note 
resembling wit, wit, wit (Saunders, 1899, p. 568). : 

During the breeding season and to a less extent during migration 
the Northern Phalarope feeds along beaches or in muddy creeks at 
low tide, but it spends most of its time on the water, either while 
resting or feeding. When on the water the birds have a habit of 
whirling about rapidly. On this account they have been given the 
name of ‘‘whirligig birds.’’ This movement is evidently for the pur- 
pose of bringing to the surface some of the minute animal life which 
serves as food, and the movement is used most effectively in shallow 


18932 


330 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


water where the rotating motion produced by alternate movement of 
the lobed feet creates a little whirlpool. This whirling is maintained 
at a rapid rate, and from three to forty revolutions may be made with- 
out stopping. As a bird rotates, the bill is rapidly dabbed down into 
the water, at a rate in some cases of 150 dabs per minute. Evidently 
the success of this method depends upon the light conditions because 
little or no ‘‘whirling’’ is noted on cloudy days (Bowles and Howell, 
1912, p. 67). On their breeding grounds these birds have been ob- 
served to dart in zigzag fashion along the margins of the pools in their 
search for food (Nelson, 1887, p. 99). 

The nesting season of the Northern Phalarope is exceedingly short, 
a point which was mentioned in connection with their reappearance 
in June and July along the California coast. Extreme nesting dates 
available are June 11, 1908 (Dixon, MS), and June 30, 1899 (Grinnell, 
1900, p. 21). Nelson (1887, p. 99) states that fresh eggs are rarely 
found after June 20. ; 

In North America this species nests throughout most of the 
northern half of Canada and Alaska on the banks of ponds or streams 
near either fresh or salt water, seeming however to prefer the former. 
The nest itself may consist of a small collection of marsh grass, some- 
times arranged on the top of a tussock of moss, or more commonly 
on the level surface. Little or no care is shown by the birds in con- 
structing the nest. Grinnell (loc. cit.) describes nests in the Kotzebue 
Sound region as being ‘‘. . . neatly moulded depressions in the 
grassy sod, usually on a hummock at the side of a pool of water. 
There was no lining except that formed by the broken-down grasses 
underlying the nesting cavity.”’ 

The eggs of the Northern Phalarope usually number three or four, 
sets of the latter number being much the more common. Turner (in 
Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 159) is authority for the statement that 
five eggs sometimes comprise a set. ‘‘The ground [color] varies from 
dark greenish-olive or brownish-olive, through various lighter drab- 
tints, nearly to a buffy-brown, and in one instance to a light grayish- 
drab. The markings are usually very bold and heavy, consisting of 
large spots and the still larger splashes produced by their confluence, 
mingled with dots and scratches in interminable confusion. The 
markings are, in general, pretty evenly distributed, sometimes agere- 
gated about the butt, and in rarer instances forming a complete, 
definite circle. In a few instances all the markings are mere dots. In 
general, the heaviness and size of the markings bear some proportion 
to the intensity of the ground-color. The color of the markings is 
dark bistre, chocolate, and sometimes still lighter brown’’ (Coues, 
1874, p. 471). The eggs measure in inches 1.10 to 1.30 by 0.75 to 0.85, 
and average 1.20 by 0.82. The eggs of the Northern are said to be 


NORTHERN PHALAROPE 331 


indistinguishable from those of the Red Phalarope, save that the latter 
average slightly the larger. 

‘When a person approaches the nest of a Northern Phalarope, the 
sitting bird slips quietly from the nest while the intruder is twenty 
yards or more away, and flies to the surface of a nearby pond where 
it commences feeding unconcernedly, giving the impression that there 
is no nest in the vicinity. At other times the bird will employ the 
broken-wing ruse and other tactics common to nesting birds. During 
the nesting period the adults remain close around the nest site; when 
foraging they follow one another about attentively. According to 
different authors the male of this species does half or all of the work 
of incubation. Indeed, except for the primary function of laying 
eggs, the male performs all or most of the duties assumed by the 
female in other species of birds. As a result of the low swampy 
nature of the ground chosen for the nesting site many of the nests 
are at times inundated by high tides and the eggs destroyed (Grinnell, 
loc. cit.). By the latter part of July (20th to 27th) the young are 
fully fledged and on the wing, feeding with the adults. 

The fall molt seems to extend through a considerable portion of 
the period from July to September. At least among the many speci- 
mens taken in the fall along our coast varying conditions of the 
plumage are shown, though not one is in full winter plumage. 

While often appearing in great numbers on the ocean during 
migration, the flocks are smaller on fresh water inland, perhaps thirty 
individuals being the average number found in a flock. The flight is 
usually quite direct, without the zig-zag movements of the sandpipers, 
but at times it is erratic. 

Heavy winds on the ocean sometimes prove disastrous to the 
migrating hosts of Northern Phalaropes. Chapman (1905, p. 273) 
records finding many bodies of this species in the tide pools of the 
Farallon Islands. A heavy northwest wind had been blowing along 
the coast for the previous two weeks and many of the birds had 
resorted to inland pools of water. The emaciated condition of the 
birds at the Farallones was probably due to their inability to procure 
food while on the open ocean in migration. Forbush (1912, p. 228) 
records numbers of these birds as being killed on the Atlantic coast 
by dashing against lighthouses at night. In the Cape Region of 
Lower California, Brewster (1902a, p. 59) found that ‘‘most of the 
birds examined had lost one or more toes, and two or three an entire 
foot, and part of the tarsus, also, while others showed gaping wounds 
on the breast. These mutilations were probably caused by the bites of 
fishes.’’ Emerson (1904, pp. 37, 38) records finding several of these 
birds killed by flying against the telephone wires strung across the 
salt ponds on the marshes west of Hayward, and says that very many 
of this and other species of birds are killed in this manner. 


332 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The Northern Phalarope feeds chiefly, although not exclusively, 
on aquatic forms of animal life: Aquatic worms (including Nereis, the 
oyster-worm), crustacea, such as small shrimps, larvae of aquatic in- 
sects, flies, especially those species which inhabit the surface of water, 
salt-marsh mosquitoes, crane flies, grasshoppers, clover-root curculios, 
wireworms, click beetles, and water beetles (Dytiscidae) (MeAtee, 
1911a). 

It is a mistake to refer to the Northern Phalarope as a ‘‘game 
bird.’’ Its small size, if nothing else, should remove it from the list 
of species reckoned as objects of pursuit for food or sport. This, 
coupled with the fact that its food habits, when it resorts to non- 
aquatie forms of life, make it beneficial to our agricultural interests, 
should be sufficient ground for placing it in the category of perman- 
ently protected shore birds. 


Wilson Phalarope 


Steganopus tricolor Vieillot 


OTHER NAMES—Needle-billed Snipe; Phalaropus tricolor; Phalaropus wilsoni. 

DeEscRipTiIoN—Adult male in spring and summer: Top of head and stripe 
from base of bill through eye to ear region, dull blackish brown; forehead 
sometimes suffused with grayish white; stripe over eye, lower eyelid, spot on 
hind neck, chin, upper throat and lower portion of cheek, white; area behind 
ear region black, sometimes suffused with reddish; bill black; iris brown; upper 
surface except rump and upper tail coverts dull dark brown, many of the 
feathers with lighter margins, and some marked with rusty; feathers of hind 
neck slightly washed with white; rump feathers drab, tipped with white; 
upper tail coverts with light drab shaft streaks and white shafts and margins; 
outer surface of closed wing uniform dull dark brown; primaries blackish, 
shaft of outermost one white; bend of wing mottled white and light brown; 
inner surfaces of flight feathers light grayish brown, shafts white; lining of wing 
and axillars, white; sides of hind neck dull reddish; throat and fore-chest abruptly 
light buffy, more whitish near mid-line and fading to light drab on lower 
chest; sides and flanks pale drab, many of the feathers with dusky shaft 
streaks and dull whitish tips; rest of lower surface white; legs and feet black. 
Total length ‘‘8.25-9.00’’ inches (210-228 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 145); folded 
wing 4.60-4.92 (117-125); bill along culmen 1.08-1.22 (27.5-31.1); tarsus 1.17- 
1.29 (29.7-32.8) (seven specimens from California and Nevada). Adult female 
in spring and early summer: Top of head forward to upper base of bill pearl 
gray; conspicuous stripe through eye and continuing more broadly down side 
of hind neck, black; short, black-bordered stripe above and in front of eye 
white; lower eyelid, chin, upper throat and lower portion of cheek, white; 
bill black; iris brown; middle of hind neck light grayish or white; side of 
hind neck behind black stripe, and outer margins of scapulars, deep cinnamon 
red; back otherwise shading from light gray on hind neck through deeper 
slate gray to dull brown on lower back and rump; upper tail coverts white, the 
longer feathers irregularly marked with dusky; middle tail feathers light drab 
with white tippings, lateral ones light drab with increasing amounts of white 


WILSON PHALAROPE 333 


irregularly distributed; outer surface of closed wing uniform dull dark brown; 
primaries blackish; shaft of outermost primary white, of the rest light brown; 
some of secondaries narrowly margined with white; axillars and lining of 
wing white; bend of wing mottled white and light brown; under surfaces of 
flight feathers light grayish brown with white shafts; lower throat and upper 
part of chest abruptly tawny, darkest toned at sides, paling on breast, sides 
and flanks; rest of under surface white; feet. and legs black. Total length 
**9,40-10.00’? inches (239-254 mm.) (Ridgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 4.97- 
5.29 (126.6-134.3); bill along culmen 1.25-1.39 (31.8-35.2); tarsus 1.19-1.32 
(30.1-33.6) (ten specimens from California and Nevada). Adults and birds of 
the year, both sexes, in late summer, fall and winter: Forehead, side of head, 
stripe above eye, and whole under surface, white; top of head, stripe through 
eye, hind neck, and whole back, brownish gray with minute white feather 
tippings; upper tail coverts chiefly white; wings and tail as in adult in spring; 
sides of throat, chest and body, faintly washed with light gray. Juvenile 
plumage: Upper parts blackish, the feathers extensively margined with light 
rusty, giving a streaked effect; chin and area around eye, whitish; bill black, 
yellowish at base of lower mandible; iris light brown; throat and sides of chest 
washed with dull buffy; sides buffy, obscurely streaked with blackish; rest 
of under surface dull white; legs flesh-color; feet yellow; nails black. Natal 
plumage: ‘‘Prevailing color bright tawny fulvous, paler beneath, the abdomen 
nearly white; occiput and nape with a distinct median streak of black, on the 
former branching laterally into two narrower, somewhat zig-zag lines; lower 
back and rump with three broad black stripes; flanks with a black spot, and 
caudal region crossed by a wide subterminal bar of same’’ (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 336). ' 

MarRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderate size, slender neck, long needle- 
like bill (fig. 59), and white upper tail coverts; no spotting, streaking or 
barring on under surface, no white on back, and no white bar or patch on 
wing. The other two Phalaropes have white on back, and white bar or patch 
on wing. An inland species rarely if ever found along the seacoast. 

Vorce—A nasal oit, oit, oit (W. P. Taylor, 1912, p. 359), or soft trumpeting 
yfia, ya (Chapman, in Forbush, 1912, p. 229). 

Nest—In marshy or grassy land at varying distances from water; a small 
aggregation of grass or sedge with a slight depression in the center, or else 
merely a slight depression in the surface of the ground with a sparse lining 
of grass blades. 

Ecas—3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.25 to 1.33 by 0.92 to 
0.94 (in millimeters, 31.7 to 33.7 by 23.4 to 23.8), and averaging 1.28 by 0.93 
(32.6 by 23.6) (two sets, seven eggs, from Nevada and Colorado); ground- 
color light buff to very light drab; superficial markings dark brown or brownish 
black, deep ones pale olive or light brown; markings chiefly spots, the larger 
ones aggregated about larger end of egg, smaller ones profusely sprinkled 
over whole surface. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds from northern 
Washington (and probably southern British Columbia), central Alberta, central 
Saskatchewan and northern Manitoba, east to northwestern Indiana (and 
probably eastern Wisconsin), and south to central Iowa, southern Kansas, 
southern Colorado, and northeastern California. In fall migration reaches the 
Atlantic coast casually from Maine to New Jersey, and Pacific coast from 
southern British Columbia to Lower California. Winters in South America 
from central Chile and central Argentina south to the Falkland Islands (A. O. 
U. Check-list, 1910, p. 108). 


334 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Fairly common summer visitant and breeder 
in suitable localities in the northeastern section of the state, east of the 
Sierran divide, from Lake Tahoe northward, and westward to Lower Klamath 
Lake on the Oregon line. In spring migration has been observed at various 
inland points north to vicinity of Los Bafios, Merced County; also on the 
coast at Santa Barbara. In fall migration occurs sparingly on coast from 
San Francisco southward, but more commonly inland. 


The Wilson Phalarope, or Needle-billed Snipe as it has been called 
in parts of the east, is the non-maritime representative of the phala- 
ropes, and is the only strictly American member of its family. It is 
a distinctly fresh water species in its habits and is seen but rarely 
even near the seacoast. In the spring migration it has been observed 
inland at Salton Sea (April 21), Los Bafios (May 11 and June 19), 
Death and Owens valleys (June 19 
and 27), and, on the coast, at Santa 
Barbara (April 30 to May 20). In 
the fall it has been taken at Ceme- 
teries, San Mateo County (September 

: ; ; , 9), and has been noted at Santa Bar- 
Phalgrope. Natural size, bara (July 22 to September 8), and, 
Mote dxivemels Mendes fon in the southern mountain ranges, at 
(whence the name ‘‘Needle-billed Bear Lake, San Bernardino Moun- 
Sniper) and length over 100 tains (July 28 to August 2), and 
58). Hemet Lake, San Jacinto Mountains 
(August 11). One specimen is re- 
ported as having been taken at Riverside in the ‘‘winter of 1891” 
(Heller, 1901, p. 100). It is possible that the species breeds in the 
San Joaquin Valley, as at Los Bafios (Chapman, MS; Mailliard, MS), 
and at Tulare Lake (Goldman, 1908), p. 203). 

After the breeding season this bird wanders about extensively, 
and the records on the Atlantic coast are doubtless due to this pro- 
pensity to wander. It is certainly nowhere such an abundant species 
as the two maritime members of the group. Unlike the other two 
species of phalaropes the Wilson rarely associates in large flocks, and 
when nesting only a few pairs are ordinarily to be found in a given 
locality. 

From the other two phalaropes the Wilson may be distinguished 
by its large size, long neck, long needle-like bill (fig. 59), white upper 
tail coverts, and by the absence of white on its back and wings in all 
plumages. From other shore birds it may be distinguished by the 
combination of its swimming propensity and moderate size, with 
straight and extremely slender bill, slender head and neck, unmarked 
under surface, and absence of a white bar or patch on its wing. 

The call-note of the Wilson Phalarope has been variously described 
by different authors. Forbush (1912, p. 229, citing Chapman) 


WILSON PHALAROPE 335 


describes it as a soft, trumpeting yia, yfia, and Chapman (1912, p. 
241) gives it as a soft qua or quok. W.P. Taylor (1912, p. 359), who 
observed the species in northwestern Nevada, describes the note as a 
nasal ott, ott, ott, somewhat resembling the croak of a toad during 
the breeding season. ‘‘At the instant of utterance of the note the 
bird which is calling raises its head somewhat, pauses momentarily 
in its flight and its throat bulges slightly. The females... evi- 
dently uttered most of the call-notes’’ (W. P. Taylor, loc. cit.). 

This phalarope differs from the other two species in spending less 
time swimming upon the surface and more of its time wading along 
the shores or banks of pools and streams where it gleans its food in 
much the same manner as the non-swimming shore birds. Because of 
this, individuals of the species have been mistaken for Western Soli- 
tary Sandpipers. Wilson Phalaropes are usually quite tame and will 
allow themselves to be closely approached. At times they swim buoy- 
antly upon the surface of the water, but seldom for a long time or very 
far from the shore. They rarely if ever dive, and when frightened 
escape by flight. Their flight is strong and takes a zig-zag course when 
they are alarmed, but in the absence of danger it is slower and more 
direct (Goss, 1891, p. 151). When feeding on the surface of the water 
they have been occasionally observed to whirl and bob up and down 
much as do the other phalaropes. They have also been seen to stalk 
and capture insects on a muddy flat (W. E. Bryant, 1893a, p. 55). 

In California the Wilson Phalarope breeds during the month of 
June, and as far as is now known, only in the plateau region east 
of the crest of the Sierra Nevada and northward from the vicinity of 
Lake Tahoe. Its reported breeding in the San Joaquin Valley (Los 
Bafios) has not been substantiated by the discovery of either eggs or 
downy young there. It has been found (Ray, 19126, p. 145) nesting 
at Lake Tahoe as early as June 4 (set of four, one-third incubated). 
H. C. Bryant (1914e, p. 232) found a nest on June 8 at Lower Kla- 
math Lake, containing egg-shells from which the young had already 
hatched. Ray (1918, p. 113) found a nest at Lake Tahoe on June 6 
containing a single fresh egg. By June 19 this nest held four eggs 
in which incubation was well advanced. Bliss (1893, p. 226) found 
a nest in the same locality on June 16, 1889, with eggs on the point of 
hatching, while H. W. Carriger has a set taken there June 17, 1911, 
which consists of four fresh eggs. Sheldon (1907, p. 187) took a 
chick in down near Eagle Lake, Lassen County, on July 1; this would 
indicate hatching during the last week of June. It is thus probably 
safe to say that the nesting period extends from late May to the end 
of June. 

The nesting site is usually in grassy meadows or marshes, where 
the nest will be well concealed, and may be either in the near vicinity 


336 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


of a body of water or removed a considerable distance from it. W. P. 
Taylor and Ray have found the nests only in damp situations. The 
first nests and sets of eggs are sometimes destroyed through inunda- 
tion. This has the effect of extending the breeding season. The nest 
itself is a simple affair consisting of dried grasses or sedges loosely 
put together into a small circular and flattened mass with a slight 
depression in the center. Again there may be no foundation but 
merely a slight depression .in the ground with a sparse lining of grass. 
W. P. Taylor (1912, loc. cit) describes a typical nest as measuring 
in surface dimensions about 2.25 by 3 inches and being about 0.75 
inches in depth of material at the center where the eggs rested. 

The eggs of the Wilson Phalarope average 1.28 by 0.93 inches and 
are of the usual pear-shape. The ground-color is light buff to very 
light drab, often varying considerably within a single set. The super- 
ficial markings are dark brown or brownish black and consist of 
spots of various sizes, the largest rarely over a fourth of an inch in 
diameter. The larger spots are more abundant about the larger end 
of the egg while the smaller ones are sprinkled abundantly over the 
whole surface. The deep markings are pale olive or light brown. The 
excessive sprinkling of small spots results in a conspicuously dark 
general tone of color, and this, in conjunction with size, is usually 
sufficient to distinguish the eggs of this species from those of any 
other wader nesting in California. 

The following account of breeding habits as observed in northern 
Illinois (where the species is now rare or altogether gone) is con- 
densed from Nelson (1877, pp. 838-43). The approach of the breeding 
season is indicated by the breaking up of the flocks into small groups 
of two or three pairs. Mating commences about the middle of May and 
is evidenced by the increasing solicitude which the members of the two 
sexes show for each other’s welfare. During the mating period a 
solemn bowing of the head is indulged in by both sexes at times, and 
again one of the birds [female?] will sometimes run back and forth 
in front of the other [male?]. Mating accomplished, the male proceeds 
to the construction of the nest. The eggs having been deposited by the 
female, the male then begins the work of incubation. That the male 
does all of the work of incubation is indicated by the fact that it is 
only the breast and abdomen of this sex which shows the worn feathers 
and wrinkled skin indicative of an incubating bird. 

Generally a number of pairs nest in the same vicinity, and as 
many as fifty have been counted within the radius of a mile. During 
the ineubating period the females form small flocks ‘of six or eight, 
remaining in the vicinity of the nesting grounds. If the breeding 
ground is approached at this time the birds fly to meet the intruder 
and hover over his head uttering a weak nasal note. After the first 


AVOCET 337 


alarm the birds nesting at a distance leave the flock while those having 
nests in the immediate vicinity remain and fly about in long ellipses, 
with the object of concern at the center. If the intruder still remains 
and approaches closer to the nest the males join. with the females. If 
the intruder persists in his approach to the nest the length of the 
elliptic flight is gradually lessened until the birds are flying about 
almost within reach. A ruse of the species is for a nesting bird to 
hover at some point apart from its nest. If successful, it is repeated 
at a still greater distance from the nest. At times the males employ 
the well known broken-wing ruse to lead intruders from the immediate 
vicinity of the nest. 

The young birds have a fine wiry ‘‘peep,’’ inaudible beyond a few 
feet (Nelson, 1877, p. 48). They are escorted to the edge of the water 
and feed there, sometimes drifting out on the surface (Sanford, 
Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 329). Until they are fully fledged 
their time is spent in marshy land. About three weeks after hatching 
they are able to fly (Nelson, 1877, p. 42). 

The molt is evidently accomplished early in the season in Cali- 
fornia, as an apparently adult female taken at Bear Lake, San Ber- 
nardino Mountains, on July 28, 1905, is in the full gray winter 
plumage. The spring molt into the bright nuptial plumage is entirely 
completed by the time the birds arrive within our territory. 

The food of the Wilson Phalarope differs markedly “from that of 
the other two species, because of the inland habitat which the bird 
frequents. It does not confine itself to aquatic forms, such as snails, 
but eats a great variety of insects, including many terrestrial forms 
(Barrows, 1912, p. 168). Mosquitoes, crane-fiy larvae, leaf beetles, 
water beetles (Dytiscidae), and bill-bugs (Calandridae) Dee been 
found in stomachs of this species (McAtee, 1911a). 

The Wilson Phalarope, although widely distributed, is, with us, 
by no means a common species. Its limited area of summer distribu- 
tion in California affects a region but sparsely settled, and there is 
no evidence to show that its numbers have been reduced. The small 
size of the bird and the fact that it is a forager upon insects, in many 
eases frequenting cultivated fields, would seem to justify its permanent 
exclusion from the category of true game birds. 


Avocet 


Recurvirostra americana Gmelin 


OTHER NAMES—American Avoset; California Avocet; Yellow Snipe; Irish 
Snipe; Blue-stocking; White Curlew; Recurvirostra occidentalis. 

Description—Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Area around 
base of bill and around eye, whitish, not sharply defined; rest of head, neck, 


338 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


upper part of back, throat and breast, dull rusty, darker on top and sides of 
head and hind neck, paler below and behind, gradually giving way to white on 
back and under surface; bill black; often pale at base below; iris ‘‘bright 
carmine’’ (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 29); middle of back white, becoming very 
pale gray on rump, upper tail coverts and tail; inner scapulars brownish black, 
outer ones white, forming on back a dark V set in white; outer surface of 
closed wing brownish black; primaries black; secondaries extensively white 
at tips; tertials pale drab; margin and most of under lining of wing, 
and axillars, white; hindmost under wing coverts, dusky; under surface of 
primaries black; whole lower surface of body backwards from “preast, inelud- 
ing sides, flanks, and lower tail coverts, white; hind toe small, feet extensively 
webbed; legs and feet clear, pale blue, ‘‘edges of webs flesh-coloured’’ 
(Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 29), drying blackish. Males: Total length 17.61—-19.10 
inches (447-486 mm.) (five specimens from California and Lower California) ; 
folded wing 8.75-9.17 (222-233); bill along culmen 3.46-4.00 (88.0-101.8); 
tarsus 3.79-4.00 (96.3-101.7) (ten specimens from California). Females: Total 
length 16.75-17.90 (426-454) (ten specimens from California and Lower Cali- 
fornia); folded wing 8.66-9.30 (220-236); bill along culmen 3.22-3.71 (81.6- 
94.1); tarsus 3.27-3.92 (83.0-99.5) (ten specimens from California). Adults 
and immatures, both sexes, in fall (?) and winter: As in summer, except that 
rusty coloration is wholly wanting, being replaced on upper surface of head, 
neck and back by pale gray, and below by dull white. The spring molt takes 
place in March. Juvenile plumage: ‘‘Primaries slightly tipped with whitish; 
scapulars and feathers of back tipped or transversely mottled with pale 
fulvous or buff. Crown dull grayish; nape tinged with light rufous’’ (Baird, 
Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 341). Natal plumage: Top and side of head, 
mixed black, white and dull rusty; side of neck, hind neck and upper part of 
back similar but with more rusty; area above base of upper mandible, and 
middle of chin, whitish; bill black; rest of upper surface dull blackish, with 
much white-tipped down and some rusty color; lower back and outer surface 
of closed wing grayish; under surface dull white; legs pale blue. 

MarKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size, slender build, long, slender, up- 
curved black bill (fig. 60), rusty or white head, white, unstreaked under surface, and 
long bluish legs (pl. 11). Differs from Black-necked Stilt in having white on 
scapulars and in entire lack of black on head or neck at all seasons. 

Voice—A loud sharp ‘‘plee-eek, plee-eek.’’ 

Nest—Lither on bare ground or in grass near alkaline ponds; varies greatly 
in construction, being sometimes a well-made platform of grasses as much 
as two inches in height; again only a rim of grasses, though fairly well put 
together, the eggs being deposited on the surface of the ground within the rim. 

Eecs—Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.82 to 2.07 by 1.34 to 
1.40 (in millimeters, 46.2 to 52.6 by 34.1 to 35.5), and averaging 1.93 by 1.38 
(48.9 by 34.9) (two sets, eight eggs, from California and Utah); ground-color 
dull buff or clay; markings of dark brown or black and lavender or light gray. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America, chiefly the western part. Breeds 
from eastern Oregon, central Alberta, and southern Manitoba (rarely north 
to Great Slave Lake), south to southern California, southern New Mexico, 
northwestern Texas, northern Iowa and central Wisconsin; winters from 
southern California and southern Texas south to southern Guatemala; of rare 
or casual occurrence east of Mississippi River (and now only in migration), 
but formerly bred there in small numbers (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 
1910, p. 108; Cooke, 1910, pp. 19-20). 


AVOCET 339 


DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common summer visitant in the Modoe (plateau) 
region northeast of the Sierras, in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley, and in 
the coastal district of southern California from Santa Barbara southeastward. 
Breeds from Lower Klamath Lake, Siskiyou County, on Oregon line (H. C. 
Bryant, 1914e, p. 233) south to Santa Ana, Orange County (Grinnell, 1898, p. 
16). In migration occurs west to coast at San Francisco and from that lati- 
tude southward throughout the state both east and west of the Sierras. Winters 
in fair numbers in coastal district from Santa Barbara southeastward, and 
casually as far north as Novato, Marin County, near the coast (Mailliard coll.), 
and at Stockton, San Joaquin County, in the interior (Belding, MS). 


The Avocet is a typical inland species and shows marked prefer- 
ence for the more arid parts of the country. It seems to have a strong 
liking, at least in the western part of its range, for alkaline depres- 
sions, and chooses such places for both forage and nesting grounds, 
even when fresh water is also available. Pools on which a surface 
scum has collected are often chosen, probably because of the par- 
ticular kind of insect life there afforded. During the early summer 
the species is present and breeds locally in restricted localities, chiefly 
in the San Joaquin-Sacramento Valley and in the Modoc region. A 
few breed also in the vicinity of Los Angeles. Later in the year it is 
more widespread, occurring west to the coast from San Francisco 
southward, as well as elsewhere inland. During August it has been 
seen at Webber Lake, Sierra County (Belding, 1890, p. 267), and at 
Hemet Lake in the San Jacinto Mountains (Grinnell and Swarth, 
1918, p. 226). In the San Joaquin Valley the species arrives in force 
at Los Bafios in March, and continues to be numerous in the valley 
until October. Stragglers have been taken in December at Los Bajfios, 
Merced County (one specimen, Mus. Vert. Zool.), at Stockton, San 
Joaquin County (three specimens, Belding, MS), and, east of the 
Sierras, at Lone Pine, Inyo County, in the same month (A. K. Fisher, 
1898a, p. 22); while near the coast it has been observed at Novato, 
Marin County, in January (specimen in Mailliard coll.), and 
Berkeley, December 26, 1884 (Belding, MS). A flock of several hun- 
dred individuals was noted by Emerson (1900, p. 34) on the salt 
ponds near Hayward, Alameda County, November 17 to 24, 1899. 
In certain years the species winters in considerable numbers in the 
coastal district of southern California. In the spring and fall migra- 
tions it has been seen on the coast at Santa Barbara, March 18 and 
May 20, and September 20 to November 1 (Bowles and Howell, 
1912, p. 7), and at Santa Cruz, June 10 (Sharpe, 1896, p. 333). As 
indicated in the preceding paragraph the species may be found in 
numbers ranging from solitary birds to flocks of several hundred 
individuals, but flocks of a dozen to thirty ‘birds are by far the com- 
monest. 


340 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The Avocet is one of the easiest birds to recognize. The long, 
more or less up-curved, black bill (fig. 60) (whence the name Recurvi- 
rostra), and the still longer bluish legs, the rusty red head and neck, 
the contrasted black and white wings, and the black, white-margined 
V on the middle of the back are all diagnostic features (pl. 11). In 
flight the rather small wings, and long bill, neck and legs, are also 
useful as recognition marks. The only species with which the Avocet 
could be confused is the Black-necked Stilt; but the latter has a 
shorter, nearly straight bill, and pinkish legs, and the top of its head, 
hind neck and wings are pure black without any white interruptions. 
Also the Stilt entirely lacks any decided reddish in its coloration at 
any season. In fall and winter the reddish coloration on the head 
and neck of the Avocet is replaced by gray or whitish, but the other 
distinctive markings remain as in summer. 


“O 
or 22169 


Fig. 60. Side of bill of Avocet. Natural size. 


The up-turned end is characteristic (compare with fig. 62). 


Together with the Black-necked Stilt, this bird is sometimes known 
as the ‘‘lawyer bird’’ because of its long bill and its oft repeated 
vociferations! The call-note is a loud, not unmusical plee-eek, plee- 
eek. When not molested by man and when not caring for nests or 
young, the Avocet becomes quite tame and will permit a close 
approach; but when it has been persistently hunted or when rearing 
young, it grows much more wary, and at the same time more noisy and 
demonstrative. 

Avocets spend most of their time on open ground where they can 
see and be seen for long distances. Their foraging is carried on along 
muddy shores, often in the water. When on shore they walk with 
a swinging motion of the body, much like that of a person who is 
mowing with a scythe, and the head is bobbed up and down at almost 
every change in posture. They sometimes run after and capture the 
larger insects, and while so engaged hold their wings partly expanded. 
In the water they wade about and sweep their bills from side to side, 
searching for insects or other forms of aquatic life. While thus 
engaged they sometimes keep their wings partly expanded and held 
vertically above the body. If they happen to wade in beyond their 


AVOCET 341 


depth they can swim off easily. Chapman (1912, p. 242) thus describes 
their feeding when in the water: ‘‘. . . Their peculiar recurved bill is 
used in a most interesting manner. Dropping it beneath the surface 
of the water until its convexity touches the bottom, they move rapidly 
forward, and with every step swing their bill from side to side, as 
a.mower does his scythe. In this way they secure food which the 
muddy water would prevent them from seeing.’? When the water 
is deep they immerse the whole head and neck under the surface. 
Coues (1874, p. 461) describes the actions of the birds as follows: 


When approached too close- 
ly, they rose lightly from the 
water, uttering their peculiar 
cries, flapped leisurely to a lit- 
tle distance, and again alighted 
to pursue their peaceful search 
for food, forgetting, or at 
least not heeding, their recent 
alarm. As they rose from the 
water, their singular, long legs 
were suffered to dangle for a 
few moments, but were after- 
wards stretched stiffly back- 
wards, as a counterpoise to 
their long necks.... When 
about to re-alight, they sailed 
without flapping for a little dis- 
tance, just clearing the water, 
their legs again hanging loose- 
ly; as they touched the ground, 
their Jong wings were held al- 
most upright for an instant, , 
then deliberately folded and Note extensive webs between bases of front 


‘ 1 ‘ toes and presence of small hind toe (compare 
settled in place with a few with fig, 639, 


_ Fig. 61. Top of foot of Avocet. Natural 
size. 


slight motions. 


H. C. Bryant (MS) states that he has seen the Avocet alight from 
the wing in deep water. 

During the breeding season, if the vicinity of a nesting colony is 
approached, the birds often fly to meet the intruder at a considerable 
distance from the nests. Chapman (1908, pp. 288, 289) says of the 
birds at Los Bafios: ‘‘The Avocets were scarcely less demonstrative 
[than the Stilts], but their method of defending their eggs or young 
was less by the strategy of actions to make themselves the center of 
attraction, than by the most reckless attempts to drive the intruder 
from the field. Rapidly uttering their loud plee-eck, they charged one 
with a directness and apparent determination which threatened to 
drive their needle-pointed bill in to the base, swerving to right or left 
when only a few feet away, and repeating the performance almost im- 


342 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


mediately. They claimed dominion over so wide a territory, and ap- 
peared so anxious to guard it all equally, that it was difficult to locate 
their nests from their actions.’’ 

In southwestern Saskatchewan, Bent (1907), p. 425) says that 
‘‘While conducting their courtships, in May, the Avocets were always 
amusing and often grotesque in their movements, as they danced 
along the shore or waded in the shallow water holding their wings 
fully extended, tipping from side to side, as if balancing themselves. 
Sometimes they would run rapidly along, crouching close to the 
ground, frequently nodding or bowing and sometimes they would lie 
flat on the water or ground, with wings outstretched as if in agony. 
At such times they were very tame, apparently oblivious of all else, 
and could be easily approached.’’ 

In California, the Avocet nests chiefly during the months of May 
and June. The earliest seasonal record of nesting known to us is 
that by Tyler (MS) who found an adult and four young about one- 
fourth grown at Helm, Fresno County, April 20, 1914. In southern 
California the species has been recorded as nesting from May 38 to 
July 6, at Santa Ana, Orange County (Grinnell, 1898, p. 16). In the 
San Joaquin Valley it was nesting at Mendota, Fresno County, May 
27, 1911, and near Firebaugh, Fresno County, May 30, 1912 (Tyler, 
19136, pp. 24, 25), at Los Bafios, Merced County, April 26, 1912 
(Beck, MS), and May 23, 1914 (H. C. Bryant, 1914¢, p. 226). At 
Lower Klamath Lake, Avocets were nesting at the time of a visit 
June 2 to 9, 1914 (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 233). 

Nests are usually placed on the bare ground in the vicinity of the 
alkaline ponds where the birds feed, or upon muddy islands in such 
ponds or lakes; they have also been noted in tall grass at a consider- 
able distance from water. The nest is at best a crude affair, composed 
of a small aggregation of grasses or weed stems which constitutes a 
platform containing a slight depression in which the eggs rest. Tyler 
(19136, p. 25) describes the nests in the Fresno district as follows: 


The typical nest is little more than a shallow depression in the earth with 
no lining whatever under the eggs but with quite a substantial rim around 
them so that it may be said to resemble a large, loosely built, and much 
flattened blackbird’s nest with the bottom removed. One is given the impres- 
sion that this nest might have been hastily woven together, carried for some 
distance and set down over the four large pointed eggs with the idea of 
fencing them in rather than of affording a comfortable nest for the young. 


An exceptional condition of affairs was observed by Lamb and 
Howell (1913, p. 117) at Buena Vista Lake, Kern County, where 
Avocets and Stilts were nesting on common ground. Nests of the 
Avoecets were noted containing from five to eight eggs, probably the 
result of two or more females laying in the same nest; indeed, some 
nests contained eggs of both species. 


UNIV. CALIF. SEMICENT. PUBL, [GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 11 


oy, 


AVOCET AND BLACK-NECKED STILT 


AVOCET 343 


The eggs of the Avocet are usually four in number, sometimes but 
three, and are pear-shaped. They measure in inches 1.82 to 1.97 by 
1.34 to 1.40, and average 1.93 by 1.37. The ground-color is a dull buff 
or clay with superficial markings of reddish brown, brownish black 
or black, and deeper markings of lavender or gray. The superficial 
markings are more numerous than the deeper ones, are rather evenly 
distributed over the surface, and rarely exceed 0.08 inches in diameter. 
The eggs of the Avocet differ from those of the Black-necked Stilt in 
larger transverse diameter, slightly greater length, slightly duller 
surface, and smaller and less numerous spots. 

“‘The little chicks take readily to the water and are as much at 
home as ducklings, swimming and diving if occasion require’’ (San- 
ford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 333). A downy youngster sev- 
eral days old observed by H. C. Bryant (1914e, p. 226) at Gadwall, 
May 21, 1914, was swimming in a shallow pond and turning tail up 
as it tried to reach something on the bottom. The young are fully 
fledged and on the wing by the first of August; for Belding (1890, p. 
267) records birds of the year at Webber Lake in the north central 
Sierras on August 3, 1889. 

The stomach of the downy young specimen mentioned by H. C. 
Bryant (loc. cit.) contained eight or more small water beetles (Dytis- 
cidae), 1 Jerusalem cricket (Stenopelmatus), 1 dragon-fly larva, 1 
small bug (Pentatomidae), and one centipede (Scolopendra). At 
Mono Lake, W. K. Fisher (1902a, p. 10) found this species feeding 
on a small Phyllopod crustacean which abounded along the shore; 
and Tyler (1913a, p. 16) thinks that the flies occurring on the scum 
covering stagnant pools form an attraction for the Avocet. McAtee 
(191la) reports the species as feeding on grasshoppers, bill-bugs and 
water beetles. In Florida a single individual was found to have eaten 
sixteen fish under an inch in length (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 
1884, I, p. 342). On the shores of Santa Cruz Island, Henshaw (1876, 
p. 271) found the species eating the sea-slugs and small crustaceans 
which were to be found on the sea beach. 

The Avocet was formerly an important game bird in California. 
There are records of considerable numbers having been offered for 
sale as food in the markets of Stockton and San Francisco. Authori- 
ties, however, differ as to the value of the flesh of the Avocet as an 
article of food. Huntington (1911, pp. 317, 318) declares that ‘‘the 
flesh is fairly good, about equal to that of the other shore birds of 
the second class, such as the tattlers’’; while Sanford, Bishop and 
Van Dyke (1903, p. 333) say that ‘‘the flesh is of a bluish color and 
hardly palatable.’’ 

Apparently the species was more abundant in past years than at 
present, but it has not suffered the great diminution in numbers that 


344 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


has obtained in the case of more desirable game species, such as the 
curlew. As the Avocet affects a type of habitat not encroached upon 
by agricultural development, its breeding and feeding ranges have not 
been measurably restricted. The large size of this wader combined 
with its striking coloration and its open habitat render it a conspicuous 
object for pursuit, though this is offset to some degree by its rapidly 
acquired wariness when repeatedly molested. It would appear that 
a brief open season early in the fall and limited bag, for the benefit of 
those hunters who care for this bird, might be safely allowed as long 
as present conditions remain unchanged. 


Black-necked Stilt 


Himantopus mexicanus (Miiller) 


OTHER NaMES—Lawyer; Tilt; Jack Snipe (in San Joaquin Valley); Long- 
shanks; Himantopus nigricollis. 

DescripTion—Adult male: Front of head, lower eyelid, spot behind eye, 
and all of under surface of body, white, save that, in breeding season, fore- 
neck and breast are pervaded with pale pink; vertical line in front of eye, 
cheek, top and back of head, hind neck, upper back, and outer surface of 
closed wing, continuously black, showing a greenish sheen in certain lights; 
lower back, rump and upper tail coverts, white; inner tail feathers drab, darker 
toward tips, outer ones lighter; shafts of all tail feathers white; whole under 
surface of closed wing dull black; axillars white; iris carmine red; bill black; 
feet dull old rose color, nails black; hind toe wanting. Total length 13.75-15.00 
inches (349-381 mm.) (four specimens); folded wing 8.63-9.05 (219-230); 
bill along culmen 2.49-2.71 (63.2-68.6); tarsus 4.37-4.83 (111.0-122.5) (nine 
specimens). Adult female: Similar to adult male but never acquiring pinkish 
tinge on breast, and back, scapulars and tertials dull brownish black instead 
of metallic greenish black. Total length 13.12~-17.12 inches (333-434 mm.) 
(ten specimens); folded wing 8.30-9.17 (211-233); bill along culmen 2.36-2.64 
(60.0-67.0); tarsus 3.81-4.38 (96.8-111.2) (ten specimens); all from California. 
Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female, but feathers of the dark 
upper surface and lining of wing narrowly bordered with buff or dull whitish, 
giving a faintly scaled effect. Natal plumage: Upper surface mixed tawny 
and blackish in fine pattern; elongated spot on middle of back, and stripe 
along side of back, black; under surface pale tawny paling to whitish on 
throat and belly; bill deep mouse gray; legs and feet grayish blue. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—In flight: long neck, long legs stretched 
out behind, and long slender white body, strongly contrasted with the black 
wings; when on ground or wading: the same contrasted color areas, moderately 
large size, red legs, and straight black bill (pl. 11 and fig. 62). 

Voice—A sharp ip-ip-ip (Chapman, 1912, p. 242); when courting: a nasal 
quank. 

Nest—Variously located on dry bare ground, on small muddy islands, or 
even in water a few inches deep; structure varies with location, from mere 
depressions with sparse lining of grass to relatively elaborate platforms of 
weed, or grass stems, or tules. 


BLACK-NECKED STILT 345 


Eccs—3 to 4, large, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.59 to 1.84 by 1.16 
to 1.26 (in millimeters, 40.3 to 46.6 by 29.6 to 32.1), and averaging 1.70 by 
1.24 (48.1 by 31.4) (six sets, 22 eggs, from Los Bafios, Merced County); ground- 
color medium buff or clay; superficial markings deep reddish brown, or brown- 
ish black, deeper ones gray or lavender; surface with slight sheen. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION— Temperate North America and northern South 
America. Breeds from central Oregon, northern Utah, and southern Colorado, 
south to the southern boundary of the United States; also breeds locally in 
Mexico, in the Bahama Islands and West Indies, and in South America to 
northern Brazil and Peru. Winters in extreme southern United States and 
south through Mexico and northern half of South America. 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common summer visitant and breeder in the 
Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley, and in the southern coastal district west of 
the desert divides, from the latitude of Santa Barbara southeastward. 
Reported also sparingly from northern California east of the Sierran divide at 
Goose Lake (Dawson, MS). Arrives from late March to early April and 
departs by mid-October. Stragglers have been taken as late as November 19, 
1891. One winter record: Bixby, Los Angeles County, January 5, 1910 
(Willett, 1912a, p. 35). : 

The Black-necked Stilt, Lawyer, or Long-shanks, as it is variously 
called, is one of the commonest summer birds along inland bodies of 
water. Often in company with its nearest relative, the Avocet, it is to 
be found wading or stalking about the edges of shallow bodies of 
water. The Stilt, however, seems to have a less decided preference 
for brackish water or alkaline sinks than does the Avocet. 

The Stilt is a regular summer visitant in the interior of Cali- 
fornia, usually arriving in numbers by the last of March or in early 
April and leaving by the middle of October. It is somewhat more 
southern in its general distribution than the Avocet. In northeastern 
California it is searce, having been found only at Goose Lake (Daw- 
son, MS) and at Rhett, or Tule, Lake (Newberry, 1857, p. 99). In 
the Sacramento Valley it is common locally and occurs north at least 
to Gridley, Butte County, and it is abundant in suitable localities in 
the San Joaquin Valley. On the coastal slope of southern California 
it occurs at Santa Barbara in spring migrations during April and 
May and is a common summer visitant from the vicinity of Los 
Angeles south at least to the vicinity of Santa Ana (Willett, 1912a, 
p. 35). During migrations it appears sparingly west to the coast at 
San Francisco Bay, and. on the deserts of southeastern California. The 
date of earliest arrival within the state in 1912 was March 22, at Los 
Bafios (Beck, MS), but in 1914 Tyler (MS) saw five near Fresno, 
February 11. The second week in April seems to mark the time when 
the species usually arrives; for the majority of the spring records fall 
during that period. By late July or early August the southward 
migration has set in, a flock having been seen at Bear Lake, San 
Bernardino Mountains, July 30, 1905 (Grinnell, 1908, p. 55), and 


346 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


a flock and scattered individuals at Hemet Lake, San Jacinto Moun- 
tains, on August 6 and 21, respectively, 1908 (Grinnell and Swarth, 
1913, p. 227). Clarke (1913, p. 218) records the birds as common 
about Tulare Lake when he arrived on September 19, 1913, but says 
that they gradually decreased in numbers up to October 7, when he 
left. One was seen in the market at Stockton, October 18, 1890 (Beld- 
ing, MS). It has been recorded as a ‘‘fall and winter migrant’’ at 
Miller, Marin County (Kobbé, in Bailey, 1902, p.1). Willett (1912a, 
p. 35) states that the species leaves the coast of southern California 
in October. A juvenile was taken at Mt. Eden, Alameda County, 
November 17, 1895 (Mailliard coll.) ; others of the species were noted 
at Riverdale (San Diego County?), as late as November 19, in 1891 
(Cooke, 1910, p. 21) ; and a specimen was taken at Bixby, Los Angeles 
County, January 5, 1910 (Willett, 1912a, p. 35). These three records 
are probably all of stragglers left behind by the migrating flocks. 


Ta 22183 


Fig. 62. Side of bill of Black-necked Stilt. 
Natural size. 


The almost straight outline is characteristic 
(compare with fig. 60). 


While Black-necked Stilts and Avocets commonly occur together, 
the first named species is usually much more abundant than the 
second. H. C. Bryant (1914e, p. 226) found this the case at Los 
Bafios, where the Stilt was the most abundant species of water bird 
breeding in the vicinity; and Goldman (1908), p. 203) and Linton 
(1908c, p. 197) indicate that the Stilt was the more abundant of the 
two species on Tulare and Buena Vista lakes, respectively. Tyler (MS) 
says that in Fresno County Stilts outnumber Avocets 100 to 1, and 
as the Avocets are decreasing the disparity is increasing. 

The Black-necked Stilt is one of the easiest of birds to identify, 
whether in flight or on the ground, by reason of its sharply contrasted 
white body and black wings, long neck and long straight black bill 
(fig. 62) and excessively long reddish legs (pl. 11). The Stilt may 
always be distinguished from the Avocet by its lesser bulk, by the 
black on the top of its head and hind neck, the absence of white on 
its shoulders, its shorter and straighter bill and its longer and dull red, 
instead of bluish, legs. In the breeding season the Stilt shows no rusty 


BLACK-NECKED STILT 347 


red on the head and neck region as does the Avocet, save that males 
of the former species have a pinkish blush on the throat and breast. 
The Black-necked Stilt forages along the grassy or muddy shores 
of shallow inland ponds and lakes, fresh, brackish and stagnant. It 
walks about in a sedate fashion, with a deliberate but jerky movement, 
the long legs being sharply bent at the ‘‘heel’’ and raised far up behind 
at each step. When standing, the feet are not spread apart as in the 
case of some waders, the legs being held vertically parallel. A notable 
mannerism is that of abruptly jerking the head upwards at frequent 
intervals, with immediate recovery. When chasing insects on land a 
Stilt will sometimes run about swiftly with wings upstretched, perhaps 
to aid it in quickly turning and 
tacking in its chase. When 
working in soft mud and prob- 
ing for food it drives its bill 
into mud ‘‘up to the hilt.” 
When wading about and feeding 
in mud beneath the surface of 
the water its body is tilted for- 
ward and downward, the legs 
being used as fulera. The birds 
while wading are careful not to 
get beyond their depth, as they 
are said to be poor swimmers, 
not comparing at all in this with 
Avocets. A fact to be noted here 
is that the foot of the Avocet is 


Fig. 63. 
necked Stilt. 


Top of foot of Black- 
Natural size. 


Note practical absence of webbing 


almost completely webbed, while 
that of the Stilt is practically 
without webbing, the toes being 


free (compare figs. 63 and 61). 


between front toes, and total absence 
of a hind toe (compare with fig. 61). 


A Stilt, when wounded, however, 


and hard pressed, will sometimes resort to swimming. Mortimer 
(1890, p. 338) tells of a wounded bird that was yet able to use its legs 
and ran some distance along the shore; but being pressed it took to 
the river and swam for the opposite bank. In swimming, the Stilt pro- 
ceeded in a sort of sidling manner, and rose in the water with each 
stroke of the feet, continually turning its head from side to side. 
Tyler (MS) records an instance of the same sort. 

The flight of this species is straight and steady, with See eee 
wings, the individuals in a flock keeping fairly close together and 
wheeling so that the black and white of the upper and lower surfaces 
appear alternately (Coues, 1874, p. 465). Their astonishingly long 
legs stretched out behind give them a peculiarly attenuated outline. 


348 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The voice of the Stilt is described as a shrill ip-tp-ip and may be 
heard both during the day and at night. On the nesting grounds at 
the beginning of the breeding season one of a pair is sometimes heard 
to utter a nasal qudnk as it flies up with its mate; on alighting one of 
the birds continually ‘‘squats,’’ as if the legs were too weak to sustain 
its body. 

The nesting period of the Stilt extends from the first of April to 
the end of July. The height of the season occurs from the middle of 
May to the middle of June. At Calexico, Imperial County, Murphy 
(MS) saw three newly hatched Stilts and many adults on April 14, 
1915. Sets of eggs have been taken near Santa Ana, Orange County, 
from the first of May until August (Grinnell, 1898, p. 16). Willett 
(19124, p. 35) says that in the coastal district of southern California 
the Stilt breeds most abundantly from May 15 to June 15. The species 
was nesting in colonies at Buena Vista Lake between May 20 and 
June 16, 1907 (Linton, 1908c, p. 197), and at Tulare Lake between 
June 23 and July 7 the same year (Goldman, 19088, p. 203). In the 
Fresno district the Stilt has been found nesting from April 26 to 
July 1 (Tyler, 1913), p. 26, and MS), and farther north, at Los Baiios, 
Merced County, from May 5, 1896, until May 25, 1899 (sets in Mus. 
Vert. Zool.). It is known to have bred at Woodland, Yolo County 
(set in Mailliard eoll., taken May 23, 1886), but no farther north in 
the Sacramento Valley. Emerson (Mailliard coll.) has found eggs 
May 3, 1908, and young June 4, 1911, near Niles, Alameda County. 
Dawson (MS) thinks the species may nest at Goose Lake, Modoc 
County, but no eggs were taken there. 

Several different types of surroundings are selected by Stilts when 
nesting. The nest may be placed on a dry or grass-covered flat one 
hundred yards or more from water, on a muddy island in the middle 
of a pond or lake, or actually in shallow water. The structure of the 
nest varies with location. Frequently, if the nest be placed on a dry 
flat, it is a mere depression slightly hollowed out to approximately fit 
the body of the bird and lined with a sparse layer‘of grasses or weed 
stems a fourth of an inch in thickness, or even less; sometimes only 
a few pieces of vegetation are found at the nest site. Again, upon a 
muddy island, it may be composed of a layer of weed or grass stems, 
or tules, two or more inches in depth. When so constructed the indi- 
vidual pieces of vegetation composing the nest measure about two 
inches in length. The most elaborate nests constructed by the Stilt 
are those situated in water several inches in depth. H. C. Bryant, 
Tyler and some other observers believe that the Stilt is capable of 
meeting the emergency of rising water by adding to the height of the 
nest sufficiently to keep thé eggs above the level of the water. Such 
nests are begun on open ground and added to only when the rising 


BLACK-NECKED STILT 349 


water demands it. It is probable that only incubated sets are so cared 
for (Tyler, MS). A nest of this type found at Los Bafios, May 12, 
1914, was seven inches in height and composed of pieces of tules about 
two inches in length, the eggs being just at the surface of the water. A 
typical nest measures about seven inches in diameter. 

Stilts commonly nest in colonies of five to twenty pairs, and their 
aggregate numbers in any general area consequently do not seem so 
great as would be the case if they all nested in one large colony. On 
a small island in Buena Vista Lake, Lamb and Howell (1913, p. 117) 
found Stilts and Avocets nesting together, and curiously enough cer- 
tain of the birds seemed to consider themselves members of one large 
family, as nests were found containing five to eight eggs and some 
nests held eggs of both species. H.C. Bryant (MS) found a set at 
Los Bafios which contained five eggs, and Tyler (MS) found a similar 
set near Fresno. 

The eggs of the Stilt number four.in a complete set, but in 
exceptional cases more, as above. The eggs average 1.70 by 1.24 
inches, the extremes being 1.59 to 1.84 by 1.16 to 1.26. The ground- 
color is a medium buff or clay with superficial spots of deep reddish 
brown or brownish black and deeper ones of gray or lavender. The 
spots are commonly over 0.08 inches in diameter, and are usually a 
little more numerous about the larger end where they are sometimes 
so thick as to fuse. The eggs of the Stilt differ from those of the Avo- 
eet by their smaller transverse diameter, slightly shorter average 
length, and somewhat darker general tone of coloration. 

Both male and female are said to incubate (Coues, 1874, p. 466). 
The period of incubation is not known, but is probably about three 
weeks or slightly longer. The young are able to run about at birth, 
but are carefully attended by the parents for some time. Murphy 
(MS) says that the downy young Stilts seen by him at Calexico, 
Imperial County, were Swimming. Chapman (1908, p. 288) thus 
describes the behavior of the Stilts at Los Bafios: 


... The Stilts, because of their abundance, vociferousness, and remarkable 
actions were the most conspicuous and interesting [of all the water birds]. 
They nested on the little islands formed by slightly elevated bits of ground, 
often selecting a site which, under irrigation, subsequently became submerged— 
a misfortune [which] artificial conditions had not prepared the birds to 
anticipate. 

On May 23, their eggs were hatching, and in June the Snipe-like young 
were widely distributed over the marsh. They invariably attempted to escape 
observation by squatting with neck outstretched, but the parents, whether 
one approached their eggs or young, expressed their solicitude by a surpris- 
ing extravagance of motion, all apparently designed to draw attention to them. 
selves. I was at times surrounded by hopping, fluttering Stilts, all calling 
loudly, waving their wings, bounding into the air to hang there with dangling 
legs and beating pinions.... . 


350 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The food of the Stilt comprises among other things grasshoppers, 
bill-bugs, water beetles and other insects, many of which are destruc- 
tive to crops (McAtee, 1911la). As an element of the inland avifauna 
the Black-necked Stilt is thus likely to serve in beneficial capacity 
whenever it frequents agricultural lands, and it should accordingly 
receive protection. Its flesh is comparable to that of the Avocet, in 
other words, it is of second class. In former years Stilts were sold 
in the markets to some extent, but so far as known this practice has 
not obtained within recent years. Sportsmen in general pay little 
or no attention to them. The birds have probably not decreased to 
any great extent, if at all, since the state was first settled, and the 
present condition of agriculture in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Val- 
ley, where farming is dependent upon irrigation, will doubtless pro- 
vide them for many years to come with the proper kind of surround: 
ings for nesting and feeding. 


Wilson Snipe 
Gallinago delicata (Ord) 


OTHER NAMES—Jack Snipe; English Snipe; American Snipe; Gallinago 
wilsont; Scolopaz wilsoni; Gallinago media; Gallinago media wilsoni. 

DescripTion—Adults, both sexes, at all seasons: Top of head velvety black, 
with a median creamy or whitish longitudinal stripe running back from base 
of upper mandible, and a similar one running along each side of head above eye; 
a dark brownish stripe from side of bill (beneath light stripe last mentioned) 
running to lower eyelid; side of head generally, mixed buffy and whitish, 
flecked with dusky; a diagonal dark streak on lower cheek beneath ear; chin 
white or cream-colored; bill ‘‘brown,’’ terminal third ‘‘black’’; iris ‘‘hazel’’ 
(Audubon, 1842, V, p. 345); hind neck and side of neck streaked blackish and 
buffy in fine pattern; back and scapulars velvety black, with extensive feather- 
marginings of pale buffy or whitish, many feathers with irregular spots or 
bars of tawny; the light markings tend to give the back a lengthwise striped 
pattern; rump brownish gray, narrowly barred with white; upper tail coverts 
barred with brownish black and pale buffy brown; tail velvety black with 
subterminal bar of tawny followed by narrow bars of black, buffy and white, 
the latter terminal; outer tail feathers lighter, the tawny being replaced by 
pale drab; outer surface of closed wing slaty brown, many feathers margined 
or tipped with white or buffy; outer web of outermost primary white; some of 
tertials irregularly banded with brownish and pale drab; under surface of wing 
and axillars barred with blackish brown and white; under surface of flight 
feathers dusky; throat and chest buffy drab, the feathers with irregular 
dusky brown shaft streaks, giving a distinctly mottled effect; abdomen white; 
under tail coverts tawny, narrowly barred with dusky; sides and flanks barred 
with dusky brown and white; feet olive green. Males: Total length 10.50- 
11.94 inches (266-303 mm.) (three specimens from California and Alaska); 
folded wing 4.75-5.06 (120.4-128.5); bill along culmen 2.44-2.61 (61.9-66.3) ; 
tarsus 1.15-1.30 (29.1-33.1) (ten specimens from California). Females: Total 
length 10.00-10.94 (254-278) (two specimens from California); folded wing 


WILSON SNIPE 351 


4.83-5.25 (122.4-133.3); bill along culmen 2.48-2.84 (63.0-72.0); tarsus 1.21- 
1.33 (30.8-33.9) (ten specimens from California). Weight 3 ounces (85 grams) 
or more (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 344). Juvenile plumage: Top of head black; 
stripe over middle of crown, pinkish white; stripe from side of bill to eye, 
black; cheek and chin, mixed white, black and cinnamon; rest of upper sur- 
face of body brownish black, with broad feather-margins and markings of 
cinnamon, buffy brown and dull white; outer surface of closed wing dull brown 
with broad feather tippings of pinkish buff and white; flight feathers dusky; 
margin of wing white; throat and breast streaked with pinkish cinnamon and 
dusky; middle of belly white; sides and flanks barred with white and dark 
brown. Natal plumage: Bright hazel brown, darkest on upper surface of body 
where marked irregularly with black and white; forehead at base of bill, 
black, followed by white; spot on cheek, white; narrow streak from bill to 
eye, and spot below angle of mouth, black; chin light buff. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Medium-small size, long bill( 2.50 inches, 
63.5 mm.) (fig. 64), longitudinally striped head and back (at all seasons), 
mottled breast, white belly, dusky rump, erratic flight, sharp grating note, 
crouching attitude and solitary rather than flocking habits; frequents grassy 
meadows rather than open mud-flats or shores. 

VoicE—A rasping scaipe, scaipe, not loud, and a yak-yak-yak-yak or ka-ka- 
ka-ka-ka of far-reaching quality, the latter two calls being uttered chiefly or 
exclusively during the breeding season. 

Nest—In semi-moist part of a meadow, usually placed in or at the side of 
a tuft of grass; a mere depression lined with a few grasses. 

Eeces—3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.50 to 1.60 by 1.05 to 1.10 
(in millimeters, 38.1 to 40.6 by 26.6 to 28.0) (Davie, 1889, p. 110). One set 
(four eggs) from California measures 1.48 to 1.60 by 1.12 to 1.17 (37.5 to 40.6 
by 28.4 to 29.7), averaging 1.54 by 1.13 inches (39.0 by 28.8 mm.). Color varies 
‘‘from a grayish-olive to greenish-brown and yellowish-ash, spotted and 
blotched with reddish-brown, umber, and sometimes with lines of black; the 
markings are bold and numerous, particularly on the larger end, usually also 
sharp scratchy lines of blackish and shell-spots, hardly noticeable’’ (Davie, 
loc. cit.). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America-and northern South America. Breeds 
at the north from Newfoundland and northern Ungava to northern Mackenzie, 
northern Yukon and northwestern Alaska, apparently following closely the 
limits of tree growth; thence south to New Jersey, northern Indiana, northern 
Illinois, northern Iowa, southern Colorado, northern Nevada, and south-central 
California. Winters most abundantly in southern United States and Mexico, 
although winter range extends to Colombia and southern Brazil in South 
America. Normal northern limit of winter range extends from North Carolina, 
through Arkansas and New Mexico to northern California, but individuals 
sometimes winter about springs or streams as far north almost as the Canadian 
boundary (Cooke, 1910, pp. 23-24; et al.). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFoRNIA—Abundant fall, winter and spring visitant 
throughout lowlands and to a less extent in suitable places in mountainous 
districts. Occurs in summer and breeds in region east of Sierran crest, from 
latitude of Lake Tahoe northward to the Oregon line and west to Lower 
Klamath Lake; also recorded as breeding near Tejon Pass, northern Los 
Angeles County (J. Mailliard, 1914, p. 261), and may be expected to nest in 
appropriate places northeast of this station. Occurs in migration over practically 
the entire state. 


352 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The Wilson Snipe, or Jack Snipe of the hunter, is the game bird 
supréme wherever it is found. Its elusive habit of lying close and 
flushing suddenly with swift erratic zig-zag flight and its delicacy of 
flesh, make this at once the most difficult of pursuit and most highly 
prized of all our shore birds. Snipe begin to appear in the lowlands 
west of the Sierras rather late in the fall as compared with other 
waders. Dates of first fall appearance in several localities are as 
follows: Stockton, September 7, 1878 (Belding, MS); Hayward, 
September 25, 1875 (Belding, MS) ; Santa Barbara, October 27, 1911 
(Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 7) ; Los Angeles, August 25, 1897 (speci- 
mens in Swarth collection) ; and Hemet Lake, San Jacinto Mountains, 
August 14, 1908 (Grinnell and Swarth, 1913, p. 227). In the spring 
it departs rather early, the latest.records being: Mecca, Riverside 
County, April 26, 1908 (C. H. Richardson, MS); Los Angeles, April 
10, 1899 (Swarth collection) ; Santa Barbara, April 27, 1911 (Bowles 


ee 


O ' 


1068 


Fig. 64. Side of bill of female Wilson Snipe. Natural size. 


Note sense pits near tip of bill. 


and Howell, 1912, p. 7) ; Daggett, San Bernardino County, ‘‘through 
April,’’ 1911 (Lamb, 1912, p. 35) ; Los Bafios, Merced County, April 
26, 1912 (specimen in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; and Gridley, Butte County, 
April 30, 1893 (Belding, MS). As the species has nested at Tejon 
Pass, Kern County, birds seen at Weldon, Kern County, July 5, 1911 
(specimens in Mus. Vert. Zool.), and to the east at Little Owens Lake, 
May 6-11, 1891 (A. K. Fisher, 1898a, p. 22), cannot safely be con- 
sidered as migrants. 

In winter the species occurs in suitable localities throughout the 
state below the level of heavy snow. Some northern winter records 
are: Bodega Bay, December, 1854 (Baird, Cassin and Lawrence, 1858, 
p. 711), Shasta River, Siskiyou County, December, 1912 (specimen 
in Mus. Hist., Sci. and Art), Nevada City, Nevada County, November 
2, 1872 (Nelson, 1875, p. 365) ; Owens Valley, ‘‘late December,’’ 1890 
(A. K. Fisher, 18938a, p. 22); Yermo, Mohave Desert, from October 
22, 1910, through April, 1911 (amb, 1912, p. 35). 

From other waders the Wilson Snipe may be distinguished by 
its combination of moderately small size, long bill (fig. 64), longi- 
tudinally streaked upper surface at all seasons and its conspicuously 


WILSON SNIPE 353 


white belly set off from the mottled breast. The only species with 
which it might be confused is the Long-billed Dowitcher in summer 
plumage. From the latter species the Snipe differs in the possession 
of a longitudinally striped rather than irregularly mottled back and 
by the absence of reddish coloration on its breast. Then, too, the 
Wilson Snipe is rarely if ever found on the open flats or about salt 
water, while the Long-billed Dowitcher is found regularly in both 
of these situations. The sudden and erratic zig-zag flight and the rasp- 
ing call-note, uttered as the bird takes wing, are perhaps the best field 
marks for the sportsman. The harsh, rasping ‘‘scaipe, scaipe’’ 
essentially a note of alarm, uttered at the moment the bird flushes 
and never so far as known while it is on the ground. This note often 
suffices to start some or all of the other Snipe in the near vicinity. 
Close ‘view of a bird at rest brings out an additional character—the 
large apparent size of the eyes. This is probably correlated with its 
twilight activity. 

Although the Wilson Snipe has a wide range within the state and 
elsewhere, it is sporadic in its local occurrence, outside of the breeding 
season, appearing in a given locality in considerable numbers one day 
and being totally absent on the next, perhaps to reappear on the suc- 
ceeding day. Again, territory which seems eminently suited for the 
support of numerous Snipe may never be visited at all by the birds. 
Wide reaches along the edges of slow-moving streams, level open 
marshes, and even upland meadows, when the winter has been very 
wet, are the preferred haunts of these birds; but at times they occur 
in distinctly dry, though grassy, situations. They are rarely if ever 
found feeding or resting on bare open flats save under cover of dark- 
ness. In irrigated: sections Snipe are often flushed from the margins 
of the ditches, where the growths of weeds conceal them completely 
until they take flight. 

Much of the food of the snipe is secured by probing in soft mud, 
a practice to which its bill is particularly adapted. The tip of the 
upper mandible is flexible and can be moved independently of the 
lower one, and the exposed surface toward the tips of both mandibles 
is provided with numerous sensitive nerve-endings, each in a little pit. 
The birds are thus enabled to feel about with the tip of the bill below 
the surface, a practice not possible for any other wader except the 
Woodeock of the east and probably the Dowitchers. The bill is thrust 
perpendicularly into the soft mud and worked about for earthworms 
and other burrowing forms of animal life without the incessantly 
repeated probing necessary for waders provided with shorter, more 
inflexible, and less sensitive bills; but so numerous are the probings 
of the Snipe in some places that the whole surface of the ground is 
literally ‘‘drilled with holes.’’ Hunters say that it is useless to look 
for Snipe in a locality which does not show some of these probings. 


354 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The Snipe’s manner of feeding has been described by Galloway 
(1895, p. 86) essentially as follows: On April 18, 1894, a bird was 
located at the edge of a pond near Montgomery, Ohio. For a time 
the bird stood motionless, but before long it relaxed and began dabbing 
in the mud and water with its long bill. It posed in all sorts of posi- 
tions, at times standing knee-deep in water and fishing up prey from 
beneath the surface, again facing the observer with its bill straight 
down or turned rakishly to one side, an attitude which gave it an 
air of shrewdness. Presently the bird flew across the pond and 
alighted among some low clumps of sedge, where it stood at full height 
in a recess in the bank, eyeing the observer suspiciously. It then 
climbed up on a clod, stuck its bill over its back and down inside the 
wing, and went to sleep for two minutes. Awakening, it dressed the 
feathers of the breast with the bill, and again relapsed into repose. 
Returning to the water’s edge, and seemingly impressed with some- 
thing, the bird stood with loosened wings, oscillated for a moment, 
bent the legs so as to bring its body close to the ground, and walked 
very carefully, bowing at every step as though wishing to tread lightly 
and avoid being seen, till suddenly the head was thrust forward and 
the bird began pulling an angleworm out from a hole. It would pull 
and pull until the limit of its height was reached, then take a fresh 
hold and pull again. The worm must have gone back into its hole 
each time, else it is inconceivable how so much continuous pulling 
could have been exerted on one ordinary worm. 

In their habits Snipe seem to be affected by climatic conditions 
more than other species of shore birds. On warm sunny days when 
little or no breeze is stirring the birds will remain quiet and can be 
flushed only with difficulty. But cold windy, cloudy, or rainy days 
seem to excite them, for they then flush wildly, at long range, and 
zig-zag away at a rapid rate. On such days the hunter is apt to start 
more birds, but they are much more difficult to shoot. The usual 
practice is to hunt against the wind, as the birds when flushed usually 
labor against the breeze or fly across it, in either case giving the hunter 
a better chance than if he were pursuing the birds down-wind. Occa- 
sionally they start off down the wind, and then are so quickly out of 
range as to prevent an effective shot. When flushed on cloudy or rainy 
days the birds may move out of the region to a distant meadow or 
marsh too far to be pursued, or they may circle about and return to 
cover within a few feet of the place from which they were flushed. 
They also show marked irregularities in behavior as regards flushing. 
Sometimes the rasping alarm note of the first bird put up will raise 
the whole population in the vicinity, while at other times the birds will 
flush one at a time. When they drop into the protecting grass it is 
usually to remain in the same spot for a considerable time, so that 


WILSON SNIPE 355 


in hunting it is possible to ‘‘mark down’’ the birds which alight and 
follow them up systematically one after the other. In this manner it 
is sometimes possible to secure a dozen birds in a relatively small.area. 

‘‘In taking flight and especially if alarmed the Snipe spreads its 
tail like a fan and with spasmodic semicircular sweeps . . . swings it 
from side to side with a peculiar jerky motion. When [the bird is] 
suddenly frightened into flight, as by a dog or gunner, these sweeps 
are repeated with amazing rapidity and the result is a series of gyra- 
tions . . .’’ (Betten, 1904, p. 265). Eaton’s epitome of the habits of 
the Wilson Snipe is as follows: 


When no enemy is near he walks nimbly, carrying the head and body 
erect with the bill pointing well downward, but often assumes more the atti- 
tude of a Sandpiper and gleans from the surface especially when foraging 
along the shore of a lake or stream as he often does in the dusk of evening. 
When his foes appear he crouches so motionless that it is impossible to dis- 
tinguish him among the grasses, and when too closely pressed springs suddenly 
into the air with a sharp grating call and makes rapidly off in a ‘‘rail-fence’’ 
course not far above the ground until well out of danger, when he mounts 
high in the air and circles about for a few minutes finally to pitch headlong 
into the swamp again, perhaps into the same position from which he was 
driven (Eaton, 1910, p. 302). 


When flushed the Snipe rises about six feet above the ground 
before the zig-zag flight is commenced and this is then kept up for 
about twenty yards, after which a straight course is pursued. After 
straightening out its course it flies on a dead level. In high and 
scattered brush the birds persist in dodging through it, and when 
among scattered trees they rise without the characteristic short zig- 
zags and fly in wide curves between the trees. 

Nesting records of the Wilson Snipe in California are exceedingly 
rare. The set taken near Tejon Pass, in extreme northern Los 
Angeles County (J. Mailliard, 1914, p. 261) is the only one as yet 
definitely recorded from the state. Belding (MS) states that the 
species breeds at Webber Lake in the northern Sierra Nevada, and 
Cooper (in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 190) was informed 
that it bred at Lake Tahoe. George Neale reports two small young 
as found at the north end of Lake Tahoe early in August, 1912; and, 
according to the same person, three young were found in Sierra Valley, 
Plumas County, September 1, 1899 (H. C. Bryant, 1915b, pp. 76, 77). 
At Lower Klamath Lake in the first week of June, 1914, H. C. Bryant 
(1914e, p. 232) saw Snipe in nuptial flight, but did not find other 
evidences of nesting. 

The egg-laying season would appear, from numerous eastern and 
northern records, to extend from late April through May. The set 
recorded by Mailliard, in which incubation was nearly complete, and 


356 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


two sets from the eastern United States recorded by Cooke (1910, 
p. 25), were all taken on April 24 of different years, this being the 
earliest date. Belding’s record (1890, p. 267) of young barely able 
to fly by the first of August, and the above cases recorded by Bryant, 
would indicate that nesting inthe Sierras proceeds until August. 
However, the contention of game conservationists that the Wilson 
Snipe is an early nester is borne out by the majority of the recorded 
nesting dates, taking the whole of the United States into account. 

The nest is usually placed in a moist meadow in or at the side of 
a tuft of grass, and is a mere depression lined with a few grass blades. 
The nest at Tejon Pass was situated in a swampy area and was placed 
on a tussock of grass about one foot in diameter and two in height. 
It was ‘‘... ‘simply a few fine grasses, probably pulled from the stems 
directly beside the nest, as several bare stalks were noticed’”’ (J. 
Mailliard, loc. cit.). This set consisted of four eggs. The ground 
color was clayey-olive with a faint greenish tinge; the superficial 
markings were of deep sepia, the deepest ones of varying tints of 
gray; the markings consist of spots, roundish, sometimes elongate, in 
the aggregate showing a distinctly spiral trend, and the largest being 
0.20 inch in diameter, but usually smaller, 0.08—0.12 inch. 

During the breeding season the Wilson Snipe behaves quite differ- 
ently than at other times of the year. Adults, probably males, are 
to be seen perched on fences, stumps or even in the more open parts 
of trees, a habit prevalent among certain other shore birds. Grinnell 
(1900, p. 22) thus describes the nuptial flight, as observed in the 
Kowak Valley, Alaska: 


I was in w broad, grassy swale studded here and there with scrub spruces 
and bordered by taller timber, when my atteation was attracted by a curious 
far-off song which puzzled me for some time. Finally I descried the pro- 
ducer, a Wilson’s Snipe, so far overhead as to be scarcely discernible against 
the clear sky. It was flying slowly in a broad cirele with a diameter of 
perhaps 600 yards, so that the direction of the sound was ever shifting, thus 
confusing me until I caught sight of its author. This lofty flight was not 
continuously on the same level, but consisted of a series of lengthy undulations 
or swoops. At the end of each swoop the bird would mount up to its former 
level. The drop at the beginning of the downward dive was with partly 
closed, quivering wings, but the succeeding rise was accomplished by a suc- 
cession of rapid wing-beats. The peculiar resonant song was a rolling series 
of syllables uttered during the downward swoop; and just before this drop 
merged into the following rise, a rumbling or whirring sound became audible, 
accompanying the latter part of the song and finishing it. This curious song- 
flight was kept up for fifteen minutes, ending with a downward dash. But 
before the bird reached the ground, and was yet some twenty yards above it, 
there was apparently a complete collapse. The bird dropped, as if shot, for 
several feet, but abruptly recovered itself to fly a short distance further and 
repeat this new manoeuvre. By a succession of these collapses, falls, recoveries 
and short flights, the acrobatically-inclined bird finally reached the ground, 


WILSON SNIPE 357 


alighting in the grass near me. During the last part of this performance 
another Snipe, probably the female, made its appearance, flying low over the 
ground and alighting with a weak ‘‘chirp.’’ A little later one of the birds 
was seen perched on the top of a spruce, uttering a prolonged series of abrupt, 
resonant notes, ‘‘ka-ka-ka-ka-ka,’’ like the monotonous spring song of the 
Red-shafted Flicker. 


Concerning flights of the sort described above Henshaw says 
(18806, pp. 321-322): ‘‘During the mating, and in fact through 
most of the breeding period, and continuing even after the young are 
hatched, the birds begin these evolutions as soon as dusk comes on, and 
continue them at irregular intervals until about nine o’clock. The 
notes are not heard again until about day-break, and they cease before 
sun-up. But should the day be cloudy the Snipe may be seen flying 
in the manner described till late in the morning, often indeed till 
nearly noon.’’ 

‘‘In courtship, the male struts with drooping wings and wide- 
spread tail around his mate, in a most captivating manner, often at 
such times rising spiral-like with quickly beating wings high in air, 
dropping back in a wavy, graceful circle, uttering at the same time his 
jarring, cackling love note, which, with the vibration of the wings 
upon the air, makes a rather pleasing sound’’ (Goss, 1891, p. 161). 

The young run about soon after hatching. At first they feed on 
larvae, small insects and snails, but at the end of a few weeks their 
bills have hardened sufficiently to enable them to probe in the mud 
and secure worms as do the adults (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 
1884, I, p. 192). 

Snipe are essentially non-flocking birds, but at times as many as 
fifteen individuals have been seen in flight in one company. This 
habit.is chiefly shown during the period of migration. One observer 
noted a flock of birds coming into some duck grounds at nightfall. 
The flight was not in unison, as in the case of many shore birds, but 
the individuality of each member of the flock was apparent. Migration 
and local movements occur chiefly at night, and the flights are at 
lower levels than in the case of most birds. 

As indicated in the preceding portions of this account a large pro- 
portion of the food of the Wilson Snipe consists of earthworms secured 
by probing in soft meadow or marsh land. The bird is also reported 
to take crane-fly larvae, mosquitoes, grasshoppers, wireworms and the 
adult click beetles, and water beetles (McAtee, 1911a). In addition, 
Forbush (1912, p. 252) reports that cutworms and leeches, seeds of 
smartweed and other plants, together with roots and other vegetable 
matter have been found in the stomachs of these birds. 

Economically the Wilson Snipe is a very important species; in 
fact it may, by reason of the interest taken in it by hunters, be con- 


358 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


sidered our most important species of shore bird. Its flesh is of excel- 
lent flavor, due, perhaps, to the fact that it lives exclusively about 
clean fresh water. To the hunter it is the game bird par excellence. 
To the farmer it is beneficial by reason of its food habits. 

All available accounts go to show that the Wilson Snipe has 
decreased decidedly in numbers. This is due to several causes: re- 
striction of feeding grounds, encroachments of civilization in other 
ways, and excessive shooting without bag limit for a long period. In 
the east, in former years, Snipe were not protected at all; shooting 
continued through the spring and even well into the nesting season. 
Spring shooting in this state has probably been responsible for much 
of their decrease on the whole Pacific Coast. Statistics from a gun- 
elub in Monterey County show the following number of Snipe to have 
been taken during the seasons specified: In 1905-06, 117; 1910-11, 
189; 1911-12, 95; and in 1912-13, 24. These figures show an average 
decrease not to be accounted for even by irregularity of occurrence 
from year to year. 

The five-year closed season established by the Federal government 
in 1913 for many of our shore birds should have been extended to the 
Wilson Snipe. Such action is necessary if this admirable bird is to 
continue as a game species. After the end of a closed season of a few 
years, adequate restrictions could be provided so that it would con- 
tinue to exist in fair numbers throughout the state and be a staple 
feature of the game bag. 


Long-billed Dowitcher 


Macrorhamphus griseus scolopaceus (Say) 


OTHER NAMES—Red-breasted Snipe (in summer); Jack Snipe; Gray Snipe 
(in winter); Scolopaz grisea; Scolopaz noveboracensis; Macrorhamphus scolo- 
paceus ; Macrorhamphus griseus. 

DEscripTion—Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Top of head and 
hind neck streaked brownish black and light cinnamon; stripe from upper 
mandible to above eye, dull whitish; sides of head, mixed white and tawny, 
flecked with brownish black; chin dull white often finely flecked with dusky; 
iris ‘‘reddish-hazel’’; bill ‘‘dark olive’’ (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 13); feathers 
of back and seapulars black, narrowly margined with pale cinnamon and 
narrowly tipped with pale gray or white, some with irregular or broken bars 
of tawny; rump white becoming posteriorly like upper tail coverts, the latter 
being marked with spots and bars of white and blackish brown; tail feathers 
ashy brown, irregularly barred with white, and sometimes with pale tawny; 
outer surface of closed wing brownish gray, lightest on middle coverts; coverts 
and secondaries narrowly margined with white, secondaries more broadly tipped 
with white; primaries dark brown, quill of outermost one white; under lining 
of wing, and axillars, barred white and blackish brown; under surface of flight 
feathers dusky, more or less finely marbled with whitish on inner webs; under 


LONG-BILLED DOWITCHER 359 


surface tawny, the feathers tipped obscurely with white, and some with small 
terminal spots or streaks of brownish black; under tail coverts pale tawny 
or whitish, spotted and barred with brownish black; feathers of sides and 
flanks tawny, barred with brownish black; feet with small webs between 
bases of toes, ‘‘light yellowish olive,’’ claws ‘‘dusky’’ (Audubon, loc. cit.). 
Males: Total length 10.81-11.75 inches (274-298 mm.) (two specimens); folded 
wing 5.57-5.89 (141.2-149.6); bill along culmen 2.13-2.32 (54.2-58.9); tarsus 
1.36-1.47 (34.6-37.4) (ten specimens). Females: Total length 12.00-12.12 (305- 
308) (two specimens); folded wing 5.65-6.10 (143.5-154.7); bill along culmen 
2.24-2.80 (56.9-71.2); tarsus 1.40-1.65 (35.5-41.9) (ten specimens); all from 
California. Adults, both sexes, in fall and winter: Top of head, hind neck, and 
back, quite uniform grayish brown, most of the feathers with obscurely darker 
shafts; eyelids and stripe from upper mandible to eye, white; area between 
side of upper mandible and eye, grayish brown; lower side of head and chin, 
mixed drab and white in fine pattern; rump white; upper tail coverts and 
tail, barred with white and brownish black as in summer; wing and coverts 
as in summer; throat, chest and sides, pale grayish brown, some of the feathers 
with narrow dark brown shaft streaks; belly white; flanks and lower tail 
coverts barred with brown and white. Juvenile plumage: Top of head and 
back chiefly blackish, with much feather-edging of clay-color; scapulars and 
tertials the same; rump and tail as in adults; wing coverts broadly outlined 
with white or dull clay; chin whitish finely flecked with dusky; throat, chest 
and sides, dull buffy brown with obscure dusky spotting; belly dull whitish; 
flanks dull buffy, barred obscurely with dusky; lower tail coverts buffy white 
speckled with dusky. Natal plumage: Top of head deep chestnut brown, 
bordered on each side by a line of white, the two lines meeting on hind neck; 
streak down middle of forehead and another from bill to eye, black; sides of 
head and neck tawny, much obscured with dusky on ear region; back deep 
chestnut brown, marbled with black and scatteringly marked with white 
especially on hind neck and wings; throat buffy white; breast dull orange, 
paling to buff on belly; flanks like back. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderate size (near Wilson Snipe), white 
rump, narrow light bars on wing, long bill (fig. 65) held downward at an angle 
to body, swift erratic flight, open flock formation when feeding; in spring and 
summer, conspicuously tawny breast, in winter uniform grayish brown upper 
surface. 

Vortce—In fall, a deep guttural chirp; 4 whistled note (several authors). 
In breeding season a strident péet-i-wéet; wée-too, wée-too; also péet-peet ; 
pée-ter-wée-too, etc. (Nelson, 1887, p. 101). 

Nest—Placed on mossy or bare ground usually in 4 marshy area; a slight 
depression in the ground or in a grassy hummock, often without lining of any 
sort save that formed by dead grasses naturally underlying the- spot. 

Eees—4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.69 to 1.87 by 1.20 to 1.25 (in 
millimeters, 42.9 to 47.5 by 30.5 to 31.7), and averaging 1.75 by 1.22 (44.4 by 
31.0); ground color clay or grayish, sometimes with a greenish cast; large 
well defined dark umber brown spots, sparse except about large end where they 
are crowded (Nelson, 1887, p. 101). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION — Western North America and Middle America. 
Breeds from Point Barrow to mouth of the Yukon River, Alaska, and east 
to northwestern Mackenzie; winters from Louisiana and Florida south into 
Mexico and the Gulf region. In migration occurs over whole United States, 
but most abundantly in the West, and but sparingly on eastern coast from 


360 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Massachusetts southward; occurs also on eastern coast of Siberia (modified 
from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 111). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common spring and fall migrant coastwise 
and in valleys west of the Sierras. Has occurred as a winter visitant, though 
irregularly, at San Diego (Belding, MS); at Santa Ana, Orange County (Grin- 
nell, MS); Wilmington, Los Angeles County (Stephens coll.); and as far north 
as Los Bafios, Merced County, November to March (specimens in Mus. Vert. 
Zool., and Beck, MS). In migration becomes abundant about second week 
in April and continues so until about mid-May. In fall first appears about 
last of July, and is found in varying numbers up to first week in November. 


The Long-billed Dowitcher is the ‘‘Jack Snipe’’ of the seashore. 
It is a breeding species along the northern coast of Alaska and winters 
in the Gulf region and Mexico. It occurs within our confines chiefly 
as a migrant, rarely remaining as a winter visitant. Belding (MS) 
states that it is a rare irregular winter visitant at San Diego, and Grin- 
nell (MS) has record of its presence in numbers at Santa Ana, Orange 
County, January 25, 1893. F. Stephens has one taken at Wilming- 
ton, Los Angeles County, December 4, 1879. In the San Joaquin 
Valley in the vicinity of Los Bafios, Merced County, the species was 
found in varying numbers by Beck throughout the winter of 1911-12, 
being taken December 9, 1911, January 2 and March 6 and 22, 1912 
(specimens in Mus. Vert. Zool.). Lamb (1912, p. 35) took a specimen 
9 miles east of Daggett, San Bernardino County, February 24, 1911. 
Two males were taken at Olema, Marin County, March 9, 1882 (coll. 
J. and J. W. Mailliard). The earliest coastal record is for Santa 
Barbara, March 10, 1910 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 8). It 
becomes abundant during the second week in April and continues so 
until about the first week in May, the last birds being seen about the 
middle of the month. The latest spring record is for May 13 (1914), 
at Los Banos (H. C. Bryant, MS). Goldman (19080, p. 203) noted 
a flock at Tulare Lake, July 8, 1907; but the birds examined were 
not in breeding condition, and probably represented early fall mi- 
grants. Henshaw (1876, p. 271) noted the species at Kern Lake, 
Kern County, in August. The breeding birds and young from the 
north appear along the coast in numbers about the first of September 
and continue to be seen from the latitude of San Francisco south- 
ward until the first or second week of November. The numbers of 
Dowitchers present is probably never very large, although a flock of 
as many as 200 has been seen at one time. The species is more often 
noted in flocks of six to two dozen individuals. 

The Long-billed Dowitcher may be distinguished from other waders 
by its medium size, long bill (fig. 65), by the absence of distinct stripes 
on its back, by its white rump and wing bars, open flock formation 
when feeding, and erratic flight. In late spring and summer it may 
be easily distinguished by the reddish coloration of its under surface; 


LONG-BILLED DOWITCHER , 361 


in fall and winter by the almost uniform grayish upper surface and 
unstriped lower parts. The Dowitcher resembles the Wilson Snipe 
in general size and in its very long bill, but differs notably in the 
absence of conspicuous streaking on the upper surface of its body and 
in having a white rump and distinct, though narrow, white wing bars. 
In spring plumage the Dowitcher may also be distinguished from 
the Snipe by its reddish breast. In this plumage the Knot might be 
confused with it, but the latter has a much shorter bill and a dusky 
rump, and feeds in compact flocks. In autumn the Dowitcher and 
Wandering Tattler are somewhat similar in plumage, but the 
Dowitcher may then be distinguished by its much longer bill, white 
rump, barred upper tail coverts, and white wing bars. 

The Long-billed Dowitcher feeds out on the open flats, a habit 
strongly in contrast with that of the Wilson Snipe, the latter bird 
showing exclusive preference for grassy ground. The Dowitcher fre- 


pre 


O 


or 22232 


Fig. 65. Side of bill of female Long-billed 
Dowitcher. Natural size. 


Note similarity to bill of Wilson Snipe (com- 
pare with fig. 64). 


quents the borders of marshes, sand and tide flats, and the edges of 
inland pools of water, showing but little preference for salt over 
fresh water. When along salt water the birds retire to higher boggy 
land during high tide and probe there for worms. The feeding flock 
usually scatters out over the flat, which is in marked contrast to the 
method of feeding employed by Knots. The Dowitchers probe indus- 
triously, sinking the bill in vertically up to the very base. Often 
when feeding the birds thrust the bill into the mud, withdraw it, 
advance a step, again thrust it into the mud and so on, repeating the 
process rapidly, so that they remind one of a walking beam. While 
feeding they keep up a continuous run of soft notes (Coues, 1874, p. 
479). When alarmed the birds ‘‘freeze,’’ with the head down and 
close in to the body, the long bill pointing downward at an angle of 
45 degrees. They frequently wade about in water as deep as the 
length of their legs will permit, thrusting their long bills through the 
water into the underlying mud. If they wander beyond their depth 
they are able to swim with a fair degree of ease, and the same is true 


362 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


when they are wounded. The possession of a slight webbing at the 
bases of the toes is probably correlated with this ability in swimming. 
Dowitchers swim with a bobbing motion of the head and this is accom- 
panied by a corresponding jerking of the tail (Coues, loc. cit.), in 
much the manner of a Rail. When frightened and forced to take 
wing, or when moving to a new location, they fly in a small compact 
flock with quick turning much like the small Sandpipers. In flight 
they are usually silent, and the head and long bill are held at an angle 
(about 30°) to the rest of the body. These characters serve to dis- 
tinguish the species when only the outline is observable. Dowitchers 
frequently associate with other waders and when doing so often lead 
the flock of which they happen to be members. 

The Long-billed Dowitcher nests during the latter part of May 
and probably throughout the month of June, as eggs have been taken 
at St. Michael, Alaska, on May 23, 1880, and at Fort Anderson, 
Mackenzie, June 21, 1864, and June 15, 1865; while incubating birds 
were secured at Point Barrow, Alaska, on June 28, 1883 (Cooke, 1910, 
p. 29). The nest is a simple structure composed at most of a few 
decayed leaves in a depression in the mossy ground (Macfarlane, in 
Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 199), or may be only “‘. .. a 
shallow depression formed by the bird’s body in the soft moss and 
without a trace of lining.’’ That is to say, there is ‘‘no nest, except 
the dead grass naturally found in the place occupied . . .’’ (Nelson, 
1887, p. 101). 

The best account of the nesting habits of the Long-billed Dowitcher 
is that supplied by Nelson (loc. cit.), who found the birds in the 
vicinity of Norton Sound, Alaska. 

Two or three males start in pursuit of a female and away they go twisting 
and turning, here and there, over marsh and stream, with marvelous swiftness 
and dexterity. At short intervals a male checks his flight for a moment to 
utter a strident péet-ii-wéet ; wée-td0, wée-too; then on he goes full tilt again. 
After they have mated, or when a solitary male pays his devotions, they rise 
15 or 20 yards from the ground, where, hovering upon quivering wings, the 
bird pours forth a lisping but energetic and frequently musical song, which 
can be very imperfectly expressed by the syllables péet-peet; pée-ter-wée-too; 
wée-too; pée-ter-wée-too; pée-ter-wée-too; wée-too; wee-too. This is the complete 
song, but frequently only fragments are sung, as when the bird is in pursuit 
of the female. 

June 16, while crossing a tussock-covered hill-top, over a mile from any 
water, I was surprised to see a female of this species flutter from her nest 
about 6 feet in front of me, and skulk off through the grass with trailing wings 
and depressed head for some 10 or 15 yards, then stand nearly concealed by a 
tuft of grass and watch me... . 

... The young are full grown and on the wing with their parents [by] 
the last of July, and the first of August finds the adults rapidly changing their 
breeding-dress for that of winter, and gathering into flocks. By the first 
of September they are in perfect winter dress, and frequent muddy flats, the 


KNOT 363 


edges of tide creeks, and other places, exactly as they do in their passage 
south or north in middle latitudes. They have the same unsuspicious ways 
here as there .. . (Nelson, 1887, p. 101). 


According to McAtee (1911a) the following items have been found 
in the food of the Dowitcher: Adult and larval horseflies, grass- 
hoppers, and oyster-worms (Nereis). Leeches, worms of various sorts, 
various water bugs, and soft mollusks comprise the chief elements of 
the food inland (Coues, 1874, p. 479). 

The Long-billed Dowitcher was probably somewhat more abundant 
formerly in California than it is at present. This is indicated by the 
fact that Cooper (in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 200) 
records their being sold in the markets of Los Angeles in 1865 in 
bunches as ‘‘jack snipe.’”’ Nowadays it is usual to see only a small 
flock of at most two dozen individuals. The Dowitcher, along with 
most of the other shore birds, needs total protection for a considerable 
period, and should, thereafter, if again placed on the open list, be 
further guarded by a small bag limit. 


Knot 


Tringa canutus Linnaeus 


OTHER NAMES—Robin Snipe; Red-breasted Snipe. 

DeEscripTionN—Adult male in spring and summer: Upper surface of head, 
hind neck, and region between base of bill and eye, streaked with pale smoke 
gray and olive black; dull stripe from base of upper mandible over eye to 
above ear, and cheek, chin, and middle throat, light cinnamon brown, with 
some whitish feather-tippings; bill black; iris ‘‘dark hazel’’ (Audubon, 1842, 
V, p. 257); feathers of back with broad irregular centers of olive black, 
margined with grayish white, some with side spots of pale tawny; feathers of 
rump light brown, with shafts and margins of darker brown, the extreme tips 
margined with white; upper tail coverts white with irregular crescentic bars of 
dark brown; tail drab above, narrowly margined with white; outer surface of 
closed wing dull drab near bend, lighter behind; median and lesser coverts 
margined with light drab; greater coverts margined with white, forming a 
narrow wing bar; primaries brownish black, quills of all, and outer margins and 
tips of inner ones, white; secondaries and tertials dark brownish near shaft, 
lighter toward margin, some edged with white; margin of wing mottled white 
and dusky; under surface of wing mixed white and light dusky; under surface 
of primaries drab becoming brownish black at tip; axillars white with irregular 
narrow bars of light brown; under surface of body (except belly and under 
tail coverts), bright cinnamon brown, with sparse flecking of white; sides 
and flanks inconspicuously and irregularly barred with light brown; belly 
and under tail coverts white, some of the feathers with darker shaft streaks 
or spots near tip and pale cinnamon wash; feet greenish black. Total length 
10.00-10.90 inches (254-277 mm) (two specimens); folded wing 6.53 (165.6); 
bill along culmen 1.38 (35.2); tarsus 1.27 (32.3) (one specimen). Adult female 
in spring and early summer: Like adult male in corresponding plumage but 


364 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


generally darker above, shaft streaks on top of head wider, white margins 
of feathers of back less extensive, cross bars on feathers of rump, sides and 
flanks broader and darker; cinnamon color beneath, deeper. Folded wing 6.53 
inches (165.8 mm.); bill along culmen 1.43 (36.4); tarsus 1.26 (32.1) (one 
specimen); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Whole head and neck dully 
streaked with blackish or drab, on a grayish white ground; chin and stripe 
over eye, nearly unmarked, whitish; back grayish brown with blackish shaft- 
streaks and narrow feather-margins of brownish black bordered by white, 
giving a distinctly scaled appearance; rump, upper tail coverts, tail, and wings, 
as in summer adults; breast and sides light drab with narrow shaft streaks 
and spots of light brown; rest of under surface white. Natal plumage: ‘‘ Buff 
to cream color, marked above with black and rufous, the black markings 
exceeding the ground color on crown, back, and rump’’ (Sanford, Bishop and 
Van Dyke, 1903, p. 358). Iris black; bill dark olive, tip dark brown; back 
of legs and soles of feet, greenish yellow; toes black (Feilden in Nelson, 1887, 
p. 102). 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Medium size (slightly larger than Wilson 
Snipe), chunky appearance, short bill (fig. 66) (not much longer than’ head), 
and short legs; feeds along shore in close flocks; in spring distinguished from 
all other shore birds of similar size except Dowitcher, by its bright reddish 
breast, but the Dowitcher has a very much longer bill. In fall the structural 
characters and method of feeding must be depended upon. 

Voice—A soft wah-quoit or whit whit, and a little honk (MacKay, 1893, p. 27; 
Forbush, 1912, p. 262). 

Nest—A shallow depression on grassy tundra, lined with a few dry grasses. 

Eeas—3 (possibly 4), slightly pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.64 to 
1.97 by 1.14 to 1.33 (in millimeters, 41.7 to 49.8 by 29.1 to 33.8), and averaging 
(6 eggs) 1.74 by 1.21. (44.1 by 30.6); ground-color pale greenish or clay, with 
superficial spots of yellowish to blackish brown, and deeper ones of pale 
violet-gray; markings more numerous about larger end (Dresser,' 1904, pp. 
232-233). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Almost world-wide. Breeding range circumpolar, 
northern Ellesmere Land south to Melville Peninsula and possibly Iceland; 
also on Taimyr Peninsula, Siberia. Winters south in America to southern 
Patagonia, and from the Mediterranean to South Africa, India, Australia and 
New Zealand. Casual on eastern coast of United States in winter. Occurs in 
migration over most of the Eastern Hemisphere, on Atlantic coast of North 
America, and, more rarely in the interior and on the Pacific coast (A. O. U. 
Check-list, 1910, p. 112). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Rather uncommon spring and fall migrant. 
Recorded in ‘spring only on Alameda County shore of San Francisco Bay, 
April 27 and 30, 1914 (adult male and female in breeding plumage in Mus. 
Vert. Zool.), and May 10, 1896 (Grinnell, 1902a, p. 25). Fall records: Monterey, 
August 7 and 17, 1910 (three males in Mus. Vert. Zool.; Beck, MS); Santa 
Barbara, August 21 to September 7, 1911 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 8); 
Alamitos Bay, Los Angeles County, September 18, 1907, three taken from flock 
of 30, and October 10, 1907, one taken (Willett, 1912a, p. 36); Anaheim Land- 
ing, Orange County, October 3, 1909, one specimen (Lamb, 1909, p. 208); 
Pacific Beach, San Diego County, September 10 and 16, 1904, two taken from 
several (Bishop, 1905, p. 141); and San Diego, October 7 and 9, 1903, three 
specimens (Dwight, 1904, pp. 78, 79). 


KNOT 365 


The Knot, Red-breasted Snipe, or Robin Snipe, as this species has 
been variously called, is not abundant when compared with most other 
shore birds found in California. Indeed the infrequent records of 
its capture might be interpreted as showing it to be a rather rare 
species. During the first half of the last century the species was 
present during the migrations in enormous numbers on the Atlantic 
coast where it was, and still is, much prized as an article of food. 
Excessive slaughter and spring shooting have reduced the species to 
a small fraction of the numbers once present there. No such num- 
bers were ever recorded on this coast, and it is probable that the birds 
were never more abundant here than they are at present. In fact, 
the keen eyes of the collectors visiting California in the days of the 
Pacific Railroad surveys failed altogether to detect the Knot within 
our confines. Even with the increase of observers of late years, a few 
compact flocks and some single 
birds are all that have been seen. Fa 
But continued observation along 
the coast in suitable localities dur- 
ing the very few days in spring 
when the species is passing along 
our coast will probably show it 
to be somewhat more abundant 
than is commonly believed. 

All occurrences of the Knot so far recorded for California are for 
the seacoast. In spring it has been reported only from the shores of 
San Francisco Bay, where specimens have been taken April 27 and 
May 10, as noted in the small-type paragraph above. Fall records are 
more numerous, the earliest being August 7, and the latest, October 10. 
The fall migration may thus extend over a period of two months, which 
indicates a tendency to loiter on the southward journey. 

From other shore birds occurring in California the Knot may be 
distinguished by its medium size (compared with such diverse species 
as the Godwit and Snowy Plover), chunky proportions, short bill 
(fig. 66), and short legs. In spring its bright reddish under surface 
is an important mark of distinction. Only two other species of waders 
of about the same size occurring in California show this type of 
spring coloration, the Red Phalarope and the Long-billed Dowitcher. 
From the first of these the Knot may be distinguished by its larger 
general size and by the absence of white on the sides of its head. The 
Red Phalarope is somewhat smaller and is usually found swimming 
and feeding on the surface of water. The Knot is a typical shore 
bird, and swims only under exceptional circumstances. From the 
Long-billed Dowitcher it may be distinguished by the possession of 
a bill which is little longer than the head. That of the Dowitcher 


24578 


Fig. 66. Side of bill of Knot. Nat- 
ural size. 


366 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


is at least twice as long as the head. There are also conspicuous habit 
differences. Knots feed in compact flocks, while Dowitchers spread 
out when foraging, and in flight the head and bill of the Dowitcher 
are conspicuously bent downward, while the Knot holds its head 
and bill in line with the body as do other species of sandpipers. In 
the fall the Knot is more difficult of recognition. Its ‘‘chunky’’ 
appearance, the absence of sharply contrasted streaks on its back 
and under surface, its short legs and bill (but slightly longer than 
the head), and its habit of feeding in close flocks, must then be 
depended upon. 

The call-note of the Knot is a soft wah-quoit, uttered commonly 
when the bird is coming to decoys, and is said-to resemble the rolling 
note of the American Golden Plover. In addition it has a soft honk 
(Mackay, 1893, p. 27). Hoffman (in Forbush, 1912, p. 262) renders 
the note as a soft whit-whit, like the whistle one employs in calling a 
dog. The birds are said to decoy to such calls and to a whistle 
resembling the call of the Black-bellied Plover (Mackay, loc. cit.). 


The Knot... frequents the ocean beach, the tidal flat and more rarely the salt 
marsh. On the beach it plays back and forth, following the receding waves 
and retreating before their advance. When the surf pounds upon the sandy 
shore it is the Red-breast’s harvest time. Then the surge constantly washes up 
the sand, bringing small shell-fish to the surface of the beach, as a placer 
miner washes out gold in his pan, and the birds, nimbly following the reces- 
sion of the wave, rapidly pick up the exposed shells ere the return of the 
surge... . With the flow of the tide, which drives them from the flats or the 
tide-washed beach, the Knots seek either the beach ridge, some shoal above high- 
water mark or the salt marsh. They are prone to alight on outer half-tide 
ledges, where they find small crustaceans and other forms of marine life among 
the seaweed. They are so attracted to such places and to beaches where sea- 
worms are plentiful that they will return to them again and again in the face 
of the gunners’ fire and this habit accounts in part for their diminution 
(Forbush, 1912, pp. 266-267). 

When the incoming tide drives the Knots from the flats they seek the 
marshes, or some shoal which is sufficiently elevated to remain uncovered dur- 
ing high water; they also frequent the crest of the beaches. Here they gen- 
erally remain quiet until the tide has fallen sufficiently to permit them to 
return again to the flats to feed. When on the marshes during high water they 
occupy some of the time in feeding, showing they are by no means dependent 
on the flats for all their food. They associate and mingle as freely with the 
Turnstone (Arenaria interpres), Black-bellied Plover (Charadrius squatarola), 
and Red-backed Sandpiper (Tringa alpina pacifica) as with their own kind.... 
They also frequent the flats at night as well as in the daytime.... On the 
ground they are sluggish, and not given to moving about much; unless very 
much harassed they are not nearly so vigilant as their companions, the Black- 
bellied Plover.... In the spring .. they sometimes frequent the upland 
on the island in company with the Turnstone, never doing so, however, in 
August or September. ... Knots as a rule are not in the habit of frequenting 
uplands. as they do the marshes.... They are induced... to follow the 


KNOT 367 


Turnstones where they lead, this bird showing more determination of purpose 
than the Knots which frequently yield and follow them [the Turnstones]. 
This is not the case with the Turnstones; they often leave the combined flock 
rather than be led where they do not care to go... . (Mackay, 1893, pp. 27-28). 


The flocks are much more compact than are those of the Long- 
billed Dowitcher and this company mannerism is usually retained 
when they take wing on alarm. Because of the feeding habits of the 
bird the daily period when good shooting can be enjoyed is rather 
short—only lasting while the wash of the waves is uncovering new 
surfaces. Nelson (1887, p. 102) says that when searching for food the 
birds sometimes run into the water breast high. 

‘When shy, and coming to decoys to alight, they barely touch 
their feet to the sand before they discover their mistake and are off 
in an instant. They fly quickly and closely together and, when com- 
ing to decoys, usually pass by them down wind, most of the flock 
whistling, then suddenly wheeling with heads to the wind, and up 
to the decoys. At such times many are killed at one discharge’’ 
(Mackay, 1893, p. 27). 

Information concerning the nesting habits of the Knot has been 
very slow in accumulating due to the extreme northern location of 
the summer home of the bird. Nests and downy young were reported 
as early as 1824, but no good description of the nests and eggs was 
published until 1904 (Dresser) and this pertained to the Taimyr 
Peninsula, in extreme northern Siberia. In 1906-1908, Manniche 
(1910, pp. 180-186) visited the eastern coast of Greenland north of 
latitude 76°, and while there had excellent opportunities to observe 
these birds in the nesting season even though he was unable to dis- 
cover occupied nests or downy young. 

The Knots arrived about the first of June and immediately took up 
their residence on and about the snow and ice bordered pools of fresh 
water. Evidently the birds were mated when they arrived on the 
breeding grounds as they always traveled in pairs even when making 
long excursions overland. As is the case with so many other shore 
birds the male Knot performs a song flight during the breeding season. 


The male suddenly gets up from the snowclad ground, and producing the 
most beautiful flute-like notes, following an oblique line with rapid wing 
strokes, mounts to an enormous height often so high, that he can not be 
followed with the naked eye. Up here in the clear frosty air he flies around 
in large circles on quivering wings and his melodious far sounding notes are 
heard far and wide over the country bringing joy to other birds of his own 
kin. The song sounds now more distant now nearer when 3 or 4 males are 
singing at the same time. Now and then the bird slides slowly downwards 
on stiff wings with the tail feathers spread; then again he makes himself 
invisible in the higher regions of the air mounting on wings quivering even 
faster than before... . 


368 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Gradually, as in increasing excitement he executes the convulsive vibra- 
tions of his wings, his song changes to single deeper notes—following quickly 
after each other—at last to die out while the bird at the same time drops to 
the earth on stiff wings strongly bent upward. This fine pairing song may be 
heard for more than a month everywhere at the breeding places, and it wonder- 
fully enlivens this generally so desolate and silent nature (Manniche, 1910, p. 
132). 


In the breeding season the male is pugnacious and quarrelsome 
towards birds of his own and of other species, and will often drive 
them far from his domain. Both sexes share in the work of incubat- 
ing the eggs as both show the bare spots on the breast and belly which 
characterize incubating birds. But the female does the larger share 
of this work, the male being much oftener seen off the nest than is 
his mate. The birds are extremely wary and give absolutely no indi- 
cation of the location of their nests. Manniche was able to find the 
nests of many of the other species of birds summering in this region, 
but was absolutely baffled in his attempts to discover a nest of the 
Knot. Once, after the young were hatched, he followed a female 
bird for over four hours and covered more than two miles of country 
in a vain endeavor to discover the location of her brood. So far as 
determinable, the male does not assist in caring for the brood. 

The food of the Knot consists of numerous small mollusks, small 
crustaceans, marine worms, cutworms (from the marshes), grass- 
hoppers, diving beetles, caterpillars, and, rarely, parts of plants 
(McAtee, 191la; Mackay, 1893, p. 27; Saunders, 1899, p. 596). 

The chief interest in the Knot lies in its value as a game bird. 
Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke (1903, p. 360) declare that the flesh 
of this species is of fine flavor, to be compared with that of the Golden 
Plover. The Knot should therefore be carefully conserved. In Cali- 
fornia its small numbers make it of particular interest from the 
standpoint of the naturalist. 


Pectoral Sandpiper 


Pisobia maculata (Vieillot) 


OTHER NAMES—T'ringa maculata; Actodromas maculata. 

DescripTion—Adults, both sexes, in spring and summer: Top of head black, 
the feathers broadly margined with rusty; lower part of forehead and stripe 
to and over eye, whitish, many of the feathers with narrow dark brown shaft 
streaks; below this a dull reddish brown stripe from bill to eye; chin white; 
cheeks and throat buffy, finely streaked with blackish brown; bill greenish, 
yellowish at base of lower mandible; iris dark brown; hind neck like top of 
head but colors paler; upper back and scapulars brownish black, broadly 
margined with tawny and tipped with ashy white (as the season proceeds the 
tawny pales by fading, and the white is worn off); rump and central upper 
tail coverts, dull brownish black, some of the feathers narrowly tipped with 


PECTORAL SANDPIPER 369 


pale tawny; outermost upper tail coverts white, streaked with brown; inner 
tail feathers dull dark brown, lateral ones drab; outer surface of closed wing 
dull dark brown, most of the feathers dark near shaft and lighter at margins, 
even bordered with whitish; primaries brownish black, shaft of outermost one 
white; margin and under coverts of wing mottled white and brown; hindmost 
under coverts and under surface of flight feathers dusky; axillars white; 
feathers of throat and breast thickly marked with brownish black shaft streaks 
on whitish or buffy ground; rest of under surface abruptly white; sides with 
a buffy tinge and dark shafts; flanks white, with narrow shaft stripes; feet 
greenish. Total length 8.00-9.62 inches (203-242 mm.) (two specimens, from 
Alaska and Florida). Males: folded wing 5.37-5.61 (136.5-142.5); bill along 
eulmen 1.15-1.20 (29.1-30.5); tarsus 1.09-1.14 (27.8-29.0) (five specimens from 
California, Alaska and British Columbia). Females: folded wing 4.79-5.05 
(121.9-128.0); bill along culmen 0.98-1.14 (25.0-29.0); tarsus 1.03-1.11 (26.1- 
28.1) (nine specimens from California, Alaska and British Columbia). Adults, 
both sexes, in fall and winter: ‘‘Similar to summer plumage, but the rusty tint 
above almost or wholly absent, and the black markings less sharply defined’’ 
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 233). Juvenile plumage: Similar to 
that of adults in summer but longer scapulars and other feathers of back 
margined extensively with bright tawny and white; general buffy tone on 
breast more intense. Natal plumage: Forehead and sides of head, buffy yellow; 
chin and throat, white; stripes up middle of forehead, from bill to eye, from 
bill to below eye, and from above eye to ear region, black; bill dusky, slightly 
paler at base; top of head, back and wings, of mixed pattern, the down 
feathers reddish brown at bases and black near ends and some with buffy 
white tips; breast buff; belly chiefly white; legs and feet (dried) pale straw 
yellow; nails blackish. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Medium small size (slightly smaller than 
a Killdeer), short bill about as long as head, white chin, buffy foreneck and 
breast finely streaked with dark brownish (this area constituting a broad, rather 
abruptly outlined, pectoral band), and blackish rump and upper tail coverts. 
More common on meadowland and less so on open flats than other sandpipers. 

VorcE—A single, rather rasping tweet or kreek; in the breeding season a 
deep, hollow, resonant, yet musical, t60’-i, t60’-t, t60’-%, t66’-i (Nelson, 1887, 
p. 108). 

Nest—In grass in dry situations though often in the vicinity of water; a 
depression lined with a little grass. 

Eees—Usually 4, pointedly pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.42 to 1.58 
by 1.02 to 1.11 (in millimeters, 36.1 to 40.2 by 25.9 to 28.2); ground-color drab, 
with a greenish tinge in some specimens, spotted and blotched with umber 
brown, variously distributed; deeper markings pale purplish gray (Murdoch, 
1885, pp. 111, 112). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds commonly on 
the Arctic coast of Alaska from the mouth of the Yukon to Point Barrow, 
rarely in Mackenzie, and probably on the Arctic coast northwest of Hudson 
Bay. In migration occurs abundantly south to southern Alaska, and throughout 
the United States east of the Rocky Mountains; in limited numbers on the 
Pacific coast from British Columbia southward. Winters in central South 
America in Chile, Bolivia and Argentina, up to 12,000 feet altitude (Cooke, 1910, 
p. 35; et al.). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Rather rare migrant coastwise; has been 
recorded from: San Francisco Bay (Cooper, 1868, p. 8); Mill Valley Junction, 


370 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Marin County, a pair, September 14, 1896 (J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 15); San 
Francisco Bay, October 8 (1883) (Kobbé im Bailey, 1902, p. 1); Farallon 
Islands, September 4, 1884 (Cooke, 1910, p. 36); Santa Barbara, September 9, 
1910, one seen April 14, 1910, also seen on seven dates between August 18 and 
September 20, and one daily from August 20 to September 20, 1911 (Bowles 
and Howell, 1912, p. 8), three individuals at most, September 17 to 23, 1909 
(Torrey, 1910a, pp. 44-45), August 20, 1913; La Patera (near Santa Barbara), 
August 25, 1915, and Elkhorn, Monterey County, October 11, 1913 (Dawson, 
1916, p. 25). 


The Pectoral Sandpiper is a rather rare migrant in California. 
The main migration route of the species lies east of the Rocky Moun- 
tains and it seems that only a few stragglers, probably birds of the 
year, occur along the Pacific coast. Bowles (1911, pp. 171, 172) states 
that during a residence of fourteen years in Washington he saw in 
all only about one hundred birds of this species, although he cites 
the observation of J. M. Edson at Bellingham who saw thirty or 
forty individuals on one day. This Sandpiper is evidently even less 
common in California, else the assiduous collecting which has been car- 
ried on along our shores, especially in southern California, would have 
yielded more instances of occurrence. 

Cooper (1868, p. 8) thought that the Pectoral Sandpiper occurred 
not rarely in his day about San Francisco Bay in winter, though no 
corroborative evidence has been subsequently obtained. Kobbé (in 
Bailey, 1902, p. 1) lists the species from San Francisco Bay, on the 
basis of a specimen taken by W. E. Bryant, October 8 (1883). This 
we believe to be the same example which was reported by Bryant 
(1887a, p. 78) under the name Tringa fusctcollis. A pair of birds 
was taken September 14, 1896, at Mill Valley Junction near Sausalito, 
Marin County (J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 15). A specimen was taken on 
the Farallon Islands, September 4, 1884 (Cooke, 1910, p. 36). Other- 
wise the species has been recorded only at Santa Barbara where a 
number of observers have noted it. The only spring occurrence was 
one individual on April 14, 1910, but in the fall it has been seen on 
different dates from August 20 to September 23, never more than 
three at one time (Torrey, 1910a, pp. 44-45; Bowles and Howell, 
1912, p. 8). 

For field identification a combination of characters must be 
depended upon. The moderately small size (somewhat less than that 
of a Killdeer), the short bill about as long as head, the strongly con- 
trasted dark area on fore-neck and breast, with its finely streaked pat- 
tern on close view, and the blackish rump and upper tail coverts, are 
the chief characteristics. The preference of the species for meadow 
land, and its snipe-like behavior, are two additional criteria. From the 
nearly related Baird Sandpiper it may be distinguished, though with 
some difficulty, by its larger size, longer and lighter-colored bill, paler 


PECTORAL SANDPIPER 371 


feet, and darker and more conspicuous breast band and streakings. 
Juveniles of this species as compared with Baird Sandpipers of the 
same age show a streaked rather than scaled appearance on the back. 
From the Least and Western sandpipers it may be distinguished 
chiefly on the basis of size, as it is twice or three times as large as 
those species. The male Pectoral Sandpiper is distinctly larger than 
the female, a reversal of size relation obtaining between the male 
and female of many shore birds. 

The Pectoral Sandpiper is ordinarily a rather quiet species. Its 
call-note is a harsh tweet or kreeck. The latter note has in parts of 
the East won it the name of ‘‘Kreeker.’’ This note is ordinarily 
uttered only once, but may be replaced by repeated shrill cries when 
the bird is flushed suddenly. 

Torrey (1910a, pp. 44-45) records his brief experience with the 
Pectoral Sandpiper at Santa Barbara as follows: 


On the morning of September 17, 1909, I found and watched at my leisure 


a single bird of this species ..., feeding in and about some small muddy 
pools. ... The next day it was still there, and after some time another one 
walked into sight from behind a bunch of reeds.... [They] allowed me 


the closest kind of approach, in a perfect light, so that all details were 
abundantly seen: the greenish legs, the parti-colored bill, the black rump, and 
the immaculate chin.... They neither bobbed nor teetered, but had a 
plover-like trick of half squatting, or crouching, when startled. In running, 
and now and then when standing still, they assumed a peculiarly erect attitude, 
which gave them the appearance of being, for sandpipers, uncommonly long- 
necked. 


Forbush (1912, p. 272) says of this species in Massachusetts: 


The Grass-bird usually comes in the night, in flocks of twenty-five to fifty 
birds, and scatters in small parties in the salt marshes, particularly those on 
which the grass has been cut and where little pools of water stand. It seems 
to prefer the higher portions of the salt marsh, where the ‘‘black grass’’ grows, 
and it is sometimes common in the fresh-water meadows near ponds in the 
interior.... The grass pattern and shading of its back furnish such com- 
plete protection from the eye of man that it can conceal itself absolutely by 
merely squatting in the short grass. Where it has not been shot at or dis- 
turbed it becomes exceedingly tame and confiding, but old experienced birds 
are wild, and fly so swiftly and erratically that some of the hunters call them 
‘‘Jack Snipe’’ because of a fancied resemblance in their flight to that of 
Wilson’s Snipe. Sometimes they are found in fresh meadows near the salt 
marsh, and more rarely on the ocean beach, where they follow the retreating 
wave like the Sanderling or any other beach bird. 


Stearns and Coues (18838, pp. 220, 221) state that ‘‘When they 
arise from the grass to alight again at a little distance, they fly in 
silence or with a single tweet, holding the wings deeply incurved ; 
but when suddenly startled and much alarmed, they spring quickly, 


372 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


with loud, repeated cries, and make off in an irregular manner, much 
like the common Snipe. Sometimes, gaining a considerable elevation, 
they circle for several minutes in silence overhead, flying with great 
velocity, perhaps to pitch down again nearly perpendicularly upon 
the same spot they sprang from.’’ 

The Pectoral Sandpiper: decoys readily as do many other shore 
birds. When on the ground it walks deliberately, with the bill held 
downward. Upon alighting, which all the birds in a flock are said 
to do at the same moment, the wings are raised above the body for an 
instant and then neatly folded. In flight the birds mass into com- 
pact flocks (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 372). 

These birds arrive on the shores of Bering Sea and the Arctic 
Ocean from the middle to the last of May (Cooke, 1910, p. 36). They 
linger about the wet spots where green herbage is just beginning to 
show through the tundra, and then pair and seek nesting places. 

Nesting probably begins about the first of June and continues 
throughout the month and even into the early part of July, as Nelson 
(1887, p. 108) observed a male in nuptial flight on May 24, and 
Murdoch (1885, p. 112) states that the last eggs which were brought 
in, on July 12, contained only small embryos. Probably the bulk of 
the species nests about the middle or latter part of June. 

The mating antics of this species have been very fully described 
by Nelson. The male inflates his throat until it is as large as his 
body and then utters a deep, hollow, resonant yet liquid and musical 
note, which may be represented by the repetition of the syllables ¢60’-a, 
to6’-%, té0’-%, tdd’%. The air sac gives the resonant quality to the 
note. The note is uttered under a variety of conditions and at various 
times during the day or light Arctic night. Apparently the birds 
fill the esophagus with air only just previous to making the notes. 


The skin of the throat and breast becomes very flabby and loose at this 
season, and its inner surface is covered with small globular masses of fat. 
When not inflated, the skin loaded with this extra weight and with a slight 
serous suffusion which is present hangs down in a pendulous flap or fold 
exactly like a dewlap, about an inch and a half wide. The oesophagus is 
very loose and becomes remarkably soft and distensible, but is easily ruptured 
in this state.... The [male] bird may frequently be seen running along. 
the ground close to the female, its enormous sac inflated, and its head drawn 
back and the bill pointing directly forward, or, filled with spring-time vigor, 
the bird flits with slow but energetic wing-strokes close along the ground, 
its head raised high over the shoulders and the tail hanging almost directly 
down. As it thus flies it utters a succession of the hollow booming notes, 
which have a strange ventriloquial quality. At times the male rises 20 or 30 
yards in the air and inflating its throat glides down to the ground with its sac 
hanging below. ... Again he crosses back and forth in front of the female, 
puffing his breast out and bowing from side to side, running here and there, 
as if intoxicated with passion. Whenever he pursues his love-making, his 


BAIRD SANDPIPER 373 


rather low but pervading note swells and dies in musical cadences, which form 
a striking part of the great bird chorus heard at this season in the north 
(Nelson, 1887, pp. 108, 109). 

The nest is always built in the grass, with a decided preference for high 
and dry localities like the banks of gullies and streams. It was sometimes 
placed at the edge of a small pool, but always in grass and in a dry place, 


never in the black clay and moss.... The nest ... [is] a depression in the 
ground lined with a little dry grass... . 
In color and markings ... the eggs closely resemble those of the other 


small waders. The ground color is drab, sometimes with a greenish tinge, 
though never so green as in the egg of P. alpina americana and sometimes a 
pale bistre-brown. The markings are blotchings of clear umber brown, varying 
in intensity, thickest and sometimes confluent around the larger end, smaller 
and more scattered at the smaller end. Some of the eggs with brown ground 
are thickly blotched all over. ... All the eggs have the usual shell markings 
of pale purplish gray and light neutral tint (Murdoch, 1885, pp. 111, 112). 


The food of the Pectoral Sandpiper is quite varied. Taking the 
eastern range of the bird into account, it includes billbugs, water 
beetles, cutworms, corn-leaf beetles, wireworms and click beetles, 
clover-root curculios, mosquitoes, larvae and adult horseflies, and 
crane-fly larvae (McAtee, 191la@) ; worms, minute shellfish, and occa- 
sionally rootlets and buds (Goss, 1891, p. 170) ; and sea lettuce (Baird, 
Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 235). The flesh of this species is 
highly prized as an article of food. In fact it is stated (Baird, Brewer 
and Ridgway, loe. cit.) that ‘‘in the autumn its flesh becomes very 
juicy and finely flavored, and when procured late in the season it is 
said to be superior to that of any of our shore-birds, and fully equal 
to any upland game.’’ This is the smallest of the shore birds that 
can be legitimately called a game species. Though the species is 
obviously highly desirable, the small numbers occurring in California 
debar it from a prominent place among the game birds of the state. 


Baird Sandpiper 


Pisobia bairdi (Coues) 


OTHER NAMES—Tringa bairdi; Actodromas bairdi; Heteropygia bairdi. 

DEsScRIPTION—Adults both sexes, in spring and early summer: Top of head 
and hind neck broadly mottled with blackish brown on pale buffy or creamy 
white ground; indistinct stripe from base of upper mandible to and behind 
eye, whitish; below this a dark mottled stripe; eyelids white; chin and throat 
white, minutely and sparingly flecked with dark brown; sides of head and 
neck, creamy white, flecked with narrow brownish shaft streaks, darkest and 
most numerous on ear region; bill black; iris dark brown; feathers of upper 
back extensively blackish brown, tipped with pale buffy; tertials brownish 
black, broadly tipped with pale drab and many of the feathers with irregular 
tawny spots on webs; lower back, rump, central upper tail coverts and middle 
tail feathers, brown; outermost tail coverts mottled with whitish; outer tail 
feathers drab; outer surface of closed wing brown, all of the feathers with 


374 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


dark brown shafts and some with lighter margins; shaft of outermost primary 
white; margin of wing mottled with white and light brown; lining of wing 
white, except hindmost coverts which, like inner surface of flight feathers, are 
pale dusky; axillars pure white; breast and sides pale buffy, with narrow 
brown shaft streaks; rest of under surface and flanks, white; legs and feet 
‘‘dark slate’? (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 376). Total length 
(both sexes) ‘‘7.00—7.60’’ inches (178-193 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 157). Males: 
folded wing 4.43-4.77 (112.6-121.0); bill along culmen 0.74-0.89 (18.9-22.7); 
tarsus 0.86-0.91 (21.8-23.0) (mine specimens). Females: folded wing 4.65- 
5.00 (118.0-126.8); bill along culmen 0.84-0.92 (21.3-23.4); tarsus 0.86-0.91 
(21.9-23.2) (six specimens); all adults and full grown immatures, from Alaska, 
British Columbia and California. Juvenile plumage (in late summer and fall): 
Similar to that of adults in spring, but feathers of back and tertials and wing 
coverts narrowly tipped with white, giving a scaled appearance; tawny spots 
on webs of tertials lacking, and upper tail coverts narrowly tipped with pale 
buffy. Natal plumage: Forehead whitish, with a median black line; side of 
head whitish, with two black lines extending from base of bill towards eye; 
top of head, to level of eyes, and whole back, mixed tawny and black in coarse 
pattern, overlaid with a ‘‘frosting,’’ the latter consisting of numerous little 
down-tippings of white; lower surface of body wholly white. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Small size (not, however, our smallest 
species), very slender bill (not longer than head), light buffy breast band, 
dark brown rump, and, in juvenile plumage, scaled pattern on back. Almost 
impossible to identify positively without specimen in hand. 

Voice—A shrill trilling whistle, peet-peet (Forbush, 1912, p. 277). 

Nest—On tundra, always well hidden in grass; a slight depression thinly 
lined with dried grass (Murdoch, 1885, p. 112). 

Eoacs—Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.18 to 1.38 by 0.87 to 
0.95 (in millimeters, 30.0 to 35.0 by 22.0 to 24.0), and averaging 1.28 by 0.93 
(32.5 by 23.5) (36 eggs in U. S. National Museum); ground color buff or clay, 
with markings of chestnut-brown, usually fine and innumerable, sometimes 
confluent about larger end (Davie, 1889, p. 114). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds along Arctic 
coast from Point Barrow to northern Keewatin. Migrates through Great Basin, 
Rocky Mountains and Mississippi Valley west of Mississippi River. Occurs 
sparingly east to Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to New Jersey and west 
to Pacific coast from Alaska to Lower California. Winters chiefly in Chile, 
but also in Argentina south to latitude of Buenos Ayres (A. O. U. Check-list, 
1910, pp. 114-115; Cooke, 1910, pp. 39-41). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CaLIrForNIA—Rather rare fall migrant. The following 
recorded occurrences are all that are known within the state: Point Pinos, 
Monterey County, August 25, 1897, one specimen (J. Mailliard, 1898, p. 51); 
Santa Barbara, July 25 (1914) (and several other dates) (Dawson, 1912, p. 
224; 1916, p. 25) to September 7 (1911) (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 8); 
White’s Landing, Santa Catalina Island, September 1, 1907, one specimen taken 
by H. Wright (Grinnell, 1909a, p. 189); and Pacific Beach, San Diego County, 
September 8, 1904, one specimen (Bishop, 1905, p. 141). Seen at Santa 
Barbara, April 27 (1912) to May 7 (1915), four records (Dawson, 1916, p. 25). 
Three specimens are listed from ‘‘California’’ by Sharpe (1896, p. 573). 


The Baird Sandpiper is a rather rare fall migrant through Cali- 
fornia, although observations at Santa Barbara seem to show that 


BAIRD SANDPIPER 375 


it is of fairly regular occurrence. Bowles and Howell (1912, p. 8) 
state that at Santa Barbara they found it a regular fall migrant. 
During 1910 but seven individuals were seen, while in 1911 the 
birds were considered ‘‘common.’’ ‘‘Three or four could be found 
at any time between August 11 and September 4, while at least twelve, 
of which nine were in one flock, were on the flats September 2.” 
Again, in 1912, Dawson (1912, p. 224) found the species in the same 
vicinity from August 8 to 22, when the individuals observed were 
mingling freely with Western Sandpipers. In 1914 it was observed 
on July 25 (Dawson, 1916, p. 25). The same author has seen the 
species at Santa Barbara in the spring on four dates between April 
27 and May 7 (Dawson, loc. cit.). Other localities of record are: 
Point Pinos, near Monterey, August 25, 1897, one individual shot 
from flock of Least Sandpipers (J. Mailliard, 1898, p. 51) ; White’s 
Landing, Santa Catalina Island, one specimen, September 1, 1907 
(Grinnell, 1909a, p. 139); Pacifie Beach, near San Diego, one speci- 
men, September 8, 1904 (Bishop, 1905, p. 141). Dates of observation 
have thus covered at least six separate years, and show the species to 
be of rather regular yet limited presence along the coast. 

Compared with the species most closely related to it, the Baird 
Sandpiper seems to be slightly more numerous than the Pectoral 
Sandpiper, but in nowise as abundant as the Least Sandpiper. From 
the Pectoral Sandpiper the Baird may be distinguished by its decid- 
edly smaller size, its blackish feet, by the creamy or grayish rather 
than tawny cast of its upper surface, as well as by the much less 
extensive and less sharply streaked breast band. From the Least and 
Western sandpipers the Baird Sandpiper may be distinguished by its 
somewhat larger size, the distinctly buffy tone of its breast and back, 
and the less distinct streaking on its breast. 

The Baird Sandpiper, taking its entire range into account, is 
seldom found singly, but usually in pairs or small flocks of its own 
kind numbering six to a dozen individuals. It frequently flocks with 
other species, such as the Least Sandpiper, and at times even with 
the Turnstone or the Killdeer. When on the beach the birds feed 
near the upper edge, in the vicinity of tide pools, but this is not their 
accustomed habitat. They are found more commonly inland, even 
up to very high altitudes in the mountains. Goss (1891, p. 176) says 
that he has flushed them on high dry prairie land as much as a mile 
from the nearest water. Brewster (1881, pp. 60, 61) saw this species 
with the Ring-necked Plover on the beach in Maine. At that place 
‘‘their motions were slow and sedate and their attitudes crouching. 
They kept up a low conversational twitter while feeding, and when 
flushed, flew in that swift, erratic way characteristic of most of the 
small Waders.’’ 


376 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The Baird Sandpiper is said not to indulge in the nuptial flights 
and performances common among other shore birds. The nest and 
sitting female are both so inconspicuous that it is almost impossible 
to find them. The only practical way to do so is to withdraw after 
having flushed the bird, ‘‘mark’’ the location when she returns, and 
then proceed directly to the nest (Murdoch, 1885, p. 112). 

Murdock (loc. cit.) states that in the vicinity of Point Barrow, 
Alaska, eggs were obtained only during the last week in June and 
the first week in July, a trifle later than is the case with other shore 
birds. ‘‘The nest was always well hidden in the grass, and never 
placed in marshy ground or on the bare black parts of tundra, and 
consists merely of a slight depression in the ground thinly lined with 
dried grass.’’ ‘‘The eggs are usually four in number; buff or clay- 
colored, spotted and blotched with varying shades of chestnut-brown ; 
in most instances the markings are fine and innumerable, of indefinite 
size, irregular in shape and thickness at the greater end, where they 
are occasionally massed in blotches’’ (Davie, 1889, p. 114). 

The food of the Baird Sandpiper comprises among other things 
mosquitoes, crane-fly larvae, grasshoppers, cutworms and clover-root 
curculios (McAtee, 1911@) all of which, with the possible exception 
of the mosquitoes, are to be found in dry inland locations. 

The Baird Sandpiper is too small properly to be classed as a game 
species. Moreover, its numbers migrating through California are 
too limited to merit it the attention of any persons save nature lovers 
and ornithologists. 


Least Sandpiper 


Pisobia minutilla (Vieillot) 


OTHER NAMES—Peeps, part; Little Sandpiper; Pigmies, part; Jack Snipe 
(Fresno district); Tringa minutilla; Limonites minutilla; Actodromas minutilla; 
Tringa wilsonit. 

DescripTIoN—Adults, both sexes, in spring and summer: Top of head, hind 
neck, back and scapulars, black, with extensive feather marginings of rusty 
brown or tawny and dark buffy, some of the feathers narrowly tipped with 
white (these tippings subject to disappearance through wear); stripe from 
base of upper mandible to above eye, recurring behind eye, whitish, flecked 
with dark brown; stripe beneath this, dark brown flecked with black; cheek 
buffy, with brownish shaft streaks; chin white, lightly flecked with dark brown; 
bill black, yellowish at lower base; iris brown; rump and central upper tail 
coverts, brownish or velvety black; outermost upper tail coverts brown widely 
margined with white; innermost tail feathers black, outer ones drab; outer 
surface of closed wing ashy brown, sometimes with scattering feathers in 
coverts black with broad tawny margins; narrow white bar across wing formed 
by white tips of greater coverts and innermost secondaries; shaft of outer- 
most primary white; margin of wing mottled brown and white; axillars and 


LEAST SANDPIPER 377 


lining of wing white; broad band across throat and chest, and sides, pinkish 
buff, with shaft streaks of blackish brown; belly white; flanks ‘and under 
tail coverts whité with narrow streaks of brown; feet pale olive green. Adults 
and immatures, both sexes, in fall, winter, and early spring: Distinguishable from 
adults in summer chiefly by lack of tawny and buffy markings; top of head 
and most of upper surface ashy brown with darker centers to feathers; sides of 
head pale ashy brown; chin white; rump, upper tail coverts, tail, and wing 
as in summer; broad band across throat, and sides, light ashy gray, narrowly 
streaked with brown; rest of under surface white. Males: Total length 5.50- 
5.87 inches (139.5-149.0 mm.) (seven specimens); folded wing 3.25-3.45 (82.4— 
87.5); bill along culmen 0.65-0.73 (16.5-18.5); tarsus 0.68-0.78 (17.3-19.7) 
(ten specimens). Females: Total length 5.50-6.30 (139.5-160) (nine specimens) ; 
folded wing 3.34-3.46 (84.6-88.0); bill along culmen 0.68-0.78 (17.2-19.8); 
tarsus 0.72-0.78 (18.3-19.8) (ten specimens); all from California and Alaska. 
Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult in spring and summer but markings 
more blended; wing coverts throughout margined with pale tawny; chin, 
flanks and lower tail coverts, white, unmarked; breast band obscurely streaked. 
Natal plumage: Forehead and side of head buffy white; chin and throat white; 
stripes up middle of forehead and between bill and eye, black; bill black; top 
and back of head, and rest of upper surface and flanks, of mixed reddish 
brown and black, with many feather tippings of buffy white, the whole pro- 
ducing a pepper-and-salt effect; under surface white; breast faintly washed 
with buff; legs and feet (dried) brown. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Very small size (our smallest shore bird); 
slender bill (fig. 67), not longer than head; ashy, drab or buffy band on breast, 
narrowly streaked with brown; slender toes, cleft to bases (fig. 69). : 

Voic—e—A plaintive pe-et, pe-et, or wheet, sometimes quavering, when uttered 
by isolated individuals; faint peeps among members of a foraging flock. 

Nest—On marshy ground or damp upland, usually a short distance from 
water; a slight depression in the vegetation lined with a few leaves and grass 
blades (Moore, 1912, p. 211). 

Eees—4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.04 to 1.18 by 0.79 to 0.87 (in 
millimeters, 26.5 to 30.0 by 20.0 to 22.0), and averaging 1.14 by 0.83 (29.0 to 
21.0) (65 eggs in U. S. National Museum); ground color light drab, thinly 
spotted with sepia brown, grayish brown or ashy; markings more numerous 
and bigger about larger end (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 240). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds northward to the 
Aretic coast from a line through Kotzebue Sound, southern Yukon, southern 
Mackenzie, central Keewatin, northern Ungava, and Labrador, to northeastern 
Quebee; also on the Magdelen Islands and Sable Island. Winters from central 
California, southern Arizona, southern Texas and Georgia south to (northern?) 
Chile, Peru, and Brazil (south to latitude 7°S). Occurs in migration through- 
out area between breeding and winter ranges (Cooke, 1910, pp. 41-42). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Abundant fall and spring migrant throughout 
the state; remains through the winter in fair numbers in lowlands from lati- 
tude of San Francisco southward. Migrants arrive from the north mostly 
during August and September and depart for the north again during April 
and early May. A few non-breeding birds sometimes occur here during June 


and July. 


The Least Sandpiper, or Peep, is, perhaps, the most abundant 
species of shore bird in North America. During migration it is widely 


378 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


distributed, every seabeach and salt marsh, every inland pond and 
wet meadow being populated by these birds. It is the smallest, the 
most confiding, and the most unobtrusive of all our wading birds. 

While individuals are to be found within our borders at all times 
of the year, this species is chiefly a fall and spring migrant; to a less 
extent it is a winter visitant. The birds occasionally found here dur- 
ing June and July are probably non-breeding individuals. Birds 
which are undoubtedly migrants arrive from the north late in July 
or early in August. Two were taken at Berkeley, August 13, 1892 
(specimens in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; large flocks were seen and a specimen 
taken at Bay Farm Island, August 29, 1914 (Storer, MS); at Santa 
Barbara, Bowles and Howell (1912, p. 9) record the earliest migrants 
July 18, and state that the species had become abundant by the last 
of July; flocks were seen daily at 
Hemet Lake, San Jacinto Mountains, 
from August 6 to 16, 1908 (Grinnell 
and Swarth, 1913, p. 227) ; a flock was 
seen at Lake Tahoe in August, 1906 
(Ray, 1911, p. 108); one bird was 
taken at Yermo, San Bernardino 
County, August 28, 1910 (Lamb 
coll.). Scattered records through the 
winter proclaim the species a winter 

Bath Patience useeer acs visitant in fair numbers from the lati- 

Note difference in size of bill, tude of Stockton (Belding, 1879, p. 

aes Da bata aay 441), and the shores of San Francisco 

‘ ’ Bay, southward. In the spring it has 

been recorded at San Diego as late as April 15, 1885 (Belding, MS) ; 

Mecea, Riverside County, April 19, 1908 (specimen in Mus. Vert. 

Zool.) ; Los Angeles, April 27, 1900 (specimen in Swarth coll.); El 

Monte, Los Angeles County, May 2, 1896 (specimen in Daggett coll.) ; 

southern Madera County, April 28, 1900 (J. Mailliard, 1900, p. 122) ; 

and Los Bajos, Merced County, April 22, 1912 (specimen in Mus. 
Vert. Zool.). 

The Least Sandpiper may be distinguished by its extremely small 
size, slender, short bill (not longer than head), and drab, ashy or 
buffy breast band, with narrow dark streaks. From the Western 
Sandpiper (which is nearest in size) it may be distinguished by its 
shorter and slenderer bill (figs. 67 and 68), and the absence of webs 
between the bases of the toes (fig. 69). From the Snowy Plover it 
may be distinguished by its less chunky build, slender bill and toes, by 
the presence of a buffy breast band, and by the absence of black or 
drab patches on sides of neck and lack of white on the outer tail 
feathers. 


Fig. 68. Western Sandpiper. 


LEAST SANDPIPER 379 

When foraging in companies Least Sandpipers utter faint peeps 
in conversational undertone; in flight the note is more emphatic and 
varied: wheet, wheet, or wheet, wheet, wheet-whrr-terr-wheet, of plain- 
tive quality. Lone individuals are more given to calling than members 
in a flock. 

Least Sandpipers often occur as single indi- 
viduals, but more generally in flocks of varying 
sizes sometimes numbering several hundred indi- 
viduals. They frequent with apparent impar- 
tiality the sea-beach, tide flat, marshland and 
river bar. Throughout most of the day, and 
probably well into the night, they are active, at- 
tentively gleaning food from the sand or mud 
at the water’s edge. When not persistently 
hunted they are quite tame and will allow close 


approach. If the observer takes his position on | ioe oS Pcie 
the shore and remains quiet for a time, the birds Least Sandpiper. 


will usually feed along almost at his feet. When 
at work probing for food the bill is rapidly 
thrust in and out of the sand or mud at the rate 
of three or four dabs per second for as many 
seconds; then it is raised entirely free of the 
surface, and the bird straightens up and moves 
a few steps to a new location, to continue its 
search in similar fashion. As the bill goes down 
the tail goes up, so that the bird appears to 
teeter up and down, the legs acting as fulera. 
When on the ground the birds move with a rapid, 
direct run, never trotting as do some of the 
plovers. Occasionally an individual will be seen 
to raise its wings vertically above the body and 
hold them there for a few seconds before fold- 
ing them into place again. Once, a bird was 
seen to do this as it made a deep probe in the 
mud and at the same time one leg was raised 
from the ground and stretched backwards; in 
this case it seemed as though the wings were 
raised for the purpose of balancing the body. 


Natural size. 


Note absence of 
any webbing between 
bases of front toes 
(compare with fig. 
70). 


Fig. 70. 
and top of foot of 
Western Sandpiper. 
Natural size. 


Tarsus 


Note partial webs 


between bases of 
front toes (compare 
with fig. 69). 


When frightened the birds take to flight suddenly, and look to be 
traveling at their topmost speed almost immediately. Individuals 
show more erratic movement in flight than do flocks. The latter pur- 
sue a zigzag course, so that one sees first the brown backs and then a 
flash of white from the under surfaces, and this often, depending upon 
the background against which they are seen, causes the birds to 


380 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


appear and then disappear at intervals of a few seconds. So per- 
fectly and in accord do the individuals comprising a flock perform 
these evolutions, that one is tempted to believe that they are in some 
way mechanically connected. That this habit may prove disastrous 
to individuals is shown by the fact that dead birds have been found 
beneath telephone wires strung across marshes. 

Single individuals seem on the whole to be more wary and apt to 
take wing at longer distances than birds in flocks. Individuals or 
small groups of this species sometimes flock with other waders, notably 
Western and Red-backed sandpipers; and various observers have 
noted them flocking with, and ‘‘running about beneath,’’ some of 
the shore birds of still greater size. 

The nesting season of the Least Sandpiper seems to begin later 
and to occupy a longer period than that of many of its kindred, this 
in spite of the fact that the Least often arrives in its breeding area, 
in the far north, in advance of many of the other species. Some- 
times it appears before the ground is anywhere nearly free from 
snow. The following nesting records given by Macoun and Macoun 
(1909, pp. 176, 177) indicate the extent of the nesting season: Mag- 
dalen Islands, June 13, female flushed from nest ; Lake Marsh, Yukon, 
July 2, downy young; Labrador, July 20, nest and eggs; Cypress Fills, 
Saskatchewan, August 2, very young birds. 

The nest, as found on the Magdalen Islands, Quebec, is usually 
placed on grass-covered, water-soaked, hummocky ground, and con- 
sists of a depression lined with dead leaves or grasses so that the eggs 
are well separated from the damp ground beneath. The eggs are de- 
posited on consecutive days, and incubation does not commence until 
the set is complete. All the eggs, in one observed case, hatched within 
a period of twenty-four hours or less (Moore, 1912, pp. 210, 211). 

The eggs are usually four in number, pear-shaped, and measure 
in inches, 1.04 to 1.18 by 0.79 to 0.87 and average 1.14 by 0.83. The 
ground color is a light drab, thinly marked with superficial spots of 
sepia brown and deeper markings of grayish brown or ashy. The 
markings are more numerous about the larger end of the egg (Baird, 
Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 240). 

During the nesting season birds of this species are to be seen 
perched on various prominent objects in the near vicinity of the nest, 
such as rocks, trees, stumps, and even fences. There is a song-flight 
similar to that of other small sandpipers. After incubation begins, 
the sitting bird will often crouch down and attempt to escape observa" 
tion by remaining quiet on the nest. If this does not avail, the bird 
will run fifteen feet or more from the nest, then, if necessary, fly off 
close to the surface of the ground, with a whirring flight, resembl- 
ing that of a quail; but the flight sometimes recalls that of a Wilson 


RED-BACKED SANDPIPER 381 


Snipe in being quite erratic. The broken-wing ruse is on occasion 
attempted, when the nesting Sandpiper is endeavoring to lead an 
intruder away from the nest; but none of the intimidating tactics 
employed by larger waders are used by this species. 

‘‘The young are certainly precocious, leaving the nest at least by 
the first day after birth, and, thereafter, being able to find their food 
and take care of themselves... .’’ ‘‘To protect, to warn, to guide 
in the search for food, these seem to be the chief parental functions 
at this stage’’ (Moore, 1912, pp. 212, 218). 

The food of the Least Sandpiper consists of insects and minute 
marine animals found along the shore and on the mud flats. Among 
the insects consumed are mosquitoes and grasshoppers (McAtee, 
191l@), and, at Mono Lake, W. K. Fisher (1902a, p. 9) found these 
birds feeding in company with other waders upon the flies which 
swarm in early autumn along the shores of that lake. 

The Least Sandpiper never has been considered a legitimate 
objéct of pursuit by the better class of sportsmen, and never should 
be. Its small size and unsuspecting habits plead for its exclusion 
from the category of game birds. Along the eastern coast of the 
United States, Forbush (1912, pp. 278-280) says that in former years 
it was not hunted to any extent, but that with the decrease of larger 
game the Peeps have come to be a serious object of sport; many are 
slaughtered annually, and as a result a marked decrease in their 
numbers has of late been noticed. Happily other game species in 
California are yet so numerous that the ‘‘Peeps’’ have not so far 
suffered materially from the onslaughts of the hunter. Let us in 
California conserve the larger species to such a degree that the day 
will never come when ‘‘peep-pies’’ will be countenanced as legitimate 
food on our tables. 


Red-backed Sandpiper 
Pelidna alpina sakhalina. (Vieillot) 


OTHER NAMES—Dunlin; American Dunlin; Black-bellied Sandpiper; Pelidna 
americana; Pelidna alpina americana; Tringa alpina; Tringa alpina pacifica; 
Tringa pacifica; Tringa alpina var. americana. : 

DescripTion—Adulis, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Top of head 
streaked with black and rusty; broad stripe from base of upper mandible to 
eye, and recurring behind eye, white, flecked with dusky; spot at side of bill 
dull buffy; side of head otherwise whitish, narrowly streaked with blackish 
brown; chin white; bill ‘‘black’’; iris ‘‘dark brown’’ (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 
268); hind neck whitish or buffy streaked with dusky; feathers of back and 
scapulars black centrally, with broad margins of deep tawny red, and narrowly 
tipped with ashy; rump dull brown; central upper tail coverts black, irregularly 
marked with tawny red; outermost upper tail coverts white; innermost tail 


382 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


feathers blackish brown, outer ones successively lighter, paling to light drab; 
outer surface of closed wing dull brown, some of the coverts with pale margins; 
tips of greater coverts and outer margins of inner secondaries, white, forming 
a transverse white band on spread wing; flight feathers chiefly blackish brown, 
with shafts whitish or partially so; innermost secondaries with much white at 
bases; margin of wing mottled with light brown and white; lining of wing 
and axillars, white; hindmost under coverts and under surface of flight 
feathers, dusky; throat, sides of neck, breast and sides, white, narrowly but 
sharply streaked with black; fore part of belly with a conspicuous squarish 
black area, some of the feathers narrowly tipped with white; rest of under 
surface white, with sparse black lines on flanks and lower tail coverts; feet 
‘‘plack’’? (Audubon, loc. cit.). Adults and immatures both semes, in fall, winter, 
and early spring: Whole upper surface dull brown, with narrow inconspicuous 
darker shaft streaks; hind neck somewhat lighter, central upper tail coverts 
and tail slightly darker; eyelids, and stripe to and behind eye, dull whitish; 
sides of head and neck, and whole chest, brownish drab, faintly streaked with 
dark brown; chin distinctly white; upper tail coverts, tail, and wing as in 
summer save that wing coverts of immatures are margined with pale buffy; 
under surface behind chest band, pure white. Males: Total length 8.12-9.25 
inches (206-235 mm.) (eleven specimens from California); folded wing 4.31- 
4,67 (109.4-118.8); bill along culmen 1.38-1.50 (35.0-38.0); tarsus 0.96-1.07 
(24.3-27.3) (ten specimens from California and Alaska). Females: Total 
length 8.62-9.25 (219-235) (eight specimens from California); folded wing 
4.57-4.85 (116.4-123.1); bill along culmen 1.48-1.68 (37.7-42.5); tarsus 1.05- 
1.13 (26.6-28.7) (ten specimens from California). Juvenile plumage: Similar 
to that of adults in summer, but tawny markings on back paler and less 
sharply contrasted, head and chest suffused with buffy and streaking less dis- 
tinct, and breast and belly marked with large irregular spots of blackish brown; 
no continuous black area across lower surface. Natal plumage: Forehead buffy 
white, with median black line; line from bill to eye dusky; top of head to 
level of eyes, mixed amber brown, black and white in fine pattern; side of 
head pervaded with buff; whole back amber brown, mixed with black in 
coarse pattern, with many white dots on tips of down-feathers; under surface 
white, with a distinct band of pale buff across fore neck. 

MarkKs FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderately small size (smaller than 
Killdeer), bill distinctly longer than head with slightly down-curved tip (fig. 
71), and white band across hinder part of wing. In spring and summer: reddish 
back, and black patch across belly; in fall and winter: brownish back, broad 
drab colored breast band, clear white chin and hinder lower surface. Usually 
moves about in compact flocks. 

VoIcE—Che-ezp-ezp-ezp-ezp, run together in a rather rasping cheep. 

Nest—On slightly elevated ground a short distance from water; a mere 
depression formed by flattening down the grasses on the surface of the ground. 

Eees—3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.36 to 1.56 by 0.93 to 1.06 
(in millimeters, 34.5 to 39.5 by 23.7 to 26.8), and averaging 1.44 by 1.02 (36.6 
by 25.8) (21 eggs from Alaska); ground-color clay, buffy or drab, with spots 
of yellowish brown and varying tints of lavender or pale gray; markings 
arranged with a spiral trend and usually most numerous about larger end of 
egg. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America and eastern Asia. Breeds on northern 
coast of Siberia west to mouth of Yenisei River, and in North America from 
Point Barrow to mouth of Yukon River and in Boothia and Melville peninsulas, 
and northern Ungava; winters on Pacifie coast from Washington south to 


RED-BACKED SANDPIPER 383 


southern Lower California; and on Atlantic coast from New Jersey (rarely 
Massachusetts) south to Louisiana and southern Texas, and in Asia from 
China and Japan south to the Malay Archipelago; rare in migration in interior 
of United States except near southern end of Lake Michigan (A. O. U. Check- 
list, 1910, p. 116). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common fall and spring migrant and winter 
visitant, coastwise; occurs sparingly inland. Appears most commonly in 
middle September, and remains in some numbers throughout the winter, 
departing for the north by late April or early May. Observed far inland only 
at Los Bafios, Merced County, December 9, 1911, to April 26, 1912 (specimens in 
Mus. Vert. Zool.), in the Sacramento Valley in winter (Belding, MS), and at 
Salton Sea, Imperial County (Dawson, 1916, p. 25). 


The Red-backed Sandpiper is more or less plentiful during the 
migrations along the seacoast, and remains in considerable numbers 
through the winter. It is thus one of the better known shore birds. 
In some parts of its range this species is known as the Black-bellied 
Sandpiper or Black-breasted Snipe, because of the conspicuous black 
band across the belly in the breeding plumage; while the dull appear- 
ance of the back in the fall and winter has given it the name locally 
of Lead-back. It is also called the Dunlin or American Dunlin, a 
name borrowed or derived from its European relative. 

This species is among the late fall arrivals along our coast, as it 
usually does not appear until about the middle of September. Grinnell 
and Bryant (MS), however, saw a flock of one hundred at Alvarado, 
Alameda County, July 28, 1913. In 1914, the species was not observed 
along the Alameda County shore until the last week in September 
(Storer, MS). Curiously enough, it seems to appear much later in 
the northern part of the state, as about San Francisco Bay, than 
farther south, this perhaps because the first migrants proceed along 
the outer seacoast. The earliest fall record for San Francisco Bay 
other than those just given, is October 15 (specimens in Mailliard 
coll. and Mus. Vert. Zool.). Bowles and Howell (1912, p. 9) state 
that the species first appeared at Santa Barbara in 1910 on September 
9, and Willett (1912a, p. 37) says that it is most abundant along the 
coast of southern California from September 15 to November 1. 
Inland it has been taken at Los Bajios, Merced County, December 9, 
1911 (specimen in Mus. Vert. Zool.), and individuals were seen there 
on several dates during the winter of 1911-12 (Beck, MS). Belding 
(MS) says that it occurs about ponds in the Sacramento Valley in 
winter. In the spring it is most abundant along the coast of southern 
California from April 10 to May 7, although a specimen was taken 
and several seen as late as May 19, 1906, at Nigger Slough, Los 
Angeles County (Willett, loc. cit.). At Santa Barbara it has been 
noted from March 10 to April 20, and on May 2 and 3 (Bowles and 
Howell, 1912, p. 7; Howell, MS). It was noted at Bay Farm Island, 


384 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Alameda County, April 30, 1914, by the authors; and Emerson (1904, 
p. 38) recorded birds of this species at Hayward, May 11, 1908. At 
Los Bajios, Merced County, it was present in the spring of 1912 up to 
April 26 (specimens in Mus. Vert. Zool.). It would seem as though 
the migrants which are seen along the southern coast in the fall and 
spring and in the interior at Los Bafios spend the winter but little 
farther south, in the vicinity of San Diego (Belding, MS), at Salton 
Sea, Imperial County (Dawson, 1916, p. 25), and on the coast of 
Lower California (Brewster, 1902a, p. 63). On the Pacific coast the 
species is not known to occur south of La Paz, Lower California, save 
in the case of a single straggler taken in Nicaragua (Cooke, 1910, 
p. 44). 

In the springtime the Red-backed Sandpiper is easy to distinguish, 
with its reddish back and conspicuous black belly ; but in the fall less 
conspicuous features must be de- 
pended upon: its long bill (fig. 71) 
which is decidedly longer than its 
head and curved slightly downward 
at the terminal third, its moder- 
ately small size (yet conspicuously 
fasues Sere pre ies hanger then ihe Least; Mfestern, is ng 

Baird sandpipers), and its plainly 
marked brown back entirely free 
from any scaled or prominently 
streaked appearance such as is possessed by so many species of shore 
birds. The incessant bobbing up and down of the members of a flock 
as they probe for food, and the resulting flashes of white and brown 
as the breasts and: backs appear alternately, are additional aids to 
recognition. 

The eall-note is a rasping cheep, or chee-ezp-ezp-czp-ezp, uttered 
almost as a single syllable. It is much hoarser than that of the Least 
Sandpiper, a species with which this one sometimes associates. 

The Red-backed Sandpiper is a typical beach bird, gleaning its 
provender by probing along the beaches and adjacent mud flats. In 
the East it is reported to be something of an upland bird, so that 
hunters class it with the Snipe rather than with the Sandpipers; but 
such does not seem to be the rule in California. When feeding the 
birds probe industriously, but not very long in any one spot. The bill 
is thrust perpendicularly into the mud; and often when they are 
feeding on a flat which is partly under water the whole head may be 
immersed for a second or two. Flocks spread out immediately upon 
alighting and each individual pursues a separate course. This, com- 
bined with their rapidity of action, results in the peculiar bobbing 
appearance referred to above. 


Note down-curved tip and rela- 
tively thick base. 


RED-BACKED SANDPIPER 385 


Ordinarily this species is rather tame and will allow close approach, 
but if flocks are shot at even a few times they become wary. When 
frightened, or when taking wing in changing to a new location, the 
birds bunch together into a compact flock and fly rapidly, sometimes 
in a direct line at low elevation, sometimes erratically, up and down 
and zigzag. In the latter instance they partake somewhat of the 
nature of Snipe. As many as 500 have, by estimate, been noted in a 
single flock. The close-flocking habit of this and most other shore birds 
is probably of advantage to them in detecting and escaping from 
enemies under primitive conditions; but the modern hunter with his 
scatter-gun is able to make large ‘‘pot-shots,’’ and there are records 
of over fifty Red-backs being killed by the discharge of the two barrels 
of one double-barreled gun into a single flock (Forbush, 1912, p. 283). 

The breeding area of the Red-backed Sandpipers visiting Cali- 
fornia lies probably along the western coast of Alaska, where the 
species is known to summer in abundance. The species thus presents 
an interesting peculiarity as regards its breeding range. There are 
two distinct areas, corresponding with the divided winter distribution. 
One is along the coast of Alaska from the mouth of the Yukon to 
Point Barrow and along the Arctic coast of Siberia, where our Cali- 
fornian birds are thought to nest. The birds found along the eastern 
coast of North America probably breed in northern Ungava and in 
the region of Melville Island. Between Melville Island and Point 
Barrow the species is exceedingly scarce or altogether absent. 

The nesting season in Alaska extends through the month of June, 
eggs having been taken at the mouth of the Yukon as early as the 
6th of that month (Cooke, 1910, p. 44), and as late as the 38rd of July 
(Nelson, 1887, p. 110), while fresh eggs have been taken near Cape 
Prince of Wales on June 27 and 28 (Grinnell, 1900, p. 24). 

The nest is usually located on a slight elevation of the tundra, 
although as a rule not far from water. It consists of a depression in 
the top of a grassy or mossy hummock, lined with a few grass blades; 
in some eases the surrounding vegetation practically hides the nest. 

The eggs number three or four, are notably pear-shaped, and 
measure in inches, 1.36 to 1.60 by 0.93 to 1.10, and average 1.46 by 1.01 
(21 eggs from Alaska). The ground color is pale olive, buffy, or drab, 
with light and dark yellowish brown, superficial spots and a few 
lavender or pale gray deep-lying ones. The spots are usually 
elongated, measuring on the average, perhaps 0.06 by 0.12 inches, 
and have a distinctly spiral trend, especially about the larger end. 
Here they are often so numerous as to form a dark cap. These eggs, 
by their combination of pale olive ground color with light brown 
spirally placed markings, together with their size, can readily be dis- 
tinguished from those of any other species of shore bird occurring in 
western America. 


386 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


When the birds reach their breeding grounds in the north some 
are already paired, but the great majority do not pair until soon after 
they arrive. The males pursue the females with a quivering flight 
and often hover over them at a height of 15 or 20 yards, uttering a 
mellow tinkling song resembling the dropping of water into a partly 
filled pail. After the eggs are laid this song is no longer heard; the 
males then assist the females in the duties of incubation, and appar- 
ently spend a good share of their time on the nest (Murdoch, 1885, p. 
118; Nelson, 1887, p. 111). 

The young, which are hatched some time around the first of July 
(specimens were taken on July 6 in one case [Cooke, 1910, p. 44]), 
are on the wing and flocking along the shore by the first of August. 
From this time until about the last of September the young birds 
wear the juvenile plumage, but by the first of October the winter 
plumage, which is similar to that of the adults at the same season, has 
been assumed. Some of the birds have left before this time, as they 
appear along our southern coasts by the middle of September ; but the 
rest linger in the north until about the first of October when a cold 
snap usually drives all but a few of the most hardy individuals south- 
ward (Nelson, 1887, pp. 110-111). 

Emerson (1904, p. 38) found birds of this species dead on the 
marshes near Hayward, Alameda County, where they had been killed 
by flying against telegraph wires strung across the marsh, thus meeting 
a fate common to many of the smaller species of shore birds in that 
vicinity. 

Red-backed Sandpipers feed on the various forms of animal life 
found along the seashore. Oyster-worms (Nereis) and water beetles 
have been found in their stomachs (McAtee, 191la), as well as 
crustacea and small shellfish. The destruction of the two former 
kinds of animals is a distinct benefit, and in return for this the birds 
should, perhaps, receive some consideration. They are barely large 
enough to be classed as legitimate game. If so considered, the bag- 
limit should be carefully regulated so as to prevent the wholesale 
slaughter to which the habits of the species subject it. In the fall 
they are fat and considered excellent eating. As with all other species, 
spring shooting of these Sandpipers should never be countenanced. 


Western Sandpiper 


Ercunetes mauri Cabanis 


OTHER NAMES—Peeps, part; Pigmies, part; Pups; Kreunetes occidentalis; 
Ereunetes pusillus occidentalis; Ereunetes pusillus; Ereunetes petrificatus; Tringa 
semipalmata. 

Description—Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Feathers of 
top of head, hind neck, and back, black centered, conspicuously margined with 


WESTERN SANDPIPER 387 


tawny, the latter color often predominating, and all faintly tipped with whitish 
or pale drab; spot or stripe on each side of forehead, and one behind eye, 
white, usually flecked with dark brown; stripe from side of upper mandible 
running below eye to ear region, reddish brown; lower side of head and neck, white, 
flecked with dark brown, most sparingly on chin; iris ‘‘brown’’; bill ‘‘ black’? 
(Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 391); rump dull dark brown, many 
of the feathers lighter at tips; inner upper tail coverts blackish brown, the 
shorter ones sometimes tipped with tawny; outermost upper tail coverts white, 
sometimes marked with brown; inner webs of innermost pair of tail feathers 
blackish brown, outer webs of these, and rest of tail feathers, drab; outer 
surface of closed wing dull brown, all of the coverts with blackish shaft streaks, 
and usually with lighter margins; greater coverts tipped with white, forming 
a white bar across wing when expanded; primaries blackish, shaft of outermost 
one white, others brown toward base becoming white at tip; bend of wing scaled 
with white and light brown; axillars and lining of wing, white; under surface 
of flight feathers, dusky; lower surface chiefly white; throat, chest, sides, and, 
to a less extent, flanks and outer lower tail coverts, sharply streaked with dark 
brown, these markings largest on chest and sides, where they are somewhat tri- 
angular; feet and legs ‘‘black’’ (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, loc. cit.). Adults 
and immatures, both seres, in fall, winter and early spring: Whole upper surface 
ashy brown with blackish shaft streaks and, in fresh plumage, narrow whitish 
feather tippings giving a faintly scaled effect; spot in front of eye whitish, 
often continuing over eye; stripe from side of bill, running below eye and 
broadening on ear region, brownish; chin white; rump, tail and wing as in 
summer; band of narrow brown shaft streaks across upper breast; rest of 
under surface white. Males: Total length 5.78-6.92 inches (147-176 mm.) (ten 
specimens from California); folded wing 3.52-3.79 (89.4-96.3); bill along 
eulmen 0.83-0.93 (21.2-23.5); tarsus 0.82-0.93 (20.8-23.5) (ten specimens from 
California and Alaska). Females: Total length 6.00-7.00 (152-178) (ten speci- 
mens from California); folded wing 3.67-3.89 (93.4-98.7); bill along culmen 
0.88-1.16 (22.5-29.4); tarsus 0.85-0.98 (21.6-25.0) (ten specimens from Cali- 
fornia and Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Resembles that of adults in summer 
save that colors on upper surface are duller and feathers of back are broadly 
margined with deep tawny, the wing coverts are tipped with buffy, and the 
breast is merely washed with buffy, not streaked except faintly at sides. 
Natal plumage: Crown chestnut; rest of upper surface mixed black and rusty, 
speckled with white; forehead pale buffy; black line on center of forehead and 
two black lines between bill and eye; breast buffy; throat and rest of lower 
surface, white. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Small size (next to the Least Sandpiper, 
which is the smallest of our shore birds), bill slightly longer than head (fig. 68), 
and breast band without buffy ground color. Distinguished from Least Sand- 
piper only with difficulty by its longer bill. In hand can be separated from 
that species much more easily by presence (in the Western Sandpiper) of webs 
between bases of front toes (fig. 70). 

Voice—A soft weet-weet, or to-wheet; in summer: a series of soft trills. 

Nest—On drier parts of tundra, often on a slight rise or hummock, but 
usually in near vicinity of water; a thin layer of grasses or willow leaves, 
loosely arranged, or more often merely the trampled down or matted vegeta- 
tion at nest site. 

Eces—Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches from 1.11 by 0.82 to 1.30 
by 0.92 (in millimeters from 28.2 by 20.8 to 33.0 by 23.4); ground tint pale 


388 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


clay color, in many instances (especially on larger eggs), almost concealed by 
fine superficial spots and streaks of light reddish brown; other specimens 
have the spots in larger masses and ground color more apparent (Nelson, 1887, 
p. 114). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America and northern South America. Breeds 
on Alaskan coast from mouth of Yukon River to a little north of Cape Prince 
of Wales. Winters on Atlantic coast from North Carolina to Florida and on 
Pacific coast from southern California to southern Mexico and Venezuela, and 
probably in Lesser Antilles. In migration occurs along Atlantic coast north 
to Massachusetts, and in the West Indies, but is extremely rare in central 
United States. Abundant along Pacific coast and to some extent inland 
(A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 117; Cooke, 1910, p. 47). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CaLIForNIA—Abundant spring and fall migrant both coast- 
wise and in the interior; also sparing winter visitant from San Francisco 
southward, but more numerous in southern part of the state. Fall migration 
begins in late July and lasts through October. Spring migration occurs from 
early April until first of June, the species being most abundant from about 
April 10 until middle or last of May. Non-breeding individuals may remain 
within the state throughout the summer months. 


The Western Sandpiper, a close relative of the Semipalmated 
Sandpiper of eastern North America, is an abundant species along our 
coast and in the interior during the fall and spring migrations, and 
is present also during the winter, but then only in limited numbers. 
This species is one of a number among the shore birds in which cer- 
tain apparently barren individuals fail to follow the northbound 
migrants in the spring and are thus to be found within the state 
throughout the summer season. 

The first undoubted migrants from the north appear along our 
coast during the latter part of July or first week in August. Two 
adult females in worn breeding plumage were taken at Markham’s, 
Sonoma County, July 13, 1895 (Mailliard coll.). Emerson (in Beld- 
ing, MS) records the species at Hayward, as ‘‘common at once”’ 
August 2, 1895, and one was taken in ‘‘Alameda County,’’ August 
10, 1897 (Mailliard coll.). From this time on, the species becomes 
increasingly abundant and is found within the state in large numbers 
during August, September and October. The numbers decrease dur- 
ing November, and during the period from December to February 
there are only a few records of occurrence; but these are sufficient 
to indicate that stragglers remain in winter at least as far north as 
San Francisco, and that the species winters in fair numbers in the 
southern portion of the state. Some of these records are as follows: 
San Francisco Bay, December 29, 1897 (four specimens in Mailliard 
coll.); Monterey, December 13, 1910 (Mus. Vert. Zool.); Santa 
Barbara, up to December 5, 1909 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 9), 
and winter of 1885 (Streator, 1886, p. 89) ; Alamitos Bay, Los Angeles 
County, December 2 to 26, 1905 (specimens in Richardson coll.) ; 


WESTERN SANDPIPER 389 


Newport Sloughs, Orange County, December, 1884 (Belding, MS) ; 
San Diego Bay, November, 1906, to January, 1907 (Willett, 1912a, 
p. 87) ; San Clemente Island, December, 1908 (Linton, 1909, p. 194) ; 
and Salton Sea, December 10, 1910, to January 14, 1911, quite com- 
mon (Van Rossem, 1911, p. 131). The northward migration begins 
as early as February or March, as birds appeared at Santa Barbara, 
February 28, 1910 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 9), and at Moss, 
Monterey County, March 23, 1911 (Mus. Vert. Zool.). At Los Bajios, 
Merced County, Beck (MS) saw the first in 1912 on April 10. The 
general migration through the state is at its height from about the first 
of April until the middle or latter part of May. Several birds were 
seen about Owens Lake, Inyo County, June 1, 1891, in company with 
Snowy Plover (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 23). There are several July 
records for the state which probably pertain to barren birds. 

The Western Sandpiper is next to the smallest of our shore birds, 
being but slightly larger than the Least Sandpiper. From the great 
majority of our waders it is to be distinguished at once on the basis 
of size. From the Least Sandpiper it can be told at a distance only 
with difficulty by its longer bill (compare figs. 67 and 68) ; but in the 
hand, it is unmistakably recognizable by the presence of rather exten- 
sive webbing ‘between the bases of the front toes (fig. 70). In habits 
these two species resemble one another closely. 

The Western Sandpiper occurs most commonly, if not almost 
exclusively, in flocks, this being doubtless, as with many other shore 
birds, for the common protection thereby afforded. They feed with 
impartiality on open seashores, tide flats, boggy inland meadows, and 
the margins of rain-pools, usually keeping in the open. In feeding, 
the parties scatter out in open formation, but congregate promptly 
into massed bodies when frightened, and take flight in close flocks. 

These birds begin to arrive on their breeding grounds in the 
Norton Sound region of Alaska about the middle of May. The nest- 
ing season extends from the latter part of May until the end of June. 
Nelson (1887, p. 113) states that eggs were found by the first of 
June or earlier, and young were found in one case on June 7, while 
Grinnell (1900, p. 25) at Cape Prince of Wales north of Bering 
Strait, Alaska, found fresh eggs June 28, 1898. 

The nests are usually placed on the drier parts of the tundra, gen- 
erally on a mossy hummock or slight swell, although Grinnell (loc. 
cit.) found a nest on a hummock in marshy ground. Sometimes the 
nest is a thin layer of grass stems or willow leaves loosely arranged, 
but more often it consists merely of a mat of crushed-down and 
flattened vegetation such as is to be found at the spot chosen. The 

‘eggs, usually four, are pear-shaped, and measure in inches from 1.11 
by 0.82 to 1.30 by 0.92. ‘‘The ground is ordinarily pale clay color, 


390 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


shading toward pale brownish clay. In many instances, usually 
among the larger eggs, the ground color is nearly or quite concealed 
by fine, light reddish brown spots or specks. The other extreme has 
the spots gathered mainly about the larger end in large irregular spots 
and blotches, and the intermediate ones have the shell about half 
hidden by markings of chocolate and umber-brown in small spots, a 
little more dense at the large end. In some eggs the spots are rich 
chocolate and the light or slightly reddish-brown cast in the markings 
even of the darkest colored eggs usually serves to readily separate 
these eggs from . . .’’ those of any other western shore bird (Nelson, 
1887, p. 114). 

While the birds are yet scattered over the tundra, before the actual 
work of nesting is begun, they are wont to utter a series of low twitter- 
ing notes. The male runs back and forth in front of the female trail- 
ing his wings and elevating and partly spreading his tail. At other 
times he flies up ten or fifteen yards above the ground, hovers with 
rapidly beating wings, and pours forth a trilling song. These notes 
may be represented by the syllables tzr-e-e-e, zr-e-c-e, zr-e-e-e, with a 
high pitched tone and a fresh impetus at each ‘‘z.’’ Then the male 
arches his wings above his back in the form of a V and glides slowly 
to earth uttering a deeper more throaty tzur-r-r-r, tzur-r-r-r. The 
birds also utter a variety of low twitterings when feeding or when the 
male and female of a pair are together. Females when approached 
sometimes give a low cheep. The song period ends as soon as the eggs 
are laid, or shortly after. Different females vary in their actions when 
their nests are approached. Some move away, apparently with per- 
fect indifference, while others use the broken-wing ruse and other 
devices to distract the attention of the intruder (Nelson, 1887, pp. 
113-114). 

We have at present no definite information concerning the food of 
the Western Sandpiper, but it probably does not differ markedly from 
that of other species of similar habits, such as the Least Sandpiper. 
Baird, Brewer and Ridgway (1884, I, pp. 208, 209) state that, when 
inland (this species or the Semipalmated?) and feeding on fresh 
water worms and insects, the birds become very fat and afford excellent 
eating. Cooper is reported as saying that this species is ‘‘much hunted 
for the San Francisco market.’’ 

If the time ever existed when it was necessary to hunt these 
‘*Peeps’’ as food to be sold in the San Francisco or any other market, 
it has passed ; and it is to be hoped that we shall never be reduced to 
the necessity of preying upon such diminutive creatures as these for 
food. They should be kept permanently off the list of game species in 
California as well as elsewhere. 


SANDERLING 391 


Sanderling 


Calidris leucophaca (Pallas) 


OTHER NAMES—Beach Bird; Ruddy Plover; Surf Snipe; Sanderling Sand- 
piper; Calidris arenaria; Tringa arenaria. 

DEsScRIPTION—Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Top of head, 
hind neck, back, scapulars, some wing coverts, and tertials, black, with broad 
feather-marginings of bright cinnamon brown, and more or less extensive 
white tippings; head and neck otherwise cinnamon, flecked sharply with black; 
ear region lighter due to minute white feather tippings; bill black; iris 
“‘brown’’ (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 289); rump and middle upper tail coverts 
black, with feather-margins of pale cinnamon; outer upper tail coverts white; 
innermost pair of tail feathers longer than rest, their inner webs blackish 
and outer webs blackish brown, marked irregularly with pale cinnamon; rest 
of tail feathers grading from brown to very pale drab on outermost ones, and 
all narrowly margined with white; shafts of innermost ones brown, of the 
others, white; outer surface of closed wing: most of coverts like back, others 
(left-over winter feathers) dull brown with blackish shafts; greater coverts 
broadly tipped with white; primaries and their coverts blackish brown, paler 
on inner webs, shafts chiefly white; secondaries chiefly white; margin of wing 
sealed with pale brown and white; lining of wing and axillars, white; under 
surface of flight feathers pale drab; chest and sides like lower surface of head, 
bright cinnamon, marked sharply with blackish, these markings narrowest near 
mid-line; rest of under surface white; feet black; toes only three, no hind toe 
being present. Adults and immatures, both sexes, in late fall, winter and early 
spring: Whole face region pure white; narrow area around eye flecked with 
brownish; top of head, hind neck, back and scapulars, pale smoky gray, with 
dark brown shafts and narrow feather-tippings of ashy or whitish; rump and 
central upper tail coverts like back, but darker, more brownish in tone; outer 
upper tail coverts, white; tail, outer surface of closed wing and flight feathers, 
as in summer, but lacking any cinnamon; under surface entirely silky white. 
Males: Total length 7.40-8.62 inches (188-219 mm.) (ten specimens); folded 
wing 4.50-4.77 (114.2-121.0); bill along culmen 0.88-1.06 (22.3-26.8); tarsus 
0.94-1.04 (23.8-26.3) (ten specimens). Females: Total length 7.73-8.60 (196-— 
218) (ten specimens); folded wing 4.62~-5.10 (117.8-129.3); bill along culmen 
0.91-1.09 (23.0-27.6); tarsus 0.99-1.06 (25.1-27.0) (ten specimens); all from 
California. Juvenile plumage: Crown, back and tertials, chiefly black, but with 
feather-edgings of white and pale clay color, giving a spotted effect; forehead, 
sides of head, hind neck, and sides of chest, buffy white, finely mottled with 
dusky or brownish; indistinct streak from base of bill to and beneath eye, 
dusky; feathers of rump and central upper tail coverts, brownish black with 
broad edgings of cream and narrow blackish tips; outer upper tail coverts and 
tail as in winter; wing as in winter adults, but coverts coarsely edged with 
pale clay color; under surface white, faintly tinged with buff across breast. 
Natal plumage: Not known to us. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderately small size (close to that of 
Red-backed Sandpiper), conspicuous white bar across wing contrasting strongly 
with blackish primaries; in late spring and summer: mixed black and cinnamon 
back, and chiefly bright cinnamon throat, neck and breast; in winter: extremely 
pale tone of coloration, glistening white under surface, and pale grayish back; 
in the hand, lack of hind toe and sandpiper-like bill. Frequents sandy sea- 


392 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


beaches, feeding most commonly in dense flocks at edge of water, advancing 
and retreating with each wave. 

Vorce—‘‘, .. A shrill but not unpleasant wiek’’ (Dresser, 1903, p. 779); a 
short chit, a rasping note, a peeping note, or sometimes a sharp grasshopper- 
like sound (Forbush, 1912, p. 290). 

Nest—Either in marshes or on high open ground; a mere depression lined 
with leaves of the Arctic willow, or with catkins and grasses (Feilden, 1877, 
p. 406; and other authors). 

Eces—Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.30 to 1.50 by 0.95 
to 1.03 (in millimeters, 33.1 to 38.2 by 24.2 to 26.1), and averaging about 1.41 
by 0. 98 (35.9 by 24.9); ground color brownish olive or pale yellowish white, 
green-tinged, and marked sparsely with faint blotches and spots of varying 
shades of brown, most numerous at larger end; also deeper markings of light 
violet-gray (Dresser, 1904, pp. 230-231; and others). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Almost world-wide. Breeds along the Arctic coast 
of both North America and Eurasia, in the former hemisphere south as far as 
latitude 55°N., on shores of Hudson Bay, but chiefly along Arctic coast and 
islands farther north, including Melville Island and Grinnell Land; also on 
both coasts of Greenland. Winters from central Argentina and central Chile 
north regularly on Atlantic coast to North Carolina and on Pacific coast to 
central California, and casually to Massachusetts and Washington. In Old 
‘World, winters from Japan and the Mediterranean south to southern Africa, 
Malay Archipelago and Oceania. Occurs in migration on the sea-coasts of the 
world, and locally on shores of inland bodies of water (Cooke, 1910, pp. 48-49). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common fall and spring migrant and winter 
visitant; recorded most commonly on beaches of southern California from 
Santa Barbara southeastward. Usually absent from June 1 to August 15. 
Earliest fall record: Santa Barbara, July 29, 1910 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, 
p. 9); latest spring record: near Santa Barbara, June 5, 1915 (Dawson, 1915, p. 
207). Recorded inland only at Salton Sea, April 20 and 30, 1909 (specimens 
in Mus. Vert. Zool.). 


The Sanderling, or Beach Bird as it has been appropriately called, 
is, in California, almost exclusively an inhabitant of sandy beaches, 
being rarely encountered amid any other surroundings. It is a 
breeding bird of the far north, and comes to us as a transient and 
winter visitant. It has been found along our coasts during every 
month in the year, although in summer nearly eight weeks elapse 
between the disappearance of the last northbound migrants and the 
arrival of the first fall birds. As barren or non-breeding individuals 
of this species are thought sometimes to remain over in southern lati- 
tudes, the period in which breeding birds are absent from the state 
may be still longer. On the coast of southern California the birds 
have been seen as early as July 29, 1910 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, 
p. 9) and as late as June 5, 1915 (Dawson, 1915, p. 207). Willett 
(1912a, p. 37) states that they are most common as migrants, in spring 
and fall. There is only one instance of occurrence of this species from 
other than a. seacoast locality. Frank Stephens found it at the south- 
east end of Salton Sea, April 20 and 30, 1909 (specimens in Mus. 
Vert. Zool.). 


SANDERLING 393 


The Sanderling is distinguished by its moderately small size, and 
conspicuous white bar across the wing contrasting strongly with the 
blackish primaries. In late spring and summer the mixed black and 
cinnamon back and the chiefly bright cinnamon throat, neck and 
breast, and in fall, winter and early spring the pure, even glistening, 
white under surface and pale grayish back, combined with the blackish 
primaries and white wing bar, are distinctive. Structurally, the 
sandpiper-like bill and absence of a hind toe, together with the pres- 
ence of square transverse scales on the front of the tarsus, serve to 
distinguish this species from all other shore birds. From the Least 
and Western sandpipers the Sanderling is distinguished by its larger 
size, and from these and the Red-backed and Baird sandpipers (which 
latter two are of about the same size as the Sanderling) by the pres- 
ence, in spring and summer plumage, of a cinnamon-colored breast ; 
in the fall by continuously pure white undersurface. All of the other 
species mentioned have a pronounced dull-colored band across the 
breast at least in the fall. 

The voice of the Sanderling is . a shrill but not unpleasant 
wiek’’ (Dresser, 1903, p. 779); or ‘‘a short chit (Hoffmann). A 
rasping note and a peeping note, sometimes also a sharp grasshopper- 
like sound. The flight song in spring is a quavering trill’’ (Forbush, 
1912, p. 290). Dresser (1904, p. 230) describes the flight song as a 
harsh trrr-trrr-trrr. 

Sanderlings are preéminently gregarious birds of the sandy sea- 
beach, and show marked preference there for the edge of the surf. 
They run swiftly back and forth, advancing and retreating before the 
waves in order to secure the crustaceans and marine worms which 
happen to be uncovered by the wash of the water. If while so engaged 
a comber threatens to overwhelm them they take wing and rise above 
it, alighting again as soon as it subsides and continuing to forage. 
If frightened they flush quickly and form into a compact swift-mov- 
ing flock, which flies in steady course close over the surface of the 
water, with pleasing harmony of action. They perform none of the 
zigzag evolutions that characterize the flight of other sandpipers. 
Torrey (1913, pp. 25, 26) says that at Santa Barbara, he often saw 
Sanderlings hopping on one leg, a habit which he did not notice in 
any other species of shore bird. The Sanderlings seemed to progress 
as well on the one leg as on two. It has been suggested that this habit 
may be for the purpose of keeping the other foot warm, but why the 
Sanderling alone among shore birds should be put to the necessity of 
such a practice, it is difficult to conceive. After bathing, an operation 
carried on either in shallow surf or in tide-pools on the beach, Sander- 
lings have been seen to spring repeatedly into the air ‘‘to a height of 
six or eight inches, shaking themselves vigorously while so doing, 


oe 


394 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


evidently for the purpose of drying their feathers’’ (Torrey, 1913, 
p. 24). When wounded, or otherwise forced to the water for safety, 
Sanderlings are said to be able to swim quite well. 

Isolated individuals or small groups of this species, as in the 
case of many other small shore birds, have been seen (Torrey, 1913, 
pp. 27, 28) to band together with individuals or flocks of other small 
species. The Sanderling is sometimes found about larger inland 
bodies of water in the East, but as yet in California has been noted 
inland only at Salton Sea. The extensive collecting carried on by 
R. H. Beck at Los Bajios, Merced County, for the Museum of Verte- 
brate Zoology, failed to indicate the presence of this species at that 
paradise for water birds. 

The nesting season of the Sanderling extends from late June to 
the middle of July. A nest found by MacFarlane (1891, p. 427) 
June 29, 1863, on the Barren Grounds about ten miles west of Frank- 
lin Bay, Arctic America, consisted of a small depression in the 
ground lined with ‘‘withered hay and leaves’’ and contained four 
fresh eggs. Feilden (1877, p. 406) records a nest found by him in 
Grinnell Land, June 24, 1876, which was located on a gravel ridge 
several hundred feet above the sea. ‘‘... The [two] eggs were 
deposited in a slight depression in the centre of a recumbent plant of 
arctic willow, the lining of the nest consisting of a few withered 
leaves and some of the last year’s catkins.’’ The eggs are usually 
four in number, pear-shaped, and measure in inches 1.30 to 1.50 by 
0.95 to 1.08, averaging 1.41 by 0.98 (fifteen eggs from Arctic coast 
of Siberia) (Dresser, 1904, p. 230-231). The set of eggs taken by 
MacFarlane has been described as follows: ‘‘Their ground-color is 
a brownish olive, marked with faint spots and small blotches of bistre. 
These markings are very generally diffused, but are a httle more 
numerous about the larger end’’ (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 
1, p. 253). 

The nesting habits of the Sanderling have been reported in an 
interesting manner by Manniche (1910, pp. 1389-151) who observed 
the species in northeastern Greenland during the summer seasons of 
1907 and 1908. The bird arrives in this region about the first of 
June, and by the middle of the month pairing has commenced. In 
fine weather, especially toward evening, the male would mount to a 
height of about two yards above the surface of the ground, and, utter- 
ing a ‘‘snarling or slightly neighing sound,’’ fly a short distance or 
in small circles for several seconds. When excited he would fre- 
quently sit on the top of a large solitary boulder, with the feathers 
of his back blown out, his tail spread and his wings half let down. 
Soon, however, he would return to the female and try to pair with 
her. Sometimes the male goes through the pairing flight when there 
is no female in the vicinity. 


* 


SANDERLING 395 


The nests of the Sanderling are usually placed on the small 
‘islands’’ of stones and clay which are scattered over the tundras 
and moors. The nest itself is a small depression sparsely lined on 
the bottom with leaves of the arctic willow and other plants growing 
in the vicinity. Egg-laying begins about June 20, and extends at 
least until July 15. In eleven nests with eggs and fifty broods of 
downy young observed by Manniche the complement was always four. 
Until laying is completed the males accompany their mates, but when 
incubation commences they join in small flocks of their own kind or 
with other shore birds, and have usually left the country by mid-July. 

_ The female is exceedingly wary and will often fly to meet the 
intruder more than a hundred yards from the nest and then try 
various deceptions in order to toll him away. At night, or in very 
cold weather, or when the incubation of the eggs is approaching com- 
pletion, the female is more reluctant to leave, and her anxiety to 
return often results in discovery of the nest. Sometimes, if surprised 
on the nest, the female endeavors to escape detection by keeping per- 
fectly still. Incubation lasts for twenty-three or twenty-four days, 
and the egg shells are pipped as much as three days before the young 
finally emerge. When the chicks are finally out the female carries 
the remnants of the shells away from the nest. All the young emerge 
within a few hours of one another, and as soon as the down on all of 
them is sufficiently dry they quit the nest in company with the mother 
bird and sometimes go as much as six hundred yards away within a 
very short time. After the brood is out the female becomes even 
more solicitous for her charges, and she increases her efforts at dis- 
tracting the attention of any intruder when he approaches the vicinity 
of the brood. Now she will go two or three hundred yards to meet 
him and attempt to lead him off to one side. Meanwhile the brood 
lies flat on the ground, and the coloration of their backs is such as 
to make them very inconspicuous. When the old bird returns and 
utters a peculiar chirping sound the youngsters become active once 
more. The young are full grown and able to fly within twelve or four- 
teen days after they are hatched. Toward the end of July the females 
desert their broods and begin to migrate south, but the former linger 
and assemble into larger and larger flocks, then to follow their parents 
(Manniche, loc. cit.). 

The food of the Sanderling consists of marine worms, minute shell- 
fish, crustaceans of various sorts, and insects; and gravel has been 
found in some of the stomachs examined. In its summer home it is 
reported to feed upon the buds of the saxifrage (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 250). When the birds have become fattened in 
the fall they are said to be excellent eating. It is not known that 
they have been shot by sportsmen or market hunters to any extent in 


396 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


California. The relatively small numbers which occur along our 
coasts, and the extreme northern location of their breeding grounds, 
make any great future diminution in the number of Sanderlings 
visiting California improbable. 


Marbled Godwit 


Limosa fedoa (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Godwit; Great Marbled Godwit; American Bar-tailed God- 
wit; Straight-billed Curlew; Common Marlin; Red Marlin; Spike-bill. 

Descriprion—Adults, both sexes, at all seasons: Top of head and hind neck 
streaked with brownish black and pale buffy; stripe from upper mandible to 
above eye, dull white, flecked with blackish brown; area between base of bill 
and eye densely mottled with brown; sides of head and whole neck buffy white, 
narrowly streaked with brown; chin white; bill pale yellowish, reddish at 
base, brownish black at end; iris brown; feathers of back blackish brown, 
extensively marked with many irregular spots or incomplete bars of pale tawny 
or buffy white, the whole producing a marbled appearance; rump, upper tail 
coverts and tail, irregularly barred with brownish black on a cinnamon or 
buffy ground, the light color predominating; outer surface of closed wing 
chiefly cinnamon, with irregular markings and flecks of dull brown; primary 
coverts brownish black; primaries brownish black along outer webs, and 
cinnamon sprinkled with brownish black on inner webs; margin of wing scaled 
with cinnamon and brownish black; axillars and lining of wing, pale cinnamon, 
faintly marked with brownish black; quills of primaries whitish below, that 
of outermost one white above; under surface of body pale cinnamon, lightest 
in region of vent; throat narrowly streaked with blackish brown; breast, sides, 
flanks and lower tail coverts, marked across each feather with several narrow 
wavy bars of blackish brown; feet lead color or black. Males: Total length 
16.56-18.00 inches (423-457 mm.) (seven specimens); folded wing 8.46-8.85 
(215-225) ; bill along culmen 3.69-4.42 (93.7-112.2); tarsus 2.78-3.04 (70.7—-77.1) 
(seven specimens). Females: Total length 16.95-19.10 (430-485) (seven speci- 
mens); folded wing 8.75-9.56 (222-243); bill along culmen 4.85-5.03 (123.0- 
127.8); tarsus 2.87-3.07 (72.8-78.0) (three specimens); all adults and full 
grown immatures from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult, 
but markings above less sharply defined, and entiré lower surface cinnamon, 
becoming buffy on throat, sparingly streaked with dusky on lower neck, and 
faintly and narrowly barred with dull brown on flanks. Natal plumage: 
«¢. .. Pinkish buff in color, more pronounced on the sides and neck, paler 
ventrally, and almost white on the throat, chin, and sides of the head. The 
oceiput, cervix [=hind neck], back, rump and wings were heavily blotched 
with seal brown, or clouded with hair brown, the latter color shading off 
gradually into the buff on the sides.... A narrow loral stripe [between bill 
and eye] ...and a median crown stripe of seal brown, the latter rynning 
from the base of the bill to the occiput’’ (Bent, 1907a, p. 166). 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size (among the largest of our 
shore birds), long straight or slightly up-eurved bill, and reddish or cinnamon 
colored plumage; distinguished from Hudsonian Curlew by straight or slightly 
up-turned rather than down-curved bill, by distinctly reddish coloration, and 
by less clear call-notes; from Long-billed Curlew by smaller size and straightish 
bill. 


MARBLED GODWIT 397 


Voice—Terwhit’ terwhit’, or godwit’ godwit’; when disturbed, sounds more 
like kerweck’, kerwee-eck’, or even ker-kor’-koit (Bent, 1907a, pp. 164, 165). 

Nest—In grassy meadows or marshes usually in the vicinity of water; a 
depression formed by treading down the grass, without the use of any addi- 
tional material; measures about six by seven inches in diameter by two in 
depth (152 to 177 by 51 mm.) (Bent, 1907a, pp. 162-164). 

Eecs—3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 2.14 to 2.37 by 1.50 to 1.61 
(in millimeters, 54.3 to 60.2 by 38.1 to 40.8), and averaging 2.26 by 1.56 (57.4 
by 39.6) (eleven eggs, three sets, from southwestern Saskatchewan); ground- 
eolor of varying tones of buff, with superficial spots of deep brown and under- 
lying ones of drab or lilac (Bent, loc. cit.). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North America. Breeds chiefly from northern North 
Dakota to the valley of the Saskatchewan, formerly south to northern Nebraska, 
northern Jowa, and Wisconsin. Winters from Georgia, Florida, Louisiana and 
southern California south to Guatemala and central British Honduras. Formerly 
occurred in migration on Atlantic coast north to maritime provinces of Canada, 
but now rare or unknown north of Florida. On Pacific coast oceurs in migra- 
tion from Alaska to Lower California (Cooke, 1910, pp. 50-51). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common fall and spring migrant along the sea- 
coast, and about the larger bodies of water in the Sacramento-San Joaquin 
Valley; less abundant now than formerly. In fall and early winter occurs 
from late July to December (Willett, 1912a, p. 37), and in the spring from 
late March to the last of April. A few have been found up to December, even 
as far north as Humboldt Bay (Cooke, 1910, p. 51), and stragglers have been 
observed in June, as at Santa Barbara (Torrey, 1910b, p. 204; Dawson, 1915, 
p. 207). 


The Marbled Godwit, Marlin, or Straight-billed Curlew, is a rather 
common fall and spring migrant along the coast of California and also 
occurs sparingly in the interior. While in more northern latitudes 
during the breeding season the species is found on meadow land, it 
here seems to prefer the seacoast and, interiorly, the vicinity of large 
bodies of water. 

Marbled Godwits appear on our coast early in July and remain 
until December, but the birds are present in numbers chiefly during 
September and October. The earliest record of arrivals from the 
north is for Hyperion Beach, Los Angeles County, July 18, 1910 
(Willett coll.). The latest fall or early winter records known to the 
authors are: Humboldt Bay, December 7, 1885 (Cooke, 1910, p. 51), 
Los Bafios, Merced County, December 4, 1911 (Beck, MS), and San 
Diego Bay, December 12, 1861 (Mus. Vert. Zool.). Judging from 
the paucity of records and from the accounts of various observers 
this species is not so abundant in the spring migration as in the fall. 
Nordhoff (1902, p. 214) records finding the remains of a bird of this 
species at Lake Elsinore, Riverside County, in February, 1902. The 
earliest bona fide spring record is for Los Bafios, Merced County, 
March 30, 1912 (Beck, MS), and a late spring one is Alamitos Bay, 
Los Angeles County, May 20, 1905 (specimen in Richardson coll.). 


398 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


A bird taken at Los Angeles, June 16, 1875 (Henshaw, 1876, p. 272) 
is stated to have been a female in worn breeding plumage, and since 
Cooke (1910, p. 51) records eggs taken as early as April 20, it is not 
altogether impossible that this was an early southbound migrant. 
Birds which are probably non-breeders sometimes summer along our 
coast; records probably of this nature have been made for Santa 
Barbara, June 4, 1910 (Torrey, 1910b, p. 204) and June 15, 1911 
(Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 9). 

From most of the shore birds the Marbled Godwit can be dis- 
tinguished by its large size and brownish red or cinnamon coloration ; 
from the Hudsonian Curlew by its slightly larger size, straight or 
slightly up-curved bill, and reddish rather than brownish coloration; 
and from the Long-billed Curlew by its decidedly smaller size and 
much shorter and straight or slightly up-curved bill. The call note 
is also distinctive, differing markedly from any of the notes of the 
Curlews, the latter being much louder and clearer. In mixed flocks 
the female Godwits can sometimes be distinguished from the males by 
their larger average size. 

The ordinary ecall-note of the Godwit, heard while the bird is in 
California, is a single, or repeated, loud squawking ku-uck, scarcely 
separated into two syllables; but on the breeding grounds there is a 
more varied repertoire of notes. Bent (1907a, pp. 164-165) says: 


Its ordinary call-note, when only slightly disturbed, sounds like terwhit, 
terwhit, terwhit, or pert-wurrit, pert-wurrit, or godwit, godwit, godwit, from which 
its name is probably derived; these notes are all strongly accented on the last 
syllable, and are uttered almost constantly while the birds are flying over 
their breeding grounds. When considerably alarmed these notes are intensified, 
more rapidly given, and with even more emphasis, kerweck, kerwee-eck, or 
keerreck, kreck, kreck, kerreck; sometimes they are prolonged into a loud, long- 
drawn out scream quack, qua-a-ack, or quoick, quoi-i-ick, somewhat between the 
loudest quacking of an excited duck and the scream of a Red-shouldered Hawk. 
There is also «4 more musical, whistling note, less often heard, sounding like 
the syllables kor-koit, ker-kor-koit, korkoit, the accent being on the kor in each 
case; this note seems to indicate a more satisfied frame of mind and is much 
more subdued in tone. 


“ 


Within our borders Marbled Godwits are birds of the open shore, 
and are rarely if ever found away from the larger bodies of water. 
At all times they are exceedingly wary and difficult of approach. 
They frequently associate with other species such as the Western 
Willet and Long-billed Curlew, the feeding habits of these three species 
being similar. Torrey (1913, pp. 45-46) records seeing Marbled God- 
wits and Western Willets in large numbers ‘‘in winter’’ on San 
Diego Bay. He says: 

...I have seen godwits and willets together lining the grassy edge of 
the flats for a long distance, and so densely massed that I mistook them at 


MARBLED GODWIT 399 


first for a border of some kind of herbage. Thousands there must have been; 
and when they rose at my approach, they made something like a cloud; gray 
birds and brown birds so contrasted in color as to be discriminated beyond 
risk of error, even when too far away for the staring white wing-patches of 
the willets to be longer discernible. 

As a flock there was no getting near them; I proved the fact to my dis- 
satisfaction more than once; but sitting quietly on the same bay shore I have 
repeatedly known a single godwit or willet to feed carelessly past me within 
the distance of a rod or two. 


Usually taking the precaution to forage at some distance from 
human beings and their habitations the Godwits probe in the mud 
exposed by a receding tide. Often they will thus probe in the mud 
when it is still covered by a few inches of water, their long bills 
and legs making this easily possible. If frightened they take wing and 
fly with rather slow and short wing beats, the long bill, neck and legs 
giving the body an extremely attenuated appearance, and thus dis- 
tinguishing the Godwit from the Curlews both of which appear 
ehunkier. In flight, as when feeding, they are often seen in the com- 
pany of other large shore birds such as the Willet and Curlews, and 
are at times accompanied by such smaller species as the Long-billed 
Dowitcher. Beck (MS) mentions seeing a Godwit at Los Bafios in 
company with some Black-necked Stilts. 

Mrs. Bailey (19166, pp. 101-102) says of the Marbled Godwits 
seen on the beaches of southern California: 


It was amusing to watch the birds feed. As a wave rolled up, combed. 
over and broke, the white foam would chase them in, and .. if it came on 
too fast, they would pick themselves up,...and scoot in.... But the 
instant the water began to recede they would right about face and trot back 
with it.... As they went their long bills—in the low afternoon sun strikingly 
coral red except for the black tip—were shoved ahead of them, feeling along 
through the wet sand . . .; and if anything good was discovered deeper [they] 

. would stop to really probe, sometimes plunging the bill in up to the 
hilt, on rare occasions when the tidbit proved out of reach, actually crowding 
their heads down into the sand.... 

One of the long-legged birds would sometimes stop its work and lift up a 
foot to scratch its ear, and one that I saw feeding on the edge of a wave 
suddenly dropped and went through the motions of sousing itself. ... While 
the Godwits were hunting absorbedly, sometimes the white foam of the next 
wave would flow in over their feet and encircle them, and at other times they 
would wait until the spray of a breaker was almost on them and have to 
scurry for it with open wings. When the tide was so low that the waves broke 
far out on the gently sloping shore, the birds hunted in a more leisurely 
manner. They often brought up round balls, presumably small crabs or 
crustaceans, so, big that they had to gulp them down, and when tempting 
morsels were seen in their bills neighborly Gulls often gave chase... . 

When the big brown birds flew they suggested round-shouldered Ibises 
except that their bills were not curved. In flight they often made a close 
flock calling, queep, queep, queep, queep, queep.... They soared down hand- 


400 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


somely ... and as they alighted held their wings straight over their backs 
for a moment, the black shoulder straps showing in strong contrast to the 
warm cinnamon [of the wing which makes such a good recognition mark]. 


The nesting season of the Marbled Godwit begins earlier than 
with most shore birds. This is in part probably due to the relatively 
low latitudes of its breeding range. Eggs have been taken as early 
as April 20, 1878, in Iowa, and young by June 8, 1820, in Nebraska 
(Cooke, 1910, p. 51); while Bent (1907a, pp. 162-166), in south- 
western Saskatchewan, found nests on May 29, 1905, and downy 
young, thought to have been not over a week old, on June 27, 1906. 
The nesting season thus extends at least from the middle of April or 
early May to the latter part of June. 

The region chosen by the Godwits for nesting is one of rolling 
or level prairie covered with short dense grasses and liberally supplied 
with small lakes and streams. Here the birds make their nests in the 
open, without any attempt at concealment, usually in the near vicinity 
of water. The nest is formed by treading down the grasses on the 
selected site, and little or no material is carried in from the outside. 
A typical nest measures six by seven inches in surface area and about 
two inches in depth. The eggs have a ground color of deep or pale 
olive, or creamy buff, and are either sparingly marked about the 
larger end with superficial spots and small blotches of pale drab or 
dark browns and deeper markings of lilac, or else they are heavily 
spotted with dark brown and lilac gray (Bent, 1907a, pp. 162-164). 

While on the nest the demeanor of the birds is m marked contrast 
to their behavior at other times of the year. They sometimes appear 
to be quite indifferent to human approach, and one bird studied by 
Mr. Bent actually allowed him to raise her from the nest in order 
that he might photograph the eggs. When off the nest their behavior 
is less peculiar. 

Like all of the shore birds, the Marbled Godwit is exceedingly demonstra- 
tive on its breeding grounds, flying out to meet the intruder as soon as he 
appears, making fully as much fuss at a distance from its nest as near it, and 
giving no clue to its exact location. The cries of one pair of birds often attract 
others, and I have seen as many as eighteen birds flying about at one time in 


an especially favorable locality. It shows no signs of fear at such times, often 
alighting on the ground within ten or fifteen yards [of the observer], standing 


for an instant with its beautifully marbled wings poised above it.... Even 
while feeding on the shores of the lakes we could frequently walk up to 
within « few yards of them ... (Bent, 1907a, p. 165). 


The downy young Godwits are adepts in the art of hiding in the 
scantiest kind of cover, and by reason of their streaked and mottled 
coloration it is extremely difficult to find them. They develop rapidly 
and soon gather into companies. The flocks of adults form as early 
as June 27, and shortly afterwards begin to depart southward, even 


GREATER YELLOW-LEGS 401 


while some of the young birds on the breeding ground are not yet 
fully fledged (Bent, 1907a, pp. 166-167). 

The food of the Marbled Godwit consists of crustacea, insects and 
their larvae, worms (Goss, 1891, p. 187), leeches (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 256), and snails (Beck, MS). Belding states 
(MS) ‘‘I find its flesh ... excellent food, much preferable to the 
Curlews.’’ Other authors agree that the flesh of the Godwit is tender, 
juicy, and toothsome. The weight of a specimen was found by the 
authors to be one pound, so that the quantity of nourishment in a 
single bird is not inconsiderable. 

This species was formerly sold in the markets of San Francisco 
and Stockton. The limited numbers which occur here during migra- 
tion at the present time is probably due in part to market hunting in 
previous years, and in part to the appropriation by man, of its breed- 
ing range for agriculture. In Canada the Godwit appears now to be 
adequately protected, and with such protection as has been afforded 
by the close season established under the Federal Migratory Bird 
Law in the United States, there is ground for the hope that they 
may soon return toward former numbers. When the season is again 
opened, the species should be afforded adequate protection by a short 
season and small bag-limit in order to retain it among the game assets 
of California. : 


Greater Yellow-legs 


Totanus melanoleucus (Gmelin) 


OTHER NAMES—Tattler; Tell-tale; Tell-tale Tattler; Stone Snipe; Greater 
Yellow-shanks; Gambetta melanoleuca. 

Derscription—Adults, both sexes, in spring and summer: Top and sides of 
head and whole neck streaked with black and white, the black in excess above; 
a whitish stripe from upper mandible to above eye; eyelids white; chin white, 
narrowly flecked with black; bill slaty black, lower mandible slightly brownish 
at base; iris dark brown; back and scapulars mixed sooty and ashy brown 
with extensive ashy white feather spottings and tippings, giving a conspicu- 
ously mottled appearance; rump feathers dull dark brown, each crossed near 
end by a narrow blackish band and tipped with white; upper tail coverts 
white, most of them barred narrowly with dark brown; tail feathers white or 
ashy white, barred with brownish black; outer surface of closed wing like 
back; primaries brownish black; shaft of outer primary almost white; margin 
and lining of wing, and axillars, white, with irregular brown bars on the 
feathers; under surface of flight feathers, dusky, marked in fine pattern with 
a paler tint on inner margins; ground color of whole lower surface white; 
foreneck and breast streaked with black; lower breast, sides, flanks, and under 
tail coverts, with broad irregular bars of brown or brownish black; legs and 
feet straw yellow with a greenish tinge; nails black. Adults and immatures, 
both sexes, in fall and winter: Top and sides of head and whole neck, dully 
streaked with ashy brown and white; stripe from bill to above eye, and eyelids, 


402 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


white; chin white; whole back ashy brown with dark shafts and whitish feather 
tippings; rump, upper tail coverts and tail as in summer; outer surface of 
closed wing, ashy brown, the feathers having dark shafts and white marginal 
spots; under surface white, the throat and upper chest pale ashy, narrowly 
streaked with dull brown; wa few indistinct cross bars of ashy brown on flank 
feathers and outer under tail coverts. Males: Total length 13.65-14.60 inches 
(346-371 mm.) (four specimens from California and Georgia); folded wing 
6.97-7.64 (177-194); bill along culmen 2.00-2.21 (50.8-56.0); tarsus 2.19-2.58 
(55.7-65.5) (ten specimens from California). Females: Total length 13.25- 
14.50 (336-368) (four specimens from California and Georgia); folded wing 
7.37-7.84 (187-199); bill along culmen 2.03-2.28 (51.6-57.8); tarsus 2.32-2.56 
(59.0-65.1) (ten specimens from California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that 
of adults in summer, but upper surface dark brown, with a faint greenish 
iridescence, and with much less extensive light markings, these being marginal 
only and tinged with buffy; markings on throat, sides, and lower tail coverts, 
dull brown. Natal plumage: Not known to us. 

MarKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Medium large size, slender body (espe- 
cially noticeable in flight), long slender bill, mottled back (in summer plumage), 
white upper tail coverts, and extremely long and slender yellow legs. Dis- 
tinguished from Lesser Yellow-legs at a distance only by its large size; in 
hand minor plumage differences can be discerned, such as presence of fine pale 
marblings on inner surface of flight feathers, and less extensive barring on 
under surface of body. Voice unmistakable after once learned. 

Vorcre—A rather penetrating, insistent, yet mellow, whistled series of notes, 
all on one pitch, set off in three’s and two’s: wheu-wheu-wheu, wheu-wheu. 

Nest—On ground, near a marsh or on the bank of a stream (Reed, 1904, p. 
120); ‘‘a slight depression in the ground... lined sparsely with grass’’ 
(Elliot, 1895, p. 117). 

Eeces—3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.66 to 1.97 by 1.16 to 1.36 
(in millimeters, 42.0 to 50.0 by 29.5 to 34.5), and averaging 1.84 by 1.28 (46.7 
by 32.6) (nine eggs, three sets, in U. S. National Museum); color grayish white, 
boldly splashed with several shades of brown, and with lilac (Reed, 1904, 
p. 120). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds in northern North 
America probably between latitudes 50° and 60°; the only authentic breeding 
records are said to be from British Columbia as far south as Clinton, and from 
Ungava; winters from central California, Texas, Louisiana and Georgia south 
to southern end of South America; in migration occurs throughout the inter- 
vening area (Cooke, 1910, pp. 54-55). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CaLIFOoRNIA—Fairly common spring and fall migrant through- 
out the state; winter visitant in limited numbers in the San Joaquin and 
Imperial valleys, and near the seacoast from the vicinity of Monterey Bay 
southward. Recorded from Lone Pine, east of the Sierras, in December. Late 
northward migrants and early southbound birds almost span the summer, but 
no breeding records are known. 


The Greater Yellow-legs bears an unusually apt name; for it is the 
larger one of two species of shore birds which are both easily recog- 
nizable by the yellowish color as well as great length of their legs. On 
a marsh or elsewhere in the vicinity of water where other birds are 
present, the Yellow-legs, by their shrill notes, appear to give warning 


GREATER YELLOW-LEGS 403 


when a hunter is espied approaching, and the cries so persistently 
uttered are usually sufficient to put the more desirable game on its 
guard or even to cause it to take flight. On account of this habit 
these two birds are often called Tell-tales or Tattlers, the present 
species being known as the Greater Tell-tale. Many a Yellow-legs has 
forfeited its life before the barrel of an angry hunter for having given 
untimely warning to ducks or other game. 

The Greater Yellow-legs is a fairly common spring and fall migrant 
throughout the state, and also occurs during the winter months in 
limited numbers in the San Joaquin and Imperial valleys, and near 
the coast from the vicinity of Monterey Bay southward. Individuals, 
possibly barren or injured, have been observed in the vicinity of 
Los Angeles in June and July, so that the species may be found 
within the state during every month of the year. Birds which were 
probably migrants from the north were seen near Alvarado, Alameda 
County, July 28, 1913 (Grinnell and Bryant, MS); Bowles and 
Howell (1912, p. 9) state that the species was observed at Santa 
Barbara on July 18, 1910, while in 1911 a single bird was noted on 
August 29 and the species was not again seen until October 14. 
Belding (MS) records the birds at Stockton on February 25, 1879, 
and February 24 and 25, 1880. Beck (MS) observed limited num- 
bers at Los Bafios, Merced County, almost daily throughout the entire 
winter of 1911-1912. E. W. Nelson saw a few small flocks about 
ponds near Lone Pine, Inyo County, in December, 1890 (A. K. Fisher, 
1893a, p. 28), and Van Rossem (1911, p. 131) states that the species 
was common in the grain fields of Imperial Valley, near Salton Sea, 
December 1 to 25, 1910. Willett (1912a, pp. 37, 38) states that dur- 
ing the winter it is present along the coast of southern California as 
far north as Santa Barbara. Beck (MS) observed two individuals 
along a slough near Moss Landing, Monterey County, January 27, 
1911. 

The northward migration probably begins about the second week 
in March, as Beck (MS) records their numbers as increasing at Los 
Bafios about this time, and Belding (MS) states that it was first 
seen in the spring at Gridley, Butte County, on March 14, 1893. 
April probably marks the height of the migration season, as the bulk 
of the spring records occur during that month. By the middle or 
latter part of May most of the birds have left for the north; for 
instance, Belding (MS) states that the species was observed at Stock- 
ton up to May 23, 1878, while at Santa Barbara, Bowles and Howell 
(1912, p. 9) saw birds up to May 16, 1910. The species was seen at 
Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County, June 19, 1897, by G. F. Morcom, 
and it has been observed during July in the same vicinity by H. S. 
Swarth (Grinnell, 1898, p. 17). 


404 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The case of the Greater Yellow-legs at Los Bafios, Merced County, 
may be cited as an example of the value of continuous, recorded obser- 
vations in one locality. R. H. Beck collected for the California 
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at this locality during the winter of 
1911-1912, and to judge the status of this species from the specimens 
secured would give a quite different. idea from that obtained by an 
examination of his field notes. The following table, compiled from 
Beck’s notebook has added to it memoranda of specimens taken and 
now in the Museum: 


1911 1912 
Nov. 24 several Mar. 13 several 
Nov. 28 heard and seen Mar. 16 several 
Nov. 30 four seen Mar. 22 about two dozen; one taken 
Dec. 4 four seen Mar. 25 three or four seen 
Dec. 5 seen; two taken Mar. 30 several; five taken 
Dec. 9 several; one taken Apr. 2 several; one taken 
Dec. 13 several; one taken Apr. 4 not rare 
Dee. 18 several Apr. 5 one taken 
Dec. 21 three or four Apr. 6 not rare 
Dee. 26 several Apr. 8 one taken 
Dec. 28 a few singly or in threes and Apr. 10 four or five; one taken 

fours; one taken Apr. 12 one flock of 22; others seen; 
seven taken 

1912 Apr. 15 common; one flock of two 
Jan. 2 two dozen or so; one taken dozen; usually one or two 
Jan. 3 few at a time along some 
Jan. 15 several water; five taken 
Jan. 24 three or four Apr. 16 one taken : 
Feb. 15 several Apr. 17 eight and several single birds 
Feb. 23 two or three taken Apr. 19 two or three; one taken 
Mar. 4 six or eight; one taken Apr. 22 two dozen or so; one taken 
Mar. 6 a half dozen seen Apr. 24 six taken 
Mar. 11 twelve or more Apr. 26 few seen; one taken 


Probably more dates would have been recorded in the above table 
had Mr. Beck spent a part of every day in the field; but a goodly 
portion of his time was spent in the preparation of specimens so that 
sometimes several days would elapse without any extensive observa- 
tions in the field. The value of such observations as the above, becomes 
evident when it is recalled that the information previously on record 
in published literature was inadequate to establish this bird as a 
regular winter visitant within the state. 

The Greater Yellow-legs is to be distinguished from other waders 
by its moderately large size, general appearance of slenderness, espe- 
cially in flight, slender straight bill, mottled upper surface, white 
upper tail coverts which give the effect of a white rump patch, and 
especially by its long, slender, yellow legs. From its nearest relative, 
the Lesser Yellow-legs, it is to be distinguished on the basis of size, 


a 


GREATER YELLOW-LEGS 405 


but in many cases sight identification is not to be depended upon at 
a distance. In hand, size is absolutely diagnostic, and in addition 
the fine pattern of paler color on inner surface of flight feathers, 
more extensive area of markings below, and lighter, mixed pattern on 
top of head, are noticeable. From the Black-necked Stilt it is dis- 
tinguishable by the mottled pattern of the back, by the presence of 
streaking on the throat, and the absence of areas of unmixed black and 
white; from the Hudsonian Curlew by its smaller size, shorter and 
slenderer, straight bill, and less brown coloration; from the Western 
Willet by its smaller size and by the absence of contrasted patches of 
black and white on the wing; and from the Wandering Tattler by its 
slightly larger size, conspicuous pattern of markings on the upper 
surface, and white upper tail coverts. 

The voice of the Greater Yellow-legs has been variously described ; 
when: heard at a distance, a soft musical ‘‘wheu, wheu-wheu-wheu- 
wheu, wheu, wheu-wheu’’ (Chapman, 1912, p. 256); nearer by, a 
sharper whistle of the same syllables uttered three at a time, and 
again ‘‘a clear, musical tu-weep, very different from the alarm ecry’’ 
(Reed, 1912, p. 837). To our ears the ordinary notes possess a rather 
penetrating, insistent, yet mellow quality, and they are given in 
separated series, as just indicated. 

The Greater Yellow-legs inhabits the shores of inland ponds and 
fresh or salt marshes, rarely the open seabeach ; in any of these habitats 
it is to be found wading about in the water often to the full length 
of its long legs in search of food. At times it will immerse its head 
in order to reach the bottom of the pond in which it is feeding. When 
moving about, the carriage of its body is graceful, yet there is a 
certain jerkiness or halting element in the gait, this perhaps being 
due to its excessively long legs. 

Greater Yellow-legs are found singly, in pairs, or, less commonly, 
in flocks of half a dozen or so; larger groups sometimes occur. In 
the latter case we have not noted the harmony of movement among the 
constituent individuals so conspicuous in many waders. At times 
solitary individuals attach themselves to flocks of other waders, such 
as of the Long-billed Dowitcher. Sometimes these birds will permit 
close approach, but not often, a long continued persecution having 
taught the lucky survivors of their kind that man is to be avoided. 


‘Dawson (1909, pp. 668-669) relates his experience with one of these 


birds, which was so confiding as to wade about in a pool at his very 
feet; but this is to be considered exceptional. Usually the birds take 
wing when one is yet a long distance off, and give voice to their shrill 
notes of alarm which serve as effective warning to all other inhabitants 
of the locality. 

In ordinary flight the wing beats are rather slow, but steady, and 


406 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


the bird usually moves in a direct line, although in one case it was 
seen to dip and dart erratically when flushed from the banks of a salt 
water pond. Often, as the hunter is standing on the marsh or seated 
in a blind, the call-notes of a company of this species high in the air 
will reach his ear long before the birds themselves become visible. They 
sweep down with set wings, usually circling one or more times about 
the spot on which they have chosen to alight, as if to make sure that 
no danger lurks there. Then they settle down, and as soon as their 
long legs have touched the ground their wings are extended full- 
length above their backs and then deliberately folded. If the flock 
which thus alights is of any size the individuals composing it spread 
out over the marsh upon alighting and often mingle with the other 
shore birds found there. Also when alighting over decoys they spread 
out, and this trait saves them from slaughter such as is dealt to 
species that bunch together. When on the ground and not feeding, 
they stand motionless save for a rather impressive ‘‘upward bow’’ 
at long intervals. This species is easily decoyed by imitating its 
whistle, and the birds may be called from a considerable distance in 
this way. Even after a flock has been fired at as it flies by, or as it 
starts to settle among decoys, it will return in response to the cries 
of its wounded companions or to another whistle by the hunter, and 
it seemingly does not learn to avoid the danger until it has been fired 
upon several times. Thus does community interest or sympathy over- 
come the native wariness of individuals. 

Authentic instances of the nesting of the Greater Yellow-legs are 
still few in number although it is surmised that the breeding range 
covers a large territory, approximating that portion of North America 
between latitudes 50° and 60°, and from British Columbia or even 
southeastern Alaska to Ungava. This is not an Arctic species; it 
does not range north as far as the limit of timber. Several breeding 
instances have been established for British Columbia, notably at Fort 
George, May 20, 1890, and Fort St. James, May 31, 1889 (Cooke, 1910, 
p. 55) ; and Rhoads (1893, p. 36) found young at Clinton, in the same 
territory ; while Brooks (1903, p. 281) records finding young in the 
Cariboo district by June 15. Reed (1904, p. 120) records eggs from 
Whale River, Ungava, taken June 10, 1902; ‘‘the eggs are generally 
laid on the ground, near a marsh or on the bank of a stream, with little 
or no lining to the nest. They are grayish white, boldly splashed 
with several shades of brown, and with lilac.’’ 

During the breeding season ‘‘. . . both sexes stand sentinel on 
the tops of trees in the vicinity of the nest, rarely alighting on the 
ground during the presence of an intruder. The newly fledged young 
often follow the example of their parents in this respect. From this 
elevated position the male keeps up an incessant clamor throughout 


GREATER YELLOW-LEGS 407 


the day. One series of notes, uttered only during periods of fancied 
security, is peculiar and unquestionably a love song’’ (Rhoads, 1893, 
p. 36). The habit of the male of watching from the top of a tall tree, 
and the disinclination of the other bird to alight in the presence of an 
intruder, make it extremely difficult and in many instances impossible 
to find the nest. 

Swarth (1911, p. 53) states that on a wooded island in southeastern 
Alaska in late April he saw males of this species ‘‘going through 
various courting antics, posing with upraised quivering wings, or 
running in circles on the sand bars, around the objects of their atten- 
tion, and incessantly uttering the shrill whistle peculiar to the 
species.’’ 

The food of the Greater Yellow-legs so far as known consists of 
insects and their larvae, snails, crustaceans, worms and small fish. 
Beck (MS) at Los Bajios, found beetles and crickets, respectively, 
in two stomachs examined, and noted further that in that locality the 
birds fed principally on ground where the water was fresh. A bird 
taken on a marsh near Santa Barbara, August 29, 1911, was ‘‘cram- 
med to the bill with minnows about one inch long’’ (Howell, MS). 

In the fall Yellow-legs become quite fat and are esteemed a delicacy 
by some persons, while others rate them at all times as second class 
and much inferior to such birds as the Wilson Snipe. Undoubtedly, 
as Eaton (1910, p. 324) points out, the flavor of the flesh of any 
particular individual is probably determined by the nature of its food 
for some time previous; birds which have been feeding inland on 
insects and worms are likely to be of better flavor than those which 
have been living along the seacoast and enjoying a diet of salt water 
animal life. 

There is no direct evidence to show that the numbers of Greater 
Yellow-legs oceurring in California have been noticeably reduced of 
recent years; but considering that elsewhere they have helped fill the 
bag of the market hunter along with other shore birds, and that in 
previous years, and indeed even until within comparatively recent 
times, shore birds were sold in the markets of our California cities, it 
is reasonable to suppose that some diminution in numbers has occur- 
red. Its rather solitary habits, as contrasted with close-flocking 
species, prevent wholesale destruction. The noisy nature of this 
species may also have proven an important factor in its conservation 
and also in saving the other wading birds which frequent our shores 
at the same seasons. Because of this last fact, and also because it 
is esteemed a table delicacy by some, the Greater Yellow-legs should 
be so treated that its numbers may be maintained from year to year 
and possibly augmented, thus serving good economic purpose. 


408 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Lesser Yellow-legs 


Totanus flavipes (Gmelin) 


OTHER NAMES—Yellow-legs; Summer Yellow-legs; Little Yellow-legs; Yellow- 
shanks Tattler; Gambetta flavipes. 

DersoripTionN—Adults, both sexes, in spring and summer: Top and sides of 
head and whole neck streaked with black and white, the black in excess on top 
of head; stripe from upper mandible to above eye whitish; eyelids white; chin 
and throat white, or but narrowly flecked with black; bill black, lower mandible 
slightly brownish at base; iris dark brown; back and scapulars mixed sooty 
and ashy brown, with extensive ashy white feather spottings and tippings, 
giving a mottled appearance; rump feathers dull dark brown, each crossed 
by a narrow blackish band near the end and tipped with white; upper tail 
coverts white, mostly barred with dark brown; tail feathers white or ashy 
white, barred with brownish black; outer surface of closed wing like back; 
primaries brownish black; shaft of outer primary nearly white; margin and 
lining of wing, and axillars, white, with irregular brown bars on the feathers; 
under surface of flight feathers, dusky, unmarked; ground color of whole 
lower surface white; foreneck and breast streaked with dark brown or black- 
ish; lower breast, sides, flanks, and under tail coverts with sparse irregular 
bars of brown or brownish black; legs and feet yellow, nails black. Adults, 
both sexes, in fall and winter: Top and sides of head, and whole neck, dully 
streaked with ashy brown and white; stripe from bill to above eye, and eye- 
lids, white; chin white; whole back ashy brown, with dark shafts and whitish 
feather tippings; rump, upper tail coverts and tail as in summer; outer sur- 
face of closed wing, ashy brown, the feathers with dark shafts and white 
marginal spots; under surface white, the throat and upper chest pale ashy, 
faintly streaked with dull brown; a few indistinct bars of ashy brown on 
flank feathers and outer under tail coverts (modified from various authors; 
specimens in winter plumage not seen). Males: Total length 10.50 inches (266 
mm.) (one specimen); folded wing 5.80-6.18 (147-157); bill along culmen 1.34— 
1.49 (34.0-37.8); tarsus 1.94-2.12 (49.3-53.8) (six specimens). Females: Total 
length 10.75 (273) (one specimen); folded wing 5.95-6.50 (151-165); bill along 
culmen 1.30-1.51 (33.0-38.3); tarsus 2.00-2.13 (50.8-54.0) (five specimens); 
all from Alaska. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adults in summer, but 
upper surface lighter in tone, the feathers with buff marginal spots; streaking 
on the throat and upper breast, duller, and on a pale drab ground; rest of 
lower surface pure white. Natal plumage: ‘‘Upper parts and thighs, seal- 
brown; many of the feathers tipped with cream-buff; forehead, sides of head 
and streaks on rump, buffy white; lines on forehead, and from bill through 
eye to nape, seal-brown; throat and abdomen white; rest of lower parts, buffy 
white’’ (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, pp. 412-413). 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderate size, slenderness of body especially 
noticeable in flight, long slender bill, mottled back (in summer plumage), 
white upper tail coverts, and extremely long and slender yellow legs. Dis- 
tinguished from Greater Yellow-legs under favorable circumstances on the 
basis of size, being about one-half the bulk of that species. In the hand, 
dimensions are diagnostic; also the Lesser lacks the fine pattern of markings 
on inner surface of flight feathers, and the markings on lower surface of body 
are less extensive. 

Voice—Resembles that of the Greater Yellow-legs, but clearer and not so 


LESSER YELLOW-LEGS 409 


loud; ‘‘commonly following the formula, wheu, wheu-wheu-wheu-wheu, wheu- 
wheu, wheu’’ (Eaton, 1910, p. 326). 

Nest—Usually located on dry ground, but at times in the vicinity of a 
marsh; a depression in the surface, sometimes at the base of a clump of grass 
or under a bush, and, if lined at all, merely with a few withered leaves or 
grasses (authors). 

Eces—Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.58 to 1.77 by 1.10 to 
1.18 (in millimeters, 40.0 to 45.0 by 28.0 to 30.0), and averaging 1.65 by 1.14 
(42.0 by 29.0) (twenty-seven eggs in U. S. National Museum); ground-color 
light drab, clay or light brown; superficial markings of chocolate, umber-brown, 
and blackish, and deeper ones of gray; markings most numerous about the 
larger end (Davie, 1889, p. 121). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds chiefly in British 
America: north to southern Ungava, central Keewatin and nearly to the Arctic 
coast of Mackenzie, and to the Kotzebue Sound district of Alaska, and south 
probably to southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan and northern Quebec. 
Winters in southern half of South America and sparingly northward as far as 
coast of southeastern United States. Occurs over the intervening area dur- 
ing migration (Cooke, 1910, pp. 56, 57). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Rare spring and fall migrant. The only pub- 
lished records known to the authors are specified in the general account following. 


The Lesser, or Summer Yellow-legs, as the species is commonly 
known in the eastern United States, appears to be a rare migrant 
within our borders; there are but nine recorded occurrences of the 
bird in California. These are as follows: Gridley, Butte County, 
April 20, 1896, one shot and another seen (Belding, MS) ; Stockton, 
San Joaquin County, September 13, 1878, one specimen (Belding, 
1879, p. 441) ; Agua Caliente [= Palm Springs], Riverside County, 
March 25, 1884, one seen by F. Stephens (Belding, MS) ; San Diego, 
specimen taken about 1880 ‘‘in possession of J. C. Parker’’ (Belding, 
MS); Shasta Valley, Siskiyou County, one ‘‘heard’’ September 19, 
1898 (C. H. Merriam, 1899, p. 110); Rhett [=Tule] Lake, Modoe 
County, ‘‘abundant’’ (Newberry, 1857, p. 98) ; Humboldt Bay ‘‘frc- 
quent’’ (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 198) ; and Santa Barbara, August 
30, to about September 12, 1912, five individuals seen repeatedly on 
Estero (Dawson, 1912, p. 224), and August 16 to 30, 1913, eleven 
individuals seen on Estero (Dawson, 1913), pp. 204-205). Heller 
(1901, p. 100) reported the species as having been observed twice 
at Riverside during the fall migration, but some doubt has been cast 
upon the correctness of the identification in this last case (Willett, 
1912a, p. 111). 

So much does the Lesser Yellow-legs resemble its closest relative, 
the Greater Yellow-legs, that save for size an account of the one 
might suffice for the other. Practically the same criteria are to be 
used in field identification, namely, general appearance of slenderness, 
slender bill, the mottled back (in spring), white upper tail coverts, 


410 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


and extremely long and slender yellow legs. The present species is 
about one-half the bulk of the Greater Yellow-legs. Close examination 
discloses slight plumage differences: Absence of paler markings on 
under surface of flight feathers, greater extent of unmarked white 
areas beneath, and darker top of head. From the Pectoral and Soli- 
tary sandpipers, the Lesser Yellow-legs may be distinguished by the 
slightly longer bill, by the much longer bright yellow legs, and by 
the white upper tail coverts. From the smaller plovers, sandpipers, 
and the phalaropes, it may be distinguished by the extremely long 
and slender yellow legs, and, in many cases, by the absence of a white 
band on the wing. 

The call-notes of the Lesser Yellow-legs are said to be similar 
to those of the Greater but clearer and not so loud, though longer con- 
tinued. Eaton (1910, p. 326) represents the usual call as follows: 
“‘wheu, wheu-wheu-wheu-wheu, wheu-wheu, wheu.’’ 

This species is an inhabitant of mud flats, sand bars and marshes, 
in both fresh and salt water situations, where it wades about and 
probes for, or gleans from the surface, the materials which comprise 
its food. It is extremely wary and flies up at the distant approach of 
any intruder, giving voice to its alarm in a tone that all inhabitants 
of the marsh can hear and heed. This habit, which is shared with its 
larger relative, has earned for it the name of Lesser Tell-tale or Lesser 
Tattler, as applied by hunters when they are desirous of securing 
finer game such as ducks or snipe. If wounded in the wing so that 
flight is impossible the birds are able to run very fast and can make 
their escape by running and hiding in grass or other marsh growths 
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 276). 

Dawson (1913b, pp. 204-205) records his experience in photo- 
graphing some Lesser Yellow-legs near Santa Barbara in August, 
1913, in part as follows: On August 16, ‘‘. . . there were eleven of 
the Lesser Yellow-legs present on our Estero, and they were to be 
found in varying numbers for about two weeks thereafter. They 
proved to be rather timorous on all occasions but especially so when 
incited to flight by the Killdeers, which were always bossing them 
about. In moving to and fro across the Estero they usually paid little 
attention to their own kind and were as ready to join a bevy of 
Long-billed Dowitchers or Northern Phalaropes or the solitarv Greater 
Yellow-legs . . . as to hunt up their proper fellows.’’ 

The breeding season, in the northern summer home of the species, 
extends throughout the month of June according to Cooke (1910, p. 
58), eggs having been taken in Yukon and Mackenzie on June 1, 15, 
16 and 20, and downy young on July 1. 

The nest is a simple affair, usually a mere depression in the sur- 
face of the ground, sometimes lined with dried leaves or grasses and 


WESTERN SOLITARY SANDPIPER 411 


occasionally placed where it will receive the protection of a small 
bush or clump of grass. It is placed either in a rather dry situation 
or near or in a marsh in the vicinity of water (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 277). 

The eggs are usually four, pear-shaped, and measure in inches, 
1.65 by 1.14. The ground-color ranges from clay, buff or cream color 
through light drab to light brown. The superficial markings are bold 
and heavy, consisting of chocolate, umber-brown and blackish and are 
distributed chiefly about the larger end of the egg. The grayish 
deeper markings are also numerous and noticeable (Davie, 1889, pp. 
120-121). 

In the Kowak Valley of northern Alaska, Grinnell (1900, p. 26) 
observed the arrival of this species May 19, 1899. ‘‘... As one 
approached their domains the Yellow-legs would fly to meet him, 
uttering prolonged, monotonous cries. Besides these notes of alarm 
the males had a full, melodious warble, sung for minutes at a time 
as they flew slowly about overhead. Their favorite haunts appeared 
to be the meadows lying between strips of timber, especially if there 
was a shallow lake or pond in the vicinity.’’ 

Males often perch in trees during the nesting season, as do Wilson 
Snipe and Greater Yellow-legs. After the young are hatched both 
parents will pass from tree to tree until they are several hundred 
yards from the nest, in their efforts to lead away an intruder. ‘‘The 
young, even when just hatched, run and hide in the short grass, so as 
to make it difficult to find them, the parents, in the meanwhile, flying 
and screaming in the air above’’ (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, loc. 
cit.). 

The food of the Lesser Yellow-legs consists of insects, crustacea, 
small mollusks, worms, and small fish. Its flesh is considered to be of 
second class among the shore birds, not ranking with that of the Wil- 
son Snipe or Knot as regards flavor. From the limited numbers 
oceurring in California during the many years in which ornithological 
work has been carried on, it may be inferred that the species never 
has been and never will be an important game bird within the state. 


Western Solitary Sandpiper 


Helodromas solitarius cinnamomeus (Brewster) 


OrHER NAMES—Solitary Tattler; Totanus solitarius; Totanus solitarius cinna- 
momeus ; Rhyacophilus solitarius. 

Description—Adults, both sexes, at all seasons: Top of head and hind neck 
dark brown, with sparse streaking of white; sides of head and neck, white, 
thickly but narrowly streaked with dark brown; eyelids white; chin white; 
bill ‘‘ greenish black’’; iris ‘‘brown’’ (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 312, for the east- 


412 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


ern subspecies); back, rump and central upper tail coverts, dark olive brown, 
with small spots of buffy or white on margins of feathers; outer upper tail 
eoverts sharply barred with brownish black and white; middle pair of tail 
feathers, olive brown, outer ones strikingly barred with blackish brown and 
white; outer surface of closed wing like back; primaries brownish black; 
lining of wing and axillars barred blackish brown and white; under surface of 
flight feathers dusky brown, that of first primary towards basal and inner 
edge finely marbled with white; throat and breast, white, narrowly streaked 
with dark brown; sides brownish, irregularly flecked with white; flanks and 
under tail coverts sparsely barred with brown on a white ground; rest of 
under surface white; feet ‘‘greenish-gray,’’ claws ‘‘brownish-black’’ (Audu- 
bon, loc. cit.). Males: Total length 8.50-9.06 inches (216-230 mm.) (three 
specimens from California); folded wing 5.06-5.48 (128.3-139.0); bill along 
culmen 1.15-1.26 (29.2-32.0); tarsus 1.23-1.35 (31.3-34.3) (ten specimens from 
California and Alaska). Females: Total length 8.48-8.87 (215.5-225) (three 
specimens from California); folded wing 5.17~-5.50 (131.3-139.5); bill along 
eulmen 1.11-1.34 (28.3-33.9); tarsus 1.23-1.37 (31.2-34.8) (ten specimens from 
California and Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Like that of adults but with upper 
surface warmer brown, spotting pale buffy or cinnamon, and streaked pattern 
on lower surface more diffuse. Natal plumage: Stripes from bill over top of 
head, from bill to eye, over eye to above ear and patch on ear region, black; 
ground color of top of head pinkish brown; cheeks and chin whitish; line below 
eye pinkish brown; bill dusky, pale at base of lower mandible; back of head, 
whole back and wings mixed pinkish brown and black in large pattern; under 
surface white; legs and feet (dried) brown. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderately small size, very slender bill, 
conspicuously barred outer tail feathers, general brownish coloration above, and 
absence of any light bar on wing. Distinguished from Spotted Sandpiper by 
larger size, heavily barred outer tail feathers, absence of white bar on wing, 
absence of rounded dark spots on clear white under surface, presence of brown 
streaked or washed area on throat and breast, and habit of frequently raising 
wings vertically above back. 

Voice—A few sharp peeps; on breeding grounds a weak flight song, some- 
what resembling the call of the Sparrow Hawk (Grinnell, 1900, p. 26). 

Nest—In trees, the birds using the abandoned nests of other birds. 

Eeces—4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.37 to 1.44 by 1.01 to 1.06 (in 
millimeters, 34.7 to 36.5 by 25.7 to 26.8), and averaging 1.41 by 1.04 (35.8 by 
26.3); ground-color almost white, but with an extremely light yellowish glaucous 
tinge; superficial markings of warm sepia and verona brown, deeper ones light 
mouse gray and quaker drab; the spots have a spiral trend and are most 
numerous about larger ends of eggs (one set, four eggs, in U. S. National 
Museum). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Western North America and probably South America. 
Breeding range not definitely known; occurs in summer from Kotzebue Sound 
east to Great Slave Lake and south to Washington and Colorado, but probably 
breeds wholly north of the United States. Winter home of the eastern and 
western subspecies supposed to be on common ground in South America (Cooke, 
1910, pp. 58, 59). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Fairly common spring and fall migrant through- 
out that portion of the state which is south of the latitude of Tehachapi; 
much rarer in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley. Seacoast records appear 
to be exceptional. Not recorded from the coast region north of Santa Barbara. 


WESTERN SOLITARY SANDPIPER 413 


The Western Solitary Sandpiper, or Solitary Tattler as it is 
sometimes called, is not as abundant in California as are most of the 
gregarious species of shore birds nor does it seem to be as numerous 
here as in some other places in North America. The two subspecies 
of the Solitary Sandpiper, the Eastern and Western, are extremely 
similar in appearance, and as a consequence the ranges of the two are 
not yet clearly defined. Only the Western is supposed to occur west 
of the longitude of Colorado. , 

One marked feature of the occurrence of this species in California 
is the great number of records from southern California south of the 
latitude of Tehachapi Pass, there being more than twice as many from 
that region as from all the rest of the state. The earliest spring 
record for California is from Santa Cruz Island, March 17 or 18, 
1886 (Streator, 1888, p. 53). The bulk of the migration occurs dur- 
ing April, especially in the latter part, and by the third week in May 
the birds have all passed north, the latest spring record being from 
Los Angeles, May 14, 1898 (Willett, 1912a, p. 38). The southbound 
migration sets in during late July, as birds were observed at Santa 
Barbara on July 22, 1910 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 9). August 
seems to mark the height of the fall migration, over half of the records 
within the state having been made during that month. The species 
disappears from the state during the latter part of September, the 
latest record being for Los Angeles, September 22, 1898 (Willett, 
loc. cit.). Thus it will be seen that the Solitary Sandpiper is in Cali- 
fornia strictly a through migrant, tarrying but briefly.. There are 
no definite records of its occurrence here during the winter months 
or during early summer. 

While not strictly solitary, as its name would indicate, this species 
is never found in large flocks. It usually occurs singly or in pairs, 
but in the fall after the young are on the wing, as many as half a 
dozen may be found together, probably all members of the same 
family. The species also differs from many of the other shore birds 
in frequenting inland habitats almost exclusively, rarely if ever being 
found about salt water. From observation at Santa Barbara, Bowles 
and Howell (1912, p. 9) concluded that ‘‘the Solitary Sandpiper, 
more than any other shore bird, is inclined to restrict itself to the 
grassy mud flats and wet meadows’’; none were ever seen on the sea- 
beach or open flats. As reported by other observers, the birds prefer 
the shores of inland lakes, or sand bars along streams especially where 
there is good cover in the form of dense brush along the banks. Only 
when the water about their favorite secluded retreats is low, as dur- 
ing the late summer and early fall, do they seek more open forage 
grounds. 


414 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


From the Spotted Sandpiper, which the Solitary Sandpiper most 
closely resembles in choice of surroundings, the latter species may 
be distinguished by the fact that it is about one-third larger in size, 
that it possesses more sharply barred outer tail feathers and a brown 
streaked area on the throat, and that it has no rounded dark spots 
on its white under surface, and no white wing bar. Its very slender 
bill, the brown, unstreaked back, the lack of a white bar on the wing, 
and the distinct barring on the outer tail feathers, in combination will 
serve to distinguish this species from such birds as the Pectoral, Baird 
and Red-backed sandpipers. From all the plovers the Solitary Sand- 
piper may be distinguished at once by the slender bill. 

The following three paragraphs relating to certain mannerisms of 
the Solitary Sandpiper show some differences of interpretation on the 
part of the observers, but in the main supplement one another so as to 
give the reader a correct general conception of the bird. 


These birds ... wade about in the mud and water, chasing with open 
wings, or probing for, and feeding upon the minute mollusks, worms and 
various forms of aquatic insect life that abound in such places. They have a 
peculiar way of balancing the body, by bending the knees, jerking the tail, 
and bowing the head, much like the Spotted Sandpiper, but in a slower and 


more dignified manner. ... Notwithstanding they are tattlers by name, [they] 
differ from the family by being usually silent, seldom uttering their low, 
whistling notes except when startled or about to take wing.... As a rule 


the birds are not shy, and, when followed, run in an unconcerned manner along 
the shore, or by short flights keep a little ahead, or return to the starting 
point by cireling back close to or over the water (Goss, 1891, p. 193, referring 
probably to the eastern subspecies). 

When fiushed it usually flies with unexpected swiftness, rises at a sharp 
angle to a height of several hundred feet, and then flies wildly for a moment 
or two, and often returns and alights near the place from which it started. 
Almost invariably it utters a sharp whistle of three or four notes as it rises, 
not particularly loud, but high-pitched, penetrating, and very characteristic. 
While feeding it runs about and bobs its head and tail somewhat like a 
[Spotted Sandpiper] ..., but the movements are much more abrupt and 
jerky, and there is far less of the graceful swinging motion so prettily shown 
by that bird. Often when standing quietly otherwise it will jerk its head 
and body stiffly upward and back again, precisely as if moved by a hic-cough 
(Barrows, 1912, pp. 194-195, writing of the eastern subspecies). 

In the fall, on its return from the north, it has a habit of wading into 
the water in stagnant ditches or ponds, where it advances one foot at a time, 
and by rapidly moving the forward foot stirs up the vegetation at the bottom 
ever so slightly. This motion is so swift and delicate that the leg seems to 
be merely trembling, as if the bird were chilled by contact with the water, 
but it is done with intent to disturb insects among the algae at the bottom 
without roiling the water, and the eager bird, leaning forward, plunges in its 
bill and head, sometimes to the eyes, and catches the alarmed water insects 
as they dart away. I have watched this carefully with a glass while lying 
in the grass only ten or twelve feet from the bird. It is easy by stirring 
the bottom slightly with a stick to cause a similar movement of the water 


WESTERN SOLITARY SANDPIPER 415 


» 
insects, but I never could agitate it so delicately as to avoid clouding the water 
with sediment from the bottom (Forbush, 1912, p. 308, relating to the eastern 
subspecies). 


Often when one of these birds alights it will raise its wings to 
their fullest extent above its back, displaying the beautifully barred 
pattern of the lining of the wing and axillars. ‘‘This species, and the 
Spotted Sandpiper also, will sometimes dive and swim under water 
when wounded, using the wings as propellers in the same manner as 
do the ducks’’ (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 9); and in the East the 
species has been seen to swim for some distance on the surface when 
it had waded beyond its depth. 

The western race of the Solitary Sandpiper is believed to breed 
chiefly in Alaska. In the Kowak Valley, in the northern part of this 
Territory, Grinnell (1900, p. 26) noted the arrival of the species on 
the 18th of May, 1899. It soon after became common, haunting in 
pairs the margins of secluded ponds surrounded by dense spruce 
woods. In such places one of a pair would usually be seen perched 
quietly at the top of a small tree or fallen branch near the pond, 
while the other bird foraged through the grass at the edge of the 
water. If alarmed, the birds would take short flights, giving utter- 
ance to a few sharp peeps. The song-flight usually occurred during 
the early morning hours. This consisted of a slow, circuitous flight 
on rapidly beating wings, high over the tree-tops, accompanied by 
frequent repetition of a weak song somewhat resembling the call of a 
Sparrow Hawk. At the close of this song-flight the performer, pre- 
sumably the male, would alight as if exhausted, and perch silently for 
some time at the top of the tallest spruce in the vicinity. Meanwhile 
the other bird would continue feeding as before, to all appearances 
entirely unmindful of the ecstatic efforts of its mate. Examination 
of various old nests in trees, such as those of the Varied Thrush, in the 
attempt to locate eggs or young proved fruitless, though the actions 
of the sandpipers indicated beyond doubt that nesting was in progress. 

We know of but one authentic set of eggs of the Western Solitary 
Sandpiper. In the United States National Museum there is a set 
(no. 33209) of four eggs from northern Alberta, Canada, taken May 
30, 1911, by ‘‘E. T. for E. Arnold.’’ The four eggs, which were fresh, 
were taken from a nest ‘‘placed in the crotch of a small spruce tree 
in a large swamp.’’ They are pear-shaped and measure in inches, 
1.37 to 1.44 by 1.01 to 1.06 and average 1.41 by 1.04. In color they 
appear to be unique among the eggs of North American shore birds. 
The ground-color is almost white but has an extremely light yellowish 
glaucous tinge. The superficial spots are warm sepia and verona 
brown and the deeper ones light mouse gray and quaker drab. The 


416 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


’ 


markings all have a spiral trend and are more numerous about the 
larger ends of the eggs. 

The Solitary Sandpiper (one or the other or both subspecies) feeds 
on worms, aquatic insects and their larvae, beetles, grasshoppers, cater- 
pillars, spiders, and small mollusks (Forbush, 1912, p. 308; and au- 
thors). Its general diet of fresh-water insect life commends the species 
to man’s favor. Its small numbers, in California at least, bar it from 
serious pursuit as a game species. Furthermore, it migrates through 
the state chiefly, if not entirely, during the closed season. Interest in 
it lies rightly with the naturalist rather than with the sportsman. 


Western Willet 


Catoptrophorus semipalmatus inornatus (Brewster) 


OTHER NAMES—Willet; Candlestick Plover; Catoptrophorus semipalmatus ; 
Symphemia semipalmata inornata; Symphemia semipalmata; Totanus semipal- 
matus ; Symphemia semipalmata speculifera. 

DeEscripTION—Adults, both sexes, in spring and early summer: Top and sides 
of head blackish brown, streaked with whitish; cheeks and spot in front of eye 
lightest in effect; eyelids white; chin white, eparingly flecked with dark 
brown; iris dark brown; bill slaty black, changing to gray at base; hind neck 
narrowly streaked with dark brown and ashy; back chiefly black with a faint 
bronzy sheen, and mottled with pale buffy or dull white (many worn ashy 
brown feathers of the winter plumage usually remain); rump grayish brown; 
upper tail coverts and bases of tail feathers whitish, with narrow bars or flecks 
of brownish black; tail feathers pale drab brown, outer ones palest; outer 
surface of closed wing (coverts only) drab brown or gray; terminal third of 
primaries and all of primary coverts, black; basal two-thirds of primaries and 
most of secondaries, white; tertials like back; margin of wing mottled brownish 
black and white; lining of wing and axillars deep blackish brown, many of 
the feathers narrowly tipped with whitish; under surfaces of primaries and 
secondaries like outer surfaces of same; lower surface, except belly, suffused 
with buffy; throat streaked, and breast, sides and lower tail coverts irregularly 
barred, with brown; belly white; legs and feet light olive gray. Adults and 
immatures, both sexes, in winter: Upper surface uniform grayish brown; a light 
spot in front of eye; eyelids and chin white; tail coverts, tail, and wing, as 
in summer adults; side of head grayish brown streaked with dark brown; 
whole neck, breast and sides grayish brown and continuous in tone with color 
of upper surface, but gradually fading to white on belly; flanks and under 
tail coverts, sparingly flecked with pale grayish brown. Males: Total length 
14.90-15.75 inches (378-400 mm.) (two specimens); folded wing 8.03-8.35 (204- 
212); bill along culmen 2.23-2.54 (56.6-64.4); tarsus 2.52-2.84 (64.2-72.1) (four 
specimens). Females: Total length 15.00-16.25 (381-413) (five specimens); 
folded wing 8.15-8.55 (207-217); bill along culmen 2.27-2.50 (57.7-63.4); tarsus 
2.29-2.80 (58.2-71.1) (five specimens); all adults and full-grown immatures 
from California. Juvenile plumage: Like that of adults in winter, but upper 
surface lacking ashy tinge, it being brownish with buffy and blackish feather- 
edgings and blackish shaft streaks; under surface of body white, slightly 


WESTERN WILLET 417 


suffused with buff on neck, breast and sides, where also finely spotted with 
pale brown. Natal plumage: Top of head and whole back mixed buffy white 
and clove brown in fine pattern, the latter color predominating; forehead and 
sides of head buffy white; stripe down middle of forehead dusky; bold stripe 
from bill to eye, and a narrower one behind eye, clove brown; lower surface 
of body dull white, with a faint band of dusky across upper chest. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size, straight bill, and gray general 
appearance; strikingly contrasted white band set in black, displayed on wing 
when spread (fig. 72); white ‘‘rump patch’’ (upper tail coverts and bases of 
tail feathers). The shrill ery is distinctive. 

Voice—A shrill, high-pitched ke-leé-er; or pill-will-willet, or pill-will-willy. 


INNY 


yy 


Fig. 72. Outer surface of spread wing of Western 
Willet, showing color patches. 


About two-fifths natural size. 


Nest—On ground, usually in grass and in the vicinity of water; a slight 
depression in the surface sparingly lined with grasses, or a well constructed 
affair of grasses and other available material, even several inches in height 
(various authors). 

Eees—3 to 4, bluntly pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 2.02 to 2.17 by 
1.47 to 1.58 (in millimeters, 51.3 to 55.2 by 37.4 to 40.2); ground-color, grayish 
white, buff or olive, with superficial spots of various shades of brown, and 
deeper ones of purple gray; spots more numerous about larger ends (Goss, 
1891, p. 195). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Western North America. Breeds from northern 
Iowa, southern South Dakota, and northeastern California north to eastern 
Oregon, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba; also on coasts of 
Texas and Louisiana. Winters on coast of California from Humboldt Bay 
southward, and on coasts of Texas and Louisiana and Gulf coast of Florida, 
ranging south into Mexico. In spring migration occurs from Mississippi River 
west to Pacific coast (in California), and in fall ranges eastward to Atlantic 


coast (modified from Cooke, 1910, p. 62). 


418 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Rather abundant spring and fall migrant, 
chiefly coastwise; remains through the winter in small numbers along the 
coast. A few summer regularly in the northeastern corner of the state: breeds 
at Beckwith, Plumas County (Cooke, 1910, p. 62), and in vicinity of Goose 
Lake, Modoc County (Mus. Vert. Zool.). Recorded in winter from Humboldt 
Bay, San Francisco Bay region, and from several localities on coast of southern 
California from Santa Barbara southward; spring migration, when but few 
birds are observed, occurs chiefly during April and May, and fall migration, 
which is conspicuous, from latter part of July until late October or early 
November. Non-breeders are often seen on or near southern seacoast during 
summer months. 


Of the shore birds inhabiting California the Western Willet is 
one of the largest and most conspicuous. Its shrill call and the flashes 
of its contrasted black, white, and gray plumage, either in flight or 
at rest, are among the familiar sights granted persons who frequent 
the seashore or salt marsh. 

Willets are present in California throughout the year although not 
continuously in the same localities. The species has been recorded as 
breeding at Beckwith, Plumas County (Cooke, 1910, p. 62) ; and birds 
seen about Goose Lake, Modoc County, early in June, 1910, showed 
evidence of having nests in the vicinity (W. P. Taylor, MS). It has 
been recorded at Humboldt Bay in November and December (C. H. 
Townsend, 1887, p. 199) ; about San Francisco Bay on November 4, 
1898, and November 17, 1895 (specimens in Mailliard collection), and 
in December, 1855 (Cassin, 1862, p. 321) ; at Carpinteria, Santa Bar- 
bara County, December 23, 1911 (Willett, 1912a, p. 38) ; at Newport, 
Orange County, December 8, 1898 (specimen in Swarth collection) ; 
and at and about San Diego, common through the winter (Belding, 
MS). The spring migration occurs during April and May, during 
which months a few pass through the San Joaquin-Sacramento Valley 
(Belding, MS) as well as along the seacoast. A few individuals linger 
behind the northbound migrants, as single birds were seen at Santa 
Barbara, June 24 and July 8, 1910 (Torrey, 19100, p. 204), and at 
Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County, May 17 and 28, June 2 and July 
10, 1910 (Willett, 1912a, p. 38). The southward migration is the 
more conspicuous and commences the latter part of July and con- 
tinues until the latter part of October or first of November. The early 
nesting season makes it possible for young birds to appear on the coast 
as migrants by the latter part of July. Birds-of-the-year which were 
evidently migrants were observed and collected at Bear Lake, 6,700 
feet altitude, San Bernardino Mountains, July 28 to August 2, 1905 
(Grinnell, 1908, p. 55). 

Among the shore birds the Western Willet is exceeded in size only 
by the Long-billed Curlew, from which it also differs in having a 
general coloration of gray rather than pinkish brown. From the 


N WESTERN WILLET 419 


Hudsonian Curlew and Marbled Godwit, birds of about its own size, 
the Willet is distinguished by its shorter and straight bill, its gray 
rather than brownish coloration, the conspicuous black and white 
pattern on both inner and outer surfaces of its wings (fig. 72) and 
by the white ‘‘rump patch.’’ The striking black and white of the 
wings, as shown in flight, serves to distinguish the Willet from any of 
the somewhat smaller waders such as the Black-bellied Plover and 
Greater Yellow-legs. The shrill, yet not unpleasant, call, pill-will- 
willet, is also a very good field character. 

Unless hidden by marsh vegetation, as along winding sloughs, the 
Willet is usually a wary bird and will not allow close approach. Tor- 
rey (1913, p. 46) says of a flock that ‘‘. . . there was no getting near 
them; I proved the fact to my dissatisfaction more than once; but 
sitting quietly on the same bay-shore I have repeatedly known a 
single Godwit or Willet to feed carelessly past me within the distance 
of a rod or two.’’ These birds commonly flock with individuals of 
other species. They may be seen in company with Godwits, as men- 
tioned above, also with our two species of Curlew, Greater Yellow- 
legs, Turnstones, and Long-billed Dowitchers, and a Willet has even 
been noted attempting to fly in unison with a flock of Least Sand- 
pipers! 

The Willet during migrations and in winter inhabits seabeaches 
and salt marshes, seeming to prefer sandy or muddy locations to rocky 
or pebble-strewn shores: Isolated individuals may be met with at 
times, but usually there are several in one locality and when restless 
or not feeding these often gather into fair-sized flocks, numbering up 
to twenty-five or more individuals. Torrey (1913, pp. 45, 46) men- 
tions seeing Western Willets and Marbled Godwits near San Diego in 
such large numbers and so densely massed that he ‘‘. . . mistook them 
at first for a border of some kind of herbage. Thousands there must 
have been; and when they rose at my approach, they made something 
like a cloud; gray birds and brown birds so contrasted in color as to 
be discriminated beyond risk of error, even when too far away for 
the staring white wing-patches of the Willets to be longer discernible.”’ 

In its chosen haunts the Willet stalks about in search of the aquatic 
animals which constitute its food, sometimes wading breast deep in 
the water. Its half-webbed feet allow it to swim easily and this the 
bird often does when lifted beyond its depth by a wave, or when pur- 
sued. On the Atlantic Ocean, Eastern Willets have been seen resting 
on the water in mid-ocean during their long migration flight from the 
Canadian maritime provinces to the West Indies (Forbush, 1912, pp. 
311, 312). As suggested in Torrey’s account these birds are often more 
suspicious than most other large shore birds. The Willets do not 
decoy so readily, and even when passing over decoys the least move- 


420 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


ment will frighten them, after which no amount of skillful whistling 
will induce them to return. 

A flock of six observed on the Alameda marsh, upon rising flew in 
the zigzag manner of sandpipers, but with longer straight flights pre- 
ceding the changes in direction. When the birds alighted on a sand- 
bar they stood very erect, and now and then spasmodically raised the 
head still higher for an instant in a haughty manner—a backward 
bow! During high tide the birds retired inland along the sloughs 
where they stood heel deep, preening, and at short intervals they 
seemingly rinsed their bills (Grinnell and Storer, MS). 

The flight of the Willet when well under way is quite direct, with 
a flat wing beat. The wings rarely rise above the level of the back, 
and consequently the upper surface of the body is almost continually 
in view. The bird sails with set wings only when descending from a 
higher to a lower level, or when about to alight. A change in the 
direction of flight is seemingly accomplished by a difference in the 
intensity of the two wing beats and a rolling of the body. The feet, 
which extend considerably beyond the tail, probably assist somewhat 
in steering. During high tide when the feeding grounds of the Willet 
are covered with water the birds choose some higher situation which 
will not be inundated, and there they rest, many of the flock tucking 
their heads under their wings as they sleep. There is, however, one or 
more constantly on watch, and on the approach of danger a shrill ery 
of alarm is sounded, the flock at once taking wing and rapidly making 
off to some safer place (Elliot, 1895, p. 130). 

On the beaches of southern California, Mrs. Bailey (1916), 
p. 102) records that 

In the flocks of brown Godwits, the few gray Willets looked small. They 
fed in the same way as the Godwits though their bills were shorter and they 
could not probe so deep, but they ran their bills ahead of them through the 
wet sand, probed as far as they could reach, and then trotted back before 
the oncoming waves. A thoughtless one sat down just at the edge of the water 
line one day, its back toning in with the sand, its long legs stretched out before 
it; but soon after it was comfortably settled up came the foam and it had to 
bend forward on its tarsus, raise itself and flee up the beach. I often saw one 
resting, standing on one leg, or sitting at ease with white rump showing. When 
stretching, the black of the wings showed effectively as it does both when 


the birds fly up and when they alight with wings raised over the back. Willet, 
willet, they often called as they went. 


The Willet may be credited with quite a variety of loud calls and 
alarm notes. The ordinary calls consist of full, rounded whistles, 
uttered either singly or in rapid.succession. A notably descending 
inflection is apparent, though on the whole the effect is a staccato one. 
In addition there is ‘‘. . . an interesting flight song; particularly 


towards evening... .’’ During the breeding season one of these 


WESTERN WILLET 421 


birds may be seen ‘‘. . .. flying in large circles high in the air, pouring 
out a rapid stream of whistling notes, sounding like pill-will-willet, 
repeated over and over again for a period of several minutes’’ (Bent, 
1907), p. 427). 

Although the Western Willet is associated in our minds with the 
sea-coast, its nesting grounds lie, for the most part, far in the interior. 
In California it has been found breeding at Beckwith, Plumas County, 
at an elevation of about 5,000 feet (Cooke, 1910, p. 62), and birds 
taken on June 3 and 10, 1910, in the vicinity of Davis Creek at the 
southern end of Goose Lake, Modoe County, elevation 4,500 feet, 
showed by their actions that they had nests in the vicinity (W. P. 
Taylor, MS). The species breeds in the north-central United States 
west through the northern Great Basin, and in southern Canada; also 
locally in a small coastal area in Texas and Louisiana. Eggs have 
been taken from May 2 (partly incubated) until June I4 (fresh), 
these dates probably indicating the extent of the breeding season. 

The nests may be placed either on marshland in close proximity 
to water or on dry prairies a considerable distance from it. The nest 
is constructed of grasses and such other suitable plant materials as 
may be at hand. It is sometimes a mere depression in the grass, with 
sparse lining, again a quite bulky affair. The eggs usually number 
four and measure in inches, 2.02 to 2.17 by 1.47 to 1.58. The ground 
color varies from grayish white to buff and even olive, while the 
superficial markings, usually more numerous about the larger end, are 
of various shades of brown, the deeper ones of purplish gray (Goss, 
1891, p. 195). They are more bluntly pear-shaped than the eggs of 
many other shore birds. 

The set which forms the basis for Cooke’s record from Beckwith, 
Plumas County, was collected May 28, 1891, and consisted of three 
eggs. The eggs measure in inches, 2.08 to 2.16 by 1.43 to 1.48, and 
average 2.12 by 1.46. In coloration they agree with the description 
given by Goss (supra cit.). These eggs, which now form set no. 
24582 in the United States National Museum, were collected by N. R. 
Christie; for W. F. Webb of Geneva, New York. The data accompany- 
ing this set state that Mr. Christie took three sets of this species all 
alike in color, etc., ‘‘some of four eggs and some of three,’’ all on the 
same day. The eggs were fresh. The nest was constructed simply of 
grass and was situated on swampy ground on a large stock ranch. 

During the nesting season Western Willets often perch in low 
trees as do many of the other larger shore birds (Goss, 1891, p. 195). 
In Modoc County W. P. Taylor (MS) observed them perching on 
fence posts along roads. If the vicinity of the nest be approached by 
an intruder the birds fly some distance toward him and attempt to 
divert his attention by circling about and uttering their shrill calls 


422 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


(Bent, 1907b, p. 427). Often several pairs other than those whose 
nest is threatened will join in the demonstration. At times they hover 
with quivering wings and at all times while so circling keep up such 
a clamor that it is impossible to determine when they are near the nest 
and when away from it. 

Forbush states (1912, p. 312) that when inland the Eastern Willet 
eats grasses and roots and small fish and fish fry, but when along salt 
water its diet consists of many small mollusks and crabs. Paul J. Fair 
reports that specimens of the Western Willet taken by him on the 
marshes near Newark, Alameda County, in April, 1914, contained 
clams fully one and one-half inches in length (H. C. Bryant, MS). 

In early days the Western Willet was commonly offered for sale 
in the markets of San Francisco during the autumn, winter, and 
spring (Suckley in Cooper. and Suckley, 1859, p. 242). Undoubtedly 
extensive hunting for the market has had its effect upon the numbers 
of Willets that nowadays occur within our borders, but to what extent, 
it is impossible to determine. Despite the rank or fishy flavor of its 
flesh, the Willet has always been hunted rather extensively, doubtless 
because of its large size. But it is still abundant enough so that 
moderate protection will enable it to maintain its numbers and possibly 
inerease them toward the complement of earlier days. The most impor- 
tant factor in the decrease of the species is the gradual restriction of 
its breeding range by the advance of agriculture. It does not enjoy 
the protection afforded the birds which nest in the far north, and 
should therefore merit more consideration during the winter season. 


Wandering Tattler 


Heteractitis incana (Gmelin) 


OTHER NAMES—Heteroscelus incanus; Totanus incanus. 

DerscripTion—Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Entire upper 
surface including top of head, rump, tail, and outer surface of wing, uniform 
slaty or dark grayish brown; eyelids white; stripe from bill to eye and spot 
behind eye, dark grayish brown; stripe from top of bill over eye and sides of 
head and neck, white, finely streaked with dark grayish brown; chin and throat 
white, sparsely spotted with dark grayish brown; iris brown; bill black, brown- 
ish at lower base; margin and lining of wing dusky, with feather-tippings of 
white; under surface of flight feathers and axillars, uniform slaty brown like 
upper surface of body; whole lower surface including sides and under tail 
coverts, white, barred closely with dark grayish brown; feet pale ‘‘ brownish 
ocher’’; nails ‘‘black’’ (Bishop, 1900, p. 69). Adults, and immatures, both seaes, 
in fall and winter: Entire upper surface, tail and wing, as in summer adults; 
eyelids, spot in front of eye and chin, white; sides of head and neck, foreneck, 
breast and sides of body, light grayish brown, entirely devoid of streaks or 
bars; belly and flanks pure white; under tail coverts white barred with grayish 
brown. Males: Total length 10.87-11.00 inches (276-279 mm.) (three specimens 


WANDERING TATTLER 423 


from California); folded wing 6.45-6.82 (164-173); bill along culmen 1.40-1.51 
(35.4-38.4); tarsus 1.23-1.38 (31.2-35.0) (nine specimens from California and 
Alaska). Females: Total length 11.05-11.40 (281-290) (three specimens from 
California); folded wing 6.81-7.13 (173-181); bill along culmen 1.52-1.58 (38.6- 
40.2); tarsus 1.28-1.39 (32.6-35.2) (five specimens from California and Alaska). 
Juvenile plumage: Like that of adults and immatures in winter but with 
feathers of back and outer surface of wing marked with inconspicuous feather- 
tippings of white and faint subterminal dark bars, with grayish brown of 
breast and sides faintly barred with dull white, and with under tail coverts, 
like belly, pure white, unbarred. Natal plumage: In its entirety unknown, but 
as shown by vestiges remaining on a half-grown bird taken July 28, 1908, on 
Montague Island, Prince William Sound, Alaska (no. 1194 Mus. Vert. Zool.), 
the down on top and sides of head is leaden gray tipped with white; on the 
chin, throat and flanks, grayish white; on hind neck leaden gray; a dusky 
streak extending from bill to eye. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderate size (slightly larger than Kill- 
deer), non-contrasted plumage, and uniform slaty color of upper surface at all 
times of year; no white patches on rump or wing; frequents rocky ocean shores; 
rarely if ever found on sandy beaches. 

Voice—A loud ringing kld, kld, kid (Nelson, 1880, p. 33). 

NEsT aND EGes—Unknown. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Seacoasts and islands of the Pacific Ocean, interior 
Alaska, and Yukon Territory. Breeding range thought to be from south- 
central Alaska south to Prince William Sound, east to east-central Yukon; 
occurs west in migration to Norton Sound, Alaska, and to northern Siberia; 
winters from southern California to the Galapagos Islands, and in Hawaii and 
Oceania (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 122-123). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common spring and fall migrant along the 
seacoast; small numbers occur also at various times during the summer, and 
a few winter on the coast and islands of southern California. The spring 
movement occurs chiefly in April and the fall migration in August. 


Among our shore birds the Wandering Tattler well merits the 
term wandering. Its distribution covers a large portion of the Pacific 
Ocean as well as west-central Alaska, and many of the most remote 
islets are favored by its visits. In spite of its wide range, less is 
known of the life history of this species than of that of many rarer or 
less widely distributed species. An element of extreme interest attach- 
ing to the bird is the fact that its nest and eggs are as yet undis- 
covered, it being one of only two or three out of all our shore birds 
which bear this distinction today. However, the area in which the 
Tattler nests has been fairly well determined, so that it will probably 
be a matter of but a few years before full knowledge of its nesting 
habits is obtained. 

Along the coast of California the Wandering Tattler may be con- 
sidered essentially a migrant, although it has been reported on our 
southern shores during almost every month of the year. The north- 
ward migration occurs in April (Willett, 1912a, p. 39); some early 
dates are: Redondo, Los Angeles County, March 1, 1908 (specimen in 


424 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Richardson collection) ; Anacapa Island, March 14, 1911 (Burt, 1911, 
p. 164) ; San Clemente Island, March 29, 1897 (specimen in Grinnell 
collection) ; and Monterey, April 13, 1913 (Howell, MS), and April 
20 (Beck, 1910, p. 71). Small numbers of apparently non-breeding 
birds are often to be seen during the summer; it is possible that these 
are late tarriers among the northbound migrants, or early arrivals 
from the north. The species has been recorded from Santa Barbara, 
San Nicolas, and San Clemente islands as late as June 12 (Willett, 
loc. cit.) ; San Miguel Island, June 18, 1910 (Willett, 1910, p. 173); 
Farallon Islands, June 1, 1911 (Dawson, 1911, p. 180); and Point 
Reyes, Marin County, June 26, 1880 (Allen, 1881, p.18). At Monterey, 
the return migration sets in about the middle of July (Loomis, 1895, 
p. 223), and by the last of that month the birds are common there. 
The species was seen on Santa Cruz Island, July 4 to 24, 1887 (Blake, 
‘1887, p. 329), and on Santa Barbara Island, July 3, 1909 (Willett, 
1912a, p. 39). The fall migration continues through August. Some 
birds then remain well along into early winter, late dates being: 
Santa Monica, Los Angeles County, December 11, 1905 (Willett, loc. 
cit.) ; and Santa Cruz Island, December 17, 1907 (Linton, 19088, p. 
126). Willett (loc. cit.) states that he has ‘‘. . . frequently seen the 
species on rocky shores of the mainland during the winter months.”’ 

The Wandering Tattler is notably an inhabitant of rocky shores 
and headlands where the surf beats heavily, and is rarely, if ever, 
found on sandy or muddy beaches. It is therefore much more 
restricted, as to the localities in which it may be found within our 
boundaries, than many other shore birds. The word ‘‘common’”’ used 
above was not intended in the same sense as applied, for example, 
to the Western or Least sandpipers. Even where conditions are most 
favorable seldom more than two Tattlers are in sight at one time, and 
ten or a dozen individuals are as many as would be met with in a 
day’s observation. 

The Wandering Tattler is to be distinguished by its moderate size, 
which is little greater than that of a Killdeer, its uniform slaty brown 
upper surface, and its total lack of contrasted white patches at all 
seasons on either the rump or wings. In hand, the unmottled axillars, 
and, in spring and summer, the almost completely barred under sur- 
face, are distinctive. From the two Yellow-legs, the ‘‘tattlers’’ of 
inland waters and sandy or muddy flats coastwise, the Wandering 
Tattler may be distinguished by the uniform color of its whole upper 
surface and its much shorter and darker colored legs; from the Turn- 
stones and Surf-bird, with which it is most likely to be associated in 
life, this species may be distinguished by its slenderer bill, and by the 
absence of white patches on its rump and wings; from the Plovers it 
may be told by its more slender build, and proportionally longer and 


WANDERING TATTLER 425 


slenderer bill; and from the Sandpipers by its dark, uniform-colored 
upper surface and the absence of white on its rump or wing. 

From the more or less extensive notes on the habits of this species 
made by various observers we select the following. Nelson (1887, 
p. 119) says that while he was walking along the rugged beach on 
Sanak, one of the eastern Aleutian Islands, Alaska, on May 17, 1877, 


... One of these Tattlers was started from its feeding ground on the 
wave-washed rocks, where, amid the seaweed, it found an abundance of small 
crustaceans and mollusks. As I approached it started off, uttering a loud clear, 
flute-like ti-ti-ti-ti. This is the common note they utter when startled, 
although they change it at times to a sharper sound... . During their pres- 
ence on the coast of Norton Sound they show a decided preference for the 
most rugged and rock-bound parts of the shore, rarely or never occurring else- 
where. They are unsuspicious and gentle, moving gracefully from rock to rock 
and running to the edge of the water, searching for their food. They are 
usually solitary, but three or four may be started sometimes from a small 
islet on which there is a good feeding ground. A gunshot echoing among the 
huge bowlders and cliffs about their haunts starts up those near at hand with 
mellow cries of alarm, but they either fly a short distance and renew their 
pursuits, or alight on some jutting point or top of a rock, and stand motionless, 
like gracefully-poised statuettes. ... 


Henshaw found the Wandering Tattler on Santa Cruz Island, 
California, on June 4, 1875, and writes (1876, p. 272) of it as follows: 


They appear not to be a bird of the sandy shores at all, but resort exclu- 
sively to the rocks covered with sea-weed, where they follow the tide as it 
ebbs and flows, running back and forth and picking up the minute worms and 
marine animals, of which they find a great abundance. In motions, they 
simulate exactly the little Spotted Sandpiper, and have the same curious ‘‘tip- 
up’’ motion of the body, which they indulge in at moments of rest from feed- 
ing or when attentively looking about them. They fly, too, with the same 
deliberate wing-beats, the pinions being slightly decurved, the tips pointed 
downward. Their voices are, however, wholly different, and the notes are 
very loud and harsh when compared with the smooth whistle of the other 
species. I found them usually solitary and quite watchful and full of dis- 
trust, though I found myself once or twice within a few feet of them, and 
was allowed a most excellent chance to waten their motions. 


W. E. Bryant (1888, p. 43) observed the species on the Farallon 
Islands in late July, 1886. Here 


At high tide they sat motionless upon the rocks, which they resemble in 
color, making it difficult to detect them unless flushed. When the tide was out 
they fed at the water’s edge; following a receding wave they searched hurriedly 
amongst the kelp for food, running or making short flights to eseape an incom- 
ing breaker. Seveial times a laggard was overtaken and covered by a breaker; 
when it receded he flew to the rocks and after shaking the water from his 
plumage, returned to feed. 


Dawson (1911, p. 180) spent a fortnight, from May 20 to June 3, 
1911, on the same islands. He writes: 


426 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


During the first week of our stay there were not less than teu birds of 
this species, well distributed, which quavered and teetered, or fled, as often 
as we approached the surf line. But their numbers had dwindled to two by 
June Ist. 

Contrary to earlier statements these Tattlers do spend a considerable por- 
tion of their time upon the higher ground. The tiny boulder-strewn meadow 
surrounding my earlier camp (just east of Franconia beach) was a favorite 
resting place for them, and I am inclined to think the birds spent the night 
there, for some were invariably startled upon my first appearance mornings. 

Having a common affection for the tide reefs, Wandering Tattlers are not 
infrequently found in loose association with Black Turnstones; but when put 
to flight they pay no attention whatever to the fortunes of their chance ship- 
mates, nor to others of their own kind. 


Torrey (1913, pp. 132, 133), after observations on Wandering 
Tattlers near Monterey, wrote: 


. .. One of them stood directly before me on the top of a rock, preening 
its feathers, .. . a sandpiper, with something of the look and action of both 
the spotted and the solitary. ... Sometimes it nodded in the manner of a 
plover; oftener it teetered like a spotted sandpiper; while its legs were of a 
color almost lively enough—but shading too much to olive—for the bird that 
we know as ‘‘yellowlegs.’’ 

A long while it posed there, much of the time on one leg.... Then it 
flew a short distance ... [and] went down close to the surf, where the rocks 
were thickly matted with seaweeds, and began feeding, jumping into the air 
at short intervals, as a higher wave than common threatened to carry it away. 
Once it caught a fish, or other creature, of considerable size, and seemed not 
a little excited, beating its prize violently against the rock again and again, 
and finally swallowing it with difficulty, holding its bill open for some time 
in the operation. 


The evidence which is available concerning the nesting of the 
Wandering Tattler consists solely of young birds which have been 
found with the natal down still clinging to them, and of observations of 
the behavior of adult birds on their presumed breeding grounds. A 
notable thing is that this preéminently maritime bird forsakes the 
seashore at nesting time and repairs to remote mountainous localities 
inland. Adults observed by Charles Sheldon in the vicinity of Mount 
McKinley, Alaska, flew about solicitously on the approach of the 
hunters, and at intervals lit in nearby willow trees just as do Yellow- 
legs or Willets when intruders approach their nests (Osgood, 1907, 
p. 340). In the high mountains of east-central Yukon Territory, 
Canada, September 5, 1904, Osgood (1909, p. 86) found a partly 
grown Tattler, with down still attached to the feathers of its neck. 
“Tt seemed strangely out of place, busily engaged as it was, running 
hither and thither over the small patches of gravel and stones along 
the rushing mountain stream.’’ Other individuals were seen. Joseph 
Dixon (in Grinnell, 1910, p. 377) secured an adult Tattler July 23, 


UPLAND PLOVER 427 


1908, on Montague Island, Prince William Sound, Alaska, under the 
following circumstances: 


I found the bird in a park on the mountain side at an altitude of 400 
feet. As soon as I appeared on a ridge several hundred yards from him, he 
flew into « tree and began to ‘‘tattle.’’? As I came nearer he flew out to 
meet me, scolding as he came. He flew around above me and then went back 
and lit on the very tip of a tree where he bobbed up and down. 


A half-grown young bird was obtained on this same island five 
days later. The breeding range has been defined upon the basis of 
such finds as the ones just cited; nests or eggs, if known to white men, 
have not yet been recorded in current scientific literature. 

The food of the Wandering Tattler consists of small animals found 
along the tide line or in kelp, chiefly crustaceans and small mollusks. 
It is probable that marine worms and other forms found in such 
localities are also taken. 

In California the Wandering Tattler is relatively safe from the 
hunter, and its numbers will probably remain unchanged longer than 
those of most of our other shore birds. This is due to the solitary 
habits of the species and its tendency to inhabit rocky, more or less 
inaccessible shores, and especially, the coastal islands. Its breeding 
grounds, moreover, are far removed from human infiuences, and are 
not likely to be encroached upon by settlement in the near future. 


Upland Plover 


Bartramia longicauda (Bechstein) 


OTHER NAMES—Field Plover; Bartramian Sandpiper. 

DESCRIPTION—Adults, both sexes: Whole upper surface except rump, with 
mixed pattern of dark, almost blackish, brown, and yellowish brown; this 
pattern inclines to streaking on head and neck and to barring on back, wings 
and tail; sides of head and neck light buff, streaked with blackish; chin white; 
iris ‘‘dark hazel’’; bill ‘‘yellowish-green,’’ tip ‘‘dusky,’’ edges at base 
‘“yellow’’ (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 252); rump uniform blackish brown, save that 
outermost feathers are marked with white; tail feathers (except middle pair) 
dull buff, broadly tipped with white, and crossed by irregular bars of black; 
primaries blackish brown, the outermost ones barred with white on inner 
webs; secondaries variegated like back, and with white margins; lining of 
wing and axillars white, sharply barred with dark brown; edge of wing white; 
throat and foreneck buff narrowly streaked with dark brown; breast, sides and 
flanks light buff sharply barred with dark brown; rest of lower surface white; 
feet and legs ‘‘light yellowish-grey,’’ toes ‘‘darker,’’ claws ‘‘brownish-black’’ 
(Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length (both sexes) ‘‘11.00-12.75’’ inches (279- 
324 mm); folded wing ‘‘6.50-7.00’’ (165-178); bill along culmen ‘‘1.10-1.15’’ 
(27.9-29.2); tarsus ‘41.90-2.05’’ (48.3-52.1) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 169). Juvenile 
plumage: Top and back of head brownish black with a median stripe of pinkish 
cinnamon; stripe across forehead running over eye, patch behind eye, and chin 


428 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


and throat, dull white; cheek and sides of neck, pale cinnamon; back brownish 
black with feather margins of pinkish buff or white, producing a scaled 
appearance; rump brownish black, white at sides; tail as in adult; feathers 
of outer surface of closed wing chiefly pinkish cinnamon, but with brownish 
black centers and white tips; primaries and lining of wing as in adult; fore- 
neck and upper breast pinkish cinnamon, narrowly streaked with black; rest 
of breast and belly white; sides pinkish cinnamon barred with brownish black. 
Natal plumage: Upper surface black, white and reddish brown in fine mixed 
pattern; distinct stripe from base of bill over top of head, black; side of head 
and chin, white; bill (dried) yellowish brown, dusky along top of upper 
mandible; band across chest, yellowish brown; rest of under surface white; 
legs and feet (dried) dull yellow. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION-—Moderately large size (decidedly larger 
than Killdeer), long neck and slender bill, general mixed buffy and brown 
color above, blackish rump, and absence of contrasting white areas; found 
mainly in pastures and old fields away from water, even when near seashore 
(Forbush, 1912, p. 315). 

Voice—‘‘ Alarm, quip-ip-ip-ip, quip-ip-ip-ip (Langille). Quitty-quit-tt-it 
(Knight). A soft bubbling whistle; song, a prolonged, weird, mournful, 
mellow whistle, chr-r-r-r-r-ee-e-e-e-e-€-00-0-0-0-00 (Langille). Wh-o-e-e-et-et-e-e-e 
é-€-€-0-0-0-000 (Richard)’’ (Forbush, loc. cit.). 

Nest—In dry pasture lands or in wet, even boggy, meadows (Barrows, 
1912, p. 196); usually a mere depression, sometimes sparingly lined with grasses 
and usually hidden by surrounding herbage (several authors). 

Eees—4, bluntly pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.65 to 1.97 by 1.22 to 
1.34 (in millimeters, 42.0 to 50.0 by 31.0 to. 34.0), and averaging 1.77 by 1.28 
(45.0 by 32.5) (sixty-six eggs in U. 8. National Museum); ground-color pale 
olive-buff to cinnamon-buff, superficial spots, rounded, snuff brown and choco- 
late, deeper ones of violet gray and lilac gray; spots more numerous or con- 
fluent at larger end. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds from north- 
western Alaska, southern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, central Wisconsin, 
southern Michigan, southern Ontario, and southern Maine, south to southern 
Oregon, northern Utah, central Oklahoma, southern Missouri, southern Indiana 
and northern Virginia; winters on the pampas of South America to Argentina. 
In migration has occurred north to Newfoundland; casual in California (A. O. U. 
Check-list, 1910, p. 123). 

DisTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—One instance of occurrence: A single bird 
taken at Tule [—Rhett] Lake, Modoc County, August 8, 1896 (Cooke, 1910, 


p. 65). 


The Upland Plover has been recorded but once from California, 
a single bird having been taken by Vernon Bailey of the United States 
Bureau of Biological Survey at Tule [=Rhett] Lake, Modoc County, 
August 8, 1896 (Cooke, 1910, p. 65). The species is here included in 
order to complete the list of game birds which have been found within 
the state, and also to enable persons capturing additional specimens to 
recognize the bird and so to be apprized of its status. It is not 
unlikely that close observation in the northeastern corner of the state 
would show the regular presence there of this species at certain seasons. 


UPLAND PLOVER 429 


The Upland Plover, Field Plover, or Bartramian Sandpiper, as 
this bird is variously called in the East, is as its common names 
indicate, an inhabitant chiefly of the upland fields and meadows 
rather than of the seashore, as are so many others of its kin. In 
various portions of its range it is well known to prefer the drier 
ground of meadows and prairies. Eaton (1910, p. 333) says of these 
birds in New York state: ‘‘Their carriage is light and graceful, they 
run with great swiftness through the rows of stubble to escape from 
intrusion, or crouch motionless in the grass until the enemy is 
dangerously near, when they spring into the air and fly swiftly away, 
often passing entirely out of sight before alighting, but uttering a 
mellow whistle as they go... .’’ That the birds are extremely wary 
as indicated in the account just quoted, is the concensus of opinion 
among recent writers generally. It would seem that this wariness has 
been acquired by the species since man first began to hunt it, for its 
range lies almost altogether in territory that has come under close 
settlement and cultivation by man. In earlier days it was not difficult 
to get within gun-shot range of them. On the more open prairie land 
of the middle West a favorite method of hunting nowadays is from 
a wagon or on horseback; the birds are accustomed to farm vehicles 
and do not apprehend any danger when the huntsman approaches in 
this manner. 

Florence Merriam Bailey (1915, p. 177) writes of her experiences 
in North Dakota as follows: 


Another characteristic bird of the prairies of which I saw all too little 
was the Upland Plover. One parent whom we passed when driving stood 
high in the prairie grass looking at us while just the head of its young one 
showed above the grass. Another plover surprised me, standing not on the 
ground but on top of a telephone pole, its round head and trim body mounted 
high on its long legs—true wader of meadows! On another day a guarding 
parent appeared in the blue sky ahead of us as we drove slowly up a long 
slope. Down it came toward us, its long wings on the down stroke giving it a 
curious wishbone figure. Down it came, though not concerned with us as it 
proved, for, passing by, it took a wide sky circle on fluttering wings—while 
a Marsh Hawk heedless of its secret went serenely on its way looking for 
meadow mice. When the plover’s liquid note is heard, or the big birds come 
out of the sky to drop to earth, they give a rare thrill of pleasure. . . . Lovely 
birds! They go well with the big clean prairie—dividing their time between 
earth and sky. 


The Bartramian Sandpiper in its eastern range, conceals its nest 
in the thick grass of a meadow, or under a tussock in a pasture or 
waste field. The bird is rarely or never seen on the ground in the 
vicinity of the nest, and will not leave it until almost trodden upon 
(Eaton, 1910, p. 333). Barrows (1912, p. 196) states that in Michi- 
gan it often nests in the drier parts of wet, boggy, snipe-inhabited 


430 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


meadows. The nest is a mere depression in the grass, more or less 
concealed, and lined with grasses. The four eggs, which are bluntly 
pear-shaped, are, relative to the size of the bird, quite large, their 
size averaging in inches, 1.78 by 1.28. The ground-color varies from 
a pale olive buff to cinnamon buff; the superficial spots, which are 
more numerous and often confluent about the larger end, are snuff 
brown or chocolate, and the deeper ones are violet gray and lilac 
gray. 


This beautiful bird like most members of the Snipe family executes a 
peculiar performance in the mating season. The bird mounts high in the air, 
or alights on a knoll, ‘‘a fence, or even a tree, and utters a prolonged mournful 
mellow whistle, more like the wind than like a bird’s voice, which may be 
heard even in the night, and is one of the most weird and never to be forgotten 
sounds in nature’’... the notes rapidly rising and swelling, then slowly 
falling and dying away into a hollow windlike whistle. ... The young follow 
their parents as soon as hatched, and the old birds evince considerable distress 
when the young are molested, often fluttering along the ground, feigning lame- 
ness, or a broken wing, after the manner of a Killdeer, to draw the intruder 
away from the site (Eaton, 1910, pp. 332-333). 

This bird is a valuable ally of the farmer. It feeds on locusts, grass- 
hoppers, cutworms, and other enemies of grass and other crops. During the 
Locust invasions in Nebraska Professor Aughey found this species among 
the most useful in destroying the insects and saving the crops, for at that 
time it was abundant and correspondingly useful. It came in large flocks 
in spring and did great service on locust-infested farms (Forbush, 1912, 
p. 319). 


McAtee (1911a) states that the Upland Plover feeds on crane-fly 
larvae, the cotton worm and cotton cutworm, boll-weevil, clover-leaf 
weevil, cowpea weevil, clover-root curculio, bill-bugs, wireworms, corn- 
leaf beetle, and grapevine colaspis. 

While this species is at present of no importance in California, 
either agriculturally or from a game standpoint, its capture within 
our borders has considerable scientific interest. Hunters securing 
specimens in the future should communicate their finds to some 
scientific institution or journal, after having made very sure of the 
identification. As previously intimated, there is some likelihood that 
the Upland Plover really reaches with some regularity the elevated 
northeastern section of the state, where the one example was found. 
Conditions there may even be growing more favorable for the bird 
as a result of irrigation and the extension of meadow country. 


SPOTTED SANDPIPER 431 


Spotted Sandpiper 


Actitis macularia (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Tip-up; Teeter; Teeter-tail; Tringoides macularius; Totanus 
macularius. 

DEscripTIoN—Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Whole upper 
surface, including rump, tail, and outer surface of closed wing, olive brown, 
with faint greenish iridescence; head indistinctly streaked, and whole back 
barred and streaked with sooty brown; stripe from upper mandible through 
eye, and whole lower side of head, white, flecked with blackish brown, most 
sparingly on chin; eyelids white; bill dull yellow, dusky at tip; iris ‘‘hazel’’ 
(Audubon, 1842, V, p. 308); outer tail feathers barred with light brown and 
white; flight feathers dull dark brown, the primaries with white patches on 
inner webs near base and the secondaries tipped narrowly with white; edge 
of wing mottled with olive brown and white; forward lining of wing, and 
axillars, pure white; hindmost under wing coverts and flight feathers, dusky; 
whole under surface of body white, everywhere marked with rounded spots 
of brownish black; legs greenish gray; feet and ‘‘heel’’ yellow; nails black. 
Adults and immatures, both sexes, in late fall, winter and early spring: Upper 
surface of same general color as in summer, but without markings save for 
blackish shaft lines; under surface dull white, sides of neck and chest suffused 
with drab and with darker shaft lines; flanks and lower tail coverts sometimes 
faintly spotted. Males: Total length 6.74-7.75 inches (171-197 mm.) (ten 
specimens); folded wing 3.66-3.96 (93.0-100.3); bill along culmen 0.79-1.01 
(20.2-25.6); tarsus 0.86-0.98 (21.8-24.9) (ten specimens). Females: Total 
length 7.12-8.40 (181-213) (six specimens); folded wing 4.00-4.20 (101.5- 
106.7); bill along culmen 0.89-0.98 (22.5-24.8); tarsus 0.93-0.98 (23.7-25.0) 
(ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Whole upper surface 
olive brown with faint greenish iridescence, the feathers tipped narrowly with 
buff followed by black, giving a scaled appearance, and with dark brown shaft 
lines; eyelids and stripe from upper mandible to eye, white; outer surface of 
elosed wing narrowly but sharply barred with blackish brown and light buffy; 
rest of wing, and tail, as in adult; sides of neck and chest, washed with drab, 
and faintly barred with dusky; rest of under surface, white. By wear this 
plumage becomes nearly indistinguishable from that of adults during mid- 
winter. Natal plumage: Stripe from top of upper mandible over top of head 
and down along middle of back to tail, black; top of head at side of black 
stripe, mixed buffy white and black, in fine pattern; narrow but distinct stripe 
from side of bill through eye to ear region, black; lower side of head and 
chin, silky white; rest of upper surface including tail and wing, mixed buffy 
white and black; whole under surface white; bill greenish yellow. 

Marks FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Small size (but larger than Least or 
Western Sandpiper), uniform brown upper surface, white streak on wing, and 
(in spring and summer) sharp rounded blackish spots on white under surface; 
flies with narrow down-curved wings, rarely raising them above level of back; 
when on ground teeters almost incessantly. From the Solitary Sandpiper, often 
found in similar situations, it differs in slightly smaller size, yellowish rather 
than greenish legs, white bar on wing (shown in flight), white sides and axillars, 
and (in adults in spring and summer) in the sharp spotting of whole under 
surface. 


432 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


VoiceE—A clear high-pitched wheet, wheet, wheet, uttered six or seven times 
at half-second intervals, often: with descending inflection; also pr-r-r-r-ret, or 
ter-r-r-r-ret. ; 

Nest—On gravelly ground usually in close vicinity of water, or else in 
wet meadow; a slight depression. sparsely lined with grasses and plant stems; 
or altogether lacking any special lining. 

Eces—4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.24 to 1.37. by 0.87-to 0.97 (in 
millimeters, 31.5 to 34.7 by 22.2 to 24.8), and averaging 1.28 by 0.93 (32.6 by 
23.6) (six sets, 24 eggs, from California and Alaska); ground-color pale cream 
or varying shades of buff; superficial spots reddish or blackish brown, varying 
in size from that of a-pin-point to 0.12 inch (3 mm.) or more in diameter, 
usually larger and more numerous about larger end where they are often 
aggregated into blotches; deeper markings lavender or pale gray and usually 
small. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds on the north to 
Newfoundland, northern Ungava, northern Mackenzie and the Kowak Valley, 
Alaska, and on the south to northern South Carolina, central Alabama, southern 
Louisiana, central Texas, southern New Mexico, central Arizona, and south- 
central California; winters from southern California, Louisiana and South 
Carolina south to central Peru and southern Brazil (modified from A. O. U. 
Check-list, 1910, p. 124). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Abundant migrant in suitable localities through- 
out the state; also winters in moderate numbers along rocky portions of the 
seacoast and adjacent island shores from Santa Barbara southward. Remains 
through the summer and breeds locally in the Sierras as far south at least as 
Cottonwood Lakes (11,000 feet altitude), Inyo County (Mus. Vert. Zool.), and 
in the lake region east of the Sierran divide from Alpine County northward 
to the Oregon line. Breeds also, but more sparingly and locally, along larger 
streams of the coast region south as far as Santa Paula, Ventura County 
(Willett, 1912a, p. 39).. Spring migration apparently occurs in late April, May 
and June, and fall.migration from mid-July into September. A few scattered 
individuals winter in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. 


The Spotted Sandpiper is one of the most widely distributed of 
North American shore birds. Indeed it has a more extensive breed- 
ing range than has any other American shore bird, in this respect 
rivaling the Killdeer. To many people, the Tip-up or Teeter-tail as 
this well-known bird is often called, is one of the most familiar of water 
birds. The sandy shores ‘of inland or even mountain streams and 
lakes, and the rocky seacoast, seem equally to attract it at various times 
of the year. At times, especially during the summer, it may be 
observed in distinctly dry situations such as a meadow, or on freshly 
plowed ground, but this is exceptional. From many of its relatives 
the Spotted Sandpiper differs markedly in being quite solitary. It 
is found singly or in pairs rather than in flocks, though in the late 
summer and fall while the young are yet dependent, family flocks 
of at most five or six birds are to be noted. 

Throughout most of the lowland areas of California this bird is 
but a migrant, but in the coastal district from Santa Barbara south- 
eastward it occurs in limited numbers during the winter months. 


SPOTTED 'SANDPIPER 433 


Occasional individuals winter in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley, 
as at Marysville, Butte County, December 25,.1911 (C. and J. Muller, 
1912, p. 43) ; in Amador County, February 2, 1896; at, Modesto, Stani- 
slaus County, February 12, 1910 (specimens in Mailliard coll.) ; and 
at Stockton, November 25 (Belding, MS). The spring migration 
probably occurs during late April, May, and possibly the early part 
of June, although definite information in this regard is almost entirely 
lacking. Some dates of first appearance are: Pasadena, April 21, 
1897 (Grinnell, 1898, p. 18) ; Monterey, April 16, 1913 (Howell, MS) ; 
Mendota, Fresno County, April 4, 1914 (Tyler, MS); and Ukiah, 
between April 24 and May 1, 1889 (McGregor, 1896, p. 129). Beld- 
ing (MS) states that it arrives at Stockton about the first of May 
(April 27, in one instance), while nests with eggs have been found in 
the Sierras during the last week in May. The fall migration probably 
begins about the middle of July, as Grinnell (1908, p. 56) secured a 
bird of the year, evidently a migrant, at Dry Lake, San Bernardino 
Mountains, July 15, 1905; but the bulk of the birds do not leave the 
breeding grounds until decidedly later, judging by the available nest- 
ting data. Belding (MS) states that the species usually disappears 
from the vicinity of Stockton about the first of October. The same 
observer noted a pair of birds which were possibly summering in the 
lowlands at Oroville, Butte County, July 1, 1885, and another pair 
on a sand bar of the Feather River in the same vicinity, July 3, 1885 
(Belding, MS). Along the coast north of Santa Barbara it must be 
considered a rather rare species, having been. observed only three 
times at Monterey, once at Berkeley, May 9, 1885 (T. S. Palmer, in 
Belding, MS), and at Eureka, August 3, 1910 (Dixon, MS). About 
water-holes far out on the desert the Spotted Sandpiper appears as a 
migrant during both fall and spring. Lamb (1912, p. 35) reports 
it from near Daggett, San Bernardino County, August 5 and October 
11, 1910, and again in numbers for several days after April 16, 1911. 

The Spotted Sandpiper can be distinguished from other shore birds 
by its small size, almost uniformly colored brown upper surface (in- 
eluding rump), the white streak on its spread wing, and the exten- 
sively white under surface with (in spring and summer) sharp 
rounded blackish spots. In flight the wings are distinctly curved down 
toward the tips and rarely raised above the level of the back; while 
the course pursued is usually semicircular, and there is no undulating 
or zigzagging as with many sandpipers. The few characters just 
given will be sufficient to distinguish this species from all other shore 
birds occurring in California. 

The eall-note of the Spotted Sandpiper is a clear musical wheet, 
uttered six or seven times at half-second intervals, often with a 
descending inflection ; also, as when excited, a pr-r-r-r-ret, or ter-r-r-r- 


434 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


ret. The notes are usually uttered when one bird meets another of 
its kind, as when flying along a stream. The first note may be heard 
for a distance af half a mile or more and reminds one of the short 
repeated whistle which a person often uses to call a dog. 

When in its most usual habitat, which is on open sand flats or 
gravel bars adjacent to streams or lakes, the Spotted Sandpiper 
employs its time searching for the various small insects, other animals, 
and plants which comprise its food. While gleaning its food or other- 
wise occupied it stops for a moment every now and then to ‘‘teeter.’’ 
This movement is described by Stearns and Coues (1883, p. 242) as 
follows: 


As often as the ... [bird] stops in its pursuit of insects, the fore part 
of the body is lowered a little, the head drawn in, the legs slightly bent, 
whilst the hinder parts and tail are alternately hoisted with a peculiar jerk, 
and drawn down again, with the regularity of clock-work. The movement is 
more conspicuous in the upward than in the downward part of the performance; 
as if the tail were spring-hinged, in constant danger of flying up, and needed 
constant presence of mind to keep it down. It is amusing to see an old male 
in the breeding season busy with this operation. Upon some rock jutting out 
of the water he stands, swelling with amorous pride and self-sufficiency, puffing 
out his plumage till he looks twice as big as natural, facing about on his 
narrow pedestal, and bowing with his hinder parts to all points of the compass. 


Another marked peculiarity of the Spotted Sandpiper is its man- 
ner of flight. If disturbed from a location on the bank it does not 
fly directly up or down stream away from the source of danger but 
indulges in a semicircular flight, skimming out over the water and 
back to the same bank some distance farther on. If, after the danger 
is gone, the bird desires to return to its original location it does so 
over the same circling course and not by the shortest direct route. 
Individuals have a tendency to remain in the same locality and even 
if frightened away will repeatedly return to it. 

While it is often seen feeding or running about the shore during 
the day the Spotted Sandpiper would seem to be also somewhat 
nocturnal. Barrows (1912, p. 203) says: ‘‘The Spotted Sandpiper 
feeds until late in the evening, and possibly is more or less nocturnal, 
since its notes are frequently heard at night when it cannot be migrat- 
ing.’’ Belding (1879, p. 441) says: ‘‘A bird of this species nightly 
visited a pond in the rear of the hotel at Murphy’s [Calaveras County] 
in September, 1878. It came about dusk, after the Swallows and 
Fly-catchers had retired and Bats had taken their places, and circled 
over the water as if catching flies, although it never made an abrupt 
curve or checked its rapid flight. It kept usually about three feet 
from the water, but went as high as six or eight feet occasionally.’’ 


SPOTTED SANDPIPER 435 


Several observers record the ability of this bird to swim when 
forced to do so, as is the case with many other shore birds. Indi- 
viduals of this species have also been seen diving under water. For- 
bush (1912, p. 323)-gives the following account of such a performance: 
“In September, 1876, I saw a wounded bird of this species when pur- 
sued, dive into deep water from the shore of the Charles River [Massa- 
chusetts] and fly off under water, using its wings somewhat as a bird 
would use them in the air. All its plumage was covered with bubbles 
of air, which caught the light until the bird appeared as if studded 
with sparkling gems as it sped away into the depth of the dark river.’’ 

Three Spotted Sandpipers were closely observed by Grinnell (MS) 
along the Merced River in Yosemite Valley early in June, 1915. They 
moved about in the shallow water at the edge of the river or on the 
gravel never farther than a foot or two from the water, walking 
rapidly a few steps, and then stopping suddenly to secure some bits of 
food sighted among the pebbles. While a bird was thus occupied the 
hinder portion of the body was continually bobbed up and down at 
regular intervals of a second or two, and while it was walking the 
head underwent a rapid fore-and-aft movement in unison with the 
tread of the feet. Two of the birds seemed by their actions to be 
males, and as this was just at the beginning of the mating season 
there was considerable rivalry between them. After much maneuver- 
ing, one of these birds pitched in and drove the other away. Mean- 
while the third individual, presumably a female, fed about uncon- 
cernedly in the vicinity. After routing his rival the successful suitor 
approached the female and strutted about her, holding his body in a 
peculiarly erect posture and partially spreading his wings and tail. 
The object of his attentions held shyly aloof, with the feathers of her 
body closely appressed giving her a smart, trim appearance. She 
gave no other indication that his presence or actions were in any way 
noticed, except that now and then the barred outer feathers of her 
tail were slightly spread apart. 

On their nesting grounds Spotted Sandpipers not infrequently 
perch on objects well above the ground, such as clods of earth, 
boulders, and fence posts. Such stations, however, are not long held, 
as the birds are of a nervous temperament, and must keep moving, 
especially at this critical period of the year. 

Nesting records of the Spotted Sandpiper in California are fairly 
numerous. The breeding range extends southward at least to Santa 
Paula, Ventura County, where sets of eggs have been taken in May, 
1892 and 1900 (Willett, 1912a, p. 39). Although this species usually 
nests at considerable altitudes in California there are, in addition 
to the Santa Paula records, at least two records for altitudes of 2,000 
feet or less. Belding (MS) records nesting at Murray Creek, near 


436 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


San Andreas, Calaveras County, at 1,000 feet, and Bolander (1907, 
p. 26) took sets of eggs at Lime Kiln, a little east of Spenceville, 
Nevada County. From these foothill localities the species ranges up 
in the Sierras almost to timber line, downy young having been taken 
at Cottonwood Lakes, Inyo County, August 25, 1911 (specimens in 
Mus. Vert. Zool.). Most of the recorded nestings have been from the 
vicinity of Lake Tahoe and northward in the elevated lake region 
northeast of the Sierran divide. The nesting season extends from 
May (Willett, loc. cit.) through July, as Belding (MS) found fresh 
eggs at Summit, Placer County, July 20, 1889; and the young birds 
(in Mus. Vert. Zool.) taken at Cottonwood Lakes, Inyo County, on 
August 25, 1911, were but half grown. June, chiefly the latter half 
of the month, marks the height of the nesting season, as the bulk 
of the records fall during that period. 

Nests of the Spotted Sandpiper occupy a variety of situations. 
Rocky.or gravelly shores of some mountain or foothill stream, sandy 
river bars inland, fresh water marshes, or the drier fields adjacent, 
may be chosen. Often the eggs are placed in the shelter of a small 
bunch of grass, or a tree; again they may lie fully exposed among 
pebbles on the shore. When the latter type of situation is chosen 
there may be no lining whatever to the nest, but if the nest is in a 
field or marsh considerable lining material in the form of grasses and 
weed stems is the rule. Usually a slight.surface depression is selected 
for the site. 

The eggs are, so far as known, always four in a complete set, and 
measure 1.24 to 1.386 inches in length by 0. 87 to 0.97 along the shorter 
axis, the average being 1.28 by 0.93. The ground-color varies from 
a pale cream to a rather deep buff, with superficial spots of reddish 
or blackish brown and deeper ones of pale gray. The superficial spots 
are usually more numerous and larger about the larger end of the 
egg, and may sometimes be fused into large blotches. Deeper pur- 
plish gray markings are also noticeable. From the eggs of other shore 
birds of approximately the same size, and which nest in California, 
those of the Spotted Sandpiper may be distinguished as follows: 
from eggs of the Killdeer by their distinctly smaller size, from those 
of the Wilson Phalarope by less profuse markings and the brownish 
rather than blackish cast of the superficial spots. Eggs of the Snowy 
Plover are decidedly smaller in size, much paler in color effect, and 
less pointedly pear-shaped, than those of the Spotted Sandpiper. 

The two sexes participate in the duty of incubation. When fiushed- 
from the nest, the bird flutters away as if wounded, uttering feeble 
peeping notes (L. Kellogg, MS). Instances are related of old birds 
carrying downy young to places of safety by grasping them between 
their thighs, or in their bills (Bartsch, 1901, pp. 143ff.). 


SPOTTED SANDPIPER 437 


The young run about with remarkable ease and swiftness almost 
as soon as they are out of their shells. When danger approaches 
they immediately, upon an alarm signal from their parents, run and 
hide themselves, squatting close to the ground, and there remain per- 
fectly immovable, resembling small drab-colored stones, each with a 
single streak of black down the middle. If a young bird finds itself 
discovered, and an attempt is made to take it, it runs with great 
celerity, uttering the most plaintive cries. 

At the same time the parents exhibit symptoms of distress and 
counterfeit lameness with great skill (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 
1884, I, p. 304). 

A brood of three downy young of this species was observed in the 
edge of the pine woods at Tenaya Lake, Yosemite National Park, on 
July 29, 1915. Even at this early age they displayed the bobbing 
movement of the hinder parts which is so characteristic of the adults, 
and performed it every few seconds as they ran through the grass; at 
longer intervals the whole head and fore parts were bobbed abruptly 
upwards in the manner of a Willet (Storer, MS). 

At Redondo, Los Angeles County, December 7, 1913, Law (1914, 
p. 93) took three Spotted Sandpipers ail of which had parts of the 
feet or legs amputated. This observer suggests that the mutilation 
may be due to the birds having been seized by crabs and that the feet 
were twisted off in their efforts to escape. Of course mussels may 
equally well have been the cause of the trouble. 

Insects constitute the chief element of the food of the Spotted 
Sandpiper when inland. These include beetles, green flies, May flics, 
grasshoppers, cutworms, army worms, cabbage worms, and ants. The 
stomach of a downy young examined by Beal contained a small spider, 
a small caterpillar, 2 tiny wasps, 2 bugs, several aquatic beetles, 7 
weevils, and several larval and 10 adult carabid beetles (Judd, 1901, 
p. 433). 

While the fact that the Spotted Sandpiper in California rarely 
visits cultivated ground prevents giving the bird positive credit as a 
pest-destroyer, it is at least harmless. Neither can it be argued that 
the species is in danger of extinction; its range is broad, and even 
in many well settled regions it holds its own. Yet its small size pre- 
cludes it being considered proper game, either for sport or for the 
table. Rather should it be given complete protection along with the 
other diminutive members of its family. ‘Its presence’ adds a lively 

- touch to the landscape. : 


438 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Long-billed Curlew 


Numenius americanus Bechstein 


OTHER NAMES—Brown Curlew; Sickle-bill; Sickle-billed Curlew; Curve-bill; 
Daddy-long-legs; Wheu-bird; Numenius americanus americanus ; Numenius longi- 
rostris. 

DeEscription—Adults, both sexes: Top and sides of head and neck, pale cinna- 
mon brown, streaked with blackish brown, most heavily on crown; stripe from, 
base of upper mandible over eye and eyelids, light cinnamon, nearly or quite 
unstreaked; chin and throat clear pinkish white; bill dusky brown paling to 
dull fiesh color on basal half of lower mandible; iris deep hazel brown; whole 
back, upper tail coverts, tail, and outer surface of closed wing, coarsely and 
irregularly barred or spotted with blackish brown on a light pinkish cinnamon 
ground; outer webs of outer primaries and their coverts, blackish brown; shaft 
of outermost primary ivory white; inner. flight feathers like back but with 
more cinnamon; under wing coverts and axillars, pinkish cinnamon sparsely flecked 
with dusky; under surfaces of flight feathers, pale cinnamon, narrowly barred 
with dusky; ground color of whole under surface of body pinkish cinnamon, 
lightest on belly; foreneck and chest streaked, and sides and flanks barred, 
with blackish brown, these markings few and narrow; feet and legs, light olive 
gray, slightly darker at joints; nails blackish. Males: Total length 20.60-22.50 
inches (523-572 mm.) (five specimens from Arizona and California); folded 
wing 9.85-10.48 (250-266); bill along culmen 5.30-5.55 (134.5-140.9); tarsus 
3.18-3.21 (80.8-81.5) (two specimens from California). Females: Total length 
23.60-25.75 (600-653) (five specimens from New Mexico and California); folded 
wing 10.71-11.41 (272-290); bill along culmen 5.00-7.12 (127.0-180.5); tarsus 
3.11-3.63 (79.0-92.2) (six specimens from California). Juvenile plumage: Similar 
to that of adults. Natal plumage: Ground-color of upper surface pale ochre 
yellow, with irregular scattered markings of brownish black; bill about as long 
as head, dusky; ground color of under surface pale orange yellow, lightest on 
chin and side of neck; legs and feet (dried) pale greenish brown. Bill notably 
down-curved in adults, but straight in downy young. 

MarRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size (largest shore bird occurring 
in California), long, down-curved, or sickle-shaped bill (fig. 73), and distinctly 
pinkish brown coloration without contrasting white or black areas. Distinguished 
from Hudsonian Curlew by larger size, proportionately longer bill, pinkish tone 
of coloration, and unbarred under wing coverts and axillars; from Marbled 
Godwit by larger size and longer, down-curved instead of up-curved bill; from 
White-faced Glossy Ibis (‘‘Black Curlew’’) by pinkish brown rather than deep 
reddish brown plumage (so dark as to appear black at a distance). 

Vorce—A startling loud cur-lew’, cur-lew’, cur-lew’ with a harsh quality. 

Nest—Usually in dry situations, on open, usually grassy meadow or prairie 
land; a slight depression lined with dried grasses and weeds. 

Eees—Normally 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, from 2.42 to 2.70 by 
1.82 to 2.00 (in millimeters, 61.5 to 68.5 by 46.3 to 50.8) (averages of two sets, 
eight eggs, from Montana); ground-color varying shades of light greenish 
olive; superficial markings of dark umber, chocolate and blackish (Silloway, 
1900, pp. 80, 82), with deeper-lying markings. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and Middle America. Breeds north to central 
British Columbia, southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan and southern Mani- 
toba, south to Oklahoma, northwestern Texas, central New Mexico, southern 


LONG-BILLED CURLEW 439 


Arizona, and northeastern California; winters from South Carolina, Florida, 
southern Louisiana and Texas, southern Arizona, and central California south 
to Guatemala (modified from Cooke, 1910, p. 70). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common spring and fall migrant over the 
whole state, except in the northwestern coast district and higher southern 
Sierras. Winters west of the Sierras from the Mexican line north at least as 
far as the latitude of San Francisco and occasionally to the head of the Sacra- 
mento Valley; also east of the Sierras in the vicinity of Owens Lake; breeds 
in the elevated northeastern portion of the state, west at least to Butte Valley, 
Siskiyou County; observed in the San Joaquin Valley during June, though such 
birds have not been shown to be breeding. 


The Long-billed Curlew is the largest shore bird found in North 
America, and this, together with the fact that its flesh is highly prized 
by many as an article of food, has made it one of the most sought after 
species of American game birds. Its large size makes it a conspicuous 
mark for gunners, so that its numbers have been greatly reduced 
within the past fifty years. In addition, the species does not have 
the protection of a far northern breeding ground as is the case with 
so many of its kind, its nesting grounds being almost entirely within 
the area which has been taken up for agricultural purposes in the 
northern United States and southern Canada. Because it is a promi- 
nent species in any region where it occurs, the Long-billed Curlew 
has received many colloquial names. The long curved bill has given 
rise to such names as Sickle-bill, Sickle-billed Curlew and Curve-bill, 
while its long legs merit the name Daddy-long-legs, and its prolonged 
call-note has given the appellation of Wheu-bird. 

Long-billed Curlews are present in California throughout the year, 
but not continually in any one locality. During the winter the species 
is present in the San Joaquin Valley north to Stockton and oceasion- 
ally to the head of the Sacramento Valley (Belding, MS), while 
along the seacoast it occurs at the same season at least as far north 
as the latitude of San Francisco, and east of the Sierras has been 
recorded in December at Owens Lake (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 24). 
It has not yet been reported in winter from the deserts of south- 
eastern California, although during the same season, it does occur 
in fair numbers in the coastal district of southern California west of 
the mountains. 

In southern California northward migration oceurs chiefly during 
April (Willett, 19124, p. 39). Fall migration sets in during July, 
as birds of this species were observed off Monterey, July 17, 1894 
(Loomis, 1895, p. 189) and during the same month at San Pedro 
(Cooper in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 312); but they 
do not seem to reach inland spots such as the shores of San Francisco 
Bay until August or September (W. E. Bryant in Belding, MS; Grin- 
nell and Storer, MS). Summering individuals have been found in the 


440 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


San Joaquin Valley during June (Gold- 
man, 1908b, p. 203; Lamb and Howell, 
1913, p. 116; J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 16) ; 
there is but one definite nesting record for the 
species in California: Butte Valley, Siskiyou 
County (Feilner, 1865, p. 423), although birds 
seen at Goose Lake, Modoc County, June 3, 
1910, were probably nesting (W. P. Taylor, 
MS). i 

Size is in itself usually sufficient to dis- 
tinguish the Long-billed Curlew from other 
shore birds occurring in California. In addi- 
tion the very long, sickle-shaped bill (fig. 73) 
and distinctly pinkish cinnamon coloration, 
without conspicuous barring on under wing 
coverts, the total lack of contrasting black and 
white, and the startlingly shrill cur-lew’, cur- 
lew’ call-note are useful in field identification. 
The only species of waders occurring in Cali- 
fornia with which the Long-billed ‘Curlew 
might be confused are the Hudsonian Curlew, 
Marbled Godwit,, and ‘‘Black Curlew”’ 
(White-faced Glossy Ibis), all birds of fairly 
large size. From the first it is distinguished 
by larger size, much longer bill (compare 
fig. 74), pinkish rather than grayish colora- 
tion, and unbarred under wing coverts. From 
the Godwit it is separable by larger size, and 
a distinctly down-curved instead of slightly 
up-curved bill. From the Ibis it may be 
known by its pinkish brown rather than black- 
appearing coloration. 

Although in structure a typical shore bird, 
the Long-billed Curlew seems to be equally 
at home on the sandy ocean beach, the salt 
or fresh water marsh, the inland meadow, or 
the dry prairie of the interior. In any of 
these habitats at the right season it is to be 
met with in small flocks of from four or five 
to a dozen or twenty individuals. Formerly, 
before it had been extensively hunted for the 
market, larger flocks were commonly met with 
in the winter time, but these are of infrequent 
occurrence nowadays. Beck (MS) records 


‘az{S [BANJEN “MOTND Pol[tq-SuoT apeutoz Fo [II Jo opig “EL “SLT 


N 
aS 
@ 
o 
XN 


LONG-BILLED.CURLEW 441 


seeing about 500 birds of this species at Los Bafios, Merced County, 
on January 3, 1912, but does not state whether they were all in one 
flock; this is the only record known to the writers of large numbers 
being seen at one locality in this state during recent years. On August 
5, 1910, near Cedarville, Modoc County, W. P. -Taylor (MS) noted 
about twenty of these birds scattered about over the fields which 
were covered in part with shallow water. The birds flushed at very 
long range, flying slowly, and continually uttered their insistent call- 
notes. 

Newberry (1857, p. 99) relates of this curlew that in his march 
through the Sacramento Valley and northward -he did not meet with 
it until he had crossed the main Sierras and had come down into the 
plains bordering the Pit River above the upper ecafion. He says: 
““Here [the first week of August, 1855] we found them in immense 
numbers, and they formed a valuable addition to our bill of fare. This 
prairie is entirely covered with water during the wet season, as is 
proven by the myriads of aquatic shells . . . scattered over the ground 
in the grass; and as it does not dry up so completely as the other 
valleys, the curlews.apparently pass the summer there.”’ 

On the marsh or tide flats the Long-billed Curlew as it probes for 
food, mingles freely with other shore birds of large and small size. 
The long bill and legs enable it to work for its food in places covered 
by several inches of water and give it a larger feeding area along the 
shore than is available to. many of the smaller waders. Birds observed 
by the authors September 26, 1914, on the Alameda County shores 
of San Francisco Bay were mingling with Marbled Godwits, Western 
Willets, and Long-billed Dowitchers. The Long-bills stood viewing 
“us with one eye, and with their bodies always turned sideways, as 
though keeping in position to fly away should danger threaten. On 
this date a mixed flock of Godwits, Willets and Long-bills aggregating 
forty individuals came flying along the beach. One of the curlews 
being shot the flock swung about and returned, repeating this 
maneuver twice and keeping up a deafening chorus of calls. The 
wounded bird attracted the attention of several of the curlews which 
flew down and hovered close above it. This suggests how pot-hunters: 
may have readily decimated the flocks of earlier days. The flight of 
the Long-bill is easy and graceful, with slow regular wing-beats. 

Heermann who observed this species here during the middle of 
the last century says (1859, p. 66): 


These birds arrive in flocks in California [in the central valleys] during 
September, resorting to the fields and open prairies, where they find an 
abundant supply of insects. Wild in their nature, always on the alert, and 
the prairie offering no undulations behind which the hunter can approach 
unseen, they are one of the most difficult game birds to secure. Their first 


442 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


whistle of alarm startles at once the whole flock, which, taking to wing, 
speeds away a long distance before again settling down. Abundant in fall 
and winter, they migrate to the northern regions in spring for the purposes 
of incubation. 


The following account of the habits of the Long-billed Curlew 
is condensed from that by Wickersham (1902, pp. 353-356) who 
observed the species on the southeastern coast of the United States 
and in the southern Mississippi Valley. Along the seacoast these 
birds spend the day on sandy flats left bare by the receding tides and 
here probe for the worms and other forms of animal life which con- 
_ stitute their food. In the interior their habits are quite different. 
Here they live on open prairie land, often far from water. While 
feeding the birds bob up and down at intervals. As evening ap- 
proaches they become more restless, bobbing up and down more fre- 
quently and more rapidly, feeding is suspended, the birds jump from 
the ground with a loud whistle and fly to join others, and together 
they go to some distant marsh or pond. When the resting place is 
approached the leader whistles and is answered by the members of 
the flock; then they all drop, sweeping forward and upward, and 
with wings almost touching above and legs outstretched, they alight 
quietly. For perhaps five minutes there is no movement, and then 
the flock breaks and its members run about the shore or wade into 
the water to drink, after which they preen themselves. Then they 
quiet down, draw one leg up under the body, tuck the head under 
one wing, neatly fold the other, and thus settle themselves for the 
night. The return to the feeding grounds is made in the early morn- 
ing before daylight, except that when the land is covered with fog 
they depart at a later hour. 

In the fall the birds are, or were, seen in large flocks, sometimes 
numbering hundreds of individuals; they then seem to be more erratic 
in their movements and behavior than at any other time of the year, 
save perhaps just before the nesting season. In winter these flocks 
are broken up, two to twenty being most commonly found together. 
It is rare that a solitary bird is seen. 

The nesting season of the Long-billed Curlew begins quite early. 
Eggs were taken on April 30, 1876, at Camp Harney, Harney County, 
Oregon, and from this date the season extends until well into June, 
young just hatched having been recorded on June 23, 1895, at Cody, 
Nebraska (Cooke, 1910, p. 72). Feilner (1865, pp. 423, 428) records 
finding numerous nests in Butte Valley, in northeastern Siskiyou 
County, California, May 21, 1860. This is, to date, the sole published 
breeding record for the species in California, although it is almost 
certain that it nests also in portions of Modoc County. Feilner (1865, 
p. 428) says: ‘‘. . . In Butte Valley, particularly the western por- 


LONG-BILLED CURLEW 443 


tion of it, which is swampy, they appeared to be numerous, eggs and 
nests being abundant. The nests are built of dry grass, placed in a 
hollow previously made in the dry ground. The nests usually con- 
tain four eggs, nicely arranged, with the pointed end toward the 
center.’ One nest, with three eggs, was preserved; but it is stated 
that all the nests when found, contained four eggs. This set of three 
eggs (now no. 3382 U. S. National Museum) measures 2.59 to 2.66 
by 1.71 to 1.77, and averages 2.62 by 1.74, being thus slightly shorter 
than the eggs described below. The ground ‘color of this set is olive 
buff, with rather small and well scattered spots and scrawls of dark 
olive brown and deeper-lying ones of pale mouse gray. 

The eggs, which in completed sets are almost invariably four in 
number, are pear-shaped and measure in inches, 2.42 to 2.70 by 1.82 to 
2.00 (average of two sets, eight eggs, from Montana). The ground- 
color is light greenish olive of various shades, and the superficial spots 
are of dark umber, chocolate and blackish (Silloway, 1900, pp. 80, 
82); there are also deeper and duller markings. From the eggs of 
the Willet, which those of the Long-bill most closely resemble, the 
latter may be distinguished by larger size, being one-third of an inch 
longer, and by their being more pear-shaped, that is, more tapered 
toward the small end (Davie, 1900, p. 151). 

Silloway (1900, pp. 79-82) says of the Long-billed Curlew on its 
breeding grounds in central Montana: 


After their arrival, the curlews inhabit the high, dry prairies, flying 
restlessly from one portion to another, showing a tendency to associate in 
pairs, though as couples, these birds are not inseparable. In the mating season, 
ene of the pair is likely to follow the other in a few moments, when the first 
bird has flown far over the prairie to a more distant station. At any time the 
loud, prolonged whistling of these birds, either when on the ground or a-wing, 
will call attention to their movements, warning the disturber of their domain 
that his presence is known and that his actions will be watched with the 
closest interest. 


At times a pair will sail 


. upward in company a-breast of the wind, moving in perfect accord 
on wide-spread, motionless pinions curved gently downward, within several 
feet of each other, then fluttering downward side by side or one in advance 
of the other, again to sail upward, uttering the characteristic whistles. 


This whistle has been compared to the squeaking of brakes on a 
freight train. At times these birds will attack certain of the hawks 
and are themselves molested by attacks from some of the smaller 
perching birds. 

When an intruder approaches the vicinity of the nest the male 
will fly directly toward him and swerve upward only in time to prevent 
a collision. This habit of the male can be used to advantage in 


444 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


searching for nests as he will almost invariably ‘‘point’’ away -from 
the nest. The female, squatted close to the ground, will remain on 
the nest until the observer is quite near (and in exceptional instances 
can be stroked while on the nest), but thereupon she will flutter away, 
performing the broken-wing ruse, or run along the ground with 
lowered head and bill almost touching the surface (Silloway, loc. cit.). 

In Siskiyou County, California, Feilner (1865, p. 428) relates 
that ‘‘When driven from the nest by the hunting of the dog it dis- 
plays great sagacity by leading the dog a circuitous path from the 
nest for some distance and then suddenly flying off. At first it hops 
or flutters along like a young bird, and just when the dog is about 
to pounce upon it, off it flies, uttering its note, cooi, cooi, sounding 
like a contraction of go away.’’ Bent (1907), p. 427) records find- 
ing downy young on the prairies of Saskatchewan, June 1, 1905, and 
June 11, and 18, 1906: 


When large enough to run the downy young are adepts in the art of hiding; 
they seem to disappear entirely even in the short grass; after hunting care- 
fully, for fully half an hour, over a limited area where we had seen one vanish, 
we gave it up and walked away, when we were surprised to see the youngster 
get up and run away from the very spot [where] we had been hunting hardest. 
Both parents always showed remarkable devotion and solicitude in utter disregard 
of their own safety. We saw an interesting exhibition of this one day which 
probably succeeded in saving the lives of the young from a prowling coyote. 
The curlew was decoying the coyote away by feigning lameness, flopping along 
on the ground a few yards ahead of him, but always managing to barely escape 
him. We watched them for some time until they finally disappeared over a 
hill, fully half a mile from where we first saw them. 


In Montana, Cameron (1907, pp. 254-255) says that if the female 
flutters along the ground it indicates that she has eggs close by, but 
if she flies about the intruder the young are hatched and in the 
vicinity. After the young ean fly, at the end of July, old and young 
begin to gather together, and flocks of as many as one hundred are 
formed prior to migration. Their characteristic wariness then becomes 
evident again. 

Wickersham (1902, p. 355) states that the food of the Long-billed 
Curlew in the East consists of crawfish, small crabs, snails, peri- 
winkles, toads, worms, larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, cater- 
pillars, and at times spiders, flies and butterflies. Worms and larvae 
are pulled out of the ground by means of the long bill, the tip of 
which is thought by some writers to be sensitive and to be used like 
that of the snipe in grasping things beneath the surface. Berries of 
various sorts are picked from low bushes, and flying insects are pur- 
sued and captured on the wing. E. R. Kalmbach (in letter) states 
that a few seeds of plants of the mallow family have been found in 
stomachs of this bird. He doubts that butterflies are an item of 
importance in the food of the Long-billed Curlew. 


HUDSONIAN CURLEW 445 


When the Curlew first arrive in the fall in their winter home, 
or when they have been feeding along the seashore, their flesh is not 
considered to be very palatable; but inland, where they feed on worms, 
insects and the like, it takes on a very fine flavor and the birds fatten 
considerably. It was when in this condition that they were much 
sought after in earlier years. The fact that the flesh is dark dis- 
counts their value in the estimate of some epicures, but the taste of 
it leaves nothing to be desired. Two female birds taken on the 
Alameda marsh weighed 28 and 29 ounces, respectively, so that in 
quantity of flesh this shore bird compares well with the smaller ducks. 

All available accounts place the Long-billed Curlew among the 
species of shore birds which have suffered great diminution in their 
numbers. This is due to two causes: First, persistent shooting through 
too long an open season for a great many years, and with a large or 
uncontrolled bag limit, and second, restriction of its relatively south- 
ern breeding range by the advances of agriculture and stock raising. 
Among the more desirable waders the Long-bill is distinctive in being 
the only one nesting exclusively in the temperate latitudes where man 
has taken extensive possession of the ground. Its large body, of a 
size comparable with that of a teal, and the excellence of its flesh, 
which is stated to compare favorably with that of any other shore 
bird, make it an ideal game bird and entitle it to the most careful 
consideration. After the present sorely needed closed season pre- 
scribed by the federal government has expired, this Curlew should 
be adequately protected by a short season and small bag limit, so that 
it may continue in its réle of benefactor, to hunter, epicure, and 
nature-lover, in all the years to come. 


Hudsonian Curlew 


Numenius hudsonicus Latham 


OTHER NAMES—Jack; Jack Curlew; Short-billed Curlew; Curve-billed Snipe. 

DESCRIPTION—Adults and immatures, both sexes: Top and back of head 
abruptly dark brown, divided along mid-line by narrow stripe of white or buffy; 
stripe from side of bill running over eye, whitish, with or without narrow 
dark brown streaking; another stripe, running from bill through eye to ear 
region, below the one just described, dark brown; eyelids white; side of head 
below and behind eye, and whole neck, buff streaked with dark brown; chin 
and fore part of throat, pure white; bill blackish, shading to light brownish 
on basal third of lower mandible; iris brown; back, scapulars, rump, tertials 
and outer surface of closed wing, mixed light and dark brown, the lighter 
color appearing as marginal spots on the feathers, and many of the feathers 
having dark shaft streaks; upper tail coverts and tail, barred light and dark 
brown, in effect not much different from back; outer primaries, blackish brown, 
outermost one with ivory white shaft; inner ones and secondaries, barred with 
lighter shades of brown and buff; under coverts of wing, and axillars, irre- 


446 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


gularly barred with dark brown and pinkish buff; under surface of flight 
feathers dusky, with triangular cross markings of dull buff; foreneck, breast 
and sides, streaked rather narrowly with brown on a pale buff, or pinkish 
buff, ground; middle of under surface pale buff or whitish; flanks and under 
tail coverts, pinkish buff, coarsely and irregularly barred with brown; feet 
dark lead color. Males: Total length 16.60-18.50 inches (422-470 mm.) (seven 
specimens) ; folded wing 9.22-9.81 (234-249); bill along culmen 2.75-3.38; (69.8— 
85.8); tarsus 2.18-2.45 (55.5-62.1) (ten specimens). Females: Total length 
17.75-18.75 (452-477) (four specimens); folded wing 9.45-10.30 (240-262); 
bill Along culmen 3.22-3.87 (81.7-98.3); tarsus 2.24-2.35 (56.8-59.6) (six speci- 
mens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Like that of adults, but the 
light spots on upper surface are larger and these spots and the whole lower 
surface are more pervaded with pinkish buff. The immature winter plumage 
results from fading and wearing of the juvenile plumage; the annual molt 
appears to occur in early spring. Natal plumage: Not known to us. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size, long, down-curved bill (fig. 74), 
grayish brown rather than reddish-appearing general coloration, distinctly 
barred axillars and under surface of wing, and lack of contrasting white and 
black areas. 

VoiceE—Usual call a series of clear penetrating staccato whistles; a low 
whistled two-note, kur-lew; a rolling note, lasting six or seven seconds (For- 
bush, 1912, p. 330; Mackay, 1892), p. 347). 

Nzest—On tundra, in a low swale, often with water at bases of the grass 
clumps; a saucer-shaped depression in the top of a small hummock of grass or 
moss (Grinnell, 1900, p.,28). 

Eces—4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 2.22 to 2.54 by 1.61 to 1.70 (in 
millimeters, 56.3 to 64.5 by 40.8 to 43.2), and averaging 2.36 by 1.64 (60.0 by 
41.6); ground color bluish pea-green, olive buff or light olive green, with super- 
ficial dots, spots and blotches of light to dark brown, and deeper ones of 
drab or lavender; markings most numerous about larger end (Grinnell, loc. cit.). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds on coast of 
Alaska from mouth of Yukon River to Kotzebue Sound and on coast of northern 
Mackenzie; winters chiefly on Pacific coast from Lower California to southern 
Honduras, and from Ecuador to southern Chile; also on Atlantic coast of South 
America from British Guiana to mouth of Amazon River; migrates mainly along 
the Pacific and Atlantic coasts; rare in the interior (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, 
p. 125; Cooke, 1910, pp. 72-73). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFoRNIA—Abundant spring and fall migrant along the 
seacoast and through Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. Spring migration 
occurs from late February to early May, and fall migration from first week 
in July until well into September or October. One record for November, at 
Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 24), and one for 
December on Santa Cruz Island (Linton, 1908b, p. 126). Not known to winter 
within our latitudes. Non-breeding birds are occasionally seen here in summer. 


The Hudsonian, or Jack Curlew as this species is popularly known, 
is, today, by far the most plentiful of the three species of Curlew 
which formerly abounded in many parts of North America. The 
Hudsonian’s present superiority in numbers is, however, due to the 
other two forms having been proportionately much more reduced; 
the Long-billed has been decimated, while the Eskimo is now almost, 


HUDSONIAN CURLEW 447 


if not totally, extinct. With a breeding ground on the Arctic shores 
of our continent, and a migration route which is chiefly coastal, and a 
habit of moving about in small flocks, combined with a wary disposi- 
tion, the Hudsonian has been able to cope more successfully than 
either of the other two with altering conditions and new dangers. 

In California the Hudsonian Curlew is an abundant spring and 
fall migrant along the coast and through the Sacramento-San Joaquin 
Valley. The northward movement begins in late February, as Tyler 
(1913b, p. 30) has noted the species in the vicinity of Fresno about 
this time; but the bulk of the birds does not appear until a month or 
so later. The last birds in the spring usually pass northward along 
the coast of southern California in early May; a flock of twenty-five 
was seen at Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County, as late as May 25, 
1907 (Willett, 1912a, p. 39). During June small flocks have been 


== OO 
=< 


SS 


Fig. 74. Side of bill of female Hudsonian Curlew. Natural size. 


3997 U.G. 
~ 


Note much smaller size as compared with female Long-billed Curlew (fig. 73). 


noted near Santa Barbara on June 2, 4, 9 and 25 (Bowles and Howell, 
1912, p. 10; Dawson, 1915, p. 207). It is a question whether or not 


such birds are really enroute to their breeding ground; more likely 
they are non-breeders lingering here throughout the nesting season, 


to go back south with the return stream of their fellows. 

Migrants, unquestionably southbound, appear early in July, num- 
bers of birds having been observed along the southern California 
coast by the tenth of that month (Willett, loc. cit.) ; they become com- 
mon by the middle or latter part of the month. This movement lasts 
until well along in September by which time the bulk of the species 
seems to have passed, although some linger until the middle of October, 
and a flock was seen at Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County, in 
November, 1891 (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 24). There is no evidence 
of the wintering of the species north of the Mexican line, unless the 
capture of a single bird on Santa Cruz Island, December 8, 1907 
(Linton, 1908, p. 126) is of significance in this regard. 

The Eskimo Curlew (Numenius borealis) has been reported from 
California three times (Heermann, 1859, p. 66; Holterhoff, 1884, p. 
393; Swenk, 1915, p. 31) ; but the first and second records are cer- 


448 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


tainly, and the third very probably, referable to the Hudsonian Cur- 
lew. The specimen which was the basis of the second record was ex- 
amined by Belding (1892c, p. 257) and pronounced by him to be the 
Hudsonian, while the third record is based upon sight identification by 
an eastern hunter. 

From most of the other shore birds occurring in California the 
Hudsonian Curlew may be distinguished by its large size, down- 
curved bill (fig. 74), grayish brown coloration and by the absence 
of any striking black or white patches. From the Long-billed Cur- 
lew it may be told by its slightly smaller size, shorter, less curved 
bill, grayish rather than pinkish appearing coloration, and barred 
axillars and wing lining, and from the Marbled Godwit, a bird of the 
same size as the Hudsonian Curlew, the latter may be known by its 
down-ceurved rather than up-curved bill, grayish rather than cinna- 
mon coloration, and barred under wing lining and axillars. From 
the Avocet and Stilt the Hudsonian Curlew may be known by its 
down-eurved bill, and by the absence of striking patches of black 
and white. The closely related Eskimo Curlew, a species once abun- 
dant in migration on the Atlantic coast and Great Plains, and often 
confused with the Hudsonian Curlew, is distinguished by its much 
smaller size (folded wing only 8.00-8.50 inches), and shorter bill 
(culmen only 2.25-2.50) and tarsus (1.70-1.80), and by the wholly 
unbarred inner webs of its primary wing feathers. The latter char- 
acter is unfailing. As previously stated, there has never been an 
authenticated instance of the occurrence of the Eskimo Curlew in 
California. 

The voice of the Hudsonian Curlew is, like that of its relatives, loud 
and insistent. Mackay (1892b, p. 347) says of these birds on the 
Atlantic coast: 

They make two notes, one a very clear, penetrating, staccato whistle, 
repeated four or five times in quick succession, and which is very far-reaching. 
It is given when flying, also when alarmed, and on taking flight. The other 
consists of two, low, straight whistles or, notes, when a flock is alighting. 
Flocks also make a rolling note lasting as long as it would take to count six or 
seven. The sound is similar to that produced by a boy’s lead bird whistle 
filled with water. It is uttered when the birds approach, and are over a marsh 


or feeding ground, at an altitude of sixty or seventy yards. I have never heard 
of its being made by single birds. 


The Hudsonian Curlew is a bird of the marsh and seashore and 
is not so often found in dry situations as its larger relative, the Long- 
billed. Like the latter, the Hudsonian is notably wary and at the 
slightest hint of danger is off on the wing with a loud ery to warn 
the others of its kind in the vicinity. Along the seacoast the birds 
resort to the adjacent salt marshes when driven from the open beach 
or mud flats by a rising tide. , 


HUDSONIAN CURLEW 449 


When a flock of these birds is on the ground where they have been feeding, 
they: become scattered, twenty-five or thirty birds covering fifteen or twenty 
yards’ space. At such times they do not appear to be particularly active, 
moving about in a rather slow, stately manner, although I have once in a 
while seen them run. During such times I have occasionally noticed one or 
more birds fly away from the flock, although undisturbed. At other times 
I have seen a single one or a pair pass over the flock which was resting on 
the ground and neither pay the slightest attention to the other.... 

When passing to and from their feeding grounds they usually fly at an 
altitude of about thirty yards, unless it is quite windy, when they keep within 
a few feet of the ground, or water, if they are passing over it. I have seen 
them flying only a few feet above the water during their migration south 
in July. As the season advances the birds frequent the beach grass near the 
shore, and at such times the young birds can be driven up to with horse and 


wagon; but rarely, if ever, can the adult birds be so approached. ... When 
on migration they fly similarly to Geese and Ducks at such times. ... I have 
never seen... young birds in flocks on Nantucket Island [Massachusetts], 


nor associated with the adults, there. usually being not over five or six birds, 
or even less, together. 

. .. When noted in the spring it is. generally on very fine, warm, and 
clear mornings. .They are seldom seen in stormy weather, but usually before 
it. That these birds are powerful and enduring fliers is evidenced by their long, 
pointed wings (Mackay, 1892b, pp. 348, 349, writing from Massachusetts). 


In through flight, the flocks pass high overhead in regular forma- 
tion, often in the form of a V. The individuals show a slow steady 
beat of the wings. If they wish to drop lower they glide for some 
distance on set wings. 

Tyler (19130, p. 30) says that in their migration through the 
Fresno district they arrive in small numbers late in February and 
become numerous a month later. 


Their favorite resorts are large open fields where shallow ponds occur, 
and in such places they often gather in large numbers. I have no definite 
record of this species remaining in spring later than May 7 (1912).... 

On the last day of one April I encountered a large flock of curlews in a 
grain field, part of which was being flooded at the time with irrigation water. 
... Approaching to within sixty yards of the big fellows as they stood bunched 
at the water’s edge, I concealed myself as best I could.... The nervous lisp- 
ing that at my approach threatened to break into the clamorous, screaming 
flight calls finally subsided and the birds fed and waded about in the water 
or preened their feathers while standing stork-like on one leg. Suddenly I 
was thrilled with a medley of subdued pipings.... A strange nervous unrest 
seemed to affect the entire group on the ground. The whistlings became 
louder and... [presently] a curlew call from over head drew my attention 
to a flock of new arrivals, nine in number, that were circling preparatory to 
joining the company at the pond.... Mere specks they appeared, and yet 
their melodious call rang clear and distinct. 


Of the Hudsonian Curlew as observed at Santa Barbara, Cali- 
fornia, in recent years, Torrey (1913, pp. 33-85) says: 


450 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


They go about the business as our numerous fishermen do when in search 
of bait, not looking for it on the surface (though I have seen them doing 
that also), but probing for it. Down goes their long, sickle-shaped bill into the 
wet sand, frequently for only a fraction of its length; and often as not you 
may see it bring up a squirming something that looks like a shrimp or a 
prawn. 

This the bird does not at once swallow, as you might have expected it to 
do. Instead, it drops its prey upon the sand, picks it up and shakes it, drops 
it again, and so on, the unfortunate victim all the while struggling to get free, 
till suddenly a final jerk and a gulp, and it disappears down the long bill. 
Of the precise reason for all these preliminaries I am ignorant. Possibly the 
crustacean must be held in a certain position before it can be comfortably 
swallowed. Certainly it is not killed in the process, for it wriggles to the last 
moment. 

I have known a flock of fifteen curlews to take possession of a certain 
short stretch of the beach, with nothing but a few rods of low sand-hills 
between them and the noisy asphalt boulevard, and hold it for the greater 
part of a day, flying out to sea for a little distance when driven to it by too 
close a passer-by, and immediately returning. That was a day, no doubt, when 
the fishing was exceptionally good.... 

On the other hand, I have seen within the same week a flock of eighty 
curlews on a lonesome stretch of beach beyond the city limits—and the city’s 
protection—that would not allow me to approach within two or three gunshots. 

A flock of curlews, for example, feeding, heads down, upon the sand, will 
discover you instantly on the edge of a cliff overlooking the beach, say at an 
elevation of fifty feet, and be off on the wing almost before you know it, no 
matter how slow and noiseless your approach may have been; whereas, had 
you been walking on the beach itself, in full sight, the chances are that they 
would have suffered you to come moderately close upon them without betraying 
any marked uneasiness. It has become a habit with them, apparently, to keep 
a sharp lookout upward, perhaps because their more usual enemies come from 
that quarter (Torrey, 1913, p. 85). 


The breeding grounds of the Hudsonian. Curlew lie far to the 
northward, on the tundras which border the Arctic seas. The nest- 
ing season extends from about the first of June to the first week 
in July, as Grinnell (1900, p. 28) found a heavily incubated set in 
the Kowak River delta, Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, June 14, 1899, and 
Chapman (1912, p. 262) reports eggs taken east of the Anderson 
River, Mackenzie, July 4. The nests are, according to Grinnell (loc. 
cit.), always situated in ‘‘. . . a wet swale or low place in the tundra, 
in which the clumps of grass or moss were often surrounded at their 
bases with water. ... The nest is simply a saucer-shaped depression 
in the top of a low hummock of moss or grass.’’ The eggs are fully 
exposed to view but their coloration is usually such that they are 
exceedingly difficult to discover. Twenty eggs measured, in inches, 
2.22 to 2.54 by 1.61 to 1.70, and averaged 2.36 by 1.64. The ground- 
color is very variable, ranging from a bluish pea-green through olive- 
buff to light olive-green. The superficial markings consist of dots, 


oeeeeeweeewere cil 


HUDSONIAN CURLEW 451 


spots and blotches of brown with deeper markings of pale lavender 
and drab (Grinnell, 1900, p. 28). 

Of their nesting habits in the Kotzebue Sound region of Alaska, 
Grinnell (1900, pp. 27-28) says: 


They were ordinarily met with on the open stretches of tundra, often where 
these alternate with strips of timber and lakes. Where such perches are 
afforded, solitary birds on watch would be seen sitting on the tips of isolated 
dwarfed spruces or even willow bushes. As soon as an intruder entered the 
domains of a pair of curlew, the bird on watch would give the alarm by a 
loud, ringing call-note, and soon both birds would fly to meet him. As long 
as the intruder remains in the vicinity, the pair of birds keep flying restlessly 
to and fro, now and then alighting on the ground and walking about, but most 
of the time keeping up their monotonous, rolling whistle. This was the only 
note I heard, except earlier in the season a long, faint whistle like that of a 
distant locomotive, uttered by the male bird while sailing slowly, on set, 
motionless wings over the nesting grounds. This is probably their song-flight, 
though it is certainly very simple. 


Only by remaining quiet for a considerable period of time at some 
distance from the supposed nest site and observing the movements of 
the parent birds after their fear had subsided, was the collector able 
definitely to locate any nest. When the birds had quieted down for 
a time, it was usually possible by rushing toward the spot to flush 
one of them directly from the nest and thus locate its position. <As- 
long as a person is at the nest, the parents fly close about, almost 
deafening him with their loud, penetrating cries. If anything, the 
male is the more demonstrative bird of the two. 

Mackay states (1892), pp. 347, 348) that young birds in the fall 
are not so wary as adults and are more easily decoyed. The cries of 
a wing-wounded bird are usually sufficient to recall the other members 
of a flock and they are then less mindful of danger. Hunters take 
advantage of this habit and thereby increase their levy on each 
passing flock. 

Along the seashore the Hudsonian Curlew feeds upon fiddler crabs 
and sand spiders and probably many other marine animals. Inland 
its diet includes insect larvae, grasshoppers and beetles. Being a 
more maritime species it is not so important agriculturally as is the 
Long-billed Curlew. However, Belding (MS) states that in April, 
1884, flocks foraged on the mesas back from San Diego Bay, where 
insects were abundant. In the north, during the late summer and 
early fall months, they feed extensively on various berries which 
grow on the tundras, and their plumage sometimes shows stains from 
the berry juice. 

The flesh of the Hudsonian Curlew is not so highly prized as is 
that of the Long-billed, probably because its more maritime habitat 
results in its taking for food more of the salt-water forms of animal 


452 : GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


life. Nevertheless when fat the Hudsonian is by many people con- 
sidered a delicacy. But from a sporting standpoint its chief claim 
comes from its wariness and the resulting difficulty of securing a 
sizable bag. Many of the hunters along the southern California 
coast use a .22 rifle when after this game, finding that this affords 
better sport than if a shotgun were used. With either gun, the bag 
is not liable to be very large, as the ‘birds are well schooled in the 
art of self-preservation, quickly learning to avoid dangerous stretches 
of the beach. This habit, and the restricted, seacoast paths of migra- 
tion, and the remoteness of the breeding grounds, have all doubtless 
been factors in its preservation. The Hudsonian Curlew will prob- 
ably remain with us longer than any other of our large shore birds, 
and, with adequate provisions for protection, may even constitute a 
permanent game asset. 


Black-bellied Plover 


Squatarola squatarola (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Black-breasted Plover; Beetle-head; Bull-head, part; Whistl- 
ing Field Plover; Swiss Plover; Charadrius squatarola; Charadrius helveticus ; 
Squatarola helvetica. ; 

DeEscripTION—Adult male in late spring and summer: Forehead, broad stripe 
over eye, and eyefids, pure white; top of head and hind neck grayish white, 
with some mottling of blackish on back of head; sides of head, chin and throat, 
continuously deep black; bill slate black; iris dark hazel brown; feathers of 
back, rump and tertials, brownish black broadly tipped with drab or white, 
giving a conspicuously mottled effect; upper tail coverts and bases of tail 
feathers, chiefly white; terminal portions of tail feathers barred with varying 
shades of brown, the latter color lightest on outermost ones; outer surface of 
closed wing brownish drab, the feathers irregularly margined with white; 
primaries and primary coverts brownish black, the former with much white 
on inner webs toward bases; shafts of primaries white toward tip; edge of 
wing mottled light brown and white; lining of wing white, except hindmost 
under coverts which together with much of under surfaces of flight feathers 
are dusky; axillars solidly black; shoulder region conspicuously white in con- 
tinuation with stripe over eye and behind ear; breast, sides, and forepart of 
belly, solidly black, continuous with that of throat and chin (this black may 
be interrupted by scattered white feathers which remain over from the winter 
plumage); rest of under surface white, save that outermost under tail coverts 
have black spots on their outer edges; feet and legs black. Adult female in 
late spring and summer: Similar to adult male at same season, but white mark- 
ings on head and back dingy or replaced by drab, and black of lower surface 
duller, with brown tinge. Adults and immatures, both sexes, in late fall, winter 
and early spring: Top of head, hind neck, back and rump, drab brown, the 
feathers more or less narrowly tipped with white; forehead, stripe to and over 
eye, and eyelids, dull white, more or less flecked with ashy brown; sides of 
head and foreneck whitish narrowly streaked with ashy brown; chin white; 
rump, upper and under tail coverts, and tail, as in summer; outer surface of 


BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER 458 


closed wing, drab brown, with rather extensive white feather-tippings and 
edgings; rest of wing including black axillars, as in summer adult; under 
surface white, with dull and narrow streaking or mottling of ashy brown on 
breast and sides. Males: Total length 12.00-13.15 inches (305-334 mm.) (eight 
specimens); folded wing 7.52-8.00 (191-203); bill along culmen 1.17-1.26 (29.7— 
32.1); tarsus 1.80-2.00 (45.6-50.7) (ten specimens). Females: Total length 
11.87-18.65 (302-347) (seven specimens); folded wing 7.28-7.95 (185-202); 
bill along culmen 1.14-1.25 (28.9-31.8); tarsus 1.85-2.04 (47.0-51.7) (ten speci- 
mens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Top of head, hind neck, back, 
rump and outer surface of closed wing, dark drab brown, the feathers margin- 
ally spotted at tips with white or pale buffy yellow; side of head and fore- 
neck dingy white, narrowly streaked with ashy brown; chin white; upper tail 
coverts white tipped with buffy yellow; tail as in summer adults save for 
slight buffy tinge on white portions; wing and axillars as in summer adult; 
breast and sides dingy or buffy white, indistinctly streaked and mottled with 
light brown; rest of under surface white; legs and feet lead-colored. Natal 
plumage: ‘‘Upper parts, olive-yellow, spotted with black; hind neck and lower 
parts, white; black lines on side of crown, from bill to eye, and below eye’’ 
(Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 457). 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderately large size (fully twice bulk 
of Killdeer), big head, short stout black bill, strikingly black axillars (fig. 3), 
almost white upper tail coverts, and short white "band on spread wing; in addi- 
tion, in spring, black under parts, except for abruptly white lower belly and 
under tail coverts, together with absence of any golden color on upper surface. 

Voice—A loud, ringing wher-rell, of a distinctly mellow quality (Grinnell, 
MS). 

Nest—On bare ground or in short grass of tundra; a mere depression spar- 
ingly lined with dried grasses (MacFarlane, 1891, p. 429; and authors). 

Eecs—3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.90 to 2.30 by 1.40 to 1.47 
(in millimeters, 48.3 to 58.5 by 35.6 to 37.3); ground color light greenish or 
rufous drab; markings dark umber or bister (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 
1884, I, p. 137). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Almost cosmopolitan. Breeds on Arctic coast of 
America from Point Barrow to Melville Peninsula north of Hudson Bay, and 
on Arctic coast of Eurasia. Winters from California, Louisiana and North 
Carolina south to Brazil and Peru, and from the Mediterranean to South 
Africa and in India and Australia. In migration occurs throughout most of 
the intervening areas, although ordinarily less abundant inland than along 
the seacoast (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 127). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Fairly abundant spring and fall migrant along 
the coast and in limited numbers in the San Joaquin Valley; winter visitant 
in fair numbers at least as far north as Los Bajios, Merced County, and San 
Francisco Bay, and once reported in winter from the mouth of the Eel River, 
Humboldt County (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 199). Spring migration occurs 
chiefly during April and May, fall migration from July to October (Willett, 
1912a, p. 40; and authors). 


To hunters and naturalists who frequent the seashore no shore 
bird is better known than the Black-bellied Plover. This is due to 
its widespread distribution, striking coloration, frequent occurrence 
in large flocks, and other distinctive features. This extensive recogni- 


454 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


tion has given the bird many vernacular names. In California and 
elsewhere it is known as Bull-head or Beetle-head by reason of the 
large size of its head; and its clear, far-reaching note has given it 
the name of Whistling Field Plover. Elsewhere than in California, 
it is known as Black-breast, while the young in the fall are often 
called Pale-bellies because of the lighter coloration of the under 
parts. 

In California the Black-bellied Plover is a spring and fall migrant, 
abundant along the coast, and in fair numbers, at least in spring, 
in the San Joaquin Valley. A few remain through the winter, occur- 
ring inland at least as far north as Los Bafios, Merced County (Beck, 
MS; specimens in Mus. Vert. Zool.), and along the coast from the 
vicinity of San Francisco Bay southward. C. H. Townsend (1887, 

p. 199) records the species in 

wer ““—~== December, 1885, from the mouth 
of the Eel River, Humboldt 

County. There are no records 

at any season for the interior 

ee ae of California north of Stockton. 
: a aa The spring migration probably 
22342 begins in March, as Beck (MS) 
: ; . at Los Bajfios, Merced County, 
pelted Dicey ecu sue se heard birds which were evi- 

Note stout form and enlarged end dently in igrabon on Marek 6; 

(compare with figs. 64 and 71). 1912; but the main body passes 
through during April and May. 
The last depart from southern California about the middle of May 
(Willett, 1912a, p. 40) ; later stragglers have twice been noted: San 
Nicolas Island, June 1, 1910 (Willett, loc. cit.) ; near Santa Barbara, 
June 5, 1915 (Dawson, 1915, p. 207). Observations covering five 
separate years between 1904 and 1910 showed the dates of last observ- 
ance of this species in the vicinity of San Francisco Bay to vary 
from April 14 to May 23 (Gifford, MS). 

In California the fall migration commences in July, birds having 
been seen on San Francisco Bay, July 9, 1909, and July 13, 1910 
(Gifford, MS). South of San Francisco the earliest fall dates are: 
Monterey, July 24 and 30, 1907 (Beck, 1910, p. 71), and August 10, 
1910 (specimen in Mus. Vert. Zool.); Santa Barbara, August 29, 
1911 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 10) ; and Long Beach, Los Angeles 
County, August 17, 1900 (specimen in Grinnell coll.). Willett (loc. 
cit.) says the fall migration in southern California continues until 
October 20. 

From other shore birds occurring in California the Black-bellied 
Plover in any plumage is easily distinguished by its moderately large 


BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER 455 


size (about twice the bulk of the Killdeer) big head, short stout black 
bill, whitish upper tail coverts, short, white band on spread wing, 
and black axillars (fig. 3). From the somewhat similar American 
Golden Plover it is distinguished by its larger size, stouter bill, black 
axillars, whitish upper tail coverts, ashy rather than golden cast to 
upper surface, and by the presence of a white band on the spread wing. 
In spring plumage, when both are extensively black on lower surface, 
these two plovers may be distinguished by the presence 
in the Black-bellied of extensive white markings on top 
of the head, back, and upper tail coverts, and by the 
clear white on lower belly and under tail coverts. In the 
fall the Black-bellied Plover is most readily recognizable 
by the conspicuously contrasting black rather than drab- 
colored axillars. From the Wandering Tattler it is dis- 
tinguishable by its short, stout bill and by the presence 
of white on its wings and rump, and from the Surf-bird 
by its white forehead, by the smaller amount of white on 
its wing and upper tail coverts, by the broken pattern of 
the upper surface, and by the tarsus being much longer 
than the bill. This is the only one of our true plovers 
which has a hind toe, though this digit is quite small. 

The note of the Black-bellied 
Plover is a loud, ringing wher- 
rell, far-reaching and, at a dis- 
tance, clear and mellow in qual- 
ity. It has also been described as 
resembling the syllables klee-er, 
sometimes voiced with a quaver- 
ing effect. These notes may oc- 
easionally be heard as the birds 
are passing overhead at too great ; : 
an altitude for discernment by aia Hin ide eomipare “with 
the human eye. 

While all the larger shore birds exhibit wariness, this trait is 
developed in the Black-bellied Plover to such a degree that the species 
may be called the sentinel among its kind, as it seems to warn the less 
suspicious ones of approaching danger. This extreme wariness is an 
important reason for the popularity of the Black-bellied as a game 
bird, hunters prizing it in consequence of the difficulty in securing a 
good bag. If the hunter imitates the whistle of the birds they will 
come to decoys, but with extreme care, usually circling about one or 
more times before alighting, and making off with great rapidity if 
they see any suspicious movement. In this respect they resemble 
eurlew but differ from those birds in that the members of a flock do 


ea 

x 

Seis 
ty s' 


S 
+ 
Ss 


S 
aS 
wt 


< 
S35 

a 
2S #: 


ra 
cS 


Fig. 76. Side of tarsus and foot of 
Black-bellied Plover. Natural size. 


456 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFURNIA 


not decoy to the cries of a wounded individual. The species is essen- 
tially gregarious, being found in flocks ranging in number from a 
half dozen birds to several hundred; but sometimes lone individuals 
are seen in company with other shore birds. 

‘‘The clear, plaintive note of the blackbreast is the most musical 
sound of the shore. ... Early August sees the first small flocks, and 
from Cape Cod to North Carolina they are found’’ wherever the fall- 
ing tide leaves exposed extensive sand-flats, and where marshes and 
wild ocean beaches afford a resting-place at high water. Their whistle, 
often heard before the flock is seen, warns the gunner to lie low; soon 
the dark line of birds comes into view, moving close to the water with 
grace and speed, heading straight for the decoys. One or two on 
set wings circle within range ; but, quick to notice the slightest motion, 
they are up and off while the hunter may have hesitated a second 
for a closer shot. With low water the birds avoid the promontories 
and follow the receding tide until the farthermost bars are exposed; 
there they feed with the throngs of other shore birds. If this mixed 
company of foragers is disturbed, the Black-bellied Plover are the 
first to take alarm and leave. ‘‘A little shooting quickly teaches them 
danger, and few birds become more wary: flying high between stop- 
ping places, they keep to the open and avoid everything in the nature 
of a blind... .’’ The young upon arrival in the fall are much more 
easily shot than the adults, as they come readily to decoys and answer 
if whistled to (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, pp. 457-459). 

Of the general habits of the Black-bellied Plover as observed for 
many years on the Massachusetts coast, Mackay (1892a, pp. 146-151) 
gives the description which follows: This 


. is in a great degree a tide bird, seeking a large portion of its food on 
those extensive sand flats left by the receding waters, which may be adjacent 
to marshes where the grass is short, and which are interspersed with barren 
places where there is no grass, also to uplands and fields where the grass is 
scanty or closely fed down by sheep or cattle. It is to such places that they 
like to resort when driven from their feeding grounds on the sand flats by 
the incoming tide... . 

When on the ground they usually run very fast for four or five yards, then 
stop, elevate the head, and look around. They strike at the object they are 
going to pick up and eat with a very quick motion... . 

There is something aristocratic in the bearing of the adult birds as you 
watch them standing on the marsh with their heads erect, their black and 
white plumage strikingly defined, and their large, dark, liquid eyes ever on 
the alert for danger. 

The Black-bellied Plover fly lower on migration, I think, than do the 
American Golden Plover, ani the flocks string out more, a customary mode of 
flight being in lines; they also fly like Ducks and Geese at such times. They 
are apt to fly in lines also when coming from the sand flats to and over the 
marshes. 


BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER 457 


{In migration] when tired at sea they will alight on masses of floating sea- 
weed, and also on the ocean where they sit buoyantly, swimming with ease, 
experiencing no difficulty in taking wing. 


When feeding on the mud flats the Black-bellied Plover walk 
slowly and usually stand with their weight on one foot, the other being 
held disengaged. Probing is carried on in a more sedate fashion 
than with the smaller waders, the bill being thrust into the mud but 
once in a particular spot and usually at an angle of about 45 degrees. 
Occasionally they bow profoundly, the head almost touching the 
ground. All the movements are dignified. The flight is swift and 
direct, with steady wing-beats which seem to cover an are of almost 
180 degrees so that the black axillars are prominently displayed at 
each up-stroke (Grinnell and Storer, MS). 

A flock of about 150 Black-bellied Plover was seen repeatedly on 
the beach near Santa Barbara in the fall of 1911. When first noted, 
on September 5, they were extremely wild, and the most careful stalk- 
ing would permit of no closer approach than 200 yards. During the 
succeeding two weeks the flock dwindled considerably in numbers 
but became much tamer. By October 1, the birds on the beach were so 
tame that they would allow a person to approach within thirty yards. 
The diminution in numbers was not due to hunting, but probably to 
individuals or small groups withdrawing from the locality (Bowles 
and Howell, 1912, p. 11; Howell, MS). 

Flocks of migrants which Beck (MS) encountered at Los Bafios, 
Merced County, during April, 1912, were wont to alight for rest at 
the margins of large ponds. Occasionally they would be found forag- 
ing on high ground in the vicinity. 

The breeding range of the Black-bellied Plover extends over a 
considerable portion of the Arctic coasts of America and Eurasia, but 
published accounts of the nesting of the species are few in number. 
Reed (1904, p. 127) states that eggs were taken at Point Barrow, 
Alaska, in June, 1900; and MacFarlane (1891, p. 429) says that he 
secured sets on July 4 and 5, 1864, at Island Point, Franklin Bay, 
Canada. These, together with the migration data available, indicate 
that the nesting season occupies the latter part of June and early part 
of July. 

MacFarlane (1891, p. 429) says of the set secured on July 4, 1864: 
“The nest contained four eggs and was composed of a small quantity 
of withered grasses. placed in a depression on the side or face of a 
very gentle eminence.’’ The eggs taken by MacFarlane measure, in 
inches, 1.90 to 2.30 by 1.40 to 1.47. The ground-color is light greenish 
drab or rufous drab, with quite uniformly colored spots of dark umber 
or bister and deeper spots of a lighter color. These eggs differ from 
those of the Golden Plover in being longer and proportionately broader 


458 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 187). ‘‘It is probable 


that . . . [the] parents relieve each other during the process of incu- 
bation, as a male bird was snared on one of the nests’’ (MacFarlane, 
loc. cit.). 


The food of the Black-bellied Plover comprises small mollusks, 
earthworms, beetles, grasshoppers, locusts, cutworms and grubs (For- 
bush, 1912, p. 339; and authors). On the northern tundras in late 
summer berries are eaten. The stomach of a bird taken on Bay Farm 
Island, Alameda County, September 26, 1914, contained fourteen 
small snails, one small bivalve mollusk, and parts of two or more small 
crabs (Hemigrapsus oregonensis). 

When inland and feeding on earthworms and terrestrial or fresh- 
water insects the flesh of the Black-bellied Plover is fairly palatable, 
but along the seacoast it partakes of the strong taste common to sea- 
faring birds. The weight of a female taken in Alameda County on 
September 26, 1914, was eight ounces. The species is prized for the 
difficulty connected with obtaining a fair-sized bag rather than for 
the quality of its flesh, which is of distinctly second class. In conse- 
quence of its extreme wariness and failure to decoy to the calls of 
wounded companions as do many other species, the Black-bellied 
Plover has suffered a smaller diminution in numbers than have many 
other shore birds. Its extreme northern breeding range, undisturbed 
by man, is an added factor in its favor. We can therefore reasonably 
expect that it will long remain a prominent member of our avifauna. 
But we should be prepared to afford it appropriate protection in case 
it begins to lose markedly in its contention against adverse conditions. 


American Golden Plover 


Charadrius dominicus dominicus Miller 


OTHER NAMES—Bull-head, part; Charadrius virginiacus; Pluvialis virginiaca. 

DEscrIPTION—Adult male, in late spring and summer: Top and back of head 
and hind neck, black, with a sprinkling of golden yellow and white spots; 
.band across forehead, continuing back over eye and down side of neck to 
expand on side of body near bend of wing, conspicuously white; extreme fore- 
head, sides of head, chin, and throat, continnously black; bill black; iris dark 
brown (Sennett, MS); feathers of back, rump, upper tail coverts, and most of 
wing coverts, black, with marginal spots of golden yellow and white; tail 
barred with dark and light brown or whitish; outer surface of closed wing, 
mixed dull brown and white, except for scattering new feathers like back; 
flight feathers blackish brown, outer ones with shafts white toward tips; 
whole under surface of wing and axillars, light ashy brown, unbarred; whole 
under surface of body from chin to lower tail coverts continuously black, often 
with more or less mixture of white; sides of breast just behind white area, 
mixed black, white and golden yellow; feet ‘‘bluish-grey’’ (Audubon, 1842, V, 
p. 206). Adult female, in spring and summer: Like adult male at same seasons 


AMERICAN GOLDEN PLOVER 459 


but with under surface distinctly brownish, rather than black, and with greater 
admixture of white. Adults and immatures, both sexes, in (fall?), winter and 
early spring: Forehead, stripe over eye, sides of head, chin and throat, dull 
white, more or less flecked with light brown; ear region light brown; entire 
upper surface, wings and tail much as in summer adults but duller and less 
mottled, apparently as a result of fading and wear; breast and sides, light 
drab, faintly streaked with darker drab; rest of under surface dull white. 
Males: Total length 10.12-10.75 inches (257-273 mm.) (three specimens) ; 
folded wing 6.58-7.29 (167-185) ; bill along culmen 0.81-0.92 (20.6-23.4); tarsus 
1.62-1.77 (41.0-44.8) (five specimens). Females: Total length 10.25-10.37 (260- 
263.5) (two specimens); folded wing 6.93-7.17 (176-182); bill along culmen 
0.83-0.93 (21.0-23.5); tarsus 1.58-1.76 (40.2-44.7) (four specimens); all from 
interior Alaska and Yukon Territory. Juvenile plumage: Upper surface much 
as in summer adults but ground color brownish black and yellow spotting more 
extensive, to the exclusion of white; light areas on side of head suffused with 
yellowish; wings and tail as in adults, except that lighter markings of tail are 
strongly yellowish; throat and breast, dull white, with fleckings of pale drab; 
rest of under surface ashy white with obscure brownish bars. Natal plumage: 
Top and sides of head, and whole back, marbled in fine pattern with black 
upon a pale lemon yellow ground; lower surface and collar around hind neck, 
white. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderate size (somewhat larger than Kill- 
deer), short black bill, thick appearing head, plain ashy brown under surface 
of wing and axillars, and absence of white areas on rump and wings. In spring: 
black on entire under surface, sharply set off against white band around head, 
combined with sprinkling of bright golden yellow on upper surface. 

Vorce—A clear melodious whistle of three notes: Coodle, coodle, coodle 
(Mackay, 1891a, p. 19). : 

Nrest—A mere depression in the ground, generally lined with a few dry 
leaves (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 143). 

Eecs—Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.84 to 2.00 by 1.25 to 
1.35 (in millimeters, 46.7 to 50.8 by 31.7 to 34.3), and averaging 1.91 by 1.31 
(48.3 by 33.2); ground color various shades of drab; superficial markings deep 
umber brown almost black, in well defined spots and scattered about profusely, 
slightly the more numerous about larger end (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 
1884, I, p. 144); deeper-lying markings are also present. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds on Arctic coast 
from Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, to Melville Peninsula, north of Hudson Bay, 
and from Melville Island, south to Whale Point at northwestern corner of 
Hudson Bay; winters chiefly on pampas of Argentina; fall migration route is 
from breeding grounds to Labrador, thence to Nova Scotia, thence over the 
Atlantic Ocean to the Lesser Antilles and northeastern coast of South America 
and thence to the winter home; in spring the migration route is northward 
from South America through the Mississippi Valley; some pass southward 
through the Mississippi Valley in the fall; a few move south along the Pacific 
eoast (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 127; Cooke, 1910, pp. 80-85). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Rare migrant. The following specific instances 
of oceurrence are on record: Vallejo, Solano County; Santa Cruz, October 22, 
1888; and San Diego near Coronado, January 12, 15, and 20, 1908. : 


The American Golden Plover is a very rare species in California 
to judge from the fewness of the records. The main migration route 


460 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


in both spring and fall lies so far to the east that the birds which 
reach California are evidently only infrequent stragglers. The fol- 
lowing definite records of occurrence within the state are known: 
Vallejo, Solano County (Kobbé in Bailey, 1902, p. 1); Santa Cruz, 
October 22, 1888 (Cooke, 1910, p. 84); and San Diego Bay near 
Coronado, one bird seen January 12, 15, and 20, 1908 (Torrey, 1909c, 
p. 207). Newberry (1857, p. 97) thought that it occurred in the 
northern part of the state in autumn, and Suckley (in Cooper and 
Suckley, 1859, p. 230) states that in the San Francisco collections 
he saw specimens which he supposed had been obtained in the public 
markets of that city. Cooper (in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, 
I, p. 143) saw one specimen taken near San Francisco. The record 
for Menlo Park on the authority of Hornung (Kobbé, loc. cit.) is 
likely to refer to the Black-bellied Plover; for a skull of the latter 
species is contained in the collection of the Museum of Vertebrate 
Zoology, with attached label in Hornung’s handwriting bearing the 
name ‘‘Charadrius dominicus | Menlo.’’ 

From other shore birds the Golden Plover may be distinguished by 
its moderate size (somewhat larger than that of Killdeer), short, 
black bill, thick head, ashy brown axillars and wing lining, and by 
the absence of white areas on its rump and wings. In spring the 
combination of entire black under surface, sharply set off against the 
white band around its head, and the yellow-spotted upper surface, 
render identification easy. From the Black-bellied Plover, the Golden 
may be distinguished by its somewhat smaller size, slenderer bill, and 
light ashy brown instead of black axillars. Its note is said to be 
softer than that of the Black-bellied Plover. The other plovers occur- 
ring in California are distinguished from the Golden Plover by the 
presence of black collars or other transverse bars on head or neck, 
or of white axillars, or both. 

The habits of the American Golden Plover have been well described 
by Mackay (1891la, pp. 18-23), who observed the species in Massa- 
chusetts and elsewhere on the Atlantic coast. He says: 


... they frequent the extensive marshes, ... the long reach of sandy 
hills, old fields where the grass is short and the vegetation scanty, sand flats 
left by the receding tide, ploughed fields, and any burnt tracts which are clear 
of trees and bushes. ... When on the ground they run rapidly and gracefully, 
and soon seatter on alighting. After running a few yards they suddenly stop, 
hold the head erect, and look around, all the movements being very quick. In 
feeding they seem to strike at the object with a motion that reminds one of a 
Loon or Grebe commencing to dive.... When scattered over considerable 
ground, as is usual after they have been any length of time on their feeding 
ground, every bird apparently on its own hook, if alarmed, a note is sounded; 
they then rise so as to meet as soon as possible at a common centre, which 
gained, away they go in a compact body. When high up in the air, flying on 


AMERICAN GOLDEN PLOVER 461 


their migration, I have often noticed the flocks assume shapes that reminded 
me of the flight of Geese; they also fly in the form of a cluster, with one or 
more single lines out behind; also broadside in long straight lines, with an 
apparent velocity of about one and a half miles a minute, measured by the eye 
as they pass along the headlands. When flying near the ground they course 
over it at a high rate of speed, in every variety of form, the shape of the flock 
constantly changing, and frequently following every undulation of the sur- 
face, stopping suddenly and alighting when a favorable spot is noticed. They 
are extremely gregarious, and I have had the same flock return to my decoys 
as many as four times, after some of their number had been shot each time. 
When approaching the decoys every bird seems to be whistling, or, as I have 
often expressed it, uttering a note like coodle, coodle, coodle. During the middle 
of the day they are fond of seeking the margins of ponds where they sit 
quietly for a long time, if undisturbed. When disturbed they are almost certain to 
return, in a short time, to the same spot from which they have been started, 
that is, if they have been resting or feeding there any length of time. When 
suspicious, it is very difficult to approach, decoy, or call them; if not harassed, 
they are as a rule quite tame, and gentle, and can be easily driven up to 
with a horse and wagon. ... 

Young birds invariably appear wild and wary, much more so than the old 
ones. They are also very erratic in their movements and flight when with us. 
They usually will not pay so much attention to the decoys or call-whistle as 
do the old birds; and I have seen them when very shy and after being disturbed, 
mount up into the air and nearly turn over on their backs while flying with 
great velocity. It is a noteworthy fact that when a flock of these young birds 
is approaching, no dependence can be placed on their movements. They may 
sometimes sweep down within a few yards of the sportsman, passing with great 
rapidity over his head, all scattered; or down close to the stand and then up into 
the air; or they may turn suddenly. ... The older birds rarely indulge in any 
similar antics... . 

As far as my observation shows on the Island of Nantucket, the Golden 
Plover usually seeks land about dusk and during the first half of the night. 


These birds are often heard passing overhead in migration, but 
they do not always stop. 
Goss says (1891, p. 210): 


In flight they are swift and strong, sweeping over the prairies in a com- 
pact, wavy form, at times, skimming close to the ground, then high in air, 
an ever-changing, circling course, whistling as they go; and on alighting raise 
their wings until the tips nearly touch, then slowly fold them back, a habit 
which is quite common with them as they move about on the ground. 


According to Cooke (1910, p. 83) the American Golden Plover 
nests during the latter part of June, eggs having been taken on the 
lower Anderson River, Mackenzie, and at Point Barrow, Alaska, on 
five dates from June 16 to 24. Reed (1904, p. 127) records a set 
taken June 1, and some of the sets taken in the Anderson River region 
by MacFarlane were fresh even as late as July (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 144). Very little has been written in regard 
to the nesting habits of this American race of the Golden Plover. 


¥ 


462 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


According to the observations of MacFarlane in the Anderson River 
region, near the Arctic coast of Canada, the nests were ‘‘. . . mere 
depressions in the soil, generally lined with a few dry leaves, and 
were difficult to find, as there was nothing to distinguish them from 
the soil—which the eggs very closely resemble in color... .’’ The 
eggs are usually four in number, pear-shaped, and measure in inches, 
1.84 to 2.00 by 1.25 to 1.35, averaging 1.91 by 1.31. Their ground- 
color is of various shades of drab, while the superficial markings are 
of deep umber brown, almost black. These markings are chiefly in 
the nature of sharply defined spots, and are well scattered over the 
surface, being perhaps somewhat more numerous about the larger 
end. These eggs differ from those of the Black-bellied Plover in being 
slightly smaller and relatively narrower. 

When driven from the nest the female ‘‘. . . runs a certain dis- 
tance, and if she succeeds in enticing the party away, will then take 
to flight. In a few instances, when the bird was surprised by a near 
approach before she left, she pretended lameness, and fluttered at 
their feet’’ (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, pp. 148-144). 

The American Golden Plover performs an annual migration some 
18,000 miles in extent from the time it leaves the breeding ground 
in the fall to the time when it returns in the following spring. In 
August the birds leave the breeding grounds on the northwestern 
shores of America and pass to Labrador where they feed on the crow- 
berries and become exceedingly fat. From this place they pass to 
and across Nova Scotia whence they take wing and, if the weather 
is good, pass directly over the ocean to the Lesser Antilles, and to 
the northeastern coast of South America. Only stormy weather at 
sea will cause the species to touch on the Atlantic coast of the United 
States and then only in the vicinity of New England. Reaching South 
America, they pass southward into the pampas region of Argentina 
where they spend the winter. In the spring the flocks move north- 
ward and after reaching the United States traverse the entire length 
of the Mississippi Valley. Thence they move on through Canada to 
their breeding grounds in the extreme north. Cooke (1910, p. 81), 
who has worked out the above described route of migration, advances 
the following theory to account for it: 


The plover is a bird of treeless regions; it summers on the tundras and 
winters on the pampas; an enormous food supply especially palatable tempts 
it in the fall to Labrador and furnishes power for the long flight to South 
America. To attempt to return in spring by the same course would be suicidal, 
for at that season Labrador would furnish scant provender. The plover seeks 
the shortest treeless route overland, and alighting on the coast of Texas travels 
leisurely over the Mississippi Valley prairies, which are abundantly supplied 
with food, to the plains of the Saskatchewan and thence to the Arctic coast. 


KILLDEER 463 


According to this interpretation, the extraordinary wanderings 
of this bird are determined by the factor of food supply. 

The Golden Plover feeds upon insects of various sorts such as 
beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, cutworms, and some vegetable matter 
(Forbush, 1912, p. 347). In Labrador as before stated, it feeds 
extensively on crowberries. To the sportsman it is an ideal game 
species, decoying rather readily, but becoming wary after its suspi- 
cions have been aroused. Its flesh is exceedingly palatable and highly 
prized for the table. The result is that the species has been hunted 
persistently by both sportsman and market hunter, wherever it is 
found, and consequently has greatly decreased in numbers during 
recent years. Forbush (1912, pp. 344-347) estimated a 90 per cent 
decrease on the New England coast in fifteen years. 

Unfortunately the Golden Plover is, and probably always has 
been, a rare species in California; and there is no reason to hope that 
its numbers here will increase in the future. It is of immediate 
interest here only to the scientist and nature-lover. Reports of strag- 
gling visitors among our lesser known birds are always of value and 
should be sent in promptly with full particulars to some scientific: 
institution. 


Killdeer 


Oxyechus vociferus vociferus (Linnaeus) 


OTHER NAMES—Killdeer Plover; Killdee; Aegialitis vocifera; Charadrius voci- 
ferus. 

DEscRIPTION—Adults,. both sexes, at all seasons: Top of head and upper sur- 
face (including sides of breast between two black neck bands) dull brown, 
with more or less rusty feather-tipping; lower forehead (‘‘brow’’), and stripe 
above and behind eye, white; stripe from side of bill along each side of head 
to below eye, including ear region, blackish brown; upper part of forehead 
black, forming a bar from eye to eye just above the white ‘‘brow’’; bill black; 
iris dark brown, edges of eyelids orange-red; rump and upper tail coverts light 
rusty brown, or tawny; tail feathers white at extreme bases, the middle ones 
shading through dull brown to black and ending in light brown; rest of tail 
feathers beyond white bases pale rusty with black subterminal bars and conspicuous 
tips of white on outermost feathers, and rusty on inner ones; outer surface 
of closed wing chiefly like back; flight feathers blackish brown, marked with 
white on inner webs and near tips; tips of greater coverts and portions of 
secondaries white, forming a conspicuous bar on expanded wing; axillars and 
lining of wing white, under surface of flight feathers chiefly dusky; foreneck 
and breast crossed by two black bands, separated in front by white (which is 
usually tinged with pale brown); the lower black band and the white area 
between both blend on sides into the dull brown of the back; the upper and 
broader black band completely encircles the neck; chin and throat and collar 
around hind neck above broad black band continuously pure white; rest of 
under surface of body white; longer under tail coverts white, spotted with light 


464 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


brown; feet and legs dull greenish yellow, dusky at joints. Males: Total length 
9.50-10.50 inches (241-267 mm.) (eight specimens); folded wing 6.00-6.50 (152- 
165); bill along culmen 0.68-0.84 (17.3-21.3); tarsus 1.32-1.43 (33.5-36.3) (ten 
specimens); weight 3 oz. (85.5 gm.) (one specimen). Females: Total length 
10.25-10.50 (260-267) (five specimens); folded wing 5.97-6.40 (151-162); bill 
along culmen 0.75-0.83 (19.0-21.1); tarsus 1.34-1.43 (34.0-36.3) (seven speci- 
mens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult, but 
with black markings on head and neck duller or replaced by dark brown, and 
feathers of upper surface more extensively tipped with light rusty brown; 
wisps of natal down often remain adhering to tips of tail feathers. Natal 
plumage: Lower forehead, chin and throat, and lower surface of body, white; 
top of head and upper surface (excepting neck band) mixed light brownish and 
blackish, sharply outlined all around by black borders; stripes before and behind 
eye, single band across throat (complete around neck), and stripe down middle 
of back, black; white on chin and throat continuous with white collar around 
hind neck, the latter separating black outlines of crown and back; flanks and 
area about vent pale rusty; bill blackish; iris brownish; feet more yellowish 
than in adult. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderate size, two black bands across 
chest, white collar around hind neck, white bar across wing, tawny rump patch, 
and white tipped, black banded tail. The shrill call, kill-dee, is distinctive. 
This is our only shore bird with two black bands across breast. 

VoicE—Usually a loud, high-pitched, two-syllabled <ill-deer, or kill-dee, 
rapidly enunciated; occasionally, as when flushed excitedly from ground, it 
becomes kill-dee, dee, dee, dee-ey; also when running along ground in advance of 
an observer, a softer de-e-e-e-e-et is sometimes uttered. 

Nest—On ground, usually near water, in grass or on bare, sandy or pebbly 
area; a shallow depression with or without a sparse lining of short, dry grass 
blades, weed stalks, pebbles, or bits of hardened earth. 

Eecs—Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.46 to 1.56 by 1.02 to 
1.10 (in millimeters, 37.0 to 39.5 by 26.0 to 28.0), and averaging 1.51 by 1.06 
(38.2 by 26.8); ground color light clay or dull cream. with bold markings of 
dark brown, black and dull lavender (four sets, 15 eggs, from California). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds from central 
British Columbia, southern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, and central Quebec, 
south throughout the whole United States, and in Mexico to latitude of south- 
ern Lower California. Winters from New Jersey, Indiana, Texas, Arizona and 
central California south to Venezuela and Peru in South America (modified 
from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 128). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CaLIFoRNIA—Abundant summer visitant to suitable localities 
throughout the state, chiefly in the lowlands, but ranging locally up high in 
the mountains, even to 8,600 feet altitude (as on Tuolumne Meadows, Yosemite 
National Park). Winters in the valleys west of the Sierras from about the 
latitude of San Francisco southward, and, more rarely, east of the Sierras from 
Owens Valley southward. 


The Killdeer is one of the commonest, most widely distributed, and 
perhaps the best known of all our shore birds. In the East it has been 
considerably reduced in numbers, but in the West it has held its 
place and numbers despite the encroachments of civilization.: In the 
northern half of California the species is chiefly a summer sojourner, 


KILLDEER 465 


as there are very few winter records, but it arrives there early in the 
spring. From the latitude of San Francisco southward it is a perman- 
ent resident in most localities. In summer it ranges up in the Sierras 
to as high as Tuolumne Meadows, Yosemite National Park, altitude 
8,600 feet, on the west slope, and to Lake Tahoe, 6,000 feet, and to 
the head of Owens River, 8,000 feet, on the east slope.. In southern 
California it has been found at Bear Lake, San Bernardino Moun- 
tains, at an altitude of nearly 7,000 feet. East of the Sierras it is 
chiefly a summer visitant. Numerous records establish it as a breed- 
ing species throughout its summer range. 

The Killdeer is a bird of fresh and brackish water rather than of 
the salt marsh or seacoast; yet occasionally it resorts to both of the 
latter types of country. No hard and fast rule for its occurrence can 
be laid down, save that it much prefers fresh water, especially such 
as is provided along the shores of inland ponds or streams. Even the 
scanty seepage water in the 
bed of an otherwise dry 
arroyo will satisfy the needs 
of one or more pairs of 
these birds. While not of 
solitary habit, the Killdeer 
is not a typical flocking Fig. 77. Side of tarsus and foot of Kill- 
bird. When flocks do oc- ‘eer Natural size. 


eur, they rarely number Note absence of hind toe, as with all our 


_ he Black-belli 
more than about thirty i aes 76). Be Pees (eOmnare 


members, and their actions 

are individual rather than aggregate. In this respect they differ 
from some sandpipers, because each member pursues a separate course 
when foraging, in flight, or when danger threatens. Small groups 
of half a dozen individuals are of most common occurrence. Of 
course, the breeding season finds the birds in pairs, and more or less 
sequestered. In the East, and to some extent in California, the Kill- 
deer scatters out over cultivated fields and searches for insects or 
worms. The alfalfa raising districts, of increasing extent in Cali- 
fornia, evidently offer to this bird the best of forage facilities. 

Of all the shore birds the Killdeer is the easiest to identify. A 
front view while it is at rest on the ground reveals four transverse 
black bands, two on the head and two on the breast ; a side view shows 
a distinct white collar set off by adjacent black. In flight the chief color 
markings are the white streak across each wing, the black-banded, 
white-tipped tail, the tawny rump patch, and the pure white under 
surface. The oft-repeated call, which is uttered in an insistent, com- 
plaining tone, is by far the best distinguishing character, and when 
once learned obviates the necessity of using other clues. When the 


466 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


birds are not frightened the call sounds like tel-deé, or kill-deé; but 
when startled, as by the approach of a human being, the call becomes 
til-dé-o, or til-de-dé-o, and has a quavering character especially in the 
initial syllable. After the birds have flown about for some time they 
resume the call first represented. The call is usually uttered while 
the bird is on the wing, but may also be given from the ground. The 
Spanish rendering of the ordinary call is tildeo. Another call, 
although high-pitched, is not so loud and is sometimes given as the 
bird runs along the ground in front of a person. It may be written 
de-e-e-e-e-et. 

The Killdeer passes much of its time on the ground, and is able to 
run with rapidity. It does not, however, maintain a continuous ad- 
vance, but stops every few feet, for a moment of rigid pose. The 
body is then tilted slightly forward, the head being held erect. In 
running the head is drawn in and held low, as if to avoid display 
of the contrasted collar markings. Sometimes individuals will run 
about with wings upstretched, dodging among their companions and 
uttering a rapid torrent of high-pitched notes. On the extensive 
lawns at Stanford University as many as sixty Killdeer have been 
counted at one time scattered about foraging silently on the grass or 
basking beneath the spray of the many sprinklers. 

Hunters complain that the Killdeer is a great nuisance, as it often 
flies to meet them, circling about and uttering its high-pitched com- 
plaining cries which serve as an effective warning to other birds. At 
all seasons Killdeer act as if they had nests, and run before the 
intruder, apparently trying to excite pity by their melancholy notes 
and to lure him away from an imaginary object of solicitude. They 
visit some river bar or lake shore at night and morning to drink and 
feed and play. Thus there may be a regular flight of Killdeer two 
or more times a day between the fields and the water. They are greatly 
given to traveling at night, and their unmistakable notes often reach 
the traveler’s ear on dark or foggy nights from far overhead, some- 
times in the most unexpected localities far from water. 

The Killdeer nests in a variety of locations ranging from marsh 
land to cultivated meadows and dry creek beds. One case is on record 
of eggs being deposited in the middle of a railroad track (Chambers, 
1901, p. 105). There are numerous records of Killdeer nesting in 
meadows and gardens, or in furrows in newly plowed ground, the 
latter practice in many cases resulting in the eggs being destroyed. 

Normally the species nests from the latter part of March to late 
June. Although the breeding season thus appears to be extensive, it 
is doubtful whether more than one brood is reared in a season by 
any one pair of birds. There is little or no correlation between nest- 
ing dates and latitude, as those from San Diego and Lake Tahoe are 


KILLDEER 467 


practically the same, the intervening area being noted for early 
records. Beck (MS) found a nest with two eggs near Los Bafios, 
Merced County, March 11, 1912. Tyler (1913b, p. 32) records nest- 
ing in the Fresno district from March 15 to June 28, and gives one 
ease of early nesting which would indicate the commencement of 
incubation in late February or very early March. The set of two here 
recorded is quite unusual, and suggests by its rarity that it may not 
have been complete. ‘‘A typical nest throughout the cultivated sec- 
tions [in the vicinity of Fresno] is composed of a handful of white 
pebbles about the size of peas and very uniform in size, mixed with 
an almost equal number of dry shells of melon seeds of the previous 
year. Frequently a few dry, broken-up pieces of melon stems are 
used also, the whole being spread out over a space the size of a saucer, 
with the eggs resting in the center. As the result of coming in con- 
tact with a sharp rock that sometimes finds it way into the nest in 
place of the usual smooth ones the eggs occasionally show small gravel 
punctures. On the summer-fallow fields only a few dry grass blades 
line the place where the eggs rest, while around the ponds of the west 
side the eggs generally lie half covered in the powdered alkali dust 
without a scrap of nest lining’’ (Tyler, loc. cit.). 

The eggs usually number four, and never more, so far as is known. 
Sets of smaller number may result from accidents of various kinds. 
The ground-color is a light clay or pale dull cream; the superficial 
markings are numerous and dull dark brown or even black, while 
the deeper ones are dull lavender and less abundant than the super- 
ficial ones. The markings consist both of irregular spots and narrow 
streaks, and in general are more numerous at the larger end, some- 
times resulting in the formation of a dark zone about that end. The 
eggs average in size 1.51 by 1.05 inches. On the basis of size alone, 
the eggs of the Killdeer can be confounded with the eggs of no other 
shore bird breeding in California, except those of the Wilson Snipe. 
The much lighter ground-color would be sufficient in this case, however, 
to distinguish the eggs of the Killdeer. Tyler (loc. cit.) intimates that 
the period of incubation is a little over two weeks. 

The newly hatched Killdeer are able to run and hide almost on 
leaving the shell. The color pattern of the back is of excellent service 
in concealing the young birds whether in motion or squatting motion- 
less on the ground. Few little chicks have more devoted parents. 
The old birds exhaust every resource to lead an enemy far away 
from the nesting site. The two sexes are equally solicitous concerning 
the welfare of the eggs or young, and it is probable that they share 
alike the duties of incubation. There is no means known to us of 
distinguishing the sexes in the field either by color-marks or behavior. 
The incubating bird leaves the nest far in advance of the human 


468 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


intruder, instead of flushing close at hand, as in the case of less 
strikingly colored species. It would appear as though the Killdeer 
in its combination of conspicuous pattern of coloration and blatant 
behavior shows a peculiar specialization for distracting attention from 
its eggs and young. 

The first plumage, of down, is gradually replaced by a juvenile 
plumage closely similar to that of adults; but shreds of down often 
remain adhering to the tips of the tail feathers until late fall. The 
juvenile plumage is retained by the Killdeer through the first winter 
and on into the spring of the year following that in which it was 
born. In the fall the young can be distinguished from the adults by 
the frequent adherence of down to the tips of the juvenile feathers, 
as just described, by a slightly more rusty tipping of the feathers of 
the back, and by the white of the neck collar in front being suffused 
with light brown. 

The flight of the Killdeer is quite erratic; the bird frequently dips 
and dives in a most bewildering manner, sometimes descending head- 
long nearly to the ground in almost vertical flight. As already stated, 
flocks of Killdeer do not show the same compact formation nor do 
the birds move together in unison as in the case of many other shore 
birds. 

The Killdeer is, without a doubt, from an agricultural standpoint 
the most beneficial of our shore birds. This valuation rests upon 
the nature of its food and upon the commonness of its occurrence on 
cultivated lands. According to McAtee and Beal (1912, pp. 16-18), 
beetles form 37.06 per cent of its food, other insects 39.54 per cent, 
and other invertebrates such as centipedes, spiders, ticks, oyster 
worms (Nereis), earthworms, snails, and crabs and other crustaceans, 
21.12 per cent. Some of this food is obtained by probing in muddy 
places as with other plovers, but the greater portion of the food is 
secured by surface-gleaning. Vegetable matter constitutes only 2.28 
per cent of the food and is made up chiefly of weed seeds. Very 
many of the species of insects forming the diet of the Killdeer such 
as grasshoppers, weevils, wireworms, and army worms, are classed 
as important enemies of various crops. During a plague of grass- 
hoppers in the summer of 1912 at Los Bafios, Merced County, H. C. 
Bryant (1914a, p. 170) found a single Killdeer’s stomach to contain 
eleven grasshoppers and nothing else. 

While it is possible that the Killdeer was a more abundant species 
in past years than at present, it is obvious that it has not shared with 
other shore birds the decided diminution in numbers which they have 
suffered. The species is abundant in a great many localities in the 
state, and, with the present favorable attitude on the part of most 
farmers, will probably continue so indefinitely. Its wide breeding 


SEMIPALMATED PLOVER 469 


range is also a favorable element in its maintenance, and we may even 
look to an increase in aggregate numbers. It was formerly recognized 
to a small extent as a game species, and even sometimes shot as a nui- 
sance by the hunter when stalking game. However, we see no reason 
why the Killdeer should for a moment be considered a game bird. Its 
small size and the fact that its flesh is not of the best, being described 
as fishy or musky in flavor, argue that it had far better be classed 
among those species which are of marked value to the agriculturalist. 


Semipalmated Plover 


Aegialitis semipalmata (Bonaparte) 


OTHER NAMES 
palmatus. 

DEscription—Adult male: Stripe across forehead at base of bill, continuing 
backwards below eye to expand somewhat on ear region, black; band across 
middle of forehead, white, surmounted by a broader transverse band of black 
across forepart of crown between eyes; spot on lower eyelid, white; back of 
head, brown; chin and whole throat broadly pure white; hind neck crossed 
by a white collar connected with white of throat, and below this by a black 
one continuous with black chest band; iris brown; bill orange at base, black on 
terminal half; upper surface of body, nearly uniform brown; outermost upper 
tail coverts chiefly white; tail feathers brown with tips of inner ones blackish, 
tips of next outer ones blackish subterminally with increasing amounts of 
white, and the outermost pair pure white; outer surface of closed wing brown 
like back; greater coverts tipped with white, this, together with small white 
areas on inner flight feathers, forming a narrow bar on expanded wing; flight 
feathers and primary coverts blackish brown; quills of primaries white on 
their middle portions; margin of wing mottled white and light brown; lining 
of wing, chiefly white; axillars, pure white; under surface of flight feathers 
light drab; whole under surface of body white, save for conspicuous single 
black band across upper chest which joins the narrower one on hind neck 
forming a complete collar; legs and feet orange. Adult female: Like adult male, 
but with black bands narrower and brown dinged. Males: Total length 6.87— 
8.05 inches (174-204 mm.) (six specimens from California); folded wing 4.51— 
4.90 (114.5-124.3); bill along culmen 0.46-0.50 (11.6-12.7); tarsus 0.89-0.97 
(22.5-24.7) (ten specimens from California and Alaska). Females: Total length 
6.94-7:°87 (176-200) (seven specimens from California); folded wing 4.43-4.92 
(112.7-124.7); bill along culmen 0.43-0.50 (11.0-12.6); tarsus 0.87-0.96 (22.2— 
24.3) (ten specimens from California and Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Like 
that of adults but with black bands all replaced by dark brown ones, chest 
band narrowed near mid-line, and feathers of entire upper surface narrowly 
tipped with pale buffy, giving a faintly scaled appearance. Natal plumage: 
Top and sides of head and whole upper surface of body (except hind neck) 
mixed black, yellowish and whitish buff, in fine pattern; broad collar on neck, 
white, preceded by a narrow black band at edge of mottled pattern on head; 
spot between bill and eye, black; whole under surface white; bill black; legs 
and feet (dried) yellowish brown; nails dusky. 


Semipalmated Ring Plover; Ring Plover; Aegialeus semi- 


470 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Small size (much smaller than that of 
Killdeer), single black or dark brown band across chest, and a white one 
(black- or brown-bordered) across brow, extremely short bill (much shorter 
than head), and uniform brown upper surface. Distinguished from Killdeer 
by much smaller size, single black or brown breast band, and absence of tawny 
on rump; from Snowy Plover by larger size, complete band across breast, and 
absence of dark band from bill to eye; and from Wilson Plover (which is 
extremely rare in California) by much shorter bill, orange-colored at base instead 
of wholly black, and by presence of black on forehead at base of bill. 

Voice—A simple sweet plaintive chee-wee (Forbush, 1912, p. 352). 

Nest—On pebbly or sandy shores or in short grass, usually but a slight 
distance from water; a mere depression lined sparingly with leaves and grasses 
(Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 207; and authors). 

Eees—Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.20 to 1.40 by 0.90 to 
1.00 (30.5 to 35.5 by 22.8 to 25.4); ground color drab or buff, superficial mark- 
ings blackish brown, rather few in number and scattered; deeper ones of 
purplish slate (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 157; Davie, 1900, p. 155). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds from Melville 
Island, Wellington Channel, and Cumberland Sound to valley of the Upper 
Yukon, southern Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, and Gulf of St. Lawrence; 
winters from southern California, Louisiana, and South Carolina, to Patagonia, 
Chile and the Galapagos Islands; common in migration along Pacific coast and 
from Nebraska and eastern Texas to the Atlantic coast (modified from A. O. 
U. Check-list, 1910, p. 128; Cooke, 1910, pp. 88-90). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Fairly common spring and fall migrant coast- 
wise, occurring rarely inland. Spring migration chiefly during the latter half 
of April and first half of May. Fall migration from late August to middle of 
October. There are two old records of winter occurrence in southern California. 


The Semipalmated Plover is a common migrant along the coast 
of California. Differing from its nearest relatives, the Killdeer and 
Snowy Plover, in choosing a more northern nesting ground and a more 
southern winter home, it spends but limited parts of the year in Cali- 
fornia and is consequently less known to bird students or hunters in 
this state. The northward migration commences about April 10 in 
southern California and lasts until about the middle of May (Willett, 
1912a, p. 40). The earliest spring record other than that just given is 
April 15, 1908 (specimen in Willett coll.), and the latest normal 
occurrence May 16, 1910, at Santa Barbara (Bowles and Howell, 1912, 
p. 11). Willett (loc. cit.) saw five birds and secured one at Alamitos 
Bay, Los Angeles County, June 29, 1907. The disposition of this 
record as concerning spring or fall transients is not now possible. 

Southbound birds were first noted at Santa Barbara, July 12, 
1910 (Bowles and Howell, loc. cit.), but the species does not become 
abundant until almost two months later. Along the southern coast 
the migration occurs from the middle of September until about 
October 10 (Willett, loc. cit.). A specimen was taken at San Pedro, 
Los Angeles County, October 17, 1894 (Grinnell, 1898, p. 18), and 


SEMIPALMATED PLOVER 471 


it has been reported from Santa Barbara as late as November 1, 1911 
(Bowles and Howell, loc. cit.). Belding (MS) states that it was 
tolerably common at San Diego in winter (year not stated, but prob- 
ably 1884 or 1885), and Cooper (1887, p. 91) found it on the coast 
of Ventura County ‘‘in winter’’; but no recent observer has reported 
the species from any California locality during the midwinter months. 
Four instances of occurrence away from the seacoast are known, all 
in the seasons of migration: Webber Lake, Sierra County, August 5, 
1889 (Belding, MS) ; near Caruthers, Fresno County, April 21, 1914 
(Tyler, MS) ; Salton Sea, Imperial County, April 22, 1909 (specimens 
in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; and Julian, San Diego County, April 16, 1884 
(Belding, MS). The northernmost coastwise record is Bodega Bay, 
Sonoma County (Belding, MS). 

From other shore birds occurring in California the Semipalmated 
Plover is easy to distinguish. Its small size, uniform brown-colored 
upper surface at all times of the year, the single conspicuous black 
or dark brown breast band, black or brown bordered white band across 
brow, and extremely short bill, combine to make identification easy. 
The Killdeer differs in its much larger size, two black breast bands, 
tawny rump, and longer bill; and the Snowy Plover in its slightly 
smaller size, lighter upper surface, and in the lack of a complete black 
collar. The Semipalmated Plover differs from the Wilson Plover in 
having a shorter bill, orange at the base instead of wholly black, in 
having the white brow separated from the bill by black or dark brown, 
and in the possession of a complete black collar around its hind neck. 
Its very short bill and the presence of a black or brown collar, as 
well as its small size, distinguish the Semipalmated Plover from the 
Mountain Plover. The name Ring Plover has been often used for the 
Semipalmated, with evident propriety ; but there is a decidedly differ- 
ent species belonging to Europe and eastern North America to which 
this name has been affixed by common usage. The term ‘‘semi- 
palmated’’ refers to the half webbing of the toes, a feature to be noted 
with a fresh bird in hand, and distinguishing this species from any 
other of our plovers. 

In California the Semipalmated Plover is most common along the 
shores of the ocean and larger bays. It seems to be equally at home 
on sandy beaches and on the mud flats of estuaries. Unless too greatly 
harassed the birds are exceedingly tame and will allow one to approach 
very closely. They may be found singly, in pairs, in small groups 
of five or ten, or in flocks of forty to fifty; the companies may either 
consist entirely of their own kind, or include other small shore birds. 
When a flock alights on the feeding ground the individuals compris- 
ing it scatter out at considerable distances from one another and 
thenceforth act with perfect independence. Each runs for a short 


472 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


distance with such rapid foot movement and even carriage of the body 
that it seems to fairly glide over the surface of the sand; then it 
stops abruptly to dab slantingly into the wet sand for morsels of food. 
Ground worked over in this manner shows a multitude of bill marks. 
The movements of the birds are, as compared with those of sandpipers, 
more deliberate; now and then an individual momentarily dips its 
fore parts, a mannerism shared among several of the plovers. Ordi- 
narily when the birds are scattered out over a feeding ground they 
are oblivious to one another’s presence; but, should danger threaten, 
the signal of one sets all on guard. As they take wing the members 
of a flock bunch quickly together and fly off, rapidly, in close forma- 
tion, with numerous utterances of their clear, two-syllabled call-note. 
The Semipalmated Plover differs from the Killdeer in being much 
quieter, more gregarious, and in showing a. decided preference for 
maritime forage grounds. 

Unlike its near relatives, the Killdeer and Snowy Plover, the Semi- 
palmated Plover has selected the far north for its breeding ground. 
Authentic instances of nesting involve the region lying from the Gulf 
of St. Lawrence northwest to Fort Yukon, Alaska, and north to Mel- 
ville Island. In this territory, eggs have been taken from June 2 
(1862) to June 21 (1875) (Cooke, 1910, p. 90), while eggs just 
hatched were secured July 6, 1899 (Bishop, 1900, p: 70). The nest 
seems to be usually located on sandy or pebbly shores, or in short 
grass, and in any instance but a short distance from water. It is often 
a mere shallow depression in the surface without lining of any sort; 
at other times a sparse layer of grasses or leaves is provided for the 
eggs to rest upon. The eggs are usually four in number and measure 
in inches, 1.20 to 1.40 by 0.90 to 1.00. The ground color is light drab 
or buff, with rather sparse and scattered superficial markings of black- 
ish brown, and deeper ones of purplish slate (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 157; Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 207; Davie, 
1900, p. 155). The Semipalmated Plover seems to be less demonstra- 
tive than many others of its kind, although some attention may be 
paid to an intruder when he first approaches the nest. MacFarlane 
(1891, p. 430) says of the birds seen in Arctic America: ‘‘When 
closely approached, the female usually glided from her nest and ran 
a short distance before flying, occasionally drooping her wings and 
pretending lameness.”’ 

Bishop (1900, p. 70) records the finding of a pipped egg at Lake 
Marsh, in southern Yukon Territory, July 2, 1899. He says: “‘I 
removed the young bird from the shell, and within half an hour the 
down was almost dry, the eyes were open, and it could hop about on 
its ‘knees’,’’ Bare areas on the skin of the under side of the body in 
both parent birds showed that the duties of incubation are shared 
by the two sexes. 


SNOWY. PLOVER 473 


“‘Tts food on the coast consists largely of small crustacea, mollusks, 
eggs of marine animals, and insects, which it sometimes gleans from 
ploughed fields. In the interior it feeds on locusts, other Orthoptera, 
and many other terrestrial insects’’ (Forbush, 1912, p. 353). 

The Semipalmated Plover is an unobtrusive member of the great 
group of shore birds. It occurs in but limited numbers in California 
and only or chiefly during the migrations, even then rarely away from 
the ocean. In consequence, it is of indifferent value agriculturally. 
Being of small size and not too good flavor, it seems hardly proper to 
class it as a game species either. As it is of little import economically, 
we have left only its esthetic value: the scurrying crowds of plover, 
advaneing and retreating with the surf, constitute an agreeable 
feature of the seashore scene. 


Snowy Plover 


Aegialitis nivosa Cassin 


OTHER NAMES—Kentish Plover; Aegialitis alexandrina nivosa; Aegialitis 
cantiana; Aegialites cantianus nivosus ; Charadrius cantianus ; Charadrius cantianus 
nivosus. 

DeEscripton—Adult male, in spring and summer: Forehead, stripe over eye, 
collar around hind neck, and whole chin, throat and foreneck, pure white; 
narrow area from side of bill to eye, flecked with blackish; band across forepart 
of crown between eyes, and ear region, abruptly black; top and back of head 
clay color; bill blackish; iris dark brown; whole back, rump, middle upper 
tail coverts, and outer surface of closed wing, drab, with faint feather tippings 
of pale ashy; outermost upper tail coverts, white; tail blackish brown toward 
tips of middle feathers, lighter, or drab, toward bases and on terminal por- 
tions of next outer feathers, the outermost ones pure white; tips of inner 
primary coverts, of greater coverts (more broadly), and middle portions of 
secondaries, white, forming a bar on expanded wing; primaries blackish brown, 
shafts chiefly white; margin and lining of wing, and axillars, white; under sur- 
face of flight feathers silvery drab; whole under surface of body white, con- 
tinuous with that of lower side of head; patch on each side of breast near bend 
of folded wing, abruptly black; feet dusky. Adult female, in spring and 
summer: Similar to adult male, but top and back of head drab like back, with little 
or no clay color, and dark markings on head and sides of breast more restricted, less 
intensely black, even brownish in color. Adults and immatures, both sexes, in fall 
and winter: Like adults in summer, save that black or dark brown markings on 
head and sides of breast are ashy brown, or drab, of same tone as upper sur- 
face or but slightly darker; top of head in both sexes like back. Males: Total 
length 6.00-7.40 inches (152-188 mm.) (ten specimens); folded wing 3.95-4.18 
(100.3-106.0); bill along culmen 0.52-0.60 (13.2-15.3); tarsus 0.92-0.98 (23.4— 
25.0) (ten specimens). Females: Total length 6.10-7.00 (155-178) (ten speci- 
mens); folded wing 3.76-4,14 (95.5-105.3); bill along culmen 0.52-0.58 (13.3- 
14.8); tarsus 0.92-1.00 (23.5-25.5) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile 
plumage: Like that of summer adult, save that black or brown markings are 
replaced by drab, like whole upper surface; feathers of upper surface, including 


474 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


outer surface of closed wing, with tippings of ashy white or pale buffy. Natal 
plumage: Top of head and upper surface of body coarsely mottled with black 
on a buffy white ground; stripe behind eye black; forehead, cheeks, chin and 
whole under surface of body, dull white; bill dusky, pale at tip; legs and feet 
(dried) dull yellow, claws dusky. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Very small size (smallest of the Plovers 
and but slightly larger than our smallest shore bird, the Least Sandpiper), 
chunky appearance, short, rather thick bill, white collar around neck, pure 
white under surface, and dark patches on sides of breast (pl. 12). In flight 
shows white on side of rump and inconspicuous streak on wing. 

Vorce—A low guttural trilling or quavering er-r-r-r or pe-e-e-et; in the nest- 
ing season relatively loud remonstrative cries are uttered as the nest is 
approached by an intruder. 

Nrst—On sandy beaches of the seacoast and occasionally on shores of inland 
bodies of water; a slight surface depression about two and one-half inches 
(63.5 mm.) in diameter and one inch (25.4 mm.) deep, sometimes lined with a 
few bits of drift material, occasionally with pieces of bright shell. 

Eces—2 to 3, ovate, measuring in inches, 1.15 to 1.22 by 0.87 to 0.91 (in 
millimeters, 29.2 to 31.0 by 22.1 to 23.2), and averaging 1.19 by 0.89 (30.2 by 
22.7) (three sets, seven eggs, from California); ground color pale buff or 
cream; superficial markings brownish black, deeper ones pale gray; markings 
consist of small spots, elongated streaks, or short scrawls, rarely over 0.10 
inches in length; but slightly more numerous about larger end. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Southwestern United States to South America. 
Breeds from northern California, northern Utah, and southern Kansas south 
to northern Lower California and southern Texas; winters from southern Cali- 
fornia and Texas, south along both coasts of Mexico and Central America, 
and on west coast of South America to Chile (modified from A. O. U. Check- 
list, 1910, p. 129). ; 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common resident coastwise, sparingly so in 
the interior; most numerous in coastal district of southern portion of the state 
and on adjacent islands; breeds locally along the coast from San Diego at 
least as far north as Eureka, Humboldt County, and inland at Buena Vista 
Lake, Kern County. Winters coastwise at least as far north as San Francisco, 
but most abundantly from Santa Barbara southeastward; has oceurred during 
the same season at Owens Lake. 


The Snowy Plover is, as regards general distribution, a notably 
southern species and also the most restricted in range of the several 
plovers occurring regularly in California. Indeed, as regards its 
nesting grounds, it is essentially a bird of the southwestern United 
States. In California it breeds almost exclusively on the seacoast, 
though in some other western states it nests on inland bodies of water. 
In this respect it is complementary to the Killdeer, as the latter bird 
rarely if ever nests along salt water and usually away from the shores 
of large lakes or rivers. 

Snowy Plover are present in many localities in California through- 
out the year, but there may be a certain amount of north and south 
migration ; so that as regards certain localities the birds seen in winter 
and summer may be different individuals. At Santa Barbara, accord- 


SNOWY PLOVER 475 


ing to Bowles and Howell (1912, p. 11) the Snowy Plover, although 
resident, augments in numbers about the middle of December, when 
flocks of fifty or more may be seen. In the vicinity of San Francisco 
the latest known occurrence is November 8, 1889 (specimen in Mus. 
Vert. Zool.), and as there are no records from the San Joaquin-Sacra- 
mento Valley in winter it may be that the species leaves the northern 
half of the state altogether during that season. Numerous instances of 
occurrence in winter, from the vicinity of Monterey southward, pro- 
claim the species as present throughout the year on the coast from 
that point to San Diego. Inland it has been recorded about the shores 
of Salton Sea, Riverside and Imperial counties, during the spring 
(March 29, 1908, to May 1, 1909) (Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; at Owens Lake, 
December 27, 1890, and May 30 to June 4, 1891 (A. K. Fisher, 1898a, 
pp. 25-26) ; at Buena Vista Lake, Kern County, June 2, 1907 (Lin- 
ton, 1908c, p. 197); at Los Baiios, Merced County, April 22, 1912, 
to May 17, 1914 (Mus. Vert. Zool.), and at Goose Lake, Modoc County, 
in June, 1912 (Dawson, 1916, p. 26). On beaches where the species 
nests, pairs of Snowy Plover are found to frequent during the spring 
or summer comparatively restricted areas and not very many will 
be found together at any one time; but when foraging on shores where 
they are not known to nest, as in the early fall when the young of the 
year are wandering about in search of food, they occur in flocks num- 
bering up to fifty individuals. 

The Snowy Plover is readily distinguished from most other shore 
birds occurring in California, by its very small size (total length 
6.00-7.00 inches). It is but slightly larger than our smallest shore 
bird, the Least Sandpiper. The chunky appearance, short, thick bill 
(which is shorter than the head), white collar around hind neck, 
uniform pale drab upper surface, pure white under surface, and 
conspicuous dark brown or black patches at the sides of the breast, 
are all useful as aids to recognition (pl. 12). From the Killdeer, 
and the Semipalmated and Wilson plovers, the Snowy is distinguished 
by its lack of complete black or dark brown breast band and by its 
smaller size, and from the Least and Western sandpipers, and from 
the Sanderling, by its white collar around hind neck, and by the dark 
patches at the sides of its chest; and, in spring, from the last three 
named birds, by the absence of mixed coloration on its upper surface. 

Snowy Plover are exceptionally quiet birds; but at times a low 
guttural trilling note, cr-r-r-r or pe-e-e-et, may be given, and when 
the vicinity of the nest is invaded the birds give utterance to rela- 
tively loud cries. 

Sandy seabeaches constitute the preferred habitat of this species, 
and it is rarely found elsewhere. It frequents as a rule the higher 
portions of the beach, but may also forage on the wet sand, sometimes 


476 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


even at the edge of the waves. Often areas of considerable extent are 
“‘plowed up’’ by these birds in their active’ probing for the sand- 
inhabiting crustacea and worms which constitute their food. When 
searching for food they move about a great deal, with a distinct trot, 
and on occasion have been seen to hop along on one leg as Torrey has 
observed Sanderlings to do at Santa Barbara. Their movements are 
rapid and their strides exceedingly long. At Netarts Bay, Oregon; 
Jewett (1914, pp. 114-115) says that when running fast the strides 
of one of these birds proved to measure six inches. One of the birds 
will start, run three or four feet, and stop suddenly, the whole per- 
formance occupying but a second or two. There is an abrupt upward 
tilt of the body at intervals, and with the return movement the 
quavering note is often uttered. In flight the birds may travel in 
open formation, or closely massed, and the flight may be either direct, 
or in zigzag course as with the small sandpipers. Both in flight, and 
on the ground, their chunky appearance helps to distinguish them 
from the small sandpipers. They are quite tame and will usually 
permit a close approach, preferring apparently to trot along in front 
of the observer, or off to one side, rather than to take wing. 

Torrey (1913, pp. 10-11) says of the Snowy Plover at Santa 
Barbara: 


Every day they are here, and every day it is a pleasure to watch them; 
now running about or standing at rest on the gray, dry sand—too close a 
match in color for even a hawk’s eyes, one would think; now squatting singly, 
here, there, and yonder, in the footprints of horses, hardly more than a head 
showing, one of their prettiest tricks—you may sometimes see fifty at once 
cradled in this cozy fashion, for shelter against the wind, or by way of a 
more comfortable siesta, or, possibly, as affording a measure of concealment; 
and now scattered in loose order along the edge of the surf, picking up the day’s 
rations. An extraordinarily light repast this would seem to be, or, . one 
very easily gathered, seeing how small a share of the day they spend upon it. 
Nine times in ten you will find them doing nothing, in what looks like a 
reposeful after-dinner mood, strikingly unlike the behavior of the common run 
of birds... . 

As is true of plovers in general, the snowy ... is amazingly sudden and 
spry in its motions, a sprinter of the first rank, starting at full speed, and 
scampering before you, head down, till its legs fairly twinkle, they move so 
almost invisibly fast... . 


As a result, perhaps, of the temperate climate of its breeding 
range the nesting season of the Snowy Plover is very long as com- 
pared with those of our other shore birds. Chambers took a set of 
three eggs well advanced in incubation at Ballona, Los Angeles 
County, April 15, 1907 (Willett, 1912a, p. 40), and Robertson (1899, 
p. 94) records a set far advanced in incubation at Redondo, Los 
Angeles County, April 25, 1899. Thompson (1901b, p. 17) reports 
three sets at Morro, San Luis Obispo County, August 1 (19002), all 


SNOWY PLOVER 477 


of which would have hatched in a day or two; while Chambers 
(Willett, loc. cit.) found a single fresh egg at Ballona, August 2, 1903. 
Extra high tides doubtless destroy many eggs, and this may account in 
part for the prolongation of the nesting season, through repeated egg- 
laying. Willett (loc. cit.) states that in southern California the eggs 
are usually deposited between May 1 and June 15. From Monterey 
northward to Humboldt Bay dates of nesting range from April 16 
(Cooke, 1910, p. 98) to June 21 (Mailliard coll.). 

The Snowy Plover has been reported nesting at various points 
along the California seacoast from Eureka, Humboldt County (sets 
in Mailliard coll.), on the north, to Pacific Beach, San Diego County 
(Ingersoll, 1895, p. 87) on the south; and it may be expected to 
nest in suitable localities, namely sandy beaches sufficiently broad 
and high to have dry upper portions, along our whole ocean shore. 
It has nested in large numbers on San Francisco Bay at Alvarado, 
Alameda County (Reynolds, MS), and once at Buena Vista Lake, 
Kern County (Linton, 1908c, p. 197); while A. K. Fisher (1898a, 
pp. 25-26) thinks that the species breeds at Owens Lake, and Dawson 
(1916, p. 26) surmised the same for Goose Lake, Modoe County. 

In coastal localities the nests are almost invariably situated on 
the sand, a slight distance above the high tide level, and among debris 
cast up at high water. The nest is a mere depression in the sand, 
about two and one-half inches in diameter and an inch in depth. 
Sometimes the cavity is lined with bits of drift wood, fish bones or 
small pebbles; at other times it is bare of extraneous materials. In 
an exceptional case, as reported by Henshaw (1876, p. 269), ‘‘... 
the owners must have been of an artistic turn of mind, for they had 
selected from along the shore little bits of pearly nacre, the remnants 
of broken sea-shells, and upon a smooth lining of this material were 
placed their treasures. The effect of the richly-colored eggs as they 
lay on the cushion of shining nacre was very pleasing.”’ 

In the vicinity of the salt works near Alvarado, on the Alameda 
County shore of San Francisco Bay, L. R. Reynolds (MS) found 
that a great many pairs had in the summer of 1914 selected nesting 
sites on the dikes separating the salt ponds. The workmen, in tra- 
versing the dikes with wheelbarrows, reported having broken many 
eggs. The birds were doing most of their foraging at the edges of 
the salt ponds, hardly at all on the mud flats of the undisturbed 
salt marshes nearby. It would appear that artificial conditions such 
as were provided at this place are of a kind to fulfill all the require- 
ments of this Plover. 

The eggs in a complete set are two or three, the latter number 
predominating in the proportion of about three to one. The propor- 
tion of two-egg sets is greater towards the end of the nesting season 


478 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


(Chambers, 1904, pp. 139-140). They measure in inches, 1.15 to 
1.22 by 0.87 to 0.92, and average 1.20 by 0.89 (three sets, seven eggs, 
in Mus. Vert. Zool.). Henshaw (1876, p. 269) gives the measurements 
of three sets as somewhat larger, ranging from 1.22 to 1.30 by 0.89 
to 0.95. The ground color is pale buff or cream with small super- 
ficial spots and lines of brownish black, and deeper ones of pale gray. 
The markings rarely exceed 0.10 inches in length, and are but slightly 
more numerous about the larger end of the egg than elsewhere. 
Chambers (loc. cit.) states that the eggs are usually laid at three- 
day intervals. 

Henshaw (1876, p. 269) gives the following account of the nesting 
habits of the Snowy Plover at Santa Barbara: 


So slight is the contrast between the eggs and the drifted sand about them 
that they would be difficult enough to find were it not for the tracks about the 
nest. As the mates came to relieve each other from setting or to bring each 
other food, they alighted near the nest, and thus for a little distance about 
each one [there] was a series of tracks converging to a common center, which 
too surely betrayed their secret. Great was the alarm of the colony as soon as 
my presence was known, and, gathering into little knots, they nervously 
attended my steps, following at a distance with low sorrowful cries. The 
female, when she found her nest was really discovered, hesitated not to fly 
close by, and used all the arts which birds of this kind know so well how to 
employ on like occasions. With wings drooping and trailing on the sand, she 
would move in front till my attention was secured, when she would fall help- 
lessly down, and burying her breast in the soft sand, present the very picture 
of utter helplessness, while the male with the neighboring pairs expressed his 
sympathy with loud cries. 


After the young are fully fledged in the fall, flocks begin to 
appear in localities where the species is not known to breed. This is 
probably due to crowding and competition for food in the vicinity 
of the nest, and may be expected to continue until the pressure of 
over-population has been relieved by reduction in numbers. 

The food of the Snowy Plover consists of various insects and prob- 
ably crustacea and other marine organisms. A. K. Fisher (189382, 
pp. 25-26) recorded it as feeding on a fly (Hphydra hians) which 

. is present in enormous numbers on the shores of Owens Lake. H. C. 
Bryant (1914c, p. 226) found more than ten water beetles in the 
stomach of a bird of this species taken at Los Bafios, Merced County. 
The stomach of another bird taken at Los Bafios, also contained beetles 
(Beck, MS). 

The Snowy Plover is classed as a game species merely because of 
its near relationships with the larger shore birds, which properly are 
hunted for food or sport. Its insignificant size from a food stand- 
point and its confiding habits, ought to justify its release from 
destruction before the gun of the hunter. The species should be 
accorded complete and continuous protection along with all the other 
diminutive shore birds which occur within our boundaries. 


UNIV. CALIF. SEMICENT. PUBL. 


[GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 12 


i Q aa : ae ——  Cttan Prentin = 


SNOWY PLOVER 


WILSON PLOVER 479 


Wilson Plover 


Ochthodromus wilsonius wilsonius (Ord) 


OTHER NAME—Aegialitis wilsonia. 

DEscription—Adult male: Forehead and line over eye, chin and upper throat, 
white; forepart of crown and sometimes stripe from bill to eye, black; iris 
reddish brown; bill black; ear region, top and back of head, whole back, rump, 
middle upper tail coverts and outer surface of closed wing, ashy brown; back 
of head tinged with buff; outer upper tail coverts and outer tail feathers, white; 
middle tail feathers dark brown; tips of greater wing coverts white, forming 
a narrow bar across wing; primaries dark brown, their shafts chiefly white, 
outer one entirely so; margin of wing mottled light brown and white; lining 
of wing and axillars, white; under surface of flight feathers pale dusky; broad 
band across lower throat and upper breast, black; rest of under surface white; 
feet light flesh color, claws dusky. Adult female: Similar to adult male but 
with black replaced by brownish; breast band suffused with light buff. Total 
length (both sexes): ‘‘7.50-7.90’’ inches (190-200 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 
175). Male: folded wing 4.25 (108); bill along culmen 0.85 (21.6); tarsus 1.16 
(29.4) (one specimen from California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of 
adult male but with black replaced by brown and feathers of upper surface 
edged with paler brown. Natal plumage: Forehead, sides of head, and band 
around neck, white; stripe through eye black; upper surface grayish buff, 
mottled with black; last joint of wing and whole lower surface white (descrip- 
tions adapted from: Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 477; Ridgway, 
1900, p. 175; Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 169; and one specimen 
from California). 

MARKS FOR FIELD’ IDENTIFICATION—Small size (much smaller than Killdeer), 
chunky appearance, stout, wholly black bill (about as long as head), single 
broad black or dark brown band across upper breast, brow white to base of 
bill, and uniformly grayish brown upper surface of body. 

Voice—A ‘‘slightly rolling’’ ery; ‘‘half a whistle and half a chirp’’ (Baird, 
Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 170). 

Nest—Usually on dry open sandy beaches some distance back from the 
water; at times in short grass; a mere depression in the bare sand (Coues, 
1869, p. 345); occasionally it is lined with a few bits of drift material. 

Eecs—Usually 3, but at times 2, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.22 to 
1.45 by 1.00 to 1.05 (in millimeters, 31.0 to 36.8 by 25.4 to 26.6); ground color 
pale olive-drab of either a greenish or brownish cast; superficial markings of 
blackish brown consisting of spots and lines in fine pattern, most numerous 
about the larger end; deeper markings are also present (Coues, 1869, pp. 348- 
349). : 

— DISTRIBUTION—Middle America and southern North America. Breeds 
on Atlantic coast from southeastern Virginia (formerly from New Jersey) south 
to the northern Bahamas, and along Gulf Coast west to Texas, and probably 
on Pacifie coast from southern Lower California to Guatemala; probably resi- 
dent on Pacifie side; casual (?) at San Diego, California (modified from Cooke, 
1910, pp. 93-94). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—One record: Adult male in worn breeding 
plumage taken at Pacific Beach, San Diego County, June 29, 1894 (Ingersoll, 
1895, p. 87; Grinnell, 19020, p. 197). 


480 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The Wilson Plover is typically a bird of southern North America. 
Its admission to a place in the list of California birds is based upon 
the capture of a single individual in worn breeding plumage at Pacific 
Beach, San Diego County, June 29, 1894 (Ingersoll, 1895, p. 87; 
Grinnell, 19020, p. 197). This individual was first seen, by Mr. A. M. 
Ingersoll, five days previously at the same place, in company with 
a female Snowy Plover and in the vicinity of the latter’s nest. Atten- 
tion was first attracted to the bird by hearing its ‘‘. . . peculiar alarm 
ery, quite unlike any note of the usually silent Snowy Plover.’’ It 
followed the Snowy about, assisting her in remonstrating against 
invasion of her nesting precincts. ‘‘He was the most talkative Plover 
I ever met and could not have shown more solicitude had he been 
the rightful owner of the eggs.... After I left... [he] ran 
ahead eighty or a hundred feet and kept at about that distance until 
we had gone up the beach nearly a quarter of a mile. Then he took 
wing and disappeared in opposite direction.’’ 

On the date of capture, June 29, the Wilson Plover was with three 
Snowies and within a hundred feet of where seen previously. ‘‘He 
ran ahead of me as on former occasion, but only uttered a few notes 
and did not seem as much disturbed by my presence.’’ After more 
than three hours continuous observation, Mr. Ingersoll concluded that 
the bird was unmated and shot it. The specimen is now in the Grin- 
nell collection, in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. As the species 
may breed along the coast of Lower California not far to the south- 
ward, it is not unreasonable to expect that other individuals will 
stray over our southern border from time to time, especially in 
summer. 

The Wilson Plover resembles other plovers of its size in general 
habits. On the sandy beaches and muddy flats of the Carolinas it is 
to be found in flocks of six to twenty or more. Sometimes the birds 
stray into the adjacent salt grass meadows in search for food. They do 
not run so fast as other small plovers, and are more given to remaining 
with their own kind. In flight they pass close to the ground or water. 

The nesting season extends from early April (earliest eggs April 8) 
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 171) well into June (fresh 
eggs June 12) (Philipp, 1910, p. 316), but the majority of the eggs 
are laid during the latter part of May. The nest is a shallow de 
pression in the bare dry sand some distance back from the water; 
sometimes in a slight grassy growth. Usually it is without lining 
of any sort, or it may be supplied with a few bits of drift material. 
A typical nest measures about four inches across (Coues, 1869, p. 345). 

The eggs number three, less commonly two. In size they range 
from 1.22 to 1.45 by 1.00 to 1.05 inches. The ground color is pale 
olive drab of either a greenish or brownish tone, with blackish brown 


MOUNTAIN PLOVER 481 


superficial markings and lighter-colored deeper ones. The markings 
are more numerous about the larger end of the egg and consist of 
small spots and lines (Coues, 1869, pp. 348-349). If one intrudes 
his presence on these birds at their nesting season, the male voices his 
concern with loud cries. The female, if surprised on the nest, usually 
slips quietly away for some distance, close to the ground, and then 
practices various subterfuges to lead the intruder away. Occasionally 
the members of another pair will join in demonstration with those 
whose domains have been entered (Coues, 1869, p. 344). Often the 
birds will squat on the ground at places away from the nest, making 
discovery of the latter quite difficult (Philipp, 1910, p. 316). The 
downy young ‘‘. . . can run quite cleverly over the sand as soon as 
fairly dry from the egg ... and are rather difficult to find, from 
their knack of hiding, like their parents, by squatting close on the 
sand. Their legs seem disproportionately long, like a young colt’s’’ 
(Coues, 1869, p. 347). 

Since this species is known in California from but a single instance, 
in spite of extensive observations along our southern seacoast, it is 
improbable that it will ever be found here in numbers. As with 
several other rare birds of the game category, it is likely to remain of 
interest only to the scientist and nature-lover. 


Mountain Plover 


Podasocys montanus (Townsend) 


OTHER NaMES—Rocky Mountain Plover; Bull-head Snipe; Aegialitis asiaticus 
var. montanus ; Charadrius montanus; Eudromias montanus; Aegialitis montana. 

DEscrIPTION—Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Band across 
forehead at base of bill, and extending back as stripe over eye, white; fore- 
part of crown above white band, broadly black; stripe from side of bill to eye, 
black; side of head immediately below eye whitish, below this and on ear 
region, buffy; chin and throat, white; bill black; iris dark brown; top of head, 
hind neck, whole back, rump, central upper tail coverts, and wing coverts, ashy 
brown, with feather tippings of rusty brown giving a scaled appearance; outer 
margins of outermost upper tail coverts, white; tail feathers pale drab at 
base, blackish brown subterminally, and with tips of all and outer web of 
outermost, white; flight feathers and primary coverts chiefly blackish brown; 
shafts of primaries, and tips of greater coverts, white; lining of wing and 
axillars, white; under surface of flight feathers pale gray; sides of neck, broad 
area across chest, and sides of body pale brown, lightest toward mid-line; 
rest of under surface, white; legs pale brown; feet black. Adults and immatures, 
both sexes, in fall, winter and early spring: Like adults in summer save that 
black markings on head are absent, and feathers of whole upper surface are 
more or less prominently tipped with light rusty brown; sides of head, chest, 
and sides of body, strongly suffused with same color. Males: Total length 8.75- 
9.50 inches (222-241 mm.) (four specimens); folded wing 5.55-5.95 (141.0- 
151.2); bill along culmen 0.83-0.89 (21.1-22.5); tarsus 1.54-1.81 (39.0-46.0) 


482 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


(ten specimens). Females: Total length 9.00-9.50 (228-241) (six specimens); 
folded wing 5.44-5.85 (138.2-148.7); bill along culmen 0.78-0.89 (19.8-22.6); 
tarsus 1.52-1.63 (38.5-41.4) (ten specimens); adults and full-grown immatures, 
all from California. Juvenile plumage: Like winter plumage of adults but all 
of lighter feather edgings broader, and brighter in tone, and lower surface 
more extensively tinged with pale tawny brown. By fading and wear this 
becomes the winter plumage. Natal plumage: Forehead and cheeks pale buff; 
bill pale brown, lighter at tip; top and back of head and upper surface of 
body coarsely mottled with black on a pale buff ground; entire under surface 
of body dull yellowish white; legs and feet (dried) yellowish brown. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderate size (about that of Killdeer, but 
chunkier), short bill, uniformity of coloration, white axillars and lining of 
wing, total lack of black bands or streaking on breast or sides, and lack of 
conspicuous white on rump and wing. These features pertain to the winter 
plumage and hence to the birds throughout their stay in California; in summer 
there is black on the forepart of the crown and between the bill and eye. 

Voice—A rather low pleasing whistle (Goss, 1891, p. 218); on breeding 
grounds, a short shrill whistle, dropping at intervals to a harsh note (Cameron, 
1907, p. 256). 

Nest—On open prairie or plains of the interior; a mere depression in the 
surface, sometimes sparingly lined with a few dried grasses (authors). 

Eces—3 to 4, bluntly pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.40 to 1.60 by 1.05 to 
1.15 (in millimeters, 35.6 to 40.6 by 26.7 to 29.2); ground color deep brownish 
drab, with small rounded spots of blackish brown, a little more numerous about 
the larger end; deeper-lying markings of grayish are also present (Baird, 
Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 175; Coues, 1874, p. 458; Goss, 1891, p. 218). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Western North America. Breeds in the United 
States north nearly to the Canadian boundary in Montana, south through west- 
ern Wyoming and south-central Colorado to northeastern New Mexico, and 
east to northwestern Texas, western Kansas and western Nebraska; winters 
from north-central California, southern Arizona, and south-central Texas, south 
to central Mexico and southern Lower California (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 
130; Cooke, 1910, p. 94). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFoRNIA—Common fall, winter and spring visitant locally 
to open plains in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley, and in the coastal dis- 
trict of southern California from Ventura County to the Mexican line. Has 
occurred also in the San Francisco Bay region and at Monterey. Fall migrants 
arrive from September to November, and the last spring birds are seen in 
March. 


The Mountain Plover, or Prairie Plover as this species has more 
aptly been called elsewhere, is typically an inland bird. It is rarely, 
if ever, seen along the seacoast, or indeed anywhere in the vicinity of 
any water, and in this respect differs markedly from all others of 
our plovers. It is an exclusively American species and is restricted to 
the southwestern portion of the continent, nesting in the Rocky Moun- 
tain region, and wintering from the southern United States to central 
Mexico. Much of the winter range lies west of its breeding range, so 
that an east-and-west course of migration must be the rule. 

In California the Mountain Plover is purely a winter visitant. 
The earliest fall record for numbers is for Montebello, Los Angeles 


MOUNTAIN PLOVER 483 


County, September 15, 1896 (Willett, 1912a, p. 41), when the species 
was recorded as already plentiful. But Dawson (1916, p. 26) saw 
a single bird on the Santa Barbara beach, August 25, 1915. Belding 
(MS) states that a flock of about a dozen was seen at Stockton, Sep- 
tember 26, 1883, but that this was earlier than usual for its appear- 
ance in the central valleys; judging from his and other accounts the 
average date of arrival is probably some time in October. Through- 
out the winter months the Mountain Plover is present in varying 
numbers. According to a few reports it has at times been extremely 
abundant locally. The latest known spring occurrence for southern 
California is February 22, 1888, at Riverside (specimen in Mus. 
Vert. Zool.). At Mendota, Fresno County, three specimens were 
secured on March 12, 1912 (Mus. Vert. Zool.). On the coast of central 
California, it has been recorded only from Monterey, January 24, 
1911 (Beck, MS), and in the vicinity of San Francisco Bay, January 
26, 1898 (specimen in Mailliard coll.). W. E. Bryant (in Belding, MS) 
reports that the species was a rare winter visitant in his day in the 
vicinity of Oakland. A specimen was taken at Concord, Contra Costa 
County, January 10, 1894 (Mus. Vert. Zool.). The northernmost 
locality from which the species has been recorded within the state is 
Marysville, Butte County (Belding, 1879, p. 440). 

The Mountain Plover is to be distinguished by its moderate size 
(near that of the Killdeer), chunky appearance, short bill, uniformity 
of coloration throughout, its white axillars and lining of wing, and 
the total absence of black bands, patches or streaks on its breast and 
sides. The dry upland habitat of the bird is also distinctive. From 
all others of our small or moderate sized plovers the Mountain may 
be known by the absence of any black band or side-patches on the 
breast, and from the larger species (Black-bellied and Golden) by 
the uniformly colored upper surface, white axillars, and, in spring, 
by the absence of black on the under surface. 

The Mountain Plover is typically a bird of dry open plains, being 
rarely if ever found about bodies of water as are most other shore 
birds. Belding (1879, p. 440) says of this bird in central California: 
“‘Tt frequents the dry plains, but is oftener found in fields that have 
been prepared for or sown with wheat than any other localities. It 
sometimes visits the low, rolling gravelly hills to the east of the 
[Sacramento-San Joaquin] valley, and is often abundant, especially 
previous to the severe rains of winter.’’ This plover is a flocking 
species found in bands of from fifteen to several hundred individuals. 
Occasionally, in years past, they have occurred in great numbers on 
the level country lying within a few miles of Los Angeles. 

This species differs from many of its relatives in being somewhat 
difficult to flush from the ground. When pursued the birds will 


484 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


run about, ,preferring to dodge between bits of vegetation, rather 
than to take flight. When moving about in this manner the head is 
lowered, but at intervals the birds stop suddenly, straighten up and 
look around. ‘‘When disturbed they have a curious habit of collaps- 
ing, or shrinking into themselves, and stretching their bodies to the 
full height alternately’’ (Cameron, 1907, p. 255). Often upon 
alighting, after they have been in flight, the birds will immediately 
run to some distance so that it is not always possible to follow them 
up easily as with other shore birds. The flocks fly low over the ground, 
and are difficult to see, except when they wheel. As they do this the 
under surfaces of their wings show momentarily as silvery white 
flashes. 

The nesting season is rather late, especially when considered in 
relation to the latitude and to the time of departure of the birds in 
the spring from their winter home. Young about one day out of the 
shell have been found by May 29 (Warren, 1912, p. 90), and newly 
hatched young on July 28 (Coues, 1874, p. 459), so that the nesting 
season occupies a period of approximately two months. 

The Mountain Plover nests on the same kind of dry, half-barren 
plains which serve as its preferred habitat at other times of the year. 
The nests are nothing more than slight depressions in the ground, 
usually bare but sometimes sparingly lined with dry grass. The 
eggs number either three or four, are pear-shaped, but much more 
rounded than those of most other waders, and measure 1.40 to 1.60 
by 1.05 to 1.15 inches; the ground-color is deep brownish drab, with 
small rounded spots of deep bister or black, a little more numerous 
about the larger end; deeper-lying grayish markings are also present 
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 175; Coues, 1874, p. 458; 
Goss, 1891, p. 218). 

But little seems to have been placed on record concerning the 
habits of this species during the nesting season. Cameron (1907, p. 
256) describes his experience with a nesting bird in Montana as 
follows: A pair had been located in the center of a prairie-dog town 
and one of them had shown extreme agitation at his approach. 


Running with a trailing wing she would fall over and lie struggling on 
the ground, which .. convinced me that she had young close by.... The 
distracted parent ... sought by feints and struggles to engage my attention. 
All the time she kept up a short, shrill whistle, dropping at intervals to a 
harsh note and appearing to utter these sounds without opening her beak... . 
By her manoeuvres she assisted me to find her nestlings and I soon saw two 
little pale yellow birds, spotted with black, together with an egg, on the bare 
ground, for there was no pretence at a nest. 


Warren (1912, p. 90) records the rather common occurrence of 
the Mountain Plover in the breeding season in portions of north-central 


SURF-BIRD 485 


Colorado. On June 11 many partly grown young were seen. One, 
which was estimated to be a week or ten days old, was able to run 
with great speed and did so with its wings outspread. An adult 
squatting in the shade of a fence post, and a young one in a similar 
position, were seen on the same date. 

The food of the Mountain Plover, as might be surmised from its 
choice of haunts, is almost entirely composed of insects; of these, 
the species which are found in open country, such as grasshoppers, 
crickets and beetles, are most frequently taken. Flies are also eaten 
(Beck, MS; McAtee, 191la). Belding (MS) observes interestingly 
that he often found this Plover in recently sown grain fields, but 
was never able to discover a single kernel of wheat in the stomachs 
of those shot. 

As a possible feature of attractiveness to the hunter may be men- 
tioned this bird’s fair size and consequent food value. In earlier 
years numbers were sold in the markets at least of Los Angeles. We 
have, however, learned little that would evidence particular enthus- 
jiasm over this species on the part of the average sportsman. Beld- 
ing (MS) says that ‘‘during their winter sojourn here the birds 
become fat, and so tame as to afford the hunter but little sport.’’ 
Also ‘‘their flesh has an unpleasant taste not at first noticed.’’ 

It may well be said that the Mountain Plover is a unique type 
among our shore birds. Its upland habitat marks it off sharply from 
most of our other species. It therefore deserves special consideration 
from the game standpoint, as it gives an object of pursuit to the plains 
dweller to whom hunting along the seacoast or in the lowland marshes 
is denied. Its habit of appearing in great numbers at irregular inter- 
vals, as if concentrated into a small area, should be taken into account 
and only moderate hunting permitted in order that its numbers may 
not be too greatly reduced. 


Surf-bird 
Aphriza virgata (Gmelin) 

OTHER NAMES—Townsend’s Surf Bird; Strepsilas virgata. 

DeEscripTion—Adults, both sexes, in summer: Whole head and neck streaked 
black and white, darkest on crown where also suffused with pale buff; chin 
whitest, the markings reduced to flecks; eyelids white; iris dark brown; bill 
(dried) brownish black, dull yellow on basal haif of lower mandible; feathers 
of back brownish black, with narrow edgings of ashy white, and extensive 
markings of reddish buff; rump dull dark brown; upper tail coverts abruptly 
and solidly white; tail pure white on basal half, dull dark brown on terminal 
half, the outer feathers with narrow white tips; outer surface of closed wing 
dull brown; bases of primaries, tips of primary coverts and ends of most of 
secondaries, white, forming a conspicuous band across expanded wing; flight 


486 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


feathers brownish black, shafts of outermost ones white; margin of wing 
scaled white and brown; lining of wing and axillars white; inner surface of 
flight feathers white toward bases, darkening to pale brown at ends; breast 
with a mixture of ashy brown feathers, and pure white feathers with crescent- 
shaped bars of blackish near ends; rest of under surface white, marked on 
upper belly, sides, flanks and under tail coverts with bold crescents, triangles, 
or streaks of brownish black; feet ‘‘ ‘olive green; claws black’ ’’ (Baird, 
Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 127). Adults and immatures, both sexes in 
winter: Top and sides of head, whole neck, and breast, back, rump and outer 
surface of closed wing, continuously blackish brown, the feathers with dull 
darker shafts or shaft streaks, which are broadest and most noticeable on 
head; eyelids white; cheeks streaked with dull ashy; chin white, sparingly 
flecked with brown; rump, upper tail coverts, tail and flight feathers as in 
summer adults; under surface behind dark breast area, white, sparingly streaked 
or spotted with dark brown, on upper belly, flanks and under tail coverts. 
Males: Total length 9.87 inches (251 mm.) (two specimens from Alaska); 
folded wing 6.22-6.62 (158-168); bill along culmen 0.87-0.95 (22.5-24.2); 
tarsus 1.14-1.25 (29.0-31.8) (ten specimens from Alaska). Females: Total 
length 10.25 (261) (one specimen from Alaska); folded wing 6.42-6.97 (163- 
177); bill along culmen 0.95-1.02 (24.2-25.8); tarsus 1.22-1.32 (31.0-33.6) (ten 
specimens from Alaska and California). Juvenile (?) plumage: Like that of 
adults in winter save that feathers of back are narrowly edged with grayish 
white, wing coverts are slightly lighter than back and more broadly margined 
with white, and each ashy brown feather on breast is crossed near end by 
two narrow white bands; iris dark hazel; bill black at tip, grayish yellow at 
base; feet and legs yellowish (modified from Nelson, 1887, p. 128). Natal 
plumage: Not known to us. 

MarRkKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderate size (much larger than that of 
Killdeer), plump appearance, short bill (fig. 78) and legs, conspicuous white 
‘‘rump’’ patch (including upper tail coverts and bases of tail feathers), white 
band across wing, and heavily marked under surface (pl. 13). Similar in 
general appearance to the Turnstones, but distinguished from them by slightly 
larger size, boldly marked instead of pure white hinder lower surface, and 
single white patch at base of tail instead of two separated by black interval. 

Voice—A low piping note (Heermann, 1859, p. 64); a wild key-we’-ah (Bailey, 
19160, p. 103). 

Nrst aND EGGS—Unknown. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Pacifie coast of North and South America. Breed- 
ing range unknown but probably in interior of northwestern Alaska; winters 
in Chile south to Straits of Magellan; in migration occurs from Kowak River, 
northern Alaska, to southern South America (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 131; 
Cooke, 1910, p. 95). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Spring and fall migrant in moderate numbers 
on rocky ocean shores; one instance of capture in winter. Recorded from 
various localities from Bodega Bay, Sonoma County, south to Point Loma, San 
Diego County. 


There remain at the present time but very few birds of regular 
occurrence in northern North America whose life histories are not 
fairly well known. The Surf-bird is one of these elusive species. In 
winter it is known to occur along the western coast of southern South 


UNIV, CALIF. SEMICENT. PUBL, [GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 13 


SURF-BIRD 


SURF-BIRD 487 


America, and it migrates along the whole Pacific coast of the two 
Americas. At the north, in Alaska, it has not been reported between 
May 29 and July 21; during this interval it vanishes. It is believed 
that the nesting grounds are in the interior of northwestern Alaska, 
but this belief rests upon inference coupled with the assertions of 
Alaskan natives. 

In California the Surf-bird is a moderately common species in 
the spring and fall migrations, and it has been observed here once in 
winter. Definite instances of occurrence, with specific dates, are as 
follows: Bodega Bay, March 25 or 26, 1885 (Belding, MS) ; Berkeley, 
October 24, 1888 (Cooke, 1910, p. 95) ; Farallon Islands, June 3, 1903 
(Cooke, loc. cit.) ; Santa Cruz, April 22, 1895 (specimen in Mailliard 
coll.) ; Monterey, August 3, 1894, and other dates in same month 
(Loomis, 1895, p. 224); January 12, 1911 (two specimens in Mus. 
Vert. Zool.) ; and May 10 and August 5, 1907 (Beck, 1910, p. 71); 
Santa Barbara, September 16, 1911, flock of five (Bowles and Howell, 
1912, p. 11); May 3, 1912, flock of twenty-three (Dawson, 1912, p. 
224) ; May 1, 1918 (Howell, MS) ; and June 4, 1915, two individuals 
(Dawson, 1915, p. 207) ; San Miguel Island, between March 13 and 
April 1, 1903 (Willett, 1912a, p. 41); San Nicolas Island, May 15, 
1909 (Willett, loc. cit.) ; Pacific Beach, San Diego County, September 
8, 1904 (Bishop, 1905, p. 141) ; and Point Loma, San Diego County, 
March 19, 1898 (Stephens coll.). It has also been reported doubt- 
fully from Santa Barbara Island (Cooper in Baird, Brewer and Ridg- 
way, 1884, I, p. 127), and it was obtained by Heermann (1859, p. 64) 
in the markets of San Francisco in the winter of 1849. The latter 
author also met with this species on the Farallon Islands in June, 
1850. 

Summarizing from the above, we find the earliest spring record 
to be March 19 and the latest June 4; the earliest in the fall August 
3, and the latest October 24, save for the single January occurrence. 
Most of the records are for May and August. Being a species which 
adheres closely to the rockiest portions of our coasts, it does not come 
to the attention of the usual visitor to the seashore. Special efforts 
to find this bird, if made at the proper season and in the proper 
locality, are quite sure to prove successful. 

Among the shore birds occurring in California the Surf-bird may 
be known by its moderate size (considerably larger than that of the 
Killdeer), its very plump appearance, short, plover-like bill (fig. 78), 
very short legs, conspicuous white upper tail coverts and base of tail 
(‘‘rump’’ patch), white band across wing, and the bold pattern of 
markings on its under surface (pl. 13). From our two Turnstones, 
which it most closely resembles, this bird may be told by its stouter 
build, somewhat larger size, the boldly marked instead of pure white 


488 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


hinder lower surface, and the single white patch instead of two 
white patches separated by black at the upper base of the tail. 

The Surf-bird prefers rocky reefs and outcrops to sandy beaches; 
in this respect it almost duplicates the Wandering Tattler. Indeed 
the two species are often found in the near vicinity of one another, 
but the Tattler is solitary while the Surf-bird is of flocking habit. 
Torrey (19138, pp. 186-137) who observed these two species and others 
at Santa Barbara says that the Surf-birds ‘‘. . . kept persistently 
close to the water, on what looked at... [a] distance like bare 
rocks, not off-shore like those to which the oyster-catchers restricted 
themselves, nor covered with seaweed like those resorted to by the 
wandering tattlers. Once ... they occupied themselves a long time 
on the face of a rock that inclined seaward, running up into sight 
as the higher waves chased them, and anon hastening down again as 
the water receded.”’ 

The most interesting account of the 
Surf-bird within the state is that fur- 
nished by Dawson (1918a, pp. 5-8) 
who, on May 3, 1912, observed a flock 
of twenty-three of these birds at La 
Patera, near Santa Barbara. They 

Fig. 78. Side of bill of Surf- were first sighted from a bluff above 
bird. MNatu#al size. the beach, and were then feeding in 
mixed company with some cormorants. 
A detour and careful approach finally allowed the observer to get 
within eighteen feet of the waders, from which the cormorants had 
meanwhile separated. They were feeding along a rocky reef in close 
reach of the waves. ‘‘Now and again the flock shifted, but always they 
came back, alighting at the extreme tip of the reef where the waves 
frequently bandied them. For the most part they fed silently, but 
‘as often as I made some unusual demonstration or as often as the 
wave swept about them, a murmur of complaint arose. The flock came 
to attention, or a few shifted position, . . . but the moment danger 
was over, work was resumed upon the barnacles.’’ When forced to 
leave because of the water they took refuge on a near-by sandy area 
and gleaned like sandpipers; but they seemed to prefer the rocky 
situation and returned to it at the first possible opportunity. At this 
time their food consisted exclusively of sessile barnacles from the 
shells of which, as they were fastened to the rocks, the birds were 
dexterously extracting the soft parts. ‘‘. . . It was interesting to see 
a bird get a good grip.on a reluctant cirriped, then brace and haul 
him out by main force.’’ The food of the Surf-bird probably includes 
other rock-inhabiting marine animals such as mussels, in addition 
to the barnacles already mentioned. 


RUDDY TURNSTONE 489 


Being restricted in its occurrence in California, both as to season 
and locality, and with a breeding ground so sequestered as to have 
completely eluded man’s search, the Surf-bird seldom comes under 
the surveillance of our sportsmen. It is safe to say that it will never 
be a species of importance among the game birds of the state. It is, 
nevertheless, a noteworthy member of our bird fauna. As Torrey 
(1913, p. 138) has aptly said with reference to its unknown nesting 
habits, ‘‘somehow it is impossible not to feel a certain heightened 
respect for birds that have succeeded in keeping such a secret in 
despite of man’s insatiable curiosity.’’ 


Ruddy Turnstone 


Arenaria interpres morinella (Linnaeus) 


' OTHER NAMES—Calico-back; Checkered Snipe; Red-legged Plover; Arenaria 
interpres; Arenaria morinella; Strepsilas interpres. 

DeEscripTion—Adult male, in spring and summer: Stripe across forepart of 
crown and continuing over eye, around back of head, and onto ear region, white; 
chin and spot at side of bill, white; top of head, streaked with black and white; 
narrow stripe from top of bill running to and below eye, and connecting with 
stripe from lower mandible along side of chin, black; bill ‘‘black’’; iris 
“thazel’’ (Audubon, 1842, V; p. 234); neck collar (incomplete’ behind), black; 
lower hind neck, mixed white and brownish; back mixed black and rusty brown 
in coarse pattern; lower back and longer upper tail coverts, white; shorter 
upper tail coverts brownish black forming a dark ‘‘rump patch’’ set in white; 
tail white at base, blackish brown terminally; outer feathers of tail slightly 
lighter, and outermost ones extensively marked, and all the feathers tipped, 
with white; outer surface of closed wing chiefly rusty brown; tips of greater 
coverts, bases of primaries, and most of secondaries white, forming a con- 
spicuous band across expanded wing; primaries chiefly blackish brown, shafts 
largely ivory white; lining of wing and axillars, wholly white; under surface 
of flight feathers white, becoming pale drab toward tips; foreneck, sides of 
chest, and shoulders, solidly black, abruptly outlined; rest of under surface 
pure white; feet and legs ‘‘deep orange-red,’’ claws ‘‘black’’ (Audubon, loc. 
cit.). Adult female, in spring and summer: Similar to adult male at same season, 
but with coloration more subdued, black areas brown toned, and white areas 
invaded with dusky (W. Palmer, 1899, p. 413). Adults, both sexes, in winter: 
Similar to adults in summer, but black feathers edged with white, and rusty 
brown markings on back less conspicuous (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 
1903, p. 482). Males: Total length 7.75-9.62 inches (197-244 mm.) (four speci- 
mens from California and Lower California); folded wing ‘‘5.45-5.95’’ (138.5- 
151.0); bill along culmen ‘‘0,86-0.95’’ (21.8-24.1); tarsus ‘‘0.89-1.07’’ (22.6— 
27.2) (twenty specimens from Virginia). Females: Total length 9.40-10.40 
(238-264) (two specimens from California and Lower California); folded wing 
‘¢5.72-6.08’’ (145-154); bill along culmen ‘‘0.88-0.99’’ (22.4-25.2); tarsus 
“©0,99-1.07’’ (25.2-27.2) (eleven specimens from Virginia) (measurements, 
except of total length, from W. Palmer, 1899, p. 417). Juvenile plumage: Top 
and sides of head and neck, dull brown, mottled with pale buff; forehead and 
areas below and behind eye, dull white, flecked with brownish; chin and throat 


490 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


white; back dark brown, with feather margins and tippings of buffy or white; 
rump, upper tail coverts, and tail, as in adult, except that tail feathers are 
narrowly tipped with buff; outer surface of closed wing dark brown, with 
buffy feather tippings and edgings; rest of wing as in adult; band across 
throat and large area on side of chest, continuous with neck and back, brownish 
black, finely marked with buffy white; rest of under surface white. Natal 
plumage: Whole upper surface light buff, profusely marbled with black in 
fine pattern; sharp stripe between bill and eye, and branch down onto side 
of jaw, black; center of forehead dark, blending into mottled pattern on top 
of head; lower surface dull white, with a dusky band across chest. 

MarRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderately small size (about that of 
Killdeer), short orange-red legs, conspicuously mixed pattern on head and 
back, double alternation of white and black from lower back to end of tail, 
broad white band across wing, and black on foreneck and chest. 

Voice—A rapidly repeated kik, kik, kik; a loud twittering note; a chuck- 
ling whistle; a clear deep melodious whistle of two or three notes (Forbush, 
1912, pp. 359, 361). 

Nest—On lake, bay or river shores; a slight depression, sometimes lined 
with a few grass blades or dead leaves (Reed, 1904, p. 132; Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 124). 

Eees—Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.60 to 1.72 by 1.13 to 
1.23 (in millimeters, 40.6 to 43.7 by 28.7 to 31.3), and averaging 1.66 by 1.18 
(42.2 by 30.0); ground-color light olive-brown, cream color, light drab or deep 
clay color; superficial spots light brown in large bold splashes and spots, most 
numerous about larger end; deeper markings lilac (of interpres and morinella 
together?) (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit.). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—North and South America. Breeds near Arctic coast 
of Canada on lower Anderson River and Franklin Bay, and probably at Mel- 
ville Island, on Melville Peninsula, and at Bellot Strait, north of Boothia 
Peninsula; winters from South Carolina, Louisiana, Texas and central Cali- 
fornia south to central Chile and southern Brazil; occurs in migration over 
most of the area between winter and summer ranges (Cooke, 1910, pp. 97-98). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Rather uncommon spring and fall migrant 
along the coast; has occurred on San Francisco Bay in winter, and once on 
Santa Barbara Islands in summer. Spring migration evidently takes place 
during April and early May, and the fall migration from late July to about 
the first of October. 


Among the shore birds occurring in California none are more 
interesting by reason of specialized habits than the two Turnstones, 
of which the Ruddy Turnstone, the subject of the present account, is 
the rarer species. Being strictly maritime in its preference, and 
never, so far as known, even straying inland, this bird comes under 
the observation of but few persons. 

In California the Ruddy Turnstone is a sparing spring and fall 
migrant, and is apparently more numerous in some years than in 
others. Stragglers have occurred within our boundaries during both 
winter and summer. Records of this species in the northern half of the 
state are as follows: Eureka, Humboldt County, August 28, 1912 
(specimen in F. J. Smith coll.) ; Farallon Islands, May 7, 1887, one 


RUDDY TURNSTONE 491 


specimen (W. E. Bryant, 1888, p. 44); San Francisco Bay, January 
28, 1901 (two specimens in Mailliard coll.) ; Stege, near Berkeley, 
August 13, 1892 (specimen in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; Bay Farm Island, 
Alameda County, September 18, 1914, one individual seen (Grinnell, 
MS) ; and vicinity of Monterey, July 18, 1892, and August 25, 1897, 
one specimen in each instance (Loomis, 1895, p. 224; J. Mailliard, 
1898, p. 51). 

This species is most frequently met with in southern California. 
Two were seen at Santa Barbara, July 26, 1909 (Torrey, 19092, p. 
174), but none was noted there in 1910. In 1911, however, birds of 
this species were observed on five dates between August 22 and 
September 12, in numbers ranging from one to six (Bowles and 
Howell, 1912, p. 11; Howell, MS). The only record of occurrence 
in spring in southern California is for San Nicolas Island, March 30 
to May 11, 1910, during which period nineteen specimens were taken 
(Willett, 1912a, pp. 4142). There is one summer record for this 
region: Santa Cruz Island, July 8, 1912, one individual (Wright and 
Snyder, 1913, p. 91), and a number of fall ones, the latest being for 
San Miguel Island, October 15, 1910, two seen (Willett, loc. cit.). 
In all, there are twenty-two records for the state known to the authors, 
several of these being for more than one individual bird. 

The Ruddy Turnstone is an easy bird to recognize, by the com- 
bination of moderately small size, short bill, short, orange-red legs, 
conspicuously mixed pattern on head and upper surface, white band 
across wing, double alternation of white and black areas from lower 
back to tip of tail, and black chest and foreneck. This species differs 
from the Black Turnstone in being slightly smaller, in having a varie- 
gated pattern of coloration on the back and a white chin, and in 
having less black on its chest. Its bright reddish legs, heavy black 
chest area, and the extensive white on its lower back, will distinguish 
it from the sandpipers and plovers of similar size. Forbush (1912, . 
pp. 360-361) says of the Ruddy Turnstone as observed along the 
eastern coast of the United States: 


The bright variegated plumage of the Turnstone, with its strong contrasts 
of black, white and chestnut, places it among the most attractive birds of 
the sea-shore. The flight is rather low and swift at times and then the white 
of the plumage is very striking. In flight it often alternates scaling and flap- 
ping, and sometimes gives a curious chattering or rattling note as it passes. 
I have heard, too, the rapidly repeated kiik, kik, kik, which a pair uttered as 
they flew by overhead, but as a rule I have found them rather silent... . 

[The Turnstone] .. . loves the foot of a rocky cliff or a beach with great 
stones partly submerged by the tide, but is common also on sandy beaches 
near the pounding surf, and on bars bared by the tide. Sometimes it is seen 
in marshes or along the banks of tidal creeks. It prods the sand with its beak, 
follows the retreating wave, raises pebbles from their beds, oftentimes squat- 


492 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


ting, heaving and working hard to dislodge them. Sometimes it pushes with its 
breast against a stone or shell in the effort to overturn it, or even digs beneath 
to undermine it when it is too firmly imbedded to be moved otherwise. It 
turns over bundles of seaweed, and ‘roots’ out weeds and sea mosses, as Dr. 
Townsend says ‘‘like a little pig.’’ These labors are undertaken in the hope 
of finding something eatable beneath such objects, and the little laborer often 
is rewarded. Dawson states that near the shores of Lake Erie he has seen 
it on the ploughed lands turning over clods bigger than itself with such force 
as to roll them a foot or more. This habit of turning objects is not constant, 
however, with this bird, and is sometimes the exception, as I have watched it 
when it seemed to be occupied entirely in probing the sand, or searching for 
food, like a sandpiper, along the strand. 

The Turnstone can swim well at need, and like some other species loves to 
bathe in the wash of the waves that roll up on the sands, where it shakes off 
the water like a little dog. 


W. A. Bryan (1903, pp. 210-211) tells of an interesting experience 
with an individual of the Common Turnstone, a bird closely related 
to the Ruddy, which came aboard a vessel in the Pacific Ocean. The 
bird was placed in a cage on shipboard and offered the canned flesh 
of various animals such as oysters and clams, and also fresh fish. 
These were all refused. Then some live cockroaches, the only live 
insects available, were introduced. The bugs would scurry under 
stones in the bottom of the cage, whereupon the Turnstone would roll 
each stone to one side and snap up any bug which might be uncovered. 
Then it would beat the insect vigorously on the floor several times and 
finally swallow it. 

According to Cooke (1910, p. 97) authentic records of the nesting 
of the Ruddy Turnstone are still very rare. The breeding range of 
the Turnstone of the Eastern Hemisphere extends east into Alaska, 
and the line dividing the breeding range of this subspecies (interpres) 
from that of the Ruddy, which nests in boreal America to the east- 
ward, has not yet been clearly marked off. Reed (1904, p. 132) 
records a set of eggs (of morinella) taken June 28, 1900, on the 
Mackenzie River; while MacFarlane (1891, p. 430) speaks of finding 
birds at Fort Anderson in June, 1864, and of taking eggs on the 
Lower Anderson River, on a date not specified. 

The nest is said to be usually placed along the shore of a body 
of water, on a sandy or stony area, and like that of most other waders, 
is a mere depression in the surface, sometimes lined with.a few 
grasses or dead leaves. The eggs are usually four in number, pear- 
shaped, and measure in inches, 1.60 to 1.72 by 1.13 to 1.23, averaging 
1.66 by 1.18. The ground-color is cream or light drab or deep clay, 
with superficial markings of light brown, boldly splashed about the 
larger end; there are also deeper-lying lilac markings (Baird, Brewer 
and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 124). 


BLACK TURNSTONE : 493 


Speaking of the Common and Ruddy turnstones together, San- 
ford, Bishop and Van Dyke (1903, pp. 485-486) say: ‘‘The nest 
is placed on the ground, sometimes sheltered by a low-growing shrub. 
In the breeding season the male gives its alarm note if the nest is 
approached, and then both birds fly to high ground, perching on 
rocks, if such are present, and watch silently, not moving while any 
one is near. The nests are hollows in the stony beaches near high- 
water mark.’’ 

Turnstones take, as food, insects, small crustacea, small mollusks, 
and worms. Along the Atlantic coast they feed on the spawn of the 
horseshoe crab and in northern Florida, according to Audubon, they 
feed on oysters which have been killed at low tide by the heat of the 
sun and also on such thin-shelled mollusks as they are able to break 
open (Forbush, 1912, p. 361). 

Considering the small numbers in which Ruddy Turnstones visit 
California, and also the limited area to which they restrict them- 
selves, they will probably never be well known to any persons save 
those who frequent the seashore in special search for its bird life. 


Black Turnstone 


Arenaria melanocephala (Vigors) 


OTHER NAMES—Strepsilas melanocephalus. 

Dzscription—Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Head and neck, 
back, outer surface of closed wing, and whole breast, deep brownish black, 
the back and wings with a faint bronzy iridescence; large spot at side of bill, 
broken stripe over eye, sparse streaking on top and sides of head, neck and 
chest, and margins of scapulars, white; iris ‘‘brown; bill, black’’ (Sanford, 
Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 487); rump white; shorter upper tail coverts 
solid brownish black, longer upper tail coverts and bases of tail feathers 
white; terminal half of tail feathers blackish brown, outer ones tipped with 
white; primaries chiefly brownish black, the shafts white except at tips; 
tips and inner webs of greater coverts and much of secondaries, white, form- 
ing a conspicuous band across expanded wing; under surface of wing and 
axillars, pure white, continuous with white of sides, ruamp and hinder under 
surface; under surface of flight feathers drab toward tips; under surface of 
body behind breast, wholly white; legs and feet ‘‘yellowish’’ (Sanford, Bishop 
and Van Dyke, loc. cit.); nails black. Adults and immatures, both sexes, in fall 
and winter: Like adults in summer save that white spot at side of bill is absent, 
and white streaking about head is less evident. Males: Total length 8.50-9.31 
inches (216-236 mm.) (five specimens from California); folded wing 5.52-5.89 
(140.0-149.7); bill along culmen 0.86-0.92 (21.8-23.3); tarsus 0.98-1.04 (25.0- 
26.4) (ten specimens from California). Females: Total length 8.75-10.20 (22.2— 
25.9) (three specimens from California); folded wing 5.62-6.07 (142.5-154.0); 
bill along culmen 0.88-0.98 (22.4-24.8); tarsus 1.01-1.10 (25.7-27.8) (ten speci- 
mens from California and Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Like that of adults in 
summer, but white markings on head, neck and sides of chest, absent, feathers 


494 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


of back and wings lacking iridescence, and feathers of outer surface of wing, 
back, and breast, narrowly tipped with pale buff. Natal plumage: Not known 
to us. 

Marks FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderate size (near that of Killdeer), 
uniformly blackish upper surface, head and breast, and conspicuous white bar 
across wing; rump and upper tail coverts largely white, with a middle area 
of black. Distinguished from Ruddy Turnstone by slightly larger size, absence 
of striking pattern of coloration on head and upper surface, and extension of 
blackish farther back on lower surface; from all other shore birds of similar 
size it may be known by the extensive area of blackish on forward portion 
of body both above and below. 

Voicre—A fine clear, peeping cry, weet, weet, too-weet (Nelson, 1887, p. 129). 

Nest—On low marshy ground in the vicinity of brackish pools or on sea- 
beach; a mere depression in the surface (Nelson, loc. cit.; Reed, 1904, p. 132). 

Eecs—Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.58 to 1.85 by 1.10 to 
1.19 (in millimeters, 40.2 to 47.0 by 27.9 to 30.2); ground-color light gray or 
drab with an olive cast, marked (finely?) with light brown and lilac (Reed, 
loc. cit.; Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 126). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Pacifie coast of North America. Breeds in western 
Alaska from Kotzebue Sound region to Nushagak, on Bristol Bay; winters 
from British Columbia and even southeastern Alaska south to Magdalena Bay, 
Lower California, but mostly in southern half of this area; has occurred 
casually at Point Barrow, Alaska, on east Asiatic coast, and in India (modified 
from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 182; Cooke, 1910, pp. 98-99). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Present throughout the year on rocky shores 
along the seacoast. Most common as a winter visitant and spring and fall 
migrant; least abundant during late June and early July when only a few 
belated migrants or non-breeders are to be found. On coast of southern Cali- 
fornia arrives in numbers chiefly in August, and leaves in April. 


The Black Turnstone occurs in fair numbers along the whole 
coast of California during most of the year, but because of its prefer- 
ence for rocky situations along the ocean shore and about the larger 
bays, it is met with by but few persons. While not present in such 
numbers as certain other species of wider habitat preferences the 
Black Turnstone is distinctly more numerous than the Wandering 
Tattler, Surf-bird, and Oyster-catchers, which frequent the same 
restricted sort of territory. 

This Turnstone is present in numbers along our coast from August 
to May, the population lessening only during the nesting season. 
However, stragglers which are probably either barren or non-breeding 
birds, remain through the summer months. Willett (1912a, p. 42) 
says the main body leaves the coast of southern California in April 
and returns in August and this apparently holds true for the north- 
ern part of the state as well. In winter the species remains at least as 
far north as San Francisco Bay (J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 16) while it is 
particularly abundant about the islands off the coast of southern Cali- 
fornia and occurs in fair numbers on the Farallons. Red Rock, on 
San Francisco Bay, is the farthest point away from the open ocean 
that the species has been recorded within the state. 


BLACK TURNSTONE 495 


The Black Turnstone is an easy bird to recognize. The combination 
of its moderate size (about that of Killdeer), predominantly blackish 
plumage, notably on the forward lower surface, the conspicuous white 
wing bar, and the alternating brownish black and white from the back 
to the tip of the tail, insure identification. From the Ruddy Turn- 
stone the present species may be known by its slightly larger size, by 
the lack of striking pattern on its head and upper surface, and by the 
farther extension of black on its lower surface. The presence of con- 
tinuous black on the forward half of the lower surface, sharply cut 
off from the white behind, is sufficient to distinguish the Black Turn- 
stone from any of our other shore birds which approach it in size. 

Black Turnstones are found singly, in small flocks, or in companies 
numbering up to forty or more individuals; but they are most fre- 
quently observed in flocks of moderate size. In Alaska, on the breed- 
ing grounds, these birds frequent pools and marshy land a few miles 
inland, as well as the seashore, but in 
California they restrict themselves with 
notable constancy to the vicinity of the 
open ocean. Rocky beaches are their 
preferred habitat, but they also forage 
‘considerably on sandy shores, in either 
ease usually at the edge of the water. Fig. 79. Side of bill of 
They are quite tame and will often ie Turnstone. Natural 
permit a rather close approach, espe- ar io rena vag 
cially if the observer is careful to move and tapering end. 
slowly. 

Torrey (1913, pp. 37-39) records in a vivid style the feeding 
habits of the Black Turnstone at Santa Barbara: 


They were feeding in three ways. Sometimes they followed the receding 
breaker, gleaning from the surface, as it seemed, such edibles as it had washed 
in. Mostly, however, they busied themselves upon the wet sand just above the 
last reach of the falling tide. 

Once they found a place where the shrimps or prawns were evidently more 
plentiful than elsewhere, and it was amusing to see how eagerly they worked, 
each determined to get its full share of the plunder. ... Thrusting their short, 
stout bills into the sand, they drew out their squirming prey, dropped it on 
the sand, picked it up and shook it, and dropped it again, till finally they 
had it in condition for swallowing. These manoeuvres they repeated, all in 
desperate competitive haste, till the beach within a circle a few feet in cir- 
cumference was thickly dotted with minute hillocks of sand, such as I should 
never have attributed to the work of any bird, had it not been done before 
my eyes. Then the supply seemed to be exhausted, and... they moved on 
in search of another bonanza. 

At other times they resorted to patches of seaweed lying here and there a 
little higher on the beach, turning them bottom side up, or brushing them aside, 
to feast on such small game as had taken shelter underneath. Their action 


496 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


here was like that of a dog when he buries a bone by pushing the earth over 
it with his nose. They lowered their heads, and with more or less effort 
according to circumstances accomplished their purpose. 

If the obstacle proved too heavy to be moved in this manner, they drew 
back a little and made a run at it as men do... in using a battering-ram. 
More than once I saw them gaining the needed momentum by this means. .. . 

They quarreled now and then over the business, and once two of them 
faced each other, bill to bill, like game-cocks, a most unusual proceeding 
among waders, firing off little fusillades of exclamations meanwhile.... The 
turnstones’ disagreements were of the briefest, however, slight ebullitions of 
temper rather than any actual belligerency. 


‘‘When they take to wing, as they do by a common flock impulse, 
the transformation in appearance is a delight to the eye. Instead of 
a row of dull-colored clods, there appears a constant cyclorama of 
flashing white, set off by variegating blacks’’ (Dawson, 1909, p. 694). 

Torrey states that one of the birds observed by him rested by 
dropping its body down on the sand, rather than by standing on one 
leg as is the habit of so many other species. This mannerism is said 
by Kells (1895, p. 64) also to be evinced if the birds are startled 
when above the edge of the water. 

In an account of the birds of the 1906 cruise of the ‘‘ Albatross,’’ 
A. H. Clark (1910, p. 51) says: 


On the first day out of San Francisco, May 4, we saw several small flocks 
of these birds on their way north; each succeeding day they became more 
abundant until on the afternoon of May 8 we saw them by thousands, in 
flocks of from ten or twenty to several hundred. At one time, about 2 o’clock 
in the afternoon, the whole sea appeared dotted with white, so abundant were 
they. All the birds noticed were headed up the coast, going the same direction 
as we. 

In the mornings these birds were comparatively rare; they began to appear 
' about 11, and inereased in numbers until about 2, when they were very abun- 
dant; shortly after 3 there was a falling off until by half past 4 few, if any, 
were to be seen. ... Whether they spent the night and early morning on the 
neighboring shores or resting on the water I am unable to say; but all we saw 
were on the wing; possibly there were other shore birds in these multitudes, 
but all which came near the ship were of this species. 


The Black Turnstone breeds rather commonly along a limited 
stretch of the western coast of Alaska, from the vicinity of Kotzebue 
Sound south to Nushagak, on Bristol Bay, and a short distance inland 
along the lower course of the Yukon River. Strangely, there are but 
few records of its nesting; descriptions of its eggs are scanty and 
records of downy young are apparently wanting altogether. The 
nest, which is simply a depression in the surface of the ground, is 
situated on the seabeach or among near-by brackish pools. The eggs, 
which are pear-shaped, are said to number three or four, and measure 


BLACK TURNSTONE 497 


in inches 1.58 to 1.85 by 1.10 to 1.19. The ground-color is light 
gray or drab, with an olive tinge, marked (finely?) with spots of 
light brown and lilac (Reed, 1904, p. 182; Baird, Brewer and Ridg- 
way, 1884, I, p. 126). 

Nelson (1887, pp. 129-130) says of the Black Turnstone: 


It breeds among the brackish pools on Saint Michaels Island, and is found 
scattered over the wet flats everywhere. It is one of the commonest birds of 
this locality, its sharp, clear note breaking the silence wherever one turns his 
steps among the pools and marshy places. It has a habit of circling around 
the intruder, during the nesting season, with a fine, clear, peeping cry like 
the syllables weet, weet, too-weet, as it moves restlessly about; now stopping a 
moment on a slight knoll, then running hastily along the edge of a neighbor- 
ing pool, perhaps picking up a scrap of food as it runs, and then it mounts 
on wing again and comes careening about, evincing the liveliest distress at the 
invasion of its haunts. When disturbed in the vicinity of its nest it has also a 
sharp peet, weet, weet, very similar to the well-known note of the Spotted Sand- 
piper. Let the hunter go where he will on the marshy ground and his ear is 
greeted by the same remonstrance. 

They are found along the course of the Lower Yukon during the summer 
season and breed wherever found. When the young are able to take wing in 
July they leave the flats, to a great extent, and frequent the sea-coast, where 
they keep in small straggling parties searching for food along the tide line. 


The food of the Black Turnstone probably consists of small marine 
animals such as are taken by other waders frequenting similar forage 
grounds; but we have very little definite information on the subject. 
A specimen taken May 22, 1896, by C. L. Hall at Saint Michaels, 
Alaska, and now in the collection of the Museum of Vertebrate 
Zoology, was feeding on heath berries when secured. This must be 
considered out of the ordinary—an emergency item of fare. Torrey 
(1918, p. 837) mentions certain marine crustacea as included in its 
diet, and Kells (1895, p. 64) says the Black Turnstone takes small 
‘‘slugs,’’ while aceording to Cooper (in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 
1884, I, p. 125) it feeds on barnacles, as does the Surf-bird. 

Locally restricted in its range, and not occurring anywhere in 
the numbers exhibited by most shore birds, this species will never 
take an important rank among the game species of California. On 
the coast of Washington, Suckley (in Cooper and Suckley, 1859, p. 
234) says that in October he ‘‘. . . . found them usually fat, and 
comparing favorably with the tattlers and sandpipers as articles of 
food.’’ But there is no evidence that they have ever been made a 
special object of pursuit by sportsmen in California. No change in 
their relative abundance has been noted. Like their littoral associates 
we can but look upon Black Turnstones as essential and attractive 
figures in the avian life of our seashores. 


498 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Black Oyster-catcher 


Haematopus bachman Audubon 


OTHER NAMES—Bachman Oyster-catcher; Townsend’s Oyster-catcher; Hae- 
matopus niger; Haematopus ater; Haematopus townsendi. 

Descriprion—Adults, both sexes, at all seasons: Whole head, neck and breast, 
black; rest of plumage dark brown, very slightly paler on under surface, 
darker on tips of wing and tail; feathers of belly often tipped narrowly with 
white; edges of eyelids bright red; bill ‘‘vermillion’’; iris ‘‘yellow’’; legs 
and feet ‘‘pale flesh color’’ (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 494). 
Males: Total length 16.75-18.40 inches (425-467 mm.) (four specimens from 
California and Lower California); folded wing 9.34-10.05 (237-255); bill 
along culmen 2.42-2.87 (61.5-72.9); tarsus 1.94-2.15 (49.3-54.6) (ten specimens 
from California and Alaska). Females: Folded wing 9.56-10.35 (243-263); 
bill along culmen 2.73-3.01 (69.4-76.5); tarsus 1.97—-2.18 (50.1-55.5) (mine speci- 
mens from California and Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Like that of adult, but 
with feathers of back and outer surface of wing sparingly tipped with pale 
tawny brown; white tippings on feathers of lower abdomen lacking; bill 
blackish toward tip. Natal plumage: Upper surface mixed light drab and black- 
ish in fine pattern; indistinct streak through eye, two lines down middle of 
back meeting on rump, and tail, black; under surface dull grayish, darkest 
on throat and lightest on middle of belly; whole plumage presenting a pepper- 
and-salt effect. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size (near that of Hudsonian Cur- 
lew), long, stout and straight, red bill (fig. 80), wholly blackish-appearing 
plumage, light colored legs, and entire lack of distinct white markings. 

Votce—A peculiar low whistle (Nelson, 1887, p. 130); harsh, vociferous cries 
(Henshaw, 1876, p. 270). 

Nest—On small rocky islets, usually but a short distance from a larger 
island or the mainland; often but a few feet above the high water mark; a 
shallow depression in the rock surface or thin soil, with the addition of a few 
pebbles, bits of shell, or even sharp fragments of rock; no lining of grasses 
or other vegetable matter. 

Eees—2 to 3, rarely 4, ovate in shape, and measuring in inches, 2.08 to 2.38 
by 1.45 to 1.58 (in millimeters, 52.8 to 60.4 by 36.8 to 40.2); ground-color 
grayish olive to greenish, superficial spots of black and dark brown; deeper- 
lying markings lavender (Willett, 1909, p. 187). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Pacific coast of North America. Breeds from Prince 
William Sound, Alaska, west throughout the Aleutian Islands, and south to 
central Lower California (Abreojos Point). There are no winter records north 
of southern British Columbia, and there is one winter occurrence reported from 
La Paz, extreme southern Lower California, so that a partial migration may 
possibly take place (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 133; W. E. 
Bryant, 1889, p. 276). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common resident locally coastwise, chiefly 
on rocky off-shore islets. Recorded north to Trinidad, Humboldt County, but 
most common on the central part of our coast and around the Santa Barbara 
Islands. Recorded as breeding on the latter south to Santa Barbara Island, 
and to the northward to Seal Rocks near Cypress Point, Monterey County; 
may be expected to breed in suitable localities farther to the northward. 


BLACK OYSTER-CATCHER 499 


The Black Oyster-catcher is the representative species of its genus 
along the coast of California, where it is found locally in limited num- 
bers throughout the year. In the northern part of its general range, 
that is, from the Aleutian Islands to British Columbia, this species 
is said to be migratory, but within our borders it is quite certainly 
resident. It differs from other shore birds which occur in California 
throughout the year in restricting itself to rocky islets and island 
shores along the outer seacoast. In consequence of this it is less 
often met with than most of our other shore birds. 

Definite records of the Black Oyster-catcher in California have 
been established as far north as Trinidad, Humboldt County (speci- 
men in Mus. Vert. Zool.), and as far south as San Clemente Island 
(Cooper, 1870b, pp. 79, 81), but it is likely to occur in all suitable 


19016 


Fig. 80. Side of bill of Black Oyster-catcher. Natural size. 
Note stout form and length over 2.50 inches (compare with figs. 64 and 75). 


locations along our coast. Present records indicate that it is most 
abundant on the Santa Barbara group of islands. This species is 
never found in large numbers in any one locality, each small islet 
usually harboring but one or a few pairs, according to its size. This 
limitation in numbers is probably due to the fact that the birds are 
permanent residents of the territory they occupy and that their full 
complement is strictly limited by the supply of food obtainable there 
throughout the year. 

From our other shore birds the Black Oyster- catcher is easy to dis- 
tinguish. Its large size (approaching that of the Hudsonian Curlew), 
its long, straight, stout, red bill (fig. 80), dark-colored plumage 
(appearing quite black but a short distance away), lack of any dis- 
tinct white markings, and pale-colored legs, render recognition cer- 
tain. From the more southern Frazar Oyster-catcher it may be easily 
distinguished by the absence of white on its rump, wings and under 
surface. 

The preferred habitat of the Black Oyster-catcher is a rocky shore, 
but sometimes the birds forage on a sandy stretch of beach. Their gait 


500 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


in walking is said to be clumsy, perhaps because of the disproportion 
between their large bodies and their short legs. But at times they 
are quite nimble. When foraging on a beach, they advance and 
retreat with agility before the wash of the waves. The strong bill, 
wedge-shaped towards the tip, seems admirably adapted to their 
peculiar method of gaining a livelihood; and it is put to good use in 
prying loose from the rocks the various kinds of mollusks which form 
their staple diet. They seem to enjoy standing on a partially sub- 
merged ledge of rock with their feet now and then awash, and are 
wont on such occasions to call back and forth to one another with 
loud curlew-like cries of a quality which carries well above the noise 
of the surf. 

The nesting season of the Black Oyster-catcher in California 
extends from the middle of May to the latter part of June (Willett, 
1912a, p. 42). The earliest nesting is that recorded by Willett (1909, 
p. 187) who took a set of half-incubated eggs near Port Harford, 
San Luis Obispo County, May 14, 1909, and also three other sets on 
May 15, 16, and 17, and the latest date is for a set of two fresh eggs 
found at Seal Rocks, near Cypress Point, Monterey County, June 21, 
1902 (Grinnell, MS). The recorded instances of nesting range geo- 
graphically from San Clemente Island (Cooper, 1870b, p. 79), to 
Seal Rocks, Monterey County (Grinnell, MS), but the species may be 
expected to nest in suitable localities at many other points farther to 
the northward. 

Black Oyster-catchers nest on the same rocky islets that they 
inhabit at other times of the year. Sometimes they nest in the near 
neighborhood of such birds as Gulls and Cormorants; again they are 
the sole inhabitants of these wave-swept spots. The birds seem to 
prefer the smallest detached rocks to the larger islands, probably 
because of the greater measure of protection afforded by the former. 
The nests are placed on the bare rocks, sometimes but a short dis- 
tance above the high-water mark, or again at a considerable distance 
above the reach of the waves. The nest itself is merely a slight 
natural depression in the rock surface, or in whatever thin covering 
of soil there may be. The only lining provided is a number of small 
pebbles or bits of rock or shell which may be either smooth and 
rounded, or angular and sharp; no vegetation whatever is included as 
lining material. 

A set of eggs number either two or three, although Cooper (in 
Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 117) states that he found 
a nest containing four on Santa Barbara Island, June 3, 1863. The 
eggs are ovate, and measure 2.08 to 2.38 by 1.45 to 1.58. The ground- 
color varies from grayish olive to greenish, with superficial spots and 
blotches of black and dark brown, and deeper-lying ones of lavender 
(Willett, 1909, p. 187). 


BLACK OYSTER-CATCHER 501 


In San Luis Obispo County, Willett (1909, pp. 186-187) judged 
that there were in 1909 twelve pairs breeding along fifteen miles of 
coast. He says: 


The nests are difficult to locate, and even more difficult to reach after they 
are located. This bird, like the Killdeer, makes the greatest outery at a point 
considerably distant from the nest, and the brooding bird will quietly slip 
from the nest at the first intimation of danger and will appear on a point of 
rock some distance away, where she will be joined by her mate.... The 
nests are placed on the lea side of a rock or projection sheltered from the 
prevailing wind, sometimes only a few feet above high water and at other 
times far above the reach of the flying spray. They are shallow cavities in 
the rock or thin soil, thickly lined with sharp chips of rock evidently carried 
by the birds. Numerous scratches on the shells of the eggs show that they are 
frequently turned over by the birds who rely to some extent on the heat of the 
sun as an assistance in incubation. 


Heath (1915, p. 40) says that on Forrester Island, Alaska: 


The precocial fledglings very early accompanied their parents on short 
journeys about the cliffs, and within a week after hatching were observed peck- 
ing at limpets, although it is highly probable that for several days thereafter 
they depended on the old birds for the greater part of their food supply. Dur- 
ing this time the young resemble diminutive ostriches with thick-set legs, big 
feet and fluffy plumage, which, it may be added, harmonizes to a high degree 
with the surroundings. Furthermore they have the same habit of hiding the 
head when it is not possible to conceal the entire body beneath a stone. From 
the stomach contents of adults, and judging by the shells scattered about the 
nests, the food of the black oystereatcher consists wholly of limpets. 


The name Oyster-catcher, as applied to these birds is somewhat 
of a misnomer. They rarely feed upon oysters, as, especially on this 
coast, they frequent localities where these bivalves are rare or absent, 
and if they feed elsewhere upon oysters it is only upon the smaller 
species and not upon the ones of commerce, which live in too deep 
water to be secured by these birds. Other mollusks including such 
forms as mussels, chitons, limpets, and young abalones seem to form 
the principal item of their diet (Beck, MS; Willett, 1909, p. 187). 
It is probable that the birds also use other sorts of marine animals for 
food. 

The question of what constitutes a game bird comes up again in 
the case of the Oyster-catcher. Shall we define as game only the 
species generally pursued for the excellence of their flesh or the excite- 
ment afforded in hunting them, or shall we set off certain natural 
groups in their entirety (as we do at present), and allow all of their 
members to be legally pursued? It would seem better to alter the 
present system somewhat and exclude certain members of our native 
avifauna from the category of game birds. As the Black Oyster- 
catcher is of peculiarly interesting structure and habits, limited in 


502 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


numbers and restricted in distribution, and of little or no value as 
food, it should certainly be so treated and removed from the game 
category. This would entail no hardship to the sportsman, for his 
quests rarely lead him to the remote haunts of these birds, and even 
if he captures one he will find it very unpalatable food, if the 
testimony at hand can be relied upon. 


Frazar Oyster-catcher 


Haematopus frazart Brewster 


OTHER NAMES—American Oyster-catcher; Pied Oyster-catcher; Haematopus 
palliatus. 

DESCRIPTION—Adults, both sexes, at all seasons: Whole head, neck and breast, 
black; bill vermilion; iris orange; back, rump, and outer surface of closed 
wing, brown; upper tail coverts chiefly white; tail feathers white at bases, 
brown on middle portions, becoming blackish toward tips, lateral ones lighter; 
ends of greater coverts and much of secondaries, white, forming a conspicuous 
band across expanded wing; flight feathers blackish brown; portion of wing 
lining near edge of wing, mixed white and brown; rest of lining, white in part, 
in part dusky; axillars solidly white; under surface of flight feathers dusky 
brown; under surface of body behind breast white, the line of separation not 
sharp, there being a few feathers of mixed black and white; feet white or 
whitish. Male: Folded wing 10.10 inches (256 mm.); bill along culmen 2.96 
(75.0); tarsus 2.27 (57.6) (one specimen from Los Coronados Islands, Lower 
California). Females: Total length 18.00-18.50 (457-470); folded wing 9.60- 
10.24 (244-260); bill along culmen 2.83-3.18 (71.8-80.7); tarsus 2.21-2.29 (56.1— 
58.2) (two specimens from California). Juvenile and natal plumages: Not known 
to us. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size (about that of Hudsonian Cur- 
lew but of stouter build), long, straight and thick reddish bill, dark-colored 
head and back, conspicuous white markings on wing and ‘‘rump’’, and pure 
white hinder lower surface. Differs from Black Oyster-catcher in the possession 
of conspicuous white areas. 

Vorcre-—Loud, clear, whistling notes (W. E. Bryant, 1889, p. 276). 

Nest—On rocky islands; probably as with the Black Oyster-catcher a slight 
depression in the rock surface, lined with a few pebbles. 

Eees—Not known to us. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Resident on both coasts of Lower California; form- 
erly ranged north to Ventura County, California; and has been reported once 
from coast of Sinaloa, Mexico (Cooke, 1910, pp. 99-100). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFoRNIA—Of former occurrence on the coast and islands 
south from Santa Barbara Island to the Mexican line. No thoroughly authentic 
instance since the eighties. 


The Frazar Oyster-catcher is to be considered at best but a rare 
straggler in California; it is properly a member of the fauna of 
Lower California. As it ranges (or did so formerly) north to Ven- 
tura County, and south along the whole western coast of Lower Cali- 


FRAZAR OYSTER-CATCHER 503 


fornia, its range is overlapped by that of the Black Oyster-catcher 
for several hundred miles. There are but three records of this species 
being found within our borders. These are as follows: Ventura 
County, ‘‘seen occasionally along the seacoast in summer’’ (Ever- 
mann, 1886, p. 92) ; Santa Barbara Island, June 2, 1863, adult female 
containing an egg ready for extrusion, and San Diego, May 16, 1862, 
adult female (Cooper in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, pp. 
113-114; specimens now in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; White’s Landing, Santa 
Catalina Island, one seen February 12, 1910 (Osburn, 1911a, p. 76). 
The last cited instance is subject to some doubt. 

From other shore birds occurring in California the Frazar Oyster- 
catcher is distinguished by its large size (about that of Hudsonian 
Curlew but stouter), large, straight and thick, reddish bill, and dark- 
colored head and back with conspicuous white markings on wing 
and ‘‘rump’’, and pure white hinder part of under surface. From 
the Black Oyster-catcher this species may be known by the presence 
of the conspicuous white markings just mentioned. 

But little has been placed on record concerning the Frazar Oyster- 
catcher, probably because it was for a long time considered identical 
with the Oyster-catcher of eastern North America, which was already 
well known, and again because the Frazar occupies a region not often 
visited by naturalists. It inhabits by preference offshore islets, of 
which there are many along the coast of Lower California. There 
it feeds on the various marine animals found on rocks, such as 
barnacles, other crustacea, and mollusks. Its stout bill is admirably 
adapted for the work of dislodging such creatures. 

The Frazar Oyster-catcher nests on the same rocky islands that 
form its forage grounds at all times of the year. Kaeding (1905, p. 
111) states that on several islands off the coast of central Lower Cali- 
fornia eggs of this species were taken in various stages of incubation 
about June 25, 1897, which would indicate that the nesting season 
is fully as late or even later than that of the Black Oyster-catcher 
(which see). W. E. Bryant (1889, p. 276) records finding this species 
common on Santa Margarita Island and vicinity, Lower California, 
where the birds ‘‘. . . were mated [that is, in pairs] in January. They 
were rather shy, running rapidly on the beach, and if approached, 
taking wing with loud, clear, whistling notes, and after flying some 
distance, alighting again at the water’s edge.”’ 

As it has been but seldom observed within our limits, and is not 
likely to extend its range beyond its present southern habitat, the 
Frazar Oyster-catcher cannot be looked upon as more than a rarity 
in California, and the interest which we take in it is almost exclusively 


scientific. 


504 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Mountain Quail 
Oreortyx picta plumifera (Gould) 


OTHER NAMES—Plumed Quail; Plumed Partridge; San Pedro Quail; Calli- 
pepla picta, part; Ortyx picta, part; Ortyxz plumifera; Oreortyx picta, part; 
Oreortyx picta confinis. 

DzscriptioN—Adults, both sexes: Head, breast and forepart of back clear 
bluish slaty gray; plume or topknot of two straight narrow black feathers 
2.75 to 4.00 inches (70-102 mm.) long when complete; extreme forehead and 
area between eye and bill whitish; large patch on throat, extending to bill and 
eyes, bright chestnut brown, bordered above on each side by a narrow line of 
black and then by a wider white line; bill black; iris brown; back, outer sur- 
face of wing, rump, upper tail coverts, and tail, light olive brown; primary 
flight feathers outwardly edged with ashy; an abrupt white edging along 
margins of inner webs of secondaries; under surface of wing and axillars plain 
ashy brown; elongated feathers of sides shiny chestnut brown broadly and 
strikingly marked with black and white bands; a series of white marks high 
on each side of the body forming a longitudinal line; flanks light chestnut 
brown; belly whitish; under tail coverts blackish, more or less streaked nar- 
rowly with dark chestnut; legs and feet dusky. The male differs slightly from 
the female in the greater length of the plume, the clearer gray of hind neck, 
and the brighter tone of colors on lower surface. Males: Total length 10.60- 
11.75 inches (269-298 mm.) (ten specimens); folded wing 5.10-5.46 (129.5- 
138.5); bill along culmen 0.53-0.57 (13.4-14.5); tarsus 1.38-1.48 (35.1-37.6) 
(ten specimens); weight 7.0-10.3 oz. (200.0-292.0 gms.) (ten specimens). 
Females: Total length 10.40-12.12 (264-308) (nine specimens); folded wing 
5.00-5.58 (127-142); bill along culmen 0.52-0.56 (13.2-14.2); tarsus 1.32-1.46 
(33.5-37.0) (ten specimens). Juvenile plumage: General tone of coloration pale 
ashy brown; feathers of upper surface, wings and tail minutely flecked with 
whitish and dusky or blackish, the pattern coarsest on scapulars, and more in 
the nature of bars on crown of head, wings and tail; two short blackish 
feathers with narrow light brown bars at tip, form a plume; inner scapulars 
most strongly tinged with brown; lower surface clearer ashy, the feathers tip- 
ped with white; chin, stripe over eye, and cheeks, mostly white; broad patch 
of blackish varying in extent in different individuals, on lower throat, usually reach- 
ing to eyes; feathers of sides blackish, broadly bordered with dingy whitish and 
showing traces of chestnut brown; flanks and lower tail coverts pale cinnamon 
brown. Natal plumage: Broad stripe of chestnut brown over top of head and down 
back to tip of tail, bordered on either side by narrower stripes of black and then of 
whitish; sides of head and body, and wing, minutely marked with dusky and 
buffy brown; a dark line behind eye; a patch of chestnut brown on shoulder; 
below yellowish white, palest on chin and belly; flanks and shanks tinged with 
cinnamon; legs and bill of a pale dull brown. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size (as compared with other quail), 
long slender black plume (fig: 81), and bands of black, white and chestnut on 
sides of body (pl. 14). In hand, distinguished from closely similar Painted 
Quail (Oreortyx picta picta), which inhabits the northern coast region only, 
by whitish forehead, greater amount of ashy on top of head and back, and 
lesser amount of grayish olive on upper surface of body generally. Call-note 
easily distinguishable from that of Valley Quail. 

Votce—Resonant, often turkey-like in quality; of male: a single loud queerk 


MOUNTAIN QUAIL 505 


uttered at intervals; note of alarm: ca-ca-ca-ca-creé-a or gup, gup, gup, queé-ar, 
queé-ar. . 

Nest—A depression on the ground lined with leaves, pine néedles or grass 
and usually concealed beneath an overhanging rock, log or bush. 

Eees—5 to 15, in exceptional cases more; in shape pointedly ovate, occasionally 
almost pear-shaped, measuring in inches 1.27 to 1.46 by 0.97 to 1.05 (in milli- 
meters 32.2 to 37.0 by 24.6 to 26.7), and averaging 1.33 by 1.00 (33.7 by 25.3) 
(nineteen eggs from California); color plain pale reddish buff. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Mountainous portions of the Pacific coast states 
from west side of Cascade Range in northwestern Oregon south through the 
Sierra Nevada and southern coast ranges of California to northern Lower Cali- 
fornia; east only to extreme western Nevada. 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Abundant resident at middle altitudes along 
the major mountain ranges almost throughout the state. In detail: Modoe 
region of northeastern California from Mount Shasta to the Warner Mountains; 
west along the Oregon line to the Siskiyou Mountains; south along both slopes 
of Sierra Nevada to Tehachapi Mountains; desert ranges of the Inyo region; 
southern coast ranges from the Santa Ynez of Santa Barbara County southeast 
through the San Gabriel, San Bernardino and San Jacinto ranges to the vicinity 
of the Mexican line; down onto the desert locally at east base of these ranges. 
Not in the northern coast ranges nearest the ocean from Humboldt County 
south to Monterey County, where replaced by a near-related subspecies. A 
slight vertical migration for the winter down the slopes of the Sierra Nevada. 


The Mountain Quail, sometimes known as Mountain Partridge or 
Plumed Quail, is generally admitted to be the most beautiful of all 
members of the quail family found in North America. It is also the 
largest of the species that may be properly termed quail. This bird is 
found throughout the mountainous districts of California with the ex- 
ception of the northwestern coast region, where a darker subspecies 
(Oreortyx picta picta) is found. No representative of the species, how- 
ever, now occupies the near vicinity of San Francisco Bay. From the 
Shasta and Modoe regions the range of the Mountain Quail extends 
southward along both slopes of the Sierra Nevada to the Tehachapi 
mountains, thence eastward through the higher desert mountains to- 
wards Death Valley, and southward through the southern coast ranges 
from the Santa Ynez Mountains of Santa Barbara County to the Mexi- 
can line in San Diego County. On the eastern bases of the southern 
California ranges this quail occurs about springs well out onto the 
desert. There are a few places where Mountain Quail and Valley 
Quail nest on common ground, as for example, in San Gorgonio Pass, 
Riverside County, and near Walker Pass, Kern County. As a rule 
the Mountain Quail is to be found on brushy hillsides and in wooded 
cafions between the altitudes of 2,500 and 9,500 feet. In the fall along 
the Sierra Nevada there is a general downward movement, to a belt 
usually below the snow-line, so that the winter range may be well 
below the summer range. Thus, in midwinter, the Mountain and 
Valley quails may be found not infrequently on common ground, 
where in summer only the latter occurs. 


506 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


From other quails found in California, the Mountain Quail may 
be distinguished at once by its large size, rich chestnut throat and 
sides, the latter broadly banded with black and white, and by the 
long slender topknot or plume made up of two jet black 
feathers (pl. 14 and fig. 81). This species also is pecul- 
iar in that the males and females are almost indis- 
tinguishable both as to size and coloration. The only 
points of difference we can make out are the usually 
shorter plume, the extension of the brown of back for- 
N ward to hind neck, and the slightly duller tones of color 
on the under surface of the female. The call of the 
My Mountain Quail, as described farther on, is so strikingly 
unlike that of the Valley Quail that the two species can 
be easily recognized as far as they can be heard. 

‘The mating season of the Mountain Quail begins in 
the latter part of March or the first part of 
April, according to altitude, when the flocks 
break up, and the pairs sequester themselves, 
selecting favorable nesting 
grounds. Three or four 
weeks later a nest is con- 
structed of leaves, pine 
needles, or grass, and from 
five to fifteen eggs of a uni- 
form pale reddish buff 
color are laid therein. The 
nest is invariably 
placed on the 
ground under the 
protection of an 
overhanging rock, 
log, bush, or clump 
of grass. An indi- 
cation that an in- 
complete set of 

vie a Head of Mountain Quail showing long €&8S is in the near 
ght slender plume. Natural size. vicinity is said to 

. be the presence of 

a pair of Mountain Quail walking sedately along a road or across 
a forest opening, the male leading with plume erect and the female 
walking close behind (Keyes, 1905, p. 14). The earliest nesting date 
on record is April 7 for the southern part of the state, when Mr. 
Frank Stephens found a ‘‘full set’’; the latest date given is August 15, 
for Shasta County (Bendire, 1892, p. 16). Complete sets are most 


commonly found during the first two weeks of June. 


MOUNTAIN QUAIL 


507 


The above 


statements are summarized from the accompanying table (no. 13) 
which gives details of nesting as far as we have been able to obtain 


definite data. 


TABLE 13—Data Relative to the Nesting of the Mountain and Painted 
Quails in California 


LocaLity 
“Southern California” 
Baird, Shasta Co. 
Volcan Mt., San Diego Co. 


Linda Vista Hills, 
near Pasadena 


San Antonio Cafion 
Los Angeles Co. 


Fyffe, Eldorado Co. 
Redding, Shasta Co. 
Fyffe, Eldorado Co. 


Fyffe, Eldorado Co. 


Downieville, Sierra Co. 
Bear Valley, Alpine Co. 
Fyffe, Eldorado Co. 


Mt. Lassen 


Parker Creek, 
Modoe Co. 


Fyffe, Eldorado Co. 


Cisco, Placer Co. 
Palomar Mt., 
San Diego Co. 
Near Bloods, 
Alpine Co. 
Near Bloods, 
Alpine Co. 
Near Bloods, 
Alpine Co. 
Baird, Shasta Co. 


Southern Sierra Nevada 
Mt. Tallac, 8,000 ft. alt. 
Tuolumne Co., 
9,500 ft. alt. 
Big Trees, 
Calaveras Co. 
Baird. Shasta Co. 
Big Trees, 
Calaveras Co. 
Big Trees, 
Calaveras Co. 
“Union Pacific Railroad” 
(Placer Co.?) 
Redding, Shasta Co. 


Alpine Valley, 
Sonoma Co. 
Alpine Valley, 
Sonoma Co. 
Mill Creek, 
near Ukiah 
Monterey 


MOUNTAIN QUAIL 


DatTE 
Apr. 7, 
Apr. 15, “= 
May 5, 1885 
May 7, 1897 


May 11, 1907 


May 13, 1913 
May 24, 1886 
June 7, 1899 


June 7, 1899 


June 7, 1866 
June 10, 1880 
June 10, 1899 


June 12, 1884 
June 12, 1910 
June 16, 1899 


June 17, 1914 
June 19, 1897 


June 19, 1903 
June 20, 1903 
June 21, 1903 
June 24, ........ 


June 25, 1906 
July 2. 1903 
July 6, 1896 


July, 1878 


NEST CONTENTS AND 
CONDITION 


“Full set’’ 

“Earliest eggs” 

8 eggs, incubation slight 
10 eggs, fresh 


10 eggs, fresh 


4 eggs, fresh. 
12 eggs, fresh 


10 eggs, incubated about 
one-half 


11 eggs, incubated about 
one-half 


10 eggs 
6 eggs, nest abandoned 
10 eggs, incubation well 


along 
10 eggs 

11 eggs, partly incubated. 
6 eggs, fresh 


19 eggs (two females?) 
5 eggs, well incubated 


9 eggs, fresh 

22 eggs, fresh (probably 
laid by two females) 

11 eggs, fresh 

8 eggs 

9 eggs 

10 eggs, fresh 

10 eggs, incubated one-half 


13 eggs, nearly hatched 


Latest eggs 
6 eggs 


6 eggs 
10 eggs 


7 eggs 


PAINTED QUAIL 


May 15,1914 

May 24, 1913 

Last of May, 
1883 


8 eggs, incubation well 
begun 

6 eggs, incubation begun 

9 eggs, fresh 


5 eggs 


AUTHORITY 
Bendire, 1892, p. 16 
Bendire, 1892, p. 16 
Bendire, 1892, p. 16 
Grinnell, 1898, p. 19 


Willett, 1912a, p. 43 


Ray, 1914, p. 59 

Bendire, 1892, p. 16 

Barlow and Price, 1901, 
p. 158 

Barlow and Price, 1901, 
p. 158 

Bendire, 1892, p. 16 

Bendire, 1892, p. 16 

Barlow and Price, 1901, 
p. 158 

Cc. H. Townsend, 1887, 
p. 199 

H. C. Bryant, MS. 


Barlow and Price, 1901, 
p. 158 

Carriger coll. 

McGregor, 1899, p. 67 

Keyes, 1905, p. 15 

Keyes, 1905, p. 15 

Keyes, 1905, p. 15 

Cc. H. Townsend, 1887, 
p. 199 

Childs coll. 


Keyes, 1905, p. 16 
Mailliard coll. 
Belding, 1879, 

pp. 438-439 
Bendire, 1892, p. 16 
U. S. National Museum 


U. S. National Museum 
Bendire, 1892, p. 16 


U. S. National Museum 


Carriger coll. 
Carriger coll. 
Mailliard coll. 


U. S. National Museum 


508 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Keyes (1905, pp. 15-16) found several nests of the Mountain 
Quail in the Sierras while making a trip through the mountains from 
Sonora to Lake Tahoe. One found on June 15 was composed of 
pine needles and measured eight inches in diameter and three inches 
in depth at the center. It contained seven eggs. An additional egg 
was found in this nest on the morning of the 17th, and on the 19th 
still another. At eleven o’clock a.m. on the 20th the nest still con- 
tained nine eggs, but by one o’clock p.m. of the same day a tenth had 
been added. 

Another nest found June 15 contained seven eggs. Hight eggs 
were in the nest when it was visited on the 16th, nine were found on 
the 18th, ten on the 20th, and eleven on the 21st. These instances 
would seem to show that the frequent statements that an egg is laid 
each day until the set is complete are not literally true. 

Still another nest found by the same observer on June 20 was well 
constructed of coarse dry grass, a few small twigs, and many breast 
feathers from the bird, and was well concealed in thick brush. The 
remarkable complement of twenty-two eggs was found in it, these 
being arranged in two layers, the upper of which contained but three 
eggs. It was not possible to determine whether so many eggs were 
the product of two females or of just one, but the former is more 
likely. 

Where the Mountain and Valley quails nest in close proximity it 
sometimes happens that eggs may be laid by one species in the nest 
of the other. H. J. Lelande flushed a Mountain Quail from a nest in 
the Linda Vista Hills west of Pasadena, May 7, 1897, which contained 
ten eggs of this quail and four of the Valley Quail. All were fresh 
(Grinnell, 1898, p. 19). A nest found in Alpine Valley, Sonoma 
County, held eight eggs of the coast race (picta) of Mountain Quail 
and two eggs of the California Quail (Carriger, MS). 

The eggs of the Valley Quail and Mountain Quail are totally 
different, the latter bird laying plain, unmarked, buff-tinted eggs, 
the former conspicuously brown-spotted eggs with whitish ground- 
color. Nineteen eggs of the Mountain Quail from Cisco, Placer 
County, measure in inches, 1.27 to 1.46 by 0.97 to 1.05, and average 
1.33 by 1.00. In shape they vary from elongate ovate with a rela- 
tively sharp point at small end to almost pear-shape. Two sets from 
Sonoma County (and hence probably of the race Oreortyx picta 
picta), aggregating fourteen eggs, are similar in shape and color. 
They measure 1.28 to 1.43 by 1.01 to 1.11, and average 1.37 by 1.08. 

While general statements ascribe as many as fifteen as the usual 
complement of eggs for the Mountain Quail (for instance, see Beld- 
ing, 1879, p. 439), exact data as far as available show an average of 
only eleven eggs per set. This is decidedly below the average for the 


MOUNTAIN QUAIL 509 


Valley Quail, so that we may properly infer the reproductive rate in 
the Mountain Quail to be the lower. Because of the shorter summer 
season at the higher altitudes it is less likely that two broods are 
regularly reared each season. Evidence in this regard is lacking, 
save for a single statement by a correspondent of Bendire (1892, 
p. 16) that in Shasta County two broods per season are raised. As. 
against the claim of two broods, we may offer the following data: 
Extreme dates for ten just-hatched, downy chicks (specimens in 
Mus. Vert. Zool. and Grinnell coll.), representing as many broods, are 
June 6 and July 5; the latest date for eggs as shown by our table is 
August 15, but the next latest is July 6, for incubated eggs. On 
October 7, near the Merced River above El Portal, Mariposa County, 
a covey of two-thirds grown young was flushed from the roadside. 
But we have no definite knowledge of the rate of growth of this 
species of quail, so that the date of egg-laying in this case may have 
been much earlier than some would infer. 

During July and August the young are very much in evidence 
around mountain springs at the heads of ravines. Eight broods were 
seen by H. C. Bryant (MS) during a ten days’ stay in the first half 
of August, 1914, near Cisco, Placer County. The young birds varied 
from thrée inches in length to half the size of adults. The broods 
were accompanied by one and often both of the parents. When dis- 
turbed the adult bird would take some commanding position on a 
log or rock, well sheltered by brush, and while watching the intruder, 
would give voice to the following call of alarm: Ca-ca-ca-ca, ca-cr- 
r-r-ré--a, ca-ca-ca-ca, ca-cr-r-r-reé-a. The young are adepts at hiding 
and a person is likely almost to step upon them before they flush. 
The half-grown young less often resort to running to escape pursuit 
than in the case of adults, but instead take to trees like grouse where 
they sit motionless (Grinnell and Swarth, 19138, p. 229). Although, 
as the summer advances, broods of young unite, the resulting aggre- 
gations never reach the size of the big autumn flocks of the Valley 
Quail. 

Williams (1902, pp. 65-66) gives the warning note of the Moun- 
tain Quail as: cree-auk-cree-auk-cree-awk-a, and the call-note used in 
keeping the flock together as kow, how, kow, how. The alarm notes 
may .be otherwise described as low and turkey-like: gup-gup-gup, 
que-ar, que-ar. When feeding undisturbed one can hear the birds 
uttering many faint mellow conversational peeps. When first alarmed 
perfect quiet may prevail, or only the sound of footfalls as the birds 
scurry over the carpet of dead leaves, to be followed presently by the 
startling burr of wings (J. Grinnell, MS). The male bird gives a 
solitary far-reaching queé-ark or qucerk from some fixed position as 
on a log. One bird that was timed uttered this note at the following 
intervals (in seconds) : 7-6~8-5-8-6-7-5-7-9-9 (T. I. Storer, MS). 


510 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


J. E. McClellan says (in Judd, 1905, p. 60): ‘‘Their feeding 
hours are early in the morning and just before sundown in the 
evening, when they go to roost in the thick tops of the scrub live oaks. 
Their feeding habits are similar to those of the domestic hen. They 
are vigorous scratchers, and will jump a foot or more from the ground 
to nip off leaves.’’ ; 

When alarmed the Mountain Quail carries its crest feathers erect, 
bowing backwards towards the tip but not tilted forward as in the 
ease of the Valley Quail. This action gives the bird an alert attitude— 
consistent with its evident anxiety in case there are young about. 

Although habitually occupying brushy and forested areas, this 
quail but seldom perches in trees, and as far as we know the adults 
never roost in one at night. They stick close to the ground and 
usually seek safety by running beneath cover rather than by flight. 
For this reason the Mountain Quail is considered an unsatisfactory 
bird to hunt. When hunted in the brush they generally run some 
distance before flying, scattering and finally taking wing like as not 
behind a bush so as to preclude the probability of a successful shot. 

Lyman Belding. (1892), p. 233), after intimate acquaintance with 
the Mountain Quail in the central Sierra Nevada wrote of its habits 
as follows: 


The . Quail . . . which are so plentiful in the high mountains. in summer, 
are only summer residents there. They usually spend the winter below the 
snow line, but as it is not possible to tell just where that is, or rather where 
it is going to be, they are sometimes caught in snow storms, but I have been 
astonished at the correctness of their apparent forecast of different winters. 
A few birds winter high in the mountains, but I think they are parts of flocks 
which were nearly annihilated, or young birds which got scattered and lost, 
and a few that were wounded and survived. 

They begin their journey on foot from the summit and east slope to the 
[western] foothills, a little after the first of September, and by the first of 
October, when the game law allows them to be shot, they have nearly all 
escaped from the mountain hunters to run the gauntlet of those lower down, on 
the west slope. In some respects they are very stupid birds, in others, quite 
the reverse. When they are going from their summer to their winter resorts, 
birds of a flock can all, or nearly all, be shot if the flock can be turned from 
its course and scattered. They soon begin to call together and will nearly 
always respond to a hunter’s imitation of their eall. The loud, pleasing call of 
the male in breeding season is not easily imitated nor described, though appar- 
ently consisting of a single note, which is sometimes varied a little. 


Barlow and Price (1901, pp. 158-160) say that: 


By the first of September the quail are restless and are beginning their 
peculiar vertical migration to the west slope of the mountains. Sometimes four 
to six adults with their young will form a covey of ten to thirty individuals 
and pursue their way, almost wholly ‘‘on foot,’’ along the ridges to a more 
congenial winter climate. By Oct. 1 the quail have almost abandoned the 


UNIV. CALIF. SEMICENT, PUBL, [GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 14 


MOUNTAIN QUAIL 


MOUNTAIN QUAIL $11 


elevations above 5000 feet. In the fall the woodland is full of the disconsolate 
‘‘peeps’’ and whistling call notes of the young who have strayed from their 
coveys. In the early spring and summer the quail begin their upward journey, 
not in flocks, but usually in pairs or singly, ascending as fast as the snow melts 
from the ground. At this mating season their rich, clear whistle is continually 
heard, though at no time during the year are they quiet. 


Belding (1908, p. 18) has more to say with regard to the migra- 
tion of Mountain Quail: 


The fall migration . . . appears to be influenced but little by the food sup- 
ply or temperature in its summer habitat in the Sierras, which it appears to 
leave because the proper time has arrived for its annual tramp down the west 
slope. The first flocks start about the first of September, or sometimes two or 
three days sooner. At Webber Lake after three cold, cloudy days, they began 
to move westward August 28, 1900. When they are migrating their whistle is 
frequently heard, and they do not seek cover for protection, but follow a 
wagon road, railroad, travel in snow sheds, pass near dwellings, and seem to 
eare but little for self-preservation. 


A few Mountain Quail occur along the east wall of the Sierras in 
Mono County, and these winter on that side. In severe seasons they 
come to the ranches around Mono Lake and are said then to mingle 
freely with the chickens in the stock yards and around the hay- 
stacks. At such times the quail are welcomed by the people of the 
region, even the Indians, and are unmolested 

The food of the Mountain Quail has been studied in the laboratory 
of the United States Biological Survey (see Judd, 1905, pp. 59-60). 
The stomachs examined, 23 in number, were all collected in California. 
Five were secured in January, 2 in May, 6 in June, 3 in July, 3 in 
August, and 6 in November. 


The food consisted of animal matter, 3 per cent, and vegetable matter, 97 
per cent. The animal food was made up of grasshoppers, 0.05 per cent; beetles, 
0.23 per cent; miscellaneous insects, including ants and lepidopterous pupae, 
1.90 per cent; and centipedes and harvest spiders (Phalangidae), 0.82 per 
cent. Among the beetles was a species of the firefly family (Lampyridae), 
a ground beetle (Carabidae), and a leaf beetle ( Haltica sp.). Vernon Bailey 
informs the writer that the young eat many ants. The vegetable food 
consisted of grain, 18.20 per cent; seeds, practically all of weeds or other 
worthless plants, 46.61 per cent; fruit, 8.11 per cent; and miscellaneous vege- 
table matter, 24.08 per cent. The grain included wheat, corn, barley, and oats. 
Of the seed element the seeds of grasses formed 7.78 per cent; of legumes, 
10.41 per cent; of weeds of the family Euphorbiaceae, 3.16 per cent; of alfilaria 
(Erodium cicutarium), 2.76 per cent; and of miscellaneous weeds, 22.50 per cent. 
The legume seeds include seeds of alfalfa, cassia, bush clover, vetch, and lupine. 
The miscellaneous seeds come from wild carrot (Daucus carota), tar weed 
(Madia sativa), Collomia sp., Amsinckia sp., labiate plants, dwarf oak, snowbush 
(Ceanothus cordulatus), and thistle. ‘ 

... This bird is especially fond of the leaves of clover and other legumi- 
nous plants. It feeds also on flowers, being known to select those of Com- 


512 ‘ GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


positae and blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium). Flowers, leaves, buds, and other 
kinds of vegetable matter form the 24.08 per cent marked miscellaneous. The 
birds probably eat more fruit than these stomach examinations indicate. 


Crops of Mountain Quail secured during field explorations of the 
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and examined by the present writers 
showed contents as indicated in the following table (no. 14): 


TasLE 14—Crop Contents of Mountain Quail 


LOCALITY DaTE CONTENTS OF Crop 


El] Portal, Mariposa Co. Nov. 21, 1915 2 seeds of wild oats (Avena fatua); 30 seeds of 
yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa); more than 
400 seeds and many leaves of clover (Tri- 
folium obtusiflorum); 2 ladybird beetles 
(Hippodamia convergens) 
Near Coulterville, Mariposa Co. June 6, 1915 2 + seed pods (Leguminosae); flowers of man- 
zanita (Arctostaphylos mariposa); pieces 
of fern leaves; green berries of ceanothus 
(Ceanothus cuneatus) ; unidentified seeds; 
2 nymphs and 2 adult hemiptera (Mem- 
pracidae); many ants (Camponotus sp.) : 
several wingless grasshoppers  (Locusti- 
' dae); 1 centipede; 2 beetles (Chrysomeli- 
dae); 2 beetles (Carabidae) ; several small 
pieces of bone 
Feliciana Mt., Mariposa Co. Oct. 30, 1915 2 capsules and 148 seeds of croton (Croton 
sp. 
El Portal, Mariposa Co. Dec. 1, 1914 Parts of manzanita perries (Arctostaphylos 
mariposa) 
Guerneville, Sonoma Co.* July 4, 1913 More than 575 seeds of turkey mullein (Ere- 
mocarpus setigerus) 


5 


* Pertains to the subspecies Oreortyx picta picta. 


It must be borne in mind that the above analyses are based upon 
relatively few stomachs, and give but incomplete evidence as to the 
food habits of the species taking its entire range into account as 
well as the entire year. The following field observations supply 
additional data. Belding says (18920, pp. 233-2384) that: 


The service berry is the staple article of their food in fall, but they eat 
more or less of the different kinds of berries which the grouse eat. I sup- 
pose they, as well as the grouse, eat berries of the wild coffee (Rhamnus 
Californica), but I have no data for a positive opinion. They also eat the 
acorn of the dwarf oak and seeds of the snow bush (Ceanothus cordulatus) , 
and seeds of many small plants. I do not know that they eat any of the 
foliage mentioned as the food of the grouse, but they probably eat leaves of 
clover early in summer, just as valley quail do in winter. The juveniles eat 
a great many ants. 

Some seasons, when there are no berries and very few seeds, they live 
almost entirely upon the bulb of a species of grass, apparently Melica bulbosa, 
which grows at the head of springs and rivulets. The birds get the bulb by 
scratching. Such seasons they start for the foothills sooner than when food 
is abundant. 

In the San Bernardino Mountains, the last of August, Grinnell 
(1908, p. 56) found the Mountain Quail feeding on service berries 
wherever these were obtainable. 

The large size and exquisite coloring of the Mountain Quail com- 
bine to make it an attractive game bird. Its flesh is excellent, being 


PAINTED QUAIL 513 


declared juicier and more finely flavored than that of the Valley 
Quail. But its comparatively small numbers, even under normal con- 
ditions, the difficulty attendant upon reaching its habitat, and the fact 
that it does not le well to dogs, deter many sportsmen from hunting 
the species. Except when the birds may be out of their natural habitat, 
as during their fall migration, it takes stiff hard climbing and a deal 
of patience to get a limit of ten. 

In former years Mountain Quail were commonly sold on the 
markets of San Francisco. In some instances they were trapped along 
the western flanks of the Sierras and sent to the markets alive. Mr. 
A. E. Skelton, of El Portal, has reported to us that while shooting 
for the market near Raymond, Madera County, many years ago he 
averaged about a dozen and a half Mountain Quail a day. The birds 
then brought from $2.50 to $4.00 per dozen. At the present time it 
is illegal to sell quail of any sort, except for propagation and then 
under permit only. The rapid diminution of Mountain Quail has 
already given hunters and others considerable concern. 

As this quail is a species which inhabits the uncultivated moun- 
tainous districts of the state it ought to be possible to treat it so that 
it can persist in maximum numbers. It would seem that a complete 
close period for a number of years, so as to allow the species to 
recuperate, is a measure which could be put in force every time serious 
diminution becomes apparent. In practice such a close period, recur- 
rent every few years, as necessitated, would probably solve the problem 
to the greatest advantage of the hunter. 

We may cite as an instance of what could be expected, the close 
season of only two years (1909 to 1911) which was followed by a 
notable increase of the birds. The fact that the Mountain Quail 
breeds more slowly than the Valley Quail necessitates different treat- 
ment of the two species in our laws. In one way this is already met 
in the difference in bag limit, ten in the case of the Mountain as 
against fifteen in the Valley Quail. 

The recent establishment (1915) of game refuges in National 
Forests in several sections of the state is also a wise provision even 
from the sportsman’s viewpoint; for adjacent areas may thus become 
stocked up with minimum discouragement to the hunter. 


Painted Quail 
Oreortyz picta picta (Douglas) 


OruER NAMES—Mountain Quail, part; Mountain Partridge; Callipepla picta, 
part; Oreortyx picta plumifera, part; Ortyx picta, part. 

Derscription—Essentially the same as for the Mountain Quail (0. p. plumi- 
fera). In adult plumage, a slightly greater depth of coloration; brown of back 


514 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


darker, and, in both sexes, extending farther forward onto hind neck. In 
juvenile plumage, the differences are more clearly apparent, and consist in a 
greater amount of brown in the mixed pattern on the upper surface. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—See under Mountain Quail. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Humid coast belt of Washington and Oregon (west 
of the Cascades), and of northern California south, more restrictedly, as far as 
Monterey County. 

DISTRIBUTION IN CaLIFoRNIA—Common resident in parts of the narrow 
humid coast belt, from Humboldt County south to Sonoma County; also spar- 
ingly south of San Francisco Bay in the Santa Cruz Mountains (McGregor, 
1901, p. 5), and in the coast ranges of Monterey County south to Big Creek (Jen- 
kins, 1906, p. 125); ranges east at the north as far as Helena, Trinity County 
(Kellogg, 1911, p. 119). Specimens from the inner coast ranges west of the 
Sacramento Valley and from Monterey County are apparently intermediate 
towards the interior race, O. p. plumifera. 

General information concerning the Painted Quail has been 


included under the account of the Mountain Quail. 


Valley Quail 
Lophortyx californica vallicola (Ridgway) 


OTHER NaAMES—Valley Partridge; California Partridge, part; Helmet Quail; 
Topknot Quail; Crested Quail; Tufted Quail; Brown-backed Valley Quail; 
Callipepla californica, part; Ortyx californica, part; Lophortyx californica, part; 
Perdiaz californica; Callipepla californica vallicola. 

DeEscripTion—Adult male: Head with black, forward-drooping topknot of 
six overlapping, broad-ended feathers; feathers of forehead buffy yellow with black 
shafts, this area bounded behind by a double band, of white and of black, the 
ends of which band continue back on each side of head over eye to a position 
behind ear; back of head dull brown; chin and throat velvety black, bordered 
by a U-shaped band of white which ends on each side just back of eye; 
feathers of a broad area around hind neck bluish gray, each one margined 
with a double scallop of black, and many of them with subterminal white 
spots, the whole giving a scaled appearance; iris dark brown; bill black; 
back, scapulars and outer surface of closed wing, grayish brown in fall, paling 
to bluish gray in spring; rump and tail clear bluish gray; buffy white stripe 
along inner margin of each wing formed by broad edgings on overlapping 
series of innermost flight feathers; secondaries and coverts narrowly edged 
with buffy white; under surface of wing and axillars grayish brown; a broad 
area across breast clear bluish gray; behind this a buffy area, and then one of 
reddish brown, centrally, white towards sides, the feathers in both these areas 
being sharply sealed with black; feathers of sides brownish gray, each with 
a shaft stripe of white; lower belly, flanks and under tail coverts, light buff, 
the latter two areas broadly streaked with brown; legs and feet blackish. 
Total length 10.25-11.00 inches (260-270 mm.) (ten specimens); folded wing 
4.24-4.44 (107.8-112.7); bill (tip to cere) 0.37-0.43 (9.5-10.9); tarsus 1.17-1.28 
(29.7-32.4) (ten specimens). Adult female: Somewhat similar to male but 
lighter in general tone, lacking the conspicuous black and white markings 
of head, as also the buffy and reddish brown ground-eolor of under surface; 
topknot much shorter, and dark brown in color; general color of head light 


VALLEY QUAIL 515 


brown; throat whitish, with narrow brown streaks. Total length 9.50-10.50 
inches (241-266 mm.) (ten specimens); folded wing 4.05-4.30 (102.8-109.0); 
bill (tip to cere) 0.38-0.44 (9.6-11.2); tarsus 1.13-1.25 (28.6-31.8) (ten speci- 
mens); all from California. Juvenile plumage, both sexes: Similar to adult 
female but with topknot still shorter and lighter brown; throat ashy brown, 
not streaked; feathers of upper surface grayish brown, with white shaft 
streaks and mottlings of pale brown and black; tail gray, barred interruptedly 
with blackish and dull white; flight feathers brownish gray, extensively marked 
with light brown and tipped with whitish; lower surface pale ashy brown, the 
breast with wedge-shaped markings of dull white, and remainder with dull 
whitish bars; belly almost plain grayish white. Natal plumage: General color 
above buffy white tinged with rusty, and below dull white; an indistinct 
dark brown spot over ear; a broad patch on back of head, dark brown, 
bordered with pale buff; two stripes down back and one on each side beneath 
wing, black; wing irregularly mottled with dark brown and buffy white; 
breast and sides suffused with buff. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—The short, blunt-ended black topknot 
(fig. 82), in association with the scaled pattern of markings across lower breast, 
is distinctive. The closely related California Quail (Lophortyx californica cali- 
fornica) is distinguished from the Valley Quail only by slightly darker general 
coloration, especially on the back and sides, the latter being 4 warm brown 
(pl. 1) instead of grayish brown. The Catalina Island Quail (Lophortyax cali- 
fornica catalinensis) is also darker, and in addition is slightly larger especially 
as regards feet. From the Mountain Quail the valley species is known by 
smaller size, shorter, blunt-ended topknot, and presence of scaling on the 
belly; and from the Desert (Gambel) Quail, by absence of rich chestnut on sides, 
and presence of sealed pattern across lower breast. 

Votce—When disturbed: a sputtering pit-pit-pit, or whit-whit-whit; an 
assembly call variously interpreted: ca-loi’-o, o-hi’-o, and tuck-a-hoe’, most often 
come-right’-here, emphasized on the middle syllable. When on guard during 
the breeding season the male bird utters a single loud kayrk at intervals. 

Nest—Usually a mere depression in the ground, lined sparingly with grass 
and weed stems; occasionally a more substantially built affair, though still 
relatively crude, of the same materials, and placed on a log, stump, or in a 
brush pile; rarely in trees or other situations above ground. 

Eees—6 to 28, usually 13 to 17, pointedly oval, measuring in inches, tL 10 to 
1.40 by 0.84 to 1.02 (in millimeters, 27.9 to 35.6 by 21.3 to 26.0), and averaging 
1.24 by 0.95 (31.6 by 24.1) (three sets, 45 eggs, from Nevada County); creamy 
white in color, spotted and blotched with light golden brown. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Interior valleys and foothills of the Pacific district, 
from the vicinity of Klamath Lake, southern Oregon, south throughout -Cali- 
fornia (except the northern coast strip and southeastern desert region) and 
throughout Lower California to Cape San Lucas; east to extreme western 
Nevada. Introduced into many other parts of the West, where now well 
established. 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNI4A—Abundant resident of the semi-arid valley 
and foothill regions, in other words, throughout the state, except in the narrow 
northwest coast strip (fog belt) from northern San Luis Obispo County to the 
Oregon line,.and the eastern portions of the Mohave and Colorado deserts. 
Common in the Modoc region of northeastern California and thence south 
along the east slope of the Sierra Nevada to Owens Valley and the desert 
ranges to the eastward towards Death Valley; occurs also out onto the deserts 


516 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


east of the southern coast ranges, as in Antelope Valley, Los Angeles County, 
along the Mohave River at least to Victorville, San Bernardino County, 
and at Palm Springs, Riverside County. Has been planted in places where 
it did not exist formerly, as on San Clemente Island, and thriven to 
a greater or less degree. The Valley Quail reaches the seacoast from San 
Luis Obispo County southward; north of that county its range meets that of 
the closely similar California Quail back from the seacoast not more than 
forty miles, except in the San Francisco Bay region where the line of meeting 
bends east around Mt. Diablo. The ranges of the Valley and Desert quails 
overlap in San Gorgonio Pass, Riverside County, and doubtless also in other 
places along the western edge of the desert. 


The Valley Quail is usually conceded to be 
California’s finest game bird, and as its range 
extends but slightly. beyond the limits of this 
state we may properly claim it as our own. It 
bears but slight resemblance to either the 
well-known Bobwhite Quail of the eastern 
United States or to any of the quails and part- 
ridges of other countries. Be- 
cause of its great popularity as 
a game bird it has been referred 
to under a variety of names, as 
listed at the head of this chapter ; 
but to the great majority of the 
residents of California this and 
the closely similar California and 
Catalina Island quails are 
known simply as ‘‘quail.’’ The 
habits of these three races scem 

ts ~ to be identical, so that we have 
Fig. 82. Head of male Valley Quail deemed it best to combine the 
showing short, club-shaped plume. Nat- 
tal @iZé. general accounts of all three here 
under one heading. 

Under original conditions the Valley Quail ranges north only a 
short distance into Oregon, and east scarcely beyond the Nevada line; 
but to the southward it occurs regularly to the southern end of Lower 
California. In the state of California it is distributed throughout 
the lower valleys and foothills from the Oregon boundary (east of 
the Siskiyou Mountains) to the Mexican line (west of the Colorado 
Desert). Along the narrow northwestern coast strip (fog belt), from 
southern Monterey County northward, its place is taken by the closely 
allied form, the California Quail, but south of San Luis Obispo 
County the range of the Valley Quail reaches quite to the seacoast. 
East of the southern California coast ranges it occurs but a little 
way out onto the desert; beyond, its place is taken on suitable ground 


VALLEY QUAIL 517 


by the somewhat different Desert or Gambel Quail. In mountainous 
districts it is regularly resident up to 3,500 or 4,000 feet altitude. 
Less frequently it has been found up to an altitude of 6,000 feet, as 
near Fort Tejon, Kern County, where young even have been observed 
(Henshaw, 1876, p. 266). There are records of occurrence at 6,800 
feet on Thomas Mountain in the San Jacinto Range, and at almost 
8,500 feet altitude on Mount Pinos, Ventura County (Grinnell and 
Swarth, 1913, p. 2380; Grinnell, 1905, p. 382). Belding (1879, p. 
439) states that in Calaveras County, Valley Quail spend the sum- 
mer in the pine forests as high as the Big Trees (5,000 feet), but 
that they return for the winter to the chaparral belt below. Above the 
normal altitudinal range of the Valley Quail, the Mountain Quail 
(Plumed Partridge) holds sway, 
though the ranges of the two 
often overlap over a narrow belt. 
However, the two species are not 
known to flock together. In the 
San Jacinto Mountains of south- 
ern California the Valley, Moun- 
tain and Desert quails may be 
found closely associated, the first Fig. 83. Side of tarsus and foot of 
and last being sometimes seen Valley Quail. Natural size. 

in the same flock, and all have Note stout toes and claws, and ab- 
been taken in the course of a oth figs. TT aad 85). tarsus (compare 
morning’s shooting. Gilman 

(1907, p. 149) reports having found all three in certain ecafions near 
Palm Springs, Riverside County; and on Pifion Flats, 4,000 feet alti- 
tude, fifteen miles south, he saw representatives of all three species 
drink from the same spring in the course of half an hour. 

The Valley Quail has been introduced on certain of the islands of 
the Santa Barbara group, notably on San Clemente Island (Grinnell, 
1897, pp. 12-13), and on Santa Cruz Island (Henshaw, 1876, p. 266). 
On Catalina Island, however, there was originally present a closely 
similar form, Lophortyx californica catalinensis (Grinnell, 1906a, 
pp. 264-265). 

Except during the nesting season Valley Quail are to be found in 
flocks. These range from family assemblages of ten birds or less, up 
to (in former years) enormous flocks of a thousand or even more; 
nowadays an average covey is:estimated to number from fifteen to 
forty birds. The tales which are told concerning the abundance of 
quail in early days are almost unbelievable. A. K. Fisher (1898a, p. 28) 
records that thousands visited a certain spring in the Temploa 
[Temblor] Mountains; ‘‘. . . the ground all about the water was 
covered by a compact body of quails... .’’ But such a condition as 


518 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


this is entirely passed. The advent of agriculture has had both a 
beneficial and a deleterious effect on the quail. The removal of 
brush has reduced the extent of the natural shelter, but on the other 
hand the planting of vineyards has provided additional refuge. About 
Fresno, Tyler (19130, p. 33) states that with the establishment of 
vineyards quail came down from their natural foothill haunts and, 
being protected by most vineyardists, have notably increased in their 
new haunts; during the same time their numbers in the adjacent hill 
country have measurably lessened. 

Quail have established themselves successfully in the parks and 
suburbs of several of our cities. In Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, 
the California Quail is especially abundant, and coveys may be seen 
feeding in the open places among the shrubbery or scurrying across 
the paths. On the campus of the University of California, at Berkeley, 
flocks are seen down among the buildings at times in winter, and young 
have been hatched out within a few yards of much traveled paths. 
In southern California, Willett (1912a, p. 43) says Valley Quail are 
often seen, and that they nest in parks and gardens in the cities. 

The Valley Quail has a variety of notes which are used under 
different conditions and to express various meanings. When anxious 
or disturbed the members of a flock utter a soft pit, pit. pit, or whit, 
whit, whit, in rapid succession, as they run about under the brush or 
when about to take wing. Then there is a loud call used by the males 
to assemble the flock when scattered. This has been variously inter- 
preted as ca-low’-o, o-hi’-0, tuck-a-hoe’, k-woik’-uh, ki-ka-kee’, ca-ra’-ho, 
tuck-ke-tew’, or more simply as who-are’-you-ah (Van Dyke, 1908, 
p. 877; Crosby, 1912, p. 311; Bailey, 1902, p. 120). However, the 
easiest and by far the most usual interpretation is come-right’-here, 
or come-right’-home, with the accent on the second syllable. Some- 
times when excited a bird calls come-right’, come-right’, come-right’- 
here. In at least one instance a female bird has been observed to 
utter this call (J. W. Mailliard, 1912, p. 73). The notes of the Valley 
Quail are less elaborate than those of the Desert Quail, the ‘‘crow’’ 
lacking the two additional notes which the latter gives at the end; 
also the Valley Quail lacks much of the conversational twitter of its 
desert relative (J. Mailliard, in Grinnell, 1904a, p. 41). 

During the breeding season the male mounts a bush near his 
brooding mate and utters a single, loud, far-carrying kayrk at irre- 
gular intervals of from one to twelve seconds; an occasional explosive 
sound is given, like one note of a turkey gobbler. After the eggs are 
hatched and the young are running with the adults, the pit, pit, pit 
notes are used to call the chicks together. A feeding flock indulges 
in some low conversational twitter. 


VALLEY QUAIL 519 


_ Valley Quail are notably active birds and are usually busy through- 
out the daylight hours. They spend the night, not in a circle on the 
ground as do the Bobwhite, but in a bush or thickly foliaged tree, 


‘where they are less accessible to ground-dwelling predators. With 


the first streak of dawn they are awake, and, flying down to the 
ground, usually gather together and go to drink at some near-by pool 
or stream. This done, the work of gathering the day’s rations is 
commenced, and while performed in what may seem to be a leisurely 
fashion, it occupies them during most of the day. They interrupt 
it only for the purpose of going again to water, a habit made necessary 
by the great proportion of hard material in their food, or, in the 
extreme heat of the day, to rest—in a sort of siesta. In the late after- 
noon of rainless days they may often be seen in some sunny spot ‘‘dust- 
bathing,’’ or preening their feathers. As evening approaches they 
again seek the shelter from which they departed in the morning. 
Dixon (1906, p. 95) records that a flock which came to roost in a 
small elder tree near his camp in the San Onofre Mountains, San 
Diego County, arrived with surprising regularity. In eight days 
they did not vary more than ten minutes either way from 6:15 p.m. 
“‘On rainy or cloudy days they were seven or eight minutes early 
and on bright clear afternoons they were a little late... .’’ 

When hunted, the members of a flock of quail will often wait until 
the sportsman is almost upon them, whereupon they will spring from 
the ground, and, with a whir of wings as rapid as it is startling, make 
off in different directions and drop into the protecting cover of 
shrubbery. Again on the ground, they make good use of their legs 
and run rapidly off. Hunters state that only when thoroughly 
frightened will quail crouch and attempt to escape by concealment. 
If flushed in the vicinity of trees they will often take shelter in the 
thick foliage of these, where they remain quiet and are not to be easily 
discovered. When excited they run with surprising rapidity, their 
topknots down, necks craned forward and legs fairly stretching; but 
when concerned only with their own business they are more sedate, 
carrying their heads erect, with the plumes directed upward and 
forward, in a dignified manner. 

Feeding flocks of quail are believed to post sentinels in order that 
all of the members may not be put to the, necessity of dividing their 
attention between the search for food and guarding against surprise 
by an enemy. Williams (1903, pp. 146-148) has described this habit 
as observed by him, in detail, somewhat as follows: 

A flock was heard calling and moving about on a brushy hillside 
some distance from the observer, but before coming into view a single 
individual preceded the rest and took his station in the branches of 
an apple tree, whence he could survey the region round about. After 


520 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


carefully scrutinizing his surroundings for several minutes the kayrk 
note was uttered several times in a low guttural tone. Soon members 
of the flock were seen coming down the hill in the same direction as 
taken by the sentinel, but their manner of approach was entirely 
different; he had exercised great caution and carefully examined 
the surroundings for possible danger, while they came with their 
plumed heads held low, searching among the clover roots for seeds 
and other articles of food. Some preened and fluffed out their 
feathers; others took dust baths. While so occupied they all kept up 
a suecession of low conversational notes. Meanwhile the sentinel 
remained on his perch and continued on the alert even after the 
flock had moved some distance beyond him. Then a second bird 
mounted a vantage point and took up the sentinel duty and after a 
few minutes the first relinquished his post. While the flock was still 
in view, yet a third bird relieved the second. It would seem that by 
this practice, of establishing sentinels on a basis of divided labor, the 
flock had increased its individual efficiency in foraging. The same 
observer also states that he had seen sentinels used when a flock was 
crossing a road, or when ‘‘bathing’’ in the roadside dust, and that the 
practice is made general use of in open areas; but he had never 
observed the habit when the birds were in tree-covered localities. 
During the breeding season it is known that the male mounts guard 
while the female is searching for a nesting site, and again when she 
is incubating the eggs. Sometimes he also performs this guard func- 
tion after the chicks are out but not fully grown. , 

The large flocks in which the quail have associated during the 
winter slowly break up during February and March and individual 
pairs of birds are then to be seen seeking nesting sites. ‘‘In early 
seasons they [Valley Quail] begin to pair in the last week of February, 
but the time varies somewhat according to the season. During this 
period there is considerable fighting among the males for the favor of 
the coveted female. This is kept up until they are suitably mated 
and the nesting season arrives’’ (Bendire, 1892, p. 28). Belding 
(1879, p. 439) recites that he has seen males fighting fiercely, after 
the manner of turkeys, the other members of the flock ‘‘appearing 
to take great interest in the combat,’’ and making much noise. 

The Valley Quail seems far from particular in the choice of a 
nesting site. The grass-lined depression in the ground which usually 
constitutes the nest, is commonly hidden under bushes, hedges, brush- 
heaps, and logs. Less common sites are haycocks in open fields, or 
shrubs or vines in gardens, and occasionally’ nests of other birds are 
used. H.R. Taylor (1885, p. 142) records the finding of ten fresh 
California Quail’s eggs in a Spurred Towhee’s nest in a cypress hedge 
about four feet from the ground, and also two eggs of this quail in 


VALLEY QUAIL 521 


a Spurred Towhee’s nest on the ground, both in Alameda. Near Los 
Angeles, Wicks (1897, p. 404) found two eggs of the Valley Quail in 
a Long-tailed Chat’s nest. Several cases of tree-nesting of the Cali- 
fornia Quail came to the attention of W. E. Bryant (1887, p. 451). 
The sites which had been chosen were the upright ends of broken or 
decayed limbs, or the intersections of two large branches. The same 
observer found a nest in a vine-covered trellis over a much-used door- 
way, from which the young later successfully reached the ground. 
Howell (1915, p. 206) found a nest with three fresh eggs four feet 
above the ground on top of a bale of hay in the shade of an orange 
tree at Covina, Los Angeles County. 

Several nests found along the bank of the San Joaquin River near 
Lathrop, San Joaquin County, were hidden under weeds on the levee, 
the depression in the ground being lined with leaves of the same 
plants; another nest found under a log was lined with decayed wood 
(H. C. Bryant, MS). Grinnell and Swarth (1913, p. 230) found 
Valley Quail nesting commonly in the shelter of the sage-bushes cover- 
ing the floor of Hemet Valley, Riverside County. 

While nests of the Valley Quail have been found as early as the 
middle of March and as late as the middle of September, the great 
majority of these birds restrict their nesting to a much shorter period. 
To judge from the accompanying record of more than one hundred 
and fifty nests, most of the nesting occurs from the latter part of 
April to the middle of June (see tables 15 and 16, and fig. 84). Nests 
found during July and early August are likely to represent second 
layings (that is, instances where the first set was disturbed or 
destroyed), and not necessarily efforts to rear a second brood. Ben- 
dire (1892, p. 28) records a nest in Butte County as early as March 15, 
and young about two days old were seen there on April 15. At 
Hayward, Alameda County, Emerson (MS) gives extreme nesting 
dates as April 21, 1883, and July 14, 1905, but Cooper (1880, p. 251) 
records nesting at the same locality on April 10, 1875. At Selma, 
Fresno County, Tyler (MS) flushed a female from a nest containing 
seven apparently fresh eggs on September 15, 1915. In Los Angeles 
County the extreme dates are: Claremont, April 4, 1901, thirteen 
fresh eggs (Willett, 1912a, p. 43), and Oak Knoll, near Pasadena, 
September 6, 1907, fifteen eggs part of which hatched on September 10 
(Grinnell, MS). At Poway, San Diego County, the last date for 
fresh eggs in 1884 was August 14 (Belding, 1890, p. 14). Sharp 
(table 16) has found eggs at Escondido, San Diego County, as late as 
October 29 (1908), but it is doubtful whether eggs laid so late would 
have been set upon until hatched. 

Our purpose in preparing the tables of nesting data given here- 
with has been to provide a statistical basis upon which definite state- 


522 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 

ments concerning the average and extreme times of nesting, and 
numbers of eggs, can safely be made. Table 16, presenting Sharp’s 
observations (all but two of which pertain to Escondido, San Diego 
County), includes almost if not all of the nests found by him during 
the years specified. This table may therefore be taken as exhibiting 
the numbers of eggs laid by Valley Quail in one locality under the 
varying conditions encountered during a particular series of years. 
The other table (15), presenting data derived from miscellaneous 
sources, is of such a nature as to lead to averages different from those 
actually occurring in a state of nature. Data cited from sets in collec- 
tions pertain to selected, often maximum, sets, which are ordinarily 
preferred by the egg collector. Small sets, of ten eggs or less, are often 
passed over by collectors and no record kept of them, even though 
they may be complete. Incubation does not commence until a set is 
nearly or quite complete, so that in the case of a small set, only by 
examining the contents of one of the eggs and finding that incubation 
had actually commenced, would it be safe to assert that the set was 
complete. It is possible that certain of the small sets listed ‘‘fresh’’ in 
the tables were incomplete; if this is true the tendency would be to 
balance the effect of the extra large sets listed from oological col- 
lections. 

Sharp’s observations give 13 as the average number in a set of 
Valley Quail eggs at his locality, while for the whole range of this 
race within the state the average is 14.6; for the California Quail the 
average is 16.3, but this is based on a considerably smaller number 
of sets, and is undoubtedly due to selection having been exercised 
by the collectors, as particularly mentioned in some instances. For 
both races of quail, taking into account both tables 15 and 16, the 
average number of eggs laid is 14.2. 


TaBLE 15—Data Relating to Nesting of Valley and California 
Quails in California 


VALLEY QUAIL 


NEsTt CONTENTS AND 


Locality DATE CoNDITION ; REMARKS AUTHORITY 
Ventura Co. Mar. and Apr. Nests found Evermann, 1886, p. 92 
Chico, Butte Co. Apr. 1, 1885 9 eggs, first nest Belding, 1890, p. 13 
Lia Juana Valley, Apr. 3, 1885 Two broods about a Belding, 1890, p. 12 

San Diego Co. week old; season un- 
usually early 
Claremont, Apr. 4, 1901 18 eggs, fresh Willett, 1912 . 48 
Los Angeles Co. fel ia ee 
Escondido, San Diego Co. Apr. 12 to Nesting Sharp, 1907, p. 86 
July 25 
Chico, Butte Co. Apr. 15, First young about two Belding, 1890, p. 13 
[18857] days old sy rg 


“Coahuilla Valley.” near 
Palm Springs, River- 
side Co. 

Fresno 


Apr. 17, 1886 


Apr. 20. 1912 


Female with egg ready 
to lay 


18 eggs, incubation begun 


Moreom, 1887, p. 39 


Tyler, 1913a, p. 17 


ct coal 


LOcALiItTy 


San Diego 


Poway, San Diego Co. 
Santa Paula, Ventura Co. 
Fresno 

Poway, San Diego Co. 
Santa Paula, Ventura Co. 
Sespe, Ventura Co. 
Fresno 

Cabezon, Riverside Co. 


Near Upland, 
San Bernardino Co. 


Fresno 
Fresno 


Claremont, 
Los Angeles Co. 


San Diego 
Escondido, San Diego Co. 


Fresno 
Fresno 


Fresno 


Claremont. 
Los Angeles Co. 


Santa Paula, Ventura Co. 


Toluca, Los Angeles Co. 


Claremont, 
Los Angeles Co. 


Claremont, 
Los Angeles Co. 


Upland, 
San Bernardino Co. 


Chico, Butte Co. 

Arroyo Seco, Los Angeles Co. 
‘Santa Paula, Ventura Co. 
Kenworthy, Riverside Co. 


Knights Ferry, Yolo Co. 


Claremont, 

Los Angeles Co. 
Fresno 
Spenceville, Nevada Co. 
Santa Paula, Ventura Co. 
Spenceville, Nevada Co. 
Santa Paula, Ventura Co. 
Drytown, Amador Co. 


San Clemente Island 


San Dimas, 

Los Angeles Co. 
San Dimas. 

Los Angeles Co. 


San Dimas, Los Angeles Co. 


Tulare Co. 
Santa Paula, Ventura Co. 


Lathrop, San Joaquin Co. 
Lathrop, San Joaquin Co. 
Colton, F 

San Bernardino Co. 
Fresno 


VALLEY QUAIL 


TABLE 15—(Continued) 


DATE. 
Apr. 22, 
[18622] 
Apr. 27, 1884 
May 1, 1905 
May 2, 1907 
May 5, 1884 
May 5, 1910 
May 6, 1905 
May 6, 1906: 
May 7, 1908 
May 10, 1916 
May 12, 1908 
May 12, 1912 
May 12, 1914 
3, 
(1884?) 
May 18, 1903 
May 16, 1902 
May 16, 1902 
May 16, 1912 
May 16, 1916 
May 17, 1909 
May 19, 1907 
May 20, 1916 
May 20, 1916 
May 20, 1916 
May 21, .-...--.- 
May 21, 1898 
May 22, 1914 
May 23, 1908 
May 26, 1898 
May 26, 1916 
May 27, 1901 
May 27, 1906 
May 27, 1915 
May 29, 1906 
May 29, 1914 
May 31, 1895 
May 31, 1897 
May 31, 1916 
May 31, 1916 
May (latter 
part), 1915 
May (last week) 
May ...., 1908 
June 1, 1912 
June 1, 1912 
June 1, 1907 
June, 2, 1906 


Nest CONTENTS AND 
ConpiTION; REMARKS 


. First eggs 


First set of eggs 

18 eggs, incubation begun 
14 eggs, fresh 

First young seen 

10 eggs, fresh 

17 eggs, fresh . 

5 eggs, fresh 

8 eggs 


16 eggs, all but two 
hatched on this date 


14 eggs, fresh 
18 eggs,fresh; deserted 


13 eegs,incubation 
two-thirds 


First brood for the 
season 


15 eggs, 
begun 


13 eggs, 


22 eggs, 
one-ha 


10 eggs,fresh 


19 eggs, all hatched on 
this date 


19 eggs, incubation 
nearly complete 


19 eggs, fresh 
24 eggs, fresh 


incubation 


nearly fresh 
incubation 


16 eggs, ready to hatch 


11 eggs, incubation 
advanced 


22 eggs; all hatched later 
17 eggs 

22 eggs 

10 eggs, fresh 


8 eggs, incubation 
egun 

20 eggs, incubation 

begun 

eggs, half-incubated 

14 eggs 

13 eggs, fresh 

eggs 

eggs, fresh 

13 eges, incubation 
begun 


Two broods. scarcely 
a week old 


14 eggs, fresh 


14 eggs. incubation 


advance 


13 eggs, incubation 
begun 

Nest with eggs 

25 eggs, incubation 
nearly complete 

17 eggs 

11 eggs, fresh 


15 eggs, incubation 
advanced 


14 eggs, fresh 


623 


AUTHORITY 
Cooper, 1870a, p. 550, 


Belding, 1890, p. 12 
Peyton, MS. 

Tyler, MS. 

Belding, 1890, p. 14 
Badger, MS. 
Peyton, MS. 

Tyler, MS. 


Grinnell and Swarth, 
1913, p. 231 


Pierce, MS. 


Tyler, MS. 
Tyler, 1913a, p. 17 
Pierce, MS. 


Belding, 1890, p. 12 
Law coll. 


Tyler, MS. 
Tyler, 1913b, p. 34 


Tyler, 1913a, p. 17 
Pierce, MS. 


Badger, MS. 


Law coll. 
Pierce, MS. 


Pierce, MS. 
Pierce, MS. 


Bendire, 1892, p. 28 
Law coll. 
Badger, MS. 


Grinnell and Swarth, 
1913, p. 230 


Ray coll. 
Pierce, MS. 


Tyler, MS. 

Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Badger, MS. 

Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Badger, MS. 
Mailliard coll. 
Grinnell, 1897, p. 12 
Pierce, MS. 
Pierce, MS. 
Pierce, MS. 


Judd, 1905, pp. 47-48 
Badger, MS. ~ 


H. C. Bryant, MS. 
H. C. Bryant, MS. 
Hanna, 1907, p. 198 


Tyler, MS. 


524. 


LOCALITY 


Fresno 
Pasadena, 
Los Angeles Co. 
Fresno 
Lone Pine, Inyo Co. 


Chico, Butte Co. 
Calaveras Co. 


Banning, Riverside Co. 
Fresno 


Lime Kiln (on Wolf Creek, 
east of Spenceville), 


Nevada Co. 
Lime Kiln, Nevada Co. 
Claremont, 


Los Angeles Co. 
Lime Kiln, Nevada Co. 
Escondido, San Diego Co. 


Chico, Butte Co. 
Palomar Mts., 

San Diego Co. 
Lime .Kiln, Nevada Co. 


Tuolumne River, between 
Chidtere Camp and Grove- 


lan 
Kenworthy, Riverside Co. 
Fresno 
Six miles east Placerville, 
in Eldorado Co. 
Igo, Siskiyou Co. 
Walker Pass, Kern Oo. 
Sespe, Ventura Co. 


Fresno 


Fresno 


Los Angeles 
Poway, San Diego Co. 
Fresno district 


Near Oak Knoll, Pasa- 
dena, Los Angeles Co. 


Selma, Fresno Co. 


Poway, San Diego Co. 


Hayward, Alameda Co. 
Hayward, Alameda Co. 


Palo Alto, Santa Clara Co. 


Marin Co. 
Hayward, Alameda Co. 
Palo Alto, Santa Clara Co. 


GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


TABLE 15— (Continued) 


Dat 


June 2, 
June 2, 


June 2, 
June 4 
1891 


June 6, 
June 7%, 


June 8, 
June 9, 
June 10, 
June 10, 
June 14, 


June 15, 
June 15, 


June 15, 
June 16, 


June 16, 
June 16, 


June 23, 
June 23, 
June 26, 
July 1, 
July 1 
1891 
July 15, 


1912 


E 


1907 
1907 


1907 
to 15, 


1884 
1885 


1908 
1907 
1906 
1906 
1903 


1906 
1901 


1884 
1897 


1906 
1898 


1908 

1906 
1896 
1884 


to 2, 


1910 


July (latter 


part), 
Aug. 9, 
Aug. 14, 


1906 
1897 
1884 


Sept. (first 


week), 
Sept. 6, 


Sept. 15, 


1912 
1907 


1915 


About Nov. 1 


10, 
21, 


Apr. 
Apr. 


Apr. 24, 


Apr. 
Apr. 
Apr. 


27, 
29, 
29, 


Nest CONTENTS AND 
CoNDITION; REMARKS 
16 eggs, hatching 


18 eggs, incubation 
advanced 


21 eggs, incubation 
one-thir 


Young just able to fly 


First brood 


Brood about the size of 
downy chickens 


8 eggs 


12 eggs, incubation 
well along 


20 eggs 


13 eggs 
15 eggs, 
begun 
14 eggs 
15 eggs, 
begun 
Young coming out 
plentifully 


Female with egg in 
oviduct 


10 eggs 
11 eggs, incubation begun 


incubation 


incubation 


8 eggs 


15 eggs, incubation 
well begun 


Young a few days old 


First young, not large 
enough to fly 

Young just hatched to 
half grown 

11 eggs, incubation 
begun 

Nesting begun early but 
first young not seen until 
July 15 

10 eggs, incubation 
advanced 

9 eggs, fresh 

Last fresh eggs 

Many half-grown young 


15 eggs, incubation ad- 
vanced; part hatched 
Sept. 10 

7 eggs, apparently fresh; 
female flushed 

Small quail seen 


CALIFORNIA QUAIL 


1875 
1883 


1899 


1915 
1877 
1899 


Nesting 

21 eggs, incubation 
slight 

8 eggs, incubation 
advanced 

9 eggs, fresh, deserted 

Nesting e 


10 eggs, incubation 
just begun 


AUTHORITY 


Tyler, MS. 


Mus. Vert. Zool. 


Tyler, 1913b, p. 34 


A. K, Fisher, 18932, 
p. 28 

Belding, 1890, p. 13 

Belding, 1890, p. 14 


Grinnell and Swarth, 
1913, p. 231 


Tyler, MS. 


Mus. Vert. Zool. 


Vert. Zool. 
coll. 


Mus, 
Law 


Vert. Zool. 
coll. 


Mus. 
Law 


Belding, 1890, p. 13 
McGregor, 1899, p. 67 


Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Ray coll. 


Grinnell and Swarth, 
1913, p. 230 

Tyler, MS. 

Barlow and Price, 
1901, p. 160 

Belding, 1890, p. 13 

A. K. Fisher, 1893a, 
p. 28 

Peyton, MS. 


Tyler, 1913a, p. 17 


Tyler, MS. 


Grinnell, 1898, p. 19 
Belding, 1890, p. 14 
Tyler, 1913a, p. 17 


Grinnell, MS. 


Tyler, MS. 


Belding, 1890, p. 14 


Cooper, 1880, p. 251 
Mailliard coll. 


Law coll. 


Ray coll. 
Cooper, 1880, p. 251 
Law coll. 


LOCALITY 
Alameda, Alameda Co. 


Santa Cruz 


San Geronimo, 
Marin Co. 


Alameda Co. 
Hayward, Alameda Co. 
San Francisco 


San Francisco 


Upper Salinas Valley, 
Monterey Co. 

Alameda Co. 

Santa Cruz 

Berkeley hills, 
Alameda Co. 

Santa Clara Co. 


Alameda Co. 
Santa Rosa, Sonoma Co. 
Petaluma, Sonoma Co. 


Alameda Co. 
Santa Rosa, Sonoma Co. 


Hayward, Alameda Co. 
Southern Monterey Co. 


Idlewild, Sur, 
Monterey Co. 


Near Middleton, 

Lake Co. 
Nicasio, Marin Co. 
Capitola, Santa Cruz Co. 
San Mateo Co. 


Santa Clara Co. 


Berkeley, Alameda Co. 
Oakland, Alameda Co. 
Monterey 


VALLEY QUAIL 


TABLE 15—(Continued) 


DATE 
May 4, 1896 


May 28 to 
Jun. 8, 1908 


May 24, 1901 
May 25, ........ 


May 25, 
May 26, 
May 30, 
May 31, 
June 5, 


June 5, 
June 10, 


June 13, 
June 14, 


June 15, 
June 15, 
June 18, 
June 22, 
June 24, 
June 26, 
July 6, 


July 18, 
July 20, 


Nist CONTENTS AND 
CONDITION; REMARKS 


21 eggs: 3 fresh, 18 
one-half incubated 

Fresh eggs 

14 eggs, fresh 


16 eggs, fresh 

18 eggs, fresh 

21 eggs, incubation 
begun 

28 eggs, incubation 
egun 

Half-grown young 
abundant 


23 eggs, fresh 
Young just hatched 


15 eggs, incubation 
about one-fourth 


9 eggs, incubation 


27 eggs, fresh (laid by 
two females?) 

24 eggs, incubation 
slight 

11 eggs, incubation 
begun 

14 eggs, fresh 


14 eggs, incubation 
advanced 

18 eggs, fresh 

Broods of very small 
young 

17 eggs, incubation 
begun 

22 eggs 


14 eggs, ineubation 
slight 

11 eggs, incubation 
advanced 


12 eggs, incubation 
one-sixth 


Fresh eggs 


9 eggs, hatched 
Nesting 
24 eggs 


525 


AUTHORITY 


Law coll. 


McGregor, 1901, p. 5 
Mailliard coll. 


Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Mailliard coll. 
Ray, 1900, p. 126 


Ray, 1900, p. 126 
Willett, 1908, p. 137 


Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Cooper, 1870a, pp. 550- 
551 


Carriger coll. 

Van Denburgh, 1899, 
p. 158 

Mus. Vert. Zool. 

Carriger coll. 


Law coll. 


Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Carriger coll. 


Mailliard coll. 
Jenkins, 1906, p. 126 


Ray coll. 

Wythe, MS. 
Mailliard coll. 

Ray coll. 

Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Wag Denbureh 1899, 


Pp 
Grinnell, 1914a, p. 30 


Cooper, 1880, p. 251 
Gambel, 1849, p. 218 


TaBLE 16—Sets of Eggs of Valley Quail Examined by C. S. Sharp in the 
Vicinity of Escondido, San Diego County, California, 1896-1913 


Set No. Date 


April 12, 
April 15, 


1903 
1903 


— 


SOMBNATH gw DH 


April 16, 1903 
April 18, 1908 
April 20, 1908 
April 21, 1908 
April 21, 1908 
April 22, 1903 
April 24, 1903 
April 25, 1908 


NuMBER OF Ea¢s, CONDITION AND REMARKS 


12, fresh 
14, fresh 
18, fresh 
21, fresh 
19, fresh 
15, fresh 
17, fresh 
19, fresh 
18, fresh 
13, fresh 


526 


Ser No. 


11 


12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
385 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 


GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Date 


April 30, 1904 


May 
May 
May 
May 


May 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 


5, 
6, 
9, 
9, 
13, 
13, 
13, 


30, 
3, 
3, 
4, 
4, 
6, 
8, 
8, 

10, 


15, 
15, 
21, 
25, 


Oct. 27, 
Oct. 29, 1902 


1908 
1905 
1903 
1912 
1898 
1902 
1904 
1913 
1907 
1907 
1904 
1907 
1912 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1896 
1904 
1906 
1908 
1908 
1902 
1903 
1897 
1907 
1905 
1903 
1906 
1907 
1905 
1903 
1906 
1903 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1908 
1902 
1905 
1906 
1897 
1907 
1902 
1902 
1906 
1903 
1902 


TaBLE 16—(Continued) 


15, 


21, 
17, 
18, 
17, 


NumsBer or Eees, ConDITION AND REMARKS 
fresh in 3; incubation commenced in 11; 


broken 1 


fresh’ 
fresh 
fresh 
fresh 
fresh 


fresh; 5 eggs May 9 


fresh 
fresh 
incubation 
incubation 
incubation 
incubation 
incubation 
incubation 
ineubation 
incubation 
fresh 
fresh 
incubation 
fresh 
fresh 
fresh 


commenced 

commenced 

far advanced; 2 broken in nest 
‘advanced; 4 broken in nest 
commenced 

far advanced; 1 broken in nest 
commenced 

advanced 


commenced 


fresh; deserted 
fresh; 6 eggs on June 11; 14 on June 15 


fresh 
fresh 
incubation 
incubation 
incubation 
incubation 
fresh 


_fresh 


incubation 
fresh 
fresh 
incubation 
incubation 
incubation 
incubation 
incubation 
fresh 
fresh 


commenced 
commenced 
commenced 
advanced 


commenced 


advanced 
advanced 
advanced 

far advanced 
commenced 


fresh; deserted 
fresh; deserted 
fresh; deserted 


incubation 
incubation 


advanced 
advanced 


fresh; deserted 
fresh; deserted 


VALLEY QUAIL 527 


Some collectors’ estimates as to the average numbers of eggs laid 
by these birds may be of interest here. For the California Quail, 
C. A. Allen (in Bendire, 1892, p. 24) gives 14, and Bendire (1892, p. 
25) says 12 to 16; for the Valley Quail, at Fresno, Tyler (MS) says 
that first sets, laid from April 20 to May 15, average 18; sets found 
in June, and which may be second layings, contain 14 to 15 eggs, 
while sets found from July to September contain but 10 to 12 eggs 
each. Grinnell (1898, p. 19) gives 15 to 17 as the average about Los 
Angeles, and Peyton (MS), for Sespe, Ventura County, says 10 to 
15, and that sets of 17 are to be considered large. Speaking from 
experience with both races of quail, Law (MS) thinks that normal 
sets are not less than 15 in number. It will thus be seen that our 
averages from actual statistics (13 to 14) are below offhand estimates. 
In any event the size of the set is considerably above that of any other 
species of game bird occurring in California. As far as observation 
goes there is good ground for believing that quails’ eggs possess a 
high percentage of fertility; practically all the eggs of a set Hee 
Mortality comes after the young are out of the nest. 

The eggs are white, or faintly tinged with cream-color, and abun-. 
dantly speckled and often blotched irregularly with golden brown of 
but slightly varying tone. The markings are distributed over the. 
egg with fair uniformity, there being little or no tendency toward 
massing the color about the larger end as in the case of the eggs of: 
many shore birds. In shape the eggs are short ovate, with the small 
end notably pointed. They measure, in inches, 1.10 to 1.40 by 0.84 
to 1.01, and average 1.24 by 0.95 (three sets, of 18, 14 and 18 eggs, 
respectively, from Nevada County). 

The eggs of the Valley Quail number from 6 to 28 in a complete 
set (Sharp, MS), with an average, as already demonstrated, of about 
14. In some instances it is certain that more than one female lays in 
one nest, and this circumstance might account for some of the larger 
sets. Tyler (19130, p. 34) recites an instance where a nest which 
was observed in the late morning to contain four eggs, upon the after- 
noon of the same day held six, although from that time on but one 
egg was laid each day. The remarks accompanying Sharp’s set no. 17 
(table 16) suggest double laying. It is generally believed that a quail 
deposits one egg a day until the full complement is laid. One instance 
out of several illustrating this point is provided by M. C. Badger 
(MS), who discovered a nest with but four eggs, and thereafter 
observed that one egg was added each day until there were fifteen ; 
in other words eleven eggs were laid upon eleven successive days. 
Two or more types of eggs, distinct as to shape, size, or coloration, 
are not infrequently observable among the eggs contained in one nest. 
The following table from Sharp (MS) lists the sets which came under 


528 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


his observation containing more than one type of egg and therefore 
believed to be laid by more than one female. 


TaBLE 17—Sets of Valley Quail Eggs Showing More than One Type of Coloration 


(All Observed by ©. 8. Sharp at Escondido, San Diego County). 
The Numbers Refer to Sets in Table 16 


Set No. Eces REMARKS 

6 15 Two types: 10 and 5 eggs respectively. 

7 17 Three types: 10, 4 and 2; and 1 which probably should go 
with the 4-egg type. 

10 13 Three types: 8, 3 and 2. 

15 17 Three types: 8, 5 and 4. 

20 8 Two types: 5 and 3. 

24 13 Two types: 10 and 3. 

37 18 Three types: 8, 5 and 4; and 1 which probably should be 
added to the 4-egg type. 

41 9 Two types: 5 and 4. 


In the early spring, quail often drop eggs at various places any- 
where on the ground. Tyler (1913), pp. 33-34) and Van Denburgh 
(1899, p. 158) both record the finding of eggs dropped in this man- 
ner; and the latter author states that the same propensity was 
noticed in captive quail. Van Denburgh states further that one of 
the birds kept in captivity by him laid forty-one eggs during one 
summer, and Cooper (1870a, p. 551) mentions a female kept in 
captivity in San Francisco which laid seventy-nine eggs in one sum- 
mer season. This bird was provided with an abundance of food and 
was not allowed to sit. 

The statement which is frequently made, that our quail do not 
nest numerously or even at all in dry years, seems to be fairly well 
substantiated. Anthony (in Bendire, 1892, p. 27) says that he was 
told of this phenomenon by the Indians and Mexicans, and that in 
1887 he verified it by personal observation. In that year the birds 
remained in large flocks all summer, and only two or three broods 
of young were noticed. Birds collected during April, May and June 
showed little development of the sex organs. Cummins (1888, p. 51) 
states that in 1887 a flock of about one hundred quail remained 
‘together on the slopes of Mount Diablo and did not nest. Joseph 
Dixon (MS) states that he has collected quail for specimens in San 
Diego County during the summer season of dry years and that upon 
dissection the sex organs were found to be in a non-functional con- 
dition. As evidence from the opposite direction, W. M. Pierce (MS) 
declares that sets in 1916 in Los Angeles County, following a winter 
of heavy rainfall, have been exceptionally large, nine sets averaging 
between 16 and 17 eggs each. Other persons have also referred to 


VALLEY QUAIL 529 


this phenomenon. A fact well known to poultry breeders is that 
quantity and quality of food have a direct effect on egg production 
and fertility. It is thus not to be wondered at that years of drouth 
and hence of scanty food supply result in diminishment of the quail 
crop—not that the quail are able to foresee a shortage of food, but 
that their bodies have at the beginning of the season of nesting 
already begun to respond to the unfavorable conditions. 

Sportsmen have not infrequently stated that quail rear two broods 
in a season, and of course there is plenty of time between April and 
September for any one pair of birds to rear two, or even three 
broods; but we have been 
7 unable to find any proof 

A of this. In the accompany- 
| ¥ 23 ing diagram (fig. 84) we 

“\ have made use of all the 


y \ pertinent facts contained 
io 


Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. 


in tables 15 and 16, group- 
ing the breeding dates by 
3 le -half-monthly periods. 


: = There will be seen to be 


Fig. 84. Curve showing by half-month < ‘ 
periods the time when Valley Quail begin to two times of eennnnares 
lay their eggs. Calculated from data in egg-laying, one beginning 
tables 15 and 16 by taking account of the in the first half of May 
number of eggs in the nests when found, A : 
their condition as to incubation, and reckon- and the other in the first 
ing back to find the dates on which the sets half of June. However 
were probably commenced. The numbers in i ay 
the columns indicate the number of caleu- there are so many compli- 
lations falling within each half monthly cating factors, such as the 
interval. z 


destruction of first nests, 
that but little significance can be attached to the double peak of 
this diagram as indicating two nestings in a season. 

The time of incubation is from twenty-one to twenty-three days. 
The male bird will assume the duties of incubation if the female is 
made away with, but otherwise seems only to perform the duty of 
sentinel. The young quail are able to run about so soon after hatch- 
ing that it has been said metaphorically that they ‘‘run away with 
part of the shell clinging to their backs.’’ At the State Game Farm 
newly hatched young have been seen racing about and over eggs in 
the incubator within fifteen minutes after emerging from the shell. 
In the wild, when danger threatens the brood, a few notes of warning 
from one of the parents suffice to cause the young to hide in any 
available depression or shelter which is handy. Once so sheltered, 
their habit of keeping quiet, or ‘‘freezing,’’ together with their effec- 
tively concealing coloration, makes it almost impossible to rediscover 
them. About ten days is said to elapse after hatching before the 


530° GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


young quail are able to fly. John Muir (1901,. pp. 223-224) thus 
describes the nesting of some California Quail on his place at. Mar- 
tinez, Contra Costa County: ; 


One year a pair nested in a straw pile within four or five feet of the stable 
door, and did not leave the eggs when the men led the horses back and forth 
within a foot or two. For many seasons a pair nested in a tuft of pampas grass’ 
in the garden; another pair in an ivy vine on the cottage roof, and when the 
young were hatched, it was interesting to see the parents getting the fluffy dots 
down. They were greatly excited, and their anxious calls and directions to their 
many babes attracted our attention. They had no great difficulty in persuading’ 
the young birds to pitch themselves from the main roof to the porch roof among 
the ivy, but to get them safely down from the latter to the ground, a distance of 
ten feet, was most distressing. It seemed impossible the frail soft-things could 
avoid being killed. The anxious parents led them to a point above a spiraea bush, 
that reached nearly to the eaves, which they seemed to know would break the fall. 
Anyhow, they led their chicks to this point, and with infinite coaxing and encour- 
agement got them to tumble themselves off. Down they rolled and sifted through 
the soft leaves and panicles to the pavement, and, strange to say, all got away 
unhurt except one that lay as if dead for a few minutes. When it revived, the 
joyful parents with their brood fairly launched on the journey of life, proudly 
led them down the cottage hill... . 


Even as early as the first of July the different family broods begin 
to unite into larger assemblages. Sometimes the young composing such 
a bevy are not all of the same age, but range from chicks barely fledged 
to half grown birds (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 28; and authors). Grin- 
nell and Swarth (1918, p. 231) record broods of young at Banning, 
Riverside County, in juvenile plumage as early as June 8 (1908), 
and in the San Jacinto Valley the same writers found fully plumaged 
young-of-the-year and half grown young birds together during the first 
week in September. Both parents assist in rearing their offspring. 
The male, while spending a considerable portion of his time in sentinel 
duty, also forages with his brood. 

‘The Valley and California quails are believed to be more exclu- 
sively vegetarian than any other of our game birds, save those of the 
pigeon family. The United States Bureau of Biological Survey, in 
an examination of 619 stomachs (representing both subspecies), 
found (Judd, 1905, pp. 47-56 ;-Beal, 1910, pp. 9-14) that only about 
3 per cent of the food consisted of animal matter. The remaining 97 
per cent was vegetable material and consisted of 2.3 per cent fruit, 
6.4 per cent grain, about 25 per cent grass and other foliage, and 62.5 
per cent seeds. The animal food comprised chiefly insects, and of 
these, ants were most frequently present.- Some beetles, bugs, cater- 
pillars, grasshoppers, flies, spiders, ‘‘thousand-leggers,’’ and snails 
were also found in the stomachs examined. <A case is-cited by Beal. 
(1910, p. 10) of a brood of young quail Tne extensively on black 
seale. 


VALLEY QUAIL 531 


Fruit evidently does not form any important part of the food of 
the quail, as it was found in only about one-sixth of the stomachs and 
then only in very small quantities. Damage is sometimes done to 
grapes, but this is not shown clearly by examination of stomach con- 
tents. Beal (1910, p. 9) mentions two cases where 1,000 and 5,000 
quail, respectively, had been seen feeding upon grapes in vineyards. 
Under such circumstances severe loss was undoubtedly sustained; 
but these are exceptional instances. Florence A. Merriam (1896, p. 
116) states that on the ranch of Major Merriam at Twin Oaks, San 
Diego County, quail were in 1889 so abundant as to be a severe pest. 
For several years previously great flocks of them came down the 
cafions to the vineyard, ‘‘where they destroyed annually from twenty 
to thirty tons of fruit.’’ A report comes from the Fresno district to 
the effect that grape growers are occasionally troubled by the birds 
scattering the drying raisins from the trays. 

To elicit further information on this subject the present writers 
addressed letters to several grape growers in California who by reason 
of their large holdings would be best able to give evidence on this 
point. The four vineyardists replying agreed in charging very little 
if any damage against the quail. The service of the birds in destroy- 
ing insect life was recognized by all of them. One man reported 
that he had found quail aggravating, sometimes, when they picked 
out certain varieties of grapes which do not bear heavily and which 
had been left on the vines for more sugar, ‘‘for they are great sticklers 
for a high saccharine content.’’ They eat only very ripe grapes and 
mostly those which are near the ground, and the damage done amounts 
to only ‘‘a fraction of one per cent’’ (R. Jordan, Jr., San Francisco). 
F. T. Bioletti, Professor of Viticulture at the University of California, 
summarizes his impressions of the Valley Quail as follows (in MS): 
Under certain conditions the birds may be very destructive. One 
vineyard of fifteen acres in a little mountain valley contained three 
acres of an early ripening white grape. From fifty to seventy-five 
per cent of these are taken by the quail every year. The later grapes, 
which are larger and have tougher skins, are left practically un- 
touched. Damage has also been noted in the case of table grapes 
in which a few pecked berries on each bunch diminished the value 
of the whole through the increased cost of trimming and packing. 
Otherwise, ‘‘I am inclined to believe that the quail, as a rule, do very 
little damage.”’ 

It is evidently not the large vineyard that suffers the greatest 
proportional damage. Rather is it the vineyard of moderate or small 
size, especially where adjacent to wild lands upon which quail are 
numerous. Under such circumstances quail have been known to 
destroy almost the entire crop. But on the whole, the birds cannot 


532 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


be considered as seriously affecting either the horticultural or viti- 
cultural interests of the state. 

The grain secured by quail is evidently picked up casually, no 
special search being made for it. Only one instance of quail enter- 
ing a field for grain has been reported (Beal, 1910, p. 11). In no 
month of the year does grain constitute more than 12.4 per cent of 
the food for.the month. Forage, including under that term grass 
blades, and leaves of numerous plants, is taken in varying amounts 
during the year, but most abundantly during the spring months 
when weed seed is scarcest. Leaves of bur clover, and other clovers 
including alfalfa and ‘‘filaree,’’ are found most commonly; grass 
blades occur in quite a number of stomachs. 

~ Weed seeds are the staple and most important item in the food 
of the quail. Seeds of more than seventy species of plants have been 
identified in the crops and stomachs of these birds. Among those of 
great economic importance, and most frequently eaten by quail, are 
seeds of tarweed, mayweed, bur thistle, lupine, bur clover, deerweed, 
vetch, turkey mullein, sumac and poison oak, alfilaria (filaree), 
geranium, black mustard, miner’s lettuce, red maids, pigweed, chick- 
weed, catchfly, wire grass, sorrel, sedge, and ray grass. The quanti- 
ties of these seeds eaten by quail may be conjectured by noting the 
analyses of material taken from individual birds. One stomach held 
83 kernels of barley, 592 seeds of geranium, 560 of tarweed, 40 of 
bur thistle, 48 of clover, 80 of alfilaria, 704 of timothy, 32 of catchfly, 
‘and 5 of snowberry; 2,144 seeds in all. Another contained 1,696 
geranium seeds, 14 of bur thistle, 24 of knotweed, 14 of tarweed, 38 
of bur clover, 148 of alfilaria, 12 of ray grass, and two unknown pieces; 
total 1,944 seeds and one pod (Beal, 1910, pp. 12-13). More rarely 
quail feed on acorns or on the seeds of the parasite, dodder. The 
young quail are more insectivorous in diet and take many ants. After 
they are about a week old their diet begins to be more like that of 
the adults. 

The enemies of quail are numerous. Wildeats are about the 
worst enemies of these birds, although certain hawks, and also gray 
foxes and coyotes figure in varying degrees. Dixon (MS) reports 
finding the remains of a California Quail in the stomach of a wildcat 
killed at Petaluma, Sonoma County, December 29, 1908. A Prairie 
Falcon in the Swarth collection, taken December 13, 1901, at San 
Fernando, Los Angeles County, contained remains of dove in the 
crop and of quail in the stomach, both organs being entirely filled. 
J. Grinnell (MS) has shot a Cooper Hawk in the act of eating a 
Valley Quail. While hunting or tramping about in quail-inhabited 
country it is not an uncommon thing for a person to find here and there 
heaps of quail feathers, each heap indicating where one or another of 


VALLEY QUAIL 533 


these enemies had captured and devoured a quail. Being a ground- 
nesting species, the eggs are doubtless frequently destroyed by preda- 
tory mammals and snakes. Four instances are on record (Hoover, 
1899, p. 75) of the western gopher snake eating quail’s eggs. In one 
ease, at Stanford University, a female California Quail attracted 
attention as it fluttered excitedly in some shrubbery, trying to drive 
a snake away from the nest. ‘‘I carried the snake about fifty yards 
down the path and put him down. He started off in the direction of 
the nest, and when I returned an hour later he was gulping down an 
egg,’’ and there was already a lump in the snake’s body. In another 
instance a gopher snake was found to have swallowed six quail’s eggs. 

Bendire (1892, p. 26) states that unusually cold weather has a 
disastrous effect on the birds. Thousands were thought to have been 
killed by cold in the vicinity of Fort Bidwell, Modoc County, in the 
winter of 1887-88. This, however, is at the extreme northern edge 
of the range of the species; over the greater part of its territory cold 
probably never has any effect except as influencing food supply. Con- 
siderable heat is borne without apparent inconvenience. 

Our quail in the wild appear to be little subject to disease, and 
there are no records of epidemics having occurred among the Cali- 
fornia species. However, intestinal parasites are not uncommon. 
Thompson (1901a, p. 15) states that while hunting quail in Monterey 
County about 1898, he found that the intestines of close to one-third 
of the birds shot contained tapeworms from 214 to 4 inches long. 
J. Mailliard states (1902a, p. 19) that he found so many California 
Quail similarly parasitized in Marin County that he was led to believe 
that these birds were particularly subject to such affliction. He also 
found smaller worms in birds collected in both Marin and San Benito 
‘counties. However, neither author found any evidence to show that 
the presence of these worms had any bearing on the health of the 
birds. A possible danger to our wild quail comes from the custom 
of rearing native birds in captivity where they may have been brought 
in contact with foreign species harboring disease germs. In such 
event, by liberation of captive birds an epidemic might be started 
among our wild stock, with disastrous results. 

Our quails have now been introduced into many localities where 
they were not native. As early as 1857 shipments were taken to the 
state of Washington; and in the neighboring states of Oregon and 
Nevada the introduced birds have done so well that unless an observer 
were told of their introduction he would believe them to be native. 
‘They have been established successfully in some of the Hawaiian 
Islands and in other parts of the world. In eastern North America, 
however, attempts to introduce Valley Quail have been about as unsuc- 
cessful as have been the efforts to establish the Bobwhite in California. 


534 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The California Quail (including the races closely related to it) has 
almost every feature that is desirable in a game bird. It displays 
exceptional skill in baffling the hunter, and its light-colored flesh is of 
fine flavor. Easterners often criticise our bird because it does not lie 
well to dogs; but when they once become acquainted with the western 
method of hunting the quail, they pronounce our bird superior to their 
own Bobwhite. Sometimes a dog is used, but the experienced hunter 
in California is able to pursue a flock successfully without such 
assistance. 

Van Dyke (1892, p. 486), one of the most experienced hunters 
of upland game in the state, describes a quail hunt in terms some- 
what as follows: At your first advance into the place where the quail 
last settled in confusion, a dozen or more rise in front of you and 
as many more on each side anywhere from five to fifty yards away. 
They burst from the brush with rapid flight and whizzing wing, 
most of them with a sharp, clear, pit, pit, pit, which apprizes their 
comrades of the danger and the course of escape taken. Some dart 
straight away in a dark blue line, making none too plain a mark 
against the dull background of brush, and vanish in handsome style 
unless you are very quick with the gun. Others wheel off on either 
side, the scaling of their breasts showing in the sunlight as they turn, 
and making an altogether beautiful mark as they mount above the 
skyline. Some swing about and pass almost over your head, so that 
you can plainly see the black and white around their heads and 
throats, and the cinnamon shading of their under surfaces. 

In the days when the Valley Quail was plentiful far beyond its 
condition today, it was a common bird on the markets and could be 
obtained at practically every hotel and restaurant. Records show 
that during the season 1895-96 as many as 70,370 quail (mostly Valley 
Quail) were sold on the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles; 
while an earlier report states that full 100,000 were disposed of in 
a single year in the markets of San Francisco. W. T. Martin of 
Pomona states that in 1881-84 he and a partner hunted Valley Quail 
in Los Angeles and San Bernardino counties for the San Francisco 
markets. Eight to fourteen dozen were secured daily, and in the 
fall of 1883 the two men secured 300 dozen in seventeen days. Martin 
himself secured 114 birds in one day’s hunt. In 1881 and 1882 
over 32,000 dozen quail were shipped to San Francisco from Los 
Angeles and San Bernardino counties, and brought to the hunters 
engaged in the business one dollar a dozen. In those days restaurants 
charged thirty cents for quail-on-toast. By 1885 hunting had become 
unprofitable because of the reduction in the numbers of quail. 

A. E. Skelton, of El Portal, Mariposa County, tells us (MS) that 
years ago when he was hunting for the market in the vicinity of 


VALLEY QUAIL 535 


Raymond, Madera County, he averaged about sixty birds per day. 
By careful handling he was able to secure better prices than other 
market hunters. After killing a dozen or fifteen quail, they were 
drawn, tied three in a. bunch, and hung up to cool over night. All 
the birds which he had thus prepared were on the following day 
placed in wooden boxes with thin boards between each two layers. 
They thus reached the cities in beautiful condition and brought him 
from $1.50 to $2.25 per dozen, fifty cents more per dozen than quail 
shipped loosely in sacks, as was the practice of other hunters. 

T. S. Van Dyke (1890, p. 460) states that market hunters used 
to ship 10,000 quail apiece during a single season; daily bags of 200, 
made by sporting men shooting the birds singly on the wing, were 
not unusual. C. H. Shinn (1890, p. 464) says that in eighteen con- 
secutive hunts two hunters at San Diego secured from 47 to 187 
quail on each hunt, in addition to other game; six bags of more than 
one hundred each were made. Other individual daily bags of six, 
twelve and twenty-two dozen, respectively, were known to this author. 
In the hills between the southern San Joaquin Valley and Carrizo 
Plains, E. W. Nelson (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, pp. 28-29) found the 
Valley Quail very numerous. 


It was excessively abundant at some of the springs in the hills about the Tem- 
ploa Mountains and Carrizo Plain. In the week following the expiration of the 
closed season, two men, pot-hunting for the market, were reported to have killed 
8,400 quail at a solitary spring in the Temploa [Temblor] Mountains. The men 
built a brush blind near the spring, which was the only water within a distance of 
20 miles, and as evening approached the quails came to it by thousands. One of 
Mr. Nelson’s informants who saw the birds at this place stated that the ground 
all about the water was covered by a compact body of quails, so that the hunters 
mowed them down by the score at every discharge. 


Not only were quail shot for the market, but previous to 1880, 
they were regularly trapped in large numbers. In that year the prac- 
tice was stopped by law. Cooper, writing in 1870 (1870a, p. 551), 
states that they were constantly exposed for sale alive in San Fran- 
cisco, where many escaped from their cages to fly from roof to roof, 
occasionally descending into city gardens. Many trapped birds were 
shipped east at that time. 

Hedderly (1912c, p. 309) gives an account of the successful rear- 
ing of Valley Quail in captivity by William Schneider of Whittier, 
Los Angeles County. Starting with six birds in 1905, by 1912 he 
was able to rear between 400-and 500 young birds, more in fact than 
he needed for his own table. Some interesting facts, learned in the 
course of his experience with the quail, were: that they are not polyga- 
mous, each male selecting one female and remaining with her until the 
young birds are hatched, and paying no attention to other females even 


536 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


when kept in the same enclosure; that two broods were reared by his 
birds, in each season, one in February and another in April or May; 
and that bantam hens were found capable of hatching the quail’s eggs 
successfully, where the latter had been deserted during the early part 
of the season. This and other instances suggest the possibility of semi- 
domestication of quail, as on large ranches. In fact there are reports of 
quail mingling freely with chickens; and one case is on record (Hen- 
shaw, 1883, pp. 184-185) where a hen with an unusual propensity for 
sitting, appropriated of her own accord a nest of quail’s eggs some- 
where in the neighborhood. In due time she came off leading in her 
train a bevy of fifteen downy quail. These were successfully reared, 
and remained about the ranch yard where their tameness distinguished 
them from other quail in the vicinity. 

Hunting in one form or another has been the most effective factor 
‘in the decrease of the Valley Quail. As with so many of our other 
game birds, too long an open season, too large bag limits, or none at 
all, and hunting for the market, have together been instrumental in 
reducing the numbers of quail; but the last-named factor is un- 
doubtedly the most important one. Twenty years ago a quail hunt 
for sport involved considerable time and inconvenience; but today, 
with the increased facilities for travel available in the form of rail- 
roads, suburban electric lines and automobiles, and the more efficient 
types of firearms, both of these factors have been greatly reduced. 
A quail hunt may now occupy but a relatively short time, and the 
destruction possible with a pump or automatic shotgun as compared 
with a double-barrel gun has given the present-day hunter a greatly 
increased advantage. The annual destruction of quail has exceeded 
the yearly crop, and in consequence the breeding stock has been sadly 
reduced. At present there are many places, notably in southern 
California, where drastic action must be invoked at once if any birds 
at all are to be left. Smaller bag limits and shortened seasons, or 
even an entirely closed season for a few years in critical localities, are 
believed to be the only means of affording the birds the protection 
they need. But even where they have been reduced, the Valley and 
California quails may be expected, other conditions being equal, to 
regain their former numbers more rapidly than any other game 
species. This is another evidence of their fitness as game birds: They 
ean stand the greatest annual toll and yet, because of their high rate 
of reproduction (providing the optimum breeding stock be not 
reduced), safely and easily recoup their numbers from year to year. 

It is erroneous to believe that a considerable number of quail can- 
not be maintained under present conditions. The birds have demon- 
strated their ability to exist under a wide variety of physical condi- 
tions, and are not averse to the proximity of man, as abundantly 


CALIFORNIA QUAIL—CATALINA ISLAND QUAIL 537 


proved in many instances. Given the proper protection from excessive 
hunting, through moderate open season and bag limit, and perhaps 
further assistance by the destruction of their worst natural enemies, 
and they will remain with us as a joy forever. We can then say, with 
Florence Merriam Bailey (1902, p. 121), that they are still the game 
birds of California; ‘‘. . . the roads are still patterned with their foot- 
prints, and through the valleys they are closely associated with the 
charm of the mellow California days, their melodious who-are-you-ah? 
coming from the hillsides in the cool mornings when the high fog is 
dissolving into blue sky, coming from the chaparral in the warm noon- 
day hours, and echoing softly from the vineyards through the quiet 
golden sunsets.’’ 


California Quail 


Lophortyx californica californica (Shaw) 


OTHER NAMES—California Partridge, part; Lophortyx californica brunnescens ; 
Lophortyz californica vallicola, part; Callipepla californica, part; Tetrao cali- 
fornicus; Ortyx californica, part. 

Description—Adults: Similar to Valley Quail (Lophortyx californica valli- 
cola) but upper surface and sides of body olive brown (pl. 1) rather than 
grayish brown, and inner margins of tertial feathers deep buffy or ochraceous 
rather than. pale buffy or whitish. Juvenile plumage: Like that of Valley Quail, 
but with tawny suffusion above, and ochraceous tinge below; dark markings 
everywhere greater in extent. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—See under Valley Quail. Probably not dis- 
tinguishable except in hand. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Humid coast region (fog belt) of the Pacific district 
from southwestern Oregon south to southern Monterey County; introduced into 
Vancouver Island and Washington. 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFoRNIA—Abundant resident of the narrow humid coast 
strip (fog belt) from the Oregon line south to southern Monterey County. (See 
Valley Quail.) 


For general account, see Valley Quail. 


Catalina Island Quail 


Lophortyx californica catalinensis Grinnell 


OTHER NAMES—Lophortyz catalinensis; Lophortyx californica vallicola, part. 

DeEscription—Adults: Similar to the Valley “Quail (Lophortyx californica 
vallicola) but averaging about 7% larger; scaling on lower breast slightly heavier, 
and shaft streaks on flanks and lower tail coverts broader. Males: folded wing 
4.46-4.71 inches (113.5-119.5 mm.) ; bill along culmen 0.40-0.42 (10.2-10.7) ; tarsus 
1.18-1.26 (30.0-32.0) (three specimens). Females: folded wing 4.57-4.65 (116- 
118); bill along culmen 0.41-0.43 (10.4-10.9); tarsus 1.18-1.24 (30.0-31.4) (three 
specimens). 


538 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—See under Valley Quail; probably not dis- 
tinguishable except in hand. 

DIsTRIBUTION—Common resident on Santa Catalina Island, Los Angeles 
County, to which island this race is restricted. 


It has been rumored that quail from the mainland of California 
have been introduced on Santa Catalina Island. But ‘‘Captain”’ 
James C. Johnston found quail already on the island when he located 
at ‘“‘Johnston’s Harbor’? (of maps) in 1859 (Grinnell, 1906a, pp. 
264-265) ; he and the other sheep men on the island always considered 
the birds to be native. If mainland stock has since been introduced, 
we have no means of knowing what its effect on the native contingent 
may have been. It is unlikely that the strangers would survive in 
competition with the better fit native birds. The eggs of the Catalina 
Island Quail have been described (Childs, 1907) as differing some- 
what from those of other quail in having the ground-color almost pure 
white, with ‘‘specks and dots of brown, and large ‘conspicuous yellow- 
ish-brown blotches.’’ The eggs described, ten in number, were taken 
at Avalon, July 12, 1907, from a nest on the ‘‘ground near eucalyptus 
tree and by a fence.”’ 

The general natural history of the Catalina Island Quail is prob- 
ably nearly identical with that of the Valley Quail. 


Desert Quail 
Lophortyx gambeli Gambel 


OTHER NAMES—Gambel Quail; Gambel Partridge; Arizona Quail; Callipepla 
gambeli; Callipepla gambeli deserticola. 

DEScRIPTION—Adult male: Forehead finely streaked with black and buff, this 
area bounded behind by a transverse white bar between eyes which turns back on 
each side to continue over the ears to side of neck, this white bar bordered nar- 
rowly with solid black; whole hind head solid reddish brown; crest with origin 
just behind white bar on top of head, about one and one-half inches long, and 
made up of six black club-shaped, recurved, closely over-lapping feathers; entire 
throat jet black, outlined posteriorly by a well defined U-shaped border of white 
running down each side of head from eye; ear region, between white bands, black- 
ish brown, opening out onto gray of chest region; bill black; iris dark brown; 
upper surface of body, including outer surface of closed wing, rump and entire 
tail, pale ashy brown, becoming clear gray on hind neck and tail; upper surface 
also with fine shaft-lines of dusky; lining and under surface of wing plain grayish 
brown; inner webs of tertials and outer webs of secondaries edged with bufty 
white; outer webs of primaries edged with gray; elongated feathers of sides 
bright chestnut, each with a medial streak of white; fore breast ashy gray con- 
tinuous with hind neck; feathers of sides of neck and hind neck finely margined 
with dusky and narrowly centered near tips with reddish brown; a black patch 
or spot on fore part of belly, and between this and gray chest area, a broad, 
clear, buffy band; hinder belly pale buffy white; flanks same color, with broad 
shaft streaks of dull reddish brown; under tail coverts buff with grayish brown 
shaft streaks; legs and feet dull greenish gray; claws black. Total length 10.64— 


DESERT QUAIL - 539 


11.50 inches (270-292 mm.) (nine specimens); folded wing 4.34-4.52 (110.0- 
114.7); bill along culmen 0.43-0.47 (10.8-12.0); tarsus 1.17-1.28 (29.7-32.4) 
(ten specimens) ; weight 5.7 oz. (161.8 gm.) (one specimen). Adult female: Head 
without the white, black and rufous found in the male, chiefly grayish brown, 
streaked with dusky on forehead, sides and throat, more rusty brown on back of 
head; crest about one inch in length, not so broad ended as in male; plumage other- 
wise much as in male but black spot on belly lacking, and chestnut of sides paler 
and less extensive. Total length 10.40-11.44 inches (264-290 mm.); folded wing 
4.17-4.49 (105.8-114.0) ; bill along culmen 0.41-0.45 (10.3-11.5); tarsus, 1.14— 
1.24 (29.0-31.5) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Whole 
of upper surface dull brown, minutely mottled transversely with dusky; scapulars 
and outer surface of closed wing with broad whitish shaft-streaks; wing and tail 
feathers mottled in fine pattern with ashy brown and buffy white; sides and 
breast pale ashy brown with whitish bars. Natal plumage: General color dull 
yellowish; four parallel blackish stripes down back; a dark brown patch on back 
of head; breast and sides washed with buffy; wings and flanks marked with dusky. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Similar to Valley Quail, as regards size 
and erest, but general coloration much lighter; male with back of head bright red- 
dish brown, and with a clear buffy white band across lower breast, followed by 
a conspicuous black spot on fore part of belly. Both sexes have the sides rich 
chestnut, but no scale-like feather-tippings on the under surface of the body as 
in the Valley Quail. 

VotceE—A rapidly uttered series of syllables, each sounding like quoit or oit; 
call of male: yuk-lde-ja, repeated (Bendire, 1892, p. 31). 

Nest—On ground beneath weeds or brush; a slight depression, usually well 
lined with grass, weed stems, and leaves. 

Eees—10 to 17, ovate in shape, measuring in inches 1.12 to 1.34 by 0.95 to 1.02 
(in millimeters, 28.5 to 34.0 by 24.0 to 26.0), and averaging 1.24 by 0.95 (31.5 by 
24.0) (Bendire, 1892, p. 34; and authors) ; in color white or creamy white, with 
dots and irregular spots of dark purplish brown. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Arid desert regions of southern California, southern 
Nevada, Arizona, and southwestern Utah, east to the southwestern corner of Col- 
orado; also in southwestern New Mexico to the Rio Grande Valley and the 
El Paso region of extreme western Texas; south into northeastern corner of 
Lower California and to Guaymas, Sonora (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 137). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Abundant resident locally, almost always in the 
near vicinity of streams or springs, on both the Colorado and Mohave ‘deserts. 
Recorded north to Amargosa and Death valleys (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 29) ; 
west across the Mohave Desert to Hesperia (Thurber, 1896, p. 265), on the Col- 
orado Desert to the north flank of the Santa Rosa Mountains (Grinnell and 
Swarth, 1913, p. 232), and through San Gorgonio Pass to Banning, Riverside 
County (Gilman, 1907, p. 148). Recorded casually or as a result of escape from 
captivity, from Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and other points on the Pacific 
slope of southern California. Along the western edge of its range, this quail 
occurs at many points on common ground with the Valley Quail, and hybridization 
is known to occur. 


The distribution of the Desert or Gambel Quail is closely limited 
to the deserts of the southwest. It is to be found from extreme south- 
ern Colorado and the western extremity of Texas westward to south- 
ern Nevada, southeastern California and northeastern Lower Cali- 


540 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


fornia. In California it is an abundant resident locally, always in 
the near vicinity. of streams, on the Mohave and Colorado deserts. It 
has been taken as far north as the Amargosa Desert and Death 
Valley, in southern Inyo County, and to the westward it extends to 
Banning and the north slope of the Santa Rosa Mountains in River- 
side County. Along the western border of its range it is often found 
associated with the Valley Quail. This is especially the case in some 
of the low passes, as, for instance, San Gorgonio Pass. Here hybrids 
between the two species have been taken. Stragglers, possibly escaped 
from captivity, have been recorded from Los Angeles (Grinnell, 1898, 
p. 19) and San Bernardino (Wall, 1893, p. 204). 

Efforts made to introduce the Desert Quail into northern Cali- 
fornia have met with failure. Belding (1890, p. 8) records the fact 
that although a number were once liberated near Folsom, Sacramento 
County, they all soon disappeared. A covey, numbering originally 
more than a hundred, kept on the State Game Farm at Hayward, 
slowly died off until not one was left. The bird seems unable to stand 
any departure from the warmth and dryness of its native desert 
territory. 

Throughout its range the Desert Quail is a close associate of the 
mesquite and ‘‘quail brush,’’ the latter being a species of Atriplex. 
Although individuals often forage up dry washes for a few miles, 
they keep within reach either of a spring or a stream, since they 
must go back to water at least twice a day, morning and evening. 

In size and general appearance the Desert Quail is much like the 
Valley Quail. The top of the head, however, is rich reddish brown, 
there are no scale-like tippings to the feathers of the under surface, 
and the flanks are chiefly chestnut in color. A conspicuous black patch 
occupies the center of the lower surface of the body of the male. Being 
a desert form, the general tone of color follows the rule among desert 
animals and is pale, considerably lighter than it is in the Valley Quail. 

Desert Quail usually remain in flocks until about the middle of 
March when they begin to pair off. Although the height of the nest- 
ing season occurs in April, young about two days old have been seen 
as late as September 24 (Leo Wiley, MS). The earliest date for eggs 
is March 19, near Phoenix, Arizona; and near Tucson, April 4 (Ben- 
dire, 1892, p. 34). In California, near Salton Sea, Koch (1893, p. 
91) found fresh eggs on April 5. The nest is a simple structure, 
often a mere lining, of grasses and weed stems, occupying a depres- 
sion in the ground surface, and hidden in grass or clumps of weeds. 
Some instances may here be cited in illustration of nesting habits, 
exceptional or ordinary. 

Near Tucson, Arizona, on May 25, 1911, Willard (1912, p. 60) 
found a nest without any protecting cover in a slight depression at 


DESERT QUAIL 541 


the foot of a mesquite. It contained twelve fresh eggs. According 
to Swarth (MS) the Desert Quail not uncommonly lays its eggs in 
places other than the usual ground site of quail in general, an aban- 
doned nest of a thrasher or cactus wren in the cholla cactus being 
sometimes flattened down and used. Bendire (1892, p. 32) found 
a set of ten eggs near Tucson, Arizona, in an old Roadrunner’s nest 
about five feet above the ground in a mesquite tree. Apparently a 
little additional lining had been contributed by the quail. Breninger 
(1897, p. 122) records the finding of a nest near Phoenix, Arizona, 
containing six eggs and situated in a hollow of a mesquite trunk 
several feet from the ground and eighteen inches from the opening 
of the cavity, The cavity was much the same as would be chosen by 
one of the larger owls. 

The eggs of the Desert Quail resemble those of the Valley Quail 
in shape, but are decidedly different in coloration. The ground-color 
is white or creamy white, with dots and irregular spots of dark pur- 
plish brown (not golden brown). Bendire (1892, p. 34) found the 
extremes of size in a large number of the eggs of the Desert Quail to be 
(millimeters changed here to inches) 1.12 by 0.95 and 1.34 by 1.02, 
with an average of 1.24 by 0.95. The complete set contains from ten 
to seventeen eggs, but the average comes nearer a dozen. Incubation 
is said to last from about 21 to 24 days, and does not begin until all 
the eggs are laid, these being deposited daily (Bendire, 1892, p. 32). 
Two broods are thought by some to be reared in one season (Leo 
Wiley, MS., and Bendire, loc. cit.) ; this, however, is not likely to be 
the regular thing. Immediately after the breeding season young and 
old collect into flocks of large size, said to number on occasion up to 
100 or even 500. 

The young are truly precocious. Coues (1874, pp. 436-437) says 
of them: 


They run about as soon as they are hatched, though probably not ‘‘ with half 
shell on their backs,’’ as some one has said. In a few days they become very 
nimble, and so expert in hiding that it is difficult either to see or catch them. 
When the mother bird is surprised with her young brood, she gives a sharp warn- 
ing ery, that is well understood to mean danger, and then generally flies a little 
distance to some concealed spot, where she crouches, anxiously watching. The 
fledglings . . . instantly scatter in all directions, and squat . . . motionless until 
the reassuring notes of the mother call them together again, with an intimation 
that the alarm is over. Then they huddle close around her, and she carefully 
leads them off to some other spot, where she looks for greater security . . . in the 
enjoyment of her hopes and pleasing cares. As long as they require the parent’s 
attention they keep close together, and are averse to flying. Even after becoming 
able to use their wings well, they prefer to run and hide, or squat where they 
may be, when alarmed. If then forced up, the young covey flies off, without sep- 
arating, to a little distance, often realighting on the lower limbs of trees or in 
bushes, rather than on the ground. As they grow older and strong of wing, they 


542 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


fly further, separate more readily, and more rarely take to trees; and sometimes, 
before they are fully grown, they are found to have already become wary and 
difficult of approach. As one draws near where a covey is feeding, a quick, sharp 
ery from the bird who first notices the approach alarms the whole, and is quickly 
repeated by the rest, as they start to run, betraying their course by the rustling 
of dried leaves. Let him step nearer, and they rise with a whirr, scattering in 
every direction. 


‘‘On being suddenly flushed these birds separate very widely, but 
immediately upon alighting commence their call-note, resembling the 
soft chirp of a young chicken, which is kept up for some time. The 
alarm over, and the flock once more reunited, they relapse into 
silence, only broken by an occasional cluck of the male bird. Once 
scattered they cannot be readily started again, as they lie close in 
their thick, bushy, and impenetrable coverts’’ (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1874, III, p. 484). 

This quail has three different notes: a single clear mellow clink 
with a metallic resonance which is used as a flock call or alarm note, 
and may be repeated many times; a loud clear whistled killink-killink 
uttered chiefly during the pairing season; and an unmusical ‘‘love- 
song’’ uttered morning and evening by the male as he sits on some 
conspicuous perch near his brooding mate. This last is described as 
‘‘odd, guttural and energetic,’’ and the bird is said to stretch his 
neck, dangle his plume and allow his wings to droop while the 
“‘song’’ is being uttered (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1874, III, 
p. 485). 

As reported by an observer near Palm Springs, Riverside County : 


The notes of the desert quail differ from those of the valley quail in variety, 
and to a certain extent in character, though they have some notes in common. 
The ‘‘crow’’ of the latter consists of three notes, varying in length and accent. 
according to the eall given, in one case the last note being a falling one. The 
‘‘crow’’ of the desert quail, while rather similar to the other, has two additional 
notes at the end, rendered in a softer tone. Besides the alarm calls the valley 
quail has a few twittering or conversational notes, while the other species has a 
lot of these, quite varied and often given in a way that seems remarkably loud 
to one accustomed only to the notes of the former. Another peculiarity of the 
desert quail is the queer sound that it makes as it rises from the ground on being 
surprised into flight—the sort of screeching cackle, on a small scale, that a hen 
makes when frightened from her nest (Mailliard, in Grinnell, 1904a, pp. 41-42). 


Nelson gives the following account of the habits of the Desert 
Quail as noted in the Pahrump Valley, Nevada, close to the California 
line near Death Valley: 


. .. When a flock of quail came to feed on grain left by the horses, an old 
male usually mounted the top of a tall bush close by and remained on guard for 
ten or fifteen minutes, then, if everything was quiet, he would fly down among 
his companions. At the first alarm the flock would take to the bushes, running 


DESERT QUAIL. 543 


swiftly, or flying when hard pressed. .They roosted in the dense bunches of willows 
and cottonwoods growing along the ditches. . . . When feeding they have a series 
of low clucking and cooing notes which are kept up almost continually (Nelson, in 
A, K. Fisher, 1893a, pp. 29-30). 


The Desert Quail depends for safety very largely upon its legs. 
It runs with astonishing rapidity and usually seeks to escape in this 
manner rather than by flying. Impenetrable thickets of mesquite, 
quail brush, catelaw and ironwood afford safe retreats as long as the 
use of wings is unnecessary. 

According to Judd (1905, p. 57) the food of the Gambel Quail 
comprises the following elements: insects, 0.48 per cent; grain, 3.89 
per cent; miscellaneous seeds, 31.89 per cent; and leaves and plant 
shoots, 63.74 per cent. Among the insects that have been found in 
the stomachs of birds examined, are ants, beetles, grasshoppers, leaf- 
hoppers and stink bugs. The grain taken includes corn, wheat, and 
oats, the miscellaneous seeds largely those of leguminous plants such as 
alfalfa, bur clover and mesquite, and also of alfilaria, mustard, chick- 
weed, peppergrass and atriplex. Succulent foliage and shoots form 
by far the larger percentage of the food. Of this, alfalfa, bur clover, 
and the foliage of other legumes constitute the greater part. Both 
the green leaves and pods of alfalfa are freely eaten. In spring this, 
quail shows a fondness for buds, and in some localities its flesh has 
a distinctly bitter taste due to a diet of willow buds. Certain kinds 
of fruit are also eaten. Baird, Brewer and Ridgway (1874, III, 
p. 483) state that during. the summer it feeds extensively on the 
berries.of nightshade. Evidence is also at hand that this quail, like 
many other desert animals, feeds upon the fruit and seeds of certain 
kinds of cactus. Stomachs of Gambel Quail collected along the Colo- 
rado River in the spring of 1910 contained masses of mistletoe berries, 
and, at the time the mesquites were first coming into leaf, quantities 
of the tender green foliage of this plant (Grinnell, 19146, p. 122). 

The Gambel Quail, like the Valley Quail, is not difficult to domes- 
ticate. In its own habitat this quail may be readily reared in confine- 
ment. In but slightly colder climates, however, breeders have met 
with little or no success. 

Gilman (1907, p. 148) gives the following description of the way 
in which the Gambel Quail often baffles the hunter: ‘‘A big flock 
is seen and pursued. They divide and Nimrod follows the larger por- 
tion which again divides and this process of elimination by division 
continues till the hunter finds he has been.up against a vanishing 
fraction. If near a range the flock immediately takes to the hills 
and anyone who has once followed them up those sun-burned rocks 
is ever afterward in the sour grapes class.’’ Hence, it can be seen 
that the Desert Quail does not make so attractive a game bird as the 


544 , GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Valley Quail. Its habitat in the first place is, to many people, for- 
bidding, and its habit of seeking shelter in impenetrable thickets 
makes it one of the most difficult birds to put up. When once on the 
wing the flight is exceedingly rapid and vigorous, but as it is nearly 
always direct, a quick hand can ensure a successful wing shot. 

The Desert Quail has always been numerous in favorable parts 
of the desert region of southeastern California. The increase of areas 
under cultivation in the Coachella and Imperial valleys has resulted 
in additional supplies of water and food, and in such localities this 
quail appears to be increasing. In fact, there is some complaint from 
ranchers that the bird has become so numerous as to do considerable 
damage locally to newly sprouting grain. Until quite recently the 
Desert Quail has been hunted but little; but with the decrease of the 
Valley Quail in the coast districts of southern California, and the 
betterment of roads leading out over the desert, sportsmen are direct- 
ing their attention more and more to the desert species. There is no 
reason why the Desert Quail should not thrive in large numbers in 
all suitable places on the southeastern deserts, and, because of its 
prolific reproductivity and evident responsiveness to new conditions 
imposed by cultivation of the land, why it may not stand a large 
annual levy from the hunter. ; 


Sierra Grouse 


Dendragapus obscurus sierrae Chapman 


OTHER NAMES—Blue Grouse; Dusky Grouse; Pine Grouse; Sooty Grouse, part; 
Dendragapus obscurus; Dendragapus obscurus fuliginosus, part; Dendragapus 
fuliginosus; Tetrao obscurus; Canace obscura. 

DEscRIPTION—Adult male: Head and neck chiefly dark slaty brown; area 
between bill and eye, and chin and throat, flecked with white; naked skin above 
and below eye light orange; iris hazel brown; bill dusky; back, rump, upper tail 
coverts, and outer surface of closed wing, chiefly brownish black, more or less 
finely patterned (vermiculated) with pale bluish gray or pale tawny, these ver- 
miculations least conspicuous on middle of back, and most prominent on tertials 
and outer webs of inner secondaries; tail chiefly black, brownish at base, with or 
without fine light gray vermiculations, and tipped broadly with smoke gray; 
inner margins of flight feathers dark brown, outer margins paler, marked with 
buffy or dull white; lining and under surface of wing light slaty brown; axillars 
white; fore neck deep brownish black; breast slaty brown changing to bluish gray 
on belly, where also mixed with white; feathers of sides and flanks slaty brown 
vermiculated with bluish gray, and with white shaft streaks; under tail coverts 
dark slate, broadly tipped with white; feathers on tarsus, grayish brown; feet 
light gray or olive drab, barred with brownish; nails dusky. Adult female: Top 
of head, sides of neck, and hind neck, brownish black, barred with pale clay 
color; side of head, chin and throat, dull white, mottled with brownish black ; 
eyelids nearly as in male; back, Tump, upper tail coverts, middle tail feathers, 
and outer surface of closed wing, blackish brown, barred or finely patterned 


‘SIERRA GROUSE 545 


(vermiculated) with pale clay color or tawny brown; some of scapulars, with 
shaft streaks of white; tail chiefly brownish black, with more or less ashy ver- 
miculation toward base, and broadly tipped with ashy gray, this light band 
sparingly flecked with brownish black; flight feathers brown, marked with buffy 
white on outer webs; margin and forward lining of wing mixed brown and buffy 
white; axillars white; under surface of flight feathers dull brown; breast dark 
brown, with broad irregular barring of pale clay color or dull white; fore part 
of belly bluish gray, sparingly marked with white; hinder part of belly mixed 
pale bluish gray and dull white; sides of body and flanks like outer surface of 
wing; lower tail coverts blackish brown tipped broadly with dull white; feather- 
ing of tarsus grayish brown. Males: Total length ‘‘about 20.00-23.00’’ inches 
(508-584 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 195); folded wing 8.86-9.52 (225-242); bill 
along culmen 0.72-0.88 (18.4-22.3) ; tarsus, 1.59-1.92 (40.4-48.8) (ten specimens 
from California). Females: Total length ‘‘17.50-19.00’’ (444-482) (Ridgway, 
loc. cit.) ; folded wing 7.68-8.70 (195-221); bill along culmen 0.68-0.78 (17.4— 
19.7); tarsus 1.54-1.85 (39.0-47.0) (six specimens from California). Weight of 
a male 2% pounds (1.25 kilograms) (Mus. Vert. Zool.). Juvenile plumage: Much 
like that of adult female, but feathers of upper surface, wings and tail with 
conspicuous shaft streaks of dull white; no gray bar at end of tail; gray patch 
on belly lacking; chin extensively whitish; throat and breast pale buffy or 
white, more spotted than barred, with dark brown. Natal plumage: Upper 
surface light yellowish brown, with considerable irregular admixture of black, 
especially noticeable on top and sides of head and middle of back; under surface 
buffy white, palest on throat and belly. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Large size (next to largest of our grouse), 
general dark bluish gray effect of coloration, and light band across tip of almost 
square-ended tail (this often appearing whitish by contrast) (pl. 15). 

Voice—Of male in breeding season: a deep, wooden, far-carrying, ventrilo- 
quial, unt, wunt, wunt’, wunt’, tu-wunt’, wunt, wunt (Storer, MS); of female with 
young: cackling and clucking notes; of both sexes: an alarm note kuk, kuk 
(Belding, 1879, p. 438). 

Nest—On dry ground, under shelter of brush, log or rock; a slight depression 
sparingly lined with dry grasses, leaves, twigs, and, usually, a few feathers of 
the female. 

Eees—(In California) 5 to 7, ordinarily ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 
1.98 to 2.14 by 1.34 to 1.46 (in millimeters, 50.4 to 54.2 by 34.1 to 37.2), and 
averaging 2.03 by 1.40 (51.6 by 35.5) (two sets, twelve eggs, from California). 
Ground-color pale creamy buff, with small round spots and dots of reddish 
brown, usually distributed quite uniformly over the entire surface. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Of the Dusky Grouse and its several subspecies: 
Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast regions from southern Alaska and Yukon Ter- 
ritory south to the mountains of California and central Arizona. Of the Sierra 
Grouse (subspecies sierrae): upper belt of coniferous trees (upper Transition and 
Canadian life zones) of mountains from Fort Klamath, Oregon, south in the 
Sierra Nevada of California, to Mount Pinos, Ventura County. 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFoRNIA—Common resident of the upper coniferous belt 
(upper Transition and Canadian life zones) from Mount Shasta south along the 
inner coast ranges at least as far as central Lake County, and along the Sierra 
Nevada south through the Mount Whitney region to Piute Mountain, Kern 
County; also on the Warner Mountains, Modoe County, on the White Mountains, 
Inyo County, and on Mount Pinos, Ventura County. 


546 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Two slightly different geographic varieties of Sooty Grouse occur 
in California. One, the true Sooty, is restricted to the semi-humid 
northwestern corner of the state east to central Trinity County and 
south certainly not farther than Sonoma County near the mouth of 
the Russian River. The other, and by far the better known race, is 
the Sierra Grouse, which ranges from Mount Shasta on the north, 
south along the inner coast ranges to Lake County and along the 
whole of the Sierra Nevada to Mount Pinos, Ventura County; east- 
wardly, detached colonies are also found on the Warner Mountains, 
Modoe County, and on the White Mountains, Inyo County. The 
differences between these two forms are but slight, and are indicated 
in the account of the Sooty Grouse (p. 552). Because of its wider 
and more accessible range and also’ because practically ail the inform- 


s Z oes 
Uy, OLE vd 


0?! he My 00 
“a asf Un 
Ml Mh 
“Mai, pee 
14076 “ vtldllseh” 


Fig. 85. Side of tarsus and foot of Sierra Grouse. Natural size. 
Note stout toes and claws and presence of feathering on tarsus (com- 
pare with fig. 83). 


ation we have concerns it, the Sierra Grouse alone is the subject of 
the following account. 

The Sierra Grouse has been ealled by a variety of names. Blue 
Grouse, Sooty Grouse, and Dusky Grouse all refer to the dark tone 
of its coloration (pl. 15) as compared with our other species, while 
the name Pine Grouse suggests the nature of its ‘preferred habitat. 
Since throughout much of the Sierra Nevada it is the only species 
of grouse, hunters there designate it simply as Grouse. In the moun- 
tainous districts of California such accepted place names as Grouse 
Creek or Grouse Lake occur no less than eight times—a tribute to 
the prominence of this game bird in the minds of the people. 

The metropolis of the Sierra Grouse ‘is to be found in the upper 
part of the mountain coniferous belt (Canadian zone) among the 
lodgepole and Jeffrey pines and red firs, but the species also occurs 
rather sparingly, just after the breeding season, still higher up towards 
timber line, among the mountain and foxtail pines and alpine hem- 
locks (Hudsonian zone). In autumn it may range to the extreme 


‘SIERRA GROUSE 547 


upper edge of the forest, and even beyond. This is especially true 
of the old male birds after the close of the nesting season. On the 
other hand it seems doubtful if this grouse occurs regularly at lower 
elevations than first indicated above, even during the heaviest snows 
of winter. 

In the extreme southern part of its range the Sierra Grouse does 
not oceur much below 8,000 feet, as on Mount Pinos, Ventura County 
(Grinnell, 1905, p. 382), and in the Mount Whitney region around 
Monache Meadows (Mus. Vert. Zool.). Immediately southwest of 
the Sequoia National Park near Blue Ridge, Tulare County, the two 
localities named Grouse Valley and Upper Grouse Valley, at 3,700 
to 4,700 feet altitude suggest low stations for the species; but this 
needs verification by actual observation. In the central Sierras in 
the vicinity of Yosemite, Grouse do not range much below 7,000 feet 
(Mus. Vert. Zool.), but on Mount Shasta they occur regularly at 
Wagon Camp, altitude 5,700 feet (C.:H. Merriam, 1899, p. 110). 
However, this decrease in their elevation towards the north is simul- 
taneous with a diminution, in the higher altitudes, of the kinds of coni- 
ferous trees which they habitually frequent. These. grouse are 
nowhere found in the same abundance as quail;'as a rule not more 
than four or five can be started in an hour’s walk through the most. 
favorable country. Indeed several miles may be covered without 
seeing or hearing one of the birds, even in the heart of their territory: 

The Sierra Grouse is a forest bird, rarely if ever found away 
from the shelter afforded by coniferous trees. A factor in determin- 
ing its association with these trees is the dependence of the grouse 
on pine and fir needles for food during a portion of the year. While 
a certain amount of time is spent regularly on the ground at other 
times than when nesting or with young, adults probably spend most 
of their lives in the trees. Not infrequently one may come upon a 
grouse feeding on the ground, but when alarmed there it will almost 
invariably take refuge well up in a tree. 

After a long field experience with this species: John Muir writes 
(1901, pp. 216-217) : 


They like best the heaviest silver-fir woods near garden and meadow openings, 
where there is but little underbrush to cover the approach of enemies. When a 
flock . : . sees a man for the first time... they rise with hurried notes. . 
and alight on the lowest branches of the trees... . They allow you-to approach 
within a half dozen paces, then quietly hop a few branches higher or fly to the 
next tree without a thought of concealment.... But in the neighborhood of 
roads and trails they soon become shy, and when disturbed fly into the highest, 
leafiest trees, so well do they know how to hide and keep still... . Nor can 
they be easily dislodged ere they are ready to go. In vain the hunter goes 
round and round some tall pine or fir into which he has ‘perhaps seen a dozen 
enter .. .; not a feather can he see unless his eyes have been sharpened by long 


548 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


experience and knowledge of the blue grouse’s habits. Then [suddenly] ..- - 
they burst forth with a startling whir of wing-beats, and after gaining full speed 
go skating swiftly away through the forest arches in a long, silent, wavering 
slide with wings held steady. . 

During the summer they are most of the time on the ground, feeding on insects, 
seeds, berries, ete., around the margins of open spots and rocky moraines, playing 
and sauntering, taking sun baths and sand baths, and drinking at little pools 
and rills during the heat of the day. In winter they live mostly in the trees, 
depending upon buds for food, sheltering beneath dense overlapping branches at 
night and during storms on the lee side of the trunk, sunning themselves on the 
southside limbs in fine weather, and sometimes diving into the mealy snow to 
flutter and wallow, apparently for exercise and fun. 


The flight of the Sierra Grouse is rapid and direct, with fast 
beating wings. When fiushed at short range, the swift movement, 
and rapid whirring of the wings necessary to lift the bird’s heavy 
body, produce a startling sound, and with a small flock the aggregate 
noise is most bewildering to an intruder. 

It is during the spring and early summer, the courting season, 
that the voice of the Sierra Grouse is most frequently heard. Males 
are in the habit of taking positions near the tops of pines or firs, 
sixty or seventy feet above the ground, standing close to the trunk on 
some horizontal limb. Such a station will be held continuously for 
hours, and from it the reverberant hooting is heard at varying inter- 
vals. The hooting may be described as a deep, wooden, far-carrying, 
ventriloquial sound. The sequence of notes has been recorded as: 
unt, wunt, wunt’, wunt’, tu-wunt’, wunt, wunt (Storer, MS) ; another 
rendering is boont, boont, boont’, boont’, boont, boont, six of these 
notes seeming to be the average in the case of two birds under obser- 
vation. In different individuals the series consisted of five to seven 
notes, in quality of sound likened to beating on a sodden wooden tub, 
crescendo in volume, diminuendo towards the end of the series (Grin- 
nell, MS). As each note is uttered the tail of the bird is seen to be 
depressed an inch or two—an index to the effort involved. The sepa- 
rate series of notes in two cases under observation were uttered at 
intervals of seconds as follows: 40-20-25-45-12-21-29; and again: 
10-10-20-26—-14-15-17-12-11-15-13-28-17-11 (Storer, MS). The 
ventriloquial quality comes into evidence when one attempts to locate 
the producer, a very difficult feat as a rule. The observer may circle 
the tree many times with a painfully aching neck and still utterly 
fail to locate the bird amid the foliage high overhead. The notes are 
commonly supposed to be produced by inflating and exhausting the 
glandular sacs on the sides of the neck, which are covered by un- 
feathered yellow skin. We think it likely that, in fact, these sacs 
serve only as resonators, being kept continually inflated, while the 
air producing the sound passes to and from the lungs along the 


SIERRA GROUSE 549 


regular air passages. Belding (1879, p. 488) says that when alarmed 
in a tree the birds utter a note resembling the syllables kuk, kuk. 
W. P. Taylor (MS), and other observers, report that females with 
young are wont to cluck and cackle, showing anxiety by restless actions, 
sometimes even flying repeatedly at the intruder. 

The nesting season of this species extends from about the middle 
of May to the latter part of June. The earliest instance of nesting 
in California as far as known to the authors is May 14, 1902, at 
Denison Springs, Lake County, six miles north of Clear Lake, where 
a set of seven slightly incubated eggs was taken (Mus. Vert. Zool.). 
A downy young taken July 8, 1911, on the North Fork of Coffee 
Creek, Trinity County (Mus. Vert. Zool.), altitude 4,500 feet, was 
not much over a week old, which would indicate that the brood of 
which it was a member hatched about the first of July. Our present 
information does not indicate that a great difference in the time of 
nesting is caused by variations in elevation or latitude, although it 
is possible that the southern birds nest slightly earlier. 

The nest is usually situated in a protected situation on a well 
drained dry hillside. The shelter of a small tree or slightly over- 
hanging rock or log is often sought. The nest proper consists of a 
slight depression in the ground, sparingly lined with dry grasses, 
leaves, twigs, and often with feathers from the female. A nest found 
by Swarth (Mus. Vert. Zool.) June 9, 1912, in Onion Valley, 8,500 
feet altitude, Sierra Nevada, Inyo County, was situated about three 
hundred feet above the cafion stream, on a hillside covered with 
manzanita and chinquapin but destitute of any large timber. It 
was placed on the bare ground on the north side of a slightly over- 
hanging rock where there was a narrow strip of bare ground between 
the rock and the nearest brush. The nest cavity was a slight depres- 
sion, scantily lined with dry twigs and feathers. The nest at Deni- 
son Springs, Lake County (see above), was a slight hollow under a 
young pine shoot and lined only with a few feathers. 

The Sierra Grouse lays from five to seven eggs, rather less than 
its northern relative, the Sooty Grouse, which as Dawson (1909, p. 
571) says, usually lays from six to twelve eggs while as many as six- 
teen have been recorded in a single nest. The eggs of the Sierra Grouse 
measure, in inches, 1.96 to 2.14 by 1.34 to 1.45 and average 2.03 by 
1.39 (two sets, twelve eggs, from California). The ground-color is 
pale creamy buff, and the surface is marked with dots and round 
spots of reddish brown, usually very small and uniformly distributed, 
but at times larger and more unevenly grouped. The large size of the 
eggs, their fine pattern of markings, and the type of country in 
which they are found, make their identification easy. There is no 
other species of bird nesting in similar situations in the Sierras whose 


550 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


eggs could be confused with those of the Grouse. Incubation prob- 
ably lasts about three weeks, judging from the dates for fresh eggs 
and newly hatched young. 

John Muir (1901, pp. 217-218) relates that he has seen broods of 
young in the Sierras running beneath the firs in June. 


On the approach of danger, the mother with a peculiar cry warns the helpless 
midgets to scatter and hide beneath leaves and twigs, and even in plain open 
places it is almost impossible to discover them. In the meanwhile the mother 
feigns lameness, throws herself at your feet, kicks and gasps and flutters, to draw 
your attention from the chicks. The young are generally able to fly about the 
middle of July; but even after they can fly well they are usually advised to run 
and hide and lie still, no matter how closely approached, while the mother goes on 
with her ... acting. ... Sometimes, however, .. . she tells them to take wing; 
and up and away in a blurry birr and whir they scatter to all points of the com- 
pass ... dropping cunningly out of sight three or four hundred yards off, and 
keeping quiet until called... . 


While there is no actual migration in the case of the Sierra Grouse, 
a vertical movement is apparent just following the breeding season, 
with a complementary return upon the advent of winter. The males 
work up the mountains toward the timber line rather early and are 
followed by the females with their broods later on, say after the first 
of August. Belding (1879, p. 438) says that in late September it 
is difficult to find the grouse in locations where they are common 
earlier in the year. He attributes this to a vertical migration or in 
part, perhaps, to their taking to the denser conifers (such as the red 
fir and alpine hemlock). , 

The vegetable food of the Sierra. Grouse has been fairly well 
determined by Belding (1892b, pp. 232-233) who dissected many 
stomachs of specimens shot by him in the central Sierra Nevada, 
more than twenty years ago. The following is a synopsis of his 
findings with the scientific names of the plants revised to accord with 
present nomenclature (Hall and Hall, 1912). The thimble berry 
(Rubus parviflorus) appears to be the favorite article of diet, and 
next to this the service berry (Amelanchier alnifolia). Several kinds 
of wild currants and gooseberries (Ribes) are taken, as well as red 
elderberry (Sambucus racemosa), green manzanita (Arctostaphylos 
patula), and dwarf manzanita (A. nevadensis), dwarf twinberry 
(Lonicera conjugialis), Sierra bilberry (Vaccinium occidentale), 
mountain ash (Pirus occidentalis), lupine (Lupinus sp.), false sun- 
flower (Wyethia mollis), ‘caraway (Glycosoma)’’, and mitrewort 
(Mitella brewert). Acorns of the huckleberry oak (Quercus vaccini- 
folia) are sometimes eaten. ‘‘After the young grouse are hatched 
the mother bird takes them to alder and willow thickets where they 
find seclusion and water. Here they also find some insect food (which 


UNIV: CALIF. SEMICENT. PUBL. LGRINNELL, (BRYANT, STORER J) RL. 15 


a1 s: a cae S i ue 


SIERRA GROUSE, MALE AND FEMALE 


SIERRA GROUSE B51 


seems to be very necessary to young birds of most species), and a 
species of native red clover, the green leaves and heads of which 
supply them, for a time, with nearly all the food they require... . 
About the middle of August the females, with their broods, begin 
to change their haunts and range higher in the mountains, and then 
feed partly on the foliage of fir trees (Abies concolor and magnifica) ”’, 
and alpine hemlock (T'suga mertensiana), ‘‘the latter being appar- 
ently preferred. The old males feed upon the foliage of these coni- 
fers nearly all the year and during the winter when everything is 
covered with snow all grouse must subsist upon them... . 

“‘Some years, late summer frosts destroy the berry and seed crops 
and then the grouse are limited to a diet of a few kinds of vegetable 
food, grasshoppers and other insects. One such year, during Sep- 
tember,’’ they were found ‘‘feeding almost exclusively on the fallen 
dried male flowers of the yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa).’’ 

Belding’s last observation is fully substantiated by our own find- 
ings in the Mount Whitney region, where in September, 1911, the 
grouse at 11,000 feet altitude were found to have fed extensively on 
the pollen cones of the foxtail pine (Pinus balfowriana). In another 
instance the crop of an old male taken near timber line at the head 
of Warren Fork of Leevining Creek, Mono County, September 26, 
1915, was found by us to contain 1,520 needle-tips of the lodgepole 
pine (Pinus murrayana). The bitten-off ends varied from one-fourth 
to one inch in length, and there were also a few fragments of very 
young pistillate cones. The bill of the bird was sméared with pitch. 
The crop of an adult female which had just been killed by some species 
of hawk at Walker Lake, Mono County, September 10, 1915, was 
found to contain eleven ripe rose hips, and the gizzard was filled with 
the hard seeds of the rose together with quartz grains. Some Sooty 
Grouse killed near Kuntz, Trinity County, in late September, 1910, 
contained madrone berries and fir needles (Dixon, MS). 

Because of their high mountain habitat the grouse conflict but 
little with any agricultural enterprise of man. Locally, in the moun- 
tains of Trinity County, the birds occasionally prove destructive in 
August when they come down and feed about the edges of clearings. 
A farmer in that region complained that the grouse were so abundant 
around his ranch as to injure the young grain (Kellogg, 1916, p. 380). 
In general, however, it may be said that man’s chief interest in the 
grouse arises from the bird’s value to him for sport and food. 

The best grouse hunting is afforded when the birds come out on the 
edges of clearings in the early morning. Then the hunter who can 
shoot quickly will drop the birds as they rise in their rapid yet 
‘straightaway flight. When they take to the trees hunting is more 
difficult. C. H. Merriam says (1899, p. 111) that this species, unlike 


552 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


other grouse when treed, walks about carefully on the tops of the 
branches, keeping on the opposite side of the tree to the hunter and 
making the securing of specimens rather difficult. Cooper (1870a, 
pp. 526-528) agrees with other writers in stating that grouse as a 
rule remain perfectly motionless and that it is only by careful search- 
ing that their post may be discovered. Often when started from trees 
on ridges, the birds will dash precipitately down into the cafion far 
below, gliding on set wings till lost to sight among the forest trees. 

By the first of September the young are almost full grown and 
are then tender of flesh, which is white, and are considered excellent 
for the table. The flesh of old birds is coarser and liable to be strongly 
flavored. 

Writing in 1870 Cooper (loc. cit.) said that the grouse were often 
brought to market (probably meaning San Francisco) from the 
vicinity of Napa. Doubtless they were also supplied to the dealers 
from other localities as well. Now they are, of course, pursued only 
for the use of the hunter himself. Their limited and rather inacces- 
sible range has probably been the greatest factor in enabling the 
birds to maintain their numbers in California. Unless conditions 
change in a way not now conceivable, the Sierra and Sooty grouse 
will continue for all time to be interesting and important elements 
in our game resources. 


Sooty Grouse 


Dendragapus obscurus fuliginosus (Ridgway) 


Derscription—Essentially the same as the Sierra Grouse (Dendragapus ob- 
scurus sierrae), but adult male slightly darker in general tone above and below, 
and with less white on chin and throat; adult female, juvenile, and natal plu- 
mages similar to those in sierrae, but prevalent tone of coloration more warmly 
brown, approaching rusty. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—See under Sierra Grouse. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Northwest coast region of North America, from the 
Sitkan district of southeastern Alaska south into northwestern California. 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Fairly common resident locally in the semi- 
humid northwestern corner of the state (chiefly in the Douglas fir belt interiorly 
from the redwoods), east and south at least as far as Hayfork and Kuntz, 
Trinity County; probably also to Seaview, near mouth of Russian River, in 
Sonoma County (Grinnell, 1915, p. 60). 


Oregon Ruffed Grouse 


Bonasa umbellus sabini (Douglas) 


OTHER NAMES—Oregon Grouse; Wood Pheasant (Del Norte County); Bonasa 
umbellus; Bonasa sabinii; Tetrao sabini. 

Dzscription—Adults, both sexes: Top and sides of head mixed black and 
brown, with grayish feather tippings; feathers of crown elongated and pointed, 


OREGON RUFFED GROUSE 553 


forming a crest; eyelids yellowish; a series of slender, elongated black and 
brown feathers over ear region; sides of chin scaled with black and buffy white; 
middle of chin, and throat, buff; bill horn yellow; rest of upper surface, including 
wings (except primaries) and tail, richly variegated with reddish brown, gray, 
black, and buffy white, the first named color predominating; the pattern includ- 
ing bars, stripes, and spots of various shapes, the whole subdued in effect by an 
extensive vermiculation; broad subterminal band across tail, brownish black; pri- 
mary wing feathers blackish brown, outer webs spotted with buff; lining and 
under surface of wing chiefly grayish brown; band across upper breast, deep 
reddish brown becoming darker at sides; a shiny black (sometimes partly brown) 
ruff of soft broad feathers on each side of lower neck, overlapping bend of wing; 
feathers of lower breast and rest of under surface, buff, marked with bands of 
brown and tipped with white, the whole producing an interruptedly barred appear- 
ance; feathering on lower part of leg (tarsus), ashy brown; feet (dried) yellow- 
ish brown and dusky; females differing from males only in somewhat lesser devel- 
opment of ruff at sides of neck. Total length (both sexes) ‘‘15.50-19.00’’ 
inches (394-482 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 197). Males: Folded wing 6.73-7.52 
(171-191) ; bill along culmen 0.58-0.68 (14.7-17.3) ; tarsus, 1.66-1.79 (42.0-45.4) 
(nine specimens from California and Vancouver Island). Females: Folded wing 
7.01-7.29 (178-185); bill along culmen 0.62—0.67 (15.8-17.1); tarsus 1.58-1.73 
(40.1-44.0) (three specimens from California and Vancouver Island). Juvenile 
plumage: Top of head chiefly brownish black with narrow light brown feather 
edgings; chin and throat whitish; back, wing coverts and some of tertials, chiefly 
blackish, with shaft streaks of buffy yellow, and finely variegated with dark cin- 
namon brown; rump finely barred with dull cinnamon and blackish; tail barred 
with black, light brown and gray; primaries blackish brown edged with dull cin- 
namon; feathers of breast light cinnamon brown with terminal black spots and 
white shafts; sides and flanks coarsely marked with black, buff and white; belly 
barred with blackish brown and dull white; under tail coverts dull buff; leg but 
scantily clothed with dull white feathers. Natal plumage: Top and sides of head 
bright cinnamon brown, darkest above; eyelids narrowly, and ear region broadly, 
marked with black; back chiefly cinnamon brown, darkest along mid-line; under 
surface yellowish white, with a buffy suffusion across chest. 

Marks FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderately large size (smaller than Sierra 
or Dusky Grouse), general reddish brown coloration, dark band near end of tail, 
and conspicuous ruff of black or deep brown feathers on either side of neck. 

Voicr—(Of eastern subspecies) in adult, a series of vocal clucks and calls; 
in female with young, squeals, much like those of a rabbit (Forbush, 1912, p. 377). 
There is also a characteristic ‘‘drumming’’ by the male, caused by rapid 
beating of the wings. 

Nest—On ground, often under a spruce tree or similar shelter; a slight 
depression in the surface, lined with grasses, leaves, needles, and feathers (authors). 

Eecs—6 to 13, roundly ovate, measuring in inches, 1.50 to 1.73 by 1.14 to 1.24 
(in millimeters, 38.0 to 44.0 by 29.0 to 31.5), and averaging 1.62 by 1.20 (41.0 by 
30.5); ground-color varying from milky white to pinkish buff; some immaculate, 
but usually marked rather sparingly though uniformly with small rounded dots 
ranging in color from reddish brown to pale drab (Bendire, 1892, pp. 63, 69, refer- 
ring to the several races of Ruffed Grouse). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Of the Ruffed Grouse and its various subspecies: The 
wooded regions of Alaska and Canada south to California, Colorado, Kansas, 
Tennessee, and, in the Alleghenies, to Georgia; of the Oregon Ruffed Grouse 
(sabini): Coast ranges from Vancouver Island to Humboldt County, California 
(modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 139, 140). 


554 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Fairly common locally in the denser humid 
forests of the northwestern corrier of the state, south to the vicinity of Humboldt 
Bay, ‘and east to the Siskiyou Mountains. : 


The Oregon Ruffed Grouse, a close relative of the Ruffed Grouse 
that occurs in other parts of North America, is, unfortunately for 
sportsmen, not widely distributed in California. Naturalists and 
hunters who know this fine game bird in other parts of the country 
might well wish that its distribution here were more extensive. The 
record of southernmost occurrence within the state is for Humboldt 
Bay (C. H. Townsend, 1886, p. 491), while eastwardly on the Oregon 
boundary it ranges only to the Siskiyou Mountains (Anderson and 
Grinnell, 1908, pp. 6-7). So far as known it is non-migratory and 
breeds throughout its range. In California this grouse is an inhabitant 
of rather dense coniferous forests, such as often grow in cafion bottoms, 
but is chiefly a ground dweller, rarely found in the trees themselves. 
But in the northern part of its range, namely, in Oregon and Wash- 
ington, it often affects more open country. 

In size the Oregon Ruffed Grouse most closely resembles the 
Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse which formerly ranged into north- 
eastern California. It is decidedly smaller than the Sierra or Dusky 
Grouse, and the Sage-hen, yet much larger than any of our species 
of quail. The complicated pattern of markings, with rich reddish 
brown coloration predominating, the black-banded tail, and the black 
or deep brown ruffs of broad feathers on the shoulders are, in com- 
bination, conclusive field marks. 

In the Siskiyou Mountains, near the Oregon line, the people of 
the region claim that it is to be seen exclusively on the ground or on 
logs, usually in groves of small Douglas spruce, such as grow near 
or in the cafion bottoms (Anderson and Grinnell, loc. cit.). When 
frightened, it flushes with a rapid, direct flight, almost always taking 
pains to place as soon as possible some obstacle such as a tree between 
itself and the observer. In some instances, the birds alight in trees 
and there, despite the advantage of their wonderfully protective 
coloration, they make themselves conspicuous by moving about. The 
fact that they so often haunt dense woods makes wing shooting almost 
impossible, and one must shoot at them as they move about after 
alighting in the trees, or else return with an empty bag. 

These grouse are never seen in large bands. In the spring, pairs 
ean be seen together, and later in the year the females with their 
broods. After the young are full grown the family is sometimes 
joined by the male, but the latter is rarely found with his mate when 
she has eggs or chicks. Neither do the males band together as is 
sometimes the case with the Sierra Grouse; they are usually found 
singly. 


OREGON RUFFED GROUSE ' 555 


The male Ruffed Grouse has no distinctive call-notes such as 
characterize many of our species of game birds. . Instead it has a 
mechanical method of communication, usually spoken of as ‘‘drum- 
ming.’’ This sound is most often heard during the late winter and 
early spring months, though there is a notable resumption of the 
performance in the autumn. Its primary use is probably to attract the 
females, for it is most frequently repeated in the mating season. 


The eock Grouse usually selects a mossy log, near some open hedge, clearing, 
or woods road, and partly screened by bushes, where he can see and not be seen. 
When about to drum he erects his neck feathers, spreads his tail, and, with droop- 
ing wings, steps with a jerking motion along the log for some distance each way 
from his drumming place, walking back and forth several times and looking 
sharply in every direction; then, standing crosswise, he stretches himself to his 
fullest height and delivers the blows with his wings fully upon his sides, his wings 
being several inches clear from the log. After drumming he settles quietly down 
into a sitting posture, and remains silently listening for five or ten minutes, when, 
if no cause for alarm is discovered, he repeats the process. ; 

The drumming place is resorted to by the male from year to year [and may 
sometimes be worn smooth as a result]. It may be a log, a rock, an old stump, 
or when such are not available, a small hillock is made to answer the purpose 
equally as well. While this drumming can not be considered a love note, as it 
may be heard almost every month in the year, and sometimes in the night as well 
as in the daytime, yet it must undoubtedly have some attraction for the female, 
and I think is performed as a sign of bodily vigor [and] to notify her of his 
whereabouts. Occasionally it causes a jealous rival to put in an appearance also, 
when a rough-and-tumble fight ensues. The female is seldom seen near: the 
drumming place (Bendire,"1892, p. 61, writing of the eastern wmbellus). 


Dawson (1909, p. 588) says the sound made by a drumming grouse 
closely resembles the syllables bump-bump-bump, bumperrrrrrr. The 
wing-beats commence slowly and end in an exceedingly rapid whirr. 
The quality of the sound is such that it carries far and yet gives 
no notion of exact distance. 

During most of the year the Ruffed Grouse roosts at night in trees, 
but often during the winter months where there is considerable snow 
on the ground the birds pass the nights under the snow. They 
“‘dive’’ into the snow from a tree, leaving no track on the surround- 
ing surface. In extremely cold weather they are reluctant to leave 
such a warm and comfortable shelter and are said sometimes to emerge 
rather late in the morning, or in the event of severe storms to remain 
under the surface for a day or more. If a erust forms on.the snow 
as a result of the temperature falling rapidly after a thaw the grouse 
may be imprisoned and be unable to break through and thereafter 
die from starvation. But this sort of an accident probably rarely 
happens in California. 

There is but one known record of the nesting of the Oregon Ruffed 
Grouse in California, although special search in the proper localities 


556 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


would doubtless bring adequate data. W. K. Fisher (19020, p. 182) 
found a brood of downy chicks in heavy redwood forest north of 
Mad River, Humboldt County, June 11, 1899. In the northern part 
of its range this race begins to nest about the middle of April and 
the season continues until some time in June. The earliest set 
recorded was taken on April 14, and a set (probably a second lay- 
ing) was secured June 28, 1876, on Vancouver Island (Bendire, 1892, 
p. 69). 

The nest is usually placed in a sheltered situation, as under a 
spruce or maple, or at the side of a fallen log or slightly overhanging 
rock. A slight depression is scratched out and lined with grasses, 
leaves, needles, or twigs; sometimes a few feathers from the female 
are added. Dawson (1909, p. 589) says that an average clutch of 
eggs numbers eight or ten. Bendire (1892, p. 69) states that the eggs 
number anywhere from seven to thirteen but that the eggs of the set 
which he thought was of a second laying numbered only six. The 
eggs are roundly ovate, thus proportionately shorter than the eggs 
of the domestic fowl. They measure in inches, 1.50 to 1.73 by 1.14 to 
1.24 and average 1.62 by 1.20 (twenty eggs). The ground color is 
milky white to pinkish buff, and about half the eggs are rather spar- 
ingly but uniformly marked with small rounded spots varying in color 
from reddish brown to pale drab (Bendire, 1892, p. 63, referring to 
the several races of the Ruffed Grouse). From the eggs of the Sierra 
and Sooty grouse those of this species differ chiefly in size, being 
decidedly smaller. 

After mating, the female alone attends to incubation and to rear- 
ing of the chicks. Some observers believe this species to be polyga- 
mous, one male serving several females and a single mating being 
sufficient for a clutch. While the set is being laid, any interference 
with the nest will cause the female to desert, and the same is true 
during the early part of the period of incubation. Later, however, 
she is not so easily disturbed. Often, if she be flushed directly from 
the nest, the surrounding leaves and other debris are swept over the 
eggs, and, if she has time, she will take pains to cover them herself 
with material before quitting the vicinity. If a dog or a fox or other 
predacious animal approaches the nest she will artfully lead away 
the intruder a sufficient distance to save the eggs, using the lameness 
and broken wing ruses most skillfully. When the chicks have hatched, 
she will even go out to meet an intruder, to toll him away from the 
brood. And in the case of a person she will often fly up toward his 
body or face, presenting an altogether forbidding front. An obser- 
vation of Swarth’s (1912, p. 22) made on Vancouver Island, substan- 
tiates the above general statements: ‘‘At Beaver Creek broods of 
downy young began to appear during the second week in June, and 


OREGON RUFFED GROUSE 557 


were seen daily thereafter.... The old birds were fearless in 
defense of their broods, and often the first intimation of the proximity 
of a grouse family was the sudden onslaught of the perturbed mother, 
who did not hesitate to hurl herself at any intruder, while her brood 
effaced themselves in the underbrush. Very young birds usually lay 
perfectly still when alarmed, and, if visible, suffered themselves to 
be picked up, but as soon as their wings could support them they flew 
to some distance when startled.”’ 

The chicks, in observed cases, all hatch out at practically the 
same time, and as their feathers dry very rapidly, they are able to 
run about and forage independently almost from the start. If danger 
seems imminent a single note of warning from the mother bird causes 
the chicks to take to the best available shelter, as under leaves; they 
remain perfectly quiet, and thereby become, by reason of their con- 
cealing coloration, extremely difficult to find. For a time the mother 
broods them at night under her body but the young gain their wing 
quills rapidly and even when but a week old are able to fly short 
distances ; thenceforth they always roost for the night and seek safety 
in trees. The brood stays with the mother bird well into, if not 
through, the first winter. In some instances the male parent has been 
known to join his family (Forbush, 1913, pp. 268-271). 

According to Judd (1905, pp. 29-38) the food of the Ruffed 
Grouse( the species as a whole) is quite varied. The vegetable mate- 
rial comprises about 89 per cent of the total, and the animal content 
11 per cent, the latter being chiefly insects. The vegetable material 
includes about 12 per cent seeds, 28 per cent fruit, and 48 per cent 
leaves and buds, while the animal food is chiefly grasshoppers, cater- 
pillars and beetles, the latter being most abundantly represented. On 
Vancouver Island, Swarth (1912, pp. 22-23) says that the stomachs 
and crops examined contained some berries but were filled for the 
most part with fern leaves and clover. One young bird had fed 
entirely on small snails, having swallowed them whole. 

A specimen of the Oregon Ruffed Grouse taken near Requa, Del 
Norte County, November 3, 1915, and now in the collection of the 
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology held the following materials in its 
crop and gizzard: Berries and seeds of the madrofia (Arbutus men- 
ziesti), 5 per cent; stems and leaves of thimbleberry (Rubus parvi- 
florus), 65 per cent; stems and leaves of dogwood (Cornus sp.), 20 
per cent; unidentified leaf-stems and twigs, 10 per cent. Identification 
of the leaves and stems was made for us by Miss Anna M. Lute of the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

The enemies of the Ruffed Grouse are many. Certain hawks and 
owls, skunks, mink, wildeats and foxes are the chief offenders in this 
respect, though man himself stands out prominently. A marked 


558 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


decrease in the number of Ruffed Grouse occurring in the eastern 
part of the United States in 1907 was attributed by Forbush (1912, 
pp. 380-382) and other observers to an unusual flight of Goshawks, 
a raptorial species notably destructive to game birds. Of forty-eight 
Goshawks dissected by one firm of taxidermists, twenty-eight had 
remains of Ruffed Grouse in their stomachs; in another case thirteen 
grouse were known to have been destroyed by hawks in one locality. 
Another important agent in the destruction of Ruffed Grouse is fire, 
when it sweeps brushy and forested areas. Sitting birds will often 
remain on the nest until injured or even killed by the flames. 

C. F. Hodge (Anonymous, 1914) reports marked success in arti- 
ficially rearing Ruffed Grouse. The young hatch readily and can be 
raised with as much success as some domestic fowls. The adult birds 
have to be kept in separate pens to prevent them from damaging one 
another, especially at mating time; and the species is, moreover, sub- 
ject to one or two diseases which may give some trouble. On the 
whole, artificial propagation in the case of this species would seem 
anusually promising of satisfactory results. 

Because of its forest habitat it is probable that the Oregon Ruffed 
Grouse will not markedly decrease in numbers within its restricted 
range in northern California, at least as long as the forests remain. 
Nevertheless its condition as to numbers should receive careful con- 
sideration and any marked reduction be compensated for by closing 
the hunting season for a period, or by other appropriate means. The 
matter of its artificial propagation should also be thoroughly investi- 
gated and, if feasible under Californian conditions, encouraged. It 
would seem much more desirable to increase the numbers and extent 
of range of our native game birds such as the Ruffed Grouse than to 
attempt to introduce and acclimatize eastern or foreign species. 


’ Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse 


Pedioecetes phasianellus columbianus (Ord) 


OTHER NAMES—Prairie Chicken; Columbia Sharp-tail; Southern Sharp-tailed 
Grouse; Pedioecetes columbianus ; Tetrao phasianellus; Tetrao columbianus. 

Description—Adults, both sexes: Top of head and hind neck, mixed blackish 
brown, pale clay-color and ashy white; a pointed crest, rising from crown, brown- 
ish black with buffy feather edgings; broad stripe at side of upper mandible, 
running over eye and ear region, buffy white; naked comb over each eye, bright 
yellow; narrow stripe from corner of mouth running below eye and through ear 
region, brownish black; lower side of head and chin, pale cinnamon or buffy, 
seatteringly streaked with brown; bill dark olive, basal half of lower mandible 
pearl gray; iris light brown; upper surface of body from hind neck to upper tail 
coverts, mixed cinnamon, pale buff and brownish black, in an interruptedly barred 
pattern and somewhat vermiculated, the general tone lightest on lower back and 


COLUMBIAN SHARP-TAILED GROUSE 559 


upper tail coverts; scapulars marked with white wedges; tail sharply pointed, the 
middle tail feathers being about an inch longer than the rest and marked with 
brownish black and buffy white; rest of tail feathers chiefly white; outer surface 
of closed wing irregularly marked with clay color, or pale cinnamon, and’ brown, 
many of the feathers with sharply contrasted white spots at ends; flight feathers 
and primary coverts dull brown, spotted with white on outer webs; margin and 
forward lining of wing mixed white and dull brown; rest of lining and axillars, 
white; under surfaces of flight feathers, pale brown; under surface of body white, 
with bold, V-shaped marks of brown paralleling margins of feathers; markings 
heaviest on lower breast; chest, sides and flanks, barred with dark brown, 
clay color and white; belly and lower tail coverts almost or wholly immaculate; 
feathering of legs and feet grayish brown; toes and horny fringes gray; nails 
blackish. Total length ‘‘15.00-19.00’’ inches (381-482 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, 
p. 203); folded wing 7.68-8.47 (195-215); bill along culmen 0.57-0.68 (14.5- 
17.4); tarsus 1.52-1.85 (38.7-47.0) (four specimens, from British Columbia, 
Alberta and Colorado). Juvenile plumage: Top of head mixed black and light 
rusty brown; stripe from side of bill through eye, yellowish white; another stripe 
below eye, mixed black and yellowish brown; chin and fore-throat, white; whole 
upper surface largely yellowish brown, with irregular black patches on the feathers 
and white shaft streaks; outer surface of closed wing grayish brown, spotted with 
dull white; feathers of breast, sides and flanks, pale yellowish brown, with small 
black spots and white shaft streaks; belly white; feathers on tarsus pale buff. 
Natal plumage: Ground color of upper surface straw yellow becoming buffy 
along middle line, the whole boldly spotted with black; whole lower surface 
deep straw yellow, without markings; bill horn color; feet (dried) yellow. 

MarKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Medium size (much smaller than Sierra 
Grouse and Sage-hen), unbanded, pointed tail (whence the name Sharp-tail), 
mixed color pattern, of pale effect, on upper surface, and pure white ground of 
under surface. 

Votce—A loud kuk-kuk-kuk, when startled (Cooper, 1870a, p. 533); males in 
the spring have a loud cackling note (Vernon Bailey in Bailey, 1902, p. 132). 

Nest—On prairie land in tuft of grass or near a small hillock; a slight de- 
pression with sparse lining of grass-stalks and root-fibres (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1874, III, p. 438). 

Eecs—10 to 15, short ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.54 to 1.83 by 
1.22 to 1.36 (in millimeters, 39.0 to 46.5 by 31.0 to 34.5), and averaging 1.70 by 
1.26 (43.0 by 32.0); creamy buff to pale olive brown, unmarked, or else finely 
dotted with reddish brown (Bendire, 1892, p. 101). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Of all races of the Sharp-tailed Grouse: Central and 
western North America from central Alaska and Ungava south to Illinois and 
northeastern California; of the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse (subspecies 
columbianus) : central British Columbia and central Alberta, south to northeastern 
California, Utah, and central Colorado (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 144). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Formerly common in the Modoc region. Re- 
corded from Canoe Creek [near Cassel, northeastern Shasta County] and upper 
Pit River (Newberry, 1857, p. 94), and Camp Bidwell, Modoc County (Henshaw, 
1880b, p. 317). No perfectly authenticated instances of occurrence within late 
years; probably now nearly or quite extinct within the state. 


The history of the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse, as far as it 
concerns California, is like that of a considerable number of North 
American game and non-game birds, which were once extremely abun- 


560 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


dant and are now almost or entirely extirpated. When Newberry, 
Cooper, Henshaw and other early naturalists were making observa- 
tions upon the fauna of California, previous to 1880, they found this 
species numerous in the plateau region northeast of the crest of the 
Sierra-Cascade range. Since then, man’s occupancy of that territory, 
and uncontrolled levy upon its birds for food or sport, has resulted in 
the apparently complete disappearance of this species. 

Writing of the Sharp-tailed Grouse in 1857 (p. 94), Newberry said: 


Coming north from San Francisco, we first found it on a beautiful prairie 
near Canoe creek [near Cassel, Shasta County], about fifty miles northeast of 
Fort Reading; subsequently, after passing the mountain chain which forms the 
upper cafion of Pit River, we came into a level, grass-covered plain, through which 
the willow-bordered river flows in a sinuous course like a brook through a meadow 
[probably near Lookout, Modoe County]. On this plain were great numbers of 
birds of various kinds, and so many of the sharp-tailed grouse, that, for two or 
three days, they afforded us fine sport and an abundance of excellent food. We 
found them again about the Klamath lakes... . 


In 1879 Henshaw (1880b, p. 317) wrote: ‘‘About Camp Bidwell 
[Modoe County], Cal., the ‘sharp-tails’ are sufficiently numerous to 
afford excellent shooting, and good bags may be made there.’’ Cooper 
(1870a, p. 533) believed that the species ranged as far south as lati- 
tude 39° (Lake Tahoe), but was not certain of this; while Bendire 
(1892, p. 99) had record of its occurrence on the ‘‘eastern slopes of 
the Siskiyou Mountains.’’ Nothing else has to our knowledge been 
printed concerning this grouse in California. Correspondence was 
undertaken by us with local residents of the northeastern section of 
the state, and some information obtained as to its more recent status. 

Mr. Chas. D. Meissner, Assistant Forest Ranger at Alturas, reports 
(in letter dated January 18, 1916) that a pair of ‘‘ Prairie Chickens’’ 
was seen by him during April and May, 1915, near Timbered Moun- 
tain, central Modoe County. The behavior of the birds indicated that 
they were nesting. They were always to be found in a certain locality, 
open grassy country with but little sagebrush. The cock and the 
hen were both ‘‘much smaller than the Sage Hen and when flushed 
flew more rapidly and cackled more sharply but sailed the same.’’ 

Mr. Claude R. Brown, residing at Lookout, Modoe County, writes 
us (under date February 25, 1916) that he had not seen any ‘‘Prairie 
Chickens’’ himself for several years, but that a friend had seen two 
during the fall of 1915 on the ranch of William Kramer about one 
mile northeast of Lookout. ‘‘At one time plentiful, flocks of fifty 
or more being often seen, the birds have gradually diminished until 
almost extinct.’’ 

Mr. W. S$. Criss, also of Lookout, writes us (under date February 
25, 1916) that there were many ‘‘little brown Prairie Chickens’’ on 


COLUMBIAN SHARP-TAILED GROUSE 561 


his ranch up to about fifteen years previously. They were at one 
time ‘‘so thick one could not walk through the fields without scaring 
up several bunches.’’ The boys killed them off until finally (about 
1901) but one pair was left. Six young were raised that last year, 
but the entire family was later wiped out. 

Deputy Fish and Game Commissioner Frank P. Cady, of Susan- 
ville, writes us (under date February 2, 1916) that ‘‘about 15 years 
ago there were forty or fifty Prairie Chickens’’ on the ranch of Mr. 
McKensie ‘‘at the mouth of Juniper Creek, Lassen County.’’ At that 
time no shooting was allowed on the ranch; but after the death of 
Mr. McKensie, shooting was resumed. The birds had all disappeared 
by about 1906. 

It will be noted from the above testimony that the disappearance 
of this bird can be attributed to no other cause than to its incessant 
pursuit by man. As long as a single bird remained hunting per- 
sisted. Moreover the fact that this grouse prefers grassy localities, 
just such as are selected for ranch sites, indicates another of the 
factors that led to its extermination. 

From other grouse and quail this species is distinguishable by 
medium size, its unbanded, pointed tail (whence the name Sharp-tailed 
Grouse), its mixed color pattern, of pale effect, on the upper surface, 
and the white under surface of the body with bold V-shaped brown 
markings. The Oregon Ruffed, Sooty and Sierra grouses, all have 
square or slightly rounded tails marked with broad bands near the 
ends; furthermore these species all inhabit forested country almost 
exclusively, while the Sharp-tail is essentially a bird of the prairie. 
The Sage-hen differs strikingly from the Sharp-tail in being of much 
larger size and in having a large black area on the belly. The present 
species is often called ‘‘Prairie Chicken,’’ but that name properly 
belongs to a bird (Tympanuchus americanus) which does not range 
west of the eastern border of the Rocky Mountains and which differs 
from the Sharp-tail in being conspicuously barred on the under sur- 
face, and in bearing long blackish tufts of feathers on each side of 
the neck. 

The Sharp-tailed Grouse inhabits dry brushy or bunch-grass 
prairie land, but it is sometimes found on hillsides and even occa- 
sionally among small trees, though never in heavy timber. At Fort 
Klamath, Oregon, the species was noted by Bendire in rather swampy 
land, a departure from its usual preference. In winter the birds 
usually band together wherever they are at all numerous. As many 
as two hundred have occasionally in former years been observed in 
a single flock. The spring, however, sees them broken into smaller 
assemblages which then take part in the ‘‘dancing”’ that accompanies 
mating. 


562 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Though the grouse usually keep well hidden in summer, in winter when their 
plumage has become dense and their feet and legs rabbit-like, they may be seen 
crossing the fields on top of the snow or getting their breakfast of buds from the 
tops of the trees and tall bushes. When the weather is cold and snow deep and 
soft they often roost under the snow like the ruffed grouse, and come out in the 
morning fifteen or twenty feet from where they entered the white surface at night 
(V. Bailey, in Bailey, 1902, p. 132). 


Cameron (1907, pp. 256-258) thus describes the ‘‘dancing’’ of 
the Prairie Sharp-tailed Grouse (a subspecies closely related to the 
Columbian). On April 18 the ball was opened by a single male mak- 
ing a run across an open space as fast as he-could move his legs, the 
tail being held stiffly raised over the back, while the wings dragged 
so that a large white area was exposed behind. The vivid yellow 
fringe above each eye was erected and all of the feathers on the neck 
stood on end so that the inflated, underlying pink-skinned sac was 
disclosed. At the same time the head was carried so low as almost 
‘to touch the ground, giving the impression (with the raised tail) 
that the bird was running backwards. The bird returned at full 
speed whereupon another male came forward to meet him. Both 
advanced slowly with vibrating tails. When they met they stood 
with wing quills quivering, their eyes then being closed. After per- 
haps a minute one bird would take a peep at the other, and seeing him 
still quiescent would resume an upright and graceful carriage and 
quietly steal away. The second bird would presently awake—then 
also quietly depart. Meanwhile the remaining males took up the 
running until all were participating. After an hour or so the females 
commenced to make short runs, but they did not display air sacs as 
did, the males. Later on, birds were to be seen at the same moment 
in all stages of the dance. The end of the dance was, however, the 
same with each pair. For about twenty minutes two birds would 
squat flat on the ground with their bills almost touching; after this 
they would not again enter the dance during that day. While some 
members of the flock were dancing, others concealed in the sage- 
brush acted the part of spectators, and kept up an incessant coo, coo, 
coo, as if to applaud. The whole affair was quite friendly without 
any tendency toward combat. The dance ended for the day when 
some bird unable to find a partner for running, uttered a disgusted 
eluck. After this, as their periods of squatting were completed, the 
birds would fly scatteringly away. 

By the end of April the play of the dance was more vigorous. 
‘““Drumming’’ [scraping] with the tail was louder, and crouching 
more in evidence and prolonged. Also, if squatting pairs were 
approached by single birds, the latter would be driven away by a 
typical run on the part of one of the squatting pair. If danger in 


COLUMBIAN SHARP-TAILED GROUSE 563 


the form of a human intruder or a hawk threatened, the concealed 
spectators by warning clucks would cause the performing birds to 
stop the dance and assume normal positions. 

This species nests more commonly on sheltered and sunny slopes 
of -the grass-covered foothills than in the lower valleys and creek 
bottoms. The nest is usually placed under the shelter of a bush or 
clump of grass, although the variegated pattern on the back of the 
female is of a nature to conceal her very effectively even if the nest 
were situated in the open. A slight depression is usually made in 
the soil, and this lined with grass. Sometimes the female adds feathers 
from her own body. The eggs range in number from ten to fifteen, 
are roundly ovate, and average, in inches, about 1.70 by 1.26; extremes 
of 72 eggs: 1.54 to 1.83 by 1.22 to 1.36. The ground-color is creamy 
buff to pale olive brown, and the eggs are either unmarked or else 
finely dotted with reddish brown. Usually the eggs are in a single 
layer in the nest. Incubation lasts about twenty-one days and is 
attended to by the female exclusively, neighboring males banding 
together in groups of three to five while the hens are incubating. 
Authorities differ on the question of whether or not this species is 
polygamous. The young are able to run about soon after being. 
hatched, and for some time their diet is almost exclusively of insects. 
Later when the chicks have learned to fly they feed with the female 
parent along creek bottoms (Bendire, 1892, pp. 99-101). 

The food of the adult Sharp-tailed Grouse (all races) is chiefly 
vegetable, according to the findings of Judd (1905, pp. 21-22). 
Animal matter (insects) forms only about 10 per cent of the total 
for the year, and comprises chiefly grasshoppers and beetles, although 
caterpillars have been found in some stomachs. The principal vege- 
table constituents are weed seeds, 7 per cent; grain, 20 per cent; fruit, 
28 per cent; leaves, buds and flowers, 31 per cent. Especially during 
the winter when other kinds of food are difficult to procure do these 
birds feed rather extensively on buds and leaves. Their propensity 
for eating flowers is out of the ordinary, the percentage taken being 
greater than in the case of any other species of North American bird. 
A half pint of blossoms has been found in a single individual. The 
wild rose supplies the Sharp-tail with about 17 per cent of its fruit 
food, the stony-seeded hips being taken in great quantity ; in places 
where gravel is lacking these seeds seem to serve for grinding other 
materials in the stomach. 


The flesh of this species is much like that of the ‘‘prairie hen,’’ and, though 
not equal to that of the dusky or ruffed grouse, was always regarded as an accept- 
able addition to our bill of fare. 

The bird lies close, and when flushed flies off, uttering a constantly repeated 
kuek, kuck, kuck, with a steady flight and considerable swiftness. It is, how- 


564 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


ever, tender, and easily killed, No. 4, and even No. 6, shot being, if properly 
directed, sure to bring them down when within moderate range. The young birds, 
being fat and heavy, as they fall on the grassy prairie scatter their feathers about 
as though torn quite in pieces, giving gratifying evidence of their fitness for the 
table (Newberry, 1857, p. 94). 


It is to be hoped that in the history of the Columbian Sharp-tailed 
Grouse, California has learned a lesson that will result in benefit to 
every other wild species within the state. Here is a magnificent game 
bird, completely eliminated from our confines as a result of unre- 
strained hunting. A modicum of foresight and forbearance would 
doubtless have preserved the bird as a permanent game species. Now, 
only very extensive importations, if possible at all, could be expected 
to replace the species in the territory where once it reigned. This 
would certainly incur a great deal of expense and probably years of 
work before hunting could be allowed; but it is worth consideration. 


Sage-hen 
Centrocercus urophasianus (Bonaparte) 


OTHER NAMES—Sage Grouse; Sage-cock; Cock-of-the-plains; Tetrao uropha- 
sianus. 

Description—Adult male: Whole top of head and hind neck marked in fine 
transverse pattern with black, pale buff and ashy gray, the latter tone prevalent; 
line from base of bill over eye, and one beneath eye and ear region, continuing 
around fore neck to meet its fellow in a V, chiefly white; side of head, chin, 
throat and fore neck, mixed white and black in broken pattern, but black pre- 
dominating; lower neck and fore breast, broadly white, the latter with fine lines 
of black, consisting of the bare shafts of the feathers; the feathers of the breast 
are notably stiff and stubby; sides of neck ornamented with long slender black 
plumes; bill black; area around nostrils densely feathered; whole of back, rump, 
tail and outer surface of closed wing variegated with black, dull white, and light 
and dark shades of brown; the pattern on each feather consists of wavy bars 
and shaft streaks; primary flight feathers uniform dull brown; axillars and lining 
of wing white; belly solid black bordered on either side with a white stripe; 
sides and flanks like back; feathers of lower tail coverts blackish brown with 
broad white ends;. tail feathers long and tapering to sharp points, ashy brown 
beneath, with fine whitish or buffy markings; legs, feathered to toes, grayish 
finely barred with brown; toes blackish. Adult female: similar to male, but with 
black and white areas on head and neck scarcely indicated; chin and throat chiefly 
whitish ; whole upper surface, of fine pattern of markings giving a grayish effect; 
breast soft-feathered, and mottled with white, brownish black and grayish brown; 
black of belly less intense, brownish; primaries mottled along outer edges with 
dull white in fine pattern; tail feathers shorter than in male, less slender at ends. 
Males: Total length ‘‘24.00-33.00’’ inches (609-837 mm.) (authors); folded wing 
11.50-12.50 (292-317); bill along culmen 1.34-1.55 (34.0-39.3); tarsus 2.06— 
2.55 (52.3-64.7) (nine specimens from California, Nevada and Wyoming). 
Females: Total length ‘‘21.00’’ (533) (authors); folded wing 9.80-10.20 (249- 
259) ; bill along culmen 1.18-1.26 (30,0-32.0) ; tarsus 1.77-2.06 (45.0-52.3) (four 


SAGE-HEN 565 


specimens from California and Nevada). Males weigh as much as seven pounds 
(3.17 kilograms); females up to five pounds (2.26 kilograms) (Coues, 1874, 
p. 403). Juvenile plumage: Like that of adult female, but buffy and brown tones 
prevalent on upper surface and breast; black feathers of belly narrowly tipped 
with white; lower tail coverts largely whitish. Natal plumage: Upper surface 
mixed buffy white and pale rusty brown, boldly mottled with black; bill black; 
under surface dull white, marked with pale rusty brown on throat and chest. 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Very large size (larger than any other 
of our grouse), long tail of slender, pointed feathers, and solidly black belly. 
The cackle and the loud whir of the wings are characteristic. 

VoicE—A rapidly repeated scolding cluck: tuk-a-tuk; a slowly repeated deep 
guttural kik, kik, kik, uttered as a bird flushes from the ground. Males have a 
mechanical ‘‘drumming’’ in the spring. 

Nest—A mere shallow depression under a sheltering shrub and usually not 
far from a spring or stream; sometimes lined with grasses and twigs. 

Eces—7 to 9 (rarely up to 17), in shape rather elongate ovate, measuring in 
inches, 2.04 to 2.35 by 1.41 to 1.60 (in millimeters, 52.7 to 59.7 by 35.8 to 40.6), 
and averaging 2.15 by 1.50 (54.6 by 38.1); ground-color grayish or greenish drab, 
thickly spotted and dotted with reddish brown (Coues, 1874, p. 406; and authors). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Resident on the sage-brush plains from interior south- 
ern British Columbia, southern Saskatchewan, and northwestern North Dakota 
south to middle eastern California, northwestern New Mexico, and northwestern 
Nebraska (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 145). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CaALIFoRNIA—Fairly common resident in the sage-brush coun- 
try of eastern California from vicinity of Lower Klamath Lake, northeastern 
Siskiyou County (H. C. Bryant, MS), and northern Modoc County (Newberry, 
1857, p. 95), south along the east base of the Sierra Nevada through Lassen 
County (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 200), Sierra and Alpine counties (Belding, 
1890, p. 19), to head of Owens River and White Mountains, in Mono County 
(A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 31), and northern Inyo County (E. H. Ober, MS). 


Next to the wild turkey, the Sage-hen, or Sage Grouse as it is 
often called, is the largest of the upland game birds found in the 
United States. Full-grown males are said frequently to attain a 
weight of eight pounds and females a weight of five pounds. The 
species is not widely distributed in North America, it being a resi- 
dent only of the arid, sage-covered plains of the west, more par- 
ticularly of the Great Basin. The range of this bird reaches its east- 
ern limit in western North Dakota and Nebraska, and northwestern 
New Mexico, its western limit in eastern Washington and middle 
eastern California, and its northern limit in southern British 
Columbia east of the Cascades, and southern Saskatchewan. Within 
this range the species is to be found only in and near localities where 
the prevalent’ vegetation is the true sage-brush (Artemisia triden- 
tata). Thus the bird’s name, Sage-hen, has been most aptly chosen. 

Within the State of California the Sage-hen also has a distribu- 
tion nearly coextensive with the arid sage-covered plateau lying east. 
of the Sierra Nevada. The species is, according to reports of local 
observers, probably most abundant in northeastern Siskiyou County 


566 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


and in Modoe County, where in certain areas the birds appear to 
thrive exceptionally well. From this region southward, Sage-hens 
are to be found, though less commonly, in similar situations all along 
the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, through Lassen, Sierra, and 
Alpine (at least formerly) counties, to the White Mountains and the 
head of Owens River valley in Mono and Inyo counties. The single 
record from the Mohave River, San Bernardino County (Cooper, 
1868, p. 13, and 1869, p. 188), if authentic, indicates occurrence 
formerly or casually, far out of the present range of the species. In 
the southernmost part of its range the Sage-hen is found at from 
6,000 to 11,500 feet altitude, but in more northerly regions from 
4,000 to 8,000 feet. A slight vertical migration takes place, but 
otherwise the birds remain in the same general locality throughout 
the year. 

The most striking feature of this grouse is its large size. Because 
of this, the noise of its wings as it rises heavily from the ground is 
startling even to persons already acquainted with the bird. With the 
exception of the Sharp-tailed Grouse no other member of the family 
is likely to be found in the same habitat. Confusion as to its identity 
is in any case practically impossible. Besides numerous other char- 
acters the conspicuously black belly will furnish a final clue in 
making identification certain. The white patches over the air sacs 
on each side of the chest in the male are also often conspicuous 
enough to show at a long distance. The males, besides being much 
larger and heavier than the females, can sometimes be distinguished 
by the yellow color of the bare skin showing between the parted 
feathers over the inflated air sacs. 

The mating season is said to begin in March and April before the 
snow is off the ground. Like other grouse the Sage-hen is noted for 
its peculiar mating antics. The males congregate together in open 
places, or ‘‘courts,’’ and make a great display, obviously to attract 
the females. The following accounts of such performances by several 
authors, although differing in detail, furnish vivid pictures of this 
extraordinary courting behavior for which the Sage-hen has become 
famous. 

During a long residence in Wyoming and Colorado, Mr. L. E. 
Burnett became familiar with the habits of the Sage-hen, and he has 
described the courting of this species as follows: 


I have heard them drum as early as December. This performance is most 
often observed where hundreds of males and females have congregated together, 
a custom which they have in the fall of the year. By February the males are all 
drumming, but this is not continued during bad weather which closes the session 
until fair weather returns. By the latter part of the month the males are in full 
dress. Their protracted meetings last until the first days of May.... By the 


SAGE-HEN 567 


balmy June days, they have lost most of their frills, and the breast is dirty and 
worn from rolling in the dust and stretching on the ground in birding. They are 
credited with soiling the breast while drumming, but I have never observed 
this to be one of the causes during my entire fifteen years with them. When 
drumming they stand very erect, holding the wings away from the sides and 
nearly perpendicularly, while the large loose skin of the neck is worked up, 
and the head drawn in and out until the white feathers are brought to the chin. 
At the same time the galls [air-sacs] are filled with air until the birds look as if 
they were carrying snowballs on their shoulders. Then the skin which lies between 
the galls is drawn in with a sucking movement, thus bringing the galls together 
or nearly so. With this action the air is expelled from the throat, producing the 
noise, which is hard to mimie and which resembles that of an old pump just 
within hearing distance. The first sound is that of a low ‘‘punk,’’ the next ‘‘de,’’ 
followed by the highest, ‘‘punk punk,’’ and is made without movement of the 
wings. After the bird has accomplished this feat he walks away a few paces 
either in a straight line or a circle, with wings down, hanging loosely, but not 
grating on the ground. At times they do drag the wings as they strut along with 
tail spread and erect, though not so perpendicular as that of a turkey. Again 
they will dance about with all the pomp of a male pigeon. 

Their courts are generally in very conspicuous places, being either on some 
barren flat or moraine where they may be seen from a distance. The males, year- 
lings, and old are social and congregate at these places in bunches comprising 
from twenty-five to a hundred or more. These birds do not mate, so far as I have 
been able to learn, but the females come to these courts from all quarters at 
about sundown or early in the morning. ... At the drumming period the males 
are very jealous and many fights, some of which are quite serious, take place. 
The fight consists in one bird seizing another by the head, neck, or jacket and 
pulling and beating with the wings. Its duration is very brief, one or the other 
giving in (Burnett, 1905, p. 103). 


Cameron (1907, p. 258) speaking of the Sage-hen in Montana, 
thus describes the courtship: 


During the first half of April the males repair to a regular ‘‘ playground,’’ but 
it is a difficult matter to observe their love antics on account of the encompassing 
sage.... They never fought nor threatened each other but strutted or paraded 
before some hens concealed in the sage bushes, and were entirely oceupied with a 
most grotesque rivalry. By ruffling up all their feathers, spreading their tails, and 
dragging their wings along the ground they looked much larger than they really 
were, while they produced a rattling sound with their quills after the manner of 
turkey-cocks and peafowl. At the same time they continuously uttered a kind 
of whistling challenge, and distending their necks by means of their air sacs 
erected an enormous white ruff. As the playground was small the eight or nine 
cocks upon it were in imminent danger of a collision, but for the ten minutes that 
we watched them, this did not take place, nor were there any moments of ecstatic 
oblivion for which some game birds are famous. As will be seen from the above 
their courtship is rather a display than a ‘‘play,’’ thus differing from the per- 
formance of the Sharp-tailed Grouse. . . . 


According to Bond (1900, p. 326) the strutting does not involve 
dragging the wings on the ground. Instead, the air-sacs of the neck 
are inflated until the whole neck and breast has a balloon-like appear- 


568 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


ance. Then stooping forward the whole weight of the body is thrown 
upon the distended portion and the bird slides along on the bare 
ground or short grass for some distance, the performance being con- 
cluded by the expulsion of the air from the sacs with a variety of 
chuckling, cackling or rumbling sounds. ‘‘This performance is con- 
tinued probably daily, during the pairing and nesting season, and of 
course the feathers are worn away by the constant friction.’’ 

Coues (1874, p. 406) gives credence to the following account: 

Small eminences on the banks of. streams are the places usually selected for 
celebrating the weddings, the time generally about sunrise. The wings of the 
male are lowered, buzzing on the ground; the tail, spread like a fan, somewhat 
erect; the bare, yellow oesophagus [air-sacs] inflated to a prodigious size—fully 
half as large as his body, and, from its soft, membranous substance, being well 
contrasted with the scale-like feathers below it on the breast, and the flexible, 
silky feathers on the neck, which on these occasions stand erect. In this grotesque 
form he displays, in the presence of his intended mate, a variety of attitudes. 
His love-song is a confused, prating, but not offensively disagreeable, tone— 
something that we can imitate, but have difficulty in expressing—hurr-hurr-hurr- 
r-r-r-hoo, ending in a deep, hollow tone, not unlike the sound produced by blowing 
into a large reed. 


In Harney County, Oregon, Bendire (1892, p. 109) found Sage- 
hens beginning to nest about the middle of April. One set of nine 
slightly incubated eggs was taken on April 7, 1877. Fresh eggs 
were found as late as June 2. But one brood is raised in a season. 
The nest, as currently described, is always placed on the ground in 
a slight depression and under the protection of some bush. The loca- 
tion usually selected in California is near some spring or small stream. 
The depression used, sometimes, at least, scratched out by the bird, 
is only slightly lined with leaves and twigs, such as might accumulate 
naturally ; not infrequently the eggs rest on the ground itself. Seven 
to nine eggs are laid, occasionally ten or more, even up to seventeen 
(Bendire, 1892, p. 111). In eolor they are light greenish drab or 
pale olive buff, thickly marked with small roundish spots and dots of 
reddish brown. In shape they resemble a small egg of the domestic 
hen. Coues (1874, p. 406) states that the eggs are narrower and 
more pointed than those of other American grouse. The average size 
of 109 specimens in the United States National Museum is 2.16 by 
1.48 inches. The largest egg of the series measures 2.34 by 1.55, the 
the smallest 2.04 by 1.41 inches (Bendire, loc. cit.). Other authors 
give the maximum as 2.35 by 1.60. Bendire (1892, p. 110) states 
that incubation lasts about twenty-two days and that the males 
keep to themselves and take no part in this work. 

The young are able to take care of themselves immediately after 
hatching, and within a short time are able to fly. Like other members 
of the family they are adepts at hiding. At night a covey roosts in 


SAGE-HEN : 569 


a circle on the ground dfter the manner of the Bobwhite Quail 
(Judd, 1905, p. 24). A female when surprised with her brood 
makes a great demonstration, attempting thereby to. distract atten- 
tion. The chicks when feeding together are said to call constantly 
to one another with low peeping cries which are audible only for a 
short distance. 

After the young birds have learned to fly, they descend from the 
uplands down along the larger cafions, often invading the meadow 
lands, where small, tender weeds are added to their diet. At such 
places the young birds may gather into large flocks. When ap- 
proached they crane their necks and make a weak attempt at cack- 
ling. When closely pressed they run rather than fly. By the last 
of August or early September the young birds are joined by the old 
male birds, which come off the higher slopes and ridges where they 
have stayed during the summer, and large flocks become the rule. 
The rigor of winter causes a scarcity of food and by spring most of 
the birds are poor in flesh as well as shabby in plumage. The young 
attain the size of the adults by November (E. H. Ober, MS, writing 
from Mono and Inyo counties). 

The Sage-hen finds flight laborious, and resorts to it only when 
_ in great peril. Its vigorous wing-beats on rising from the ground 
cause a loud whir which has a startling effect upon the intruder. 
When once the bird is under way its flight is very swift and is char- 
acterized by alternate rapid beating of the wings and sailing on set, 
down-curved wings. If it has been badly frightened it will fly a con- 
siderable distance ; otherwise it will alight again within a few hundred 
feet. 

The call-note most frequently heard is usually described as a short 
guttural cackle, given when the birds rise from the ground. The sound 
is like the syllables kik, kik, kik, slowly repeated (Grinnell, MS), or 
tuk-a-tuk repeated rapidly (Huntington, 1897, p. 17). The ‘‘drum- 
ming’’ of the male, which has already been described, is to be heard 
only during the breeding season. 

Newberry (1857, pp. 95-96), the first of the early explorers to 
record the Sage-hen definitely in this state, gives the following account 
of its habits: 

This bird . . . belongs to the fauna of the interior basin. . . . We first met 
with it high up on Pit river, at the point where we left it and crossed over to 
the lakes. . . . Following up the little stream toward the spring on the hill-side, 
a dry, treeless surface with patches of ‘‘sage bushes,’’...I was suddenly 
startled by a great flutter and rush, and a dark bird, that appeared to me as large 
as a turkey, rose from the ground near me, and, uttering a hoarse heck, hék, flew 
off with an irregular, but remarkably well sustained flight. ... But stop he 
did not, so long as I could see him, now flapping, now sailing, he kept on his 
course till he disappeared behind a hill a mile away... . 


570 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


A few. days later, on the shores of Wright and Rhett. lakes, we found. them 
very, abundant, and killed all we cared to. A very fine male which I killed there 
was passed by nearly the whole party within thirty feet in open ground. I noticed 
him as soon, perhaps, as he saw us, and waited to watch his movements. As the 
train approached he sank down on the ground, depressing’ his ‘head, and lying as 
motionless as a stick or root, which he greatly resembled. After the party had 
passed, I moved toward him, when he depressed his head till it rested on the 
ground, and evidently made himself as small as possible. He did not move till I 
had approached to within fifteen feet of him, when he arose and I shot him. He 
was in fine plumage, and weighed over five pounds. 

. . - Its flesh is dark and, particularly in old birds, highly flavored with worm- 
wood, which to most persons is no proof of .excellence. Thé young bird, if par- 
boiled and stewed, is very good; but, as a whole, this is inferior for the table to 
any other species of American grouse. 


During the winter season in the Mono country, according to E. H. 
Ober (MS), the Sage-hens find shelter in bad weather by scratching 
down through the snow to the. ground at the bases of the bushes. 
Sustenance is secured from the tops of the bushes protruding through 
thé snow and also from the stray leaves and buds which the wind 
has blown over the surface of the snow. As late as 1896, literally 
thousands made their homes along-the southwestern borders of Long 
Valley some few miles north. of the northern boundary of Inyo 
County. Now there are but afew hundreds in the most favorable 
tracts. Dera A "s 

As is evidenced by the accumulation of droppings to be found 
in certain favorite localities, Sage-hens roost together on the ground. 
They are said to return to the same roosting ground night after 
night, even after foraging a considerable distance for food during 
the day (Bendire, 1892, p. 110; and authors). 

The stomach of a Sage-hen, unlike that of most other upland game 
birds, is not a muscular organ, like a true gizzard, but is a thin-walled 
receptacle. This indicates that the bird is largely herbivorous, feed- 
ing upon leaves, buds, and berries, rather than regularly upon grain 
or hard seeds. As the bird browses rather than scratches for a living 
a grinding apparatus would be of small use. Its principal diet 
throughout the year consists of the leaves of the sage-brush together 
with leaves and buds of such other shrubs as the wild cherry and 
deer-brush, together with a small amount of grass and seeds. . During 
the spring and summer, grasshoppers and other insects are added 
to the diet. In a large number of specimens dissected nothing was 
found but grasshoppers and leaves of the sage-brush (Baird, Brewer 
and Ridgway, 1874, III, p. 433). 

Stomach examination by the United States Biological Survey, of 
specimens from Idaho and Wyoming, shows that the Sage-hen, besides 
eating sage-brush leaves; feeds upon the ‘seeds, leaves and flowers of 


SAGE-HEN. . 571 


Rhus, the leaves of asters and yarrow, and the flowers and buds of 
Phlox, as well as upon ground beetles, ladybird beetles, fly Jarvae, 
moths, ants and grasshoppers. Bendire states that Sage-hens will 
go a long distance to get a morning feed of wheat, and that crickets 
and grasshoppers are taken when available. Young birds are more 
insectivorous than adults. The stomach of one young bird was found 
to contain over 3800 ants (Judd, 1905, pp. 24-25). Birds killed 
by M. French Gilman at Pelican Lake, Modoc County, in December, 
1915, were found to have eaten many leaves and a few young berries 
of the juniper in addition to leaves of the sage-brush. 

This seems to be the only one of our birds that will eat such strongly 
flavored leaves as those of the sage-brush. Because of this peculiar 
diet its flesh becomes tainted, and is usually too strong to be eaten 
with relish. But at certain times of the year it makes excellent food. 
In Modoe County the birds are said to feed in alfalfa fields and 
thereby cause some damage during the months of July and August. 
In winter, browse is obtained from the shrubs and bushes that pro- 
trude from the snow. At that season the flesh becomes strongest. 
Although the flesh is dark colored, and’ in winter and early spring is 
often almost bitter, the young birds in the fall are well flavored and 
are a delicious acquisition to the table. . 

The size of this grouse makes it a particularly desirable game bird. 
In fact the bird is so attractive that neither its comparative inaccessi- 
bility nor the ease with which it is bagged has prevented its being 
much sought after by hunters. In Mono County the birds have been 
greatly reduced in numbers because of their accessibility. When 
Sage-hens are flushed, the hunter marks the places where they alight 
and usually has no trouble in walking up to within range of the 
crouching birds. When flushed again the birds often make a turn 
just after leaving the ground and circle back toward their original 
location, thus offering a large and easy target. The crack of the 
gun seldom starts them from cover, although their wariness varies 
with circumstances. Sometimes Sage-hens seem to become confused 
and it is said that in early days vaqueros delighted to ride among 
the members of a flock and strike them down with a whip or lasso. 
We have been told that in Modoe County, especially after a rain, 
when their plumage was wet, Sage-hens have been killed with sticks or 
knocked over with stones, so difficult was it for them to take quickly to 
flight. But at other times it has proven practically impossible to get 
within range of them. 

In most parts of its California range the Sage-hen has been so 
reduced in numbers that something must be done to afford it better 
protection, if it is to maintain its place as a game bird. The auto- 
mobile has enabled the gunner to enter the heart of the Sage-hen 


572 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


country, and little has been done to counteract this added factor in 
the destruction of the species. As a result there is some danger that 
the Sage-hen, like the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse, may soon be 
numbered among the Californian birds which have been nearly or 
quite exterminated through the agency of man. Even the short season 
and small bag limit accorded the bird within the last few years have 
not been sufficient to enable it to hold its own. There is plentiful 
testimony that its numbers are being reduced each year. A close 
season for a term of years is one remedy that might be applied to 
good advantage. Although such a plan might cause temporary hard- 
ship to the hunter who considers the Sage-hen his favorite game bird, 
he should be willing to make the sacrifice for the sake of perpetuating 
the species. A close season to allow recuperation, followed by more 
moderate annual shooting, should be agreed to by every hunter who 
values this, the largest and one of the finest of the upland game birds 
of our state. 


Ring-necked Pheasant 


Phasianus torquatus Gmelin 


OvrHER NAMES—China Pheasant; Denny Pheasant. 

Descriprion—Adult male: Top and back of head, dull greenish gray; area 
above base of bill, iridescent black; stripe from this black patch along side of 
head over and behind eye, white; ear region brownish black; above this, a tuft 
of square-ended, iridescent black feathers; broad area on side of head surrounding 
eye, extending forward to base of bill, and including most of cheek, almost naked, 
sparingly flecked with small iridescent black feathers; rest of head and neck, iri- 
descent, greenish blue on fore-neck and sides of neck, purplish below and behind 
ear, and bluish green on hind neck; broad collar completely encircling base of 
neck, abruptly white; feathers of upper back buffy yellow, with V-shaped irides- 
cent black markings; middle of back and scapulars, rich chestnut red, each feather 
with a black line concentric with margin and enclosing a white area which is mot- 
tled with drab and black; lower back and rump light grayish green, the marginal 
feathers washed with blue and with long tips of rusty red, and the middle feathers 
with erescentic black, buff and green markings; some of upper tail coverts reddish 
brown and drab mixed in fine pattern; tail very long and pointed, the feathers 
centrally drab yellow with conspicuous narrow bars of black, their margins basally 
pinkish brown barred with deep chestnut red; outer surface of closed wing chiefly 
bluish gray; flight feathers light brown mottled with dull white; longer coverts 
and tertials broadly edged with rich chestnut red; inner surface of wing grayish 
brown mottled with white; whole breast fiery bronze with a conspicuous metallic 
sheen, each feather with a W-shaped margin of purplish black, the whole giving 
a sealed effect; sides and flanks deep buffy yellow with large sharply defined spots 
of steely blue black; middle of belly steely blue black; area about vent dull yellow- 
ish brown; under tail coverts rich chestnut mottled with black; a spur on tarsus; 
legs and feet (dried) dull dark brown. Adult female: Top and back of head drab 
brown with extensive brownish black feather centers; area about eye white, flecked 
with dusky; ear region yellowish brown; chin and throat uniform yellowish white; 


RING-NECKED PHEASANT 573 


whole neck rose buff, with narrow feather tippings of black; feathers of upper 
back with concentric marks of rusty red, black, and pinkish white; feathers of 
lower back, rump and outer surface of closed wing, black-centered, dark yellowish 
brown near ends, and margined with drab or white; tail long and pointed, barred 
irregularly with black and pinkish brown or dull brown; flight feathers broadly 
and irregularly barred with light or dark brown and dull white; lining of wing 
dull white and pale brown; under surface of body pale yellowish brown, lightest 
on middle of belly, the whole finely vermiculated with dusky, heaviest on breast; 
sides and flanks coarsely marked with brownish black. Male: Total length 33.00 
inches (838 mm.); folded wing 9.00 (228); bill along culmen 1.25 (31.7); tarsus 
2.75 (69.7). Female: Total length 20.50 (520); folded wing 7.56 (192); bill 
along culmen 1.00 (25.4); tarsus 2.44 (61.9) (one specimen of each). Juvenile 
plumage: Upper surface brownish black with yellowish brown shaft streaks 
and feather marginings; feathers on sides of head and neck, and fore-neck, 
yellowish white, margined with black; chin and fore-throat white; tail barred 
with brownish black and reddish brown; wing as in adult female; breast 
yellowish brown, tinged with rusty; feathers of sides and flanks marked con- 
centrically with dull white, brownish black and buffy brown; middle of belly 
yellowish white; thighs and under tail coverts, pale buff. Natal plumage: 
Upper surface dark yellowish brown with three longitudinal stripes along top 
of head and back, the middle one brownish black, the outer ones black; a 
conspicuous black streak on ear region; bar in front of wing and two others 
on wing, black; under surface of body sulphury white, buffy on chest, sides and 
flanks; spot on thigh black. 

MaRKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Size of body between that of a grouse and 
quail, but with tail feathers greatly elongated. Male with black appearing head, 
white collar, bronzy breast, black-spotted yellow sides, and with many narrow 
sharp bars of black on tail. Female predominantly brown-colored, slightly scaled 
on back, but uniformly pale brown on breast (pl. 16). 

VoticE—Of male: a sharp, but weak, metallic ‘‘crow.’’ 

Nest—On ground in sheltered situation in a grain or alfalfa field or weed 
patch; constructed of leaves or grass. 

Eees—7 to 15, ovate in shape, averaging in inches, 1.61 by 1.31 (in milli- 
meters, 40.8 by 33.2); color plain buff or greenish buff (Davie, 1900, p. 180). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Native in lower Amur, Manchuria, Korea, and east- 
ern Mongolia, south through eastern China to Canton. Introduced and well estab- 
lished in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and, locally, in California (modi- 
fied from Dresser, 1903, p. 666). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Introduced and now established in various locali- 
ties in the north coast counties from Mendocino to the Oregon line; also: in the 
Santa Clara Valley, near San Jose; near Porterville, Tulare County; Bakersfield, 
Kern County; northern Owens Valley, Inyo County; and possibly several other 
localities (see p. 33). 


Since the Ring-necked Pheasant* has been introduced and become 
established in a number of places in California, we deem it desirable 


*The true identity of the ‘Ring-necked’ Pheasants introduced into California is not 
yet definitelv settled. The name Phasianus torquatus, as the one most commonly used, has 
been adopted by us tentatively, until such time as California-taken specimens can be com- 
pared with Asiatic wild birds. There exist in the Old World several near-related species 
with white neck rings, any one of which may have been imported. It is also not unlikely 
that two or more of these races have been bred together in captivity, and mongrel stock, 
of various origins, imported, at least in part, in the attempts to colonize the state. Our 
stock may thus not be of any one pure breed. 


574 ‘GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


to give a short account of the life-history and habits of the species. 
In the chapter on ‘‘History of Attempts to Introduce Non-native 
Game Birds into California’’ there is a fairly comprehensive history 
of the various attempts to introduce the species into this state (p. 30) ; 
and in the chapter on ‘‘The Propagation of Game Birds’’ directions 
are given for rearing the species in captivity (p. 51). The present 
account will deal with its habits in the wild, chiefly as reported from 
California and Oregon. 

This pheasant thrives best in and about tracts of rank vegetation 
in the ‘‘fog belt’’ of the North Coast counties, rather than in the drier 
areas inhabited by the Valley Quail. In these moist regions the Ring- 
neck finds conditions as to temperature, humidity and rainfall which 
closely approximate those of its original home in. eastern Asia. An 
examination of rainfall data shows that the Humboldt Bay district 
of California has an average annual rainfall of 45.8 inches; Portland, 
Oregon, where the pheasant thrives as an introduced species, has 45.6 
inches; while Shanghai and Hongkong, China, two localities in its 
native home, have 48.6 and 84.3 inches, respectively. So, also, the 
relative humidity at Eureka averages 86%, at Portland 75%, and at 
Shanghai and Hongkong 80% and 77%. In such other parts of 
California as are inhabited by the pheasant, as the Santa Clara Valley, 
the birds seek shelter in moist thickets or swampy places, probably 
finding there atmospheric conditions which parallel those in the north 
coast district and in eastern China. ; 

No native bird of California is to be confused with the Ring-necked 
Pheasant. Its long tail and fowl-like habits easily distinguish it 
from any of our upland game species with which it may be found. 
The brilliant, variegated plumage of the male, with blue black head, 
white neck collar, and fiery-colored breast, is quite distinctive, as is 
also the long tail of the female together with her uniformly pale brown 
toned breast. The male, unlike any of our native game birds wears a 
spur on his leg. 

The usual haunt of the Ring-necked Pheasant is thick cover, but 
with open spaces nearby where it can forage. During the greater 
portion of the year the birds go in flocks, males and females separately. 
At night many of the birds roost on the ground, in a manner unlike 
that of most of our native game birds, and thus they are more than 
ordinarily subject to ground-dwelling predatory animals or ‘‘vermin.”’ 
In Oregon, in certain places at least, pheasants are reported to roost 
in trees and on fences, sometimes more than a hundred together, 
through the night. 

The hen pheasant makes her nest of leaves or dry grass in a 
‘sheltered situation in a cultivated field or on grassland. Sometimes 
it is protected by a tussock of grass, or a shrub or tree. The eggs 


UNIV. CALIF, SEMICENT. PUBL. [GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 16 


RING-NECKED PHEASANT 


BAND-TAILED PIGEON | 575 


number seven to fifteen in a set, are short ovate in shape and average, 
in inches (different sets) 1.50 by 1.30 and 1.61 by 1.31. Their color 
is plain buff or greenish buff without markings of any sort. In Oregon 
it is said that three broods are reared in a season. Where nests are 
systematically visited and the eggs regularly removed, hen pheasants 
_ will lay from 50 to 80 eggs in a season, and in one recorded instance 
a bird was known to have laid 108 eggs (Field, Graham and Adams, 
1914, p. 3). The period of incubation is twenty-two days. In captiv- 
ity when the members of a brood are four to eight weeks old they 
can care for themselves. In autumn, the birds band together in flocks, 
and remain together through the winter, until the next nesting season. 

In this country the Ring-necked Pheasant is an omnivorous feeder, 
taking almost anything which it can find in the way of food mate- 
rials, but it seems to prefer insects, when these are available, to grain 
and seeds. In certain districts of Oregon where the species is notably 
numerous the birds have done damage to truck gardens and corn 
patches. On the other hand, three captive pheasants, five weeks old, 
have been seen to eat between 250 and 300 house flies within one-half 
hour. In Massachusetts where Ring-necked Pheasants were intro 
duced from Oregon in about 1894, the birds have been found to eat 
practically all of the common insect pests of the garden. Stomachs 
of pheasants shot while supposedly damaging gardens or farm crops 
showed 22 per cent grain (all waste except in one instance), 21 per 
cent tomatoes, 15 per cent insects, and 23 per cent weed seeds. The 
balance was of no economic importance or was not determined (Field, 
Graham and Adams, 1914, pp. 8, 9). 

Here in California this pheasant feeds chiefly in grain fields and 
grass lands although it also forages in willow thickets and, in some 
interior counties, has been found in thick manzanita and scrub oak 
brush. In Inyo County pheasants search the grain fields for ‘‘taboosi’’ 
(Brodiaea seed?). They are said also to do some damage to grain 
fields, vineyards and gardens. 

In any event the pheasant is not yet to be reckoned as established 
in more than a few localities, its spread will be slow if it continues 
at all, and many years will elapse before the species will be of much 
importance, from either the hunter’s or the farmer’s standpoint. 


Band-tailed Pigeon 


Columba fasciata fasciata Say 


Ornrr namES—Blue Pigeon; Wild Pigeon; Columba monilis; Chloroenus 
fasciata fasciata. ; 

Descriprion—Adults, both sexes: Head pinkish brown or vinaceous (exact tint 
varying greatly among different individuals), darkest and more purplish on top 


576 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


and back of head, more ashy on chin and cheeks; base of bill straw yellow, end 
black; naked eyelids, coral red; narrow collar around hind neck, white, averaging 
more conspicuous in males; broad area on sides and back of neck (below white 
collar), iridescent bronzy green; back dark olive brown; rump and bases of tail 
feathers, dark bluish gray; ill-defined band across middle of tail, dull black; 
terminal portions of tail feathers, drab, lightest on outer ones; outer surface of 
closed wing, chiefly light gray, the coverts narrowly margined with white; flight 
feathers brownish black; lining of wing and axillars, gray; under surface of 
flight feathers dull brown; under surface of body pinkish brown or vinaceous, 
deepest on breast and sides, paling to almost white on belly; under tail coverts 
white; under surface of terminal portion of tail whitish, distinctly lighter than 
upper surface of same; feet straw yellow. In some females the tone of coloration 
verges towards grayish rather than pinkish brown. Males: Total length 14.12- 
15.81 inches (359-402 mm.) (ten specimens from California and Arizona) ; folded 
wing 8.20-8.67 (208-220); bill along culmen 0.65-0.71 (16.5-18.0) ; tarsus 1.05— 
1.09 (26.6-27.6) (eight specimens from California). Females: Total length 13.75— 
15.75 (349-400) (ten specimens from California and Arizona); folded wing 
8.00-8.86 (203-225); bill along culmen 0.67-0.75 (17.0-19.0); tarsus 0.95-1.11 
(24.0-28.2) (ten specimens from California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that 
of adult, but vinaceous tinge wholly lacking; neck without white collar or irides- 
cent bronzing; under surface dark brownish, with feather tippings of lighter 
color, giving a faintly scaled effect. 

MarkKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Largest of our wild pigeons (about the 
bulk of a domestic pigeon); general bluish coloration; distinct dark band 
across middle of square-ended tail (fig. 88) ; wings without white patches. 

Vorce—Much like that of the domestic pigeon; a deep cod-coo, tuck-od, or 
who6-hoo-hoo; occasionally a more spirited hoap-ah-who6, or whod-ugh (Grinnell, 
1905, p. 382; Bailey, 1902, p. 139). 

Nest—A crude platform of twigs, of very loose construction; most often situ- 
ated on w moderately large horizontal branch of an oak (less often in a pine), 
and at heights ranging from eight to thirty feet above ground (authors). 

Eces—Usually 1, rarely 2, elongately ovate, white in color, and measuring in 
inches, 1.08 to 1.15 by 1.55 to 1.69 (in millimeters, 27.4 to 29.3 by 39.5 to 43.0), 
and averaging 1.59 by 1.11 (40.4 by 28.2) (five eggs, four sets, from California: 
Mus. Vert. Zool., and Sharp, 1903, p. 16). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Western parts of United States and Mexico. Sum- 
mers from southwestern British Columbia, western Washington, western Oregon, 
northern Utah, and north-central Colorado, south through the southwestern United 
States and Mexico to Nicaragua, and east to western Texas; winters from north- 
ern middle California southward (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 147). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Common but irregular winter visitant below the 
level of heavy snow, and west of the Sierran divide; occurs in summer in small 
numbers, and breeds, in the belts of black oak and golden oak (Transition life 
zone) in both the Sierras and Coast Ranges, south to Laguna Mountains, southern 
San Diego County. 


The Band-tailed Pigeon is the largest of the four members of the 
pigeon family inhabiting California. Its wide distribution in winter 
throughout the foothill belt, together with its size and excellently 
flavored flesh have combined to make it an object of pursuit by sports- 
men for over half a century. The inevitable result has been that its 


BAND-TAILED PIGEON 577 


numbers have been greatly diminished. Despite this reduction, espe- 
cially evident during recent years, this pigeon had never received one 
iota of legal protection from the people of California until the year 
1915. But, happily, with the passage of the Federal Migratory Bird 
Law in 19138, the national government prescribed a five-year closed 
season for the species, and the outlook now is favorable for its per- 
sistence. 

The range of the Band-tailed Pigeon extends from the Rocky 
Mountains to the Pacific Coast, and from British Columbia to Nic- 
aragua. It is, in a way, complementary to that of the now entirely 
extinct Passenger Pigeon. But while the latter occurred over most 


Fig. 86. Head of Band-tailed Pigeon. Natural size (no. 15619). 


of the eastern half of the North American continent, the western 
bird is not found uniformly over all parts of its general range, being 
most common in the mountains of middle altitude, and absent from 
the plains and deserts. 

In a general way it may be said that in the north and at high 
altitudes the Band-tailed Pigeon is only a summer visitant. To be 
more explicit, the species summers in the belts of black oak and golden 
oak (Transition life zone), whether these be in the northern part of 
its range or at the south. In the latter case the higher altitudes of 
the mountain ranges resorted to afford temperature conditions similar 
to those found at lower levels to the northward. In winter the pigeon 
migrates to more southerly latitudes, or to lower altitudes, which- 
ever may be necessary in order to reach a suitable winter climate. 
From the data at hand it seems probable that the pigeons of the 
Rocky Mountain region winter on the Mexican plateau entirely south 
of the United States boundary, whence there are many instances of 


578 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


occurrence during that season. Those pigeons wintering in the foot- 
hills and valleys of California come from the adjacent mountains 
and from the coast district to the north, in Oregon, Washington and 
British Columbia. 


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Z ~~) Ss 1 
I" N. 
A SN 
, aS & . SSG 
- Se WY NN 
Ds ly Ys 1 
iS el? 
SO ae 
SIZES a 
ba ad bly Ci 4 
acne 7 re y- ° 
Red Say X. 7 
Ld O toate N EE eS 1s 
ee c ys VA f 
DISTRIBUTION MAP ; we we: 
MUSEUM OF VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY Dy il A ae sco iphtaiegliak 
S ag 


Fig. 87. Map showing distribution of the Band-tailed Pigeon in Cali- 
fornia. The shaded area is that in which all the pigeon population of the 
Pacific states is believed to concentrate for the winter season. 


The following facts bear upon the question of the source of at 
least part of the pigeons wintering in California. The species occurs 
at Blaine, Washington (near the British Columbia boundary), from 
May 5 to September 15 (Dawson, 1909, p. 555); in southern Wash- 
ington west of the Cascades from May 15 to the end of September 
(Coues, 1874, p. 386) ; and at the mouth of the Columbia River from 
May to October (Bendire, 1892, p. 122). In Washington County, 


BAND-TAILED PIGEON 579 


Oregon, it is common in summer (Bendire, 1892, p. 123) ; at Dayton, 
Yamhill County, Oregon, it arrives about April 20 and leaves by the 
last of November (Woodeock, 1902, p. 28); and at Corvallis, Benton 
County, Oregon, it occurs from the first of April until the last of 
September (Woodcock, 1902; pp. 28, 29). 

From the above data it will be seen that north of the northern 
boundary of California the Band-tailed Pigeon is wholly migratory. 
It seems inevitable that this northern-bred cortingent should move 
south into California for the winter season, and there is, therefore, 
little reason to doubt the inference that the'birds which concentrate 
in winter in west-central and southern California, represent the entire 
pigeon population of the Pacific coast region. If this‘be true it is of 
course apparent that as far as the whole Pacific coast region’ is con- 
cerned, California alone is, in--winter, eespensihle tor the existence 
of the species. 

Band-tailed Pigeons oceur in California throughout the year, but 
not continuously in the same localities: In general, the species is 
found in the mountainous districts in the summer season and in the 
foothills and valleys during the winter months. In event of: con- 
tinued favorable weather, the birds will often continue in their’ sum- 
mer haunts until Oetober or even November, long after other migrant 
species have departed, probably because the supply of acorns and 
other favored foods is not exkausted until that time. When finally 
forced to lower altitudes they repair to the foothills where acorns 
and berries are still to be found. Only rarely, as when driven by 
heavy storms in the mountains, or by scarcity of food in the foothills, 
do the birds resort to open valleys. They may then forage on the 
seattered grain of the stubble fields (Gaylord, 1899, p. 7). Their 
spring time return from the lower country is also largely controlled 
by food supply. For example, in 1895 a large flock remained until 
mid-June at Oak Knoll; near Pasadena, Los: Angeles County, ‘feed: 
ing on acorns (Grinnell, 1898, p. 20); and in earlier years, about 
the southern end of San Francisco Bay (Palo Alto and Santa Clara 
Valley) the birds often remained until well into May ives Denburgn; 
1899, p. 159). 

The Band-tailed meaas may be easily veccbal by its large size 
(being of about the build and bulk of a domestic pigeon), its general 
bluish coloration, and its light gray, square-ended tail, crossed by a 
distinct dark band near the middle. This band is most readily seen 
just as the bird alights, for then the tail is widely spread. The Mourn- 
ing Dove, which at times occurs in the same places as the Band-tailed 
Pigeon, is at once distinguishable by its smaller size, brownish upper: 
surface, and long, pointed, white-margined tail. The little brownish 
Mexican Ground Dove is less than one-tenth the bulk of the pigeon, 


580 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


while the White-wingéd Dove of the lower Colorado: Valley is also 
decidedly smaller and has a conspicuous white wing patch. 

The cooing of the Band-tailed Pigeon reminds one of that of the 
domestic pigeon and is easily distinguishable from the notes of the 
Mourning Dove. Grinnell (1905, p. 382) describes the notes heard 
on Mount Pinos as a deep monotonous coé-co0, cod-coo, cod-coo, or 
tuck-o6, tuck-o6. Elsewhere the notes are described (Bailey, 1902, 
p. 139) as sometimes a calm whod-hoo-hoo, whoo-hoo-hoo, at other 
times a spirited hodp-ah-whod, and again a two-syllabled whod-ugh,; 
made up of a short hard hoot and a long coo, as if the breath were 
sharply expelled for the first note and drawn in for the second. 

These pigeons are to be seen in flocks at all times of the year, but 
the aggregations become larger in the winter months. When forag- 
ing flocks visit the foothills and valleys a hundred or more may some- 
times be seen together. In earlier years bands of upwards of a thou- 
sand were occasionally observed. The usual assemblage now: consists 
of from one to three dozen birds. Often, even during the height of 
the nesting season, flocks of a half dozen or more birds may be seen. 
Apparently these birds, whose nests may be widely scattered through 
the forest, associate together for feeding. 

A benefit which accrues from the flocking habit is the individual 
safety attained through community watchfulness. This may be con- 
sidered as in part counterbalancing the possibility of pot-shooting 
numbers of the birds at one time because of their being massed in a 
flock. The gregarious habit brings both benefit and danger to the 
birds; but with the increased deadliness of firearms, it would seem 
that the flocking habit brings disproportionately greater danger as 
time goes on. When foraging on the open ground, pigeons show 
little trepidation, save when closely approached. In the foliage of 
trees or bushes, upon the approach of man or beast, the birds usually 
remain perfectly quiet and thus often elude observation altogether. If 
routed out by a too close approach, they leave their perches abruptly, 
with a disconcerting clapping of the wings; and, acquiring great 
velocity with surprising quickness, they are almost instantly far 
beyond reach of the bobecat’s spring or even of the hunter’s shot. In 
flight, the flock formation is relatively open, and distantly separated 
individuals are often to be seen trailing behind the main body. In 
passage down a mountain side, the flight is inconceivably swift, the 
wings being held close in to the sides, beating only at long intervals, 
and the body veering slightly from side to side in its arrow-like 
course. This headlong flight produces a rushing noise as of escaping 
steam. 

Near Julian, San Diego County, early in July, 1910, Huey (1913, 
p. 152) made observations upon a flock of wild pigeons foraging in 


BAND-TAILED PIGEON 581 


manzanita thickets on the mountain side. They would arrive daily a 
little after sunrise and leave between eight and nine o’clock; in the 
evening they would return about four and depart again at dusk. In 
feeding in the bushes they often attempted to alight on clusters of 
berries whose stems were far too weak to support the heavy birds. 
Eventually, finding a firmer perch from which the berries could be 
reached, a pigeon would gorge himself, accompanying his greedy 
swallowing of the berries with gulping noises. In Arizona similar 
actions were indulged in by pigeons which Willard (1916, p. 111): 
saw feeding in oaks. He says: ‘‘The antics of these birds were more 
like the acrobatic stunts of parrots than of pigeons. They would 
walk out on the slender branches till they tipped down, then, hang- 
ing by their feet, would secure an acorn, and drop off to alight on a 
branch lower down. In spite of their large size, pigeons are surpris- 
ingly inconspicuous when thus engaged in feeding among the leaves.’’ 

The Band-tailed Pigeon nests in isolated localities and never in 
colonies as did its unfortunate eastern relative, the Passenger Pigeon. 
To this habit it probably owes, in a large degree, its ability to with- 
stand the heavy hunting to which it has been subjected. One au- 
thentic report from Arizona states that about thirty-five pairs nested 
in a ‘‘seattered rookery, probably not averaging a nest to every 
three or four acres at the most thickly populated part’’* (Fowler, 1903, 
p. 69) ; but such an occurrence has not been recorded from California. 
The nests here are widely scattered and extremely difficult to locate. 
The greatest number of occupied nests reported by any Californian 
observer for a single day’s search is two, and about three per season 
seems to be the limit of one man’s discovery. The accompanying 
table (no. 18, from Grinnell, 1913, with additions and corrections) 
gives all the definite nesting data for California known to the writers. 

Nearly all authentic reports from California agree in stating that 
the Band-tailed Pigeon nests in trees— almost invariably in black 
or golden oaks—at heights ranging from eight to thirty feet above 
the ground. As exceptions, Littlejohn (MS) found a nest in San 
Mateo County in a Douglas spruce; and in Marin County, J. Mailliard 
(1912, p. 194) found a nest in a California lilac (Ceanothus thyrsi- 
florus) overhanging a steep slope. Some early reports from this state 
have mentioned ground nests, as have several more recent, but scarcely 
trustworthy, accounts from Oregon and Washington; but there is 
no late evidence of the ground nesting habit in California. In a 
general way the nest resembles that of the Mourning Dove, save 
that it is considerably larger, and sometimes proportionately thicker. 
It is a crude structure, a mere pile of oak and other twigs, so loosely 
arranged that attempts to remove the mass often result in its falling 
to pieces. The average diameter is six or eight inches, while the thick- 


582 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


TapiE 18—Data Relative to the Nesting of the Band-tailed Pigeon 
in California 


Locauiry DatE ConTENTS OF NEST AUTHORITY 


Laguna Mts., “20 miles Mar. 6, 1877 1 egg (near hatching) Stephens (1913, p. 129) 
north of Campo,’’ San é 


Diego Co. - 

Pine Mt., 3,250 ft., May 3, 1901 2 eggs (fresh) Sharp (1903, p. 16) 
San Diego Co. 

Pine Mt., 3,250 ft., May 11, 1902 1 egg (incubation well Sharp (1903, p. 16) 
San Diego Co. advanced ) 


ay 


San Jacinto Mts., at 6,500 May 14, 1897 1 squab (just hatched) Gilman (1903, p. 134) 
ft., Riverside Co. ‘ ; 
San Jacinto Mts., at 6,500 May 14, 1897 1 squab (half-grown) Gilman (1903, p. 134) 


ft., Riverside Co. 


Mt. Wilson, 5,500 ft., May 23, 1897 1 egg (considerably Grinnell (1898, p. 20) 
Los Angeles Co. : incubated) 

Cuyamaca Mts., 4 miles June 4, 1896 Adult bird on nest, but Albert M. Ingersoll 
south of Julian, San 8 not flushed (in letter) 
Diego Co. : 

Palomar Mts., June 21, 1910 1 egg Huey (1913, p. 152) ; 
San Diego Co. . 

Pine Mt., 3,250 ft., June 24, 1902 1 egg (incub. far adv.; Sharp (1903, p. 16) 
San Diego Co. same nest as May 11, 


1902) 
North Peak, Cuyamaca July 1 (about) 2 squabs in one nest Huey (19138, p. 152) 
Mts., San Diego Co. » 1910 


San Jacinto Mts., at Ful- July 1, 1908 1 egg (incubation Grinnell and Swarth 
ler’s Mill, 5,900 ft., - i slight) | (19138, p. 233) 
Riverside Co. : 

Near Woodside, - July 8, 1914 1 squab ¢ ‘(Sent to State Game 
San Mateo Co. Ma a ., Farm, Hayward) 
Mt. Wilson, 5,500 ft., July 5, 1894 1 squab (about one Grinnell (1898, p. 20) 

Los Angeles Co. , week old), ’ : 

Lagunitas, Marin Co. July 80, 1912 1 egg (incubation J. Mailliard (1912, 

— ye ’ far advanced) p. 194) 


- 


Barley Flats, 5,600, ft.,, Last of July, young (able to fly) Antonin Jay (in letter) 
Los Angeles Co. 1888 

Barley Flats, 5,600: ft., Last of July.. 1 young (able to fly) Antonin Jay (in letter) 
Los Angeles Co. 1888 


Big Bear Lake, Aug. 11, 1913 1 egg (nearly fresh) Pierce (1913, p. 227) 
San Bernardino Mts. ; 

Near Redwood City, Aug. 23, 1914 1 eeg (half incubated) Chase Littlejohn 
San Mateo Co. {in letter) 


ness in two recorded instances was one and four inches, respectively 
(Sharp, 1903, p. 16; Grinnell, 1913, p. 31). Sometimes as few as 16 
or 18 twigs are all that go to make up the nest (Huey, 1913, p. 152), 
and again there may be more than a hundred (nest in Mus. Vert. 
Zool.). The twigs range from a sixteenth to a quarter of an inch in 
diameter and are of various lengths. They are laid across one another, 
with little or no weaving, forming a platform with numerous inter- 
stitial spaces. A slight lining of pine needles was found in one nest 
(Sharp, 19038, p. 16). As Gilman (1903, p. 134) well says, it is a 
marvel how an egg can be kept warm enough to hatch while resting 
on such an airy platform in the cool air of a high altitude. The nest 
site, which is almost always on top of a large horizontal limb, seems 
to be so selected that the incubating bird may flush directly and 
rapidly from the nest when danger threatens. . 

Of the actual construction of the nest, Willard, writing of an 
observation in Arizona (1916, pp. 110-111), says: 


BAND-TAILED PIGEON 583 


Nest building was carried on only in the early morning hours, from sunrise 
till about 8 o’clock. Both birds were present, but the female alone seemed to be 
engaged in the actual construction of the nest, which she went about in a very 
lackadaisical manner. The pair would sit together on the few sticks already in 
place for many minutes; at last the female seemed to remember that she was 
nest building, and flew up the mountain side followed by the male. Considerable 
time was spent on every trip after material, so very few sticks were added each 
day, and it was not until six days had elapsed that the flimsy platform was com- 
pleted and the egg laid. 


The birds are close sitters, often flushing when the observer is 
very near to the nest. However, when once alarmed, they usually 
leave precipitately, and make off through the trees so swiftly as to 
be quickly lost to sight. This abrupt flushing of the bird from the 
nest often leads to discovery of the latter when its location would be 
otherwise extremely difficult to determine, so closely do the twigs 
composing the structure resemble the smaller branches of the tree in 
which it is situated. Only in a few instances have birds been known 
to linger in the vicinity of the nest, or to attempt to lead the intruder 
away. 

Two California reports of a definite nature give two eggs as the 
nest complement ; all others specify but a single egg each (see table). 
Bendire (1892, p. 127) states that the period of incubation is eighteen 
to twenty days, and that the young birds remain in the nest about 
a month after hatching. Allowing a week for the construction of the 
nest, and for laying, about two months time would be necessary for the 
rearing of one brood. There is no reliable evidence that the pigeon 
nests more than once each year in California, save when its first nest- 
ing is disturbed. In one recorded instance (Sharp, 1903, p. 16) a 
nest from which an incubated egg had been collected on May 11, 
contained, on June 24 of the same year (1902), another egg also well 
advanced in incubation. It is probable that the later nesting dates 
given in our table refer to instances where the first egg was destroyed, 
and not to instances of a second successful nesting. 

In rate of increase, the Band-tailed Pigeon is, according to the 
evidence herewith submitted, by far the slowest of all our game birds. 
As a rule but one young is hatched each year. Contrast this with ten 
among quail, eight among ducks, and four among wading birds. 
The impressive fact that our wild pigeon does not exceed, in rate 
of reproduction, the birthrate of deer, antelope and elk, suggests the 
“ demand for treatment in game legislation corresponding with that 
given these large mammals. It is very probable that under primitive 
conditions the Band-tailed Pigeon was ten times more immune from the 
fatalities due to predacious animals, and to causes other than old 
age, than is the quail! 


584 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


As already intimated, the amount of food available to the pigeon 
appears to be the main controlling factor in its distribution, aside from 
the zonal considerations which apply during the breeding season. This 
is more particularly true in winter, though probably to some extent 
in summer also. As will-be observed from the following data, the 
food consists chiefly of berries and nuts, and the plants which bear 
these are of intermittent productiveness. A large crop one year in 
a certain region is almost sure to be succeeded by a poor one the fol- 
lowing year, so that the pigeons would fare scantily if dependent alto- 
gether on any one locality. Their proclivity to circulate over large 
areas makes available to them abundant crops recurring at different 
places. The birds are thus able to find support in great numbers some- 
where all the time. 

Out of twenty-two records mentioning their food, ten give acorns 
as the chief article of diet. Probably all the species of oaks are 
patronized by the pigeons. Those specifically recorded are: in west- 
central and southern California, the live oaks (Quercus agrifolia and 
Q. wislizenit), in the foothill regions, the golden oak (Quercus chry- 
solepis), and along the Sierra Nevada and on the San Bernardino and 
San Jacinto mountains, the black oak (Quercus kelloggi). The acorn 
season lasts well through the autumn months, and under favorable 
circumstances even until February. 

As with all the other articles of food consumed by these birds, the 
acorns are swallowed whole, and in such numbers that at feeding time 
the crop becomes enormously distended. Here the food is acted upon 
by powerful digestive juices, and both shell and kernel rapidly dis- 
integrate and pass on to the stomach and gizzard. There is no dis- 
gorgement of hard parts of the food, as with some birds. Considering 
the apparently small size of its mouth, the pigeon’s ability to swallow 
entire such relatively huge objects as the acorns of the golden oak 
is amazing. One dropped by a bird in Aight measured about one by 
one and one-half inches (A. M. Ingersoll, in letter). It is reported 
(Van Rossem, 1914, p. 146) that pigeons have been found in a dying 
‘condition, their crops pierced by acorns which they had swallowed. 

In the coast region of central California the berries of the madrone 
(Arbutus menziesii) form an attractive food source in the fall of the 
year. In certain instances bands of pigeons have been known to stay 
around tracts of madrones until practically every berry had been 
taken. Sometimes the birds feed so largely on these berries that 
their flesh becomes discolored thereby (Jenkins, 1906, p. 126). 

When the acorn crop is small or has become exhausted, the birds 
resort to the apple-like fruits of certain species of manzanita (Arcto- 
staphylos), eating them from the time they are first formed and green, 
until late fall when they are fully ripe. In early October, 1915, large 


BAND-TAILED PIGEON 585 


numbers of pigeons thronged the brush-covered slopes of Pinoche 
Peak, Mariposa County, and literally stripped the manzanita bushes 
of their berries. In winter the birds often feed on the abundant fruits 
of the toyon or Christmas berry (Heteromeles arbutifolia). Earlier 
in the fall they resort to the fruit of the coffee berry (Rhamnus, sev- 
eral species), and that of the elderberry (Sambucus glauca) and the 
chokecherry (Prunus demissa). 

Toward the end of winter, the fruit and nut crops become ex- 
hausted and then the pigeons subsist on the flower and leaf buds of 
the same plants that produced their sustenance earlier. Dean (1904, 
p. 111) says that in February the pigeons in the Sierran foothills at 
Three Rivers, Tulare County, feed on manzanita buds; and in south- 
ern California they have repeatedly been observed to feed on oak 
buds. One observer described a bitter taste to the flesh which was 
thought to have been developed by a diet of oak buds and acorns 
(Belding, 1879, p. 437). 

In southern California in early spring the sycamore balls are 
frequently eaten. No less than thirty-five of these ball-like flower 
clusters have been counted in the crop of a single pigeon (Evermann. 
1886, p. 92). Fruits of the Nuttall dogwood, wild peas, and various 
small seeds are known to have been taken. Finally, in two instances, 
pine seeds have been found in the birds’ crops: in Calaveras County 
in July (Belding, 1890, p. 21) ; and on Mount Pinos, Ventura County, 
June 29 (Grinnell, 1905, p. 382). It is, of course, probable in these 
eases that either the cones were fully ripe and the scales spread so 
that the seeds could be readily extracted, or that the seeds were picked 
up from the ground beneath the trees where they had fallen. 

The above-mentioned articles of diet include only wild fruits, such 
as are of indifferent value to man. At times, however, pigeons have 
been found to resort extensively to grain fields. In many cases the 
birds have repaired to stubble fields where they gleaned the waste 
grain, wholly worthless of course. Thus, near Three Rivers, Tulare 
County, in July, 1891, pigeons were observed foraging in barley stub- 
ble (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 31). In a few instances, newly sown 
grain has been resorted to, with the result that more or less damage 
has been inflicted—the only way in which Band-tailed Pigeons are 
known to affect man’s interests unfavorably. At Palo Alto in Janu- 
ary, 1901, good sized flocks were observed on newly sown barley fields, 
and the crop of a bird taken then was crammed with seed barley 
(Grinnell, MS). A pigeon taken at Crescent City, Del Norte County, 
May 15, 1916, was found by us to have in its gullet 509 grains of 
barley, 23 of oats, 6 of corn, and some fragments of acorns. At Santa 
Monica, in February and March, 1901, flocks were feeding in grain 
fields. Their depredations were complained of by a rancher who 


586 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


attempted to dispose of the birds by putting. out poisoned grain, and 
with some success! Hight killed in this manner. were examined. by 
H. S. Swarth (MS). In Marin County, J. Mailliard (1912, p. 194) 
states that he knows of pigeons picking up stray kernels in fields just 
planted with forage corn. 


In March, 1901, great flocks of the. pigeons poured into San Gorgonio Pass 
and fed in the barley fields. For about two weeks there were hundreds of them, 
but they all left as suddenly as they had appeared. Their method of feeding was 
peculiar. Instead of spreading out they kept together, alternately walking and 
flying. Those behind would fly a few feet ahead of the advance line, alight, and 
walk along picking up grain until other rear ones would fly ahead and it came 
their turn again. In this way the flock advanced, some in the air all the time, 
and ground was covered quite rapidly. The crop of a specimen secured contained 
615 grains of barley by actual count (Gilman, 1903, p. 134). 


The relative paucity of records of definite damage to grain leads 
to the conclusion that the amount of actual loss inflicted by pigeons is 
very small. If it regularly reached appreciable proportions, we would 
hear far more frequent complaints. _ The irregularity in distribution 
from year to year serves to mitigate such an adverse bearing of the 
pigeon. Only at long intervals are the birds likely to visit a given 
locality in just the appropriate season to have any effect on the grain 
interests. 

In Yosemite Valley attempts to destroy ground squirrels by dis- 
tributing poisoned grain broadcast have resulted in the death of many 
pigeons. This method of squirrel poisoning in any locality where 
pigeons occur, particularly if other food is scarce, is to be discouraged. 

The Band-tailed Pigeon seems to be extraordinarily free from 
natural enemies. Of these we have good record of only two. Willard 
(1916, p. 111) says that in Arizona ‘‘the Prairie Faleon and Cooper 
Hawk take considerable toll from the flocks. These two terrors of the 
air will dash into a tree and grab a pigeon off a branch, rarely making 
an unsuccessful raid. The Prairie Falcon is the chief offender.’’ We 
know of no similar report from California. 

The value of the Band-tailed Pigeon as a true game bird is to be 
conceded without argument. Its pursuit is of a different type from 
that offered by any other game species. An anonymous writer in 
southern California, who signs himself ‘‘Stillhunter’’ (1907, pp. 200- 
202), says that the best place for hunting pigeons there is near a 
dead tree where the birds are known to alight. For such a situation 
he advises using a .22 or 25~20 rifle; then single birds may be secured 
without inghtening: eway others in the flock. For sneaking up on 
; birds a ‘‘duck gun’’ is recommended. Ten pigeons are considered 
a good day’s bag. If the flesh has become ‘‘strong’’ by reason of the 
birds’ acorn diet, soaking in brine flavored with vinegar or lemon 


BAND-TAILED PIGEON 587 


will remove the disagreeable taste. After such treatment the birds 
should be broiled, or baked in a'pot pie. 

The remarkably slow rate of increase in the five was doubtless 
great enough to maintain its numbers easily under the conditions 
obtaining before the appearance of the white man and his firearms. 
We can but marvel at the ability the bird has shown to maintain itself 
in fair numbers during the last fifty or sixty years, in spite of unre- 
stricted hunting. Judging from recorded accounts, it is only at rare 
intervals that such a slaughter has taken place as that noted in the 
south-central coast counties of this state in the winter of 1911-12 
(Chambers, 1912, p. 108). Indeed, as suggested by the writer cited, 
such unmitigated destruction could not last long without causing a 
complete extinction of the species. Chambers’ account is as follows: 


Band-tailed Pigeons ... were abundant the past winter from Paso Robles 
south to Nordhoff all through the coast range of mountains. One hunter from 
Los Olivos shipped over 2,000 birds to the San Francisco and Los Angeles hotels. 
The morning train from San Luis Obispo to Los Olivos on Sundays averaged 100 
passengers who came to hunt pigeons. A prominent hunter [stated] ... that 
these passengers averaged about thirty birds apiece per day. This would make 
this one day’s excursion [account for] over 3,000 pigeons. Now!—this is [the 
record for] only one train and one day’s hunting. One can hardly calculate the 
number of birds killed by hunters in automobiles and by those who started from 
Los Angeles, San Francisco, Santa Barbara, Ventura, Santa Maria, Paso Robles, 
Lompoc and other small towns.... I honestly believe that the people will 
never again see such a flight of Band-tailed Pigeons. In Nordhoff it is'the largest 
they have ever seen, and the birds evidently hung around until they were simply 
shot out. 


An unusual concentration of the pigeons from the whole Pacific 
coast region into a district easily reached by hunters gave exceptional 
opportunity for the infliction of the slaughter above recounted. This 
weak feature in the pigeon’s mode of life becomes apparent when con- 
ditions of restricted food supply force it into localities where its 
survival depends upon the sanity of hunting regulations. 

The ability of the Band-tailed Pigeon to maintain itself even in 
moderate numbers is due to many factors, among which the following 
are important. The birds repair to mountainous forested regions for 
the breeding season ; they nest in widely separated localities and rarely 
if ever in colonies; they are secretive and give few if any clues to the 
location of their nests; and during the winter months when they are 
as a rule widely distributed in the foothills and valleys of the state, 
they do not occur regularly in the same places in successive years. 

The five-year closed season which began in 1913 was entirely satis- 
factory in that it allowed the birds to begin to recuperate from the 
disastrous effects of the 1912 slaughter. If, in 1918, after the termin- 
ation of the close season, a shooting season is to be permitted, the 


588. GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 

daily, weekly, and possible seasonal .bag- limit. should be closely 
restricted and absolutely no sale of this bird permitted. With proper 
care the Band-tailed Pigeon may be perpetuated as.an important 
item in the game resources of California; it rests almost entirely with 
the people of this state.to decide whether or not this end will be 
realized. 


Western Mourning Dove 


Zenaidura macroura marginella (Woodhouse) 


OruER NAMES—Dove; Common Dove; Wild Dove; Cooing Dove; Rain Dove; 
Carolina Dove; Carolina Turtle Dove; Turtle Dove; Zenaidura macroura caro- 
linensis; Zenaidura carolinensis; Columba carolinensis; Ectopistes carolinensis ; 
Zenaidura macroura. 

Description—Adult male: Front and sides of head light yellowish brown; 
top and back of head bluish slate; chin pale buffy or whitish; small spot below 
ear, iridescent dark blue; upper eyelid dusky, lower one yellow; bill black; iris 
brown; hind neck grayish brown, with broad area at side showing pinkish purple 
iridescence; rest of upper surface chiefly olive brown, a few of the tertials 
marked near ends with large black patches; tail elongated and pointed; long cen- 
tral pair of tail feathers in color like back; next outer pair bluish gray crossed 
near end by a black band; the rest dark bluish gray (black below) near base, 
succeeded by black cross band, near end, and broadly tipped with white; outer- 
most tail feather showing white outer web; outer surface of closed wing (coverts) 
like back, becoming bluish gray at edge of wing; flight feathers chiefly bluish 
gray, but becoming brownish on tips and inner margins; lining of wing and 
axillars, ashy blue; under surface of flight feathers dull brown; throat and whole 
breast, pale pinkish brown; rest of under surface light yellowish brown, palest 
on under tail coverts; sides pale ashy blue like lining of wing; feet lake red. 
Adult female: Like male but with iridescent markings somewhat reduced; bluish 
slate on head replaced largely by brown; throat and breast chiefly pale buffy 
brown. Males: Total length 12.00-12.75 inches (305-324 mm.) (ten specimens) ; 
folded wing 5.78-6.13 (146.8-155.6); bill 0.49-0.57 (12.5-14.5); tarsus 0.77—-0.87 
(19.5-22.0) (ten specimens) ; weight 4.28 oz. (121 gm.) (one specimen). Females: 
Total length 11.25-12.00 (286-305) (three specimens); folded wing 5.40-5.82 
(187.0-147.9); bill 0.49-0.55 (12.5-14.0); tarsus 0.77-0.84 (19.6-21.4) (ten 
specimens) ; weight 3.98 oz. (105.1 gm.) (one specimen); all from California. 
Juvenile plumage: Similar to adult male, but with colors much duller and irides- 
cence wanting; feathers of upper surface lightly tipped with white; chin white; 
top of head and ear region flecked with dusky; edge of wing scaled with whitish; 
breast drab, with lighter feather-tippings. 

Marks FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Moderate size (decidedly smaller than 
domestic pigeon), conspicuously pointed and white margined tail (fig. 89), pale 
yellowish or pinkish brown under surface, and lack of white on wing. The mourn- 
ful cooing note, and the whistling produced as the bird takes flight, are also 
distinctive. 

Voice—A series of four mellow, yet far-reaching notes, ah-cod-roo0-coo, repeated 
at irregular intervals. 

Nest—On the ground, or in bushes or trees, sometimes as high as forty feet 
above the ground, but usually six to eight feet up; a loose, flat structure, of 


589 


WESTERN MOURNING DOVE 


Lower surface of tail of Band-tailed Pigeon. Natural size. 


Note nearly square end and dark band across middle. 


Fig. 88. 


er surface of tail of Western Mourning Dove. Natural size: 


Note wedge-shaped outline and white margins. 
Lower surface of tail of White-winged Dove. Natural size. 


Note nearly square end and white band across end. 


Fig. 89. Low 


Fig. 90. 


590 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


sticks, rootlets and grass stems, carelessly arranged; when above ground usually 
situated on a horizontal branch or limb. 

Eces—Normally 2, elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 0,98 to 1.23 by 0.77 
to 0.87 (in millimeters, 25.0 to 31.2 by 19.5 to 22.0), and averaging 1.07 by 0.83 
(27.2 by 21.2) (thirteen sets, twenty-six eggs, from California) ; color white, un- 
marked, with a noticeable surface gloss. 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Of the Mourning Dove, including the two north 
American subspecies: Breeds from British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Ontario, 
and southern Nova Scotia, south throughout the United States and Mexico, and 
locally in Lower California and Guatemala; winters from southern Oregon, south- 
ern Colorado, the Ohio Valley, and North Carolina south to Panama; casual in 
winter in the Middle States. Of the Western Mourning Dove (marginella) : West- 
ern North America west of the Mississippi Valley, and in western Mexico (A. O. U. 
Check-list, 1910, p. 149; A. O. U. Committee, 1912, p. 381). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CaALIForNIA—Abundant in summer, and breeds, throughout 
the lowlands of the state, occurring also in small numbers in the mountains ° 
through the lower portion of the yellow pine and Douglas fir belts (Transition 
life zone). Common in winter in the coastal district of southern California from 
the vicinity of Santa Barbara southward; also oceurs at that season in small num- 
bers in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys to the head of the latter. Resident 
on all of the southern coastal islands. 


The Western Mourning Dove, by one name or another, is probably 
known to more people in California than any other single species of 
game bird. It is found over very nearly the entire state, and usually 
in considerable numbers. Although present at all times of the year 
somewhere within our boundaries, it is much more abundant and 
more widely distributed in summer than in winter. During the 
nesting season the birds are found chiefly in pairs, but, after the 
young are grown, old and young congregate in flocks and feed and 
roost together. It is then that dove hunters find their best sport. 
The birds have been hunted in California for many years, and still 
are; but in many of the eastern states they are now classed as non- 
game birds and protected by law. In California the nesting period 
of the dove has been found to include almost every month of the 
year, and on the basis of the argument that no shooting should be 
allowed when it is nesting, the arrangement of a proper hunting season 
has presented considerable difficulty. Indeed, this and other considera- 
tions, particularly its service as a destroyer of weed seeds, have quite 
properly raised the question whether we should continue to allow the 
dove to be shot as a game bird.* 


*In the belief that the Mourning Dove merited more detailed consideration than the 
data at hand made possible, a circular letter asking for local information on the species 
was, at our request, sent out by the California Fish and Game Commission to its deputies. 
Replies were received from the following persons: San Diego, Webb Toms; Elsinore, J. H. 
Gvger; Los Angeles, A. J. Stout; Santa Maria, H. J. Abels; Salinas, Frank Shook; Watson- 
ville, J. H. Hill; San Jose, I. L. Koppel; Pleasanton, Earl Downing: Oakland, J. L. Bundock: 
Redwood City, T. F, Maloney; Vallejo, W. H. Armstrong; Napa, W. J. Moore; Santa Rosa, 
Henry Lencioni; Big Pine, BE. H. Ober; Fresno, 8S. L. N. Ellis; Dunlap, F. A. Bullard: 
Newman, J. E. Newsome; Columbia, G. F. Grant; Sutter Creek, F. S. Parke; Shingle, 
Buell Gray: Loomis, C. A. Scroggs; Taylorsville, L. J. Warren; Sacramento. George Neale: 
Live Oak, E. D. Ricketts; Maxwell, S. J. Carpenter; Red Bluff, T. W. Birmingham; Susan- 


WESTERN MOURNING DOVE - 591 


Over much of the state the Mourning Dove is found throughout 
the year, but not at all times or in all localities in the same numbers. 
During the summer months it is common over all of the lowland and 
foothill country, and occurs in small numbers in the lower part of the 
coniferous belt (Transition life zone), thus ranging up into the 
mountains. It extends clear to the northwestern seacoast through the 
redwood belt. East of the Sierran divide it ranges up the mountains to 
fully 8,000 feet altitude (Mus. Vert. Zool.): It is found all over the 
dry deserts of southeastern California, as well as on all:of the coastal 
islands. During the winter months it is well represented in the coast 
district of southern California, and occurs also at that season in vary- 
ing numbers in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys. Nearer 
‘the seacoast small numbers are 

fouzid in various localities north 
as far as Redwood City. Every- 
where the number. of wintering 
birds varies from year to year. 

Our knowledge of the mi- 


in California is incomplete; 
this is due to a lack of ob- 
servers, and also to the fact that 
Hu ey in many places small numbers 
Fig. 91. Head of Western Mourning of the birds remain through 
Dove. Natural size. the winter which makes it diffi- 

’  eult to determine the dates of 

arrival and departure of actual migrants. Belding (1890, p. 22) 


says that in 1886 it was first seen at Agua Caliente [Palm Springs], 


Riverside County, on March 27, and became common there after 
April 1. At Mecca, Riverside County, the first in 1908 was noted 
March 18 (Richardson, MS). Stout (MS) says that about Los 
Angeles it is rare from October to February, but becomes common 


in March; and at Santa Maria, Santa Barbara County, where few 


are resident, the migrants arrive in April (Abels, MS). McGregor 
(1901, p. 5) states that the dove arrives in the coastal part of Santa 
Cruz County about April 1. In the vicinity of San Jose and Red- 
wood City, and about San Francisco Bay in general, it does not appear 
until late April or early May (Koppel, MS; Maloney, MS). The 
first for the season was seen at Olema, Marin County, on April 18 
(1884), and at Nicasio on April 20 two years later ; while at Hayward, 
ville, F. P. Cadv; Weaverville, G. O. Laws; Weed, L. A. Streuber; Greenview, J. W. Harris; 
Crescent City, H. S. Prescott; Fort Bragg, C. R. Perkins; Eureka, E. P. Barnes. : 
In addition, copies of the letter were sent to, and replies received from the following 
ornithologists: John G. Tyler, Fresno;:Leo Wiley, Palo Verde; and J. Eugene Law, Holly- 
wood. To all of these persons the authors are grateful for their kindness in furnishing 


the information requested. Material used from these replies in the following discussion has 
been credited to the correspondents as MS (e.g., Toms, 


gration of the Mourning Dove 


592 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Alameda County, it first appeared. on April 23 (1885), and at 
Berkeley in the same year on April: 30 (Belding, loc. cit.). In the 
central part of the state the migrant doves arrive about the first of 
April, for example in the western part of Calaveras County (Roberts, 
MS), and at Loomis, Placer County (Scroggs, MS). At Sacramento, 
Neale (MS) says May 10 is the average date of arrival, while the birds 
are also late to arrive in the northern Sierras: Taylorsville, 3,500 feet 
altitude, Plumas County, about May 1 (Warren, MS), and at Susan- 
ville, 4,200 feet altitude, Lassen County, late April to mid-May (Cady, 
MS). On the northwest coast, at Crescent City, Del Norte County, 
Prescott (MS) reports that they do not appear until about May 1. 
East of the Sierran divide there are but two records of importance in 
this connection. Lamb (1912, p. 35) says the dove becomes abundant 
near Daggett, in eastern San Bernardino County, after. May 1, while 
Ober (MS) states that it arrives in the vicinity of Big Pine, Inyo 
County, about the middle of May. 

Direct evidence concerning the fall: migration is difficult to obtain 
because of the local movement of the doves, from the valleys into 
the hills. This being almost coincident with the opening of the hunt- 
ing season, some persons believe it due to the frightening of the birds 
in the lowlands where shooting has been concentrated. Some approxi- 
mate dates of departure are as follows: Crescent City, September 20 
(Prescott, MS); Eureka, about September 1 (Barnes, MS); Green- 
view, Siskiyou County, mid-October (Harris, MS); Weaverville, 
Trinity County, October (Laws, MS); Red Bluff, about September 1 
(Birmingham, MS); Susanville, October (Cady, MS); Taylorsville, 
Plumas County, October 15 to 80 (Warren, MS) ; Shingle, Eldorado 
County, September 15 (Gray, MS); Sutter Creek, mid-October to 
mid-November (Parke, MS) ; and Napa, October (Moore, MS). About 
San Francisco Bay the birds depart from the vicinity of Oakland by 
the middle of September (Bundock, M3), and from Redwood City 
by the first of November (Maloney,.MS) ; but in 1884 they were fairly 
common at Berkeley on December 4 (Belding, 1890, p. 22). At more 
southerly stations, a marked diminution in their numbers becomes 
apparent in October. 

The Mourning Dove is recognizable by its comparatively small 

size, conspicuously pointed and white-margined tail, pale brown lower 
surface, and lack of white wing markings. From the Band-tailed 
Pigeon, it may be easily told by its much smaller size, pointed instead 
of square tail, and absence of white collar on hind neck. From the 
White-winged Dove it may be distinguished by its slightly smaller 
size, pointed instead of square tail, and by the absence of white 
markings on its wing. From the Mexican Ground Dove the Mourning 


Dove may be easily distinguished by its very much larger size and 
pointed tail. 


WESTERN MOURNING DOVE 593. 


This bird is essentially an inhabitant of, open country, and is 
rarely if ever found in thickly forested regions. It does, however, 
seek shelter in moderate growths of trees, such as willows and cotton- 
woods along stream courses, or the oaks and digger pines of the foot- 
hill country. Since it feeds to a large extent upon small plant seeds 
it is not limited to fertile regions, but is scattered far and wide over 
much of the desert country in the southeastern part of the state. Here 
the occasional rains, are followed by profuse crops of annuals which 
leave the ground strewn with their seeds. In settled regions the birds 
are very often seen foraging along roadsides or in waste corners of 
fields. 

Water is a prime requisite for the dove and regular visits are made 
to drinking places in the early morning and evening. Even in the 
desert country where feeding and drinking places are often many 
miles apart, the birds make the journey between the two with remark- 
able regularity and directness. Sometimes the only accessible water 
for miles is at a small isolated spring or seepage place, but the birds 
find their way to it with apparent ease. Indeed, experienced travelers 
on the desert have asserted that when in search of water they have 
made use of this faculty of the birds and followed their direct lines 
of flight with success. This essential habit, of visiting water holes, 
was formerly turned to advantage by Indians and market hunters, 
who secreted themselves in the vicinity and killed the birds in great 
numbers as they came to drink. 

Doves roost for the night both on the ground and in trees. A 
favorite perch for the night is some leafless tree in the vicinity of a 
drinking place. In illustration of their behavior in this respect the 
instance may be cited of a flock on San Clemente Island, where at the 
time of observation ‘‘a clump of scraggy cherry trees in the ravine a 
few rods north of the windmill seemed to be a regular roosting place. 
Just at dusk, every evening, the doves. would arrive in pairs and 
settle in the trees until there were probably twenty or thirty. But 
they would leave in the morning by daylight .. .’’ (Grinnell, 1897, 
p. 18). 

Mourning Doves are rarely seen singly. Usually they are noted 
in pairs and quite often in small flocks of a dozen or so. Sometimes 
the birds band into larger flocks numbering fifty or more; but this 
is only after the nesting season, when the young are fully grown, and 
the families have joined together. Throughout most of the year, 
whether feeding in stubble fields or weed patches, whether coming to 
drink or perching in trees to roost for the night, the birds are as a 
rule observed in pairs. This association in couples is so general as to 
give rise to the common belief that doves mate for life. 

The call of this dove is a rather mournful cooing, mellow but far- 


594 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 

reaching in tone. It may be represented by the syllables: ah-co6- 
roo-coo. Under favorable conditions the cooing may be heard for as 
much as half a mile. It is given most commonly in the spring and 
early summer ‘months, and then at almost any time of day, even until 
late dusk. The notes are produced by the male, who is described as 
appearing quite active and cheerful despite the mournful character 
of his utterances (Bendire, 1892, p. 140). 

As a result of the equable climate of the state as a whole, the 
Mourning Dove here has an extremely long nesting season. Sixty- 
six definite records of the nesting of the species within the state 
are at hand (see table 19), the earliest being February 9 (1897) at 
San Gabriel, Los Angeles County, when a nest with slightly incubated 
eggs was found (Willett, 1912a, p. 44), and the latest, December 5 
(1911) at Covina, Los Angeles County, when a heavily incubated set 
was discovered (Howell, 1912, pp. 73-74). Only the months of 
October, November and January are lacking in the list, and it seems 
quite as probable that nesting may occur during those months as 


during some of the others. 


TABLE 19—Data Relative to the Nesting of the Western Mourning Dove 
. ; in California 


Nest CONTENTS 


LocaLity DATE “ AND CONDITION AUTHORITY 

Near San Gabriel, Feb. 9, 1897 2 eggs, incubation slight Willett, 1912a, p. 44 

Los Angeles Co. 
Three Rivers, - Feb. 27, 1902 2 eggs, slight Dean, 1904, p. 111 

Tulare Co. 
Los Angeles Co. Mar. 14, 1896 2 eggs, fresh Grinnell, 1898, p. 20 
Escondido, San Diego Co. Mar. 15, ........ Eggs, fresh Sharp, 1907, p. 86 
Pasadena, Mar. 27, 1896 1 egg, fresh Grinnell, MS. 

Los Angeles Co. ore : 
Near Los Bafios, Mar. 28, 1912 2 eggs Beck, MS., in 

Merced Co: Mus. Vert: Zool. 
Near Los Bafios, Mar. 28, 1912 1 egg Beck, MS., in 

Merced Co. Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Fresno District Mar. 30, 1907 2 half-grown squabs Tyler, 1913b, p..36 
Pasadena, Mar. 30, 1896 2 eggs, incubation Mus. Vert. Zool. 

Los Angeles Co. begun 
Near Pleasanton,. Mar. 31, 1915 2 eggs, about to hatch Bolander, 1915, p. 131 

Alameda Co. 
Altamont, Alameda Co. Apr. 8, 1915 2 eggs, incubated Bolander, 1915, p. 131 
Pasadena, Apr. 15, 1892 2 eggs, incubation 

Los Angeles Co. begun Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Pasadena, Apr. 18, 1895 2 eggs, fresh Mus. Vert. Zool. 

Los Angeles Co. 
Pasadena, Apr. 25, 1895 2 eggs Mus. b. = 

Los Angeles Co. Be Bre Sen 
Modesto, Stanislaus Co. Apr. 29, 1918 2 eggs, incubation one-half Mailliard coll. 
Near Stockton, May 6, 1882 2 eggs, fresh Mailliard coll. 

San Joaquin Co. 
Saticoy, Ventura Co. May 8, 1873 Nesting Cooper, 1880, p. 251 
Hayward, Alameda Co. May 12, 1877 Nesting Cooper, 1880, p. 251 
Piedmont Springs, May 14, 1882 2 

eed Us, y eggs Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Cabezon, Riverside Co. May 15, 1908 2 eggs, incubation Mus. Vert. Zool. 

; under way 

Sugar Hill, Modoc Co. May 20, 1910 2 eggs Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Hayward, Alameda Co. May 20, 1878 Nesting Cooper, 1880, p. 251 


‘LOCALITY 
Hayward, Alameda Co. 


Calaveras Creek, 
Alameda Co. 

Santa Cruz 

Snow Creek, 
Riverside Co. 


Lake Vallev, 
near Lake Tahoe 


Lathrop, San Joaquin Co. 


Snow Creek, 
Riverside Co. 


Near Lathrop, 
San Joaquin Co. 


Hayward, Alameda Co. 


Colton, 
San Bernardino Co. 


Lathrop, San Joaquin Co. 
Lathrop, San Joaquin Co. 
Alameda Co. . 
Alameda Co. 


Pasadena, 
Los Angeles Co. 


San Clemente Island 
San Clemente Island 


Pasadena, 
Los Angeles Co. 


Alameda Co. 
3 miles east Coulterville, 


Mariposa Co., 3,200 ft. 


3 miles east Coulterville, 


Mariposa Co., 3,200 ft. 


Alturas, Modoc Co. 
Alturas, Modoe Co. 
Alturas, Modoe Co. 


Sacramento 
Eldorado Co. 


Taylorville, Marin Co. 

Palomar Mountain, 
San Diego Co. 

Sacramento 

Hayward, Alameda Co. 

Santa Cruz Island 


Hayward, Alameda Co. 


Tulare Lake; Kings Co. 


Pasadena, 
Los Angeles Co. 


Hayward, Alameda Co. 


Cushenberry Springs, 
San Bernardino Co. 


Murphys, Calaveras Co. 
Murphys, Calaveras Co. 
Vallevista, Riverside Co. 


Vallevista, Riverside Co. 


Escondido, San Diego Co. 
Los Angeles Co. 


Near Santa Monica, 
Los Angeles Co. 


Covina, Los Angeles Co. 


WESTERN MOURNING DOVE 


. 30, 


TABLE 19— (Continued) 


DaTE 
23, 1885 
23, 1881 


1865 
1908 


25, 
27, 


1909 


1911 
1908 


1911 


1887 
1907 


1, 1911 
1, 1911 
3, 1899 
3, 1899 
3, 1892 


3, 1897 
6, 1897 
6, 1892 


6, 1899 
7, 1915 


7, 1915 
9, 1910 
9, 1910 
9, 1910 


1867 
1898 


1904 
1897 


1867 
1878 
7, 1912 


1881 


1907 
1, 1895 


1881 
1905 


1878 


2 eggs, 


Nest Contents 
AND CONDITION 


fresh 


2 eggs, fresh. 


Nesting 
2 eggs 
2 eggs, fresh 


2 eggs 
eges, 


is 


fresh 


2 squabs, partly 
fledged 


2 eggs, fresh 
2 eggs, probably fresh 


2 eggs 

2 eggs 

2 eggs, fresh 

2 incubation begun 
2 


fresh 


eggs, 
eggs, 


1 egg, fresh 

2 eggs, fresh 

2 eggs, slightly incubated 
2 eggs, fresh 
1 egg 


2 eggs 


2 eggs, fresh 


2 eggs, fresh 


2 eggs, fresh 
2 eggs 


2 eggs, fresh 


2 eggs 
1 squab 


2 eggs 
Nesting 
1 ege 


3 eggs, incubation 
two-thirds 


Still breeding 
1 egg, fresh 


is] 


eggs, incubation 
begun 

2 squabs 

Eggs, nearly hatched 
Eggs 

Small squabs 


Small squabs 

Eggs, fresh c 
2- eggs, just hatching 
2 eggs, fresh 


2 eggs, incubation 
advanced 


595 


AUTHORITY 
Mailliard coll. 
Mailliard coll. 


Cooper, 1880, p. 251 


Grinnell and Swarth, 
1913, p. 2384 


Ray, 1910, p. 130 


H. C. Bryant, MS. 
Mus. Vert. Zool. 


H. C. Bryant, MS. 


Mailliard coll. 
Hanna, 1907, p. 198 


H. C. Bryant, MS. 
H. C. Bryant, MS. 
Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Mus. Vert. Zool. 
Mus. Vert. Zool. 


Grinnell, 1897, p. 13 
Grinnell, 1897, p. 13 
Mus. Vert. Zool. 


Mus. Vert. Zool. 


Storer, MS., in 
Mus. Vert. Zool. 


Storer, MS., in 
Mus. Vert. Zool. 


W. P. Taylor, MS., in 
Mus. Vert. Zool. 


W. P. Taylor, MS., in 
Mus. Vert. Zool. 

W. P. Taylor, MS., in 
Mus. Vert. Zool. 


Ridgway, 1877, p. 597 


Barlow and Price, 
1901, p. 160 


Mus. Vert. Zool. 
McGregor, 1899, p. 67 


Ridgway, 1877, p. 597 
Cooper, 1880, p. 251 
Wright and Snyder, 
1913, p. 91 
Mailliard coll. 


Goldman, 1908b, p. 203 
Grinnell, MS. 


Mailliard coll. 
Grinnell, 1908, p. 57 


Belding, 1879, p. 438 
Belding, 1879, p. 438 


Grinnell and Swarth, 
1913, p. 234 


Grinnell and Swarth, 
1913, p. 234 

Sharp, 1907, p. 86 

Grinnell, 1898, p. 20 


Willett, 1912a, p. 44 


Howell, 1912, pp. 73-74 


596 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


The sixty-six records at hand (table 19) are distributed through 
the year as follows: 2 in February, 8 in March, 5 in April, 17 in May, 
20 in June, 3 in July, 7 in August, 3 in September, and 1 in December. 
Thirty-two of the sixty-six nestings were observed between May 20 and 
June 18, which period probably represents the height of the breeding 
season. It is also probable that relatively more nestings occur in July 
than is here indicated. The report received from the Fish and Game 
Commission deputies would seem to show that the breeding season 
extends from February through October, with the height of the season 
in June and July; thus, in 31 re- 
ports, 18 record nesting in May, 26 
in June, 28 in July, and 21 in 
August, although in nine cases nest- 
ing is not recorded as continuing 
through the latter month. In 19 re- 
ports, five (four from the northwest- 
ern part of the state) record one 
brood, eleven record two broods and 
seven record three broods as obtain- 
ing either regularly or infrequently. 
Where stated, ground nests are re- 
ported commonest in eleven locali- 
ties, and tree nests commonest in ten, 
but neither type seems to be alto- 
gether restricted to any particular 
part of the state. Probably the avail- 
ability of sites and presence of enem- 
les exercise some control upon the 


a8 B > 2 eB & 2 sw : : 

fe & os 2 £ 2 8 Ss selection of any one kind of nest 
Fig. 92. Nesting season of the site. 

Western Mourning Dove in Cali- The above data bear upen the 

fornia, according to opinions of . 5 

deputies of the California Fish question as to when the hunting 

and Game Commission. season can be opened, so as not to 


jeopardize eggs or squabs of nest- 
ing pairs of doves. The opening of the season for many past years 
has been either July 1 or July 15, but even the latter of these dates 
is quite evidently too early. On the other hand, an occasional nesting 
as late as September would not seem to us a valid warrant for defer- 
ring the beginning of the hunting season (if the dove is not to receive 
total protection) until so late as October 1, especially in view of the 
departure of many migrant birds a month or more before that time, 
in the northern part of the state. If a uniform date of opening 
throughout the state is to be adhered to, we believe that September 1 
comes nearest to meeting the contingencies of the case. 


WESTERN MOURNING DOVE 597 


At the beginning of the breeding season, which is announced by 
the augmented cooing of the males, the flocks break up and the birds 
scatter out, each pair ordinarily nesting by itself. At times, however, 
several couples may nest in such close proximity to each other as to 
suggest a colony (Tyler, 1913b, pp. 35-37); but their behavior is 
quite different from that of strictly colonial birds. Nests are to be 
found in all sorts of locations, and it is difficult to infer any choice 
of situation on the basis of seclusion, protection from enemies, or even 
proximity to food or water. They are found on the bare open ground, 
on the banks of gullies, in low bushes, and at varying elevations in 
trees, some having been noted as much as forty feet above the ground. 
Probably six or eight feet would be an average height for nests that 
are built above the surface of the ground. Whatever the location, 
the structure is crude, a mere platform of small sticks and grasses 
or roots, so loosely put together that in elevated nests the eggs may 
often be seen through the structure from below. Sometimes the 
deserted nests of other birds, as for example of the mockingbird 
(Tyler, loc. cit.), may be used, and slightly added to; but this prac- 
tice is not common. 

Nests of the Mourning Dove rarely contain more or less than two 
eggs. Tyler (loc. cit.) states that after ‘‘examining hundreds of nests”’ 
he can only recall two in which the complement deviated from that 
number. One contained three eggs, one of them being so different 
that he believed it to have been deposited by another female; the 
other held a single heavily incubated egg in a remodeled mocking- 
bird’s nest. The unusual depth of the latter nest made it unlikely 
that a second egg had been present and had rolled out. A. K. Fisher 
(18934, p. 33) states that at Lone Pine, Inyo County, a nest was found 
during the first part of June which contained three young. 

According to Bendire (1892, p. 142), one day intervenes between 
the deposition of the first and second eggs, and the process of incuba- 
tion is said to last for about two weeks. Our impression is that 
incubation is carried on by the female only. If a nest is approached 
the sitting bird may slip quietly off and fly away some distance; or, 
again, the ‘‘broken-wing’’ ruse may be tried in its extremest mani- 
festation. Probably, as with other birds, this ruse comes into use 
chiefly towards the end of the period of incubation. 

The eggs are elliptical ovate, that is, more nearly equal-ended than 
those of the domestic hen, and are pure white in color, with a slight 
gloss. They vary considerably in size; thirteen sets (twenty-six eggs) 
in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology measure in inches, 0.98 to 1.23 
by 0.77 to 0.87, and average 1.07 by 0.83. The eggs of the Mourning 
Dove differ from those of the Band-tailed Pigeon in being decidedly 
smaller, about two-thirds as long and one-third the bulk. It is com- 


598 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


monly believed that two, and in some instances three, broods are raised 
in a season. There is no conclusive evidence at hand to substantiate 
either this, or the contention of some sportsmen that certain of the 
birds nest successively at. high and then lower altitudes. 

While in the nest the squabs are fed on material regurgitated by 
the parents, the so-called ‘‘pigeon’s milk.’? Judd (1901, p. 431) 
reports that examination of five squabs of this species showed that 
their food comprised thirty per cent of entire seeds of plants and 
the balance consisted of irregular endosperm fragments of the same 
kinds of seeds. The plants represented are those species usually 
included in the term ‘‘weed?’; namely, oxalis, spurge, ragweed, sun- 
flower, and pigeon grass. Adults collected during the same season had 
eaten all of the species of seeds identified in the*food of the nestlings, 
as well as some others. The adults brood their young sometimes even 
after they are fully fledged. Although laying but two eggs the doves 
are remarkably successful in hatching them and rearing both squabs, 
and this together with the possibility that two broods are reared in 
a season may in part account for the dove’s ability to maintain itself 
despite the heavy slaughter during the hunting season. 

An examination of the food of the Mourning Dove shows that weed 
seeds form the principal item of its diet throughout the year. Beal 
(1904, pp. 6-7) in an examination of 237 stomachs of this bird from 
all parts of the country found that weed seeds comprised 64 per cent 
of the food for the year, and that the percentage did not vary greatly 
in different months. The remaining 32 per cent of vegetable food 
consisted of grains of various sorts (wheat, oats, barley, rye, buck- 
wheat and corn), but of these the only grain taken in good condition, 
that is, apparently fresh, was wheat, which seemed to be preferred. 
By far the greater amount of this grain was waste, gleaned from 
stubble fields. Such grain has little or no value, and the amount taken 
by all the doves in California is negligible when the total amount 
of grain lost in harvesting is considered. The animal food taken by 
doves is chiefly insects, and constitutes less than one per cent of their 
total diet. It is probably for the most part taken accidentally. 

Enormous numbers of seeds are taken by doves. Three counts were 
made by the Bureau of Biological Survey and showed 6,400, 7,500 
and 9,200 seeds, respectively, in the stomachs and crops of three 
birds. A large percentage of the seeds taken are those of garden 
and farm weed pests. ‘‘In certain parts of California the habit of 
feeding on the seeds of turkey mullein (Eremocarpus setigerus) is 
so well known that a botanist, on inquiring how he could collect some 
seeds of this plant, was advised to shoot a few doves and open their 
crops’? (T. S. Palmer, 1900, p. 17). All food material: is ground 
into small fragments in the bird’s muscular gizzard ; hence the dove is 


WESTERN MOURNING DOVE 599 


not instrumental in transporting the seeds of noxious weeds and 
other plants, as are many other birds that merely swallow the seeds 
or berries, dissolve off an outer nutritious coating, and discharge them 
without affecting the powers of germination. 

Occasionally doves have been killed by eating poisoned grain put 
out for horned larks where the latter were destroying grain (McAtee, 
1905, p. 18). Serious complaint has been made here in California 
that poisoned grain put out for ground squirrels has killed numbers 
of doves (Bundock, MS). Some are probably killed each year by 
poisonous gases in the orange groves when the trees are being fumi- 
gated, as instanced by Howell (1914, p. 55). Doves have natural 


June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. April May 


1880 }.-...-- —_ eee (ees Ce ee ee a 
1883 ee ee eee ee Saesim lrenveieials ys 6-934 
BW) _——_—_—__——_—_—_ st ccc Ses Pees Cera 
1893 |---- --f--.-e ES rere eee 
1895 |------- - . SasWicmaccederansinsy  ceeigared 
1897 |------- List . b Be Peers ere eee ai 
1901 |-------[------- a semact ee at gal eeiane da alleehdiensige 
1903 |------- 7 Sie aesecrallaass wes | Anse 
1907 
1911 }. 
1915 


Fig. 93. Changes in the open season for hunting doves in 
California, from the time of the establishment of the first close 
season in 1880 until 1915. ; 


enemies, also. A. K. Fisher (18936), as a result of the examina- 
tion of 2,690 stomachs of hawks and owls taken all over the United 
States, found remains of doves in nine stomachs. But this is not a 
very large proportion as compared with 43 stomachs in which quail 
or grouse were found. In this connection, the relative numbers of 
doves to these other game birds ought to be taken into account, as 
well as their relative powers of flight. On the whole, doves are prob- 
ably much more immune from natural enemies than are quail or 
grouse. 

In a number of the eastern states, more particularly the northern 
ones (lying in the Transition life zone), the Mourning Dove is not, 
and has not, for many years, been considered a game bird; but, in 
the south, and here in the west, where a warmer climate favors the 
existence of the species in greater numbers, it has always been con- 
sidered fair game by sportsmen. In California, the first state-wide 
law protecting doves was passed in 1880 when the open season was 


600 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


made to extend from July 1 until January 1, six months. Since 
that time there seems to have been constant,.dissatisfaction on the 
part of hunters in the different. sections of the :state, with. resulting 
readjustment of open and closed seasons. There have: been no less 
than eleven different legislative enactments on the subject during the 
last thirty-five years.. The changes in the law: from time :to time 
are indicated in the accompanying chart (fig. 93).. 

The present (1915) law, which conforms to the season under the 
Federal Migratory Bird Law passed in 1913, will be seen to be the 
most conservative of. any yet enacted in California. Two opposing 
conditions make the regulation of the dove season here extremely 
difficult, namely, the late nesting, and the rather early migration in 
the northern part of the state. Birds in the region surrounding 
the head of the Sacramento Valley are nesting almost up to the time 
that they begin to leave for the south, so that if the hunters of this 
section are to be allowed to shoot the birds at all, the open season 
will have to include the latter part of the nesting period and be 
rather short at best. Opening the season on September 1 will not 
prevent shooting while some nesting is still in progress, yet it will 
allow the great majority of the young birds to be fully fledged before 
hunters take the field. A second chart (fig. 94) shows that the hunting 
season in California (1915) is a fair average as compared with the 21 
other states that permit dove shooting. 

The number of dove hunters in California is simply enormous, 
and the wonder is that the birds have not been exterminated long 
ago. Mr. A. D. Ferguson, in charge of the Fresno District of the 
California Fish and Game Commission, says (in Calif. Fish and Game 
Comm., 1914, p. 42): 


In the season of 1913, it is estimated that in Fresno County 4,000 gunners 
were out for doves on the opening day . . and... few if any of these people 
were disappointed in the day’s bag. After the opening date doves could not be 
so readily secured. Apparently the surviving birds took refuge in the Sierra 
hills and in isolated sections of the sparsely inhabited west side of the valley. 
The spring of 1914, however, disclosed the presence of doves in their old breeding 
grounds in most satisfactory numbers. 


Excessive shooting does undoubtedly have its effect, for in Los 
Angeles County Mr. George Willett states that the birds have been 
greatly reduced, and the same report comes from Solano County. 
Agricultural development in general may be said to favor the increase 
of doves, and thus to some degree compensates for the reduction 
caused by hunting. Waste grain and other seeds furnish considerable 
food, while the inevitable growths of weeds in neglected corners and 
fallow fields give further sustenance. The birds are notably adapt- 
able in the choice of nesting sites, so that the planting of orchards, 


WESTERN MOURNING DOVE 601 


or on the other hand, the clearing of brush lands, does not affect them 
unfavorably. 

In earlier years Mourning Doves furnished ‘‘a large amount of 
food to the Indians during the spring and summer. Beforé migration 
commences the ‘Indians build rude huts of brush, grass, and weeds, in 
which to secrete’ themselves, near the springs and streams. Loopholes * 


June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. April May 


Alabama. ey er ee ems Lame Leary aes (PR: SES (pe Pees eee 


Arizona PT eter) ayer acaarn 


California’ |.----|-.--. eexes ve telieeuls see |aawetotad. faeces 


Colorado |----- Ueva\in|lepevieemen ere. oid Omen te orres| Reenenes| Pomretes Peres (Peary pera (EReeet| 
Delaware ee een : 
Florida v= 22 -Je----]-- eed eee poacpese 
Georgia _~——i-----| sie [eccenfece s [Seues a eee ee ee ee Cees (eeeaeees 
Idaho niecoeis aie Se acre) erecar ed eee ee carer el eerie (berarare 


Illinois j-----[----- ee ee Peeiery eeeen) Oeeieeen) Rieti baeeeinns eared Ciena Leese 


Kentucky _}----- BOE ee ee eee Coe) Creed prone 


Louisiana ~~‘ f-----]-----}-----]----- Siete a ate owe Sisfare eee eawess 


Maryland fee Cees ee a oe ee Seen (ree) eer eric] pares Peer e a 


Mississippi |-- -- Beered Berarre| (arisen 


Missouri — g¥- --- - sere syelseess less vali caselves celaer ss gestae 
Nebraska {----- =! oe Ces Cs Ce See cee Perec reer meee! 
Nevada 


New Mexico }-- ---|----- = ear e Mee euee|'s secs Rees seta 
North bai at om = ——_—_—_—_—— ne! oe Cy 
Carolina sees 


Oregon Serre eens bees ssid Sasi stoner Perera (aera (ernie? sreccfeceee 
South ‘ 
Carolina 


Tennessee Eperees) Fey se ee ee ee a a ee aera pists sil sieees aii ie 


Utah  —si erro fe 74 eee ees ees Ce eee eee Pees Ces Ses Ces 


Virginia sj... Jee -- aia 8 [sre Siac [Patioveis | odce nce Pa sueseo'eid 
(part) 


Fig. 94. Open season for hunting doves in states which 
allow these birds to be shot (1915). 


are made on the sides toward the water, through which arrows are 
shot at the birds as they alight to drink’’ (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 33). 
In 1895-96, when doves were yet permitted to be sold in the 
markets, the records of the California Fish and Game Commission 
(Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 40) show that 5,160 birds were received 
in San Francisco and Los Angeles from October to February, inclus- 
ive. Their value was quoted as slightly less than five cents apiece. _ 
The dove population of California as a whole has decreased con: 
siderably during recent years. Twenty-two of our correspondents 
report decreases ranging from slight reductions to almost total extir- 


602 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


pation, five say that the dove population has remained constant, and 
four report that the birds have increased, although it is not stated 
whether this increase has reached former numbers or exceeded them. 
Nine of those reporting reduction in numbers attribute it to the 
inerease in the efficiency of shotguns, and ‘better modes of travel 
such as that afforded by the automobile; two correspondents, in the 
central coast district, state that doves have perished in large numbers 
by eating poisoned grain put out for.the. destruction of ground squir- 
rels; while two others, in the northwestern part of the state, attribute 
the decrease to the work of predatory birds and mammals. Consider- 
able diversity of opinion exists as to the means to be used in bringing 
the dove population back to normal; some of our correspondents 
believe that a closed season of a few years would suffice. 

The matter of a proper open season is also diversely reported upon, 
ten persons deeming the three months beginning with September 1 
satisfactory, while twelve recommend changes. Four recommend a 
later season, while four others would open it earlier, two even sug- 
gesting July 15 as an opening date! Happily this latter view of the 
situation is not shared by many: the majority believe that the Mourn- 
ing Dove merits more consideration during the time that it is rearing 
its young than many hunters of the type of the two just mentioned are 
willing to grant it. In fact seven deputies recommend that the dove 
be entirely removed from the list of game species. 

To sum up the situation, we find that the Mourning Dove is valued 
by many sportsmen for its high qualities as an object of pursuit as 
well as article of food.* On the other hand very many persons urge 
that the Mourning Dove be once and for all removed from the list 
of game birds and be placed on the list of fully protected species. 
This dove is admired by many as an attractive feature in the wild 
life of the state; as an article of food it is of but small size; its forage 
habits are such that it is at least wholly harmless to agricultural 
interests, and a majority of bird studentst claim for it a distinctly 
beneficent réle as a destroyer of weed seeds; it is feared that decrease 
will continue in spite of restricted hunting season; and stress is laid 
on the extreme difficulty of arranging an’ open season which will 
permit hunting after the birds have finished nesting and yet before 
they have commenced to migrate. It is difficult to make a recommen- 
dation that is fair to all interests. If the dove shows no further 


* Present information would seem to indicate that in most parts of the state under the 
restricted open season from September 1 to November 30 the dove will be able to hold its 
own, and thus continue to subserve the wishes of the hunter. 


+ The three authors concerned in the preparation of this account of the Mourning Dove 
are disagreed as to the weight Which should be given the evidence thus far available concern- 
ing the value of the bird to agriculture. Mr. Grinnell is unable to grant that valid proof 
has vet been presented establishing beyond scientific question any practical or considerable 
service on the part of the dove to agriculture. On the other hand, Mr. Bryant and Mr. 
Storer are convinced that the evidence thus far adduced sufficiently proves that the dove is 
highly beneficial to the farmer’s interests. 


WHITE-WINGED DOVE 603 


~* deerease, we see no practical reason why it should not be kept on 
the game list—with adequate restriction of hunting. But if the next 
few years show notable diminution, the only fair thing will be for 
the sportsmen of the state entirely to relinquish their claims on the 
species, and join heartily with bird-lovers in securing complete pro- 
tection for it. 


White-winged Dove 


Melopeha asiatica trudeaut (Audubon) 


OTHER NAMES—Sonora Dove; White-winged Wild Pigeon; Melopelia asiatica ; 
Melopelia leucoptera. 

DESCRIPTION—Adults, beth sexes: Top and back of head and hind neck, dull 
grayish purple, most conspicuous in males; side of head, ashy brown; chin pearl 
gray, blending into pale brown of throat; streak below ear region black with 
reflections of deep blue and purple; side of neck ashy brown with bronzy green 
iridescence ; ‘‘iris dark hazel; bill black; . . . bare orbital ring blue’’ (Brewster, 
1883, p. 32); upper back light brown; lower back and rump, dull bluish gray; 
upper tail coverts brownish gray, washed with blue; middle pair of tail feathers 
brown, darkest toward base; rest of tail feathers dark bluish gray above (and 
black beneath), becoming black subterminally (above), with broad white ends; 
male distinguishable from female in having somewhat longer tail with broader 
feathers and more white at ends; outer surface of closed wing (lesser and median 
eoverts and tertials) light brown, continuous with back in tone; greater coverts 
bluish gray, with broad white outer margins and ends; primaries and their 
coverts black, the former narrowly margined with white; secondaries black, 
tipped narrowly with white; under surface of wing and axillars plain bluish gray; 
throat, fore-neck and breast, pale brown, changing gradually into light bluish gray 
on rest of under surface, palest on under tail coverts; legs [and feet?] ‘‘dull red’’ 
(Brewster, loc. cit.). Males: Total length 11.90-12.54 inches (302-318 mm.) 
(eight specimens from Arizona); folded wing 6.27-6.65 (159-169); bill along 
culmen 0.81-0.91 (20.6—-23.1); tarsus 0.95-1.04 (24.0-26.3) (ten specimens from 
Arizona and California). Females: Total length 11.24-11.90 (285-302) (seven 
specimens from Arizona); folded wing 5.78-6.30 (147-160); bill along culmen 
0.83-0.90 (21.0-22.8); tarsus 0.91-0.99 (23.0-25.1) (eight specimens from Ari- 
zona and California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult but generally 
paler, top of head lacking purple tinge, streak below ear merely dusky, and chin 
bare of feathers. 

Marks FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Medium size, this dove being smaller than 
either a Band-tailed or Domestic pigeon, but slightly larger than a Mourning 
Dove; a conspicuous white area on wing, forming a longitudinal streak when 
wing is closed and a distinct crescent when the wing is spread; tail square-ended, 
with a white band across end (fig. 90). 

Vorcr—A frequently repeated hoarse co-c6-o-cok’-co-cd-o (Gilman, 1911, p. 52; 
Grinnell, 1914b, p. 123). 

Nest—Placed most often in mesquite, but also in willows and other trees and 
shrubs; at varying heights from four to twenty-five feet (1.22-7.60 meters) 
though usually about ten feet (3.04 meters) above ground; a crude structure of 
twigs resembling that of the Mourning Dove but larger (Gilman, 1911, pp. 53-54). 


604 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Eces—Usually 2, exceptionally 3, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.05 to 
1.30 ‘by. 0,78 to 0.95 (in millimeters, 26. 6 to 33. 0 by 19.8 to 24.1), and averaging 
“in two. large series, 1.14 by 0.88 (28.9 by 22. 4) and 1.17 by 0.88 (29.6 by 22.4) 
‘yespéctively; the color ranges from white to cream (Davie, 1889, pp. 158-159), 
andthe surface lacks the pearly luster seen in seus of the Mourning Dove (Gil- 
man, 1911, —p. 54). : 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—Lower California, extreme southeastern California, 
southern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, southern Texas, and south through 
Mexico to Costa Rica; casual in Colorado and recorded once from Washington 
(modified from A. O, U. Committee, 1912, p. 380). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA—Summer visitant in moderate numbers along 
the Colorado River from The Needles south to, the Mexican, boundary; recorded 
once as a straggler in western San Diego County. Arrives in late April. 


The White-winged Dove, with a wide range in the southern portion 
of our continent, barely reaches the extreme. southeastern portion of 
California, in the valley of the Colorado River.. Here it is a summer 
visitant in moderate numbers, arriving in the latter part of April 
“(the 29th in 1910), and inhabiting almost exclusively the willow 
thickets along the river (Grinnell, 1914), p. 123), from the Mexican 
boundary north at least to The Needlex, San . ‘Bernardino County 
(Stephens, 1903, p. 77). A single individual taken ten miles west of 
Escondido, San Diego County, about September 25, 1911 (Dixon, 1912, 
p: 196) was doubtless a vagrant, and constitutes the only record for 
California outside the limited region above specified. It has been 
reported from Twenty-nine Palms, on the Mohave Desert east of 
Morongo Pass (Heller, 1901, p. 100), but not upon the best of evidence. 
Cooper (1877, p. 95) saw birds of this species in the markets of San 
Francisco; but, as suggested by him, there is a chance that they were 
brought in caged from Mexico. 

_ From other members of the pigeon family occurring in California 
the White-winged Dove may be distinguished chiefly by the large 
white patch on the wing. In addition it may be told from the Band- 
tailed. Pigeon by its smaller size and white-tipped tail, from the 
Mourning Dove by its slightly larger size and squarish instead of 
pointed tail, and from the Mexican Ground Dove by its decidedly 
larger size, as well as by the presence of much bluish gray in its colora- 
tion, and white tip on its tail. 

Gilman, who has improved his excellent opportunities for observ- 
ing this species near Sacaton, Pinal County, Arizona, has written a 
very full account of it (1911, pp. 52-54), from whic we extract the 
following portions: 


The White-winged Dove or Sonora Pigeon ... is migratory, arriving here 
about the 20th of April. Their coming is coincident with the ripening of the 
berries of the wild jujube .. upon which ise? feed greedily as long as the 
fruit lasts, consuming both ripe and green. . . . The white color patter shown 


WHITE-WINGED DOVE 605 


when the bird is in flight is quite striking. When perched, the white on the 
wings is rather inconspicuous, but in motion it shows as two broad crescents, 
and the white crescent-shaped bar across the tail, generally spread a little in 
flying, adds greatly in producing the striking effect. 

From the day of their arrival in spring they set up'a continual call which 
may be roughly described as Co-cd-o-cok’-co-cé-o. This call is heard in all direc- 
tions from morning till night and in such volume that it becomes a sort of 
continuous bass hum, a background or sounding board for all the other bird 
songs and ealls. It lacks the plaintive tone of the Mourning Dove call, and to 
most people becomes a dreary, monotonous droning. .. . 

Nesting begins soon after arrival in the spring and as only a slight platform 
is built for a nest, not much time is lost in construction. The nest is prac- 
tically the same as that of the Mourning Dove though perhaps a little larger. 
... They nest-in a sort of scattered colony, and frequently two and three 
nests are seen in a large mesquite tree. In some favored groves about every 
third big tree has one or more nests. Much of the nesting is done in May and 
June.... The earliest date... for eggs was May 10, and at that time a 
great many new nests were seen. In 1908 and 1909 most of the nesting seemed 
to be done in May and June, but in 1910 the season reached well into July, 
as in that month I found twenty-one nests containing eggs or young birds. . . . 

Nests are always, as far as my observation goes, placed in trees or shrubs 
at varying distances from the ground. The average height was ten feet and 
extremes ranged from four to twenty-five feet. The only nest as low as four 
feet was built in a mesquite tree and placed on top of an old Thrasher’s nest. 
. .. I found several others using old Cactus Wren’s nests as foundation, and 
one had made use of a deserted Verdin’s home. 

The eggs are a little larger than those of the Mourning Dove and lack the 
pearly luster, the shell looking much like that of the tame pigeon’s ege. Two 
is the usual number in a nest, but July 10 I found a nest containing three 
partly incubated eggs. 


According to Davie (1889, pp. 158-159) the eggs are ovate in 
shape and measure 1.05 to 1.30 by 0.78 to 0.95, averaging 1.14 by 
0.88 and 1.17 by 0.88 in two large series, respectively. This author 
also states that the shell color ranges from white to cream. 

Continuing, Gilman (loc. cit.) says that: ‘a 


In choice of nesting sites the bird shows a decided preference for mesquite, 
as about 70 per cent of nests noted were in that plant. About 20 per cent 
were in willows, and 3 per cent each in cottonwood, .. . tree cholla, and... 
serew-bean.... The dove is usually very wild on the nest, flying off when- 
ever approached as close as twenty-five feet. Rarely is the broken-wing play 
made, though I have seen a few mild attempts at it, and occasionally one will 
allow an approach as close as fifteen feet to the nest before taking flight. 

In addition to the wheat, these doves feed on other grains and much weed 
seed. They are very fond of sorghum seed and large flocks gather on a field 
of this plant. The giant cactus ... furnishes them a large amount of food 
also. They may be seen on top of the great columns as soon as the first 
blossoms appear, thrusting their bills into the trumpet-shaped flowers, but 
whether for insects; pollen,’ or nectar was not learned. As soon as the fruit 
tipens, however, there is no doubt as to what they are seeking. Their actions 


606 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


are a sufficient index even without the tell-tale red stain around their mouths. 
They frequent the cactus groves as long as any fruit is left, flying a long 
distance to reach this delicacy. 


The crop of a bird shot near Fort Yuma, California, May 5, 1910, 
contained 33 watermelon seeds and one muskmelon seed (Grinnell, 
1914b, p. 123). 


As soon as the young are grown both they and the parents congregate in 
large flocks and fly from feeding ground to watering place, thus affording a 
good chance at wing shooting. One evening in twenty minutes I counted over 
700 fly past a bridge over a small irrigating canal. Along in August the big 
flocks begin to grow less, the birds probably scattering out and seeking feed- 
ing grounds more distant from the breeding grounds. Toward the first of Sep- 
tember they begin to thin out in earnest and by the 15th of the month very 
few are seen... . ; 

Beside the danger from gunner, the Cooper Hawk is a menace, feeding often 
on the fat pigeon. I have seen a Marsh Hawk after a [wounded] White-wing 
... but do not think any but wounded birds are ever attacked by this species 
(Gilman, loc. cit.). 


In this bird, the gunner has a good test of his skill, as it flies 
rapidly, and, all things considered, is a fine game bird. 

As the White-winged Dove is an essentially Mexican species, it 
will probably never take an important rank among the game birds 
of California. Its restriction to the extreme southeastern portion 
of the state and its apparently late spring arrival and early fall 
departure limit its pursuit for sport to a very small number of 
hunters. Protection during the breeding season, and moderate hunt- 
ing just previous to its departure, should ensure the persistence of 
this bird in its present numbers indefinitely. 


f Mexican Ground Dove 


Chaemepelia passerina pallescens Baird 


OTHER NAMES—Columbigallina passerina pallescens; Columbigallina passerina ; 
Chaemepelia passerina. 

DescripTion—Adult male: Forehead and: sides of head, pale pinkish brown, 
continuous with tone of lower surface; top and back of head, and hind neck, 
chiefly bluish gray, with feather tippings of dusky, giving a decidedly sealed 
effect; chin and throat, pinkish white; bill ‘‘yellow ... tipped with brown’’ 
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1874, III, p. 390); back, rump, upper tail coverts 
and central pair of tail feathers, uniform brown; outer tail feathers, slate gray 
at upper bases, broadly tipped with black at ends, entirely blackish brown on 
under surfaces; outermost pair of tail feathers narrowly edged with white at 
ends; outer surface of closed wing pale pinkish brown; greater coverts grayish 
pink; outer webs of primaries and outermost secondaries, blackish brown, their 
inner webs extensively rich rusty brown, except for blackish tips; exposed tertials 
brown, like back, several of the coverts and tertials bearing short, sharp streaks 


MEXICAN GROUND DOVE 607 


and spots of deep brown with blue and purple iridescence; whole under surface 
of wing and axillars, rich rusty brown; throat and forepart of breast, pale pinkish 
brown, with half-concealed dusky feather centers and faintly darker feather tip- 
pings giving a scaled effect; rest of breast and forepart of belly plain pale pinkish 
brown, becoming nearly white on lower belly, and grading to gray on flanks and 
lower tail coverts; lower tail coverts tipped with dull white; legs and feet 
“‘yellow’’ (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit.). Adult female: Similar to 
adult male but paler, lacking bluish slate on top and back of head and neck (this 
being replaced by brown like back), breast pale drab rather than pinkish, and 
dark spots on outer surface of wing more brownish, and but slightly iridescent. 
Males: Total length 6.62-6.87 inches (168-174.5 mm.) (nine specimens from Ari- 
zona); folded wing 3.25-3.56 (82.5-90.4); bill along eulmen 0.43-0.46 (11.0- 
11.7) ; tarsus 0.59-0.64 (15.0-16.2) (ten specimens from Arizona and California). 
Females: Total length 6.56-6.87 (166.5-174.5) (three specimens from Arizona) ; 
folded wing 3.24-3.42 (82.2-86.7); bill along eculmen 0.48-0.47 (11.0-12.0) ; 
tarsus 0.61-0.66 (15.6-16.8) (eight specimens from Arizona and California). 
Juvenile plumage: Similar to adult female but duller, the feathers of upper sur- 
face narrowly tipped with white or rusty, and feathers of breast with much 
paler centers. , 

MARKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION—Smallest of the pigeon tribe occurring in 
California; only about one-quarter the size of the Mourning Dove and but a 
trifle larger than an English Sparrow; general coloration giving an effect of 
brownness, without any contrasting white areas; vivid rusty brown showing on 
wings in flight. 

VorcE—A single long-drawn-out woo, uttered at short intervals (Gilman, 1911, 
p. 54). 

Nest—In bushes or trees, at heights from two and one-half to twenty-five feet 
(0.76 to 7.6 meters) above ground; for a dove, fairly well constructed; of rootlets 
and small twigs, sometimes with a decided depression in the center (Gilman, 
1911, p. 55, writing from Arizona). ; 

Eecs—2, elliptical oval, measuring in inches, 0.79 to 0.91 by 0.63 to 0.69 (in 
millimeters, 20.0 to 23.0 by 16.0 to 17.5), and averaging 0.85 by 0.65 (21.5 by 
16.5) (fifty-four eggs in. the United States National Museum); in color pure 
white (Davie, 1900, p. 190). 

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION—From Costa Rica north to middle southern Texas, 
southern Arizona, Lower California and extreme southeastern California; ocea- 
sional in western California north to San Francisco (modified from A. O. U. 
Check-list, 1910, p. 150). 

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNI4—Resident locally in small numbers in the extreme 
southeastern corner of the state in the valley of the lower Colorado River; has 
ceeurred casually in the western part of the state at the following places: San 
Diego, Escondido and San Pasqual, San Diego County; Banning, Riverside 
County; San Gabriel, Los Angeles County; Monterey and Castroville, Monterey 
County; Pescadero, San Mateo County; and San Francisco. 


The Mexican Ground Dove is the smallest member of the pigeon 
family known to occur in California and, in fact, is among the smallest 
of its kind anywhere in the world. Its diminutive size would scarcely 
lead one to place it among the pigeons and doves, but its voice, habits 
and nesting, as well as its structure, all show it to be a member of 
that large and widely distributed family. 


608 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


' Heretofore: ‘this species has been considered: to be of bit: casual 
occurrence ‘in California, ‘but recent ‘observations’ prove “it to’ ‘be 
regularly present locally in the extreme southeastern portion of the 
state along the lower Colorado River. Stephens (1903, p. 77). secured 
one of these birds on the California side of the river below Ehrenburg 
in August, 1902, while Howell and*Van Rossem (1915, p. 233)’ saw 
more than a dozen near Fort’ Yuma‘in January, 1913. More’ recently, 
December. 6 and 9, 1914, Leo ‘Wiley (MS) saw birds of this species 
near Palo Verde,. Imperial ‘County, and collected. one on the first 
named date (specimen jin Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; and in the following 
summer (1915) he found them breeding there in’ small numbers. 
Elsewhere in the state it has occurred as follows: San Diego, Novem- 
ber 10, 1915, one shot (Grey, 1916, p. 83) ; Escondido, San Diego 
County, June 29, 1915, one taken (Dixon, 1916, p.. 84) ; San Pasqual, 
San Diego County, one shot about 1900, and Banning, Riverside 
County, October, 1902, one taken (Willett, 1912a, p. 45); San 
Gabriel, Los- Angeles County, several shot a few years previous to 
1870 (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1874, III, p. 522); Monterey 
‘‘taken’’ (ibid., p. 390) ; Castroville, Monterey County, one taken in 
June, ‘1913 (Silliman, 1915b, p. 207) ; Pescadero, San Mateo. County, 
one taken from flock of eleven, February 27; 1898 (Littlejohn, 1899, 
p. 73); and San Francisco, May, 1870, one killed (Baird, Brewer and 
Ridgway, 1874, III, p. 522). These are all irregular occurrences, 
evidently of birds wandering’ beyond the bounds of their normal 
habitat; so far as is known, such fortuitous dispersal has not led to 
the establishment of permanent colonies. Judging from the records 
already made, we may expect this dove to occur from time to time at 
almost any place in the coastal region, north at least to San Francisco. 

The Mexican Ground Dove is an easy species to identify: Its very 
small size—but. slightly greater than that of an English Sparrow 
or Least Sandpiper—its. general brown-appearing coloration, its 
square tail and the absence of any contrasted white markings easily 
separate it from all others of its family in- the southwest. The Inca 
Dove, of Arizona and Mexico, which may at some future date be found 
in California, is of somewhat greater. size [total length 8.00 inches; 
folded wing 3.70-3. 75; tail 4.00-4.40, as compared with tail 2.60 to 
2.80 in the Ground Dove (Ridgway, 1900, pp. 215, 216)] and has con- 
spicuous white margins on the slightly rounded tail, and a definite 
sealed pattern of markings on the body feathers. 

Of the Ground Dove in southern Arizona, Gilman (1911, pp. Pea 
wr ites : 

He might properly be ealled the ‘‘woo- woo bird, ”? as his note is a single 


‘woo’? long drawn out and uttered at short intervals. The sound is very mis- 
leading, even to a greater extent than that of the’ ‘Mourtiing ‘Dove. The first :time 


MEXICAN GROUND DOVE 609 


I heard it I started to cross a.ten-acre field to search for the bird in some trees 
on. the far side.. I had, gone but. a few yards when the dove flew from a fruit 
tree about three ‘rods away, where he had been the entire time. | 

These little doves are not very gregarious’ in this ‘locality, but that may be 
because they are present only during the breeding season. Three is the most I 
have seen in a group and that not often. Usually two are together, probably 
mates. They are rather quiet and the call is not heard often. ... They do not 
appear to go far from cultivated fields, in fact I have never seen them out.on 
the desert, as is the case with the two larger doves [Mourning and White- 
winged]. They are most frequently seen near the river or along irrigating 
canals, and nest in such locations. ... 

The nesting season is late, as the earliest nest found’ was.on July 7 and con- 
tained one half-grown young bird. This nest was in a pear tree and placed only 
two and a half feet from the ground. 


’ Other nests were found as follows: July 16, two quarter-grown 
young; July 17, two half incubated eggs; September 3, two half-grown 
young; September 25, two eggs advanced in incubation; October 8, 
two nearly fresh eggs. This latter set hatched on October 16, but the 
young were dead two days later. 


Nests ranged from two and a half to twenty-five feet from the ground, with 
an average of ten feet. In regard to location, two were in cottonwoods, two in 
pear trees, one in a willow and two in the shrub Baccharis. 

The nests are fairly well made for doves and are composed mostly of rootlets 
and small twigs. One nest rather more pretentious than usual was made of root- 
lets, grass stems and blades, leaf stems with veins attached, small twigs, horse 
hair and a few feathers. It was compact and fairly well made, with a decided 
cup in the center measuring nearly an inch deep, and two inches across from rim 
to rim. One was an old nest re-vamped, and another was merely a superstructure 
over an old Abert Towhee’s nest. The very late date before mentioned probably 
pertained to a second brood, as the nest was an old one re-lined, possibly a last 
year’s nest, but more likely an earlier nest of the same year. 

These doves are rather wild when on the nest and will not allow any familiarity. 
They rarely show any tendency to use the broken-wing tactics, though one did and 
made a most realistic performance of it. She fell from the nest when I was 
about eight feet distant and lay with quivering and beating wings. As I stepped 
closer she made ineffectual attempts to fly and fluttered along the ground at my 
feet just out of reach. She kept this up for about fifty yards before taking 
to flight. I then went on about my business after ascertaining that the nest con- 
tained two newly hatched young. Coming back an hour later, I scared her off the 
nest again and she repeated the performance but in a rather half-hearted way as 
though she did it from a sense of duty and rather doubted the efficacy of it 
(Gilman, loc. cit.). 


Near Palo Verde, Imperial County, Leo Wiley (MS) found three 
or four pairs of Ground Doves nesting during the summer of 1915. 
One nest was situated five feet eight inches above the ground in a 
clump of mistletoe in a mesquite. A nest found by Bendire (1892, 
pp. 150-152) near Tucson, Arizona, May 30, 1873, measured four and 
one-half inches in diameter and was ‘‘almost perfectly flat.’’ Other 


610 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


nests examined by him were placed in both bushes and trees at heights 
from three to twenty-one feet above ground. He believed that these 
birds rear two and perhaps three broods in a season, despite the fact 
that the nesting season does not begin until the end of May. Incuba- 
tion lasts about fourteen days and both sexes take part in the work: 
The young are fed on small seeds and berries of different kinds, and 
grain when procurable. Gravel is taken in considerable quantities to 
assist in grinding up the seeds. Bendireé believes these birds mate for 
life. 

Ground Doves are sometimes seen in the streets of towns and espe- 
cially about corrals. Flocks of ten to twelve are commonest, but in the 
fall months as many as fifty may join together to feed on the ripe 
weed and grass seeds. During the winter months they are markedly 
fewer in numbers, and are then to be seen only in pairs. 

Within California the Mexican Ground Dove will probably never 
be very abundant, although with the increase of agriculture in the 
extreme southeastern portion of the state the birds may be expected 
to appreciably increase in numbers. Their small size should, however, 
gain them protection from the gun of the hunter, who can, for the 
present at least, find ample opportunity for sport among the larger 
game birds. 


LITERATURE CITED 


A 
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AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION COMMITTEE. 
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ANDERSON, M. P., and JEnxKiIns, H. O. 


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ANONYMOUS. 
1907. What will it be used for? Western Field, vol. 11, p. 208. 


Anonymous [—C. F. Hopeez]. 


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ANTHONY, A. W. 
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B 
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Baluey, F. M. ; 

1902. Handbook of birds of the western United States. (Boston, Houghton 
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1916b. A populous shore. Condor, vol. 18, pp. 100-110. 


[ 611] 


612 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Bairp, S. F., Brewer, T. M., and Ripeway, R. 

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BENDIRE, C. 


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LITERATURE CITED : 613. 


Bent,: A. .C. ' ‘ 


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Bake, E. W., Jr. 
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1893. Wilson’s Phalarope breeding in California. Zoe, vol. 4, p. 226. 


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Bow ss, J. H. 


1911. Notes extending the range of certain birds on. the Pacific slope. Auk, 
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BRENINGER, G. F. 
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Brewer, T. M. : 
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BREWSTER, W. 

1879. Descriptions of the first plumage in.various species of North American 
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1881. Recent occurrence of Baird’s Sandpiper (Tringa: bairdi) in Maine. 
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1883. On a collection of birds lately made by Mr. F. Stephens in Arizona. 
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1891. A study of Florida Gallinules, with some notes on a nest found at 
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614 _ GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


1900. Notes on the breeding habits of the American Golden-eyed Duck or 
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1902a. Birds of the cape region of Lower California. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 
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1902b. Voices of a New England marsh. Bird-Lore, vol. 4, pp. 43-56, 7 figs. 
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Brown, H. 


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Bryant, H. C. 
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Burnett, L, E. 
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c 
CaLIFORNIA Fish COMMISSIONERS. 
1894. Thirteenth biennial report of the State Board of Fish Commissioners 
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1896. Fourteenth biennial report . . . 1895-1896. Ibid., 108 pp., illustrated. 
1900a. Fifteenth biennial report . . . 1897-1898. Ibid., 75 pp., illustrated. 
19006. Sixteenth biennial report . . . 1899-1900. JIbid., 45 pp. 
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1907. Nineteenth biennial report . . . 1905-1906. Ibid., 112 pp., illustrated. 
1910. Twenty-first biennial report ... 1909-1910. Ibid., 72 pp., illustrated. 
CaLIFORNIA FISH AND GAME COMMISSIONERS. 


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report for the years 1910-1912. (Sacramento, State Printing 
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1914. Twenty-third biennial report . . . 1912-1914. Ibid., 166 pp., illustrated. 


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1907. The birds of Custer and Dawson counties, Montana. Auk, vol. 24, 
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CaRRIGER, H. W. 
1899. The Yellow Rail and Saw-Whet Owl in Sonoma Co., Cal. Bull. Cooper 
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CHAMBERS, W. L. 
1901. Curious nest of Anna’s Hummingbird. Condor, vol. 3, p. 105. 
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CHAPMAN, F. M. 
1905. The feeding habits of the Northern Phalarope. Bird-Lore, vol. 7, 
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616 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


[Cuinps, J. L.] tons : 
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CuarK, A. H. 8 . 

1910. The birds collected and observed during the cruise of the United States 
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CuarK, P. G. 
1905. In favored San Joaquin. ‘Western Field, vol. 6, pp. 110-112, 5 figs. 
in text. ‘ 


CuaRK, F. C. 

1913. Preliminary report upon the disease occurring among the ducks of the 
southern San Joaquin Valley during the fall of- 1913. Condor, 
vol. 15, pp. 214-226, figs. 66-77. - 

Coase, H. K. : 


1915. The present status of the Trumpeter Swan. (Olor buceinator). Auk, 
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Couen, D. A. 


1896. California Department [Red Phalaropes killed by flying against wires]. 
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Cooxz, W. W. ; 
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1914. Distribution and migration of North American rails and their allies. 
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Cooprr, J. G. 


1868. Some recent additions to the fauna of California. Proc. Calif. Acad. 
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1869. The naturalist in California. American Naturalist, vol. 3, pp. 182-189. 


1870a. Ornithology of California. Vol. I. Land birds. (Cambridge, Mass., 
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18706. The fauna of California and its geographical distribution. roe. Calif. 
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1877. On seventy-five doubtful west-coast birds. Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, 
vol. 2, pp. 88-97. 


1880. On the migrations and nesting habits of west-coast birds. Proc. U. S. 
National Museum, vol, 2, pp. 241-251. 


1886. The ‘Water birds of North America’—a few corections. Auk, vol. 3, 
pp. 124-126. 


1887. Additions to the birds of Ventura County, California. Auk, vol. 4, 
pp. 85-94. 
CoorrrR, J. G., and Ripeway, R. 
1886. The ‘Water birds of North America’—explanations. Auk, vol. 3, 
pp. 401-404. 
‘Coopmr, J. G., and Suckiey, G. 


1859. The natural history of Washington Territory, with much relating to 
Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oregon, and California... (New 
York, Bailliere Bros.), pp. x + 8 + 399, 62 pls. 1 map. 


LITERATURE CITED. 617 


Cougs, E. 
1869. Sea-side homes: and what lived in them. American Naturalist, vol. 3, 
pp. 337-349. ; 
1874.. Birds of the Northwest: a hand-book of the ornithology of the region 
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of the Territories, Mise. Publ., no. 3, pp. xi + 791. 
CrosBy, F. H. 
1912. The gamy valley quail. California’s contribution to American game- 
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1888. The habits of California quail. Outing, vol. 12, pp. 50-56, 7 figs. in text. 


D 
DacceEtt, F. §. 


1901. Stragglers in southern California. Condor, vol. 3, p. 15. 
1903. Wood Ibis in southern California. Condor, vol. 5, pp. 18-19. 


Davig, O. 

1889. Nests and eggs of North American birds. 4th edition (Columbus, Ohio, 
Hahn and Adair), pp. 10 + 455 + xii, 13 pls. . Buss 

1900. Nests and eggs of North American birds. 5th edition (Philadelphia, 
David McKay), pp. 8 + 509 + 18 + xii, frontisp., 5 pls., numerous 
figs. in text. 

Dawson, W. L. 

1909. The birds of Washington. 2 vols. (Seattle, The Occidental Publishing 
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1911. Another fortnight on the Farallones. Condor, vol. 13, pp. 171-183, 
figs. 49-54. 

1912. Recent Santa Barbara records. Condor, vol. 14, pp. 223-224, 

1913a. A glimpse of Surf-birds. Condor, vol. 15, pp. 5-8, figs. 1-6. 

1913b. Identification by camera. Condor, vol. 15, pp. 204-205, figs. 57-58. 

1915. Limicoline laggards at Santa Barbara. Condor, vol. 17, p. 207. 

1916. A personal supplement to the distributional list of the birds of Cali- 
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Dean, W. F. 
1904. A few notes on bird life at Three Rivers, Tulare Co., Cal. Condor, 
vol. 6, pp. 110-111. 


Dirxs, W. N. 
1916. Green-winged Teal nesting in Alameda County. Calif. Fish and 
Game (San Francisco, Cal.), vol. 2, p. 46. 


Drxon, J. 
1906. Land birds of San Onofre, California. Condor, vol. 8, pp. 91-98. 
1912. White-winged Dove in the San Diegan district. Condor, vol. 14, p. 196. 
1916. Mexican Ground Dove, Western Grasshopper Sparrow, and California 
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Dresser, H. E. , 
1902-1903. A manual of Palaearctic birds. (London, published by the 
author), pp. vii + 15 + 922, 2 pls. : 
1904. On the late Dr. Walter’s ornithological researches in the Taimyr 
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Dwieut, J., Jr. 
1904. Oceurrence of the Knot (Tringa canutus) at San Diego, California. 
Auk, vol. 21, pp. 78-79. 


618 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


E 
Eaton, E. H. 
1910. Birds of New York. (Albany University of the State of New York), 
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numerous tables of local occurrence and unnumbered figs. in text. 


E1rric, C. W. G. 
1905. Ornithological results of the Canadian ‘Neptune’ Expedition to Hud- 
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Eu.ior, D. G. 
1895. North American shore birds. (New York, Francis P. Harper), 
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Emerson, W. O. 
1885. Californian Clapper Rail (Rallus obsoletus). Ornithologist and Oologist, 
vol. 10, pp. 142-143. 
1900. Occurrence of American White Pelican and the American Avocet at 
Haywards, Cal. Condor, vol. 2, p. 34. 
1901. Nesting of Spatula clypeata. Condor, vol.-3, p. 116. 
1904. Destruction of birds by wires. Condor, vol. 6, pp. 37-38. 


‘EvERMANN, B. W. 
1886. <A list of the birds observed in Ventura County, California. Auk, 
vol. 3, pp. 86-94, 179-186. 


F 
FEILDEN, H. W. 
1877. List of birds observed in Smith Sound and in the Polar Basin during 
the Arctic Expedition of 1875-76. Ibis, 4th series, vol. 1, pp. 
401-412. 


FEILNER, J. 
1865. Exploration in Upper California in 1860, under the auspices of the 
Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report Smithsonian Institution, 
1864, pp. 421-430. 


Ferry, J. F. 
1908. Notes from the diary of a naturalist in northern California. Condor, 
vol. 10, pp. 30-44, 2 figs. in text. 


Frvuper, J. B. 
1903. The Wood Ibis near San Bernardino. Condor, vol. 5, p. 79. 


FIELD, G. W., Grauam, G. H., and Apams, W. C. 


1914. Special report of the Board of Commissioners on Fisheries and Game, 
under Chapter 70 of the Resolves of 1913, relating to the habits of 
those birds commonly known as pheasants. Commonwealth of Massa- 
chusetts, House [Document] no. 2049, January, 1914, 14 pp. 


Fisuer, A. K. 


1893a. Report on the ornithology of the Death Valley Expedition of 1891, 
comprising notes on the birds observed in southern California, 
southern Nevada, and parts of Arizona and Utah. U. S. Dept. 
Agric., Div. Orn. and Mamm., N. Amer. Fauna no. 7, pp. 7-158. 

1893b. The hawks and owls of the United States in their relation to agricul- 
ai U. 8. Dept. Agric., Div. Orn, and Mamm., Bull. no. 3, 210 pp., 

pls. 


FisHER, W. K. 


1902a. A trip to Mono Lake, ornithological and otherwise. Condor, vol. 4, 
pp. 1-11, 11 figs. in text. 


1902b. The redwood belt of northwestern California. II. Land birds. Con- 
dor, vol. 4, pp. 131-135. 


1904. Aythya collaris in San Mateo Co., California. Condor, vol. 6, p. 25. 


LITERATURE CITED 619 


Forgusu, E. H. 

1912. <A history of the game birds, wild-fowl and shore birds of Masanetr: 
setts and adjacent states. (Boston, Massachusetts State Board of 
Agriculture), pp. xvi -+ 1-+ 622, frontispiece, 36 pls., numerous 
cuts and 26 figs. in text. 

1913. Useful birds and their protection. 4th edition (Boston, Massachusetts 
State Board of Agriculture), pp. xx + 451, frontispiece, 60 pls., 
171 figs. in text. 

1916. The natural enemies of birds. Massachusetts State Board of Agricul- 
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Fostrr, H. EB. 
1915. Whistling Swans in the Sacramento Valley. California Fish and Game 
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Fow.er, F. H. 
1903. Stray notes from southern Arizona. Condor, vol. 5, pp. 68-71. 


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GauLoway, J. C. 
1895. A half-hour with Wilson’s Snipe. Nidiologist, vol. 2, p. 86. 


GAMBEL, W. 


1849. Remarks on the birds observed in Upper California, with descriptions 
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GaYLorD, H. A. 
1899. Spring migration of 1896 in the San Gabriel Valley. Bull. Cooper 
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GILMAN, M. F. 
1903. More about the Band-tailed Pigeon (Columba fasciata). Condor, 
vol. 5, pp. 134-135. 
1907. The Gambel Partridge in California. Condor, vol. 9, pp. 148-149. 
1911. Doves on the Pima Reservation. Condor, vol. 13, pp. 51-56. 


GOLDMAN, E. A. 
1908a. The Green-winged Teal (Nettion carolinensis) breeding in California. 


Condor, vol. 10, p. 129. 
19086. Summer birds of the Tulare Lake region. Condor, vol. 10, pp. 200-205. 


Goss, N. 8. 
1891. History of the birds of Kansas. (Topeka, Kans., Geo. W. Crane & 
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Grey, H. 
1915. Bird notes from British Columbia and southern California. Condor, 
vol. 17, p. 59. 
1916. Mexican Ground Dove at San Diego. Condor, vol. 18, p. 83. 


GRINNELL, J. 

1897. Report on the birds recorded during a visit to the islands of Santa 
Barbara, San Nicolas and San Clemente, in the spring of 1897. 
Pasadena Academy of Sciences, Publication no. I, 26 pp. 

1898. Birds of the Pacific slope of Los Angeles County. Pasadena Academy 
of Sciences, Publication no. II, 52 pp. 

1900. Birds of the Kotzebue Sound Region, Alaska. Cooper Ornithological 
Club, Pacific Coast Avifauna no. 1, pp. 6 + 80, 1 map. 

1902a. Check-list of California birds. Cooper Ornithological Club, Pacific 
Coast Avifauna no. 3, 98 pp., 2 colored maps. 


620° GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


1902b. The Wilson Plover in California. Auk, vol. 19, p. 197. 

19040, Midwinter birds at Palm Springs, California. Condor, vol. 6, pp. 40-45. 

1904b. European Widgeon in southern California. Auk, vol. 21, pp. 383-384. 

1905. Summer birds of Mount Pinos, California. Auk, vol. 22,.pp. 378-391. 

1906a. The Catalina Island Quail. Auk, vol. 23, pp. 262-265. 

1906b. The Wood Duck in southern California. Condor, vol. 8, p. 29. 

1908. The biota of the San Bernardino Mountains. Univ. Calif. Publ. 
Zool., vol. 5, pp. 1-170, pls. 1-24. 

1909a. Two waders of note from Santa Catalina Island. Condor, vol. 11, 
p. 139. 


1909b. Birds and mammals of the 1907 Alexander Expedition to southeast- 
ern Alaska. The Birds. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 5, pp. 181-244. 


1910. Birds of the 1908 Alexander Alaska Expedition with a note on the 
avifaunal relationships of the Prince William Sound district. 
Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 5, pp. 361-428, pls. 32-34, 9 figs. in 
text. 


1913. The outlook for conserving the Band-tailed Pigeon as a game bird 
of California. Condor, vol. 15, pp. 25-40, fig. 7 (map). 


1914a. A second list of the birds of the Berkeley campus. Condor, vol. 16, 
pp. 28-40. 


1914b. An account of the mammals and birds of the lower Colorado Valley 
; with especial reference to the distributional problems presented. 
Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 12, pp. 51-294, pls. 3-13, 9 figs. in text. 


1915, A distributional list of the birds of California. Cooper Ornitholog- 
ieal Club, Pacific Coast Avifauna no. 11, 217 pp, 8 pls. 


GRINNELL, J., and Swart, H. 8. 


1913. An account of the birds and mammals of the San Jacinto area of 
southern California. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 10, pp. 197-406, 
pls. 6-10, 3 figs. in text. 


H 
Har, H. M., and Hatt, C. C. 


1912. A Yosemite flora (San Francisco, Paul Elder & Co.), pp. vii + 282, 
11 pls. (unnumbered), 170 figs. (unnumbered) in text. 


Hanna, W. C. 
1907. Notes from Colton, California. Condor, vol. 9, p. 198. 


HAYNEs, W. B. 
1900. The Old Squaw Duck. Wilson Bulletin, vol. 12, no. 32, pp. 12-13. 


HEATH, H. 
1915. Birds observed on Forrester Island. Alaska, during the summer of 
1913. Condor, vol. 17, pp. 20-41, figs. 10-18. 
HEDDERLY, E. L. 
1912a. The spring season opens. Western Field, vol. 19, pp. 485-491. 
1912b. A month’s shooting in review. Western Field, vol. 20, pp. 44-59. 
1912c. Valley Quail in captivity. Western Field, vol. 19, p. 309. 


HEERMANN, A. L. 


1859. Report upon birds collected on the Survey. Pacific Railroad Reports, 
vol. 10, part 6, no. 2, pp. 29-80, 7 pls. 


Heim, E. 


1901. Notes on some little-known birds of southern California. Condor, 
vol. 3, p. 100. 


LITERATURE CITED 621 


HENsHaW, H. W. 
1876. Report on the ornithology of the portions of California visited during 
’ the field-season of 1875 by H. W. Henshaw. Ann. Rep. upon the 
Geog. Surv. west of the 100th Meridian, in California, Nevada, 
Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, New Mexico, Arizona, and Montana. 
Appendix H8 of Appendix JJ, pp. 224-278. 
1880a. The King Eider (Somateria spectabilis) on the Californian Coast. 
Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, vol. 5, p. 189. 

18800. Ornithological report from observations and collections made in 
portions of California, Nevada, and Oregon, by Assistant H. W. 
Henshaw. Ann. Rep. Geog. Surv. West 100th Meridian by George 
M. Wheeler; Appendix L of Appendix OO of Ann. Rep. of Chief 
of Engineers for 1879, pp. 282-335. — 

1883. Instance of semidomestication of California Quail. Bull. Nuttall 
Orn. Club, vol. 8, pp. 184-185. 


Hinman, B. C. ‘ 
1903. On southern marshes. Western Field, vol. 2, p. 179. 


, 


HOLTERHOFF, G. 
1884. Eskimo Curlew at San Diego, Cal. Auk, vol. 1, p. 393. 


1855. The Glossy Ibis and Avocet at San Diego, Cal. Auk, vol. 2, pp. 
311-312. 


Hoover, T. J. 
1899. The gopher snake as a despoiler of quails’ nests. Bull. Cooper Orn. 
Club, vol. 1, p. 75. 


Hornapay, W. T. 
1913. Our vanishing wild life (New York, New York Zoological Society), 
xv + 1-411 pp., numerous illustrations and maps. 


Howe, A. B. 
1912. Unusual nesting date of Mourning Dove. Condor, vol. 14, pp. 73-74. 
1914. Destruction of birds in California by fumigation of trees. Condor, 
vol. 16, pp. 54-56. 
1915. California Pine Grosbeak in Mono County, and other notes. Condor, 
vol. 17, p. 206. 


Howe.., A. B., and Van Rossem, A. 
1915. Additional observations on the birds of the lower Colorado Valley in 
California. Condor, vol. 17, pp. 232-234. 


Hoey, L. M. ; 
1913. With the Band-tailed Pigeon in San Diego County. Condor, vol. 15, 
pp. 151-153. 
1916. The Farallon Rails of San Diego County. Condor, vol. 18, pp. 58-62, 
figs. 23-26. 


Hountineton, D. W. 
1897. The Sage Grouse. Osprey, vol. 2, pp. 17-18, 2 figs. in text. , 
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I 
IncErsotu, A. M. 
1884, The Ruddy Duck and its nests.’ Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 9, 
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1895. Wilson’s Plover in California. Nidiologist, vol. 2, p. 87. 
1909. The only known breeding ground of Creciscus coturniculus. Condor, 
vol. 11, pp. 123-127, 2 figs. in text. 


622 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


J 
JENKINS, H. O. : ; 
1906. A list of birds collected between Monterey and San Simeon in the 
coast range of California. Condor, vol. 8, pp. 122-130, 1 map. 


Jewett, S. G. : 
1914. Bird notes from Netarts Bay, Oregon. Condor, vol. 16, pp. 107-115, 


figs. 34-38. 
Jos, H. K. 
1899. Some observations on the Anatidae of North Dakota. Auk, vol. 16, 
pp. 161-165. 


1915. Propagation of upland game-birds. (New York, National Associa- 
tion of Audubon Societies), Bull. no. 2, pp. 33-71, illustrated. 


Jupp, 8. D. 
1901. The food of nestling birds. U. S. Dept. Agric., Yearbook, 1900, 
pp. 411-436, pls. xlix-liii, figs. 48-56. : 
1905. The Bobwhite and other quails of the United States in their economic 
relations. U. S. Dept. Agric., Bur. Biol. Surv., Bull. 21, 66 pp., 
2 pls., 10 figs. in text. . 


K 
Kaerpine, H. B. 
1898a. [Note on occurrence of Black Rail in Alameda County, Cal.] Osprey, 
vol. 2, p. 70. 


1898b. A summer in the Sierra Nevadas. Osprey, vol. 2, pp. 77-79. 
1905. Birds from the west coast of Lower California and adjacent islands. 
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KEELER, C. A. 
1892. On the natural history of the Farallon Islands. Birds. Zoe, vol. 3, 
pp. 154-165, pls. XVITI-XXI. 
KeEwoee, L. 


1911. A collection of winter birds from Trinity and Shasta counties, Cali- 
fornia. Condor, vol. 13, pp. 118-121. 


1916. Report upon mammals and birds found in portions of Trinity, Siskiyou 
and Shasta counties, California. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 12, 
pp. 335-398, pls. 15-18, 1 fig. in text. 

KeE.LLs, W. L. 
1895. The Black Turnstone. Nidiologist, vol. 2, p. 64. 
KENNERLY, C. B. RB. 

1859. Report on birds collected on the route. Pacifie Railroad Reports, 

vol. 10, part 6, no. 3, pp. 19-35, 11 pls. 
Keyes, C. R. 

1905. Some bird notes from the central Sierras. Condor, vol. 7, pp. 18-17, 

42-43, 
Kocu, F. W. 


1893. Nesting of Gambel’s Quail in the Colorado Desert. Ornithologist and 
Oologist, vol. 18, pp. 90-91. 


% 


L 
Laps, C. C, 


1909. The Knot in southern California. Condor, vol. 11, p. 208. 
1912. Birds of « Mohave Desert oasis. Condor, vol. 14, pp. 32-40. 
Lamp, C., and Howetu, A. B. 


1913. Notes from Buena Vista Lake and Fort Tejon. Condor, vol. 15, 
pp. 115-120. 


LITERATURE CITED 623 


Law, J. E. 
1912a. Wood Ibis near Long Beach. Condor, vol. 14, p. 41. 
1912. The American Merganser at Lake Tahoe. Condor, vol. 14, pp. 41-42. 
1914. Accidents to Spotted Sandpipers. Condor, vol. 16, p. 93. 


Linton, C. B. 
1908a, Dafila acuta breeding at Buena Vista Lake, Kern Co., California. 
Condor, vol. 10, p. 50. 
1908b. Notes from Santa Cruz Island. Condor, vol. 10, pp. 124-129. 


1908c. Notes from Buena Vista Lake, May 20 to June 16, 1907. Condor, 
vol. 10, pp. 196-198. 


1909. Further notes from San Clemente Island. Condor, vol. 11, pp. 193-194. 


LITtTLEJoHN, C. 
1899. Three records for San Mateo Co., Cal. Bull. Cooper Orn. Club, vol. 1, 
p. 73. 
1912. Rare takes for San Mateo County, California. Condor, vol. 14, p. 41. 


Loomis, L. M. 


1895. California water birds. No. I. Monterey and vicinity from the 
middle of June to the end of August. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., 2nd 
series, vol. 5, pp. 177-224, pl. XIX. 

1900. California water birds. No. V. Vicinity of Monterey in May and 
early June. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. 3rd series, zoology, vol. 2, 
pp. 349-363. 


1901. The Oldsquaw at San Franciseo. Auk, vol. 18, p. 105. 


M 


» 


McAresz, W. L. 
1905. The Horned Larks and their relation to agriculture. U. S. Dept. 
Agric., Biol. Surv., Bull. no. 23, 37 pp., 2 pls., 13 figs. 
191la. Our vanishing shorebirds. U. S. Dept. Agric., Bur. Biol. Surv., Cire. 
no. 79, 9 pp., 3 figs. in text. 
1911b. Three important wild duck foods. U. 8. Dept. Agric., Bur. Biol. Surv., 
Cire. no. 81, 19 pp., 19 figs. in text. 


1914. Five important wild duck foods. U. 8. Dept. Agric., Bull. no. 58, 
19 pp., 16 figs. in text. 


McAres, W. L., and Brau, F. E. L. 


1912. Some common game, aquatic, and rapacious birds in relation to man. 
U.S. Dept. Agric., Farmers’ Bulletin no. 497, 30 pp., 14 figs. in text. 


MacFaruang, R. 
1891. Notes on and list of birds and eggs collected in Arctic America, 1861— 
1866. Proc. U. S. National Museum, vol. 14, pp. 413-446. 


1905. Notes on mammals collected and observed in the northern Mackenzie 
’ River district, northwest territories of Canada, with remarks on 
explorers and explorations of the far north. Proc. U. S. National 

Museum, vol. 28, pp. 673-764, pls. XXX-XXXIV, 2 figs. in text. 


McGrecor, R. C. 

1896. Cahto birds. Nidologist, vol. 3, pp. 129-130, 148; vol. 4, p. 8. 

1898. Phalaropes. Notes on the occurrence of the Red and Northern Phala- 
ropes at Santa Cruz, Cal. Osprey, vol. 2, pp. 87-88, 3 figs. in text. 

1899. Some summer birds of Palamar Mountains, from the notes of J. Maurice 
Hatch. Bull. Cooper Orn. Club, vol. 1, pp. 67-68. 

1901. <A list of the land birds of Santa Cruz County, California. Cooper 
Ornithological Club, Pacifie Coast Avifauna no. 2, pp. 6 + 22. 

1906. Birds observed in the Krenitizin Islands, Alaska. Condor, vol. 8, 
pp. 114-122, 1 map. 


624 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


Macxray, G. H. ~~ e ; 
1891la. The habits of the Golden Plover (Charadrius dominicus) in Massa- 
chusetts.. Auk, vol. 8, pp. 17-24. ‘ 


1891b. The scoters (Oidemia americana, O. deglandi, and O. perspicillata) in 
New England. Auk, vol. 8, pp. 279-290. 

1892a. Habits of the Black-bellied Plover (Charadrius squatarola) in Massa- 
chusetts. Auk, vol. 9, pp. 143-152. : 

1892b. Habits of the Hudsonian Curlew in Massachusetts. Auk, vol. 9, 
pp. 345-352. ; 

1893. Observations on the Knot (Tringa canutus). Auk, vol. 10, pp. 25-35. 


Maocoun, J.,.and Macoun, J. M. 
1909. Catalogue of Canadian birds. (Canada Dept. Mines, Geol. Surv. 
Branch), pp. viii + 761 + xviii. 
MAILLIARD, J. 


1898. Baird’s Sandpiper (Tringa bairdii) on the California coast. Auk, 
vol. 15, p. 51. 


1900. Breeding of Agelaius tricolor in Madera Co., Cal. Condor, vol: 2, 
pp. 122-124, 


1901. Two interesting stragglers for Marin Co., Cal. Condor, vol. 3, p. 16. 
1902a. The parasite question again. Condor, vol. 4, p. 19. 
1902b. Clangula hiemalis in Marin County, Cal. Condor, vol. 4, p. 46. 


1904. A few records supplementary to Grinnell’s check-list of California 
birds. Condor, vol. 6, pp. 14-16. 


1911. Odds and ends. Condor, vol. 13, pp. 49-51. 


1912. Breeding of the Band-tailed Pigeon in Marin County, California. 
Condor, vol. 14, p. 194. . 


1914. New breeding records for California. Condor, vol. 16, p. 261. 
1915. Scaup Ducks breeding in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. Condor, 
vol. 17, p. 235. 
MAILLIaRD, J. W. 
1912. Call note of the female California Quail. Condor, vol. 14, p. 73. 
1916. The Old-squaw in west-central California. Condor, vol. 18, p. 85. 


Mannicueg, A. L. V. 
1910. The terrestrial mammals and birds of northeast Greenland. Biolog- 
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Merriam, C. H. 


1899. Results of a biological survey of Mount Shasta, northern California. 
U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Biol. Surv., N. Amer. Fauna no. 16, 
179 pp., 5 pls., 46 figs. 


Merriam, F. A. [See also Battny, F. M.] 
1896. Notes on some of the birds of southern California. Auk, vol. 13, 
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626 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


oO 


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628 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


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630 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


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Vv 
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LITERATURE CITED 631 


Ww 
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1911. May notes from San Jacinto Lake. Condor, vol. 13, pp. 156-160, 
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632 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 


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INDEX 


A 


Acclimatization, 29, 34, 40, 43. 
Actitis macularia, 431-437. 
Actodromas bairdi, 373. 
maculata, 368. 
minutilla, 376. 

Aegialeus semipalmatus, 469. 

Aegialites cantianus nivosus, 473. 

Aegialitis alexandrina nivosa, 473. 
asiaticus var. montanus, 481. 
eantiana, 473. 
montana, 481. 
nivosa, 473-478, 
semipalmata, 469-473. 
vocifera, 4632. 
wilsonia, 479. 

Aix sponsa, 140-146. 

Ajaia ajaja, 262-266. 

Ajaja rosea, 262. 

Alexander, Annie M., iii, iv. 

Allen, Albert H., iv. 

Anas americana, 106. 
boschas, 92. 
carolinensis, 113. 
erecea, 119. 
eyanoptera, 123. 
discors, 120. 
obseura, 101. 
penelope, 111. 
platyrhynchos, 92-101. 
rubripes, 94, 101-102. 
strepera, 103. 

Anser albatus, 210. 
albifrons, 218, 219. 
albifrons albifrons, 219. 
albifrons gambeli, 218-222. 
erythropus, 218. 
gambeli, 218. 
hutchinsi, 230. 
hyperboreus, 210. 
rossi, 215. 

Aphriza virgata, 485-489. 

Arenaria interpres, 366, 489. 

‘ interpres morinella, 489-493. 
melanocephala, 493-497. 
morinella, 489. 

Avocet, 15, 74, 337-344, 345, 346, 347, 

349, 350, 448. 
American, 337. 
California, 337. 

Avoset, American, 337. 

Aythya affinis, 159, 166. 
americana, 146. 
collaris, 164. 
erythrocephala, 146. 
marila, 156. 
marila nearctica, 156. 
vallisneria, 150. 


B 


Badé, W. F., 145, 

Badger, M. C., 523, 527. 

Bailey, Florence M., 203, 429, 537. 

Bailey, Vernon, 428. 

Baldpate, 71, 105, 106-111, 112, 113, 
190. 

Bartramia longicauda, 427-430. 

Bastian, W. H., 9. 

Beck, Rollo H., 3, 110, 133, 138, 195, 
200, 213, 219, 224, 228, 232, 247, 
258, 271, 278, 310, 326, 342, 345, 
360, 364, 383, 389, 394, 397, 399, 
401, 408, 404, 407, 440, 454, 457, 
467, 478, 483, 485, 501, 594. 

Becker, M., 12 

Beetle-head, 452, 454. 

Belding, Lyman, 3, 90, 95, 96, 106, 
108, 112, 115, 116, 118, 119, 139, 
144, 152, 161, 165, 167, 169, 175, 
183, 188, 189, 191, 206, 207, 211, 
213, 215, 216, 217, 219, 224, 230, 
235, 238, 247, 254, 255, 261, 270, 
271, 273, 274, 276, 278, 294, 297, 
304, 308, 310, 315, 321, 328, 339, 
346, 352, 555, 360, 378, 383, 384, 
388, 389, 401, 403, 409, 418, 433, 
435, 436, 439, 451, 471, 483, 485, 
487. 

Bernicla brenta, 237. 

canadensis, 222. 
gambeli, 218. 
hutchinsi, 230. 
leucoparia, 234. 
nigricans, 237. 

Bioletti, F. T., 531. 

Bird, Beach, 391, 392. 

Bow-fin, 320. 
Bow-head, 328. 
Lawyer, 340. 
Townsend’s Surf, 485. 
Whirligig, 329. 
Woo-woo, 608. 
Black-breast, 454. 
Black-head, 164. 
Big, 156. 
Greater, 156. 
Little, 159. 

Black-jack, 10, 13, 14, 156, 159, 164. 

Blinds, shooting, 25. 

Blue-bill, 7, 10, 24, 157, 159, 161, 162, 
163, 173. 

Big, 156. 
Little, 161. 

Blue-stocking, 337. 

Blue-wing, 122, 123, 125. 

Bob-white, 37, 38, 41, 58, 533, 534. 


[ 633 ] 


INDEX 


Bonasa sabinii, 552. 
umbellus, 552. 
umbellus sabini, 552-558. 
Boyd, Aubrey, iv. 
Brant, 13, 219, 230, 233, 236, 238. 
Black, 9, 237, 238, 240. 


Black Sea, 56, 59, 60, 71, 237-241, 


242, 244, 245. 
Brown, 234. 
Eastern Sea, 71, 241-242. 
Sea, 223, 237. 
White, 210, 211. 
Branta bernicla glaucogastra, 241— 
242, 
canadensis canadensis, 222-229. 
canadensis hutchinsi, 230-234. 
canadensis minima, 234-236. 
canadensis occidentalis, 222, 225, 
hutchinsi var. leucoparia, 234. 
minima, 234. 
nigricans, 237-241, 242, 
Breeding of game, 50-54. 
Broad-bill, 156, 159. 
Brooks, Allan, iv. 
Brown, Claude R., 560. 


Bryant, Harold C., iii, iv, 5, 15, 126, 
127, 147, 149, 247, 270, 298, 318, 
341, 348, 349, 360, 383, 403, 422, 
507, 509, 521, 523, 565, 595, 602. 


Bryant, H. L., 9. 
Bryant, Walter E., 304, 370. 
Bucephala albeola, 177. 
americana, 167, 
clangula, 167. 
clangula var. americana, 167. 
islandica, 173. 


Buffle-head, 49, 73, 169, 177-181, 187. 


Bull, C. C, 188. 

Bull-head, 452, 454, 458. 

Bull hunting, 11, 12, 222. 

Butterball, 177, 178, 180. 
King, 177. 


Cc 


Cackler, 234. 

Cady, Frank P., 223, 561, 592. 

Calico-back, 489. 

Calidris arenaria, 391. 

leucophaea, 391-396. 

Callipepla californica, 514, 537. 

californica vallicola, 514. 
gambeli, 538. 

ambeli deserticola, 538. 
pieta, 504, 513. 

Can, 9, 150, 151, 155. 

Canace obscura, 544. 

Canvasback, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 24, 26, 
49, 72, 100, 110, 118, 139, 147, 
148, 149, 180— 155, 162, 165, 166, 
167, 206. 


Carriger, Henry W., 285, 311, 317, 


507, 508, 525. 
Caton, J: D., 36. 
Catoptrophorus semipalmatus, 416. 
semipalmatus inornatus, 416-422, 


Cavalier, Spanish, 246. 
Centrocercus urophasianus, 564-572. 
Chachalaca, 36. 
Chaemepelia passerina, 606. 
passerina pallescens, 606-610. 
Chapman, Frank M., 334. 
Charadrius cantianus, 473. 
cautianus nivosus, 473. 
dominicus, 460. 
dominicus dominicus, 458-468. 
helveticus, 452. 
montanus, 481. 
squatarola, 366, 452. 
virginiacus, 458. 
vociferus, 463. 
Charitonetta albeola, 177-181. 
Chaulelasmus streperus, 103-106. 
Checker-belly, 218. 
Checker-breast, 218, 219. 
Chen albatus, 210. 
hyperboreus hyperboreus, 210-215. 
hyperboreus nivalis, 210. 
rossi, 215-217. 
Chicken, Prairie, 56, 57, 58, 558, 560, 
561. 
Chloroenas fasciata fasciata, 575. 
Christie, N. R., 421. 
Clangula albeola, 177. 
americana, 167. 
clangula americana, 167-173. 
glaucion americana, 167. 
hyemalis, 181. 
islandieca, 173-176. 
Clarke, Frank C., 145. 
Clay, C. Irvin, 7, 9, 258, 262. 
Climate, as bearing on ‘introduction, 
41. 
Cock-of-the- -plains, 564. 
Colinus virginianus, 37, 
Columba carolinensis, 588. 
fasciata fasciata, 575-588. 
monilis, 575. 
Columbigallina passerina, 606. 
passerina pallescens, 606. 
Cooper, James G., 6. 
Coot. 152, 207, 208, 291, 312, 313, 314 
315. 316, 318, 319. 
Sea. 201. 
White-winged, 197. 
Copperhead, 167. 
Cosmonetta histrionica, 186. 
Coturnicops noveboracensis, 301-304. 
Coturnix japonica, 38. 
Crane, Little Brown, 61, 74, 273-279 
280, 281, 282. 
Sandhill. 61, 74, 273, 274, 275, 276 
278, 279-282. 
Whooping, 61, 274. 
Creciscus coturniculus, 304-809. 
jamaicensis, 304. 
Crymophilus fulicarius, 320. 
Curlew, 56, 58,59, 60. 
Black. 269, 270, 438, 440. 
Bronze, 269. 
Brown, 438. 


I 


> 


? 


INDEX 


Eskimo, 446, 447, 448. 

Hudsonian, 66, 75, 396, 398, 405, 
419, 438, 440, 445-452, 498, 499, 
502, 503. 

Jack, 445, 446. 

Long-billed, 18, 75, 396, 398, 418, 
438-445, 446, 448, 451. 

Pink, 262, 

Short-billed, 445. 

Sickle-billed, 438, 439. 

Straight-billed, 396, 397. 

White, 337. 

Curve-bill, 438, 439. 
Cygnus americanus, 256. 
buecinator, 253. 


D 


Daddy-long-legs, 438, 439. 

Dafila acuta, 134-139. 

caudacuta, 134. 

Daggett, Frank S., 378. 

Dawson, W. Leon, iv, 249, 250, 345, 
348. 

Decoys, 25. 

Decrease of game and its causes, 6- 
18. 

Dendragapus fuliginosus, 544. 

obscurus, 544. 

obscurus fuliginosus, 544, 552. 

obscurus sierrae, 544-552. 

Dendrocygna autumnalis, 251-253. 

bicolor, 246-251. . 

fulva, 246. 

Denny, Judge O. N., 31. 

Disease, duck and quail, 17, 18, 43, 
46, 52. 

Dirks, W. N., 96, 137. 

Dixon, Joseph, 21, 330, 426, 433, 528, 
532, 551. 

Dove, 56, 58, 59, 60, 588, 597. 

Carolina, 588. 

Carolina Turtle, 588. 

Common, 588. 

Cooing, 588. 

Ground, 608, 609, 610. 

Inea, 608. 

Mexican Ground, 78, 579, 592, 604, 
606-610. 

Mourning, 3, 6, 15, 16, 48, 579, 580, 
581, 590, 591, 592, 593, 594, 597, 
598, 599, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 
607, 609. 

Rain, 588. 

Sonora, 603. 

Turtle, 588. 

Western Mourning, 78, 588-608. 

White-winged, 78, 580, 589, 592, 
603-606, 609. 

Wild, 588. 

Dowitcher, Long-billed, 76, 353, 358- 
363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 399, 405, 
410, 419, 441. 

Duck, Black, 71, 92, 94, 95, 99, 100, 
101-102, 195. 


Black Surf, 197. 

Dipper, 205. 

Dusky, 101, 102. 

Fish, 79, 83, 84. 

Fool, 150. 

Gray, 13, 14, 57, 103, 104. 

Greater Scaup, 72, 156-159, 160, 
161, 164, 

Harlequin, 73, 182, 184, 186-191. 

Lesser Scaup, 49, 72, 157, 159-163. 

Long-legged, 251. 

Long-tailed, 181. 

Mallard, 57. 

Mandarin, 141. 

Mexican, 246. 

Muscovy, 100. 

Oyster, 89. 

Raft, 156, 159. 

Red-headed, 146. 

Ring-bill, 165. 

Ring-necked, 18, 72, 147, 148, 157, 
159, 164-167, 

Ruddy, 73, 153, 178, 205-210, 249. 

Scaup, 149, 157, 167. 

Spirit, 177. 

Spoonbill, 131. 

Summer, 57, 140. 

Surf, 201. 

Velvet, 197, 198. 

Wild, 92. ; 

Wood, 7, 9, 14, 18, 56, 57, 61, 71, 
90, 91, 99, 101, 140-146, 150, 
167, 171. 


Dunlin, 381, 383. 


American, 381, 383. 


Duprey, H. F., 233. 


E 


Eectopistes carolinensis, 588. 
Eider, 239. 


King, 73, 192-194. 


Emerson, W. Otto, 248, 521. 
Empire Gun Club, 10, 24. 
Enemies of game birds, 19-22. 
Ereunetes mauri, 386-390. 


occidentalis, 386. 
petrificatus, 386. 

pusillus, 386. 

pusillus occidentalis, 386. 


Erismatura dominicensis, 205. 


jamaicensis, 205-210. 
rubida, 205. 


Eudromias montanus, 481. 


F 


Fair, Paul J., 96, 126, 131, 132, 250, 


294, 


Falcinellus caydnensis, 269. 
Ferguson, Andrew D., 8. 
Feudner, Otto, 242. 

Fiebig, Charles, 112. 

Fischer, Eugene J., 222. 
Foods for ducks, 25, 51, 52, 53. 


[ 635 ] 


INDEX 


Fry, Walter, 37. 

Fuertes, Louis Agassiz, iv. 

Fulica americana, 313-319. 

Fuligula affinis, 159. 
collaris, 164. 
ferina americana, 146. 
marila, 156. - 
mariloides, 159. 
vallisneria, 150. 

Fulix affinis, 159. 
collaris, 164. 
marila, 156. 


G 


Gadwall, 10, 56, 71, 93, 100, 103-106, 
108, 128, 190. 
Gadwell, 57, 103. 
Gallinago delicata, 350-358. 
media, 350. 
media wilsoni, 350. 
wilsoni, 350. 
Gallinula chloropus galeata, 309. 
galeata, 309-313. 
Gallinule, 60, 310, 311, 312, 313. 
Florida, 74, 309-3138, 314, 317. 
Gambetta flavipes, 408. 
melanoleuca, 401. 
Game, breeding of, 50-54. 
Game birds of California, key to, 67— 
78. 
Game districts, 55. 
farms, 46-47. 
laws, 55-61. | 
Garrot, Rocky Mountain, 173. 
Gerber, W. E., 31, 25. 
Gifford, Edward W., 152, 161, 454. 
Gilman, M. French, 571. 
Glaucionetta clangula americana, 
167. 
islandica, 173. 
Glossary of special terms used, 
62-65. : 
Godwit, 365, 396, 398. 
American Bar-tailed, 396. 
Great Marbled, 396. 
Marbled, 75, 396-401, 419, 438, 
440, 441, 448. 
Golden-eye, 49, 147, 148, 169, 170, 
172, 173, 177. 
American, 73, 167-173, 174, 175, 
176. 
Barrow, 73, 168, 169, 1738-176, 179. 
Rocky Mountain, 173. 
Goosander, 79. 
Goose, American White-fronted, 70, 
218-222. 
Beach, 243. 
Blue, 211. 
Big Mexican, 222. 
Cackling, 70, 215, 216, 223, 224, 
225, 227, 231, 234-236. 
Canada, 7, 49, 70, 211, 212, 219, 
222-229, 230, 231, 234, 235, 238. 
China; 215, 216. 


Emperor, 70, 219, 223, 234, 239, 
243-246. 
Eskimo, 237. 

Gray, 9, 218, 219, 221, 229, 230. 

Greater Snow, 211. 

Honker, 60, 229. 

Hutchins, 70, 221, 223, 224, 225, 
227, 230-234, 235, 236, 238. 

Laughing, 218, 220. 

Lesser Canada, 230. 

Lesser Snow, 70, 210-215, 216, 217. 

Little Squeaking, 234. 

Mexican, 222. 

Ross, 210, 211, 217, 219, 235. 

Ross Snow, 70, 215-217, 238. 

Sea, 320, 328. 

Snow, 219. 

Tule, 219. 

White, 8, 9, 12, 18, 210, 211, 218, 
-214. 

White-cheeked, 222, 225, 230. 

White-fronted, 211, 219, 221, 245. 

White-headed, 243. 

Grass-bird, 371. 

Greenhead, 92, 94, 95. 

Green-wing, 113, 114, 115, 117, 118, 
123. 

Grey, Henry, 7, 9. 

Grinnell, Elizabeth, 48. 

Grinnell, Joseph, 2, 5, 258, 270, 278, 
281, 360, 383, 408, 420, 424, 435, 
439, 453, 454, 457, 491, 500, 509, 
521, 524, 532, 548, 569, 585, 594, 
595, 602. 

Grouse, 57, 58, 60. 

Blue, 544, 546. 

Columbian Sharp-tailed, 2, 9, 18, 
77, 256, 554, 558-564, 572. 

Dusky, 544, 545, 546, 553, 554. 

Oregon, 552. 

Oregon Ruffed, 77, 552-558, 561. 

Ruffed, 48, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 
558. 

Pine, 544, 546. 

Prairie Sharp-tailed, 562. 

Sage, 564, 565. 

Sharp-tailed, 56, 57, 558, 560, 561, 
563, 566, 567. 

Sierra, 77, 544-552 553, 554, 556, 
559, 561. 

serie 77, 544, 546, 549, 552, 556, 

Southern Sharp-tailed, 558. 

Grus americana, 274. 

canadensis, 273-279. 

canadensis mexicana, 279. 

mexicana, 273, 279-282. 

Gun clubs in California, 23-28. 


H 


Haematopus ater, 498. 
bachmani, 498-502. 
frazari, 502-5038. 
niger, 498. 


[636 ] 


INDEX 


palliatus, 502. 
townsendi, 498. 
Hall, Charles L., 497. 
Hammond, L. W., 48. 
Harelda glacialis, 181. 
hyemalis, 181-186. 
Hawks as enemies of game birds, 
20-21, 
Helodromas solitarius cinnamomeus, 
411-416. 
Hen, Marsh, 58. 
Prairie, 563. 
Henshaw, Judge F. W., 116, 226. 
Heron, Great Blue, 275. 
Herron, R. B., 263. 
Heteractitis incana, 422-427. 
Heteropygia bairdi, 373. 
Heteroscelus incanus, 422. 
Hill, J. H., 33. 
Himantopus mexicanus, 344-850. 
nigricollis, 344. 
History of attempts to introduce non- 
native game birds into Califor- 
- nia, 29-44. 
History of game-bird legislation in 
California, 55-61. 
Histrionicus histrionicus, 186-191. 
minutus, 186. 
torquatus, 186. 
Honker, 13, 222, 223, 229. 
Little, 230. 
Medium-sized, 230. 
Howell, A. Brazier, iv, 383, 407, 424, 
433, 457, 487, 491. 
Hubbard, Samuel, Jr., 7, 159, 173, 
288. 
Hunter, 222. 
Hunter, Joseph 8., 13, 34, 145, 271. 


Ibis, 56, 58, 59, 60, 273. 
White-faced Glossy, 73, 266, 269- 
278, 438, 440. 
Wood, 73, 263, 264, 266-269. 
Ibis mexicanus, 269. 
ordi, 269. 
thalassinus, 269. 

Ingersoll, Albert M., 105, 132, 149, 
207, 208, 306, 307, 311, 480, 582, 
584. 

Introduction, 1-5. 

Introduction of game birds, 29-44. 


J 


Jack, 445. 
Jackson, A., 145. 
Jay, Antonin, 582. 
Jordan, R., Jr., 531. 


K 


Kalmbach, E. R., 444. 
Kellogg, Louise, 436. . 


Key to game birds of California, 
67-78. 

Killdee, 463. 

Killdeer, 16, 76, 292, 293, 297, 369, 
370, 375, 382, 410, 423, 424, 428, 
432) 436, 453, 455, 459, 460, 463- 
469, 470, 471, 472, 474, 475, 479, 
482, 483, 486, 487, 490, 494, 495, 
501. 

Knot, 76, 323, 361, 368-368, 411. 

Koppel, I. L., 33, 591. 

Kreeker, 371. 

Kytka, Theodore, 49. 


L 


Lane, T. M., 7. 
Law, J. Eugene, 523, 524, 525, 527, 
591. 
Laws relating to game, 55-61. 
Lawyer, 344, 3245. 
Lead-back, 383. 
Legislation relating to game birds in 
California, 55-61. 
Lelande, Harry J., 100, 150, 508. 
Limonites minutilla, 376. 
Limosa fedoa, 396-401. 
Literature cited, 611-632. 
Littlejohn, Chase, 49, 113, 162, 581, 
582. 
Lobefoot, 326, 328. 
Lobipes hyperboreus, 326. 
lobatus, 326-332. 
Long-bill, 441, 443, 445. 
Long-shanks, 344, 345. 
Loomis, Leverett M., 193. 
Lophodytes cucullatus, 89-91. 
Lophortyx californica, 514. 
californica brunnescens, 537. 
californica californica, 515, 537. 
californica catalinensis, 515, 517, 
5387-588. 
californica vallicola, 514-537 
eatalinensis, 537. - 
elegans, 39. 
gambeli, 39, 538-544. 
Lueddemann, .Frieda, iv. 
Lute, Anna M., 557. 


M 


Macomber, King, 36. 

MacDonald, James, A., Jr., 275. 

Macrorhamphus griseus, 358. 

griseus scolopaceus, 358-363. 
scolopaceus, 358. 

Mailliard, Joseph, 90, 96, 131, 141, 
143, 144, 145, 187, 190, 284, 292) 
334, 355. 

Mailliard, Joseph and John W., 2, 
91, 96, 105, 132, 135, 137, 207, 
272, 284, 286, 339, 346, 348, 360, 
383, 388, 418, 433, 477, 491, 507, 
523. 525, 594, 595. 

Mallard, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 47, 49, 52, 


[ 637 ] 


INDEX 


58, 56, 57, 62, 71, 81, 92-101, 102, 
103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 110, 118, 
125, 133, 136, 138, 139, 149, 150, 
151, 153, 154, 155, 162. 
Black, 101. 
Chinese, 313. 
Gray, 92. 
Klondike, 197. 
Mammals as enemies of game birds, 
21, 
Mareca americana, 106-111. 
penelope, 106, 111-113. 
Marila affinis, 159-163. 
americana, 146-150. 
collaris, 164-167. 
marila, 156-159. 
valisinéria, 150-155. 
Marlin, Common, 396. 
Red, 396. 
Marsh-hen, 58, 283. 
Salt-water, 283. 
Martin, W. T., 534. 
McLean, Donald D., 294, 295. 
Measurements, method of taking, 66. 
Meissner, Charles D., 560. 
Melanetta velvetina, 197. 
Meleagris gallopavo, 36. 
Melopelia asiatica, 603. 
asiatica trudeaui, 603-606. 
leucoptera, 603. . 
Merganser, American, 70, 79-84, 85, 
86, 88, 91 
Hooded, 63, 70, 89-91, 178. 
Red-breasted, 70, 79, 81, 83, 84-88. 
Merganser americanus, 79. 
serrator, 84. 
Mergus americanus, 79-84. 
eucullatus, 89. 
merganser americanus, 79. 
serrator, 82, 83, 84-88. 
Merritt, Ralph P., 12. 
Moreom, G. Frean, 2, 403. 
Mud-hen, 15, 47, 60, 74, 149, 283, 309, 
310, 311, 313-319. 
Red-billed, 309. 
Murphy, Robert C., 348, 349. 
Mycteria americana, 266-269. 


N 


Neale, George, 35, 38, 145, 355, 592. 

Nettion carolinense, 113-118. 
carolinensis, 119. 
erecea, 119-120. 

Non-native game birds in California, 
29-44. 

Numenius americanus, 438-445. 
americanus americanus, 438, 
borealis, 447. 
hudsonicus, 445-452, 
longirostris, 438. 

Nyroca americana, 146. 
erythrocephala, 146. 
ferina, 146. 
valisneria, 150. 


O 


Ober, E. H., 565, 569, 570, 592. 
Ochthodromus wilsonius wilsonius, 
479-481. 
Oidemia americana, 194-197’. 
deglandi, 197-201. 
fusca, 197. 
perspicillata, 201-204. : 
perspicillata var. trowbridgei, 201. 
Old-squaw, 73, 181-186, 187. 
Olor buccinator, 253-256. 
eolumbianus, 256-262. 
Oreortyx picta, 504. 
picta confinis, 504. 
picta picta, 504, 505, 508, 512, 513- 
614, 
picta plumifera, 504-5138, 514. 
Ortygops noveboracensis, 301. 
Ortyx californica, 514, 537. 
picta, 504, 513. 
plumifera, 504. 
Ottmer, F. H., 113. 
Oxyechus vociferus vociferus, 463— 
469. 
Oyster-catcher, 494, 501. 
American, 502. 
Bachman, 498. 
Black, 77, 498-502, 503. 
Frazar, 77, 499, 502-508. 
Pied, 502. 
Townsend’s, 498. 


P 


Pale-belly, 454. 
Partridge, 57, 58, 59. 
California, 514, 537. 
English, 58. 
European, 35. 
Gambel, 538. 
Hungarian, 32, 35, 36, 46. 
Mountain, 505, 513. 
Plumed, 504, 517. 
Valley, 514. 
Payne, H. T., 39. 
Pedioecetes columbianus, 558. 
phasianellus columbianus, 558-564. 
Peep, 376, 377, 381, 386, 390. 
Pelidna alpina americana, 381. 
alpina sakhalina, 381-386. 
americana, 381. 
Pelionetta perspicillata, 201. 
trowbridgei, 201. 
Perdix californica, 514. 
perdix, 35. 
Peyton, Laurence G., 523, 524, 527. 
Phalarope, Gray, 320, 321. 
Northern, 15, 75, 321, 322, 325, 326- 
332, 410. 
Red, 21, 74, 320-326, 327, 328, 329, 
331, 365. 
Wilson, 75, 329, 382-337, 436. 
Phalaropus fulicarius, 320-326. 
hyperboreus, 326. 


[ 638 ] 


INDEX 


lobatus, 326. 

tricolor, 332. 

wilsoni, 332. 
Phasianus torquatus, 30, 572-575. 
Pheasant, Bohemian, 34. 

China, 572. 

Chinese Ring-necked, 32. 

Copper, 34. 

Denny, 572. 

English, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 58. 

Golden, 34. 

Lady Amherst, 34. 

Mongolian, 32, 58. 

Reeves, 34. 

Ring-necked, 22, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 

34, 35, 41, 46, 47, 77, 372-575. 

Silver, 34, 51. 

Swinhoe, 34. 

Wood, 552. 

Philacte canagica, 243-246. 

Pierce, Wright M., 523, 528. 

Pigeon, Band-tailed, 9, 16, 49, 56, 61, 
78, 575-588, 589, 592, 597, 603, 
G04. 

Blue, 575. 

Domestic, 576, 579, 588, 603. 
Mono Lake, 326, 328. 
Passenger, 23, 577, 581. 
Sonora, 604. 

White-winged Wild, 603. 
Wild, 61, 144, 575, 583. 

Pigmies, 376, 386. 

Pinioning birds, 53. 

Pintail, 49, 52, 71, 94, 95, 100, 105, 
109, 110, 125, 128, 133, 134-139, 
157, 205, 246. 

Pisobia bairdi, 373-376. 

maculata, 368-373. 
minutilla, 376-381. 

Platalea ajaja, 262. 

Platea mexicana, 262 

Plegadis guarauna, 269-273. 

Plover, 58, 59, 60. 

American Golden, 76, 366, 455, 456, 
458-463. 

Black-bellied, 64, 75, 366, 419, 452- 
458, 460, 462, 483. 

Black-breasted, 60, 452. 

Candlestick, 416. 

Field, 427, 429. 

Golden, 60, 368, 457, 460, 461, 463, 
483. 

Kentish, 473. 

Killdeer, 463. 

Mountain, 18, 77, 302, 471, 481-485. 

Prairie, 482. 

Red-legged, 489. 

Ring, 469, 471., 

Ring-necked, 375. 

Rocky Mountain, 481. 

Ruddy, 391. 

Semipalmated, 76, 469-473, 475. 

Semipalmated Ring, 469. 

Snowy, 77, 265, 378, 389, 436, 470, 
471, 472, 473-478, 480. 


Swiss, 452. 
Upland, 76, 427-430. 
Whistling Field, 452, 454. 
Wilson, 77, 470, 471, 475, 479-481. 
Pluvialis virginiaca, 458. 
Pochard, 146. 
Podasocys montanus, 481-485. 
Poisoning, 16. 
Porzana carolina, 296-301. 
eoturniculus, 304. 
jamaicensis, 304. 
jamaicensis coturniculus, 304. 
Preserves, game, 23, 24. 
Propagation of game birds, 45-54. 
Ptarmigan, 40. 
Pterocyanea coeruleata, 123. 
discors, 123. 
Pups, 386. 


Q 
Quail, 6, 10, 16, 51, 57, 58, 583. 

Arizona, 538. 

Bob-white, 58, 59, 516, 569. 

Brown-backed Valley, 514. 

California, 5, 21, 78, 508, 515, 516, 
518, 520, 522, 524, 527, 530, 532, 
533, 534, 536, 537. 

Catalina Island, 5, 78, 515, 516, 
587-538, 

Chinese, 38, 58. 

Crested, 514. 

Desert, 39, 46, 56, 59, 60, 78, 515, 
517, 518, 5388-544. 

Eastern, 58. 

Elegant, 39, 41. 

Gambel, 39, 41, 515, 517, 538, 539, 
543. 

Helmet, 514. 

Mountain, 46, 48, 56, 58, 59, 60, 63, 
78, 504-513, 514, 515, 517. 

Painted, 77, 504, 507, 513-514. 

Plumed, 504, 505. 

San Pedro, 504. 

Topknot, 514. 

Tufted, 514. 

Valley, 3, 5, 17, 20, 22, 39, 46, 48, 
56, 58, 59, 60, 78, 296, 504, 505, 
506, 508, 509, 510, 513, 514-537, 
538, 539, 540, 541, 543, 544, 574. 

Querquedula carolinensis, 113. 

eyanoptera, 123-129. 

discors, 120-123. 


R 
Rail, 58, 59, 362. 
Bangs, 289. 
Black, 297, 298, 302, 305, 307, 308. 
California Black, 74, 303, 304-309. 
California Clapper, 74, 283-289, 
290, 291, 293. 
Carolina, 296, 299, 300, 308. 
Clapper, 9, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 
296, 297. 
Common, 296. 


[ 639 ] 


INDEX 


Eastern Black, 304, 307. 

Farallon, 304. 

King, 283. 

Light-footed, 74, 283, 285, 289-291. 

San Mateo, 283. 

Sora, 15, 74, 293, 296-301, 303, 307, 
308. 

Southern California Clapper, 289. 

Sweetwater, 291. 

Virginia, 15, 74, 283, 284, 291-296, 
297, 298, 299, 301, 308. 

Yellow, 74, 292, 293, 297, 298, 301- 
804. 

Rallus, elegans, 283. 

elegans var. obsoletus, 283. 

levipes, 289-291. 

obsoletus, 283-289. 

virginianus, 291-296. 

Ray, Milton 8., 523, 524. 

Rearing game birds, 52, 53. 

Reclamation, its effect on game, 15. 

Recurvirostra americana, 337-844, 

occidentalis, 337. 

Redhead, 9, 13, 14, 18, 49, 56, 57, 72, 
101, 146-15 50, 151, 152, 153, 164, 
165, 166, 167, 249. 

Reynolds, i R., 477. 

Rhyacophilus solitarius, 411. 

Richards, W. W., 25, 51, 145. 

Richardson, Charles H., "352, 388, 397, 
424, 591. 

Ring-bill, 164, 167. 

Ring-neck, 156, 162, 164, 165, 167. 

Roadrunner as enemy of quail, 22. 

Robin, as game, 56, 58. 

Ruddy, 9, 209. 

Rynchaspis clypeata, 129. 


Ss 


Sage-cock, 564. 

Sage-hen, 48, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 77, 
554, 559, 560, 561, 564-872, 

Sale of game, 12, ag, 14. 

Sanderling, 77, 391-896, 475. 

Sandpiper, Baird, 76, 370, 371, 373- 
876, 384, 393. 

Bartramian, 427, 429. 

Black- bellied, 381, 383. 

Least, 15, 76, 305, 371, 375, 376- 
881, 384, 387, 389, 390, 393, 419, 
404) 431, 474, 475, 608. 

Little, 376. 

Pectoral, 76, 368-373, 375, 410. 

Red- backed, 15, 76, 366, 380, 3881- 
386, 391, 393. 

Sanderling, 391. 

Semipalmated, 388. 

en 410, 413, 414, 415, 416, 
431. 


Spotted, 76, 412, 414, 415, 431-437, 

Western, 15, 76, 371, 375, 378, 379, 
380, 384, 386-890, 393, 424, 431, 
475, 

Western Solitary, 76, 335, 411-416. 


*Sawbill, 79, 81, 83, 84, 169. 


Scaup, 110, 147, 149, 156. 
Greater, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 
162, 165, 167, 187, 206. 
Lesser, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 162, 
163, 164, 166. 
Schaeffle, Ernest, 3. 
Schneider, William, 535. 
Seolopax grisea, 358. 
noveboracensis, 358. 
wilsoni, 350. 
Seoter, 192, 193, 195. 
American, 73, 194-197. 
Black, 194. 
Surf, 73, 196, 201-204. 
White- -winged, 72, 196, 197-201, 
203. 
Scooter, 195. 
Scott, a Walter, 12. 
Sea-goose, 326. 
Sennett, George B., 458. 
Settlement of the country, its effect 
on game, 15. 
Sharp, Clarence 8., 522, 525, 527, 528. 
Sharp-tail, 559, 560, 561, 563. 
Columbia, 558. 
Shebley, W. H., 31, 83. 
Sheldrake, 79, 81, 88. 
Hooded, 89. 
Red- breasted, 84. 
Shelton, Alfred C., 304. 
Shepherd, Vernon, 102, 244, 252. 
Shook, Henry, 49. 
Shoveller, 47, 49, 71, 100, 128, 129- 
134, 136, 138, 182. 
Shuffler, 156. 
Sickle- bill, 438, 439. 
Skelton, A. E., oak 534. 
Skinner, R. Ww, 
Skunk -head, Hie 
Bath, Franklin J., 112, 187, 195, 242, 
490. 


Snakes as destroyers of quail’s eggs, 
22. 


Snipe, 10, 56, 58, 59. 

American, 350. 

Black- breasted, 383. 

Bull-head, 481. 

Checkered, 489, 

Curve- billed, 445, 

English, 350. 

Gray, 358. 

Trish, 337, 

Jack. 60, 344, 350, 352, 358, 360, 
371, 376. . 

Needle- billed, 332, 334. 

Red- breasted, 358, 363, 865. 

Robin, 363, 365, 

Stone, 401. 

Surf, 391. 

Wilson, 59, 60, 75, 350-358, 359, 
361, 364, 371, 381, 407, 411, 467. 

Yellow, 337, 

Somateria spectabilis, 192-194, 


[ 640] 


INDEX 


Sora, 292, 294, 297, 298, 299, 301. 
South Southerly, 181. 
Spatter, 205. 

Spatterer, 205, 206. 

Spatula clypeata, 129-134. 

Speckle-belly, 218, 219. 

Speckle-breast, 218, 219. 

Spike-bill, 396. 

Spoonbill, 11, 13, 14, 24, 57, 129, 131, 
264. 

Roseate, 73, 262-266. 

Spoonie, 10, 129, 131. 

Sprig, 10, 13, 14, 24, 26, 118, 134, 135, 
139. 

Sprigtail, 134, 205. 

Squatarola helvetica, 452. 

squatarola, 452-458. 

Squealer, 246. 

Squires, Walter A., 207. 

Steganopus tricolor, 332-337. 

Stephens, Frank, 96, 291, 360, 392, 
487, 506. 

Stilt, 341, 345, 346, 347, 349, 350, 448. 

Black-necked, 15, 74, 338, 340, 343, 
544-350, 399, 405. 
Strepsilas interpres, 489. 
melanocephalus, 493. 
virgata, 485. 

Storer, Tracy I., iii, 5, 378, 383, 420, 
436, 437, 439, 457, 509, 545, 548, 
595, 602. 

Surf-bird, 75, 424, 485-489, 494. 

Swan, 59. 

American, 256. 

Trumpeter, 18, 69, 253-256, 257, 
259, 261, 262. 

Whistling, 69, 253, 254, 255, 256- 
262. 

Swarth, Harry S., 2, 3, 378, 418, 532, 
541, 549, 586. 

Symphemia semipalmata, 416. 

semipalmata inornata, 416. 
semipalmata speculifera, 416. 


T 


Tantalus loculator, 263, 266. 
Tattler, 401, 4063. 

Lesser, 410. 

Solitary, 411, 413. 

Tell-tale, 401. 

Wandering, 76, 405, 422-427, 

488, 494. 

Yellow-shanks, 408. . 

Taylor, Walter P., 3, 126, 418, 

440, 441, 549, 595. 

Teal, 10, 13, 14, 49, 57, 110, 118, 
American Green-winged, 113. 
Blue-winged, 57, 72, 114, 115, 

120-128, 124, 125, 132. 
Cinnamon, 47, 56, 57, 72, 100, 
113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 121, 
123-129, 132, 147, 270. 
Common, 113. 
European, 72, 114, 116, 119-120. 


455, 


421, 
153. 
116, 


104, 
122, 


Green-winged, 26, 63, 72, 91, 113- 
118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 125, 128, 
136. 

Red-breasted, 123, 124. 

Western Blue-wing, 123. 

White-faced, 120, 122. 


Teeter, 431. 
Teeter-tail, 431, 432. 
Tell-tale, 401, 403. 


Greater, 403. 
Lesser, 410. 


Tetrao californicus, 537. 


eolumbianus, 558. 
obscurus, 544. 
phasianellus, 558. 
sabini, 552. 
urophasianus, 564. 
Tevis, Lansing, 281. 
Tilt, 344. 
Tip-up, 99, 431, 432. 
Toms, W., 159, 163. 
Totanus flavipes, 408-411. 
incanus, 422. 
macularius, 431. 
melanoleucus, 401-407. 
semipalmatus, 416. 
solitarius, 411. 
solitarius cinnamomeus, 411. 
Tree-duck, 247, 250, 251, 252. 
Black- bellied, 71, 246, 251-258. 
Brown, 246. 
Fulvous, 71, 149, 246-251, 252. 
Fulvous- bellied, 246. 
Tringa alpina, 325, 381. 
alpina var. americana, 381. 
alpina pacifica, 366, 381. 
arenaria, 391. 
bairdi, 373. 
canutus, 363-868. 
fuscicollis, 370. 
maculata, 368. 
minutilla, 376. 
pacifica, 381. 
semipalmata, 386. 
wilsonii, 376. 
Tringoides macularius, 431. 
Turkey, Water, 266, 269. 
Wild, 36, 37, "40, 46, 58, 143. 
Turnstone, 366, 375, 419, 486, 487, 
491, 492. 
Black, 21, 75, 491, 493-497. 
Common, 492, 493. 
Ruddy, 75, 489-498, 494, 495. 
Tyler, John’ G., 342, 345, 346, 347, 
348, 349, 433, 471, 521, 523, 524, 
527, 591. 


Tympanuchus americanus, 561. 


U 


Unglish, W. E., 7, 9. 


Vv 


Van Slyke, W. E., 36. 


[ 641] 


INDEX 


W 


Wanzer, H., 251. 
Water-hen, 283. 
Wavy, White, 211. 
Whale-bird, 320. 
Wheu-bird, 438, 439. 
Wheeler, Roswell S., 141, 143. 
Whistler, 167, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173. 
Whistle-wing, 167. 
Widgeon, 7, 10, 13, 14, 26, 106, 108, 
118, 136. 
American, 106, 108, 113. 
European, 71, 107, 111-113. 
Red-headed, 111, 112, 113. 
Wildcat as enemy of game birds, 21. 
Wilder, Harry E., 363. 
Wiley, Leo, 126, 263, 269, 540, 541, 
591, 608, 609. 
Willet, 416. 
Eastern, 419. 


Western, 75, 398, 405, 416-422, 
441, 443. 
Willett, George, 397, 470, 600. 
Wiretail, 205, 206. 
Woodcock, 353. 
Wythe, Margaret W., iv, 525. 


Y 


Yellow-legs, 60, 218, 408, 424. 

Greater, 75, 401-407, 408, 409, 410, 

411, 419. 

Lesser, 76, 402, 404, 408-411. 

Little, 408. 

Summer, 408, 409. 
Yellow-shanks, Greater, 401. 
Yelper, 234. 

Zenaidura carolinensis, 588. 

macroura, 588. 

macroura carolinensis, 588. 

macroura marginella, 588-603. 


[ 642 ] 


LABORATORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 
CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
ITHACA, NEW YORK