nae! “$s mt a — ae ineme a ea aoe ee ee. 8 2A: plants around us,— to notice ho " UD) WAS L 2 BOTANY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. they grow, — how varied, how numerous, and how elegant they are, and with what exquisite skill they are fashioned and adorned, — we shall surely find it profitable and pleasant to learn the lessons which they teach. Now this considering of plants inquiringly and intelligently is the study of Botany. It is an easy study, when pursued in the right way and with diligent attention. There is no difficulty in understanding how. plants grow, and are nour- ished by the ground, the rain, and the air; nor in learning what their parts are, and how they are adapted to each other and to the way the plant lives. And any young person who will take some pains about it may learn to distinguish all our common plants into their kinds, and find out their names. Interesting as this study is to all, it must be particularly so to Young People. It appeals to their natural curiosity, to their lively desire of knowing about things: it calls out and directs (i. e. educates) their powers of observation, and is adapted to sharpen and exercise, in a very pleasant way, the faculty of discrimination. To learn how to observe and how to distinguish things correctly, is the greater part of education, and is that in which people otherwise well educated are apt to be sur- prisingly deficient. Natural objects, everywhere present and endless in variety, afford the best field for practice; and the study when young, first of Botany, and afterwards of the other Natura ScIENcES, as they are called, is the best train- ing that can be in these respects. ‘This study ought to begin even before the study of language. For to distinguish things scientifically (that is, carefully and accurately ) is simpler than to distinguish ¢deas. And in Natura History* the learner is gradually Jed from the observation of things, up to the study of ideas or the relations of things. This book is intended to teach Young People how to begin to read, with pleasure and advantage, one large and easy chapter in the open Book of Nature; namely, - that in which the wisdom and goodness of the Creator are plainly written in the VEGETABLE Kinepom.* * Natural History is the study of the productions of the earth in their natural state, whether minerals, plants, or animals. These productions make up what are called the Three Kingdoms of Nature, viz.:~- 1. The Mineral Kingdom, which consists of the Minerals (earths, metals, crystals, &c.), bodies not . endowed with life. 2. The Vegetable Kingdom, which comprehends Vegetables or Plants. 8. The Animal Kingdom, which comprehends all Animals. The natural history of the mineral kingdom is named MINERALOGY. The natural history of the vegetable kingdom is Borany, — the subject of this book. The natural history of the animal kingdom is named Zoétocy. BOTANY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. 3 In the First Part of this book we proceed to consider, under four principal heads or chapters, — I. How Plants Grow, and what their Parts or Organs are, CHaprer J. Page 5. The Parts of a Plant, Section I. Page 5. How Plants grow from the Seed, ne Ir “ 10. How Plants grow Year after Year, « I “ 23. Different Forms or Kinds of Roots, Stems, and Leaves, « Iv. “ 34, II. How Plants are Propagated or Multiplied in Numbers, Cuarter II. Page 56. How Propagated from Buds, Sxrction I. Page 56. How Propagated by Seeds, « , « TL “ 58. Flowers: their Arrangement, their Sorts, &c., S oJe 4© 58: Fruit and Seed, © TV. © 7%, Ill. Why Plants Grow; what they are made for, and what they do, Cuapter III. Page 85. IV. How Plants are Classified, Named, and Studied, Cuapter IV. Page 93. Classification, — as to the Plan of it, Section I. Page 93. Names of Plants, ss I. “ 94. The Natural System of Classification in Botany, “« Tr “ 96. How to study Plants by the Flora, in Part IL, «Iv. “ 99. The Seconp Part of the book consists ‘of a Popular Flora for Beginners, viz. a Classification and Description (according to the Natural System) of the Common Plants of the country, both Wild and Cultivated. Then follows a Dictionary of the peculiar terms which we have occasion to use in describing plants, or their parts, combined with a full Index to Part I. Every science, and every art or occupation, has terms or technical words of its own, and must have them. Without them, all would be confusion and guess-work. In Bot- any the number of technical words which a young student need to know is by no means great, and a little diligent study and practice will make them familiar. The first and most important thing for the student is, to know well the general plan of a plant and the way it grows; the parts plants consist of; the uses of the sev- eral parts; their general forms, and the names which are used to distinguish them. This is all very interesting and very useful in itself; and it is indispensable for study- ing plants with any satisfaction or advantage to find out their names, their proper. ties, and the family they belong to; i. e. to ascertain the kinds of plants. 4 BOTANY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. , Let the learners, or the class ‘under their teacher, therefore, in the first place go carefully once through the First Part of the book, or at least through the first two chapters, verifying the examples and illustrations given, as far as possible, with their own eyes, and searching for other examples in the plants and flowers around them. Then they may begin to study plants by the F lora, or Second Part of the book, ac- cording to the directions given in the last section of Chapter IV. Whenever they meet with a word which they do not remember or clearly understand, they will look it out in the Index, and refer back to the place in the first part of the book where it is used and fully explained. Remember that every one has to creep before he can walk, and to walk before he can run, Only begin at the beginning; take pains to understand things as you go on, and cultivate the habits of accuracy and nice dis- crimination which this study is eminently adapted to inspire. Then each step will render the next one easy; you will soon make more rapid progress; will be able to ascertain with facility the names and the.structure of almost al] common plants ; and will gradually recognize the various and interesting relationships which, bind the -members of the vegetable creation together in natural families, —showing-them to .be parts of one system; varied expressions, as it were, of the thoughts of their Di- vine Author ; planned i in reference to one another ; and evidently intended to enlarge ‘and enlighten ¢ our minds, as well as to gratify our senses, and nourish, clothe, warm, and shelter our bodies. So the study of Botany — the most fascinating branch of Natural History, especially for the young — becomes more and more interesting ‘the amore we learn of it, and affords a constant and unalloyed intellectual gratification. When young students have thoroughly mastered this little book, they will be well ‘prepared to continue the study in the Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physiol- ogy, and.in thé Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, by the same author. The illustrations are referred to throughout by numbers, with “Fig.” prefixed. ‘The numbers occasionally introduced, within parenthesis-marks, and without any prefix, (as on p. 25, line 1, and p. 36, line 9,) are references to former paragraphs, ‘where the. subject, or the word used, has already been explained. *,* The illustrations on the first page represent: — Fig. 1. Our commonest wild species of true Lily, -viz. the Canada Lily. Fig. 2. The Chalcedonian Lily, a native of Palestine, with scarlet flowers, sup- ~posed | ‘to be “The Lily of the Field” to which our Saviour referred in the Sermon on the Mount. ‘Fig. 3. ‘ai of the Valley, not true Lilies, but belonging to the Lily Family. . g CHAPTER I. HOW PLANTS GROW, AND WHAT THEIR PARTS OR ORGANS ARE. 4. Morning-Glory. SS. — ~ Lo » ae f_ = \ 4 4) Srction I.— The Parts of a Plant. 1. Puants are chiefly made up of three parts, namely, of Root, Stem, and Leaves. These are called the plant’s Organs, that is, its instruments. And as these parts are all that any plant needs for its growth»or vegetation, they are called the Oreans or VEGETATION. 2. Plants also produce Flowers, from ‘which comes the Fruit, and from this, the Seed. These take no part in nourishing the plant. Their use is to enable it to give rise to new individuals, which increase the numbers of that kind of plant, to take the place of the parent in due time, and keep up the stock ; that is, to reproduce and perpetuate the species. So the Flower with its parts, the Fruit, and the Seed, are called the plant’s Oreans or REPRODUCTION. 3. The different sorts of Lilies represented on the first page, and the common Morning-Glory on this page, show all the parts. 4. The Root (Fig. 4,7) is the part which grows downwards into the ground, and takes in nourishment for the plant from the soil. It commonly branches again and again as it grows: its smaller branches or fibres are named Rootlets. Real roots never bear leaves, nor anything besides root-branches or rootlets. 5. The Stem (Fig. 4, s) is the part which grows upwards, and bears the leaves and blossoms. At certain fixed places the stem pears a leaf or a pair of leaves. \ 6 HOW PLANTS GROW, G. Leaves (Fig. 4, 7, 7) are generally flat and thin, green bodies, turning one face upwards to the sky, and the other downwards towards the ground. They make the Foliage. 7. The Plant in Vegetation. ‘We see that a plant has a body or trunk (in scien- tific language, an axis), consisting of two parts, —-an upper and a lower. The lower is the Root: this fixes the plant to the soil. The upper is the Stem: this rises out of the ground, and bears leaves, which are hung out on the stem in the light and air. The root takes in a part of the plant’s food from the soil: this the stem carries to the leaves. The leaves take in another part of the plant’s food from the air. And in them what the roots absorb from the ground, and what they themselves absorb from the air, are exposed to the sunshine and digested ; that is, . changed into something proper to nourish the plant. For there is no nourishment in earth, air, and water as they are; but vegetables have the power of making these into nourishment. And ouf of this nourishment it prepares, the plant makes more growth. ‘That is, it extends the roots farther into the soil, and sends out more branches from them, increaSing its foothold and its surface for absorbing; while, above, it lengthens the stem and adds leaf after leaf, or shoots forth branches on which still more leaves are spread out in the light and air. 8. So the whole herb, or shrub, or tree, is built up. A tiny. herb just sprouted from the seed and the largest tree of the forest alike consist of root, stem, and leaves, and nothing else. Only the tree has larger and more branching stems and roots, and leaves by thousands. . 9. The Plant in Reproduction. After having attended in this way to its nourish- ment and growth for a certain time, the plant sets about reproducing itself by seed. And for this purpose it blossoms. Many plants begin to blossom within a few weeks after springing from the seed. All our annuals, of which the Garden Morn- ing-Glory (Fig. 4) is one, blossom in the course of the summer. Biennials, such as the Carrot, Parsnip, Mullein, and the common Thistle, do not flower before the second summer ; and shrubs and trees, and some herbs, do not begin until they are several years old. 10. The object of the Flower is to form the Fruit. The essential part of the fruit i is the Seed. And the essential part of a seed is the Germ or Embryo it con- tains. The Germ or Embryo is a little plantlet in ‘the seed, ready to grow into a new plant when the,seed is sown. Let us notice these orgaris one after the other, beginning with fod AND WHAT THEIR PARTS ARE. t 11. The Flower, Flowers are most interesting to the botanist; who not only ad- mires them for their beauty, the exquisite arrangement and forms of their parts, and the wonderful variety they exhibit, but also sees in the blossoms much of the na- ture or character of each plant, and finds in them the best marks for distinguishing the sorts of plants and the family they belong to. So let the student learn at once 12. What the Parts of a Flower are, A flower, with : all the parts present, consists gf Calyx, Corolla, Sta- mens, and Pistils. One frome’ the Morning-Glory (Fig. 4, f) will serve for an example. Here is one taken off, and shown of about the natural size, the corolla, Fig. 5, separated from the calyx, Fig. 6. The calyx and the corolla are the /loral Envelopes, or the leaves of the flower. They cover in the bud, and protect the stamens and pistils, which aré the Essential Organs of the flower, because both of these are necessary to forming the seed. 13. The Calyx —a Latin name for “flower-cup ” — is the cup or outer covering of the blossom (Fig. 6). It is apt to be green and leaf-like. 14. The Corolla is the inner cup, or inner set of leaves, of the flower. It is very seldom green, as the calyx commonly is, but is “ colored,” i. e. of some other color than green, and of a delicate texture. So it is the most showy part of the blossom. Fig. 5 shows the corolla of the Morning- Glory whole. Fig. 7 is the same, split down and spread open to show 15. The Stamens, These in this flower grow fast to the bottom of the corolla. There are five stamens in the Morning- Glory. Each stamen consists of two parts, namely, a Filament and an Anther. The Filament is the stalk; the Anther is a little case, or hollow body, borne on the top of the filament. It is filled with a powdery matter, called Pollen. Fig. 9 shows a separate stamen on a larger scale: /, the filament; a, the anther, out of which pollen is falling from a slit or long opening down each side. , parts are on a larger scale. Here is a Stamen (Fig. 9), with its stalk. or Filament, f, and its Anther, a, discharging its yel- HOW PLANTS GROW, 16. The Pistils are the bodies in which the seeds are formed. They be- long in the centre of the flower. The Morning-Glory has only one pistil: this is shown, enlarged, in Fig. 8. The Rose and the Buttercup have a . great many. A pistil has three parts. At the bottom is the Ovary, which becomes the seed-vessel. This is prolonged upwards into a slender body, called the Style. And this bears a moist, generally somewhat enlarged por- tion, with a naked roughish surface rogering any skin, like the rest), called the Stigma. Upon this stigma sof€ of the pollen, or powder from the anthers, falls and sticks fast. And this somehow enables the pistils to ripen seeds that will grow. 17. Let us now look at a stamen and a pistil from one ,__ of the flowers of a Lily (like those shown on a reduced scale in Figures 1 and 2, on the first page), where all the low dust or Pollen. And by its side is the Pistil (Fig. 10), with its Ovary, ov.; and this tapering into a Style,” st.; and on the top of this is the Stigma, stig. Now cut J- the ovary through, and it will be found to contain young seeds. Fig. 11 shows the ovary of Fig. 10 cut through lengthwise and magnified by a common hand magnifying- glass. Fig. 12 is the lower part of another one, cut in two crosswise. The young seeds, or more correctly the bodies which are to become seeds, are named Ovules. In the Lily these are very numerous. In the Morning-Glory they are few, only six. 18. These are all the parts of the flower, —all that any flower has. But many flowers have not all these parts. Some have only one flower- cup or one set of blossom-leaves. Lilies appear to have only one set. Some --have neither calyx nor corolla; some stamens have no filament, and some pistils have no style: for the style and the filament are not necessary parts, as the anther and the ovary and stigma are. These cases will all be noticed when we come to study flowers more particularly. Mean- while, please to commit to memory the names of the parts of the flower, Calyx, Corolla, Stamens, and Pistils, and the .parts of these also, and learn to distinguish them in all the common blossoms you meet with, until 9 they are as familiar as root, stem, and leaves are to everybody. AND WHAT THEIR PARTS ARE. .9 19. Notice, also, that the calyx and the corolla, one or both, often consist of separate leaves; as they do in the true Lilies. Each separate piece or leaf of a corolla is called a Pétal: and each leaf or piece of a calyx is called a Sépal. 20. The corolla, the stamens, and generally the calyx, fall off or wither away after blossoming; while the ovary of the pistil remains, grows larger, and becomes 21. The Fruit, So that the fruit is the ripened ovary. It may be a berry, a stone-fruit, a nut, a grain, or a pod. The fruit of the Lily and also of the Morning- Glory is a pod. Here is the pod or fruit of the : Morning-Glory (Fig. 4, fr. and Fig. 13), with the calyx remaining beneath, and the remains of the bottom of the style resting on its summit. And Fig. 14 shows the same pod, fully ripe and dry, and splitting into three pieces that the seeds may fall out. This pod has three cavities : (called Cells) in it; and in each cell two pretty large seeds. Lily-pods have three cells, as we may see in the ovary in the flower (Fig. 12), and many seeds in each, 22. Seeds. These are the bodies produced by the ripened pistil, from which new plants may spring. Here (Fig. 15) is a seed of Morning-Glory, a little enlarged. Also two seeds cut through lengthwise in two different directions, and viewed with a magnifying-glass, to show what ‘is inside (Fig 16,17). The part of the seed that grows is 23. The Embryo, or Germ. This is a little plantlet ready formed in the seed. In the Morning-Glory it ‘is pretty large, and may readily be got out whole from a fresh seed, or from a dried one after soaking ‘it well in hot water. In Fig. 16 it is shown whole and flatwise in the seed, where it is a good deal crumpled up to save room. In Fig. 17, merely the thickness of the embryo is seen, edgewise, in the seed, surrounded by the pulpy matter, which is intended to nourish it when it begins to grow. In Fig. 18, the embryo is shown taken out whole, and spread out flat. In Fig. 19, its two little leaves are separated, and we plainly see what it consists of. It isa pair of tiny leaves on the summit of a little stem. The leaves (Fig. 19, c, c) are named Seed-leaves or Cotylédons ; the little stem or stemlet is named the Radiele, r. 10 HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. Analysis of the Section. 1.¥ Plants consist of two kinds of Organs : those of Vegetation ; what they are: 2. those of Repro duction; what they are, what their use. 4. The Root; what it is; rootlets. 5. The Stem; what it is, what it bears. 6. Leaves. 7. The Plant in Vegetation; action of the root, stem, and leaves: they change earth, air, and water into nour- ishment, and use this nourishment in growing. 8. Shrub or tree like an herb, only more extended. 9. The plant reproduces itself, by seed; blossoming. 10. Object of flowers, fruit, seed: all intended for producing the germ or embryo; what this is. Al. Flowers, why particularly interesting to the botanist. 12. What the parts of a flower are; Floral Envelopes; Essential Organs, why so called. 13. Calyx. 14. Corolla. 15. Stamens; what they consist of; Filament; Anther; Pollen. 16. Pistils; how situated; parts of a pistil; Ovary, Style, Stigma; its use. 17. Stamens and pistil shown in another flower, and the parts explained: Ovules, what they are. 18. All these parts not always present; what ones often wanting. 19. Leaves of a corolla, called Petals; of a calyx, Sepals. 20. What becomes of the parts of a blossom. 21. Fruit, what it is, what it contains. 22. Seeds, what they are, what the part is that grows. 28. Embryo or Germ; what it consists of: Cotyledons or Seed-leaves; Radicle or Stemlet. Section IIl.— How Plants grow from the Seed. 24. Tlustrated by the Morning-Glory. We now know what all the parts of a plant are; that a plant, after growing or vegetating awhile, blossoms; that flowers give rise to fruit ; that the fruit contains one or more seeds ; and that the essential part of a seed is the embryo or germ of a new plant. To produce, protect, and nourish this germ, is the object of the flower, the fruit, and the seed. The object of the embryo is to grow and become a new plant. How it grows, is what we have now to learn, 25. Life in a Seed. But first let us notice that it does not generally grow at once. Although alive, a seed may for a long while show no signs of life, and feel neither the summer’s heat nor the winter’s cold. Still it lives on where it falls, in this slumbering way, until the next spring in most plants, or sometimes until the spring after that, before it begins to grow. There is a great difference in this respect in different seeds. Those of Red Maple ripen in the spring, and start about the mid- dle of the summer. Those of Sugar Maple ripen in the fall, and lie quiet until the next spring. When gathered and laid up in a dry place, many seeds will keep alive for two, three, or several years; and in this state plants may be safely transported * The numbers are those of the paragraphs. HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 1k all around the world. How long seeds will live is uncertain. The stories of seeds growing which have been preserved for two or more thousand years with Egyptian mummies, are not to be believed. But it is well known that Sensitive Plants have. been raised from seeds over sixty years old. Few kinds of seeds will grow after keeping them for five or six years; many refuse to grow after the second year; and some will not grow at all unless allowed to fall at once to the ground. There is no way of telling whether the germ of a seed is alive or not, except by trying whether it will grow, that is, will germinate. 26. Germination and Early Growth, Germination is the sprouting of a plant from the seed. Having just illustrated the parts of a plant by the Morning-Glory, from the root up to the seed and the embryo in the seed, we may take this same plant as an example to show how a plant grows from the seed. If we plant some of the, seeds in a flower-pot, covering them lightly with soil, water them, and give them warmth, or if in spring we watch those which sowed themselves naturally in. the garden the year before, and are now moistened by showers and warmed by sun- shine, we shall soon see how they grow. And what we learn from this one kind of plant will be true of all ordinary plants, but with some differences in the circeum- stances, according to the kind. 27. The seed first imbibes some moisture through its coats, swells a little, and, as it fecls the warmth, the embryo gradually wakes from its long and deep sleep, and stretches itself, as it were. That is, the tiny stem of the embryo lengthens, and its end bursts through the coats of the seed; at the same time, the two leaves, it bears grow larger, straighten themselves, and so throw off the seed-coats as a loose husk; this allows the seed-leaves to spread out, as leaves naturally do, and so the seedling plantlet stands revealed. Observe the whole for yourselves, if pos; sible, and compare with these figures. Fig. 19 is repeated from p. 9, and repre- sents the embryo taken out of the seed, straightened, enlarged, and the two leaves a little opened. Fig, 16 and 17 show how the embryo lies snugly packed away, in, the seed. Fig. 20 shows it coming up, the seed-leaves above just throwing off the coats or husk of the seed. Fig. 21 is the same, a little later and larger, with the seed-leaves spread out in the air above, and a root well formed beneath; And: Fig; 22 is the same a little Jater still. 28. At the very beginning of its growth, the end of the little stem which. first comes out of the seed turns downward and points into the earth. From it the root is formed, which continues downwards, branching as it grows, and burying itself 2 HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. niore and-miore in the soil. The other end of the stem always turns upwards, and, as the whole lengthens, the seed-leaves are brought up out of the ground, so that: they expand in the light and air,— which is the proper place for leaves, as the dark and damp soil is for the root. a 29. What makes the root always grow downwards into the ground, and the stem turn upwards, so as to rise out of it, we no more know, than we know why newly-hatched ducklings take to the water at once, while chickens avoid’ it, although hatched under the same fowl and treated just alike. But the fact is always so. And although we know not how, the why is evident enough ; for the root is thereby at once placed in the soil, from which it has to absorb moisture and other things, and the leaves appear in the air and the light, where they are to do their work. 30. Notice how early the seed- ——_Cotyletons or ling plant is complete, that is, becomes a real vegetable, with all its parts, small’ as the whole thing is (Fig. 21). For it al- —Rauicleoratemiet ready possesses a root, to connect j it with the ground and draw up what it needs from that; a stem, Root, to elevate the foliage into the light and air; and leaves, to take { in what it gets directly from the 20 al 22 air, and to digest the whole in the light (as explained in the last section, Par. 7). That is, it already has all the Organs of Vegetation (Par. 1), all that any plant fias before blossoming, so that the little seedling can now take care of itself, and live — just as any larger plant lives —upon the soil and the air. And all it has to do‘in order to-becomé a full-grown plant, like Fig. 4, is to increase the size of its organs, and to produce more of them; namely, more stem with more leaves above, and more roots below. We have only to watch our seedling plantlets a , » Cotyledons or seed-leaves. Y en Plumule. HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 13) 31. The root keeps on growing under ground, and sending off more and more’, small branches or rooilets, each one adding something to the amount. of absorbing surface in contact with the moist soil. The little stem likewise lengthens upwards, , and the pair of leaves on its summit grow larger. But these soon get their full | growth; and we do not yet see, perhaps, where more are to come from. But now a little bud, called the Plumule, appears on the top of the stem (Fig. 22), just be- tween the stalks of the two seed-leaves; it enlarges and unfolds into a leaf; this’ soon is raised upon a new piece of stem, which car- ries up the leaf, just as the pair of seed-leaves were raised by the lengthening of the radicle or first joint of stem in the seed. Then another leaf appears on the summit of this joint of stem, and is raised upon its own joint of stem, and soon. Fig. 23 shows the same plant as Fig. 22 (leaving out the root and the lower part of the stem), at a later stage; ¢,c, are the seed-leaves ; / is the next leaf, which came from the plumule of Fig. 22, now well raised on the second joint of stem; and /' is the next, still very small and just unfolding. And so the plant grows on, the whole summer long, producing leaf after leaf, one by one, and raising each on its own joint of stem, arising from the summit of the next below ;—as we see in 23 Fig. 4, at the beginning of the chapter, where many joints of stem. have grown, in this way (the first with a pair of leaves, the rest with one apiece), and still there are some unfolding ones at the slender young summit. 32. How tue Seedling is nourished at the Beginning. Growth requires food, in 1 plants as well as in animals. To grow into a plant, the embryo in a seed must be fed. with vegetable matter, or with something out of which vegetable matter, can be, made. When a plant has established itself, — that is, has sent down its roots into the soil, and spread out some leaves in the air, — it ig then able to change mineral | matter (viz. earth, air, and water) which it takes in, {into vegetable matter, and. 50. to live and grow independently. But at the beginning, before its organs are, developed and established in their proper places, the forming plant must be sup- plied by ready-made vegetable matter, furnished by the mother plant. On this supply the embryo germinating from the seed feeds and grows, -—just as the new- 14 HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. born animal does upon the mother’s milk, or as the chick developing in the egg does upon the prepared nourishment the parent had laid up for the purpose in the yok. 33. Tear open a fresh Morning-Glory seed, or cut a dried one in two, as in Fig. 17, and this supply will be seen, in the form of a rich and sweetish jelly-like matter, packed away with the embryo, and filling all the spaces between its folds. This is called the Albumen of the seed (that being the Latin name of the white of an egg); and this is what the embryo feeds upon, and what enables its little stemlet (Fig. 19, 7) to grow, and form its root downwards, and carry up and ex- pand its seed-leaves (c,¢) in the air, and so become at once a plantlet (Fig. 21), with root, stem, and leaves, able to take care of itself, just as a chicken does when it escapes from the shell. 34. This moist nourishing jelly would not keep long in that state. So, when the seed ripens and dries, it hardens into a substance like thin dried glue or gum, which will keep for any length of time. And whenever the seed is sown, and absorbs moisture, this matter softens into a jelly again, or gradually liquefies, and the seed-leaves crumpled up among it drink it in at every pore. A portion is con- sumed in their growth, while the rest is carried into the growing stemlet, thence into the root forming at one end of it, and into the bud (or plumule, Fig. 22) which soon appears at the other end of it, — supplying the materials for their growth. 35. Notice the same thing in Wheat, Oats, or Indian Corn. The last is the best example, because the grain is so large that all the parts may be clearly seen with- éut magnifying. The abundant milk or soft and rich pulp of green corn is the same as the jelly in the seed of the Morning-Glory ; namely, it is the albumen of the seed, provided for the embryo (the chit or germ) to feed upon when growth begins. See Figures 44, 45, &c. This nourishing food (as we well know it to be) was produced by the mother-plant during the summer, was accumulated in the stalk at flowering-time, in the form of sugar, or syrup, was conveyed into the flowers and forming seeds ; a part was used to form the germ or embryo, and the rest was stored up with it in the seed, to serve for its growth into a plantlet the next spring. That it may keep through the winter, or longer, the sweet milk is changed into a starchy pulp, which hardens as the grain ripens into the firm and dry mealy part (or albumen), which here makes the principal bulk of the seed. But when sown, this meal softens and is slowly changed back into sugar again. And this, dissolved in the water the seed takes in, makes a sweet sap, which the HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 15 embryo imbibes and feeds on as it sprouts. ‘That the meal or starch of the grain is actually changed into sugar at this time is clearly shown by malting, which is merely causing heaps of grain to sprout a, little, and then destroying the life of the embryo by dry heat; when the grain (now malt) is found to be sweet, and to contain much sugar. 36. The nourishment which the mother-plant provides j in the seed is not always stored up outside of the embryo. In many cases it is deposited in the embryo itself, most commonly in the seed-leaves. Then the seed consi=ts of nothing but the embryo within its coats. Maple-seeds are of this sort. Fig. 24 represents a seed of Red Maple in the lower part of the winged seed- vessel, which is cut away so as to show it in its place. Fig. 25 is the seed a little magnified, and with the coats cut away, bringing to view its embryo coiled up within and filling the seed completely. Fig. 26 is the embryo taken out, and a little unfolded ; below is-the radicle or stemlet ; above are the two seed-leaves partly crumpled together. Fig. 27 is the embryo when it has straight- ened itself out, thrown off the seed-coats, and begun to grow. Here the seed-leaves are rather thick when they first unfold ; this is on account of the nourishing matter which was contained in their fabric, and which is used mainly for the earliest growth of the radicle or stemlet, and for the root formed at its lower end, as we see in the next fig- ure (Fig. 28: a, the radicle or sicily of the embryo; 8, 8, the two seed-leaves ; c, the root). By this time the little stock of nourishment is exhausted. But the plant, having already a root in the soil and.a pair of leaves in the air, is able to shift for itself, to take in air, water, &c., and by the aid of sunshine on its foliage to make the nourishment for its future growth. In a week or two it will have made enough to enable,the next step to be taken. Then a little bud appears at the upper end of the stemlet, between the two seed-leaves, and soon it shows the rudiments of a new pair-of leaves (Fig. 28, d) ; a new joint of stem forms to support them (Fig. 29) ;- this lengthens just as the stemlet of the embryo did, and so the plantlet gets a second pair of leaves, raised on a second joint of stem 2 27 16 HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. springing from the top of the first (Fig. 30). Meanwhile the root has grown deeper into the soil, and sent out branches. Having now more roots below, and, above, a pair of leaves besides the seed-leaves to work with, the seedling plantlet all the sooner makes veg- etable matter enough to form a third pair of leaves and raise them on a third joint of stem (as in Fig. 81); and so it goes on, step by step. This nour- 30 ishment in the embryo of the Red-Maple seed was.a few weeks before in the trunk of the mother tree, as a sweet sap, that is, as Maple-sugar. 87. Variations of the Plan of Growth. In the Morning-Glory, after the pair of seed-leaves, only one leaf is found upon each joint of stem (see Fig. 23 and 4). In the Maple there is a pair of leaves to every joint ‘of stem, as long as it grows. In the Morning-Glory the food in the seed, for the growth to begin with, was stored up outside of the embryo; in the Maple it was stored up in @t, that is, in its seed-leaves. The plan is evidently the same in: both; but there are differ- HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 17 ences in the particulars. While the same kind of plant always grows in exactly the same way, different kinds differ almost as much at the beginning as they do afterwards. The great variety which we observe among the herbs and shrubs and trees around us, — in foliage, flower, fruit, and everything, — gives to vegeta- tion one of its greatest charms. We should soon tire of plants or flowers made all after one exact pattern, however beautiful. We enjoy variety. But the bota- nist finds a higher interest in all these differences than any one else, because he discerns one simple plan running through all this diversity, and everywhere re- peated in different forms. He sees that in every plant there is root growing down- ‘wards, connecting the vegetable with the soil; stem rising into the light and air, and bearing leaves at regular places, and then blossoms, and that the parts of one kind of blossom answer to those of another, only differing in shape; and he de- lights in observing how the tens of thousands of kinds of ‘plants all harmonize with each other, like the parts of concerted music, — plainly showing that they were all’ contrived, as parts of one system, by one Diviné Mind. 88. So in the beginning, in the growth of plants from the seed, although the general plan is the same in all, the variations are many and great. The plan is well shown in the two seedling plants which have served for illustration, namely, the Morning-Glory and the Maple. Let us now notice some of the variations, as exhibited in a few very common plants. A great deal may be learned from the commonest ‘aaa if we will only open our eyes to see them, and “consider how they grow,” and why they differ in the way they do. Take, for instance, : 39. The Bean. Soak a bean in warm water (if a fresh one is not to be had). and remove the coats. The whole kernel consists of an embryo, as seen in Fig. 32. And almost the whole bulk of this embryo consists’ of two thick pieces, ¢,¢, which are the cotyledons or seed-leaves. We may make out the plan of the whole thing better by spreading these thick seed- leaves wide open, as in Fig. 33. Here the two thick seed-leaves are seen from the inside, ¢, ¢; they are connected with the upper end of a stemlet, ‘which is the radicle, 7; and above this already shows the bud or plumule, p. 40. So the embryo of the Bean is the same in plan as that of the Maple (Fig. 27), only the stemlet is much shorter in proportion, and the seed-leaves very much .. larger and thicker. What is the reason of this difference ? 18 HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 41, The seed-leaves of the Bean are thickened by having so much nourishment stored up in them, so much of it that they make good food for men. And the object of this large supply is that the plant may grow more strongly and rapidly very short radicle, or stemlet, Pull off one of the seed-leaves, as in Fig. 87, and you may see the plumule or little bud, p, ready to develop leaves and stem upwards, while the other end of the radicle grows downward and makes the root; the rich store of nourishment in the seed- from the seed. It need not and it does not wait, as the Maple and the Morning-Glory do, slowly to make the second pair of leaves; but is able to develop these at once. Accordingly, the rudiments of these next leaves may be seen in the seed before growth begins, in the form of a little bud (Fig. 33, p), ready to grow and unfold as soon as the thick seed-leaves themselves appear above ground (Fig. 34), and soon making the first real foliage (Fig. 35). For the seed-leaves of the Bean are themselves so thick and . ungainly, that, although they turn green, they hardly serve for foliage. But, having given up their great stock of nourishment to the forming root and new leaves, and enabled these to grow much stronger and faster than they otherwise could, they wither and fall off. It is nearly the same in 42. The Cherry, Almond, &, Fig. 36 is an Almond taken out of the shell, soaked a little, and the thin seed-coat removed. The whole is an embryo, consisting of a pair of large and thick seed- leaves, loaded with sweet nour- ishment. These are borne on a which is seen at the lower end. HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 19 leaves supplying abundant materials for the growth. A cherry-seed is just like an almond, only on a smaller scale. Fig. 38 is the embryo of a Cherry, with the very thick seed-leaves a little separated. Fig. 39 is the same developed into a young plantlet. Fed by the abundant nourishment in the seed-leaves, it shoots up its stem and unfolds three or four leaves before the Maple (Fig. 28, 29) or the Morning-Glory (Fig. 20-22) would have made any. It is the same in the Chestnut and the Beech. In these, as in the Cherry and the Bean, the thick seed-leaves, which make the whole kernel, come up, turn green, and become thinner as they give up their load of nourishment to the growing parts; they evidently try to become useful green leaves; but having been used for hold- ing nourishment, they remain too thick and clumsy for foli- age, and they soon die or fall off. But in 43. The Worsechestnut, the Acorn, and the Pea, the seed- leaves are so very thick, and so heavily loaded, that they never undertake to serve any other purpose than that of feeding the other parts as they grow. So they remain in the shell or husk; and, as they are not, to rise out of the ground, there is no need for their stemlet, or radicle, to lengthen, except enough to get 20 HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. out of the seed, and let the root form from the lower end of it, while the plumule develops from its upper end directly into a strong leafy stem. Fig. 40 is an acorn cut through lengthwise. The whole kernel consists of a pair of very thick seed- leaves, loaded with starch, &c., and completely enclosing the very small and short atemlet, or radicle, seen at the bottom. Fig. 41 is the acorn with the seedling Oak growing from it ; the seed-leaves remaining in the shell, but feeding the strong root which grows downwards and the stem which shoots so vigorously upwards. 44. Acorns and horsechestnuts may not always be found germinating; but in the Pea we have a familiar case of this way of growing, which may be observed at any season by planting a few peas. Fig. 42 is a pea with the seed-coat taken off, after soaking. Here the seed-leaves are so thick that the pair makes a little ball; and the stout radicle or stemlet appears on the side turned to the eye. Fig. 43 shows the plantlet growing. The whole seed remains in the soil; the plumule, well nourished by the great stock of food in the buried seed-leaves, alone rises out of the ground as a strong shoot, bearing an imperfect scale-like leaf upon each of its earlier joints, and then producing the real leaves of the plant, while the radicle at the same time, without lengthening itself, sends down three or four roots at once. So the whole plant is quickly established, and all the early growth is made out of food provided for it the year before by the mother plant, and stored up in the seed. One more illustration we may take from 45. Indian Corn. Here the food provided for the early growth is laid up partly in the embryo, but mostly around it. Fig. 44 is a grain cut through flat-wise ; Fig. 45; another cut through the middle across its , thickness ; and Fig. 46, the embryo, or germ, of another grain, taken out whole, — which may readily be done in green corn, or in an old grain after soaking it for some time in warm water. The separate embryo is placed to match that which is seen, divided, in the seed; r is the radicle ; p, the plumule; and ¢, the seed-leafor cotyledon, which in this plant is single; while in all the foregoing there was a pair of seed-leaves. The greater part of the grain is the meal, or albumen, the stock of nourish- ment outside of the embryo. In germinating, this meal is slowly changed HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 21 into sugar, and dissolved in the water which is absorbed from the ground ;. the coty- ledon imbibes this, and sends it into the radicle, 7, to make the root, and into the plumule, p, enabling it to develop the set of leaves, wrapped up one within another, of which it consists, and expand them one after another in the air. Fig. 47 shows a sprouting grain, sending down its first root, and sending up the plumule still rolled together. Fig. 48 is the same, more advanced, having made a whole cluster of roots, and unfolded two or three leaves. Nourished abundantly as it is, both by the maternal stock in the grain, and by what these roots and leaves obtain and prepare from the soil and the air, the young corn gets a good start, is ready to avail itself of the summer’s heat, to complete its vegeta- tion, to blossom, and to make and lay up the great amount of nourishment which we gather in the crop. 46. The Onion. The cotyledon in Indian Corn, and most other plants which have only one, stays under ground. In the Onion it comes up and makes the first leaf, —a slender, thread-shaped one,—and in- deed it carries up the light seed on its summit. In Indian Corn, all the early joints of stem remain so short as not to be seen; although later it makes long joints, carrying up the upper leaves to some distance from one another. In the Onion, on the contrary, the stem never lengthens at all, but remains as a thin plate, broader than it is long, with the roots springing from one side of it and the sheathing bases of the leaves covering it on the other. 47. Number of Cotyledons or Seed-Leaves. Indian Corn (Fig. 46) and all such kinds of grain-plants, the Onion, Lilies, and the like, have only one seed-leaf or cotyledon to their embryo ; therefore they are called MonocoTyLeponous Pants, and the embryo is called monocotylédonous,—a long word, meaning “with one cotyledon.” . , 48. The embryo of the Morning-Glory (Fig. 19), of the Maple (Fig. 27), Bean (Fig. 32 — 34), Almond, Peach, and Cherry (Fig. 36-38), Oak (Fig. 40), 22 HOW PLANTS GROW fROM THE SEED. Pea (Fig. 42), and of all such plants, is dicotylédonous, that is, has a pair of eotyledons, or sced-leaves, which is what the word means. Therefore al! such plants are called DicoTYLEDONOUS PLANTS. 49, Pine-trees, and plants like them, generally have more than’ two cotyledons, in a circle; so their embryo is said to be poly- cotylédonous ; meaning “ with several or many cotyledons.” Fig. 49 is a magnified view of a Pine-seed, divided lengthwise, and showing the long and straight embryo lying in the middle of the albumen. The slender lower part is the radicle or stemlet; the upper part is a cluster of cotyledons or seed-leaves, in a close bundle; three of them can be seen as it lies, and there are as many more behind. Fig. 50 is this embryo as it comes up from the seed, its cotyledons (six in number) expanding at once into a circle of slender, néedle-shaped leaves. 50. It is a pity these three words are so long; for the pupil should fix them thoroughly in his memory; because these differ- ences in the embryo, or plantlet in the seed, run through the whole life of the plant, ‘and show themselves in many other differences which very strikingly distinguish one class of plants from another. Let it be re- membered, therefore, that Monocotyledonous Plants, or Monocotyledons,.are those which have only. one cotyledon or seed-leaf to their embryo. . Dicotyledonous Plants, or Dicotyledons, are those which have a pair of cotyledons or seed-leaves to their embryo. Polycotyledonous Plants, or Polycotyledons, are those which have more than one pair of cotyledons or seed-leaves to their embryo. Analysis of the Section. 24. Flowers produce Fruit; this, the Seed; of this the essential part is the Embryo which grows. 26. It is alive; but lies dormant awhile. How long seeds may live. 26. Germination, the beginning of growth; what is needful for it. 27. ied takes place, illustrated from the Morning-Glory. 28. How the stemlet grows by lengthening, and carries up the seed-leaves: how the root is formed and grows downwards. 29. Instinct of each part to turn in its proper direc- tiov# and why. 30. The little seedling a complete plant in miniature; its parts. 31. How it goes on to grow: growth of the root; rootlets; of the stem. The Plumule or Bud. Development of the stem piece by piece, each with its leaf. 82. How the seedling is nourished at the beginning. Growth requires food. 88. How this is sup- plied by a deposit in the seed; Albumen. 984. It is kept in a solid fgrm until the embryo starts, and is HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. 23 then dissolved, turned into sugar, &c., and feeds the plantlet. 35. This illustrated in Wheat and Indian Corn. 86. Or else the same nourishment is deposited in the embryo itself, in its seed-leaves; illustrated by the Maple. 387, 38. Variations of the sume plan of growth in different plants. The Maple compared with the Morning-Glory. 389-45. A great abundance of food stored up in the embryo causes a rapid and strong growth; illustrated by the Bean; 42. by the Cherry, Almond, &c.; 48,44. by the Horsechestnut, Acorn, Pea, &c.; in these the seed-leaves do not come up in germinating; why. 45. In Indian Corn; the stock of food partly in the strong embryo, partly outside of it. 46. The Onion; its seed-leaf lengthens and comes up, but the stem never lengthens at all. 47. Number of cotyledons or seed-leaves in different kinds of plants; Monocotyledonous. 48. Dico- tyledonous ; Polycotyledonous. 50. These differences always accompany other differences in the plant; Monocotyledonous, Dicotyledonous, and Polycotyledonous Plants. Section III.— How Plants grow Year after Year. - 51. They Grow ou as they Began. The seedling has all the organs that any plant’ has, — even the largest and oldest, excepting what belongs to blossoms: it has all it needs for its life and growth, that is, for vegetation. It has only to go on and produce more of what it already has,— more roots beneath to draw up more moisture from the soil, and more stem above, bearing more leaves, exposing a larger surface to the light and air, in which to digest what is taken in from the soil and the air, and turn it into real nourishment, that is, into the stuff which vege- tables are made of. So, as fast as a young plant makes new vegetable material, it uses it for its growth ; it adds to its root below, and to its stem above, and unfolds a new leaf or pair of leaves on every joint. Each joint of stem soon gets its full length, and its leaf or pair of leaves the full size; and now, instead of growing, they work, or prepare nourishment, for the growth of the younger parts forming above. ° 52. Simple Stems, In this way, piece by piece, the stem is carried up higher and higher, and its leaves increased in number; and the more it grows, the more it is able to grow, —as we see in a young seedling, beginning feebly and growing slowly for a while, but ‘pushing on more and more vigorously in proportion to the number of leaves and roots it has produced. In this way, by developing joint after joint, each from the summit of its predecessor, a Simple Stem is made. Many plants make only simple stems, at least until they blossom, or for the first year. The Lilies, figured on the first page, and corn-stalks, are of this kind. Fig. 51 is a sort of diagram of the simple stem of Indian Corn, divided into its component pieces, to show how it consists of a set of similar growths, each from the summit 24 HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. of the preceding. one. There are old trees even, which consist of a simple, un- branched stem. Palm-trees, such as our Southern Palmetto (Fig. 79) are of this y t £ 51 — kind. But more commonly, as stems grow they multiply them- selves by forming 58. Branches, or séde-shoots. These are formed both by roots and by stems. Roots generally branch much sooner than stems do. See Fig. 4, 20, 30, &e. 54. Roots send off their branches from any part of the main root, or start from any part of a stem lying on or in the soil; and they have no particular arrangement. 55. But the branches of stems spring only from particular places, ‘and are arranged on a regular plan. They arise from the Azil of a leaf and nowhere else, except in some few pe- culiar cases. The azil (from a Latin word meaning the armpit) of a leaf is the hollow or angle, on the upper side, where the leaf is attached to the stem. As branches come only from the axils of leaves, and as leaves have a perfectly regular and uniform arrangement in each particular plant, the places where branches will appear are fixed beforehand by the places of the leaves, and they must follow their arrangement. In the axils, commonly one in each, branches first appear in the form of 56. Buds: A Bud is an undeveloped stem or branch. If large enough to have its parts distinguishable, these are seen to be undeveloped or forming leaves; and large buds which are to stand over winter are generally covered with protect- ing scales, — a kind of dry, diminished leaves. 57. Terminal Bud. So the plumule or first shoot of the embryo (see Fig. 22, &c.) isa bud. But this first bud makes the main stem, and its growth, week after week, or year after year, carries on the main stem. Palms (as Fig. 79) grow in this way, by this: bud only. Being always on the end of the stem, that is, terminating the stem, it is called the Terminal Bud. 58. Axillary Buds. But the buds which are to form branches appear on the sides of the stem; and since they are situated in the axils of the leaves, as just ex- THE ARRANGEMENT OF BRANCHES. 25 plained (55), they are named Axillary Buds. (See Fig. 52, 53.) These buds grow into branches, just as the first or terminal bud of’ the seedling grows to make the main stem. 59. The Arrangement of Branches, therefore, follows that of the axillary buds, and this that of the leaves. ; Now leaves are placed ° on the stem in two principal ways; they are either alternate or opposite. They are al- ternate when they fol- low one after another, there being only one to each joint of the stem, as in Morning- Glory (Fig. 4, all after the seed-leaves), and in the Linden or Bass- wood (Fig. 52), as well as the greater part of trees or plants. ‘They are opposite when there are two leaves upon each joint of stem, as in Horsechest- nut, Lilac, and Maple (Fig. 31, 58); one leaf in such cases being always exactly on the opposite side of the stem from its fellow. Now in the axil of almost every leaf of these trees a bud is soon formed, and in general plainly shows itself before summer is over. In Fig. 52, a, a, a, a, are the axillary buds on a twig of Bass- wood, —they are alternate, like the leaves, —and ¢ is the terminal bud. Fig. 53, a twig of Red Maple, has its axillary buds opposite, like the leaves; and on the very summit is the terminal bud. Next spring or sooner, the former grow into al- ternate branches ; the latter grow into opposite branches. These branches in their turn form buds in the axils of their leaves, to grow in time into a new generation of similar branches, and so on, yer after year. So the reason is plain why the branching or spray of one tree or bush differs from that of another, each having its own plan, depending upon the way the leaves are arranged on the stem. 60. The spray (or ramification) of trees and shrubs is more noticeable in winter, 52 26 HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. when most leaves have fallen. Even then we can tell how the leaves were placed, as well as in summer. We have only to notice the /eaf-scars: for each fallen leaf has left a scar to mark where its stalk separated from the stem. And in most cases the bud above each scar is now apparent or conspicuous, ready to grow into branches in the spring, and showing plainly the arrangement which these are to have. Here, for instance, is a last year’s shoot of Horsechestnut (Fig. 54), with a large terminal bud on its summit, and with very conspicuous leaf-scars, / s ; and just above each is an axillary bud, 4. Here the leaves were opposite each other; so the buds are also, | and so will the branches be, unless one of the buds on each joint should fail. Fig. 55 is a similar shoot of a Hickory, with its leaf-scars (Js) and axillary buds (4) alternate, that is, single on the joints and one after another on different sides of the stem; and these buds when they grow will make alternate branches. 61. The branching would be more regular than it is, if all the buds grew. But there is not room for all; so only the stronger ones grow. The rest stand ready to take their place, if those happen to be killed. Sometimes there are more buds than one from the same axil. There are three placed side by side on those shoots of Red Maple which are going to ‘blossom. | There are several in a row, one above another, on some shoots of Tartarean Honeysuckle. 62. The appearance of plants, the amount of their branching, and the way in which they continue to grow, depend very much upon their character and duration. 63. The Duration of Plants of different kinds varies greatly. Some live only for a few months or a few weeks; others may endure for more than a thousand years. The most familiar division of plants according to their duration and character is into Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees. 64. Herbs are plants of soft texture, having Iftle wood in their stems, and in our climate dying down to the ground, or else dying root and all, in or before winter. 65. Shrubs are plants with woody stems, which endure and grow year after year, but do not rise to any great height, say to not more than four or five times the MODE OF LIFE IN ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS. 27 height of a man. And if they reach this size, it is not as a single main trunk, but by a cluster of stems all starting from the ground. * 66. Trees are woody plants rising by a trunk to a greater height than shrubs. 67. Herbs are divided, according to their character and duration, into Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials. 68. Annuals grow from the seed, blossom, and die all in the same season. In this climate they generally spring from the seed in spring, and die in the autumn, or sooner if they have done blossoming and have ripened their seed. Oats, Barley, Mustard, and the common Morning-Glory (Fig. 4) are familiar annuals. Plants of this kind have fibrous roots, i. e. composed of long and slender threads or fibres. Either the whole root is a cluster of such fibres, as in Indian Corn (Fig. 48), Barley (Fig. 56), and all such plants; or when there is a main or tap root, as in Mustard, the Morning-Glory, &c., this branches off into slen- der fibres. It is these fibres, and the slender root-hairs which are found on them, that mainly absorb moisture and other things from the soil; and the more numerous they are, the more the plant can absorb by its roots. As fast as nourishment is received and pre- ~ pared by the roots and leaves, it is expended in new growth, par- ticularly in new stems or branches and new leaves, and finally in flowers, fruit, and seed. The latter require a great deal of nour- ishment to bring them to perfection, and give nothing back to the plant in return. So blossoming and fruiting weaken the plant very much. Annual plants usually continue to bear flowers, often in great numbers, upon every branch, until they exhaust themselves and die, but not until they have ripened seeds, and stored up in them (as in the mealy part of the grain of Corn, &e., Fig. 44, 45) food enough for a new generation to begin growth with. 69. Biennials follow a somewhat different plan. These are herbs which do not blossom at all the first season, but live over the winter, flower the second year, and then die when they have ripened their seeds. The Turnip, Carrot, and Parsnip, the Beet, the Radish (Fig. 57), and the Celandine, are familiar examples of bien- nial plants. 70. The mode of life in biennials is to prepare and store up nourishment through the first season, and to expend it the next season in flowering and fruiting. Accord- ingly, biennials for the first year are nearly all root and leaves; these being the organs by which the plant works, and. prepares the materials it lives on. Stem 56 Fibrous roots, 28 HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. they must have, in order to bear leaves; for leaves do not grow on roots. But what stem they make is so very short-jointed that it rises hardly any; so that the leaves seem to spring from the top of the root, and all spread out in a cluster close to the ground. As the plant grows, it merely sends out more and more branches of the root into the soil beneath, and adds more leaves to the cluster just above, close to the surface of the warm ground, and well exposed to the light and heat of the sun. Thus consisting of its two working organs only, — root and leaves, — the young biennial sets vigorously to work. The moisture and air which the leaves take in from the atmosphere, and all that the roots take from the soil, are digested ‘ or changed into vegetable matter by the foliage while exposed to sunshine; and all that is not wanted by the leaves themselves is generally carried down into the body of the root and stored up there for next year’s use. So the biennial root becomes large and heavy, being a storehouse of nourishing matter, which man and animals are glad to use for food. In it, in the form of starch, sugar, mucilage, and in other nourishing and savory products, the plant (expending nothing in flowers or in show) has laid up the avails of its whole summer’s work. For what purpose? This plainly appears when the next season’s growth begins. Then, fed by this great stock of nourishment, a stem shoots forth rapidly and strongly, divides into branches, bears flowers abundantly, and ripens seeds, almost wholly at the expense of the nourishment accumulated in the root, which is now light, empty, and dead; and so is the whole plant by the time the seeds are ripe. : 71. By stopping the flowering, biennials can sometimes be made to live another year, or for many ‘years, or annuals may be made into bienhials. So a sort of biennial is made of wheat by sowing it in autumn, or even in the spring and keep- ing it fed down in summer. But here the nourishment is stored up in the leaves rather than in the roots. oe 72. The Cabbage is a familiar and more striking example of a biennial in which the store of nourishment, instead of being deposited in the root, is kept in the 57 Radish. MODE OF LIFE IN PERENNIALS. 29 leaves and in the short stem or stalk. These accordingly become thick and nutri- tious in the Cabbage, just as the root does in the Turnip, or the base of the short stem alone in Kohlrabi, or even the flower-stalks in the Cauliflower; all of which belong to the same family, and exhibit merely different ways of accom- plishing the same result. 73. Perennials are plants which live on year after year. Shrubs and trees are of course perennial. So are many herbs; but in these only a portion gener- ally survives. Most of our perennial herbs die down to the ground before winter ; in many species all but certain separate portions under ground die at the close of the year; but some parts of the stem con- taining buds are always kept alive to renew the growth for the next season. And a stock of nour- ishment to begin the new growth with is also pro- ‘vided. Sometimes this stock is laid up in the roots, as for instance in the Peony, the Dahlia (Fig. 58), and the Sweet Potato. Here some thick roots, filled Blaha ya 59 . Ground-Artichoke. with food made by last year’s vegetation, nourish in spring the buds on the base of the stem just above (a, a), enabling them to send up stout leafy stems, and send down new roots, in some of which a new stock of food is laid up during summer for the next spring, while the exhausted old ones die off; and so on, from year to year. 74. Sometimes this stock of food is laid up in par- ticular portions of branches of the stem itself, formed under ground, and which contain the buds; as in the Ground Artichoke and the Potato. Here these parts, with their buds, or eyes, are all that live over winter. These thickened ends of stems are called Tuders, In Fig. 59, @ is a tuber of last year, now exhausted and 30 HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. withering away, which grew in spring by one of its buds.to make the stem (0) bear- ing the foliage of the season. This sends out some branches under ground, which in the course of the sea- son thicken at the end’ as they receive a stock .of nourishment prepared by this year’s foliage, and become new tubers (ec, a forming one; d, d, well-grown tubers of the season), to live over winter and make the next year’s growth. 75. Because they live under ground, these tu- bers are commonly sup- posed to be roots; but they are not, as any one may see. Their eyes are buds; and the little scales behind the eyes answer to leaves; while roots bear neither buds nor leaves. The fibrous roots which grow from these subterranean branches are very different in appearance from under-ground stems, as is plain to see in the Potato-plant. Fig. 60 shows a few of the real roots, as well as several branches of the stem, with potatoes form- ing in all stages at their tips. Fig. 61 is one of these form- ing potatoes magnified, show- ing a little scale behind each Solomons-Seal. eye which answers toa leaf. Fig. 62 is a part of a slice through an eye, more magnified, to show that the eye is really a bud, covered with little scales, 60 Potato. MODE OF LIFE IN PERENNIALS. 31 76. In some perennial herbs, prostrate stems or branches under ground are thickened with this store of nourishment for their whole length, making stout Mootstocks, as they are called; as in Sweet Flag, Solomon’s Seal (Fig. 63), and Iris, or Flower-de- Luce (Fig. 64). These are perennial, and grow on a little way each year, dying off as much behind after a while; and the newer parts every year send out a new set of fibrous roots. The buds which rootstalks produce, and the leaves or the scales they bear, or the scars or rings which mark where the old leaves or scales have fallen or decayed away, all plainly show that rootstocks are forms of stem, and not roots. The large round scars on the root- stock of Solomon’s Seal, which give the plant its name, (from their looking like impressions of a seal,) are the places from which the stalk bearing the leaves and flowers of each season has fallen off in autumn. Fig. 63, @ is the bud at the end, to make the growth above ground next spring; 6 is the bottom of the stalk of this season; ¢, the scar or place from which the stalk of last year fell; d, that of the year before; and e, that of two years ago. 77. Finally, the nourishment for the next year’s growth may be deposited in the leaves themselves. Sometimes it occupies all the Six x I leaf, as in the Houseleek (Fig. 65) and other Iris. Jleshy plants. Were the close ranks of the thickened leaves are wholly aboye ground. Sometimes the deposit is all in the lower end of the leaf, and on the ground, or un- derneath, as in common Bulbs. Take a White Lily of the gardens, for example, in — the fall, or in spring before it sends up the © stalk of the season (Fig. 66). From the é bottom of the bulb, roots descend into the Houreleck, : soil to absorb moisture and other matters from it, while, above, it sends up leaves to digest and convert these matters into real nourishment. As fast as it is made, this nourishment is carried down to the bot- 3 32 HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. tom of each leaf, which is enlarged or thickened for containing it. These thick leaf-bases, or scales, crowded together, make up the bulb ; all but its very short stem, concealed within, which bears these scales above, and sends down the roots from, underneath. Fig. 67 shows one of the leaves of the season, taken off, with its base cut across, that the thickness may be seen. After having done its work, the blade dies off, leaving the thick base as a, bulb-scale. Every year one or more buds in the centre of the bulb grow, feeding on the food laid up in the scales, and making the stalk of the season, which bears the flowers, as in Fig. 1,, 2. , 48. An Onion is like a Lily-bulb, only each scale or leaf-base is so wide that it enwraps all within, making coat after coat. a ee ~ 66 Bulb and lower Leaves of a Lily. 67 Leaf, lower end cut off. 79. In shrubs and trees a great quantity of nourishment, made the summer before, is stored up in the young wood and bark of the shoots, the trunk, and the: roots. Upon this the buds feed the next spring; and this enables them to develop vigorously, and clothe the naked branches with foliage in a few days; or with blos- soms immediately following, as in the Horsechestnut; or with blossoms and foliage together, as in Sugar Maple; or with blossoms before the leaves appear, as in Red’ Maples and Elms. The rich mucilage of the bark of Slippery Elm, and the sweet spring sap of Maple-trees, belong to this store, deposited in the wood the previous summer, and in spring dissolved and rapidly drawn into the buds, to supply the early’ and sudden leafing and blossoming. 80. In considering plants, as to “how they grow,” it should be noticed that all of them, from the Lily of the field to the tree of the forest, teach the same lesson of industry and provident preparation. No great result is attained without effort, and WHY THEY GROW SO VIGOROUSLY IN SPRING. 33 long preceding labor. Not only was the tender verdure which, after a few spring showers and sunny days, is so suddenly spread out over field and forest, all pre- pared beforehand, — most of the leaves, even, made the summer before, and snugly packed away in winter-buds,— but the nourishment which enables them to un- fold and grow so fast was also prepared for this purpose by the foliage of the year before, and laid up until it was wanted. The grain grows with vigor, because fed with the richest products of the mother plant, the results of a former year’s vegeta- tion. The Lily-blossom develops in all its glory without toil of its own, because all its materials were gathered from the earth and the air long before, by the roots and the leaves, manufactured by the latter into vegetable matter, and this stored up for a year or two under ground in the bottoms of the leaves (as starch, jelly, sugar, &c.), and in many cases actually made into blossoms in the dark earth, where the flower-buds lie slumbering in the protecting bulb through the cold winter, and in summer promptly unfold in beauty for our delight. Analysis of the Section. e 61. The seedling is a complete plant on the simplest scale ; in growth it merely increases its parts, and multiplies them in number, as fast as it makes materials for growth. 52. Simple stems, how formed and carried up, piece by piece. 53. Branches: 54. of Roots, how they differ from those, 65. of Stems. Where these arise from; in what form they appear. 56. Buds, what they are. 67. Terminal Bud, what it makes. 658. Axillary Buds ; why so named ; what they make. 59. How branches are arranged, and what their arrangement depends upon: alternate; opposite. 60. The spray and buds of shrubs and trees in winter; Leaf-scars. 61. Why branches are not as regular and as many as the buds or leaves. ; 62,63. The Duration and Character of Plants as affecting the way they grow. 64. Herbs. 65. Shrubs. 66. Trees. 67. Herbs are annuals, biennials, or perennials. % 68. Annuals ; their mode of life ; character of their roots, intended only for absorbing; duration, &e. 69. Biennials ; how defined ; examples. 70. Character of their roots, and illustrations of their mode of life ; the first year, food made and stored up ; the second year, food expended, for what pur- pose. 71. How biennials may sometimes be made perennial, and annuals biennial. 72. The store of food may be kept in the leaves, or in the stems above ground ; Cabbage, &c. 73. Perennials ; what they are ; mode of life of perennial herbs from year to year ; accumulation of food in roots. 74. Accumulation ‘of food in under-ground branches ; Tubers, as of Ground Artichoke. 75. Potato illustrated. 76. Accumulation in whole stems or branches under ground ; Rootstocks. 77. Accumulation of food in leaves, above ground, as in Houseleek ; or in the bottoms of leaves, usu- ally under ground ; Bulbs ; as of Lily, and,.78. of Onion. 79. Food, how stored up in shrubs and trees, and for what purpose ; used in leafing and blossoming in spring. 80. A lesson taught by vegetation. 34 HOW PLANTS GROW. Secrron IV. — Different Forms or Kinds of Roots, Stems, and Leaves, 81. The Organs of Vegetation, or those that have to do with the life and growth of a plant, are only three, Root, Stem, and Leaf. And the plan upon which plants are made is simple enough. So simple and so few are the kinds of parts that one would hardly expect plants to exhibit the almost endless and ever-pleasing diver- sity they do. This diversity is owing to the wonderful variety of forms under which, without losing their proper nature, each of these three organs may appear. 82. The study of the different shapes and appearances which the same organ takes in different plants, or in different parts of the same plant, comparing them with one another, is called Morphology, and is one of the most interesting parts of Botany. But in this book for young beginners, we have only room to notice the commonest forms, and those very briefly, — although sufficiently to enable stu- dents to study all common plants and understand botanical descriptions. Those’ who would learn more of the structure and morphology of plants should study the Lessons in Botany. §1. Of Roots. 83. The Root is the simplest and least diversified of the three organs. Yet it exhibits some striking variations. 84, As to origin, there is the primary or original root, formed from the embryo as it grows from the seed, and the branches it makes. Annuals, biennials, and many trees are apt to have only such roots. But when any portion of their stems is covered by the soil, it makes secondary roots. These are roots which spring from the sides of the stem. Every one knows that most stems may be made to strike root when so covered and having the darkness and moisture which are gen- erally needful for roots. Perennial herbs and most shrubs strike root naturally in this way under ground. All the roots of plants raised from tubers, rootstocks, and the like (74-76), are of this sort, and also of plants raised from slips or cuttings. In warm and damp climates there are likewise many 85. Aerial Roots, namely, roots which strike from the stem in the open air. In summer we often find them springing from the joints of the stalks of Indian Corn, : several inches above the soil. Some of these reach the ground, and help to feed the plant. In the famous Banyan-tree of India aerial roots on a larger scale strike from the spreading branches, high up in the air, grow down to the ground and into it, KINDS OF ROOTS. 35 and so make props or additional trunks. Growing in this way, there is no limit to the extent of the branches, and a single Banyan will spread over several acres of ground and have hundreds of trunks all made from aerial roots. . 86. Aerial Rootlets, or such roots on a small scale, are produced by several woody vines to climb by. English Ivy, our Poison Ivy, and Trumpet-Creeper are well- known cases of the sort. . 87. Air-Plants, Roots which never reach the ground are also produced by certain plants whose seeds, lodged upon the boughs or trunks of trees, high up in the air, grow there, and make an Epiphyte, as it is called (from two Greek words meaning a plant on a plant), or an Air-Plant. The latter name refers to the plant’s getting its living altogether from the air; as it must, for it has no connection with the ground at any time. And if these plants can live on air, in this way, it is easy to understand that common vegetables get part of what they live on di- rectly from the air. In warm countries there are many very handsome and curious air- ‘plants of the Orchis family. A great number are culti- vated in hot-houses, merely fixed upon pieces of wood we and hung up. They take no t Air-plants of the Orcbis family. nourishment from the boughs of the tree they happen to grow upon. 88. Parasitic Plants are thbse which strike their roots, or what answer to roots, into the bark or wood of the species they grow on, and feed upon its sap. The Mistletoe is a woody parasitic plant, which engrafts itself when it springs from the seed upon the branches of Oaks, Hickories, or other trees. The Dodder is a com~ 36 HOW PLANTS GROW. mon parasitic herb, consisting of orange-color or whitish stems, looking like threads. ” of yarn. These coil round the stalks of other plants, fasten themselves by little suckers in place of roots, and feed upon their juices. Living as such a plant does by robbing other plants of their prepared food, it has no leaves of its own, except little scales in their place, and has no need of any. 89. Shapes and Uses of Roots. Common roots, however, grow in the soil. And their use is to absorb moisture and other matters from the soil, and sometimes to hold prepared food until it is wanted for use, as was explained in the last section (70, 73). Those for absorbing are Fibrous roots, namely, slender and thread-shaped, as in Fig. * 48, 56, and generally branching. Very slender roots of the sort, or their branches, are called Mooélets ; and these do most of the absorbing. The roots of annuals are mostly fibrous, as they have nothing to do but to absorb; and so are the smaller branches of the roots of shrubs, trees, and other plants. Fleshy roots are those of herbs which form a thick and stout body, from having much nourishment deposited in them. They belong particularly to biennial herbs (69), and to many pe- rennials (73). Some sorts have names according to their ‘shapes. The root is a Lap-root, when of one main body, and tapering downwards to a point; as that of a Carrot (Fig. 71), and of a seedling Oak (Fig. 41). And a tap-root is Conical, when stout, and tapering gradually from the upper end to a point below ; as a carrot (Fig. 71), parsnip, or beet. Spindle-shaped, when thicker in the middle, and tapering upwards as well as downwards, like a radish (Fig. 57); and Turnip-shaped, or Napiform, when wider than long, or with a suddenly tapering tip, as a turnip (Fig. 70). Roots are 71, Carrot, Clustered or Fascicled when, instead of one main root, there are several or many of about the same size; as in Indian Corn (Fig. 48), and other grain (Fig. 56). Here the clustered roots aré Jibrous, being for absorbing only. When such roots, or some of them, are thick and fleshy, as they are when used as storehouses of food, they become Tuberous. The roots of the Dahlia, for in- stance (Fig. 58), are clustered and tuberous, or tuber:like. KINDS OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. 37. § 2. Of Stems. 90. Forms or Kinds of Stems, Differences in the size and consistence of stems, such as distinguish plants into herbs, shrubs, and trees, have already been noticed, in paragraphs 64, 65, and 66. A stem is Herbaceous, when it belongs to an herb, that is, has very little wood.in its com- position, and does not live over winter above ground: Shrubby, when it belongs to a shrub, or is woody : Arboreous or Arborescent, when the plant is a tree, or like a tree; that is, when: it is tall and grows by a single trunk. 91. The peculiar straw-stem of a grass or grain is named a Culm. It is gen-- erally hollow, except at the joints, which are hard and solid; but in Indian Corn, Sugar-Cane, and some other Grasses, it is not at all hollow. 92. As to the mode of growth or the direction it takes in growing, the stem is Erect or Upright, when it grows directly upwards, or nearly so: Ascending, when it rises upwards at first in a slanting direction: Declined or Reciined, when turned or bent over to one side: Decumbent, when the lower part reclines on the ground, as if too weak to stand, but the end turns upwards more or less: Procumbent or Travling, when the whole stem trails along the ground: | Prostrate, when it naturally lies flat on the ground: Creeping or Running, when a trailing or prostrate stem strikes root along its lower side, where it rests on the ground: Climbing, where it rises by laying hold of other -objects for support; either by- tendrils, as in the Pea, Gourd, and Grape-Vine; or by twisting its leafstalks around the supporting body, as in the Virgin’s Bower; or by rootlets acting as holdfasts, as in the Ivy and Trumpet-Creeper (86) : Twining, when stems rise by coiling themselves spirally around any support, as in the Morning-Glory (Fig. 4), Hop, and Bean. ; 93. Several sorts of branches are different enough from the common: to have particular names. , Indeed, some are so different, that they would not be taken for: branches without considerable study. Such, for instance, as 94. Thorns or Spines. Most of these are imperfect, leafless, hardened, stunted’ branches, tapering to a point. That they are branches is evident in the Hawthorn: and similar trees, from their arising’ from the axil of leaves, as branches do. And on Pear-trees and Plum-trees many shoots may be found which begin as a leafy 38 HOW PLANTS GROW. branch, but taper off into a thorn. Prickles, such as those on the stems of Roses and Brambles, must not be confounded with thorns. These are growths from the bark (like hairs or bristles, only stouter), and peel off with it; while thorns are connected with the wood. 95. Tendrils, such as those of the Grape-Vine, Virginia Creeper (Fig. 72), and the Melon. or Squash, are very slender, leafless branches, used to enable certain plants to climb. They grow out straight or nearly so until they reach some neighboring support, such as a stem, when the end hooks around it to secure a hold, and the whole ten- dril then shortens itself by coiling up spirally, so draw- a ing the growing Tendrils of Virginia Creeper. shoot nearer to the supporting object. When the Virginia Creeper climbs the side of a building, the face of a rock, or the smooth bark of a tree, which the tendrils cannot lay hold of in the usual way, their tips expand into’ a flat plate (as shown in Fig. 73, the ends of a tendril magnified), which adheres very firmly to the surface. This enables the plant to climb up a smooth surface by tendrils, just as the Ivy and Trumpet-Creeper climb by rootlets (86). 96. Peduncles or Flower-stalks are a kind of branches, or stems, as is clear from their situation. They are either a continuation of the stem, as in the Lily of the Valley and the Chalcedonian Lily, represented on the first page; or else they rise out of the axil of a leaf, as in the Morning-Glory (Fig. 4). Plainly, whatever comes from the axil of a leaf must be of the nature of a branch. So 97. Buds, that is axillary buds, are undeveloped branches, as already ee _in paragraphs 55 to 58. ' 98. The following kinds of branches are all connected with the ground in some way, and most of them act in such a way as to make new plants. KINDS OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. 39 99. A Stolon is a branch which reclines on the ground, or bends over to it, and strikes root (Fig. 74). Currant-bushes spread naturally by stolons, and so does White Clover. The gardener imitates the process where it does not naturally occur, or facilitates it where it does, by bending branches to the ground, and pinning them down, when they strike root where they are covered by the soil, and then the branch, having leaves and roots of its own, may be separated as an independent plant. In this way the gardener multiplies many plants by layering which he cannot so readily propagate by seed. Runner. 74 Sucker. Stolon. 100. A Runner (Fig. 74) is a very slender, thread-like, leafless stolon, much like a tendril, lying on the ground, and rooting and budding at the point; so giving rise to a new plant at some distance from the parent, and connected with it during the first year. But the runner dies in winter and leaves the young plant independent. The Strawberry-plant affords the most familiar illustration of runners. Each plant or offshoot, as soon as established, sends out runners of its own, which make new plants at their tip. In this way a single Strawberry-plant produces a numerous progeny in the course of the summer, and establishes them at convenient dis- tances all around. 101. A Sucker (Fig. 74) is a branch uian: springs from a parent stem under ground, where it makes roots of its own, while farther on it rises above ground into a leafy stem, and becomes an independent plant whenever the connection with the parent stem dies or is cut off. It is by suckers that Rose and Raspberry bushes multiply and spread so “by the root,” as is generally said. But that these subter- ranean shoots are stems, and not roots (though they produce roots), will plainly appear by uncovering them. : 102. An Offset is a short branch, next the ground or below its surface, like a short stolon or sucker, bearing a tuft of leaves at the end, and taking root where this 40 HOW PLANTS GROW. rests on the soil; as in the Houseleek (Fig. 65), where one plant will soon produce a cluster of young plants or offsets all around it. 103. A Rootstock is any kind of horizontal stem or branch growing under ground. Slender rootstocks occur in the subterranean part of the suckers of Roses, of Pepper- mint, or of Canada Thistle, and of Quick-Grass or Couch-Grass (Fig. 75), which spreads so widely, and becomes so troublesome to farmers. They are well distinguished from roots by the leaves which they bear at every joint, in the form of scales, and by the buds which they produce, one in the axil of each scale. These buds, which are very tenacious of life, are what renders the plant so exceedingly difficult to destroy. For ploughing and hoeing only cut up the rootstock into pieces, each with a tuft of roots ready formed and with a bud to each joint, all the more ready to grow for the division. So that the attempt to destroy Quick-Grass by cut- ting it up by the roots (as these shoots : are called), unless the F Hootstoglt of: Quuictt-sranss . pieces are carefully taken out of the soil, is apt to produce many active plants in place of one. 104. Thickened or fleshy rootstocks, such as those of Solomon’s Seal (Fig. 63) and Iris (Fig. 64), have already been illustrated (76). 105. A Tuber is a rootstock thickened at the end, as already explained in the Potato and Ground Artichoke (74, 75, Fig. 59, 60). The eyes of a tuber are lively buds, well supplied with nourishment for their growth. 106. A Corm or Solid Bulb, as of Gladiolus and Crocus (Fig. 76), is a sort of rounded tuber. If well covered with thick scales it would become 3 107. A Bulb. This is a (mostly subterranean) stem, so short as to be only a flat plate, producing roots from its lower surface and above covered with thickened scales, — as was fully explained in the last section (77). aed 108. Bulbs are scaly, as in the Lily (Fig. 66), when the Corm.of Crocns, swithibuts. scales are narrow ; or coated, as an onion, when the scales enwrap each other, and form coats. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEMS. 41 109. Bulblets are little bulbs, or fleshy buds, formed in the axils of leaves above ground, as in the Bulb-bearing Lily. Or in some Leeks and Onions they take the place of flower-buds. Falling off, they take root and grow into new plants. 110. The Internal Structure of Stems. Plants are composed of two kinds of ma- terial, namely, Cellular Tissue and Wood. The former makes the softer, fleshy, and pithy parts; the latter forms the harder, fibrous, or woody parts. The stems of herbs contain little wood, and much cellular tissue; those of shrubs and trees abound in the woody part. . 111. There are two great classes of stems, which differ in the way the woody part is arranged in the cellular tissue. They are named the Hxdgenous, and the Endogenous. 112. For examples of the first class we may take a Bean-stalk, a stem of Flax, Sunflower, or the like, among herbs, and for woody stems any, common stick of wood. For examples of the second class take an Asparagus-shoot or a Corn- stalk, and in trees a Palm-stem. These names express the different ways in which the two kinds grow in thickness when they live more than one year. But the difference between the two is almost as apparent the first year, and in the stems of herbs, which last only one year. 113. The Endogenous Stem. Lnddgenous means “ inside- growing.” Fig. 77 shows an Endogenous stem in a Corn- stalk, both in a croégs-section, at the top, and also split down lengthwise. The peculiarity is that the wood is all in separate threads or bundles of fibres running lengthwise, and scattered among the cellular tissue throughout the whole thickness of the stem. On the cross-section their cut ends appear as so many dots; in the slice lengthwise they show themselves to be threads or fibres of wood. Fig. 78 is a similar view of a Palm-stem (namely, of our Carolina Palmetto, of which whole trees are represented in Fig. 79). It shows the endogenous plan in a stem several years old. Here the bundles of wood are merely increased very much in number, new threads having been formed throughout intermixed with the old, and any in- crease in diameter that has taken place is from a general distention or enlargement 78 Endogenous Stems. 42 HOW PLANTS GROW. of the whole. Such stems may well enough be called inside-growers, because their wood increases in amount, as they grow older, by the formation of new threads or fibres of wood within or among the old. 114. Moreover, endogenous stems are apt to make few or no branch- es. Asparagus is the only common example to the contrary; that branches freely. But the stalks of Corn and other grain, and those of Lilies (Fig. 1, 2) and the like, seldom branch until they come to flower ; and Palms are trees of this sort, with perfectly simple or branchless trunks, rising like col- umns, and crowned with a tuft of conspicuous and peculiar foliage, which all comes from the continued growth of a terminal bud. 115. The Exogenous Stem is the kind we are familiar with in ordi-— nary wood. But it may be observed in the greater part of our herbs as well. It differs from the other class, even at the be- ginning, by the wood all occupying a certain part of the stem, and by its woody bundles soon appearing to run together into a solid layer. This layer of wood, whether much or little, is always situated around a central part, or pith, which .has no wood in it, being pure cellular tissue, and is itself surrounded by a bark which is mainly or at first entirely cellular tissue. So that a slice across an exoge- nous stem always has a separate cellular part, as bark, on the circumference, then a ring of wood, and in the centre a pith; as is seen in Fig. 80, representing a piece y Palmettus of various ages, and a Yucca, y. ad KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 43 of Flax-stem magnified; and also in Fig. 81, which shows the same structure in a woody stem, namely, in a shoot of Maple of a year old, cut both crosswise and lengthwise. 116. The difference becomes still more marked in stems more than one year old. During the second year a new layer of wood is formed outside of the first one, between it and the bark; the third year, another layer outside of the second, and so on, a new layer being formed each year outside of that of the year before. The increase is all on the surface, and buries the older wood deeper and deeper in the trunk. For this reason such stems are said to be exdgenous or outside-growing (from two Greek words which mean just this), a new layer being added to the wood on the outside each year as long as the tree or shrub lives. And so the oldest wood, or Heart-wood, is always in the centre, and the newest and freshest, the Sap-wood, at the circumference, just beneath the bark. 117. The heart-wood is dead, or soon becomes so. The sap-wood is the only active part ; and this, with the inner bark, which is renewed from its inner face every year, is all of the trunk that is concerned in the life and growth of the tree. 118. Plants with exogenous or outside-growing stems, especially those that live year after year, almost always branch freely. Il common shrubs and trees of the exogenous class make a new set of branches every year, and so present an ap- pearance very different from that of most of those of the endogenous or inside- growing class. Exogenous Stems. § 3. Of Leaves. 119. Leaves exhibit an almost endless variety of forms in different plants; and their forms afford easy marks for distinguishing one species from another. So the different shapes of leaves are classified and named very particularly, — which is a great convenience in describing plants, as it enables a botanist to give a correct idea of almost any leaf in one or two words. We proceed to notice some of the principal kinds. : 120. Their Parts, A leaf with all its parts complete has a Blade, a Footstalk, and a pair of Stipules at the base of the footstalk. Fig. 82 shows all three parts 44 HOW PLANTS GROW. in a Quince-leaf: }, the blade; p, the footstalk ; and sé, the stipules, looking like a pair of little blades, one on each side of the stalk. But many leaves have no stipules ; many have no footstalk, and then the blade sits directly on the stem (or is sessile), as in Fig. 188. Some leaves even have no blade; but this is uncommon, for in foliage the blade is the essential part. There- fore, in describing the shape of leaves, it is always the blade that is meant, unless something is said to the contrary. 121. Leaves are either simple or compound. They are simple when the blade is all of one piece; com- pound, when of more than one piece or blade. Fig. 128 to 132, and 133, are examples of compound leaves, the latter very compound, having as many as eighty- one little blades. 122. Their Structure and Veining. Leaves are com- posed of the same two kinds of material as stems (110), namely, of wood or fibre, and of cellular tissue. The woody or fibrous part makes a framework of ribs and veins, which gives the leaf more strength and toughness than it would otherwise have. The cellu- lar tissue forms the green pulp of the leaf. This is spread, as it were, over the framework, both above and below, and supported by it; and the whole is protected by a transparent skin, which is termed the Epidermis. 123. Ribs. The stouter pieces or timbers of the framework are called Ribs. In the leaf of the Quince (Fig. 82), Pear, Oak (Fig. 120), &c. there is only a single main rib, running directly through the middle of the blade from base to point; this is called the Midrib. But in the Mallow, the Linden (Fig. 83), the Maple (Fig. 84), and many others, there are three, or five, or seven ribs of nearly the same size: The branches of the ribs and the branchlets from them are called 124. Veins and Veinlets. ‘The former is the general name for them; but the finest branches are particularly called Veinlets. Straight and parallel veins or fine ribs, like those of Indian Corn, or of any Grass-leaf, or of the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 8, 85), are called Nerves. This is not a sensible name, for even if in some degree like the nerves of animals in shape, they are not in the least like them in use. KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 45 Nor are what we call veins to be likened particularly to the bloodvessels of ani- mals. _ But this name is not so bad; for the minute fibres which, united in bun- dles, make up the ribs and veins, are hollow tubes, and serve more or less for con- veying the sap. 125. As to the veining, or the arrangement of the framework in the blade, leaves are divided into two classes, viz.: 1st, the Wetted-verned or Reticulated, and, 2d, the Parallel-veined or Nerved. 126. Netted-Yeined or Reticulated leaves are those in which the veins branch off from the rib or ribs, and divide again and again, and some of the veins and veinlets run into one another, so forming reticulations or meshes of network throughout the leaf. This is shown in the Quince-leaf (Fig. 82) ; ' also in the Linden or Basswood (Fig. 83), and the Maple (Fig. 84), where the finer meshes appear in one or two of the leaves. 127. Netted-veined leaves belong to plants which have a pair of seed-leaves to their em- eu ainehedTawwearat bryo (48), and stems 8 Linden. 84, Maple. of the exogenous structure (115). That is, these three kinds of structure, in em- bryo, stem, and leaf, generally go together. 128. Parallel-veined or Nerved leaves are those in which the ribs and veins run side by side without branching (or with minute cross-veinlets, if any) from the base to the point of the blade, as in Indian-Corn, Lily of the Valley (Fig. 85), é&c., or sometimes from the midrib to the margins, as in the Banana and Calla (Fig. 86). Such parallel veins have been called Nerves, as just explained (124). Leaves of this sort belong to plants with one cotyledon to their embryo (47), and with endogenous stems (118). > z I VAX RS as 7 Lf, rae asia Lb SA 46 HOW PLANTS GROW. 129. Parallel-veined leaves, we see, are of two sorts; — 1. those with the veins or nerves all running from the base of the leaf to the point (Fig. 85); and, 2. those where they mostly run from the midrib to the margin, as in Fig. 86. Metted-veined leaves likewise are of two sorts, the Feather-veined and the Radiate-veined. 130. Feather-veined (al- so called pinnately veined) leaves are those in which the main veins all spring from the two sides of one rib, viz. the midrib, like the plume of a feather from each side of the shaft. Fig- ures 82, 88-97, 120, 122, &c. represent feather-veined leaves. 181. Radiate-Veined (al- so called palmately veined) leaves are those which have three or more main ribs ris- ing at once from the place where the footstalk joins the blade, and commonly diverg- Harallel-veined Len vee, ing, like rays from a centre; the veins branching off from these. Of this sort are the leaves of the Maple (Fig. 84), Mallow, Currant, Grape-Vine, and less dis- tinctly of the Linden (Fig. 83). Such leaves are generally roundish in shape. It is evident that this kind of veining is adapted to round leaves, and the other kind for those longer than wide. 132. Shapes of Leaves. As to general shape, the following are the names of the principal sorts. (It will be a good exercise for students to look up examples which fit the definitions.) Linear ; narrow, several times longer than wide, and of about the same width throughout, as in Fig. 87. Lance-shaped or Lanceolate ; narrow, much longer than wide, and tapering up- wards, or both upwards and downwards, as in Fig. 88.. Oblong ; two or three times longer than broad, as in Fig. 89. > KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 47 Oval ; broader than oblong, and with a flowing outline, as in Fig. 90. Ovate ; oval, but broader towards the lower end; of the shape of a hen’s egg cut through lengthwise, as in Fig. 91. Orbicular or Round ; circular or nearly circular in outline, as in Fig. 93. 90 Me a) LE Linear. pances Oblong. Oval, Ovate. Heart-shaped. Orbloulars: shaped. ' 133. Some leaves taper downwards more than upwards. Of these the common- est forms are the Oblanceolate, or Inversely lance-shaped ; that is, shaped like a lance with the point downwards, as in Fig. 94. Spatulate ; roundish above, and tapering into a long and narrow base, like the old form of the apothecary’s spatula, Fig. 95. Obovate, or Inversely ovate; that is, ovate with the narrow end at the bottom of the leaf, as in Fig. 96. Cuneate or Wedge-shaped ; like the last, Oblanceo- Spatulate. Obovate, Cuneate or but with the sides narrowing straight down ate. Wedge-shuped. to the lower end, in the shape of a wedge, as in Fig. 97. 134. Of course these shapes all run into one another by imperceptible degrees in different cases. The botanist merely gives names to the principal grades. Inter- mediate shapes are described by combining the names of the two shapes the leaf in question most resembles. For example: — Lance-lineur, or linear-lanceolate, means between linear and Jance-shaped. Lance-oblong, or oblong-lanceolate, means between oblong and lanceolate in shape. Ovate-lanceolate, between ovate and lance-shaped ; and so on. 135. Or else a qualifying word may be used, as somewhat ovate, slightly heart- . shaped, and the like. Thus, Fig. 92 is ovate in general form, but with the base a little notched, i. e. somewhat heart-shaped. It is one of the kinds which depend upon AS HOW PLANTS GROW. 186. The shape at the base. This is concerned in all the following sorts : — Heart-shaped, or Cordate; when of the shape in which a heart is painted, the base having a recess or notch, as in Fig. 98. Kidney-shaped, or Reniform ; like heart-shaped, but rounder, and broader than long, as in Fig. 99. Auricled, or Eored ; having a small projection or lobe on each side at the base, like a pair of ears, as in Fig. 101. Arrow-shaped, or Arrow-headed ; 100 101 SS el when such lobes at the base are an ff | Heart-shaped, Kidney-shaped, Arrow-shaped, Auricled, Halberd-sbaped, or cordate. or reniform. or eared. or hastate. pointed and turned backwards, like the base of an arrow-head, as in Fig. 100. _ Halberd-shaped, or Hastate ; when such lobes point outwards, giving the whole blade the shape of the halberd of the olden time, as in Fig. 102. , Shield-shaped, or Peltate ; when the footstalk is attached to some part of the lower face of the blade, which may be likened to a shield borne by the hand with the arm extended. Fig. 104 represents the shield-shaped leaf of a Water-Penny- wort. Fig. 103 is the leaf of another species, which is not shield-shaped. A comparison of the two shows how the shield- 108 shaped leaf is made. ' _ 187. As to the Apex or Point, we have the following terms, the first six of which apply to the base as well as to the apex of a leaf: — Pointed, Taper-pointed, or Acuminate ; narrowed into a tapering tip, as in Fig. 105. Acute ; ending in an acute angle, Fig. 106. Obtuse ; ending in an obtuse angle, or with a blunt or rounded apex; as in Fig. 107. Truncate ; as if cut off square at the apex, as in Fig. 108. Round-kidney- shaped. Shield-shaped. KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 49 Retuse ; having a blunt or rounded apex slightly indented, as in Fig. 109. Emarginate, or Notched ; as if a notch were cut out of the apex; Fig. 110. Obcordate, or Inversely heart-shaped ; that is, with the strong notch at the apex instead of the base, as in Fig. 111 and the leaflets of White Clover. Ouspidate ; tipped with a rigid or sharp and narrow point, as in Fig.112. Mucronate ; abruptly tipped with a short and weak point, like a small projection of the midrib, as in Fig. 113. , Awned, Awn-pointed, or Aristate ; tipped with a long bristle-shaped appendage, like the beard ie of Oats, &e. = MNOV ID Pointed. Acute. Obtuse. Truncate. Retuse. 188. As to the margin, Whether whole, toothed, or cut, leaves are said to be Entire ; when the margin is an even line, as in Fig. 99 to 102. Toothed ; when beset with teeth or small indentations ; of this there are two or three varieties, as, Serrate or Saw-toothed ; when 4 5 us M7 us 19, the teeth turn forwards, like N| \ D (i YY See NAO W ee iW” Sy those of a saw, as in Fig. 114. Wu \ ak | Vv or NI Dentate ; when they point es ‘ a ) » al outward, as in Fig. 115. \ OW y s Crenate ; when scalloped in- ale - ) \ i to broad and rounded teeth, as i 4 { \( ( Up iS in Fig. 116. 1 Spuuph ) Wavy (Repand or Undulate); i -! “alll Nt IN| Bi N when the margin bends slightly i) 7 Ml ; * a (7 in and out, as in Fig. 117. \ sil > & ; it Ny iia th NG Ve Stnuate ; 2 strongly wavy or, Serrate. Dentate. th Wavy. Sinuate. Incised or Jagged. sinuous, as in Fig. 118. Incised or Jagged ; cut into deep and irregular, ne teeth or incisions, as in Fig. 119. This leads to truly 139. Lobed or Cleft Leaves, &c.: those with the blade cut up, as it were, into parts, i. e. lobes or divisions. In a general way, such leaves are said to be lobed ; and the 50 . HOW PLANTS GROW. number of projecting parts, or lobes, may be expressed by saying two-lobed, three: lobed (Fig. 121), &c., according to their number. Or, more particularly, a leat’ is » Lobed ; when the pieces are roundish, or the incisions open or blunt, as in Fig. 120, 121; and Cleft; when cut about half-way down, with sharp and narrow incisions, as in Fig. 122, 123; and so two-cleft, three-cleft, five-cleft, &c., according to the number. ’ Parted ; when the cutting extends almost through, as in Fig. 124,125. And we say two-parted, three-parted, &c., to express the number of the parts. Divided ; when the divisions go through to the base of the leaf (as in Fig. 127), or to the midrib (as in Fig. 126), which cuts up the blade into separate pieces, or nearly so. Pinnately 121 Lobed. ei, a ‘einen, 140. As the cutting is always between the veins or ribs, and not across them, the arrangement of the lobes depends upon the kind of veining. Feather-veined leaves have the incisions all running in towards the midrib (as in the upper row of figures), because the principal veins all spring from the midrib; while radiate or palmately veined leaves have them all running towards the base of the blade, where the ribs all spring from the footstalk, as in the lower row of figures. So those of 3 KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 51 ‘ the upper row are called pinnately lobed, cleft, parted, or divided, as the case may be, and those of the lower row palmately lobed, cleft, &c. The number of the. lobes or pieces may also be expressed in the same phrase. Thus, Hepatica has a pal- mately three-lobed leaf (Fig. 121); the Red Maple a palmately five-cleft leaf (Fig. 84), and so on. 141. In this way almost everything about the shape and veining of a leaf may be told in very few words. How useful this is, will be seen when we come to study plants to find out their names by the descriptions. : 142. All these terms apply as well to the lobes or parts of a leaf, when they are themselves toothed, or lobed, or cleft, &c. And they also apply to the parts of the flower, and to any flat body like a leaf. So that the language of Botany, which the student has to learn, does not require so very many technical words as is commonly supposed. 143. Compound Leaves (121) are those which have the blade cut up into two or more separate smaller blades. The separate blades or pieces of a compound leaf are called Leaflets. The leaflets are generally jornted with the main footstalk, just as that is jointed : with the stem, and { when the leaf dies the leaflets fall off separately. i 144. There are two kinds of com- pound leaves, the pinnate and the palmate. 145. Pinnate leaves have their leaflets arranged along the sides of : the main foots talk, Odd-pinnate. Pinnate with a tendrit. Abruptly pinnate. as in Fig. 128, 129, 130. _146. Palmate (also called Digitate) leaves bear their leaflets all at the very end) of the footstalk; as in Fig. 181. hi 147. There are several varieties of pinnate leaves, The principal sorts are: —., ‘ i 52 HOW PLANTS GROW. « Tnterruptedly pinnate, when some of the leaflets of the same leaf are much smaller than the rest, and placed between them, as in the Water Avens. he .. Abruptly pinnate, when there is no odd leaflet ) at the end, as in Honey-Locust, Fig. 130. Odd-pinnate, when there is an odd leaflet at the end, as in the Common Locust (Fig. 16) and in the Ash. Pinnate with a tendril, when the footstalk is prolonged into a tendril, as in Fig. 129, and all af the Pea tribe. 148. Pinnate leaves may have many or few leaflets. The Bean has pinnate leaves of only BL. Pulmate leaf, of 5 leaflets. three leaflets. 149. Palmate leaves generally have few leaflets; there is not room for many on the very end of the footstalk. Common Clover has a palmate leaf of three leaflets (Fig. 136); Virginia Creeper, one of five leaflets (Fig. 72), as well as the Buckeye (Fig. 131) ; while the Horsechestnut has seven, and some Lupines from eleven to seventeen. 150. Twice or Thrice Compound Leaves are not uncommon, both of the pinnate and of | the palmate sorts. While some leaves of Honey-Locust are only once pinnate, as in Fig. 130, others are doubly or twice pinnate, as in Fig. 132. Those of many Acacias are thrice pinnate. Fig. 1383 represents one of the root-leaves of Meadow-Rue, which is of the palmate kind, and its general footstalk is divided into threes for four times in suc- cession, making in all eighty-one leaflets! When, a leaf is divided three or four times, it is said to be decompound. This is ter- nately decompound, because it divides each time into threes. 182. A twice-pinnate leaf of Honey-Locust. KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 53 151. Leaves without Distinction of Footstalk and Blade, or with no very: obvious distinction of parts. Of this kind, among several others, may be mentioned,— ere ae A Needle - shaped 7 ; y - a ¥ leaves, such as those of Pine-trees and Larches (Fig. 134). These are long, slender, and rigid, and often with little if any distine- tion of sides. + Awl-shaped or Subulate leaves are those which from a broadish base ta- per into a sharp and rigid point, like Ternately decompound, or four times compound leaf. one sort of those of the Red Cedar and Arbor Vite (Fig. 135, those on the larger branchlets). -Those on other branchlets, as at a, are shorter, blunt, and scale-shaped. » Dhread-shaped or Filiform ° leaves ; round and stalk-like, as those of the Onion. Equitant leaves, like those of Iris (Fig. 64), which are folded together lengthwise, as may be seen at the base, where they overr ide each other. They grow ss cilicsapdl leaves of Larch. signee et inane &e. upright, with their faces looking horizontally, instead of having an upper and a lower surface, as most leaves do... ..; 54 HOW PLANTS GROW. 152, Stipules, as already explained (120), are a pair of appendages at the base of the leaf, one on each side. These often grow fast to the base of the leatstalk, as they do in the Rose and in Clover (Fig. 136; st, the stipules). Or they may join with each other and form a kind of sheath round the stem, as they do in the Buttonwood and in Polygonum’ (Fig. 187). Many leaves have no stipules at all. In many cases they fall off very early, especially those that serve for bud-scales, as in Magnolia. 153. The Arrangement of Leaves on the stem has (59). Leaves are either Alternate, when they follow each other one by one, as in the Morning-Glory (Fig. 4) and the Linden (Fig. 83); or Opposite, when in pairs, that is, two on each joint of stem, one opposite the other, as in Maples (Fig. 84). To these may be added a third, but Jess common arrangement, viz. the Whorled ; where there are three, four, or more leaves on 137" Stipules united. the same joint of stem, forming Whorled leaves, a circle or whorl; as in Madder and Bedstraw (Fig. 137’). But this is only a variety of the opposite mode. Analysis of the Section. 81. Vegetation very simple.in plan, very diversified in particulars. 82. The study of the forms of the organs is Morphology. 83-89. Roots, their forms and kinds. 84. Primary or original; secondary;.how they originate, 85. Aerial roots. 86. Aerial rootlets. 87. Air-Plants; how they live. 88. Parasitic Plants, their economy. 89. Shapes of roots: fibrous; fleshy; the principal sorts. 90. Forms or kinds of stem; herbaceous, shrubby, arboreous. 91. Culm or straw-stem. 92. Direc- tions or positions of stems. 98. Peculiar sorts. 94. Thorns or Spines, how shown to be branches; already been explained as to the two principal ways — ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION. 55 Prickles. 95. Tendrils. 96. Peduncles or Flower-stalks. 97. Buds. 98. Branches connected with the ground. 99. Stolons. 100. Runners. 101. Suckers. 102. Offsets. 103. Rootstocks. 104. Fleshy Rootstocks. 105. Tubers. 106. Corms. 107. Bulbs; 108. scaly and coated. 109. Bulblets. 110. Internal Structure of Stems; Cellular Tissue; Wood. 111. The two classes of stems. 112. Ex- amples, both in herbs and trees. 118. Endogenous stem; how its wood is arranged. 114. External appearance and growth. 115. Exogenous stem; common wood. 116. How it increases in diameter year after year: Sap-wood and Heart-wood. 117. The latter dead, the former annually renewed. 118. External appearance and mode of growth. 119. Leaves ; their varieties, why useful to learn. 120. Their parts: Blade, Footstalk, Stipules. 121, Simple and Compound. 122. Structure and Veining of leaves: woody or fibrous part; cellular tissue or green pulp ; Epidermis or Skin. 123. Ribs. 124. Veins and Veinlets; Nerves, so called. 125. Two kinds of veining. 126. Netted-veined or Reticulated. 127. Class of plants that have this kind of veining. 128. Parallel-veined or Nerved; class of plants that have this kind of veining. 129. Both kinds of two sorts. 130. Feather-veined or Pinnately veined. 131. Radiate-veined or Pal- mately veined. 182 Shapes of leaves enumerated; as to general outline. 188. Those that taper downward. 184, 185. Intermediate shapes, how expressed. 186. Shapes depending upon the base. 187. Forms of apex. 138. As to margin or toothing, &c. 189. Lobing or division. 140. How this is related to the veining; how both the kindof lobing and the number of parts may be expressed, 141, so that a short phrase will describe the leaf completely. 142. All the various terms apply as well to other parts, as to calyx, corolla, petals, &c. 148. Compound Leaves ; Leaflets. 144. The two kinds. 145. Pinnate leaves. 146. Palmate or Digitate. 147. Varieties of pinnate leaves. 148. Number of leaflets. 149. Also of palmate leaves ; why their leaflets are generally fewer than those of pinnate leaves. 150, Twice or thrice compound and decompound leaves. 151. Leaves without distinction of blade and footstalk ; Needle-shaped ; Thread-shaped ; Awl- shaped; Equitant. 152. Stipules; often united with the footstalk, or with each other. : 183. The arrangement of leaves on the stem: the three modes, viz, alternate, opposite, whorled. CHAPTER II. HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED OR MULTIPLIED IN NUMBERS. Section I.— How Propagated from Buds. 154, Piants not only grow so as to increase in size or extent, but also multiply, or increase their numbers. This they do at such a rate that almost any species, if favorably situated, and not interfered with by other plants or by animals, would soon cover the whole face of a country adapted to its life. 155. Plants multiply in two distinct ways, namely, by Buds and by Seeds, All plants propagate by seeds, or by what answer to seeds. Besides this, a great number of plants, mostly perennials, propagate naturally from buds. 156. And almost any kind of plant may be made to propagate from buds, by taking sufficient pains. The gardener multiplies plants artificially in this way, 157. By Layers and Slips or Cuttings. In daying or layering, the gardener bends a branch down to the ground, —sometimes cutting a notch at the bend, or remov- ing a ring of bark, to make it strike root the quicker, — and covers it with earth; then, after it has rooted, he cuts off the connection with the parent stem. Thus he makes artificial stolons (99). Plants which strike root still more readily, such as Willows, he propagates by cuttings or slips, that is, by pieces of stem, containing one or more buds, thrust into the ground or into flower-pots. If kept moist and warm enough, they will generally strike root from the cut end in the ground, and develop a bud above, so forming a new plant out of a piece of an old one. Many woody plants, which will not so readily grow from slips, can often be multiplied 158. By Grafting or Budding. In grafting, the cutting is inserted into a stem or branch of another plant of the same species, or of some species like it, as of the Pear into the Quince or Apple; where it grows and forms a branch of the stock (as the stem used to graft on is called). The piece inserted is called a scion. In grafting shrubs and trees it is needful to make the inner bark and the edge of the wood of the scion correspond with these parts in the stock, when they will grow together, and become as completely united as a natural branch is with its parent stem. In budding or inoculating, a young bud, stripped from one fresh plant, is inserted under the bark of another, usually in summer; there it adheres and gen- a a ARE PROPAGATED. 57 erally remains quiet, as it would have done on the parent bough, until the next spring, when it grows just as if it belonged there. - 159. The object of all these ways of artificial propagation from buds is to pre- serve and to multiply choice varieties of a species which would not be perpetuated from seed. For as the fruit of all the natural branches is alike, so it remains essentially unaltered when borne by branches which are made to grow as artificial branches of’ another plant, or to take root in the ground as a separate plant. The seeds of an apple or other fruit cannot be depended upon to reproduce the very same sort of apple, — that is, an apple of the very same flavor or goodness. The seeds will always reproduce the same species, but not the individual peculiarities. These are perpetuated in propagation from buds. This kind of propagation is there- fore very important to the cultivator. It takes place naturally in many plants, 160. By Stolons, Offsets, Runners, or Suckers, in ways which have already been described (99 to 103, and Fig. 74). These are all forms of natural layering, and they must have taught the gardener his art in this respect. For he merely imitates Nature, or rather sets her at work and hastens her operations. Also, 161. By Tubers (74, 75, Fig. 59, 60). These are under-ground branches with lively buds, well charged with prepared nourishment, rendering them more inde- pendent and surer to grow. ‘Potatoes and Ground-Artichokes are familiar illus- trations of the kind. They are propagated year after year by their buds, or eyes, being very seldom raised from the seed. Each annual crop of tubers is set free at maturity, by the death of all the rest of the plant. 162. By Corms, Bulbs, and Bulblets; as explained in paragraphs 77 and 106 to 109. Fig. 76 shows a corm or solid bulb of Crocus, which itself grew by feeding upon its parent, whose exhausted remains are seen underneath: it has already pro- duced a crop of buds, to grow in their turn into another generation of corms, con- suming their parent in the process. Bulbs produce a crop of new bulbs from buds in the axils of some of their scales. Tulips, Daffodils, and Garlics propagate very freely in this manner, not only keeping up the succession of generations, but multi- plying greatly their numbers. Analysis of the Section. 154. Plants multiply as well as grow. 155. In ‘two ways; all plants by seeds, many by buds. 156. Most kinds may be propagated by buds artificially. 157. By Layers and Slips or Cuttings. 158. By -Grafting or Budding. 159. Object gained by this mode of propagation. 160. It takes place naturally, by Stolons, Offsets, &c. 161. By Tubers. 162. By Corms, Bulbs, and Bulblets. ! 58 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. Srcrion Il.— How Propagated by Seeds. '. 163. Propagation from buds is really only the division, as it grows, of one plant into two or more, or the separation of shoots from a stock. Propagation from seed is the only true reproduction. In the seed an entirely new individual is formed. So the Seed, and the Fruit, in which the seed is produced, and the Flower, which gives rise to the fruit, are the Organs of Reproduction (2). 164. Every species at some period or other produces seeds, or something which answers to seeds. Upon this distinction, namely, whether they bear true flowers producing genuine seeds, or produce something merely answering to flowers and seeds, is founded the grand division of all plants into two series or grades, that is, into PHayocamous or FLowerine Pxiants, and Cryprocamous or Fiow- ERLESS PLANTS. 165. Cryptogamous or Flowerless Plants do not bear real flowers, having stamens and pistils, nor produce real seeds, or bodies having an embryo ready formed in them. But they produce minute and very simple bodies which answer the purpose of seeds. To distinguish them from true seeds, they are called Spores. Ferns, Mosses, Lichens, and Seaweeds, are all flowerless plants, reproduced by spores. 166. Phenogamous or Flowering Plants are those which do bear flowers and seeds; the seed essentially consisting of an embryo or germ, ready formed within its coats, which has only to grow and unfold itself to become a plant; as has been fully explained in the first and second sections of Chapter I. 167. Flowerless plants have their organs too minute to be examined without much magnifying, and are too difficult for young beginners. The ordinary or Flowering class of plants will afford them abundant occupation. We are to study first the Flower, then the Fruit and Seed. Srcrion II. — Flowers. §1. Their Arrangement on the Stem. 168. Inflorescence is the term used by botanists for flower-clusters generally, or for the way blossoms are arranged on the stem. Everything about this is governed by a very simple rule, which is this : — 169. Flower-buds appear in the same places that common buds (that is, leaf- buds) do; and they blossom out in the order of their age, the earliest-formed first, FLOWERS: THEIR ARRANGEMENT ON THE STEM. 59 and so on in regular succession. Now the place for buds is in the axils of the leaves (axillary buds, 58), and at the end of the stem (terminal bud, 57) : so these are also the places from which flowers spring. Fig. 138 is a Trillium, with its flower terminal, that is, from the summit of the stem. Fig. 139 is a piece of Moneywort, with axillary flow- ers, i.e. from the axils of the leaves. The Morn- ing-Glory (Fig. 4) also has its flowers axillary. 170. Solitary Flowers. In both these cases the blossoms are solitary, that is, single. There is only: one on the plant in Trillium (Fig. 138). In Fig. 189, there is on- ly one from the same axil; and although, as the stem grows on, flowers appear in succession, they are so scattered, and so accom- panied by leaves, that they cannot be said to form a flower-cluster. 171. Flower-Clusters are formed whenever the blossoms are more numerous or closer, and the ac- companying leaves are less con- spicuous. Fig. 140 is a cluster (like that of Lily of the Valley, Fig. 8) of the kind called a Terminal Flower. raceme. On comparing it with Axillary Flowers. Fig. 189, we may perceive that it differs mainly in having the leaves, one under each blossom-stalk, reduced to little scales, which are inconspicuous. In both, the flowers really spring from the axils of leaves. So they do in all the following kinds of flower-clusters, until we reach the Cyme. 172. The leaves of a flower-cluster take the name of Bracts. These are gen- erally very different from the ordinary leaves of the plant, commonly much smaller, and often very small indeed, as in Fig. 140. In the figures 141 to 144, the bracts are larger, and more leaf-like. They are the leaves from whose axil the flower arises. Sometimes there are bracts also on the separate flower-stalks (as on the lower ones in Fig, 140): to distinguish these we call them Bractlets. 60 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 173. The flower-stalk or footstalk of a blossom is called a Pedunele (96). the flowers in Fig. 138, 139, &c. are peduncled or stalked. But in Fig. 141 they are sitting on the stem, or sessile. 174, In clusters we need to distinguish two kinds of flower-stalks ; namely, the stalk of the whole cluster, if there be any, and the stalk of each blossom. In such cases we call the stalk of the cluster the Pedunele, and the stalk of the individual flowers we name the Pedi- cel. In the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 3, as,in Fig. 140), there is the . peduncle or general flower-stalk (which is here a continuation of the main stem), and then the flowers all have pedicels of their own. | 175. Kinds of Flower-Clusters, Of those which bear their flowers on the sides of a main stalk, in the axils of leaves or bracts, the prin- cipal kinds are the Raceme, the Corymb, the Umbel, the Head, and the Spike with its varieties; also the Panicle. In the head and the spike the flowers are sessile. In the others they have pedicels or footstalks of their own. 176. A Raceme is a cluster with the blossoms arranged along the sides of a main flower-stalk, or its continuation, and all on pedicels of about the same length. A bunch of Currant-blossoms or berries, or the graceful cluster of the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 3,140) are good illustrations. Fig. 142 shows the plan of the raceme. Notice that a raceme always blossoms from the bottom to the top, in regular order; because the lower buds are of course the oldest. Spike. Raceme. Corymb. 177. A Corymb is a flat-topped or convex cluster, like that of Hawthorn. Fig. FLOWERS: THEIR ARRANGEMENT ON THE STEM. 61 143 shows the plan of it. It is plainly the same as a raceme with the lower pedicels much longer than the uppermost. Shorten the body, or axis, of a corymb so that it is hardly perceptible, and we change it into 178. An Umbel, as in Fig.144. This is a cluster in which the pedicels all spring from about the same level, like the rays or sticks of an umbrella, from which it takes its name. The Milkweed and Primrose bear their flowers in umbels. 179. The outer blossoms of a corymb or an umbel plainly answer to the lower blos- soms of a raceme. So the umbel and the corymb , blossom Catkin. from the circumference towards the centre, the outer flower-buds being the oldest. By that we may know such clusters from cymes. Hey. 180. A Head is a flower- cluster with a very short body, or axis, and without any pedi- cels to the blossoms, or hardly any, so that it has a rounded form. The Button-bush (Fig. 145), the Thistle, and the Red Clover are good examples. 181. It is plain that an umbel would be changed into a head by shortening its pedicels down to nothing; or, contrarily, that a head would become an umbel by giving stalks to its flowers. 182. A Spike is a lengthened flower-cluster, with no pedicels to the flowers, or hardly any. Fig. 141 gives the plan of a spike; and the common Mullein and the Plantain are good examples. A head would become a spike by lengthening its axis. A ra- ceme would become a spike by shortening its pedicels so much that they could hardly be seen. The Catkin and the Spadix are only sorts of spike. -183. A Catkin or Ament is a spike with scaly bracts. The flowers of the Wil- low, Poplar, Alder, and Birch (Fig. 146) are in catkins. 62 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 184, A Spadix is a spike with small flowers crowded on a thick and fleshy bpdy or axis. Sweet-Flag and Indian-Turnip are common examples. In Indian-Tur- nip (Fig. 147) the spadix bears flowers only near the bottom, but is naked and club-shaped above. And it is surrounded by a peculiar leaf or bract in the form of a hood. 185. Such a bract or leaf enwrapping a spike or cluster of blossoms is named a Spathe. 186. A set of bracts around a flower-cluster, such as those around the base of the umbel in Fig. 144, is called an Involucre. 187. Any of these clusters may be compound. ‘That is, there may be racemes clustered in racemes, making a compound raceme, or corymbs in corymbs, or umbels in umbels, making a compound umbel, as in Caraway (Fig. 148), Parsnip, Parsley, and all that family. The little umbels of a, compound umbel are called Umbel- lets ; and their involucre, if they have any, is called an Jnvolucel. 188. A Panicle is an irreg- ularly branching compound flower-cluster, such as would be formed by a raceme with its lower pedicels branched. Fig. 149 shows a simple panicle, the branches, or what would be the pedicels, a only once branched. bunch of Grapes and the flower-cluster of Horsechestnut aré more ’compound panicles. A crowded compound panicle of this sort has been called a Thyrse. ‘aa 189. A Cyme is the general name of flower-clusters of the Ramiele, kind in which a flower always terminates the stem or main peduncle, and each of M7 Spadix and Spathe. FLOWERS: THEIR PARTS. 63 its branches. The plan of a cyme is illustrated in the following figures. Fig. 150, to begin with, is a stem terminated by a flower, which plainly comes from a terminal bud or is a terminal flower. Fig. 151 is the same, which has started a branch from the axil of each of the uppermost leaves; each of these ends in a_ flower-bud. Fig. 152 is the same, with the side branches again branched in the same way, each branch ending in a flower-bud. This makes a cluster looking like a corymb, as shown in Fig. 143; but observe that here in the cyme the middle flower, a, which ends the main stem, blossoms first; next, those flowers marked 6; then those marked c, and so on, the centre one of each set being the earliest ; while in the corymb the blossoming begins with the outermost flowers and proceeds regu larly towards the centre. The Elder, the Cornel, and the Hydrangea (Fig. 169) have their blossoms in cymes many times branched in this way; that is, they have compound cymes. 190. A Faseicle is only a close or very much crowded cyme, with very short footstalks to the flowers, or none at all, as the flower-cluster of Sweet-Will'am. 151 Plan of the Cyme. § 2. Forms and Kinds of Flowers. 191. The Parts of a Flower were illustrated at the beginning of the book, in Chapter I., Section I. Let us glance at them again, taking a different flower for the example, namely, that of the Three-leaved Stonecrop. Although small, this has all the parts very distinct and regular. Fig. 153 is a moderately enlarged view of one of the middle or earliest flowers of this Stonecrop. (The others are like it, only with their parts in fours instead of fives.) And Fig.154 shows two parts of each sort, one on each side, more magnified, and separated from the end of the flower-stalk (or Receptaale), but standing in their natural position, namely, below or outside a Sepal, or leaf of the Calyx ; then a Petal, or leaf of the Corolla; then a Stamen ; then a Pystil. 5 64 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. ' 192. This is a complete and regular, yet simple flower; and will serve as a pat- tern, with which a areat variety of flowers may be compared. : 193. When we wish to designate the, leaves of the blossom by one word, we call them the Perianth. This name is formed of two Greck words meaning “around the flower.” It is convenient to use in cases where (as in the Lilies, illustrated on the first page) we are not sure at first view. whether the leaves of the flower are calyx or corolla, or both. Petal. Stamen. Pistil. Pistil. Stamen. Petal 194, A Petal is sometimes to be distin. guished into two parts; its Blade, like the blade of a leaf, and its Claw, which is a kind of tapering base or foot of the blade. More commonly there is only a blade; but the petals of Roses have a very short, nar- row base or claw; those of Mustard, a longer one ; those of Pinks and the like, a Sepal. 154 Sepal. narrow claw, which is generally longer than the blade (Fig. 808). 195. A Stamen, as we have already. learned (15, 17), generally consists of two. parts; its Filament and its Anther. But the filament is only a kind of footstalk, no more necessary to a stamen than a petiole is to a leaf. It is therefore sometimes very short or wanting; when the anther is sessile. The anther is the essential part. -Its use, as we know, is to produce pollen. ' 196. The Pollen is the. matter, looking like dust, which is shed from the anthers when they open (Fig. 159). Here is a grain of ‘pollen, a single particle of the fine powder shed by the anther of a Mallow, as seen highly magnified. In this plant the grains are beset -with bristly points ; in many plants they are smooth; and they differ _Pollen-grain. greatly in appearance, size, and shape in different species, but are all just alike in ‘the same species ; so that the family a plant belongs to can often be told by seeing only a grain of its pollen. The use of the pollen is to loflge on the stigma of the pistil, where it grows in a peculiar way, its inner coat projecting a slender thread FLOWERS: THEIR NATURE. 65 which sinks into the pistil, somewhat as a root grows down into the ground, and reaches an ovule in the ovary, causing it in some unknown way to develop ao embryo, and thereby become a seed. 197. As to the Pistil, we have also learned that it consists of three parts, the Ovary, the Style, and the Stigma (16); that the style is not always present, being only a stalk or support for the stigma. But the two other parts are essential, —the Stigma to receive the pollen, and the Ovary to contain the ovules, or bodies which are to become seeds. Fig. 156 represents a pistil of Stonecrop, magnified; its stigma (known by the naked roughish surface) at the tip of the style; the style gradually enlarging downwards into the ovary. Here the ovary is cut in two, to show some of the ovules inside. And Fig. 157 shows one of the ovules, or future seeds, still more magnified. 198. Nature of the Flower. In the mind of a botanist, who looks at the philosophy of the thing, A flower answers to a sort of branch. True, a flower does not bear much resemblance to a common branch; but we have seen (90-109) what remarkable forms and ap- : pearances branches, and the leaves they bear, occasionally ie6 take. Flowers come from buds just as branches do; and spring from just the same places that branches do (169). In fact, a flower-is a branch intended for a peculiar purpose. While a branch with ordinary leaves is intended for growing, and for collecting from the air and preparing or digesting food, —and while such peculiar branches as tubers, bulbs, &c. are for holding pre- pared food for future use,—a blossom is a very short and a special sort of branch, intended for the production of seed. If the whole flower answers to a branch, then it follows that (excepting the receptacle, which is a continuation of the flower-stalk) — The parts of the flower answer to leaves. This is plainly so with the sepals-and the petals, which are commonly called the leaves of the blossom. The sepals or calyx-leaves are commonly green and leaf-like, or partly so. And the petals or corolla-leaves are leaves in shape, only more delicate in texture and in color.. In many blossoms, and very plainly in a White Water-Lily, the calyx-leaves run inte Style. Ovary. iy! Pistil. Ovule. 66 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. corolla-leaves, and the inner corolla-leaves change gradually into stamens, — show: ing that even stamens answer to leaves. 198. How astamen answers to a leaf, according to the botanist’s idea, Fig. 158 is intended to show. ‘The filament or stalk of the stamen answers to ‘the footstalk of a leaf; and the anther answers to the blade. The lower part of the figure represents a short filament, bearing an anther which has its upper half cut away; and the summit of a leaf is placed above it. Fig. 159 is the whole stamen of a Lily put beside it for comparison. If the whole anther corre- sponds with the blade of a leaf, then its two cells, or halves, answer to the halves of the blade, one on each side of the midrib; the continuation of the filament, which con- nects the two cells (called the connective), answers to the midrib; and the anther generally opens along what answer to the margins of a leaf. 199. It is easy to see how a simple pistil answers to a leaf. A simple pistil, like one of those of the Stonecrop (Pig. 154, 156) is regarded by the botanist as if it were made by the folding up inwards of the blade of a leaf, eee (that is, of what would have been a leaf on any branch of the common kind,) so that the margins come together and join, making a hollow closed bag, which is the ovary; a tapering summit forms the style, and some part of the margins of the leaf in this, destitute of skin, becomes the stig- ma. To understand this better, compare Fig. 160, represent- ing a leaf rolled up in this way, with Fig. 156, and with Fig. 161, which are pistils, cut in two, that the interior of the ovary may be seen. It is here plain that the ovules or seeds are at- tached to what answers to the united margins of the leaf. The particular part or line, or whatever it may be, that the ovules y or seeds are attached to, is called the Placenta. bcs ule 200. Varieties or Sorts of Flowers, Now that we have learned ey abe how greatly roots, stems, and leaves vary in their forms and appearances, we should expect flowers to exhibit great variety in different species. In fact, each class and each family of plants has its flowers upon a plan of its own. But if students understand the general plan of flowers, as seen in the FLOWERS: THEIR FORMS AND KINDS. , 67 Morning-Glory, the Lily (Fig. 1-12), and the Stonecrop (191), they will soon learn to understand it in any or all of its diverse forms. The principal varieties or special forms that occur among common plants will be described under the families, in the Flora which makes the Second Part of this book. There stu- dents will learn them in the easiest way, as they happen to meet with them in collecting and analyzing plants. Here we will only notice the leading Kinds of Variation in flowers, at the same time explaining some of the terms which are’ used in describing them. 201. Flowers consist of sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils. There may be few or many of each of these in any particular flower; these parts may be all separate, as they are in the Stonecrop; or they may be grown together, in every degree and in every conceivable way; or any one or more of the parts may be left out, as it were,'or wanting altogether in a particular flower. And the parts of the same sort may be all alike, or some may be larger or smaller than the rest, or differently shaped. So that flowers may be classified into several sorts, of which the Noe are the principal. 202. A Complete Flower is one which has all the four parts, namely, calyx, corolla, stamens, and pis- tils. This is the case in all the flowers we have yet taken for examples; also in Trillium (Fig. 138, reduced in size, and here in Fig. 162, with the blossom of the size of life, and spread open flat). 203. A Perfect Flower is one which has both sta- mens and pistils. A complete flower is of course a perfect one; but many flowers are perfect and not complete ; as in Fig. 163, 164. 204. An Incomplete Flower is one which wants at least one of the four kinds of organs. This may happen in various ways. It may be Apetalous ; that is, having no petals. This is the case in Anemony (Fig. 163), and Marsh-Marigold. For these have only one row of flower-leaves, and that is a calyx. The petals which are here wanting appear 162 Complete flower of Trillium, 163 Incomplete fower of Anemony, a 68 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. ‘ in some flowers very much like these, as in Buttercups (Fig. 238) and Goldthread, ee the flower may be still more incomplete, and ' Naked, or Achlamydeous ; that is, without any flower-leaves at all, neither calyx nor corolla. ‘That is the case in the Lizard’s-Tail (Fig. 164), and in Willows. Or it may be incomplete by wanting either the stamens or the pistils; then it is 205. An Imperfect or Separated Flower. Of course, if the stamens are wanting in one kind of blos- som there must be others that have them. Plants with imperfect flowers accordingly bear two sorts of blossoms, namely, one sort Staminate or Sterile, those having stamens only, and therefore not producing seed; and the other : Pistillate ov Fertile, having a pistil but no good sta- mens, and ripening seed only when fertilized by pollen from the sterile flowers. The Oak and Chestnut, Hemp, Moonseed, and Indian Corn are so. Fig. 165 is one of the staminate or sterile flowers of Indian Corn; these form the “tassel” at the top of the stem: their pollen falls upon the “silk,” or styles, of the forming ear below, consisting of rows of pistillate flowers. Fig. 166 is one of these, with its very long style. The two kinds of flowers in this case are Monecious ; that is, both borne by the same individ- ual plant; as they are also in the Oak, Chestnut, Birch, &c. In other cases Diectous ; that is, when one tree or herb bears flowers with stamens only, and another flowers with pistils only ; as in Willows and a Poplars, Hemp, and Moonseed. Fig. 167 is Moonseed Flowers. a, staminate flower from one plant of Moon- seed, magnified; and Fig. 168, a pistillate flower, borne by a plant from a different root. There is a third way: some plants produce what are called . Polygamous flowers, that is, having some blossoms with pistils only or with 164 Flower of Lizard’s-Tail. Indian Corn. FLOWERS: THEIR FORMS AND KINDS. G9 stamens only, and others perfect, having both stamens and pistils, either on the same or on different individuals. The Red Maple is a very good case of this kind; the . two or three sorts of flowers look- ing very differ- ently when they appear in early spring; those of one tree having long red stamens and no good pis- til, those of other trees having con-- spicuous _pistils, in some blossoms with no good sta- Hydrangea, mens at all, in others with short ones. There are also what are called abortive or 206. Neutral Flowers; having neither stamens nor pistils, and so good for nothing except for show. In the Snowball of the gardens and in richly cultivated Hydran- geas all the blossoms are neutral, and no fruit is formed. : Even in the wild state of these shrubs, some of the blossoms around the margin of the cluster are neu- tral (as in the Wild Hydrangea, Fig. 169), consisting only of three or four flower-leaves, very much larger than the small perfect flowers which make up the rest of the cluster. Also what the gardener calls Double Flowers, when full, are neutral, as in double Roses and Buttercups. These are blossoms which by cultivation have all their stamens and pistils changed into petals. ‘ 207. A Symmetrical Flower is one which has an equal 170 number of parts of each kind or in each set or row. Fis: This is so in the Stonecrop (Fig. 153), which has five sepals in the calyx, five petals in the corolla, ten stamens (that is, two sets of stamens of five each), and five pistils. Or often it has flowers with four sepals, and then there are only four an 70 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. petals, eight stamens (twice four), and four pistils. So the. flower of Trillium (Fig, 162) is symmetrical; for it consists of three sepals, three petals, six stamens (oné before each sepal and one before each petal), and a pistil plainly composed of three put together, having three styles or stigmas. Flax affords an- other good illustration of symmetrical flowers (Fig. 170): it has a calyx of five sepals, a corolla of five petals, five stamens, and five styles. In such flowers, and in blossoms generally, the parts alter- nate with each other; that is, the petals stand be- fore the intervals between the sepals, the stamens, when of the same number, before the intervals be- tween the petals, and so on. 208. An Unsymmetrical Flower is one in which the different organs or sets do not match in the number of their parts. The flower of Anemony, Fig. 163, is unsymmetrical, having many more stamens and pistils than it has calyx-leaves. And the blossom of Larkspur (Fig. 171) is unsym- metrical, because, while TAPE: it has five sepals or leaves in the calyx, there are only four petals or co- rolla-leaves, but a great many stamens, and only one, two, or three pistils. The sepals and petals are dis- played separately in Fig. 172; the five pieces marked 174 s are the sepals; ‘the four marked p are the petals. Violet. 209. A Regular Flower is one in which the parts of each sort are all of the same shape and size. The flowers in Flax (Fig. 170) and in all the examples pre- ceding it are regular. While in Larkspur and Monkshood we have not only an unsymmetrical, but FLOWERS: THEIR FORMS AND KINDS. 71 210. An Irregular Flower; that is, one in which all the parts of the same sort are not alike. For in the Larkspur-blossom one of the sepals bears a long hollow spur or tail behind, which the four others have not; and the four small petals are of two sorts. The Violet-blossom (Fig. 173) and the Pea-blossom (Fig. 851) are symmetrical (except as to the pistil), but irregular. Fig. 174 shows the calyx and the corolla of the Violet above it displayed ; s, the five sepals; p, the five petals. One of the latter differs from the rest, having a sac or spur at the base, which makes the blossom irregular. So far, most of the examples in this section are from 211. Flowers with the parts all distinct, that is, of separate pieces ;— the calyx of distinct sepals, the corolla of distinct petals (i. e. Polypetalous), the stamens dis- tinct (separate, &c.), and all the parts growing in regular order out of the receptacle, in other words, ‘nserted on the receptacle. These are the simplest or most natural flowers, the parts answering to so many leaves on a short branch. But as in Honeysuckles (Fig. 389) the leaves of the same pair are often found grown together into one, so in blossom-leaves, there are plenty of 212. Flowers with their parts united or grown together. The flower of Morning- Glory (Fig. 4) is a good example. Here is the ca- lyx of five separate leaves or sepals (Fig. 176); but in the corolla (Fig. 175) the five petals are com- pletely united into a cup, just as the upper leaves of Honeysuckles are into a round plate; Then, in Stramonium (Fig. 177), the five sepals also are E united or grown together 170 17 almost to their tips into a Moming:G ory Stramoninm: cup or tube; and so are the five petals likewise, but not quite to their tips; and the five teeth or lobes (both of the calyx and of the corolla) plainly show how many leaves there really are in each set. When this is so in the corolla, it forms what is called a 1% 72 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED, 213. Monopetalous corolla; i.e. a corolla of one piece. It is so called, whether it makes a cup or tube with the border entire, as in Morning-Glory (Fig. 175), or with the border lobed, that is, the tips of the petals separate, as in Stramonium (Fig. 177), or even if the petals are united only at the bottom, as in the Potato- blossom (Fig. 182). The same may be said of a calyx when the sepals are united into a cup, only this is called Monosepalous. A mo- nopetalous corolla (and so of a calyx) is generally distinguishable into two parts, namely, its Zube or narrow part below, and its Border or Limb, the spreading part above. It is regudar when all sides and lobes of it are alike, as in Pig. 175, 177, &c. It is irregular when the sides or parts are different or unequal in size or shape, as in Sage, Dead- NetiJe (Fig. 181), the common Honeysuckle, &c. It is 178, Trumpet- Tubular, when long and narrow without a conspicuous border, as Hevesi in Pip. 178, or Trumpet-shaped ; tubular, gradually enlarging upwards, as in Trumpet-Creeper and Trumpet-Honeysuckle (Fig. 178) ; Funnel-shaped or Funnel-form (like a funnel or tunnel); when the tube opens gradually into a spreading border, as in Morning-Glory (Fig. 175) and Stramoni- um (Fig. 177) ; Bell-shaped or Campanulate ; when the tube is wide for its length and the border a little spreading, like a bell, as in Hare- bell (Fig. 179). Salver-shaped ; when a slender tube spreads suddenly into a flat border, as in Phlox (Fig. 180). Wheel-shaped or Rotate ; same as salver-shaped, with the tube very short or none, as in the corolla of the Potato (Fig. 182) and the Nightshade (Fig. 183). . Labiate or Two-lipped; when the border di- vides into two parts, or ips, an upper and a lower (sometimes likened to those of an animal with gaping mouth), as in Sage, Dead-Nettle (Fig. ‘181, and the like. This is one of the irregular forms of monopetalous corolla, and the commonest. \ 179 FLOWERS: THEIR FORMS AND KINDS. 73 214. Stamens united are also common. They may be united by their filaments or by their anthers. In the Cardinal-flower (Fig. 184), and other Lobelias, both the anthers (a) and the filaments (/') are united into a tube. So also in the Pumpkin and Squash. Botanists use the following terms to express the different ways in which stamens may be connected. They are Syngenestous, when the anthers are united into a ring or tube, as in Lobelia (Fig. 184 a), and in the Sun- flower, and all that family. Monadelphous (i.e. in one brotherhood), when the filaments are united all into one set or tube, as in Lobelia (Fig. 184 f), and the Mallow Family (Fig. 185); also in Passion-flowers and Lupines (Fig. 187). 184. Lobelia. Diadelphous (in two brotherhoods), when the filaments are united in two sets. Fig. 186 shows this in the Pea, and the like, where nine stamens are combined in one set and one stamen is left for the other. Triadelphous (in three’ brotherhoods), when the filaments are united or collected in three sets, as in the Common St. John’s-wort or Hy- pericum (Fig. 297); and Polyadelphous (in many brotherhoods), when combined in more than three sets, as in some St. John’s-worts. 215. Pistils united are very common. Two, three, four, or more grow together at the time of their formation, and make a Compound Pistil. Indeed, wherever there is a single pistil to a flower, it is much oftener a compound pistil than a simple one. But, of course, when the pistils of a flower are more than one, they are all simple. Pistils may be united in every degree, and by their ovaries only, by their ‘in Styles only (as they are slightly in Prickly-Ash), or even by their stigmas only (as in Milkweeds), or by all three. But more commonly the ovaries are united into one Compound Ovary, while the styles or stigmas are partly separate or distinct. Three degrees of union are shown in these figures. Fig. 188, two pistils of a Saxi- frage, their ovaries united only part way up (cut across both above and below): 74 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. ' Fig. 189, pistil of Common St. John’s-wort, plainly composed of three simple ones, with their ovaries completely united, while their slender ‘styles are separate. Fig. 190, same of Shrubby St. John’s-wort, like the last, but with the three styles also grown together into one, the little stigmas only sepa- rate; but as it gets older this style generally splits down into three, and when the pod is ripe it also splits into three, plainly showing that this compound pistil consists of three united into one. On turning now to Fig. 8 and Fig. 10 to 12 on the same page, it will be seen that the pistil in Morning-Glory and,in Lily is a compound one, made of three united even to their stigmas. This is shown externally, by the stigma being some- what three-lobed in both. And it becomes perfectly evident on cutting the ovary in two, bringing to view the three cells (Fig. 12, as in Fig. 189, 190), each an- swering to one ‘simple ovary. 216. So compound ovaries generally have as many cells as there are simple pistils or pistil-leaves in their composition; and have the placentas (199) bearing the seeds all joined in the centre : that is, the placentas or compound placenta in the axis. But sometimes the partitions or divisions between the cells vanish, as in Pinks: then the compound pistil is only one-celled. And sometimes there never were any partitions; but the pistil was formed of two, three, or more open pistil-leaves grown together from the first by their edges, just as petals join to make a monopetalous corolla. Then the ovules or seeds, or the placentas that bear them, are parietal, that is, are borne on the parietes or wall of the ovary. Fig. 191 189 190 Compound Piatils of two and three cells. 3 J I9t is the lower part of a compound ovary, with three pa- one-etled compound ovary, with placentas ‘tal, parietal rietal placentas or seed-bearing lines; and Fig. 192 is ’ a diagram, to explain how such a pistil is supposed to be made of three leaves united by their edges, and these edges bearing the ovules or seeds. FLOWERS: THEIR FORMS AND KINDS. v6) 217. Flowers with one set of Organs united with another, The natural way is, for all the parts to stand on the receptacle or end of the flower-stalk, — the stem-part. of the blossom (191). Then the parts are said to be free, or to be inserted on the receptacle. So it is in the Buttercup, Lily, Trillium (Fig. 162), Flax,&c. But in many flowers one set of organs grows fast to an- other set, or, as we say, is inserted on it. For instance, we may have the Petals and Stamens inserted on the Calyx, as in the Cherry and all the Rose family. Fig. 193 is a flower of a Cherry, cut through the . 193 Half of a Cherry-bloasom. middle lengthwise, to show the petals and stamens growing on the tube or cup 194 of the calyx. The meaning of it is that all these parts have grown together from their earliest formation. Next we may have the Calyx cohering or grown fast to the Ovary, or at least its cup or lower part grown to the ovary, and forming a part of the thickness of its walls, as in the Currant and Gooseberry, the Apple and Hawthorn. Fig. 194 is a flower of Hawthorn cut through Helot a-Haw hem -plossom: lengthwise to show this. In such cases all other parts of the blossom appear to grow on the ovary. So the ovary is said to be inferior, or, which is the same thing, the calyx (i.e. its lobes or border) and the rest of the blossom, superior. Or else we say “calyx coherent with the ovary,’ which is best, because it explains the thing. Stamens inserted on the Corolla. The stamens and the corolla generally go to- gether. And when the corolla is of one piece (i. e. monopetalous, 213), the stamens ‘almost always adhere to it within, more or less; that is, are borne or “inserted on the 195. Morning-Glory. ‘76 t HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. corolla,” Fig. 195 is the corolla of Morning-Glory laid open, to show the stamens inserted on it, i.e. grown fast to it, towards the bottom. We may even have the Stamens inserted on the Style, that is, united with it even up to the stigma. It is so in the Orchis family. 218. Gymnospermous or Open and Naked-seeded Pistils. This is the very peculiar pistil which belongs to Pines, Spruces, Cedars, and all that family of plants; and it is the simplest of all. For here the pistil is an open leaf’ or scale, bearing two or three ovules on its upper or inner gurface. Each scale of a Pine-cone is an open pistil, and the ovules, instead of being enclosed in an ovary which forms a pod, are naked, and exposed to the pollen shed by the stamen-bearing flowers, which falls directly upon them. Fig. 196 is a view of the upper side of an open pistil or scale from a forming Larch-cone, at flowering-time, showing the two ovules borne on the face of it, one on each side near the bottom. Fig. 197 197 is the same grown larger, the ovules becoming seeds. When ripe and dry, the scales turn back, and the naked seeds peel off and fall away. 219. Plants which have such open scales for pistils accordingly take the name of Gymnospermous or Waked-seeded. The Pine family is the principal example of the kind (see p. 201). All other Flowering plants are ANGIOSPERMOUS, that is, h¥ive their ovules and seeds produced in a seed-vessel of some sort. Analysis of the Section. Y 168. Arrangement of Flowers, or Inflorescence. 169. Situation of Flower-buds : terminal and axil- lary. 170. Solitary flowers. 171. Flower-clusters. 172. Bracts and Bractlets. 178, 174. Flower- stalks: Peduncle and Pedicels. 175. Kinds of flower-clusters. 176. Raceme; order of opening of the blossoms. 177. Corymb. 178. Umbel. 179. Comparison with Raceme, &c. 180. Head. 181. Com- parison with the Umbel, and, 182. the Spike. 183. Catkin or Ament. 184. Spadix. 185. Its Spathe. ‘186. Involucre. 187. Compound Clusters: Umbellets; Involucel. 188. Panicle; Thyrse. 189. Cyme. “190. Fascicle. : 191. Flowers: their parts illustrated by the Stonecrop: 192. A pattern flower. 193. Leaves of flower or Perianth. 194. Petal; its Blade and Claw. 195. Stamen; its parts. 196. Pollen; its structure and use. 197. Pistil ; its parts. 198. Nature of the flower; its parts answer to leaves. 198°. How a stamen answers toa leaf. 199. How a pistil answers toa leaf: Placenta. 200. Sorts of Flowers: one general plan: 201. Varied in several ways. 202. Complete flower. 203. Perfect flower. 204. Incomplete flower: apetalous; naked. 205. Imperfect or separated flowers: staminate or sterile ; pistillate or fertile; moncecious, dioecious, or polygamous. 206. Neutral flowers. FRUIT. 77 J 207. Symmetrical flowers. 208. Unsymmetrical flowers. 209. Regular flowers. 210. Irregular ‘flowers. : 211. Flowers with the parts distinct. 212. With their parts grown together. 218. Monopetalous corolla, &c.: its varieties in form. 214. Stamens united ; syngenesious, monadelphous, diadelphous, triadelphous, and polyadelphous. 215. Pistils united into a Compound Pistil: illustrations. 216. Those with two or more cells and placentas in the centre; of one cell with placentas parietal or on the walls. 217. Flowers with one set of organs united with another; as petals and stamens with the calyx; the tube or cup of the calyx with the ovary; stamens with the corolla; or with the style. 218. Gymnospermous or Naked-seeded Pistil of Pines, &c. 219. Division of plants on this account. * Sxction IV. — Fruit and Seed. § 1. Seed- Vessels. 220. ArTeR the flower comes the Fruit. The ovary of the flower becomes the Seed-vessel (or Pericarp) in the fruit. The ovules are now seeds. 221. A Simple Fruit is a seed-vessel formed by the ripening of one pistil (with whatever may have grown fast to it in the flower, such as the tube of the calyx in many cases, 217). Simple fruits may be most conveniently classified into Pleshy Fruits, Stone Fruits, and Dry Fruits. 222. The principal sorts of fleshy fruits are the Berry, the Pepo, and the Pome. 223. A Berry is fleshy or pulpy throughout. Grapes, tomatoes, gooseberries, currants, and cranberries are good ex- amples. (Fig. 198 shows a cranberry cut in two.) Oranges and lemons are only a kind of berry with a thicker and leath- ery rind. 224. The Pepo or Gourd Fruit (such as a squash, melon, cu- LS an ery cumber, and bottle-gourd, Fig. 199) is only a sort of berry with a harder rind. 225. A Pome or Apple-Fruit is the well-known fruit of the Apple, Pear, Quince, and Hawthorn. It comes from a compound pistil with a coherent calyx-tube (that is, from such a flower as Fig. 194), and this calyx, 199. Pepo, 5 78 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. growing very thick and fleshy, makes the whole eatable part or flesh of the fruit in the haw and the quince. The real seed-vessels in the quince (Fig. 201), apple (Fig. 200), and the like, consist of the five thin, parchment- like cells of the core, containing the seeds. In the quince, all the flesh is calyx. But in the pear and apple the flesh of the core, viz. all inside of the circle of greenish dots which are seen on cut- ting the apple across (Fig. 200), belongs to the receptacle of thé flower, which here rises so as to surround the real seed-vessels. Cutting the apple lengthwise, these dots come to view as slender greenish lines, separating what belongs to the core from what be- longs to the calyx: they are the vessels which in the blossom belong to the petals and the stamens above. In the haw, the cells become thick and stony, and so form a kind of 226. Stone-Fruit or Drupe, Plums, cherries, and peaches (Fig. 202) are the commonest and best examples of the stone-fruit. It is a fruit in which the outer part becomes fleshy or pulpy, like a berry, while the inner part becomes hard or stony, like a nut. So the Stone (or Putamen, as the botanist terms it) does not belong to the seed, but to the fruit. It has the seed in it, with coats of its own. 227. Dry Fruits are those that ripen without flesh or pulp. They are either dehiscent or indehiscent. Dehis- cent seed-vessels are those which split or burst open, in some regular way, to discharge the seeds. Indehiscent 202 Diupe. seed-vessels are those that remain closed, retaining the seed until they grow, or fruits are of course indehiscent. the Key. until the seed-vessel decays. All stone fruits and fleshy 228. The sorts of indehiscent dry fruits that we need to distinguish are the Akene, the Grain, the Nut, and 229. The Akene includes all dry, one-seeded, closed, Aken: small fruits, such as are generally mistaken for naked seeds ; such, for instance, as the little seed-like fruits of Buttercups. (Fig, 203 is one of these, whole, a good deal enlarged; Fig. 204, one with part of the wall cut away.) FRUIT. . 79 That they are not seeds is plain from the way they are produced, and from their bearing a style or stigma, at least when young. They are evidently pistils ripened ; and on cutting them open, the seed is found whole within (Fig. 204). 230. A Grain (or Caryopsis) is the same as an akene, except that the thin seed- vessel adheres firmly to the whole surface of the seed. Indian corn, wheat, rye, and all such kinds of grain are examples. -231. A Nut is a hard-shelled, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, like an akene, but on a larger scale. Beechnuts, chestnuts, and acorns (Fig. 205) are familiar examples. In all these. the nut is surrounded by a kind of involucre, called a Cupule or Cup, which, however, is no part of the fruit. In the Oak, the cupule is a scaly cup; in the Beech and Chestnut, it is a kind of bur; in the Hazel, it is a leaf-like cup or covering; in Hop.Hornbeam, it is a thin and closed bag. The fruit of the Walnut, Butternut, and the like, is between a drupe and a nut, having a fleshy outer layer. 232. A Key or Key-Fruit (called by botanists a Samara) is like an akene or nut, or any other indehiscent, ong-seeded fruit, only it is winged. The fruits of the Ash (Fig. 206) and of the Elm (Fig. 207) are of this kind. That of the Maple consists of two keys partly joined at the base, both from one flower (Fig. 208). 233. Dehiscent Fruits, or dry fruits which split or burst open in some regular way, take the general name of 234. Pods, These generally split lengthwise when ripe and dry. Pods formed of a simple pistil mostly open down their inner edge, namely, that which answers to the united mar- gins of the pistil-leaf. Compare Fig. 160 with Fig. 209: the latter is the simple pod of a Marsh- Marigold open after ripening, and the seeds fallen, so becoming a leaf again, as it were. Some such * pods also split down the back as Rey. Pair of Keys. well as down the inner side; that is, along what answers to the midrib of the leaf; as do pea-pods (Fig. 211). 6 Nat and Cupule, Opened Follicle. 80 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 1 235. A Follicle is such a simple pod which opens.down one side only. The pods of Peony, Columbine, and Marsh-Marigold (Fig. 210) are follicles. 5 236. A Legume is a pod of a simple pistil, which splits into two pieces. It is the fruit of the Pea or Pulse family. Fig. 211 is a legume of the Pea, open, separated into its two valves. 237. A Capsnle is the pod of any compound pistil. v When capsules open regularly, they either split through Follicle. the partitions, or where these would be, as in the pod of St. John’s- wort (Fig. 212); this divides. them into so many follicles, as it were, ‘ which open down the inner edge: or else they split open ¢nto the back of the cells, as in the pods of the Lily, the Iris (Fig. 213), &e. : AN an 238. The pieces into which a pod splits are called 2 ica its Valves. So a follicle (Fig. 210) is le one-valved ; a legume (Fig. 211), two-valved ; the cap- sules in Fig. 212 and 213, both three-valvgd, &e. 239. Two or three forms of capsule have peculiar names. The principal sorts are the Stlique, the Stlicle, and the Pyzis. 240. A Silique (Fig. 214) is the pod of the Cress , family. It is slender,.and splits into two valves or pieces, leaving behind a partition in a frame which bears the seeds. 212 241. A Silicle or Pouch is only a silique Capsules, opening. not much longer than broad. Fig, 215 is the silicle of és Shepherd’s Purse; Fig. 216, the same with one valve fallen. 242. A Pyxis is a pod which opens crosswise, the top separating as a lid. Fig. 217 shows it in the Common Purslane; the lid falling off. 215 sataes - Siliele. 243. There remain a few sorts of fruits which are more or less compound or complex. They may be str Pysis. classed under the heads of Aggregated, Accessory, and Multiple fruits. i! FRUIT, 81 244, Aggregated Fruits are close clusters of simple fruits all of the same flower. The raspberry and the blackberry are good examples. In these, each grain is a drupelet or stone-fruit, like a cherry or peach on a very small scale. 245. Accessory Fruits are those in which the flesh or conspicuous part belongs to some accessory (i. e. added or altered) part, separate from the seed-vessel. So that what we eat as the fruit is not the fruit at all in a strict botanical sense, but a calyx, receptacle, or something else which surrounds or accompanies it. Our common checkerberry is a simple illustration. Here the so-called berry is a free or separate calyx, which after flowering be- comes thick and fleshy, and encloses the true seed- vessel, as a small pod within. Fig. 218 shows the young pod, partly covered by the loose calyx. Fig. 219 is the ripe checkerberry, cut through the middle lengthwise, the calyx now thick, juicy, and eatable, and enlarged so as to enclose the small, dry pod. 246. A Rose-hip (Fig. 220) is a kind of accessory fruit, looking like a pear or a haw. But it consists of the tube of the calyx, lined by a hollow receptacle, which bears the real fruits, or seed-vessels, in the form of bony akenes. Fig. 221, a rose-hip when in flower, cut through length- wise, shows the whole plan of it: the pistils are seen attached to the sides of the urn-shaped receptacle, “and their styles, tipped with the stigmas, project a little from the cavity, near the stamens, which are borne on 221 the rim of the deep cup. 247. A Strawberry is an ac- cessory fruit of a different shape. Fig. 222 is a forming one, _ at flowering time, divided lengthwise: below is a part of the’ calyx ; above this, a large oval or conical receptacle, its whole surface covered with little pistils. In ripening this grows. vastly larger, and becomes juicy and delicious. So that, in fact, what is called a berry is only the receptacle of the flower, or the end of the flower-stalk, grown very large and juicy, and not a seed-vessel at all, but bearing plenty of one-seeded dry seed-vessels (akenes, 229), so small that'they are mistaken for seeds. 218 Rose-hip. 222, Young Strawherry. 82 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 248. Multiple Fruits are masses of simple or accessory fruits belonging to differ- ent flowers, all compacted together. Mulberries (Fig. 223) are of this sort. They look like blackberries, but each grain belongs to a separate flower ; and the eatable pulp is not even the seed-vessel of that, but is a loose calyx grown pulpy, just like that of Checker- berry, and surrounding an akene, which is generally taken for a seed. The pine-apple is much like a mulberry on a large scale. A fig is a multiple fruit, being a hollow flower-stalk grown pulpy : the inside lined by a great number of minute flowers. 249. So, under the name of fruit very different things are eaten. In figs it is a-hollow flower-stalk ; in pine-apples and mulberries, clusters of flower-leaves, as well as the stalk they cover; in straw- berries, the receptacle of a flower; in blackberries, the same, though smaller, and a cluster of little stone-fruits that cover it; in raspberries, the little stone-fruits in a ¢luster, without the receptacle. In checkerberries, quinces, and (as to all but the core) apples and pears, we eat a fleshy enlarged calyx; in peaches and other stone-fruits, the outer part of a seed-vessel; in grapes, gooseberries, blueberries, and cranberries, the whole ( seed-vessel, grown rich and pulpy. \ 250. The Cone of Pine (Fig. 224) and the like is a sort of multiple fruit. Each rs scale is a whole pistillate flower, con- ae sisting of an open pistil leaf, ripened, and icine bearing on its upper face one or two naked seeds, —as explained at the end of the last section (218, 219). Fig. 225 shows the upper side of one of the thick scales taken off, bearing one seed ;.the other, removed, is shown, with its wing, in Fig. 226. Mulberry. « 225 226 § 2. Seeds. 252. A Seed is an ovule fertilized and matured, and with a germ or embryo formed i in it. 253. In the account of the growth of plants from the seed, at the beginning of the book (Chapter I. Section. I.), seeds have already been considered sufficiently SEEDS. 83 for our purpose. As the pupil advances farther in his botanical studies, he will learn much more about them, as well as about fruits and flowers, in the Lessons in Botany, and other works. 254, A seed consists of its Coats and its Kernel. Besides the true seed-coats, which are those of the ovule, an outer loose covering, generally an imperfect one, is occasionally superadded while the seed is growing. This is called an Ari. Mace is the aril of the-nutmeg.. The scarlet pulpy covering of the seeds of the Strawberry-tree and the Staff-tree or Waxwork is also an aril. 255. The Seed-Coats are commonly two, an outer and an inner; the latter gen- erally thin and delicate. The outer coat is sometimes close and even, and fitted to the kernel, as in Morning-Glory (Fig. 227) ; some- times it is furnished with a tuft of long hairs, as in Milkweed (Fig. 229), or else is covered with long woolly hairs, as in the Cotton-plant, where they form that most useful material, Cotton-wool. In some cases the outer coat is extended into a thin border or wing, as in the Trumpet-Creeper (Fig. 228). Catalpa-seeds have a fringe-like wing or tuft at each end. The seeds of Pines are winged at one end (Fig. 226). All these tufts and wings are contrivances for rendering such seeds buoyant, so that, when shed, they may be dispersed by the wind. Thistle-down, and the like, is a similar con- trivance on the fruit or akene. 256. The seed is often supported by a stalk of its own, the Seed-stalk. Where the seed separates, it leaves a mark, called the Scar or Hilum. This is conspicu- ous in a bean and a pea, and is remarkably large in a horsechestnut. 257. The Kernel is the whole body of the seed within the coats. It consists of the Embryo, and of the Albumen, when there is any. 258. The Albumen is a stock of prepared food, for the sabe to live upon at the outset, in those cases where it has not a similar supply laid up in its cotyledons (32 —- 35, 45). In Fig. 17, 44, and 49, the seeds have albumen. In Fig. 25, 32, 40, and 42, they have none, but the whole kernel consists of 259. The Embryo, or rudimentary plantlet in miniature, the body in the sced which grows. ‘Jo this the seed, the fruit, and the blossom are all subservient. The albumen of the seed, when there is any, is intended to nourish the embryo when it 84 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. grows, until it can provide for itself; the seed-coats to protect it, especially after it is shed; the seed-vessel, to protect it and to nourish it while forming ; the stamens and pistil, to originate it. 260. The embryo consists of its Radicle or original stemlet, from one end of which the root starts, from the other the stem is continued; also of one or more Cotyledons or Seed-leaves, and often of a Plumule or bud for continuing the stem upwards. How the embryo grows into a plant, was fully explained at the com- mencement of this book. 2 Analysis of the Section. §1. Taste or Kinps or Fruit. Paragr. (1. Srmpie: seed-vessels of one pistil, . a : - 221 2. AGGREGATED: clusters of seed-vessels all of hes: same lower: 5 244 Fruitsare .- 8. Accessory: the flesh, &c. external to and separate from the pistil, 245-247 4. MuLtIPLE: composed of the simple or accessory fruits of more than one flower, . . . ‘ . ; ; ei - 248 BERRY, 223 ( Fleshy Fruits (222), such as the PEPo, 224 - PomE, 225 ; Stone-Fruits, or the . : Looe ‘ es Drurg, 226 Simple Fruits are : nae pe Indehiscent, 228, Nor, 231 Key, 232 Dry Fruits, 227, ( Of a Simple FOLLICLE,235 Pistil, Lecumx, 236 ( CAPSULE, 237 ofa Compound } SitiquE, 240 Pistil, SILICLE, 241 [Pyxis, 242 Dehiscent, or Pods, 238, Angiospermous, or closed, 219, 248. Itiple Fruits Malaple emits bre Gymnospermous, or naked-seeded, 218,219, . . . . ConE, 250 _ §2.- Sezeps.— 252. What a seed is. 253. Its nature already considered. 254. Its parts; Aril occasionally. met with. 255. Its coats, and the appendages, wings, &c. 256. Seed-stalk, and scar. “257. Kernel. 258. Albumen, sometimes present; its office. 259. Embryo, to which all the other parts of the seed, the fruit, and the flower are subservient. 260. Parts of the Embryo: Radicle, or Stem- let; Cotyledons, or Seed-leaves; Plumule, or Bud. , CHAPTER. ILI, WHY PLANTS GROW, WHAT THEY ARE MADE FOR, AND WHAT THEY DO. 261. We have now become acquainted with all the organs of plants, both those concerned in their life and growth, or vegetation, and those concerned in multiplying their numbers, that is, in reproduction. The first being the root, stem, and leaves ; the second, the flowers (essentially the stamens and pistils), with their result, fruit and seed. We have learned, also, how plants grow from the seed, produce part after part, branch after branch, and leaf after leaf, and at length blossom and go to seed. We see that plants, with their organs, that is, instruments, are a kind of liv- ing machines at work ; and it is now time to ask, How they operate, What they bring to pass, and What ts the object or the result of their doings. Such questions as these, young people, with their curiosity awakened, would be likely to ask, and’ they ought to be answered. ‘To understand these things completely, one must know something of chemistry and vegetable anatomy,* — which we do not propose here to teach. But a general account of the matter may be given in a simple way, which shall be perfectly intelligible, and may give a clear idea of the purpose which plants were created to fulfil in the world, and how they do it. Let us begin by considering " 262. The Plant in Action. Take any living plant, — it matters not what one, — and consider what it is doing. For greater simplicity, take some young plant or ‘seedling, where vegetation goes on just as in a full-grown herb or tree, only on a smaller scale. The plant is 263. Absorbing, or drawing in what it lives upon, from the soil and the air. This is moisture, air, and other matters which the rain, as it soaks into the ground, may _have dissolved on its way to the roots. It is by the roots, lodged in the damp soil, that most of the moisture which plants feed upon is taken in, and with this they always get some earthy matter. This earthy matter makes the ashes which are left after burning a piece of wood, a leaf, or any part of a plant. Moisture is * After studying this chapter, the pupil will be ready to learn more of the subject in the Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physiology. Lessons 22, 23, 24, and 26 treat of Vegetable Anatomy;'and Lesson 26, of the Plant doing its work. ‘ 86 WHY PLANTS GROW, also absorbed by the leaves, either from drops of rain or dew, or from the vapor of water in the air. Air is largely absorbed by the leaves, and some also by the roots, either as dissolved in water, or else directly from the crevices and pores of the soil, which are filled with air. 264. Plants absorb their food by their surface. Animals have an internal cavity, —a stomach,—to hold their food; and from the stomach it is taken into the system. Plants have nothing of this kind. They absorb their food by their sur- face, —by the skin, as it were; and when very young and with the whole sur- face fresh and thin, by one part almost as much as another. But as they grow older and the skin hardens, they absorb mostly by their fresh rootlets and the tips of the roots, and by the leaves, —the former spread out in the soil, the latter spread out in the air. For while the skin or bark of the older parts of the roots is hard- ening, new tips and rootlets are always forming in growing plants, with a fresh sur- face, which absorbs freely. And as to the leaves, they are renewed every year (even evergreens produce a new crop annually, and the old ones fall after a year or two); and the skin of every leaf, especially that of the under side, is riddled with thousands of holes or little mouths (called Breathing-pores), which open into the chambers or winding passages of the pulp of the leaf, so that the air may cir- culate freely throughout the whole. 265. Plants absorb their food all in the fluid form. They are unable to take in anything in a solid state. They ¢mézbe or drink in all their food, in the form of water, with whatever the water has dissolved, and of air or vapor, by one or both of which their leayes and roots are surrounded. The reason they imbibe only fluid is this, The roots, leaves, and all the rest of the plant, under the microscope, are seen to be made up of millions of separate little cavities, each cut off from the surrounding oneg by closed partitions of membrane. All that the plants take into their system has to pass through these partitions of membrane, — which fluid (air or moisture) alone can do. 266. The common juices of plants are called Sap. What they take in from the soil and the air, not being digested or made into vegetable matter, is called Crude Sap. All that the roots imbibe has to be carried up to the leaves to be digested there. So while the roots are absorbing, the stem is 267. Conveying the Crude Sap to the Leaves, There is no separate set of vessels, and no open tubes or pipes for the sap to rise through in an unbroken stream, in the way people generally suppose. The stem is made up, like the root, of cavities, AND WIAT TILEY DO. 87 or cells divided off by whole partitions ; and to rise an inch the sap generally has to pass through several hundred such partitions. When there is much wood, the sap rises mostly through that. Now the fibres and the vessels of the wood are tubes, most of them several times longer than wide; but their ends do not open into each other; a closed partition divides each cavity from the next, which the sap has {o get through some way or other. How it gets through so readily, we do not altogether know ; but there is no doubt about the fact. 268. Carried into the leaves, and distributed through their broad surface, the erude sap is exposed to the light and air. » Calyx and corolla 5-parted, turned back: anthers ion, and filaments very short, connected, (Dodecdtheon) DoDECATHEON. Leaves several in a whorl at the summit of the slender stem. Calyx and corolla 7-parted, wheel-shaped, with narrow divisions, ( Trientalis) STAR-FLOWER. Leaves (mostly opposite or whorled) borne along the whole length of the stem: corolla 5-parted. Corolla wheel-shaped, yellow, — (Lysimdchia) LoosEsTRIFE. Corolla wheel-shaped, blue or purple: pod opening by a lid, (Anagdillis) PIMPERNEL. L trife. Lysimachi This is the only genus in the Primrose family of which we have more than one common wild spe- cies. The 5 stamens have thejr filaments a little monadelphous at the base, and often unequal. Hl. in summer. 1. Srricr L. Leaves opposite or scattered, lance-shaped: stem ending in a long raceme leafy at the base; divisions of the corolla lance-oblong. Low grounds. L, stricta. 174 POPULAR FLORA. 2. Four-LEAVED L. Stem simple; leaves lance-ovate, in whorls of 4 (sometimes of 3 or 6); flowers long-stalked from the axil of the leaves. Sandy grounds. L. quadrifolia. 8. CiLIATE L. Leaves opposite, lance-ovate, with « rounded or heart-shaped base, on long ciliate footstalks; flowers long-stalked from the upper axils; divisions of the corolla ovate, pointed, and with wavy or slightly toothed margins. Low grounds. L. ciliata. 4. LANCE-LEAVED L. Leaves lance-shaped, oblong, or linear, narrowed into a short margined foot- stalk; flowers, &c. nearly as in No. 8. S. & W. in low grounds. L. lanceolata. 59. BIGNONIA FAMILY. Order BIGNONIACEA. Plants with mostly opposite leaves, and large and showy flowers: the corolla 2-lipped or rather irregular, bearing on its tube 4 stamens (2 long and 2 short) or only 2, often with rudiments of the other one or three. Fruit a large 2-celled pod, with many large seeds: the whole kernel is a flat embryo. Calyx free and corolla on the receptacle, as it is in all the following families with mono- petalous corolla. Woody plants, with winged seeds, in long pods. Vine climbing by rootlets: leaves pinnate. Calyx 5-toothed. Corolla funnel-shaped, 5-lobed: sta- mens 4, ( Técoma) TRUMPET-CREEPER. 432. Corolla of Catalpa laid open, with the stamens. Tree, with simple heart-shaped leaves, 433. Winged seed of Trumpet-Creeper. and white flowers (purple-tinged or dotted) in large panicles. Calyx 2-lipped. Corolla bell-shaped and 2-lipped: stamens generally 2, with vestiges of one or three others, ( Catdlpa) CATALPA. Rank clammy herb (cult. and wild S. W.) with wingless seeds in a large and long-pointed fruit, the outer part of which is fleshy and falls off from the inner fibrous-woody part: this is crested and long-beaked, the beak at length splitting into 2 hooked horns. Corolla dull-colored: stamens 2 or 4, perfect, ~ (Martynia) Untcorn-PLanr. 60. BROOM-RAPE FAMILY. Order OROBANCHACES. Herbs parasitic on the roots of trees, &c., readily known by their irregular monopetalous corolla, 4 stamens, in two pairs; the ovary one-celled with innumerable small seeds on the walls. Also, like other parasitic plants, they are entirely destitute of green herbage, yel- lowish or brownish throughout, and with scales in place of leaves. Stems slender and branched, with few and small scales and many flowers scattered along the branches, (Epiphégus) BEECH-DRoOPS. Stems short and thick, covered with broad scales, so that the plant resembles a fir-cone Flowers under the upper scales: stamens projecting, ( Conépholis) Squaw-RooT. Stems or naked.and 1-flowered scapes slender, from a scaly base: stamens included in the curved and salver-shaped corolla, (Aphyllon) NakED BROOM-RAPE. POPULAR FLORA. 175 61. FIGWORT FAMILY. Order SCROPHULARIACER. Herbs with a 2-lipped or more or less irregular monopetalous corolla, and 4 stamens in pairs (2 long and 2 short), or only 2 perfect stamens; rarely all 5 present: style 1: the ovary 2-celled and making a many-seeded pod (few-seeded in some Speed- wells and Cow-wheat). Flowers often showy. Two lobes always belong to the upper lip, three to the lower. \wtllidiyyy 434, Corolla of a Pentstemon, laid open, showing the 4 perfect etamens and the filth ae a sterile naked filament. 435. Stamens (with a-piece of the corolla) of another Peotste- mono, with the sterile filament bearded. 436. Piece of Purple Gerardia. 437. Corolla laid open, showing the 4 etamens in pairs. 438. Style and calyx of the same, 439, Part of a pod. 440. Flower of Toadflax, 441. Plant of Hedge-Hyssop. 442, Flower laid open ; one pair of good stamens; one pair of ster- ile filaments, Zi * Corolla wheel-shaped or with a very short tube, the lobes more or less unequal. Calyx and corolla 5-cleft: stamens 5, some of them rather imperfect, (Verbdscum) MutueEqn. Calyx and corolla 4-parted: stamens 2, (Verdnica) SPEEDWELL. %* * Corolla more or less tubular, bell-shaped and irregular, or 2-lipped. + Upper lip or lobes covering the lower in the bud (except sometimes in Monkey-flower). Corolla with its 2-lipped mouth closed by a palate, i. e. an inward projection of the lower lip: stamens 4. Corolla with a slender spur at the base on the lower side, : (Linaria) ToApDFLAX. Corolla sac-like at the base on the lower side, _. (Antirrhinum) SNAPDRAGON. Corolla 2-parted: the lower lip sac-shaped in the middle; the short tube with a protuber- ance at the base on the upper side: stamens 4, ( Collinsia) CoLLinsia. ‘ 176 POPULAR FLORA. i Corolla ovoid, small, dull greenish purple, with 4 short unequal erect lobes, and one small recurved one (the lower). Stamens4andarudiment, (Scrophularia) Ficworr. Corolla shaped like a turtle’s head, the mouth closed or nearly so, without a palate. Sta- mens 4 with woolly anthers; anda sterile filament besides, ( Cheldne) TURTLEHEAD. Corolla open at the irregular or 2-lipped mouth. Stamens 4, and a sterile filament besides (Fig. 484, 435), (Pentstémon) PENTSTEMON. Corolla 2-lipped; the upper lip with the sides turned back, the lower lip turned down. Stamens 4, no vestige of the fifth. Calyx elongated, 5-angled, 6- toothed. Stigmas with 2 broad lips, (Mimulus) MonkEY-rLowEr. Corolla somewhat 2-lipped, open. Stamens only 2 perfect. Calyx 5-parted. Sterile filaments included, or none. Corolla yellow or whitish, (Gratiola) Hepexr-Hyssor. Sterile filaments long, protruding from the purple or blue corolla, (Ilysdnihes) FaLSE-PIMPERNEL. + + Lower lip or the side lobes covering the others in the bud. Corolla (large, purple or white) tubular, open; the border slightly 5-lobed, (Digitalis) *FoxcLove. Corolla salver-shaped. Flowers in a spike. Stamens 2, projecting, longer than the 4 lobes of the corolla, (Verdénica Virginica) CuLvEn’s-Roov. Stamens 4, included: lobes of the corolla 5: calyx tubular, 5-toothed, (Buchnera) BLUE-HEARTS. Corolla bell-shaped or funnel-shaped, somewhatirregularly 5-lobed. Stamens 4, (Gerdrdia) GERARDIA. Corolla tubular, decidedly 2-lipped, the narrow upper lip erect. or arched, enclosing the 4 stamens. Flowers in a spike. Pod many-seeded. Bracts large and colored, scarlet in our species. Calyx tubular, ( Castilléia) PAINTED-cUP. Bracts green, small. Leaves pinnatifid, (Pedicularis) Louszworr. Mullein. Verbdscum. Flowers in a long terminal spike or raceme. Corolla 5-parted, almost regular. Stamens 5, unequal, but generally all with anthers. Root biennial. : 1. Common M. Tall, woolly throughout; the simple stem winged by the prolonged bases of the leaves; flowers yellow, in a long thick spike; two of the filaments smooth. Fields, &c. V. Thapsus. 2. Mora M. Green, smoothish; stem 2° or 8° high; leaves toothed; flowers yellow or white in a loose raceme; filaments all bearded with yellow wool. Road-sides. V. Bluttaria: Speedwell. Verdnica. Flowers small; one or two of the lobes of the 4-parted border of the corolla always smaller than the others. Stamens 2, protruding. Pod flattened, many-seeded in the common species. § 1. Corolla salver-shaped, the tube longer than the border. Pod not notched at the end. 1. CuLVER’s-Root §S. A tall perennial, with lance-shaped pointed leaves in whorls, and whitish flowers crowded in clustered spikes. Woods, W. and S., and cultivated in gardens. V. Virginica. §2. Corolla wheel-shaped, tube very short, pale blue or white. Pod notched at the end. Leaves opposite. * Flowers in single racemes from the axils of the leaves. 2. Water S. Smooth; stems rooting at the creeping lower part, then erect; leaves sessile by a heart- shaped base, ovate-lanceolate; corolla pale blue with darker stripes. Brooks. V. Anagallis. 8. Brook S.or Brooktime. Leaves ovate or oblong, on petioles; otherwise like the last. V. Americana. 4. Marsu S. Smooth, slender; leaves sessile, linear, acute; raceme zigzag, loose. V. ‘scutellata, 5. Common S. Downy; stems creeping; leaves wedge-oblong, serrate; raceme dense. Dry ground, in open woods. V. officinalis. ; POPULAR FLORA. V7 * * Flowers in a terminal loose raceme. G 6. THyME-LEAVED §. Smooth and small, 2! to 4' high from a creeping base; leaves ovate or oblong,: the lowest petioled and rounded. Fields, every where. v. serpyllifolia. * * * Flowers in the axils of the upper leaves. Root annual. 7. PursLANE §. or NECKWEED. Smooth, branching, erect; lower leaves oval or oblong, toothed, ° and petioled; uppermost oblong-liuear, sessile, and entire. Cult. grounds, &c. V. peregrina. 8. Corn S. Hairy; lower leaves ovate, crenate, petioled; the unper sessile, lance-shaped, and entire. Cultivated grounds. V. arvensis. Toadflax. Linaria. 1. Common T. (BuTTER-AND-Eaes, RamstTep). Stems branching, crowded with the pale linear leaves; flowers crowded in a close raceme, large and showy, pale yellow with the palate orange- colored. A weed in fields and road-sides. L. vulgaris. 2. Witp T. Stem very slender, simple, with scattered linear leaves; prostrate shoots at the bottom with broader leaves; flowers very small, blue, in a slender raceme. Sandy soil. L. Canadensis. Gerardia. Gerdrdia. Plants with large and showy somewhat leafy-racemed flowers; the corolla alittle irregular, but hardly 2-lipped. Stamens woolly or hairy; the 4 anthers approaching in pairs. Fl. late summer and autumn. * Corolla rose-purple: calyx bell-shaped, with 5 short teeth: plants low and bushy-branched. 1. Porrte G. Leaves linear, rough-margined; flowers 1! long, short-stalked. G. purpurea. 2. SLENDER G. Leaves linear; flower about #! long, on a long and slender stalk. G. tenuifolia. * * Corolla yellow,.with a rather long tube, woolly,inside: calyx 5-cleft, leaf-like. 3. Downy G. Stem (3° or 4° high) and oblong or lance-shaped leaves clothed with a fine close down, , upper leaves entire, lower ones sinuate or pinnatifid. Woods. G. flava. 4. Smoota G. Smooth throughout and glaucous, 8° to 6° high; lower leaves twice pinnatifid, upper once pinnatifid or entire. Rich woods. G. quercifolia. _ 5. Cur-teAveD G. Rather downy, bushy-branchéed, 2° or 8° high, very leafy; leaves pinnatifid, the crowded divisions cut and toothed. G. pedicularia. 62. VERVAIN FAMILY, Order VERBENACE. Herbs or shrubby plants, with opposite leaves, a 2-lipped or unequally 5- (or rarely 4-) lobed corolla, and 4 stamens in pairs (i. e. 2 long and 2 short ones): the pistil with a single ovary and only one seed in each cell; the fruit either berry-like with 4 stones, or dry and splitting into 2 or 4 akenes, or in Lopseed consisting of a single akene. This family is in-: termediate between the foregoing order and the next. The two following are the com- monest genera. Calyx cylindrical, 2-lipped. Corolla 2-lipped. Ovary 1-celled, simple. Herb, in woods, with small whitish flowers in slender and loose spikes; the calyx containing : the akene, turned down in fruit, (Phryma) Lorsxep. Calyx tubular, 5-toothed. Corolla salver-shaped, with 5 slightly unequal lobes. Flowers in spikes or heads, ‘summer and autumn, (Verbena) VERVAIN. 178 POPULAR FLORA. Vervain. Verbéna. * Snowy VERBENAs: low and showy-flowered species, in gardens in summer, the greater part from South America, viz. V. Melindres (red) and others, now much mixed. And there is one species of this sort wild in Western prairies, viz.: — J. AUBLET’s VERBENA. Rather hairy; leaves pinnatifid or cut; spikes flat-topped in blossom, like a corymb; corolla light purple, &c. V. Aubletia. * * Common VERVAINS: weeds or weed-like plants, in fields and road-sides, with small flowers in . long spikes, which are generally panicled. 2. Common V. Erect, slendgrly branched, 1° to 8° high; leaves sessile, cleft or pinnatifid and cut- toothed; spikes very slender; flowers very small, purplish. V. officinilis. Wuirs V. Leaves petioled, ovate or oval, serrate; spikes of white flowers very slender. V. urticifolia. 4. Buuz V. Leaves petioled, lance-shaped or lance-oblong, the lower often cut or 2-lobed at the base; bd spikes of blue flowers thick and close; stem 4° to 6° high. ” V. hastata. 5. Low V. Stems 4° to 1° high; leaves lance-linear, sessile, scarcely toothed; spikes one or few, thickish; flowers purple. 8. and W. V. angustifolia. 63. SAGE or MINT FAMILY. Order LABIATA. Herbs with square stems and opposite aromatic leaves, a 2-lipped (or rather irregular) corolla, 4 stamens in pairs (2 long and 2 shorter), or else only 2 sta- mens, and a 4-parted ovary, in fruit making 4 akenes around the base of the single style. That is, among the families with 2-lipped or irregular monopetalous corollas this is at once known by the 4- lobed ovary, making 4 akenes. The leaves are commonly more or less dotted with small glands, which contain a volatile oil, peculiar to each species. This gives the warm aromatic properties which all plants of this family possess. By distillation, thé oil is extracted from several ‘species, as from Peppermint and Spearmint, Lavender, Pen- _ nyroyal, &. Or the dried foliage is used for seasoning or for herb drinks in the case of Summer-Savory, Marjoram, Thyme, Catnip, 443 444 : : ; 443. Flower of Garden Sage, | and Sage. The following are the common genera or kinds of this 444. Pistil of the snme, the 4- Te lobed ovary in the bottom of large family. the calyx, half of which is cut away, * Stamens 4, turned down so as to rest upon the lower lip of the corolla. Flowers in racemes, white: calyx soon reflexed, its upper lobe large and round: upper lip of the corolla 4-cleft, the lower entire. Leaves ovate, fragrant, (Ocimum) *Swxet-Basit. Flowers in a naked and peduncled spike, pale blue: calyx narrow, 5-toothed: the 5 lobes of the corolla almost equal: stamens short: leaves narrow, hoary, (Lavéndula) * LAVENDER. * * Stamens 4, ascending, and projecting from the upper side of the corolla. Akenes veiny. * Corolla cleft down the upper side, the lower lobe much larger than the other 4. Flowers purplish, rarely white, in a spike, ( Teicrium) GERMANDER, Corolla with the border cleft into 5 almost equal lobes, blue. ' ' Stamens very long, curved: lobes of the corolla turned rather forward, ( Trichostéma) BLUE-CURLS. Stamens slightly projecting from the equally 5-lobed corolla, — (Jsdnthus) FAusE-PENNYROYAL. POPULAR FLORA. 179 * * * Stamens 4 or 2, not turned down, and not protruding from the upper side of the flower. Corolla scarcely at all two-lipped, almost equally 4-lobed. Flowers small. Stamens 4 with anthers, almost equal in length, (Mentha) Mint. Stamens only 2 with anthers. Flowers in dense axillary whorls, (Lycopus) WATER-HoREHOUND. Corolla evidently 2-lipped: stamens 2, or only 2 with anthers. Upper lip nearly flat or spreading, 2-lobed or notched at, the end. Calyx equally 5-toothed, bearded in the throat. Cymes terminal, (Cuntla) Dirtany. Calyx 2-lipped: upper lip 3-toothed, the lower 2-cleft. Z Throat of the calyx bearded: corolla small: 2 sterilefilaments, (Hedéoma) PENNYROYAL. Throat of the calyx naked; that of the large corolla bearded; the middle lobe of its lower lip large and hanging, fringe-toothed, ( Collinsdnia) Horse-BaLa. Upper lip of the corolla arched, entire or slightly notched, holding the stamens. Calyx equally 5-toothed, tubular: lips of the large corolla long and narrow. Flowers crowded in close and leafy-bracted heads, ( Mondrda) Horsx-Mint. Calyx 2-lipped. Upper lip with 3 bristle-pointed teeth. Flowers in heads, (Blephilia) Burrnrira. Upper lip entire or 3-toothed. Anthers with only one cell, on the end of a long connective astride the end of the filament, (Sdlvia) Sac. Corolla 2-lipped: stamens 4, all with anthers. Upper and inner pair of stamens longer than the lower or outer pair, And curved downwards. Flowers spiked, small. Herbs tall, (Zophdnthus) GiaNt-Hyssor. Both pairs of stamens ascending under the upper lip. Flowers in terminal spikes or clusters, (Népeta) Carnip. Flowers few in the axils of kidney-shaped leaves, (Glechima) Grounp-Ivy. Upper pair of stamens shorter than the lower or outer pair. Upper lip of the corolla flat and open, or barely concave. Stamens distant or diverging, not approaching under the upper lip. Calyx tubular, equally 5-toothed, 15-nerved. Stamens long, (Hyssopus) *Hyssor. Calyx 10 to 13-nerved, ovate, bell-shaped, or short tubular. : Calyx naked in the throat. Flowers in dense heads or clusters, (Pycnénthemum) Mountarn-Minr. Flowers clustered in the axils or spiked, (Satureia) *SuMMER-Savory. Calyx hairy in the throat. Flowers spiked, and with large colored bracts, (Origanum) MargoraM. Flowers loosely clustered: bracts minute, (Thymus) *THyMx. Stamens with their anthers approaching in pairs under the upper lip. ‘ Calyx tubular. Flowers in « head-like cluster, surrounded with awl- shaped bracts, ( Clinopodium) Bast. Calyx tubular-bell-shaped and 2-lipped: corolla curved upwards. Flowers few in loose clusters, (Melissa) *BaLM. Upper lip of the corolla concave, the whole throat inflated and funnel-shaped. Flowers Jarge in naked spikes, (Physostégia) FALSE-DRAGONHEAD. Upper lip of the corolla arched or hood-like. Calyx 2-lipped, closed over the fruit, and Very veiny, the lips toothed: flowers in a bracted short spike, (Brundlla) Srur-1wav. Not veiny, becoming helmet-shaped; lips entire, Scutellaria) Scuticar. 180 POPULAR FLORA. Calyx not 2-lipped, 10-toothed. . Clusters axillary, head-like, (Marribium) Horrnouyn. Calyx not 2-lipped and only 5-toothed, Funnel-shaped and much larger than the corolla, (Moluccélla) *Motuccs-Bauo. Bell-shaped or top-shaped, much shorter than the corolla. Anthers opening crosswise: calyx-teeth spiny-pointed, ( Galedpsis) Hemp-Nertie. Anthers opening lengthwise. “ Corolla not enlarged in the throat: stamens turned down after shed- ding their pollen, (Stachys) Hepct-NETre. Corolla enlarged in the throat: calyx-teeth not spiny, (Lamium) Deap-NETTLE. Corolla not enlarged in the throat: calyx top-shaped with spiny teeth. Akenes 8-angled. Leaves cleft and cut, (Leontrus) MorHERWwoRT. Mint. Mentha. Herbs with sharp-tasted leaves and small whitish or purplish flowers: upper lobe of the short co- rolla either entire or notched. f 1. Wrup Mryr. Flowers in head-like clusters around the stem in the axils of the petioled leaves; plant hairy, or in one variety smoothish. Wet places. M. Canadensis. 2. PEPPERMINT. Smooth; clusters of flowers crowded in short spikes; leaves petioled, oblong or ovate. ‘ M. pipérita. 3. Spearmint. Nearly smooth; spikes panicled; leaves lance-ovate, almost sessile. M. viridis. Horse=Mint. Mondrda. Herbs with mostly simple stems, and rather large flowers in close head-like clusters at the summit of the stem, and around it in-the axils of the upper leaves, surrounded by large bracts. * Root perennial: upper lip of the narrow corolla entire, the 2 stamens projecting from it: leaves lance-ovate or slightly heart-shaped. 1. Bam H. or Osweco Tea. Green, rather hairy; corolla long, bright red; uppermost leaves and bracts tinged with red. Moist banks, N.,.and in gardens. M. didyma. 2. Common H. Pale, smoothish or soft downy; flowers purplish or whitish, smaller. MM. fistuldsa. * * Root annual: upper lip of the corolla notched: stamens not projecting. 8. Dorrrp H. Teaves lance-shaped; bracts yellowish and purple; corolla yellowish, purple-spotted. Sandy soil, S. M. punctata. . Sculleap. Scutellaria. Well marked by the tubular ascending corolla (mostly blue or bluish-purple) with a strongly arched upper lip; the calyx with two short entire lips, closed after the corolla falls, and having an enlargement on the back, the whole becoming of the shape of a helmet. Fl. summer. * Flowers small,-in axillary one-sided racemes. 1. Map-poe S. Smooth, branched, slender; leaves lance-ovate or oblong, pointed, serrate, on slender stalks. Wet places. 8. lateriflora. * * Flowers in terminal racemes. 2. Lancer §. Hairy and rather clammy, 1° to 3° high; leaves heart-shaped or ovate, wrinkled- veiny; upper lip of the corolla blue, the lower pale and purple-spotted. S.and W. _ 8. versicolor. 3. Harry S. Hairy, 1° to 8° high, slender; leaves ovate, crenate, obtuse, veiny. 8. pilosa. POPULAR FLORA. 181 4, NARROW-LEAVED S. Minutely hoary or downy, slender, 19 or 2° high; leaves lance-oblong or linear, entire’; raceme short, as in the foregoing. E. aga 8. 8. integrifolia. * * * Flowers single, in the axils of the leaves. 5. Dwarr S. Minutely downy, 3! to 6! high; leaves-round-ovate or the upper lance-ovate, entire, ¥ long. Dry or sandy banks of rivers, &c. 8. parvula. 6. SLENDER S. Slender, 1° or 2° high; leaves lance-ovate, serrate, with a roundish or slightly heart- shaped base, sessile; flowers 3! long. Wet woods. 8. galericulata. i 64. BORRAGE FAMILY. Order BORRAGINACES. Herbs with alternate entire leaves, not aromatic, commonly rough: the flowers regular, with a 5-leaved calyx, 5-lobed corolla, 5 stamens on the tube, one style, and a 4-lobed ovary, making 4 akenes. Flowers generally in one- sided raceme-like clusters, coiled up at the‘ tip, and unfolding as the blossoms expand. Innocent mucila- ginous and slightly bitter plants, the ‘roots of some species yielding a red dye. 445. Branch of Forget-me-not, in flower. 446. The corolla laid open, with the stamens, magnified. 447. The pistil with its 4-lobed ovary ; calyx, &c. cut away. 448. Two of the ripe akenes in the calyx; the two sepals towards the eye and two of the akenes removed. — 449, Akene cut through lengthwise, magnified ; the whole kernel embryo. 450, Flowers of Comfiey. 451, Corolla enlarged, laid open, show- ing the sharp scales inside, and the stamens. * Ovary 4-parted, making 4 akenes around the base of the style. * Akenes or lobes erect, fixed by the lower end, separate from the style, not prickly. Corolla somewhat irregular (the lobes rather unequal), funnel-shaped (blue or purple). Its throat naked and open: stamens protruding, rather unequal, (ichium) VirEn's-Buctoss. Its throat closed by 5 blunt scales; tube-curved: stamens included, (Lycépsis) Bucioss. Corolla, &c. perfectly regular. Its throat closed by 5 converging scales, one before each lobe. r Corolla wheel-shaped; its lobes acute. Plant rough-bristly, (Borrago) *BorRaGE. Corolla tubular and somewhat funnel-shaped, 5-toothed, (Symphytum) COoMFREY. Its throat open, naked or with 5 small projections. Akenes mostly stony. Lobes of the’tubular corolla acute and erect, . (Onosmodium) FaLsE-GROMWELL. Lobes of the trumpet-shaped corolla spreading, rounded, short. Alenes fleshy. Plant very smooth, . (Merténsia) Luxewort. 182 POPULAR FLORA. Lobes of the salver-shaped or funnel-shaped corolla spreading, rounded. Each with one edge outage and one inside in the bud: corolla very short, (Myosétis) ScorPion-GRass or FORGET-ME-NOT. Two lobes covering the others in the bud. * Corolla short, white or whitish, funnel-shaped; (Lithospérmum) GRoMWELL. Corolla long, orange-yellow, salver-shaped, (Lithospérmum, § Batschia) Puccoon. Akenes or lobes of the ovary prickly, fixed by their side or upper end to the base of the style. Corolla salver-shaped, with’5 scales in the throat. Erect, prickly on the margins only. Flowers small, ( Echinospérmum) SticksEED. Oblique or flattened from above, short-prickly or rough allover, ( Cynogléssum) HounD’s-roncuE. * * Ovary not lobed, but splitting when tipe into 4 akenes: corolla short, (Heliotropium) *HELIOTROPE. 65. WATERLEAF FAMILY. Order HYDROPHYLLACES. Herbs with lobed, compound, or toothed and mostly alternate leaves; the regular flowers much like those of the Borrage Family, except as to the ovary, which is globular and only one-celled and bears the few or many ovules and seeds on the walls (parix etal), or on two projections from them. In Waterleaf, Nemophila, &c., the two placentas, bearing the few seeds, broaden and make 452. Flower of Virginia Waterleaf. 453, Corolla laid open, and stamens, a kind of lining to the 454, Calyx and young pod, with the style. ! pod. Corolla bell-shaped or wheel-shaped ; its lobes and the stamens always 5. Style 2-cleft above. The Water- leaf furnishes our principal plants of the family that are common wild. But some Ne- mophilas and Phacelias, from Texas and California, are showy garden annuals. Leaves opposite, at least the lower ones. Stamens not projecting beyond the corolla. Calyx without appendages or teeth between the divisions, large in fruit, (Ellisia) Exvisia. Calyx with 5 reflexed teeth between the divisions, (Neméphila) *NEmopPHIL:«. Leaves alternate: appendages of the calyx none or minute: stamens long. Mostly annuals: seeds on the walls of the pod, or two narrow placentas, (Phacélia) PHACELIA. Perennials, with scaly-toothed rootstocks. Seeds 1 to 4, enclosed in a membrane which lines the pod. Flowers white or bluish, clustered: filaments bearded below, (Hydrophyllum) WatERLear. Waterleaf. Hydrophyllum. 1. Virernta W. Smoothish, 1° or 2° high; leaves pinnately divided into 5 or 7 narrow and toothed or cleft lobes; calyx finise Rich woods. A. Virginicum. 2. CanapA W. Smoothish ; leaves rounded, palmately lobed, longer than the peduncle; calyx smooth. Rich woods. HH. Canadénse, POPULAR FLORA. 183 66. POLEMONIUM FAMILY., Order POLEMONIACEE. Herbs, not twining (but Cobsea climbs by tendrils), with regular flowers, all the parts in fives, except the pistil, which is 3-celled and the style 3-cleft at the top, the 5 spreading lobes of the corolla convolute in the bud, i. e. overlapping so that one edge of each is outside of that behind it, but inside of the‘ next one. Flowers generally handsome. All the kinds here given are cultivated ; but the Phloxes are wild in this country (especially W. and S8.), and so is one Polemonium. Gilias are pretty garden annuals from California, &c. Cobsea, which is placed here, though very different from the rest, is a great- flowered vine from Mexico. 455 457 455. Flowers of Phlox. 456. Flowers of Polemonium. 457, Pod of Polemonium, cut acrags. Climbing by tendrils on the pinnate leaves: flowers axillary, single: calyx leafy: corolla bell-shaped, large, but dull-colored, (Cobéa) *CoBaa. Not climbing: flowers in panicled cymes or clusters. Stamens inserted at very unequal heights on the long tube of the salver-shaped corolla, short, included: calyx narrow, 5-angled: seeds only one in each cell. Leaves all entire, sessile, and opposite, except the uppermost, (Phlox) Puiox. Stamens all inserted at the same height. Leaves mostly alternate and compound. Corolla almost wheel-shaped (light blue): stamens turned towards the lower side of the flower: leaves pinnate, . (Poleménium) PoLEMoNtIuM. Corolla funnel-shaped or salver-shaped: stamens not turned to one side: seeds several. Leaves once to thrice pinnately divided, (Gila) Giuia. Phlox. Phlox. * Perennial herbs, growing in open woods, and in gardens. 1. PanicLep P. Stem stout, 2° to 4° high; leaves lance-oblong and ovate-lanceolate, pointed, taper- ing or the upper ones heart-shaped at the base; panicle large and broad; corolla pink or white, the lobes entire. FI. summer. P. paniculata, 2. Sporrep P. Stem 1° or 2° high, slender, simple, purple-spotted; lower leaves lance-shaped, upper- most lance-ovate, tapering upwards from the rounded or slightly heart-shaped base; panicle narrow; calyx-teeth rather blunt; corolla pink-purple, or varying to white in gardens, the lobes entire. FJ. summer. P. maculata. 8. Harry P. Stems slender, ascending, 1° or 2° high, clammy-hairy; leaves lance-shaped or lance- linear; cyme flat; calyx-teeth long, awn-pointed; lobes of the rose-pink corolla entire. FI. early summer. P. pilosa. 4. Runnine P. Spreading by creeping runners, bearing roundish and thickish smooth leaves; flow- ering stems 4’ to 8 high, with oblong leaves; flowers few and large; lobes of the red-purple corolla round and entire. Fl. early summer. P. réptans. 184 POPULAR FLORA, 6. Spreapine P. Stems ascending, 9! to 18 high, rather clammy; leaves ovate-oblong or broad lance-shaped; cyme loosely-flowered; lobes of the pale lilac or bluish corolla generally obcordate and rather distant from each other. Fl. spring, N. & W. P. divaricata. 6. GRounp P. or Moss-Pinx. Plant creeping and tufted in flat mats; leaves awl-shaped or lance- linear, small, crowded; corolla pink or rose-color, with a darker eye, sometimes white. Fl. spring, in sandy or rocky soil. S. & E. P. subulata. * * Garden annual from Texas. . 7. DrumMonp’s P. Rather clammy, branched; leaves lance-oblong, the upper heart-shaped at the base; corolla crimson, purple or rose-color, lobes entire. P. Drumméniii. Polemonium. Poleménium. 1, Buoz P. (Called in gardens Jacob’s Ladder or Greek Valerian.) Stem erect, 1° or 2° high, leafy; leaflets many; seeds several. Gardens. P. cerileum. 2. Witp P. Stems weak, spreading; leaflets 7 to 11; flowers few. Woods, W. & S. P. reptans. 67. CONVOLVULUS FAMILY. Order CONVOLVULACES. Twining or trailing herbs, often with some milky juice, with alternate leaves and regular flowers: calyx of 5 sepals: corolla 5-plaited or 5-lobed. Stamens 5. Pistil making a round pod, with 2 to 4 cells and one or two large seeds erect from the bottom of each cell. (For illustrations see Fig. 4 to 7,13 to 22.) Dodders are leafless parasitic plants of the family. Plants with foliage, and bearing large flowers, open only for one day. Style one. Stamens protruded beyond the mouth of the tubular or trumpet-shaped and crimson or scarlet corolla, - (Qudémoclit) Quamoc.ir. Stamens included in the tube of the almost entire corolla. Stigma thick, 2-lobed: corolla bell-shaped: pod 4-celled, 4-seeded, (Batatas) Swert-PorTaro. Stigma capitate, thick, with 2 or 8 lobes: corolla funnel-form: pod with 2 or 3 cells, and 2 seeds in each cell, (Ipomea) Morninc-Giory. Stigmas 2, long, linear or oblong. (BinpWEED.* Calyx naked at the base: corolla bell-shaped, ( Convdluulus) *ConvOLVULUS or Calyx covered by 2 large bractlets: corolla funnel-form, ( Calyste gia) BRACTED-BINDWEED. Plants with leafless whitish, reddish, or yellowish thread-like stems, twining over other plants, and attaching themselves to their bark, on which they feed: flowers in clus- ters: corolla bell-shaped, with 5 scales inside the ‘stamens: pod 2-celled, cells 2-seeded: embryo spiral, without any cotyledons, ( Ciscuta) DoppEr. Quamoclit. Quémoclit. 1. Cypress-vinE Q. Leaves narrow, pinnately dissected into thread-shaped aivtateniy limb of the corolla rather deeply 5-lobed. Garden annual. Q. vulgaris. 2. SCARLET Q. Leaves heart-shaped, entire or nearly so; corolla scarcely ighied; Q. coccinea. %* The low THREE-COLORED Convouvu.vs (C. tricolor) is a garden annual. POPULAR FLORA. 185 Morning-Glory. IJpomé@a. 1. Comaion M. Annual; stem hairy, the hairs bent downwards; leaves heart-shaped, entire; flowers 8 to 5 on the peduncle; flowers purple or pink varying to white, opening early in the morning, closing in bright sunshine; pod 8-celled. Cult. &e. : I. purpirea. 2. Witp M. (or Man-or-THE-EARTH). Smooth; root huge, perennial; leaves heart-shaped, entire or some of them narrowed in the middle; flowers 1 to 5 on a peduncle, white with purple in the tube, opening in sunshine. Sandy banks. I. panduratus. 68. NIGHTSHADE FAMILY. Order SOLANACER. Herbs, or sometimes shrubs, with a colorless bitter or nauseous juice (often poisonous) ; alternate leaves ; and regular flowers, with 5 (or in cultivated plants sometimes 6 or 7) mostly equal stamens and one pistil. Ovary with 2 or more cells, in fruit becoming a many-seeded berry or pod. Corolla plaited in the bud, or valvate, i. e. the lobes placed edge to edge. 459 458. Upper part of the corolla of Stramonium (Fig. 177) in bud. 459, Cross-section of the same, to show how it is plaited and folded. 46U. Flower of Tobacco. 461. Its pod and calyx, 462,.Same, with the upper part cut away 463, Flowers and berries of Bittersweet Nightshade. 464. Flower of Henbane. 465. Pod of the same, opening by a lid. Corolla wheel-shaped : stamens closely converging or united around the style (Fig. 182, 188). Fruit a berry. Anthers longer than the very short filaments, and Connected with each other, opening lengthwise. Berry several-celled, (Lycopérsicum) *Tomato. Not grown together, opening at the top by two pores, (Solanum) NIGHTSHADE, Anthers shorter than the filaments, heart-shaped, separate, opening lengthwise. Berry pod-like, inflated, the pulp very pungent (Cayenne or Red Pepper), (Capsicum) *CAPsicuM. 186 POPULAR FLORA. Corolla between wheel-shaped and bell-shaped, or very open and short funnel-shaped, with an almost-entire border: anthers separate, shorter than the filaments: ca- lyx enlarged and enclosing the berry. Calyx 5-lobed, becoming a bladdery bag around the (eatable) berry, (Physalis) GrounD-CHERRY. Calyx 5-parted, the divisions becoming heart-shaped: berry dry, (Nicdndra) *APPLE-oF-PERU. Corolla funnel-shaped, bell-shaped, or tubular: stamens separate: filaments slender. Calyx 5-parted, leafy, spreading: stamens curved or unequal. Corolla bell-shaped : stamens curved: fruit a black berry (deadly poi- sonous), (.diropa) *DEADLY NIGHTSHADE. Corolla funnel-shaped: stamens unequal: fruit a pod, (Petunia) *PETUNIA. Calyx 5-toothed or 5-lobed. Shrubby, with vine-like branches and narrow leaves: corolla funnel-shaped, small: fruit a berry, (Lycium) *MatTRImony-vINE. Herbs (annuals), unpleasant-scented, mostly large-flowered. Fruit a pod. Corolla (dull and veiny) and stamens rather irregular: pod in the urn-shaped calyx, opening at the top by a lid (Fig. 465), (Hyoscyamus) HENBANE. Corolla perfectly regular, generally long funnel-shaped. Calyx 5-angled, long, falling away after flowering: pod large and prickly, 2-celled and becoming 4-celled, 4-valved. (Flower, Fig. 177, 458), (Datira) STRAMONIUM. Calyx not angled, remaining around the smooth pod, which opens by several slits at the top, (Nicotiana) *Topacco. The only genus which needs to have the species enumerated is the Nightshade. Solanum. * Anthers blunt: plants not prickly. 1. Common NIGHTSHADE. A very common low, much-branched, homely weed, in damp or shady grounds ; root annual; leaves ovate, wavy-toothed; flowers very small, white; berries black, small, said to be poisonous. S. nigrum. 2. Brrrerswret N. Stem rather shrubby, climbing; leaves ovate and heart-shaped, some of them halberd-shaped or with an ear-like lobe at the base on one or both sides; flowers blue-purple, in small cymes; berries bright red. Around dwellings, &c. (The flowers are represented in Fig. 182, as well-as Fig. 468.) S. Dulecamara. 3. JERUSALEM-CHERRY N. A low tree-shaped shrub, with lance-oblong and smooth entire leaves, scattered and small white flowers, succeeded by large bright red berries like cherries. Cultivated in houses, &c. S. Pseudo- Capsicum. 4. Potato or TusERovs N. Shoots under ground bearing tubers (Fig. 60); leaves interruptedly pinnate; the leaflets very unequal, some of them minute; corolla only 5-angled (Fig. 183), white or blue. Cultivated. S. tuberosum. * * Anthers long and taper-pointed: stems and leaves prickly. 5. Eco-Puant N. Leaves ovate, wavy or somewhat lobed, downy; berry oblong, purple or whitish, from the size of an egg to that of a melon, eatable when cooked. Cult. Ss. Melongéna. 6. Horsz-NerrLe N. Leaves ovate or oblong, wavy or angled, hoary-hairy; corolla bluish; berry yellow. A weed, S. S. Carolinense. @ POPULAR FLORA. 187 69. GENTIAN FAMILY. Order GENTIANACES. Smooth herbs with a colorless bitter juice; the leaves, with two exceptions, opposite, sessile, and entire ; the regular flowers having as many stamens as there are lobes to the corolla, and alternate with them; stigmas or branches of the style 2; pod one-celled, with many and usually very small seeds on the walls, usually in two lines. — Tonic, generally very bitter plants: none of them poisonous. Flowers commonly large and handsome. Leaves simple, opposite and sessile. Corolla with the lobes convolute, i. e. each with one edge in and one out, in the bud. Corolla wheel-shaped, 6- to 12-parted, white or pink, in cymes. Style 2-parted. (Two or three handsome-flowered species in salt marshes, and one or two on river-banks, &c., especially South), (Sabbatia) Sappatia. Corolla funnel-form or bell-shaped, commonly blue. Style very short or none: stig- mas 2, broad, (Gentiana) GENTIAN. Leaves simple, alternate or all from the root, round-heart-shaped, floating on the water, with very long footstalks, which bear near their summit a cluster of small white flowers, along with some spur-shaped bodies. Corolla 5-parted, the lobes folded inwards in the bud, (Limnanthemum) FLOATING-HEART. Leaves with 3 oblong leaflets; footstalks long, alternate, their base sheathing the thickish . rootstock or the lower part of a scape, which bears a raceme of white flowers. Corolla 5-parted, the lobes white-bearded inside, their edges turned inwards in the bud. One species, in bogs, (Menydnthes) BuCKBEAN. Gentian. Gentiana. * Stamens separate: no plaits or fringes between the lobes of the corolla. 1. Frvz-FLOWERED GENTIAN. Slender, branching; leaves lance-ovate; branches about 5-flowered; corolla light blue, hardly 1' long, with 5 pointed naked lobes. Fl. late summer and autumn; as do all the species. G. quinqueflora. 2. FriIncED G. Leaves lance-shaped or lance-ovate; flowers single on a long naked stalk; corolla 2! long, sky-blue, with 4 obovate beautifully fringed lobes. Low grounds. G. crinita, * * Anthers cohering with each other more or less: corolla with 5 plaited folds. 8. CLosED G. Stout, leafy to the top, the flowers in sessile clusters, terminal and.in the axils of the upper lance-oblong leaves; corolla pale blue or purplish, rather club-shaped, with the mouth con- tracted, and with 5 fringe-toothed plaits, the lobes hardly any. G. Andréwsii. 4. Soapwort G. The light blue corolla more open and bell-shaped, its lobes short and broad, but longer than the intervening plaits; otherwise much as No. 8. S. and W. G. Saponaria. 6. WurtisH G. Leaves lance-ovate with a heart-shaped clasping base; corolla dull white or yellowish, with lobes longer than the plaits. S. and W. G. alba. 70. DOGBANE FAMILY. Order APOCYNACEA. Plants with a milky and acrid juice, a tough inner bark, generally opposite and entire leaves, and regular flowers: corolla 5-lobed, the lobes convolute in the bud (one edge in, ; 13 188 POPULAR FLORA. the other out) ; the 5 stamens on the corolla alternate with its lobes; the anthers generally more or less adherent to the stigma. Ovaries 2; but the stigfnas, and often the styles also, united into one ; the fruit two-separate pods. Seeds generally many, and with a tuft of down at one end. Corolla with a funnel-shaped tube and a wheel-shaped 5-parted border: style one. ; Leaves generally in whorls. Shrub, with large rose-colored flowers, (Nérium) * OLEANDER. Leaves opposite, evergreen in the common creeping species. Fl. blue, (Vinca) *Priwiyxx. \ Leaves alternate, very many, narrow. Erect herbs with pale-blue salver-shaped flow- ers: seeds not tufted, (Amsonia) Amsonia. Corolla bell-shaped, white or pinkish: style none. Herbs, with opposite leaves. (Apdécynum) DoGBANE. Dogbane. Apdédcynum. 1. Spreapine D. Branches of the low erect stem widely diverging; leaves ovate or oval; cymes few- flowered; lobes of corol- it la recurved; tube shorter f than the calyx. Thickets, &c. A. androsemifolium. 2.. Hemp D. or Inpran Hemp. Stem and branches erect or ascending; cymes few- flowered; lobes of the co- rolla not recurved, the tube not longer than the 467 calyx. A. canndbinum. 468. Summit of a plant of Dogbane, eo No.1, with flowers and pods, ' 467, Plowers, enlarged. 468. Flower with the corolla cut away, to show the stamens. 469. The stamens taken away, to show the piatils ; two ovaries, with their two Jarge stigmas united into one mass, #70. A seed, with 118 tuft of long hairs er down at one end, 469 71. MILKWEED FAMILY. Order ASCLEPIADACE. . Plants with milky juice, tough bark, and in other respects like the Dogbane family, but with the 5 short stamens all united by their filaments into a ring or tube, the anthers grown fast to the large stigma, and the grains of pollen in each cell cohering into a waxy or tough mass. Flowers in simple umbels. Pods a pair of many-seeded follicles: seeds furnished with a long tuft of silky down at one end (Fig. 229). The flowers in this family are curious, but are too difficult for the beginier. The two common genera may be distin- guished as follows : — Corolla 5-parted, reflexed: five hoods to the stamens, with a horn in each, (Asclépias) MILKWEED. Corolla, &c. as in Milkweed, but the hoods without any horn, (Acer‘étes) GREEN-MILKWEED. POPULAR FLORA. 189 72. TESSAMINE FAMILY. Order JASMINACES. Shrubby, mostly climbing plants, with opposite and mostly compound (pinnate) leaves, and perfect flowers with a salver-shaped corolla of 5 or more lobes overlapping ‘in the bud, but only 2 stamens. Ovary 2-celled, with 2 or 3 ovules erect from the base of each cell. No wild species; but in gardens and houses we have the common (Jésminum) *JESSAMINE. 73. OLIVE FAMILY. Order OLEACEZ. Shrubs or trees, with opposite leaves; the corolla, when there is any, 4-lobed, and the lobes valvaie (edge to edge) in the bud, but the stamens only 2 and short: sometimes there are 4 distinct petals; and all our species of Ash are without petals. Ovary 2-celled, with 2 ovules hanging from the top of each cell: the fruit often one-celled and one-seeded; either a stone-fruit, as in the Olive and Fringe-tree; a berry, as in Privet; a pod, as in Lilac ; or a key, as in the Ash. Corolla salver-shaped or funnel-shaped, with a 4-lobed border: flowers perfect, in thick panicles. Leaves simple, entire. Corolla salver-shaped with a long tube: fruit a flat 4-seeded pod, (Syringa) *LiLAG. Corolla short, funnel-shaped; fruit a 1- or 2-seeded berry. Low shrub, (Ligustrum) *PRivzr. Corolla of 4 very long and narrow petals, barely united at the bottom. Drupe one-seeded. Low tree or shrub, with simple leaves, and slender drooping panicles of delicate snow-white blossoms, ( Chiondnthus) FRINGE-TREE. Corolla none: even the calyx small or sometimes none: stamens 2, rarely 3 or 4, on the receptacle: fruit a key, winged at the top or all round, one-seeded. Trees, with opposite pinnate leaves, (Frdainus) Asn. Lilac. Syringa. 1. Common Lizac. Leaves more or less heart-shaped; flowers lilac or white, in spring. Cultivated: one of the commonest ornamental shrubs. 8. vulgaris. 2. Persian Litac. Leaves oblong or lance-shaped; clusters more slender. Cultivated. S. Pérsica. Ash. Frézinus. The flowers in all our species appear in early spring, in clusters, and are dicecious, or nearly so. * Key winged from the top only: leaflets stalked. 1. Write Asx. Shoots and stalks smooth; leaflets 7 to 9, pale (smooth or downy) beneath; body of the key marginless and blunt. F. Americana. 2. Rep AsH. Shoots and stalks velvety; leaflets 7 to 9, downy beneath; body of the key 2-edged, acute at the base, the wing long and narrow. F. pubéscens. 8. Green Asn. Smooth throughout; leaflets 6 to 9, green both sides; key as in No. 2. F, viridis. * * Key winged all round, oblong. 4. Buack AsH. Leaflets 7 to 11, sessile; oblong-lanceolate, tapering to a point, green both sides; no calyx to the fertile flowers. Swamps; common N. F. sambucifolia, ‘8. Buus Aso. Branchlets square; leaflets 7 to 9, short-stalked, lance-ovate. W. FF. quadranguldta. 190 POPULAR FLORA. Ill. Apetalous Division. 74. BIRTHWORT FAMILY. Order ARISTOLOCHIACES. Herbs or twining vines, with perfect and large flowers, the tube of the 3-lobed salon " coherent with the 6-celled and many-seeded ovary. Leaves. mostly heart- ts shaped or kidney-shaped, and entire, on long foot- stalks, alternate, or else from the rootstock at the surface of the ground. Lobes of the calyx edge to edge in the bud, usu- ally dull-colored. 471. Plant of Canada Asarum or Wild-Ginger, in flower. 472. Magui- Ged flower divided lengthwise, and the calyx spread out flat. 473. Flower, with the.lobes of the calyx cut away, and the ovary cut across. 474. Aeep- arate stamen, more magnified ; outside view. 475. Magnified seed divided , lengthwise. Stemless herbs, with a pair of leaves and a flower between them from the spicy-tasted "and creeping rootstock: calyx short, 3-cleft or 3-lobed; stamens 12, with filaments, which are united only with the base of the thick 6-lobed style, and are pointed above the anthers, (dsarum) Witp-GincER. Twining shrubs or else low herbs: calyx.a crooked tube, with narrow throat and a slightly 3-lobed spreading border: stamens 6, sessile on the outside of the 3 lobes of the sessile stigma, i.e. two anthers or 4 cells to each lobe, attached to the stigma by their whole length: fruit a 6-valved pod, filled with numerous flat seeds, 3 (Aristolochia). Brrtaworr. Birthwort. Aristolochia. 1. Syaxenoot B. or Virernta SNAKEROOT. Herb 8! to 15' high; several stems from a tufted root, downy; flowers borne next the ground, in general shape much like the letter S; leaves oblong- heart-shaped or halberd-shaped. Rich woods; becoming scarce. A. serpentaria. 8. Pipz-ving B. A tall woody climber, with rounded kidney-shaped leaves, 8! or 12' broad when full grown; flower 14! ‘long, curved like a Dutch pipe; greenish outside, and with the short 8-lobed border brown-purple within. Alleghany Mountains, or near them; and cultivated for arbors. A, Sipho. POPULAR FLORA. 191 75. MIRABILIS FAMILY. Order NYCTAGINACER, Has some wild representatives far west and south, viz.: OxyBapuus, &c., with several flowers in a calyx-like involucre, the funnel-shaped calyx rose-purple, and éxactly like a corolla. And in gardens MiraBiiis or Four-o’Ciocx (so called from the flowers opening late in the afternoon) is common. Here there is only one flower in the bell-shapéd invo- lucre, which exactly imitates a calyx, while the large funnel-shaped calyx is just like the corolla of a Morning-Glory. Stamens 5: style one. Leaves opposite, heart-shaped, long- stalked. The Common Four-o’CLock or Mrrasiis, from Mexico, well known in gardens, is M. Jalipe 76. POKEWEED FAMILY. Order PHYTOLACCACEM, Is represented with us by one, and that a very common, species of Pokeweed. Phytoldcca. Sepals 5, rounded, concave, petal-like, white. Stamens 10, under the ovary. Ovary green, composed of 10 one- seeded ovaries united into one: styles 10, short and separate. Fruit a dark crimson 10-seeded berry. A coarse rank herb, with a thick, acrid, and poisonous root, a large pithy stem, and alternate oblong leaves; the flowers in racemes opposite the leaves. Low and rich ground, everywhere common; flowering all summer, ripening its abundant berries in autumn. P. decandra. 476, Summit of a flowering branch of Poke- weed. 477. Pruit-bearing branch. 478. A flower, enlarged. 479. Young fruit. 480. Same, cut acroas, 481. Seed divided lengthwise, and magnified. 482. Embryo, more magnified. 77. GOOSEFOOT FAMILY. Order CHENOPODIACES. Homily herbs, with mostly alternate leaves, without’ stipules, and no dry scaly bracts among the small and greenish flowers ; the calyx enclosing the one-celled and one-seeded 192 POPULAR FLORA. ovary, but not adhering to it, and bearing from one to five stamens. Styles 2 to 5, short. Weeds (several called Pigwreps), abounding in cultivated or waste grounds, and some are pot-herbs. The small flowers and fruits make them too difficult for the beginner. The following key will lead the student to the name of the principal common kinds. Leafless fleshy herbs, in salt marshes, with perfect flowers in fleshy spikes, (Salicdrnia) SAMPHIRE. Leafy herbs, with broad or broadish, generally tender leaves, not prickly: calyx wingless. Flowers perfect. In clusters or spiked heads: calyx becoming berry-like, altogether making a strawberry-like red pulpy fruit, (Blitum) Bure. In small sessile clusters collected in spikes or panicles: calyx dry and herba- ceous. Akene thick and hard, below adherent to the calyx. Leaves smooth, (Beta) *BEEr. Akene very thin and breaking away from the seed. Leaves often mealy. Pigweeds, ( Chenopédium) GoosEFoor. Flowers moncecious: the fertile ones single in the axils of the leaves. Sea-coast, and one rarely cultivated as a pot-herb, (A‘iplex) ORACHE. Flowers dicecious, in spiked clusters: calyx over the fruit, with 2 to 4 horns or pro- jections: leaves arrow-shaped, (Spinacia) *SPINAcH. Leafy and much-branched plants on the sea-shore; the leaves awl-shaped and prickly- tipped: flowers perfect: calyx winged in fruit, (Salsdla) Satrworr. 78. AMARANTH FAMILY. Order AMARANTACES. Herbs, much like the last family in almost every character, except that the flowers are furnished with 3 or more dry and scale-like thin bracts: these are sometimes brightly colored, so as to make showy clusters or bunches, and, being dry, they do not wither after blossoming. The little one-seeded pod in many cases is a pyxis (242), that is, it opens round the middle, the upper part falling off, as a lid. The common species belong mainly to two genera : — 483, Puil of Am- * dranth opening by Flowers in spiked or panicled clusters, terminal or axillary: stamens 5 or 8, separate: 4 lid. little pod opening by a lid. To this belongs one kind of Piawzen, and the Prince's FEATHER, LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING, CoxcomB, &c., in gardens and enriched soil, (Amardntus) AMARANTH. Flowers in a head: stamens 5, monadelphous, and the filaments 8-cleft, the middle lobe bearing the anther, (Gomphréna) *GLOBE-AMARANTH. 79. BUCKWHEAT FAMILY. Order POLYGONACEZ. Herbs with alternate entire leaves, and. mostly perfect flowers; with a calyx of 4 to 6 sepals (separate or united at the base), and 3 to 9 stamens inserted on its base: ovary one- celled making a one-seeded akene; its styles or stigmas 2 or 3. Besides, this family may always be known by the stipules which form a sheath above each joint (asin Fig. 137). The watery juice is often sour, as in Rhubarb and Sorrel, sometimes sharp and biting. POPULAR FLORA, 193 Calyx of 5 (rarely 4) nearly similar sepals, all more or less petal-like. Stamens 4 to 9: akene generally small:. cotyledons narrow, (Polygonwm) KnotwEEp. Stamens §: styles 3: akene triangular, shaped like a beechnut, much longer than the calyx: cotyledons very broad and folded in the mealy albumen: root annual: leaves nearly halberd-shaped: flowers white, corymbed, (Fagopyrum) *BuckwHeEat. Calyx of 6 sepals, and All alike and petal-like (white): stamens 9: styles 3, (Rheum) *RHUBARB. Three outer ones herbaceous and spreading: three inner larger, especially after flow- ering, when they close over the triangular akene: flowers dicecious: leaves ‘ sour, eared or halberd-shaped, (Rumex, § Acetosclla) SorREL. Flowers perfect or polygamous: leaves bitter: coarse herbs, (Rumez) Dock. Knotweed. Polygonum. ® Flowers single or several together in the axils of the leaves, greenish or whitish: sheaths (stipules) cut-fringed or torn into narrow shreds. 1. Common Kxorwerp, Kyorerass, or Goosecrass. Spreading‘on the pround, small; leaves sessile, lance-shaped or oblong, pale; a variety has nearly upright stems and oblong or oval leaves. The commonest weed in yards and waste places. P. aviculare. 2. SLENDER K. Upright, somewhat branched; leaves linear, acute, sheaths fringed. Dry soil. P. ténue. * * Flowers in terminal heads, spikes, or racemes. + Not twining nor climbing, and leaves not heart-shaped nor arrow-shaped: calyx petal-like and 5-parted, except in No. 10. 3. OrrenTaL K. or Prince’s Fearuer. Tall annual, 4° to 7° high; leaves ovate; spikes of rose- colored flowers long and nodding; stamens 7; akene flattish. Gardens. P, orientale. 4. Warer K. Stems floating j in water, or rooting in mud, or upright; leaves lance-shaped or oblong; spike thick and short; flowers rose-red; stamens 5; styles 2. P. amphibium. 5. PENNSYLVANIA K. Stem upright, 1° to 8° high; leaves lance-shaped; spike oblong, thick, erect, its peduncle beset with club-shaped bristles.or glands; flowers rose-colored; stamens 8; akene flat. Moist ground. P. Pennsylvdnicum. 6. Lapy’s-Tnums K. Stems, &c. like the last and next, but no bristles on the peduncle; leaves with a darker spot on the upper side; spike short and thick, erect; flowers greenish-purple; stamens 6. Very common in waste places. P. Persicaria. 7. SMARTWEED or WATER-PEPPER K. Upright, annual, 1° or 2° high, very acrid and biting to the taste; leaves and also the greenish sepals marked with fine transparent dots; spikes short but loose, drooping; akene flattish or bluntly triangular. Moist ground, common in waste places, yards, and near dwellings. P. Hydrop\per. 8 Witp SmartweErD K. Upright, 1° to 8° high from a perennial root, biting like the last, and the. leaves dotted; spikes very slender, erect, whitish or flesh-color; stamens 8; styles 3; akene sharply, triangular. Wet, places. P. acre. 9. Miwp Water-Perrer K. Upright, 1° to 8° high; often creeping at the base and rooting in water; leaves roughish, not biting, narrowly lance-shaped; spikes slender, erect, rose-color; stamens 8; style 3-cleft at the top; akene sharply triangular. Shallow water. P. hydropiper ‘ordes. 10. VirointaA K. Stem 2° to 4° high, angled; leaves large, ovate or lance-ovate, taper- pointed ; flow- 194 POPULAR FLORA, / ers scattered in a long and naked slender spike; calyx greenish, 4-parted; stamens 5; styles 2, bent down in fruit. Thickets. ; P. Virginianum. 4- + Somewhat climbing, or supported by recurved sharp prickly bristles on the strong angles of the : stems, &c.; flowers white or flesh-color in small racemes or heads; root annual. The prickly angles cut like a saw, whence the plants are called Tear-Thumb. 11. ARRow-LEAVED K. Leaves arrow-shaped (Fig. 100), short-stalked; akene 3-angled. P. sagittatum. 12. HALBERD-LEAVED K. Leaves halberd-shaped (Fig. 102), long-stalked ; akene flattish. Low grounds. P. arifolium. + + + Twining annuals, with smooth stems and greenish or whitish flowers in panicled racemes; leaves heart-shaped and partly halberd-shaped. 13. Crimpine K. Smooth, climbing high over shrubs, &c.; racemes leafy; 8 of the calyx-lobes more _ or less winged in fruit. Thickets in low ground. P. dumetorum. 14. BispwxrEp K. Low, stems roughish; racemes corymbed; three of the calyx-lobes ridged in the middle. Cult. and waste grounds. P. Convélvulus. 80. LAUREL FAMILY. Order LAURACEA. Trees or shrubs, with spicy bark and leaves; the latter marked with transparent dots under a magnifying-glass, alternate and simple; the calyx of 6 petal-like sepals. Stamens 9 or 12 on the very bot- tom of the calyx; the anthers opening by up- lifted valves. Pistil sim- ple, with a one-celled ovary, in fruit forming a berry or drupe, one- seeded. Flowers gener- ally polygamous or dic- cious in spring.— A very: ° well-marked family, most- ly in hot countries, but. 484, Sterile flower of Sassafras. 485. Fertile flower of the same. 485. Méguified stamen, WE POSSESS two or three with two glands at the base, the anther opening by two large and two smallvalves 487 Pistil, . with the ovary divided to show the ovule hangiug from the top. 488, Leaf and cluster of fruit. representatives. 489, Lower half of fruit, cut across, Flowers perfect : stamens 9, with good anthers, and 3 sterile ones. Tree, with entire oblong leaves; common South, (Persea) Rep-Bay. Flowers dicecious or nearly so, greenish-yellow: stamens 9, about 3 of them with yel- low glands at the base of the filaments (Fig. 486). Anthers 4-celled and 4-valved. Tree: flowers in stalked corymbs, appearing with the leaves; some of the latter 8-lobed, (Sassafras) SASSAFRAS. Anthers 2-celled and opening by a single valve to each cell. Shrub: flowers in ses- sile clusters, appearing earlier than the entire leaves, (Bénzvin) SprceBusH. POPULAR FLORA. 195 | 81. MEZEREUM FAMILY. Order THYMELEACER. . Shrubs, with very tough and acrid bark; entire generally alternate leaves; and perfect flowers, with a tubular calyx colored like a co- rolla, bearing 8 or 10 stamens, free from the simple pistil. Ovary one- celled, one-ovuled, mak- ing a berry in fruit.—We have one wild plant of the family ; Daphne Me- zereum is a hardy low shrub in gardens, and D. odora in houses. Flowers appearing earlier than the leaves. enoolt ML. Busch yeh folices and fruit. 492, A flower, magnified. 493. Same, more magnified, the calyx laid open. Calyx salver-shaped or funnel-shaped, generally rose-color, the border 4-lobed: stamens 8, in two sets, included; filaments hardly any, (Daphne) #*DAPHNE. Calyx tubular, pale yellow, with no spreading border, obscurely 4-toothed: stamens 8, with long protruded filaments, . (Dirca) LEATHERWOOD. 82. NETTLE FAMILY. Order URTICACEA. Moneecious, dicecious, or barely polygamous herbs, shrubs, or trees, with stipules, and a regular calyx, free from the ovary, which forms a one-seeded fruit. Divides into four dis- tinct subfamilies which might be reckoned as families, viz.: — I. ELM Susramity. Trees, with alternate simple leaves, and polygamous or often nearly perfect flowers: styles or long stigmas 2. 7 Ovary 2-celled, a hanging ovule in each cell: stamens 4 to 9. Flowers earlier than the leaves. Fruit a thin key, winged all round, one-seeded (Fig. 207), (Ulmus) Eu. Ovary one-celled, with one hanging ovule: stamens 5 or 6. Fruit asmalldrupe. Leaves ovate or heart-shaped, (Celtis) HACKBERRY. I. BREADFRUIT Susramrty. Trees, with a milky or colored juice, and alternate leaves; the flowers in heads or catkin-like spikes, the fertile ones fleshy in fruit, or both kinds in a fleshy receptacle. Styles 1 or 2: ovary becoming an akene in fruit. Inner bark often tough and fibrous. Flowers, of both kinds mixed, enclosed in a pear-shaped fleshy receptacle like a rose-hip which is pulpy when ripe, (Ficus) *Fie. 196 POPULAR FLORA. Flowers moneecious, both kinds in separate catkin-like spikes; the calyx, &c. in the fer- tile sort becoming fleshy and eatable, making a berried multiple fruit (248, Fig. 223). Stamens 4. Styles 2, (Morus) MuLBEeRRyY. Flowers dicecious: the fertile ones collected in a close and round head which is fleshy in fruit. Stamens 4. Style 1. Sterile flowers in spikes. Leaves round-ovate or heart-shaped, rough above, soft- downy beneath, some of them palmately lobed, (Broussonétia) *PAPER-MULBERRY. Sterile flowers in racemes. Leaves oblong, smooth above, entire; branchlets spiny, (Maclira) *OsacE-ORANGE. Tl. NETTLE Supramity. Herbs (in this country), with opposite or alternate leaves, a tough fibrous bark, and a colorless juice. Flowers moneecious or dicecious, in spikes, racemes, &c., not in catkins. Stamens of the same number as the sepals. Ovary one-celled, and style or stigma only one; fruit an akene. ; Plants beset with stinging bristles. : Leaves opposite: sepals 4 in both kinds of flowers: stigma a little tuft, (Urtica) Nettie. Leaves alternate: sepals 5 in the sterile, 4 unequal or 2 in the fertile, flowers: stigma _ awl-shaped, (Lapértea) Woov-NETTLE. Plants destitute of stinging hairs, and ‘ Very smooth: leaves opposite: sepals 3 or 4, separate: stigma a tuft, (Pilea) CLEARWEED. Smooth or hairy: leaves often alternate: calyx in the fertile flowers cup with a narrow mouth enclosing the ovary. Stigma long and thread-shaped: flower-clusters naked, in spikes, (Behméria) FALsE-NETTLE. Stigma a little tuft: flowers in axillary cymes or clusters, accompanied by leafy bracts, : (Parietaria) PELUITORY. “IV. HEMP Susraminy. Herbs, with dicecious flowers, a colorless juice, fibrous tough bark, and opposite, or sometimes alternate, palmately-lobed or compound roughish leaves. Sterile flowers in compound -racemes or panicles, with 5 sepals and 5 stamens. Fertile flowers crowded, and with only one sepal, which embraces the ovary and akene: stigmas 2, long. Herb erect, annual: leaves of 5 to 7 lance-shaped toothed leaflets. Stamens drooping. Fertile flowers in spiked clusters, each with a narrow bract, ( Cinnabis) Hemp. Herb twining: root perennial: leaves heart-shaped and lobed. Fertile flowers in short and scaly catkins, with broad and thin bracts, in fruit making a sort of membranaceous cone, (Hihulus) Hor. 83. PLANE-TREE FAMILY. Order PLATANACEA. This consists only of the genus Plane-Tree. Pldtanus. Flowers moneecious, in separate round catkin-like heads. No calyx nor corolla to either kind. Sterile flowers consisting of short stamens and club-shaped scales intermixed: fertile flowers, of little scales and ovaries, which become club-shaped akenes, covered below with long hairs. Style awl- shaped, simple. Trees, with oolanikss Cia alternate palmately-lobed leaves and sheathing stipules. Only one species in this country, viz. AMERICAN P., SYCAMORE, or Nees A well-known tree by river-banks. P. occidentalis. POPULAR FLORA. 197 84. WALNUT FAMILY. Order JUGLANDACER. Timber and nut trees, with alternate pinnate leaves, no stipules; the sterile flowers in hanging catkins and with an irregular calyx; the fertile ones single or few together at the end of ashoot; their calyx coherent with the ovary, and 4 -toothed at its summit. Fruit akind of sonatas the outer part. becoming dry when ripe, and forming a husk, the stone incompletely 2-celled or 4-celled, but with only one ovule and seed. The whole kernel is a great embryo, with the cotyledons separated, lobed, and crumpled. — Only two genera : — : Catkins of the sterile flowers single; the bracts or scales united with the calyx: stamens 8 to 40. Fertile flowers with 4 small petals between the teeth of the calyx: short styles and stigmas 2, fringed: husk of the fruit thin, and not separating into valves or regular pieces. Bark and bruised leaves PaenE eee and staining brown. Leaf- buds nearly naked, (Juglans) WaLnur. Catkins 3 or more on one peduncle: stamens 3 to 8; anthers almost sessile. No petals in the fertile flowers: stigma large, 4-lobed. Husk of the fruit splitting into four pieces or valves, which separate from the smooth stone or shell. Wood ‘very hard and tough. Leaf-buds scaly (Fig. 55), (Carya) Hiexory. Walnut. Juglans. 1. Brack Watnut. Leaves and stalks smoothish; leaflets many, lance-ovate, taper-pointed; fruit round, the thin husk drying on the very rough stone. Common W. J. nigra. 2. BurTerNut, or GRAY-BARKED W. Leaves, stalks, and oblong fruit clammy-downy when young, the stone with more ragged ridges, and tree smaller than No. 1. J. cinerea. 8. TRUE or ENciiso W. Smooth; leaflets only about 9, oblong; fruit round; husk separating from the thin and nearly smooth stone. Cultivated, from the South of Europe. J. regia. Hickory. Cirya. * Fruit and stone round or roundish. 1. SHacBark H. (also called SHELLBARK or SwEEer H.) Bark on the trunk shaggy and scaling off; leaflets generally 5, three of them lance-obovate, the lower pair smaller and oblong-lanceolate, finely serrate; husk thick; stone roundish, thick or thin; seed very sweet: furnishes the hickory- nuts of fhe market. C. alba. 2. Mockernur H. Bark cracked on the larger trunks ; leaflets 7 to 9, roughish-downy beneath, slightly serrate, oblong-lanceolate; catkins hairy; husk and stone very thick; seed sweetish but small. Common S. and W. C. tomentosa. 8. Pignut H. Bark close and smooth; leaflets 5 to 7, smooth, lance-ovate, serrate; fruit pear-shaped or obovate, the husk and stone rather thin; seed sweetish or bitterish, small. C. glabra. 4. Birrernut or Swamp H. - Bark of trunk smooth; buds little scaly: leaflets 7 to 11, lance-oblong, smooth; husk and stone of the fruit thin-and tender; seed very bitter. Wet woods. C. amara. * * Fruit and thin stone narrowly oblong: husk thin. 5. Pecan-nut H. Leaflets 18 or 15, oblong-lanceolate, oblique, serrate; stone olive-shaped, thin; seed very sweet. W.&S. C. olive formis. 198 POPULAR FLORA. 85. OAK FAMILY. Order CUPULIFERA. Trees or shrubs, with alternate and simple straight-veined leaves, deciduous stipules, and moneecious flowers; the sterile flowers in slender catkins (or in head-like clusters in the Beech) ; the fertile flowers surrounded with an involucre which forms a cup, bur, or bag around the nut. - Fertile flowers scattered, or 2 or 8 together, their Involucre one-flowered, of many little scales, forming a cup around the base of the hard and roundish nut or acorn (Fig. 205), ( Quercus) Oak. Involucre confhining 2 or 3 flowers, becoming a very prickly and closed bur enclos- ing the nuts, and splitting into 4 thick pieces. Nuts 1 to 8, roundish or flattish, thin-shelled. Sterile catkinsong, (Castanea) Cuesryut. Nuts 2, sharply 8-angled. Sterile catkins like a head-like cluster, (Fagus) BrEcu. Involucre a leafy cup, lobed or torn’at the end, longer than the bony nut, ( Cérylus) Hazeu. Fertile flowers also collected in a kind of catkin. Nut small like an akene. Involucre an open 8-lobed leaf, 2-flowered, ( Carpinus) HorNBEAM. Involucre a closed bladdery bag, one-flowered, the whole catkin making a fruit like a hop in general appearance, (Ostrya) Hor-HorneEam. Oak. Quercus. * Acorn ripening the first year, therefore borne on shoots of the season: cups stalked, except in No. 2: kernel generally sweet-tasted. 1. Overcup or Bur OaK. Leaves obovate, sinuate-pinnatifid, whitish-downy beneath; acorn 1’ or 1#! long, in a deep cup with a mossy-fringed border. Q. macrocarpa. 2. Posr Oax. Leaves oblong, pale and rough above, grayish-downy beneath, pinnatifid, with 5 to 7 ‘ blunt lobes; cup saucer-shaped, much shorter than the acorn. Small tree. Q. obtusilobda. 3. Wuire OAK. Leaves smooth when full grown, pale beneath, pinnatifid; the lobes 5 to 9, oblong or linear, entire; cup much shorter than the oval or oblong acorn. Rich woods. — Q. alba. 4. Swamp CuEstnuT-Oak. Leaves obovate, ‘whitish-downy beneath, coarsely and bluntly toothed or sinuate; cup thick, hemispherical, with stout or pointed scales; acorn oval, l' long. Q. Prinus. 5. YELLow CuEstNnut-Oaxk. Leaves lance-oblong, or oblong, acute, whitish, but scarcely downy beneath, rather sharply and evenly toothed; cup thin, and acorn smaller than in No. 4. Rich woods. _ Q. Castanea. 6. CHINQUAPIN OAK. Much like No. 4, but a mere shrub, 2° to 6° high, with a thin cup and a smaller acorn. Sandy, barren soil. Q. prinoides. * * Acorn ripening in the autumn of the second year; ripe fruit therefore on wood two years old, sessile: kernel bitter. + Leaves entire or nearly so, narrow. 7. Live OaK. Leaves thick, evergreen, hoary beneath, oblong, small. Sea-coast, 8. Q. virens. 8. Wrttow Oak. Leaves light green, smooth, lance-linear, tapering, 3! or 4’ long. S.& W. Q. Pheilos. 9. SHINGLE or LaurzEL Oak. Leaves shining above, rather downy beneath, lance-obiong, thickish; cup saucer-shaped; acorn globular. Common S. & W. Q. tmbricaria. ta POPULAR FLORA. 199 + 1~ Leaves or some of them a little lobed, broader upwards. 10. WaTER Oax. Leaves smooth and shining, spatulate or wedge-obovate, with a tapering base; cup very short; acorn globular. Swamps, S. Q. aquitica. 11. Buack-Jack Oag. Leaves thick and large, broadly wedge-shaped, and with 8 or 5 obscure lobes at the summit, shining above, rusty-downy beneath, the lobes or teeth bristle-pointed. Small tree, in barrens. Q. nigra. + + + Leaves pinnatifid or lobed, long-stalked, the lobes or teeth bristle-pointed. 12. Bear or ScrusB OAK. Leaves wedge-obovate, slightly about 5-lobed, whitish-downy beneath. A crooked shrub, 8° to 8° high; in barrens and rocky woods. e Q. ilicifolia. 13. Spanish Oak. Leaves grayish-downy beneath, narrow above, and with 8 to 6 irregular and nar- row often curved lobes; acorn very short. Dry soil, S. & E. A fine tree. Q. falcata. 14. QuERcITRON OAK. Leaves rusty-downy when young, becoming nearly smooth when old, oblong- obovate, sinuate-pinnatifid; cup top-shaped, coarse-scaly; acorn globular or depressed. Large tree; the inner bark thick and yellow, used for dyeing. Q. tinctoria. 15. ScaRLET Oak. Very like the last, but the oval or oblong leaves smooth and shining, deeply pin- natifid (turning deep scarlet in autumn), the lobes cut-toothed; acorn rather longer than wide. Large tree, common in rich woods. Q. coccinea. 16. Rep Oak. Leaves smooth, pale beneath, oblong or rather obovate, with 4 to 6 short lobes on each side; acorn oblong-oval, 1! long, with w short saucer-shaped one of fine scales. Common tree in rocky woods, &c. Q. rubra. 17. Pin or Swamr SpanisH Oax. Leaves smooth and bright green on both sides, deeply pin- natifid, oblong ; the lobes diverging, cut and toothed, acute; acorn globular, only }! long. Low grounds, N. Q. palistris. .86. BIRCH FAMILY. Order BETULACEZ. Moneecious trees, with simple serrate leaves, and both kinds of flowers in scaly catkins (Fig. 146), two or three blossoms under each scale. Sterile flowers each with 4 stamens ~ and a small calyx: fertile flowers with a 2-celled ovary bearing 2 long stigmas, and in fruit becoming a scale-like akene or small key. Only two genera : — Sterile flowers with a calyx of one scale: fertile flowers 3 under each 3-lobed bract; each ‘consisting of a naked ovary, in fruit becoming a broad-winged little key. Bark and twigs aromatic, (Bétula) Breen. Sterile flowers generally with a 4-parted calyx: fertile catkins short and thick, with hard scales, not falling off: fruit generally wingless, ' (Alnus) ALDER. Birch. Betula. 1. Ware Brren. A small and slender tree, with white outer bark; leaves triangular, very taper- pointed, on long and slender stalks. Common E. B. alba. 2. Paper B. A large tree, with white outer bark, peeling off in papery layers, and ovate or heart- shaped leaves. Common N. B. papyraced. 3, River B. Tree, with ovate and angled acutish leaves, on short stalks, a brownish close bark, and short woolly fertile catkins. Common 8. & W. "Ba nigra. 200 POPULAR FLORA. 4, CuEerry or Swert B. Tree, with heart-ovate and pointed leaves, downy on the veins beneath, and a close bark, bronze-colored on the twigs, which are spicy-tasted, like the foliage of Check- erberry. Common N. B. lenta. 87. SWEET-GALE FAMILY. Order MYRICACEZ. Shrubs (generally low), with fragrant alternate leaves; and with catkins much as in the Birch family, but short and with only one naked blossom under each scale; the ovary forming a little nut or dry drupe. Flowers moncecious: fertile catkins round and bur-like: fruit a smooth little nut. Leaves lance-linear, pinnatifid. Fern-like, whence the common name, (Comptonia) SWEET-FERN. Flowers dicecious: scales of the fertile catkins falling off, and leaving only the small round fruits, which are incrusted with wax, and so appear like drupes. Leaves entire or serrate, (Myrica). One species in wet grounds, N., with wedge-lanceolate pale leaves, (HM. Gale) Sweerr-Ga.e. One on the sea-coast with lance-oblong, shining leaves, and waxy fruit, (Mf. cerifera) BAYBERRY. 88. WILLOW FAMILY. Order SALICACEZ. ; Diecious trees or shrubs, with both kinds of blossoms in catkins (often earlier than the foliage); the flowers naked (without any calyx or corolla), one sort of two or more stamens under a scaly bract; the other of a one-celled pistil with two styles or stigmas, making a many-seeded pod: the seeds bearing a long tuft of down. Leaves alternate and simple: wood soft and light: bark bitter.— The Willows are of very many species, and ‘are much too difficult for the beginner. 494. Shoot and catkin of sterile flowers of the Com- mon White Willow. 495. A scale separated, with its flower, consisting of two stamens and a little gland, magnified, 496. Shoot and fertile catkin of the same. sth / Pistillate flower with its ecale and gland, mag- nified. Scales of the catkins entire: stamens 2 to 6: stigmas short: leaves narrow, (Saliz) Wittow. Scales of the catkins cut-lobed: stamens 8 to 40: stigmas long: leaves broad. Scaly leaf- buds covered with a resinous varnish, (Pépulus) Porptar POPULAR FLORA. 201 89. PINE FAMILY. Order CONIFERZ. The only familiar family of Gymnospermous plants (218, 250), consisting of trees or shrubs, with resinous juice, mostly awl-shaped or needle-shaped leaves, and moncecious or dicecious flowers of a very simple sort, and collected in catkins, except in Yew. In that the fertile flower is single at the end of the branch. No calyx nor corolla, and no proper pistil. Ovules and seeds naked. Sterile flowers of a few stamens or anthers, fixed to & scale. Cotyledons often more than one pair, some- times as many as 9 or 12, in a whorl. — For illustrations, see Fig. 49, 50, 134, 196, 197, 224 to 226, and 498, 499.— This family comprises some of our most important timber-trees, and the principal evergreen forest-trees of Northern climates. It 498. Fertile fowers, or young cone, consists of three well-marked subfamilies : — lew ol one od coe aeloninuts poe view of one of the scales and its pair of naked ovules, more magnified. I. PINE Susraminy. Fertile flowers many in a catkin, which in fruit becomes a strobile or cone (250); the scales of which are open pistils (each in the axil of a bract), with a pair of ovules or seeds borne on the base of each. Seeds scaling off with a wing. Cones ovate or oblong. Leaf-buds scaly. Flowers moncecious. Leaves 2 to 5 in a cluster, from the axil of a thin scale, evergreen, needle-shaped. Cone with thick or sometimes thin scales, (Pinus) Prine. Leaves many in a cluster (Fig. 184) on side spurs, and also scattered along the shoots of the season, needle-shaped, falling in autumn. Cone with thin scales, (Lariz) Larcn. Leaves all scattered along the shoots, evergreen, linear or needle-shaped. Cone with thin’ scales, (Abies) Frr. Il. CYPRESS Susramity. Fertile flowers few, in a rounded catkin, formed of scales which are generally thickened at the top, and without any bracts, bearing one or more ovules at the bottom. Leaves scale-like or awl-shaped. Leaf-buds without any scales. Flowers moneecious. Cone dry, opening at maturity. Leaves deciduous and delicate, linear, 2-ranked. Cone round and woody, each shield- shaped scale 2-seeded, (Taxodium) Baup-CyYPREss. Leaves evergreen, small, scale-like and awl-shaped (of two shapes), Cone woody and round; the scales shield-shaped, — ( Cupréssus) CYPRESS.* Cone of a few oblong and nearly flat loose scales (Fig. 498), (Thuja) ArBor-viTa.* Flowers dicecious, or sometimes moncecious. Fruit composed of a few closed scales, which become pulpy and form a sort of false berry, (Juniperus) JUNIPER. Il. YEW Susraminy. Buds scaly: leaves linear. Fertile flower single at the end of a branch, ripening into a nut-like seed. This is enclosed in an open and at length pulpy, berry-like red cup, in our only genus, viz. (Taxus) Yew. * Our only Cupressus is C. thyoides, the WatrE CxDAR, rather common South. The ARBOR-vIT#, Thuja occidentalis, so common North, and cultivated for evergreen hedges, is also called WHITE CEDAR. Our Rep Cepar is a Juniper. 202 POPULAR FLORA. Pine. Pinus. : * Leaves 2 or 8 in a sheath, rigid: bark of tree rough: scales of the cones woody, thickened on the back at the end, and commonly tipped with a prickly point. 1. Jersey or Scorus Pine. Leaves in twos, only about 2’ long. A straggling-tree, S. & E. P. inops. 2. Rep Prine (wrongly called Norway Pine); leaves in twos, 5! or 6! long; scales of the cones not pointed. A large tree, N. P. resinosa. 8. YELLOW Pine. Leaves slender, in twos or threes, 3! to 5! long; cones small, their scales tipped with a weak prickly point. P. mitis. 4. Pircn Pine. Leaves rigid, dark green, in threes, 8' to 5! long; cones with a stout prickly point (Fig. 224). Common N. P. rigida. 45. LOBLOLLY Prinz. Leaves in threes, 6! to 10’ long, light green; cones 8! to 5'long. Light or ex- hausted soil. S. P. Teda. 6, LonG-LEAVED Prinz. Leaves in threes, 8 to 11! long, dark green; cones 6! to 8’ long. Common S.& E. 7 P. australis. * * Leaves 5 together, slender: bark of young tree smooth: scales of cone naked and not thickened. 7. Wurre Ping. Leaves pale green; cones narrow, 4! or 5! long, hanging. A large tree, in moist woods North, with soft light wood. P. Strobus, Larch. Larix. 1. AmeRicAN LarcH or Tamarack. Leaves very slender, short; cones not over 1' long, of few rounded scales. Swamps, N. L. Americana. 2. EuRoPEAN Larcu. A cultivated tree, with longer leaves and much larger cones than our wild species, the scales three times as many. L. Europea. Fir or Spruce. Abies. : * Cones upright on short side-shoots, falling into pieces when ripe, the scales separating from the axis; leaves flat, becoming more or less 2-ranked, whitish beneath. 1. Batsam Fir. Leaves narrowly linear; cones cylindrical, 8! or 4' long, 1! thick, bluish. Damp woods and swamps, N. A. balsimea. * * Cones hanging from the ends of branches, not falling to pieces. 2, Hemiockx Spruce. Leaves linear, flat, 4! long, 2-ranked; cones oval, #/ long. Hills. A. Canadénsis. 8. BLack Spruce. Leaves needle-shaped, 4-sided, not 2-ranked, uniformly green; cones ovate, 1! to 14! long, with thin edged scales. Swamps and cold woods. A. nigra, 4, WmirE or SincLE Spruce. Cones oblong-cylindrical, 1' or 2! long, the scales with thickish edges: otherwise nearly like the last: found only at the North. A, alba. 5. Norway Spruce. Cones cylindrical, 5! to 7! long; leaves longer than in our wild speciés. A handsomer tree, from Europe, now commonly planted as an evergreen. A, excélsa. Juniper. Juniperus. 1. Common Junrrer. Shrub spreading; leaves in whorls of three, linear-awl-shaped, prickly-pointed, green beneath, white above; berries dark purple. Dry hills, N. J. comminis. 2, Savin J. or Rep Cepar. Shrub or tree; leaves small and much crowded, awl-shaped and loose on vigorous shoots; on others smaller, scale-like, and closely overlying each other in 4 ranks; berries purplish with a white bloom. Dry hills. Wood reddish, very durable. J. Virginiana. POPULAR FLORA. 203 CLASS II.—ENDOGENS OR MONOCOTYLEDONS. Stem having the wood in threads or bundles, interspersed among the pith or cellular part, not forming a ring or layer, and not increasing by annual layers. ° Leaves parallel-veined, not branching an@ forming meshes of network. To this some Arums, Trillium, Greenbrier, &c. are exceptions, having more or less netted veins. 504 500. Endogenous stem of one year old, shown in aCorn-stalk. 601. One of several years old, of Palmetto. Parallel-veined leaves of the two kinds: 502. that of Lily of the Valley ; 503. one of Callan 504. Magnified eeetlopiel the seed of Iris, showing the small monocotyledonous embryo, 605. Plantlet of Iris growing from the seed. Flowers with their parts mostly three or six, never five. Embryo monocotyledonous, i. e. of only one true seed-leaf: so in germination the leaves are all alternate or one above another. ‘ Except the Palmetto and one or two Yuccas at the South (Fig. 79), and some Greenbriers, all the Endogens of this country are herbs. In warmer climates there are many Palms and other woody plants of the class, all having an appearance very different from our common trees and shrubs (113, 114). 14 204 POPULAR FLORA. KEY TO THE FAMILIES OR ORDERS OF CLASS IL I. Spadiceous Division. Flowers collected on a spadix (184), i. e. sessile and crowded ino spike or head on a thickened axis, and with or without a spathe or enwrapping bract (185). Trees or shrubs, with simple stems; the flowers having calyx and corolla, Patm Famizy, 205 Herbs, the small and crowded flowers either nafted or with a small perianth. Spadix surrounded by a large spathe: flowers generally naked: fruit a berry, Spadix without a spathe: perianth of 6 pieces, } Spadix without any proper spathe: perianth none: fruit an akene, Cat-rarn F. 206 Spadix (as it might be called) raised above a small spathe, covered with blue and tubular, 6-lobed flowers. Belongs to the next division, PICKEREL-WEED F. 208 Arum F. 205 II. Petaloideous Division. Flowers not on a spadix and not enclosed by glumes or chaffy or scale- like bracts (as in Grasses and Sedges), but having a calyx and corolla, or a 6-leaved or 6-lobed (rarely 4-leaved) perianth colored like a corolla. Perianth free from the ovary, that is, inserted underneath the ovary, and Of 8 green or greenish sepals and 8 distinct and colored petals. Pistils many, in a ring or a head, making akenes, WatTeER-PLANTAIN F. 206 Pistil 1: styles or sessile stigmas 3. Leaves whorled, veiny, Tritiiom F. 206 Pistil and slender style 1: leaves alternate, parallel-veined, SPIDERWoRT F. 207 Of mostly 6 petal-like leaves in two ranks, three outside and three inside, or else 6- (rarely 4-) lobed, all colored alike. Stamens only 8, or 6 and the three on one side of the flower much shorter than the rest, PICKEREL-WEED F. 208 Stamens 6, or as many as the divisions of the perianth, all alike. Anthers turned outwards, i. v. on the outer side of the filament. Leaves in whorls: flowers perfect: long stigmas 8, | INp1AN CUCUMBER-ROOT, 207 Leaves alternate, and with side tendrils, netted-veined between the ribs: flowers dicecious: styles or sessile stigmas 8, GREENBRIER F. 208 Leaves alternate, without tendrils: flowers perfect or polygamous: styles 8 or 8-cleft, . Cotcuioum F. 209 Anthers turned inwards, i.e. on the inner side of the filament: style 1: stigmas 1 or 3, Lizy F. 209 Perianth adherent to the ovary below, and therefore apparently borne on it. Stamens 6: anthers turned inwards. Flowers regular or nearly so, AMARYLLIS F. 213 Stamens 3: anthers turned outwards. Flowers often irregular, Ins F. 214 Stamens only one or two and united with or borne on the style. Flowers irregular, of singular shapes, Orcuis F. 215 Ill. Glumaceous Division. Flowers not on a spadix, and without any corolla-like perianth, but with glumes, i. c. thin scales, such as the chaff or husk of Grain and Grasses. Stems rush-like or straw-like. Glumes 6 in a whorl to each flower, like a calyx, Rusn F. 215 Glume one to each flower, the flower in its axil. Flowers collected into heads or spikes, SepcE F. 216 Glumes 2 or 4 to each flower, in two sets, Grass F. 216 POPULAR FLORA. 205 I. Spadiceous Division. 90. PALM FAMILY. Order PALMA. Although some, like the Dwarf Palmettos of the Southern States, make only rootstgcks not rising out of the ground, most Palms form trees, with.a simple, unbranched, cylindrical trunk; growing by the terminal bud only, and always surmounted by a crown of large and peculiar, long-petioled leaves. These are fan-shaped in the Palmetto (Fig. 79), pinnate in the Date-Palm, &c. The flowers burst forth from a spathe; are small, but generally perfect, and furnished with a perianth of 6 parts, in two sets, the outer answering to a calyx, the inner to a corolla. Fruit a nut; that of the Cocoanut is a good illustra- tion. The principal Palms of our southern sea-coast belong to the genus (Chdmerops) PALMETTO. 91. ARUM FAMILY. Order ARACEA. Herbs with sharp-tasted or acrid juice, and more or less fleshy in their texture; the leaves either simple or compound, and commonly so much netted-veined that the plants might readily be mistaken for Exogens. The small flowers are closely spiked ‘or packed on a fleshy axis, forming a spadix. The fruit is a berry, or sometimes dry and leathery, but containing some pulp or jelly. The following are the principal genera we meet with. Spathe present, forming a hood, wrapper, or a petal-like leaf. Flowers naked, i. e. without any perianth, moncecious, dicecious, or polygamous, Covering only the base of the long spadix, which is enclosed in the hooded spathe (Fig. 147). Stem simple, from a rounded corm: leaves com- pound, of 3 or more leaflets, (Arisema) InDIAN-TuRNIP. Covering the whole length of the spadix. Leaves simple, arrow-shaped (Fig. 603) or heart-shaped: spadix on the end of a scape, bearing stamens only at the upper part. ; Spathe green, thick, and closely folded around the spadix: anthers sessile. Herb growing in shallow water, (Pelténdra) ARRow-ARUM. Spathe white and petal-like, open, (Calla) Canna. Flowers with a 4-leaved perianth or calyx, perfect, on a globular spadix, surrounded by a thick, shell-shaped, purplish spadix coming out of ground in earliest spring, some time before the great ovate and heart-shaped, veiny leaves; odor that of the skunk. Stamens 4, (Symplocdrpus) SkunK-CABBAGE. Spathe none at all; the spadix naked, covered with flowers, which are perfect, with a , perianth of 6 or sometimes 4 pieces, and as many stamens. Spadix on the summit of a scape rising out of the water: leaves oblong, on a long petiole, (Oréntium) GOLDEN-CLUB. Spadix from the side of a leaf, or from a stem similar to one of the long and erect, : linear, 2-edged or sword-shaped leaves: all springing from a sharp- aromatic and creeping rootstock, (dcorus) SwEET-FLac. 206 POPULAR FLORA. Q 92. CAT-TAIL FAMILY. Order TYPHACE. Marsh herbs, with linear, sword-shaped leaves (erect, except they float in water), and moneecious naked flowers in dense spikes or heads, one sort consisting of some stamens only, the other of pistils only. Fruit a one-seeded akene. No spathe, except some open bracts or leaves. : Flowers in one long spike or spadix, the upper part bearing stamens only, the lower slen- der pistils only closely packed together; ovary long-stalked and surrounded by slender down, (Typha) Cat-TatL. Flowers in separate heads, some bearing stamens only, others pistils only, each sur- rounded by several scales, but no down, (Sparganium) Bur-REeEp. II. Petaloideous Division. 93. WATER-PLANTAIN FAMILY. Order ALISMACLE. Marsh or aquatic herbs, with a distinct calyx of 3 green or greenish sepals and a corolla of 8 white petals, 6 to many stamens on the receptacle, and many one-ovuled pistils collected into a ring or head, becoming akenes in fruit. Leaves mostly oblong-heart-shaped, lance-shaped, or arrow-shaped, sometimes with cross veinlets, long-petioled. Flowers on acapes. Two genera are common. Flowers perfect with about 6 stamens, small, in an open panicle: pistils 15 to 20 in a ring: leaves not arrow-shaped, (Alisma) WaTER-PLANTAIN. Flowers moncecious or dicecious, in a loose raceme or spike; the sterile ones with many stamens; the fertile with many pistils in a head, making thin winged akenes. Leaves or some of them generally arrow-shaped, (Sagittaria) ARROWHEAD. 94, TRILLIUM FAMILY. Order TRILLIACES. Herbs with simple stems rising from a short rootstock, rather conspicuously netted- veined leaves in a whorl, and perfect and regular flowers : — containing in this country only the genus Trillium and the Indian Cucumber-root, which are here described. Trillium.* Trilkum. Stem bearing at the.summit a whorl of 3 broad leaves and one rather large flower. Calyx of 8 green spreading sepals. Corolla of 3 spreading petals. Stamens 6, with short filaments and long erect anthers turned inwards, inserted on the receptacle. Pistil one, 3-celled, commonly with 3 to 6 lobes or ridges, and making a purple many-seeded berry in fruit: styles or long sessile stigmas 3,. spreading. — They all grow in rich woods, and blossom in spring or early summer. 1. SESSILE-FLOWERED T. Flower and the ovate leaves both sessile; petals rather erect, dark dull purple or greenish. W. & S. T. séssile. 2. Recurvep T. Leaves narrowed at the base into a footstalk; sepals turned down; petals nar- rowed at both ends; otherwise like No.1. W. T. recurvatum. * Also called BirTHROOT, WAKE-ROBIN, and THREE-LEAVED NIGHTSHADE. POPULAR FLORA. 207 8. Nopprne T. Leaves nearly sessile, rhombic-ovate ; flower small, on a short peduncle curved down under the leaves; petals oblong-ovate, pointed, recurved, wavy. E. & S. T. cérnuum. 4. Kxect T. or BirrHroot. Leaves sessile, round-rhombic : with a very abrupt point; flower on.a nearly upright pe- duncle; petals ovate, acutish, spreading, dull purple or some- times greenish-white. Common N. T. eréctum. 5. GREAT-FLOWERED T. Leaves and peduncle nearly as in No. 4; petals obovate, erect at the base, then gradually _ Spreading much longer and broader than the sepals, white, turning rose-color when old. N.and W. IT. grandiflorum. 6. ParnTED T. Leaves petioled, pale green, ovate, taper-pointed ; flower on an upright peduncle; petals Jance-ovate, point- ed, widely spreading, longer than the sepals, wavy, white, adorned with delicate pink-purple stripes at the base. Cold damp woods, &c. N. T. erythrocdrpum. 506. Plower of Trillium, natural size. Indian Cucumber-root. Medéola. Stem 1° to 8° high, from a white tuberous horizontal rootstock, having the taste of a cucumber, bearing near the middle a whorl of 5 to 9 obovate-lancenlate pointed sessile leaves, and at the top one of 3 ovate smaller leaves, and a few small greenish-yellow flowers in an umbel, on recurved stalks. Sepals and petals each 8, oblong and alike, recurved. Stamens 6: filaments longer than the anthers: Stigmas 8, sessile, long and thread-shaped. Ovary one, making a round 8-celled and few-seeded berry. One species, in damp woods; flowering in summer. M. Virginica,. 95. SPIDERWORT FAMILY. Order COMMELYNACEA. ; Tender herbs, with alternate parallel-veined leaves sheathing at the base, and perfect flowers, having 3 green or greenish sepals and 3 petals on the receptacle. Pistil one, with one long style and one stigma. Pod small, 3-celled or sometimes 2-celled, few-seeded. Flowers opening in the morning for only one day, the delicate (generally blue or purple) petals then melting away. There are two genera wild; and the Spiderwort is cultivated in every flower-garden. Flowers regular: the 3 petals and 6 stamens all alike: filaments bearded with joint- ed colored hairs: leaves lance-linear, sessile, all alike, ( Tradescdntia) SpIDERWORT. Flowers irregular: two of the petals kidney- shaped on long claws, and one smaller: stamens unequal, only three of them with good anthers: filaments naked : lower leaves with sheathing footstalks, the uppermost sessile and somewhat heart-shaped, (Commelyna) Day-rFLowER. 807. Flower of Spiderwort. 508. Pistil, magnified; the ovary cut across, 208 POPULAR FLORA. 96. PICKEREL-WEED FAMILY. Order PONTEDERIACEZ. Is represented by three or four plants in this country, of which much the commonest is the Pickereleweed. Pontedéria. Perianth blue, of 6 divisions, unequally united below into a tube; the 3 upper divisions most united and making a 3-lobed upper lip, the 3 lower spreading and separate some way down, making alower lip: after expanding, for one day only, the upper part coils up and withers away, while the base of the tube thickens and encloses the small one-seeded fruit. Stamens 6; the 3 lower on slender projecting filaments; the 3 upper inserted lower down on the tube, with very short filaments and generally imperfect anthers. Style 1: stigma 8-lobed. Stout herbs in shallow water, with long- petioled leaves and long peduncles or few-leaved stems (their leaves with sheathing footstalks, the uppermost one merely a sheathing spathe or bract), bearing a spike of flowers.. 1. Common PICKEREL-WEED. Stems 2° or 8° high; leaves thickish, lance-ovate or ovate-oblong, and generally more or less heart-shaped at the base. Common everywhere; fl. all summer. P. cordata. 97. GREENBRIER FAMILY. Order SMILACEZ. Of this family, as here arranged, we have only a single genus, viz.: — Greenbrier. Smilax. Known at once by being climbing plants (or disposed to climb) and having a tendril on each side of the footstalk of the leaf; and by the leaves being veiny between the ribs, almost as in Exogens, alternate, sometimes evergreen, simple, and ‘entire. Flowers dicecious, in axillary umbels. Perianth generally of 6 equal and spreading greenish or yellowish separate pieces. The sterile flowers have as many stamens, with oblong or linear one-celled anthers fixed by their base to the filament, and turned inwards. The fertile flowers have a round ovary, with 3 short spreading styles or stigmas. Fruit @ berry, with 2 or few large seeds. Fl. summer. * Stems woody and often prickly, yellowish-green: ovary and berry 2-celled and 2-seeded, black when ripe, generally with a bluish bloom. 1. Common G. or CaTsriER. Leaves thickish, round-ovate or slightly heart-shaped, and with 5 te 9 ribs, green both sides; branchlets often square; prickles short; peduncles of the umbel not longer than the petiole. Moist thickets. 8. rotundifolia. 2. GLaucous G. Leaves ovate, glaucous beneath ; peduncles longer than the petiole : otherwise nearly as No. 1. S. glauca. 8. BRISTLY G. Leaves ovate and heart-shaped, large and thin, green both sides; stem below covered with long and weak blackish bristly prickles; peduncles much longer than the petioles. Thickets, N. and W. S. hispida. 4, LAUREL-LEAVED G. Not prickly; leaves lance-oblong or lance-linear, thick and evergreen, with 3 to 5 ribs; peduncles of the umbel very short. Sandy soil, S. S. lnurifolia. * * Stem herbaceous, climbing, not prickly: ovary and blue-black berry 8-celled, 6-seeded. 5. CARRION-FLOWER G. Leaves thin, pale, mostly heart-shaped, with 7 to 9 ribs, sometimes rather ‘downy beneath, long- -petioled ; peduncles 3! to 8 long, longer than the leaves; flowers of the odor of carrion. Meadows and river-banks. S. herbacea. POPULAR FLORA. 209 98. COLCHICUM FAMILY. Order MELANTHACEA. Herbs, with parallel-veined leaves; the flowers generally perfect or polygamous; the perianth of 6 similar divisions colored alike; the 6 stamens with their anthers turned out- wards. Ovary one, 3-celled, bearing 3 styles, which are generally separate, but some- times united into one. Many are acrid or poisonous plants, none more so than the common Veratrum or White-Hellebore, which is often called Poke, a name which properly belongs to Phytolacea, p. 191. Flower and leaves rising from a corm underground: perianth a long tube, bearing 6 sim- ilar petal-like lobes, ( Colchicum) *CoLcHicum. Flowers with a perianth of 6 separate leaves. Perianth persisting or withering without falling. Plants acrid-poisonous: flowers polygamous, in panicles, terminating the simple leafy stem. Divisions of the perianth on claws, bearing the stamens: leaves narrow: flowers ; * cream-colored, turning greenish-brown with age, (Melanthium) Mrevanruium. Divisions of the perianth without claws, greenish. Leaves oval or oblong, partly clasping, plaited, (Veratrum) WurTE-HELLEBORE. Perianth falling off after flowering. Plants not poisonous: stems generally forking: leaves sessile or clasping, ovate or lance-oblong: flowers perfect, generally single, nodding: divisions of the perianth long and narrow. Styles united into one at the bottom. Perianth large, lily-like, yellowish: fruit a few-seeded pod. Flower-stalk not twisted or jointed, ( Uvularia) BrLLwort. Styles united into one almost to the top. Divisions of the whitish or rose-colored perianth recurved: fruit a many-seeded red berry. Flower-stalks single in the axil of the leaves, and with a joint-or abrupt bend or twist in the middle, : (Stréptopus) TwIst-sTALK. Bellwort. Vvularia. 1. LARGE-FLOWERED B. Leaves oblong, clasping-perfoliate, i. e. the stem appearing to ran through the lower part of the leaf; perianth pale greenish-yellow, 14! long. Rich woods, N. & W. (All the species flower in the spring.) U. grandiflora. 2. PERFOLIATE B. Like the last, but the flower smaller and yellow, and the anthers more pointed. Common E. U. perfoliata. 8. SESSILE-LEAVED B. Smaller than the rest; leaves sessile, not encompassing the stem; flower cream-color. U. sessilifolia. 99. LILY FAMILY. Order LILIACEZ. A large family, with much variety in appearance. Leaves parallel-veined, and sessile or sheathing. Flowers perfect and regular; the perianth of 6 divisions or lobes (or in one case with only 4), all colored alike, inserted on the receptacle free from the ovary. Stamens as many as the parts of the perianth, with their anthers turned inwards. Pistil one, with a 3-celled (rarely 2-celled) ovary anda single style; but with as many stigmas, or lobes to the stigma, as there are cells in the ovary. Fruit a pod or a berry. n 210 POPULAR FLORA. Fruit a few-seeded berry: flowers small. Herbs from rootstocks: no bulbs. Stems much branched: leaves fine and thread-shaped, in clusters, (Asparagus) * ASPARAGUS. Stems simple above ground and leafy. Leaves oblong or lance-oblong. Flowers axillary, nodding, greenish; perianth tubular, 6-lobed: stamens above the middle, on very short filaments. Rootstock thick, marked with broad round scars on the upper side (Fig. 63), (Polyyonatum) SoLomMon’s-SEAL. Flowers in a terminal raceme, white: perianth 6-parted, in one case 4-parted, the divisions narrow and widely spreading, the stamens on its base: filaments slender, (Smilacina) SMILAcINA. Stems or scape simple and leafless above ground; the broad leaves all from its base or from the slender rootstock. Flowers small, in a slender raceme, white; perianth bell-shaped, 6-lobed (Fig. 3): leaves very smooth, (Convallaria) *LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY. Flowers rather, large, in an umbel, greenish-yellow or whitish: perianth 6-leaved: leaves of the plant ciliate, (Clintonia) CLINTONIA. Fruit a 3-celled pod, splitting into 8 valves when ripe. Perianth wheel-shaped, or sometimes erect or bell-shaped, 6-leaved: flowers on 2 scape or nearly naked stem, rising from a coated bulb: seeds round and black, few. Flowers in a corymb, white: style 3-sided, (Ornithégalum) *STAR-oF-BETHLEHEM. Flowers in a raceme, blue or purple: style thread-like, (Scilla) SQuiLi. Flowers in an umbel from a scaly bract or involucre, ( Allium) Onron. Perianth funnel-shaped, bell-shaped, or globe-shaped, more or less united into a tube or cup, bearing the 6 stumens, except in some Day-Lilies. Scape and leaves from a coated bulb: flowers in a raceme. Leaves narrow. - Perianth globular, blue, small, (Muscari) *GRAPE-HYACINTH. Perianth short, funnel-shaped or bell-shaped, 6-cleft, (Hyacinthus) *Hyacinrn. Scape or stem leafy towards the bottom, from fibrous roots (no bulb), bearing a few large flowers in a cluster at the top: stamens curved to one side. Flower opening for only one day, (Hemeroedllis) *Day-Liiy. Perianth bell-shaped or funnel-shaped, &c., but of 6 separate petal-like divisions: seeds many, mostly flat, pale. Simple-stemmed herbs from a scaly or coated bulb: stamens on the receptacle or attached to the very base of the deciduous perianth. Anthers fixed by their middle and swinging free: stems leafy to the top. No honey-bearing spots, or merely a groove at the bottom of each divis- ion of the perianth. Bulb scaly, (Lilium) Luy. A round and large honey-bearing spot near the bottom of each division of the perianth, (Petilium) *CRrown-IMPERIAL. Anthers erect on the filament, appearing to be fixed by their base: stem or scape leafy only at or towards the bottom. Style none or hardly any: stigmas 8 on the long 3-sided ovar: a ( Tilipa) *Tuure. Style long: ovary roundish: leaves 2, spotted, (Hrythronium) DogroorH-VIOoLEr. Stems woody, palm-like, or not rising above the ground, from roots or rootstocks (no bulbs): leaves evergreen, sword-shaped. Flowers white, tulip- shaped, in a large, terminal, compound panicle, ( Yucca) Yucca. POPULAR FLORA. 211 Smilacina (or Fausz Sotomon’s-SEAu). Smilacina. 1. Racemep §. Minutely downy, 2° or 8° high, many-leaved; leaves lance-oblong, tapering abruptly at both ends, ciliate; flowers many, in compound racemes. Moist grounds. S, racemosa. 2. STAR-FLOWERED §. Nearly smooth, 1° or 2° high; leaves many, lance-oblong, slightly clasping, pale beneath; raceme simple and few-flowered. Moist thickets, &c., N. 8. stellata. 8. THREE-LEAVED S. Smooth, 3! to 6 high; leaves commonly 8, oblong, tapering into a sheathing base; flowers several, in a slender simple raceme. Bogs, N. 8. trifolia, 4. TWo-LEAVED §. Nearly smooth, 3! to 5’ high, with commonly 2 heart-shaped leaves, the lower one generally petioled; flowers in a simple short raceme; perianth 4-parted, reflexed; stamens 4, Moist woods, in spring. 8. bifolia. Onion (GaRuic and LEEK). Allium. $1. Onton proper, with hollow, stem-shaped leaves, and an open, widely spreading, star-shaped blossom. 1, GARDEN Onton. Scape naked, much longer than the leaves, hollow, swollen in the middle; flowers whitish; umbel often bearing small bulbs (top-onions); the large bulb turnip-shaped. Commonly cultivated. A. Cepa. 2. Cutves O. Scape naked, about as long as the slender leaves; all growing in tufts, from small bulbs; flowers purplish, erowdedl Cultivated. A. Schenoprasum. § 2. Gartics and LEEks. Leaves flat or keeled and not hollow, except in No. 3. 8. Fretp Garuic. Leaves thread-shaped, slender, round, but channelled on the upper side, hollow; bulbs small; umbel bearing flowers with a green-purple erectish perianth, or else only bulblets. Naturalized in low pastures and gardens. A. vinedle. 4. TruE or Encrisn Garuic. Bulbs clustered and compound ; leaves lance-linear, nearly flat; umbel bearing pale purple flowers with an erectish perianth, or else bulblets. Cultivated in gar- dens; not common. A, sativum, 5. GARDEN LEEK. Bulb single ; leaves linear-oblong, acute, somewhat folded or keeled ; flowers crowded in the umbel; perianth erectish, violet-purple. Rarely cultivated. A. Porrum. 6. Witp Leex. Bulbs clustered, narrow, oblong, and pointed; leaves Jance-oblong, blunt, flat, dying off by midsummer, when the naked scape appears with its loose umbel of white flowers; pod 8-lobed. Rich woods, N. and W. A, tricéccum. Day-Lily. Hemerocdllis. * Flowering stems tall, leafy towards the bottom, somewhat branched above: leaves long and linear, keeled, 2-ranked: stamens on the top of the narrow tube of the perianth: seeds black and wingless. 1. Common Day-Lity. Flower dull orange-yellow; inner divisions wavy, blunt. Gardens. H. fulva. 2. YeLtow D. Flower light yellow; inner divisions of the perianth acute. Gardens. A. flava. * * Flowering stems naked, simple: leaves broad and flat, ovate or oblong, and often heart-shaped, with veins springing from the midrib, long-stalked ; stamens on the receptacle: seeds flat and winged (Funkia). 8. WuiTe D. Flower white, funnel-shaped; leaves more or less heart-shaped. Gardens. H. Japénica. 4, Buuz D. Flower blue or bluish, the upper part more bell-shaped than in No. 3; leaves scarcely heart-shaped. Gardens. Z. cerilea. 212 POPULAR FLORA. 1 iS) 609. Yellow Dogtooth-Violet. 510, The bulb. $11. Perianth laid open, and stamens. 512, The pistil, enlarged. 513, Lower half of a pod, cut across and . Waite D. Flower white or . EuRopEAN D. Leaves ovate Lily. Lilium. * Foreign species, everywhere cultivated. White Lity. Leaves lance-shaped, scattered along the stem; flowers erect; perianth bell-shaped, white, smooth inside. L. album. . BuLB-BEARING L. Leaves lance-shaped, scattered along the tall stem, producing bulblets in their axils; flowers several, erect; perianth open-bell-shaped, orange-yellow, rough inside. L. bulbiferum. * * Wild species: flowers orange-colored, reddish, or yellow. . Witp ORrancE L. Stem 1° to 3° high, bearing scattered (or sometimes whorled) lance-linear leaves and 1 to 3 erect reddish-orange open-bell-shaped flowers, the 6 lance-shaped divisions narrowed at the base into claws, purplish-spotted inside. Common in light or sandy soil. ZL. Philadélphicum. - Witp Yettow L. Stem 2° to 4° high, bearing distant-whorls of lance-shaped leaves and a few nodding flowers on slender peduncles; perianth yellow or orange, with brown spots inside, bell- shaped with the divisions spreading or recurved to the middle: Moist meadows, and along streams. (Fig. 1.) L. Canadénse. . SUPERB or TuRK’s-cap L. Stem 4° to 7° high, only the lower leaves in whorls; flowers many, bright orange or reddish, with strong brown-purple spots inside, more recurved and larger than the last, but very much like it. Rich low grounds. L. supérbym. Dogtooth Violet. Erythrénium. . Yettow D. or Apper's-roncuz. Leaves oblong-lance-shaped, pale-dotted, much blotched; flower pale yéllow; style club- shaped, stout; stigmas united. Moist grounds: fi. in early spring. E. Americanum. bluish; the style less thick than in No.1. Rather com- mon W. E. dlbidum. or oblong, scarcely spotted; flowers purple or rose-color; style thread-shaped and not ‘thickened upwards; stigmas separate. Cultivated ; not common. E. Dens-canis. magnified. POPULAR FLORA. 213 100. AMARYLLIS FAMILY. Order AMARYLLIDACEA. Like the Lily Family, but with the (regular or slightly irregular) 6-cleft perianth cohe- rent -below with the surface of the ovary, and therefore in appearance inserted on its summit. Stamens 6. Fruit a 3-celled pod. Herbs generally with naked stems or scapes, and long linear leaves, from a coated bulb, commonly with showy flowers. Herbage and bulbs acrid and poisonous. Flower with a cup or crown at the throat of the salver-shaped or funnel-shaped perianth. Stamens long, from the edge of the cup-shaped crown: anthers linear, swinging free: divisions of the perianth long and narrow, recurved. Flowers white, “ / showy; the cluster leafy-bracted, : (Pancratium) *PaNncRATIUM. Stamens included in the cup, unequal: filaments very short. Flowers from a scale- like spathe, ‘ (Narcissus) *Nancissus. Flower without any cup or crown on the perianth. Anthers fixed by the middle and swinging free, linear or oblong: filaments generally curved. Flowers large and showy, generally red or pink, (Amaryllis) *AMARYLLIS. Anthers erect on the filament. Flowers in a spike, funnel-shaped, white, very fragrant, (Polidnthes) *TuBEROSE. Flowers in an umbel, or single: perianth 6-parted down to the ovary. Flower single, from a 1-leaved spathe, white, nodding: three inner divisions of the perianth shorter than the three outer, and notched at the end: anthers long-pointed, (Galanthus) *SNowpDRop. Flowers one or more from a 1-leaved spathe, white, nodding; the 6 divisions of the perianth alike, often green-tipped: anthers blunt, (Leucdium) *SNOWFLAKE. Flowers few, with 2 small bracts at the base of the pedicels; the star-shaped perianth yellow, closing and remaining on the pod. Leaves grass- like, hairy. Plant small, (Hypéxys) Star-Grass. Narcissus. Narcissus. © * Tube of the flower slender; the cup or crown much shorter than the 6 spreading divisions; anthers borne on the inside of the cup, or 8 of them a little protruding, on short filaments. 1. Porr’s N. Scape flattish, tall, mostly one-flowered; flower white, the very short and flat crown yellow, generally margined with crimson or pink; sweet-scented; leaves bluntly keeled, rather glaucous. Gardens. y N. poéticus. 2. Jonquiu N. Flowers 1 to 4,.on a round and slender scape, yellow, very fragrant, the cup saucer- shaped; leaves terete, channelled down one side. Gardens. N. Jonquilla. 8. Potyantuus N. Flowers several, on a flattish scape, white, with a bell-shaped cup, not fragrant; leaves flat, glaucous. Gardens. N. Tazétta. * *® Tube of the flower short, funnel-shaped; the cup or crown very large, bell-shaped, with a wavy- crisped or toothed margin, equalling or longer than the 6 divisions of the perianth, and bearing the stamens on its base. 4. Darropit N. Flower one, large, sulphur-yellow, with a deeper yellow cup, on a flattened scape 1° high; leaves flattish. In all gardens; most common with flowers double, so that their structure is obscured. N. Pseudo-Narcissus. 214 POPULAR FLORA. 101. IRIS FAMILY. Order IRIDACEA. Herbs with perennial roots, commonly with rootstocks, bulbs, or corms, and with equitant leaves (151, Fig. 64); the flowers perfect, regular or irregular; tube of the corolla-like 7 perianth below coherent with the surface of the ovary, and so appearing to grow from its summit; stamens only 3, one before each of the outer divis- ions of the perianth; their anthers turned outwards, i. e. looking towards the perianth and opening on that side. Ovary 3-celled, making a many-seeded pod: style one: stigmas 3, often flat or petal-like. Herbage, rootstocks, &c. generally acrid or sharp- tasted. Flowers generally showy, and from a spathe of one or more leaf-like bracts, or from the axils of the uppermost leaves, each one generally opening but 614, Plant of Crested Dwarf Iris. 515, Top of the style and the 3 petal-like atigmas, also Mugrectes Ais Molngecar eae BIZ. Lower duh oe peapaivan cromwhe BIE Geode 519. Magnified section of the same, showing the embryo. ‘ Filaments monadelphous in a tube which encloses the style as in a sheath: stigmas thread-shaped: perianth 6-parted nearly to the ovary, widely spread- ing, opening in sunshine and for only one day. Flowers small, blue or purple, with 6 equal obovate divisions: stigmas simple: stems or scapes flat or 2-winged, from fibrous roots; leaves narrow and grass-like, (Sisyrinchium) Buur-eYED-GRass. Flowers very large, orange and spotted with crimson and purple; the 3 inner divisions much smaller and narrowed in the middle: stigmas each 2-cleft: scape terete, from a coated bulb; leaves plaited, ( Tigridia) *TIGER-FLOWER. Filaments separate: stigmas flattened, or petal-like. Perianth 6-parted down to the ovary, regular and wheel-shaped, the divisions obovate- oblong, all alike, yellow, with darker spots: seeds remaining after the valves of the pod full, berry-like and black, the whole looking like a blackberry (whence the common name). Stems leafy below, from a rootstock: leaves sword-shaped, (Pardanthus) *BLACKBERRY-LILY. POPULAR FLORA. 215 Perianth irregularly 6-cleft; 8 of the lobes arched and making an upper lip, the 3 lower more spreading, yellow, orange, or reddish. Stem rising from a corm, and bearing many flowers in a one-sided spike, (Gladiolus) *CoRN-FLAG. Perianth 6-cleft; the divisions of two kinds, the 3 outer recurved or spreading, the 3 inner alternate with the others, smaller, erect, and differently shaped: stigmas 3, petal-like, one before each erect stamen. Generally with thick creeping rootstocks, (iris) Inia. Perianth with a slender tube, rising (with the linear flat leaves) from a corm or solid bulb (Fig. 76); the summit divided into 6 roundish, equal, erect, or barely spreading divisions: stigmas 3, thick and wedge-shaped, some- what fringe-toothed. Fl. in early spring, ( Crocus) *Crocus. Iris or Flower=-de-Luce. ris. * Common cultivated species in gardens: outer divisions of the perianth with a bearded crest. 1. Common Iris. Flowers several on a stem, 1° to 3° high, and much longer than the sword-shaped leaves, light blue or purple. I. sambucina. 2. Dwarr GARDEN Iris. Flowers close to the ground, hardly exceeding the sword-shaped leaves, violet-purple, the divisions obovate, the 3 outer recurved. Fl. in early spring. L. pumila. * *® Wild species. 8. CresTEpD Dwarr Iris. Low and almost stemless, from rootstocks spreading on the ground; leaves short; flower pale blue, the tube thread-shaped (2! long) and longer than the spatulate divisions, the three outer divisions with a beardless crest. Fl. spring. S. and W., andin some gardens. J. cristata. 4. Lancer I. or Biug-Fiace. Stem stout, 1° to 3° high, bearing several crestless and beardless purple- blue and variegated flowers, their inner divisions much smaller than the outer; leaves sword- shaped, 3' wide. Wet places; flowering in late spring. I, versicolor. 6. SLENDER I. or BLuE-FLAc. Stem slender; leaves narrowly linear (4' wide), and flower smaller than in No. 4: otherwise much like it. Wet places, E. I. Virginica. 102. ORCHIS FAMILY. Order ORCHIDACEA. Plants with irregular and often singular-shaped flowers, the perianth standing as it were on the ovary, as in the two preceding orders; but remarkable for having the stamens, only one or two, united with the style or stigma. This may best be seen in the Lapy’s SLIPPER, of which we have three or four common species: the slipper is one of the petals, in the form ofasac. The flowers of various sorts of ORcHIS are striking and peculiar; but the family is too difficult for the young beginner, and therefore the kinds are not described here. Fig. 69 represents two air-plants of this family, belonging to tropical countries. III. Glumaceous Division. 103. RUSH FAMILY. Order JUNCACES. The true Rushes are known by having flowers with a regular perianth, which, although glumaceous, i. e. like the chaffy scales or husks of Grasses, is of 6 regular parts, like a calyx, enclosing 6 (or sometimes 3) stamens, and a triangular ovary. This bears a style tipped with 3 stigmas, and in fruit becomes a 3-seeded or many-seeded pod. There are two 216 POPULAR FLORA. common genera, each with several species: the parts are too small and difficult for the young student. Pod 1-celled and 8-seeded. Leaves flat and hairy, (Laizula) Woop-Rusn. Pod 8-celled, many-seeded. Leaves generally thread-shaped, or none at all, (Juncus) Rusu. 104. SEDGE FAMILY. Order CYPERACEA. A large family of Rush-like or Grass-like plants, including the Sepces, CLUBRUSHES, BurrvusueEs, and the like, which have no perianth, but the flowers, collected in heads or spikes, are each in the axil of'a single glume in the form of a chaff or scale. These plants are much too difficult for the young beginner. 105. GRASS FAMILY. Order GRAMINEZ. The true Grasses make a large and most important family of plants, with straw stems (called culms, 91) ; leaves with open sheaths; and flowers with 2-ranked glumes or chaffy scales, a pair to each flower, and another pair to each spikelet. It includes not only the very numerous kinds of true Grasses, but also of Corn, i. e. the Cereal grains, of which Wueat, Bartey, Ryez, Oats, Rice, and Maize or Inp1an-Corn are the principal; also SuGAR-CANE, BRoom-Corn or GuinEA-Corn, and MILLET. SERIES II. FLOWERLESS OR CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS. Plants destitute of flowers, and propagated by spores instead of seeds. See Part I., Paragr. 165, 808, 312 -314. CLASS III. — ACROGENS. This class includes the Ferws, the HorsEtaltzs, and the CLus-Mosszs. CLASS IV.— ANOPHYTES. This class includes the Mossgs and the Liverworts. CLASS V.—THALLOPHYTES. Includes the LicHEns, the ALG or SEAWEEDS, and the Func1 or MusHrooms. INDEX TO PART I. — AND DICTIONARY OF THE BOTANICAL TERMS USED IN THIS BOOK. *,* The numbers refer to the page where the term is explained or illustrated. Abortive : imperfectly formed. “Abortive Flowers, 69. 3) Abruptly pinnate, 52. Absorbing, 85. Accessory Fruits, 81. Achlamydeous Flower: without calyx or co- rolla, 68. Acorn, 79. Acrogens, 98. Aculeate: bearing prickles. Acuminate : taper-pointed, 48. Acute: ending in a point, 48. Adherent: naturally united to. Adnate: naturally grown fast to. Acrial Roots and Rootlets, 34, 35. Aggregated Fruits, 81. Air-Plants, 35. Akene: a seed-like fruit, 78. Albumen, of the seed, 14, 83. Albuminous: having albumen. Alternate (leaves or branches), 25, 54. “ in the parts of the flower, 70. Ament: a catkin, 61. Angiospermous, 76, 97. Animal Kingdom, 2. Annual: living only one year or season. Annuals, 27. : * Anther, 7, 64. Antheviferous ; bearing an anther. Apetalous: without petals, 67. Apple-Fruit, 77. Appressed: close pressed together, or pressed against another body. Aquatic: growing in water. Arboreous or Arborescent : tree-like or relating to a tree, 37. Aril: an additional covering of a seed, 83. Aristate: same as awned, 49. Arrow-shaped, or Arrow-headed, 48. Artificial System of Classification, 96. Ascending: rising gradually upwards, 37. Assimilation, 87 Auricled or Auriculate: bearing ears (auricles), or small appendages, 48. Awl-shaped : very narrow and pointed, 53. Awned, Awn-pointed, 49. Axil: the angle between a leaf and the stem on the upper side, 24. | Axillary : situated in an axil. Axillary Buds, 24.” “Flowers, 59. Axis: the trunk or stem, or a line through the centre of any organ, 6. Baccate: berry-like (from Bacca, a berry). Bark, 42. Base: that end of any body by which it is at- tached to its support. Beak: a long and narrow tip to a fruit, &c. Bearded : beset or fringed with strong hairs or beard. Bell-shaped, 72. Berry: a pulpy simple fruit, 77. Biennial: living only two years. Biennials, 27. Bifid: two-cleft or split. Bilahiate : same as two-lipped, 72, 178. Bipiunate: same as twice pinnate, 52. 218 INDEX AND Bipinnatifid : twice pinnatifid. , Biternate: twice divided into threes. Bladdery : thin and inflated. Blade of a-leaf, 43; of a petal, 64. Border of a corolla, &c., 72. Bracts and Bractlets, 59. Branches, 24. Breathing-pores of leaves, 264, 265. Bristles: stiff and strong hairs. Bristly : beset with bristles. Budding, 56. Buds, 24, 38. Bulblets, 41, 57. Bulbous: like a bulb in shape. Bulbs, 31, 40, 57. Caducous: dropping off very early, as the calyx of Poppies and Bloodroot. Calyx, 7, 63. Campanulate: bell-shaped, 72. Capillary: slender and as fine as hair. Capitate: headed; bearing a round, head-like top; or collected in a head, as the flowers of Button-bush, 61. Capsule: a pod, 80. Cartilagineous or Cartilaginous : like cartilage. Caryopsis: a grain or seed-like fruit, 79. Catkin : a seale-like spike, as of Birch, &c., 61. Caulescent : having a stem which rises out of the _ ground. Cells, in vegetable anatomy, 89. Cells of the ovary or fruit, 8, 74. Cellular Tissue, 41. Cereal : relating to corn or corn-plants, held by the ancients to be the gift of Ceres. Chaff: thin bracts, in the form of scales or husks. Ciliate: fringed with hairs along the margin, like the eyelashes fringing the eyelids. Circulation in plants, 86, 88. Class, 94. Classification, 93. Claw, of a petal, &c., 64. Cleft: cut about half-way down, 49, 50. Climbing, 37. Club-shaped: thickened gradually upwards. Clustered : collected in a bunch. Clustered Roots, 36. Coated Bulbs, 40. Coherent, calyx or ovary, 75. Column: the united filaments of monadelphous stamens, as of the Mallow (Fig. 317), or DICTIONARY the stamens and style united, as in the Or- chis Family. Complete Flower, 67. Compound Corymb, Cyme, &e., 63. eS Leaves, 44, 51. Ovary, 78. “e Pistil, 73. Compressed : flattened on two sides. Cone, as of the Pine, 82. Confluent : whicn two parts or bodies are blended together. Conical Root, 36. Connate: grown together from the first. Connective, of the anther, 66. Convolute, leaf, &c.: rolled up. Convolute, in the flower-bud, 183, 187. Cordate : heart-shaped, 48. Coriaceous : of a leathery texture. Corm, or Solid Bulb, 40, 57. Corolla, 7, 63. Corymb, 60. Corymbose, or Corymbed : in corymbs, or like a corymb. Cotylédons : sced-leaves, 9, 84. Creeping, 57. Crenate: the margin scalloped, 49. Cruciform : cross-shaped, as the corolla of the Cruciferous Family, 124. Crude Sap, 86. Crustaceous : of a hard and brittle texture. Cryptogamous, Cryptogamous Plants, 58, 97. Culm : a straw-stem, 37. Cuneate: wedge-shaped, 47. Cupule; the acorn-cup, and the like, 79. Cuspidate: tipped with a sharp rigid point, 49. Cut: said of leaves, &c., which appear as if cut or slit from the margin inwards, 49, 50. Cuttings, 56. Cyme, 62. Cymose: in cymes, or like a cyme. “ Deciduous : falling off, as petals generally do after blossoming, or leaves in autumn. Declined : turned to one side, or to the lower side, 37. ¥ Decompound ;: several times compound, 52. Decumbent: reclined on the ground, 37. Decurrent: said of leaves continued downwards on the stem, like a wing, as in Thistles. Definite: uniform and rather few in number. Dehiscence: the regular opening of pods. Dehiscent Fruits, 79. OF BOTANICAL TERMS. Dentate: toothed; the teeth pointing outwards but not forwards, 49. Denticulate : toothed with minute teeth. Depressed : flattened from above. Diadelphous Stamens: united by their filaments in two sets, 73. Dicotylédonous, Dicotyledonous Plants, 22, 97. Diffuse : loosely and widely spreading. Digestion in plants, 87. Digitate, 51. Dicecious Flowers, 68. Dissected : cut into fine divisions. Distinct: of separate pieces, unconnected with each other, 71, 73. Divided : cut through or nearly so, 50. Divisions, 49. Double Flowers (so called), 69. Downy: clothed with soft and short hairs. Drupe: a stone-fruit, 78. Drupaceous : like a drupe. Dry Fruits, 77, 78. Eared: bearing ear-like projections, or auricles, at the base, on one or both sides, 48. Elaborated Sap, 87. Elliptical : regularly oval or oblong. Emarginate: notched at the end, 49. Embryo: the germ of a seed, 6, 9, 83. Endogenous Stem, Endogenous Plants, 41, 97. Ensiform : sword-shaped, as the leaves of Iris (Fig. 64). Entire: the margin even, not toothed or cut, 49. Epidermis : the skin of a plant, 44. Epiphytes : air-plants, 35. Equitant (riding astride), 53. Erect, 37. Essential Organs of the Flower, 7. Evergreen: holding the leaves green over winter. Exogenous Stem, Exogenous Plants, 41 — 43, 97. Exserted: protruded, or projecting, as the sta- mens in Fig. 45 Family, 94. Farinaceous: mealy or like meal. Fascicle : a bundle or close cluster, 63. Fascicled Roots, 36. Feather-veined, 46. Fertile Flower, 68. Fibrous Roots, 27, 36. Fiddle-shaped : obovate but contracted on each side near the middle. Filament (of a stamen), 7, 64. 15 219 Filiform : thread-shaped. Fleshy Fruits, 77. — Plants, 31. — Roots, 35. Floral: relating to the flower. Floral Envelopes, 7. Flower, 5, 7, 58. Flower-bud ; an unopened flower. Flower-clusters, 59. Flowering Plants, 58, 97. Flowerless Plants, 58, 97. Flower-stalks, 38, 60. Follicle: a simple pod opening down one side (Fig. 210), 80. Footstalk of a leaf, 43. Free: not united with any other part, as when the calyx is not united with the ovary, nor the petals with the calyx, &c., 75. Fringed : the margin beset with bristles, &c., or finely cut into slender appendages. Fruit, 5, 9, 77. Fugacious : falling or withering-very early. Funnel-shaped,.or Funnel-form, 72. Generic name: the name of the genus. Genus: plural Genera, 94. Germ, 6, 9. Germinate: to grow from the seed, 11. Germination, 11. Gibbous: projecting or bulging on one side. Glands: a name given to very different things ; to little fleshy bodies in some flowers (p. 128) ; to places in the leaves of the St. John’s- wort, the Orange, &c., appearing like dots, which contain a volatile oil; and to the lar- ger oil-cells in the rind of the Orange and Lemon. Also hairs or any projections on ’ the surface of leaves or stalks which contain or exude any aromatic, glutinous, or watery matter, are called glands; as on the leaves and footstalks of the Sweet-Brier and of the Flowering Raspberry, p. 149. Glandular: bearing glands, or gland-like. Glandular hairs: hairs tipped with a gland or head. Glaucous: whitish or whitened with a bloom, or fine powdery matter that rubs off, as that on a Cabbage-leaf. Globose : shaped like a ball or sphere. Globular: nearly globose. Glomerate: collected into close or a head-like cluster. Glumaceous: glume-like ; resembling or bearing glumes. 220 INDEX AND Glumes : the chaffy bracts or scales which make the: coverings of the flowers of Grasses, Sedges, &c. Gourd-Fruit, 77. Grafting, 56. Grain, 78, 79. Granular : composed of small particles or grains. Growth, 89. Gymnospermous (naked-seeded), Gymmosper- mous Plants, 76, 97. : Gynandrous: stamens borne on the pistil or style, as in the Orchis Family. Hairy : bearing or covered with hairs, especially rather long ones. Halberd-shaped, 48. Hastate: same as halberd-shaped, 48. Head, 61. Heart-shaped, 48. Heart-wood, 43.. Helmet: a name given to the upper sepal of Ac- onite (Fig. 254), &c. Herbaceous, 37. Herbarium: the botanist’s collection of dried plants. Herbs, 26. Hilum: the scar of the seed, or point by which it is attached, 83. Hirsute: hairy with stiff or beard-like hairs. Hispid : bearing still stiffer and stouter hairs or bristles. © Hoary: grayish-white, or covered with a fine and close whitish down. Hooded: shaped like a hood or cowl; concave or arched. Horny : having about the texture of horn. Hybrid: a cross between two species. Imbricate or Imbricated : the parts overlapping ; some of them outside and others inside in the bud. Imperfect Flowers, 68. Incised : irregularly and rather deeply cut, 49. Included: enclosed ; not sticking out. Incomplete Flowers, 67. Incurved : curving inwards. Indefinite: too numerous to be readily counted, and not uniform in number. Indehiscent : not splitting open, 78.” Indigenous: native to the country. Inferior: growing beneath some other organ; as the calyx beneath the ovary, 75. DICTIONARY 7 Inflated: bladder-like, as if blown up. Inflexed: bent inwards. Inflorescence, 58. Inoculating, 56. Inserted : borne on, or attached to, 71, 75. Insertion : the place or the mode of the attach ment of any organ to that which bears it. Interruptedly pinnate, 52. Inversely heart-shaped, 49. Hi lance-shapced, 47. ee ovate, 47. \ Involucel, 62. Tnvolucre, 62. Involute: with the end or edges rolled inwards. Irregular Flowers, or Corolla, &c., 71, 72. Jagged, 49. Jointed : separating by a joint, or dividing across into two or more pieces. Keel: a projecting ridge on the under surface of a leaf, as of Day-Lily, &c. The two lower petals of a papilionaceous corolla united are also termed the Weel, or Keel Petals, 141. Keeled: furnished with a keel or projecting ridge on the lower side. Kernel of a seed, 83. Key, or Key-Fruit, 78, 79. Kidney-shaped, 48. Labiate : two-lipped, 72. Laciniate: slashed ; cut into narrow and irregu- lar lobes. Lance-linear, 47. Lance-oblong, 47. Lanceolate or Lance-shaped, 46. Lateral: belonging to, or borne on, the side. Leaflets: the pieces of a compound leaf, 51. Leaf-buds: buds which develop leaves. Leaf-scars, 26. Leaves, 6, 43. Legume: a pea-pod, 80. Limb of a corolla, &¢., 72. Lips, 72. Linear, 46. Linear-lanceolate, 47. Lobed : having lobes, 49, 50. Lobes: any strong divisions of a leaf, &c., 49. Lower side of a flower: that which looks away from the stem, and towards the bract. : Lyre-shaped, a pinnatifid leaf with the end lobe largest and rounded, as in Radish (Fig. 57), 28. Membranaceous : of the texture of membrane or thin skin. Midrib: the middle rib of a leaf, 44. Mineral Kingdom, 2. Monadelphous, 73. Monocotylédonous, Monocotyledonous Plants, 21, 22, 97. Moneecious Flowers, 68. Monopetalous : the corolla of one piece, 72. Monosepalous: the calyx of one piece, 72. Morphology, 34. ; Mucronate, 49. Mulberry, 82. Multiple Fruits, 82. Naked Flowers, 68. Naked-seeded, 76. Names of Plants, 94. Napiform: turnip-shaped (Fig. 70), 36. Natural History, 2. Natural System, 96. Naturalized : introduced from a foreign country, but run wild. Nectariferous : honey-bearing. Needle-shaped, 53. Nerves, Nerved, 44, 45. Netted-veined, 45. Neutral Flowers, 69. Notched, 49. Nut, 78, 79. Nutlet: a little nut or stone. Obcordate: inversely heart-shaped, 49. Oblanceolate, 47. : Oblique (leaves, &c.): unequal-sided. Oblong, 46. Oblong-lanceolate, 47. Obovate: ovate inverted, 47. Obtuse : blunt, 48. Odd-pinnate, 52. Offset, 39, 57. Open Pistils, 76. Opposite (leaves or branches), 25, 54. Orhicular: circular in outline, 94. Order, 94. ; Organs, 5; of Reproduction, 5, 58. “of Vegetation, 5. Oval, 47. Ovary, 8, 65. Ovate, 47. Ovatc-lanceolate, 47. Ovules: rudimentary seeds, 8, 65. OF BOTANICAL TERMS, 221 Palmate, 51. Palmately cleft, lobed, &e., 50, 51. Re veined, 46. Panicle, 62. Papilionaceous Flower or Corolla, 141. Pappus: thistle-down, and the like; the limb of the calyx in the Sunflower Family, 165. Parallel-veined, 45. Parietal Placenta, 74, Parted : cleft almost through, 50. Parasitic Plants, 35. ' Pedate: like a bird’s foot; palmately divided, with the side divisions two-parted. Pedicel : the footstalk of each separate flower of a cluster, 60. Pedicelled : raised on a pedicel. Peduncle: a flower-stalk. Peduncled : having a peduncle. Peltate: shield-shaped, 48. Pepo: a gourd-fruit, 77. Perennial : living year after year. Perennials, 29. Perfect Flower, 67. Purfoliate: where the stem apparently passes through the leaf, as in Bellwort, No. 1 and 2, p. 211. Perianth: the blossom-leaves, 64. Pericarp: seed-vesscl, 77. Persistent: not falling off; remaining after flow- ering. Petal: a leaf of the corolla, 9, 64. Petiole: the footstalk of a leaf, 43. Petioled: having a petiole or footstalk. Pheenogamous (also called Phanerogamous) Plants, 58, 97. Pine-cone, 82. Pinnate, 51. Pinnately cleft, lobed, parted, &c., 50, 51. a veined, 46. Pinnatifid : same as pinnately cleft. Pistil, 8, 65. Pistillate Flowers, 68. Pitcher-shaped leaves, 121. Pith of a stem, 42. Placenta, 66, 74. Plumose: plume-like; feathered. Plumule, 13, 84. Pod, 79. Pointed, 48." Pollen, 7, 64. Polyadelphous, 73. Polycotylédonous, 22. 222 INDEX - AND Polygamous Flowers, 68. Polypetalous : of separate petals, 71. Polysepalous : of separate sepals. Pome: such a fruit as an apple or pear, 77. Pouch : see Silicle, 80. * Prickles, 38. Procumbent: 37. Propagation from buds, 56. ee from seeds, 58. Prostrate, 37. Pubescent: downy ; the surface bearing fine and soft hairs, or pubescence. Punctate: dotted, as if pierced with minute punctures ; as the leaves of the Orange and Lemon, St. John’s-wort, &c. Putamen : the stone of a drupe or stone-fruit, 78. Pyxis, 80. Race : a variety of a species which may be prop- agated from seed. Raceme, 60. Racemed or Racemose: bearing racemes. Radiate-veined, 46. Radical: belonging to the root. Radicle of the embryo, 9, 84. Ramification: branching, 25. Ray, 61, 165. Receptacle of a flower, 63. Reclined, 37. Recurved : curved outwards or downwards. . Reflexed: bent backwards or downwards. Regular Flowers, &c., 70, 72. Reniform: kidney-shaped, 48. Repand: wavy-margined, 49. Reprodaction, 6, 58. Retuse: blunted, or slightly indented, 49. Revolute: rolled backwards. Reticulated : in the form of network, as the veins of one class of leaves, 45. Rhombic, Rhomboidal: like a rhomb in outline ; i. e. four-sided with the side-angles obtuse. Ribs, 44. Root, 5, 34. Rootlets, 5, 36. Rootstocks, 31, 40. Rose-hip, 81. Rotate: wheel-shaped, 72. Runner, 39, 57. * Running, 37. Sagittate: arrow-shaped. Salver-shaped, 72. DICTIONARY Sémara, 79. Sap, 86. Sap-wood, 43. Saw-toothed, 49. Scabrous : with a rough surface. Scale-shaped, 53. Scalloped, 49. Scaly Bulbs, 40. Scape : a naked flower-stalk arising from near or under ground. = Scar of a seed, 83. Scion, 56. Seed, 5, 9, 82. Seed-coats, 83. Seed-leaves, 9, 84. Seed-scar, 83. Seed-stalk, 83. Seed-vessels, 77. Sepal: a leaf of the calyx, 9, 63. Separated Flowers, 68. Serrate : saw-toothed, 49. Serrulate : finely serrate. Sessile: sitting ; stalkless, 44, 60, 64. Setaceous: in shape like a bristle. Sheath : the stalk or base of a leaf, or any body enwrapping the stem. Sheathing: wrapped around the stem, like a sheath. Shield-shaped, 48. Shrubs, 26. Shrubby, 37. Silicle: a short silique, or pouch, 80. Silique: the pod of the Cress Family, 80, 124. Silky: clothed with a coat of fine and glossy, close-pressed hairs. Simple: of one piece, &c. Simple Fruit, 77. «Leaves, 44. Sinuate: with a strongly wavy outline, 49. Solitary: single, 59, &. Spadiceous : bearing a spadix. Spadix, 62. Spathaceous : having or like a spathe. Spathe, 62. Spatulate, 47. Species, 93. Specific name: the name of the species. Spicate or Spiked; arranged in a spike. Spike, 61. Spikelet: a small spike, or one of the divisions of a compound spike. Spines, 37. OF BOTANICAL TERMS. Spindle-shaped, 36. Spiny or Spinose : bearing spines. Spores, 58. Spur: a slender hollow projection, as that of the upper sepal of Larkspur (Fig. 251), the lower petal of a violet (Fig. 73), &e. Stamens, 7, 64. Staminate Flowers, 68. Standard of a papilionaceous corolla, 141. Stellate : star-shaped. Stem, 5, 23, 27. Stemless: without a stem, or without one rising out of the ground. Stemlet, 9. Sterile Flowers, 68. Stigma, 8, 65. Stipel: the stipule of a leaflet. Stipules, 43, 54. Stock, 56. Stolon, 39, 57. Stoloniferous : bearing stolons. Stone-Fruit, 77, 78. Strap-shaped corolla, 165. Strawberry, 81. Striate: marked lengthwise with fine lines Strobilaceous : resembling or bearing a Strobile : a fruit like a Pine-cone, 82. Style, 8, 65. ; Subclass, 97. Subfamily or Suborder ; a marked division of an order, such as might be considered impor- tant enough to form a separate order. See pp. 139, 146. Subgenus: a marked division of a genus, such as might perhaps be taken as a separate genus. Subulate : awl-shaped. Succulent : juicy. Sucker, 39, 57. Suspended : hanging from the top. Sword-shaped: erect and sharp-edged lance-lin- ear leaves, like those of Iris (Fig. 64). Superior: above some other part it is compound with, as “ ovary superior,” 75; on the upper side. Symmetrical Flower, &c., 69. Syngenesious, 73, 164. Taper-pointed, 48. Tap-root, 36. Tendrils, 38. Terete: long and round, like ordinary stems ; 223 same as cylindrical, but it may taper, as stems generally do. Terminal : belonging to or borne on the summit. Terminal Bud, 24. Terminal Flowers, 52. Ternate; in threes, or divided into three. Ternately compound, &c., 52. Thorns, 37. Thread-shaped, 53. . Throat of a corolla or calyx: the summit of the tube inside. Thyrse: a close compound panicle, like that of the Horsechestnut, 62. . Three-valved, &e., 80. Thrice compound, thrice pinnate, &c., 52. Tomentose: woolly, with a coat of soft entan- gled hairs or down. Toothed : the margin cut into short and sharp “ projections or teeth. Top-shaped : conical inverted, or with the point downwards. Trailing, 37. Trees, 27. Triadelphous, 73. Trifid: same as three-cleft. Triple-ribbed : when a stout rib rises from each side of a midrib above the base. Trumpet-shaped, 72. Truncate: as if cut off at the end, 48. Trunk, 37. Tubers, 29, 40, 57. Tuberous or Tuber-like Roots, &c., 36. Tube of a corolla, &c., 72. Tubular: tube-shaped, or with a tube, 72. Tumid: swollen or thickened. Turgid: nearly same as Tumid. Turnip-shaped, 36. Twice compound, 52. “pinnate, &e., 52. Twin: in pairs. Twining: climbing by coiling, 37. Two-lipped, 72. Two-valved, &c., 80. Umbel, 61. Umbellet, 62. Unarmed : not spiny or prickly. Undershrub: a very low, shrubby plant. Undulate: wavy. Unsymmetrical Flowers, 70. Upper: in a flower, the upper side is that next the main stem and away from the bract. 924 Utricle: like an akene, but with a thin and loose pericarp. Valves: the pieces into which a pod splits, or by which an anther, &c. opens, 80. Varieties, 93. Vegetable Kingdom, 2. ‘ Vegetation, 6, 89. Veining of leaves, 44. Veinlets, 44. Veins, 44. Veiny: full of veins. Velvety: clothed with a coat of soft and fine hairs, like the pile of velvet. Vertical: upright, or in, the direction of the _ length of a thing. Verticillate ; same as whorled. U INDEX AND DICTIONARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS. Villous, or Villose: hairy with long and soft shaggy hairs. Viscid, or Viscous: glutinous. Wavy, 42. Wedge-shaped, 47. Wheel-shaped, 72. Whorl, 54. Whorled, 54. Winged: furnished with a broad and thin ap- pendage or wing-like border of any kind, as the seeds of Trumpet-Creeper (Fig. 228), or the ig of Maple, Ash, and Elm (Fig. 206 ~ 208). Wood, 41. Woolly: clothed with a coat of long and entan- gled soft hairs, like wool. INDEX TO THE NAMES OF PLANTS IN THE POPULAR FLORA. ABELMOSCHUS, Abies, Adder’s-tongue, Adenorachis, Adlumia, sculus, AEthusa, Agrimonia, Agrimony, Agrostemma, Alcea, Alge, Alisma, Alismacez, Allium, Almond, Almond Family, Althea, Alum-root, Amarantaceee, Amaranth, Amaranth Family, Amarantus, Amaryllidacee, Amaryllis, Amaryllis Family, Amelanchier, American Laurel, Amorpha, Amphicarpza, Ampelopsis, Amsonia, 98, 169, | Arabis, Amygdalus, pee Anagallis, Anemone, Anemony, Andromeda, Angelica, Angiosperms or An mous Plants, Anonacez, Anophytes, Antirrhinum, Apetalous Division, Aphyllon, Apios, Apium, Apocynacez, Apocynum, Apple, Apple-of-Peru, Apricot, Aquifoliacez, Aquilegia, Arachis, Aracee, Aralia, Aralia Family, Araliacee, Arbor-Vitz, Arctostaphylos, Arenaria, Armeniaca, Aristolochia, Aristolochiacee, Ariszema, Archemora, Argemone, Armeria, Armoracia, giosper- 9 98, 147, 113, 115, Page 175 125° Arrow-Aram, ° Arrowhead, Arrow-wood, Arum, Arum Family, Asarum, Asclepias, Ascyrum, Asimina, ee sparagus, Aster, ee Astragal, Astragalus, Atriplex, Atropa, Aurantiacez, Avens, Azalea, Bald-Cypress, ? Barberry Family, Barren-Strawberry, Basil, Basswood, Batatas, Batschia, Bayberry, Bean, Bearberry, Beaver-Poison, Bedstraw, Beech, 147, 143, 142, Page 205 206 163 205 205 190 188 128 118 189 210 166 142 142 192 186 134 149 169 201 179 154 136 136 « 118 145 125 119 119 147 179 133 184 182 200 145 169 158 164 198 226 Beech-drops, Beet. Bellflower, Bellwort, Benzoin, Berberidacez, Berberis, Bitternut, Bittersweet, Black-Alder, Blackberry, Blackberry-Lily, Black-Haw, Blackthorn, Bladder-Cucumber, Bladdernut, Bladdernut Family, Bladder-Senna, Blephilia, Blite, Blitum, Pees ueberry. Blue-curls, Blue-eyed-Grass, Blue-hearts, Bluets, Beehmeria, Borrage, Borrage Family, Borraginacez, Borrago, Bottle-Gourd, Bowman’s-root, Boxberry, ; Bracted-Bindweed, Bramble, Brasenia, Brassica, Breadfruit Family, Brooklime, Brookweed, Broom-Rape Family, Broussonetia, Brunella, 169, 147, 174 192 167 209 194 119 119 192 199 199 174 174 184 199 199 206 190 190 125 197 186 172 150 214 163 151 154 1389 189 142 179 192 192 122 170 178 214 176 164 196 181 181 181 181 154 148 169 184 149 121 125 195 176 173 174 INDEX TO THE Buchnera, Buckbean, Buckeye, Buckthorn, Buckthorn Family, Buckwheat, Buckwheat Family, Bugbane, Bugloss, Bulrush, Bunchberry, Bur-Cucumber, Burdock, Burnet, Burning-bush, Bur-Reed, Bush-Clover, Bush-Honeysuckle, Butter-and-Eggs, Buttercup, Butterfly-Pea, Butternut, Buttonbush, Button-Snakeroot, Buttonwood, Cabbage, Cactacez, Cactus Family, Calla, Caltha, Calycanthacer, Calycanthus, Cakile, Camelina, Camellia, Camelliaceze, Camellia Family, Campanula, Campanulacee, Campanula Family, Candytuft, Canterbury Bells, Capsella, Caprifoliacee, Capsicum, Caraway, Cardamine, Cardinal-Flower, Carolina-Allspice, Carolina-Allspice Family, Carpetweed, Carpinus, i Carrion-flower, | Carrot, , Carum, 196 C 179 , Garya, Caryophyllaceze, 139, Cassia, Castanea, Castilleia, Catalpa, Catbrier, Catchfly, Catnip, Cat-tail, Cat-tail Family, Caulophyllum, Ceanothus, ~ Celandine, Celandine Poppy, Celastraceze, Cephalanthus, Celtis, Cerastium, Cerasus, Cercis, Cherophyllum, Chameerops, Chamomile, Checkerberry, Cheiranthus, Chelidonium, Chelone, Chenopodiaceee, Chenopodium, Cherry, Chervil, Chestnut, Chick-Pea, Chickweed, Chickweed Family, Chimaphila, Chionanthus, Ghokeb okeber Glubram. Cicer, Cichory, Cicuta, Cimicifuga, Cinquefoil, Cistacez, Cistus Family, Citrus, Citrullus, Clarkia, Claytonia, ‘Clearweed, Clematis, Clethra, Clinopodium, Clintonia, 143, 146, 147, 145 198 176 174 208 180 179 206 206 119 1388 122 122 189 189 159 164 195 130 146 143 159 205 166 169 125 122 176 191 192 147 159 198 142 130 1380 169 189 211 147 216 142 166 159 113 149 127 127 184 154 153 131 196 112 169 179 210 Cockle, Coffee-tree, ohosh, Colchicum, Colchicum Family, Collinsia, Collinsonia, Coltsfoot, Columbine, Colutea, Comfrey, Commelyna, Commelynacez, Composite, Composite Family, ae eee Coniferz, Conium, Conophoiis, Convallaria, Convolvulacee, Convolvulus, Convolvulus Family, Coptis, Coreopsis, Coriander, Coriandrum, Cornacez, Cornel, Cornel Family, Cratzgus, Cress Family, Crocus, Crotalaria, Crowfoot, Crowfoot Family, Crown-Imperial, Cruciferous Family, 142, 118, 128, 123, 184, 147, 142 143 216 183 119 180 148 119 209 209 175 179 166 115 142 181 207 207 164 164 200 201 159 174 210 184 184 184 113 166 159 159 160 160 160 160 215 124 124 198 132 159 1380 159 151 169 168 1385 156 151 124 215 142 118 112 210 124 POPULAR FLORA. Cryptogamous Plants, 97 Cucumber, 154 Cucumber-root, 207 Cucumber-tree, ' 117 Cucumis, 154 Cucurbita, 154 Cucurbitacer, 154 Cudweed, 166 Culver’s-root, 176 Cunila, 179 Cuphea, 152 Cupressus, 201 Cupuliferz, 198 Currant, 156 Currant Family, 155 Cuscuta, 184 Custard-Apple Family, 117 Cydonia, 147, 151 Cynoglossum, 182 Cypress, 201 Cypress Family, 201 Cytisus, 142 Daffodil, 218 Daisy, 166 Dalibarda, 147 Dandelion, 166 Daphne, 195 Datura, 186 Daucus, 159 Day-Lily, 210, 211 Deadl Nightshade, 186 Dead Nettle, 180 Deerberry, 169 Delphinium, 118, 114 Dentaria, 125 Desmanthus, 143 Desmodium, 142 Dewberry, 150 Dianthus, 130 Dicentra, 128, 124 Dicotyledons or Dicotyledo- nous Plants, 97, 105 Dictamnus, 137 Dielytra, 124 Diervilla, 161 Digitalis, 176 Diospyros, 172 Dipsaceze, 164 Dipsacus, 164 Dirca, 195 Ditchwort, 156 Dittany, 179 Dock, 193 Dockmackie, 163 Dodder, 184 Dodecatheon, 173 Dogbane, 187, 188 227 Dogbane Family, 187 Dogtooth-Violet, 210, 212 Dogwood, 160 Draba, , 126 Dutchman’s Breeches, 124 Dyer’s Weed, 126 Ebenace, (172 Ebony Family, 172 Echinocystis, 154 Echinospermum, 182 Echium, 181 Egg-Plant, 186 Eglantine, 150 Ellisia, 182 Elm, 195 Elm Family, 195 Elodea, 128 Endogens, 208 Endogens or Endégenous Plants, 97, 203 Epigea, 169 Epilobium, 158 Epiphegus, 174 Erica, 169 Ericacez, 168 Erodium, 135, 186 Erythronium, 210, 212 Eschscholtzia, 122 Euonymus, 189 Eupatorium, 166 Evening-Primrose, 153 Evening-Primrose Family, 153 Everlasting, 166 Everlasting-Pea, 142, 144 Exogens or Exdégenous Plants, 97, 105 Faba, 142 Fagopyrum, 193 Fagus, 198 False-Dragonhead, 179 False-Flax, 125 False-Gromwell, 181 False-Indigo, 148,145 False-Mitrewort, 157 False-Nettle, 196 False-Pennyroyal, ‘178 False-Pimpernel, 176 False Solomon’s-Seal, 211 Featherfoil, ’ ‘178 Fedia, 164 Fennel, 159 Fennel-Flower, 113 ‘erns, 216 Ficus, .195 Fig, 195 Figwort, ., 176 Figwort Family, 175 Fringe-tree, Frsctwoed. Fuchsia, Eumaria, Fumariacez, Fumitory, Fumitory Family, Fun Funke; Galactia, Galanthus, Galeopsis, Galium, Garlic, Gaultheria, Gaylussacia, Geranium, Geranium Family, Gerardia, Germander, Geum, Gigint-Hyssop, Gilia, Gillenia, Ginseng, Glade-Aallow, Gladiolus, Glaucium, Glechoma, Gleditschia, Globe-flower, Glumaceous Division, Goosefoot Family, Gordonia; Gossypium, 201, 97, 97, 168, 176, 147, 147, 118, 202 184 134 166 187 215 105 216 183 159 159 182 191 176 147 187 189 189 127 163 123 123 123 123 216 211 142 213 180 INDEX TO Gourd, Gourd Family, Graminez, Grape, Grape Family, Grape Hyacinth, Grass Family, Gratiola, Greenbrier, Greenbrier Family, Green-Milkweed, Greek Valerian, Gromwell, Grossulacer, Grossularia, Ground-Cherry, Ground-Ivy, Ground-Laurel, Groundnut, Guelder-Rose, Gymnocladus, Gymnosperms ‘ spermous Plants, Hackberry, Hardhack, Harebell, Hawkweed, Hawthorn, Hazel, Heart’s-ease, Heath, Heath Family, Hedeoma, Hedge-Hyssop, Hedge-Mustard, Hedge-Nettle, Helianthemum, Heliotrope, Heliotropium, Hemerocallis, Hemlock, Hemlock-Spruce, Hemp-Nettle, Henbane, Hepatica, Heracleum, Hesperis, Heuchera, Hibiscus, Hickory, Hoary-Pea, Hobblebush, og-Peanut, Holly, Holly Family, Hollyhock, Honesty, THE 142, or Gymno- 98, 147, 210, Honey-Locust, Honeysuckle, Honeysuckle Family, Hop-tree, Horehound, Horse-Balm, Horse-Bean, Horsechestnut, Horsechestnut Family, ‘Horse-Mint, Horseradish, Horse-Nettle, Horsetails, Hottonia, Hound’s-tongue, Houseleek, Houstonia, Huckleberry, Huckleberry Family, Hudsonia, Heeciatt yacinthus, Hydrangea, Hydrophyllacezx, Hydrophyllum, Hyoscyamus, * Hypericum, Tlex, Tlysanthes, Impatiens, Indian-Corn, Indian-Cress, Indian-Cress Family, Indian Cucumber-root, Indian-Mallow, : Indian-Physie, Indian-Pipe, Indian-Pipe Family, Indian Tobacco, Indian Turnip, Ipomea, Tridacez, ris, Iris Family, Tronweed, Isanthus, Isatis, Jacob’s Ladder, Jasminacez, Jasminum, Jeffersonia, Jerusalem-Cherry, 148 161, 162 161 * 187 179, 168, 147, 184, 180 179 142 189 1389 180 125 186 216 178 182 156 164 170 168 127 210 210 157 182 182 186 128 169 218 179 179 125 171 176 136 216 136 186 207 182 148 169 169 167. 205 186 214 215 214 166 178 125 184 189 189 120 186 POPULAR FLORA. Jessamine, 189 | Linacez, ‘ Jessamine Family, 189 | Linaria, 175, Jewel-weed, 136 | Linden, Jointed-Charlock, 125 | Linden Family, pt 218 | Linnea, Juglandacez, 197 | Linum, Juglans, 197 | Liriodendron, Juncus, 216 | Lithospermum, June-berry, 147 | Liverleaf, ) Juniper, 201, 202 | Liverworts, Juniperus, 201, 202 | Lobelia, Kalmia, 169, 170 | Lobeliacez, : Kentucky Coffee-tree, 148 | Lobelia Family, Ketmia, 183 | Loblolly-Bay, Knotgrass, 193 | Locust-tree, 142, Knotweed, 193 | Lonicera, 161, Koniga, 125 | Loosestrife, 152, Labiate, 178 | Lophanthus, Labrador-Tea, 169 | Lopseed, Laburnum, 142 | Lousewort, Ladies’ Eardrop, 153 | Lovage, Lady’s Slipper, 215 | Lucerne, Lagenaria, 154 | Lunaria, Lamium, 180 | Lupine, Lamb-Lettuce, 164 | Lupinus, Lambkill, 170 | Luzula, Laportea, 196 | Lychnis, Larix, 201, 202 ) Lycium, Larkspur, 118, 115 | Lycopersicum, Lauracee, 194 | Lycopsis, Laurel, 169, 170, 171 | Lycopus, Laurel Family, 194 | Lungwort, Laurel-Magnolia, 117 | Lysimachia, Lavandula, 178 | Lythracee, Lavatera, 131 | Lythrum, Lavender, 178 | Lythrum Family, Leadwort Family, 178 | Maclura, Leatherwood, 195 | Madder, Lechea, 127 | Madder Family, Ledum, 169 | Magnolia, Leek, 211 | Magnolia Family, Leguminose, 141 , Mahonia, Lemon, 134 | Maize, Leonurus, 180 | Mallow, 181, Lepidium, 125 | Mallow Family, Lespedeza, 142 | Malus, 147, Lettuce, 166 | Malva, 131, Levisticum, 159 | Malvacez, Lichens, 216 | Mandrake, Ligustrum, 189 | Maple, : Lilac, 189 | Maple Family, Lilium, 210, 212 | Marrubium, Lily, 210, 211 | Marsh-Mallow, Lily Family, 209 | Marsh-Marigold, Lily-of-the- Valley, 210 | Marsh-Rosemary, Lime-tree, 183 | Martynia, Limnanthemum, 187 | Matrimony-Vine, 134 177 133 133 161 134 17 182 113 patios, 125 ay-. le, 120 May-lcwer 169 Maypop, 155 May weed, 166 Maywreath, 148 Meadow-Rue, . 118, 114 Meadow-sweet, 147, 148 Medeola, 207 Medicago, 142, 144 Medick, 142, 144 Melanthacez, 209 Melanthium, 209 Melilot, 142, 144 Melilotus, 142, 144 Melissa, 179 Melon, 154 Menispermacer, 119 Menispermum, . 119 Mentha, 179, 180 Menyanthes, 187 Mertensia, 181 Mezereum, 195 Mezereum Family, 195 Mignonette, 126 Mignonette Family, 125 Milk-Pea, 142 Milkweed, 188 Milkweed Family, 188 Millet, 216 Mimosa, 143 Mimosa Family, 148 Mimulus, - 176 Mint, 179, 180 Mint Family, 178 Mirabilis, 191 Mirabilis Family, ° 191 Mitchella, 164 Mitella, 157 Mitrewort, 157 Mockernut, 197 Mock-Orange, 157, 158 Molucca-Balm, 180 Molucella, 180 Mollugo, 130 Momordica, 154. Monarda, 179, 180 Monkey-flower, 176 Monkshood, ° 116 Monocotyledons, or Mono- : cotyledonous Plants, 97, 203 Monopetalous Division, 161 Monotropa, 169 Moonseed Family, 119 Morning-Glory, 184, 185 Morus, 196 Mosses, 216 230 Motherwort, Mountain-Ash, Mouse-ear Chickweed, Mulberry, Mullein, Muscari, Mushrooms, . Muskmelon, Musquash-root, Mustard, Myosotis, Myrica, Myricacez, Naked Broom-Rape, Napa, Narcissus, Nasturtium, Neckweed, Nelumbium, Nelumbo, Nemophila, Nepeta, Nyctaginacex, Nymphea, Nymphezacee, Oak” Family, Oats, QGnothera, Oldenlandia, Oleacezx, Oleander, oe Family, Orchis, Orchis Family, 125, 185, 210, INDEX TO THE Origanum, Ornithogalum, Orontium, Orpine, Osage-Orange, Osmorrhiza, Ostrya, Oswego Tea Oxalis, Oxalidacez, Oxybaphus, Peonia, — Painted-Cup, Palme, Palmetto, Palm Family, Pancratium, Pansy, Papaver, Papaveracez, Papaw, Paper-Mulberry, Pardanthus, Parietaria, Parsley, Parsley Family, Parsnip, Partridge-berry, Partridge-Pea, Passiflora, Passifloracese, Passion-flower, Passion-flower Family, Pastinaca, : Pear, Pear Family, Pearlwort, Pecan-Nut, Pedicularis, Pelargonium, Pellitory, Peltandra, Pennyroyal, Penthorum, Pentstemon, Peony, Si Seng eppergrass, Periwinkle, Persea, Persica, Persimmon, Petaloideous Division, 164, Petilium, Petroselinum, Petunia, Phacelia, Pheenogamous Plants, Phaseolus, Philadelphus, Ph ryma, Physalis, Physostegia, Phytolacca, Phytolaccacer, Pickerel-weed, Pickerel-weed Family, Pignut, Pilea, Pimpernel, Pine, Pine Family, Pinesap, Pink, Pink Family, Pinweed, Pinxter-flower, Pipe-vine, Pipsissewa, ‘isum, Pitcher-Plant, Plane-tree, Plantaginaceze, Plantago, Plantain, Plantain Family, Platanacez, Platanus, Plam, Plumbaginaces, Podophyllum, Poison-Hemlock, Poison-Ivy, Poke, Pokeweed, Pokeweed Family, Polemoniaceze, Polemonium, Polemonium Family, Polianthes, Polyanthus, Polygonaceze, Polygonum, Polygonatum, Polypetalous Division, Pond-Lily, Pontederia, Pontederiacese, Poplar, Poppy, Poppy Family, Populus, Portulaca, Portulacacez, Potato, Potentilla, Poterium, Prickly-Ash, Prickly-Pear, Prickly-Poppy, Primrose, Primrose Family, Primula, Primulacez, Prince’s-Feather, Prince’s-Pine, Prinos, Prunus, Psoralea, Ptelea, Puccoon, Pulse Family, Pumpkin, _ Purslane, Purslane Family, Pycnanthemum, Pyrola, Pyrola Family, Pyrus, uamoclit, OLD =] icy a Q a oa Ranunculacee, Ranunculus, Raphanus, Raspberry, Rattlebox, Red-Bay, Red-bud, Rhodora, Rock-Cress, 147, 146, 147, 147, 118, POPULAR FLORA. Rocket, Rosa, Rose-Acacia, Rosacez, Rose, Rose-Bay, Rose Family, Rowan-tree, Rubia, Rubiacer, Ruta, Rutacer, ye Sabbatia, age, Sage Family, Sagina, Sagittaria, Salad-Burnet, Salicaceze, Salix, Salicornia, Saltwort, Salsify, Salsola, Salvia, Sambucus, Samolus, Samphire, Sand-Spurrey, Sandwort, Sanguinaria, Sanguisorba, Sanicle, Sanicula, Saponaria, Sarsaparilla, Sarracenia, Sassafras, Satureia, Savin, Savory, Saxifraga, Saxifragacese, Saxifrage, Saxifrage Family, Scabiosa, Scabious, Scarlet-Runner, Schrankia, Scilla, 14y, 147, 147, 161, 125° 150 143 146 150 170 146 151 164 163 137 187 149 193 216 215 137 187 216 187 179 178 130 206 147 200 200 192 192 166 192 179 162 173 192 130 130 122 147 159 159 130 160 121 194 179 202 179 157 157 157 157 164 164 145 143 210 Scorpion-Grass, Scrophularia, Scrophulariacez, Scullcap, Scutellaria, Seaweeds, Sedge Family, Sedum, Self-heal, Senna, Sempervivum, Sensitive-Brier, Sensitive-Plant, Shadbush, Shagbark, Sheep-berry, Shellbark, Shepherd’s-Purse, Shin-leaf, Sicyos, meh Sida, Sidesaddle-Flower, 231 179, 179, 148, Sidesaddle-Flower Family, Silene, Silver-weed, Sinapis, Sisymbrium, Sisyrinchiuya, Sium, Skunk-Cabbage, Smartweed, Smilaceze, Smilacina, Smilax, Smoke-tree, Smoke-vine, Snakeroot, Snapdragon, Snowball, Snowberry, Snowdrop, Snowflake, Soapberry Family, Soapwort, Solanaceze, Solanum, Solomon’s-Seal, Sorbus, Sorrel, Sow-thistle, Spadiceous Division, Sparganium, Speedwell, Spergula, Spergularia, Spice-bush, Spiderwort, 210, 185, 175, 182 180 180 121 207 232° Spiderwort Family, 207 Spikenard, 159 Spinach, 192 Spinacia, 192 Spindle-tree, 189 Spirzea, 147, 148 Spring-Beauty, 131 Spruce, 202 Spurrey, 130 Squash, 154 Squaw-root, 174 ill, 210 Squirrel-Corn, 124 Stachys, 180 Staff-tree, 139 “Staff-tree Family, 139 Staphylea, 139 Star-flower, 173 Star-Grass, 213 Star-of-Bethlehem, 210 Statice, 173 Stellaria, 130 Stickseed, 182 Stock, 125 Stonecrop, 156 Stonecrop Family, 156 St. John’s-wort, 128 St. John’s-wort Family, 128 St. Peter’s-wort, 128 Stramonium, 186 Strawberry, 147 Strawberry-bush, 139 Streptopus, 209 Stylophorum, 122 Succory, 166 Sumach, 187 Sumach Family, 137 Summer-Savory, 179 Sunflower, 166 Sunflower Family, 164 Sweet-Alyssum, 125 Sweet~-Basil, 178 Sweet-brier, 150 Sweet-Cicely, 159 Sweet-Clover, 144 Sweet-Fern, 200 Sweet-Flag, 205 Sweet-Gale, 200 Sweet-Gale Family, 200 Sweet-Pea, 144 Sweet-Potato, 184 Sycamore, 196 Symphytum, 181 Symplocarpus, 205 Symphoricarpus, 161 . Syringa, 158, 189 Tare, 144 INDEX TO THE Taxus, Tea-Plant, Tear-Thumb, Teasel, Lae Family, Thalictrum, dhalipphytets Thimbleberry, Thistle, Thorn, Thoroughwort, Three-leaved Nightshade, Thrift, Thuja, Thyme, Thymus, Thymeleacezz, Tiarella, Tick-Trefoil, 113, 175, Tradescantia, Trailing-Arbutus, Trefoil, Trichostema, Trientalis, Trifolium, Trilliacess, Trillium, Trillium Family, Trollius, Trumpet-Creeper, Trumpets, 142, 118, Twist-stalk, Typha, Typhacee, Umbelliferse, Umbrella-tree, Unicorn-Plant, 98, 201 Urtica, 196 184 ' Urticacez, 195 194 Uvularia, 209 164 | 'Vaccaria, 130 164; Vaccinium, 169, 170 74: Valerian, 164 A2 | Valeriana, 164 178 ; Valerianacee, 164 114 | Valerian Family, 164 216 | Veratrum, 209 150| Verbena, . 177, 178 166 | Verbenacez, 177 151 | Verbascum, 175, 176 166 Veronica, 175, 176 206 | Vervain, 177, 178 173 | Vervain Family, 177 201 ; Vetch, 142 179 | Vetchling, . 144 179 | Viburnum, 161, 162 195 Vicia, 142 157 ; Vinca, 188 142! Viola, 126 214 Violacez, 126 214 Violet, 126 133 Violet Family, 126° 133 Viper’s-Bugloss, 181 177 Virginia Snakeroot, 190 186 Virgin’s-Bower, 112 185 Virginia Creeper, 188 207 Vitis, 137 169 Vitacex, 187 143 Waldsteinia, 147 178 Wake-Robin, 206 173 , Wallflower, 125 143 | Walnut, 197 206 | Walnut Family, 197 206 | Water-Cress, 125 206 | Water-Hemlock, 159 115 | Water-Horehound, 179 174 | Waterleaf, 182 121 | Waterleaf Family, 182 213 | Water-Lily, 120, 121 210 | Water-Lily Family, 120 210 | Watermelon, 154 417 | Water-Parsnip, 159 160 | Water-Pepper, 193 125 | Water-Plantain, 206 176 | Water-Plantain Family, 206 125 | Watershield, 121 161 | Wheat, 216 120 | White-Bay, 117 209 | White-Cedar, 201 206 | White-Thorn, 151 206 | White-Hellebore, 209 158 | Whitlow-Grass, 125 118 | Wild-Ginger, 190 174! Willow, 200 POPULAR FLORA. 233 Willow Family, 200 | Wistaria, 142 | Wood-Sorrel Family, 185 Willow-herb, 153 | Wood, 125 | Wormwood, 166 Winterberry, 172 | Wolfsbane, 116 | Wythe-rod, 162 Winter-Cress, 125 | Woodbine, 162 | Yucca, 210 Wintergreen, 169, 171] Wood-Nettle, 196 | Yew, 201 Wintergreen Family, 169 | Wood-Sorrel, 185 | Zanthoxylum, 187 THE END. Snob be a re te a eS ae aera : wee ee vlc aes