Cornell Mniversity Library BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henry W. Saae I1Sgor 6896-1 Cornell University Libra QL 739.026 1910 wa Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://Awww.archive.org/details/cu31924024783437 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY DAVISON MAMMALIAN ANATOMY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO atom Gra h BY ALVIN DAVISON, Pu.D. EX-FELLOW OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY; PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY IN LAFAYETTE COLLEGE SECOND EDITION, REVISED WITH 114 ILLUSTRATIONS, MOST OF WHICH WERE MADE BY W. H. REESE, A.M., FROM THE AUTHOR’S DISSECTIONS ‘¢ Study nature, not books.’’ y Agassiz. PHILADELPHIA P, BLAKISTON’S SON & CO. 1012 WaLnur STREET Igto CopyRIGHT, 1910, BY P. BLAKISTON’s SON & Co, PREFACE TO THE SECOND: EDITION. When the first edition of this book was published less than a half dozen medical schools in the United States required the entering student to have any knowledge of the structure of the lower animals. To-day a knowledge of mammalian anatomy or zoology is considered one of the first requisites for entering upon an intelligent study of medicine. The signs of the times indicate that in the near future no medical school will receive students without some practical knowledge of the structure of a mammal. That the students of modern psychology, the teachers of physiology in all high schools and the directors of all gymnasiums need a definite knowledge of the essentials of the anatomy of a mammal, is becoming more and more evident. These facts and the steady demand for the first edition of this book have been the principal factors in determining the preparation of a second edition. Owing to the gradual acceptance, in part at least, of the B. N. A. nomenclature, numerous changes have been made in the body of the text. The names used in this edition are such as have found favor with the majority of American anatomists. The author’s easy and quick method of prepar- ing the skeleton for study is for the first time presented in print. Jn several instances the language has been made more clear, and several new figures and a glossary have been added which will be of special help to the beginning student of anatomy. Atvin Davison. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. Huxley after years of pedagogical experience reached the conclusion that it is unwise to introduce the beginner at once to new and strange forms of microscopic life when it is possible to use a subject of which the student is bound to know something,—the elementary anatomy of a vertebrate animal. The late T. Jeffrey Parker and numerous other eminent zoologists likewise advocate be- ginning zoological work by studying one of the higher animals. Since the majority of college students have time for only one year of zoological work, they cannot acquire a fruitful knowledge of both vertebrates and invertebrates. A study of the former enables one not only to become familiar with the anatomy and physiology of his own body, —a matter of vital importance,—but throws a clear light on the significant problem of organic evolution such as 1s not to be derived from a study of invertebrate forms. Inas- much as the genealogical histories are best worked out among the Mammalia, and since a careful study of the anatomy of the cat familiarizes one with the anatomy of the human body, as is evidenced by the fact that our best medical schools now adyise their prospective students to dissect either a dog, a cat, or a rabbit as a preparation for their later work, it is apparent that a knowledge of the mammals is of the greatest worth. This brief work is intended to acquaint the student with the general structure of the cat, and at the same time intro- duce him to some of the most important morphologic features of the Mammalia. The following works are useful for reference: “Anatomical Technology,’ Wilder and Gage; “Anatomy of the Cat,” Reighard and Jennings; vii Vili PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION “Mammals Living and Extinct,’ Flower and Leydekker ; “Primary Factors of ‘Otgamic Evolution,” E. D. Cope; “Vertebrate Zoology,’ J. S. Kingsley; ‘Anatomie des Hundes,”” Ellenberger and Baum; “Human Physiology,” Schenck and Gutrber; “Osteology of the Mammalia,” Flower; “Human Histology,” Piersol. In the preparation of this book I have consulted a large number of works on human and comparative anatomy and physiology. Those giving most assistance are the works mentioned above, in addition to “ Mammalian Anatomy” by Jayne, “Anatomie Descriptive et Comparative” by Strauss-Durckheim, “‘ Nervése Centralorgane”’ by Edinger, and “Vertebrate Paleontology”? by Woodward. I am especially indebted to my artist, Mr. W. H. Reese, of the Phillipsburg High School, for the care and patience exer- cised in making the ceawanes from my own dissections. Mr. D. S. Hartline, of the Bloomsburgh State Normal School, has read the entire manuscript and made valuable criticisms. Above all, I have to thank Prof. J. S. Kingsley for numerous valuable suggestions and important cor- rections in the manuscript. Atvin Davison. CONTENTS. LN TROD CLION Majonsia states togten manage teustedense ha baad godt toa utp hr ieeaule os Bea aie. Biol gie@al 7S Cen Cesta. co. 4,nor aad ck ae rona-aatantresach samen Sees Classification of the Animal Kingdom........................ Preparation and Preservation of Material................... General Terms Used in Description of Bones................. Labulationof- Bones ys ascatinetncein te neetnns nae h onao eh arin Structiire: Of Bone@sc.sasc eis cents Pe tee ER de NCE et ec RAD Se sracreeenvatartotinatesnk re sepa re as ane ometiash ae eso eves staeh mealignsle is phehebupene ies TEER Tyo (GNSS ads fot yet PRR Pom tata ol Deere a naar ec eaA clea la Rsan le SARS See MORAL Obst emer Inder rer Teed A A Atenas On uci Ra AM Wein Rd RA SMe er Bi ORGAN SCOR DIGESTION: Biss tde secs aaa es Sent eek as BRU OSS Nees Alsimenitary. Gala east a earatepheteencts as Rae ere aS aes aca reine Beene MASCOT ain hs tee tonne esa aah Seni aw soainialad UNA ati GU ah tum eeecneeee ae nies Accessory ‘Glands of Digestion seca wsansusioaeenamint’s wesw y ss PELit OMe WT Yar yewe ELA e Roe SMO re hailed ARNG Ba FV CATE 5 sataiot a escinisneee ate hoe ae eiesgimaaneiae eal eect ache wane macero a ete wrt Aerie! Old rue aot teh tolrnensis mae ee adetoee drrel neeanel,ntnaaces Arteries or Neck: and \Peadias 2 weiscs a nuaeren sae ees gaan Arteries OF MHOracie Lim bins vis ccined anainad Made Aen mans Arteries: of Pelvic: “Latin Dicaccgosoves Siacecs lo See aah aides we lo atese nian WEN OUSVOY SUCINL cantare we accra e aimee 6 nee ata me rs acne Lymipliatic: System seevonrrnct cn ane tac auc os akan Whee eas Wrtetliess Gala dsc wtaaisrdeys aon tva mnadaunneetnct ede sapcn cts hate Nees RESPIRATOR Ye 5 0S Tile Wis essa aceite oeeras scene cera re) apanvnen actalwbatelglené caaweeere ons Urinary: One anisex neice Ss Soe hat aaetada grange tara ene we Female Organs of Reproduction: :avess2 5 ck cen sa acd hee ees aamnns Male Organs of Reproduction..........0..ccccueeseeuvuaeves eg x CONTENTS. PAGE. NERVOUS: SYSTEMS Aceeacealiatys gainer saa atk PA aun Gretna an eA eauna 175 BANE iS Set eaca at ae sent ee oho eeee eae eeer Mer eee Ne et i et cea 176 External: Heatunesitzasmtives atcbpems aaa ccadace ame wane ee te 177 Internal Stracture..tosae ts swe eadeda pu cimenes wearer ened sy 180 Spinal Cord series ac8 so.5 feces aac cat un Mice: Sach Ue Ree 193 Fiber Tracts of the Central Nervous System................- 199 Péripliéral Nerves yi. aac op chants ac ne eae eed da lau eee ome anaes 204 Cranial INEr vest mecs tt kava va wins & Morus ai ctacatond ie letctetoneaate 205 Spinal Netvesivs scan ca meek noe seer Hoan me Re eee 207 SYIMpPathetic. Systeme oa anwt< dencchwsewes a sae ations Melons Meee 214 OrCAUS Ob Sensei acne. ccssuule hem ae Aas Shes mua ee ena 218 CUTANEOUS a ct cececara: s sieemncew vs Mya tareedon near taawaiges Grae toed 219 OPA CEO ry eetn chancel eA haan edi te Pataca RR ENA meee cere 219 Gustatory fice badeend stern been Roe es + ee om eames 220 Wit Stial Sse a5 3 cas, paca aes, U eed gana tae eRe Rt ceaheshes hoe 221 AUCIPO EY pana nas osu A ey eat ALAN nat iene NON tile aan ton ah 224 (GOS SAR io ns Spa areas ween trae a RENE peter deas aes She AAPA ee orca ta 231 END ESS tieaeacr nett Ore teat sa hinte ote eh tenets cle Moots MME te atte on a a Pree Roe Ai 243 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. : PAGE 7; Specimen? Jak crasssacevatnee ee cavaiewe sees ecard 4 2. IN eCting SyHINSe Vine waseaue ease manana ehane wadetaaama 5 3. Diagrammatic View of Operation for Injection............... 6 4. Method of Making Incision in the Carotid Artery for Injection 6 5. Method of Inserting the Cannula into a Vessel.............. 7 6. Palmar Aspect of Cat’s Paw with Cannula Inserted.......... 8 7. Flat Epithelium Cells from the Mouth...................... 13 8. Involuntary “Muscle; 2.5 .aeenige dew ieee che eee ae ae sues 13 Oro Cells Ob Cantil age recto eee a ee occas hayeresens eoninide Soatetn Sheeran: 14 10: Pibérs.of Volttitaty Musélec..ct.c20s-soaeed caaeacanehenneaae 15 it. Fibers of Connective’ Tissteic. ¢ccuaies acaivien sweden aaadigunies 16 12. Longitudinal Section of the Humerus of a Kitten............ 2 13. Longitudinal Section of the Femur...................000000 24 T4: (CLOSS=SectiOn: Of Catlst Femur +s ince auewwnnc-nangaesadleeeies 25 15. Diagram of the Bones of the Mammalian Skull Viewed Laterally ress phrd athe aes eee oon aan ee eee ae BAe AA 27 16. Dorsal Aspect of the Cat’s Skull ........... 0... cc cece eee eee 28 17. Ventral Aspect of the Skull with the Left Auditory Bulla REM OW ed! Ue. ccs hanel syeustaialabers nmitdaiet ceateae sighs wave uate nameless 32 18. Cut Surface of a Sagittally Bisected Skull................... 35 19. Medial or Inner Aspect of the Mandible...................... 38 20. Ventral Aspect of Larynx, Hyoid Bones, and Tongue........ 39 21, lateral Aspectof the: Skeleton: acacia asso tere oe Aue 42 22: Plant ofa: V ertebrascs ancucseys onsen es Mogae emaneceete tasoane 44 23. Dorsocaudal. Aspect: of AtlaS. i5 ecccscsingaione saceeee seca 44 24. \ateral Aspect. Of. the AXIS: 644 iiesc ce pumeneeganeratsanesins 45 25. Latero-caudal Aspect of a Thoracic Vertebra................ 45 26. Caudal Aspect of Fourth Lumbar Vertebra................... 47 27; Dorsal Aspect: Or the Sacrumiss 4 ac-che4 Scene aces yak wa econ 47 28. Ventral Aspect of the Bones of the Thorax.................. 49 26). Caudal Aspect-of Sixth Ribi.s cacsee tai eachain cane ada 50 30; Lateral Aspect of- the Scapula.c.cysvcacicabeas aeneveess aude 53 a1, Caudal: Aspect of the Claviclés tos cnainanceck aetna, wees 53 2. Cranial Aspect of the Humerus................0..00eeeeee 54 49. Lateral-Aspect of the Ulia ssicaesacgewecs i aus eee uguamandaes 55 34. Medial Aspect of the Radius............. 0... c cece e eee 56 a5: Gerealogy-of the Horse nex adsense adeas Masiesuetiad acieeunndles 57 36a. Dorsal Aspect of Cat’s Manus............... 0.2 ee eee 59 x1 Xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE. 363; Generalized. Type of. Carpisiccc cc sodas Ginn di nsean anaes 59 37. Lateral Aspect of Forelimb of Equus...................00 005 60 38. Lateral Aspect of Innominate Boite........00c.0..50c000en0 2 es 64 39. Ventral Aspect of Innominate Bones...............0 00 cee eee 64 40; Caudal Aspech of Hemit cacy sccsheae oodeeee nase enh ee ay 66 ae. Cranial Aspect Of- Cibiaecws sate cac assis esac cages cee eee AE 66 420 Medial Aspect. OF Pabulas ages a.ceean eta Sow doen ada n ne eneaaats 68 Az: Dorsal Aspect: Of Hind=fO0t sncvicakaswsestacdew newman 70 44. Diagram of a Diarthrodial Joint.........0.0c0aneuees saad cease 73 45. Lateral Aspect of Dissected Knee-joint..................00.. 74 46. Caudal Aspect of Knee-joint....... 0.0... cece eee eee 75 47. Ventral Aspect of Trunk and Neck Muscles................ 81 48. Lateral Aspect of the Muscles of the Cat..................-- 88 49. Lateral Aspect of the Muscles of the Thoracic Limb......... 90 50. Medial Aspect of the Muscles of Thoracic Limb............ 98 51. Ventral Aspect of the Muscles of Trunk and Thigh.......... 101 52. Lateral Aspect of the Muscles of the Leg.................05. IOI 53. Caudal Aspect of the Muscles of Crus and Foot.............. 102 SA. Diaeram ota Gland a. wycvvstsae can sinte avec Gus eum ae atse (nee yea 105 55. Diagram of the Chief Organs of the Cat.................... 106 56. Dorsal Aspect of the Tongue and Larynx................... 108 57. Longitudinal Section of the Canine Tooth........0.......... 109 58. Lateral Aspect of the Permanent Dentition................. 110 50; Viscena ot the: uman-Bodys). wsnyssauveans aoeiwennuneossaae 113 60. Ventral Aspect of the Alimentary Canal..................005 116 Or. Transverse. Section of ‘the Cats s.5/ see ans sitancene vas oem ee d 117 62. Cross-section of the Cardiac End of the Stomach........... 117 63: Gastric: Gland swceeen a aoa es os hon eres sina eee meme et 118 64. Cross-section of the Small Intestine....................00.0. 119 658s. Villrand' Glands Of Intestin Grain cc tee ets oe neha ls 119 65p. Lacteals and Portal System of Dog..........cccccceeeeeune 120 GO: Dallivarey Glam ds) sis a aces csscosnde eave coteran hae on ale em ae 122 67. Diagram of the Stomach of a Ruminant...................0. 126 68. Photograph of the: Human Hearts: 0.0005 scccuiecdewoswasaee 130 60: Heart Viewed -VWentrally..0) sc:2 Aa caca tt hauatlnan setae Games 130 70. Heart Viewed Ventrally with Caudal Third Cut off.......... 131 PUMELCAE Viewed MO Orsally cress ois commande acinus he an.d a eS 131 72. Ghiet Arieries: OF thes Link’: kas ea etiakny cheaenaas ean 133 73. Ventral Aspect of the Arteries of the Head and Neck........ 136 va: Avteries Gf the Morélimb ssi occadieas tea eenaaasutacunnaaeans 138 7G IATLCRIES OF {the Ae Ps «oral Oeniaa tin cnunavers Wulinten sh nesta eutauantwbe-diels 140 76, Cross-section of Artery and Veiticisasincici es gees ese nue se ween 142 Pre NEC WALID "VALVES ae aroaunrs ee 8 Gack ieee Canela aut eae 143 FIG. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Xiil PAGE 7S VEINS. Olw CAL atanphlads ad saw sired Mah ne eye Seaeee wate 145 vga. Arterial System of a Rabbit...........0 cece cee cc uecececees 147 FOBS AMiLerialy Sy Steril, OL a Nai nantes bead aacseeeiacs oe cumtn See 147 80. Ventral Aspect of Chief Lymphatic Vessels of the Cat....... 152 81. Photograph of the Lymphatic Capillaries and Vessels of Cat’s SECA eta tera abet dhe sheaves tere are ramon na eter Nn ce Gite ha is 153 82. Diagrammatic Transverse Section of the Chest............... 158 83. Photograph of a Lung Corrosion of a Puma...............-. 159 84. ‘Termination of a Bronchiole.......o0060e008en ence ag acura ene 161 85. Photograph of Human Heart and Lumgs.................... 162 86. Ventral Aspect of Female Urogenital System................ 165 87. Median Longitudinal Section of a Kidney................... 166 88, Diagram of Structure of Kidney.as.i.ss8ery esacn nia gaeea vans 166 So Section Of Ovary sack oxnacccc og nous wcaionsas fnewin, Unease 169 go. Ventral Aspect of Male Reproductive Organs................ 171 Oly “SPEhMatOZOArad ahoned hase cok acre el PO aa ante atntenals 172 02: Dorsal «Aspect of the. Brains.) senisa naan es ees vagueness He 177 o3.. Ventral Aspectof the Brains: 2 scawadan. oa higs hadid twenties 179 04, Dideram of the: Ventricles. avs ni aan eeneacee a shacct ans oats 181 O§. Sagittal Section sof the Braitioy ananccuciiiarsecc daddies 183 96. Dorsal Aspect of the Brain with the Cerebellum and Portion of. -Gerébrum Removed: i ¢ oka Premaxillary,.... 2 Maxillary, .-- 2 Palatine... ..- 2 Vomier, - - 1 Face Maxilloturbinal ‘i 2 Nasal =? Lachrymal - ae Malar or Jugal, 2 Mandible,...-..-- 1 [g eeeanchye, 2 Stylohyal 2 ae Epihyal, 2 Hyoid bones Ceratohyal, 2 Basihyal, 1 Thyrohyal,..... 2 Cervical vertebrae, . 7 Thoracic vertebre, . 13 Vertebral column Tumbar vertebre, 7 Sacral vertebre, .- 1 Caudal, .....- 21 { Ribsi ie ah Bess 26 Thorax Sternum,.. we we : + Scapula, --.+-+ ++ 2 Shoulder girdle { Clavicle, - ++... 2 Arm Humierus,,- +... 2 { tina, 2x bbe - 44 2 Forearm Radius,-++.... 2. Scapholunar, eer Ree Cuneiform,..... 2 Pisiform,...... 2 Carpus Trapezium, eek Ae Trapezoid. .-... 2 L Magnum, .+-+-+ ++ e L Unciform, ---+-+. 2 Hand Metacarpus GaN Ss 10 Proximal, ..... 10 l Phalanges ee fede tain gu at Fer 10 ( DAiStal, sa 26 se esos 8 Pelvic girdle Innominate, .... 2 erst a era | Patella, ae <0 4 «3 2 we (iis, eee ee Fibula ....+2. 2 Astragalus,. ...- 2 Calcaneum, ..... 2 Scaphoid...... 2 Tarsus Internal cuneiform,, 2 Middle cuneiform, . 2 External cuneiform, 2 Cuboids es ee ee 2 Foot Metatarsus ws we ee ee we 10 Phalanges § Proximal,...... ( Middle,....... Distal. THE SKELETON. 23 are those not elongated and with no medullary cavity: tarsus and carpus. Flat bones are plate-like, with a layer of cancellous tissue between two layers of compact tissue: parietal, scapula, and innominate. Jrregular bones are those which have an exceedingly ir- regular shape: ethmoid and vertebre. The aspect of a bone is the portion seen when viewed from a given direc- tion. The border of a bone is the margin, edge, or ridge at the juncture of two surfaces. Proximal is used to designate the portion of a structure nearer the axis or spinal column, in distinction to distal, which signifies the part farther removed from the axis. Cranial indicates the part of an organ nearer to the plane passing just beyond the head and perpendicular to the spinal axis, while caudal is applied to the other part of the organ nearer to the perpendicular plane at the end of the extended tail. ; . Pig, 322 LoncItTu- Sagittal refers to the plane bisecting DINAL SECTION OF THE HuMERus OF A ‘ KITTEN. nal direction. Medial and lateral are j, Epiphysis for head; the animal in a vertical and longitudi- adjectives, the former meaning nearer — ©, Cartilage; b, bone; j m, medullary sub- to the sagittal planeand the latter more stance; 0, epiphysis for olecranon proc- remote on either side of that plane. ae Proximad, distad, craniad, caudad, mediad and laterad are adverbs indicating direction in ac- cordance with the adjectives to which they are related. A process is projection or elevation. A tuberosity is a rough obtuse process. 24 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. A tubercle is a small and usually more or less pointed process. A condyle is a rounded and somewhat elongated smooth articular process. The distal end of the femur presents a pair of condyles (Fig. 40). A fossa is an irregular depressed area (Fig. 30). A foramen is an aperture for the pas- va + sage of vessels or nerves. ee The shaft is the body or middle por- ud tion of an elongated bone. The head is a spheroidal prominence [ at one end of an elongated bone (Fig. 40). The epiphysis is a small process of bone ossified from a separate center. In the young animal it is attached to the main bone by cartilage, but in the adult becomes a part of the main bone (Fig. 12). The femur has four epiphyses, one for the head, one for the distal ex- tremity,and one. for each trochanter proc- ess (Fig. 40). With the exception of soot Eee the phalanges, metacarpals, and metatar- or THE Femur sals, all of the long bones have an epi- eels physis at each extremity. In the human, cancellous tis- these epiphyses do not unite with the sue; #7, cancel, shaft before the sixteenth year. Diploé lous tissue of trochanter proc- is the spongy layer of bone between the ess; b, compact i bony tissue. compact surface layers of the flat bones (Fig. 18). The articulation of a bone has reference to its contact with other bones by means of joints. THE SKELETON. 25 STRUCTURE OF BONE. Every bone is completely covered except on its articu- lating surfaces with a tough membrane, the periosteum, which serves for the attachment of muscles, and the renewal of bony tissue in case of injury. The long bones contain a cavity, the medullary cavity, filled with marrow (Fig. 12). Fic. 14. Cross-secTIon oF Cat’s Femur. X 5. cp, Compact tissue; cn, cancellous tissue; en, endosteum; mc, medullary canal; pe, periosteum. This cavity is lined with endostewm, a membrane similar to the periosteum. The shaft of the long bone is composed mainly of com- pact bony tissue through which extend longitudinally inter- communicating microscopic channels, Haversian canals, for the conveyance of blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics. The lacune, or spaces for the bone cells during life, are arranged concentrically about the Haversian canals. The canaliculi, or processes of the lacunze, communicate with one another. At the extremities of the bones the place of the medullary canal is taken up by cancellous tissue (Fig. 13, d), the compact tissue being very thin. The flat bones have no medullary canal, but the diploé or cancellous tissue lying between the outer compact tissue has its spaces filled with a 4 26 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. red marrow of the same nature as that in the cancellous tissue of the long bones, wherein the red blood-corpuscles are formed. The large medullary cavity or canal is filled with yellow or fatty marrow. BONES OF THE SKULL. The skull is usually considered in two parts, the cranium and face. The former is composed of nine bones, which will be described in order. The frontal bones (Figs. 15 and 16) are two in number, lying between the orbits, and articulating with one another in the median line. They form the roof of the cranial part of the brain cavity and the caudal portion of the roof of the nasal chamber. A lateral projection (po, Fig. 16) is known as the postorbital process. Within the frontal bone is a cavity, the frontal sinus (Fig. 18), which contains air and is lined with mucous membrane. It communicates with the nasal cavity. The lateral descending portion of the bone, articulating with the palatine and orbitosphenoid, is the orbital plate of the frontal. In the majority of the Mammalia the frontal is a paired bone, but in man the two portions become anchylosed dur- ing the fifth or sixth year. The horns of ruminants are outgrowths of these bones. Among the Cervide (deer) horns are usually developed only on the male, and are shed every year. In the Bovidz (cattle) the horns are perma- nent when present. The ethmoid (Fig. 18) is a single bone lying ventral to the frontals and nasals. It separates the cranial cavity from the nasal cavity and projects into the latter in the form of two thin scroll-like plates of bone and a median vertical plate. In order to see the relations of this bone, three skulls must be used, one of which should be bisected sagittally, a second should have the roof of the cranial and THE SKELETON. 27 nasal cavities removed, and the third should be cut trans- versely on a line joining the middle of the orbits. The ethmoid is usually visible externally as a small rhomboid plate on the medial wall of the orbit between the frontal, Yorrer~ erences ema . oid} ae sepeeiiony ple T diy? My Fic. 15. DraGRAM OF THE Bones OF THE MAMMALIAN SKULL VIEWED LATERALLY. I, 2, 3, etc., indicate the places of exit of the twelve cranial nerves. pm, Premaxillary; ty, tympanic, 7 and 8 are on periotic; thy, tympano- hyal; shy, stylohyal; ehy, epihyal; chy, ceratohyal; bhy, basihyal ; thhy, thyrohyal. The cartilage bones are shaded.—(From Flower, after Huxley.) lachrymal, and palatine bones. It consists of four parts: the paired ethmoturbinals or lateral ethmoids (Fig. 18), the mesethmoid, and the cribriform plate. The ethmotur- binals are in the form of scroll-like laminze which project forward from the transverse cribriform plate into the nasal cavities. The portion which appears externally in the medial wall of the orbit is the os planum. In the recent state, the surfaces of these bones within the nasal cavity are covered with a mucous membrane over which the first pair of cranial nerves (olfactory) are distributed. The delicacy 28 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. of the sense of smell is proportional to the development of the ethmoturbinals. In most orders of animals five scrolls are present, but in Echidna there are six and in some Ungu- lates there are eight, while in adult Primates there are only from one to three, more, however, being present in the embryo. The mesethmoid is the perpendicular plate of bone which, prolonged craniad by cartilage, separates the nasal cavity into two portions. Caudad it is united to the cribriform Fic. 16. Dorsat Asprct oF THE Cat’s SKULL. ap, Anterior palatine foramen; c, canine tooth; co, coronal suture; f, foramina in palatine bone, the lateral one is the posterior palatine and the medial one is the sphenopalatine; fr, frontal; if, infraorbital foramen; in, interparietal; /c, lachrymal canal at the medial border of the lachrymal bone; /d, lambdoidal crest; ml, malar; mx, maxil- lary; na, nasal; oc, occipital; », vertical plate of the palatine; po, postorbital process of the frontal; pm, postorbital process of the malar; par, parietal; px, premaxillary; sq, squamosal part of the temporal; sg, sagittal suture; sp, alisphenoid part of the sphenoid; tp, temporal fossa; zg, zygomatic process of the squamosal. plate, dorsally it articulates with the median descending plates of the frontals and the nasals, and ventrally it articu- THE SKELETON. 29 lates with the vomer and presphenoid. The cribriform plate is the caudal portion of the ethmoid (Fig. 18), which, extending transversely between the frontals, separates the cranial cavity from the nasal cavity. It is pierced by many pinhole foramina for the exit of the olfactory rierve. In Ormthorhynchus (duck-bill of Australia) there is a single large foramen in the cribriform plate, as is also the case in birds. The temporal is a paired bone lying at the base and side of the skull. It contains the organs of hearing. It con- sists of four parts: the squamous or expanded portion (Fig. 16),to which the zygomatic process is attached ; the mastoid (Fig. 17), which is the part caudad of the squamosal and dorsal to the bulla; the tympanic, which forms the auditory bulla; and the petrous (Figs. 17 and 18), which contains the internal ear. The squamous portion overlaps the parietal dorsally in a scale-like manner and is limited ventrally by a clearly defined projecting ridge extending above the external auditory meatus as the dorsal border of the eygoma., The zygomatic process extends craniad to join the zygo- matic process of the malar, the two together forming the zygomatic arch, or zygoma, to which the masseter muscle is attached. Ventral of the root of the zygomatic process is the glenoid cavity for the articulation of the condyle of the mandible. Immediately caudad of this cavity is the postglenoid process. The mastoid portion of the bone is somewhat triangular in shape, about two centimeters long, and lies caudad of the external meatus. The tympanic portion appears on the base of the skull as the auditory bulla. Its cavity is divided into two unequal chambers by a bony septum rising from the floor and reach- ing almost to the roof. The cranial or true tympanic chamber, sometimes called the middle car, is the smaller, 30 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. and has on its lateral wall a horseshoe-shaped prominence known as the tympanic ring, to which the tympanic mem- brane of the drum of the ear is attached. There are four apertures in the walls of the cranial tympanic chamber: The meatus anditorius externus, or the external auditory canal; the Eustachian tube, leading from the cranial dorsal angle of the chamber to the pharynx; the fenestra ovalis and the fenestra rotundum, opening into the internal ear. The caudal or medial chamber of the bulla is larger than the cranial, but has no special features worthy of consideration. The petrous portion of the temporal bones is not visible on the external surface of the skull, but may be seen by looking into the external auditory meatus. It forms the medial wall of the tympanic cavity. The foramen seen in its dorsal part is the fenestra ovalis. In a sagittally bi- sected skull the petrous (Fig. 17) may be recognized by the internal auditory meatus entering it. By removing the bulla, a large portion of the petrous bone may be seen from its ventral aspect. A central prominence, the promontory, contains the fenestra rotundum opening into the base of the cochlea. The apex of the promontory, mediad of the fenestra rotundum, forms the wall of the first whorl of the cochlea. Dorsal to the fenestra rotundum is the fenestra ovalis, opening into the vestibule of the internal ear. In the recent state this opening is closed by a membrane in which is imbedded the foot of the stapes. The cochlea in the interior of the bone may be displayed by cutting away the bony rim of the fenestra rotundum and then chipping off a crust of bone in a line from this foramen to the junc- ture of the basioccipital and basisphenoid bones. The petrous bone, viewed dorsally in a bisected skull, appears in the floor of the brain cavity ventrad of the ten- torium, the plate of bone partly separating the cerebrum from the cerebellum. Its surface is pierced by the internal THE SKELETON. 3! auditory meatus, which gives passage to the auditory nerve. Close examination reveals a division of the canal into two parts, a ventral for the eighth nerve and a dorsal, the aque- ductus Fallopu, for the facial nerve. This aqueduct twists through the petrous laterad, and thence between the petrous, squamosal, and mastoid to the stylomastoid foramen (Fig. Taye) The parietal bone is paired and joins its fellow in the median line, forming the caudal half of the sagittal suture. Its point of greatest convexity is the parietal eminence. Its cerebral or internal surface presents slight arborescent grooves which in the recent state sheltered the meningeal artery of the brain. The plate of bone projecting obliquely craniad from the caudal border of the parietal is the tento- rium, an ossification of the dura mater separating the cere- brum from the cerebellum. The interparietal is a triangular bone situated at the junction of the two parietals and occipital bones. Its sutures are usually obliterated quite early. _The occipital (Figs. 16, 17, and 18) is a single bone surrounding the foramen magnum and articulating with the interparietal, parietals, temporals, and sphenoid. In the young kitten it is composed of four parts: the supraocci- pital, lying dorsal to the foramen magnum, the two exocct- pitals, lying laterad of it, and a basioccipital, bounding it ventrally. The crescentic elevation on the supraoccipital near its parietal margin is the lambdoidal ridge, to which several muscles are attached. The exoccipitals bound the cerebellum laterally and sup- port the occipital condyles, which articulate with the atlas or first vertebra. Immediately caudad of the bulla is the paroccipital process. There are two foramina, one of which, the anterior condyloid, opens ventrally with the jug- ular foramen adjacent to the bulla, while the other, the 32 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. Fic. 17. VENTRAL ASPECT OF THE SKULL WITH THE Lerr AUDITORY Butta Removen. asp, Alisphenoid; ap, anterior palatine foramina; bs, basisphenoid; bl, auditory bulla; bo, basioccipital ; c, canine tooth; e, petrous portion of the temporal; en, occipital condyle; ea, external auditory meatus; ch, opening of the Eustachian tube; fr, frontal; fm, foramen mag- num; gc, glenoid cavity; gn, postglenoid process; hm, hamular proc- ess of the pterygoid; ic, incisor tooth; if, infraorbital foramen; in, incus; jg, jugular foramen; /d, lambdoidal ridge; mx, maxilla; ml, molar tooth; mp, mastoid process; ws, mastoid portion of the tem- poral; maz, malar; m, malleus; osp, orbitosphenoid; ov. foramen THE SKELETON. 33 posterior condyloid, opens more dorsally at the side of the condyle. The former transmits the twelfth (hypoglossal) cranial nerve, supplying the larynx, hyoid bone, and tongue. The jugular foramen, or foramen lacerum posterius, is at the juncture of the bulla, exoccipital, and basioccipital. The internal jugular vein and the ninth, tenth, and eleventh nerves pass through it. The basioccipital portion of this bone lies entirely on the ventral aspect of the skull. It articulates craniad with the basisphenoid by a suture which is generally obliterated in cats three or four years old. The sphenoid bone lies in the center of the base of the skull. It is composed of eight parts, corresponding to eight distinct bones in the lower vertebrates: the basisphenoid, articulating caudad with the basioccipital; two alisphenoids, extending dorsad from the basisphenoid and articulating caudad with the temporals (Figs. 17 and 18) two ptery- goids, projecting ventrally from the basisphenoid and terminating in sharp processes; a presphenoid in the mid- ventral line craniad of the basisphenoid; two orbitosphen- oids, extending dorso-laterally from the presphenoid and articulating craniad with the frontals. In an old cat, the sutures between these eight parts become more or less oblit- erated. The basisphenoid together with the alisphenoids is sometimes called the posterior sphenoid in distinction to the anterior sphenoid, composed of the presphenoid and orbitosphenoids. The basisphenoid presents on its dorsal or cerebral sur- face the sella turcica, or pitwitary fossa, which lodges the pituitary body of the brain (Fig. 90). The posterior boundary of this fossa is the clinoid plate, and its lateral ovale; p, presphenoid; p/, palatine; pt, pterygoid; pu, promontory of the petrous; po, postorbital process; pr, premolar teeth; pm, premaxillary; rd, fenestra rotundum; rt, foramen rotundum; st, stapes; sg, squamosal; sf, stylomastoid foramen; tc, carotid foramen, or foramen lacerum medius; vm, vomer, forming the septum between the posterior nares; 2g, zygomatic process of squamosal. 34 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. projections are the posterior clinoid processes. On each side of the basisphenoid there extends dorsally in a narrow strip to the parietal the alisphenoid, at the base of which, craniad of the auditory bulla, are three foramina in a line. The most cranial and largest one is the sphenoidal fissure, or anterior lacerated foramen, which transmits the third, fourth, and sixth cranial nerves supplying the eyeball muscles, and the first branch of the fifth nerve. This foramen is between the alisphenoid and the orbitosphenoid. The other two foramina, rotundum and ovale, transmit the second and third divisions of the fifth nerve. TABLE OF THE FORAMINA OF THE SKULL. FoRAMINA. | Bones SURROUNDING SrrucTuRES TRAVERSING THE | THE ForaAMIna. ForaMIna. Infraorbital. pense: maxillary} Infraorbital nerve of the su- perior maxillary division of the fifth. Anterior palatine. | Maxillary and pre-| Nasopalatine branch of the maxillary. fifth cranial nerve and nasal artery. Sphenopalatine. | Palatine. Sphenopalatine nerve and sphenopalatine artery. Posterior palatine.| Palatine. Palatine nerve and artery. Olfactory fora- | Ethmoid. Olfactory nerve. mina. | Optic. Orbitosphenoid. Optic nerve and meningeal artery. Lacerum anterius,) Alisphenoid and Third, fourth, and sixth cranial or sphenoidal fis- | orbitosphenoid. nerves and first division of sure. fifth cranial nerve. Rotundum. | Alisphenoid. Second division of fifth cranial nerve, Ovale. Alisphenoid. Third division of fifth cranial | nerve. Lacerum medium. | Petrous and basi-| Internal carotid artery. | sphenoid. Internal auditory) Petrous. Eighth cranial nerve. meatus. Aqueduct of Fallo-| Petrous, mastoid,| Seventh cranial nerve. pius. and tympanic. Stylomastoid. Tympanic and Seventh cranial nerve. mastoid. Jugular or poster- | Occipital and tem-) Ninth, tenth, and eleventh ior lacerated. poral. cranial nerves and jugular vein. Anterior condyloid | Exoccipital. Twelfth cranial nerve. 35 THE SKELETON. The pterygoid portion of the sphenoid is a paired bone (Figs. 17 and 18) lying on either side of the cranial half of the basisphenoid and the caudal half of the presphenoid. “UIMTIOJU9} ‘Uy SBIIDIN} Lifes “7s fsnurs [eprouayds ‘ss fuaueroy ouneredouayds “fs ‘yepdra90 -eidns ‘os !prosksajd Yq Ssnoijed ‘ag {Areppixewoid ‘vd {prousydsaid ‘sd {out} -eyed ay} Ul saivu Jolioysod ‘ud faurered 7¢ ‘[ejorsed ‘pg Suauier0y o13do “Jo {yeseu ‘pu ¢ ATCTIXeU ‘vue S TRUTGIN}-O][IXeU “Jiu { Teyotsredsajyur ‘g! {snjeour A1o|pne yeusozUr “Wy i ssaooid proualsjsod “76 !snuts [eyuoss ‘sf fumuseu uswies0j “wf Sauo0q [e}uoIT ‘af ‘PIOWY}o [19}e] IO [eUIGIn}JOWYIs Jo s[foros “ya “a Ya fssad0i1d PIOUT[D 10119} -sod ‘79 !proutyja Jo a}ejd WIofliqiio Jo aspa ynd ‘gq? !prouaydsiseq ‘sq {e[[nq £10} -Ipne ‘7q : a[Apuoo [eyrdro00 ‘og : dopey snjonpanbe ‘bp fuawes0j projApuod soajuy ‘0 ‘Fyey Iayjo aq} UL PouleUlad IBWIOA pue PIOWIYyJasat dy} Jey} OS ouL[d ULIpot dy} JO apts yyoT ay} 0} APYSIS yMO sem AY “TINMG GALOASIQ ATIVLLIIOVS V JO AVANNG IND ‘QI OL In the adult cat the sutures are sometimes obliterated so that this bone appears as a caudal continuation of the pala- The two pterygoid bones or plates form the descend- ing walls, and, together with the median portion of the tine. 36 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. sphenoid, the roof of the median pterygoid fossa, whose cranial continuation is the posterior nares. From the ven- tral posterior angle of each projects the hamular process, dorsal of which is seen the small external pterygoid process. Between the bases of the hamular and the external ptery- goid processes is the small external pterygoid fossa. The presphenoid bone is the narrow median bone extend- ing from the basisphenoid to the vomer. It contains within it two large sinuses into which project the ventral scrolls of the ethmoturbinal bones. The orbitosphenoids enter into the formation of the medial walls of the orbits and are perforated at their bases by the optic foramina, through which pass the optic nerves. BONES OF THE FACE. There are seven paired bones in the face and two single ones, making in all sixteen (Figs. 16 and 17). The premaxillary, with its fellow, extends ventrad and laterad of the anterior nares. These bones bear the six incisor teeth. The anterior palatine or incisor foramina connect the oral cavity with that of the anterior nares. In life, these foramina transmit the naso-palatine nerves. In the Primates, the premaxillary is anchylosed to the maxil- lary although it arises from a separate center of ossification. The maxillary is a paired bone which meets its fellow in the median line in the roof of the mouth. All its articu- lations are visible externally except those with the maxillo- turbinal, ethmoid, and vomer. Five teeth, a canine, three premolars, and a molar, are present in this bone of the adult cat. The molar is wanting to the young. The several portions of the bone are as follows: the palatine plate, appearing in the roof of the mouth; the nasal process, ex- tending dorso-caudad to the frontal; the malar process, ex- tending ventrad to the orbit to articulate with the malar THE SKELETON. 37 bone; and the orbital plate, which is the roof of the malar process, forming a partial floor to the orbital cavity. The large foramen leading from the orbital cavity through the orbital plate is the infraorbital foramen for the passage of the infraorbital branch of the superior maxillary branch of the fifth nerve. The palatine bone with its fellow helps to form the roof of the oral cavity and the floor of the nasal cavity. It is composed of two plates: one, vertical, forming the lateral walls of the posterior nares and the cranial part of the walls of the median pterygoid fossa, and a portion of the nasal wall of the orbital cavity; the other, horizontal, form- ing part of the roof of the mouth. The vertical plate is pierced by two foramina, the posterior palatine and the Sphenopalatine, each of which transmits a palatine nerve and artery (Fig. 16). The vomer is a single narrow bone which in the nasal cavity articulates dorsally with the mesethmoid and ven- trally with the palatines and the palatine plates of the maxillary, in the median line. This bone, with the mes- ethmoid and its cartilage, forms the nasal septum, dividing the nasal cavity into two chambers. It is best demonstrated by removing the palatines, when it may be seen extending craniad from its bifurcated articulation with the presphe- noid to its articulation with the premaxillaries. The caudal portion of the bone is expanded horizontally and articu- lates with the ventral ethmoturbinals. Its dorsal margin is bifurcated for articulation with the mesethmoid. The maxilloturbinal is a paired bone occupying the an- terior portion of the nasal cavity (Fig. 18). It is composed of a few scrolls which, when the nasal bone is removed, may be seen attached to the maxillary. It consists of a horizontal longitudinal plate, whose lateral border is fixed to the maxillary while the medial border bifurcates into a 38 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. dorsal curved plate and a ventral scroll. The space between the maxilloturbinal and cranial portion of the lateral eth- moid is the middle nasal meatus. The maxilloturbinal bone in man receives the name of the inferior turbinated, in dis- tinction to the middle and superior turbinated bones, con- stituting the lateral ethmoid. The nasal bone, joining with its fellow in the median line, forms a large part of the roof of the nasal chamber. It articulates with the premaxillary, maxillary, and frontal on the surface, and the ethmoid within the nasal chamber. The lachrymal bones are two in number and lie in the cranial part of the nasal walls of the orbits. Each articu- lates with the maxillary, frontal, os planum of the ethmoid, and the malar. The bone has about half of the area of the finger-nail. The lachrymal canal is bounded by the lachry- Fic. 19. MepiAL or INNER ASPECT OF THE MANDIBLE. ang, Angle; cndyl, condyle; cor. pr, coronoid process; can, canine tooth; inc, incisor teeth; inf. d. fm, inferior dental foramen; in, inferior notch; mol, molar tooth; prm, premolar teeth; dt, diastema; sm, surface of symphysis; #p, superior notch. mal and the maxilla. This canal, beginning in a vertical groove, the lachrymal groove, carries the duct permitting the tears to pass from the eye into the nasal chamber (Fig. 16). THE SKELETON. The malar bone is paired. 3D It forms the cheek as well as the lateral and cranial border of the orbit. largely formed by this bone is the gygoma. The arch The process projecting dorsad toward the postorbital process of the frontal bone is the postorbital process of the malar. The masseter muscle originates on the border of the malar. The mandible or inferior max- illary is the single bone forming the lower jaw (Figs. 19 and 21). It is madeup of two halves which are united by an immov- able articulation or symphysis at the chin. Each half consists of a horizontal and an ascending ramus. On its alveolar border the horizontal ramus bears three incisor teeth, a canine, two pre- molars and a molar tooth. In the caudal part of the medial sur- face of this ramus is the inferior dental foramen, which transmits the inferior dental nerve and artery traversing the dental canal extending within the bone to’ the mental foramen on the lat- eral surface near the base of the canine tooth. The space on the dorsal border between the canine and the first premolar tooth is called the diastema. The ascending ramus or por- tion of the bone caudad of the Fie. 20. VENTRAL ASPECT oF Larynx, Hyon Bones, AND ToncuE. The tongue has been cut transversely near its middle and its muscles fixing it to the hyoid have been removed. bh, Basihyal; ch, ceratohyal ; cr, cricoid cartilage of the larynx; eh, epihyal; ep, epiglottis ; 1g, cricothyroid ligament; lyh, thyrohyal ; rg, rings of cartilage in the trachea; tc, thyroid cartilage of the larynx; tm, tympanohyal; sh, stylohyal. inferior tooth is marked by six features: (1) the fossa on the outer or lateral surface which gives insertion to the ry 40 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. masseter muscle; (2) the angle which is the caudoventral termination of the bone; (3) the inferior notch imme- diately dorsal of the angle; (4) the condyle for the articu- lation with the glenoid cavity of the temporal; (5) the superior notch dorsal of the condyle; (6) the coronoid process, which is the dorsal termination of the ascending ramus and gives insertion to the temporal muscle. THE HYOID BONES OR HYOID APPARATUS. The hyoid bones consist of two jointed rods, one on either side (Figs. 20 and 21), hanging from the temporal bone, and supporting the larynx. Each rod is composed of six parts: the epihyal; the ceratohyal,; the tympanohyal; the basihyal; and the thyrohyal. The dorsal end of the thyro- hyal is prolonged by a piece of cartilage, the chondrohyal. The hyoid apparatus varies greatly among mammals. In man it consists of a single bone composed of the body or basihyal, two small cornua representing the ceratohyals, and two large cornua representing the thyrohyals. The bone is suspended from the skull by ligaments correspond- ing to the bony chain in the cat. PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 1. How many more bones are present in the cat than in man? 2. In what two parts of the skeleton does the number of bones in the cat exceed those in man? 3. What is a sesamoid bone? 4. Find on a specimen a sesamoid bone and describe it. 5. Draw a lateral aspect of the skull and label all parts. 6. What are the paired bones of the cranium? 7. Name the single bones of the face. 8. Draw the caudal aspect of the skull and label all parts. 9. Which bones of the skull derive their names from their location? 10. Which bones of the skull are pierced by more than two foramina? 11. Write a description of the orbital cavity. 12. Which foramina of the skull derive their names from their shape or size? THE SKELETON. 41 13. Which foramina derive their names from their location? 14. Which foramina transmit important blood-vessels? 15. Draw figures representing relative shapes and sizes of all foram- ina of the skull. 16. What bones enter into the formation of the brain cavity? 17. Write about 200 words describing the nasal cavity. 18. Draw a ventro-lateral aspect of the auditory bulla and label all features. 19. Write a description of the auditory bulla and name some mam- mals in which it is absent. 20. Which bones of the skull are composed of more parts in the young than in the adult? 21. Name the principal sutures of the skull. 22. Name the parts of the sphenoid bone in the order of size. 23. Name the bones of the skull visible from the dorsal aspect. 24. Name the bones of the skull visible from the cranial aspect. 25. What bone of the cranium paired in the cat is single in man? 26. What bone present in face of the cat is wanting as a separate ele- ment in man? 27. Draw lateral aspect of mandible and label all features. 28. Name the bones bearing the teeth. 29. Name the elements of hyoid apparatus in order. 30. Draw a section of the frontal bone showing diploé. 31. Describe the difference between the relative locations of the cranial and facial portions of the skull in cat and man. 32. Name five membrane bones and five cartilage bones. VERTEBRA. The vertebral column is composed of the following five groups of vertebrae: seven cervical, thirteen thoracic, seven lumbar, three sacral, and caudal varying from four to twenty-six. The following six features are common to all of the vertebre in the first four groups except the atlas: (1) the body of the vertebra (Fig. 22), which forms the floor of the neural canal and articulates with the adjacent vertebre by means of interposed discs of cartilage; (2) the transverse processes, which project laterad from the body or from the walls of the neural canal; (3) a spinous process, which projects dorsad from the roof of the neural canal; 5 42 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. (4) the neural arch, composed of a pedicle on either side, forming the ventrolateral walls of the neural canal, and the Fic. 21. lamine, extending dorsad from the pedicles to complete the dorsal wall of the neural canal; (5) the intervertebral notch, which, with the notch of the succeeding vertebra, forms the 43 THE SKELETON. ‘udwueIof prloyApuoo -eidns ‘4 {sniawmy ay} Jo afApuod Jouur ‘g ‘snssumy ay} fo aApuod tajno ‘S feiqa}oA Tequiny Y}INoF oy} FO Spoq ‘bv {ssaooid snourds ‘€ f1eunjoydess ‘z farvpnoraeu ‘E fwMuUsa}s ay} FO ss8e]IIVI WIOFISUa IO proydrx ‘¥ (etndeos oy} JO Japs0g PeAqo}IA “ga isqta Sureoy ey} ‘a Ssiqnd ‘m fsassaoo1d asraAsues} “7 SUINIYIS! 24} FO Aytsoraqny ‘qq {yexyorsyy ‘yg {TeAyouedurcy ‘wey SMITE VY} FO YOJOU oyeLIso1IeS Jwo1s ‘9s ! VSsOF snourdseidns «ds (essoy rejndeosqns ‘gs { exyoyAys ‘ys {pesowenbs ‘bs {sauoq prouresas ‘s ‘ wsoF1auNd appr “a! epfaqed “J | wt10F -isid “7g {ssa00id woursda]0 “Jo !UaUIeIOF IOJVIN}GO ‘oO {AALS [eYGIO ‘Qo !Aa}ULYDOI} Jo}waIs “ws Yyojou d1yeIOs OTS IOSSa] ‘S? {WIIOJTAUND [wurd}uI 7 | essogy snoutdseszur ‘ge SwMIE “72 S uMIYsE ‘sz Sssad01d JoJULYIOI} Jasse] % ‘yexyide ‘ya {wIOJUNd [eusdNa ‘a !eAyoyes9d “YI FapotAvyo 79 fuMauRd]ed ‘pI ‘ ploqno ‘9 ! proxytseq “q ‘snyesviysy D ‘UIeYD JYSII ay} MOYS O} se OS peyeydas ApY Sys payjnd st sauoq proxy Fo ulvyd io oy, “LV AHL JO NOIATANG AHL dO LoadSY IWNaLWT] “Ie “OMT 44 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. intervertebral foramen for the exit of a spinal nerve; (6) the articular processes, two of which project craniad and PLAN OF A VER- TEBRA. sp, Spinous process; ar, articular process; 7s, transverse process; 1c, neural canal; pd, pedi- cle; dm, lamina; cn, centrum or body. Fic. 22. with the occipital condyles (Fig. 17) of the skull. vertebra. The former are called the anterior articular processes and the latter posterior articular processes. The first cervical vertebra, or atlas, is characterized by its large expanded processes, the absence of a spinous process, and its rudimentary body. Its true body in the embryo becomes united to the axis as the odontoid process. The cranial margin of the neural arch is prolonged at each side into a process or articulation The two caudad from each horizontally transverse root of this articular process is pierced by a foramen giving passage to the first spinal nerve and the vertebral artery and vein (Fig. 23, fr). From the lateral opening of this foramen (fr) a continued ventrad to the middle of the transverse proc- ess, where it leads into the trans- verse foramen common to the The vertebral artery and vein course through this canal (Fig. 23). The axis, or second vertebra, is characterized by its odontoid process, which projects within the groove 1s first six cervical vertebre. Fic. 23. DorsocaupaL As- PECT OF ATLAS. tr, Transverse process; nc, neural canal; sp, spinous process; fi, aperture of the transverse foramen which enters the atlas at vf; asg, anterior artic- ular process; sg, poster- ior articular process. atlas, and also by its elongated spinous process, which pro- jects both craniad and caudad. The transverse process pro- THE SKELETON. 45 jects caudad from the body, which is flattened dorsoventrally. Fic. 24. LatTeraL ASPECT OF THE AXIS. ar. st, Anterior articular process; od. pr, odontoid process; nl. sp, neural spine or spinous process; p. zg, posterior articular process; frs. pr, transverse process; wrt. c, transverse foramen. This process is pierced at its base by the transverse foramen. The remaining five cervicals are very similar to one another. The seventh has no_ transverse foramen. The spinous processes grow successively longer from the third to the seventh (Fig. 21). The transverse processes of the fourth and fifth are bifurcated, the dorsal branch being called the transverse clement and the ventral one the costal element, since it is really the rudiment of a rib. The transverse process of the fifth ends in three branches. The following features are com- mon to all thirteen thoracic ver- tebree: a spinous process, pro- jecting from the dorsum of the Fic. 25. LaterocaupaL As- PECT OF THE SECOND THORACIC VERTEBRA. tr, Transverse process; 2c, neural canal; ce, facet for tubercle of rib; ar, pos- terior articular process; Ss, spinous process; c, centrum; m, interverte- bral notch; ec, pedicle; J, lamina. neural arch; two cranial articular processes, facing dorsad or dorsolaterad; two caudal articular processes, facing ven- 46 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. trad or ventromediad; a body whose transverse diameter is greater than the vertical diameter; and transverse processes. There are two half facets on each side of the body of every thoracic vertebra except the first, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth. The head of a rib thus articulates with two vertebre (Fig. 28). The body of the first vertebra bears on each side a whole facet and a half facet. The eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth bear a whole facet on each side of the body. The transverse processes of the first eleven bear facets for the articulation with the tubercles (Fig. 25) of the ribs. The last three thoracic vertebre are characterized by mammnillary processes springing from the dorsolateral por- tion of the roots of the anterior processes. The following features are common to all of the lumbar vertebre: a spinous process projecting dorsocraniad (Fig. 26); a transverse process projecting ventrocraniad on either side from the body; anterior articular processes and poste- rior articular processes. A mammillary process is present on the root of the anterior articular process of the first five bones, and an accessory process occurs on the caudal margin of the wall of the neural arch of all except the last vertebra. The transverse processes increase in length and curvature caudally. The spinous processes increase in length in the same order, and the neural canal likewise enlarges caudally. The sacrum is a single bone (Fig. 27) formed by the union of three sacral vertebre. The limit of each element is marked by the dorsal and ventral intervertebral foramina which furnish passage for the dorsal and ventral branches of the spinal nerves. The two tubercles on either side of each of the three median spinous processes are the result of the fusion of the articular processes. The cranial por- tion of the bone presents on its lateral aspect the auricular THE SKELETON. 47 surfaces for articulation with the ilium. This expansion appears to be a modified transverse process. Prominent transverse processes also project from the caudal angles. The caudal vertebre vary greatly in number. Accord- ing to Mivart, there are only four in the Manx cat; and according to Jayne, there may be as many as twenty-six in some varieties of the common cat. The transverse processes Fic. 26. Caupat Aspect or Fic. 27. Dorsar ASPECT OF THE FourtH LuMBAR VERTEBRA. SAcRUM. a, Accessory process; cr, centrum ff, Floor of the neural canal; fr, or body; pa, pedicle; tr, trans- dorsal aperture of the inter- verse process; s, neural canal; vertebral foramen; Jf, lateral Sp, spinous process; sg, the mass; pzg, posterior articular mammillary process of the an- process; sp, spinous process; st, terior articular process; ami, auricular surface for articula- lamina; pz, articular process. tion with the ilium; tr, trans- verse process; zgt, tubercle formed by fusion of the artic- ular processes; “UOI}IASUL $}I 0} UTSIIO peoiq @ Wolf BUIsIaAUOD ‘ewloshz 9} Yeaueq sassed 37 “ze1ga} -I9A JBOTAIOD = JeTURIO XIS 94} FO JOodse [esjUa A, ‘asplt [epropquie’y ‘guoq prody ay} jo Apog ‘anSuo} 94} JO aps ‘auo0qg prodyiseg ‘a]qipuew | ay} JO ssav0id prouos07 ‘BIQaIIA [BTAIID aAyY pue jesiop jeruesid xIS “x21qa} -19A [esiop jo sassadoid snourds pue ypdeu jo erosey “qld jSIy dy} Jo o8epryse9 ‘auoq ploAyy ‘stsAyduiAs ay} eau a[qipuew FO sdeFINS [LIP TAYS ey1 FO essO} [e1Odut9} oY} JO sdeyINS ‘I]JOD snsuo’y] ‘sntuayds ‘PplocAyourays “SNSSO[SOATY “(4h "Sq) prodyoruar “(gh “31) jerodway *SHUVWAY “NOILYASNT “NISTYQ, *IdJOSSPUU pue ‘jeroumyoreydas ‘prorXyjoussjs ‘projsewmoutsays ‘prodyorAur ‘oryjsesip ‘sipeyoszoqdis00 ‘saya -snul 1e9 9y} SuTAoWeI Aq aIqISIA apeul asoy]—uorlday yan pue peop jo 1oXhe77 daaq 84 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. 85 THE MUSCLES ‘vpndvos 24} JO Tapiog [eiga}ioa ‘n ‘SIIOWAT VULSva s1o0sud} fp Ssiperoduray “uy sdaor4}-1pau &s; ieiodiceiss Tey ‘snoyue siyerqny ‘qu -PIqH “gq? Sanbryqo [eussjur pue enbijqo [eusa}xa ayy Aeme sunjqjnd ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ zs ‘ ‘fq Stweime suaoye ‘9 pue q ‘umMioUSsIp snpunjoid JOxXey YD Ssnuseu s10}onppe ‘po :SNSuO] stine JoyeagyT *. IW) FHL 40 SATOSAJY FHL 40 Loqasy IvaaLY] ‘gh cong ANATOMY. MAMMALIAN ELEMENTS OF 86 ‘azIs aues ay} | jnoqe jo pue Surpasaid ayy | 0} juacefpe pue Jaljeied si if “IayOIYy} pue Surpadeid ay} 0} jayjered st yy) “WIIIOJ ay} fo yodse [erueid Jsuut ay} UO saIsnUI UIYy} suo] VW ‘WOTJAISUL Ss}r Ivau sdaor4y -0}92 Yj}eaueq aposnul JOYS VW ‘snsuo] 10}eu -Idns pue sdadr4}-0193 ay} Aq petaaoo Apjied st aposnu sty y ‘sdad1} ay} Jo Jaed jepneo JSOUL PUL jsaBIVp 9} st sIyy "WUIVIIOF BY} JO IOSD} | -X9 jea1s ay} st jp ‘sjied dai} FO, sysisuod sdaor1} 24} 39 dy} UL Os[e puke ueW ul “pOsnul BuIpadeid ay} 0} perue4s st yy “snizodv1} Jotiajsod JO Japioq [epnes | oy} YM uly Ul st oposnui sty} JO Japioq jepned ayy ‘A[[epnes IstOp SnUIsst}ey ay} sdepiaao al ‘UOT}IOSUT O} UISIIO Woy Sul | -3IIAUOD dTISNUI UTY}] proiq VW “SMUVWAY | ‘Tedies -C}aUI PAY} JO pua [eur -Ixo1d Jo yodse [esiog ‘Tedies -e]aWI puodas Jo uMsI0g ‘pua [eqsip Ss} 1vau snipes JO 9dfIns [eIueIIOIpapy ‘ssao0id uoueld -3J0 Jo yoadse [ese “AYIARS PlOUrsis 94} 0} [eISIP eujn fo yoadse [eipeyy ‘ssad0id WoUkIDIIC *sdao -I1} 94} Jo sjied om} Joy}O YIM UO WUC ur ssa00id = uoues1d219 ‘apOSNu projap-ourds ay} pure asplt ployed “Snow “ny 24} JO a8plt ployed ‘erosey jusoel -pe pue eindeos jo auids ‘epndess fo aurds | | | ‘a[Apuos 0} jewmrxoid snisuiny jo yadse ‘sns -uO], JoJeurdns woz [esp ‘a8pli projApuooeidns [e19}e'T “Snidul ny a} JO wor8er a|[ppryy ‘snisumny jo | pus [eistp jo yadse jepnes “SnIdUl -ny ay} jo yadse yessjey “AU | -A®) Plous[s ay} JO pesiop vpndess ay} JO Japsog AIeT[IXV ‘sniauny jo yyanoy jeuixoid jo yodse [eioj}eT] ‘autds jo uorjiod SUIUDAIN}UT pue sassad0id UOTMOIDeJAIL «puke UOTWIOIDYy ‘eqndeos jo aurds “BIQI}IAA yo sautds [einan ‘UOISaI Japfnoys ayy fO erosey = eSIOp-PIW. o19e10T]} NOLLMASNT “NIOTYQ esoyeT -op SI "(6h “BIy) Joraeiq syjeipe1 idied Josuexy “(OV “ pue gb ‘s8iq) Iorsuoy] Idied 1Osua}xXy] “(OF pue gh ‘ssiq) (siferpes ory -e1q) snsuol Joyeurdns sy[erpes “snouoouyy “(6P SI) snoue siperypovig "(gh “8r.J) sdedt1}-1peayy (‘9g ‘d uo paqtios sdao11}-0}Uq ) "(gh “81 ) sdaotsj}-0}0q “(gh ‘SlT) proyapormoioy “(gr “BL) proyepourds “(gF “‘SIyy) snizadeij} Iosjsog “(gh snizedei} Iosjuy ‘BIT ) ‘yoadsp yos2qvT ayy fo sakvT poryasdng—‘quayaiog ay} JO sapsnyj 87 THE MUSCLES. ‘WINIOUSIP | snpunjoid Joxay ayy Aq | peyeiojisd are suopua}, ay} | “‘sasury] BOMTSUT Tey} TIN “Ursio =| -eyd Jo Mor d[ppru Tey} wau ALIA adsaTeOD | 23 jO spua [eurxoid apOSsNut ay} JO spray om} ayy “euyn ay} Jo aTPPiu ay} Suryovar asoysaq ayUN jnq “sArOU IeuTN ayy Aq | peyetedes aie spray omy ayy | wuyed ay} Sura “AOD RINSE} at} OUT Surpued | “x9 at0faq 4slim oy} sau | SNOUIPUd} Sauodaq ayIsnuI sty J, YSIIM 94} Suryoeas ‘Quoq WIOFISIG ‘RIOSe] Iewyeg ‘sjedievorjaul pity} pue e10Feq sSnHourpusa} Surwoseq | puosas jo pua yeu SaPPSHU MOIIeU BUC] & st SIT | -rxo1d yo yodse srewyeg | ‘snipes ‘Peqitosap jxou asoy} Aq | ay} JO pasty} a[ppru Pet9A0d st apIsnut sty} JO YON | ay} Jo yoadse yerues> e ‘syued day ojur | “snioumny PePIAIp St pue ‘wae sy} JO | ayy yo yoadse jeruess PSNI JOJONPpe ISIE] IY} SIT JO spary}-omy peunxosg | | “NOILUHSNT “SHUVINAY ay} JO peadse seme | ay} wosy duo ‘spray omy Ag ‘WnIO USIP snpunjoid 1oxay 24} WoIZ Jay}O ay} Ystam ay} eau snsuo] sriewmyed “(OS “31nJ) umio -H3Ip stuyqns §=JoXxapq ‘uou ~B1D9[0 94} JO Joadse [erpou | 9} Worf 19Y}0 94} ‘snrout ;-AY FO afApuoo yeusaqu | | 94} WOIf suo ‘spray OM} AG | ‘streuyn 1died 10xapiq | | | “sniou “(0S | “NY 24} Jo a[Apuos [eutoyUy | S17) «snSuoy strewyeg | ‘sniou | “(0S *817) | -hY 94} FO a[Apuod [eusazuy | syeipet died io0xapz “SnIOUL | | “nY 24} FO s[Apuood [eusdjuy | "(OS “81J) sata} 10jeu0Ig ‘aseyivs ye}so9 JO Spud yeusajs pure winusays | ee “(4b S17) stpesopag “NIDINQ) ‘qQuurT a4og ay} fo yaadsp aunt 40 yorpapy ayy fo satoy oroyfsadns ‘UOISII UIeSIO] | ‘Tedieovyew ay} UL LOsua}xo ysasiel oT | yyFy Fo yoadse [esajeqT ‘SNOUIPUS} ST | ‘SHSIP [e1aze] InoZ 10 a]OSNU SI} JO Fey [eIsIp ayy | sexy} jo yodse [esiog *sjied ‘SHISIP [e19}e] INOF OUT SOPIAIP JsIIM 9Y} | Inoy jo sasuereyd ye a]Isnur Sty} JO uopusa} ayy! ayi jo yodse [estoq | -Apuoseidns 1ajno 10 [e19yeT eee “snidul “(OF “SLT) | “hy ey} FO aApuoo yesazeyq | stivujn Idivd 1osuayxq | ‘sniswuny “(6b “317 ) JO a[Apuod 419}no0 40 Tesajeq | Gisip rar JOSud}xXy “(OF ‘snisuiny FO dISplI Pro] pue gh ‘ssnq) wmi0} -I8IP SIUNWWOD 1Osua}xq 88 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. Fic. 49. THE MUSCLES. 89 Fic. 49. Latrerat or Outer Aspect or MuscLes oF THE PEcToRAL Limp. a, Cranial part of the ento-triceps; an, annular hagment; am, abductor minimi digiti; c, extensor carpi radialis brevior; del, acromiodeltoid ; dl, biceps; ecd, extensor communis digitorum; ecrl, extensor carpi radialis longior, whose tendon is marked m; emd, extensor minimi digiti; ei, extensor indicis; exul, extensor carpi ulnaris; eom, ex- tensor ossis metacarpi pollicis; ex, ulnar head of the flexor carpi ulnaris ; fu, flexor profundus digitorum; hu, humerus; 7, caudal part of the ento-triceps; 0, olecranon process of the ulna; p, claw of first digit; pect, portion of the pectoralis; 7, region of the head of the radius; sp, spine of the scapula; sw, supinator longus; tr ecto- triceps with its middle portion cut out. ANATOMY. ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN go ‘oposnur sty} Aeldsip 0} paaout -a1 aq ysnur Jofew sai} oy | -ny ‘eqndeos ay} JO Japiog [epned ay} YA jayesed apsnur yoy} VW | ‘aspli plojApuooeidns [eIpaut ay} Woy Surstie jied yioys e& pue 4yeys fo uot} -iod 3[pprur oy} wory sur size jied [eipam e& ‘snroumy JO peasy ay} 0} [eIsIp jysnf sulstie jied Jepneo e ‘sjied 3d1Y}] FO S}SISUOD a[ISnUI SIyT ‘eSSO} snourdse1jur 9y} ST[y IY ‘essoy snourdseidns 94} s{[y 1] “‘quIT[aIOF ay} FO ywWUNS ay} wo1y Apoq ay} puadsns SnuseUI sNyeiias dy} pue sIyy ‘TeIouiny-oreyded sy} Aq pataaod aposnut MOiIeu V ‘snizod -B1} 94} Y}eauaq Aya}erpaur -WII aposnul FO jaays peoiq WV “SHUVIWAQ “Ajisoiaqn} 10}vaI8 9} | JO aseq ay} 3e sniour jo yodse [e13}eT | “AYSOLAqny Jassa] oy} fo aseq ; aq} Ievau Isiop snuits -SHe] YIM uoWUI0d ut *sdao | | -l}-Ipaur pue sdaors} -0}99 aq} YIM WoUTUIOD ur ssas0id = uoUe1D31O) “AISOIaqn} Jojeais 3} jo aseq ay} FO podse [essjeT “‘snowmny ay} JO Aysortaqny 19}vair) ‘Iopioqg [eiqa} (-IoA 9} Ivau eyndeos dy} fo yodse [ripayy | ‘ejndeos ayy jo ssad0id UOTWMO1Ie}aIV | “eyndeos ay} JO Japioq [eiqa}1o A, ‘NOILUASNT ‘AWARD PIO -U9]3 9} 0} JUDDe[pe Jap10g AleTIXe oY} FO YNoF sy “19 -pioqg Aiv][Ixe Jusoefpe pue e[ndeos ay} jo apsue [epnes ‘snisuiny ‘erndess ay} fo essozy snourdsesjuy | ‘eyndeos }a4y} Jo essoy snourdseidns aAy JO sassao01d dsIdASULIT, | “SU | -]@ 9} Jo ssadoid asIaAsUvIyT, | ‘BIQI}IOA IOvIOY | perso Ino} pue [edTAIId Jepnes aay jo saurds [eman | ‘BIGI}IOA [RTAIID Tepned | “IOUIW Saray, “(OS “B17) Jofew saioy “(6b °317) sdao11-o1Uy ‘(6b ‘Si.J) snyeurdsesjuy ‘(OF “stZ) snjeutdseidnsg “(LY “SIJ) wpndeoss 10}eAaT “(gh St) SI[eIJUIA BpNdeds 10}BAgT “(gr “Sl) sneproquioyy NIOTYO) ‘snsuo] stieuped pue ‘sdaot1y-0y9a ‘sdeo11-1pawt ‘anbijqo [eusa}xXea ‘Is1op snuutssijey ‘spro} -[ap ‘snizedesy ‘Peraumy-oyeydss ay} JO [BAOWIAT IY} 1a}Ze Udas se GUAT] a10J IY} JO “aly? daag gt THE MUSCLES. ‘sasuereyd Jo Mol yewrxoid ay} fo uorse1 ay} UI WINIOPSIP sIU[qns 10xay ay} JO suopud} ay} a}eIOsI9d YoIyM JO MOF ‘suopus} day a4} aSIAIP aousyM “YsTIM ay} }e UOpus} peoiq YY} uOUIWIOD B UI a}IuN speoy [TV *ssad0id prooe109 ay} WO1y Suistie suo ‘spray OM} Sey spOsNu sty} ULI UT ‘anbi[qo [eusa}xXe pue Isiop SNUINSSI}E] 24} YJwauesq sary 3] ‘SOSUR] -eyd ay} JO MOI [eIsIp ay} jo ypodse sewyeg “SnIpeI dy} JO pus jer -Ixoid 94} Jo Ayrsoraqn yy, “Iap10q [eiqeyiaA = ay} Teau eindess jo yoadse [erpayy ‘euyn ay} fo yodse [epneosorpaur 34} WOl} peoy & pue ‘sniper ay} FO UoTIOd yusdefpe ay} pue eujn oy} JO p4ryy [eu -B1D d[PpIU 94} WoIF pesy eB ‘snisuny ay} Fo a[Apuoo IJOUUL DY} WIOIZ speay OM} AG ‘etndess ay} jo essOf ploua[s ay} JO UIsIe]Y “sqla yerueso dUIU ay} WOIF suUOT}EYSsIp AG “(0S “SI) win10} -IZIp snpunjoid ioxapy "(0S “Biy) Hyowsq sdoorg “(4V ‘SIq) (dollajue snjer -Jas) snuseur snjeisas ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. g2 “IOLIO} -Ul JOIa}jsod snjerias ay} Aq pataaod st jied [epnes sj] ‘eqie eaul, ay} Aq payesedas aie AIYT, “duly [e1}UaA-prur ay} JO apis Jayye uo jalfesred UNI MO][PF SH pue apIsnuU sIyT “sIUIIOpqe snjda1 ont IO} yyeoys & WIOF souo SuUIpsd -aid OM} 94} pue spOsnuI SIT ‘pios oeultods ay} ply} ay} pure “Ystyy ay} JO sjassaA 934} puodas ay} ‘apsnur svosd dy} syupe ysIy AY “ayeur ay} Ul Sain} -Iode 909i} o1e diay} ‘au0q SJLUILUOUUT JY} UO UIBIIO Ss} ysnoiyy ‘onbiyqo [eusa}xa ay} yyeaueq Ajayerpaui sioqy Jo yooys UIY} AIOA B SI apOsnu Sty, ‘IsIOp SNUIISSI}e] ay} JO sJapsioq [ejuea 94} Yeausq Woy A[[e1juaa-opned Sursinod sia -qy Jo jaoys uly} AtoA & St i “snizode1} ay} JO pepned ajo -SNUI UTY} Peorq AIDA & ST SIT, “yque} | ay} 0} Puodas ay} WIOIF | SII 94} FO advJANS 191NO “saTOSNUI [e10} -dod 94} Yeaueq sql4 pity} pue ‘puodses ‘|s417 ‘snjdeI ay} Jo pes | -1op Surssed evrosey Aq | Aypesjusa MoT[ayF Ss} surof | ‘anbijqo [euse}yxe | ay} pue yt 0} UOUIMOS e1osef ojOInauode ue | UL Ay[etjUIA MOTI[AF S} Suro! UE. O21 TED |) -ned sql YjUaAaTa pur | yytay ay} Fo saseynaes | | ‘siqnd jo Jopiog [eluvid uo pue anbiqgo [eussjur YIM uOWWOD Ul eq[e voury | ‘A}ISOIOqN} Jassoq 3Y} JO oseq dy} Ivau 10few So19} IY} YIM UOWUIOS UT | 9} wolf sossood01d snoutds | Bt) | ‘ISIOP snutisst}ey yyBVIUEq | UOISa1 XBIOY] pue You oy} UI AUT] [BSIOP-piw jo eIDSeT | | ‘siqnd jo Japioqg [erueig | "SII as[e] pue wviqajiaa 1eq | aa JO sassao0id assoAsuely, “RIOSET Jequiny 24} pue siqnd pue wWINI[E 94} FO Iapsioq jeruess | ‘Is1Op snwwisst}e] (U3 yyweuaq sqiz yepnes yyBIo pue elosey sequin | ‘wigayiaA Iequiny | YANoZ ay} 0} oOvI0N) WAT “SNUVWNAY “NOILUASNT | “NISINO “(gh “Biq) sou -odns 1ol1ajsod snyeisas “(4h ‘Bh ) stulmopqe snyay ‘ “(gh 81g) sturtuopqe SNSIOASUBLT, 4 | “(gb pue Lr | SSI) anbiyqo [eusejuy ie “(gP (8) anbiyqo yeusoyxq | “(QP IsIOop snuuissryeT “-yumnzy, L omy jo sapsnyy, 93 THE MUSCLES. “AWARD | [VUIWOpge dq} Wory I1DeIOYI | ay} sureivdes uoneardso1 JO uvSsIO JUL}IOdUIT Ue SI SIT ‘spejsOOIaJUL [eUIA}Xo oy} | Aq pataAod aie pue wnuiejs a} O} SopTSuUe ITI} WOIT ‘sqrt ay} UsdIMJoq JIB SIaqy ssoyy | ‘UOTJIAIIP [BIJUSA -Opnes & UL SqIt ay} JO suor -lod [eiqa}1aA ay} Usamjeq SUIYD}IIIS SIOqy JO Jooays ev JO pasodwos aie saposnut assay ‘UOISII SIDVIOY} 9Y} FO d[Ppru sy} UL spIs [eIpaut oY} UO ISIOP SNUIISsIsUO] 9q} WIOIZ YO payesedas sawrosaq 4] | “UOISd1 equUIN] 94} UT JsoyTYy} st pur BIqa}yIoA Iequin, pue se -10Y} 9} JO sassoo01d asioA -suel} pue snourds ay} uaaM} -3q UOIS91 ay} JO sou STTY 1] “SNUSEUI Snyeiias oy} JO SUOT}IasUL ay} UY} w1iq -d}19A 94} Jorvau yonu aie saposnut SurIpadeid 9y} pue SIq}] JO SUOT}IOSUT [VYSIP ayy ‘BAGS LUDA pu sns -eydoss 9y4} Surpunor -Ins uopud} [es1jUe. oY Sqr SAY “VIQILIVA DIeIOY} jetueid oulu pue xq -d}I9A [BOIAIID XIS 4seT ‘sassa -d01d astaasues} at} uo AjaSie] oie suoT} -IOSUI OT “LAGa}IOA [edIAIoo = [epned=—=sX Is pue stoeioy} ‘aequiny “UVFTO M4 ay} 0} YIYSIa sy} WoIT sqit ay} JO apis t31nO ‘UOISaI [eUIWIOpge [es -I0p ay} Fo stsoinauode ay} pue Viqajioa Iequiny Fo ea} -U99 ‘Slt ‘IS¥[I}JIVO WAIOFISUT Sqry Sq ‘KIGIIIA D1IDVIOY} [Bpned Inojy dy} Jo | Sassso0id snourds jo sdy ay} WOIy suopuay Suo1s Ag "BIGIIOA D9eIOY} pue requ] aq} Jo sassaz01d snourds 9} YA pajoou -u0d BIOsey [esiop pue wiq -d}19A [epned “umAoes ‘wNITT ‘aposnur suipadaid 34} 0} [epnes aul] [VSIOP-prut Jo erDseT “‘msesrydviq “(4b “S17) s[@jsOola}UL [euso}UT “(gh “814) S[eJSODId}UL [CUIIIXY ‘Islop sipeurds (UOISIAIP [e19}e] ay} pue UOISIAIp [eIpeu ay} ore syed om} $}]) ‘IsiOp snutssrsu0T “(gh “SEy) 101093 -UI JOlajsod = snyerias 94 ELEMENTS OF MAMMALIAN ANATOMY. Fic. 50. Fic. THE MUSCLES. 95 so. Mepiar or INNER ASPECT OF THE MUSCLES OF THE FORELIMB. a, Supracondyloid ridge of humerus; ab, abductor pollicis; b, humerus ; c, humeral head of the flexor carpi ‘ulnaris ; cp, ento-triceps; d, in- sertion of a tendon of flexor sublimis digitorum; e, ulnar head of flexor carpi ulnaris; eci, extensor carpi “radialis longior ; €C2, X- tensor carpi radialis brevior; f, portion of the flexor sublimis digitorum arising from the flexor profundus digitorum; fs, the portion of the flexor sublimis arising from the palmaris longus; fp, common tendon of the flexor profundus digitorum; fix, flexor profundus digitorum; h, flexor profundus digitorum; k, pronator quadratus; J, flexor carpi radialis; 0, short part of the ento-triceps ; ol, olecranon process; ot, tendinous loops; pect, pectoralis cut off; pl, origin of the palmaris longus which is reflected caudad; ft, pronator teres; r, ento-triceps; ro, coracobrachialis; s, split in the tendon of the flexor sublimis revealed by cutting away the tendinous loop; ss, supraspinatus; s/, supinator longus; tm, teres major; tb, the head of the humerus; x, a tendon of the flexor profundus digi- torum whose portion between the two letters is cut out to display the insertion of d. (“Ecto-triceps” in figure should be “ medi- triceps.” ) ANATOMY. MAMMALIAN ELEMENTS OF ‘UOISaI [eIqI} 94} Fo yodsv [eruetd ay} UO aIsNiu jsasIV] ay} St i] ‘JOO dy} Saxay 4 “qstyy ay} JO yOodse [eIpaw ay} uO sa]Isnul PeOIq OM} dy} oI SNIIOJAVS JY} PUL apIsnU sIyT ‘dnois Surijsmey 1auur ay} yo aPSNUI [VMIpuT[Adqns ay} st 4] ‘dnois SuLijswey Jauur aq} JO aposnur jsasivy dy} st siyy | “YSty} ay} JO yodse pes9zLy] ay} UO IPOsnUI peor & SE SIYT ‘wIqay1aA [epned pue SNIPI snajnjs ay} ussajaq apsnul Av[nsueipenb [jeus a aposnur | Iejnsuels} JOYS yoy} wv st yy) ‘UOISoL [VIOW] ayy Jo yodse [vipat ay} uo susie = yooys Eee v SI SM “SuNVICAY, | ‘[es1v} | “eyo jsIy = AIe}UOW -Ipnt ay} Jo yoodse [essoq | BIqH ayy Fo Ieys ayy FO yodse [erpayy eqn ayy jo yfeys ayy JO 4yso1y! ‘eIqh ay} JO Apsorsqny jeutojyur pure anupy | ay} JO a0vyins [erp | -alw 9} JO ply} [eysiq | ETSY hi -ed 94} uo pure eiqn ay} FO joadse jerueis ay} uo stisoinsuode