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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS
OF CANADA

A JOURNEY OF 3,200 MILES BY CANOE
AND SNOWSHOE THROUGH THE
HUDSON BAY REGION

BY

JAMES W. TYRRELL, C.E., D.L.S.

Including a List of Plants collected on the way, a Vocabulary
of Eskimo Words, and a Map showing
the Route of the Expedition.

With new Illustrations from Photographs taken on the Journey,
and from Drawings by

ARTHUR HEMING and J. S. GORDON

THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED

TORONTO
WILLIAM BRIGGS
1908

Copyright, Canada, 1908,
by James Williams Tyrrell.

NOTE TO THIRD EDITION

In preparing a third edition of this book, which has been
out of print for several years, the only apology I have to
offer is that which has been passed on to me from the pub-
lishers, viz., the continued demand for copies. In doing so
I wish to state that not only has the original edition been
carefully revised, but that most of my illustrations are
entirely new, and that new maps and new chapters have been
added, descriptive of the hunting and habits of musk-oxen,
and the history, resources and navigation of our great inland
saltwater system, Hudson Bay and Strait. I wish also to
acknowledge the kindness of Messrs. W. W. Cory, Deputy
Minister, and James White, Geographer, of the Department
of the Interior, for the use of plates of the Dominion map,
and further, to say that most of the photographs from which
my illustrations are made were taken by my brother, J. B.
Tyrrell, without whose direction and courage our expedi-
tion of 1893 could not have been.

To my brother, therefore, with most kindly wishes, is this
volume dedicated.

J. W. Tyrrexr.

October 26th, 1908.

iii

CONTENTS

CuarTER
I. TokonTo To ATHABASCA LANDING

Il. Down THE ATHABASCA -
III. RUNNING THE Rapips
IV. CHIPEWYAN To BLack LAKE
V. Into THE UNKNOWN WILDERNESS
VI. THe HoME or THE CaRIBOU
VII. A Great Frozen LAKE
VIII. ON THE LowER DuBAwNtT
IX. Huntine THE MusK-ox
X. MEETING WITH NATIVES
XI. THE EskIMos -
XII. OccUPATIONS OF THE ESKIMOS
XIII. Down To THE SEA
XIV. ADVENTURES BY LAND AND SEA
XV. Potag BEARS
XVI. Lire on DEATH?
XVII. Fort CHURCHILL -
XVIII. ON SNOWSHOES AND DOG-SLEDS
XIX. CrossInc THE NELSON
XX. THROUGH THE FoREST AND HOME AGAIN -

XXI. Hupson Bay A NATIONAL ASSET

APPENDIX
I. PLANTS COLLECTED ON THE EXPEDITION

II. ESKIMO VOCABULARY OF WORDS AND PHRASES

105
113
123
139
162
170
177
185
194
202
210
219
229

253
277

ILLUSTRATIONS

Pace
J. W. TYRRELL Frontispiece
Map or CANADA, SHOWING ROUTE OF TYRRELL EXPEDITION - 8
SoME oF OuR MEN - 1t
J. B. TyRreti 12
Hupson’s Bay Company TRADERS 14
AN H. B. C. INTERPRETER 15
A PIONEER OF THE NortTH 16
INDIANS OF THE CANADIAN NorRTH-WEST 18
TRANQUIL WATERS 21
MoosE CaLr AND ITS CAPTORS 25
Scows at THE Heap or GRAND RaPIps 26.
Trooper R. N.-W. MounPep PoLicE IN’ WINTER UNIFORM 26.
STEAMER ‘‘ ATHABASCA ” 28
GrRanD Rapips, ATHABASCA RIVER - 80
ENGLISH-CHIPEWYAN HALF-BREED 34
A TATTOOED CREE CHIEF 32
SHOooTING A Rapip 35.
STorRE, Fort McCMuRRAY 38
An InpIAN CAMP - 40
STEAMER “ GRAHAME” 4t
ASHORE FoR LUNCH - 48
Fort CHIPEWYAN, LAKE ATHABASCA 46
LANDING GOODS FROM THE STEAMER 48
SAILBOATS ON LAKE ATHABASCA 49
LANDING ON NortH SHORE OF LAKE ATHABASCA - - 51
A CLUMP OF JACK-PINES 53
A YorK BOAT UNDER SAIL 54
A York Boat at A River LANDING 56
Inp1an Loge House 59
CATARACT, STONE RIVER - 60
ON THE PoRTAGE 62
Rarts LOADED WITH VENISON 63
NeEcK DEVELOPED BY THE TUMP-LINE - - 64
STARTING OFF ON THE TRAIL - 66
AN ENGLISH-CREE TRAPPER 72
THE DUBAWNT RIVER - 15
RAPIDS ON THE DUBAWNT RIVER - 76
HERD OF BARREN GROUND CARIBOU 80
A Forest or ANTLERS - 81
THE FLaG FLoatine At “ CarRinsou CAMP” - - 83
IcE ON THE SHORE OF MARKHAM LAKE - 84
A Goop CaTcH - 86

vii

ILLUSTRATIONS

Rapips oN THE Lower DuBAWNT . - -
Eskimo Lopcr, DUBAWNT RIVER - -
TYPICAL BARREN LANDS RapPiIp

Eskimo CAIRN, ABERDEEN LAKE

MUSK-OxEN

Tue Hunter HUNTED - : -
EsKIMO WOMEN AND CHILDREN

Group or ESKIMOS

Eskimos In KYacks

EskIMo MAN AND WOMAN -
WooveN SNOWGOGGLES

‘SECTION THROUGH ESKIMO IGLOoO

EskIMo KyYAcks

‘THE AUTHOR IN ESKIMO COSTUME -

ESKIMO SLEEPING-BAG -

EskIMO IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS .
ESKIMO HUNTERS

Eskimo LANCE, HARPOONS AND SPEARS

ESKIMO GAMES AND Toys

Ruins or Esxrmo Lopces, CHESTERFIELD INLET
EXXPLORING RANKIN INLET, Hupson Bay

AN ENCOUNTER WITH POLAR BEARS

THe Last Meat—A GLoomy OUTLOOK

‘Camp SCENE ON WEST SHORE, HupDSON Bay

H. B. Co.’s Post, Fort CHURCHILL

(‘Coast BOATS AND CHURCH, Fort CHURCHILL

Rev. JosEepH LOFTHOUSE AND FAMILY - -
FacsIMILE oF DrAwine oN Rock aT Sioors Cove -
‘Ruins or ForT PRINCE oF WALES—EXTERIOR VIEW - -
Ruins or Fort PRINCE OF WALES—INTERIOR VIEW - -
J. B. TYRRELL IN ESKIMO COSTUME (LEAVING ForT CHURCHILL)
FACSIMILE OF INSCRIPTION ON Rock aT SLoorps CovE
HALF-BREED DOG-DRIVER - .
H. B. Co.’s Store, York Factory -
Our SLED Party Drawn Up at A DESERTED CABIN -
Norway House, LAKE WINNIPEG -

An H. B. Co.’s TRADING-POST IN WINTER -
‘Our Party ON THE RETURN TRIP :
DoG-TRAIN AND CARRYALL - -
‘Mar oF CHURCHILL HARBOR - -
Map or Hupson Bay Route - .
. A CREE HUNTER’S PRIZE - a 3
CARRYING THE Mart To Moosr Factory : - .

vill

PAGE
94
96
99

103

104

111

118

119

121

122

129°

131

135

137

138

140

143

147

154

169

176

183

190

193

195

195

197

199

200

201

202

209

210

218

222

225

226

228

228

230
252
252
276

MAP OF GANADA

SHOWING IN RED LINES THE ROUTES
FOLLOWED BY THE AUTHORIN
1885,1893 AND I900.

SCALE 200 miLES TO 1 INCH

Across the Sub-Arctics of Canada

CHAPTER I.

TORONTO TO ATHABASCA LANDING.

One beautiful May morning several years ago, in response
to a telegram from Ottawa, I took train at Hamilton for
Toronto, to meet my brother, J. Burr Tyrrell, of the Cana-
dian Geological Survey, and make final arrangements for a
trip to the North.

He had been authorized by the Director of that important
department of the Canadian Government to conduct, in
company with myself, an exploratory survey through the
great mysterious region of terra incognita commonly known
as the Barren Lands, more than two hundred thousand square
miles in extent, lying north of the 59th parallel of latitude,
between Great Slave Lake and Hudson Bay. Of almost this
entire territory less was known than of the remotest districts
of “Darkest Africa,’ and, with but few exceptions, its vast
and dreary plains had never been trodden by the foot of man,
save that of the dusky savage.

During a former journey my brother had obtained some
information concerning it from the Chipewyan Indians in
the vicinity of Athabasca and Black lakes, but even these
native tribes were found to have only the vaguest ideas of
the character of the country that lay beyond a few days’
journey inland.

In addition to this meagre information, he had procured

9

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

sketch-maps of several canoe routes leading northward toward
the Barren Lands. The most easterly of these routes com-
menced at a point on the north shore of Black Lake, and the
description obtained of it was as follows: “Beginning at
Black Lake, you make a long portage northward to a little
lake, then cross five or six more small ones and a correspond-
ing number of portages, and a large body of water called
Wolverine Lake will be reached. Pass through this, and
ascend a river flowing into it from the northward, until Active
Man Lake is reached. This lake will take two days to cross,
and at its northern extremity the Height of Land will be
reached. Over this make a portage until another large lake
of about equal size is entered. From the north end of this
second large lake, a great river flows to the northward through
a treeless country unknown to the Indians, but inhabited by
savage Eskimos. Where the river empties into the sea we
cannot tell, but it flows a great way to the northward.”

From the description given, it appeared that this river
must flow through the centre of the unexplored territory, and
thence find its way either into the waters of Hudson Bay
or into the Arctic Ocean. It was by this route we resolved
to carry on the exploration, and, if possible, make our way
through the Barren Lands.

One of the first and most important preparations for the
journey was the procuring of suitable boats, inasmuch as
portability, strength and carrying capacity were all essential
qualities. These were obtained from the Peterboro’ Canoe
Company, who furnished us with two beautiful varnished
cedar canoes, eighteen feet in length, and capable of carrying
two thousand pounds each, while weighing only one hundred
and twenty pounds. Arrangements had also been made to
have a nineteen-foot basswood canoe, used during the previous
summer, and two men in readiness at Fort McMurray on
the Athabasca River.

Four other canoemen were chosen to complete the party,

10

TORONTO TO ATHABASCA LANDING

three of them being Iroquois experts from Caughnawaga,
Quebec. These three were brothers, named Pierre, Louis and
Michel French. Pierre was a veteran canoeman, being as
much at home in a boiling rapid as on the calmest water.
For some years he had acted as ferryman at Caughnawaga,
and only recently had made a reputation for himself by

Pierre. Flett. Corrigal. Michel. Louis.

SOME OF OUR MEN.

running the Lachine Rapids on Christmas day, out of sheer
bravado. His brother Louis had won some distinction also
through having accompanied Lord Wolseley as a voyageur on
his Egyptian campaigns; while Michel, the youngest and
smallest of the three, was known to be a good steady fellow,
boasting of the same distinction as his brother Louis.

11

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

The other man, a half-breed named John Flett, was en-
gaged at Prince Albert, Saskatchewan. He was highly recom-
mended, not so much as a canoeman, as being an expert
portager of great experience in northern travel, and also an
Eskimo linguist.

The two men, James Corrigal and Frangois Maurice, who
through the kindness of Mr. Moberly, the officer of the Hud-
son’s Bay Company at Isle-d-la-Crosse, were engaged to meet
us with a third canoe at Fort McMurray, were also western
half-breeds, trained in the use of the pack-strap as well as the
paddle, and were a pair of fine strong fellows. Thus it was
arranged to combine in our party the best skill both of canoe-
men and portagers.

Our reasons for not employing Indians from Lake Atha-
basca were, that these natives had on nearly all previous
expeditions proved to be unreliable. Such men as we had
engaged, unlike these Indians, were free from any dread of
the Eskimos, and as we would advance they would soon be-
come entirely dependent on us as their guides. Besides, they
were more accustomed to vigorous exertion at the paddle and
ou the portage than the local Indians, who are rather noted
for their proficiency in taking life easy.

Next in importance to procuring good boats and canoemen
was the acquisition of a complete set of portable mathematical
instruments, but in due time these, too, were obtained. The
following is a list of them:—One sextant with folding mer-
eurial horizon, one solar compass, two pocket compasses, two
prismatic compasses, one fluid compass, two boat logs, two
clinometers, one aneroid barometer, a pair of maximum and
minimum thermometers, one pocket chronometer, three good
watches, a pair of field-glasses, an aluminum binocular, and
a small camera. These, though numerous, were not bulky,
but they comprised a part of our outfit over which much care
had to be exercised throughout the journey. <A bill of neces-
sary supplies was also carefully made out, and the order for

12

J. B. TYRRELL.

TORONTO TO ATHABASCA LANDING

them forwarded to the Hudson’s Bay Company at Edmonton,
with instructions to have them freighted down the Athabasca
River to Fort Chipewyan, on Lake Athabasca, as early as
possible. ,

The above and a hundred and one other preparations having
been completed, my brother and I bade farewell to our homes,
and on the 16th of May boarded the North Bay evening ex-
press at Toronto. The journey was not begun without the
stirring of tender emotions, for to me it meant separation,
how long I knew not, from my young wife and baby boy five
months old, and to my brother it meant separation from one
too sacred in his eyes to mention here.

Once aboard the train we made ourselves as comfortable as
possible for a five days’ ride. I do not propose to weary my
readers with a detailed account of the long run across con-
tinent by rail, as it is not reckoned a part of our real journey ;
in passing I will merely make the briefest reference to a few
of the incidents by the way.

It was not until many delays between North Bay and
Fort William on the Canadian Pacific Railway, owing chiefly
to the disastrous floods of that year, which inundated the
track for long distances, washed it out at several points and
broke one of the railway bridges, that we arrived at Winni-
peg, the capital of the Province of Manitoba and the future
Chicago of Canada. Upon reaching the city it was found
that our canoes, which had been shipped to Edmonton some
time previously, had not yet passed through. After consider-
able telegraphing they were located, and it was found that
they would arrive on the following day. In consequence of
this and other business to be transacted with the Commissioner
of the Hudson’s Bay Company, we were obliged to remain
here for a day. During our brief stay we were warmly
greeted by many friends, and were most kindly entertained
at Government House by the late Lieutenant-Governor, Sir
John Schultz, and Lady Schultz, to whom we were indebted

13

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

for the contribution to our equipment of several articles of
comfort.

The next day we bade our Winnipeg friends good-bye and
took the C. P. R. train for the West. The route lay through

_ HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY TRADERS.

vast areas of the most magnificent agricultural country, for
the most part level and unbroken, save by the innumerable
and ancient but still deep trails of the buffalo. Little timber
was observed, excepting in isolated patches and along the
river valleys, the land being ready for the plough of the
settler. Passing through many new but thriving towns and
settlements by the way, we arrived early on the morning of
the 22nd at the busy town of Calgary, pleasantly situated in
the beautiful valley of the south branch of the Saskatchewan
River, and just within view of the snow-clad peaks of the
Rocky Mountains. From Calgary our way lay toward the
north, via the Edmonton Branch of the C. P. R., and after
a stay of only a few hours we were again hurrying onward.
On the evening of the same day, in a teeming rain, we reached
Edmonton, the northern terminus of the railway. ,

14

TORONTO TO ATHABASCA LANDING

Edmonton, the capital of the new Province of Alberta, is
situated on the north bank of the north branch of the Saskat-
chewan River, and at the time of our-visit was in a flourishing
condition. To-day many large business blocks have been
erected, and property is selling at stiff prices. The city is
ncted for its lignite mines, which are worked to a considerable
extent, and produce coal of very fair quality. The seams are
practically of unlimited extent, and are very easily accessible
in many places along the river banks. Gold is washed from
the sands in paying quantities,
while the city is surrounded by a
fine agricultural and grazing coun-
try. Petroleum and natural gas
have also been discovered in the
vicinity, and the indications are
that in the near future Edmonton
will become a large city..

The town of Strathcona is situ-
ated on the south side of the river,
and communication is afforded
between the two places by means
of a fine steel railway and traffic
bridge. The Canadian Northern ~
Railway has recently entered Ed-
monton from the east, and now
affords a first-class main line connection with Winnipeg.

Upon enquiry we were gratified to find that the sup-
plies and men, excepting the two who were to meet
us later, had all arrived in safety. Our provisions,
which were to be freighted down as far as Lake Athabasca
by the Hudson’s Bay Company, had not yet gone, but were
already being baled up for shipment. The completion of this
work, which was done under the supervision of my brother
and myself, together with the making up of accounts and
transaction of other business, occupied several days, but by

15

ANH. B. C. INTERPRETER.

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

the morning of the 27th of May our entire outfit, loaded
upon waggons, set off on the northward trail leading to Atha-
basea Landing, a small trading-post situated one hundred
miles distant on the banks of the great Athabasca River.

fh
A PIONEER OF THE NORTH,
(Draten from life by Arthur Heming.)

Two days later, being Monday morning, my brother and I,
accompanied by a driver only, started out in a light vehicle
in rear of the outfit. The weather was showery and the trail
in many places very soft. Oceasionally deep mud-holes were
encountered, bearing evidence of the recent struggles of the

16

TORONTO TO ATHABASCA LANDING

teams of our advance party, but as we were travelling
“light,” we had little difficulty in making good progress.
Later in the day the weather cleared, permitting us to enjoy
a view of the beautiful country through which we were pass-
ing. As to the soil, it was chiefly a rich black loam, well
covered, even at this early season, between the clumps of
poplar scrub, by rich prairie grass. A few settlers were
already in the field, and had just built or were building log
cabins for themselves on one side or other of the trails. A
little farther on our way the country became more hilly, the
scil more sandy, and covered by the most beautiful park-like
forests of jack-pine. Many of the trees were as much as
fifteen inches in diameter, but the average size was about
eight.

After passing through some miles of these woods we again
emerged into more open country, wooded alternately in places
by poplar, spruce and jack-pine. About nine o’clock that
evening, when half-way to the Landing, we reached the Height
of Land between the two great valleys of the Saskatchewan
and Athabasca rivers. Here, upon a grassy spot, we made
our first camp. As the night was clear no tents were pitched
but, after partaking of some refreshment, each man rolled
up in his blanket and lay down to sleep beneath the starry
sky. We rested well, although our slumbers were somewhat
proken by the fiendish yells of prairie wolves from the sur-
rounding scrub, and the scarcely less diabolical screams of
loons sporting on a pond close by. An effort was made to
have the latter nuisance removed, but any one who has ever
tried to shoot loons at night will better understand than I can
describe the difficulties of such an undertaking.

About nine o’clock on the evening of the 30th of May we
arrived at Athabasca Landing, only a few hours after the
loads of supplies, which we were glad to find had all come
through safely.

2 17

arn TN

WW}

)

N\ \

DNs

tt.

AN\\A

CREE WOMAN.

BLACKFOOT IN WAR-PAINT.

N WAR-BONNET.

BLOOD BRAVE I

SARCEE BRAVE.

CREE DIGNITARY.

INDIANS OF THE CANADIAN NORTH

WEST.

‘(Drawn from life by Arthur Heming.)

CHAPTER II.
DOWN THE ATHABASCA.

Tue town of Athabasca Landing is picturesquely set in the
deep and beautiful valley of one of the greatest rivers of
America. Though not of imposing size, it is nevertheless an
important station of the Hudson’s Bay Company, being the
point from which all supplies for the many northern trading-
posts along the Athabasca and Mackenzie rivers are shipped,
and the point at which the furs from these places are received.
In order to provide for this shipping business, the Company
has a large warehouse and wharf.

It is a fact, I think not very well known, that from this
place up stream for about one hundred miles and down for fif-
teen hundred miles to the Arctic Ocean, this great waterway,
excepting at two rapids, is regularly navigated by large river
steamers, owned by the Hudson’s Bay Company and employed
in carrying supplies for their posts and the furs which are
secured in trade. Because of these two impassable rapids the
river is divided into three sections, necessitating the use of
three steamers, one for each section. Goods are transported
from one boat to the other over the greater part of the rapids
by means of scows, but for a short distance, at the Grand
Rapid, by means of a tramway built for the purpose.

As we had previously ascertained, the steamer Athabasca
was due to leave the Landing on her down-stream trip on
or about the 1st of June; so, taking advantage of the oppor-
tunity, we shipped the bulk of our stuff to Fort Chipewyan,
situated about three hundred and fifty miles down the river
on Lake Athabasca. Everything excepting the canoes and
provisions sufficient to take us to Chipewyan was loaded upon

19

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

the steamer. Letters were written and sent back to Edmonton
by the drivers, and on the evening of the last day of May we
launched our handsome “ Peterboroughs ” in the great stream,
and commenced our long canoe voyage.

The arrangement of the party was as follows: My brother
occupied a central position in one canoe, and I a correspond-
ing place in the other. As steersman he chose the eldest of
the Iroquois, Pierre, with Michel as bowman. The remain-
ing Iroquois, Louis, took the steering paddle of my canoe,
and John, the western man, occupied the bow. Thus were
our little crafts manned, each person, including my brother
and myself, being provided with a broad maple paddle. Our
loads being light, we were in good speeding condition. Just
after launching we met some native Indians in their bark
canoes, and by way of amusement and exhibition of speed
paddled completely around them in the current, much to their
amazement. Then with farewell salute, and the stroke of our
paddles timed to the song of the canoemen, we glided swiftly
down the stream.

As the start had been made late in the afternoon, not many
miles were passed before it became necessary to look for a
camping place. The banks of the river, formed of boulder
clay, were very high, and good landings were scarce. In
places the mud on the shore was soft and deep, but about
seven o’clock a landing was effected and camp pitched for the
night. At this time only two small tents were used, an “ A”
tent for the canoemen and a wall tent, affording a little more
head room, for ourselves. The banks being well wooded with
white and black poplar, spruce and birch, plenty of fuel was
available. A fire was soon kindled and our evening meal
prepared, in the cooking of which John was given the first
opportunity of distinguishing himself. He was assisted by
little Michel, who proved to be a very good hand. Having
some bread and biscuits in stock, baking was not yet a
necessity.

20

DOWN THE ATHABASCA

The weather now being fair and cool, and the great pest
of camp life, the mosquito, not having yet arrived, our ex-
perience at this time was most enjoyable. It was the season
of spring, and the sweet perfume of the Balm of Gilead, so
abundant in the valley of the Athabasca, permeated the air.
The leaves on many of the trees were just opening, so that
everywhere the woods presented a remarkable freshness and
brilliancy of foliage. These were our environments at the
commencement of the canoe voyage and at our first camp on

TRANQUIL WATERS.

the banks of the Athabasca. How different were they to be
at the other end of the journey!

On the morning of the 1st of June camp was called early,
and we continued on our way. As we glided down stream a
succession of grand views passed, panorama-like, before us.
The banks were high, towering in some places three, four or
five hundred feet above the river ; here abrupt and precipitous,
consisting of cut banks of stratified clay; in other places

21

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

more receding, but by a gradual slope rising, beneath dense
foliage, to an equal dlevation,

At this season of the year the water being high and the
current swift, we made good time, covering a distance of
sixty miles for the first full day’s travel. About noon on the
2nd, having reached a narrow part’of the river, very remark-
able massive walls of ice were found upon either bank, some
distance above the water’s edge. These walls were of irreg-
ular thickness, and from eight to ten feet in height; but the
most striking feature about them was that they presented
smooth vertical faces to the river, although built of blocks of
every shape and shade from clear crystal to opaque mud.
They extended thus more or less continuously for miles down
the river, and had the appearance of great masonry dykes.
The explanation of their existence is doubtless as follows:
Earlier in the season the narrowness of the channel had
caused the river ice to jam and greatly raised the water level.
After a time, when the water had reached a certain height
and much ice had been crowded up on the shores, the jam
had given way and caused the water to rapidly lower to a
considerable extent, leaving the ice grounded above a certain
line. Thus the material for the wall was deposited, and the
work of constructing and finishing the smooth vertical face
was doubtless performed by the subsequent grinding of the
passing jam, which continued to flow in the deeper channel.
After the passing of the first freshet, and the formation of
these great ice walls, the water had gradually lowered to the
level at which we found it.

Late in the afternoon the first rapid of the trip was sighted,
but the water being high we had no difficulty in running it.
In the evening camp was made on a beautiful sandy beach.
During supper-time we had a visit from an old Cree Indian,
who came paddling up the river in a little bark canoe. Of
course, he landed at our camp, for it is a principle strictly
observed by every Indian to lose no opportunity of receiving

22

DOWN THE ATHABASCA

hospitalities, and in accordance with his ideas of propriety,
refreshments were given him. He accepted them as those of
his race usually receive all favors, as no more than his right,
and without a smile or the least visible expression of pleasure,
seated himself by the fire to enjoy them.

On the following morning the great walls of ice, which
we had been passing for miles, began to disappear as the
channel of the river became wider. At about 9.30 we reached
a place known as the Rapid of the Jolly Fool. It is said to
have received its name from the fact that at one time an awk-
ward canoeman lost his life by allowing his canoe to be
smashed upon the most conspicuous rock in the rapid. We
wasted no time examining it, as it was reported to be an
easy one, but, keeping near the left bank, headed our little
crafts into the rushing waters. We had descended only a
short distance, and were turning a bend in the stream, when,
a little ahead of us, my brother noticed moving objects on
the shore. One of the men said they were wolves, while
others maintained they were bears, but my brother, getting
his rifle in readiness, terminated the discussion by demanding
silence. As we swept swiftly down with the current, the
objects were seen to be a moose deer and her calf. Having
no fresh meat on hand, these new-found acquaintances were
hailed as “ well met.” Not until our canoes had approached
within about one hundred and fifty yards did the old moose,
standing in the shallow water near the river bank, appear to
notice us. Then, apparently apprehending danzen, but with-
out alarm, she turned toward the shore, and, followed by her
calf, walked up the bank towards the woods. As she did so
my brother made a fine shot from his canoe, wounding her
in the hind-quarters. I then fired, but struck the clay bank
above the animal’s head, and in attempting to reload, the
shell stuck in my rifle, making it impossible for me to fire
again. Just as the moose was disappearing into the woods

23

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

my brother fired again, and inflicted another wound ; but in
spite of all away went the deer.

As our canoes were thrust ashore I succeeded in extracting
the shell from my rifle, and leaving some of the men in charge
of the canoes, my brother and I gave chase. The trail of
blood was discovered on the leaves, but it led into such a
jungle of fallen timber and thicket that it was no easy matter
to follow. Scouts were sent out on either side, while with
our rifles we followed the trail, running when we were per-
mitted, jumping logs that came in the way, and clambering
over or through windfalls that the moose had cleared at a
bound. Presently through the leafy thicket we had a glimpse
of our prey. “ Bang!” went both rifles and away bounded
the moose with two more slugs in her body.

We were now pretty badly winded, but being anxious to
complete the work we had undertaken, the chase was kept up.
We knew from the wounds already inflicted that the capture
was only a matter of physical endurance on our part, and we
were prepared to do our best. More than once the trail was
lost in the windfalls and jungle, but at length loss of blood
and exhaustion came to our assistance, and one final shot
through the heart brought the noble beast with a thud to the
ground. Nothing had been seen of the calf since the begin-
ning of the hunt, but going back to the shore to get assistance,
I found that the men had captured and made it a prisoner
beside the canoes. Taking charge of the captive, I sent the
men into the woods to skin the deer and “ pack ” the meat out
to shore. The little calf, which I held by the ear, was very
young, and not at all wild. Indeed, though I let go my hold,
the little creature did not care to go away, but kept calling for
its mother in such a pitiful way that it made me heartily
sorry for having bereft it. After the space of an hour or so
my brother and the men returned, well loaded with fresh meat
and a fine moose-hide. The meat was placed in sacks and
stowed away in the canoes, but the hide being heavy and of

24

DOWN THE ATHABASCA

no value to us, was placed on a big stone in the sun to dry
and await the ownership of the first Indian who should pass
that way.

As it was now nearly noon, it was decided to take dinner
before re-embarking, and while the cooks were devoting their
attention to bannocks and moose-steaks, my brother and I

THE MOOSE CALF AND ITS CAPTORS.

were debating as to what we should do with the calf. We
had not the heart to deliberately shoot it, but were unable to
take it with us alive, as we would like to have done. Through
a suggestion of one of the men a happy alternative was de-
cided on. Other moose were doubtless in the vicinity, so that
the calling of the calf would likely attract some of them, and
in the event of this taking place it was said that the little

25

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

moose would attach itself to another female. With the hope
that such kind fortune would befall it, my brother, after
having taken its photograph, led it away by the ear into the
shelter of the woods, and there left the little creature to its
fate.

During the afternoon of the same day, the head of the
Grand Rapid of the Athabasca, situated just 165 miles below

SCOWS AT THE HEAI) OF GRAND RAPIDS,

the Landing, was reached. Here we met a detachment of the
Mounted Police, in charge of Inspector Howard; and as it
was late in the day, and Saturday evening, it was decided to
pitch camp. The police camp was the only other one in the
neighborhood, so the first question which suggested itself was:
What possible duty could policemen find to perform in such

26

TROOPER R. N.-W. MOUNTED POLICE.

(In winter uniform, )

DOWN THE ATHABASCA

a wild, uninhabited place? The answer, however, was simple.
The place, though without any settled habitation, is the scene
of the transhipment of considerable freight on its way to the
various trading-posts and mission stations of the great Mac-
kenzie River District. The river steamer Athabasca, belong-
ing to the Hudson’s Bay Company, was now daily looked for
with its load from the Landing. Mission scows, loaded with
freight for Fort Chipewyan and other points, were expected,
and free-traders’ outfits were likely to arrive at any time. It
was for the purpose of inspecting these cargoes and prevent-
ing liquor from being carried down and sold for furs to the
Indians, that Inspector Howard and his detachment were
stationed here.

From the Grand Rapid, down stream for about eighty miles
to Fort McMurray, the river is not navigable for steamers,
and so all goods have to be transported over this distance by
‘scows built for the purpose. The head of the Grand Rapid
is thus the northern steamboat terminus for the southern sec-
tion of the river. The whole distance of eighty miles is not
a continuous rapid, but eleven or twelve more or less im-
practicable sections occur in it, so that no great length of
navigable water is found at any place. As its name suggests,
the Grand Rapid is the main rapid of the river, and has a
fall of seventy or eighty feet. This fall occurs mostly within
a distance of half a mile, though the total length of the rapid
is about four times that. The upper part is divided by a long
narrow island into two channels, and it is through these com-
paratively narrow spaces that the cataract rushes so wildly.
Above and below the island, the river may with great care
be navigated by the loaded scows, but the water upon either
side is so rough that goods cannot be passed down or up in
safety. The method of transportation adopted is as follows:
About a mile above the island, at the head of the rapid, the
steamer Athabasca ties up to the shore. There she is met by
a number of flat-bottomed boats or scows capable of carrying

27

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

about ten tons each, and to these the boat’s cargo is trans-
ferred. When loaded the scows are piloted one by one to the
head of the island in the middle of the river, where a rough
wharf is built, and to it all goods are again transferred,
whence they are carried to the lower end of the island by
means of a tramway. The unloaded scows, securely held with

H. B. C. STEAMER “ATHABASCA” AT LANDING AT
HEAD OF GRAND RAPIDS.

ropes by a force of men on the shore, and guided with poles
by a crew on board, are then carefully lowered down stream
to the foot of the island, where they again receive their loads.
Accidents frequently happen in passing down the unloaded
scows, for the channel (the eastern one always being chosen)

28

DOWN THE ATHABASCA

is very rough and rocky. From the foot of the island in the
Grand Rapid the scows are then floated down the river, with
more or less difficulty, according to the height of water,
through the long succession of rapids to Fort McMurray,
where they are met by the second steamer, the Grahame,
which receives their freight and carries it down the river to
Fort Chipewyan, on Lake Athabasca, and thence onward to
Fort Smith, on Great Slave River, where a second tranship-
ment has to be made over about sixteen miles of rapids. From
the lower end of these rapids the steamer Wrigley, under the
command of Captain Mills, takes charge of the cargo and
delivers it at the various trading-posts along the banks of the
Mackenzie River, for a distance of about twelve hundred
miles, to the Arctic Ocean.

But to return to our camp at the head of the Grand Rapid.
Inspector Howard and his men proved to be interesting com-
panions. I soon discovered, to my surprise, that the Inspector
was a cousin of my wife’s, and that I had met him in former
years in Toronto. Meeting with even so slight an acquaint-
ance in such a place was indeed a pleasure; and in justice to
the occasion a banquet, shall I call it, was given us, at which
moose-steak and bear-chops cut a conspicuous figure. In con-
versation with the Inspector some information was obtained
regarding the character of the rapids now before us, and all
such was carefully noted, since none of our party had ever
run the Athabasca. We had with us the reports of William
Ogilvie, D.L.S., and Mr. McConnell, who had descended the
river and published much valuable information regarding it,
but even they could not altogether supply the place of a guide.
We were putting great confidence in the skill of our Iroquois
canoemen at navigating rapids, and now in the succeeding
eighty miles of the trip there would be ample opportunity of
testing it.

On the morning following our arrival at the Grand Rapid,
being the 4th of June, a number of mission scows, loaded with

29

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

goods for Chipewyan and other mission stations, arrived.
As they appeared, following each other in quick succession
around a bend in the river, each boat manned by its wild-
looking crew of half-naked Indians, all under the command
of Schott, the big well-known river pilot, who is credited by
Mr. Ogilvie with being the fastest dancer he has ever seen,
they drew in towards the east bank, and one after the other
made fast to the shore. The boats were at once boarded by

GRAND RAPIDS, ATHABASCA RIVER.

Inspector Howard and his men, and a careful search made
for illegal consignments of “ fire-water.” Liquor in limited
quantities is allowed to be taken into the country when accom-
panied by an official permit from the Lieut.-Governor of the
Territories, but without this it is at once confiscated when
found. Out of deference to those for whom these cargoes
were consigned, I will not say whether a discovery was made
on this occasion or not. When confiseations are made, how-

30

DOWN THE ATHABASCA

ever, the find is, of course, always destroyed. The news of
the arrival of the scows was welcomed by us, not because of
anything they brought with them, but because we expected
to obtain directions from Schott regarding the running of the
many rapids in the river ahead, and arrange with him for the
transport of the bulk of our canoe loads to Fort McMurray,
below the rapids. After some consideration, rather less than
most Indians require to take, these matters were arranged,
and all but our instruments, tents, blankets and three or four
days’ provisions were handed over to Schott.

On the evening of the 4th, the steamer Athabasca “ike put
in an appearance, and made fast to the shore a little above
the scows. Grand Rapids was no longer an uninhabited wil-
derness, but had now become transformed into a scene of
strange wild life. Large dark,
savage-looking figures, many
of them bare to the waist, and
adorned with head-dresses of
fox-tails or feathers, were
everywhere to be seen. Some
of them, notably those of the
Chipewyan tribe, were the
blackest and most savage-look-
ing Indians I had ever seen.
As it was already nearly night
when the last of them arrived
by the steamer, the work of
transhipping was left for the
morning. In the dark woods
the light of camp-fires began soon to appear, and around
them the whole night long the Indians danced and gambled,
at the same time keeping up their execrable drum music.

At daylight the next morning the overhauling of cargoes.
was commenced. One by one the scows were loosened and
piloted down the middle of the rapid to the wharf at the head’

31

ENGLISH-CHIPEWYAN
HALF-BREED.

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

of the island. Here they were unloaded, and after being
lightened, were lowered down through the boiling waters, by
means of lines from the shore and the assistance of poles on
board, to again receive their loads at the foot of the island.
Two or three scows were also similarly engaged in transport-
ing the cargo of the steamer, of which our supplies formed
part, and, much to our annoyance, there was considerable de-
lay on account of having to repair the tramway across the
island. We were informed that the Grahame could not now
‘reach Chipewyan before the 20th of June, which would be
ten days later than we had expected to be able to leave that
‘place. However, we could only accept the inevitable, and try
to make the best use of the time.

While Schott and his crews were thus engaged with their
transport, our own men were not idle. They had been told
‘that the rapid would have to be portaged, as no canoeman
would venture to run it; but having walked down the shore
and themselves examined the river, the Iroquois asked and
-obtained permission to run it by taking one canoe down at a
time. Schott and his Indians thought them mad to try such
a venture, but seeming to have every confidence in their own
abilities, we determined to see what they could do. John
gladly chose the work of portaging along the rough boulder
‘shore and over precipitous rocks in preference to taking a
paddle, but the three Iroquois took their places, Louis in the
‘bow, Michel in the middle, and old Pierre in the stern. As
the three daring fellows pushed off from the shore into the
‘surging stream, those of us who gazed upon them did so with
grave forebodings. They had started, and now there was
nothing to do but go through or be smashed upon the rocks.
‘Their speed soon attained that of an express train, while all
about them the boiling waters were dashed into foam by the
‘great rocks in the channel. Presently it appeared as if they
were doomed to be dashed upon a long ugly breaker nearly
in mid-stream; but no! with two or three lightning strokes

32

A TATTOOED CREE CHIEF.

DOWN THE ATHABASCA

of their paddles the collision was averted. But in a moment
they were in worse danger, for right ahead were two great
rocks, over and around which the tumbling waters rushed
wildly. Would they try the right side or the left? Only an
instant was afforded for thought, but in that instant Pierre
saw his only chance and took it—heading his canoe straight
for the chute between the rocks. Should they swerve a foot
to one side or the other the result would be fatal, but with
unerring judgment and unflinching nerve they shot straight
through the notch, and disappeared in the trough below.
Rising buoyantly from the billows of foam and flying spray,
they swept on with the rushing waters until, in a little eddy
half-way down the rapid, they pulled in to the shore in safety.
They were all well soaked by the spray and foam, but with-
out concern or excitement returned for the second canoe. In
taking this down a valise of stationery and photographic sup-
plies, inadvertently allowed to remain in the canoe, got a
rather serious wetting, but as soon as possible its contents
were spread out upon the smooth, clean rocks to dry. Past
the remainder of the rapid a portage was made and camp
pitched at the foot. While our Iroquois were thus occupied,
Schott and his men had been hard at work running down
their scows, and had been unfortunate enough to get one of
them stranded on a big flat rock in the middle of the rapid.
Had it not been for the timely assistance of our party and
the generalship of old Pierre, he would probably never have
gotten it off. As it was, the accomplishment of the task occu-
pied our united energies for several hours.

CHAPTER IIL.
RUNNING THE RAPIDS.

Berore leaving the Grand Rapid several good photographs
of it were obtained, and then on the morning of the 7th of
June, bidding adieu to Inspector Howard, and leaving our
supplies in the freighters’ hands, we started down the river
for Fort McMurray. The first object of special interest
passed was a natural gas flow, occurring on the left bank about
fifteen miles below the rapid. At this place a considerable
volume of gas is continually discharging, and may be seen
bubbling up through the water over a considerable area, as
well as escaping from rifts in the bank. The gas burns with
a hot pale-blue flame, and is said to be used at times by boat-
men for cooking purposes. Eight or ten miles farther down
stream came the Brille Rapids, the first of the long series, and
though they might easily have been run, we did not try it, as
my brother wished to remain on shore for some time to col-
lect fossils. Meanwhile our stuff was portaged, and without
difficulty the empty canoes run down to the foot of the rapids,
where camp was made. Just at this place commence the won-
derful tar sand-beds of the Athabasca, extending over an
enormous area. ‘These certainly present a very striking
appearance. During warm weather, in many places, the faces
of the river banks, from three to five hundred feet in height,
present the appearance of running tar, and here and there
tar wells are found, having been formed by the accumulation
of the viscid tar in natural receptacles of the rock. Thus
collected it has been commonly made use of by workmen in
the calking of the scows on the river.*

*For further particulars regarding this most interesting locality,
see the report of Mr. McConnell, published in 1893 by the Geological
Survey of Canada.

34

RUNNING THE RAPIDS

Sixteen miles farther down, the Boiler Rapid, so called
from the fact that in 1882 a boiler intended for the steamer
Wrigley was lost in it, was successfully run on the following
day, and early in the afternoon the third rapid was reached.
It attempting to run it on the left side, we found, after
descending perhaps half-way, that there were too many rocks
in the channel ahead, and therefore an effort was made to
cross to the right side, which looked to be clearer. My
brother’s canoe, steered by old Pierre, avoided the rocks and

SHOOTING A RAPID

was taken successfully across, but mine was not so fortunate.
In attempting to follow we struck a large rock in mid-
channel, but happily the collision occurred in such a way that
my canoe was not seriously damaged. It was merely whirled
end for end in the current and almost filled with water,
though not quite sufficiently to sink us. Leaving the two
Indians to pull for the shore, I seized a tin kettle and lost no
time in dashing out some of the water. After a sharp struggle
we managed to land. Of course, all we had in the canoe—
35

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

instruments, blankets, provisions and clothing—was soaked,
and it was therefore necessary to unload and turn everything
out. My brother, seeing that something had happened, went
ashore also, and with his men returned to assist us. The
weather was fine, and our goods soon became sufficiently dry
to allow us to re-embark.

An examination having been made of the rapid-below, a
short run was made down and then across to the opposite side,
where we landed, and, because of the extreme shallowness of
the channel and the many rocks that showed ominously above
the surface, the canoes were lowered for the remaining half
mile with the lines. The whole length of this rapid is per-
haps a mile and a half, and it is sometimes designated as two,
the Drowned and Middle rapids. Following these in quick
succession, at intervals of from two to ten miles, we passed
through the Long Rapids, which occasioned no difficulty ;
then the Crooked Rapids, well named from the fact that they
occur at a very sharp U-shaped bend in the river, round
which the current sweeps with great velocity. Just below
this the Stony Rapid was passed, and then in turn the Little
and Big cascades, both of which are formed by ledges of
limestone rock, about three feet high, extending in more or
less unbroken lines completely across the river.

At the Big Cascade a portage of a few yards had to be
made, and below this, smooth water was found for.a distance
of eight or nine miles, until the head of the Mountain Rapid
was reached. Judging from the name that this would be a
large one, we decided to go ashore to reconnoitre. For a con-
siderable distance the rapid was inspected, but no unusual
difficulty appearing, we resolved to go ahead. About a mile
farther on, a bend occurred in the rapid, and so high and
steep were the banks that only with great difficulty could we
see the river beyond. As far as the bend, though the current
was swift, there appeared to be but few rocks near the left
bank, and plenty of water. We therefore decided to go

36

RUNNING THE RAPIDS

ashore at that point, if necessary, and examine the stream
beyond.

As we proceeded the stream became fearfully swift and
the waves increasingly heavy. At the speed we were making
the bend was soon reached, but just beyond it another bluff
point came in view. We would have gone ashore to make a
further inspection, but this was impossible, as the banks were
of perpendicular or even overhanging walls of limestone. So
alarmingly swift was the current now becoming that we
eagerly looked for some place on the bank where a landing
might be made, but none could be seen. Retreat was equally
impossible against the enormous strength of the river, and all
we could do was to keep straight in the current. My brother’s
canoe, steered by old Pierre, being a little in advance of my
own, gave me a good opportunity of seeing the fearful race
we were running. Suspicions of danger were already aroused,
and the outcome was not long deferred. As we were rounding
the bluff, old Pierre suddenly stood up from his seat in the
stern, and in another instant we likewise were gazing at what
looked like the end of the river. Right before us there ex-
tended a perpendicular fall. We had no time for reflection,
but keeping straight with the current, and throwing ourselves
back in the canoes in order to lighten the bows, we braced
ourselves for the plunge, and in a moment were lost to sight
in the foaming waters below. But only for an instant. Our
light cedars, though partly filled by the foam and spray, rose
buoyantly on the waves, and again we breathed freely. It
was most fortunate for us that the canoes were not loaded,
for had they been they never would have floated after that
plunge, but would have disappeared like lead in the billows.
We afterwards found we had taken the rapid in the very
worst spot, and that near the right side of the river we might
have made the descent free of danger. Without a guide,
however, such mistakes will sometimes occur in spite of every
precaution.

37

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

Poor John, my bowman, was badly unstrung as a result
of this adventure, and declared that he did not want to shoot
any more waterfalls; and for that matter, others of us were
of much the same mind. One more small rapid, the Moberly,
completed the series, and then for a few miles we enjoyed
calm water until, toward evening, we arrived at Fort

MeMurray.

STORE, FORT M‘MURRAY.

This settlement, then containing five small log buildings—
a warehouse, a store, the traders’ dwelling and two Indian
houses—is situated on a cleared tongue of land formed by
the junction of the Clear Water River with the Athabasca,
and is about two hundred and fifty miles below the Landing.
The site of the post is at an elevation of forty or fifty feet
above the water, but in the immediate background, and on
both banks of the river, the ground rises abruptly, and is
covered by a thick growth of poplar, spruce and birch trees.
At the time of our arrival two parties of Indians, one Cree
and the other Chipewyan, occupying in all a dozen or more

38

RUNNING THE RAPIDS

lodges, were encamped at tHe place, and were to be seen in
groups here and there idly putting in the time, while every-
where their mangy canines skulked and prowled about, seek-
ing what they might devour—old moccasins, pack-straps, etc.,
apparently being their favorite dainties.

Naturally, our first inquiry upon arriving at the Fort was
whether or not our two men and canoe from Isle-d-la-Crosse
had arrived; but the appearance of an upturned “ Peter-
borough” on the shore soon answered the question, and a few
minutes later two stout half-breeds made their appearance,
and informed us they were the men who had been sent by
Mr. Moberly to meet us. My brother had expected two men
who had accompanied him on his trip of the previous year,
but thev having been unable to come, these two, Jim Corrigal
and Frangois Maurice, had been engaged in their stead. Jim
was a man of middle age, tall and of muscular frame; while
his companion was probably not more than twenty years of
age, and in appearance rather short and of heavy build. Jim
spoke English fairly well, though Cree was his tongue; but
Franeois, while speaking only very broken English, could
converse in French, Cree and Chipewyan, his knowledge of
the last making him subsequently very useful as an inter-
preter.

Our party, consisting of eight men, with three canoes, was
now complete, and thus assembled, the cleanest available
ground remote from Indian lodges was chosen, and camp
pitched to await the arrival of the four hundred pounds of
supplies left with Schott at Grand Rapid. We soon found we
were not the only ones waiting, and that anxiously, for the
arrival of the secows from the south, The entire population
then at Fort McMurray was in a state of famine. Supplies
at the post, having been insufficient for the demand, had be-
come exhausted, and the Indians who had come in to barter
their furs were thus far unable to obtain food in exchange,
and were obliged, with their families, to subsist upon the few

39

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

rabbits that might be caught in the woods. We were also
out of supplies, but now the scows were hourly expected.
Expectations, however, afforded poor satisfaction to hungry
stomachs, and no less than five days passed before these
materialized. In the meantime, though we were not entirely
without food ourselves, some of the natives suffered much
distress. At one Cree camp visited I witnessed a most piti-
able sight. There was the whole family of seven or eight

AN INDIAN CAMP.

persons seated on the ground about their smoking camp-fire,
but without one morsel of food, while children, three or four
years old, were trying to satisfy their cravings at the mother’s
breast. We had no food to give them, but gladdened their
hearts by handing around some pieces of tobacco, of which
all Indians, if not all savages, are passionately fond.

In addition to the unpleasantness created by lack of pro-
visions, our stay at Fort McMurray was attended with ex-
tremely wet weather, which made it necessary to remain im

40

RUNNING THE RAPIDS

camp most of the time, and to wade through no end of mud*
whenever we ventured out.

On the evening of the 14th the long-looked-for scows with
the supplies arrived. It will readily be imagined we were
not long in getting out the provisions and making ready a
supper more in keeping with our appetites than the meagre
meals with which we had for several days been forced to
content ourselves. The cause of delay, as Schott informed

STEAMER “ GRAHAME.”

us, was the grounding of some of the boats in one of the
rapids, in consequence of which the cargoes had to be re-
moved by his men and carried on their shoulders to the
shore, the boats then freed, lowered past the obstruction and
reloaded. Such work necessarily entails considerable delay
and is of a slavish character, as all hands have to work in the
ice-cold water for hours together.

Receiving again our four hundred pounds of supplies from.

41

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

Schott, we lost no more time at Fort McMurray, but at seven
o'clock next morning the little expedition, consisting now of
eight men and three canoes, pushed out into the river, and,
with a parting salute, sped away with the current, which being
swift, and our canoemen fresh, enabled us in a short time to
place many miles between us and the Fort. At five o’clock
in the evening, having then descended the river a distance of
abeut sixty miles, we were delighted to meet the steamer
Grahame on her up-stream trip from Fort Chipewyan to
McMurray to receive the goods brought down the rapids by
the scows. The steamer, being in charge of Dr. McKay, the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s officer from Chipewyan, who had
been informed of our expedition, was at once brought to a
stand in the river, and we were kindly invited on board.
When I commenced to clamber up the steamer’s deck, whose
hand should be offered to assist me but that of an old friend
and fellow-shipmate for two years in Hudson Straits—Mr.
J. W. Mills. The acquaintance of Dr. McKay and of the
Bishop of Athabasca, who happened to be on board, was also
made, and with these genial companions an hour quickly and
very pleasantly passed. Mr. Mills, who was attired in the
uniform of a steamboat captain, had lately been appointed to
the command of the steamer Wrigley, plying on the lower
section of the river, below Fort Smith, to which place he was
to be taken by the Grahame on her return trip from Fort
McMurray. Before parting company, the Doctor promised
to meet us again at Chipewyan on the 19th, and after this
short meeting, and many parting good wishes, we resumed
our separate ways.

Notwithstanding the hour’s delay and the fact that rain
fell all day, we made the very good run of seventy-two miles.
As we swept along with the winding river the most beautiful
and varied scenes were continually presented. The banks,
though not so high as above Fort McMurray, were bold and
thickly clad with spruce and poplar woods. Taking advan-

42

RUNNING THE RAPIDS

tage of the discovery of some straight spruce saplings, we
landed as night approached, and a number of our men were
sent to select a few for the purpose of making good tent-poles
to take the place of rough ones we had been using. Besides
spruce and other varieties of timber, balsam trees, the last
seen on the northward journey, were found at this camp.
On the morning of the 16th, though the weather continued
showery and a strong head wind had set in, we were early

ASHORE FOR LUNCH.

on our way, for we were anxious to reach Chipewyan a day
or two before the return of the Grahame, that we might rate
our chronometer and make all necessary preparations for a
good-bye to the outermost borders of civilization. In descend-
ing the Athabasca we were making no survey of the course,
nor any continuous examination of the geological features of
the district, but were chiefly concerned in getting down to
Chipewyan, where we were to receive our full loads of
supplies, and from which place our work was really to begin.
Despite the unpleasantness of the weather, therefore, our

43

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

“ eanoes were kept in the stream and all hands at the paddles,
and by nightfall another stretch of about sixty miles was
covered. We had now reached the low, flat country at the
delta of the river, where its waters break into many channels,
but still a strong current was running, and this we were glad
to find continued until within a distance of six or eight miles
from the lake. Some parts of the river were much obstructed
by driftwood grounded upon shoals; the banks, too, were low
and marshy, and landing-places difficult to find. Several
flocks of wild geese were seen, but none secured.

During the morning of the 17th some gun-shots were heard
not far distant across the grassy marsh, and turning our
canoes in that direction we soon met several bark canoes
manned by Chipewyan Indian hunters. Francois, being the
only man in our party who could understand or talk with
them, was much in demand, and he was instructed to ask
them the shortest way through the delta towards Chipewyan.
Indian-like, he entered into conversation with the strangers
for ten minutes or so (doubtless chiefly about their wives and
daughters), and then with a wave of the hand said, ‘‘ We go
dis way.” So that way we went, and by three o’clock in the
afternoon found ourselves in the open waters of Lake Atha-
basca. Two hours later we had crossed the end of the lake
and drawn up our canoes on the rocky shore in front of Fort
Chipewyan. It was Saturday evening, and the distance
travelled thus far since launching the canoes was, according
to Mr. Ogilvie, 430 miles. As we were already aware, Dr.
McKay, the Hudson’s Bay Company’s agent, was not at the
Fort, but we were received by the assistant trader, Pierre
Mercredie, a half-breed, and shown to a camping-ground in
front of the Fort, or otherwise on Main Street of the town.
During the evening we had the pleasure of meeting Mrs.
McKay and her children, and also Mr. Russell, an American
naturalist, who was sojourning at this place on his way down
the Mackenzie River.

44

CHAPTER IV.
CHIPEWYAN TO BLACK LAKE.

Fort Curpewyan is an old and important trading-post
of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Before many of our Cana-
dian and American cities came into existence, Chipewyan
was a noted fur-trading centre. From here—or rather from
a former site of the post, a few miles distant—Alexander
Mackenzie (afterwards Sir Alexander) started, in 1789, on
his famous journey down the great river which now bears his
name. About the beginning of the present century the post
was moved to the position it now occupies on the rocky north-
ern shore of the west end of the lake. _

The Fort consists of a long row of eighteen or twenty de-
tached log buildings, chiefly servants’ houses, connected by a
high, strong wooden fence or wall, so as to present an un-

‘broken front to the water; behind which, in a sort of court,
are situated the Factor’s dwelling and two or three other good-
sized log buildings. At the west end of the row stands an
Episcopal Mission church and the Mission house, which at
the time of our visit was occupied by Bishop Young, the see
of whose diocese was formerly here, but since removed to
Fort Vermilion, some 270 miles distant on the Peace River.
‘Within easy sight, a short distance farther west, across a
little bay, the Roman Catholic Mission church and various
buildings connected therewith are situated. This mission is
a large and flourishing one, and is the see of the Roman
Catholic Diocese of Athabasca. All the buildings of Chip-
ewyan are neatly whitewashed, so that, particularly from
the front, it presents a most striking appearance. At the back

45

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

of the Fort, between the rocky hills, plenty of small timber
for house-building and firewood is found, and over at the
Catholic Mission a little farm is cultivated, and many luxuries.
in the way of root vegetables obtained from it.

The staple food, however, for both man and dogs (which
latter are important members of the community) is fish,
several varieties of which are caught in abundance in the lake

FORT CHIPEWYAN, LAKE ATHABASCA.

*close at hand. One or two whitefish, according to size, is.
the usual daily allowance for a dog. _

In the north the dog takes the place which the horse occu-
pies in the south, and it is a very interesting sight to see the
canine population of the town, perhaps thirty or forty in all,
receiving their daily meal. They are called together by the
ringing of a large bell, erected for the purpose at all Hud-
son’s Bay Company posts. At the first stroke all dogs within.

46

CHIPEWYAN TO BLACK LAKE

reach of the sound spring to their feet and scamper off to the
feeding place, where they find a man in charge of their
rations. Forming round in a circle, each dog waits for the
portion thrown to him, which he at once trots away with to
enjoy in some quiet retreat. Occasional snarls and fights take
place, but it is astonishing to see how orderly Chipewyan
dogs are able to conduct themselves at a common mess.

The day after our arrival at the Fort being Sunday, we
had our last opportunity for several months of attending
Divine service, and were privileged to listen to an excellent
sermon preached by His Lordship Bishop Young. Some of
our men, being Roman Catholics, were able to avail them-
selves of the opportunity of attending mass as well, and of
receiving a parting blessing from the priest.

The next day being the 19th, the date on which Dr. McKay
had promised to rejoin us at the Fort, his return with the
Grahame was eagerly looked for. We had made all the prep-
arations for departure that could be made until he and our
supplies should arrive. During the afternoon a strong breeze
sprang up from the east, raising a heavy sea, and it was not
until sunset that the belated steamer tied up to the wharf.
She had had a rough passage, so rough that the Doctor de-
clared it was the last time he would ever be a passenger on
her in such water; a not unwise resolution, for the steamer,
top-heavy and drawing only about three feet of water, was
not’ unlikely to roll over in rough weather.

With the return of the Doctor, Captain Mills and the
captain of the Grahame, we now formed a merry party, and
spent a pleasant evening at the Doctor’s house. Captain Mills
and I talked over old-time adventures in Hudson Straits, and
recalled many incidents from our mutual experiences in the
North in bygone days. But as the Doctor had determined to
leave again with the steamer on: the following day for the
Great Slave Lake river posts, there was no time to be lost in
social pleasures. In compliance with my brother’s request,

47

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

sent by letter some months previously, Dr. MeKay had en-
gaged the best available Indian guide to accompany us from
this place through Lake Athabasca and as far beyond as he
knew the country. With the success of this arrangement we
were greatly pleased, as it was desirable that as little time
as possible should be lost in seeking trails and river routes.
The guide’s name was Moberly—a Christian name, though
borne by a full-blooded Chipewyan Indian, who, before we
were through with him, proved himself to be anything but a
Christian. He was acquainted with our route for about one
hundred miles to the northward from Black Lake, and even
in this distance his services, we thought, would likely save us
several days.

Next morning the Fort was a scene of hurry and bustle.
Goods were landed from the steamer, cordwood taken on
board, and much other business attended to. I took charge
of our own supplies, and checked each piece as it was brought
ashore. Our chest of tea was the only article that had suf-
fered from the effects of frequent transhipment. It had been
broken open and a few pounds lost, but the balance—about
sixty pounds—had been gathered up and put in a flour bag.
Before noon everything was safely landed on the shore, and
it formed a miscellaneous pile of no small extent. Following
is a list of the articles: Bacon, axes, flour, matches, oatmeal,
alcohol, tin kettles, evaporated apples, apricots, salt, sugar,
frying-pans, dutch oven, rice, pepper, mustard, files, jam,
tobacco, hard tack, candles, geological hammers, baking pow-
der, pain killer, knives, forks, canned beef—fresh and
corned—tin dishes, tarpaulins and waterproof sacks. Besides
the above, there were our tents, bags of dunnage, mathematical
instruments, rifles, and a box of ammunition. The total
weight of all this outfit amounted at the time to about four
thousand pounds.

A sail-boat which my brother had used in 1892, and which
was in good condition, rode at anchor before the Fort, and

48

LANDING GOODS FROM THE STEAMER.

CHIPEWYAN TO BLACK LAKE

for a time it was thought we would have to make use of this
as far as the east end of the lake to carry all our stuff.
Moberly; the guide, particularly urged the necessity of taking

SAILBOATS ON LAKE ATHABASCA.

the big boat, for his home was at the east end of the lake,

and he had a lot of stuff for which he wished to arrange a

transport; but as we were not on a freighting tour for his

benefit, and as we found by trial that everything could be
4 49

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

carried nicely in the canoes, we decided to take them only.
At this the guide became sulky, and thought he would not go.
His wife and two daughters, who were to accompany him as
far as their home, tried to persuade him, but, Indian-like, he
would not promise to do one thing or the other. At last we
told him to go where he chose, as we were in no way dependent.
on him, but knew our own way well enough.

As arranged, the Grahame steamed away during the after-
noon for the Great Slave River, with Dr. McKay, Captain
Mills and Bishop Young on board; but our own start was
deferred until the next morning, and in the meantime home
letters were written, for a packet was to go south from here
about the 16th of July.

On the morning of the 21st of June, the whole outfit
being snugly stowed in the three canoes, our party set out
on an easterly course up the lake. Old Moberly was also
on hand with his family and big bark canoe. The morn-
ing was beautifully fair and calm; all nature seemed to be
smiling. But soon the smile became a frown. The east
wind, as if aroused by our paddles, began to stir itself, and
before long made things unpleasant enough, coming not alone
but with clouds of mist and rain. Though we could make but
slow progress, we persisted in travelling until 9.30 p.m.,
when, having made about twenty-four knots, we pitched camp
in a little sandy bay, worthy to be remembered because of
the swarms of mosquitos which greeted us on landing. We
had been reminded of the existence of these creatures at
Chipewyan and at earlier camps, but here it was a question
of the survival of the fittest. Mosquito nets, already fixed to
the hats, had to be drawn down and tightly closed, and mos-
quito oil or grease smeared over our hands.

The north shore of the lake, bold and rocky of aspect,
consists chiefly of Laurentian gneiss, and is of little geo-
logical interest save at a few points, which will be spoken
of as they are reached. The south shore, which was examined

50

CHIPEWYAN TO BLACK LAKE

by my brother in 1892, was found to be of entirely different
character—low and flat—and its rocks cretaceous sandstones.
The chief varieties of timber observed as we passed along
were spruce, white poplar and birch, and with these, though
of small size, the country was fairly well covered.

Our second day on the lake was even less successful than
the first, for though we made a start in the morning, we were

LANDING ON NORTH SHORE OF LAKE ATHABASCA.

soon obliged to put to shore by reason of the roughness of
the water and a strong head-wind. At noon we succeeded in
getting our latitude, which was 59° 6’ 32” N.

About six o’clock that evening, shortly after our second
launch, we met a party of Indians in their bark canoes, sail-
ing with hoisted blankets before the wind. There were quite
a number of them, and as they bore down towards us they
presented a picturesque and animated scene. Moberly was

51

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

some distance in the rear, but Francois was on hand to inter-
pret, and as we met, a halt was made. The first and most
natural question asked by the Indians was, “ Where are
you going?” “To h—,” was Frangois’ prompt but rather
startling reply. In order that we might have an opportunity
of securing information about the country (not that to which
Frangois had alluded, however), it was decided that we should
all go ashore and “ make tea’’; so our course was shaped for
the nearest beach, a mile or so away. Upon landing we
found that some of these Indians were men of whom Dr.
McKay had spoken as being shrewd, intelligent fellows.
From one old hunter in particular, named Sharlo, we obtained
interesting sketch-maps of canoe routes leading northward
from Lake Athabasca. Of course, tea and tobacco had been
served out before such information was sought, for no man
of experience would think of approaching an Indian for the
purpose of obtaining a favor without first having conferred
one. Our object accomplished, canoes were again launched
and the struggle with the east wind was renewed. Though
we travelled until 10.30 at night, we made only 16.4 knots
during the day, as indicated by the boat’s log; and then, in
the mouth of the Fishing River, we found a sheltered nook
in the thick woods for a camping ground.

The next day, the high wind continuing and rain falling
freely, the lake was too rough for us to venture out. A col-
lection of all the many varieties of plants occurring in the
vicinity was carefully made. Nets were set out, and some
fine fish taken; trolls were also used with fair success, and
with my revolver, much to the amusement of the party, I
shot and killed, some distance under water, a fine large pike.
A few geese were seen also, but none could be secured.

On the following morning, though it was still raining» the
wind had fallen, and we were able to go ahead. Because of
the wet we had great difficulty in using our surveying instru-
ments and ‘in making our field-notes. During the forenoon,

52

CHIPEWYAN TO BLACK LAKE

while ashore at Cypress Point—a long sandy beach timbered
with jack-pine woods extending a mile or more out into the
lake—we observed a sail not far ahead. A sail-boat in these
waters was an unusual sight, but on this occasion we were
able to guess its meaning. It was Mr. Reed with his party
returning from Fort Fond-du-Lae (now a small winter post
only) to Chipewyan with the last winter’s trade. We had
been told we would likely meet him on the lake, and here he

A CLUMP OF JACK-PINES.

came before the breeze in his big York boat. As he an-
proached and sighted us, he made in to where we were, and
ran his boat on the sandy beach. In the party, besides Mr.
Reed, the young trader, were two French priests returning
from their season’s labor among the Indians. One of them,
now an old man, had spent the greater part of his life in
mission work in this district, and was about laying down his
commission, to be succeeded by his younger companion. As
it was nearly noon, our men were instructed, though it was

53

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

raining heavily, to kindle a fire and prepare lunch for the
party. Beneath some thick fir-trees a shelter was found, and
the tea being made and lunch laid out on the ground, we
all seated ourselves about, and spent a delightful half-hour
together. But to us every hour was precious, and without
further delay we wished each other God-speed, and continued
our courses. By nightfall the log-reading showed our day’s

a

A YORK BOAT UNDER SAIL.

travel to be thirty-two knots, equivalent to about thirty-seven
miles. So far we had been fortunate in finding comfortable
camping grounds. With a guide who knew the shore we
should be expected to do so, but with a guide such as ours,
who was commonly several miles behind, his connection with
the party made little difference, excepting in the consumption
of “ grub.” :

Three more days passed, and despite the unfavorable
weather, seventy miles of shore-line were surveyed. Then a

54

CHIPEWYAN TO BLACK *LAKE

discovery of some interest was made. Just east of the Beaver
Hills we found a veritable mountain of iron ore, of the kind
known as hematite. Coal to smelt it is not found in the
vicinity, though there is plenty of wood in the forest. The
shore of this part of the lake was very much obscured by
islands, upon the slopes of which the remains of the last
winter’s snowbanks could still be seen.

We made an early start on the morning of the 28th, break-
ing camp at five o’clock, but before we had made any distance
a fog settled over the lake, so dense that we could not see ten
yards from“the canoes. For some time we groped along in
the darkness, every little while finding our way obstructed
by the rocky wall of some island or point of land, and finally,
meeting with a seemingly endless shore, we were obliged to
wait for the weather to clear. All hands landed and climbed
the precipitous bank, with a view to discovering something
about the locality, but all was obscurity. Toward noon the
fog lifted, and we were able to make out our position, which
was on the mainland, north of Old Man Island. On this
point we observed a solitary grave, and, near by, the remains
of an old log house. As to who had been the occupant of this
solitary hut, or whose remains rested in the lonely grave, we
knew not, but their appearance on this uninhabited shore
made a realistic picture of desolation and sadness.

On the morning of the 29th of June, high west winds
and heavy rain were again the order of the day, but venturing
out, we made a fast run before the wind and reached the Fort
in a heavy sea. Fond-du-Lac is a fort only in name, and
consists in all of two or three small log shanties and a little
log mission church, situated on a bare, exposed sandy shore,
without any shelter from the fierce winter storms which hold
high carnival in this country six or seven months of the year.
Having already met the white residents of Fond-du-Lae on
the lake, we found most of their houses, few though they
were, locked up. Two or three Indians and their families

55

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

were living at the place, and with one of them letters
were left, with a hope that they might be taken safely to
Chipewyan, and thence forwarded by the Hudson’s Bay
Company’s autumn packet to Edmonton. This was un-
- doubtedly the last chance, though only a chance, of sending
any news to our friends, until we should return to civilization.

From Fond-du-Lac eastward the lake is quite narrow,

i]

A YORK BOAT AT A RIVER LANDING.

having much the appeararice of a broad river. It is only five
miles in width, but extends a distance of fifty miles in
this direction. On the south shore could be seen a large
group of Indian lodges, and at this camp was the home of
our guide. It was here that his family were to be left, so we
all went across to the Indians’ encampment. Moberly now

56

CHIPEWYAN TO BLACK LAKE

appeared to be very indifferent as to whether or not he should
go any farther with us. Indeed he seemed more inclined to
remain with his friends, for to accompany us meant more
exertion for him than he was fond of. Various reasons were
given why he must remain at this place; but after much
parleying, and the offer of liberal inducements, he promised
to secure a companion canoeman and follow our track in the
morning. With this understanding we parted, and proceeded
along the south shore until evening, when, finding an inviting
camping-ground in the open jack-pine woods, we went ashore,
where the cooks soon prepared supper—with us the principal
meal of the day.

So far our fare had been exceedingly good, for it had been
the policy to dispose of luxuries as soon as possible, in order
to reduce the weight of the loads on the portages. Our
limited stock of canned fruits was, therefore, used with a free
hand at first.

June closed with a bright, clear and unusually calm day,
which was also marked by the absence of mosquitos and black
flies. Under these unusual circumstances, at noon-hour, an
event occurred which was seldom repeated during the re-
mainder of our journey, viz., the taking of a bath.

Just as lunch was ready we were again joined by Moberly
and his companion, an old Indian named Bovia. We were
glad, and not a little surprised, to see them, for we had a sus-
picion that the guide had no serious intention of keeping his
promise. During the afternoon, however, as before, his canoe
lagged far behind, not so much because of his inability to
keep up with us as because of his serene indifference and
laziness. The paddles used by him and his comrade were
like spoons as compared with our broad blades, and the
position of old Bovia, as he pulled with one elbow resting on
the gunwale of his canoe, was most amusing. By this way of
travelling it was very evident that the guides were going to
be a drag rather than a help to us, so it was resolved that

57

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

before proceeding farther a definite understanding must be
arrived at.

Beside the evening camp-fire, accordingly, the matter was
broached to the Indians. They were told plainly that if they
were to continue with us they would be required to go in ad-
vance and show us the way as far as they knew the route, and
further, that they would be expected to assist in portaging our
stuff whenever that might become necessary. In considera-
tion of this, as already agreed upon, they were to receive their
board and eighty skins ($40.00) per month upon their return
to Chipewyan. This arrangement was accepted as being
satisfactory to them, and it was hoped that it might result
satisfactorily to ourselves.

During the morning of the 1st of July, with a little Union
Jack flying at the bow of my canoe, we arrived at the east
end of the lake, and concluded a traverse, since leaving Chip-
ewyan, of 210 miles. Here, at the extremity of the lake, we
found several Indian families living, not as is usual, in their
“tepees ” or skin-covered lodges, but in substantial log houses.
One of these, we learned, was the property of our brave
Moberly, and in front of it he and old Bovia deliberately went
ashore, drew up their canoe, and seated themselves “pa the
ground beside some friends.

Their action at once struck us as suspicious, but presently
they made an open demand for a division of our bacon, flour,
tea and tobacco. Some pieces of tobacco and a small quan-
tity of tea had already been given, but any further distribu-
tion of our supplies was declined. At this Moberly feigned
to become very angry, and said he would go with us no
farther; and not another foot would he go. From the first
his quibbling, unreliable manner, characteristic of the tribe
to which he belonged, had been most unsatisfactory, and now
having received board for himself and his family in journey-
ing homeward, besides a month’s pay in advance, he had re-
solved to desert us. There was no use in trying to force him

58

CHIPEWYAN TO BLACK LAKE

to continue with us against his inclinations, nor could we
gain anything by punishing him for his deception, though
punishment he richly deserved. He was given one last oppor-
tunity of deciding to go with us, but still refusing, we parted
company with him without wasting strong language which
be would not have understood.

With our three canoes only, we thereupon commenced the
ascent of what had been named the Stone River, the outlet
of Black Lake. We had gone but a short distance when we

INDIAN LOG HOUSE.

were met by a canoe and four Indians coming down with the
current. They appeared to be delighted to see us, and turn-
ing back accompanied us to the first rapid, where a short
portage had to be made. In this they willingly assisted us,
and for their labor were liberally rewarded with tea, tobacco
and a few lumps of sugar. They volunteered to return
on the following day and assist us in crossing some
longer portages, the first of which we would meet before
nightfall. Of this offer we were quite glad, and promised
good pay for the work as inducement for them to keep the
engagement, but in the meantime they went down to the log

59

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

houses where we had left our guides, and we continued our
course up the river.

The next day, Sunday, we spent in camp at the foot of a
wild and beautiful cataract. The weather was warm, and
the black flies and mosquitos swarmed in the woods and
about camp so thickly that we could nowhere escape from
their ceaseless hum and dreaded bite. In this neighborhood

CATARACT, STONE RIVER.

they did not appear to have the customary respect for the
smudge. Dense smoke was made about camp, but the flies
only appeared to revel in it.

At camp the men were variously employed. A fishing net
had been put out in an eddy at the foot of the rapids the
previous night, and when taken up in the morning some of
the finest fish I have ever seen were found in it. Two salmon
trout measured three feet one inch and three feet two inches
in length respectively, and the whitefish, of which there

60

CHIPEWYAN TO BLACK LAKE

were a large number, ranged in weight from six to ten
pounds. I may add, in deference to a suspicion which state-
ments of this nature sometimes give rise to, that these facts
can be amply verified. Towards evening we looked for the
return of the four natives who had promised us their assist-
ance, but they came not.

Following this day of rest came one of most laborious,
exhausting work. Our camp was not only at the foot of a
beautiful fall, but in consequence was at the lower end of a
rough, rocky portage, found to be three miles in length, and
the canoes were all heavily loaded, containing some four
thousand pounds of cargo to be transported. One of our men,
Corrigal, was unfortunately laid up for the time with an
ugly gash in the knee, so we had only five packers; but being
fresh and in good spirits, they went at their work with a rush,
notwithstanding a rocky hill of two hundred feet which had
to be climbed, and a deep muskeg which obliged them to
wade. Before nightfall, however, their spirits were away
down as a result of this slavish work. Feet were fearfully
blistered, and all complained of pains in one place or another ;
but each man had carried six loads to the upper end of the
portage, which represented a walk of thirty-three miles,
eighteen of which were travelled with one-hundred pound
loads upon their backs, over rocky hills and through swamps
knee-deep with mire. This was disheartening work at the
outset, but it was good training for what was to follow.

The next morning the weather was hot and the flies were
out in swarms, as on the day before. The men were all foot-
sore and stiff, but without a grumble resumed their work.
They were obliged to make two more trips before everything
was across, and by that time it was nearly noon; still, with-
out a pause for rest, they loaded the canoes, pushed out into
the lake—a small expansion of the river—and headed for the
opposite shore, where we soon discovered the mouth of the
river we were to ascend. While yet far out on the lake we

61

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

could see its foaming water, and as we drew nearer could
plainly hear the unmistakable roar of a cataract. Some dis-

ON THE PORTAGE.

tance to the right, on a sandy beach, we went ashore, and
found ourselves at the foot of a second long portage.

62

CHIPEWYAN TO BLACK LAKE

Because of the condition of our men, camp was now
ordered to be pitched, so as to give them some chance to
recruit. My brother and I walked across the portage, and
found it to be three and one-half miles in length. It was,
however, much less difficult than the former one, being more
level and less rocky. Its upper end terminated on the shore
of Black Lake, where we hoped to find Indians who would
help us across. But in this we were disappointed, and, in-
stead of Indians, found only old forsaken “ tepee ” poles and

RAFTS LOADED WITH VENISON.

blackened fireplaces. We tried to rest for a while upon the
shore of Black Lake, but the flies swarmed about us with
such frightful fury that we were compelled to beat a retreat,
and seek rest where alone it could be found—beneath our
mosquito awnings at camp.

Just here I am reminded of an Indian tradition which
says that it was on these very portages that the Great Spirit
first made the black flies, and our experience, we thought,
would tend to bear out that belief.

On the afternoon of the 7th we started out in a north-
easterly direction, following the shore of Black Lake (ex-

63

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

plored by my brother in 1892) for a distance of about sixteen
miles, until we reached the hunting trail, of which he had
been informed by the Indians, leading away to the north-
ward. This place until now had been our objective point, and
the way to it was known; but beyond this point we knew noth-
ing of the road, or of the country through which it would
lead us, excepting for the first few days’ travel, to which the
Indians’ description, quoted at the beginning of this narra-
tive, would apply. From this point northward, for a distance
of one hundred miles or thereabouts, we had expected to be
guided by that old humbug Moberly, but he having deserted
us, we were now dependent on our own resources.

NECK DEVELOPED BY THE TUMP-LINE.

CHAPTER V.
INTO THE UNKNOWN WILDERNESS.

Own Saturday morning, the 8th of July, without guide or
map, we commenced our journey into the great untravelled
wilderness. The trail commenced with a portage two miles
in length, leading through thickets, swamps, and over rocky
hills, but by this time the men were accustomed to their
work, and went about it in a steadier and more methodical
manner. My brother’s time was chiefly devoted to the general
direction of the party, and an examination of the geology of
the country.* My own time was largely taken up in making
the survey and topographical notes of the route, and in col-
lecting the flora of the country; but when our duties per-
mitted and occasion required, we both took a turn at the
pack-straps, as we did on this portage.

In order to make an easier trail than the existing circuitous
one, which led over sharp angular stones and precipitous
rocks, we were obliged to cut our way through a thicket for
a distance of half a mile. Having done this, the work of
portaging through the forest was begun. During the re-
mainder of the day, and indeed until ten o’clock at night, we
continued our labor. Corrigal, who had been crippled, was
now at work again, and proved to be a capital man. All
hands worked well, but it was amusing to note the craftiness
of the Iroquois, who invariably tried to secure light articles
to carry, such as biscuits, tents or dunnage bags. With
immense loads of comparatively little weight they would
stagger off, reminding one of old Atlas carrying the world
on his shoulders.

*For a full description of geological features, etc., see J. B.
Tyrrell’s Report for 1893-94, Geological Survey.

5 65

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

When the last loads for the week were laid down at camp,
we were a thoroughly tired party. For the past six days we
had labored on long portages, and during that time had car-
ried the entire outfit for a distance of about eight miles, over
the roughest kind of country, representing a total transport
of fifty-six miles, or a walk of 104 miles for each man.
Sunday was spent, therefore, by all in enjoying complete
rest. The weather continued fine and warm, as it had been
all week.

STARTING OFF ON THE TRAIL

During the succeeding day and a half, six little lakes and
as many short portages, leading in a northerly direction,
were crossed, and then, at noon on the 11th, Wolverine Lake’
was discovered and its geographical position determined.
This lake, only about three miles in width by six in length,
is by no means a large body of water, but because of its many
deep shore indentations and a consequent coast-line of forty
or fifty miles, it was thought by us to be large enough before
we discovered our road out of it, which we knew to be by the
ascent of a large river from the north. The shores of the

66

INTO THE UNKNOWN WILDERNESS

lake were heavily and beautifully wooded with spruce and
birch timber, and its surface was studded with islands. At
nightfall, after exploring the uttermost recesses of several
deep bays, without discovering any trace of the river, we
pitched camp, and obtained shelter from a cold, drizzling
rain.

The next morning being cool and flies scarce, a plunge
bath was the first item on the programme. After disposing
of our usual breakfast of bacon and bannocks, the search for
the route was resumed. After much careful search, oceupy-
ing nearly the whole day, the mouth of the river was found,
close to where we had first entered the lake. It was much
obscured by islands, and owing to the depth of the channel,
had an almost imperceptible current; but beyond all doubt
it was the road described by the Indians, and though rain was
again falling, no time was lost in commencing the ascent.

About seven miles up stream we were obliged to seek camp,
but a suitable one was not to be found, as the shores were
low and flooded with water. A place none too dry was finally
selected, and in a drenched condition we scrambled or waded
ashore.

As I was enjoying a mug of tea, my brother came into
our tent and reported having heard a caribou calf in the
swamp close by. Though it was already nearly dark, I picked .
up my rifle and started out in the direction from which he
had heard the noise, in quest of venison. The dense spruce
swamp was literally alive with mosquitos, which at every
step rose up from the wet grass in swarms and beat into my
face. A runway was soon found, and I hurried noiselessly
along through the gloom of the forest, hoping soon to hear
something of the calf. Many other runways were crossed,
and after travelling some distance without any signs of suc-
cess, I was about to return, for fear of being overtaken by
darkness, when a little distance ahead I heard the cracking
of a stick. I had no doubt but that it was caused by the foot

67

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

of the fawn, so quickly but silently I proceeded. Again and
again the noise was heard, and each time nearer than the last.
My advance was continued cautiously, until very soon, in a
thicket of scrub only a few yards ahead, I noticed the moving
of some branches. Still no deer could I see, but in creeping
up closer, at a distance of not over twenty yards, I suddenly
came within full view of an immense black bear, seated on
his haunches and occupied in rubbing the mosquitos off his
nose. Although taken by surprise at the proportions of the
supposed calf, I dropped on one knee, and, levelling my rifle,
fired at the back of bruin’s head, whereat he also exhibited
considerable surprise, leaping into the air, making several
delirious revolutions, and bolting away into the gloom of the
swamp. Though without doubt badly wounded, it was
too dark to follow him. The gloom had already spoiled my
aim, so without further pursuit I groped my way back to
camp.

During the following day the ascent of Wolverine River
was continued, and three short portages, the longest one being
half a mile, were made. As we proceeded northward the
banks of the river became more rocky. In many places bald
hill-tops were visible, rising two or three hundred feet above
the level of the river. Such timber as there was consisted of
spruce, birch and jack-pine.

On the 14th, Birch Lake, a small body of water about nine
miles long by two wide, was discovered and surveyed, and
near its northern extremity a large, rapid stream was found
discharging its foaming waters. Judging the course of this
stream to be our route, a portage of half a mile was made past
it. This brought us to the southern extremity of another
larger lake, which we assumed to be the Indians’ so-called
“ Big Lake,” and which, in honor of the then Director of the
Geological Survey we have named Selwyn Lake. Being too
wide to admit of both shores being sketched from our line of
survey, this lake was traversed on the east side only.

68

INTO THE UNKNOWN WILDERNESS

In the evening camp was pitched on an island a little dis-
tance off shore. On this island a lonely grave was discovered,
at the head of which stood a plain wooden cross. It was,
doubtless, the grave of some Christian Indian who had been
taught by the priests at Fond-du-Lac, and who, when out on
a hunting expedition, had been stricken down by the great
Reaper, and had been laid here to rest by his companions.

This island camp recalls an incident connected with John,
our baker. For some time past, notwithstanding the appetites
ef the men, his bread had not been giving satisfaction. Some
of the party were afraid to eat it on account of the possibili-
ties of canoeing accidents, which, if occurring, would almost
certainly result fatally, for with John’s bread in one’s stomach
there could be little hope of remaining afloat. At first John
had confined his baking to the making of “ grease bannocks,”
which, after being formed in a pan, were removed and cooked
before the fire on a stick; and so long as he baked in his
accustomed way he was fairly successful, but as soon as he
undertook the use of baking powder, and the production of
bread from a reflector (a camp oven), he grievously failed.
Being anxious to uphold the dignity of his profession at this
camp, he sat up all night endeavoring to improve on his
methods, but with little success. Two days later he again
undertook the prosecution of his calling, and, after cleaning
his hands, brought out his dutch-oven, bake-pans, sack of
flour, baking powder, ete. My brother, noticing these prep-
arations, strolled over to a convenient log and there seated
himself to watch John’s modus operandi. The sack was
epened and the top of it rolled down until it formed a ring
over the flour, in which a hollow was then made with the
hands. Into this basin a quart or more of water was poured,
and into the water the prescribed quantity of baking powder
was stirred and allowed to effervesce before being stirred
into the flour. The secret of John’s failures was thus dis-
closed, and he was given instructions on the use of baking

69

1

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

powder, with the result that after this: we enjoyed better
bread.

A week had now passed since leaving the end of the long
portage out of Black Lake, and during that time we had
made only about eighty miles. This was a slow rate of
travel, and would have to be improved on if possible. One
day had been lost in discovering the outlet from Wolverine
Lake, another spent in ascending the river, and considerable
time had been occupied on the several portages.

Sunday, the 16th of July, was spent quietly and profitably
at camp after the six days of hard travel, and, strange to say,
the flies which had filled the air and made our lives a burden
the previous evening had now almost entirely disappeared.
The day was bright and warm, affording a good opportunity
for lake bathing, and this pleasure was highly appreciated.
After one has been subjected to the continual lacerations and
stings of flies and mosquitos, and the liberal application of
tar-oil for a week or two, a bath is not an unneeded luxury.

On Monday morning the exploration of Selwyn Lake was
continued. The shore-line was still found to be irregular
and indented by deep bays. Some of these were passed by,
but those toward the north end of the lake were carefully
examined to their extremities, in our search for the portage
of which we had been informed, leading over the Height of
Land.

Towards evening our party was surprised by the appear-
ance of a canoe some distance away, and not far from it,
on a little island, an Indian camp. Shaping our course for
the camp, a salute was fired, and was promptly answered by
the Indians. Reaching the camp we were not a little aston-
ished to find that some of the Indians were the very same
men who had agreed to assist us over the portages out of
Athabasca and Black lakes. They had, no doubt, after
meeting old Moberly, been prompted to leave us to shift for
ourselves, and had returned in such a way as to avoid meet-

70

INTO THE UNKNOWN WILDERNESS

ing us again. From them we now inquired for the Height
of Land portage, and were pleased to learn that it was near
at hand. Having obtained as much information from these
fellows as we could, and arranged once more for three or
four of them to assist us over in the morning, we pitched our
own camp on a neighboring island.

During the evening most of the Indians paddled across
to where we were, and from some of them sketch-maps and
useful information were obtained; but their attention was
chiefly devoted to filling our men with alarming stories
of the fearful dangers and certain disasters which we would
encounter should we attempt to pursue the route we were
following. They said we would meet with great impassable
canyons, and that the country through which it led was
inhabited by savage tribes of Eskimos, who would undoubt-
edly eat us. These and similar stories produced a deep
impression on the minds of some of our men, and might have
given rise to serious trouble, and even the disorganizing of
the whole party. Jim went to my brother, and with a sad
face unbosomed his trouble. He said that if he were a single
man he would not feel so badly, but having a family depend-
ent on him, he could not run into such destruction as he now
learned awaited us. The rest of the men—excepting, per-
haps, Francois, who cared for nothing—were equally affected,
and it was with some difficulty we managed to. reassure them.
We told them that these Indians were a set of miserable liars,
and were only trying to prevent us from going into their
hunting grounds; that I had lived with the Eskimos for
nearly two years, and had found them to be far better people
than these Indians who were trying to deceive them. We
referred them to Moberly, the untrustworthy and false, as a
sample of their tribe, and at length persuaded them into
disbelieving the stories.

On the morning of the 18th, accompanied by five native
Indians, we arrived at our portage, near the northern extrem-

71

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

ity of the lake, and about fifty miles from the rapids where
we had entered it. The portage led, as we had been informed
by the Indians, over the Height of Land to the northward.
It was found to be a mile and a quarter long. Its northern
end terminated on the shore of another large lake, the ievel
of which was ascertained to be fifty feet lower than Selwyn
Lake. Separating the two lakes, rocky hills rose to elevations
of two or three hundred feet (fourteen or fifteen hundred
feet above sea level), and between them wound the trail,
which was comparatively level and easy. With the help of
the natives, our stuff, already considerably reduced, was soon
portaged and the canoes again launched and loaded. Before
these operations were completed, realizing the fact that we
had now reached a summit of the continent, it seemed to
me a most suitable place to leave the emblem of our country.
Selecting, therefore, a tall, straight tamarack, and providing
myself with hatchet and nails, I climbed to the top of the
tree and there fixed securely the flag of Canada. As I
descended I lopped off the branches and thus made of the
tree an excellent flag-pole.

AN ENGLISH-CREE TRAPPER.

CHAPTER VI.
THE HOME OF THE CARIBOU.

From Lake Athabasca to the Height of Land our course
had been constantly up stream, but from this point to the
sea our way must ever be with the current. Having launched
our little fleet in the lake on the north side of the watershed,
the new stage of the journey was begun with a strong, fair
breeze.

The lake is a large one, and has been named Daly Lake—
after the Hon. T. M. Daly, then Minister of the Interior for
Canada. Towards the centre of it was discovered a penin-
sula, which is connected with the west shore only by a very
narrow neck of land, across which a portage was made.
For a day and a half we were delayed here by a gale, the
most severe we had so far encountered. So wild was the lake
during this storm that water-spouts were whirled up from its.
billows and carried along in great vertical columns for con-
siderable distances.

Certain remarkable physical features, in the shape of great
“ Eskers,” or high sand ridges, were also observed at this.
locality. They were composed of clear sand and gravel, were
sixty or seventy feet in height, trended in a north-easterly
and south-westerly direction, were quite narrow on top, and
so level and uniform that they might well be taken to be
the remains of the embankments of ancient railways. Geol-
ogists, however, have another theory accounting for their
origin, namely, that they were formed by fissures or splits
in the ancient glaciers.

On the sheltered southerly slopes of these ridges many new

73

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

varieties of plants were found, and some others which had
been collected farther south were here seen for the last time
on the journey. Notable among the latter was the aspen, of
which several stunted, gnarled specimens were observed.
When the storm had abated sufficiently the traverse of the
lake shore was resumed, when other notable features
appeared.

A large part of the country was now composed of frozen
mossy bogs, sloping gently down towards the lake. In the
higher portions of the bogs the moss was still growing, but
elsewhere it was dead, and, excepting the upper few inches,
was imbedded in solid glaciers. In many instances these
frozen bogs or glaciers were found to be breaking off into the
lake, and in such places they presented brown, mossy, vertical
faces, from ten to twenty feet above the water. In examining
these vertical sections they were observed, as on top, to con-
sist of frozen moss to within about a foot of the surface.
The first of the moss glaciers, if I may call them such, were
observed near the Height of Land, but towards the north end
of Daly Lake they composed a large part of the country, and
timber occurred only in scattered, isolated patches.

According to our Indian information we should now be
close to the outlet of the lake. During the morning of the
22nd, after a good deal of searching in many deep bays, the
entrance to the Dubawnt(broad, shallow river) was discovered.
It was indeed a great, broad and rapid river, broken up into
many shallow channels, whose waters seemed to have been, as
it were, spilled over the edge of the lake in the lowest places.
This was the river we had set out to explore, and with noth-
ing more than conjectures as to where it would lead us, we
pushed our canoes into the stream and sped away to the north-
ward. Landings were made when necessary to carry on the
‘survey and examination of the country, but at other times
the canoes were kept in the stream and the men at the
paddles. Many rapids were run, but our veteran steersman

74

THE HOME OF THE CARIBOU

Pierre, with his skill, judgment and unflinching nerve, was
usually able to map out his course and steer it successfully,
sometimes between rocks and through channels little wider
than his canoe.

Upon one occasion, which I well recollect, Pierre led the
way for the centre of a wild, rocky rapid. We soon saw that
he was making for a heavy chute between two great boulders,
where the channel was barely wide enough to allow us to

DUBAWNT RIVER.

pass. I determined to follow, but our third canoe sought a
channel nearer shore. Pierre, by keeping straight in the
centre of the current, was shot through the notch in safety,
but my steersman, less skillful, allowed our canoe to be caught
by an eddy. Like a flash it was whirled end for end, and,
happily for us, struck the chute stern first instead of side-
ways and was carried through safely, no thanks to the steers-
man! The third canoe fared worst of the three, for it was

75

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

dashed upon a great flat rock and broken in the bottom. Its
occupants, by jumping out upon the rock, managed to hold
it until assistance could be given them. The load of the
disabled canoe was safely landed by one of the others, and
the damage soon repaired.

We were now fairly beyond the limit of woods, which for
some time past had been gradually becoming thinner, more
scattered and of more stunted growth. On this account it
is impossible to lay down any definite line as the limit of
the forest. Outlying
patches of spruce and
tamarack might still
be found here and
there in the most
favored localities, but
as a whole the coun-
try was now a vast
rolling, treeless wil-
derness.

On the evening of
the 28th of July we

RAPIDS, DUBAWNT RIVER. reached the north end

of an expansion of

the river named Barlow Lake. Our supply of meat was
already running low. Being quite unable to carry
provisions with us for the whole trip, we had, in
starting, taken only a limited quantity of this kind of food,
trusting to our ability to replenish the supply from time to
time by the way. Up to this time, however, we had seen
nothing in the shape of game since leaving Lake Athabasca,
excepting the one black bear which had made good his escape.
Plenty of old deer-tracks were to be seen, but not a single
deer, and in consequence we were beginning to feel some
anxiety. If game should not be found within a week or ten

76

THE HOME OF THE CARIBOU

days, we would have to return, or else proceed with the
prospect of starvation before us.

We had only begun to think seriously on this question when
on the evening above-mentioned, just as we had gone ashore
to camp, a moving object was noticed on a little island out
in the lake. By means of our field-glasses it was made out
to be a caribou, and I need hardly say that no time was lost
in manning a canoe and pulling for the island. As we
approached, the caribou watched us closely, and, soon satisfied
of danger, bounded into the air, galloped to the farther side
of the island, plunged into the water, and struck out for the
nearest shore. The rate at which the frightened animal tore
its way through the water was really marvellous, and for a
time it looked as if we would not be able to overtake it with
our light canoe and four paddles. Every muscle was strained,
both of deer and men, so that the hunt resolved itself into
a veritable race for life. Unfortunately for the poor animal,
the course was too long, and before it could reach the shore
we had overhauled and shot it. That night we enjoyed our
first meal of venison.

The next day, after descending the river a distance of
five or six miles, and getting into a body of water named
Carey Lake, through which we were steering a central course,
one of the party called attention to something moving on the
distant shore to our right. It turned out to be not one but
a band of caribou. Our canoes were headed to leeward of
the band, that they might not scent us as we approached the
shore. Drawing nearer, we found there was not only one
band, but that there were many great bands, literally covering
the country over wide areas. The valleys and hillsides for
miles appeared to be moving masses of caribou. To estimate
their numbers would be impossible. They could only be
reckoned in acres or square miles.

After a short consultation, a place for landing, near a
small grove of tamarack—one of the last we saw—was chosen.

17

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

Rifles were examined and an ample supply of cartridges pro-
vided. Shot-guns and revolvers were furnished to four of
the men, and thus prepared we landed and drew up: the
canoes. So far the deer had apparently not seen us, but to
prevent a general stampede, it was arranged that I should
go around to the rear of a large detachment of the herd near
by, while my brother should approach them from the shore.
Accordingly, I was given fifteen minutes to run around, a
mile or so, behind some rising ground. Meanwhile the rest
of the party scattered themselves about in different places,
and at the given time my brother, having approached within
easy range, opened the fray by bringing down a noble buck.
At this first shot the whole band—a solid mass of several
thousands of caribou—was thrown into confusion, and wildly
rushed to and fro, not knowing which way-to flee. Simul-
taneously with my brother’s shot, I opened fire on them from
the rear, and our armed men charged from the sides, while
the other two were obliged to take refuge upon a great boulder
to avoid being trampled to death. The band was speedily
scattered, but not before a woful slaughter had been made,
yielding us an abundant supply of fine fresh meat, for which
we were sincerely thankful. It was fortunate that there was
wood at hand with which to make a fire and dry the meat.
_ Having slain as many animals as we required, the men were
set to work to prepare dried meat for the rest of the trip.
This stroke of good fortune gave us much encouragement,
as we thought we had nothing to fear now from lack of pro-
visions. Several days were spent in drying the eighteen or
twenty carcases which were selected, and while this work
was progressing my brother and I had ample time to roam
over the hills and view and photograph the bands of deer
which were still everywhere about us. After the slaughter of
the first day we carried no rifles with us, but, armed only
with a camera, walked to and fro through the herd, causing
little more alarm than one would by walking through a herd
78

THE HOME OF THE CARIBOU

of cattle in a field. The experience was delightful, one never
to be forgotten.

The reindeer, which is the same as the Barren Ground
caribou, is an animal of exceptional interest. To those whose
imaginations dwell on visions of St. Nicholas and his coursers
it is the ideal steed; while to the hardy native of the frigid
zone it is a faithful and efficient servant, and is undoubtedly
the most useful and valuable of the fifty or more known
varieties of deer.

In different localities, and at different seasons of the year,
reindeer vary in appearance. They range in weight from
one hundred to four hundred pounds. During the months of
June and July they present their poorest appearance, being
then lean and scrawny, and their half-shed coats ragged and
frowsy. By the month of August they have discarded their
tattered last winter garments, and have assumed sleek, glossy
brown, summer coats, which give them a smaller but much
more comely appearance. From this time, both because of
increasing flesh and length of hair, they become gradually
larger and more handsome, until, by the month of November,
when they don their winter suits of white and grey, they are
transformed in appearance into the noblest animals of the
chase.

Then it is that the enormous antlers of the male deer have
attained their full, hard growth, and he is thus armed for the
many battles habitually fought during the months of Novem-
ber and December for the possession of favored members of
the female sex. During the month of January these antlers
of the male deer, having served their purpose as weapons of
warfare, are annually cast. Within a few weeks of the falling
of the old horns, soft new ones begin to form beneath the
skin, and gradually these increase in size until they reach
maturity the following autumn. During growth the antlers
remain comparatively soft, and are covered with skin and
fine short hair, known as the “ velvet.” At maturity a cir-

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

cular burr is formed at the base of the horn. This has the
effect of cutting off the blood-vessels, thus causing the velvet
to dry and shrivel and ultimately peel off. -The peeling of
the velvet is also hastened by the deer rubbing their antlers
upon rocks and trees. With each successive year the antlers
are supplemented by one additional prong, so that the number
of prongs or tines is a positive indication of the age of the
deer. I have counted as many as twenty-two prongs on one
horn, or twice that number on the pair. Unlike every other
variety of deer, the caribou is antlered in both sexes, the only
difference being that in the case of the females the horns are
rather smaller, and more slender and delicate in their
formation, than those of the males.

The hoofs of the reindeer are very large in proportion to
other parts of the body, and, being cloven, they spread greatly
in walking. This characteristic peculiarly fits them for
travelling upon the crusted snow, through which other deer
would break and flounder in a hopeless manner.

Concerning the habits of the reindeer, they are both gre-
garious and migratory. During the summer season their
resort is the open plain or the sea-coast, where to some extent
they escape from their tormentors, the mosquitos and black
flies, and find abundance of food in the tender grasses, the
ground birch, or the willow buds. In the autumn they turn
their steps toward the woodlands or more sheltered districts,
where they spend the long, severe winter, subsisting on tree-
buds, moss or lichens.

The breeding season occurs in the early spring, before
winter quarters are vacated; and the number of fawns borne
by a doe at one time ranges from one to three.

From an economic or commercial point of view, the rein-
deer is highly prized. By the Laplanders and other people
it is domesticated, and takes the place of the horse, the dog,
the cow or the goat of other countries. As a traveller it is
swift and enduring, being capable of hauling from two to

80

“‘NOPIYVD GNNOYO NaVAvG AO GUAH

‘SYATLINV AO LSANOT V

THE HOME OF THE CARIBOU

three hundred pounds upon a sled, as much as one hundred
miles per day; and as compared with the dog, it possesses the
great advantage of being able to obtain its food by the way.

As a source of venison it cannot be excelled, especially in
the autumn season, when it is in prime condition. During
September and October the males are rolling fat; and as food
their flesh is then equal to the finest beef. Of all meats I
have ever tasted, certainly reindeer tongues take the first
place for daintiness and delicacy of flavor.

From the skins of the reindeer the natives of the Arctic
regions make almost every article of winter clothing. For
this purpose it is most admirably suited, both because of its
great warmth and its remarkable lightness. Through dif-
ferent methods of tanning and dressing it is made adaptable
to a great variety of other uses. Sewing thread, lashing
twine and other strong lines are also made from sinew ob-
tained from along the spine of this animal.

What the buffalo was to the North American Indian in days
gone by, the reindeer is now to the Eskimos and other natives
of the north country.

N.-W. M. P. ‘‘OFF DUTY.”

6 81

CHAPTER VII.
A GREAT FROZEN LAKE.

Brrore leaving “ Caribou Camp” a cairn of rocks was
built on the top of an immense boulder, conspicuously situated
on the summit of a point reaching out into the waters of
Carey Lake. A record of our journey to date was placed in
it, and the “flag that’s braved a thousand years the battle
and the breeze ” left floating overhead.

On the 2nd of August the journey was resumed, and during
the day a remarkable grove was found on the north shore of
the lake, in latitude 62° 15’ north. As a whole, the country
was now a treeless, rocky wilderness, but here by a little
brook grew a clump of white spruce trees, perhaps thirty in
all, of which the largest measured eight feet in circumference
two feet above the ground. Such a trunk would be considered
unusually large in a forest a thousand miles to the south, but
here it and its fellows stood, far out in the Barren Grounds,
with their gnarled, storm-beaten tops, like veritable ‘ Druids
of eld.”

In this grove many varieties of plants were found; among
others, wood violets, which were here seen for the last time
on the trip. Not the least enjoyable feature of this little
oasis was that it afforded us an opportunity of having a good
noonday fire, which of late had been a rare luxury.

Pushing out our canoes, we continued the traverse of
the coast to the westward, in search of the Dubawnt, but it
could not be found until the morning of the following day,
when, at the north-western extremity of the lake, it was again
discovered. The river commenced with a wild rapid of about
thirty feet fall, and this we found to be followed within a

82

A GREAT FROZEN LAKE

distance of twenty miles by seven others, all of which together
aggregated a fall of about 120 feet, which took us to the level
of Markham Lake, named in honor of Admiral A. H. Mark-
ham, R.N.

While traversing this lake a decided change in the climate

THE FLAG FLOATING AT “CAKIBOU CAMP.”

was observed. For the first time since the early part of the
season snow-banks were seen on the hill-sides, and the weather,
which had been as a rule wet and cold since leaving the woods,
became decidedly colder. Toward the north end of the lake
we passed great piles of rafted ice on the shore. Such condi-
tions during the month of August were highly suggestive of
the character of climate which must exist here in the winter
season.

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eBid

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

Near the outlet of Markham Lake was found an excep-
tionally interesting little island. For weeks we had seen
nothing but Laurentian or Huronian hills, but here was a
solitary out-lier of white Cambrio-Silurian limestone. The
size of the island was perhaps not more than ten acres, but
its whole composition was quite different from anything in
the district, and growing on it were found many entirely new
varieties of plants. Several hours were spent here with fruit-
ful results, and just as the shadows of evening were stealing
from the rocky hills far across the lonely plains, we dis-

ICE ON THE SHORE OF MARKHAM LAKE.

covered, at the north end of the lake, our river, upon the bare,
high, rocky bank of which we pitched camp.

It is worthy of note that at this point some very old moss-
grown “tepee” poles and fragments of birch bark were
found, indicating that in days gone by the spot had been
visited by Indians, though it was now known to them only
in legends. We had seen no recent traces of Indians since
entering the Dubawnt, but at some time they had descended
thus far, and had camped on the same bald hill which we
now occupied. There was more than sentiment to us in the

84

A GREAT FROZEN LAKE

fact, for from the old rotten .poles, few and small though
they were, we built a fire that gave us not a little comfort
and cheer.

On the 5th of August, after partaking of a hurried break-
fast of venison—of which, by the way, our supplies now
almost entirely consisted—the canoes were again launched
in the swift stream, in which during the day rapid after
rapid was run, until six were successfully passed and a
descent of over a hundred feet had been made.

At about six o’clock in the evening, having made twenty
miles, a fortunate incident occurred. As we were approach-
ing a seventh rapid we suddenly found ourselves enveloped
in a dense, chilling mist, which so obstructed the view that
we were unable to proceed. As we went ashore at the head of
the rapid we discovered, much to our delight, a little patch
of stunted black spruce trees. They were twisted and gnarled,
and not more than four or five feet in height, but as fuel
they were the source of much comfort, and beside them we
decided to camp, it being Saturday night. During the day’s
run we had been soaked by the spray of the rapids, and were
therefore in good condition to again enjoy the warm, cheerful
blaze of a fire, around which we all huddled and sat far into
the night, drying our clothing, rehearsing adventures of the
day, and discussing the prospects of the future.

On Sunday we had a further opportunity of enjoying the
camp-fire, cooked provisions and dry clothing, all of which
are rare luxuries on the Barren Lands. Our fishing nets,
which had been set in the river the night before, were taken
up loaded with magnificent whitefish and trout, the former
ranging from six to ten pounds in weight, and the latter up
to twenty-five pounds.

During the afternoon, as my brother was tramping in the
interior, he reached the summit of an adjacent hill, where a
most dreary and chilling scene opened to his vision. To the
east and northward, not many miles away, and extending as

85

A GOOD CATCH.

A GREAT FROZEN LAKE

far as the eye could reach, there appeared a vast white plain
shrouded in drifting clouds of mist. It was evidently a
great lake, still covered in the month of August with a field
of ice, and was probably the Dubawnt or Tobaunt Lake,
known in a legendary way to the Athabasca Indians, and
sighted over one hundred years ago by Samuel Hearne when
on his journey to the Coppermine River. Its re-discovery
was now a matter of the deepest interest to us. Was it to
form an insurmountable obstacle in our path? was the ques-
tion at once suggested, and, judging from appearances, most
of the men were of opinion that it would.

On Monday morning, the 7th of August, all undismayed,
we broke camp early, and bidding good-bye to the last vestige
of growing timber to be seen, continued down the river toward
the frozen lake. Four more rapids were passed, and about
10 a.m., retarded by a strong east wind, we went ashore on
a little island in the broad mouth of the river. Here we built
another cairn of rocks, upon which were painted, with red
enamel, the latitude of the spot and the date and name of the
expedition.

In the afternoon, the wind having moderated, we started
out for the mainland to the north. We followed it for some
miles to the eastward, and then struck across to a long point,
which appeared to be the outermost point of the river shore.
Up to this time we had seen nothing of the ice-field, but here
it was, tight in against the shore, and defying farther advance
by canoe. Towards the edge of the pack the ice was much
broken and honey-combed, but it was far too heavy to be
tackled by canoes or even stout boats. It was decided, there-
fore, to turn into what we supposed was a bay, just passed,
and from the shore get a view of the pack. We had no
sooner altered our course than a deer was sighted close by,
shot, and taken on board as fresh meat. It was found that
the point was that of a long island, and that the supposed bay

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

was a channel through which we might pass unobstructed
by ice.

By this time, however, the wind was again blowing
strongly, and a cold, heavy rain setting in drove us to camp.
During the night the wind increased to a gale, accompanied
by torrents of rain, which flooded the tents and saturated our
clothing and blankets. Not a vestige of fuel was to be found
in the country, but with a spirit lamp we made hot tea and
appeased our sharp appetites with some remnants of boiled
venison. For three days the storm continued. On the fourth
it turned to snow and the temperature went down to freez-
ing—rather inhospitable weather for the 10th of August.

Next morning, the gale having sufficiently subsided, camp
was called about four o’clock, and we continued on our way
through the channel we had entered, and along the west shore
of the lake in open water until 8 a.m., when we again found
curselves hemmed in by heavy floating ice, which in several
places was measured and found to be seven feet in thickness.
To advance here in the canoes was impossible, so a favorable
spot for landing was selected, at the base of the point where
the ice was hard ashore.

Just as we were landing, a small band of deer was seen
feeding on a grassy plain not far away, and as our supply
of fresh venison was nearly gone, we made plans for a hunt.
It was arranged that my brother and I should take up our
positions in concealment on a low neck of land between the
shore and a small lake, and that the men should so place
themselves as to drive the band within range of us. We
managed to reach our vantage ground unobserved, but one of
the canoemen in attempting to carry out his instructions
awkwardly exposed himself and alarmed the deer, causing
them to speedily scatter. Some of them, however, bounded
past within range of our rifles, and three were brought down,
which were sufficient to replenish the larder.

Not far from the landing place was a high hill, so, pro-

88

A GREAT FROZEN LAKE

viding ourselves with field-glasses, we set out for its summit.
As we tramped across country we found the ground frozen
and all the little ponds covered by new ice. Such a condition
of things was not the most enlivening, and it was a point of
discussion with us whether the season of this land was spring
or autumn. Upon reaching the hill-top we were well repaid
for our labor. Away to the south and the east, as far as we
could see, the ice-field extended, but to the north there lay
much open water, and near the base of the hill there was a
comparatively narrow neck of land across which we might
portage our outfit and get to the open water. This we
quickly decided to do.

Having accomplished this task we were once more free, but
before nightfall were again blocked by the pack. In a deep
bay by the mouth of a small river we went into camp, feeling
somewhat disheartened by our ill fortunes. Neither wood
nor moss with which to make a fire could here be found, but
with spirit lamps some hot tea was made, and from it as much
comfort was extracted as possible, for there was little else-
where to be found. Meeting with so much ice at this season
of the year made the prospects of farther advance northward
anything but encouraging, but we resolved, if it were
possible, to push on and see the end of the great river we had
thus far descended.

The morning of the 12th broke cold and dreary. New
ice everywhere covered the ponds, but camp was astir early,
and it was with much pleasure we discovered that the ice-
pack, which had forbidden our advance the night before, had
now moved off the shore and left a channel of open water.
Into this we gladly made our way, and once more the paddles
were plied lustily. During the day we encountered much
ice, solid fields of which extended out from the land, but we
were able to get along without much obstruction. Several
white wolves were seen on the shore as we passed, and at
some places, where landings were made, numerous little

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

ermines were observed darting about among the rocks. The
formation of the coast was found to consist largely of a re-
markable-looking ferruginous conglomerate, and, despite the
extremely barren and dreary aspect of the country, a large
variety of beautiful little flowers was collected.

At nightfall, after a long day’s struggle with the opposing
elements, as we were hauling the canoes ashore towards the
shelter of some rocky cliffs, we were suddenly set upon by a
pack of huge grey wolves. A great, gaunt, hungry-looking
brute with dilated eye-balls led the attack. He was the
largest wolf in the pack, and a daring brute; but for once, at
least, he met his master, as he was promptly bored from end
to end with a slug from my brother’s rifle. The leader of the
pack having been thus dispatched, the others fled, but avenged
themselves by howling at us all night long from the surround-
ing hills.

With the pack several little wolves had been seen, and
when the old ones beat their retreat an effort was made to
capture them; but unsuccessfully, for just as young part-
ridges suddenly and mysteriously disappear in the leafy
woods when danger threatens, so did these young wolves dis-
appear among the rocks, and though we searched carefully,
we could not get sight of one.

I have said the wolves here encountered were grey. This
seemed a little peculiar, since any that we had seen for some
time past had been of the white Arctic variety, which do not
travel together in packs, like those of the timber country.

At this locality, which was close to the north-west extremity
of Dubawnt Lake, the country was more than ordinarily
broken, and was distinctively marked by the existence of
several great hills of sand. The highest of these sand moun-
tains 1 became ambitious to climb, in order to obtain a view
of the surrounding country and have a look for the outlet of
the lake. In the open country one can often, in an hour or
two, obtain more informaticn in this way from a prominent

90

A GREAT FROZEN LAKE

elevation than would otherwise be possible in two or three
days’ travel. So it was on this occasion, when, in company
with two canoemen, I obtained a variety of information.

From the summit one could get a grand view of the whole
surrounding country, and thus an opportunity was afforded
of gaining much interesting topographical information. In
the performance of this work my binoculars were of invalu-
able assistance, enabling me to trace the natural features of
the country for a considerable distance.

While thus scanning the broad, dreary plains from my
vantage point, scattered bands of deer could be seen here and
there, also two or three wolves and a wolverine. This latter
animal, also known as the glutton, being not very far distant,
afforded us some amusement. We had no rifles with us, but
I had my revolver, and seeing that Frangois was keen for a
chase, I offered him the use of it.

Opportunities for excitement were seldom neglected by our
dare-devil young Westerner, and on this occasion, quickly
availing himself of my offer, he started down the steep hill
at a break-neck’ pace, followed by John, in a bee-line for the
wolverine.

No sagacious Indian cunning, of which we so often read,
was brought to play in the hunt. It was merely a question
of which could run the faster and keep it up the longer. The
wolverine is not a swift animal, nature having provided him
with only short limbs, but on this occasion he used such as he
had to the very best possible advantage, and with a rolling
gait made his way off across the rough, stony plains at a
record-breaking pace. His pursuers were, however, observed
to be gaining on him, and as the distance between the runners
gradually lessened, the race became exciting, even to me,
looking on from the hill-top.

Once or twice in their wild chase the men had bad tumbles,
but, recovering themselves, continued to gain on the wolverine
until they had almost overhauled him. Then “bang!” went

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

the revolver, and the glutton, unhurt, dodgirig around some
rocks, was almost run upon by Frangois, who in his excite-
ment fired again, and at the same time took a header. It
appeared as if he had shot himself instead of the wolverine,
but he had hit neither; he had only experienced another bad
tumble on the rough, rocky ground. Gathering himself up
again, Francois followed in hot pursuit, making a most deter-
mined chase, but just as he was about to do the tragic act,
Mr. Wolverine disappeared among the broken rocks, and could
not any more be found.

Thus ended the hunt, and the men, greatly disgusted,
wearily recrossed the plain and climbed the hill.

Finding great quantities of moss in the neighborhood,
several large piles of it were collected, tied up into bundles,
and taken back with us to camp for fuel. Two varieties of
this moss fuel were commonly found growing upon the stony
hill-tops, the one, reindeer moss (Lichen rangiferinus), being
almost white, and the other black and wiry-looking and the
better fuel of the two. Either variety, of course, had to be
dry in order to burn, and that was a condition in which we
seldom found it, as incessant wet weather had been ex-
perienced since entering the Barren Grounds.

When dry moss was found, therefore, it was our custom to
keep the kettles boiling all or most of the night, in order to
cook enough meat to supply camp for several days.

92

CHAPTER VIII.
ON THE LOWER DUBAWNT.

Untin the evening of the 15th of August, we paddled on
through varied scenes of ice and open water, following the
barren shore-line in search of the outlet of Dubawnt Lake.

In addition to game already mentioned, two young broods
of wild geese, not yet able to fly, were seen. It is commonly
said that the breeding place of the wild goose has never been
discovered, but here, at any rate, was the breeding place of
these.

On the morning of the 16th we were early aroused by the
voice of a howling gale and the pelting rain, which was freely
beating through our flapping tents. Of these, our meagre
shelters, some of the guys were broken, and the tent occupied
by my brother and myself was only prevented from being
blown away by the unpleasant performance of scrambling out
in the darkness, exposing ourselves to the piercing wind and
driving rain, and securing it with new ropes and piles of
stones. Upon this occasion, also, blankets and clothing not
yet dry since the last wetting were again saturated. Every-
thing in the way of instruments, photographic supplies, note
books, ete., were piled together at one side of the tent and well
covered by a rubber sheet, and at the other side we made our-
selves as comfortable as possible, which was in truth pretty
miserable.

This storm continued with fury for two days, and during
this time, wet and shivering in the tents, we found our only
spark of comfort in the brewing and imbibing of hot chocolate
prepared over the spirit lamp. On the afternoon of the second

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

day the rain ceased, and the wind fell sufficiently to enable
us to faintly hear to the north the roar of heavy rapids.
Stimulated by the sound, we struck camp at seven o’clock in
the evening and started out for what we hoped might prove
to be the Dubawnt flowing out of the lake, and after a long
and late pull we were gratified to find our hopes realized.

RAPIDS ON THE LOWER DUBAWNT.

On account of the lateness of the hour we had no opportunity
that night of examining the river, further than to observe
that it was unobstructed by ice, which observation afforded
us great satisfaction.

On the morning of the 18th we lagnehed ’ in the clear, strong
stream of the Lower Dubawnt, and very soon found ourselves
at the head of the rapids we had heard. At the second rapid
the first unmistakable signs of the recent habitations of

94

ON THE LOWER DUBAWNT

Eskimos were discovered. They consisted of rings of camp
stones, an old bow, several broken arrows, a whip-stock and
numerous broken or partly formed willow ribs of a “ kyack,”
or canoe.

About six miles or so down from Dubawnt Lake we arrived
at the head of a wild rapid, where the broad river rushes
down through a narrow, rocky gorge, not more than fifty
yards in width, and about two and a half miles in length.
Over this entire distance the river forms one continuous boil-
ing, tumbling stream of foaming water, which at every rock
in its course is dashed high in air into myriad particles of
spray. At the foot of the rapid the river again widens out
beyond its usual width into Grant Lake, which was still more
than half covered by last winter’s ice.

Past the entire length of this rapid a portage of everything
had, of course, to be made. Camp was pitched at the foot,
and near it were found bones of musk-oxen. Later, on the
opposite side of the rapid, two of these animals were seen.

On the morning of the 19th we started across Grant Lake
in a northerly direction, and within a distance of about four
miles discovered, to the left, the mouth of a small stream
named Chamberlain River, flowing in from the westward, and
much to our delight, upon its sandy beaches found dead wil-
low drift-wood in such quantities that we were able to load
the canoes with it. Signs of Eskimos were also observed here.
Three miles farther north, just west of a remarkable white
sand-hill or esker, three hundred feet in height, the Dubawnt
now a broad, swift stream, was again entered.

Towards evening we sighted, upon the right bank, some
distance ahead of us, the solitary lodge of an Eskimo. In
front of the doorway stood a man gazing toward us, and be-
hind and around him excited women and children were
gathered. These were all quickly placed inside the “ topick ””
or lodge, and the doorway laced up securely. But the man
remained outside, watching us intently. Our canoes were,

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

no doubt, taken to be those of the “ Ik-kil-lin ” (the Indians)
from the south—their hereditary enemies—so they expected
nothing good from our coming.

Our own men, recalling to mind the stories of the “ savage
Eskimos who would undoubtedly eat them,” were scarcely less
fearful than the solitary native, who, as we drew nearer, was
observed through our glasses to be nervous and trembling.
As soon as we had approached to within calling distance, I
stood up in my canoe and shouted, “ Chimo! chimo! cudloona
uvagut peeaweunga tacko Innuit’ (Hallo! hallo! we are

ESKIMO LODGE, DUBAWNT RIVER.

white men, glad to see the Eskimos). Before my words were
finished the doorway of the topick was torn open, and with
great rejoicing and excited gestures all the inmates scrambled
-out to meet us at the shore as we landed.

The Eskimo himself was a tall, well-built, stalwart man,
with a shrewd, intelligent face, and wore the pleasant, charac-
teristic grin of his race. With him were his two wives and
‘six children, and all joined in extending to us a hearty
welcome.

96

ON THE LOWER DUBAWNT

Their lodge was a large, well-formed, clean-looking one,
made of deerskin parchment, and supported by stout spruce
poles, which must have been brought from some distant place.
Into this dwelling we were cordially invited and most hospit-
ably received. Seats of deerskin were offered by the hostesses
and venison was placed before us, while we in return handed
around presents of beads, tobacco, matches, and such things.
About us were to be seen evidences of communication with
traders, such as a large tin kettle, two old guns and a pair of
moleskin trousers. Upon inquiry I was told they had re-
ceived them in trade from other “ Innuits” (Eskimos). We
satisfied ourselves that this family were accustomed to meet
with the Eskimos from Hudson Bay, who trade at Fort
Churchill or Marble Island, and for that reason the Dubawnt
must in all probability flow into the bay. We were, more-
over, soon convinced of this by getting the Eskimo to draw
us a sketch of the river’s course.

From the natives we also secured articles, such as horn
spoons, personal ornaments, and two or three deerskin coats,
to do us service, if necessary, later in the season. In exchange
for these we were asked for powder, bullets and gun-caps, all
of which they were badly in need of. About camp there
appeared to be an abundance of venison for the present sup-
port of the family, but the hunt for musk-oxen was what had
brought this venturesome hunter far up the river in advance
of his tribe.

As Eskimo interpreter, I had little difficulty in conversing
with the natives, though I found that many of my words, as
used by the Eskimos on the east coast of Hudson Bay and the
north shore of the straits, were not understood. It was not
so surprising that many of their words were not understood
by me. In the main, however, I found the language to be
the same as that spoken by the Eskimos of various other
districts formerly visited by me.

Among those of us who for the time shared the hospitality

7 97

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

of this native family was our worthy cook, John, who also
laid claim to the distinction of being an Eskimo linguist. It
was noticeable, however, at this time, that John was unusually
silent and backward, more so indeed than any one in the
party. After leaving the lodge I asked him if he had under-
stood what the natives were saying, and was not a little
amused when he replied, ‘“ Y-e-s, but,—b-u-t, t-h-e,—the
trouble was I couldn’t get them to talk.” After a pleasant
but brief visit of less than one hour, during which time we
received some valuable information about our route, as well
as much assurance and encouragement, with many hearty
“ tabowetings ” (good-byes), we parted. As we did so, Louis,
my steersman, with an expression of pleasant disappointment
on his face, exclaimed, “ They are not savage, but real decent
people.”

The current being strong, our friends at the topick were
soon far behind. They had told us that from there to the sea
(Hudson Bay) was about twenty days’ journey, and though
we thought we could likely make it in half that time, we were
impressed and spurred on by the knowledge of the fact that
we were now far into the interior of the country, and, at the
least, eight hundred miles by our road from the nearest Hud-
son’s Bay Company’s post, Fort Churchill. This day and the
next after visiting the Eskimos we had beautifully bright
weather, but the enjoyment of it was marred by our encoun-
tering swarms of black flies.

As we glided down the river several white wolves were seen
upon the shore, gnawing at the carcase of a deer, and at a
distance of about ten miles below the topick we entered
another large expanse of water, named Wharton Lake.

While traversing the shores of this lake, which is about
twenty miles in length, a number of magnificent specimens
of reindeer in prime condition were seen, and several of them
shot at ranges of from two to four hundred yards. By this
time—the 22nd of August—the skins as well as the carcases

98

ON THE LOWER DUBAWNT

of the deer were at their best, and the centres of several of
the hides were saved and dried for use as sleeping mats,
while all of the fine fat meat secured was applied to the
replenishing of our severely taxed larder.

After describing nearly the entire circumference of this
lake, the outlet, much obscured by a labyrinth of islands, was

TYPICAL BARREN LANDS RAPID.

discovered on the east side, close to a conspicuous hill of
white quartzite, 230 feet in height.

At the foot of this hill an Eskimo cache, consisting of
a “kometie” (sled), snow-shovels, musk-ox horns, ete., was
discovered, and here on the night of the 22nd camp was
pitched. As no moss or other description of fuel could be
found in the vicinity, some of the men considered they had
struck a bonanza ” in finding the “ kometiec,” and carried it
to camp, intending to utilize it for boiling the kettle. A slat

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

or two had already been knocked off when, happily, I arrived
on the scene in time to prevent its destruction and preserve
our good name with the natives.

To the Eskimo who owned the sled it was an invaluable
possession, and for us to have destroyed it for one “ mess of
pottage ” would have been a flagrant shame. It was therefore
repaired, and carried back to where it had been found; and
for a peace-offering a plug of tobacco was left upon it.*

From our camp at White Mountain, on the morning of the
23rd, we again entered the river, which for ten or twelve
mules carried us off to the eastward; then, turning sharply to
the northward and flowing swiftly between high, steep banks
of sand, it widened out into what has been named Lady Mar-
jorine Lake, a body of water about ten miles long by three or
four wide. Through this we passed and at its north-western
extremity regained the river.

It began with a rough, rocky rapid, in running which
my canoe struck a smooth rock, was badly injured, and
nearly filled with water. Though the contents were soaked,
everything was landed without serious damage. After a
delay of some two hours we were again in the stream and
being borne away to the westward, the direction opposite to
that we were now anxious to follow.

The river was here a noble stream, deep and swift, with a
well-defined channel and high banks of rock or sand. Near
the north bank there extended for some miles a high range
of dark but snow-capped trappean hills of about five hundred
feet in height.

On the night of the 24th we camped at the base of two
conspicuous, conical peaks of trap, named by us the Twin
Mountains.

*My brother in revisiting the Barren Lands during the summer of
1894 was hailed by the natives many miles south of the scene of this
incident as the “ Kudloonah Peayouk” (good white man) who had
regard for the goods of an Eskimo, and left on his “kometic” a
piece of tobacco.

100

ON THE LOWER DUBAWNT

During the whole of the 25th our course continued to be
westerly and north-westerly, and because of this we began to
feel anxious. We had now passed the latitude of Baker Lake,
whither, according to information obtained from the Eskimos,
we were expecting the river to take us. Instead of drawing
nearer to it, we were heading away toward the Back or Great
Fish River, which discharges its waters into the Arctic Ocean,
and which was, on our present course, distant only two days’
journey.

Towards evening, however, a marked change was observed
in the character of the river. The banks grew lower and con-
sisted of soft, coarse-grained sandstone. The water became
shallow and the channel broadened out into a little lake, con-
taining numerous shoals and low islands of sand. Just be-
yond this, much to our surprise and pleasure, we suddenly
came upon abundance of drift-wood—not little sticks of wil-
low or ground birch, but the trunks of trees six or eight inches
in diameter, as heavy as two men could carry. No growing
trees were to be seen in the district, nor had we seen any
during the previous three or four hundred miles of our
journey. At first, therefore, the occurrence of the wood
seemed unaccountable, but the theory soon suggested. itself
that we must be close to the confluence of some other stream
flowing through a wooded country. No other could account
for its existence in this remote region, and accordingly this
theory was borne out by the discovery, within a short distance,
of a river as large as the Dubawnt, flowing in from the west-
ward and with it mingling its dark-colored waters.

The abundance and condition of the drift-wood, which was
not badly battered, would indicate that upon the west branch*
few rapids and no lakes exist between the confluence and the

*Since the original publication of this book the author has had
the pleasure and satisfaction of exploring this “‘ west branch,” now
named the Thelon River, an exceedingly fine and interesting stream,
and of discovering a timbered area of one hundred and seventy
miles in length along the river valley.

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

woodland district, which is perhaps in the vicinity of Great
Slave or Clinton-Colden Lake. Lakes occurring on the course
of a river act as catch-basins to prevent the further passage
of drift-wood. According to information obtained from the
Eskimo, some distance up this river there were great numbers
of his people engaged in the building of kyacks. We would
have been pleased to visit them, but deeming it unwise at this
late season to go out of our way, we pulled on with the
stream, which was now double its former strength and flow-
ing again to the northward.

Many geese were seen about the low grassy shores and
islands, upon one of which latter camp was pitched on the
evening of the 25th, and a great blazing, roaring fire of drift-
wood kindled. —

It was hoped that for some time to come this supply of
fuel might continue, for of late we had been entirely without
fire for warming purposes. The miserable smudges made of
moss or ground birch mixed with deer tallow or sprinkled
with alcohol were useful for the purpose of cooking our
venison, but for nothing else.

From camp on the morning of the 26th, for a distance of
four or five miles, the river still flowed toward the Arctic,
but in latitude 64° 41’ north it swerved around to the east,
and then the south-east, and bore us down to the western
extremity of a magnificent body of water, which has been
named Aberdeen Lake, in honor of their Excellencies Lord
and Lady Aberdeen. It was a.lovely calm evening when the
track of our canoes first rippled the waters of this lake, and
as we landed at a bluff point on the north shore and from
it gazed to the eastward over the solitary but beautiful scene,
a feeling of awe crept over us. We were undoubtedly the
first white men who had ever viewed it, and in the knowledge
of this fact there was inspiration.

For two days following we enjoyed fine weather—some-
thing unusual in the Barren Lands district—and this enabled

102

ON THE LOWER DUBAWNT

us to carry on the exploration of the large lake with very
little delay. We found the total length to be about fifty miles.
Portions of the shore toward the west end are low and sandy,
and at one point of landing the remains of an old Eskimo
camp, and beside it parts of a human skeleton, were found.

Towards the east end other remarkable traces of Eskimos
were seen, in the shape of stone pillars, well and uniformly
built, but for what purpose I confess I cannot tell. If they
had been located at conspicuous points, or upon hill-tops, I
would say they were intended for land-marks. Several were
found on the shore of the bay forming the eastern extremity
of the lake, and others in more or less obscure places. I am
inclined to think the object in building these stone pillars
was in some way connected with the hunting of musk-oxen
or deer, but they evidently were not intended merely for
shelters or hiding places.

ESKIMO CAIRN, ABERDEEN LAKE.

103

‘NaXO-MSOW

CHAPTER IX.
HUNTING THE MUSK-OX.

Since the original issue of this book the author has had
occasion, more than once, to revisit and explore portions of
our sub-arctic territory, and, upon one of these expeditions,
to penetrate the haunts of the musk-ox and to meet with large
numbers of these noble animals. The musk-oxen are claimed
as relatives both by the sheep and ox families, though they
perhaps more properly represent a distinct family by them-
selves.

In general appearance they may be said to somewhat re-
semble huge brown horned sheep, but in size and weight they
much more nearly resemble the ox, or, better still, the buffalo,
the monarch of the prairies a generation ago.

Like the buffalo, the musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) is gre-
garious in its habits, but where the former existed in thou-
sands the latter is found only in tens—a band of twenty or
thirty being as many as are commonly found together. The
above comparison of numbers may also be taken as approxi-
mately representing the whole existing musk-ox family as
compared with that of the buffalo in his palmy days.

In pre-historic times, as shown by the exhumed remains,
the musk-ox occupied a very wide area of the earth’s surface,
both in Europe, Asia and America, but now his range is
limited to the northern parts of Canada and Greenland.
From personal observation I have found the southern bound-
ary of the musk-ox habitat to-day to be Hudson Straits and
Bay, Chesterfield Inlet, the Thelon River, Clinton-Colden
and Aylmer Lakes, whereas in the time of Samuel Hearne,

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

one hundred and fifty years ago, we have his assertion that
musk-oxen frequented the vicinity of Fort Churchill, four
hundred miles south of their present haunts.

It is no doubt a fact that, not only have the musk-oxen
been driven farther and farther from the haunts of men, but
that their numbers have been correspondingly reduced from
year to year by the natives, who have long pursued a policy
of systematic slaughter in quest of the princely robes so much
in demand by the fur-traders.

Without pretending to justify an action of which I have
sincé been ashamed, I will here endeavor to narrate my first
experience in musk-ox hunting, which will serve to illustrate
some of the characteristics of the animals.

It was 10 p.m. one glorious sub-arctic night in summer
when I, in company with a fellow-explorer, might have been
seen climbing to the summit of an elevation of land not far
distant from our camp, on the shore of a large lake. We were
armed only with field-glasses, compasses and note-books, for
our object was that of discovery, being at the time well
within the bounds of the unknown.

Seating ourselves upon a large boulder upon the hill-top,
our first impressions were those of enchantment, for though
the hour was late, the sub-arctic sun was barely hidden below
the northern horizon, and the lovely landscape was still
brightly illumined by its ruddy glow.

At the base of the elevation upon which we rested, and
extending several miles to the northward, stretched the placid
waters of the lake, and beyond it, so bright was the night,
with the aid of our glasses we could distinctly trace many of
the details of the distant shore.

We were thus engaged in admiration and topographical
‘sketching when, upon a green valley some three miles across
the lake, several dark moving specks came into view. They
at first were thought to be caribou, which are the most com-
mon animals of the country, but upon closer scrutiny were

106

HUNTING THE MUSK-OX

suspected of being musk-oxcn, though up to this time none
had been seen by us, nor did we consider that we were as yet
within their range.

However, since at our camp in the valley we had not a
pound of fresh meat, and nine men were depending upon us
for food, it was most naturally resolved that a hunt was in
order; so a hasty return was made to our tents, where we
found the place as still as death, all of the men being either
asleep or away.

After a brief consultation it was decided not to arouse
other members of our party. Providing ourselves with two
Winchesters and ammunition, we descended to the shore,
where our canoes were drawn up on the sand. As we were
in the act of launching one of them, two of our Indians
approached from the camp, and, guessing our object without
a query, volunteered to accompany us.

In a moment the canoe was launched, my friend and I
taking our positions in the middle, whilst the Indians occu-
pied bow and stern.

The hour was now about 11 p.m., but the night was glor-
iously bright and the lake like a mirror of silver. I indicated
the direction to take, and we glided away silently on the
shimmering surface. The firmament above us was aglow with
ruddy light, whilst bright streamers radiated from the north-
ern horizon, where the sunken sun was barely hidden by the
dark outline of the distant hills. The scene and experience
of that hour were indeed glorious and shall never be erased
from my memory. But soon we neared the farther shore of
the lake and approached the land under the shadow of a con-
spicuous bluff, near the opposite side of which we had dis-
cerned the moving objects.

In perfect silence our canoe was drawn ashore at the base
of the bluff, and, having marked our ground as we approached,
my companion and J selected a little gully, or waterway, on
the side of the bluff as the best place for our ascent. The

107

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

Indians, who were unarmed, crept behind close on our heels,
evidently courting the protection of the rifles. The hill being
high and steep, we were all pretty badly winded before the
summit was reached, so a halt was made to recover breath
and nerve, for by this time suspense and nervous expectation
were keyed up to a pretty high pitch. A few minutes’ pause,
however, greatly relieved the situation, and, having examined
our rifles, we cautiously crept the remaining distance until,
our eyes coming level with the brow of the hill, we found our-
selves suddenly within full view of nine huge dark, shaggy
forms, which, of course, we knew to be musk-oxen. They
were all within comparatively close range, not more than one
hundred yards distant. It is quite impossible for me to
describe the thrill of admiration and excitement which now
possessed us, but in an instant we selected the two nearest
bulls and fired. Both staggered, but to our surprise neither
fell, so without stirring we fired and fired again before
they fell.

The remaining seven animals, apparently not having
located us, were thrown into a state of frenzy and rushed
back and forth in a state of wild disorder.

Having dispatched the first two victims, we turned our rifles
upon the next two most dangerous-looking brutes and brought
one to earth, but the other, having located us, and with
blood streaming from a wound in his side, led the band in a
furious charge straight for our position. Nor did we try to
evade their bloodthirsty onslaught, but, springing from con-
cealment to our feet, we met them with three deadly volleys.
This so demoralized the band that only one young ox got
away unharmed. The remaining eight were either killed or
wounded. In the heat of the encounter we had forgotten our
Indians, but they had thought of themselves and had kept
close behind us. They were now set to work to skin and
save the best meat of the slain oxen, whilst we proceeded to
dispatch the wounded. This was by no means an easy task.

108

HUNTING THE MUSK-OX

One old bull (most of the band were males) refused to fall
until he had received six mortal wounds, three of which I
found from my own subsequent examination passed through
his heart, leaving it completely shattered. Others, which had
run for some distance, were pursued until the eight huge
forms were stretched upon the ground, only the one having
escaped.

Whilst the Indians were busily engaged in skinning the
oxen, I, with my companion, returned to the camp, and
though the hour was now midnight, ordered an immediate
move to the scene of the slaughter, so that all might engage
in the work of skinning, cutting and curing as much as pos-
sible of the meat. At first our slumbering friends were very
loath to bestir themselves, or to believe our story of the hunt,
but at length they were persuaded that it was no joke we were
playing, and camp was removed to the base of Musk-ox Hill.

Whilst several of the party were busying themselves with
the arrangements of our new camp, they were suddenly
startled by the hoarse bellow of a musk-ox almost at their ears.
The young bull which we had allowed to escape had returned
in search of his comrades, and had given forceful vent to his
feelings just at the moment when he was turning a sharp
angle of the bluff within a few feet of a tent oceupied by two
of my companions. Not having been in the tent I can only
imagine the expressions depicted upon their faces, but the
musk-ox, finding himself in such unexpected company, gal-
loped past the camp and out onto a long, narrow, bare point
extending into the lake. Seeing now an opportunity for sport,
and preferring it to further slaughter, Mr. F. and I armed
ourselves with cameras, and calling out all hands, we arranged
ourselves in a line across the base of the point and proceeded
to advance upon the enemy, thinking that he would likely
take to the water, and that we might there effect his capture
by means of a lasso. We were not long left in doubt as to
the outcome of the project, nor were we permitted to push

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

our enemy to the extreme, for, sizing up his position and evi-
dently not wishing to take chances in the lake, he wheeled
about and faced our line. For a moment, with lowered head
and with fury glaring from his protruding eye-balls, he stood
at bay, and then like a rocket sped straight for the centre of
our line, where stood Mr. IF. with his camera.

A less ferocious-looking object approaching in so precipi-
tate a manner would have been sufficient to cause most indi-
viduals to take to the woods, had there been any available,
but not so with my friend, who posed like a target until at
fifteen feet he snapped the flying animal and sprang to one
side only in time to preserve his anatomy. Our project had
failed, so far as effecting the capture of the musk-ox was con-
cerned, for he was now gone, but it had proved a huge suc-
cess as a source of entertainment ; nor was the play yet ended.
Stimulated by the excitement of the last encounter, Percy
and another member of the party snatched their rifles
and set off in pursuit of the ox, which exhibited an inclina-
tion to return to the place where he had lost his comrades.
Several rifle shots were heard in the distance, and after a
short time Perecy’s companion returned. Other shots were
again heard in closer proximity and quick succession, and
upon ascending the bluff I witnessed one of the most enter-
taining episodes I have ever seen. There on the farther side
of the hill were Percy and the musk-ox in hot chase of each
other around a huge boulder, the former calling excitedly for
someone to bring him more cartridges. Believing my friend
to be in no great danger, I instead ran for my camera, hoping
to procure a snapshot of the scene, which I did, though im-
perfectly, for the hour of night was now 1.30.

As I approached the combatants, what impressed itself most
vividly upon my memory was hearing Percy exclaim, “ Get
out, you brute!” at the same time bringing his empty rifle
with a crash across his adversary’s adamantine head, certainly
doing no damage, unless to the rifle.

110

HUNTING THE MUSK-OX

Others of our party, who were less interested in photog-
raphy than I, responded promptly to Perey’s appeal for
assistance, and immediately upon the accomplishment of my
object his was also effected, and the night's sport was ended
at the cost of the lives of nine noble animals.

I might add that, although many other opportunities of
working similar destruetion were afforded me during the

THE HUNTER HUNTED.

continuance of my journey, no recurrence was perpetrated or
permitted, knowing that I had already overstepped the bounds
of true sportsmanship.

Upon several subsequent oceasions. when suddenly coming
upon musk-oxen at close range, I endeavored to obtain good
photos of them, but with indifferent success, for the reason
that either they or the artist seldom found each other's com-

111

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

pany congenial for a sufficiently long period to admit of the
operation being successfully performed.

On one occasion, when I was encamped with two Indians
on a bank of the Thelon River, I witnessed upon the opposite
bank a most interesting combat between two large bulls—a
third being present and acting as referee.

The combatants operated on the sandy flats of the river,
whilst the third refereed the fight from the bank at the edge
of the woods. The method of fighting was precisely that of
two buck sheep. Standing head to head, they each walked
backwards for ten or fifteen yards, and then, making a rush
at each other, their skulls came together in violent contact,
and this was repeated again and again, until one of the furies
staggered under the blow of his opponent and showed signs
of weakening. A pause was then made and, apparently by
mutual consent, the two walked down to the river’s brink and
refreshed themselves with the cool water. After imbibing
to their satisfaction they returned to the positions they had
previously occupied, and resumed the combat as before, strik-
ing each other most terrific blows, the concussions of which,
from where I stood, sounded like those of two heavy sticks
of timber pounding together. Again the weaker of the bulls
staggered and almost fell, and as he faltered his victor thrust
him forcibly to one side and endeavored to gore him with
his sharp, upturned horns. Refusing to acknowledge defeat,
after a brief interval of rest the battle was resumed, but at
every blow the weaker animal was worsted. Finally he was
literally pounded out of the ring and left in a condition more
dead than alive. The victorious bull and the referee then
retired together.

112

CHAPTER X.
MEETING WITH NATIVES.

Borne down by the river, we had launched on the bosom
of Aberdeen Lake without effort, but not so easy a matter
was it to find our way out. After spending a day in unsuc-
cessful search, it was resolved to climb to the top of a hill a
short distance back from shore, and view the country with
our field-glasses.

From the summit, which was found by the aneroid to be
four hundred feet above the lake, we obtained a magnificent
view of the surrounding country, and could clearly trace the
course of the river, winding from the base of the hill away
to the northward. While my brother and I were thus en-
gaged in viewing and sketching the country, hammering the
rocks, tracing the lines of ancient sea-beaches, ete., which
were here clearly defined at no less than seven different ele-
vations, varying from 60 to 290 feet above the surface of
the lake, the.men were usefully employed in collecting black
moss, which in this neighborhood was found in abundance.

Since entering the lake nothing more had been seen of the
drift-wood, but on our return from the hill in the evening we
found camp already pitched, and near it a big kettle of veni-
zon simmering over a fire of moss. More than this, some
flour, a little of which still remained, had been baked into
grease cakes by John, and with these, the venison and hot
tea, we enjoyed one of the heartiest meals of our lives.

On the morning of the 29th, enshrouded by a dense fog, we
entered the river, and though for a time we could see neither
bank, we knew our course from my sketch made on the hill-
top. Later in the day the weather, clearing, enabled us at

8 113

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

noon, as we entered the west end of Schultz Lake (so called
in honor of the late Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba), to
ascertain our latitude, which was 64° 43’ north. Along the
north shore of this lake extended a high range of rocky, snow-
clad hills, from four to five hundred feet in height. The
south shore was also bold and rocky, but of considerably less
elevation.

The next day the old ‘story of looking for the “ hole” out
of the lake was repeated. At noon, while lunch was being
prepared, my brother climbed a hill on the south shore, and
from its summit discovered the outlet, four or five miles dis-
tant on the opposite side.

As soon as possible after my brother’s descent we started
straight across on our course for the river. Light wolfy
clouds were already scudding across the sky, and after them
dark masses began to roll up from the horizon and soon
overshadowed us. We were evidently in for a blow, and in
order to avoid being overtaken on the open lake, every man
exerted himself to the utmost. No sooner had we reached
shore than the storm burst upon us, but once in the river
channel we were able to obtain shelter from the force of the
gale, if not from the pelting rain.

We had now reached the second of two points of highest
latitude attained on our journey, namely 64° 48’ north. This
as a high latitude does not, of course, amount to anything,
but the attainment of a high latitude was not an object of
our expedition. Scores of times the question has been asked
of me, “‘ How far north did you get ?”

At this entrance to the river a large area of highly glaciated
granitic rocks were observed, and the channel was well formed
and deep. Both banks were high and rocky and the current
swift. Notwithstanding the weather our canoes were kept
in the stream, though it was with difficulty I was able to
carry on the survey and keep my notes.

About seven miles down stream a very rocky rapid was

114

MEETING WITH NATIVES

discovered. On examination we found it could be run for a
considerable distance, and that for the remaining distance
only a short portage would have to be made.

The contents of the canoes being all safely landed below
the rapids, they themselves were run down by the Iroquois
through the foaming waters. Had it not been for our good
steersman Pierre many and many a rapid through which our
little crafts were guided in safety would have caused us much
laborious portaging. If a rapid could be run at all in safety,
Pierre had the skill and nerve to do it. During the scores of
times that he piloted our little fleet through foaming waters,
I believe I am correct in saying that his canoe never once
touched a rock; but that is more than can be said of those
who followed him.

After reloading the canoes we sped down with the current
at a rate of about eight miles an hour, with the wind beating
the cold rain and the spray from the crest of the waves in our
faces, our only consolation being that we were making miles
on the journey. The shores continued to be bare, steep walls
of rock; not a shrub was anywhere to be seen. About twelve
miles below Schultz Lake, deciding to camp, tents were
pitched, and within them our soaked and shivering party
sought comfort. Little, however, was to be found, for the
wind, which continued to increase in violence, drove the rain
through our shelters, saturating blankets and making us
generally miserable. The morning brought no improvement,
for the storm still continued.

It was impossible to make a fire, supposing moss or other
fuel could have been found, for the latter would have been
saturated with water. A little alcohol still remaining, tea
was boiled with it, and dried venison completed our menu.
As those who have used it well know, this description of meat
is not the most palatable. It is good, strong, portable food,
but may be better compared to sole leather than any article

* of diet.

. 115

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

By the morning of the first of September the rain had
ceased and the clouds partially cleared away. The gale, how-
ever, still continued to blow so fiercely as to frequently whip
clouds of spray off the surface of the river, so that we were
quite unable to travel in canoes.

On the following morning, the wind having fallen suffi-
ciently, the canoes were again pushed into the current, and
we glided down stream, in a south-easterly direction, at the
rate of seven miles an hour. The channel was deep and about
three hundred yards in width, while the banks, continuing
to be bold and high, were formed of dark Huronian schists
and clay. The schists were chiefly micaceous and horn-
blendic, such as those occurring about the Lake of the Woods,
and were found dipping at high angles.

Four or five miles to the east was a conspicuous range of
snow-covered hills, probably six hundred feet in height, while
between them and the river appeared a broad plateau, or a
high level lake—which of the two we could not determine
from the river bank. Time would not permit of our making
side investigations when it was possible to be travelling, so
on we sped, plying the paddles as well as being hurried
along by the current. Thus for a time we made good prog-
ress, and as the long miles were quickly made the spirits
of our little party were cheered.

Late in the forenoon, as we were rounding a bend in the
river, an Eskimo in his kyack was sighted ahead, and much
to our amusement he was soon much farther ahead. The poor
fellow, seeing our fleet of canoes, and being himself alone,
evidently thought his safest move was to get out of the way,
and this he did, leaving us farther behind at every stroke,
though we were doing our best to catch him.

I shouted to him in his native tongue, but it was of no use;
he did not slacken his pace until, some distance down the
river, he reached an Eskimo encampment of several topicks.
Here he landed, hauled up his kyack, and informed the other

116-

MEETING WITH NATIVES

natives of our approach. All eyes keenly watched us. As
we drew nearer they soon observed by our canoes and personal
appearance that we were not Indians, as they had conjec-
tured, but ‘ Kudloonahs ” (white men), the friends of the
Eskimos. I shouted to them, * Chimo! Ixudloonah uvagut
peeaweeunga tacko Innwt.” To this they responded with
cheers and wild gesticulations, and as we landed we were
received with handshaking and great rejoicing. None showed
the least sign of hostility. Indeed the ladies exhibited an
embarrassing amount of cordiality, so much so that it was
thought wise to make our visit as brief as possible. Having
“‘oreeted all the brethren,” I proceeded to obtain what in-
formation I could from them regarding our road to the sea,
and was much pleased to learn that we were close to the
mouth of the river. I also obtained a sketch-map of our
course thence to the “sea”? or Hudson Bay. There was now
no doubt as to the route. We were to reach the bay through
Chesterfield Inlet, which was now not far distant, and at this
certain knowledge we felt much encouraged. Besides this
information, several skins were obtained from the natives,
and also some skin clothing and a few trinkets. One very
old man asked to be given a passage down the river a few
miles to another native village. Placing him in our third
or freighting canoe, and accompanied by an escort of three
kyacks, we departed, amid a generous exchange of salutes.
We were pleased to learn from the natives that there were
no more rapids or obstructions to be encountered. A's we pro-
ceeded, however, we found the current both strong and swift,
and quite rough in some places, but the Eskimos in their
kyacks shot ahead from time to time and showed us the best
channels. Sometimes they fell behind, evidently for the sake
of having the opportunity of showing how quickly they could
repass. Just as we had been able to paddle around the
Indians in their bark canoes, so were these little fellows able
to paddle around us. Soon after leaving the Eskimo camp
117

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

we went ashore. The river bank here was abrupt and high,
in the neighborhood of one hundred feet, and on the side of
this steep bank several new species of plants were collected.
Marine shells and marl were also found thirty feet above the
river, while on the top of the bank some Eskimo graves were
discovered. Out of consideration for our native escorts, the
graves, already broken by bears or wolves, were not molested.
When lunch was announced, and we, seating ourselves, pro-
ceeded to eat with the customary plates, knives and forks,
the Eskimos were very much amused, and stood watching our
operations with great interest. Some refreshments were
offered them, but to our surprise they declined, informing us
that they had plenty of meat. For their own lunch they each
took a lump of raw venison and a drink of water from the
river, a very simple but no doubt wholesome meal.

Before re-embarking I secured several good photographs of
the Eskimos. At first they were not prepared to be “ shot ”
by the camera, but after explaining what I wished to do, they
were pleased and amused to have their pictures taken, and
changed their positions when I asked them to do so. By the
time we had descended eight or ten miles farther down the
river, our native escorts commenced cheering, hallooing and
acting in a most hilarious manner. At first we wondered
what had possessed them, but the cause of their strange actions
was soon disclosed as we switched around a bend in the river
and found ourselves close upon a large Eskimo village. As
we pulled ashore this time there was no need of introducing
ourselves. Our coming and our character had already been
lustily proclaimed from half a mile or so up the river until
the time of landing, so that we were received with great
demonstrations.

Upon going ashore one of the first objects which attracted
my attention was a small topick, or lodge, constructed of
beautiful musk-ox robes. I felt inclined to doubt my own
eyes, for it seemed such a strange waste of luxury. I pro-

118

ESKIMO WOMEN AND CHILDREN,

MEETING WITH NATIVES

ceeded to this princely dwelling, and finding the owners—
three young brothers—entered into negotiations with them
for its purchase. The value asked in exchange for the robes
being very moderate, they were secured and made into a snug
bale. Next my attention was drawn to a pile of skins lying
on the rocks. As I approached these skins, several Eskimos
sat upon them, telling me as they did so that the owner was
away hunting, and therefore I could not buy them. I
assented, but asked to be allowed to look at them. Even this,

GROUP OF ESKIMOS.

however, was stoutly refused, as the owner was not present.
I could not help admiring these fellows for their fidelity to
one of their number. Some time was then spent in collecting
information about the country, and in purchasing nicknacks
of one kind and another. Presently the owner of the
skins returned. THe at once proceeded to open up his furs,
which, with the exception of one wolf-skin, were all musk-ox
robes, but of inferior qualitv. The four best skins were
picked out and reserved, and the frowsy remnant then offered

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

to us. The poor skins, I told him, were not the ones we
wanted, but for a time he positively refused to sell the good
ones. After a little discussion, however, the crafty hunter
came to the conclusion that he wanted a small kettle and some
gun-caps (for he had an old gun), and so offered me one of
the skins for these articles. We happened to have a kettle in
which we had carried our butter, but which had now become
only an article of extra baggage, so after some “ serious con-
sideration,’ I concluded to let him have the kettle and some
caps for the skin.

It was then my turn to make him an offer. I produced a
telescope, a jack-knife, and an old shirt, and offered them for
the three remaining robes. The temptation proved too great;
the skins were handed over, and the telescope, knife and shirt
accepted with great delight and many thanks. Although it
was now time to camp, and many pressing invitations were
extended to us to spend the night at the village, it was thought
wisest for the moral well-being of our party not to do so.
Besides this, the surface of the country in the neighborhood
of the village was exceedingly rough, being formed entirely
of boulders. The Eskimo topicks were pitched upon the rocky
shore, and it was thought we might -find smoother ground.
Before we left the village one old Eskimo surprised us very
much by making a remark in English. I said to him, “ Oh!
you understand English,” whereat he made the amusing
reply, “No, me no understand English.” I tried then to find
out from the old man where he had learned to speak our
language, but the only reply I could get from him was that
he had always been able to speak it. It may be that he had
accompanied Sir George Back, Sir John Richardson, or Dr.
Rae, on one of their Franklin search expeditions, or perhaps
he had come from Hudson Bay, where he had been associated
with some of the American whalers who frequent its waters.

Followed by many hearty cheers and “ tabowetees ” (fare-
wells), we parted from our new but warm-hearted friends.

120

MEETING WITH NATIVES

As before, we were accompanied by an escort of kyacks, but
after a time they fell behind and returned to the village.

As we had been informed by the natives, so we soon found,
we were at last at the mouth of the great Dubawnt, and grad-
ually as we passed out into the broad, shallow delta and
gazed over the deep blue, limitless waters beyond, the gratify-
ing tact forced itself upon us that we had accomplished what
we had started out to do, viz., to explore a route through the
heart of the Barren Lands, where certainly no other white
men, if indeed Indians or Eskimos, had ever passed. We were
still, of course, a long way from being out of the Barren Land
country, but once on the waters of Baker Lake, as we now
were, the remainder of the road was to some extent known
to us.

Before proceeding further with my narrative, I shall
digress a little, believing that the reader will be interested by
some particulars concerning the Eskimos. Having in former
expeditions spent nearly two years among these people, I had
abundant opportunity for studying their habits and customs
of life. Some of the observations thus made I shall record
in the next two chapters.

ESKIMOS IN KYACKS.

121

AN
* \\ \ i R
RAS:

y ‘
SAV

ESKIMO WOMAN.

ESKIMO.

AN

CHAPTER XI.
THE ESKIMOS.

Tue Eskimos, the most northerly inhabitants of the globe,
are in many respects a strange and interesting people. In
appearance they are short and well-built, with fat, round
faces, usually almost entirely devoid of hair; the eyebrows
and eyelashes are so scanty as to be scarcely discernible,
giving to their brown, oily faces a singularly bare and homely
appearance. Their hair, like that of the Indians, is black
and straight. By the women it is worn plaited, and twisted
up into three knots, one at either side of the head and one at
the back. The men wear theirs short, and well down over
their forehead for protection from the cold in winter and
from the sun in summer.

While the Eskimos as a rule are short and homely in ap-
pearance, I have met with some very handsome, stalwart men,
quite up to the standard height of Canadians, and a few
pretty, charming womeu. Most of them have bright, soft
brown eyes, which of themselves are features of beauty; but
they serve these savages a better and more useful purpose,
furnishing marvellous powers of vision and enabling their
owners to see objects clearly at great distances. The eyes of
the Anglo-Saxon, even when aided by the telescope, are not
a match for the bright brown orbs of these “ children of the
cold.”

The clothing of the Eskimo is made entirely of the skins
of animals, chiefly of the seal and reindeer, the former being
used for summer and the latter for the winter. They are
nicely softened and dressed, and are neatly made up by the
women, whose chief duty it is to provide clothing for their
husbands and children.

\ 123.

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

The cut of the native garb, both for the men and the
women, is somewhat peculiar. A man’s suit may briefly be
described as follows: Commencing at the foundation, it con-
sists of a pair of fur stockings, or duffles, covered by long
waterproof moccasins which reach to the knees and are just
met by short seal or deerskin trousers. The suit is completed
by a jacket or jumper, made of the same material as the
trousers, which is pulled on over the head, there being no
opening in front to admit of its being put on like a coat.
This jacket is provided with a hood, which takes the place of
a cap, and may either be worn over the head or pushed back
when not required.

In the summer season, a single suit of sealskin, made as
above, constitutes a man’s entire clothing, but in the winter
time he wears two such suits, the inner one having the hair
on the inside, and the outer one reversed.

The female costume is rather more complex in make-up
than the above. The foot-wear is the same with both sexes,
but in place of the trousers worn by the men, the women wear
leggings and trunks, and in place of the jacket a peculiarly
constructed over-skirt, having a short flap in front and a long
train, in shape something like a beaver’s tail, just reaching to
the ground behind. The back of the over-skirt is made very
full, so as to form a sort of bag, in which the mothers carry
their children. Like the man’s jacket, it is provided with a
hood, but of much larger size, so as to provide shelter for both
mother and child. The women are very fond of decorating
their dresses with beads or other ornaments, and all their
garments are made with great neatness.

Like many other savage people, the Eskimos, and especially
the women, tattoo extensively. They do not all thus adorn
themselves, but many of them have their faces, necks, arms
or hands figured over in such a way as to give them a wild
and savage appearance.

Many of the ladies, when in full dress, wear headbands,

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THE ESKIMOS

usually made of polished brass or iron, over their foreheads.
These are held in position by being tied with a cord behind
the head.

A stranger custom still is that of wearing stones in the
cheeks, upon each side of the mouth. This practice is not
universal with the Eskimos, but, as far as my knowledge ex-
tends, it is limited to those inhabiting the Mackenzie River
district. The natives of this region have the reputation of
being a bad lot, and it is said that when they are heard to
rattle their cheek-stones against their teeth it is time to be
on the look-out. The stones are cut in the shape of large
shirt-studs, and are let through the cheeks by cutting holes
tor them.

Of the origin of the Eskimo people very little is known,
but the most probable theory accounting for their existence
on this continent is that they were originally Mongolians,
and at some very early date crossed over the Behring Straits
and landed in Alaska. This theory is based upon the fact
that a similarity is traced between the Eskimo language and
the dialects of some of the Mongolian tribes of northern Asia.
A certain Eskimo tradition would rather tend to bear out
this theory. It is something like this: A very long time ago
there were two brothers made by the beaver and placed on an
island in the Western Sea. There they lived, feeding upon
birds which they caught with their hands, but at length food
grew scarce, and the brothers, being hungry, fought for the
birds they had taken. This quarrel led to a separation, and
one brother went to live in the western portion of our “ Great
‘North Land,” and became the father of the Eskimos in that
region ; while the other went still farther east, and became the
father of the natives of Hudson Bay and Straits.

The range of the Eskimos is very large, extending com-
pletely across the northern part of North America—toward
the south to about the sixtieth parallel of latitude, west of
Hudson Bay, but east of the bay to about the fifty-fifth

125

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

parallel; while toward the north their range is almost un-
limited. They are a very thinly scattered race, roving in
small bands over great treeless wildernesses.

My first meeting with the Eskimos led me to think them
a wild people. There were thirty-six of them, all women and
children, piled into one of their “ oomiacks,” or skin boats,
and all were whooping and yelling at the top of their voices,
while those not paddling were swinging their arms (and legs,
too) in the wildest manner. They were natives of Prince
of Wales Sound, Hudson Straits, coming out from shore to
meet the steamship Alert, which to them was a fiery monster
of mystery.

Accompanying them was a party of men in kyacks, and
all were preparing to board the ship without invitation; but
the first officer, by brandishing a cordwood stick, and threaten-
ing to hurl it at them if they came too near—backing up the
menace with the liberal use of some strong English which
they did not understand—induced them to await his con-
venience to receive them.

When the ship was past some shoals near which she was
steaming, and safely into harbor, the natives were allowed to
come on board. They were an odd-looking crowd, some of
them curiously dressed. One old grey-haired chief had
apparently reached a stage of civilization in his attire not
common among the Eskimos, for outside of his sealskin
clothing he wore a long white cotton nightshirt, of which he
evidently was very proud. The Eskimos are always pleased
with the acquisition of white men’s garments, but their ideas
as to how and when they should be worn do not always agree
with ours.

_Early navigators have described the Eskimos as being
savage tribes, greatly to be feared, and it is true that un-
fortunate crews have fallen into their hands and been ill-
treated by them. but often in such cases the fault has been
as much with the whites as with the poor savages. They

126

THE ESKIMOS

really possess very simple, childish natures, but at the same
‘time are characterized by quiet determination and deep
jealousy, which, when aroused, are likely to lead to acts of
violence. From my own observations I do not think that the
Eskimos would, without considerable provocation or great
temptation, harm anyone falling into their hands.

Though not usually quarrelsome or vicious, they do fight
with each other, but only at appointed times, when all old
grudges and differences of opinion are cleared up at once.
On the appointed day, all the disagreeing parties of the camp
pair off, and standing at arm’s length from each other, strike
turn about, and in this deliberate, systematic way take satis-
faction out of each other until one of the combatants cries
“ Ta-bah ” (enough). .

The food of the Eskimo, as his name implies, is chiefly raw
flesh ; so the preparation of his meals is an extremely simple
operation. The culinary department of civilization has no
place in his life. Reindeer, seals, white whales and walruses
are to the Eskimo the staple articles of food; but polar bears,
Arctic hares and other animals, besides most of the Arctic
birds, are considered equally good.

It is rather a novel, if not.a repulsive, sight to witness an
Eskimo feast. The occasion of the feast is the capture of a
seal, or perhaps a reindeer, which, according to custom during
the winter season, becomes common property, so that all are
invited to the lodge of the fortunate hunter to share in the
festivities.

The animal’s carcase is trailed into the middle of the lodge,
and when all the guests are assembled, they seat themselves
on the floor about it. The carcase is then skinned by the host,
and the pelt laid down to form a dish or receptacle for the
blood.

All things being ready, the party, armed with knives, are
invited to help themselves, and this they do with great dex-
terity, and continue to do—not until they have had enough,

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

but until the supply is exhausted and absolutely nothing re-
mains but the skin and skeleton. The blood, being considered
very fine, is dipped up with skin cups or horn spoons, and
consumed with the flesh.

The blubber, or outer layer of fat, which is found on most
Arctic animals, is separated from the skin and cut into long
strips about an inch square. Thus prepared, it is swallowed,
not eaten. It is simply lowered down the throat as one might
lower a rope into a well. During the summer season the
blubber is not used as food, but is saved to be used for
lighting purposes during the long, dark nights of the suc-
ceeding winter.

An Eskimo appears to have no idea of a limited capacity
for food, but usually eats until the supply fails. I knew of
one exception, however, where an old woman, after doing
heroically, was forced to yield.

A party of Eskimos were having a big feast on the carcase
of a whale, which they consider very good food, when this
woman, in her ambition, overestimated her capabilities and
ate until she became quite torpid. Her friends, supposing
her to be dead, trailed her out and buried her in the snow,
but a day or two afterwards she kicked off the snow that
covered her and rejoined her astonished companions.

Next to stowage capacity, an Eskimo’s stomach is noted for
its powers of digestion. For instance, both the flesh and hide
of the walrus are common articles of food with them, and
yet these are so hard and gritty that when skinning or cutting
up the animal one has to be continually sharpening his
knife.

The skin of a walrus is a good deal like that of an elephant,
and is from half an inch to an inch and a half in thickness;
but, notwithstanding this, and the hardness of its structure,
the little Eskimo children may often be seen running about
gnawing pieces of walrus hide as if they were apples. Some-
times, however, they have no walrus hide or meat of any

128

THE ESKIMOS

kind to gnaw, for occasionally in the spring season the condi-
tion of the snow and ice is such as to render hunting impos-
sible, and though they store up meat in the fall for winter
use, it is often exhausted before spring.

When this state of things occurs the condition of the Eski-
mos is deplorable in the extreme. They are forced to kill
and eat their wretched dogs, which are even more nearly
starved than themselves, and next they resort to their skin
clothing and moccasins, which
they soak in water until they
become soft, though perhaps
not altogether palatable.

Next to starvation, perhaps
the most severe affliction the
Eskimo has to endure is that
of snow-blindness. This trouble
is very prevalent in the spring
season, and is caused by ex-
posure to the strong glare of
the sun upon the glistening
fields of snow and ice. Snow-
blindness is thus in reality
acute inflammation of the eyes,
and the pain caused by it is
excruciating, being like what WOODEN SNOW-CGOGCLES.
one would expect to suffer if
his eyes were filled with hot salt. I speak from experience.

In order to guard against the occurrence of snow-blindness,
the Eskimos wear a very ingenious contrivance in the form
of wooden goggles. These are neatly carved so as to fit over
the nose and close in to the sockets of the eyes. Instead of
colored glasses, which the Eskimos have no means of getting,
these goggles are made with narrow horizontal slits, just wide
enough to allow the wearer to see through. Thus the excess
of light is excluded, while the sight is not entirely obstructed.

9 129

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

Like many people in southern Canada, the native of the
frozen zone possesses a summer and winter residence, and
occupies each in turn as regularly as the seasons change. His
winter dwelling is built of snow; his summer lodge is made
of oil-tanned seal or deerskins, neatly sewn together and sup-
ported by poles, if such can be procured, or pieces of drift-
wood spliced together. A flap is left for the door, but there
is no opening at the top, as in the Indian wigwam or tepee,
for, having no fire, they have no need of a chimney.

The atmosphere of these tents or “ topicks,”’ as they are
called, is usually very sickening to one not accustomed to
them, for the skins of which they are made are dressed in
their natural oil, in order to make them water-proof, and
this has the effect of making them odorous to a degree.

Topicks vary in size according to the wealth or require-
ments of the occupants. Sometimes they are scarcely large
enough to allow more than two of these little people to
huddle into them, while others are capable of seating twenty
persons. The commonest form of topick is that of a cone,
very similar to an Indian tepee, but it is sometimes rectan-
gular and built with vertical walls about four feet high.

The furniture of these summer dwellings is simple, con-
sisting usually of a few skins lying about the rocky floor to
serve as seats in the daytime and for beds at night, two or
three sealskin sacks of oil, two shallow stone vessels used
as lamps, a few hunting implements, some little deerskin
bags used as ladies’ work-baskets, several coils of sealskin
line, a few pairs of moccasins scattered about, and at one
side of the door the somewhat repulsive remains of a carcase
consumed at the last meal. Such is the Eskimo’s summer
house.

His winter dwelling in the snow is more interesting and
curious. It is called an “ igloo,” and is built in the form of
a dome with large blocks of snow. The common size of the
dwelling apartment of an igloo is twelve feet in diameter

130 :

THE ESKIMOS

and eight feet in height. This is approached by a succession
of three or four smaller domes, connected by low archways,
through which one has to crouch in order to pass.

The innermost archway, opening into the dwelling apart-
ment, is about three feet high, and as one enters he steps
down a foot or more to the level of the floor of the front por-
tion of the dwelling. The back part, about two-thirds of the
apartment, is three feet higher than the entrance.

The front or lower section of the igloo corresponds to a
front hall, and it is here that the occupants, as they enter,
beat the snow off their clothing, or remove their outer gar-

SECTION THROUGH IGLOO,

ments, when they wish to step up into the higher living
apartment.

The floor of the entire igloo consists simply of snow, but
in this upper apartment it is well covered with deerskin
robes, so that it is not melted by the warmth of those who
sit or lie upon it.

Above the doorway of the igloo is placed a window to admit
light into the dwelling. This is formed of a large square
slab of ice, neatly inserted into the wall of the dome, and it
serves well the purpose for which it is intended, admitting
a pleasant, soft light. Above the window a much-needed
ventilating hole is usually made. This, because of the passing
current of warm air, becomes rapidly enlarged, and requires
to be frequently plastered up with snow.

Sometimes one of the long approaches or corridors is made

to serve for two or three dwellings, each of which is connected
131

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

by low archways with the innermost of the smaller domes.
Usually, opening out of the inner dome, each family has one
or two small pantries, where they keep a supply of meat
sufficient for a week or two.

The furniture of the snow-house is much the same as that
of the skin topick already described, but the stone lamps
come more into prominence, contributing light to the dwell-
ing during the long, dark winter nights. These lamps are
simply stone vessels, usually half-moon shaped, and formed
neatly of some description of soft rock. The rounding side of
the vessel is made much deeper than the other, which shoals
up gradually to the edge. The wick of the lamp consists of
dried, decomposed moss, pressed and formed by the fingers
into a narrow ridge across the shallow or straight edge of the
dish. In this position it absorbs the seal oil which is placed
in the vessel, and, when lit, burns with a clear, bright flame,
free from smoke. The lamp is then made self-feeding by
suspending a lump of seal blubber above it, at a height vary-
ing according to the amount of light and consequent supply
of oil required. This melts with the heat of the flame and
drips into the vessel of the lamp. One lump keeps up the
supply for a considerable length of time, the intensity of
light being increased or diminished at will by lowering or
raising the lump of blubber suspended above the flame.

Lamps are usually placed at either side of the entrance in
the upper apartment. Both are kept burning brightly the
greater part of the long, cold, dark days of winter, but during
the hours of sleep they are “ turned down,” that is, the lumps
of blubber are raised; or sometimes one lamp is extinguished
and the other made to burn dimly. These lamps, though
chiefly designed to furnish light, also contribute a consider-
able amount of heat to the iglocs. It is often necessary to
turn them down to prevent the snow walls from being melted
by the heat, though the temperature outside may be 49 or
50 degrees below zero.

132

THE ESKIMOS

Towards spring the snow-houses become very damp, and
to prevent the roofs from being melted away fresh snow has
to be added on the outside. Before they are abandoned for
the skin tents they sometimes become so soft that they cave
in upon the occupants, causing much sickness in the form of
colds and pneumonia.

In their workmanship the Eskimos are remarkably neat.
Wood is used for manufacturing purposes when it is avail-
able, but all they are able to procure is of a fragmentary
nature, such as has drifted from some distant shore, or from
the wreck of an unfortunate vessel. It is from this rough
and scanty material they frame their kyacks, make their
sleds, tent-poles, and the handles of their spears and harpoons ;
from it they fashion their bows and many other useful or
ornamental things, and by exercise of untiring perseverance
and skill they manage to produce marvellous results. For
example, a paddle is often made of two or three pieces of
wood, but these are joined together so neatly that if it were
not for the seal thong lashings the joints would not be
noticeable.

The lashings are put on green, or after having been softened
in water, and are drawn tightly, so that when they become
dry and shrink they produce strong and rigid joints.

The process by which these lashing-thongs and heavy lines
for hunting purposes, as well as the small thread for sewing,
are manufactured, is very interesting. A heavy harpoon line,
used in the hunt for securing walruses, is made from the skin
of the “ square flipper ” seal, a large species about eight feet
long. For such use the skin is not removed from the carcase
in the usual way, but is pulled off without cutting it, as one
might pull off a wet stocking. The whole hide is thus pre-
served in the form of a sack. It is then placed in water, and
allowed to remain there for several davs, until the thin,
black outer skin becomes decomposed. _This, together with
the hair, is readily peeled off, and a clean, white pelt remains.

133

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

Two men then take the pelt in hand, and with a sharp
knife cut it into one long, even, white line, by commencing
at one end and cutting around and around until at length
the other end is reached. One skin in this way will make
three hundred feet of line. In this condition it is allowed to
partially dry, after which it is tightly stretched and dried
thoroughly in the sun. The result obtained is a hard, even
line, three-eighths of an -inch in diameter, but equal in
strength to a three-inch manila rope.

I have seen such a line, when imbedded in the flesh of a
walrus at one end, and spiked to the hard ice at the other by
a stout iron pin, as well as being held by six men, plough a
furrow six inches deep through the ice, bend the spike and
drag the six men to the edge of the ice, where the tug of war
ended, the walrus, victorious, taking the unbreakable line
with him into the deep.

Smaller seal thongs, such as are extensively used as lash-
ings for komiticks, kyacks, handles, ete., are made in much
the same way as I have described, except that the hide of
smaller seals is used, and often the process of removing the
outer black skin is omitted, the hair being simply scraped off
with a sharp knife or scraper.

Finer lines, such as those used for fishing, or for winding
whip-stocks, or thread for sewing purposes, are manufac-
tured from reindeer sinew. The best is that obtained from
along the spine, which is always saved from the carcase. It
is prepared for use by first drying and then rubbing till it
becomes quite soft, when it is readily frayed out into fine
fibres, in which condition it is used for fine needlework; but
when coarser thread or stout cord is required, these individual
fibres are plaited together with wonderful neatness and
rapidity. One woman can make fifty or sixty yards of this
cord or thread in a day.

With the Eskimos all joints of whatever kind are secured
by these thongs, they having no nails or screws to supply their

134

THE ESKIMOS

place. In making a komitick the cross slats are all secured
to the runners by seal thongs. In framing a kyack the
numerous pieces are lashed together, usually with seal or
deerskin, though sometimes, and preferably, with whalebone.

The Eskimo kyack, or canoe, consists of a light frame
neatly made from all sorts of scrap-wood, and strongly jointed
together in the way just described. The frame having been
completed, it is then covered with green skins, either of seal

ESKIMO KYACKS.

or deer, dressed, with the hair removed. The skins are joined
to each other as they are put on by double water-tight seams,
and are drawn tightly over the frame, so that when they dry
they become very hard, and as tight as a drum-head.

A full-size kyack thus made is about twenty-two feet long,
a foot and a half wide, and a foot deep. It is completely
covered over on the top, excepting the small hole where the
paddler sits, so that though an extremely cranky craft in the
hands of a novice, it is used in perfect safety, even in very

135

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

rough water, by an expert. Indeed the Eskimos have an
arrangement by which they can travel while almost submerged
in the water. They have a thin waterproof parchment coat.
which they pull on over their heads in rough weather. This
they place on the outside of the rim of the opening of the
kyack, and tie securely, so that if the boat were to turn
upside down the water could not rush in.

An Eskimo in his kyack can travel much faster than two.
men can paddle in an ordinary canoe. I have known them to
make six miles an hour in dead water, whereas four miles.
would be good going for a canoe.

The “ oomiack,” or woman’s boat, is a flat-bottomed affair
of large carrying capacity. Like the kyack, it is a skin-
covered frame, the many pieces of which are lashed together
with thongs of skin or whalebone; but instead of being
covered on top it is open, is of much broader model and
not so sharp at the ends. It is chiefly used by the women
for moving camp from place to place, but is never used in
the hunt. It is essentially a freighting craft, whereas the
kyack is used only for hunting or speedy travel. Oomiacks
are often made large enough to carry thirty or forty people.
They are propelled by ordinary paddles, not by the long
double-bladed ones used with the kyacks.

The komitick is a sled of rather peculiar design, consisting
simply of two parallel runners, twelve or fourteen feet long,
built of wood and placed about eighteen inches apart, upon
the top of which are lashed a number of crossbars or slats.
The runners are shod either with ivory or with mud, the
latter answering the purpose exceedingly well. The mud
covering is, of course, put on in a soft state, when it can be
easily worked and formed into proper shape. When the mud
‘is on, and the surface nicely smoothed off, it is allowed to.
freeze, and speedily becomes as hard as stone. In order to
complete the vehicle and put it in good running order, there
is one thing to be done; the shoeing, whether of mud or

136

THE AUTHOR IN ESKIMO COSTUME.

THE ESKIMOS

ivory, must be covered with a thin coating of ice, in order to
do which the Eskimo overturns the komitick, fills his spacious
mouth with water from some convenient source, and then
from his lips deposits a fine stream along the runner, where,
quickly freezing, it forms a smooth, glassy surface.

During the winter season the komitick forms an important
factor in the Eskimo’s life. It is drawn by a team, not of
horses, nor even reindeer, but of dogs. The number of
animals forming a team varies greatly, sometimes consisting
of not more than three good dogs, but at other times of fifteen
or more attached to a single sled. Each dog is fastened
to a single line, the length of which varies according to the
merits of its owner. Thus the best dog in the team acts as
leader, and has a line twenty or twenty-five feet in length.

In order to control the team, the driver carries a whip of
somewhat extraordinary dimensions. This instrument of
torture has a short wooden handle, only about eighteen inches
long, but what is lacking in stock is more than made up in
lash, for this latter, made of the hide of the square flipper
seal, is nearly thirty feet in length. An Eskimo can handle
his whip with great dexterity, being able not only to reach
any particular dog in the pack, but to strike any part of its
body, and with as much force as the occasion may require.

Another curious Eskimo practice, observed by the women,
is that of daily chewing the boots of the household. As
already intimated, these boots, or moccasins, are made of oil-
tanned seal or deerskins. The hair is always removed from
the skin, of which the foot of the moccasin is made, but not
always from that part forming the leg. However, the point
is, that these moccasins, after having been wet and dried
again, become very hard, and the most convenient or effective
—or possibly the most agreeable—way of softening them
seems to be by mastication. Whatever may be the reason for
adopting this method, the fact is that nearly every morning
the native women soften the shoes of the family most beauti-

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fully by chewing them. What to us would seem the disagree-
able part of this operation cannot be thoroughly understood
by one who has not some idea of the flavor of a genuine old
Eskimo shoe.

In one of my trips in the land of the Eskimo I had an
escort composed not only of men and women, old and young,
but also of little children, several of whom could not have
been more than five or six years old, and it was marvellous
to see the powers of endurance of these little creatures, for
they travelled along with the rest of the party, a distance of
twenty-five miles, having no other object in view than that
of seeing the white stranger.

The “ shin-ig-bee,” or Eskimo sleeping-bag, is an article
essential to the comfort of the traveller when making long
overland journeys during the cold winter season. It consists
of a long, oval, waterproof skin bag, lined with another of
similar shape, made of soft but heavy winter deerskins.
‘The opening is not at the top, but near it, across one side,
and is made with flap and buttons, so that it can be closed
up as closely as desired.

When the traveller is provided with this kind of a bed he
does not trouble himself to make a snow lodge for the night,
as without it he would have to do, but’he simply crawls into
his “ shin-ig-bee,” buttons up the opening on the windward
side, and goes to sleep, no matter what the weather or tem-
perature may be. With the mercury at 40 below zero a man
may in this way sleep warm and comfortable, without any
fire, out upon the bleak frozen plains.

ESKIMO SLEEPING-BAG.

138

CHAPTER: X11.
OCCUPATIONS OF THE ESKIMOS.

Deer hunting is perhaps the most favored and remunera-
tive occupation of the Eskimos. In some districts seals and
other animals are extensively sought after, but the reindeer
is the universal stand-by. It is hunted with the bow and
arrow or spear, and with guns when these can be obtained.

Having already stated that the only wood available by the
Eskimos is broken fragments of driftwood, the inquiry may
arise, where do they get material from which to make
bows? The answer is, that lacking material for making such
bows as are ordinarily used, their ingenuity comes to the
rescue and designs a composite bow, which answers the pur-
pose equally well. This implement of the chase is, in the
first place, made either of pieces of wood or of horn, neatly
joined together. In order to give it strength and elasticity,
a stout plaited sinew cord is stretched from end to end around
the convexity of the bow, and then twisted until it is brought
to the required tension. By this mode of construction, when
the bow is drawn, the wood or horn is only subjected to a
compressive strain, while the sinew thong takes up the tension.

Thus very powerful bows are made, though of rough ma-
terial ; but in order to use them with effect in killing deer, the
sagacity of the hunter is often severely tested, since with
the Eskimo there is no cover behind which he can hide or
creep upon his prey. The hunter’s first precaution is to
keep the deer to windward, for the moment they catch the
scent of an enemy they are off. To get within range of the
wary animals upon the open plains or rocky barrens is often

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a difficult matter. A common method when several hunters
are together is for some to take positions in concealment,
while the others drive the deer their way, causing them to

DOG-WHIP, WALRUS TUSKS AND BOWS AND ARROWS.

pass within range of the deadly shafts. At a moderate dis-
tance an Eskimo with his ingeniously constructed bow can
drive an arrow its full length into a deer.

Occasionally vast herds of deer, numbering many thou-

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OCCUPATIONS OF THE ESKIMOS

sands, are met with, and at such times their numbers appear
te give them confidence. The hunter then has no trouble in
approaching them, but may go up and kill as many as he
desires, either with bow and arrow or with spear.

The spear, however, is chiefly used for killing in the water.
At certain seasons of the year, when migrating, the deer
cross streams, rivers or lakes in great numbers, and these
crossings are commonly effected year after year in the same
place. The hunter, knowing of these places, lies in wait, and
often from his kyack spears large numbers as they are
swimming past.

When more deer are killed than are required for immediate
use, the carcases are “ cached,” that is, they are covered over
by piles of stones to preserve them from the wolves and foxes,
and the place of their burial is marked, so that during the
succeeding winter: and spring, if food becomes scarce, these
meat stores may be resorted to. When required, the meat
thus stored is often quite tainted or decomposed, but it has
to be pretty bad when a hungry Eskimo will not eat it.

Seat Huntine.

Seal hunting is a most curious and interesting form of
sport. The seals are hunted in entirely different ways at
different times of the year.

During the entire winter season they keep holes open
through the shore ice, but because of the depth of snow they
are not seen until the warm spring sun exposes their hiding
places. The Eskimo hunter has, however, a way of finding
them before this. He harnesses a dog, trained for the work,
and, armed with seal harpoon, leads him out to the snow-
covered field, where the two walk in a zigzag course, until
the sagacious animal catches the scent of the seal and takes
his master straight to its secret abode.

Here, under the hard crusted snow, it has formed for itself
quite a commodious dwelling, but, unlike the Eskimo snow-

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house, its doorway opens into the water, instead of into the
air. The doorway, which is in the form of a round hole,
just large enough to admit the seal, is kept from freezing up
by the wary animal, which ever keeps itself in readiness,
upon the slightest suspicion of danger, to plunge in.

Usually upon the arrival of the hunter, the seal, if at home,
hearing the footsteps above, quickly vacates the premises.
The Eskimo, then, taking advantage of its absence, ascertains
the exact location of the hole in the ice by thrusting his long,
slender spear down through the snow. When the exact posi-
tion of the hole is found, its centre is marked by erecting a
little pinnacle of snow directly above it.

This done, a long and tedious wait follows, during which
time the patient hunter often suffers much from the cold, for
he is obliged to remain quite still, not uncommonly from early
morning until evening. In order to keep his feet from freez-
ing while thus remaining for hours upon the snow, a deer-
skin bag is commonly used to stand in.

During the interval of the seal’s absence from home the
doorway becomes frozen over, and it is on account of this fact
that the hunter is made aware of its return, for when the
seal comes back and finds its hole crusted over, it commences
to blow upon the ice to melt it. This is the hunter’s long-
desired signal, and the moment he hears it, he places the
point of his harpoon at the mark on the snow, and thrusts the
weapon vertically down into the hole, almost invariably with
deadly effect. The seal, thus harpooned in the head, is
instantly killed, and is hauled out by the line attached to the
spear.

Some seasons, when the ice is covered by a great depth of
snow, the dogs are not able to scent the seals’ houses, and
then the Eskimo has to depend upon other sources for food,
or else go on short rations.

In the spring, as the snow disappears, the seals’ winter
quarters are demolished, and they themselves are exposed to

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OCCUPATIONS OF THE ESKIMOS

view. Then the Eskimo is obliged to resort to other methods
of: getting at them. When one is observed, the direction of
the wind is noted; then the hunter, keeping himself to lee-
ward of the seal, walks to within about a quarter of a mile

ESKIMO HUNTERS.

of it. Beyond this he begins to crouch, and advances only

when the seal’s head is down. The seal is one of the most

wide-awake of all animals, and has the habit of throwing up

its head quickly every few seconds to guard against danger.
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When its head is down upon the ice its eyes are shut, and it
is said that in these brief intervals it takes its sleep. How-
ever this may be, the hunter, by carefully watching the seal’s
movements, is able, without much difficulty, to get within
about two hundred yards of it; but for closer quarters other
tactics are necessary, and here the real sport begins.

The hunter lies down at his full length upon the ice.
Seal takes Eskimo, who is able to talk seal perfectly, to be
one of its kinsmen; and indeed there is a great deal of re-
semblance between the genera, for both are similarly clothed,
and the Eskimo, living largely upon the flesh and oil of the
seal, is similarly odorous. As the two lie there upon the ice,
a most amusing sort of conversation is kept up between them.
Seal makes a remark and flips his tail. Eskimo replies in a
similar manner, making the gesture with his foot, and at the
same time throws himself a little forward. Seal soon has
semething further to say, and again flips his tail. Eskimo
replies as before, and closes up slightly farther the distance
between them.

When the seal’s head is down, the hunter, who ever keeps
his eye on his prey, is able to approach still nearer by drag-
ging himself forward upon his elbows. This manceuvring
goes on for some time, until the distance between the per-
formers has been reduced to a few yards, and sometimes to a
very few feet.

When near enough to make a sure shot, the Eskimo takes
his bow and arrow from his side and sends a shaft through
the head of his outwitted companion. Sometimes, instead of
the bow and arrow, a harpoon is used with equal effect.

I knew an Eskimo who was so expert at this kind of sport
that he was able to catch seals with his teeth.

In order to secure one by shooting, as just described, it is
necessary to finish it instantly, for if only shot through the
bedy, or even through the heart, it will throw itself into its
hole and thus be lost.

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OCCUPATIONS OF THE ESKIMOS

During the season of open water still another method of
seal hunting has to be adopted. There is now no ice to per-
form upon, so the kyack has to take its place, and in this
light craft the Eskimo pursues his prey in the open sea or
in the channels of water among the ice.

The weapon now used is not the bow, but a specially
designed style of harpoon, which may be thrown long dis-
tances from the hand. The bow and arrow are useless,
because of the difficulty of instantly killing the seal by a
shaft aimed from a kyack. This harpoon is a light form
of spear, having an adjustable ivory head to which is attached
a long plaited sinew line. This line is wound on the handle
of the harpoon, and attached to the end of it is a small float.

When a seal makes its appearance within twenty or thirty
yards of the hunter, the harpoon, thus arranged, is thrown,
and if the seal is struck, the ivory head, which becomes
buried in the flesh, is detached from the shank, and as the
seal plunges about, or dives, the line is quickly unwound
from the floating handle.

Unless killed outright, the seal quickly disappears with
line and float; but as it can remain under water only a few
minutes at a time, it must soon reappear, and as it nears the
surface, the little float comes to the top and shows the hunter
where to prepare for the next charge. Thus the poor wounded
animal’s chances of escape are small.

Watrvus Hountine.

Perhaps the most exciting and dangerous sport of the
Eskimo is that of hunting the walrus.

This animal, sometimes called the sea-horse, is large, power-
ful and often vicious. It is considered valuable both as food
and for the supply of ivory which its immense tusks yield.
The walrus is hunted chiefly from the kyack, either in open
water, in the neighborhood of sandy shores, or about the edge

10 145

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

of floating ice, upon which it delights to lie and bask in the
sunshine.

A special equipment is required for this kind of hunting.
It consists, besides the kyack and paddle, of a large harpoon,
a heavy line with box in which to coil it, a large inflated seal-
skin float, and a long lance. This walrus harpoon is an
ingeniously devised weapon, consisting of an ivory shank
fitted to a block of the same material by a ball and socket
jeint. These are stiffly hinged together by stout sealskin
thongs, and the block is then permanently attached to a
wooden handle about four feet in length. The ivory shank,
which is about fifteen inches long, is slightly curved, and
tapers to a rounded point at the end remote from the handle.
To this point is again fitted an ivory head, about four inches
long, let into which is an iron or steel blade. Through the
centre of the ivory head a heavy line is passed and strongly
looped. Then, the shank and ‘head being in position, the line
is drawn tightly and fastened to the wooden handle by an
ivory pin and socket catch. The remaining portion of the
line is neatly coiled, and is provided at the end with a small
loop.

The line used is that made from the skin of the square
flipper seal, as already described, and may be two or three
hundred feet in length, though sometimes not so long. The
line box is simply a small round parchment-covered frame,
about the size of the lid of a cheese-box, and is fastened to
the top of the kyack, behind the paddler.

The sealskin float is a peculiar-looking object, consisting
of the entire skin of a seal, removed from the carcase, as
before described, without cutting it. The hair is removed
from the pelt, which is then dressed as black parchment.
The natural opening at the mouth of the skin sack is pro-
vided with an ivory nozzle and plug. By blowing into the
nozzle the skin is inflated, and may be kept in that condition
by inserting the plug. At the tail-end of the float is an ivory

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OCCUPATIONS OF THE ESKIMOS

cross-head, to which the loop at the end of the harpoon line
may be readily attached.

1. Walrus Harpoon. 2. Walrus Lance. 3. Seal Harpoon. 4. Seal Spear.
5. Bird Spear. 6. Small Seal Harpoon.

The lance completes the walrus hunter’s equipment. This
instrument is formed of a long iron or ivory bar having a

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

steel blade point. The bar is fitted to a wooden handle by a
ball and socket joint, and stiffly hinged with thongs as in the
case of the harpoon. The object of the joint is to prevent the
lance from being broken when thrust into a walrus, as other-
wise it would be by the animal plunging about.

Equipped as above, the Eskimo hunters go out during the
season of open water in pursuit.of walruses, which, feeding
upon clams, are usually found about sandy shores or islands.
Single animals are sometimes found, but more commonly
they are in small herds. When feeding they remain in about
the same place, but can stay under water for only about three
minutes at a time. They come to the surface to breathe,
sport about for a short time, then go down to the bottom and
dig clams from the sand for some three minutes, rising
again to the surface. The Eskimo, taking advantage of their
necessity, advances on them only when they are busily occu-
pied at the bottom of the sea. When a walrus reappears at
the surface, the hunter, who with harpoon in hand and line
attached to float awaits its return, hurls his harpoon with
great force and precision, burying it deeply in the walrus’s
flesh.

The wounded monster, maddened by pain, plunges into the
water, dives to the bottom, and endeavors to escape. The
plunging readily causes the ball and socket joint of the har-
poon to give, and this allows the head of the harpoon, which
is buried in the animal, to become detached and form a
button on the end of the harpoon line.

The detached handle floats upon the water, but the line is
securely fastened to the body of the walrus, which, in trying
to escape, takes with him the line and attached inflated seal-
skin; but though he may take this buoy under, and keep it
down for a short time, he cannot do so long.

Soon it reappears at the surface, and the hunter, seeing it,
makes for the spot and awaits the returning walrus. The
moment his head appears, harpoon or lance is hurled at it

‘148

OCCUPATIONS OF THE ESKIMOS

as before, and if not with fatal results, the same mancuvres
are repeated. In this way often two or three harpoon lines
and floats are attached to one walrus, but when so hampered
it is considered well secured, and is finally despatched by the
long, keen lance.

When, however, the attack is made in the neighborhood of
heavy ice, as it frequently is, the hunt is much less likely to
result successfully. Because of the floating crystal, the hunter
often finds it difficult to follow the movements of his game,
and even if successful in this and in placing a harpoon or
two, he is often defeated in the end by the line being torn
from the float, which has become fast in the broken ice.
Thus once freed, the wounded animal usually makes good
his escape.

Occasionally these walrus contests result disastrously to
the hunter, for the sea-horse is by no means a passive, harm-
less creature, submitting without resistance to the attacks of
its enemies. Frequently one—or a number of them to-
gether—will make a charge upon the assailants, attacking
them viciously with their huge tusks, which, if brought in
contact with an Eskimo, are likely to make a sorry-looking
object of him. Of course, through long experience and prac-
tice in the chase, the Eskimo hunters become very expert in
dodging and foiling a charge, but sometimes they are caught
and roughly handled by these uncouth monsters of the sea.

Upon one occasion an old hunter, named Coto, whom I
knew, met with a serious accident while hunting walruses in
his kyack. A number of them charged upon him suddenly,
and he being unable to get out of their way, his frail craft
was broken and torn to shreds, and his body was frightfully
bruised and lacerated before he made his escape. The poor
fellow recovered, however, but only after months of sore
suffering.

For a short time during the autumn season the sea-horse
is hunted without the assistance of the kyack. The new ice

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being thin, the walruses break up through it at any place, and
sport about in the water-holes thus formed. Then the
hunters—for several of them usually go together—march out
upon the ice and attack them from the edge of the water-
holes. This method of hunting is, however, rather dangerous,
as the animals have an ugly habit of noting the position of
their assailants, then disappearing below the water, and in a
moment presenting themselves below the ice at the spot where
the men stand.

The Eskimos, who are familiar with this manceuvre, change
their position the moment one of the crafty brutes goes down,
and stand, harpoons in hand, ready to receive him when he
returns crashing through the ice with deadly designs upon his
craftier adversaries.

It is an easier matter to harpoon a walrus thus in the ice
than it is to secure him, for here the “ oweta,” or float, cannot
be used to advantage, and it is no easy matter to hold a three
thousand pounder of the sea. However, this is attempted,
and when one or more harpoons are made fast to the walrus
the ends of the lines are spiked down to the ice by stout spikes,
and in this way the brute is very powerfully anchored; but,
as I have before stated, in spite of all that can be done, he
often breaks away and takes the lines with him into the deep.

Porar Bear Huntinea.

Polar bear hunting is an extremely dangerous and exciting
sport. An Eskimo rarely ever cares to tackle a bear single-
handed, but two men, armed with lances, do not hesitate to
attack this monarch of the north.

The method adopted in hunting a polar is as follows: Two
men, armed only with lances, approach from opposite sides
at the same time. Then, as they close upon it, and the bear
charges either man, the other rushes forward with his lance.
Thus they let out its life-blood. It requires cool heads and
steady nerves to cope successfully with a polar in this

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OCCUPATIONS OF THE ESKIMOS

way, but both of these characteristics the Eskimos possess in
a marked degree, and it is comparatively seldom that acci-
dents happen while they are thus engaged.

These bears, which live almost entirely upon seals, are
usually found near the seashore, and often out some distance,
swimming in the water, where they can live for a considerable
length of time. The Eskimos attack them here as well as
upon the land, but in the water they are treacherous enemies
to deal with, as they are expert swimmers and divers. They
are very liable to surprise one by suddenly disappearing
only to reappear at embarrassingly close quarters.

The Eskimo custom in bear hunting is, that whoever first
sees a bear is the owner of the carcase, no matter who kills
it; but the skin is divided up among the several hunters.

A bearskin is so heavy that an Eskimo has no special
object in preserving it whole, but he finds the greatest use for
it when cut into small pieces. In this condition it is com-
monly used by hunters as mats, which they tie under them
when crawling over the ice after seals, or across the wet
plains after deer. The pieces of bearskin act as skates, upon
which they can easily drag themselves along.

Birp Honrina.

The Eskimo method of hunting birds is chiefly with a spear
of somewhat peculiar design. It is in all about five feet long,
and consists of a wooden handle terminated at one end by a
slender barbed ivory or iron rod, sharply pointed. About
half way up the handle, three pointed barbed ivory fingers
are securely fastened. The handle is then fitted into a wooden
socket, which is held in the hand, and from which the spear
is thrown. It is claimed that by means of the wooden socket
the spear can be thrown with greater precision than by the
bare hand, to which it would adhere more or less. However
that may be, an Eskimo can hurl his bird-spear a marvellously
long distance and with deadly effect.

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

If the point of the spear misses the bird, one of the side
fingers is likely to pierce it or catch it between the fingers
and the spear handle.

In this way ptarmigan, ducks, and other land and sea fowl
are obtained in considerable numbers. They are usually
speared while sitting in flocks upon the snow or in the water,
but they are also frequently killed in this way when on the
wing. Sometimes the. bow and arrow is used for bringing
down the feathered game, but the spear is the instrument
chiefly employed.

FisHina.

Fish are caught both by spearing and with the hook. The
latter is of the crudest design and is used in trolling. A troll
consists of a heavy iron hook, fastened to the face of a small
ivory disk, to which is attached a fine, strong line, made from
plaited deerskin sinews.

Fish are not, however, caught so much with the hook as
they are by the spear. Indeed, it is chiefly by means of the
harpoon and spear that the Eskimo larder is supplied. The
fish-spear is a kind of three-pronged barbed fork, fastened to
a handle, and is used chiefly for spearing fish through the
ice, and with good results in the hands of an expert.

I tried my hand at fish spearing in the north, but lacked
the patience necessary for success. Many times, however, I
purchased from the Eskimos the magnificent trout and white-
fish by which their efforts were rewarded.

The Eskimo method of spearing is as follows: First, the
most favorable spot in the lake or river is selected, and then
a hole is cut through the ice. With some kind of a bait, which
they lower into the water by means of a string, they endeavor
to attract the fish to the hole. When they appear they are
thrust through by the spear and hauled out upon the ice.
Great numbers of beautiful fish are caught by the Eskimos
in this way during the fall and winter seasons.

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OCCUPATIONS OF THE ESKIMOS

Trapping is not extensively followed, unless by the Eskimos
living within reach of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s posts,
perhaps because of the inefficiency of the native traps, but
also owing to the comparatively slight value to the Eskimos
of the animals which may be caught. For instance, the wolf
is an animal little sought for, because his flesh is not con-
sidered good food, and his skin is no better for clothing than
the skin of the deer, which is much more easily procured.
So also with the fox. Both wolves and foxes are, however,
caught to some extent by “dead fall” traps, built of stones,
or of snow, and so arranged that when the animal enters the
trap and touches the bait, a heavy stone is caused to fall and .
kill or imprison him.

AMUSEMENTS.

The Eskimo, or “ Innuit,” as he calls himself, being of a
jovial, merry disposition, has various forms of amusement.
A common one among the men is that of competing with each
other in throwing the harpoon at a mark on the snow. With
such practice they become powerful and expert harpooners.

A rather amusing incident happened in this connection at
one time during my Eskimo experiences. I, too, had been
exercising myself in the art of harpoon throwing, and one
day, having become somewhat expert, was thus amusing my-
self when a party of natives came along. One of their num-
ber, doubtless supposing me to be a novice, stood up at what
he thought a safe distance, and cried, “ Attay me-loo-e-ak
took!” (Go ahead, throw). Promptly accepting the challenge,
I hurled my harpoon, which made so straight for the aston-
ished man’s breast that he did not know which way to jump,
and barely got out of the way in time to save himself. As
the shaft passed him and went crashing through a flour barrel
behind where he had stood, his companions had a great laugh
at his expense.

Another source of much amusement is the game of foot-

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

ball, which they play with the bladder of a walrus. Their
game is played neither according to Rugby nor Association
rules, but wholly without rule or system. Men and women,
old and young, join in the chase after the ball with equal
delight. “ Here a woman, carrying her child on her back,
may be seen running at full speed after the ball, and the next
moment lying at full length with her naked child floundering
in the snow a few feet beyond her. A minute later the

ESKIMO GAMES AND TOYS.

child is in its place, and. the mother, nedrly choking with
laughter, is seen elbowing her way after the ball again.”

A popular kind of indoor sport, played much during the
long days of winter, is a game something like our old game
of cup and ball. It is played with a block of ivory, cut so as
to somewhat resemble the form of a bear, which it is
supposed to be. The ivory is drilled full of holes in a regular
and systematic way, and to the neck of the block an ivory pin,

154

OCCUPATIONS OF THE ESKIMOS

four or five inches in length, is attached by means of a sinew
cord about a foot long. To prevent twisting of this
cord, a little ivory swivel is inserted in the middle of it, and
the game is played by swinging up the ivory block and catch-
ing it upon the pin. The various holes in the block count
differently, so that there is really a good deal of skill in the
game.

Running and wrestling are sometimes indulged in, though
not often continued with interest.

The children play among themselves much as they do in
the civilized south. A favorite amusement is that of playing
house, at which they may be seen busily engaged almost any
pleasant summer day about an Eskimo village. The play-
houses consist simply of rings of stones, and for dolls the
Eskimo children are content with pretty pebbles or chips of
wood or ivory. The actors, with their families, go visiting
from one house to another, and have their imaginary feasts
and all the rest just as our children have.

At Cape Prince of Wales, Hudson Straits, the Eskimos
have been observed to play at the game of tilting. For this
sport a very large igloo is built, having a great pillar in the
centre of it. Ivory rings are hung from the roof, and the
players, armed with spears, walk rapidly round the pillar,
and vie with each other in catching the rings on their spears.

The people are not noted for being musical, though they
have some songs.

The home or family circle i is, “as a rule, a happy one. It
is not broken up by the brawling sot, nor is it often the scene
of poverty and want. Never is this the case while the rest of
_ the community have plenty. All families share alike in
tinies of famine, and in seasons of plenty all rejoice together.
Thus there is no such thing as class distinction among them,
but all are upon an equal footing ; every man provides for the
wants of his own family by hunting. They have, therefore,
no need for workmen’s unions, nor for protective associations,

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but all live together in peace and unity. Of course, I am
here speaking in a general way, for I have already spoken of
oceasional fights which take place.

The Eskimo marriage is an exceedingly simple institution,
and is not performed in any ceremonious way. It is purely
a love union, requiring only the sanction of the parents of
the bride. When a young man and young woman come to
the conclusion that they were made for each other, and desire
to become one, having the consent of the girl’s parents, they
simply take each other and start up an igloo of their own.
Eskimo brides are usually very young, and often very bonnie
creatures. They lose much of their beauty, however, in early
life, and at about forty mature into ugly old dames.

An Eskimo family rarely consists of more than three chil-
dren, and these are carried in the hood upon their mother’s
back until they are about two years old. During this time
they have no clothing apart from their mother’s. Newborn
infants are licked by their mother’s tongue, and are some-
times kept in a rabbitskin or bag of feathers for a time before
being carried upon the mother’s back.

It is usual for a man to have only one wife, though it is
not uncommon for him to have two, or even three, if he can
provide for them. The first Eskimo encountered on our
journey, as I have related, had two wives, each having three
children. As a rule the men are faithful to their wives,
although sometimes they trade with each other for a few
weeks or months, and afterwards receive again their first
loves.

If any member of the family is seriously ill, a peculiar
kind of prayer is repeated over the afflicted one by the father
or mother of the family. The prayer—for it can hardly be
called anything else—is loaded with superstition. The parent
prepares for the ceremony by placing a “ poalo,” or mit, upon
the left hand. Then, bending over the afflicted one, he or
she mutters, wails and gesticulates in the strangest manner,

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OCCUPATIONS OF THE ESKIMOS

also blowing with the mouth and motioning the departure of
the evil spirit. This kind of audible supplication is often
carried on for a considerable length of time.

The Eskimos, like almost every other people under the
sun, possess some form of worship, and believe in a spirit
world. They believe in the existence somewhere of good and
evil spirits which govern and control this world. The Great
Good Spirit (Cood-la-pom-e-o), they believe, dwells in an
upper world, of which the sky is the floor; but the evil spirits,
governed by their chief, “ Tornarsuk,” dwell in a world
beneath ours, which forms a kind of great roof over the world
below. The earth and this under-world are connected with
each other by certain mountain clefts, and by various
entrances from the sea. The spirits of those who meet with
violent death go to dwell with Cood-la-pom-e-o, in the upper
world; but for those who die from other causes there is a
place prepared below, in the land of plenty, with the evil
spirits.

These latter deities are supposed to have the greater power
of the two upon earth, and consequently their favor is sought,
and to them supplication is usually made, though over certain
forces, events and circumstances the Great Good Spirit is
supposed to have control. For example, he is believed to be
the deity governing the frosts, so that in the fall of the year,
when the ice is insufficiently strong for hunting purposes, his
favor is invoked.

Communication with the spirits is usually held through
wizards, or “ angokokes,” who are looked upon as wise men
by the people, and are appointed to fulfil this function. They
are ordained for their sacred calling when youths, and as a
distinguishing mark of their profession wear upon their
backs a string of ornaments, mostly made of seal or deerskin.
These are given them at the various places visited by them
in recognition of their office. The angokokes are appointed
because of their qualifications. There may be a number of

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them in the same community, but some rise to much greater
distinction than others. i

These wizards are said to be taught from youth by one of
the deputy chief friends, named ‘“ Tornat,” and some of them
are supposed to have great power with the spirits.

At times, when the people are threatened with famine, or
are in distress of any kind, the angokoke is requested to inter-
cede for them. Supposing it is food that is wanted, he
arranges for an interview with Tornarsuk, the chief of the
devils. In order to do this, the angokoke, accompanied by
one other man, goes down to the water’s edge in the early
morning at the hour of low tide. Here his companion binds
him in a doubled-up position, so that his knees meet his face,
and lashes him up with stout thongs so tightly that he is
unable to move hand or foot. In this helpless condition his
companion leaves him, with his walrus harpoon lying by his
side and the rising waters lapping at his feet. What imme-
diately follows only the angokoke knows, but I have been
informed by the wizards themselves—and it is fully believed
by the Eskimo people—that the devil comes to his rescue and
releases him from his bonds, but at the same time seizes the
harpoon found on the ground and thrusts it through his
breast. The point projecting through his coat behind, and
blood trickling down in front, the excited wizard rushes up
from the shore to the village, trailing behind him the harpoon
line. He bursts into the first igloo in a frenzied condition,
snorting and blowing like a walrus. As he enters all sharp
tools are quickly put out of sight, so that the angokoke may
not harm himself with them, and at the same time water is
sprinkled on his feet. This done, he bounds out of the igloo,
and as he does so the oceupants seize the harpoon line trailing
behind, but are not able to hold him, for he is as strong as
a walrus.

The magician then enters the next igloo, where a like
performance is repeated, and in the same manner the round

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' OCCUPATIONS OF THE ESKIMOS

of the village is made, but none is able to hold the excited
man. Having completed the round of the dwellings in the
village, he returns to the seashore, where it is said he is
again met by Tornarsuk, who extracts the harpoon from his
breast and assures him that the prayers of the people shall
be heard, and that plenty of walruses shall be sent to satisfy
their hunger.

Whether or not Tornarsuk is as good as his word we can
only conjecture, but the poor Eskimo pagans have great faith
in the intercessory powers of their angokoke.

Intercession is sometimes made to the Good Spirit, and as
before, the angokoke acts as intercessor; but instead of going
to the shore, he is bound in an igloo and left there by his
people. While still in this bound condition he is said to
ascend through the roof of the igloo, and to meet and hold
communication with Cood-la-pom-e-o, and having arranged
matters with him he returns to earth, re-enters the igloo
through the door, and reports the results of this interview.

The following are some of the laws of the Eskimos:

“1. No man shall after sunset do any work requiring the
use of tools. The women may sew, make garments, or chew
boots. (Thus the hours of each day after sunset form the
Eskimo’s Sabbath.)

“2. No person shall eat walrus and deer meat on the same
day.

“3. The carcases of all large animals slain during the
winter season shall be equally divided among all members of
the community.

“4, All kinds of rare game are common property during
all seasons.

“5. Any person finding drift-wood secures ownership by
placing stones upon it.

“6. Any other kind of goods found remains the property
‘of the original owner.

“4, When a seal is harpooned and gets off with the har-

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

poon, the first harpooner loses all claim to it when the float
becomes detached.

“8, If two hunters strike a bird at the same time, it shall
be equally divided between them.

“9. Whoever is first to see a bear has first ownership, no
matter who slays it.

“10. After slaying a bear, the man who kills it shall hang
up his hunting implements, together with the bladder of the
beast, in some high, conspicuous place, for at least three days,
and for four days:shall be separated from his wife.

“11. When a walrus is slain, the successful hunter shall
be separated from his wife for at least one day.

“12. The borrower of tools shall not be bound to give
compensation for damages.

“13. No person shall ‘ muckchucto’ (sew) while any
member of the family is ill.

“14. If any man for any cause whatsoever slays his
neighbor, the wife and family of the deceased shall become
the family of the slayer, and shall be taken care of by him
as if they were his own.”

One Eskimo legend regarding the origin of the people has
already been related. Another of special interest, regarding
the occurrence of a flood, runs something like this: A very
long time ago there was a great rain, which was so terrible
that it flooded the earth and destroyed all people, with the
exception of a few Eskimos, who constructed a raft by lashing
together a number of kyacks and took refuge upon it. Upon
this raft they drifted for a long time, until they were much
reduced by cold and starvation. Then at length, in their dis-
tress, their angokoke stood up and cast his harpoon and all
their ornaments into the flood of waters. This act sufficed
to appease the angry spirits, and the flood subsided.

This legend is particularly interesting since it adds one to
the large number of similar legends belonging to other savage

tribes and nations.
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OCCUPATIONS OF THE ESKIMOS

Another romantic Eskimo legend explains the origin of the
sun and moon.

As a rule, the aged and feeble members of the Eskimo com-
munity are treated with respect and kindness, but during
times of distress and famine they are often forgotten in the
general struggle for existence. For instance, when the supply
of food at any particular place becomes exhausted, and
through starvation the people are forced to go elsewhere in
search of the necessaries of life, the aged or feeble, or those
who have become too weak to travel, are left behind to
perish. If, however, food is soon found, a portion is at once
taken back; and after all, what more could be done, even by
white people ?

When an Eskimo dies at home in the igloo, his body is
never taken away for burial by carrying it out through the
doorway, but. an opening must be made in the rear for its
removal. The place chosen for the burial of the dead is some
almost isolated point of land, a hill-top difficult of access, or
some remote island where there is the least danger of the
bodies being disturbed by wild beasts.

The dead are first wrapped in their skin robes, then laid
to rest and covered over with piles of stones.

At times these graves are made very large, while in other
cases the bodies are barely covered over. Usually some kind
of a memorial is raised over the grave: frequently a long
stone, but more often a topick pole or paddle, to the top of
which a flag or streamer is fixed to mark the last lonely rest-
ing-place of the departed.

Beside the lonely grave are placed the hunting implements
of its occupant, and there, upon the dreary waste, imprisoned
in his rocky tomb beneath the snows of many a winter storm,
the poor Eskimo lies awaiting the sound of the last trumpet.

11 161

CHAPTER XIII.
DOWN TO THE SEA.

Baxer Laxg, about seventy miles in length and perhaps
half that in breadth, was originally discovered and rudely
mapped by one Captain Christopher, about the year 1770.
In searching for the North-West Passage he sailed into it
with two small vessels from Hudson Bay, passing en route
through Chesterfield Inlet and the two rivers flowing into it
from Baker Lake. Having with us a copy of Captain Chris-
topher’s map, though of a very sketchy character, it afforded
us some information as to our future course.

Since leaving the shores of Black Lake we had traversed
to this point a distance of just eight hundred and ten miles,
through an entirely unknown country. We had occupied
more time in doing so than we had expected, on account of
the extraordinary character of the weather; however, on the
evening of the 2nd of September we found ourselves at the
mouth of “the great river flowing to the northward,” as
described by the Black Lake Indians.

From our astronomical observations and survey it was
found that*the extremity of the lake as determined by Chris-
topher, and as located on the existing maps of Canada, was
nine miles too far south and about fifty miles too far west.
At the mouth of the river the water was found to be shallow—
in some places not more than three or four feet in depth—
and for some distance out into the lake shoals were observed.
Small sailing vessels or York boats would have no difficulty
in getting in, but it would be difficult to take the former
any great distance up the river on account of the rapids.

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DOWN TO THE SEA

Large, properly constructed river boats might be taken up
stream without difficulty for a distance of 150 miles to the
confluence of the west branch, and how far they might be
able to ascend that large stream it is impossible for me to
say.* With the exception of perhaps one spot—the canyon
rapid north of Dubawnt Lake—I believe the whole river from
the Height of Land to Baker Lake might be navigated by
river or York boats with comparative ease. At the rapid a
portage would have to be made.

I think it important to mention the above possibilities of
access to this country, on account of the fact that from
Dubawnt Lake to Baker Lake there stretches an extended area
of promising mineral-bearing Huronian schists and trappean
rocks, a series very similar to the silver, copper and gold
bearing rocks of the north shore of Lake Superior and Lake
of the Woods districts. The time must come—it may not be
far distant—when the prospector and the miner will occupy
all this vast field of mineral wealth.

From the head of Baker Lake we were now to commence
a new stage of the journey. The rough maps in our posses-
sion enabled us to form a fair idea of our prospective route.
From our camp to the mouth of Chesterfield Inlet, on the
coast of Hudson Bay, measured about 250 miles, and thence
down the coast of the bay to Fort Churchill, a Hudson’s Bay
Company’s post and the nearest habitation of white men,
measured 500 more; so that 750 miles was the least distance
we had to figure on travelling before the close of navigation.

It was now the month of September, and as winter is
known to set in very early in the Hudson Bay district, my

*For full geological and mineralogical details regarding this dis-
trict, see J. B. Tyrrell’s report for 1893, published by the Geological
Survey Department of Canada.

+I have discovered through later exploration that this west branch,
now named the Thelon River, is free from obstructions for a dis-
tance of 224 miles, making in all an unbroken stretch of river
navigation of 374 miles.
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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

brother and I felt that our time must be employed to the
very best advantage. The weather had been extremely ad-
verse all summer, but it was now liable to be more so. Within
the course of two or three weeks the equinoctial gales might
be expected. The tides also would be a new feature of
difficulty.

In consideration of these prospects, and in order to stimu-
late the men to greater exertion, it was thought best to explain
our position to them, for up to this time they had little idea
as to where they were, whether in the vicinity of the North
Pole or within a few days’ travel of civilization. The effect
produced by thus informing the canoemen was as desired.
They resolved to make longer days and put forth greater
exertion.

Before daylight on the morning of the 3rd, camp was
aroused by the sound of many voices, and a few minutes
later, before we had turned out from our blankets, the door
of the tent was pulled half open, and two or three black, burly
heads, with grinning faces, were poked in. They were those
of some of our friends from the Eskimo village who had come
over to pay us an early morning call before we should finally
leave their shores. They all held in their hands nicknacks
of one kind or another which they were anxious to trade,
chiefly for needles, and some would have come in and made
themselves at home had we not dismissed them until we were
dressed and ready to do business at a little greater distance
from our blankets, which we were desirous should be in-
habited only by ourselves. Later, a few fishing-lines, spoons
and such trifles were purchased.

As soon as possible, the wind happily being fair, our canoes
were loaded, and with many “ tabowetings” (good-byes) to
the natives and a hurrah for Baker Lake, we started out to
the eastward along the north shore. But soon the wind grew
strong and caused such a high sea to run that we were forced
to seek shelter, which we found in the mouth of a small

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DOWN TO THE SEA

river. We had then made fourteen miles. Here we waited,
hoping that toward evening the wind might moderate; but on
the contrary it grew worse, so on the lee side of a bluff point
camp was pitched to afford us shelter from the cold, piercing
blast. A high wind continued all night and during the fol-
lowing day, when it was accompanied by snow and sleet.
The temperature was so low that the fresh-water ponds were
now frozen over. Such a condition of climate, together with
a small and rapidly diminishing stock of provisions, made us
chafe at the delay; but on the morning of the 5th we were
enabled to launch, and during the day made a good run of
about forty miles. The shore of the lake consisted chiefly of
Laurentian rock, from 150 to 300 feet in height, but at some
places broad, low flats and long points of sand and boulders
separated the hills from the water.

During the afternoon of the 6th, the northerly of the two
rivers discharging the waters of Baker Lake was discovered.
The approach to it is well marked on the north bank by a
round bluff some two hundred feet in height. At first no
current could be observed in the river, which, in reality, is
a deep, narrow fiord, but when we had advanced a distance
of about two miles a stiff current, almost approaching a rapid,
was met; but instead of moving with us, as would naturally
be expected, it was flowing to the westward. At first sight
it caused some doubts as to whether we were on the right
road. The canoemen were all persuaded that we were ascend-
ing some big river and would have turned back at once, but
concluding that we had already reached tide water, though
sooner than we had expected, we pulled on, and before long
witnessed the seemingly strange phenomenon of a river
changing its direction of flow.

So smooth and bare were its glaciated shores that we had
some difficulty in effecting a landing. One night was spent
on this rocky bank, and the day following, being fair and
bright, saw us on the waters of Chesterfield Inlet. The mag-

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

netic compasses were now found to work very unsatisfactorily,
but for one day the sunlight enabled me to make liberal use
of my solar instrument. During the next and several suc-
ceeding days the weather was dark and gloomy, and we
encountered such tide rips in the inlet that my survey was
much interfered with.

On the 10th of September, as we were pulling down the
inlet under a strong side wind, through extremely rough
water, we were glad to find about noon a sheltered cove on
the north side of a large island near the south shore. Here
we landed to await an improvement in the weather. While
the cooks were preparing our mid-day meal, my brother and
I set out for the summit of the island, a mile or more to the
south, for the purpose of taking observations. In due time
the breezy elevation was reached. While sighting to a
prominent point to the southward, there suddenly appeared
from behind it what seemed a phantom ship. For a moment
I gazed upon it in amazement, but then realizing that the
appearance was a real, not an imaginary one, I called my
brother’s attention to it. :

The object, which was several miles distant, was clearly
made out to be a two-masted sailboat, and it was heading to
the westward. By whom could it be manned? We could not
imagine, but there it was, with two square sails set to the
wind, and tearing up the inlet. By the aid of our field-
glasses we could make out many moving figures on the
boat, but as to whether they were whalers, Hudson’s Bay
Company’s traders from Churchill, or who else, we could not
conceive. If, however, they were to be more to us than a
vision it was necessary to bestir ourselves, for they were
rapidly passing. From my pocket I drew an immense red
handkerchief and waved it most energetically, while my
brother discharged several shots from his revolver. We soon
saw from the boat’s movements that we were observed, but
instead of coming in towards us they only bore away more to

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DOWN TO THE SEA

the southward. Still I vigorously waved the red handker-
chief, and finally, much to our delight, the sails flapped
loosely in the wind, then in a moment were refilled by the
strong breeze and the boat swept in toward us.

The appearance of a sailboat in Chesterfield Inlet, and
especially at this late season of the year, puzzled us much,
and as it drew nearer we watched it intently. It had the
appearance of being a large whale-boat, and was evidently
well manned, but by whom we could not tell. Whoever they
might be, perhaps they could be hired to take us down the
coast of the bay to Churchill, and if so we might be saved
weeks of hard travel on a very exposed and dangerous coast.
We sincerely hoped that the strange mariners, or at least
their boat, might be available for the voyage. When they
had approached sufficiently near we could see that there were
Eskimos on board, and a moment later their anchor was cast
out, and several of them, making a sort of raft out of three
kyacks they had in tow, paddled in to the rocky shore where
we stood. In vain did we look for the face of a white man.
They were all natives, and as we gazed at each other in
mutual amazement, I broke the silence with the question,
“ Kudloonah petehungetoo?” (Is there no white man?)
“ Petehungetoo”’ (There is none), was the reply, so the
whole party, which consisted of several families, men, women
and children, were Eskimos, and with them in their boat they
had their dogs and other necessary hunting and camping
equipments. They informed us they were moving up into the
interior from the coast to spend the winter, so it was not
surprising that nothing we could offer would induce them to
consider the question of taking us down to Churchill or of
selling their boat to us. We offered what to them would have
been fabulous wealth, but to no purpose. There they were
with all their belongings on their way to the westward, and
westward they were determined to go.

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

The Eskimos in turn expressed surprise at finding two
solitary white men upon such a lonely, barren island, and
not unnaturally asked, “ Nowtimee ibbee kyette?” (Where
do you come from?) I replied, “ Uvagut kyette tellipea
washigtooeloo townonee koog-du-ak ”’ (We come from the west,
very far, down a great river). We were then asked if we had
seen any more of their people, and replied, “ Uvagut tacko-
namee hipunga Innuit coonetookeloo manee tacko Innuit
amasuit washigtoo tellipea iglooanne attowsha sissell wngayo ”
(We have seen no other Eskimos near here, but saw plenty
far to the westward beyond the first big lake). They in-
formed us that another large boat-load of their people had
gone up from the coast on the previous day, and were sur-
prised that we had not seen them. Though we were not
able to purchase or charter the boat from the natives, we
obtained much valuable information and a sketch-map of the
coast of the bay from the mouth of the inlet down to Fort
Churchill. After a brief stay they returned to their boat,
and we to the rocky hills, upon the other side of which our
party awaited our return. The wind still continued to blow
too strongly to admit of travelling by canoe, so we went back
again and spent the rest of the day on the hills.

Next morning “we were up early. The wind had fallen
somewhat and the canoes were soon launched. We managed
to travel until after eleven o’clock, when, because of the high
wind and rough water, we were again obliged to make for
the shore, and in order to do so had to pull through a heavy
surf, breaking over the low, sandy beach. During the after-
noon at this point observations for longitude were obtained,
and close by upon a prominent hill a large cairn of rocks was
erected to mark the spot for the benefit of future explorers.

The two following days were marked by rough weather
and little progress, but finally we reached the mouth of the
great inlet through which for several days we had been
paddling.

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DOWN TO THE SEA

For having completed another stage of the journey we
were exceedingly glad, but coupled with this fact there was
another, viz., that before us was a five-hundred-mile voyage
to be made in open canoes down an exposed sea-coast. Here
we would be surrounded by entirely new conditions and con-
fronted with new difficulties.

RUINS OF ESKIMO LODGES, CHESTERFIELT) INLET.

169

CHAPTER XIV.
ADVENTURES BY LAND AND SEA.

StagTine southward down the coast of Hudson Bay on
the 13th of September, with the weather beautifully calm,
we made a capital run past a rocky coast, skirted by a suc-
cession of shoals and reefs, and at night camped upon the
shore about twelve miles north of Marble Island, whose snow-
white hills of quartzite could be distinctly seen on the
horizon.

Marble Island—so called because of the resemblance its
rounded, glaciated, rocky hills bear to white marble—is well
known as a wintering station for New England whalers. Its
geographical position was determined in 1885 and 1886 by
Commander Gordon, of the Dominion Government Hudson
Bay Expedition, of which the writer was a member, so we
were glad to avail ourselves of the opportunity of connecting
our survey with so well-fixed a landmark.

We had been informed by the Eskimos that there were no
whalers now at the island, and we satisfied ourselves of the
truth of their report by the use of our long-range binoculars.
Had there been we would have endeavored to arrange with
one of them to take us down to Churchill, but in their absence
we could only stick to the canoes. Near camp, on the shore,
we found part of the skeleton of an immense whale, but un-
fortunately not the part that is of commercial value. This
doubtless had been carried away by the Eskimos or by some
whaling crew.

During the following day the weather continued fair, and

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ADVENTURES BY LAND AND SEA

feeling that nature was favoring us, we made good use of
our time. As we followed the coast in a south-westerly direc-
tion, the outline of Marble Island could be seen against the
southern sky; while to the north extended the bold, dark
coast-line of rock, unbroken in appearance excepting where
here and there lay great banks of snow.

About noon we discovered, on landing, what must very
recently have been a large Eskimo encampment. Several
komiticks (sleds) and other articles were found. The wreck
of a large whale-boat lay on the shore, and several dogs were
seen lurking about. This camping-place was the summer
home of the Eskimos we had met sailing up Chesterfield
Inlet, and from a sanitary point of view was no credit to
them, for filth and putrefaction everywhere abounded.

The rocks of this locality were of an interesting character,
being dark green hornblendic schists of the Huronian for-
mation.

Following these two days of exceptionally fair weather we
enjoyed still another, and were permitted to traverse the
mouth of Rankin Inlet, which would have required two or
three days to coast had the weather been anything but calm.
During these three days we had made a distance of just one
hundred miles, which, upon such an exposed coast, we con-
sidered good progress.

Though we saw little game, we still had some dried meat
left, and at this rate of travel two weeks would take us to
Churchill. By carefully rationing ourselves we had meat
enough to last for five or six days, and the balance of the
time could, if necessary, be spent without provisions.

On the night of the 15th, however, being camped upon a
little sand island in the mouth of Corbet’s Inlet, our hopes
were blighted by the approach of a gale, and all the next day
we lay imprisoned upon the sand-bar without any fresh water
to drink. Toward evening the wind was accompanied by a
chilling rain, which continued all night and the greater part

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

of the next morning. On the following afternoon the wind
suddenly fell, and though a heavy sea continued to roll in
from the east, the waves ceased to break.

Fearing to lose one hour when it was possible to travel, we
launched our canoes upon the heaving bosom of the deep and
started across the mouth of the inlet on an eight-mile traverse.
As we passed out beyond the shelter of the island we found
the seas running fearfully high, but so long as they did not
break upon us we had little to fear, and this would not likely
occur unless the wind should spring up again; but when we
were well out in the middle of the inlet that is just what did
happen. The wind began to rise from exactly the opposite
quarter, and speedily increased in force, whipping the crests
off the waves in such a way as to make things appear any-
thing but reassuring. Our situation was indeed perilous.
Every effort was made to guide the canoes so as to brook
least danger, but in spite of all we could do the seas dashed
in upon us, and it looked as if we would never reach the shore.

My brother and I laid down our paddles, and with tin
kettles applied ourselves vigorously to bailing out the water.
Many times the great tumbling billows seemed as if they
would surely roll over us, but our light cedars, though some-
times half-filled with water, were borne up on the crest of
the waves. At length we neared the rocky shore toward which
for several hours we had been struggling, but, to our dismay,
only to find it skirted by a long line of rocks and shoals,
upon which the full fury of the wild sea was breaking. What
were we to do? Without a harbor we would be dashed to
pieces upon’ the rocks—and it was impossible to retreat
against the storm. On we were borne by the force of the
gale, but, thanks to a kind Providence, just as the crisis
appeared to have come, a way of escape was discerned. One
rock could be seen standing out in advance of the others,
and behind this-we managed with a supreme effort to guide
the canoes. Then in shallow water, with the force of the

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ADVENTURES BY LAND AND SEA

seas broken, we all sprang out, and with great exertion suc-
ceeded in landing the boats in safety.

The country here was entirely barren and rocky, compara-
tively level, and of a most dreary aspect, without a sign of
vegetation. The storm continued for two days longer, during
which time we were obliged to remain on shore. As our pro-
visions were now about exhausted, attention was chiefly de-
voted to hunting, but.all that could be found was a small duck
and two gulls. The broken remains of an Eskimo kyack
were found upon the shore, and these were carefully gathered
up so that a kettle of water might be boiled and our gulls
cooked for supper.

On the morning of the 20th, the wind having fallen, camp
was called at four o’clock and without breakfast our journey
resumed. Later in the day each man had a small piece of
dried meat, quite insufficient to satisfy his appetite; but,
hungry though we were, the motto plainly written on every
man’s face was, “Speed the paddle.” Thus we pressed on
for two days, making good progress; but having scarcely any-
thing to eat, the work began to tell on us.

On the 22nd we were again storm-bound by a heavy gale,
with snow, which lasted four days. During this time we
suffered considerably from the violence of the storm as well
as from want of food. As soon as it had abated sufficiently,
which was not until the morning of the 25th, two of the men,
Pierre and Louis, were sent out with the shot-guns to hunt
for food, and with our rifles my brother and I set out for
an all-day tramp into the interior. We found our camp was
situated near the end of a long, narrow point, at the back of
which was Neville Bay. The point consisted in places of
extended fields of water-washed boulders, and in order to
reach the mainland we had to cross these. The necessity of
doing this, together with the fact that we were walking with
weakened limbs into the teeth of a gale, made travelling
extremely difficult.

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Shortly after we left camp, a hare jumped out from
among the rocks, and coming within range, was perforated
by a slug from my “ Marlin.” Not wishing to carry it all
day, we left it with Pierre and Louis to be taken to camp.
By three o’clock, after a long and laborious march, and secur-
ing nothing but a solitary ptarmigan, my brother and I
reached the foot of the bay, and there discovered the mouth
of a large river which flowed into it. We would gladly have
stayed some time in this vicinity, but as the day was already
far spent, and we were pretty well used up, we dare not.
Finding a little dry moss, we made a fire, roasted and ate
the ptarmigan, and then started back to camp. In some
places the fresh snow was deep and soft, and this added
greatly to the fatigue of the tramp. But before we had pro-
ceeded far we met with encouragement in the discovery of
deer-tracks. They were a day or so old, for they were
frozen, but they led away nearly in the direction of camp, so
we eagerly followed them, and from every hill-top keenly
scanned the country.

The shades of evening were gathering, and we were tired
and hungry. Nothing could we see of the deer, and fearing to
lie out all night without blankets in the rough, cold weather,
we pushed on towards camp as fast as our weary limbs would
carry us. We were frequently obliged to sit down and rest,
and consequently, while still several miles from camp, we
found ourselves enveloped in darkness and groping our way
laboriously through a field of boulders. For a considerable
distance we had to feel the way with hands and feet between
and over the rocks. After about two hours of this sort of
experience, we gained the more level country, and shortly
afterwards, guided by the light of a candle in one of the
tents, we reached camp thoroughly used up. We were not,
however, obliged to go to bed hungry, for Pierre and Louis,
having been more successful than ourselves, had secured
several ptarmigan and rabbits. From these a bouillon had

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ADVENTURES BY LAND AND SEA

been prepared, and part of it saved for our supper. It was
a most thoroughly appreciated meal, and after partaking of
it. we were soon rolled up in our blankets, all unconscious of
the storm that howled without or of the fact that we had not
another meal in camp. On the morning of the 26th we were
glad to find that the wind had fallen sufficiently to allow us
to launch. Without delay the canoes were loaded and a fair
run made. Several sea-ducks were shot during the day, and
thus supper was secured.

The next day, again storm-bound by a gale from the south-
west, the whole party started out to hunt for food. We were
not altogether unsuccessful, assembling in the evening with
five marmots (little animals about the size of squirrels).

The following morning, though a strong breeze was blow-
ing, we determined to make a start, for to remain where we
were meant that we must soon starve to death. We were
already much reduced and weakened from the effects of
cold and hunger, and the condition of the weather had of late
been most disheartening. Churchill, the nearest habitation
of man, was still fully three hundred miles distant. We had
not one bite of food. The country was covered with snow,
the weather piercingly cold. No fuel was to be had, and,
worst of all, the weather was such, the greater part of the
time, that we were unable to travel. It was difficult to be
cheerful under such circumstances, but we kept up courage
and pushed on.

While we were bending to our paddles, after making per-
haps seven or eight miles south-westerly along the coast, a
band of deer was seen upon the shore. Our course was
quickly altered and a landing effected, though with some
difficulty, as the tide was falling and the water rapidly
receding. The men were left to keep the canoes afloat while
my brother and I, with our rifles, went in pursuit of the
deer, which were at this time much more difficult to hunt
than earlier in the season, when they run in great herds.

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The country here was a vast and dreary plain, affording no
cover for the hunter save that of a few scattered boulders.
Concealed by some of these, we crept for long distances, but
finding it impossible to get within any kind of medium
range, we opened fire at a distance of four or five hundred
yards. At first the deer trotted about in confusion, but soon
locating their enemies, they fled straight away across the
plains. Jor several hours we followed, vainly seeking for
opportunity of nearer approach, but being unsuccessful,
retraced our weary steps to the shore, where we arrived faint
and exhausted. We found the men had been unable to keep
the canoes afloat because of the ebbing tide. They were now
high and dry, and the water of the bay barely visible in the
distance—such was the extremely low and flat character of
the coast.

EXPLORING RANKIN INLET, HUDSON BAY.

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CHAPTER XV.
POLAR BEARS.

As 17 was impossible to launch until the return of the tide,
Pierre and Louis were given our rifles and sent off to try
their fortunes. As they departed, leaving us lying in the
shelter of a rock, we sincerely wished them success. We had
done our utmost and had failed; if they also should fail it
was too apparent what must soon be the result. Two of the
other men were sent off with shot-guns. Then anxious hours
of waiting followed. No shots were heard, but towards
evening Pierre and Louis, and afterwards the other men,
could be seen returning in the distance. None of them
appeared to be bringing any game, so far as we could
see, and at the sight, I confess, my heart grew sick. As
they came nearer, however, Louis, holding up something in
his hand, exclaimed, “I got him!” It was the claw of a polar
bear, and we soon learned with joy that, sure enough, he had
killed a bear, which he had unexpectedly come upon at the
edge of a lake while following the deer.

The encounter had taken place about six miles inland, and
Louis was alone at the time, his brother having gone off on
a diverging track. The meeting was a mutual surprise, for
the bear, which was lying on the snow near the ice, being
very white himself, was unobserved until the hunter’s
approaching footsteps aroused him. There was then a dis-
tance of not more than fifty yards between them, and no time
for consideration.

The bear, springing to his feet, made straight for Louis,
who met his charge with a slug and brought him to his knees.

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

He was up in an instant, though, and followed the Indian,
who had taken to the ice, thinking that in a conflict he would
there have the advantage. But in this he found he was mis-
taken. The bear was quickly overtaking him, being at home
on the ice, so he turned and with a second shot again knocked
the animal down.

As Louis made for the shore the bear regained his feet, and
with blood streaming from his wounds, and a roar of fury,
made one more desperate charge. He was now within a few
feet of Louis. The intrepid hunter, realizing his situation
as critical, turned quickly and by a well-aimed shot laid his
savage pursuer dead at his feet.

It was a most fortunate shot for our whole party, as well
as for the Indian, who, being unable to handle the carcase
himself, had returned for assistance, meeting his brother by
the way. We all gladly followed him to the scene of the
combat, where, judging from the tracks and blood, there was
abundant proof of the veracity of his story.

On a hill near the carcase some dry moss was discovered,
and with this, even before the skinning had been completed,
some of the flesh was toasted and greedily devoured. The
reviving effect produced upon the spirits of our party was
marked. Though the flesh of the polar bear is famed for its
rankness, we would not have exchanged it at that time for
its weight in silver.

‘The carcase was found to be extremely poor, the only food
found in the stomach being the droppings of reindeer. At
the first meeting, therefore, Louis must have been considered
a very desirable prize. It was merely a question of which
should eat up the other in order to prolong existence.
Fortunately for our party the Indian proved to be the fittest
survivor. No part of the carcase was wasted, but every
scrap, amounting to between three and four hundred pounds,
including the hide, was placed in bags, and carried to the
eanoes, which we reached with much difficulty long after dark.

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POLAR BEARS

Next morning a strong east wind, driving a wild surf in
upon the shore, made it impossible to launch, but we were
thankful during the delay to have a supply of meat on hand
with which to satisfy the cravings of hunger. Advantage
was also taken of the opportunity afforded for obtaining moss.
Though five or six miles distant, a quantity of this fuel was
gathered, and several large kettles of meat boiled—almost
sufficient, it was hoped, to take us to Churchill. But alas
for our hopes! The gale which had arisen increased in fury
until it became a terrific storm, accompanied by sleet and
snow, and this continued for five long days.

One night the tent occupied by my brother and I was
ripped up the back by the force of the gale, and with diffi-
culty kept from being carried away. So piercingly cold was
the wind that without shelter we must soon have perished.
We were > already numb with cold, but in the midst of snow
and darkness I managed to find in my bag a sail needle and
some twine, and then having lowered the tent to the ground,
while my brother held it, I stitched up the rent. When the
tent was again raised, our bedding was buried in snow, but
the blankets being our only comfort, the drifts were shaken
off, and in a half-perished condition we again crept beneath
them.

Besides the discomforts occasioned by the storm at this
camp, I suffered a serious experience of poisoning. Our cook,
thinking to give my brother and myself a treat, provided for
our dinner a dish of fried liver. Perhaps because of its rank
flavor, my brother partook sparingly and so partially escaped,
but I ate of it freely and at once became fearfully ill. For
a whole day I lay in the tent, retching and straining, though
throwing off nothing but froth, until I thought I should have
died. My brother urged me to take some brandy, a little of
which still remained in a flask we had brought with us, but
for some time I declined. Towards evening, however, find-
ing that I would have to take something or give up the ghost,
I yielded to his advice, and soon began to recover. I have

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

since learned that polar bear’s liver is considered to be
poisonous, both by the Eskimos and by the north-sea whalers.

Previous Bear Henrv.

While on the subject of bears, it may be of interest to re-
late here a rather exciting personal experience I once had,
which took place several years before, on the barren, ice-
bound shores of Hudson Straits.

We were a small detachment of explorers, travelling at the
time in the little steam launch of a scientific expedition, and
occupied in the geographical determination of a group of
hitherto unknown islands. The personnel of our party, with-
out giving full names, was as follows: The Doctor, who occu-
pied a position in the stern of the boat and acted as steers-
man; Mac., who, contrary to orders, had smuggled a small
rifle on board and come with us for sport; Con., an able sea-
man from Newfoundland, and myself.

The reason for orders having been given by our commander
to take no rifles with us was, doubtless, that we might not
allow sport to interfere with the object of our commission.
Besides Mac.’s single-shot rifle, I had in my belt a 38-calibre
8S. & W. revolver, and these two, with a knife and an axe,
constituted our defence; but no special thought was given
to these things as at six o’clock on that summer morning,
in the shadow of the Arctics, our little expedition steamed
away on its mission, following and mapping the various
points and bays of the rocky shore, and giving all attention
to our work as we ploughed through the cold, blue waters.

Before we had proceeded many miles it became necessary
to go ashore in order to obtain fresh water for the boiler of
the launch. Accordingly, observing what appeared to be a
little cascade falling over broken cliffs into the sea, our course
was shaped towards it; but before we could gain the shore
our purpose was for the time forgotten, because of the sudden
appearance, only a few yards ahead, of two polar bears—a
large one and her cub—swimming in the water.

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POLAR BEARS

Mae. and I quickly took up position in the bow and
opened hostilities, but on account of the roughness of the
sea and the tossing of the boat, the shots were ineffective, and
so far as the old bear was concerned, an opportunity was not
afforded for repeating them. Quick as a flash she disap-
peared, leaving her fleecy cub’ paddling about on the surface.

Though the engine of our boat had been stopped, the
momentum carried us on rapidly past the little swimmer,
which was about the size of a half-grown sheep. As we
passed, Con. seized master bruin and endeavored to land him
on board, but in this he, perhaps fortunately, failed, and was
prevented from pursuing his ambition by the sudden appear-
ance from the deep of the enraged mother, who, with a roar,
made a plunge for the stern of the boat, where the Doctor was
seated, and seized the gunwale in what were afterwards
described as her “ devilish-looking jaws.”

To say that this sudden turn of events was a surprise to
us all but feebly describes the expressions depicted upon the
faces of our party. With the other occupants and the en-
gines between us and the bear, Mac. and I were unable to
shoot, but Con. came to the rescue, and with several desperate
thrusts of the iron-pointed gaff he persuaded the bear to re-
lease her hold, when with the engine again running, a separa-
tion was effected, but not before we had learned an inter-
esting lesson regarding the habits of the polar bear.

As a matter of discretion, the boat was now kept at a safe
distance from the bears. Several shots were fired, one or two
slight wounds being inflicted on the mother, but as fast as the
little one could travel, though no faster, they maintained a
steady course for the nearest point of land. Apparently
nothing would induce the mother bear to forsake her little
one, and though wounded herself, her whole anxiety seemed
to be for her offspring. Sometimes she would swim a short
distance in advance, but only to return in a moment, as if
to urge on the little creature to greater exertion.

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

The shore was soon gained by the swimmers, who then beat
a rapid retreat up the rocky cliffs and disappeared among the
distant hills. As they fled, the exhibition of motherly affec-
tion shown by the old bear was very remarkable and pleasing.
She would never allow the cub to be separated more than a
few feet from her, and would govern her own pace to suit
that of her “ bairn.”

As the bears made good their escape, self-reproach and
disappointment mingled in our souls, and more than one em-
phasized denunciation was heaped upon our commander’s
head because we had been prevented from having our rifles
with us.

After a few moments of bitter reflection as to what ‘“‘ might
have been,” our thoughts reverted to surveying and the
obtaining of fresh water, but before thought could be followed
by action, strange to say, two other large bears were sighted
ahead. They were near the shore, and not very far from the
foot of the falls for which we had been steering.

A brief consultation was held, and it was decided to ad-
vance cautiously upon them. Mac., with his rifle and but a
half-dozen remaining cartridges, again took his position in
the bow of the boat; but, prompted by recent experience, I
remained at the stern with my revolver, while Con. stood
amidships armed with the gaff. The bears, observing us,
landed upon a high point of broken cliffs close by, and as they
did so, Mac. gave them a couple of slugs, which evidently
took effect, but caused them no particular inconvenience. A
moment later they were lost to sight among the rocks.
Resolved upon preventing their escape if we possibly could,
Mac. and Con.—the latter armed with the axe—were allowed
to go ashore and head off the retreat, while we in the boat
skirted along the shore where the bears might be most likely
to take to the water. Our landing party had no sooner
reached the summit of the first ridge of rock than “ bang!”
went Mac.’s rifle, and a moment later, as he crammed in
another cartridge, there appeared over the ridge, not more

182

“SUVEd UVTOd HLIM WALNNOONT NV

POLAR BEARS

than five yards from his feet, the blood-bespattered heads of
the two furies,

It was a critical moment for our two sportsmen, and one
of breathless suspense for those of us who looked on. Con.
stood with uplifted axe ready to strike as Mac., again level-
ling, fired into the face of the foremost bear, now almost at
his feet, and sent a slug boring through his head. By ordinary
bears this would have been received as sufficient intimation
to drop dead, but it seemed only to “rattle” this polar, so
that, instead of proceeding to demolish Mac. and Con., he
plunged over the steep cliff into the sea and there terminated
his career.

The other bear, seeing the fate of his comrade, retreated
‘and took to the water, and as he did so, leaving a trail of
blood upon the rocks, Mac. sent his last slug after him. He
and Con. then, descending to the shore, came on board, and
with us gave chase to the wounded animal, who was swim-
ming off at a rapid pace. Our launch, however, soon over-
took him, and as we passed I gave him a volley from my
revolver, which appeared to have little more effect than to
increase his rage.

As I was about to fire again he disappeared, and a moment
later reappeared at the side of the boat, threw one paw over
the gunwale, and with open, blood-thirsty jaws made a lunge
for my leg. Fortunately for me his reach was a little too
short, and the result was he got the worst of the scuffle.
Putting my revolver up to the side of his head, I gave him
the contents of the five chambers: before he could retire.
These shots, however, did not penetrate the skull, and beyond
causing a withdrawal, only had the effect of further enraging
him.

Hostilities having been commenced at close quarters, we
continued the fight until I had fired my last cartridge and
bruin’s scalp was riddled with lead. But the wounded fury
still swam powerfully, and with ammunition now exhausted
it appeared as if we would not be able to complete the task

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

we had undertaken. For a short time we watched his move-
ments, and observing that he seemed inclined to go ashore,
we decided upon a new plan of action. Steaming away
around the point, we beached the boat, and, armed with axe,
ice-gaff and knife, we climbed the farther side of the cliff,
and there concealed ourselves in such a position that we were
able to watch the enemy’s movements.

We had not long to wait, for, thinking himself unobserved,
he swam ashore at the foot of the bluff and hid among the
broken rocks. Feeling that our opportunity had now arrived,
we descended stealthily from ledge to ledge and from rock
to rock, taking care that we should not be scented or observed.
Step by step we drew nearer, until close to the foot of the
cliff, and almost at our feet, we came upon the wounded
bear. He was mu¢h out of humor, and sore enough from
his many wounds, but before he had time to demonstrate
his displeasure, Mac. had thrust the gaff through his skull,
Con. had cleft his head with the axe, and my knife had
spilled his heart’s blood upon the rocks.

In the animal world the polar bear is admittedly the
monarch of the north. He is the bear of bears, being de-
scribed by all Arctic travellers as possessing enormous
strength and great voracity. Of the score of polars whose
more or less intimate acquaintance I have had occasion to
make, I have seen at least two whose tracks in the snow
measured fifteen by eightecn inches, whose length measured
over nine feet, and whose slain carcases tipped the steelyard
at from fifteen to sixteen hundred pounds.

“Consequently I have always had great respect for the
sentiments expressed in the following lines by an author
whose name I regret being unable to recall:

“Of the black bear you need not be afraid,
But killing white ones is a dangerous trade.
In this be cool, and well direct your lead,
And take your aim at either heart or head;

For struck elsewhere, your piece not level’d true,
Not long you'll live your erring hand to rue.”

184

CHAPTER XVI.
LIFE OR DEATH?

Arter the great five days’ storm, which lasted until the
4th of October, the whole country was buried in snow, and
every possibility of finding even a little moss for fuel was
excluded. Winter indeed had overtaken us. Ice was form-
ing all along the shore of the bay, and it was evident that
within a very few days travel by canoe must be at an end.

On the above date, though light snow continued to fall, the
wind had gone down sufficiently to admit of launching the
canoes after a long portage out to meet the tide. In spite of
the most vigorous exertion, all we were able to make during
the day was ten miles, and that through a chilling spray
which froze upon us and encased canoes and men in an armor
of ice. We had great difficulty in getting ashore at night,
having again to portage a long distance over the low-tide
boulder flats.

On the following morning the waters of the bay were out
of sight, and it was not until about noon, when the tide flowed
in, that we were able to float the canoes. Even then we were
so obstructed by the new ice and a strong head-wind, that we
were not able to make more than a mile or two before being
again forced to struggle to the shore. At this rate we would
be a long time in reaching Churchill. We had now been
more than three weeks on the coast, and were still at least
two hundred and fifty miles from our haven.

Some different mode of travel must be adopted or we
should never get in. The shore ice was forming rapidly and
might now block us at any time. We had not more than

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

enough bear meat for another day or two, and the game had
all left the country. What was to be done? My brother and
I talked the matter over during the night. The plan sug-
gested itself of abandoning everything but rifles and blankets,
and starting down the shore on foot. But then, how could
the numerous large rivers, which were still open, be crossed ?
Again, to this plan there was the objection that having been
in canoes all summer, our party, though still strong enough
to paddle, was in very poor condition to walk. The only
other feasible plan was then suggested. It was to abandon
dunnage, instruments, rock collection, etc., everything except
note-books, photographs, plant collection, rifles, blankets, and
two small tents, and with these to start out in only two light
canoes, and with the increased force in them to travel for
our lives.

This plan was decided on, and in the morning the men
were set to work to cache all our stuff excepting the articles
above mentioned. This occupied the whole morning, and to
us it was a sad and lonely task; but as it seemed to be the
only way by which we might hope to escape from this dreary
ice-bound coast, it was felt to be a necessary one. As secure
a cache as we could build was made, and then with heavy
hearts we turned our steps toward the shore.

After launching the two canoes it was with great danger
and difficulty we were able to force a way through the broken
but heavy shore-ice to the open water beyond. Having once
gotten clear, we were able to make good progress, and even
at great risk of being smashed upon some of the many rocks,
we paddled far into the night; but at a late hour, being
sheathed in ice from the freezing spray, we landed, and,
without supper, lay down to sleep upon the snow.

Eight more dreary days passed, six of which were spent in
battling with the elements and two in lying storm-bound in
‘our tents. During this interval our party suffered much
from cold and lack of food, and to make matters worse, dysen-

186

LIFE OR DEATH?

tery attacked us, and it appeared as if one of our men would
die.

The ice had been all the while forming, rendering it more
and more difficult to launch or get ashore. Our frail canoes
were badly battered, and often were broken through by the
ice; and the low character of the coast had not improved.
Still with hollow cheeks and enfeebled strength we struggled
on, sometimes making fair progress and at others very little,
until on October the 14th, as we advanced, the ice became
so heavy, and extended so far out to sea, that in order to
clear it we had to go quite out of sight of land.

Towards evening we began to look about for some oppor-
tunity of going ashore, but nothing could be seen before us
but a vast field of ice, with occasional protruding boulders.
We pushed on, hoping to find some bluff, point or channel of
water by which we might reach the shore, but the appearance
of things did not change in the slightest. We stood up in the
canoes or climbed upon boulders, vainly hoping to at least
get a glimpse of the land. Of course, we knew the direction
in which the shore lay, but it was so low, and we were so far
out, that it was beyond our view.

Soon the shades of night began to fall about us, our canoes
were leaking badly, and the weather was bitterly cold.
Failing to reach the shore, we resolved to wait for high tide,
about ten o’clock, hoping we might with it do better. The tide
came, but left us still in the same condition, no more able to
penetrate the ice or gain the shore than before. It had become
intensely dark, and we were in great danger of being smashed
on the ice or rocks. We were utterly helpless and could do
nothing but remain where we were, or go where the tide
chose to carry us, until the return of daylight.

The hours of that night were the longest I have ever ex-
perienced, and the odds seemed to be against our. surviving
until morning; but at last the day returned and found us
still alive. My brother was nearly frozen. having been

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

obliged to sit or lie in icy water all night. Poor little Michel
had both of his feet frozen, and the rest of us were badly
used up. Still we were in the same position as on the night
before. We could not hold out much longer; we must gain
the shore or perish. At the time of high tide, the ice being
somewhat loosened, our canoes were thrust into the pack, and
by great exertion, as well as much care, we succeeded about
one o’clock in reaching solid ice, upon which we were able to
land, and, for the last time, haul out our noble little crafts.
We had been in them just thirty hours, battling with the
ice, exposed to a chilling winter blast, our clothing saturated
and frozen, and our bodies faint and numb with starvation
and cold. But we were now within reach of the land, and
all of us who were able gladly scrambled out upon the ice
to stretch our cramped and stiffened limbs. My brother was
in a perishing condition from the exposure of the night. He
had been barely able to keep his canoe afloat by bailing, and
had sat in the icy water for seventeen hours. I wrapped him
up as warmly as I could and administered half a bottle of
Jamaica ginger, the last of our stock. We then set about
hauling the canoes over the ice to the shore, which we soon
reached, and where we were so fortunate as to find drift-wood.
A fire was quickly made, camp pitched, and better still, a
meal prepared. On the previous day a seal, the only one
secured on the trip, had been shot, and we were now in a
position to appreciate it. The three western half-breeds were
still fairly strong, but the remaining five of us were very
weak and badly used up. We knew now, however, that we
could be no great distance from Churchill, for we had again
reached the wooded country, and two or three miles back
from the shore could be seen dark clumps of spruce trees.
This was a most consoling fact, for besides having meat for
several days, we felt that we would have shelter and fire.
As for launching our canoes again, that was entirely out

188

LIFE OR DEATH?

of the question. If we would reach Churchill at all it must
be by land.

As most of us were unable to walk, the only course open
appeared to be to send on some of the stronger men to, if
possible, reach the Fort and bring back a relief party. This
plan was proposed, and two of the western men, Jim and
John, volunteered to undertake the walk. We thought the
distance could not be more than fifty miles, and it might be
considerably less. On the morning of the 16th the two men
set out on their journey, while those of us remaining pro-
ceeded to move our tents back from the shore about two miles,
te the nearest woods, where we might make ourselves more
comfortable, to await the success or failure of the relief party.

A sheltered spot was selected for camp, in a thick grove
of spruce trees, and after clearing away about two feet of
snow which covered the ground, tents were pitched, then well
carpeted with spruce boughs, and a big camp-fire made. This
was indeed a happy change from lying in canoes in the ice-
pack. Clothing and blankets were now dried, and with the
seal meat, and some ptarmigan which we shot in the grove,
we were soon comparatively comfortable—with the exception,
perhaps, of poor Michel, who suffered much from his frozen
feet.

The reviving effect of the camp-fire upon our numb and
half-frozen bodies was soon felt, though with the exception
of Francois, the western half-breed, all of us at the camp
were still very weak. Our veteran Pierre, who had done
such good service with the paddle, now staggered in his
walk, and as we were moving the tents from the shore back
to the woods, he fell from sheer exhaustion and had difficulty
in regaining his feet. Now in camp, however, and with meat
enough to last us for a day or two, we were in a position to
take a rest from our labors. Poor Michel’s feet were in a
bad state, and having no proper means of treating them, we
were anxious about them. His brother Louis was also in a

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

wretched condition from the effects of severe dysentery, caused
by exposure and starvation, and was unable to walk.

On the morning of the 17th, feeling somewhat revived
after a long night’s rest, I undertook to go hunting ptarmigan,
which we were glad to find were plentiful in the woods about
us. Had it not been for the fact that our ammunition was
almost exhausted, the occurrence of these birds in abundance
would have afforded us greater consolation; but being, as we
were, reduced to a dozen or two cartridges, the opportunity
for living on feathered game seemed limited to a short period.
Before I had walked a hundred yards from camp, I was
forced to realize how weak I had become, and after making
a circuit of about half a mile and shooting only two or three
birds, I was scarcely able to crawl back to the tent. On my
return, Francois, taking the shot-gun, went out and returned
in the evening with a fine bag of game.

On waking the next morning, my brother amused us by
relating an extraordinary dream, in which he imagined he
was luxuriating in good things, and particularly sweet cur-
rant cakes, for which he was exhibiting a wonderful capacity.
But alas! with the visions of the night the cakes had vanished,
and for breakfast he was forced to be content with unseasoned
boiled ptarmigan.

At about one o’clock in the day, as we were seated within
the tent partaking of our second meal, we were suddenly
startled by hearing the exclamation, “ Hullo, Jim!” The
eagerness with which we scrambled over dinner and dishes to
the tent-door can better be imagined than described, and on
looking out, sure enough there was Jim returning. Was he
alone? No, thank the Lord! Behind him, a moment later,
emerged from the woods a number of men, followed by teams
of dogs and sleds. One after the other there came scamper-
ing along no less than four teams, hauling long, empty sleds
capable of furnishing accommodation for our whole outfit.

After a hard two days’ tramp, Jim and John had reached

190

“YOOTILNO ANOOID V—TIVAW LISVT AHL

LIFE OR DEATH?

the Fort, where they found kind friends ready to send us
prompt assistance. Dog teams had been placed at their dis-
posal, provisions supplied, and early on the morning of the
same day on which they had found us, the train had set out
for our relief. With light sleds they had travelled at a rapid
pace over the thirty miles of snowy plains which separated
us from Churchill. Another day of good travel in the canoes
would have taken us in, had this been afforded us.

As the relief party drew up at our camp, Jim advanced
and handed letters to my brother and myself, expressing
kind wishes and sympathy from Mr. and Mrs. Lofthouse,
the Church of England missionary and his wife at the Fort,
whose friendship I had the privilege of making on two former
visits to Churchill. Along with the letters was handed a
box, which when opened was found to contain the good
things of my brother’s dream, even to the sweet currant
cakes. Staple provisions were also produced, and it is
scarcely necessary to say that they were joyfully welcomed.
It would be impossible to describe our feelings upon this
occasion, the termination of so many hardships and sufferings.
During the afternoon preparations were made for the journey
to the Fort on the following day. The canoes were hauled
up from the shore, where we had been obliged to leave them,
and loaded upon two of the dog-sleds. Camp outfit and pro-
visions were loaded upon the others, and as far as possible
everything was put in readiness for an early start in the
morning.

A change in the weather was already forecast, the wind
shifting around to the south, and towards evening it became
decidedly milder. During the night a rain set in, and be-
tween it and the warm wind a wonderful change was wrought
before dawn. It began to look very much as if the fates
were against us, and that now with the sleds and dog-teams
we should have no snow to travel on. But before daylight
camp was astir, and finding that enough yet remained, break-

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

fast was partaken of by the light of the camp-fire and at the
first streaks of dawn the journey on sleds to Churchill was
begun.

Out of the woods there was comparatively little of the
snow left. Under cover of the trees it was still deep, but too
soft and heavy for the teams, so we kept along on the open
plains between the woods and the shore, and made fair
progress.

The arrangement of our party was as follows: As guide,
an Indian named James Westasecot led the way some distance
ahead of the train. Next after him came a team of six big
Eskimo dogs, hitched two and two abreast to a long sled
carrying the big canoe, in which Michel was given a passage.
Following this team was another hauling the smaller canoe,
in which I was rolled up in my blankets. The third team
consisted of only four dogs and, in a carryall, hauled my
brother and some of the baggage; and at the rear of the train
trotted another full team of six dogs with Louis, the sick
Iroquois, and the camp outfit. The rest of our men walked
behind or beside the various sleds, resting themselves by
jumping on when the travelling was easy, as it often was
when crossing level spaces or frozen ponds, of which latter
there were very many.

The day was beautifully bright and pleasant for one travel-
ling as I was, but for the drivers and dogs it was much too
warm for comfort. In many places the higher ground was
bare, and progress consequently slow.

About noon a halt was made for lunch, and during this
time the opinion was expressed by the drivers that we would
not be able to reach the Fort until the next day; but upon
being promised that if they would take us in without having
to spend another night in camp they should have whatever
remained of the supplies they had brought us, they were
induced to change their minds, and acting upon the new in-
spiration we were soon again on our way. In many places

192

LIFE OR DEATH?

the low, flat plains we traversed were overgrown by clumps
of swamp willow, and around these many large flocks of
ptarmigan were seen. About three o’clock in the afternoon
we reached Grassy Island, at the foot of Button’s Bay,
and two hours later gained the base of a long range of rocky
hills. We skirted the foot of these for some time, until we
reached a low place in the ridge, where, dismounting to
lighten the loads, we turned up the steep pass, and after a
short climb to the crest found ourselves within full view of
Fort Churchill. It was not an imposing place, but even
though consisting of only four or five old frame buildings,
the sight to us was one of deep satisfaction. For a moment
we paused on the summit of the ridge, then at the crack of
the driver’s whip the teams bounded forward, galloped down
the steep slope, sped across the plains below, and in a few
minutes landed us at the house of the Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany’s trader. Here, after extricating ourselves from the
various conveyances, we were presently received by a tall
young Scotchman, who announced himself as Mr. Matheson,
Master of the Fort.

13 193

CHAPTER XVII.
FORT CHURCHILL.

Wirx our arrival at Fort Churchill we felt that the suc-
cessful termination of our long journey was pretty well
assured. Here there must be an abundance of provisions to
feed our small party for an indefinite length of time, so that
we could either spend the winter at the post and go south
by canoes in the spring, or else remain long enough to recruit
our energies and continue the journey on snowshoes.

Adjoining the Master’s house, and ranged in two irregular,
detached rows, near the rocky bank of the Churchill River,
were the four or five old frame buildings of the Fort used
as storehouses and servants’ lodges. Two or three hundred
yards down the shore was a neat little church and mission
house. Drawn up on the beach near the church were several
large, open coast-boats, used during the summer by the Hud-
son’s Bay Company in carrying on trade with the Eskimos,
and besides these was a small landing and warehouse; while
down at the mouth of the river, five miles distant, could be
seen the ruins of old Fort Prince of Wales, once a massive
cut-stone fortification.

The buildings of the traders were very old, some of them
being in a half-wrecked condition, but those of the mission
were new and trim, having been only recently erected by. the
Rev. Joseph Lofthouse (now Bishop of Keewatin), who
with his family occupied the dwelling. In this ideal little
home, from the hour of our arrival at the Fort, we were
given a most hearty and hospitable welcome.

One of the first duties requiring attention, after arrang-

194

H. B. CO.’S POST, FORT CHURCHILL.

COAST BOATS AND CHURCH, FORT CHURCHILL.
195

ACROSS THIi SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

ing for rations and shelter, was the treatment of poor
Michel’s frozen feet, which upon examination were found to
be in a shocking condition. Fortunately, in a pocket medi-
cine-case the proper remedies for treating him were found,
and with attention and care his condition from the first
began to improve, though it was evident that at best it would
be many weeks, if not months, before he would again be able
to walk.

Our situation and prospects of advancement were thor-
oughly discussed with the trader, as well as at the mission,
and it was resolved that we should proceed southward on
foot as soon as the condition of the party (and that of the.
Churchill River, now running full of ice) would admit.
We, therefore, lost no time in getting into training for the
tramp, which would cover nearly one thousand miles. Daily
walks were prescribed for all but Michel, and the stronger
of the men were sent out to shoot ptarmigan, so that they
might not only exercise their limbs, but, at the same time,
supplement their daily rations, in which endeavors they
were quite successful.

As regards my brother and myself, our short constitu-
tionals almost invariably ended at the Mission House, where.
many pleasant hours were spent with Mr. and Mrs. Loft-
house and their little daughter Marjorie.

From the time of the establishment of the Churchill Mis-
sion—the history of which would of itself form an interest-
ing chapter—to the time of our visit, Mr. and Mrs. Loft-
house had been devoting their lives to the noble work of
teaching and helping the natives, both Indians and Eskimos,
wherever they found them, and already the fruits of their
labors were apparent.

Close to their home stood a neat substantial church,
capable of seating three hundred people, and every nail in
the structure, which would be a credit to many a village in
Ontario, was driven by the missionary’s own hand. Part

196

FORT CHURCHILL

of the year, during the absence of the moving population of
the district, such a seating capacity is unnecessarily great;
but at other seasons, when the natives come in with the pro-
duce of the hunt, the little building is usually crowded.
Mr. Lofthouse preached in the Cree, Chipewyan and
Eskimo languages, and having won the esteem and affection
of his people, he had a powerful influence over them, and

REV. JOSEPH LOFTHOUSE ANID FAMILY.

Fort Churchill, Hudson Bay.

taught them with much success. He and Mrs. Loftliouse
together conducted a day-school for the benefit of the
children of the permanent residents. These numbered
twenty-one, the total population of Churchill being only
fifty-one. On visiting the school I was much pleased with
the advancement of the children, even the smallest of whom

197

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

could read from the Bible. The girls were taught by Mrs.
Lofthouse to do various kinds of needlework, and by way of
encouragement were supplied with materials.

At the trading station, besides Mr. Matheson, Captain
Hawes and his family were staying at the time, he in an
unofficial capacity. He was shortly to succeed Mr. Matheson,
who was to be removed to some other post. Although not so
well acquainted with the Captain as with Mr. and Mrs.
Lofthouse, his face was also a familiar one to me, as we had
met at Churchill in former years, when he was master of the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s ship, Cam Owen, since wrecked
on the coast.

During the stay at Churchill every day brought noticeable
improvement in the condition of our party. On several occa-
sions, the weather being favorable, snowshoeing expeditions
were formed. These were much enjoyed, though usually
accompanied by great fatigue. Knowing, however, that by
means of such travel we must return home in a short time,
we realized the necessity of gaining strength for the long
journey.

In the course of one of our outings we reached a place
called Sloops Cove, about half way to Prince of Wales Fort,
and there made some interesting observations. This cove
owes its name to the fact that in the year 1741 the two sloops,
Furnace and Discovery, sent out from England in command
of Captain Middleton to search for the long-looked-for
North-West Passage, spent the winter there. How two
vessels could have been forced into this cove is a question
which has given rise to much speculation on the part of Cana-
dian scientists, for the cove does not now contain more than
sufficient depth of water, at high tide, to float a small boat,
and it is doubtful if even such a boat could get in through
the rocky entrance. The historical fact remains, however,
that this cove was the winter quarters of these two sloops,
and as proof of the fact a number of ring-bolts to which the

198

FORT CHURCHILL

vessels were secured may still be seen leaded into the smooth
glaciated granite. Besides the ring-bolts, many interesting
carvings are to be seen cut on the surface of the smooth rocks.
Amongst these are the following: “ Furnace and Discovery,
1741,” “J. Horner, 1746,” “J. Morley, 1748,” “ James
Walker, May ye 25, 1753,” “ Guilford Long, May ye 27,
1758,” “J. Wood, 1757,” “Sl. Hearne, July ye 1, 1767.”
In addition to many other names are several picture carvings,
and notably one of a man suspended from a gallows, over

LOHMN Kelley From Ke Mee

N

S* Hearne
Duly 1757

FACSIMILE OF DRAWING ON ROCK AT SLOOPS COVE.

which is the inscription, ‘John Kelley from the Isle of
Wight.” According to local tradition Mr. Kelley was
hanged for the theft of a salt goose.

As yet during our stay at Churchill we had not been suc-
cessful in reaching the ruins of old Fort Prince of Wales,
but on the 8rd of November, the weather being cold and good
for snowshoeing, we started off, and after an enjoyable five-
mile tramp reached the memorable spot, now a scene of
utter desolation. Not a tree or other sign of life could be

seen on the long, low, snow-driven point of rock, but there in
199

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

all its solitary, massive grandeur stood the remains of what
had more than one hundred years ago been a noble fortress.

The construction of this fortification, which appears to
have been planned by the English engineer, Joseph Robson,
was commenced in the year 1748 by the Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany, which was then, as now, carrying on fur-trading busi-
ness in northern Canada. So large and expensive a fortifica-
tion was built, probably, not so much for the protection of the
Company’s interests as for the purpose of complying with a
provision of its Royal Charter, which required that the
country should be fortified.

The building of the fort appears to have been carried on
for many years under the direction of the famous Samuel
Hearne, already referred to as having traversed the Barren
Lands to the mouth of the Coppermine River. In a stone
barrack within the fort, Hearne lived and carried on busi-
ness for many years.

The fortress was in the form of a square, with sides three
hundred and sixteen feet long; at the corners were bastions,
and on top of the massive stone walls, twenty feet in height
by thirty feet in thickness at the base, were mounted forty-
two guns. With such a defence one would suppose that
Churchill should have been safe from attacking foes, but this
does not seem to have been the case, for history informs us
that on the 8th of August, 1782, the gallant La Perouse and
his three vessels of war, with, it is said, naught but seurvy-
smitten crews, made their appearance before the much-
amazed garrison of thirty-nine men, and demanded an
unconditional surrender, which was granted without resist-
ance, and the gates of the great stone fort thrown open to the
invaders. Taking possession, they spiked and dismounted
the guns, in places broke down the walls, burned the barracks,
and sailed away to France with Hearne, his men, and all
their valuable furs.

As La Perouse left the fort so did we find it. For the

200

Cama s011972q )

‘SSHTVM AO AONINd LYOA AO SNINA

(mar sortauy )

‘SATVM HO AONINd LYOA AO SNINU

FORT CHURCHILL

most part the walls were still solid, though from between
their great blocks of granite the mortar was crumbling. The
guns, spiked and dismounted, were still to be seen lying about
on the ramparts and among the fallen masonry. In the
bastions, all of which were still standing, were to be seen the
remains of wells and magazines, and in the centre of the
fort stood the walls of the old building in which Hearne and
his men had lived. The charred ends of roof-beams were
still attached to its walls, where, undecayed, they had rested
for the past one hundred and eleven years.

With a continuous low temperature, such as now existed
at Churchill, the ice in the river, much to our satisfaction,
began to set fast. This was necessary to enable us to con-
tinue the journey. On Saturday, November 4th, the ther-
mometer registered 1414 deg. below zero (Fahr.), and with
that temperature the movement of floating ice ceased and the
river was bridged from shore to shore. Being anxious to get
away as early as possible, arrangements were made with the
Company’s agent for a start for York Factory on Monday
morning. The assistance of one dog-team, with driver and
guide, was with some difficulty secured, but three other
teams were to accompany us a great part of the way, viz., to
Stony River, where in the month of September the Com-
pany’s servants had been obliged to abandon a boatload of
supplies because of severe weather, the month in which we
had been canoeing on the coast 500 miles farther north.

A bill of necessary supplies was prepared, and these were
weighed out and put into sacks. Men and teams were sent
off to obtain a supply of dog-meat—an indispensable com-
modity—from a shanty on the south side of the river. When
they reached the place they found it in possession of five polar
bears—three large ones and two cubs. Along with the dog-
meat were brought back the skins of one old bear and the two
cubs. During Sunday the thermometer fell to 21 deg. below
zero, making the river-ice strong and perfectly safe.

201

CHAPTER XVIII.
ON SNOWSHOES AND DOG-SLEDS.

On the morning of the 6th of November, after a stay of
seventeen days at Fort Churchill, we were again ready to set
out for the south. Our team consisted of six Eskimo dogs
attached tandem fashion to a sled twelve feet long and a foot
and a half wide. This sled was of the regular Eskimo type,
the runners being formed of sticks hewn down to the dimen-
sions of about two inches by six inches, and slightly curved
up in front.

Upon the sled was loaded about six hundred pounds of
provisions, dog-meat, blankets and other dunnage, all securely
lashed on within a canvas wrapper. The driver who had
charge of the team was a tall young half-breed, named
Arthur Omen. Our guide, whose name was Jimmie West-
asecot, was a large fine-looking Cree Indian, of about middle
age, who bore the distinction of being the most famous
hunter and traveller in all that country.

The party consisted of ten. My brother and I were
warmly dressed in deerskin garbs of the Eskimo, while the
rest of the party wore the white blanket suits of the traders,
and with the exception of poor Michel, whose feet were still
too sore to allow him to walk, each man was provided with a
pair of snowshoes. As one dog-team was unable to draw all
the freight, the men were obliged to haul their own dunnage,
and for this purpose three flat sleds or toboggans were pro-
cured, and loaded with sixty or seventy pounds each.

Thus provision was made for the transport of all neces-
sary supplies, but what was to be done with Michel? Mr.

202

J. B. TYRRELL.

(In the identical Eskimo suit worn by him on the tramp from Fort
Churchill to Winnipeg. )

ON SNOWSHOES AND DOG-SLEDS

Matheson kindly assisted us out of the difficulty by offering
to take the crippled Indian on one of his sleds. Thus
arrangements were completed, and, with nine days’ pro-
visions, we bade our kind friends farewell, and, early on the
morning of the date mentioned, marched from the fort in
single file, forming into a long serpentine train, winding our
way to the southward across the broad frozen river. As we
departed, farewell salutes were waved from the doorway of
the little mission-house, and we felt that with them were
wafted the most sincere and hearty good wishes.

At the outset, though we had greatly improved physically
during the stay at Churchill, we were still far from being
strong, and it was thought best for a time not to attempt
forced marches. The wisdom of this was clearly proven
before the first day’s tramp was ended. That afternoon one
of my knees gave out, and soon became so badly crippled
that every step caused me the most excruciating pain, and
it was with the greatest effort I managed to hobble along
after the train until evening. We travelled about twenty-
one miles during the day, on an easterly course, across open
plains and snow-covered lakes. There was little timber on
the route until we reached the Eastern Woods, where it was
decided to camp. Upon the open plains we found the snow
hard and in good condition for travelling, so that the teams
trotted along easily with their heavy loads.

Snowshoe travel was also comparatively easy for those
whose legs were sound, but the moment we entered the woods
down sank shoes and dogs into the soft, light snow. In soft
snow it is necessary for the guide or track-breaker to wear
very large shoes, that he may not sink too deeply, but those
who follow in his trail get along with the more ordinary size.

The snowshoes used by Jimmie, the guide, were about five
feet long and eighteen inches wide, whereas those used by the
rest of us varied from three to three and a half feet in length
and from ten to twelve inches in breadth. The guide’s large

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

shoes were made somewhat after the Montreal model, sym-
metrical on either side, framed of one stick and slightly bent
up at the toe, but those used by the rest were of very differ-
ent make and more peculiar design. Though we purchased
them from the Hudson’s Bay Company at Churchill, they
were made by the Chipewyan Indians. Their shoes are not
made symmetrically, but are constructed with bulges upon
their outer sides, and are formed of two pieces of wood, tied
together at both ends and held apart in the middle by cross-
bars, while the toes are turned up with a sharp curve.

Having reached the shelter of the Eastern Woods, and
concluded the first day’s march, a camping-place was chosen.
The drivers of the teams at once proceeded to unharness the
dogs, make beds for them of spruce boughs, and give them
their daily meal of seal-blubber or fish. The other members
of the party busied themselves in clearing away the snow,
cutting down brush and firewood, and building the camp.
This latter did not consist of a tent, shanty, or indeed cover-
ing of any kind, but simply of a wall of brush built crescent-
shape to a height of three or four feet, and in such a posi-
tion as to best afford shelter from the cutting wind. The
two main elements of a good winter camp-ground are shelter
and dry wood, both of which are indispensable.

The snow was cleared away from the inside of the wind-
break, and in its stead spruce boughs were strewn to a depth
of several inches, and in front of this a big fire kindled—
and camp was complete.

These tasks ended, the preparation of supper was com-
menced. Bacon and biscuits were hauled out, while frying-
pans and tea-kettles were brought and placed with their
contents upon the fire. Fresh water had been found by cut-
ting through the ice of a creek close by, so nothing was
lacking.

Tin plates and cups, knives and forks were provided, but
as we took hold of them they froze to our fingers, and before

204 ‘

ON SNOWSHOES AND DOG-SLEDS

we could use them they had to be heated. After supper pre-
parations were made for the night and for the morrow’s
tramp. Socks, duffles and moccasins, wet with perspiration
from the day’s march, were hung up before the fire to dry;
robes and blankets were spread about the camp, and upon
them our tired party assembled to enjoy a rest and smoke
beside the fire before turning in for the night. Though cold,
the night was beautifully calm and clear, and when from
time to time the big dry sticks of wood were thrown upon the
fire, showers of sparks ascended until they found hiding-
places among the dark branches of the overhanging spruce
trees.

Camp-fire stories and gossip were indulged in for an hour,
then several Jogs were thrown upon the fire, and each man,
rolled up in his blanket, and with feet toward the fire, lay
down to sleep. There was little sleep for me, however,
because of my knee, which gave me great pain during the
night.

The next morning camp was called at five o’clock, and
under the still starlit sky all hands rolled out into the keen
frosty morning air. At the first streak of dawn, after break-
fast and other preliminaries, our march was resumed.

It was yet dark in the woods, and to most of us there was
no more indication of a trail in one place than in another;
but our veteran guide, who possessed all the sagacity of the
ideal red man, led the way, and all the rest of us had to do
was to follow his tracks. Soon we emerged from the Eastern
Woods, and getting into more open country, turned our
course toward the south, crossing broad plains, diversified
here and there by stunted, scattered trees, ice-covered ponds,
and occasionally the thickly wooded valley of a winding
stream. As we travelled on my leg caused me intense pain,
so that it became impossible to keep up with the train. I
hobbled along as well as I could for a time, but finding that
I was seriously retarding the progress of the march, arrange-

205 ©

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

ments were made to give me a lift on one of the sleds.
Pierre and Louis were also becoming lame from the use of
their snowshoes, to which they were not yet hardened, but
were not seriously crippled.*

During the second day from Churchill a herd of twenty
or thirty deer was seen. Some of us were in no mood or con-
dition to hunt, but Jimmie, the guide, our own man Jim,
and Mr. Matheson went off in pursuit of the band. Several
times during the afternoon we crossed the tracks of both
deer and hunters, but when we came upon the big tracks of
our guide we saw the first signs of success. He had evidently
wounded a deer and was giving him a hot chase, for
the Indian’s strides were right upon those of the caribou,
and to one side of the trail spatters of blood could be seen
on the snow. Toward evening our train came up with Mr.
Matheson and Jim, who had a long but fruitless run after
the deer, but nothing could be seen of the guide. Some time
after camp had been made for the night Jimmie walked in
with a haunch of venison on his shoulder. He had wounded
his deer early in the afternoon, but had been obliged to run
him many miles before he could again come up with him.
Lest the carcase, which was lying some distance from camp,
should be devoured by wolves in the night, a team was har-
nessed and Jimmie himself, with another man, started off for
the meat, which, a few hours later, they brought into camp.
As we had had very little fresh meat for some time past,
supper of venison steak was gratefully appreciated.

During the day’s march numerous wolf and polar bear
tracks had been crossed, but the caribou were the only ani-
mals seen.

*For the benefit of anyone who may be not aware of the fact, I
will explain that there are various kinds of lameness commonly
produced by the prolonged use of snowshoes. In thus travelling,
certain leg muscles which are only accustomed to perform light
service are brought into vigorous use, and are very liabie to become
strained and cause much discomfort and suffering.

206

ON SNOWSHOES AND DOG-SLEDS

The next day’s tramp was a short one, not in actual miles
travelled by some of us, but in distance made upon the
course. We had, however, a good day’s sport, for at different
times during the day no less than eight deer were shot. My
brother and I were not able to take part in the chase, for by
this time, though I was beginning to recover, my brother was
as badly crippled as I had been, and for a time had to be
drawn on a sled. I should not, perhaps, say we took no part
in the chase, for my brother made one remarkable shot.

At about the close of day, a small deer which Mr. Mathe-
son had been following, and at which he had been practising
for some time with my brother’s rifle, stood still and looked
at him with innocent amazement, at a distance of about
three hundred yards from our train. Probably the cause
of Mr. Matheson’s bad shooting was the cross wind which
was blowing strongly at the time; however, he gave up
in disgust and returned the rifle to my brother, asking him
to try a shot. My brother said it was useless for him to try,
as the deer had now run still farther away, and he himself
had only one leg to stand on. But, dropping on his knee,
he fired once, and down came the deer.

Several of the best haunches of venison secured were loaded
upon the sleds, but it was not thought wise to overload the
teams by trying to carry too much. The bulk of the meat
was “cached” where it was killed, to be picked up by the
Company’s teams on their return trip and taken to Churchill
to replenish the larder. Our third camp was made in a strip
of wood upon the bank of Salmon Creek, and to our Indians
it will be memorable as being the place at which they had the
“big feed,” for it took three suppers to satisfy them that
night. With my brother and myself the hours of darkness
had ceased to bring repose. Our knees were so painful we
did not sleep, but only turned restlessly from side to side
until the return of dawn. Happily for us all, the weather
had continued to be fair, with no extreme cold since the

207

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

commencement of the journey, which was particularly fortu-
nate on account of poor Michel, who would doubtless have
suffered had he been obliged to ride upon a sled all day dar-
ing severe weather. As it was, we were able to keep him
fairly comfortable by bundling him up in deerskin robes and
blankets.

On the fourth day, meeting with no deer, we made about
twenty-seven miles, a good march under the circumstances.
This brought us to the banks of Owl River, a stream two or
three hundred yards in width, situated about midway
between York and Churchill.

At dawn the next morning we were again marching
southward, with the expectation of that day reaching Stony
River, where William Westasecot, a brother of the guide,
was encamped, and where our parties were to separate.

Three more deer were shot during the day, making a total
of twelve for the trip, most of them victims of the Indian
guide. About four o’clock in the afternoon we arrived at
Stony River, but there was no Indian camp to be seen, and
for a time we saw no signs of any human presence. We
turned down the river, and ere long came upon the tracks
of a solitary hunter. These Jimmie knew to be the tracks
of his brother, and by following them a mile or two into a
dense evergreen wood, we came upon the camp. It was a
solitary tepee, situated in the heart of a snow-clad thicket of
spruce trees and scrub, so dense that a bird could scarcely
fly through it.

The lodge of the hunter was built of poles placed closely
together, and arranged in the shape of a cone. The cracks
between the poles were chinked tightly with moss, with
which the tepee was then covered, excepting a foot or so at
the top, where a hole was left for the chimney. An opening
made in the wall to serve as a doorway was closed by a
heavy curtain of deerskin, and as we lifted it we saw in the
centre of the lodge, upon a square, mud-covered hearth, a

208

ON SNOWSHOES AND DOG-SLEDS

smouldering wood fire, from which the circling smoke
ascended to find its way through the chimney, while
huddled around it by the wall were the old Indian, his
squaw and their children. Deerskin cushions were offered
us, and as we seated ourselves more wood was piled on the
fire.

William Westasecot was a much older man than his
brother, for his long flowing locks were already whitened
with age, though he still appeared strong and _ athletic.
Presents of tobacco were passed around; pipes were then
lighted, and information sought and obtained, both by our-
selves and the Indian. We found that William had seen
and killed only one deer for some weeks past, and was now
almost out of food and entirely out of ammunition. We
supplied him with the latter, and told him where, within a
day’s travel, he might supply himself with the former.

From him we learned that the great Nelson River, which
we expected to reach within two or three days, was still quite
open, and that we should find a large boat, in which we might
cross, some miles up the river. It was arranged, also, that
William’s elder son should accompany us to York, and assist
by hauling a flat sled.

Gul Ipord L ong at
May 27
1753
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Pickard]
Tohmny
1752
Reo BERT. PowLe hk 766 8 Geo: Tdytor

T7387

| Wool
157

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FACSIMILE OF INSCRIPTION ON ROCK AT SLOOP’S COVE.

14 209

CHAPTER XIX.
CROSSING THE NELSON.

On the morning of the 11th of “November our parties
arranged to separate. The route of Mr. Matheson’s party
henceforth lay away to the eastward, while our path still led
to the south, toward the banks of the Nelson River. A place
was prepared on our own. dogsled for crippled Michel, and
the team of six dogs harnessed. Then the flat sleds, including
one for Eli, the son of old William the Indian, were loaded
with all that the dogs were unable to haul. Our supplies by
this time were diminished to the extent of about two hun-
dred and fifty pounds, so, that, even with the additional
weight of a man, the loads were lighter than at the outset of
the journey.

Loads being thus readjusted, and our feet harnessed to
snowshoes, we bade farewell to our friends from the Fort, as
well as to those of the forest, and made a new start.

The weather was now unusually mild for the month of
November, making the snow soft, and even wet in some
places. This made travelling hard for the team, as it’caused
the ice-glazing to melt from the sled, and the mud-shoeing
to wear and drag heavily upon the track. My brother and I
still suffered much from our crippled limbs, but with con-
siderable difficulty managed to keep up with the rest. After
making a small day’s march we camped for the night on the
bank of a stream called by the Indians the White Bear Creek.
The weather having turned colder during the night, making
the prospects for travel more favorable, we started down
stream the next morning upon the ice of the creek, and then

210

A HALF-BREED DOG-DRIVER.

CROSSING THE NELSON

struck across country to Duck Creek, where we found a
second Indian camp, occupied by two Crees and their
families.

From one of these Indians, named Morrison, we pur-
chased an additional dog with which to supplement our team.
The price asked was a new dress for one of the squaws, but
as we had no dress goods with us, the best we could offer was
that the dress would be ordered at the Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany’s store at York, and delivered when the first oppor-
trnity afforded. After some consideration, and several pipes
of tobacco, the offer was accepted, and with seven dogs in our
team the journey resumed. We followed the creek till it led
us out to the low, dreary coast at the mouth of the Nelson,
where, having left the woods several miles inland, we were
exposed to the full sweep of a piercingly cold, raw, south-
west wind.

We are accustomed to thinking of a coast as a definite,
narrow shore-line; but to the inhabitants of the Hudson
Bay region the word conveys a very different meaning.
There the coast is a broad mud and boulder flat, several miles
in width, always wet, and twice during the day flooded by
the tide. At this time of the year the mud flats were covered
by rough broken ice and drifted snow, but above high-tide
mark the surface of the country was level and the walking
good. For several hours we tramped southward down the
coast, with the cutting wind in our faces. During the after-
noon we sought shelter, but finding none, our course was
altered and shaped for the nearest wood, several miles inland.

The great advantage of travelling on the open plain is that
there the snow is driven hard, and hence the walking is much
better than in the woods, where the snow is soft and deep.
Nevertheless, when the weather is rough—as it was on this
occasion—the heavy walking is preferable to travelling in the
open country in the teeth of the storm.

For the remainder of the day we bore southward, and

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

about sunset made camp on the south bank of a stream known
as Sam’s Creek, in a lovely snow-laden evergreen forest—an
ideal Canadian winter woodland picture. From this beauti-
ful but chilling scene our tramp was continued next morning
at daylight. The low shore of the Nelson was again reached
and followed until, about noon, a decided change in the char-
acter of the land was observed. A boulder clay bank com-
menced to make its appearance, and this as we advanced
rapidly reached an elevation of twenty-five or thirty feet, and
as we proceeded up the river, became higher and more thickly
wooded. The change was a great relief from the level, tree-
less coast.

We were now well within the mouth of the great Nelson
River, and could already, through the rising vapor, dimly
see the outline of the opposite shore.

Considerable ice was coming down the river, and on this
account we felt some anxiety as to crossing; but we were now
within a few miles of the boat of which we had been in-
formed, and it seemed possible that we might yet cross the
stream before nightfall. In the middle of the afternoon we
found the boat drawn up at the mouth of Heart Creek, where
the old Indian hunter had left it. It was a large heavily
built sailboat, capable of carrying our whole outfit in one
load, but unfortunately the keel was deeply imbedded in the
sand and there securely frozen. The only way to free it was
to chop it out, and at this task as many hands were set as
could find room to work. Long pries were cut and vigor-
ously applied, but even with our united efforts we only
managed to get the boat loosened by nightfall. We were
obliged, therefore, to leave it until morning, and seek a
place to camp.

During the night the wind, which had been blowing pretty
strongly for two days past, increased to a gale from the
north-west. This unwelcome guest did not come by himself,
but brought with him his friend the snowstorm, and they

212

CROSSING THE NELSON

two held high carnival all night, vying with each other as to
which should cause the strange intruders in the grove the
more discomfort. The gale shrieked through the trees and
threatened to level our shelter; nor was he contented with
this, but entered the camp and played pranks with our fire
and blankets. The more stealthy snowstorm, making less
noise than his blustering friend, before daylight had filled
the ravine with white drifts and almost buried us.

Such was our condition on the morning of the 14th. As
this was the ninth day from Churchill, our supply of pro-
visions was about exhausted, but we were now only one day’s
march from York. After breakfast, despite the condition
of the weather, all hands proceeded to the boat, and by a
united effort managed to drag it out to the edge of the shore-
ice; but the tide being low, there was no water to float it.
We, therefore, had to await the flood-tide, which would not be
up till about noon. Meanwhile the boat was loaded where it
rested upon the sand, and at twelve o’clock, being lifted by
the water, a canvas was hoisted, and through a dense fog
which rose from the river we sailed up the shore to find a
narrow part of the stream where we might avoid the broad
shoals which extended out from the opposite shore.

Having proceeded some three miles up, to the vicinity of
Flamboro’ Head, a bold headland, our course was altered,
and we steered into the fog for the south shore—about two
miles distant. The wind was piercingly cold, instantly freez-
ing every splash as it fell, and still blowing fresh, so that
our ice-laden craft sped swiftly away on her course. Some
floating ice was met, but successfully passed, and for a time
it seemed as if the crossing would soon be effected; but sud-
denly there loomed out of the mist, right ahead, a dense
field of ice, broken and rafted and hurrying down with the
current. By putting the helm hard to starboard, and quickly
dropping our canvas, we managed to keep clear of the mass;
but what was now to be done?

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

The south shore was still hidden by dense volumes of
vapor, and nothing could be seen in that direction but the
adjacent fields of ice. On the north shore the dark outline
of Flamboro’ Head could still be discerned, and it was
resolved: thence to beat our retreat. We were, however,
unable to sail against the wind; but taking to the oars, we
managed, after a prolonged and difficult struggle, to regain
the place whence we had started.

Once more on land a camp was made, and a fire kindled
to thaw out our stiffened limbs, while we awaited an oppor-
tunity to cross. The mist continued the rest of the day, pre-
venting us from making a second attempt, and so we lay up
for the night.

Next morning the fog had cleared away, revealing a
dismal sight. On the south side the river was frozen over,
and the ice firmly set for a mile or more from shore, while
the channel to the north was running full of heavy ice,
making it quite impossible to use the boat, and equally
impossible to effect a crossing on foot.

We had no alternative: but to remain where we were and
hope for a change in the condition of the river. Not the
least unpleasant feature of this waiting was that our pro-
visions were now gone.

The men were at once sent out to hunt, and returned in
the evening with nine ptarmigan, with which a good bouillon
was made for supper. Besides this, Eli, the Indian boy,
gave us some comforting information as to the existence of
a fish cache of his father’s, not far distant. With this con-
soling knowledge we rolled up in our blankets and were soon
dreaming of better times.

The next morning, there being no change in the river, two
men and the dogs were sent after William’s fish cache, and
four others went off hunting, while the rest remained at
camp collecting wood and keeping the fire burning.

We had nothing to eat this day until evening, when the

214

CROSSING THE NELSON

sledding party returned with a little bag and can of pounded
dried fish, two or three gallons of seal oil, and some seal
blubber for the dogs; all of which, though not exactly luxu-
rious, we were heartily glad to receive. Later two of the
hunters returned with several ptarmigan and one or two rab-
bits, and last of all, sometime after dark, the remaining
two—Jim and our noble guide—walked into camp carrying
the carcase of a deer.

We had meat enough now, with careful use, to keep us
from suffering for several days, and in order to guard against
greed or waste, my brother and I took possession of the stock
and divided it up equally among the party, each man receiv-
ing in all about ten pounds.

Without narrating in detail the incidents following, it will
be sufficient to state that for ten long days our weary wait on
the bleak banks of the Nelson was continued. From time to
time the men were sent out to hunt, but except in the above
instance, were obliged to return empty-handed.

On the morning of the 19th, the guide and Jim, provided
with rifles, blankets, axes and snowshoes, started up the river,
determined to find deer if there were any in the neighbor-
hood, and also to investigate the possibilities of crossing the
river higher up.

Four days of bitterly cold weather passed, the ther-
mometer varying from 12 to 15 degrees below zero, and back
came our discouraged hunters without having fired a shot.
Food was becoming alarmingly scarce. A fox which hap-
pened in our way was trapped and eagerly devoured.

On the evening of the 22nd, though the mereury indicated
22 deg. below zero, the channel of the river above us was
noticed to be less thickly blocked with ice than where we
were encamped. It was resolved, if possible, to haul the boat
a mile or two farther up stream, and there to launch and
measure our strength with the floe.

All hands excepting Michel, who was still unable to walk,

215

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

engaged in the work. The boat was launched, and by means
of a long line we managed to tow it about half a mile up
shore, but there the ice became so thick that we had to haul
it out to prevent its being crushed. Our objective point was
about a mile farther up, so an effort was made to haul the
boat along the shore. It was all the ten of us could manage,
but by about nightfall we had succeeded. The night being
clear and light, we moved camp to the boat, that we might be
prepared to cross in the morning if it were possible.

The next morning was bitterly cold and a fog was rising
from the river. We towed the boat half a mile still farther
up, until the Seal Islands were reached. Here we pushed
out into the stream and commenced the struggle.

Every man was armed with an oar, a pole or an axe, and
all of these were vigorously applied in forcing our way
through the ice and the current. For a time we made fair
progress, but before long were caught in the grip of the ice-
pack and hurried down with the stream toward the sea.

We pushed and we pulled, we pounded and hacked, and at
length got into a channel of open water. Again we were
beset, but again got free, and so after much exertion we
crossed the channel and landed upon the stationary ice. We
had taken this for shore-ice, but were sorely disappointed to
find it was only a jam in the middle of the channel.

What was now to be done? It was impossible to tow the
boat around the upper end of the jam; and to allow it to
drift down past the lower end would mean that we would be
carried with the current out to sea and be irrevocably lost.

After carefully considering the situation, we concluded to
portage across the island of ice and launch on the other side.
Accordingly the boat was unloaded and piece by piece every-
thing was carried safely across, but when we attempted to
portage the boat, it and we continually broke through the
surface. We were therefore obliged to cut a channel right
through the island, the full width of the boat. After much

216

CROSSING THE NELSON

labor this was accomplished, the boat hauled through,
reloaded, and again pushed out into the flowing pack, which
carried us, in spite of all our endeavors, far down toward the
mouth of the river.

At length we had succeeded in getting within thirty feet
of the solid south-shore ice, but even then, when the shore
seemed almost within reach, we were nipped in the floe and
again carried helplessly downward, until it seemed as if,
after all, we were going to be carried out to sea..

We used every effort to free the boat, but all to no avail.
At last, however, civil war among the floes caused a split and
brought deliverance. A few rapid strokes and our old craft
bumped against the solid ice.

The bowman, Frangois, quick as a flash, sprang out with
the end of the tow-line, while the rushing ice again caught
the boat and bore it downward. Frangois held on to the
tow-line with all his might, but the tug-of-war was going
against him; he yielded, fell, and for a short distance was
dragged over the broken hummocks of ice; but bracing his
feet against one of these, he formed himself into a veritable
ice-anchor, and with herculean strength held us fast until
others sprang out to his assistance.

All hands quickly disembarked, but as there was still
between us and the shore a full mile of rough ice, liable to
break adrift at any moment, no time was lost in exultation.
The boat was unloaded, hauled up, and the tramp commenced
for the,shore. After much exertion we reached land, and
every man felt a thrill of exultation that the Nelson was at
last to the north of us.

We were all much chilled from exposure, so a fire was
made in the edge of the woods. Spruce boughs were strewn
about it to keep our feet from the snow, and the cheerful
warmth was most gratefully enjoyed.

A little of the pounded dried-fish still remaining was
fried on a pan with seal oil, the combination forming a dish

217

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

that might be described as fish-flavored chips steeped in oil;
but with appetites such as ours it could be eaten—though
I cannot say relished.

After this “refreshment ” had been partaken of, and the
stiffness thawed from our limbs, snowshoés were adjusted,
and with a “ Hurrah for York!” the march was resumed.

One more camp was made, and on the following day, the
24th of November, and the nineteenth day since leaving
Churchill, we reached York Factory.

HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY’S STORE, YORK FACTORY.

218

CHAPTER XxX.
THROUGH THE FOREST AND HOME AGAIN.

Upon arriving at York we were kindly received by the
officer of the Hudson’s Bay Company, Dr. Milne. Our men
were given lodgings and rations in one of the many vacant
houses in the Fort, while my brother and I were shown into
the Doctor’s bachelor quarters, and allowed to occupy the
room of Mr. Mowat, the assistant trader, who was absent at
the time.

The first articles essential to comfort were tubs and warm
water. With travellers in the north, particularly during the
winter season, the practice of performing daily ablutions is
- quite unheard of. This is not owing to neglect, but is rather
an enforced custom due to the painful effects produced by the
application of ice-cold water to the skin. During the pre-
vious summer and autumn my brother and I adhered to
the habit of daily washing our hands and face, until our
skin became so cracked and sore that we were forced to
discontinue.

Besides Dr. Milne and an old-time servant, Macpherson,
Mr. Mowat, now temporarily absent, was the only other
white resident in York. He had, only a few days before our
arrival, been sent off with two Indians as a relief party to
look for the Company’s autumn mail, which was now more
than six weeks overdue. The mail should have come down
the Hays River from Oxford House, 250 miles distant,
before the close of navigation, but as nothing had yet been
heard of it or the party, fears were entertained as to their
safety. It was thought they must have been lost in the
river.

219

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

As to York Factory, it is one of those places of which it
may be said “the light of other days has faded.” In the
earlier days of the Hudson’s Bay Company it was an
important centre of trade, the port at which all goods for the
interior posts were received, and from which the enormous
harvests of valuable furs were annually shipped. Such busi-
ness naturally necessitated the building of large store-
houses and many dwellings to shelter the goods and provide
accommodation for the large staff of necessary servants. As
late as the summer of 1886, when I visited York, there was
a white population of about thirty, besides a number of
Indians and half-breeds in the employ of the Company; but
things had now changed. Less expensive ways of transport-
ing goods into the interior than freighting them hundreds
of miles up the rivers in York boats now existed, and as
the local supply of furs had become scarce, serious results
necessarily followed. Gradually the staff of servants had
been dismissed or removed, and one by one the dwellings
vacated, until York was now almost a deserted village. The
Indians also had nearly all gone to other parts of the
country.

One of the first duties receiving our attention upon reach-
ing York was the placing of poor crippled Michel in the
doctor’s hands. His frozen feet, still dreadfully sore, were
carefully attended to, and it was thought that in the course
of a few weeks they might be sufficiently recovered to allow
him to walk. As to taking him any farther with us, that was
unadvisable, for he was now in the care of a physician, and
in a place where he would receive all necessary attention.
Besides, we would have no means of carrying him, unless
upon a sled drawn by our own men, and such an additional
burden would seriously retard progress. It was therefore
admitted by all that the best plan was to leave Michel in
Dr. Milne’s care, to be forwarded as soon as he was well
enough to walk. This was promptly arranged, and with as

220

THROUGH THE FOREST AND HOME AGAIN

little delay as possible preparations were made for departure.
Two dogs from our Churchill team were purchased out-
right from Jimmie, who happened to be the owner of them,
and a third having been secured from Morrison, the Indian,
we only required one more to make up a fair team, and this
was procured from the Doctor. Another team was hired
from the Company, and it was at first thought, with the aid
of these two, we might comfortably make the twelve days’
trip to Oxford House. But when supply bills were made
out it was found that, with the assistance of only two teams
for so long a trip, each man would have to haul a heavily-
loaded toboggan. The Doctor therefore, with some difficulty,
raised a third team to accompany us for two days on the
journey. :

The next necessary preparation was the procuring of a
guide and drivers for the teams. As the mail-carriers and
two other Indians, Mr. Mowat’s companions, had already
gone to Oxford House, few men were left at the Fort who
knew the route; but happily a man was found who turned
out to be another brother of our guide from Churchill. He
was a very dark Indian, younger than Jimmie, and of much
less noble appearance, and was known by the name of Charlie.
He was said to be well fitted for the purpose, and we felt that
a brother of our guide could not be a very poor man. Our
party, including Arthur Omen, the driver from Churchill,
who had determined to accompany us out of the country,
was now complete. Twelve days’ rations, consisting of
bacon, flour, sugar and tea, were served out to each man,
with a warning to make them last through the trip or suffer
the consequences. The flour was then baked up into the
more convenient form of cakes. Dog-fish was also provided,
and all being loaded upon the three sleds and two tobog-
gans, the second stage of our sledding journey was begun on
Tuesday morning, the 28th of November. The dog-sleds
were not the same as those we had used in traversing the

221

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

hard driven snow of the plains, but were what are known as
“flat sleds,” or large toboggans, they being better suited to
woodland travel.

The condition of our party on leaving York was vastly
different from what it had been on leaving Churchill. The
two hundred mile tramp, although crippling some of us and
causing all plenty of exertion, had hardened our muscles so
much that, with the ten days’ “lie up” on the bank of the
Nelson River, and a four days’ rest at York, we were now
in first-class walking trim, and started up the Hays River
at a brisk pace.

The first day’s march was upon the river ice, and our first
camp was made on the bank, in two feet of snow, beneath
the shelter of the evergreens. Beyond this our course led
through the woods to the north of the river, and by many
winding ways we journeyed on.

On the morning of the third day the assisting team from
York, leaving its load with us, returned to the Factory. A
readjustment of loads was then made, and with the two
remaining teams we pushed on, though now more slowly, for
Oxford House.

At about noon on the 1st of December we were pleased to
meet Mr. Mowat and party, returning with the long-looked-
for mail, all safe. The delay in the arrival of the mail
had: been caused by one of the Indians becoming ill soon
after leaving Norway House, and having to return to that
post. After a brief halt, each party now having the advan-
tage of the other’s track, we started on, pursuing opposite
ways, they to their lonely home on the ice-bound coast of
Hudson Bay, and we towards ours in the more congenial
south.

At this time the temperature remained pretty steady at
about 25 degrees below zero, but with the exertion of the
march during the day, and the shelter of blankets and the

222

“HONNT YO NIGVO GALYASAG V LV dN NMVNUCG ALUVd GATS wNO

THROUGH THE FOREST AND HOME AGAIN

warmth of the camp-fire at night, we managed to keep
fairly comfortable.

About sixteen miles beyond a large stream known as Fox
River, we came upon an ancient track. This in earlier days
had been travelled by oxen and Red River carts, and over
it hundreds of tons of freight had annually been hauled;
but now it was so grown up with trees that it often taxed
the skill of the guide to keep it. The track led directly to
Oxford, so that from this forward it was to be our road.

Since leaving the banks of the Hays River no timber of
any value had been seen. The wood had all been black
spruce of a very scrubby character, but now poplar, birch
and jack-pine were occasionally met with.

On December the 4th the temperature ran down to 34
degrees below zero, but on the following day this record was
beaten, and 40 degrees below was registered. In this low
temperature we naturally found some difficulty in keeping
warm. When the day’s tramp was over, and our position
taken for the night beside the camp-fire, it was found neces-
sary either to slowly revolve or frequently reverse our posi-
tion. It was a question of roasting or freezing, or rather
doing both at the same time. While one’s face was turned
to the fire and enduring a roasting heat, his back was freez-
ing, and as the position was reversed the roasting and
freezing process was also reversed. Our meals, after being
prepared, were served up on the hot pan to keep them warm
while eating, but even so they were sometimes frozen to the
frying-pan before they could be disposed of. +

During the afternoon of the 4th and the morning of the
5th of December we crossed Deer Lake, twenty-seven miles
in length, and at either end of the lake found camps of
Indians. From one of them we purchased some fine white-
fish, which they were catching through the ice.

By this time our guide Charlie had become pretty badly
used up by the march. He was no longer able to hold the

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lead, but our own men managed to keep the track, and
Charlie hobbled along behind.

During the evening of the 6th and the morning of the 7th
of December we crossed a succession of thirteen small lakes
and some open plains, but the afternoon of the latter day
saw a marked change in the character of the country. With
the exception of two or three isolated patches, we had seen
nothing in the shape of timber of any value since leaving
York—indeed, I might say since leaving Churchill, or even
a thousand miles or so farther back on the road. But now
we had reached a heavy forest of white spruce, jack-pine,
poplar and birch trees, and the change was a pleasing one.

For a distance of six or eight miles we trudged through
this heavy forest, and then, just at nightfall, reached the
shore of Back Lake, really an extension of Oxford Lake.
One of my brother’s feet had become so sore during the day
that he had been obliged to walk with only one snowshoe.
On this account we had fallen several miles behind the
leaders of the party, and when we arrived at the shore of the
lake above described, nothing could we see of the outfit, and
both because of darkness and the hard surface of the snow,
it was with great difficulty we were able to follow the track.
It led away across the lake, and for a time we managed to
follow it. While doing so we carefully noted its bearing, but
soon the faint tracks could no longer be followed, for the
night was becoming dark. We feared to lose them, as there
might be a change in their, course and then our bearing
would not lead us aright. For a time, upon hands and
knees, we tried to follow the trail, but could not keep upon
it continuously.

Keeping as straight a course as possible, we pressed on
through the darkness toward the distant shore, the dark out-
line of which could just be discerned against the lighter sky.
At length we reached the shore, when, after passing through
4 narrow strip of woods, to our joy there suddenly flashed

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THROUGH THE FOREST AND HOME AGAIN

out before us, a few yards ahead, the lights of Oxford House.
A few minutes later we were the guests of Mr. and Mrs.
Isbister, one of the most hospitable old couples it has ever
been my good fortune to meet. Mr. Isbister was the local
agent of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and was a thorough
old-time Canadian, one of those men filled with remi-
niscences of early Canadian life in the north, and whose
many stories were a delight to hear.

NORWAY HOUSE, LAKE WINNIPEG.

Having reached Oxford in safety, preparations were at
once commenced for our journey to the next post—Norway
House—150 miles farther west. Some delay was occasioned
in getting dogs, but at length three miserable, half-starved
teams were secured, and with a new guide and drivers we
set out on the third stage of our winter journey. Without
narrating the many incidents by the way, I need only say
that after a six days’ tramp, with the thermometer in the
neighborhood of 40 degrees below zero, we arrived safely

15 225

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

at Norway House, an important Hudson’s Bay Company’s
post, situated at the northern extremity of Lake Winnipeg.
Two of the dog-teams procured at Oxford had been intended
to haul my brother and myself, and for a time they did so,
but the poor animals were in such a wretched condition from
the effects of former hard work that we preferred to walk
most of the time, and before we reached our destination

A HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY'S TRADING-POST IN WINTER.

considered ourselves fortunate that we escaped having to
haul the dogs.

At Norway House the difficulties of the journey, so far
as my brother and I were concerned, were practically ended.
Enough strong, capable dogs were here secured to admit of
our travelling in carryalls for the remaining four hundred
miles still separating us from West Selkirk, the northern
terminus of the railway; but, of course, the Indians had to

226

“TIVANUVOD UNV Nivul-90d

THROUGH THE FOREST AND HOME AGAIN

stick to their snowshoes. It was here decided to divide our
party, and send the three western men home, assisted by the
team of Eskimo dogs which had accompanied us the whole
six hundred miles from Churchill. The valley of the Sas-
katehewan River would be their most direct course, in taking
which route they would reach their several homes by
travelling about the same distance as ourselves. Arthur
Omen, the driver from Churchill, chose to go up the Sas-
katchewan with the western men, so that of the original
party there only remained the two Iroquois, Pierre and
Louis, to accompany my brother and myself. With the
least possible delay four good dog-teams, as many drivers,
and a guide were procured from Mr. J. K. Macdonald, the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s factor, who showed us much
kindness, and two days before Christmas the last and
longest division of our journey was begun.

My brother and I were now warmly rolled up in robes
and blankets and lying in our ecarryalls. Supplies and bag-
gage were all loaded upon the two remaining sleds, and with
a driver trotting along beside or behind each team, the guide
running before, and the two Iroquois sometimes before and
sometimes behind, we travelled on an almost due south
course over the ice near the shore of Lake Winnipeg. About
the same time that we started for the south, the other section
set out across the lake to the westward for the mouth of the
Saskatchewan River.

Our teams, of four dogs each, were for the most part fine
powerful animals, and we soon found there was no necessity
for my brother or myself exerting ourselves more than we
desired. The teams travelled all day, and, indeed, day after
day, at a rapid trot, sometimes breaking into a gallop, so
that it gave the Indians all they could do to keep up with
them.

Taking smooth and rough together, we made an average

of about forty miles per day, and some days as much as
227

. ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

forty-six or forty-seven miles. When we had made about
half the distance to Selkirk, and were in the neighborhood
of a fishing station at the mouth of Berens River, poor
Pierre played out; but, most opportunely, we met a man
teaming fish to Selkirk and secured a passage for him,
while we ourselves pushed on. When we had made another
hundred miles, Louis, the remaining Iroquois, also became
crippled. Arrangements were made to have him, too, driven
in with a horse and sleigh, and without delay we pursued
our journey.

At length, after a long and rapid trip, which occupied ten
days, on the evening of the 1st of January, 1894, under the
light of the street lamps of the little town, our teams trotted
up the streets of West Selkirk, thus completing a canoe and
snowshoe journey of three thousand two hundred miles.

I need hardly say that the telegraph office was soon found,
and messages despatched to anxious friends, who, having
heard. nothing from us for many months, had begun to
entertain grave fears for our safety. Thirteen hundred
miles more of travel by rail brought us home again after
an absence of just eight months.

OUR PARTY ON THE RETURN TRIP.

298

CHAPTER XXI.
HUDSON BAY A NATIONAL ASSET,

Fort Cuurcuitu may be regarded as the gateway through
which, we have every reason to believe, in the no very distant
future, a large share of the products of our western provinces
is destined to pass on its way to the great markets of the
world. This statement is not made thoughtlessly, nor without
some knowledge of the subject, for since the years 1885 and
1886, when, as hydrographer and meteorological observer on
the Gordon expedition to Hudson Bay, I spent a year and a
half on its desolate shores, I have made the study of Hudson
Bay and the question of its navigation and development a
part of my life’s work; and it is because of this fact, and the
consequent acquisition of a considerable amount of first-hand
knowledge of the subject, that I have been prompted to in-
scribe this chapter.

Although discovered nearly three hundred years ago, Hud-
son Bay has remained, up to the present time, a compara-
tively unknown sea, and an entirely undeveloped source of
wealth to our country. Although possessing an area five
times as large as our Great Lakes combined, and a tidal coast-
line of about six thousand miles, at no place is this as yet
accessible by any form of improved highway; and it can
still be reached, from the settled parts of Canada, only by
means of canoes or other small boats following the routes of
some of our God-given streams.

Into the bay are discharged a score of mighty rivers, some
of which rank among the largest on the Continent, although
an unfortunate feature of many of them is that they are
extremely shallow at their mouths. :

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

This is not so, however, in the case of the Churchill, the
mouth of which, on being surveyed by me, was found to
afford an excellent natural harbor, with nine fathoms of
water at low tide up to the entrance, and from four to five
fathoms within.

A map of this harbor, prepared from my own surveys,
‘made on different occasions, is presented herewith, and shows
the relative positions of the various points of interest, such
as the Hudson’s Bay Company’s post, old Fort Prince of
Wales, the Mission station, Sloops Cove (where the Furnace
and Discovery wintered in 1741), the whaling station on the
east side of the harbor, the available anchorage for ships, the
best railway terminal site, and, lastly, the Police Barracks,
only recently established, and occupied by Major Moodie and
his men.

Historica, SuMMARY.

Before dealing with the more important questions of the
resources and navigation of the bay, it may be of interest to
briefly review the history of its discovery and exploration.
As every Canadian schoolboy knows, the discovery of the
bay was made by Henry Hudson, in the year 1610. Being
an experienced navigator in foreign seas, he was given com-
mand of the Discovery—a small vessel of 55 tons, outfitted
by English capitalists—and in this he set sail for the discov-
ery of the long-looked-for North-west Passage. In the accom-
plishment of this object he was unsuccessful, although a
greater achievement attended his efforts, in, wizning which dis-
tinction he forfeited his own life and that of his son, both of
whom, with a loyal carpenter, John King, were sent adrift in
an open boat by a mutinous crew, the leaders of which were
soon afterwards murdered by Eskimos. Such was the first
tragic scene enacted by civilized men in the great theatre of
Hudson Bay.

Although the discovery of the bay is attributed to Hudson,

230

1s0s—

= MAB
J.W-TYRRELL CE;:DLS.
Scale: linch: 1Mile.

Churchill Harbour

Spring, Rise 15-5 ft. Neap Rise 80 ft.

Note: Soundings are in fathoms LW.

HUDSON BAY A NATIONAL ASSET

that of Hudson Strait was made by Sir Martin Frobisher,
who, in command of three small vessels, two of 25 tons and
one of only 10 tons, sighted the eastern entrance to the strait
in July, 1576, and two years later, with a fleet of fifteen
ships in quest of ore, entered Hudson Strait and “ sailed
several days westward through it.”

John Davis, in 1585, rediscovered the strait, and, in 1602,
George Weymouth, in the Discovery, sailed a considerable
distance up it.

Following the discovery of the bay by Hudson, Sir Thomas
Button re-entered it in 1612, and after spending the summer
in exploring the northern and western shores, he wintered in
the mouth of the Nelson River, and was thus the first to sue-
cessfully pass a winter in the bay and to return with the
fruits of his labors.

In the summer of 1615 Baffin passed through Hudson
Strait and into the bay in search of a north-west passage,
but finding none, he returned the same season to England.

In May, 1619, Captain Jens Munk, in command of a
Danish Arctic expedition, sailed from Copenhagen with two
small vessels and a total of sixty-four men. He reached the
entrance to Hudson Strait (Fretum Christian, as named
by him), on July the 11th, and after experiencing much
difficulty, and escaping many dangers in his little crafts,
chiefly from meeting with drifting ice, he entered Hudson
Bay, and apparently crossed it in a comparatively direct
course to the mouth of the Churchill River, which harbor
he entered early in September, and was thus the first white
man, so far as we know, to enter that port.

Munk named the country in the vicinity of Churchill
Novam Daniam, and after securing his vessels as best he
could, he sent out exploring parties, both to the north and
the south. Finding no better harbor on the coast than at
Churchill, he decided to spend the winter there, and accord-
ingly moored his ships, as nearly as can be ascertained from

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his own description and crude sketch, directly in front of
the present Hudson’s Bay Company’s trading station.
Two or more small buildings appear to have been erected
upon the west side of the harbor, and this constituted the
earliest known occupation of this most important harbor on
the shores of Hudson Bay. The experiences of that early
occupation, moreover, form one of the saddest pages in its
whole history, for without relating all the terrible details
of their sufferings, we are informed by Munk that he him-
self and two sailors were the only survivors of that awful
winter. The immediate cause of their destruction was due
to a lingering disease, which was undoubtedly scurvy, the
result of inactivity, uncleanliness and dissipation.

During the year 1631 two expeditions, under the respec-
tive commands of Captain Luke Fox and Captain’ Thomas
James, were engaged in exploratory work in Hudson Bay—
the latter wintering on Charlton Island,.where because of
imexperience and ignorance much suffering was endured.
Both expeditions returned to England, whence they had
sailed, without having accomplished anything of substantial
importance.

So little interest resulted from the efforts of these last two
expeditions that for a period of thirty-seven years we have
no record of other ships having visited the bay; but history
informs us that in 1659 information concerning the Great.
Bay was obtained by two French-Canadian fur traders,
Radisson and Groseilliers, who were so impressed with the
possibilities of trade in that quarter that they returned to
Quebec with the object of interesting capital in a project to
establish permanent trading-posts on the shores of the vast
inland sea.

Meeting with opposition rather than support at Quebec,
Groseilliers sought assistance at the English settlement of
Boston, and later at Paris, but at ali of these places he
failed in the accomplishment of his purpose. However, at

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HUDSON BAY A NATIONAL ASSET

Paris, in 1667, the British Ambassador, Lord Preston, hear-
ing of the proposals of the French-Canadians, sent them
with a letter to Prince Rupert in England, who received
them well and endorsed their project. Others became inter-
ested with him, and the result was that a vessel of fifty
tons—the Nonsuch—was outfitted, placed under the com-
mand of Captain Zachius Gillam, and, accompanied by
Groseilliers, was dispatched on the 3rd of June, 1668, as the
first trading-ship to the shores of Hudson Bay.

The Nonsuch reached the strait on August 4th, and passed
through into the bay-on the 19th of the same month. Sail-
ing southward down the eastern main coast, the mouth of
the Rupert River was reached on the 29th of September,
and here a stockaded log fort was built, and named Fort
Charles, after the King. This was the first trading-post
established in the bay. Here the members of the expedi-
tion spent the winter with fruitful results, and upon the
return of Gillam to England, the following summer, Prince
Rupert and his associates applied to Charles II. for an
exclusive charter to trade in Hudson Bay and the territory
beyond. This was granted on the 2nd of May, 1670, where-
upon one Charles Bayly was immediately sent out, as the
first governor of the Company, to establish Fort Rupert, at
the mouth of the Rupert River.

Gradually from year to year other forts were established
at Albany, Moose, Eastmain, Severn, York and Churchill,
but not without serious opposition from the French, who
opposed every move and made conditions most uncomfort-
able for the English company, until the year 1713, when
the struggle was terminated, and by the Treaty of Utrecht
the French relinquished all claims to the territory about
Hudson Bay.

In 1719 two vessels, under the command of Captain
James Knight, sailed from England with the object of
exploring the northern portion of Hudson Bay and the

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mythical “ Anian Strait,” but the expedition became
wrecked near the east end of Marble Island, upon which a
house was erected. In this the survivors of the ill-fated
crews existed for several years, until they all miserably
perished from starvation and scurvy, the facts not becom-
ing known until the year 1769, when they were obtained by
Samuel Hearne, who was that year engaged in whale fishing
at the island, and accidentally discovered the remnants of
the expedition, and from the Eskimos learned the sad details
of their fate.

Time will not permit, in this brief summary, to even out-
line the discoveries of all the expeditions that have sailed
into Hudson Bay, but the names and dates of some of those
following are here given:

Dobbs in 1737; Middleton. to Churchill and Chesterfield
Inlet in 1741; Dobbs to Port Nelson and Chesterfield Inlet
in 1746; Christopher to Chesterfield Inlet in 1761; Norton
to Chesterfield Inlet in 1762; Samuel Hearne, who accom-
plished one of the most notable journeys in history, from
Fort Churchill to the mouth of the Coppermine River,
during the years 1769-70-71-72; Captain Charles Duncan
to Rankin and Chesterfield inlets in 1791; Sir W. E. Parry,
in the Fury and Hecla, to Fox Channel and Fury and
Hecla Strait in 1821; Captain Back to north of bay, in the
Terror, in 1836; Dr. John Rae from Churchill to Repulse
Bay, Committee Bay and Gulf of Boothia, from 1845 to
1847.

The famous but ill-fated Franklin expedition of 1845 did
not enter Hudson Bay, and is, -therefore, not included in
‘our summary, nor are the forty or more relief expeditions
which engaged in the search for the lost explorers. It may

‘be of interest, however, to note in passing that it was Dr.
John Rae—relatives of whom still live in Hamilton and
Dundas—who, in 1858-54, obtained the first definite infor-
‘mation regarding the fate of Franklin and his men. Four

234

HUDSON BAY A NATIONAL ASSET

years later Captain F. L. McClintock cleared up the mys-
tery by discovering a record from the lost expedition, and
full information as to its awful sufferings and complete
destruction, off the shores of King William Island.

Following the explorations of Dr. John Rae, discovery in
the Hudson Bay district experienced a long period of stag-
nation, but with the opening up and development of the
Canadian West the necessity of improved and extended
transportation facilities presented itself, and the Dominion
Government undertook to investigate the possibilities of
Hudson Bay and Strait as a commercial route to Europe.
For the accomplishment of this important undertaking,
Lieut. A. R. Gordon, R.N., was placed in command of the
steamer Neptune in the year 1884, and the steamer Alert
in the years 1885 and 1886, and, with the assistance of a
strong staff of officers, thorough and continuous meteoro-
logical, tidal, magnetic and ice observations were taken at
seven of the most salient points, both winter and summer,
for the space of three years.

During the summer seasons hydrographic and _ topo-
graphical surveying was vigorously prosecuted, and it was
largely in this department of the work that the present
writer was engaged. During the winter of 1885-86 he also
acted as observer at Big Island, near the centre of the
north shore of Hudson Strait—probably the most advan-
tageous observation point, both because of its prominent
geographical position and its high altitude of four hundred
and fifty feet above the sea level. In 1893, in company
with my brother, J. B. Tyrrell, then of the Canadian
Geological Survey, as in this volume related, and again in
1900, it fell to my lot to revisit the shores of Hudson Bay.

During the summer of 1897, Commander Wakeham, in
the steamer Diana, was again sent to Hudson Strait by the
Canadian Government to further investigate conditions
there; and during the years 1903 and 1904, A. P. Low, in

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

command of the steamer Neptune, on behalf of the Govern-
ment of Canada, made a most fruitful voyage into the bay
and channels to the north of it, and has since published the
most complete and comprehensive report upon that section
of the continent that has yet appeared.

During the summer of 1905 it yet again fell to my lot to
revisit the bay, on which occasion I made a complete survey
of the harbor of Fort Churchill, the most important upon
the coast.

Besides the names above-mentioned, many others have
conducted explorations in the bay of greater or less extent,
particularly among the mariners of the Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany. Special credit is also due for the extensive work of
Dr. Robert Bell, of the Geological Survey, who has con-
tributed largely to our general store of knowledge regarding
the Hudson Bay district.

RESOURCES.

Under this heading we have to consider one of the im-
portant questions in connection with the opening up and
development of the Hudson Bay region. If the local
resources are of limited extent and little value, then the
difficulties of creating an outlet for commerce from our
western wheat-fields to Europe by way of Hudson Bay and
Strait assume a serious aspect; but if it be true that the
local resources are of large extent and great value, surely
the success of a well-advised railway project to some point
on the coast of Hudson Bay is assured.

Classifying the natural resources of the Hudson Bay dis-
trict under the three great divisions of the Animal, Vege-
table and Mineral kingdoms, I will begin with the first and
briefly review the whole subject, dwelling chiefly upon such
items as have come under my personal observation.

236

HUDSON BAY A NATIONAL ASSET

I. Animal Products.

By far the most valuable animal product is the Right,
Bowhead or Greenland Whale, which is found in the
northern parts of Hudson Bay and Strait. It is the species
from which the whalebone of commerce is derived, as well
as a large amount of valuable oil. It is deeply to be re-
gretted that these precious creatures are much less abundant
than they were some years ago, but still they are well
worth the looking after, as the commercial value of a single
specimen ranges from ten to twenty thousand dollars,
depending upon the size and consequent production of bone
and oil.

According to a statement contained in the report of Lieut.
A. R. Gordon (1886), the average value of each whaling
cargo from the year 1846 to 1875 was $47,220, and accord-
ing to the report of A. P. Low (1904),.from information
supplied by the noted American whaler, Captain George
Cromer, the average value of a whaling cargo from Hudson
Bay between the years 1891 and 1904 was about $35,000—
sixty-eight whales having been captured upon nineteen
whaling voyages, all of which latter were American.

Perhaps second in importance and value to the Right
Whale fishery is that of the White Whale—a much smaller
though a very much more abundant animal. In point of
numbers I would judge that the white whale far exceeds all
other species of water mammals combined, for in many
places and at various times I have seen the surface of the
bay appear as a living, plunging mass of white from the
presence of great schools of these creatures; nor do they
appear to be appreciably diminishing, as some other animals
are. I observed them in apparently as great numbers about
the mouths of the Churchill and Nelson rivers in 1905 as I
had in the same localities twenty years before, although
large numbers of them are annually captured at various

237

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

points by the Hudson’s Bay Company, who find in them a
profitable source of revenue—the oil and hide products of
one animal being worth, on the average, about thirty dollars.

The Narwhal, or Sea Unicorn, is another valuable species
of whale found in the northern parts of the bay and strait,
but it is of comparatively rare occurrence. The remarkable
feature about this animal is that it possesses a long, straight,
spiral horn of very fine ivory, extending from the upper jaw
directly in line with the body. The length of the horn in
an adult male is frequently about eight feet, and in value
it is worth from $2.50 to $3.00 per pound.

The Walrus fishery probably ranks next in value to that
of the white whale, for this, the largest species of the seal
family, is abundant almost everywhere throughout the
northern parts of Hudson Bay and Strait. In 1885-86
I met with great number: of them along the north shore of
Hudson Strait, also in the vicinity of the Digges, the Ottawa
and the Sleeper islands, about the sandy shores of which
they delight to sport and feed upon the clams and other shell-
fish, which they dig from the sand in the shallow waters
with their long ivory tusks provided for this purpose.
According to A. P. Low, the present southerly limit of the
walrus is found at the North Belcher Islands, in about lati-
tude 57 degree:, although, as is the case with many other
animals, its range was formerly much farther south. Mr.
Low also reports that under persistent hunting, of late
years, the number of these animals iz being greatly dimin-
ished, and such being the case it would seem to be most
desirable that legal restrictions should be made to prevent
the wholesale slaughter and ultimate extermination of these
noble creaturez:, whose existence is almost essential to that
of the native tribes of Eskimos.

Since a walrus, like most other seals, sink: immediately
when killed in the water, a very large percentage of those
killed by existing methods of hunting are completely lost.

23

HUDSON BAY A NATIONAL ASSET

The harpoon and lance, with attached line and float, should
therefore be the only implements used in the hunt for these
animals. From a sportsman’s point of view the walrus
furnishes one of the grandest fields for sport upon this con-
tinent. During my many years of travel through the wilds
of northern Canada I have had occasion to hunt and kill
most of the existing varieties of big game, but none that has
afforded more real sport and excitement than the walrus.
Upon one occasion, when in company with Dr. R. Bell and
a boat’s crew of eleven men in all, near the shore of the
Digges Islands, we were suddenly confronted by a herd of
about fifty walruses, all of them snorting and blowing and
looking like so many water demons.

Whether out of curiosity or upon mischief bent I know
not, but with heads and shoulders above the water and their
long, curved, ivory tusks gleaming in the sunlight, they
charged straight for our position, and so terrified some of
our Newfoundland sailors that they were with difficulty pre-
vented from jumping overboard into the sea. We were not
properly outfitted at the time for walrus hunting, being
armed only with five Winchester rifles, but with these we
opened a rapid fire and demoralized the band before any of
them reached our boat.

Many of them were killed, and sank in deep water before
they could be secured, but to one we managed to make fast,
and towed him to the shore—a shelving sandy beach. But
when we undertook to haul him out of the water, we realized
for the first time the enormity of his bulk and weight.
Although eleven able-bodied men, we could not without
“ purchase ” commence to pull the carcase from the water,
and even with a parbuckle were only half successful.

Later, during the spring of 1886, when stationed at Big
‘Island, Hudson Strait, I fitted up my boat in proper shape
with harpoons, lines, floats and lances for hunting these
creatures, and for a short time pursued the avocation of a

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ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

walrus hunter with success, using a rifle only to dispatch
my victims after they had been secured by one or more har-
poons with attached floats. The few hides that I procured
at that time were sold in the English market for 6d. per
pound, and this, I believe, is about the market price to-day.
The weight of a single hide will average about two hundred
and fifty pounds, and the ivory tusks, which weigh any-
where from two to ten pounds, are worth about 75c. per
pound. The oil derived from walrus blubber is of rather
inferior quality, and therefore not of great value. The total
marketable products of a single adult walrus will, therefore,
be worth between $30.00 and $40.00.

The Square-flipper, Bearded or Big Seal ranks next in
size to the walrus, being commonly about eight feet in
length, and is widely distributed, though not very numerous.
The hide is largely used by the Eskimos for the best grades
of leather, and the oil product also is of considerable value.

The Harp or Saddleback Seal is the species most com-
monly found in great numbers off the banks of Newfound-
land, but it is not frequently met with in Hudson Bay,
though quite commonly in the strait. It is valuable for hide
and oil products.

The Ringed or Jar Seal, though the smallest, is the most
common and abundant species found in Hudson Bay and
adjacent waters. Its flesh, with that of the walrus and the
reindeer, forms the chief food of the Eskimos, whilst its pelt
is equally useful in the manufacture of tents and clothing.
The hide and oil products of this seal would form valuable
articles of commerce.

The Harbor or Freshwater Seal is the fifth and last
variety of this animal found in Hudson Bay or adjacent
waters, and though not numerous, it is widely distributed.
It is highly prized by the Eskimos because of its beautiful
dark, rich furry coat, that of the young being soft and rich,
somewhat like that of the fur seal. Unlike the other

240

HUDSON BAY A NATIONAL ASSET

varieties, it frequents the fresh water, ascending rivers and
being found in fresh water lakes of high elevation.

The Polar Bear may be regarded in the animal world as
the monarch of the Hudson Bay region. He is found almost
as frequently in the water as upon the land, having a very
wide range over which he roams throughout the year, fol-
lowing the general movements of the seals and other animals
upon which he preys. The female polar bear resorts to the
shelter of some friendly snowbank during the winter
months, and there gives birth to her young in the month of
March; but the males do not hibernate, preferring rather to
take their chances of an occasional cold meal whilst roaming
their solitary fields of ice and snow. I had occasion one
winter to meet with Mr. Bruin when on his foraging rounds,
but as I was armed with a good rifle, he furnished the meal,
not I. Upon making an examination of the stomach of this
bear, it was found to contain nothing but the droppings of
reindeer. For miles he had followed the tracks of an
Eskimo, but met with misfortune before overtaking his
quarry.

The skin of the polar bear forms a beautiful and valuable
robe, whilst the blubber affords a fine grade of oil, but the
chief value of the animal is as a prize for the sportsman.

The Reindeer, or Caribou, of the Hudson Bay country is
to-day what the buffalo was to the western plains thirty or
forty years ago, the chief source of food to the natives; but
as it has been described at considerable length in a former
chapter of this book, no further mention of it need be made
here.

The Musk-ox is one of the noblest and most valuable ani-
mals of the northern shores of Hudson Bay and adjacent
territory. It is found in very considerable numbers and
affords most luxurious robes. I have seen musk-ox robes
stacked by the Eskimos like hay-cocks along the shore of
Chesterfield Inlet, awaiting an opportunity to market them;

16 241

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

but as I have also devoted a chapter to this species I shall
not make further reference to them.

Woodland Caribou, Moose and Jumping Deer are found
in more or less abundance throughout the timbered country
about the southern parts of the bay; so also are Black Bears,
Wolves and Colored Foxes. Black and Red as well as White
Foxes are also commonly found in the country north of the
timber line. I have seen several black foxes and about a
thousand white ones trapped by a few Eskimos in Hudson
Strait during one winter; and I have also seen and handled
a single black foxskin which realized for its owner the sum
of $1,600.

Other fur-bearing animals which may be mentioned as
products of the Hudson Bay country are, Otter, Beaver,
Fisher, Mink, Martin, Ermine, Wolverine, Lynx and Wild
Cats.

Little definite information seems to be available regarding
the varieties and abundance of fish in Hudson Bay and
Strait, but certain it is that some of the finest fish I have
ever seen or eaten have come from those waters. From my
own personal knowledge I can vouch for the following
species :

Salmon of the very finest quality are found in abundance
both in Hudson Bay and Strait. I have several times pro-
cured them from the Eskimos, and can testify as to their
superior quality.

Lake Trout are found in all the streams and lakes tribu-
tary to the bay.

Sturgeon are plentiful in the Nelson and some other
rivers flowing into the bay.

Whitefish are caught in the mouths of several of the rivers
by the Hudson’s Bay Company, and salted in barrels for
export.

242

HUDSON BAY A NATIONAL ASSET

Cod have been found at a number of points in the north-
ern parts of the bay and strait, and in Ungava Bay of late
years a most successful cod fishery has been carried on by
Senator Blanchard, a progressive and wealthy Newfound-
lander. The senator informed me that his newly estublished
Ungava Bay fishery had exceeded his best expectations.

Doubtless other varieties of deep-water fish will be found
when properly fished for, but as yet this has not been done,
so far as I am aware.

Of feathered game there is a great abundance, particu-
larly of waterfowl, the most important of which are: Brant,
Hutchins and Snowy Geese, Northern, American and King
Eiders, Squaw Ducks, Swans, Loons, Murres, Guillemots
and. many other sea fowls. In many places I have seen
geese in such numbers that they could be killed by hundreds
with sticks. Ptarmigan, also, are found in great numbers in
many places in the open country. They are commonly

caught by the natives with nets, and form a staple article of
food.

IL. Vegetable Products.

Under this heading, in the northern parts of the Hudson
Bay territory, we can count upon nothing for export,
although in the valleys of the Thelon and some other rivers
there are valuable belts of spruce and tamarack timber for
local supply when required. Nearly all of the southern
part of the territory south of latitude 58 degrees is, how-
ever, more or less heavily wooded with White and Black
Spruce, Tamarack, Poplar, Birch, Pine, Balsam, Cedar,
Elm and Ash, here given in order of their abundance.

Very large quantities of milling timber are found in the
valleys of all the large rivers emptying into the southern
shores of Hudson and James bays, whilst the available
supply of pulpwood is almost unlimited.

Agricultural development is not to be expected anywhere

243

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

in the northern parts of the district, but throughout the
more southerly wooded portions there,are great possibilities
in this direction. At Fort Churchill I have seen a few
hardy garden vegetables. grown. for local use, but at York;
120 miles farther south, many. varieties grow hizorianile:
and I believe that at Moose. Factory and other southern
points almost all kinds of farm produce have been raised
successfully. Beyond a doubt, there are millions of acres
of agricultural lands between the shores of the bay and the
height of land to the south of it.

III. Mineral Products.

Of these little can yet be said excepting as to prospects.
Many valuable minerals have been sighted in various parts
of the territory; but as yet no systematic prospecting has
been undertaken, and with few exceptions, therefore, no
reliable information is available as to qualities or quantities
of minerals discovered.

Iron Ores are known to occur in several localities, notably
along the east main coast and the adjoining islands on the
west coast of Ungava Bay, also on the south shore of Hudson
Strait and upon the Mattagami River. 5

Galena is known to exist in workable quantities at Rich-
mond Gulf and Little Whale River, a few tons of ore having
been mined near the Hudson’s Bay Company’s post at the
latter place. Dr. Bell reports assays of two samples of this
ore as yielding 5.104 and 12.03 ounces of silver to the ton.

Gold and Silver are also reported by Dr. Bell to have been
found in small quantities upon the east main coast, near
Great Whale River and Dog Island; also on the west coast
south of Rankin Inlet, where a large area of the Huronian
or Keewatin schists occurs. Again, both metals were dis-
covered in small quantities in samples obtained by the
Doctor from one of the most northerly of the Ottawa Islands.

244

*
HUDSON BAY A‘ NATIONAL ASSET

Molybdenum ” is reported to‘have been found upon. ‘the
east main coast.

" Copper has been’ discoveréd’ both on the east and the west
coasts, though in ‘unknown quantity.

Lignite is yeported to have been discovered on 1 the Mis-
sinaibi River, Gypsum on the Moose, and Petroleum- bear-
mg limestone on the Abittibi.

Good qualities of building ‘stone are available on both the
east and west shores of the bay. Large quantities of soap-
stone occur at’ Mosquito Bay, ‘on the east coast, and abun-
dance of Mica has been’ discovered in Chesterfield Inlet,
Eastmain and Lake’ Hatbor, a mine being now profitably
worked by a Scotch whaler at the latter place, not far from
where I spent the winter of 1885-86, Mr. Low reports that
in 1904 thirteen. tons uF excellent mica were taken from this
mine: ie ace

Graphite has been: found on the east shore of Ungava Bay,
in White Strait, and near Cape Wolstenholme.

This Gonnlades my brief outline of the resources of the
Hudson Bay district; but I ‘think the facts pointed out are
sufficient to support in ‘the: very’ strongest moanner any well-
advised scheme to open up the territory either by rail or
steamboat transportation, or ‘both.

Navigation a THE Bay anv Srraits. *

In dealing with this guhioot I am not unmindful that I
am broaching one which has been under serious considera-
tion and investigation for the past twenty-five years, so-far
without definite results; but as my opportunities for observ-
ing actual conditions have, been large, I may be able to
throw some additional; light upon the question. Besides,
having carefully perused the various reports of those who
have made a study of the question, I have personally made
six voyages across the bay, and have passed four times.

245

a

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

through the strait, and spent one winter in it upon Big
Island.

I assume that the prime motive in opening up a route for
commerce through Hudson Bay and Strait is already well
understood, viz., to provide the best and the much-needed
additional transportation facilities for the large and ever-
increasing produce of Western Canada. As compared with
present shipping routes to Europe, the distance from Fort
Churchill to Liverpool is almost identical with that from
Montreal to Liverpool by way of Cape Race, whilst the
distance from a central point, such as Prince Albert, to
Churchill is more than twelve hundred miles less than to
Montreal. From Regina to Churchill the saving in rail
travel would amount to over one thousand miles, and
from Edmonton it would amount to more than eleven hun-
dred. Surely the simple statement of these facts alone
forms the strongest possible argument in favor of railway
connection between Fort Churchill and the railway systems
of the Western Provinces.

I mention Fort Churchill only as the terminal point, since
it is beyond all question the most advantageous port on the
west coast of the bay. No unusual difficulties would be met
with in the construction of such a road, for during the sum-
mer of 1905 it was my privilege to explore a proposed route
from Prince Albert to Churchill, and I found it entirely
feasible. A year later several other explorers covered the
same route in the interests of the Canadian Northern Rail-
way, and they have also reported quite favorably upon the
project. It remains for us, therefore, to consider only the
feasibility of steamboat navigation on the bay and strait.

In this connection we will first consider the harbor ques-
tion, and the length of season for which it is available. As
shown by my map and contours thereon, Churchill harbor is
an excellent one, possessing good anchorage in from four to
nine fathoms of water at low tide, and the area at this depth

246

HUDSON BAY A NATIONAL ASSET

may be greatly extended at small cost if more space is
required.

From records of the Hudson's Bay Company, extending
back for a great number of years, the average dates of the
opening and closing of Churchill Harbor are the 19th of
June and the 18th of November, making the length of open
season exactly five months. The earliest recorded date of
opening was the 5th of June, 1863, and the latest the 2nd
of July, 1866. The earliest date of closing was the 1st of
November, 1837, and the latest the 4th of December, 1885,
These dates, of course, represent the times of the ice first
running out and again setting fast—without any reference
to the reappearance of drift-ice, from which source some
trouble may be experienced during the early summer—
but we may quite safelv count upon the free and unob-
structed use of Churchill Harbor for the four months of
July, August, September and October.

I am of opinion that little difficulty would be experi-
enced in keeping the harbor open during the greater part
of November, and with the use of ice-breakers it could, if
necessary, be kept open throughout the winter.

The strong tidal and river currents in the harbor are nat-
ural features which assist very materially in the breaking
up and clearing out of the ice. Outside of the harbor a
belt of shore-ice forms during the winter season, but
beyond this the bay is never frozen, and may be freely
navigated at all seasons of the year. Outside of the harbors,
the only difficulties to navigation occur in Hudson Strait,
where at three points the channel is contracted to forty or
forty-five miles in width. The first of these points, count-
ing from the west, is at the south of Nottingham Island,
and here ice-jams are frequently met with during the early
part of the summer and late in the fall; but by careful
observation of the wind and tidal currents these obstructions
may often be avoided by passing either to the north of Not-

247

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

tingham or to the south of the Digges Islands, between which
and the mainland at Cape Wolstenholme there is deep water.
The prevailing direction of the movement of the ice at this
locality is from the north, so that it frequently happens that
though drift-ice may be hard ashore on the north side of
Nottingham, there is open water to the south of it. The
extreme sluggishness of the magnetic compass is also a
source of difficulty to the mariner in this quarter, but the
establishment of lights and bell-buoys would largely over-
come this.

The next point where difficulties in navigation are likely
to be encountered is about half way through the strait, at
or south of Big Island. Here there is a strong prevailing
set of current to the west along the north shore and to the
east along the south shore, and these facts require to be care-
fully regarded by the navigator, as also the direction of the
prevailing winds, which very largely control the position of
any drifting ice that may be in those waters.

It is notable that during the systematic taking of observa-
tions on both sides of the strait in 1885-86, when “ ice” was
observed upon the one side “ open water” was the rule upon
the other, and vice versa. The most advantageous channel .
would therefore seem to be fairly central, inclining to the
north or south, depending upon whether the wind is
northerly or southerly.

The third point of contraction is at the eastern entrance
to the strait, between Resolution and the Button islands, and
to this locality the above observations regarding currents and
wind apply with equal force.

We cannot get away from the fact that a considerable
quantity of drifting field-ice is likely to be encountered in
the strait throughout the month of July, and of course
earlier; but by that time it is found to be so broken and
softened by the action of the weather and water as to be of
little danger to ships—which, with average steam power and

248

HUDSON BAY A NATIONAL ASSET

suitably arranged propellers with attachable blades, will be
able to force their way through.

As to the occurrence of fog in Hudson Strait, a compari-
son of carefully kept observations shows less than one-third
the number of hours that are recorded in the Straits of Belle
Isle.

As to icebergs, they are occasionally met with in Hudson
Strait, being sometimes carried in along the north shore by
the prevailing current from Davis Strait, but they are by no
means of frequent occurrence, and not one-tenth as numer-
ous as off the Straits of Belle Isle.

The strait can, in my opinion, be relied upon for unob-
structed navigation from the 15th of July to the 1st of
November, with a possible extension of two weeks at either
end.

In looking through a volume of the Furopean Magazine
and London Review for the year 1797—one of the many
rare old volumes in the Toronto Public Library—the writer
was interested to notice, in a brief sketch of Fort Prince of
Wales, in the June number of that year, the following refer-
ence to the navigation of Hudson Bay: “ The ships em-
ployed in the trade pass the Straits the beginning ‘of August
and return in September. The navigation is very ‘safe, not
a ship being lost in twenty years. It is supposed that were
the trade to be laid open, the exports thither might be ex-
ceedingly enlarged.”

In conclusion, I would say that the proposition to open
up a route for commerce through Hudson Bay and Strait
is, in my opinion, a wise and perfectly feasible move, both
because of the service it will render in developing the local
resources of the country, and because of the additional
transportation facilities it will afford for the products of
Western Canada.

I am indebted to Mr. Charles Mair, of Lethbridge, our
distinguished western poet, and author of the recently pub-

249

ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA

lished and very interesting and valuable narrative of the
Government Treaty Expedition of 1899 through the Peace
and Athabasca river valleys,* for permission to insert here
his noble poem, ‘‘ Open the Bay,” an eloquent and effective
protest against the efforts of certain affected interests to
cultivate the idea that navigation of Hudson Strait is
impracticable.

OPEN THE BAY.

Open the Bay, which o’er the Northland broods,
Dumb, yet in labor with a mighty fate!

Open the Bay! Humanity intrudes,

And gropes, prophetic, round its solitudes,
In eager thought, and will no longer wait.

Open the Bay which Cabot first espied
In days when tiny bark and pinnace bore
Stout pilots and brave captains true and tried—
Those dauntless souls who battled far and wide,
With wind and wave in the great days of yore.

Open the Bay which Hudson—doubly crowned
By fame—to science and to history gave.
This was his limit, this his utmost bound—
Here, all unwittingly, he sailed and found,
At once, a path of empire and a grave.

Open the Bay! What cared that seaman grim
For towering iceberg or the crashing floe?

He sped at noonday or at midnight dim,

A man! and, hence, there was a way for him,
And where he went a thousand ships can go.

Open the Bay! the myriad prairies call;
Let homesteads rise and comforts multiply;
Give to the world the shortest route of all,
Let justice triumph though the heavens should fall!
This is the voice of reason—manhood’s cry.

*“ Through the Mackenzie Basin,” William Briggs, Toronto, 1908.
250

HUDSON BAY A NATIONAL ASSET

Open the Bay! Who are they that say “No”?
Who locks the portals? Nature? She resigned
Her icy reign, her stubborn frost and snow,
Her sovereign sway and sceptre, long ago,
To sturdy manhood and the master, Mind!

Not these the foe! Not Nature, who is fain
When earnest hearts an earnest end pursue;

But man’s old selfishness and greed of gain:

These ancient breeders of earth’s sin and pain—
These are the thieves who steal the Nation’s due!

Such are the heirs of traders Gillam led—
Such were they in the past, with souls obtuse
When duty called—who, recreant, and dead
To England’s honor, hung the craven head,
And struck the British flag to La Perouse.

And such are they who, in their Eastern place,
Say, “It is folly and the purpose vain!”

The carrier and:the shallow huckster’s race—

Theirs are the hands, not Nature’s which efface,
And seal the public good for private gain.

Open the Bay! Let Earth’s poor people in!
What though the selfish interests lie and flout—
Open the Inlet! Let them growl and grin,
And Power still hobnob with them in their sin—
Humanity, their master, is about!

It looks abroad, and with purged vision sees
Man’s wily nature bared, not overcast;
It comes to scatter to the winds his pleas,
His privilege and bland accessories,
And with strong arm right the wronged land at last.

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‘AZINd SYALNOH FAY FAL

APPENDIX I.
CLASSIFIED LIST OF PLANTS
Collected by J. W. Tyrrett, C.E., D.LS.,

in 1898, along the line of route between Lake Athabasca and the
west coast of Hudson Bay; with which is incorporated a small
collection made in 1885 at Ashe Inlet, on the north shore of Hudson
Strait, and a collection made by Miss Marjorie Lofthouse at Fort
Churchill,

The species collected from the Barren Lands are marked B;
those from the forest country south of the Barren Lands, or in
isolated groves of timber on the banks of the river, north of the
general limit of the forest, are marked W. Any species collected
both from the woods and from the Barren Lands are marked
W.B., or B.W., according to whether they are woodland species
extending into the Barren Lands, or Arctic species extending south
into the forest.

Determined by Professor John Macoun, M.A.

I. RANUNCULACEA.

1. Anemone patens, L., var. Nuttalliana, Gray.—W.
Fort Chipewyan, Lake Athabasca, June 19.
2, Anemone parviflora, Michx.—W.B.

North shore of Lake Athabasca. Limestone Island, in Nichol-
son Lake, and the west shore of Hudson Bay at Fort
Churchill.

3. Anemone Richardsonti, Hook.—W.

Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

4, Anemone multifida, Poir.—W.
Woodcock Portage, on Stone River.

5. Ranunculus affinis, R. Br.—B.

Barlow Lake, Dubawnt River. Dubawnt River, between
Schultz and Baker lakes. South shore of Chesterfield Inlet,
near its mouth. Fort Churchill.

253

APPENDIX

n

. Ranunculus Lapponicus, L.—B.

West shore of Dubawnt Lake, near the mouth of Dubawnt
River.

~_

. Ranunculus hyperboreus, Rottb—wWw.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

II. PAPAVERACE.

fr)

. Papaver nudicaule, L.—B.

Dubawnt River, between Schultz and Baker lakes.
This species was also collected at Ashe Inlet, on the north
shore of Hudson Strait, in 1885.

III. FUMARIACEA.

a

Corydalis glauca, Pursh.—W.
North-west and north shores of Lake Athabasca. Esker, near
the Narrows of Daly Lake.
10. Corydalis aurea, Willd.—W.

Rocky Island, on the north side of Lake Athabasca, west of
Fond du Lac.

IV. CRUCIFERA.

11. Cardamine pratensis, L., var. angustifolia —B.
Island near the centre of Boyd Lake. Limestone Island, in
Nicholson Lake. Fort Churchill.
12. Arabis lyrata, L.—W.
North shore of Lake Athabasca.

13. Arabis humifusa, var. pubescens, Wat.—W.

North-west angle of Lake Athabasca. Esker, near the Narrows
of Daly Lake.

This species had not previously been found west of Hudson Bay.

14. Barbarea vulgaris, R. Br—W.
Cracking Stone Point, north shore of Lake Athabasca. Red
Hill, on the west shore of Hinde Lake.
15. Sisymbrium humile, C. A. Meyer.—W.
Fort Chipewyan, Lake Athabasca.
254

APPENDIX

16.

17.

18.

23.

24

25.

26.

Cardamine digitata, Rich—B.

Loudon Rapids, above forks of Dubawnt River. Mouth of
Chesterfield Inlet.

Not found elsewhere since it was collected by Sir John Rich-
ardson near the mouth of the Coppermine River.

Draba hirta, L.—B.

Limestone Island, Nicholson Lake. Loudon Rapids, above the
forks of Dubawnt River. Also at Ashe Inlet, on the north
shore of Hudson Strait.

Draba incana, L.—B.

Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River. Fort
Churchill, on the west coast of Hudson Bay.

. Draba nemorosa, L., var. leiocarpa, Lindb.—W.

Fond du Lac. Lake Athabasca.

Draba stellata, Jacq.—B.
North-west shore of Dubawnt Lake.

. Cochlearia officinalis, L.—B.

Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.

. Eutrema Edwardasii, R. Br.—B.

North-west shore of Dubawnt Lake.

Nasturtium palustre, D. C—W.
Fond du Lac, Lake Athabasca.

V. VIOLACEE.

Viola palustris, L—W.

East and north shores of Carey Lake.
These are the most northern localities in Canada where this

species has been found.
Viola canina, L., var. Sylvestris, Regel—W.
Fond du Lac, Lake Athabasca. South end of Daly Lake.

VI. CARYOPHYLLACEE.

Silene acaulis, L.—B.

Dubawnt Lake, west shore. North end of Wharton Lake. Also
at Ashe Inlet, on Hudson Strait.

255

APPENDIX

27,

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

Lychnis apetala, L.—B.
Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.

Lychnis affinis, Vahl.—B.
Dubawnt Lake, north-west shore.

Arenaria laterifiora, L.—W.
Near the south end of Daly Lake.

Arenaria peploides, L.—B.
Ashe Inlet, on the north side of Hudson Strait.

Stellaria longipes, Goldie—B. W.

Barlow Lake. Carey Lake. Wharton Lake, Dubawnt Lake,
west shore. Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt
River. Fort Churchill.

Stellaria longipes, Goldie, var. leta, Wats.—B.
Barlow Lake and Limestone Island, in Nicholson Lake.

Stellaria borealis, Bigel.—W.
Red Hill, on the west shore of Hinde Lake.

Cerastium alpinum, L.—B.

Limestone Island, in Nicholson Lake. Wharton Lake. Loudon
Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River. Dubawnt River,
between Schultz and Baker lakes. Mouth of Chesterfield
Inlet. Fort Churchill. Ashe Inlet, on the north shore of
Hudson Strait.

VII. GERANIACEA.

Geranium Carolineanum, L.—W.

North shore of Lake Athabasca, a short distance west of Fond
du Lac.

VIII. SAPINDACEZ.

Acer spicatum, Lam.—W.

Fort Chipewyan, Lake Athabasca.
This is the most northerly locality in Canada from which this
species has been recorded.

256

APPENDIX

IX. LEGUMINOS2E.

37. Astragalus alpinus, L.—W.

North shore of Lake Athabasca at Fond du Lae, and near Big
Fowl Island. Esker, near the Narrows of Daly Lake.

38. Spiesia (Oxytropis) Belli, Britt —B.

Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River. Mouth of
Chesterfield Inlet.

The only other locality from which this species has been col-
lected is Digges Island, Hudson Bay, where it was found by
Dr. Bell in 1884. It was described by Mr. Britton in 1894
from the specimens collected at the second and third of the
above localities.
39. Oxytropis campestris, L., var. cerulea, Koch.—B.

Ashe Inlet, on the north shore of Hudson Strait.

40. Oxytropis leucantha, Pers.—B.
Dubawnt River, between Schultz and Baker lakes. Mouth of
Chesterfield Inlet. Fort Churchill.
41. Hedysarum boreale, Nutt.—B.
Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River.

42. Hedysarum Mackenzii, Richard, L.—-B. W.

Fort Churchill. Ashe Inlet, on the north shore of Hudson
Strait.

X. ROSACEA.

43. Prunus Pennsylvanica, L—W.

North-west angle of Lake Athabasca. Esker, near Narrows of
Daly Lake.

44. Rubus chamemorus, L.—W. B.

Fort Churchill. Common in swampy places from Lake Atha-
basca northward to the edge of the woods. Grove on the
north shore of Carey Lake, and at Loudon Rapids, near the
forks of Dubawnt River. It was also found at Ashe Inlet, on
the north shore of Hudson Strait.

45. Rubus articus, L., var. grandiflorus, Lebeb.—W.

North shore of Lake Athabasca. Barlow Lake. North shore
of Carey Lake. Fort Churchill.

17 257

APPENDIX

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

Rubus strigosus, Michx.—W.

Banks of Stone River. In an isolated grove of white spruce on
the north shore of Carey Lake.

The last-mentioned would seem to have been an isolated
locality, at some considerable distance north of its general
northern limit. :

Dryas integrifolia, Vahl.—B.

Carey Lake. Limestone Island, in Nicholson Lake. West
shore of Dubawnt Lake. Loudon Rapids, above the forks
of Dubawnt River. Fort Churchill. Ashe Inlet, on the
north shore of Hudson Strait.

Fragaria Canadensis, Michx.—W.

North shore of Lake Athabasca and Woodcock Portage, on
Stone River.

This species, which has usually been confounded with F. Vir-
giniana, was also collected in the same year by Miss Taylor
at Fort Smith, on Slave River.

Potentilla Norvegica, L.—W.

Woodcock Portage, on Stone River. Red Hill, on the west
shore of Hinde Lake.

Potentilla nivea, L.—B.

Dubawnt River, between Schultz and Baker lakes. Mouth of
Chesterfield Inlet. Fort Churchill.

Potentilla palustris, Scop.—W.
Stony flats on the banks of Dubawnt River, just below Daly
Lake.
Potentilla fruticosa, L.—W.
North shore of Lake Athabasca, a little distance west of Fond
du Lac.
Potentilla nana, Willd.—B.
Shore of Hudson Bay, north of Marble Island. Ashe Inlet, on
the north shore of Hudson Strait.
Potentilla tridentata, Solander.—W.
Woodcock Portage, Stone River.

Amelanchier alnifolia, Nutt.—W.
North-west angle, Lake Athabasca.
258

APPENDIX

XI. SAXIFRAGACE.

56. Sazrifraga oppositifolia, L—B.

Dubawnt River, between Schultz and Baker lakes. Mouth of
oa eo Inlet. Ashe Inlet, on the north shore of Hudson
rait.

57. Sazrifraga caspitosa, L.—B.
Dubawnt River, between Schultz and Baker lakes. Mouth of
Chesterfield Inlet. Ashe Inlet.
58. Sazifraga rivularis, L.—B.
Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River. Ashe Inlet.

59. Sazifraga cernua, L.—B.

North-west shore of Dubawnt Lake. Loudon Rapids, above the
forks of Dubawnt River. Dubawnt River, between Schultz
and Baker lakes. Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet. Fort Churchill.

60. Sazifraga nivalis, L—B.

Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.

61. Sazifraga hieracifolia, Waldst and Kit.—B.
North shore of Dubawnt Lake.

a
be

Sazifraga punctata, L.—B.

North-west shore of Dubawnt Lake.
This species had not previously been recorded east of the
Rocky Mountains.

ir)
oO

. Sazifraga Hirculus, L.—B.
North-west shore of Dubawnt Lake.

64. Sazifraga tricuspidata, Retz.—B. W.
Fort Chipewyan, Lake Athabasca. North shore of Carey
Lake. Wharton Lake. Loudon Rapids, above the forks of
Dubawnt River. Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet. Ashe Inlet.
65. Chrysosplenium alternifolium, L.—B.
Limestone Island, Nicholson Lake.

66. Parnassia Kotzebuei, Cham. and Schl.—VW.
South end of Daly Lake.

67. Parnassia palustris, L.—W.

Fort Churchill.
259

APPENDIX

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

TT.

Ribes oxydcanthoides, L.—W.
North shore of Lake Athabasca, near Fond du Lac.

Ribes rubrum, L.—W.
Fort Chipewyan, Lake Athabasca.

Ribes Hudsonianum, Richards.—W.
Fort Chipewyan, Lake Athabasca.

Ribes prostratum, L’Her.—W.

North shore of Lake Athabasca. Esker, near the Narrows of
Daly Lake. East and north shores of Carey Lake.

XII. HALORACEAE,

Hippuris vulgaris, L.—B.
Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.

Hippuris maritima, L.—B. W.

Red Hill, on the shore of Hinde Lake. Mouth of Chesterfield
Inlet.

XIII. ONAGRACEA,

Epilobium angustifolium, L.—W. B.

Esker, near the Narrows of Daly Lake. Ashe Inlet, Hudson
Strait.

These localities probably mark the northern range of this
‘species,
Epilobium latifolium, L.—B.

West shore of Dubawnt Lake. Loudon Rapids, above the
forks of Dubawnt River, where the flowers were just appear-
ing on August 25. Fort Churchill. Ashe Inlet.

Epilobium lineare, Gray.—B,

Red ih on the shore of Hinde Lake. Mouth of Chesterfield
Inlet.

XIV. CORNACEZS.

Cornus Canadensis, L.—W.
North shore of Lake Athabasca. South end of Daly Lake.

260

APPENDIX

79.

80.

83.

84,

87.

88.

XV. CAPRIFOLIACEAS,

. Viburnum pauciforum, Pylaie.—vW.

North shore of Lake Athabasca. Esker, near the Narrows of
Daly Lake.

Linnea borealis, Gronov.—W.

Elizabeth Rapids, Stone River. Esker, near the Narrows of
Daly Lake. North shore of Carey Lake. Fort Churchill.

XVI. RUBIACE.E.

Galium trifidum, L—W.
Red Hill, on the shore of Hinde Lake.

XVII. COMPOSITAE.

. Erigeron unifiorus, L.—B.

Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River.

2. Erigeron eriocephalus, J. Vahl.—B.

North end of Wharton Lake.

Antennaria alpina, Gertn.—B.
West shore of Dubawnt Lake.

Achillea millefolium, L., var. nigrescens, L—W. B.
Woodcock Portage, Stone River. Fort Churchill. Ashe Inlet.

. Matricaria inodora, L., var. nana, Hook—wW.

Fort Churchill.

. Artemisia borealis, Pall., var. Wormskioldii, Bess —B. W.

Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake, and east end of
Aberdeen Lake.

Petasites palmata, Gray.—W.
Fond du Lac, Lake Athabasca.

Petasites sagittata, Gray.—B.
Limestone Island, Nicholson Lake. Ashe Inlet, Hudson Strait.

261

APPENDIX

89.

90.

91.

92.

93.

94.

95.

96.

97.

98.

Arnica alpina, Olin.—B. W.

North shore of Lake Athabasca. Esker, near Narrows of Daly
Lake. West shore of Dubawnt Lake. Loudon Rapids, above
the forks of Dubawnt River. Fort Churchill. Ashe Inlet.

Senecio palustris, Hook., var. congesta, Hook.—B.
West shore of Dubawnt Lake. Fort Churchill. Ashe Inlet.

Senecio aureus, L., var. borealis, Tor. and Gr.—B.
Limestone Island, in Nicholson Lake.

Senecio aureus, L., var. balsamite, Tor. and Gr.—W.
Fort Churchill.

Saussurea alpina, Hook.—B.
North end of Wharton Lake.

Taraxacum officinale, Weber, var. alpinum, Koch.—B.

Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River. Mouth of
Chesterfield Inlet. Fort Churchill.

XVIII. CAMPANULACEA.

Campanula unifiora, L.—B.
Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River.

XIX. VACCINIACEA.

Vaccinium Canadense, Kalm.—W.
South end of Daly Lake.

Vaccinium uliginosum, L.—W. B.

North shore of Lake Athabasca. Dubawnt River, just below
Daly Lake. Carey Lake. Dubawnt Lake. Loudon Rapids,
above forks of Dubawnt River. Fort Churchill.

Vaccinium Vitis-Idea, L.—W. B.

North shore of Lake Athabasca. Daly Lake. Dubawnt Lake.
Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River. Fort
Churchill.

While both this and the preceding species extend for a con-
siderable distance into the Barren Lands, the bushes are
small and bear very little fruit.

262

APPENDIX

99. Oxycoccus vulgaris, Pursh.—W.

100.

101.

102.

103.

104.

106.

107.

108.

Esker, near the middle of Daly Lake, and stony banks of
Dubawnt River, just below the lake.

XX. ERICACE.

Arctostaphylos alpina, Spreng.—B. W.

Island near the middle of Boyd Lake. Dubawnt River,
between Schultz and Baker lakes. Mouth of Chesterfield
Inlet. Fort Churchill. Ashe Inlet, Hudson Strait.

In 1904 the most southern locality at which this species was
observed was on the hill south of Kasba Lake. In 1896 it
was seen in the swamp at Cross Portage, north of Seepiwisk
Lake. In 1896, Nelson River.—J. B. T.

Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, Spreng.—W.
North to the edge of Barren Lands.

Cassandra calyculata, Don.—W.

North-west shore, Lake Athabasca. South end of Selwyn
Lake.

Cassiope tetragona, Don.—B.
Shores of Dubawnt Lake. Dubawnt River, between Schultz
and Baker lakes. Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.

This is one of the plants most commonly used for fuel by
those travelling in the Barren Lands.

Andromeda polifolia, L.—W. B.

North shore of Athabasca Lake. South end of Selwyn Lake.
Esker, near the middle of Daly Lake. West shore of
Dubawnt Lake. Fort Churchill.

. Loiseleuria procumbens, Desf.—B.

Boyd Lake.

Bryanthus tazifolius, Gray —B.
Loudon Rapids, above forks of Dubawnt River.

Kalmia glauca, Ait—wW.
Fond du Lac, Lake Athabasca. Esker, near middle of Daly
Lake.
Ledum latifolium, Ait.—W.

North shore of Lake Athabasca. Daly Lake.
Farther north it is replaced by the next following species.

263

APPENDIX

109.

110.

111.

112.

113.

114.

115.

116.

117.

118.

Ledum palustre, L.—B. W.

South end of Daly Lake. Carey Lake. Shores of Dubawnt
Lake. Wharton Lake. Loudon Rapids, above forks of
Dubawnt River. Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet. Fort

Churchill.
Rhodendron Lapponicum, Wahl.—B.
Limestone Island, Nicholson Lake. Shores of Dubawnt Lake.
Fort Churchill.
Pyrola minor, L.—W.
Red Hill, on the shore of Hinde Lake.

Pyrola secunda, L., var. pumila, Gray.—W. B.
North shore of Carey Lake. Loudon Rapids, above the forks
of Dubawnt River.
This is the most northerly point at which this species was
observed.
Pyrola rotundifolia, L., var. pumila, Hook.—B. W.

North shore of Lake Athabasca. Carey Lake. Wharton Lake.
Loudon Rapids, on Dubawnt River. Fort Churchill. Ashe
Inlet. rf

D XXI. PLUMBAGINACEAS.

Armeria vulgaris, Willd.—B.

West shore of Dubawnt Lake. Loudon Rapids, above the
forks of Dubawnt River. Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.

XXII. PRIMULACEA.

Primula Mistassinica, Michx.—W.
North shore of Lake Athabasca. Fort Churchill.

Trientalis Americana, Pursh.—W.
Elizabeth Falls, Stone River.

Androsace septentrionalis, L.—wW.
Fort Churchill.

XXITI. GENTIANACEA.

Menyanthes trifoliata, L.—W.
Woodcock Portage, Stone River.

264

APPENDIX

119.

120.

121.

122.

123.

124.

125.

126.

127.

128.

XXIV. HYDROPHYLLACEA#.

Phacelia Franklinii, Gray —W.

North shore of Lake Athabasca. Woodcock Portage, on Stone
River.

XXV. SCROPHULARIACEAS.

Castillea pallida, Kunth.—B.
Limestone Island, in Nicholson Lake. Shore of Dubawnt
Lake. Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River.
Pedicularis Lapponica, L.—B.
Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet. Ashe Inlet, on Hudson Strait.

Pedicularis euphrasioides, Stephan.—B. W.

Esker, near the middle of Daly Lake. North shore of Carey
Lake. Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River.
Fort Churchill.

Pedicularis hirsuta, L.—B.

Limestone Island, in Nicholson Lake. West shore of Dubawnt
Lake. Loudon Rapids.

Pedicularis fammea.—B.
Limestone Island, in Nicholson Lake.

Pedicularis capitata, Adams.—B.
East shore of Carey Lake.

Bartsia alpina, L.—W.
Fort Churchill.

XXVI. LENTIBULARIACEA.

Pinguicula villosa, L—W.
Daly Lake. Boyd Lake.

Pinguicula vulgaris, L.—W.
Carey Lake. Fort Churchill.

265

APPENDIX

XXVITI. POLYGONACEAs.

129. Polygonum viviparum, L.—B.

Limestone Island, in Nicholson Lake. West shore of Dubawnt
Lake. Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubaunt River.

These are among the most northerly localities at which these
species have been found in Canada.

130. Oxyria digyna, Campdera.—B.

Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.
Ashe Inlet, on the north shore of Hudson Strait.

XXVIII. MYRICACEA.

131. Myrica Gale, L.—W.
North-west angle of Lake Athabasca.

XXIX. CUPULIFERA.

132. Betula papyrifera, Michx.—W.

North shore of Lake Athabasca.

Daly Lake.

The Indians make their canoes from the bark of this tree.
Trees sufficiently large for canoes were seen as far north
as the north end of Selwyn Lake and the northern bend of
Cochrane River. From these places northward it gradually
decreases in size, until it disappears at about the northern
limit of the forest.

133. Betula pumila, L.

Red Hill, on the west shore of Hinde Lake.
Boyd Lake.

134. Betula glandulosa, Michx.
Daly Lake.
Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River.
Dubawnt River, between Schultz and Baker lakes.
Fairly common, is a small shrub on the Barren Lands as far

north as Ferguson River.—J. B. T.
135. Alnus viridis, D.C.—W.
Carey Lake. Quartzite Lake, on Ferguson River.

266

APPENDIX

XXX. SALICACEAS.
186. Salix petiolaris, Smith.—wWw.
North-west shore, Lake Athabasca.

137. Salix desertorum—wW.
North shore of Lake Athabasca.

138. Salix Brownii, Bebb.—W. B.
North shore of Lake Athabasca.
North-west shore of Dubawnt Lake.
Ashe Inlet, Hudson Strait.

139. Salix Richardsonii, Hook.—B.

Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.
Not previously recorded from the vicinity of Hudson Bay.

140. Salix reticulata, L.—B.

Limestone Island, in Nicholson Lake.
Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River.

141. Salix herbacea, L.—W. B.

Esker, near the middle of Daly Lake.
Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.
Ashe Inlet, on the north side of Hudson Strait.

142. Salix rostrata, Rich—W.

North shore of Lake Athabasca.
Elizabeth Rapids, Stone River.

143. Salix speciosa, Hook. and Arn.—B.
Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.
144. Salix glauca, L., var. villosa, And.—B.
Dubawnt River, between Schultz and Baker lakes.
145. Salix phyllicifolia, L.—B.
Shore of Dubawnt Lake.
Dubawnt River, between Schultz and Baker lakes.
Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.
146. Salix balsamifera, Barratt.—W.
West shore of Daly Lake.

This species was not before known to ogcur north of the
Saskatchewan River.
267

APPENDIX

147. Populus balsamifera, L.—W.

North shore of Lake Athabasca.

Limbs, believed to be of this species, were found lying on
the sand at the forks of the Dubawnt River, having drifted
down the West Branch to that place.

148. Populus tremuloides, Michx.—W.

North shore of Lake Athabasca.

Esker, near the narrows of Daly Lake.

The latter locality is the northern limit of the tree in this
longitude. On the head-waters of the Thlewiaza River it
was found to range as far north as latitude 60°. A few
small trees were also observed on the raised beaches near

Fort Churchill.—J. B. T. :

XXXI. EMPETRACEAS.

149. Empetrum nigrum, L.—W. B.
Daly Lake.
Hinde Lake.
Carey Lake.
Loudon Rapids, on Dubawnt River.
Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.
Ashe Inlet, on Hudson Strait.
Very little fruit was found on the bushes north of the edge
of the Barren Lands.

XXXII. CONIFERAS.

150. Juniperus communis, L.—W.
Fort Chipewyan, Lake Athabasca.
Esker, near the middle of Daly Lake.
North shore of Carey Lake.

151. Juniperus Sabina, L., var. procumbens, Pursh.—w.
Fort Chipewyan, Lake Athabasca.

152. Pinus Banksiana, Lambert.—W.

On dry sandy or rocky slopes as far north as the north end
of Selwyn Lake.

268

APPENDIX

153. Picea nigra, Link—W. B.

154.

155.

156.

157.

158.

159.

North shore of Lake Athabasca.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

This species occurs in scattered groves down the Dubawnt
River to Dubawnt Lake. On the shore of Hudson Bay it
reaches its northern limit at the mouth of Nelson River.
The most northern examples are spreading shrubs in the
middle of which may be found a small upright stem four
or five feet high—J. B. T.

Picea alba, Link.—W. B.

North shore of Lake Athabasca.

The sandy eskers near Hinde and Boyd lakes were thinly
covered with fine large trees of this spécies. Groves of
large trees were also growing on the wet but well drained
flats or slopes beside the Dubawnt River down to within a
short distance of Dubawnt Lake. Many large drifted trunks
were also found at the forks below this lake. Its northern
limit on the shore of Hudson Bay is at Little Seal River,
north of Fort Churchill, where it replaces the preceding
species in the wet swamps near the shore.—J. B. T.

Lariz Americana, Michx.—W. B.

Dubawnt River, as far north as Dubawnt Lake.

On the shore of Hudson Bay as far north as the mouth of
Little Seal River, associated with white spruce.—J. B. T.

XXXII. LILIACEA.

Smilacina trifolia, Desf —W.
Esker, near middle of Daly Lake.

Maianthemum Canadense, Desf.—W.
North shore of Lake Athabasca.

Allium Schenoprasum, L.—W.
North shore of Lake Athabasca.

Tofieldia borealis, Wahl.—W. B.

Barlow Lake.
Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River.
Fort Churchill.

269

APPENDIX

XXXIV. ORCHIDACEAE.

160. Orchis rotundifolia, Pursh—wW.
Fort Churchill.

XXXV. JUNCACEZE.

161. Luzula spadicea, D.C., var. melanocarpa, Meyer.—B.
Island near the middle of Boyd Lake.

162. Luzula campestris, Desf.—B.
Island near the middle of Boyd Lake.

163. Luzula campestris, Desf., var. vulgaris, Hook.—B.
West shore of Dubawnt Lake.

XXXVI. CYPERACEAE.

164. Scirpus cespitosus, L.—B.
Island near the middle of Boyd Lake.

165. Eriophorum polystachyon, L.—W. B.

West shore of Hinde Lake.

Island near the middle of Boyd Lake.
Limestone Island, in Nicholson Lake.
West shore of Dubawnt Lake.

Ashe Inlet, on Hudson Strait.

166. Eriophorum vaginatum.—w. B.
Esker near the middle of Daly Lake.

167. Eriophorum capitatum, Host.—B.
Ashe Inlet, on Hudson Strait.

168. Carex rarificra, Smith,—B.
Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River.

169. Carex canescens, L., var. alpicola, Wahl.—wWw.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.
Boyd Lake.

170. Carex misandra, R. Br.—wW.B.

West shore of Hinde Lake.
Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.

270

APPENDIX

171.

172.

173.

174.

175.

176.

177.

178.

179.

180.

181.

Carex aquatilis, Wahl.—W.
West shore of Hinde Lake.

Carex vulgaris, Fries., var. hyperborea, Boott.—W.

Daly Lake. Hinde Lake.
Boyd Lake.

Carex Magellanica, Lam.—W.
Esker, near the middle of Daly Lake.

Carex sazatalis, L.—W.
Hinde Lake. Barlow Lake.

Carex rotundata, Wahl.—B.
Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.

XXXVII. GRAMINEAS.

Hierochloa alpina, R. & S.—B.

West shore of Dubawnt Lake.
Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River.
Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.

Arctagrostis latifolia, Griseb.—W. B.

West shore of Hinde Lake.
Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River.

Arctophila Laestadii, Rupt.—W.
West shore of Hinde Lake.

Elymus arenarius, L.—W.
Black Lake, on Stone River.

Elymus mollis, Trin.—B.
Dubawnt River, between Schultz and Baker lakes.
Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.

Calamagrostis Langsdorffii, Kunth.—W.
Black Lake on Stone River.
Esker, near the middle of Daly Lake.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

271

APPENDIX

182. Calamagrostis Canadensis, Hook.—B.
Limestone Island, in Nicholson Lake.

183. Poa alpina, L.—B.

Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River.
184. Poa angustata, R. Br.—B.

Boyd Lake.

185. Poa cenisia, All.—B.

Limestone Island, in Nicholson Lake.
Loudon Rapids, above the forks of Dubawnt River.

186 Trisetum subspicatum, Beauv.—W.
Esker, near the middle of Daly Lake.

XXXVIII. EQUISETACEA.

187. Equisetum Sylvaticum, L.—W.
Esker, near the middle of Daly Lake.

XL. FILICES.

188. Polypodium vulgare, L.—wW.
North shore of Lake Athabasca.

189. Phegopteris Dryopteris, Fee.—B.
Island near the middle of Boyd Lake.

190. Aspidium fragrans, Swartz.—W. B.
Daly Lake. Carey Lake.

Dubawnt River, between Schultz and Baker Lakes.
Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.

191. Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh.—B.
Limestone Island, in Nicholson Lake.
Mouth of Chesterfield Inlet.

192. Woodsia Ilvensis, R. B.—W.
North shore of Lake Athabasca.
Grove of white spruce on the north shore of Carey Lake.

272

APPENDIX

197.

199.

200.

201.

909

203.

204.

XLI. LYCOPODIACE.E.

- Lycopodium annotinum, L.—wW.

Cracking Stone Point, Lake Athabasca.
North shore of Carey Lake.

. Lycopodium annotinum, L., var. alpestre, Hartm.—W.

Dubawnt River, below Daly Lake.

. Lycopodium complanatum, L.—W.

West shore of Hinde Lake.

. Lycopodium Selago, L.—B.

West shore of Dubawnt Lake.
Ashe Inlet, on Hudson Strait.

XLIT. MUSCI.

Sphagnum fuscum, var. pallescens, Warnst.—W.

In swamp on the banks of Dubawnt River, just below Daly
Lake.

. Sphagnum tenellum, var. rubellum, Warnst.—W.

Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

Sphagnum acutifolium, Russ & Warnst.—TV.

Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

Dicranum elongatum, Schwaegr.—W.

North end of Barlow Lake.

Dicranum congestum, Bird.—B.

. Di

West shore of Dubawnt Lake, at the mouth of Dubawnt River.

cranum fuscescens, Turn.—B.
West shore of Dubawnt Lake, at the mouth of Dubawnt River.

Dicranum Bergeri, Bland.—W.

West shore of Hinde Lake.

Aulacomium palustre. Schwaegr.—B.

18

West shore of Dubawnt Lake, at the mouth of Dubawnt River
Ashe Inlet, on Hudson Strait.

273

APPENDIX

205.

206.

207.

208.

209.

210.

211.

212.

218.

214.

215.

216.

Polytrichum strictum, Banks.—B.
West shore of Dubawnt Lake, at the mouth of Dubawnt River.

Webera nutans, Hedw.—B.

West shore of Dubawnt Lake, at the mouth of Dubawnt River.
Ashe Inlet, on Hudson Strait.

Hypnum exannulatum, Guemb.—B.
West shore of Dubawnt Lake, at the mouth of Dubawnt River.

Hylocomium Schreberi, Willd.—W.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

Hylocomium splendens, Schimp River.—B.
West shore of Dubawnt Lake, at the mouth of Dubawnt River.

XLIII. HEPATIC.

Ptilidum ciliare, Dum.—B.
West shore of Dubawnt Lake.

XLIV. LICHENES.

Cetraria aculeata, Fr.—B.
West shore of Dubawnt Lake.

Cetraria artica, Hook.—B.
River bank between Nicholson and. Dubawnt lakes.

Cetraria Islandica, Ach.—W. B.
Daly Lake. Hill at the north end of Barlow Lake.

Cetraria Islandica, Ach., var. Deliswi, Bor.—W.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

Cetraria Richardsonii, Hook.—B.
West shore of Dubawnt Lake.

Cetraria cucullata, Ach.—B.
North-west angle of Dubawnt Lake.
274

APPENDIX

- 217, Cetraria juniperina, Ach., var. Pinastii, Ach—W.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

218. Cetraria nivalis, Ach—wW. B.

Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.
North end of Barlow Lake.
Ashe Inlet, on Hudson Strait.

219. Alectoria jubata, L., var. implexa, Fr.—W.
West shore of Hinde Lake.

220. Alectoria divergens, Nyl—wW.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

221. Alectoria ochrolenca, Nyl., var. (a) rigida, Fr.—B.

North end of Barlow Lake.
West shore of Dubawnt Lake.

222. Parmelia physodes, Ach.—W.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

223. Parmelia conspersa, Ach—W.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

224. Umbilicaria Muhlenbergii, Tucherm.—W.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

225. Nephroma arcticum, Fr.—W.
West shore of Hinde Lake.

226. Lecanora tartarea, Ach.—W.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

227. Stereocaulon Despreaucii, Nyl.—W.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

228. Cladonia decorticata, Floerk.—W.
North end of Barlow Lake.

229. Cladonia gracilis, Fr., var. elongata, Fr.—W. B.

Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.
West shore of Dubaunt Lake.

275

APPENDIX

230. Cladonia rangiferina, Hoffm.—W.

Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.
North shore of Barlow Lake.

231. Cladonia rangiferina, Hoffm., var. sylvatica, L.—W.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

232. Cladonia cornucopioides, Fr.—W.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

233. Bomyces aeruginosus, D.C.—W.
Dubawnt River, just below Daly Lake.

é CARRYING THE MAIL TO MOOSE FACTORY.

276

APPENDIX II.

ESKIMO VOCABULARY OF WORDS AND PHRASES.
(ORIGINAL. )
BL cy gees Ter-mok-er-mingk. | Black Moss .... Kee-now-yak.
All night....... Kmee-en-nah.
Always ... . E-luk-o-she-a. Capscis paix scien Nich-shaw.
Alone.......... Tn-nu-tu-ak. Cap ae gun)... Shee-uck-tow.
A BAM is aseee Nu-glee-ta. CHIU. sce ves yes Noo-ta-an,
Aherd ....... Ah-mik-took-too. Col. on soepne . Oo-wat.
Another's y convex Hi-punga. Come here...... Ki-yeet
All gone. scare Pet-a-hung-e-too. Cold sy c2sesex 3 Ick-kee
ANStY vansaacis Mar-ne-an-nah. Coalsse . sexes! Kee-youk-cha.
APPAIG 3 5.. ci scaai Kay-pe-en-nah. Clouds......... Ne-boo-yah.
A while ago . Tatch-e-munny. Clothing ...... An-no-wak.
PATE sc5as wanyas O-kow-te-vah-vor. | Canoe ...... .. Kyack.
Antlefs ...:. sca Nug-le-yow. Coats cc 02d ane Koo-lee-ta.
ATM. ca ainecas sess Tel-oo.
ATTOW ica cnsicaas Kok-yoke DAY sexe eet Ood-loo-me.
All right: cs Co-id-na. Day before yes
Are you sleepy ?. Chin-e-gin? - terday ....... Ick-puck sha-nee.
Autumn... ..... Mow-yah. Darke «e353 . Ta-koo-nee.
ANGS Cau 4 aed Ooley-moon. De eried «sic sees Took-too.
Deer sinew . Took-too-Tb-a-loo,
Bader ica giscinsscas Pee-ung-e to. DEA i:5.6. a: gse8 Tuck-o-boo.
Bald) wsceiieieesies Ked-juk-yow. Down.......... ‘Town-na-ney.
Barren Lands... Nappartu-itok. DO os non vea dea King-me.
Be sigh ia escent Nah-nook. Don’t want to . Uggone.
aidan Prolene seein Don’t lie ....... Shay lo-naw-me.
Petics (big) ... Ung-a-yowk-a- Don’t under-
loong-a. stand....... Cow-you-mung-a-to.
Brother (small)... Nung-a-yowk-a- Don’t know..... Ah-chew.
loong-a. Do you wish to
Black lead...... Ming-oon-nah. go out? ...... Annie-low ?
Booties ceaseeins Kamming. Die -snuwne tees Tuck o-hoo.
Blagkiwecsvesess Kunnictah. Drink (give me). Emmie-ray.
Bring escnavsene I-chuc-to. Duck: 5..¢22456+- Me-ah-tuck.
Bullets s.c2s20s% Uchie.
BOW 52350080538 Pet-e-chee. Har yo vce cin cieen See-yvow tee.
Blood..... .... Owk. Mast oasis saree Ka ning-nah.
BONES: jcevinscs Sow-ner Early . Oo-blah.
Blubber........ Owk-zook Eat sa.geacagssss Tun-wah-wa.
Beard o,o0siacvsot Oo-mik. Egg cis xeesaess Mun-nee.
Beads.......... Shoong-ow-yoh. Empty... ... .. E-mah-ik-took.
Blankets ....... Kep-ig. End for end .... Ig-loo-ah-nee.
Bite: wisciomnemsa Kee-wah ENG@passes oo456 Evee.
Big River ...... Koog-oark Erminé:-s2sccece Ter-re-ak.

277

APPENDIX

Enough ....... Ta-bah.
Faraway ..... Wash-ig-too-aloo.
Fat...... iden i is Owk-shaw.
Farewell. ..... Ta-bow-e-tee.
Faster ......... Ook-shoot.
Father......... At-at-a,

Father (my) .... At-at-a-ga,
Female ........ Ungna. :
Hives ei eaveey ee Ick-o-ma.

WISH osetia ides Ick-kal-luck.

WOX Scere gt Tar-hed-ne-ah.

1 2 1) eae ee Mit-kote.

Game (deer, etc. ) O-ko-ko.
Go Owd-luck-too.

Give me........ Kidj-you.

GONE: pn ecei vets Pete-hung-e-too.

Good 24562 sone. Pee-a-uke.

Glad (I am) .... Pee-a-wee-unga.

Glove os cics cess Po-a-low.

Glad (it will
make me) .... Pee-a-yow-appy.

Good morning .. Ah-shu-id-lee.

Good-bye ...... Ta-bow-a-ting.

Co) Cee Kook-e-you.

Goose.......... Ne-uck-a-luck.

Grave.......... E le-wah.

Hair of the head Noo-yah.

Hair of the face. Oo-ming.

Here (take it) . Awk.

Here (this place) Man-nee.
t

tis seed sion wscteree Uck-che-wa-loo.
TELM: si sseseceevcut ies Kak-ka.
How many?.... Katch-ening ?
House.... . IRgloe.
How do you do

(salute)?..... Ashow-you didlee ?
Well, thank you

(reply) ....... Ta-bow-you-adlo.
Halloo ......... himo.
Obes wisccaed Oo-co.
Hungry ........ Ka-pa.
Hungry (they

BRC) x sana ara state Kak-too
Hard tack...... Shee-va

Ice (salt water). . Se-co.
Ice (fresh water). Nee-lug.
Ice (to cut with

chisel)...,.. _.. Too-y-lako.
Iceberg ........ Pick-a-lulial,
Ice chisel. ...... Too-woke.

I, me, mine ....
I did not see it..

I want it....... Oo-wung-aloo.
It is good ...... Pee-a-uke.
Island.... .... Kig-yuck-ta,
Island (large) ... Kack-ec-tuck-dua.
POM secweie eit s Sev-wick.
Tvory sss ss 55.0 Too-wak.
Indian . Ik-kil-lin.
Jack-knife...... Pook-ta-you.
Jump.......... Ob-look-too.
Just right ..... Nah-muck-too.
BACK sive enhes Ish-ec-ma-ac-too.
King’s Cape... . Telle-pin.
Ga Cana Chub-beck.
Kal tina dence To-ko-pah-hah.
KISS ioe esses Coon-e-glee.
Laugh ... ..... Ig-luck-too.
Land .......... Noo-na.
Land (main) .. . Eel-a-wee-yun.
Lak@.. cosa cs a's Siscell.
Large.......... Unga-you.
Last year ..... Uck-kaw-nee.
Thea i. es. sseis gees Uck-e-chu.
Live (reside).... Noona-gin,
Look at it...... Tack-o-wack.
Lines. score es 1855 Ud-le-ung.
Tait @ ova erscdessess Mick-a-you.
Little River .... Koog-ah-la.
Long ago....... Tap-shoo-mann-nee.
GON) iis vested Kok-saw.
Matisse sistetaant Ung-oon.
Make cou ienise Sen-a-you,.
MO iin eazesiceies sia Oo-wunga.
Meat: ju exceans Pak-too.
Matches........ Icko-ma.
Medicine man . Ang-e-koke.
Mine wc scesesds Pie-ga. ae
Mica: os conacae Ked-luck-e-yack.
Mootires see naan Tuck-ee.
Morning....... Ood-la.
Mouse.......... Ah-ving-ea.
Musk-ox ....... Oo-ming-munk.
Much . . Am-e-suit.
Mountain ...... King-yi.
Narwhal....... Ud-lee-ung.
Near (very) ..., Koon-e-took-aloo.
Near (rather) ... Koon e-took-e-
makea,

278

Oo-wunga.
Tacko-naumee.

APPENDIX

Next year ..... Uck-kak-go Seal (fresh water) Kaus-e-gea.
-Needle......... Mit-cone. Seal (square flip-

OF esos sntinsardiaian Fs Au-guy, Nowk POL) ect ceeeroy ars Ug-jook.
North ...... . Wungna. Seal (jumping) .. Ky-aug-lee.
North Star..... Nicky-chew-e too. |Ship........... Oo-may-ac-due.
Now........... Man-nah. Steamship...... Ick-o-ma-ling.
Nightiescssccves Oo-din-nook Southviesaes Saas Neeg-yill.

Stars ys cee autsis Ud-loo-a-ah.
Oat sea seseccsss E-poot. SUD cea, aasantes Suc-e-nok.
Old man........ Ick-too-aloo, Summer ....... Oak-e-youk.
Old woman..... Ning-e-wah-loo. Spear (seal) .... Oo-nah.
ONG. ccckesawaee ss Attowsha. Shut the door .. Oo-may-glee.
One more ...... At-ta-loo. Something to eat I-pa-pa.
On the other side Igloe-annie. DICK tied ecu Ah-ah,
Out of doors.... Seel-a-me. See..... 2.0... Tacko,
Open the door .. Mat-a-wa-goo. Smale: gad sass Micky-you.
Only one....... Ta-but-tua. Small (very)... . Micky-uck-aloo.
Over there...... Ti-ma. Spots 220.2200. Mee-luck.
SGaTS) coca etas Kidley.
Paperice tessa ce Al-le-lay-yook. Steal. .2icci2444 Tidley-poo.
Perhaps........ Shug-a-me. Speak. cccscacs Wah-poo,
POP sssoieaeesies vec Ook-e-mara. Bled ici csccaeas Komitick.
Powder iciie-sisse 20 Uck-dua. Shot. o.acees as Uck-e-la.
Presently ...... Wet-chow. Spear (to kill
Pretty cicisccuss Mah-muk-poo. with) ..... .. Now-lick-ta.
Sew ........... Muck-chuck-too.
Quickiusiesieves Tu-quilee. Shoot .... ..... Kook-o-ak-too.
Short time ago.. Tick-e-cove.
Ralhices veveczes See-la-loo. SiX sacnnara ane Uck-bin-e-gin.
Rabbit......... Ook-quil-la. Seven.......... Uck-bin-e-mok-o-
Rattsagec ss ce gee Tithea. nik.
Rapids ........ E-tem-na-zuck Sleep viccacer as Shin-ig- poo.
Raven ....... - Too-loo-ah Smell sscceeacuex Tee-pe.
Reindeer. .. .. Took-too. Sistelecs ass vase Ne-yowk-a-loong-a.
Reindeer horns . Nug-dew. Sleeping-bag.... Shin-ig-bee.
Reindeer (fawn). No-kak. Spy glass....... King-noot.
Reindeer (young Swap (trade).... Ok-ke-lay-yook.

DUCE) cinerea Nu-ka-tu-a Strone. siecs. a4 Shung-e-yook.
REQ i pc ese east wg. SPLNg ys He5 bea Oo-ping-yak.
BVED essai ssiasere Koog. Snow 222202526 Con-nee.

Rock .......- . We-a-gook. Snow house . Igloe.

Rup s.6c scone Qod-luk-too. Sinew......... Ib-a-loo.
Remember...... Kow-ye-mee-yow-a. | Smoke ......... E-shik.

Roper sis ccsisisrsia ars Ook-so-noya. Smoke (verb) ... Pay-u-let-ee.
Red-head....... Ky-yow-aloo. Smoke (give me). Pay-u-let-ee-de-
Resolution Tung-a.

Island ..... .. Too-jung. Snow stick ... . An-owt-er.
Reside ......... Noo-naggin. :
River (big) ..... Koog-o-ak. Take? cscsaeen Pe-e-ock-i-re.
Resemble ...... Ti-ma-too. Tent ican as waves To-pick.

Meet iscc.cmecces Kee-you.
SAMO. cessuissces Ti-ma-too Thimble........ Teck-kin.
Seal (small) .... Poe-see. Thunder. ..... Kud-loo.
S6al oy ete alee Net-chuck Tide rising ..... Ill-e-pook.

279

APPENDIX

Tide falling ....

To-morrow : ‘ : : ;
The other day ..

Tongue ..2 20600 Ook-ah.
Prade sisiwo seas Ok-ke-lay-loo.
TrackS...é0. 54+ + Too-me.
Trousers ....... Kod-ling.
Thank you..... Koo-id-na-mik.
Thréad s: goss Ib-e-loo.
Dellgwans< 244534 Kow-yow-ya.
That will do..., Ta-ba.
Throw......... Me-loo-e-ak-took.
Ubly scsgaas wns Pe-ne-took.
Understand .... Kow-e-me-yow.
UP 250253 desene Ta-pau-ney.
Warm oi. ec evou Oo-ko.

Water ......... Emmick.
Warmth (per-

sonal)........ Oo-ko-hing-ah.

Wealtus' iscacns ce I-byl.

Walrus hide.... Kow.

Waitt.c nexsmnee Watch-ow.
Walk scacticte mare Pe-shook-too.
Wake up. ..... Too-pook-poo.

What is that ?
What do you
want for it?

What are you

Tine-e-pook.
Ood-loome.
Ood-la.
Kow-pung.
Tatch-e-munny.

. Kiss-yowa ?

.. Kiss-yow-ok-a-la-

loo?

making? ..... Kiss-yow-livie?

What2iiiss secs Shua ?

Where... .... Now-te mee.

When ss .srsisnee Kunga.

When do you go? Kunga-aud-luck-

too?

We ..ee.... U-va-gut.
WO cceais tpioiwioers Kee-a.

Who owns it? .. Kee-a-pinga ?
Winter ........ Ook-e-yook.
Wind oac0ce0 uae An-a-way.
White man..... Kud-loo-nah.
WAI oar ccc Kak-owk-tah.
WDE? secomacaenizse Kun-we-mun?
Whale ......... Ook-bik. 4
WAN Dicesce Gosus dies Ip-e-row-ter.
Will you?.. ... E-ben-loo ?
Wife .......... Nell-e-aug-na.
Wood....:..... Kee-yow.
Woman........ Koo-nee.
Wolverine...... Cow-bik.

Woman’s boat .. Oo-me-ack.

Wolf oie gigi ares Am-miow.
Work.as seasienat Sen-a-yow.
White gull ..... Now-yah.
NiO see aise aeton ais Ah-me-lah.
MOAPad ea: oskiee Ok-ah-ney.
Yesterday...... Ick-puck-shall.
Yesterday even-
WSs nechdoice ey 2 Ick-puck-shall-
ood-la.
MOM pine vhe ces Ib-bee (or Ich-bin).
You and I...... Oo-bah-gook.
Young boy ..... Un-nick-e-loo-ga.
Young girl..... Pen-nick-e-loo-ga.
Youngster...... Neu-ta-a.
NUMERALS.
One wes tiecisana At-tow-sha.
EMO lteter tae Mok-oo.
INTEC ec scssinausscets Ping-ah-suet.
OUR, siasecintnnis eve Seet-a-mut.
PIV Gy. scteensaitrcet ers Ted-le-mut.
STK. scene sucroniiigs Uck-bin-e-gin.
SOVEN s cen arcgnagrs Uck-bin-e-Mok-o-
nik.
Hightysco2: ceenee Uck-bin-e-Mok-o-
suet.
Nineise: axes sence Uck-bin-e-seet-a-
mut.
MONS sys 203 es065.25 Koling.
Twenty ........ Mok-ko-ling.
PHRASES,
Come in........ Ki-low-it.
Goahead. . ... At-tay.

Give me a light . Ik-ke-de-lung-a.
Give me a drink. Jm-mil-bah.
Give me a smoke Pay-u-let-e-de-

lung-a,
It is good ...... Pee-a-uke.
I don’t know ... Shu-ga-mee.
I don’t under-
stand........ Cow-you-mung-e-
too,
What is the
name of?..... I-ting-er ?
What are you
making?...... Shu-la-vik ?

Which way?....
Where from?..
Where do-you
come from! ..
Who is it?. .....

Nel-le-ung-nook ”
Nuck-ke-nu-nah ?

Nuck-ke-pe-wict ?
Kee-now-yah ?

280