aml
plary .

0 ete

ALBERT R. MANN
LIBRARY

New YorK STATE COLLEGES
OF
AGRICULTURE AND Home ECONOMICS

AT

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

EVERETT FRANKLIN PHILLIPS

BEEKEEPING LIBRARY

CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924051999724

THE

Bee-Keeper’s Guide.

Ra
MANUAL OF THE APIARY,
—BY=
A, J, COOK,
Late Prof of Ent logy in the Michigan State Agricultural College,
Prof of Zoology P. College, Claremont, California,
AUTHOR OF

hee.
"Injurious Insects of Michigan,” " Maple Sugar and the
Sugar Bush," and " Silo and Silage.”

¥
r)

EIGHTEENTH EDITION.

Revised, Enlarged, Re-Written and Beautifully Ilustrated.

TWENTIETH THOUSAND.

CHICAGO, ILL.

GEORGE W. YORK & COMPANY,
PUBLISHERS.
1904

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by
ALBERT J. COOK,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.

TO THE

REVEREND L. L. LANGSTROTH,
THE
INVENTOR OF THE MOVABLE-FRAME HIVE,

THE HUBER OF AMERICA,
AND ONE OF THE GREATEST MASTERS OF PURE AND APPLIED
SCIENCE, AS RELATING TO APICULTURE,
IN THE WORLD,

THIS MANUAL IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED
BY
THE AUTHOR.

PREFACH.

In 1876, in response to a desire frequently expressed by my aplarian
friends, principally my students, I published an edition of 3000 copies of
the little, unpretending ‘‘Manual of the Apiary.”” This was little more
than the course of lectures which I gave annually at the Michigan Agri-
cultural College. In less than two years this was exhausted, and the
second edition, enlarged, revised, and much more fully illustrated, was
issued. So great was the sale that in less than a year this was followed
by the third and fourth editions, and, in less than two years, the fifth
edition (seventh thousand) was issued.

In each of the two following years, another edition was demanded.
In each of these editions the book has been enlarged, changes made, and
illustrations added, that the book might keep pace with our rapidly
advancing art.

So great has been the demand for this work, not only at home and in
Europe, but even in more distant lands, and so great has been the prog-
ress of apiculture—so changed the views and methods of our best bee-
keepers—that the author feels warranted in thoroughly revising and
entirely recasting this eighth edition (tenth thousand). Not only is the
work re-written, but much new matter, and many new and costly illus-
trations, are added.

The above I quote directly from the preface of the eighth edition,
published in 1888. Since then four editions have appeared, each reyised
as the progress of the art required.

In electrotyping the eighth edition, through an accident very poor
work was done, so that the impressions of the last three editions have
been far from satisfactory. This has led me wholly to revise the present,
or thirteenth edition. In doing this I have thoughtit wise to add largely,
especially to the scientific portion, as the intelligence of our bee-keepers
demands the fullest information. I have thus added one hundred and
fifty pages and more than thirty illustrations. All this has involved so

PREFACE.

much expense that Iam forced, though very reluctantly, to increase the
price of the work.

As our bee-keepers know, I have permitted wide use of the illustra-
tions prepared expressly for this work, believing heartily in the motto,
‘* greatest good to the greatest number;’’ sol have drawn widely from
others. I am greatly indebted to all these, and have given credit with
the illustration.

Since the above was penned three editions haye appeared, the last,
sixteenth, in 1899. Each has been revised. Both the science and prag-
tice have so advanced that I now recast entirely this, the seventeenvh
edition.

I wish again to express my thanks and gratitude to our wide-awaie
American apiarista, without whose aid it would have peen impossibie to
have written this work. Iam under special obligation to Messrs. Cowan,
York and Root, and to my students who have aided me, both in the
apiary and laboratory.

As I stated in the preface tothe eighth edition, it is mysdesi.e and
determination that this work shall continue to be the exponent of the
most improved apiculture; and no pains will be spared, that each suc-
ceeding edition may embody the latest improvements and discoveries
wrought out by the practical man and the scientist, as gleaned from the
excellent home and foreign apiarian and scientific periodicals.

The above was prefaced to the Eighteenth one thousand published
in 1900. This Nineteenth one thousand has been wholly revised, about 80
pages and 75 engravings added. We believe it is now at the frontin
bee-keeping science and practice. A. J. COOK.

Pomona College, Claremont, California, 1902.

CONTENTS.

Introduction.—p. 13.
Who May Keep Bees.

Specialists, Amateurs, Who Should
Not Keep Bees, Inducements to
Bee-Keeping, Recreation, Profits,
Excellence as an Amateur Pursuit,
Adaptation to Women, Improves
the Mind, the Observation and
Heart, Yields Delicious Food,
Brings the Second Blade of Grass,
Adds to the Nation’s Wealth,
What Successful Bee-Keeping Re-
quires, Mental Effort, Experience
Necessary, Learn from Others, Aid
from Conventions, Aid from Bee-
Journals, Amerioan Bee Journal,
Gleanings in Bee-Culture, Bee-
Keepers’ Review, Canadian Bee
Journal, American Bee-Keeper,
Progressive Bee-Keeper, Lone Star
Apiarist, Books for the Apiarist,
Langstroth on the Honey-Bee, A B
C of Bee-Culture, Bees and Honey,
Scientific Queen-Rearing, Advanced
Bee-Culture, Bee-Keeping for Be-
ginners, Foreign _ Publications,
British Bee Journal, Foreign Books,
_Promptitude, Enthusiasm.

Part I.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY-
BEE.

CHAPTER I.—p. 31.

The Bee’s Place in the Animal King-

dom.

Branch of the Honey-Bee, The
Class of the Honey-Bee, Order of
the Honey-Bee, Family of the

Honey-Bee, The Genus of the
Honey-Bee, Species of Our Honey-
Bees, Races of the Honey-Bee, Ger-
man or Black Bee, Ligurian or Ital-
ian, The Syrian and Cyprian Races,
Other Races, Bibliography, Val-
uable Books for the Student of
Entomology.

CHAPTER II.—p. 64.
Anatomy and Physiology.

Anatomy of Insects, Organs of
the Head, Appendages of the
Thorax, Internal Anatomy of In-
sects, Secretory Organs of Insects,
Sex-Organs of Insects, Transforma-
tion of Insects, The Egg,The Larva
of Insects, The Pupa of Insects,
The Imago Stage, Incomplete Trans-
formation, Anatomy and Physiology
of the Honey-Bee, Three Kinds of
Bees in each Family, The Queen-
Bee, Structure and Natural His-
tory, The Drones, The Neuters or
Workers, Glandular Organs.

CHAPTER III.—p. 165.
Swarming, or Natural Methods of
Increase,

CHAPTER IV.—p. 171.

Products of Bees, their Origin and
Function.

Honey, Wax, Pollen,or Bee-Bread,
Propolis, Bibliography.

x CONTENTS.

Part IL.

THE APIARY, ITS CARE AND MAN-
AGEMENT.

INTRODUCTION.—>p. 201.
Starting an Apiary.

Preparation, Read a Good Man-
ual, Visit Some Apiarist, Take a
College Course, Decide on a Plan,
How to Procure First Colonies,
Kind of Bees to Purchase, In What
Kind of Hives, When to Purchase,
How Much to Pay, Where to Locate

CHAPTER V-—p. 207,
Hives und Sections.

Box-Hives, Movable-Comb Hives,
Early Frame Hives, The Langstroth
Hive, Character of the Hive, What
Style to Adopt, The Heddon Sur-
plus-Case, The Cover, Division-
Board, Cloth Covers, The New
Heddon Hive, The Frames, A Block
for Making Frames, Cover for
Frames, the Huber Hive, Observa-
tory Hive, Apparatus for Procuring
Comb Honey, Surplus Comb Honey
io Sections, How to Place Sections
in Position, Sections in Frames,
Crates or Racks, Fences, Separa-
tors, Foot-Power Saw.

CHAPTER VI.—p. 253.

Positionaud Arrangement of Apiary

Position, Arrangement of Grounds,
Preparation for Each Colony.

CHAPTER VII.-—p. 258.
To Transfer Bees,

The Old Method, Hunting Bee-
Trees.

CHAPTER VIII.—p. 264.
Heeding and Feeders.

What to Feed, How to Feed,
Smith Feeder.

CHAPTER IX.—p. 273.
Queen-Rearing.

How to Rear Queens, Nuclei,
Queen Lamp-Nursery, Shall We
Clip the Queen’s Wing? Laying
Workers, Queen Register, or Api-
ary Register.

CHAPTER X.—p. 293.
Increase of Colonies.

Swarming, Hiving Swarms, To
Prevent Second Swarms, To Pre-
vent Swarming, Artificial Increase,
How to Divide, Capturing Abscond-
ing Swarms.

CHAPTER XI.—p. 306.
Italians and Itulianizing.

The New Races of Bees, What
Bees Shall We Keep ? How to Ital-
janize, How to Introduce a Queen,
Valentine’s Comb Stand, To Get
Our Italian Queens, To Ship
Queens, The ‘Good’ Candy, Prep-
arations to Ship, To Move Colonies.

CHAPTER XII.—p. 321.
Ertracting, and the Bxtractor,

Honey-Extractor, Desirable Points
in un Extractor, Use of Extractor,
When to Use the Extractor, To
Keep Extracted Honey.

CHAPTER XIII.—p. 335.
Working Jor Comb Honey.

Points to Consider, To Secure
Strong Colonies, To Avoid the
Swarming Fever, Adjustment of
Sections, Getting Bees into Sec-
tions, Removal of Sections.

CONTEN'S. xi

CHAPTER XIV.—p. 343.

Handling Bees.

The Best Bee-Veil, To Quiet Bees,
Bellows Smoker, The Quinby
Smoker, To Smoke Bees, Chloro-
form, To Cure Stings, The Sweat
Theory, The Bee-Tent.

CHAPTER XV.—p. 353.

Comb Foundation,

History, American Foundation,
The Press for Foundation, How
Foundation is Made, To Secure the
Wax-Sheets, Use of Foundation,
Wired Frames, Save the Wax,
Methods, Wax-Press.

CHAPTER XVI.—p. 373.

* Marketing Honey.

How to Invigorate the Market,
Preparation for Market, Extracted
Honey, How to Tempt the Con-
sumer, Comb Honey, Rules to be
Observed, Marketing Bees, Selling
Queens, Selling Bees by the Pound,
Vinegar from Honey, Fairs and the
Market, What Should We Have ?
Effects of Such Exhibits,

CHAPTER XVII.—p. 389.

Honey-Plants.

Real Honey-Dew, Sweet Sap and
Juices, What are the Valuable
Honey-Plants ? Description With
Practical Remarks, March Plants,
April Plants, May Plants, June
Plants, July Plants, August and
September Plants, Books on Botany,
Practical Conclusions.

CHAPTER XVIII.—p. 454.
Wintering Bees.

The Causes of Disastrous Win-
tering, The Requisite to Safe Win-
tering—Good Food, Secure Late
Breeding, To Secure and Maintain
the Proper Temperature, Box for
Packing, Chaff Hives, Rules for
their Use, Wintering in Bee-House,
Wintering in Cellar, Burying Bees
or Clamps, Spring Dwindling.

CHAPTER XIX.—p. 468.
The Howse-Apiary and Bee-House,
Bee-Houses.

CHAPTER XX.—p. 473.
Evils that Confront the Apiarist.

Robbing, Disease, Foul Brood,
Remedies, To Cure Bee-Paralysis,
To Cure New Bee-Diseases, Ene-
mies of Bees, The Bee-Moth, His-
tory, Remedies, The Wee Bee-Moth,
Remedies, Two Destructive Beetles,
Robber-Flies, The Stinging Bug,
The Bee-Stabber, Bee-Hawk,. Tach-
ina-Fly, Bee-Louse, Ants, Florida
Ant, The Cow-Killer, The Praying
Mantis, Blister-Beetles, Wasps, A
Bee-Mite, Remedies, California Bee-
Killer, Spiders, The King-Bird, The
Toads, Mice, Shrews, Skunks.

CHAPTER XXI.—p. 512.
Calendar and Axioms,

Work for Different Months, Jan-
uary, February, March, April, May,
June,’ July, August, September,
October, November, December,
Axioms, Glossary.

2

INTRODUCTION.

WHO MAY KEEP BEES.
SPECIALISTS.

Any person who is cautious, observing and prompt, will
succeed in bee-keeping. He must expect to work with full
energy through the busy season, and persist though discour-
agement and misfortune both confront him. I need not men-
tion capital or location, for men of true metal—men whose
energy of body and mind bespeak success in advance—will
solve these questions long before their experience and knowl-
edge warrant their assuming the charge of large apiaries.

AMATHURS.

Bee-keeping is specially to be recommended as an avoca-
tion. Bees are of great value in fertilizing fruits, grains and
vegetables; they also save millions of pounds of most whole-
some food which would otherwise go to waste ; and experience
amply proves that they may be kept in city, village and coun-
try at a good profit, and so any person, possessed of the proper
ability, tact and energy, may adopt bee-keeping, and thus do
good, gain pleasure, and often receive profit, as experience has
shown, more than is derived from the regular occupation. The
late Mr. C. F. Muth, of Cincinnati, long kept bees very profit-
ably on his store, in the very heart of the city. Hundreds of
our most successful bee-keepers live in small towns and vil-
lages, and add bee-culture to their work in shop, office, or study,
and receive health, pleasure, and money asa reward. Ladies all
over our country are finding in this pursuit pleasure, and oppor-
tunity to exercise in the pure air, which means health, and
money. Farmers are adding bee-keeping to their farms, to
find not infrequently that the bees are their most profitable
property. Orchardists, especially, need and must have bees to
pollinate the fruit-blossoms, and insure a crop. The time
required willof course depend upon the number of colonies
kept; but with wise management, this time may be given at

14 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE 3

any time of the day or week, and thus not interfere with the
regular business. Thus residents of country, village or city,
male or female, who enjoy the society and study of natural
objects, and wish to add to their income and pleasure, will find
here an ever waiting opportunity.

WHO SHOULD NOT KEEP BEES.

There are occasionally persons to whom the venom of the
bee isa serious poison. If such persons are stung anywhere
their eyes swell so they can not see, the skin blotches, and
serious irritation is felt over the entire body. Such persons
are often overcome with fever for several days. and, though
very rarely, the sting sometimes proves fatal. It goes without
saying that such persons should not keep bees.

It is a well known fact that the sting of the honey-bee
becomes less and less poisonous the more one is stung. The
system becomes inoculated against the poison. My own ex-
perience proves this most conclusively. Every bee-keeper will
receive occasional stings, but these become more and more
rare, and soon occasion neither fear nor anxiety.

INDUCEMENTS TO BEE-KEEPING.
RECREATION.

I name this first, as it was the pleasure in store that led me
to the art of keeping bees, though I was terribly afraid of bees
at the beginning. Thereis a rare fascination in the study of
nature. Insect life is ever presenting the most pleasurable
surprises to those who study it. Bees, from their wonderful
instincts, curious structure and habits, and the interesting
relations which they sustain to vegetable life, are most fasci-
nating objects of study. The observant and appreciative bee-
keeper is ever the witness of exhibitions that incite wonder
and admiration. This is why bee-keepers are always enthusi-
asts. I know of no class of laborers who dwell more fondly on
their work and business than do bee-keepers. A thorough
study of the marvelous economy of the honey-bee must, from
its very nature, bring delight and admiration. A farmer once
said to me, ‘‘ Were it not for the generous profits of the busi-
ness, I would still keep bees for the real pleasure I receive in

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 15

the business.’? I once asked a hard worked teacher why he
kept bees. I felt like saying amen to hisanswer: ‘‘ For the
restful pleasure which the work gives.”” I have often gone to
the bees tired and nervous, and after an hour's labor, felt re-
freshed, as by sound sleep. I have been deeply gratified many
times by the letters thanking me for having turned the writers’
attention towards bee-keeping. I often think that if a person
does embark in bee-keeping, commencing in a small way—and
no person Should begin in any other way—the knowledge gained
and consequent pleasure received will prove ample remunera-
tion, even should no practical results follow. The man is
broadened by the study, and better fitted to enjoy life.

Some years since my old friend and college classmate, O.
Clute, visited me. Of course, I must show him the bees. He
was delighted, took this ‘‘ Manual’’ home with him, purchased
some bees at once, and became enraptured with the work, and
the result of all this was another first-class bee-keeper and
that most fascinating work of fiction, ‘‘ Blessed Bees.”’

PROFITS.

The profits in bee-keeping offer strong inducements towards
its adoption asa pursuit. I believe few manual-labor occupa-
tions offer so large returns, if we consider the capital invested.
True, bee-keeping requires hard work, but this is only fora
portion of the year, and in winter there is almost no work,
especially if the bee-keeper buys all his hives, sections, etc.,
which is usually wiser than to make them. The cautious,
prompt and skillful bee-keeper will often be able to secure an
annual average of seventy-five pounds per colony, besides
doubling the number of his colonies. This will give $10.00 per
colony at least, which is almost as much as the colony, with
required apparatus, is worth. Of course, poor years will con-
front the bee-keeper. Winter losses will be experienced by the
beginner. Some will fail entirely. The fickle, careless, indo-
lent man will as surely fail in bee-keeping as in any other
calling. Yetif onestudies the science and art, and commences
bee-keeping in a small way, as all should, he will be no great
loser, even if he find that he is not suited to the business. He
knows more and is a broader man for this study and experi-
ence. My brother, whoisa good farmer, with a fertile and

16 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

well-stocked farm, commenced bee-keeping more to interest
his boys than aught else. He has met very little loss in win-
tering—for years together none at all. For three successive
years his sixty colonies of bees gave him more profits than all
the balance of his farm. As he saidat one of the Michigan
State Conventions: ‘‘I find my bees the pleasantest and most
profitable part of my farm.’’ He added the surprising remark,
‘‘Nothing on my farm bears neglect better than my bees.’’ I
might add that neglect is rarely seen on his farm.

Adam Grimm, James Heddon, G. M. Doolittle, E. J. Oat-
man,and many others, have made much money in this pursuit.
Mr. Hetherington keeps thousands of colonies of bees, and has
received over $10,000 cash receipts in a single year. Mr. Clute,
an able clergyman, has often received more money from his
bees than from his salary as a preacher. All over our country
men are gaining a livelihood in this industry, and often earn-
ing as much more in other pursuits. The opportunity to make
money, even with hardships and privations, is attractive and
seldom disregarded. What shall we say then of this oppor-
tunity, if the labor which it involves, brings in itself healthful
recreation and constant delight? Dr. C.C. Miller gave upa
$2500 salary to engage in bee-keeping. ‘Though a specialist,
and though his profits some years, owing to the drouth, are
nothing, yet he is contented with the business, and has no idea
of changing for any other.

EXCELLENCE AS AN AMATEUR PURSUIT.

After twenty years of experience, Iam persuaded that no
business offers more as an avocation. Indeed, I think bee-
keeping may ofttimes best serve asa second business. We
have already seen that bees are a blessing, and I would have
every person, whatever his leading business, keep a few colo-
nies of bees, unless by taste, nature or temperament, he be
unfitted for the work. Bee-keeping offers additional funds to
the poorly paid; outdoor air to clerk and office-hand ; healthful
exercise to the person of sedentary habits, opportunity for the
poor to reap what would otherwise go to waste, and superior
recreation to the student, teacher and professional man, espe-
cially to him whose life-work is of that dull, hum-drum, rou-
tine order that seems to rob life of all zest.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 17

The labor required in bee-keeping, especially if but few
colonies are kept, can, with thought and management, be so
arranged as not to infringe upon the time demanded by the
regular occupation. Even the farmer, by wise foresight, can
arrange so that his bees will not interfere greatly with his
regular farm work. I have never received more hearty thanks
than from persons whom I had influenced to add the care of
bees to their other duties.

ADAPTATION TO WOMEN.

Apiculture may also bring succor to those whom society
has not been over-ready to favor—our women. Widowed
mothers, dependent girls, the weak and the feeble, all may find
a blessing in the easy, pleasant and profitable labors of the
apiary. Ofcourse, women who lack vigor and health can care
for but very few colonies, and must have sufficient strength to
bend over and lift the small-sized frames of comb when loaded
with honey, and to carry empty hives. With the proper
thought and management, full colonies need never be lifted,
nor work done in tie hot sunshine. Yet, right here let me
add, and emphasize the truth, ¢hat only those who will let ener-
getic thought and skillful plan, and above all promptitude and
persistence, make up for physical weakness, should enlist as
apiarists. Usually a stronger body and improved health, the
result of pure air, sunshine and exercise, will make each suc-
cessive day’s labor more easy, and will permit a corresponding
growth in the sizeof the apiary for each successive season.
One of the most uoted apiarists, not only in America, but in
the world, sought in bee-keeping her health, and found not
only health, but reputation andinfluence. Some of the most
successful apiarists in our country are women. Of these,
many were led to adopt the pursuit because of waning health,
grasping at this as the last and successful weapon with which
to vanquish the grim monster.

That able apiarist, and terse writer on apiculture, Mrs. L.
Harrison, states that the physicians told her that she could not
live; but apiculture did for her what the physicians could not
do—restored her to health, and gave her such vigor that she
has been able to work a large apiary for years.

Said “Cyula Linswik ’’—whose excellent and beautifully

18 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

written articles have so often charmed the readers of the bee-
journals, and who has had many years of successful experi-
ence as an apiarist—in a paper read before the Michigan con-
vention in March, 1887: ‘‘I would gladly purchase exemption
from indoor work, on washing-day, by two days’ labor among
the bees, and I find two hours’ labor at the ironing-table more
fatiguing than two hours of the severest toil the apiary can
exact.”’ I repeat, that apiculture offers to many women not
only pleasure but profit

Mrs. Ll. B. Baker, of Lansing, Mich., who had kept bees
very successfully for four years, read an admirable paper be-
fore the same convention, in which she said: ‘‘ ButIcan say,
having tried both (keeping boarding-house and apiculture), I
give bee-keeping the preference, as more profitable, healthful,
independent andenjoyable. * * * TJ find the labors of the
apiary more endurable than working over a cook-stove indoors,
and more pleasant and conducive to health. * * * I be-
lieve that many of our delicate and invalid ladies would find
renewed vigor of body and mind in the labors and recreations
of the apiary. * * * By beginning in the early spring,
when the weather was cool and the work light, I became grad-
ually accustomed to outdoor labor, and by midsummer found
myself as well able to endure the heat of the sun as my hus-
band, who has been accustomed to it all his life. Previously,
to attend an open-air picnic was to return with a headache.
, * * My own experience in the apiary has been a source
of interest and enjoyment far exceeding my anticipations.”
Although Mrs. Baker commenced with but two colonies of
bees, her net profits the first season were over $100 ; the second
year but a few cents less than $300 ; and the third year about
$250. ‘‘ The proof of the pudding is in the eating;’’ and such
words as those above show that apiculture offers special in-
ducements to our sisters to become either amateur or profes-
sional apiarists. Atthe present time almost every State has
women bee-keepers, whose success has won attention. True
it is, that in neatness and delicacy of manipulation, the women
far surpass the men. The nicest honey producedin Michigan,
year after year, comes from the apiary of two ladies who 1
believe are peers of any bee-keepers in our country.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 19

IMPROVES THE MIND, THE OBSERVATION, AND THE HEART.

Successful apiculture demands close and accurate obser-
vation, and hard, continuous thought and study, and this, too,
in the wondrous realm of nature. In all this, the apiarist re-
ceives manifold and substantial advantages. In the cultiva-
tion of the habit of observation a person becomes constantly
more able, useful and susceptible to pleasure—results which
also follow as surely on the habit of thought and study. Itis
hardly conceivable that the wide-awake apiarist who is so
frequently busy with his wonder-working comrades of the
hive, can ever be lonely, or feel time hanging heavily on his
hands. The mind is occupied, and there is no chance for
ennut. The whole tendency of such thought and study, where
nature is the subject, is to refine the taste, elevate the desires,
and ennoble manhood. Once get our youth, with their sus-
ceptible natures, engaged in such wholesome study, and we
shall have less reason to fear the vicious tendencies of the
street, or the luring vices and damning influences of the
saloon. Thus apiculture spreads an intellectual feast that
even the old philosophers would have coveted; furnishes the
rarest food for the observing faculties, and, best of all, by
keeping its votaries face to face with the matchless creations
of the All Father, must draw them toward Him ‘‘ who went
about doing good,’’ and ‘‘in whom there was no guile.”

YIELDS DELICIOUS FOOD.

A last inducement of apiculture, certainly not unworthy of
mention, is the offering it brings to our tables. Health, yea
our very lives, demands that we eat sweets. It isa truth that
our sugars, and especially our commercial syrups, are so adul-
terated as to be often poisonous. The apiary in lieu of these,
gives us one of the most delicious and wholesome of sweets,
which has received merited praise, as food fit for the gods,
from the most ancient time to the present day. Ever to have
within reach the beautiful, immaculate comb, or the equally
grateful nectar, right from the extractor, is certainly a bless-
ing of no mean order. We may thus supply our families and
friends with a food element, with no cloud of fear from vile,
poisonous adulterations. We now know that if we eat cane,

20 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

sugar—the common sugar of our tables—it is converted by the
digestive fluids into a glucose-like sugar, which is probably
nearly or quite identical with honey-sugar. The bees do the
same with the nectar, which is dilute cane-sugar, of flowers.
Thus we may reason that honey is our most wholesome sugar,
for here the bees have in part digested our food for us.

BRINGS THE SECOND BLADE OF GRASS.

We now know that bees do most valuable work in pollina-
ting the fruit-blossoms. No orchard will give full fruitage
without the visits of nectar-loving insects. Of these valued
friends, no other is at all comparable to the honey-bee, in the
value of its service. I know of California orchards whose
productiveness has been immensely increased by the introduc-
tion of an apiary. Every orchard should have an apiary in its
near vicinity.

ADDS TO THE NATION’S WEALTH.

An excellent authority placed the number of colonies of
bees in the United States, in 1881, at 3,000,000, and the honey-
production for that year at more than 20,000,000 pounds. The
production for that year was not up to the average, and yet
the cash value of the year’s honey crop ex:eeded $30;000,000.
We may safely add as much more as the value of the increase
of colonies, and we havea grand total of $60,000,000—nearly
enough to pay the interest on the national debt, were the bonds
all refunded. Mr. Root, in his excellent ‘‘A BCof Bee-Cul-
ture,’ estimates, from sections sold, that 125 million pounds
of honey are produced annually and sold for $10,000,000. And
yet all this is but gathered nectar, which would go to waste
were it not for the apiarist and his bees. We thus save tothe
country that which would otherwise bea total loss. Apicul-
ture, then, in adding so immensely to the productive capital of
the country, is worthy, as an art, to receive the encouragement
and fostering care of the State. And the thought that he is
performing substantial service to the State, may well add to
the pleasureof the apiarist, as he performs his daily round of
labor. When we add to this the vastly greater indirect benefit
which comes through the agency of bees in fertilizing flowers
—a benefit which can hardiy be computed—we then understand

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 21

the immense value which comes from bees. Truly, the bee-
keeper may feel proud of the grand part which his bees per-
form in the economy of that part of nature which most con-
cerns man and most generously ministers to man’s wants.

WHAT SUCCESSFUL BEE-KEEPING REQUIRES.

MENTAL EFFORT.

No one should commence this business who is not willing
to read, think, and study. To be sure, the ignorant and un-
thinking may stumble on success for a time, but sooner or
later failure will set her seal upon their efforts. ‘Those of our
apiarists who have studied the hardest, observed the closest,
and thought the deepest, have even passed the late terrible
winter with but slight loss. Those who fail, often fail because
of just this lack of mental preparation.

Of course the novice will ask, ‘‘How and what shall I

study ?”’
EXPERIENCE NECESSARY.

Nothing will take the place of real experience. Commence
with a few colonies, even one or two is best, and make the
bees your companions at every possible opportunity. Note
every change, whether of the bees, their development, or work,
and then by earnest thought strive to divine the cause.

LEARN FROM OTHERS.

Great good will also come from visiting and even working
for a time with other bee-keepers. Note their methods, hives,
sections, etc. Strive by conversation to gain new and valuable
ideas, and gratefully adopt whatever is found, by comparison,
to be an improvementupon your own past system and practice.

AID FROM CONVENTIONS.

Attend conventions whenever distance and means render
this possible. Here you will not only be made better by social
intercourse with those whose occupation and study make them
sympathetic and congenial, but you will find a real conserva-
tory of scientific truths, valuable hints, and improved instru-
ments and methods. And the apt attention—rendered possi-

22 THE BEE KEEHPER’S GUIDE;

ble by your own experience—which you wil! give to essays,
discussions, and private conversations, will so enrich your
mind that you will return to your home encouraged and able
to do better work, and to achieve higher success. I have
attended nearly all the meetings of the Michigan Bee-Keepers’
Association, many of those of California, and several of the
meetings of the National Bee-Keepers’ Association, and never
yet when I was not well paid for all trouble and expense by the
many, often very valuable, suggestions which I received.

AID FROM BEE-PERIODICALS.

Every apiarist should take and read at least one of the
many excellent bee-periodicals that are issued in our country.
It has been suggested that Francis Huber’s blindness was an
advantage to him, as he thus had the assistance of two pairs
of eyes, his wife’s and servant’s, instead of one. So, too, of
the apiarist who reads the bee-publications. Fle has the aid of
the eyes, and the brains, of hundreds of intelligent and observ-
ing bee-keepers. Who is it that squanders his money on worse
than useless patents and fixtures? He who ‘‘can not afford”
to take a bee-paper.

It would be invidious and uncalled for to recommend any
one of these valuable papers to the exclusion of the others.
Each has its peculiar excellencies, and all who can may well
call to his aid two or more of them.

AMERICAN BEER JoURNAL.—This is the oldest American
bee-paper, and the only weekly journal devoted exclusively to
bee-keeping in the United States. It was founded in 1861, by
the late Samuel Wagner, whose breadth of culture, strength of
judgment, and practical and historical knowledge of bee-
keeping, were remarkable. Even to-day those early volumes of
this paper are very valuable parts of any bee-keeper’s library.
Under the able- management of Mr. Thomas G. Newman, the
late editor, the paper made great and continuous advancement.
The contributors to the ‘‘American Bee Journal’’ are the suc-
cessful bee-keepers of America, and so it has a wide influ-
ence. It is now edited by George W. York, whose skill, enter-
prise, and ability, are no whit behind those who founded and
raised this journal to its present proud place. The publishers

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 23

are George W. York & Co., 334 Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill.
Subscription price, $1.00 a year.

GLEANINGS IN BEE-CULTURE.—This semi-monthly journal,
which has just completed its 28th volume, has shown great
vigor and energy from its very birth. Its editor is an active
apiarist, who is constantly experimenting ; a terse, able writer,
and brimful of good-nature and enthusiasm. Iam free to say
that in practical apiculture Iam more indebted to Mr. A. I.
Root than to any other one person, except Rev. L. L. Lang-
stroth. I also think that, with few exceptions, he has done
more for the recent advancement of practical apiculture than
any other person in our country or the world. This sprightly
and beautifully illustrated journal is edited by E. R. Root, Me-
dina, Ohio. Price, $1.00 a year.

CaNnapDiAN BEE JOURNAL.— This excellent periodical,
though published across the line, is worthy of high praise and
patronage. Mr. D. A. Jones wasits founder, and his ability,
enterprise, and long and successful experience gave this paper
great prestige. Perhaps no bee-keeper in the world has sacri-
ficed more in the way of time and money, and received less for
it, than has Mr. Jones, This is a monthly journal, and is pub-
lished by the Goold, Shapley & Muir Co., Ltd., Brantford, Ont.,
at $1.00 a year. W.J. Craig is its editor.

BEE-KEEPERS’ REVIEW.—Although the Bee-Keepers’ Re-
view has less of years, it is already away up to the front, and
an indispensable adjunct to every live apiarist. Its success
has been quite phenomenal. The ability, energy, and success-
ful experience of the editor, both as a writer and as a bee-
keeper, fit him most admirably for his work. Not only has he
won success in all departments of bee-keeping, but he has long
been esteemed as one of the most able of our American apicul-
tural writers. Published by W. Z. Hutchinson, Flint, Mich.,
at $1.00 a year.

AMERICAN BEE-KEEPER.—The ability, enterprise and long
and successful experience of Harry E. Hill, editor of this paper,
are all well-known. It is a 20-page monthly magazine, neatly
edited and wellillustrated. It is published by W. T. Falconer
Mfg. Co., Jamestown, N. Y., at 50 cents a year.

24 BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

PROGRESSIVE BEE-KEEPER.—This is one of the later bee-
papers, but it shows wonderful progress and great promise of
usefulness. Its present editor, R. B. Leahy, is noted for his
ability, enterprise, and pushing business ways. It is published
monthly by Leahy Mfg. Co., Higginsville,Mo. Price, 50 cents
a year.

Rocky Mountain BEE JoURNAL.—This latest journal is
edited by H. C. Morehouse, and is published monthly by him
at Boulder, Colo. It shows vigor, and gives promise of long
life and great usefulness. Its locality is very fortunate. Price,
$1.00 a year.

BOOKS FOR THE APIARIST.

Having read many of the books treating of apiculture,
American and foreign, Ican freely recommend such a course
to others. Each book has peculiar excellencies, and may be
read with interest and profit.

LANGSTROTH ON THE HoNEY-BEE.—This treatise will ever
remain a classic in bee-literature. I can not over-estimate the
benefits which I have received from a study of its pages. The
style of this work is so admirable, the subject-matter so replete
with interest, and the entire book so entertaining, that itis a
desirable addition to any library, and no thoughtful, studiois
apiarist can well be without it. Itis especially happy in detail-
ing the work of experimentation, and in showing with what
caution the true scientist establishes principles or deduces con-
clusions. The work is wonderfully free from errors, and had
the science and practice of apiculture remained stationary,
there would have been little need of another work. Weare
happy to state, however, that this work is now revised by no
less able authorities than Chas. Dadant & Son, which places it
high among our bee-books of to-day. Price, $1.20.

ABC or BE#-CULTURE.—This work is by the editors of
“‘ Gleanings in Bee-Cuiture.” Itis arranged in the convenient
form of our cyclopedias, is printed in fine style, on beautiful
paper, and is very fully illustrated. I need hardly say that the
style is pleasing and vigorous. The subject matter is fresh,
and embodies the most recent discoveries and inventions per-
taining to bee-keeping. Price, $1.20.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 25

Forty YEARS AMONG THE BRES.—This book is written
by Dr. C. C. Miller, of Marengo, Ill., who is an authority on
practical bee-keeping. It contains 328 pages, with 112 beauti-
ful, original illustrations, taken by the author himself. It
shows in minutest detail just how Dr. Miller does things with
bees and makes a great success with them. Price, $1 00.

SCIENTIFIC QUEEN-REARING.—This work is by that well-
known and thoroughly practical bee-keeper, G. M. Doolittle.
It is invaluable, treating, as it does, of a method by which the
very best queen-bees are reared in accord with nature’s way.
Price, $1.00.

ADVANCED BRE-CULTURE.—This is a full and plain expla-
nation of the successful methods practiced by the author, W.
Z. Hutchinson. Price, 50 cents.

FOREIGN PUBLICATIONS.

The British BEE JOURNAL, as the exponent of British
methods and practices, is interesting and valuable to Ameri-
can bee-keepers. It shows that in many things, as in the
method of organizing and conducting conventions, so as to
make them highly conducive to apicultural progress, we have
much to learn from our brothers in Britain. The editor is one
of the best informed bee-keepers of the world. The best way
for Americans so secure this journal is through the editors of
our ‘American bee-papers.

FOREIGN BOOKS.

The best of these, indeed one of the best ever published,
is THE HoNEY-BEE, by Thomas W. Cowan, of London, Eng-
land. It is the recognized authority in Europe, as it may well
be. Itis not only beantiful, but full, accurate, and scientific.
Asa history of scientific discovery in relation to bees, it is of
special interest. It deserves a place in every bee-keeper’s
library. Price, $1.00.

A more pretentious book is BEES AND BEE-KEEPING, by
Frank Cheshire. In workmanship and illustration it is most
admirable, It is a compilation from Schiemenz, Girard, Wollf,

26 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

and others. Many of the pages and many of the finest illus-
trations are taken bodily, and, we are pained to say, with no
credit. As we should expect, the work is not as reliable as the
smaller work of Mr. Cowan. Price, $5.50.

As practical guides, I do not think the foreign works supe-
rior to our own. Indeed, I think the beginner would profit
most by studying our American books. The advanced bee-
keeper will gain much in discipline and knowledge by a care-
ful reading of the foreign works on bee-keeping. Foreign sci-
entists, especially the Germans, are at the head, but no nation
is quicker to discern the practical bearing and utilize the facts
and discoveries in science than are Americans. ‘The Germans
had hardly shown how centrifugal force could be used to sepa-
rate honey from the comb before the Americans had given us
our beautiful extractors. The same is true of comb-foundation
machines. The Germans pointed out the true nature of ‘‘ foul
brood,’”’ and discovered the germicides forits cure, yet I believe
ten times as many Americans as foreigners profit by this
knowledge.

PROMPTITUDE.

Another absolute requirement of successful bee-keeping is
prompt attention to all its varied duties. Neglect is the rock
on which many bee-keepers, especially farmers, find too often
they have wrecked their success. I have no doubt that more
coionies die from starvation than from all the bee-maladies
known to the bee-keeper. And why is this? Neglect is the
apicide. I feel sure that the loss each season by absconding
colonies is almost incalculable, and what must we blame?
Neglect. The loss every summer by enforced idleness of
queen and workers, just because room is denied them, is very
great. Who is the guilty party? Plainly, Neglect. If we
would be successful, Promptitude must be our motto. Each
colony of bees requires but very little care and attention. Our
every interest requires that this be not denied, nor even
granted grudgingly. The very fact that this attention is
slight, renders it more liable to be neglected; but this neglect
always involves loss—often disaster. True, with thought and
management the time for this carecan be arranged at pleasure
and the amount greatly lessened, but the care must never be
neglected.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 27

ENTHUSIASM.

Enthusiasm, or an ardent love of its duties, is a very desir-
akle, if not an absolute, requisite to successful apiculture. To
be sure, this is a quality whose growth, with only slight oppor-
tunity, is almost sure. It only demands perseverance. The
beginner, without either experience or knowledge, may meet
with discouragements—unquestionably will. Swarms will be
lost, colonies will fail to winter, and the young apiarist will
become nervous, which fact will be noted by the bees with
great disfavor, and, if opportunity permits, will meet reproof
more sharp than pleasant. Yet, with PERSISTENCE, all these
difficulties quickly vanish. Every contingency will be fore-
seen and provided against, and the myriad of little workers
will become as manageable and may be fondled as safely asa
pet dog or cat, and the apiarist will minister to their needs
with the same fearlessness and self-possession that he does to
his gentlest cow or favorite horse. Persistence, in the face of
all these discouragements which are so sure to confront inex-
perience, will surely triumph. In sooth, he who appreciates
the beautiful and marvelous, will soon grow to love his com-
panions of the hive, and the labor attendant upon their care
andmanagement. Nor will this love abate until it has been
kindled into enthusiasm.

True, there may be successful apiarists who are impelled
vy no warmth of feeling, whose superior intelligence, system
and promptitude, stand in lieu of, and make amends for, ab-
sence of enthusiasm. Yet I believe such are rare, and cer-
tainly they work at great disadvantage.

PART FIRST.

NATURAL HISTORY

OF THE

HONEY- BEE.

Natural History of the Honey-Bee,
CHAPTER L

THE BEE’S PLACE IN THE ANIMAL
KINGDOM.

It is estimated by eminent naturalists that there are more
than 1,000,000 species of living animals. It will be both inter-
esting and profitable to look in upon this vast host, that we
may know the position and relationship of the bee to allthis
mighty concourse of life.

BRANCH OF THE HONEY-BEE.

The great French naturalist, Cuvier, a cotemporary of
Napoleon I, grouped all animals which exhibit a ring struc-
ture into one branch, appropriately named Articulates, as this
term indicates the jointed or articulated structure which so
obviously characterizes most of the members of this group.

The terms ‘‘joint’’ and ‘‘articulation,’’ as used here, have
atechnical meaning. They refer not to the hinge or place of
union of two parts, but to the parts themselves. Thus, the
parts of an insect’s legs are styled ‘‘ joints ’’ or ‘‘ articulations.”
All apiarists who have examined carefully the structure of a
bee, will at once pronounce it an Articulate. Not only is its
body, even from head to sting, composed of joints, but by close
inspection we find the legs, the antennez, and even the mouth-
parts, likewise jointed.

The worms, too, are Articulates, though in some of these,
as the leech, the joints are very obscure. The bee, then, which
gives us food, is distantly related to the dreaded tape-worm,
with its hundreds of joints, which, mayhaps, robs us of the
same food after we have eaten it; and to the terrible pork-
worm, or trichina, which may consume the very muscles we
have developed in caring for our pets of the apiary.

In classifying animals, the zoologist has regard not only
to the morphology—the gross anatomy—but also to the em-

32 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

bryology, or style of development before birth or hatching.
On both embryological and morphological grounds, Huxley
and other recent authors are more than warranted in separa-
ting the Vermes, or worms, from the Articulates of Cuvier asa
separate phylum. The remaining classes are now included in
the branch Arthropoda. This term, which means jointed feet,
is most appropriate, as all of the insects and their allies have
jointed feet, while the worms are without such members.

The body-rings of these animals form a skeleton, firm, as
in the bee and lobster, or more or less soft, as in most larve.
The hardness of the crust is due to the deposit within it of a
hard substance called chitine, and the firmness of the in-
sect’s body varies simply with the amount of this chitine.
This skeleton, unlike that of Vertebrates, or back-bone ani-
mals, to which man belongs, is outside, and thus serves to pro-
tect the inner. softer parts, as wellas to give them attach-
ment, and to give strength and solidity to the animal.

This ring structure, so beautifully marked in our golden-
banded Italians, usually makes it easy to separate, at sight,
animals of this branch from the Vertebrates, with their usually
bony skeleton ; from the less active Molluscan branch, with
their soft, sack-like bodies, familiar to us in the snail, the
clam, the oyster, and the wonderful cuttle-fish—the devil-fish
of Victor Hugo—with its long, clammy arms, strange ink-bag,
and often prodigious size; from the branch Echinodermata,
with its graceful star-fish and sea-stars, and elegant sea-lilies ;
from the Coelenterata with its delicate but gaudy jelly-fish, and
coral animals, the tiny architects of islands and even conti-
nents; from the lowly Porifera or sponges which seem so little
like an animal; and from the lowest, simplest, Protozoan
branch, which includes animals often so minute that we often
owe our very knowledge of them to the microscope, and so
simple that they have been regarded as the bond which unites
plants with animals.

CLASS OF THE HONEY-BEE.

The honey-bee belongs to the class Hexapoda, or true in-
sects. The first term is appropriate, as all have in the imago,
or last stage, six legs. Nor isthe second term less applicable,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 33

as the word ‘‘insect’’ comes from the Latin, and means to
cut in, andin no other Arthropod does the ring-structure ap-
pear so marked upon merely a superficial examination. More
than this, the true insects when fully developed have, unlike all
other Arthropods, -three well-marked divisions of the body,

Fic. 1.

Respiratory Apparatus of Bee, magnified—After Duncan.

a Head, b Thorax, ¢ Abdomen, ¢ Antenne, e Compound Eyes, f Air-sacs,
gg’ 9’ Legs, f’ Trachee.

(Fig. 1), namely: the head (Fig. 1, a), which contains the an-
tenne (Fig. 1, d), the horn-like appendages common to all
insects; eyes (Fig. 1, ¢), and mouth organs; the thorax (Fig.
1,b), which bears the legs (Fig. 1, zg), and wings, when they
are present; and lastly, the abdomen (Fig. 1, c), which, though

34 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

usually without appendages, contains the ovipositor, and,
when present, the sting. Insects undergo a more striking
metamorphosis than do most other animals. When first
hatched they are worm-like, and called “‘larve’’ (Fig. 39, /),
which means masked; afterward they are frequently quies-
cent, and would hardly be supposed to be animals at all. They
are then known as pupe (Fig. 39, g). At last therecomes forth
the mature insect or imago (Fig. 1), with compound eyes,
antennzand wings. In some insects the transformations are
said to be incomplete, that is, thelarva, pupa, and imago differ
little except in size, and that the latter possesses wings. The
larvae and pupe of suchinsects are knownasnymphs. We see
in our bugs, lice, locusts and grasshoppers, illustrations of
insects with incomplete transformations. In such cases there
is a marked resemblance from the newly-hatched larva to the
adult.

The other classes of the phylum Arthropoda, are the Crus-
tacea, Myriapoda, and Arachnoidea. The Crustaceans include
the jolly cray-fish and the lobster, so indifferent as to whether
they move forward, backward or sidewise ; the shorter crab, the
sow-bug, lively and plump, even in its dark, damp home under
old boards ; and the barnacles, which fasten to the bottom of
ships, so that vessels are often freighted with life, without, as
well as within.

The myropods are the so-called ‘“Thousand-Legged Worms.”
These are wormlike in form. The body is hardly differentiated
at all. The name comes from the numerous legs, which
though never a thousand may reach one-fourth that number.
Myriapods have only simple eyes, and all have antenne. Of
the Myriapoda the Millipeds have numerous segments, often
as many as sixty, have four legs to each joint, are cylindrical,
and are often pests in the garden, as they are vegetable eaters.
The Centipeds have fewer joints, may be no more than thirty,
only one pair of legs to each segment, and feed on insects, etc.
Their bite is venomous, and the bite of the larger ones may
prove harmful even to man himself.

The Class Arachnida includes the spider group. These
animals all have, when mature, eight legs. They never have
but two parts to the body, the head-thorax and abdomen.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 35

Their eyes are simple, and they are without antenne. The
wee mites belong here. They have hardly any divisions to the
body. The mouth-parts form a mere portico. When first
hatched they have only six legs. The so-called red spider (red
mite), so destructive in the orchard, belongs here, as do also the
sugar, cheese, flour, and chicken mites. The ticks are but
colossal mites. Of these, the Texas Cattle Tick (Boophilus
bovis) causes the Texas fever in cattle. The cause of the
fever is a protozoan animal, Pyrosoma bigeminum. Thisis
in the blood of Texas cattle, but is harmless. Carried by the
tick to other cattle, it brings disease and death. The scorpions
are also Arachnids. One of these stings as does the bee, and
the sting is often quite venomous. The whip scorpion of
Florida is named from its caudal appendages. It is entirely
harmless. The Datames, which I call the ‘‘ California bee-
killer’? (Fig. 292), and which is described among the bee-
enemies, belongs here. Grandfather Graybeard also belongs
inthe scorpion order. It is only useful in pointing the way to
lost cows, etc. Its legs point every way. ‘The spiders are the
highest Arachnids. They differ from mites in possessing
two well-marked divisions of the body, and in always having
eight legs, and from the scorpions in never having the abdo-
men jointed. Thespiders have a poisonous bite, but rarely
inflict injury to man. Their silk and spinning habits are
exceedingly interesting. Spiders are almost as marvelous in
their life history as are the bees. Like the Datames, to be
spoken of asa bee-enemy, spiders often kill our pets of the
hive. :
ORDER OF THE HONEY-BEE.

The honey-bee belongs to the order Hymenoptera (from two
Greek words meaning membrane and wing), which also in-
cludes the wasps, ants, ichneumon-flies, gall-flies, and saw-
flies. This group contains insects which possess a tongue by
which they may suck (Figs. 16 and 54), and strong jaws (Fig.
65) for biting. Thus, the bees can sip the honeyed sweets of
flowers, and also gnaw away mutilated comb. They have,
besides, four wings, and undergo complete transformations.

There are among insects strange resemblances. Insects
of one order will show a marked likeness to those of another.

36 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

This is known as mimicry, and sometimes is wonderfully
striking between very distant groups. Darwin and Wallace
have shown this to be a developed peculiarity, not always pos-
sessed by the ancestors of the animal, and that it comes
through the laws of variation and natural selection to serve
the purpose of protection. Right here we havea fine illustra-
tion of this mimicry. Just the other day I received, through
Mr. A. I. Root, an insect which he and the person sending it
to him supposed to be a bee, and he desired to know whether
it was a malformed honey-bee, or some other species. This
insect, though looking in a general way much like a bee, had
only two wings, had no jaws, and its antennz were close to-
gether in front, and mere stubs. In fact, it was no bee at all,
but belonged to the order Diptera, or two-winged flies. I have
received several similar insects, with like inquiries. Among
Diptera there are several families, as the Gistride, or bot-flies,
some of the Asilida, or robber-flies (Fig. 268), which are often
fierce enemies of our bees, the Syrphidz—a very useful fam-
ily, as the larve or maggots often live on plant-lice—whose
members are often seen sipping sweets from flowers, or trying
to rob the honey from other bees—the one referred to above
belonged to this family—and the Bombyliidz, which in color,
form, and hairy covering, are strikingly like wild and domes-
ticated bees. The maggots of some of these feed on the larvz
of various of our wild bees, and of course the mother fly must
steal into the nests of the latter to lay her eggs. Soin these
cases there is seeming evidence that the mimicry may serve to
protect these fly-tramps as they stealin to pilfer the coveted
sweets, or lay the fatal eggs. Possibly, too, they may havea
protective scent, as they have been seen to enter a hive in
safety, though a bumble-bee essaying todothe same found
the way barricaded with myriad simitars, each with a poisoned
tip.

Some authors have placed Coleoptera, or beetles, as the
highest of insects, others claim for Lepidoptera, or butter-flies
and moths, a first place, while others, and with the best of
reasons, claim for Hymenoptera the highest position. The
larger brain, wondrous habits, and marvelous differentiation
of mouth-organs, legs, etc., more than warrant placing them

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 37

at the head. The moth is admired for the glory of its coloring
andelegance of its form, and the beetle for the luster and
brilliancy of its elytra, or wing-covers; but these insects only
revel in Nature’s wealth, and live and die without labor or pur-
pose. Hymenoptera, usually less gaudy, often quite plain and
unattractive in color, are yet the most highly endowed among
insects. They live with a purpose in view, and are the best
models of industry to be found among animals. Our’ bees
practice a division of labor; the ants are still better political
economists, as they have a specially endowed class in the com-
munity which are the soldiers, and thus are the defenders of
each ant-kingdom. Ants also conquer other communities, take
their inhabitants captive, and reduce them to abject slavery—
requiring them to perform a large portion, and sometimes the
whole, of the labor of the community. Ants tunnel under
streams, and in the tropics some leaf-eating species have been
observed to show no mean order of intelligence, as some ascend
trees to cut off the leafy twigs, while others remain below and
carry these branches through their tunnels to their under-
ground homes. Indeed, the Agricultural ant, of Texas,
actually clears land and grows a special kind of plant on which
it feeds. (See McCook’s Ants.)

The parasitic Hymenoptera are so-called because they lay
their eggs in other insects, that their offspring may have fresh
meat not only at birth, but so long as they need food, as the
insect fed upon generally lives till the young parasite, which
is working to disembowel it, is full-grown ; thus this steak is
ever fresh as life itself. These parasitic insects show won-
drous intelligence, or sense-development, in discovering their ©
prey. I have caught ichneumon-flies—a family of these para-
sites—boring through the bark and a thin layer of solid beech
or maple wood, and upon examination I found the prospective
victim further on in direct line with the insect auger, which
was to intrude the fatal egg. I have also watched ichneumon-
flies depositing eggs in leaf-rolling caterpillars, so surrounded
with tough hickory leaves that the fly had to pierce several
thicknesses to place the egg in its snugly-ensconced victim,
Upon putting these leaf-rolling caterpillars in a box, I reared,
of course, the ichneumon-fly and not the moth. Is it instinct

38 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

or reason that enables these flies to gauge the number of their
eggs to the size of the larva which is to receive them, so that
there may be no danger of famine and starvation? For true
itis that while small caterpillars will receive but few eggs,
large ones may receive several. Even the honey-bee some-
times falls victim to such parasites, as I shall show in speak-
ing of enemies of bees. How strange the habits of the saw-
fly, with its wondrous instruments, more perfect than any
saws of human workmanship, and the gall-flies, whose poison-
ous stings, as they fasten their eggs to the oak, rose, or other
leaves, cause the abnormal growth of food for the still un-
hatched young. In the South it is reported that bees often
obtain no small amount of nectar from species of oak-galls.

The providing and caring for their young, which are at
first helpless, is peculiar among insects, with slight exception,
to the Hymenoptera, and among all animals is considereda
mark of high rank. Such marvels of instinct, if we may not
call it intelligence, such acumen of sense perception, such
wonderful habits, all these, no less than the compact structure,
small size and specialized organs of nicest finish, more than
warrant that grand trio of American naturalists—A gassiz,
Dana, and Packard—in placing Hymenoptera first in rank
among insects. As we shall detail the structure and habits of
the highest of the high—the bees—in the following pages, Iam
sure no one will think to degrade the rank of these wonders of
the animal kingdom.

FAMILY OF THE HONEY-BEHE.

The honey-bee belongs to the family Apidz, of Leach,
which includes not only the hive-bee, but all insects which
feed their helpless larvae on pollen, pollen or honey, or food
digested by the adult bees.

Many authors separate the lower bees, principally because
of their shorter tongues, from the others, under the family
name, Andrenide. In this case all the bees are grouped as
Mellifera or Anthophila Latr. I shall group all beesin the
one family Apide, and regard the Andrenz and their near
relatives as asub-family. The insects of this family all have
branched or plumose hairs on some portion of the body, broad

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 39

heads, elbowed antenna (Fig. 1, ¢d), which are thirteen jointed
in the males, and only twelve jointed in the females. The
jaws or mandibles (Fig. 65) are strong and usually toothed.
The tongue or ligula is very long and slim in the higher
genera, but short and flattened in the lower ones. The second
jaws or maxille (Fig. 54, mx) are long and prominent, and
ensheath the tongue, with. which they are folded back when
not in use, once or more under the head. All the insects of
this family have, on the four anterior legs, a stiff spine on the
end of the tibia (Fig. 69), the fourth joint of the leg from the
body—called the tibial spur, and all except the genus Apis,
which includes the honey-bee, in which the posterior legs are
without tibial spurs, have two tibial spurs on the posterior
legs. Nearly all bees (the parasitic genera are exceptions)
have the first joint of the tarsus of the posterior legs much
broadened (Fig. 71), and this, together with the broad tibia, is
hollowed out (Fig. 70), forming quite a basin or basket—the
corbicula—on the outer side, in the species of Apis and Bom-
bus, which basket is deepened by long, stiff hairs, These re-
ceptacles, or pollen-baskets, are found only in such bees as
gather much pollen. <A few of the Apide—thieves by nature—
cuckoo-like, steal unbidden into the nests of others, and here
lay their eggs. As their young are fed and fostered by
another, such bees gather no pollen, and so, like drone-bees,
need noorgans for collecting it. These parasites illustrate
mimicry, already described, as they look so like the foster-
mothers of their own young that unscientific eyes would often
fail to distinguish them. Probably the bees thus imposed
upon are no sharper, or they would refuse ingress to these
merciless vagrants.

The larve (Fig. 39, /) of all insects of this family are
maggot-like, wrinkled, footless, tapering at both ends, and, as
already stated, have their food prepared for them. They are
helpless, and thus all during their babyhood (the larva state)—
the time when all insects are most ravenous, and the only time
when many insects take food; the time when all growth in size,
except such enlargement as is required by egg-development,
occurs—these infant bees have to be fed by their mothers or
elder sisters. They have a mouth with soft lips, and weak

40 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;

jaws, yet it is doubtful if all or much of their food is taken in
at this opening. There is much reason to believe that the
honey-bees especially, like many maggots—such as the Hess
sian-fly larve—absorb much of their food through the body
walls. From the mouth leads the alimentary canal, which has
no anal opening. So there are no excreta other than gasand
vapor, except the small amount which remains in the stomach
and intestine, which are shed with the skin at the time of the
last molt. What commendation for their food, nearly all
capable of nourishment, and thus assimilated !

To this family belongs the genus of stingless bees, Mel-
ipona, of Mexico and South America, which store honey not
only in the hexagonal brood-cells, but in great wax-reservoirs.
They, like the unkept hive-bee, build in hollow logs. They are
exceedingly numerous in each colony, and it has thus been
thought that there was more than one queen. They are also
very prodigal of wax, and thus may possess a prospective com-
mercial importance in these days of comb foundation. In this
genus the basal joint of the tarsus is triangular, and there are
two submarginal cells, not three, to the front wings. They
are also smaller than our common bees, andhave wings that
do not reach the tip of their abdomens. Mr. T. F. Bingham,
inventor of the bee-smoker, bought a colony of the stingless
bees from Mexico to Michigan. The climate seemed unfavor-
able to them, as soon the bees all died. I now have some of
the bees, and their great black honey and pollen cells in our
museum. The corbicule, or pollen-baskets, are specially well
marked, and the posterior tibial spur is wanting in these small
bees.

Another genus of stingless bees, the genus Trigona, have
the wings longer than the abdomens, and their jaws toothed.
These, unlike the Melipona, are not confined to the New World,
but are met with in Africa, India, and Australasia. These
build their combs in tall trees, fastening them to the branches
much as does the Apis dorsata, soon to be mentioned.

Of course insects of the genus Bombus—our common bum-
ble-bees—belong to this family. Here the tongue is very long,
the bee large, and the sting curved, with the barbs very short
and few. Only the queen survives the winter. In spring she

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 41

forms her nest under some sod or board, often ina deserted
mouse-nest, hollowing out a basin in the earth, and after stor-
ing a mass of bee-bread she deposits several eggs in the mass.
The larve are soon hatched out and develop in large, coarse
cells, not unlike the queen-cells of our hive-bees. When the
bees issue from these cells the latter are strengthened with
wax. Laterin the season, these coarse wax-cells, which con-
tain much pollen, become very numerous, serving both for
brood and honey. At first, in spring, the queen has all to do,
hence the magnificent bumble-bees, the queens, seen about the
lilacs in early spring. Soon the smaller workers become
‘abundant, and relieve the queen, which then seldom leaves the
nest. Later, the drones and the smaller, because yet unim-
pregnated and non-laying, queens appear. Thus, the bees
correspond with those of the hive. The young queens mate in
late summer, and are probably the only ones that survive the
winter. Mating is performed on the wing. I once saw a
queen Bombus fall to the earth, dragging a male from which
she would have torn loose had I not captured both. The bum-
ble-bee drones are often seen collected about shady places at
the mating season in August.

Bees of the genus Xylocopa much resemble bumble-bees,
though they are usually black, less hairy, and are our largest
bees. They have not the corbicule. These are among our
finest examples of boring insects. With their strong biden-
tate jaws they cut long tunnels, often two or more feet long,
in sound wood. These burrows are partitioned by chips into
cells, andin each cell is left an egg and bee-bread for the
larva, soon to hatch. These bees do no slight damage by
boring into cornices, window-casings, etc., of. houses and out-
buildings. At my suggestion, many people thus annoyed
have plugged these tunnels with a mixture of lard and kero-
sene, and have speedily driven the offending beesaway. These
are the bees which I have discovered piercing the base of long
tubular flowers, like the wild bergamot. I have seen honey-
bees visiting these slitted flowers, the nectar of which was
thus made accessible to them. I have never seen honey-bees
biting flowers. I think they never do it. Xylocopa Califor-
nica is very common here at Claremont. The females are

42 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

black, and the males light yellow. My students’ told me the
females would not sting. I said that was strange, and picked
_oneup. I threw it down very quickly, and have not repeated
‘the experiment.

“The mason-bees—well named—construct cells of earth,
which, by aid of their spittle, they cement so that these cells
are very hard. There are several genera of these bees, the
elegant Osmia, the brilliant Augochlora, the more sober but
very numerous Andrena—the little black bees that often steal
into the hives for honey, etc. Some burrow in sand, some
build in hollowed-out weeds, some build mud cells in crevices,
even small key-holes not being exempt, as I have too good
reason to know. The Yale locks in our museum have thus
suffered. Here the lard and kerosene mixture again comes in
play.

The tailor, or leaf-cutting, bees, of the genus Megachile,
make wonderful cells from variously shaped pieces of leaves.
These are always mathematical in form, usually circular and
oblong, are cut—the insect making scissors of its jaws—from
various leaves, the rose being a favorite. I have found these
cells made almost wholly of the petals or flower-leaves of the
rose. The cells are made by gluing these leaf-sections in con-
centric layers, letting them overlap. The oblong sections form
the walls of the cylinder, while the circular pieces are crowded
into the tubes as we press circular wads into our shot-guns,
and are used at the ends, or for partitions where several cells
are placed together. “When complete, the single cells are in
form and size much like a revolver cartridge. When several
are placed together, which is usually the case, they are
arranged end to end, and in size and form are quite like a small
stick of candy, though not more than one-third as long.
These cells I have found in the grass, partially buried in the
earth, in crevices, and in one case knew of their being built in
the folds of a partially-knit sock, which a good house-wife had
chanced to leave stationary for sonie days. These leaf-cutters
often have yellow hairs underneath their bodies, which aid
them in carrying pollen. I have noticed them each summer,
for some years, swarming on the Virginia creeper, often called
woodbine, while in blossom, in quest of pollen, though I have

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 43

rarely seen the hive-bee on these vines. The tailor-bees often
cut the foliage of the same vines quite badly. The males of
these bees have curiously modified, and broadly fringed ante-
rior legs. I have found these tailor-bees as common in Califor-
nia as in Michigan.

I have often reared beautiful bees of the genera Osmia
and Augochlora, which, as already stated, are also called
mason-bees. Their glistening colorsof blue and green possess
aluster and reflection unsurpassed even by the metals them-
selves. These rear their young in cells of mud, in mud-cells
lining hollow weeds and shrubs, and in burrows which they
dig in the hardearth. In early summer, during warm days,
these glistening gems of life are frequently seen in walks and
drives intent on gathering earth for mortar, or digging holes,
and will hardly escape identification by the observing apiarist,
as their form is so much like that of our honey-bees. They
are smaller, yet their broad head, prominent eyes, and general
form, are very like those of the equally quick and active, yet
more soberly attired, workers of the apiary. The beautiful—
often beautifully striped—species of Ceratina look much like
those of Osmia, but they nest in hollows in stems of various
plants, which, in some cases, they themselves form. In south-
western Michigan they do no little harm by boring the black-
berry canes. They have simple hind legs.

Other bees—the numerous species of the genus Nomada,
and of Apathus—are the black sheep in the family Apidz.
These tramps, already referred to, like the English cuckoo and
our American cow-blackbird, steal in upon the unwary, and,
though all unbidden, lay their eggs; in this way appropriating
food and lodgings for theirown yetunborn. Thus these insect
vagabonds impose upon the unsuspecting foster-mothers in
their violated homes, and these same foster-mothers show by
their tender care of these merciless intruders, that they are
miserably fooled, for they carefully guard and feed infant bees,
which, with age, will in turn practice this same nefarious
trickery. The Apathus species are parasites on the Bombus ;
the Nomada species, which are small bees, often beautifully
ringed, on the small black Andrene.

The species of Andrena, Halictus, the red Sphecodes, and

44 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

others of the Andrenidez of some authors, have short, flat
tongues, with equi-jointed labial palpi. These bees have been
little studied, and there are very numerous undescribed species.

I reluctantly withhold further particulars of this wonder-
ful bee-family. When first I visited Messrs. Townley and
Davis, of Michigan, Iwas struck with the fine collection of
wild-bees which each had made. Yet, unknowingly, they had
incorporated many that were not becs. Of course, many api-
arists will wish to make such collections, and also to study our
wild bees. I hope the above will prove both a stimulus and
aid. I hope, too, that it will stimulate others, especially youth,
to the valuable and intensely interesting study of these won-
ders of nature. Iam glad to open to the readera page from
the book of nature so replete with attractions as is the above.
Nor do I think I have taken too much space in revealing the
strange and marvelous instincts, and wonderfully varied habits,
of this brightest of insect families, at the head of which stand
our own fellow-laborers and companions of the apiary.

I shall be very glad to receive specimens of wild bees from
every State in our country. To send bees or other insects,
kill with gasoline or chloroform, wrap with cotton or tissue
paper, so as to prevent injury, and mail in a strong box.

THE GHNUS OF THE HONEY-BEE.

The genus Apis includes all bees that have no tibial spurs
on the posterior legs, and at the same time have three cubital
or sub-costal cells (6, 7, 8, Fig. 2)—the second row from the
costal or anterior edge—on the front or primary wings. The
marginal cell (Fig. 2, 5) is very long. On the inner side of the
posterior basal tarsus, opposite the pollen-baskets, in the
neuters or workers, are rows of hairs (Fig. 71), which are used
in collecting pollen. Inthe males, which do no work except
to fertilize the queens, the large compound eyes meet above,
crowding the simple eyes below (Fig. 3), while in the workers
(Fig. 4) and queens these simple eyes (called ocelli) are above,
and the compound eyes wide apart. The compound eyes are
in all cases hairy (Figs. 3, 4). The drones and queens have
weak jaws, with a rudimentary tooth (Fig. 65, @ 6), short

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 45

tongues, and no pollen-baskets, though they have the broad
tibia and wide basal tarsus (Fig. 48, 7, s).
There is some doubt as to the number of species of this

Fic. 2.

Anterior and Posterior Wings of Bee.— Original.

h® Hooklets much magnified. 1 Costal cell.

a Costal vein. 2 Median cell.

6 Sub-costal vein. 8 Sub-median cell.

c Median vein. 4 Anal cell.

d Anal vein. 5 Marginal cell.

q Posterior margin. 6, 7, 8, Sub-marginal cells.
e Fold where ho-klets catch. 10, 11 and 12, Discoidal cells.

h Hooklets,

46 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

genus. It is certain that the Italian bee, the Egyptian bee,
the Cyprian bee, and the bees of Syria, of which Mr. Benton
states that there are at least two distinct races, are only races
of the Apis mellifera, which also includes the Tunisian or
Punic bees, the Carniolan, and the German or black bee.

Mr. F. Smith, an able entomologist of England, considers
Apis dorsata of India and the East Indies, Apis zonata of the
Philippine Islands, Apis indica of India and China, and Apis

Fic. 3.

Head of Drone, magnified.—Original.

Antenne, Compound Eyes, Simple Eyes.
florea of India, Ceylon, China, and Borneo, as distinct species.
He thinks, also, that Apis adonsoni and Apis nigrocincta are
distinct, but states that they may be varieties of Apis indica.
Others think them races of dorsata. Some regard Apis uni-
color as a distinct species, but it is probably a variety of Apis
mellifera. As Apis mellifera has not been found in India, and
is a native of Europe, Western Asia, and Africa, it seems
quite possible, though not probable, that several of the above
may turn out to be only varieties of Apis mellifera. If there
are only color and size to distinguish them, and, indeed, one
may add habits, then we may suspect, with good reason, the
validity of the above arrangement. If there be structural
difference, as Mr. Wallace says there is, in the male dorsata,
then we may call them different species. TheItalian certainly
has a longer tongue than the German, yet that is not sufficient

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 47

to separate them as species. Apis zonata of the Kast Indies,
and Apis unicolor, are said to be very black.

I append the following chart, which I think represents
pretty accurately the species, races and varieties of the genus
Apis. (See page 48.)

Where a race is followed by an interrogation point, there
is a question if it should not be considered a variety of the last
preceding race not thus marked. Some of the races, like the
Italian, Cyprian, Greek, etc., Vogel considers had their origin
in across between the yellow and black races. Vogel’s con-
clusion was reached from a long series of experiments, cross-
ing Italian and German bees, and then breeding from such
crosses. It seems likely that through the law of variation

Head of Worker, magnified.—Original.
Antenne, Compound Eyes, Simple Eyes.

each race might have originated independently, or possibly
all, as varieties of the Egyptian bee.

In the autumn of 1879, Mr. D. A. Jones, of Becton. Ontario,
Canada, inaugurated the grandest enterprise ever undertaken
in the interest of apiculture. This was nothing less than to
visit Cyprus, Syria, and the more distant India and the East
Indies, for the purpose of securing and introducing into Amer-
ica such species and races of bees as gave promise of superior
excellence. Mr. Jones procured the services of Mr. Frank

48 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

SPECIES. Racszs. VARIETIES.
Apis Indica, Fab. ( A. dorsata nigripennis,
Apis florea, Fab. Latr.
Apis dorsata, Fab. A. dorsata bicolor,
Klug.
A. dorsata zonata, ( Carniolan or Krainer.
L Smith. Heath
- é Hungarian.
A. mellifera nigra. :
‘ Dalmatian.
German Bee. Herzegovinian.
Smyrnian.
Tunisian.

A. mellifera fasciata,
Egyptian Bee.

Syrian (?) 7

South Palestine (7)

Apis mellifera, 4 Cyprian (?)

Italian (?)

Greek (7)

Bonnat (7)

Caucasian (?)

A. mellifera unicolor

Latr. Madagascar.
A. mellifera adonsoni,
| ° African Bee.

Common black,

Benton, a graduate of the Michigan Agricultural College, a
fine linguist and skilled apiarist, to aid in his undertaking.
After visiting the principal apiaries of Europe, these gentle-
men located at Larnica, in the island of Cyprus, where they
established a large apiary composed of Cyprian and Syrian
bees. The Cyprian bees were purchased on the island, while
the Syrians were procured personally by Mr. Jones in Syria.
The following June Mr. Jones returned to America with sev-
eral hundred queens of these two races. Mr. Benton remained
at Larnica to rear and ship more queens to Europe and Amer-
ica. The following winter Mr. Benton visited Ceylon, Farther
India, and Java, as Mr. Jones was determined to ascertain if
there were better bees than those we already had, and if so to
secure them. Apis dorsata (Figs. 5, 6) was the special object of
the quest, and as this bee was known as the “ great bee of
Java,’”? Mr. Benton visited that island, in hopes to procure
these bees. But to the sore disappointment not only of those
who had the enterprise in charge, but of all progressive api-
arists, the bees in question were not to be found on that island.
Mr, Benton learned at a great cost that this bee is rare in

OR, MANUAL OF THH APIARY. 49

Java, but common in the jungles of Ceylon, Hindoostan,
Farther India, Sumatra, Borneo, and Timor. In Ceylon, Mr.

Fic. 5.

A. dorsata Worker, X2.
(From Department of Agriculture.)

Benton saw many colonies, most of which were in inaccessible
places, though he secured, after great labor and hardship, four
colonies.

Fic, 6.

A. dorsata Drone, X2.
(From Department of Agriculture.)

These bees usually suspend their great combs, which are
often six feet long and four feet wide, to overhanging rocks, or

50 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

to horizontal branches of trees. In one case, Mr. Benton found
them in the crevice of a rock, nearly surrounded by the same.
This indicates that they may be kept in hives. The combs
hang side by side, so do those of our common bees, but are one-
half inchapart. Mr. Benton found the tops of the combs,
which contain the honey, from three to six inches thick, while
those where brood is reared, are one and one-half inches thick.
Drones and workers are all reared in the same cells, which are
about the size of the drone brood-cells of our honey-comb, The
worker-bees, some specimens of whichI have received from

Fic. 7.

Worker-Cells.— A. indica.
(From Department of Agriculture. )

Mr. Jones, in size and general appearance much resemble our
Italian queens. They have blue-black wings, black bodies,
which are ringed very much asare our Italians, only the yellow
largely predominates. Mr. Benton writes me that in form and
style of flight they much resemble wasps. They are the same
size as the drones, varying from three-fourths to seven-eighths
of an inch in length. They are easily handled by aid of
smoke, and are very clumsy in their attempts to sting. Their
sting is no larger than that of our common bees, while the
pain from their sting, Mr. Benton says,is not so great. The
drones are dark brown, marked with yellow. Strangely
enough, they only fly, unless disturbed, after sundown. This
is unfortunate, as with the same habits we might hope to mate
them with our common bees, and thus procure a valuable
cross. This may be a developed peculiarity, to protect them
from birds, and so might very likely disappear with domesti-
cation. ‘The queens are leather-colored, and smaller, as com-
pared with the workers, than are our common queens. The
queens are more restless than are the workers while being

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 51

handled. While procuring these bees, Mr. Benton was pros-
trated with a fever, and so the bees, during their long voyage
to Syria, were neglected. Strange to say, one colony survived
the long confinement, but perished soon after reaching Syria.
Wecan not call this journey a failure, as we now have the
information that will render a second attempt surely success-
ful. What has been learned will make the enterprising bee-
keeper more desirous than ever to secure these bees. Their
large size, and immense capabilities in the way of wax-secre-
tion, as well as honey-storing, give us reason to hope for sub-
stantial benefits from their importation.

Mr. Benton also found A. indica and A. florea on the
Island of Ceylon. I have received some of the bees and comb
of the former species. The comb is very delicate, the cells
(Fig. 7) being only one-sixth of an inch in diameter. The
workers are less than one-half of an inch long, brown in color,
and their entire abdomens are beautifully ringed with brown
and yellow. The drones are black, and very small. The one
I have measures an eighth of an inch less in length than does
the worker. The queens are leather-colored, and very large as
compared with the workers. They are as large as are our

Fic. 8.

-Worker-Cells,—A. Florea.
(From Department of Agriculture.)

common queens. These bees are very quick, and are domesti-
cated on the Island of Ceylon. The workers of A. florea are
also banded, and are more beautiful even than those of A.
indica. They are very small. The combs are not larger than
one’s hand, and so diminutive are the cells (Fig. 8) that 100

52 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

bees are produced to the square inch. The color is blue-black,
with the basal third of the abdomen orange.

The sting of these two species is very small. From the
small amount of stores which they gather, the tendency which
they have to swarm out, and their inability to stand the cold,
these two species promise little of value except from a scientific
point of view. One colony of A. florea was brought by Mr.
Benton to Cyprus, but it swarmed out and was lost.

It seems strange that the genus Apis should not have been
native to the American continent. The ‘‘ large brown bee”’
which some of our bee-keepers think native to America, is un-
doubtedly but a variety of the common black, or German, bee.
Without doubt there were no bees of this genus here till intro-
duced by the Caucasian race. It seems more strange, as we
find that all the continents and islands of the Eastern Hemis-
phere abound with representatives. It is one more illustration
of the strange, inextricable puzzles connected with the geo-
graphical distribution of animals.

SPECIES OF OUR HONEY-BEES.

‘The bees at present domesticated are all of one species—
Apis mellifera. The character of this spccies will appear in
the next chapter, as we proceed with their anatomy and
physiology. As before stated, this species is native exclusively
to the Eastern Hemisphere, though it has been introduced
wherever civilized man has taken up his abode.

RACES OF THE HONEYBEE.
German or Black Bees.

The German or black bee is the race best known, as through
all the ages it has been most widely distributed. The name
“German ”’ refers to locality, while the name ‘‘ black’ isa
misnomer, as the bee is a gray-black. The queen, and, ina
less degree, the drones, are darker, while the legs and under.
surface of the former are brown, or copper-colored, and of the
latter light gray. The tongue of the black worker I have’
found, by repeated dissections and comparisons made both by
myself and by my pupils, is shorter than that of the Italian

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY,. 53

worker, and generally less hairy. The bees are more irritable,
and so more likely to sting than the Italians. They are also
wont to keep flyiug before one’s face in threatening mien for
hours, until killed. The wise apiarist will dispatch such quar-
relsome workers at once. The black bees have been known no
longer than the Italians, as we find the latter were known
both to Aristotle, the fourth century B. C., and to Virgil, the
great Roman poet, who sang of the variegated golden bee, the
first century B. C.; and we can only account for the wider dis-
tribution of the German bee by considering the more vigorous,
pushing habits of the Germanic races, who not only over-ran
and infused life into Southern Europe, but have vitalized all
christendom.

Ligurian or Italian Bee.

The Italian bee is characterized as a race, not only by dif-
ference of color, habits, and activity, but also by possessing
a little longer tongue. These bees were first described as dis-
tinct from the German race by Spinola, in 1805, who gave the
name ‘‘ Ligurian’ bee, which name prevails in Europe. The
name comes from a province of Northern Italy, north of the
Ligurian Gulf, or Gulf of Genoa. This region is shut off from
Northern Europe by the Alps, and thus these bees were kept
apart from the German bees, and in warmer, more genial Italy,
was developed a distinct race—our beautiful Italians. It seems
to me quite reasonable to suppose from the appearance of the
bees, and also from the migrations of the human race, that the
Italian bee is an. off-shoot from the Cyprian, and quite likely
both of these of the Syrian race.

In 1843, Von Baldenstein procured a colony of these bees,
which he had previously observed as peculiar, while stationed
as a military captain in Italy. He published his experience in
1848, which was read by Dzierzon, who became interested, and
through him the Italian became generally introduced into
Germany. In 1859—six years after Dzierzon’s first importa-
tion—the Italian bee was introduced into England by Neigh-
bour. The same year, Messrs. Wagner and Colvin imported
the Italians from Dzierzon’s apiary into America; andin 1860,

54 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

Mr. S. B. Parsons brought the first colonies that were im-
ported direct from Italy.

The Italian worker-bee is quickly distinguished by the
bright yellow rings at the base of the abdomen. Perhaps
golden would be a better term, as these bands are often bright
orange. If the colony be pure, every bee will show three of
these golden girdles (Fig. 9, A, B.C). The first two segments

I'ic. 9.

Abdomen of Italian Worker.
(From A. I. Root Co.)

or rings of the abdomen, except at their posterior border, and
also the base or anterior border of the third, will be of this
orange-yellow hue. The rest of the back or dorsal surface will
be much asin the German race. Underneath the abdomen,
except fora greater or less distance at the tip, will also be
yellow, while the same color appears more or less strongly
marked on the legs. The workers have longer ligule or
tongues (Fig. 54) than the German race, permitting them to
gather nectar from long flower-tubes, which is inaccessible to
our common bees, and their tongues are also a little more
hairy than are those of the black bees. They are also more
active, and less inclined to sting. ‘The queen has the entire
base of her abdomen, and sometimes nearly the whole of it,
orange-yellow, The variation as to amount of color is quite

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 55

striking. Sometimes very dark queens are imported right
from the Ligurian hills, yet all the workers will wear the
badge of purity—the three golden bands.

The drones are quite variable. Sometimes the rings and
patches of yellow will be very prominent, then, again, quite
indistinct. Butthe under side of the body is always, so far as
I have observed, mainly yellow.

A variety of our Italian bees, which is very beautiful and
gentle, has the rows of white hairs (Fig. 9,J, K, L, M) un-
usually distinct, and is being sold in the United States under
the name of Albinos. They are not a distinct race. In fact,
I have often noticed among Italians the so-called Albinos sev-
eral times, and have not found them superior, or even equal, I
think,’to the average Italian.

THE SYRIAN AND CYPRIAN RACKS.

Through the enterprise of Messrs. D. A. Jones and Frank
Benton, we now have these races in our country, and have
proved the truth of the assertion of noted European apiarists,
that the Cyprian is a distinct race of bees.

Mr. Benton, than whom no one is better fitted to express a
correct opinion, thinks that the Cyprian bees are the offspring
of the Syrian. This opinion is strengthened by the close re-
semblance of the two races, and by the fact that migrations
of all kinds have gone westward. A similar argument would
make it presumable that the Cyprians gave rise to the Italians.

The Cyprian bees resemble the Italians very closely. They
may be distinguished by the bright leather-colored lunule
which tips their thorax posteriorly, and by the fact that the
under side of their bodies is yellow to the tip. They are more
active than are the Italians, and the queens are more prolific.

The good qualities of the Italians seem all to be exagger-
ated in the Cyprians, except the trait of amiability. The
Cyprian bees are second only tothe Egyptian in irritability.
That they will become less cross with handling is to be ex-
pected.

The Syrian bees are from Asiatic Turkey, north of Mount
Carmel, and area very well marked race. The Syrian queens
are remarkably uniform. Their abdomens above are, like the

56 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

little A. indica, beautifully banded with yellow and black.
They are very quick and remarkably prolific. They do not
cease laying even when the honey-flow ceases. They are often

Fic. 10.

Carniolan Queen.—X2.
(From Department of Agriculture.)

kept prisoners in the cells longer than are queens of other
races, and so may fly out at once upon emerging. They
Fic. 11,

Carniolan Worker.—X2.
(From Department of Agriculture.)

emerge from the cells at about the same time, so that often all
the queens may emerge from the cells within a few hours, or
even one hour. The workers closely resemble those of the

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 57

Italian race, only that they were more yellow beneath, and
when first from the cells, or newly hatched, they are very
dark, owing to the fact that the body-rings seemed pushed
together. They are admirable in the way they defend their
hives against robbers, the ease with which they are shaken
from the combs, their great activity, their great tendency to
remain in the hive on very windy days, the wonderful fecundity
of the queen, her persistence in laying during a dearth of nec-
tar-secretion, and their great euperiority for queen-rearing.

Fic. 12.

UN
Carniolan Drone.— X2.
(From Department of Agriculture.)

often starting fifty or more good queen-cells. Neither the
Cyprian nor Syrian has found favor in America, and have
largely been given up.

OTHER RACES.

The Egyptian bees are very yellow, intensely cross, and
frequently have laying workers. These are probably the bees
which are famous in history,as having been moved up and
dawn the Nile, in rude boats or rafts, as the varying periods of
nectar-secreting bloom seemed to demand.

The heath bees of Northern Germany are much like the
common German bees, of which they are a strain, except that
they are far more inclined to swarm.

The Carniolan bees (Figs. 10, 11, 12) of Southwestern

58 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

Austria, also called Krainer bees, from the mountainous re-
gion of Krain, Austria, are praised as a very hardy variety.
They are black with white rings—a sort of albino—German
bee. They are like the heath variety, but are specially noted
for their very gentle dispositions. Some European bee-keepers
claim that this strain or variety is much superior to the com-
mon German bees. Mr. Benton, I think, holds strongly to
this opinion. After a brief trial 1 am pleased with these bees,

The Hungarian bees are longer than the typical German
race, and are covered with gray hairs. During the poor season
of 1875 in Europe, these bees, like the Carniolans, were found
superior even to the Italians.

The beautiful Dalmatian bees are slim, wasp-like, and very
black. The rings of their abdomens are banded with lightish
yellow. Their honey is even more white and beautiful than
that of the German race. Some of the best European bee-
keepers claim that they are superior to the Italian bees.

Akin to the Dalmatian bees are the Herzegovinian variety,
which comes from the mountainous region of Bosnia, border-
ing on the Adriatic Sea. A better marked variety—the Smyr-
nian bees—from Western Asia, and also much praised by some
of the noted Austrian bee-keepers, as are also the Caucasian,
from the Caucasus Mountains, which are said to be very
active and amiable.

The Tunisian bees, from Tunis in the north of Africa, are
said to be even darker than the black or German bee. They
are described as quite irritable. These were the ‘“‘ Punic bees”’
sold in the United States some years since. They did not keep
in favor. It is stated that there is a race of bees which are
domesticated in the south of Africa. From the descriptions I
should think them quite like our Albinos in appearance. They
are said to be excellent honey-producers, and to work even by
moonlight. It is quite likely that some of these varietjes
might be found to endure our severe winters better than a.
pure German type, or the Italians. Now that we are to have
an experimental station in each State, we may expect that all
these races will be imported, that we may prove them and
know which is the best.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 59

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one,
to give in this connection a complete history of entomology so
far as it relates to Apis mellifera. But this would take much
space, and as there is quite a full history in books, that I shall
recommend to those who are eager to know more of this in-
teresting department of natural history, I will not go into
details.

Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B.
C. About three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth
Georgic, gave to the world the views then extant on this sub-
ject, gathered largely from the writings of Aristotle. The
poetry will ever be remarkable for its beauty and elegance—
would that as much might be said for the subject matter,
which, though full of interest, is full of errors. A little later,
Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his observa-
tions, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though much
that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious. As Mr.
Langstroth once said to me, Columella wrote as one who had
handled the things of which he wrote; and not like Virgil, as
one who was dealing with second-hand wares. Pliny, the
elder, who wrote in the second century, A. D., helped to con-
tinue the erroneous opinions which previous authors had given,
and not content with this, he added opinions of his own, which
were not only without foundation, but were often the perfec-
tion of absurdity. .

After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no prog-
ress in natural history ; even for twocenturies after the revival
of learning, we find nothing of note. Swammerdam, a Dutch
entomologist, in the middle of the seventeenth century, wrote
a general history of insects; also, ‘‘The Natural History of
Bees.”?’ Heand his English contemporary, Ray, showed their
ability as naturalists by founding their systems on insect
transformations. They also revived the study and practice of
anatomy, which had slept since its first introduction by Aris-
totle, as the great stepping-stone in zoological progress. I
never open the grand work of Swammerdam, with its admir-
able illustrations, without feelings of the most profound re-

60 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

spect and admiration. Though a very pioneer in anatomy,
and one of the founders of Natural Science, and possessed of
lenses of very inferior quality, yet he wrote with an accuracy,
and illustrated even minute tissues with a correctness and
elegance that might well put to the blush many a modern
writer. His description of the bee’s tongue is more accurate
than that even of the last edition of the Encyclopedia Britanica.
Ray also gave special attention to Hymenoptera, and was
much aided by Willoughby and Lister. At this time Harvey,
so justly noted for his discovery of the circulation of the blood,
announced his celebrated dictum, ‘‘Omnia ex ovo’’—all life
from eggs—which was completely established by the noted
Italians, Redi and Malpighi. Toward the middle of the
eighteenth century, the great Linneus—“ the brilliant Star of
the North ’’—published his ‘‘Systema Nature,’ and threw a
flood of light on the whole subject of natural history. His
division of insects was founded upon presence, or absence, and
characteristics, of wings. This, like Swammerdam’s basis, was
too narrow, yet his conclusions were remarkably correct.
Linnezus is noted for his accurate descriptions, and especially
for his gift of the binomial method of naming plants and
animals, giving in the name the genus and species, as Apis
mellifera, which he was first to describe. He was also the
first to introduce classes and orders, as we now understand
them. When we consider the amount and character of the
work of the great Swede, we can but place him among the first,
if not as the first, of naturalists. Contemporary with Ljin-
neus (also written Linne) was Geoffroy, who did valuable
work in defining new genera. In the last half of the century
appeared the great work of a master in entomology, DeGeer,
who based his arrangement of insects on the character of wings
and jaws, and thus discovered another of Nature’s keys to aid
him in unlocking her mysteries. Kirby well says, ‘‘ He united
in himself the highest merit of an anatomist, a physiologist
and as the observant historian of the habits and economy
of insects, he is above all praise. What a spring of self-im-
provement, enjoyment and public usefulness, is such an ability
to observe as was possessed by the great DeGeer.
Contemporary with Linnzus and DeGeer was Reaumur, of

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 61

France, whose experiments and researches are of special in-
terest to the apiarists. Perhaps no entomologist has done
more to reveal the natural history of bees. Especially to be
commended are his method of experimenting, his patience in
investigation, the elegance and felicity of his word-pictures,
and, above all, zs devotion to truth. We shall have occasion
to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable worker in the
great field of insect life frequently in the following pages.
Bonnet, of Geneva, the able correspondent of Reaumur, also
did valuable work, in which the lover of bees hasa special
interest. Bonnet is specially noted for his discovery and
elucidation of parthenogenesis—that anomalous mode of repro-
duction—as it occurs among the Aphides or plant-lice, though
he did not discover that our bees, in the production of drones,
illustrate the same doctrine. Though theauthor of no system,
he gave much aid to Reaumur in his systematic labor.

At this same period systematic entomology received great
aid from Lyonnet’s valuable work. ‘This author dissected and
explained the development of acaterpillar. His descriptions
and illustrations are wonderful, and will proclaim his ability
as long as entomology is studied.

We have next to speak of the great Dane, Fabricius—a
student of Linnzeus—who published his works from 1775 to
1798, and thus was revolutionizing systematic entomology at
the same time that we of America were revolutionizing gov-
ernment. He made the mouth organs the basis of his classifi-
cation, and thus followed in the path which DeGeer had marked
out; though it was scarcely beaten by the latter, while Fabri-
cius left it wide and deep. His classes and orders are no im-
provement on—in fact, are not nearly as correct as—his old
master’s. In his description of genera—where he pretended to
follow nature—he has rendered valuable service. In leading
scientists to study parts, before little regarded, and thus to
better establish affinities, he did a most valuable work. His
work is a standard, and should be thoroughly studied by all
entomologists.

Just at the close of the last century appeared the ‘‘ great-
est Roman of them all,” the great Latreille, of France, whose
name we have so frequently used in the classification of the

62 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

honey-bee. His is called the Elective System, as he used
wings, mouth-parts, transformations, in fact, all the organs,
the entire structure. He gave usour Family Apide, our Genus
Apis, and, as will be remembered, he described several of the
species of this genus. In our study of this great man’s work,
we constantly marvel at his extensive researches and remark-
able talents. Lamarck, of this time, did very admirable work.
So, too, did Cuvier, of Napoleon’s time, and the learned Dr.
Leach, of England. Since then we have had hosts of workers
in this field, and many worthy of not only mention but praise;
yet the work has been to rub upand garnish rather than to
create. Of late, Mr. F. T. Cresson, of Philadelphia, has given
a synopsis of the Hymenoptera of North America, together
with a list of the described species, Thisis one of the many
valuable publications of the American Entomological Society.
I will close this brief history with a notice of authors who
“are very serviceable to such as may desire to glean farther of
the pleasures of systematic entomology; only remarking that
at the end of the next chapter I shall refer to those who have
been particularly serviceable in developing the anatomy and
physiology of insects, especially of bees.

VALUABLE BOOKS FOR THE STUDENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.

For mere classification, no work is equal to Westwood on
Insects—two volumes. In this the descriptions and illustra-
tions are very full and perfect, making it easy to study the
families, and even genera, of all the orders. This work and
the following are out of print, butcan be got with little trouble
at second-hand book-stores. Kirby and Spence—“ Introduc-
tion to Entomology ’’—is a very complete work. It treats of
the classification, structure, habits, general economy of insects,
and gives a history of the subject. It is an invaluable work,
and a great acquisition to any library. Dr. Packard’s ‘‘ Guide
to the Study of Insects’ is a valuable work, and being Ameri-
can is specially to be recommended. His later ‘‘ Text-Book of
Entomology” is invaluable to the student. ‘Injurious In-
sects”’ is the title of two valuable books, one by Dr. T. Harris,
and the other by Mary Treat, The Reports of Dr. T. Harris,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 63
Dr. A. Fitch, and Dr. C. V. Riley, the Illinois Entomological
Reports, and the Entomological Reports of the Departments of
the Interior, and of Agriculture, will also be found of great
value and interest. Cresson’s Synopsis, already referred to,
will be indispensable to every student of bees or other Hyme-
nopterous insects. Smith’s Entomology and Comstock’s En-
tomology are indispensable to every person at all interested in
Entomology. The Reports of the several Experiment Stations,
especially New Jersey and Cornell, are of great value. (See
“ Bibliography ”’ at the close of the first part of this volume.)

64 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

CHAPTER II.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

In this chapter I shall give first the general anatomy or
insects; then the anatomy, and still more wonderful physi-
ology, of the honey-bee.

ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

In allinsects the body is divided into three well-marked por-
tions (Fig. 1); the head (Figs. 3 and 4), which is strengthened
by cross-pieces or braces (Fig. 13, 14), containing the mouth

Longitudinal Section Bees’ Head ( from Cowan.)

a Mentum. e Ligula. k Clypeus. p Brain,

b Sub-mentum J, g Labialpalpus, mm Funnel. r Occiput.

¢ Rods. h Head-brace. n Paraglossa. s Duct from glands.
d Lora. i Pharynx. o Ocellus.

t Duct from lower head-glands. t, t Labrum.

organs, the eyes, both the compound and, when present, the
simple, and the antenne; the thorax, which is composed of
three rings, and gives support to the one or two pairs of wings,
when present, and to the three pairs of legs; aad the abdo-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 65

men, which is composed of a variable number of: rings, and
gives support to the external sex-organs, and, when present, to
thesting. Within the thorax (Fig. 25) there are little more than
muscles, as the concentrated strength of insects, which enables

Iie. 15.

Tic. 14.

WAIN)

"

Cross Section of Head Showiny
Braces (After Macloskie.)

c,¢ Chitinous rods, which sup-
port the cardines.
h,h Strengthening rods.

Head of Bee much magnified.—Original.

o Epicranium. e Clypeus.
e,e Compound eyes. ¢ Labrum. ;
a.a Antenne. m Jaws or mandibles.

maz 2d Jaws or maxilla. ¢ Ligula.
k,k Labial palpi.

them to fly with such rapidity, dwells in this confined space.
Within the abdomen, on the other hand, are the sex-organs, by
far the greater and more important portions of the alimentary
canal, and other important organs.

66 OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

ORGANS OF THE HEAD.

Of these the mouth organs (Fig. 15) are most prominent.
These consist of an upper lip—labrum, and under lip—labium,
andtwo pairs of jaws which move sidewise; the stronger,
horny jaws, called mandibles, and the more membranous, but
usually longer, named maxilla. The labrum (Fig. 15,/) is well
described in the name upper lip. It is attached, usually, by a
movable joint to a similarly shaped piece above it, called the
clypeus (Fig. 15, c), and this latter to the broad epicranium
(Fig. 15, 0), which carries the antennz, the compound, and,
when present, the simple eyes (Fig. 3).

The labium (Fig.16)is not described by the name under
lip, as its base forms the floor of the mouth, and its tip the
tongue. The base is usually broad, and iscalled the mentum,
and from this extends the ligula (Fig. 15, ¢), which in bees is a
sucking organ or tongue.

On either side, near the junction of the ligula and mentum,
arises a jointed organ, rarely absent, called the labial palpus
(Fig. 15, &,%), or, together, the labial palpi. Just within the
angle formed by these latter and the ligula arise the para-
glosse (Fig. 16, 2, ,) one on either side. These are often
wanting, though never in bees.

The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 15, , ) arise one on either
side just below and at the side of the labrum, or upper lip.
These work sidewise instead of up and down, as in the higher
animals, are frequently very hard and sharp, and sometimes
armed with one or more teeth. A rudimentary tooth (Fig. 65,
a, 6) is visible on the jaws of drone and queen bees.

Beneath the jaws or mandibles, and inserted a little farther
back, are the second jaws, or maxille (Fig. 15, mm), less dense
and firm than the mandibles, but far more complex. Hach
maxilla arises by a small joint (Fig. 16, c), the cardo; next
this is a larger joint (Fig. 16, £), the stipes ; from this extends
onthe inside the broad lacinia (Fig. 16, 2, 4,) or blade, usually
fringed with hairs on its inner edge, towards the mouth; while
on the outside of the stripes is inserted the—from one to sev-
eral jointed—maxillary palpus. In the honey-bee the maxil-
lary palpi (Fig. 16,77) are very small, and consist of two joints,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 67

and in some insects are wholly wanting. Sometimes, as in
some of the beetles, there is a third piece running from the
stipes between the palpus and lacinia, called the galea. The

Fic. 16.

Tongue of Bee.—From Cowan,

a Mentum. J, g Labial palpi. m Funnel of tongue.
6 Sub-mentum. h, h L-Lacinia. n, n, Paraglossa.
c, ¢ Cardines. i, 1, Maxillary palpi. v Opening of tongue.
d,d Lora. k, k Stipes.
e Ligula hairs. ? Ligula,

maxillz also move sidewise, and probably aid in holding and
turning the food while it is crushed by the harder jaws, though
in some cases they, too, aid in triturating the food.

68 THE BEE-KEEPERS’ GUIDE:

These mouth-parts are very variable in form in different
insects. In butterflies and moths, two-winged flies and bugs,
they are transformed into a tube, which in the last two groups
forms a hard, strong beak or piercer, well exemplified in the
mosquito and bedbug. In all the other insects we find them
much as in the bees, with the separate parts varying greatly
in form, to agree with the habits and character of their posses-
sors. No wonder DeGeer and Fabricius detected these varying
forms as strongly indicative of the nature of the insect, and
no wonder that by their use they were so successful in forming
a natural classification.

If, as seems certain, the ‘‘ Doctrine of Natural Selection ”’
is well founded, then a change in habit is the precursor of a

Fic. 17.

=,

——_ i
re

Microscope Mounted for Dissecting.—Original.

change in structure. But what organs are so intimately
related to the habits of animals, as the mouth and other organs
that have to do with food-taking and food-getting ?

Every bee-keeper will receive great benefit by dissecting
these parts and studying their form and relations for himself.
By getting his children interested in the same, he will have
conferred upon them one of the rarest of blessings.

To dissect these parts, first remove the head and carefully
pin it toa cork, passing the pin through, well back between
the eyes. Now separate the parts by two needle-points, made

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 69

by inserting a needle for half its length into a wooden pen-
holder, leaving the point projecting for three-fourths of an
inch. With one of thesein each hand commence operations.
The head may be either side up. Much may be learned in
dissecting large insects, like our largest locusts, even with no

Antenna of Bee much magnified.—Original.

s Scape. t Trachew.
J Flagellum. n Nerves.

glass; but in all cases, and especially in small insects, a good
lens will be of great value. The best lens now in the market
is the Coddington lens, mounted in German silver. These are
imported from England. ‘They can be procured of any optician,
and cost only $1.50. These lenses can be mounted in a con-
venient stand (Fig. 17), which may be made intwenty minutes.
Ithink one of these more valuable than a large compound
microscope, which costs many times as much. WereI obliged
to part with either, the latter would go.

Irequire my students to do a great deal of dissecting,
which they enjoy very much, and find very valuable. I would
much rather that my boy would become interested in such
study than to have him possessor of infinite gold rings, or even
a huge gold watch with a tremendous charm. Let such pleas-
ing recreation gain the attention of our boys, and they will

70 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

ever contribute to our delight, and not sadden us with anxiety
and fear.

The antenne (Fig. 15, a, a) are the horn-like jointed
organs situated between, or below and in front of, the large
compound eyes of all insects. They are sometimes short, as
in the house-fly, and sometimes very long, as in crickets and
green grasshoppers. They may be straight, curved, or
elbowed. In form they are very varied, as thread-like, taper-
ing, toothed, knobbed, fringed, feathered, etc. The antenne
of many Hymenopterous insects are elbowed (Fig. 18). The
long first joint inthis case is the scape, the remaining joints
(Fig. 18, #) the flagellum. A large nerve (Fig. 18, 2) anda

Fic. 19.

a —* = = aie
Microscopie Structure of Anten-
ne, after Schiemenz.
Antennal Hairs. —Original.

n Nerves. h Tooth hairs. b Hairs of scape.
ce Cells. e, p Pits or pori. b, ¢ Hairs of scape and flagellum.

trachea (Fig. 18, ¢) enter the antenna. The function of the
antennz is now pretty well, if not wholly, understood. That
they often serve as most delicate touch-organs no observing
apiarist can doubt. ‘Tactile nerve-ending hairs are often found
in great numbers. With the higher insects, like most Hyme-
nopterons, this tactile sense of the antennz is doubtless very
important.

It is now fully demonstrated that the sense of smell is
located in the antenne. Sulzer, in the eighteenth century,

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 71

suggested that an unknown sense might exist in the antennez.
Reaumur, Lyonet, Bonnet, etc., thought this might be the
sense of smell. Dumeril, Lehrmann, who said that a nerve
vessel and muscle entered the antenna, and Cuvier, etc.,
thought the sense of smell was located in the spiracles or
breathing-mouths. Huber thought the organ of smell was
located in the mouth. Latreille and Newport, of the last.cen-
tury, believed the antennz contained the organs of hearing.
Strauss-Durckheim located them in the spiracles, while Wolff
wrote a beautiful monograph to prove that the sense of smell
was situated in the hypo-pharynx beneath the labrum. Erich-
son, in 1848, discovered pits in the antenna—pori—covered
with a membrane (Fig. 19, #), which he thought organs of
smell. The next year Burmeister found hairs in these pits in
beetles, which varied according as the beetle ate plant-food or
carrion.

Leydig, in 1855, showed that Erichson was correct, that
there were pits also-on the antennz and pegs (Fig. 19, p), or
tooth-like hairs, perforated at the end—olfactory teeth. It
‘remained for Hauser (1880) to complete the demonstration.
He expcrimented with insects by the use of carbolic acid, tur-
pentine, etc. He found that this greatly disturbed the insects
when their antennz were intact, and that even after he had
withdrawn the offensive substance the insect would continue
to rub its antenne as if to remove the disturbing odor—a sort
of holding its nose. He then cut off the antennz to find that
the insect was now insensible to the irritant. He next put
food before the insects, which was quickly found and appro-
priated; but after the antennz were cut off the food was found
with difficulty, if at all. Experiment showed that in mating
the same was true. Insects often find their mates when to us
it would seem impossible. Thus, I have known hundreds of
male moths to enter a room bya small opening in a window,
attracted by a female within the room. I have also known
them to swarm outside a closed window lured by a female
within. Maleinsects have even been known to reach their
mates by entering a room through astovepipe. Yet Hauser
found that this ability was gone with the loss of the antennz.
Kraepelin and others have since proved the correctness of

72 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE;

Hauser’s conclusions. So that we now know that the antenna,
in most insects at least, contain the organs of smell. Histo-
logically this apparatus is found to consist of nerves (Fig. 18,
nm) which run from the brain to the antennez, and at the outer,
sensitive end, contain a cell (Fig. 19) with one or more nuclei.
These nerves may end in perforated, tooth-like hairs on the
antennae (Fig. 19, 2, 6,c, d)in pegs which have no chitinous
sheath, which push out from the bottom of pits—pori—which
exist often in great numbers in the antenne (Fig. 19, 7, ¢, f)
While Erichson first discovered the pits (Fig. 19, f, 2) in the
antenne, Burmeister discovered the sensitive, nerve-ending
hairs (Fig. 19, a, /,m,d,h) at their bottom, and Leydig the
perforated pegs, or tooth-like hairs. We may state, then, that
the antennal organ of smell consists of a free or sunken hair-
like body which opens by a pore or canal to a many nucleated
ganglionic mass. Wethus understand how the bee finds the
nectar, the fly the meat, and the drone and other male insects
their mates. Similar structures in and about the mouth are
proved by Kraepelin and Lubbock to be organs of taste. Mr. 7
Cheshire speaks of small pits in the antenneze which he regards
as organs of hearing. He gives, however, no proof of this,
and the pits that hedescribes are not at all ear-like in their
structure. Dr. Packard says that there is no proof that any
insects except crickets and locusts have real organs of hearing.
He here refers to the ear-like organs situated on the sides of
the body of these insects. Similar organs on the legs of the
katydid are also probably auditory. Dr. C.S. Minot, in review-
ing Graber’s work, says that it has not been demonstrated that
even these tympanal organs are auditory, and adds that all
attempts to demonstrate the existence of an auditory organ in
insects has failed. There is little doubt but that this is a cor-
rect statement. That insects are conscious of vibrations which
with us cause sound, I think no observing person can doubt.
It is proved by the love-note of the katydid, the cicada and the
cricket. Ejvery apiarist has noticed the effect of various
sounds made by the bees upon their comrades of the hive;
and how contagious is the sharp note of anger, the low hum of
fear, and the pleasant tone of a new swarm as it commences
to enter its new home. Now, whether insects take note of

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 73

these vibrations, as we recognize pitch, or whether they just
distinguish the tremor, I think no one knows. There is some
reason to believe that their delicate touch-organs may enable
them to discriminate between vibrations, even more accurately
than can we by the use of ourears. A slight jar will quickly
awaken acolony of hybrids, while a loud noise will pass un-
noticed. If insects can appreciate with great delicacy the
different vibratory conditions of the air by an excessive devel-
opment of the sense of touch, then undoubtedly the antenne
may be great aids. Dr. Clemens thought that insects could

Fic. 20.

a
o*

=

Facets of Compound

Leyes,
after Dujardin. Section of Compound Eye, after Gagenbower.
F Facets. e Cornea. C Cells.
HT Hairs. R Rods. O Nerve.

only detect atmospheric vibrations. So, too, thought Linneus
and Bonnet. Mayer has proved that the hairs on the antenne
of mosquitoes vibrate to different sounds. From our present
knowledge, this view seems the most reasonable one, for noth-
ing answering in the least to ears, structurally, has yet been
discovered.

The eyes are of two kinds, the compound, which are
always present in mature insects, and the ocelli or simple
eyes, which may or may not be present. When present there
are usually three of these ocelli (Fig. 3), which, if joined by
lines, will describe a triangle, in the vettices of whose angles

74 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

are the ocelli. Rarely there are but two ocelli, and very rarely
but one.

The simple eyes (Fig. 3, ///) are circular, and possess a
cornea, lens or cone, and retina, which receives the nerve of
sight.

From the experiments of Reaumur and Swammerdam,
which consisted in covering the eyes with varnish, they con-

Longitudinal Section Eye.—From Cowan,

ce Facet. ec Lenses. m Basilar membrane.
A Vair. p\p2p3 Rods. v Optic nerve.

cluded that vision with these simple eyes is very indistinct,
though by them the insect can distinguish light. Some have
thought that these simple eyes were for vision at slight dis-
tances. Lubbock, Forel, and others, are doubtless correct in
the view that the ocelli are for near vision, and for use in dark

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 75

places. Larve, like spiders and most myriapods, have only
simple eyes.

The compound eyes (Fig. 3) are simply a cluster of simple
eyes, so crowded that they are hexagonal (Fig. 20). Thecornea
or facet (Fig. 20) is transparent, modified, chitinous skin. Just

Fic, 23.

Longitudinal Section of part .
of Eye, after Cowan: Rods much magnified,
; after Dujardin.
ce Facet. ce Cones.
n Nuclei. r Retinule.

within each facet is the crystalline lens (Fig. 22, cc) or crystal-
line cone back of which extend the rods (Fig. 21, 2, Fig. 23, cc)
which consist of chitinous threads. Each rod is surrounded
by rounded columns, eight in bees (Fig. 24)—retinule—which

76 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;

are enclosed by pigment membranes. Thisserves in the black
lining of our own eyes and of optical instruments, to limit or
absorb the rays of light. At the base of the rods is spread the
nervous termination of the great optic nerves (Fig. 21), which
extend from very near the brain, and which, before reaching
the ,eye, passes through the three ganglionic enlargements
(Fig. 22). Unlike the same in vertebrate eyes, the rods point
forward.

It is thought that the optic nerve is very short, and that
the retina of other higher animals is represented by the three
enlargements (Fig. 22), which, as in higher animals, are fibrous
cellular and ganglionic, and by the central rods of the reti-
nule. The sensitive portion is doubtless the end of these rods.
Insects, like bees, have a well-developed crystalline cone (Fig.
23), and such eyes are called eucone; others have this less de-
veloped, and their eyes are called pseudocone.

The old theory of Leeuwenhoek, Gottsche, and Platean,
that each of the parts of a compound eye, each ommatidium,
forms a distinct image, and these together make a compound
whole, as, do our two eyes, the images overlapping, is now
abandoned for the mosaic theory of Muller. Lubbock argues
strongly for this view, and nearly ali now accept it as true.
Each of the ommatidia give a direct, not reverse, image, as do
the ocelli, andeach an image of only a point. Thus, the image
is a true mosaic, as Muller called it. The crystalline cone
covered with black pigment permits only a point to be imag-
ined, and so each of the separate eyes or ommatidia images a
separate point of the object seen, and all the entire object.
Lubbock argues that the compound eyes do not determine form,
but only motion, and that is what would be useful to protect the
insect. Delicate trachez pass into the eyes between the rods.

The color of eyes varies very much, owing to the pigment.
In some of the bees, wasps and Diptera, or two-winged flies,
the coloration is exceedingly beautiful. Girschner thinks that
insects with highly colored eyes do not see as well as others.
Often the irridescence or play of colors, as the angle of vision
changes, is wonderfully rich.

The form, size, and position of eyes vary much, as seen by
noticing the eyes (Fig. 3,4) of drones and workers. Some.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY,. 77

times, as in bees (Fig. 3, 4), the eyes are hairy, the hairs aris-
ing from between the facets. These hairs are protective, and
very likely tactile. Usually the eyes are naked. The number
of simple eyes which form the compound eye is often pro-
digious. There may be 25,000 in a single compound eye.
There are 4,000 or 5,000 in the worker-bee.

The compound eyes are motionless, but from their size and
sub-spherical shape they give quite a range of vision. Itis
not likely that they are capable of adjustment to accord with
different distances, and it has been supposed, from the direct,
darting flight of bees totheir hives, and the awkward work
they make in finding a hive when moved onlya short distance,
that their eyes are best suited to long vision.

Sir. John Lubbock has proved, by some interesting experi-
ments with strips of colored paper, that bees can distinguish
colors. Honey was placed on a blue strip, beside several
others of various colors. In theabsence of the bees he changed
the position of this strip, and upon their return the bees went
to the blue strip rather than to the old position. Our practical
apiarists have long been aware of this fact,and have con-
formed their practice to this knowledge, in giving a variety of
colors to their hives. Apiarists have frequently noted that
bees have arare faculty of marking positions, but for slight
distances their sense of color will correct mistakes which would
occur if position alone were their guide. Platean argues that
insects are little guided by color, as they find flowers with no
color, or the color obscured. This does not prove that color
is not an aid, but that another sense—evidently of smell—
supplements the sense of sight.

Lubbock’s experiments prove that ants and wasps also
distinguish colors. This is doubtless true of all insects that
love sweets and are attracted by flowers. I have noticed a
curious blunder made by bees in case of two houses which are
just alike, but five rods apart. Honey placed on one porch is
scarce found by bees before the corresponding porch of the
other house will be swarming with bees also, though.no honey
is nearit. The bees are simply fooled. This experiment has
been tried several times, so there can be no mistake. It shows
that sight, not mere position, nor yet odor, is guide,‘even at

78 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

long distances. This disprovesthe general view that insects
can see but at very short range.

Within the head is the large brain (Fig. 27, 6), which will be
described as we come to speak of the nervous system. There
are also chitinous bars (Fig. 14) and braces within, which serve
greatly to strengthen this portion of the insect.

APPENDAGES OF THE THORAX.

The organs of flight .are the most noticeable appendages
of the thorax. The wings are usually four, though the Diptera
have but two, and some insects—as the worker-ants—have
none. Thefront or primary wings (Fig. 2) are usually larger
than the secondary or hind wings, and thus .the mesothoracic

Fic. 25,

Bat itil aby
Muscles of Thorax, after Wolff.

LZ Muscles to raise front wing. D Muscles to lower front wing.
A Muscles of hind wing.

or middle ring of the thorax, to which they are attached, is
usually larger than the metathorax or thirdring. The wings
consist of a broad frame-work of veins (Fig. 2), covered by a
thin, tough membrane. The main ribs or veins are variable
in number, while towards the extremity of the wing are more
or less cross-veins, dividing this portion of the wings into more
or less cells. In the higher groups these cells are few, and
quite important in classifying. Especially useful in group-
ing bees into their families and genera are the cellsin the

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 79

second row, from the front or costal edge of the primary wings,
called the sub-costal cells. Thus, in the genus Apis there are
three such cells (Fig. 2—6, 7, 8), while in the Melipona there
are only two. The ribs or veins consist of a tube withina
tube, the inner one forming an air-tube, the outer one carrying
blood. On the costal edge of the secondary wings we often
find hooks (Fig. 2, 2) to attach them to the front wings.

The wings are moved by powerful muscles, compactly
located in the thorax (Fig. 25), the strength of which is very
great. The rapidity of the vibrations of the wings when flight
is rapid, is aimost beyond computation. Marey found by his

Fic. 26.

| Arde ‘

Hairs of Bees.—Original.

ingenious and graphic method that they number in the bee 190
inasecond. This may be farfrom the maximum. Think of
a tiny fly out-stripping the fleetest horse in the chase, and
then marvel at this wondrous mechanism.

The legs (Fig. 1, 2, g, g) are six in nuniber in all mature
insects, two on the lower side of each ring of the thorax.
These are long or short, weak or strong, according to the habit
of the insect. Each leg consists of the following joints or
parts: The coxa (Fig. 67,c), which moves like a ball-and-
socket jointin the close-fitting coxal cavities of the body-
rings. Next to this follow in order the broad trochanter (Fig.
67,7,) which is double in several families of Hymenoptera like
the very valuable ichneumon and chalcid flies, the large, broad
femur (Fig. 66, /), the long, slim tibia (Fig. 67, 7), frequently
bearing strong spines at or near its end, called tibial spurs,
and followed by the from one to five jointed tarsi (Fig. 67, 1,
2, 3,4, 5). All these parts move freely upon each other, and
will vary in form to agree with theiruse. At the end of the

80 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

last tarsal joint are two hooked claws (Fig. 68), between which
are the pulvilli, which are not air-pumps as usually described,
but rather glands, which secrete a sticky substance which en-
ables insects to stick to a smooth wall, even though it be
abovethem. The legs, and in fact the whole crust, are more or
less dense and hard, owing to the deposit within the structure
of chitine.

The hairs of insects (Fig. 26) are very various in form,
developmext and function. Some areshort, others long ; some
simple, others beautifully feathered; some are tactile, like
those of the eyes of the bees, some are protective and for
warmth, and some are used as brushes, combs, and for collect-
ing, transferring and carrying pollen.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The muscles of insects are usually whitish. Sometimes I
have noticed quite a pinkish hue about the muscles of the
thorax. They vary in form and position te accord with their
use. The mechanism of contraction is the same as in higher
animals. The ultimate fibers of the voluntary muscles, when
highly magnified, show the strie or cross-lines, the same as do
the voluntary muscles of vertebrates, and are very beautiful as
microscopic objects. The fibers of each separate muscle are not
bound together by a membrane, as in higher animals. In in-
sects the muscles are widely distributed, though, as we should
expect, they are concentrated in the thoraxand head. In insects
of swiftest flight, like the bee, the thorax (Fig. 25) is almost en-
tirely composed of muscles; the cesophagus, which carries the
food to the stomach, being very small. At the base of the
jaws (Fig. 65) the muscles arelarge and firm. ‘The number of
muscles is astounding. Lyonet counted over 3,000 in a single
caterpillar, nearly eight times as many as are foundin the
human body. The strength, too, of insects is prodigious.
There must be quality in muscles, for muscles as large as those
of the elephant, and as strong as those of the flea, would jhardly
need the fulcrum which the old philosopher demanded in order
to move the world. Fleas have been made to draw miniature
cannon, chains and wagons many hundred times heavier than
themselves.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 81

The nerves of insects are in no wise peculiar, so far as
known, except in position. Each nerve.consists of a bundle of
fibers, some of which are sensitive, and some motor. Asin

Diagram showing Internal Organs of Bee, (modified), from Cowan.

H Head. ig Supra csophageal ganglia. hs Honey-stomach.
T Thorax.- gg Ganglia on nerve cord. s Stomach.

A Abdomen. as Air sacs. m Stomach-mouth.
d Brain. tt Trachee. i Deum.

f Rectum. mt Malpighian tubules. r,g Rectal glands.

our bodies, some are knotted, or have ganglia, and some are not.
The main nervous cord is double, and has several enlarge-
ments (Fig. 27, 28) or ganglia. It runs along the under or ven-

82 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

tral side of the body, separates near the head, and after pass-
ing around the cesophagus, enlarges to form the largest of the
ganglia, which serves as a brain (Fig. 27, 28). The uncovered

Fic. 28.

Vervous System of Drone, after Duncan.

brain shows marked convolutions (Fig. 30). Dujardin states
that the brain of the worker-bee is 1-174 of the body; in the
drone it is relatively much smaller; the ant, 1-286; the ich-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 83

neumon, 1-400; water beetle, 1-4200. In man it is 1-40. So
we see that the bee is at the summit of insect intelligence, as
man is of the vertebrate. The convolutions (Fig. 30) add to
the argument.

From the brain many fibers extend on each side to the
compound eyes. The minute nerves extend everywhere, and
in squeezing out the viscera of an insect, are easily visible.

In the larva the nerve cord is much as in the adult insect,
except the ganglia are more numerous. Girard says, that at
first in the larva of the bee there are seventeen ganglia. The
supra-cesophageal of the brain, three sub-cesophageal, three
thoracic—one for each ring—and ten abdominal. Soon the
three sub-cesophageal merge into one, as do also the last three
abdominal, when there are in all thirteen (Fig. 31). In the

Brain of Insect, after Dujardin:
aa Antenne. ooo Ocelli.

ptipa, the last two of the thorax, and the first two abdominal,
unite into the twin-like post-thoracic (Fig. 31), which supplies
the meso, and meta-thoracic legs, and both pairs of wings with
nerves. The fourth and fifth ‘ganglia also unite, so that the
adult worker-bee has nine ganglia in all. The brain or supra-
cesophageal (Fig. 27), supplies nerves to the compound eyes,
ocelli, antennz and labrum; the sub-cesophageal gives off
nerves to the mandibles, maxillz, and labium ; the first gan-
glion of the thorax sends nerves to the anterior legs. There
are only four abdominal ganglia in the drone. The brain
(Fig. 29, 30), like our own, is enclosed in membranes, is com-
posed of white and gray matter, and is undoubtedly the seat of
intelligence. Hence, as we should suppose, the brain of the

84 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE,

worker is much larger than that of either the drone or queen.
The ganglia along the cord are the seat of reflex acts the same
asis the gray matter of our own spinal cord. Indeed, the
beheaded bee uses its members much more naturally than do
the higher animals after they have lost their heads. This may
arise from their more simple organism, or from a higher devel-
opment of the ganglia in question.

The organs of circulation in insects are quite insignificant.
The heart (Fig. 32, HW) isa long tube situated along the back,
to which it is held by large muscles (Fig. 32, 7), and receives

Fre. 31.

Brain of Bee, from Cowan,

Nervous System of Worker Larva,
after Duncan.

the blood at valvular openings (Fig. 32 0, 33 a,) along its sides
which only permit the fluid to pass in, when, by contraction, it
is forced toward the head and emptied into the general cavity.
Valves prevent the blood from flowing back (Fig. 33, 0.) Thus
the heart only serves to keep the blood in motion.

There are no vessels to carry the blood to the various
organs, nor is this necessary, for the nutritive fluid every-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 85

where bathes the digestive canal, and thus easily receives
nutriment, or gives waste by osmosis ; everywhere surrounds
the trachez or air-tubes—the insect’s lungs—and thus receives
that most needful of all food, oxygen, and gives the baneful
carbonic acid; everywhere touches the various organs, and
gives and takes as the vital operations of the animal require.

The heart, like animal vessels, generally, consists of an
outer serous membrane, an inner, epithelial coat, and a middle
muscular layer. Owing to the opaque crust, the pulsations of
the heart can not generally be scen; but in some transparent
larve, like many maggots, some parasites—those of our com-
mon cabbage butterfly show this admirably—and especially in
aquatic larve, the pulsations are plainly visible, and are most
interesting objects of study.

The heart, as shown by Lyonet, is held to the dorsal wall
by muscles (Fig. 32, 7). Beneath the heart are muscles which,

Fic. 32. Fic. 33.
b

i

Portion of Heart of an Insect, after Packard. 4
H Heart. ‘m Muscles. o Openings.

Diagram of Heart, from Cowan.

to quote from Girard, form a sort of horizontal diaphragm (Fig.
34, 2), which as Graber shows contract, and thus aid circulation.

The blood is light colored, and entirely destitute of red
discs or corpuscles, which are so numerous in the blood of
higher animals, and which give our blood its redcolor. The
function of these red discs is to carry oxygen, and as oxygen is
carried everywhere through the body by the ubiquitous air-
tubes of insects, we see the red discsare not needed. Except
for these semi-fluid discs, which are real organs, and nourished
as are other organs, the blood of higher animals is entirely

86 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

fluid, in all normal conditions, and contains not the organs
themselves, or any part of them, but only the elements, which
are absorbed by the tissue and converted into the organs, or,
to be scientific, are assimilated. The blood of insects is nearly
destitute of discs, having only white corpuscles. The white
corpuscles are called leucocytes. They are now known to act
as so many animals, and are powerful for good in destroying
microbes. We thus call them phagocytes. These phagocytes,
in insect trausformations, remove, we may say eat up, the no
longer useful organs. It is this way that a tadpole’s tail is

Fic. 34,

Cross Section of Bee, after Cheshire,

h Heart. Tr. Traches.
St, Stomach. ga Ganglion.
ad Diaphragm.

removed. This process is known as phagocytosis. The leu-
cocytes are also found in the digested food, and like the same
in higher animals, are amoeboid. Schonfeld has shown that
the blood, chyle, the digested food, and larval food, are much
the same.

The respiratory or breathing system of insects consists of
a very complicated system of air-tubes (Fig. 1, 27). These
tubes (Fig. 35), which are constantly branching, and almost
infinite in number, are very peculiar in their structure. They
are composed of a spiral thread, and thus resemble a-hollow
cylinder formed by closely winding a fine wire spirally about a
rod, so as to cover it, and then withdrawing the latter, leaving

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 87,

the wire unmoved. This spiral elastic thread, like the rings
of cartilage in our own trachea, serves to make the tubes rigid ;
and like our trachea—wind pipe—so these trachez or air-tubes
in insects are lined within and covered without bya thin
membrane. Nothing is more surprising and interesting than
this labyrinth of beautiful tubes, as seen in dissecting a bee
under the microscope. I have frequently detected: myself
taking long pauses, in making dissections of the honey-bee,
as my attention would be fixed in admiration of this beautiful
breathing apparatus. In the bee these tubes expand in large
lung-like sacs (Fig. 1, £), one on each side of the body. . Doubt-
less some of my readers have associated the quick movements
and surprising activity of birds and most mammals with their
well developed lungs, so in such animals as the bees, we see
the relation between this intricate system of air-tubes—their

Fic. 35,

\

J bx

ge

(
Ht

A Trachea, magnified.—Original.

lungs—and the quick, busy life which has been proverbial of
them since the earliest time. Along the sides of the body are
the spiracles or breathing-mouths, which vary in number.
The full-grown larva has twenty, while the imago has seven
pairs ; two on the thorax—one on the prothorax, and one on the
metathorax—and five on theabdomen. ‘The drone has one more
on each side of the abdomen. We see, then, that to strangle an
insect we would not close the mouth, but these spiracles along
the sides of the body. We now understand why the bee so
soon dies when the body is daubed with honey. These spiracles
are armed with a complex valvular arrangement which ex-
cludes dust or other noxious particles. From these extends
the labyrinth of air-tubes (Fig. 1, /,/, 27 4, ¢), which carries

88 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;

vitalizing oxygen into every part of the insect organism. As
shown long ago by Leydig and Weismann, these air-tubes are
but an invagination of the derm of the insect. What is more
curious, these trachez are molted or shed with the skin of the
larve. In the more active insects—as in bees—the main
trachez, one on each side of the abdomen, are expanded into
large air-sacs (Fig. 1,/). Insects often show a respiratory
motion, which in beesis often very marked. Newport has
shown that in bees the rapidity of the respiration, which varies
from twenty to sixty per minute, gauges the heat in the hive,
and thus we see why bees in times of severe cold, which they
essay to keep at bay by forced respiration, consume much
food, exhale much foulair and moisture, and are liable to
disease. Newport found that in cases of severe cold there
would be quite a rise of mercury in a thermometer which he
suspended in the hive amidst the cluster.

In the larval state, many insects breathe by fringe-like
gills. The larval mosquito has gills in the form of hairy tufts,
while in the larval dragon-fly the gills are inside the rectum,
or last part of the intestine. The insect, by a muscular effort,
draws the water slowly in at the anus, where it bathes these
singularly placed branchie, and then makes it serve a further
turn by forcibly expelling it, when the insect is sent darting
ahead. Thus, this curious apparatus not only furnishes
oxygen, but also aids in locomotion. In the pupae of insects
there is little or no motion, yet important organic changes are
taking place—the worm-like, ignoble, creeping, often repulsive,
larva, is soon to appear as the airy, beautiful, active, almost
ethereal imago. So oxygen, the most essential—the sine qua
non—of all animal food is still needed. ‘The bees are too wise
to seal the brood-cell with impervious wax, but rather add the
porous capping, made of wax from old comb and pollen. The
pupz, no lessthan the larve of some two-winged flies which
live in water, have long tubes which reach far out for the
vivifying air, and are thus called rat-tailed. Even the pups
of the mosquito, awaiting in its liquid home the glad time
when it shall unfold its tiny wings and pipe its war-note, has
a similar arrangement to secure the gaseous pabulum.

The digestive apparatus of insects is very interesting, and,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 89

as in our own class of animals, varies very much in length and
complexity, as the hosts of insects vary in their habits. Asin
mammals and birds, the length, with some striking exceptions,
varies with the food. Carnivorous or flesh-eating insects have
a short alimentary canal, while in those that feed on vegetable
food it is much longer.

~ The mouth I have already described. Following this (Fig.
27) is the throat or pharynx, then the cesophagus or gullet (Fig.
36, 0), which may expand, as in the bee, to form the honey-
stomach (Fig. 36, 4s), may have an attached crop like the

Fic. 36,

A

Cross Section of Ilewm, after
Schiemenz.

Alimentary Canal of Honey-Bee, modified, from Wolff.

o O@sophagus. sm Stomach-mouth,
hs Honey-stomach. s True stomach.

e Urinary tubes. i Small intestine or ileum.
rg Rectal glands. r Large intestine or rectum.

chicken, or may run as a uniform tube, as in the human body,
to the true stomach (Fig. 36, s). Following this is the intes-
tine—separated by some authors into an ileum (Fig. 36, z), and
a rectum which ends in the vent or anus.

The entire alimentary canal, except the stomach, is devel-
oped from the ectoderm, or skin derm, and ail is shed in
molting. The stomach, often called the mid-stomach, to dis-
tinguish it from the fore and hind, is derived from the endo-
derm, and is not molted. Connected with the mouth are
salivary glands (Fig. 58, 59), which are structurally much like

90 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;

those in higher animals. There is an inner and an outer
chitinous layer, and the intervening cellular or epithelial,
where secretion takes place.

In those larvz that form cocoons these are the source of
silk. In the glands this is a viscid fluid, but asit leaves the
duct it changes instantly into the gossamer thread. Bees and
wasps use this saliva in forming their structures. With it and
mud some wasps make mortar; with it and wood, others form
their paper cells; with it and wax, the bee fashions the rib-
bons that are to form the beautiful comb. As will be seen
later, these glands are very complex in bees, and the function
of the secretion very varied in both composition and function.

Lining the entire alimentary canal are mucus glands
which secrete a viscid fluid that keeps the tube soft and pro-
motes the passage of food. These lining cells also absorb, and
may secrete a digestive fluid.

The true stomach (Fig. 36, s; 27 S), is very muscular;
and often a gizzard, as in the crickets, where its interior is
lined with teeth. The interior of the stomach is glandular,
for secreting the gastric juice which is to liquefy the food, that
it may be absorbed, or pass through the walls of the canal into
the blood.

Appended to the anterior end of the stomach are the from
two to eight coeca, or, as in some beetles, very numerous villi
or tubules. These are believed by Plateau and others tobe
pancreatic in function. Theseare not found in bees. Attached
tothe lower portion of the stomach are the urinary or Mal-
pighian tubules (Fig. 27, , ¢), so named from their discoverer,
Malpighi. There may be two to eight long tubes, or many
short ones as in the bees, where we find 150. The finding in
these of urea, uric acidand the urates settles the matter of their
function. Cuvier and others thought these bile-tubules.
Siebold thinks that some of the mucous glands secrete bile,
and others act as a pancreas.

The intestine, when short, as in larve and most carnivora,
is straight, and but little, if any, longer than the abdomen,
while in most plant-eaters it is long, and thus zigzag in its
course. It is a very interesting fact that the dlimentary canal
in the larva may be partly shed at the time of molting,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 91

Strange as it may seem, the fecal pellets of some insects are
beautiful in form, and of others pleasant to the taste. These
fecal masses under trees or bushes often reveal the presence of
caterpillars. I find my children use them toexcellent purpose
in finding rare specimens. In some caterpillars they are
barrel-shaped, artistically fluted, of brilliant hue, and, if fos-
silized, would be greatly admired, as have been the coprolites—
fossil feces of higher animals—if set as gems in jewelry. As
it is, they would form no mean parlor ornament. In other
insects, as the Aphides, or plant-lice, the excrement, as well
as the fluid that escapes from the general surface of the body,
the anus, or in some species from special tubes called the
nectaries, is very sweet, and in absence of floral nectar will
often be appropriated by bees and conveyed to the hives. In
those insects that suck their food, as bees, butterflies, moths,
two-winged flies and bugs, the feces are liquid, while in case
of solid food the excrement is nearly solid. It is doubtless this
liquid excreta falling from bees that has been referred to often
as a fine mist.

SECRETORY ORGANS OF INSECTS.

I have already spoken of the salivary glands, which Kirby
describes as distinct from the true silk-secreting tubes, though
Newport thinks them one and the same. In many insects
these seem absent. I have also spoken of the mucus glands,
the urinary tubules, etc. Besides these, there are other secre-
tions which serve for purposes of defense. In the queen and
workers of bees, and in ants and wasps, the poison intruded
with the sting is an example. This is secreted by glands at
the posterior of the abdomen, stored in sacs (Fig. 38, pg), and
extruded through the sting as occasion requires. I know of no
insects that poison while they bite, except mosquitoes, gnats,
and some bugs. Mosquitoes and some flies, in biting, convey,
as do ticks, germs of malaria or noxious protozoans, and so
induce disease.

A few exceedingly beautiful caterpillars are covered with
branching spines, which sting about like a nettle. We have
three such species. They are green, and of rare attraction, so
that to capture them is worth the slight inconvenience arising

92 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE,

from their irritating punctures.. Some insects, like many
bugs, flies, beetles, and even butterflies, secrete a disgusting
fluid, or gas, which affords protection, as by its stench it
renders these filthy bugs so offensive that even a hungry bird
or half-famished insect passes them by on the other side.
Some insects secrete a gas which is stored in a sac at the pos-
terior end of the body, and shot forth with an explosion in case
danger threatens; thus by noise and smoke it startles its
enemy, which beats a retreat. I have heard the little bom-
bardier beetle at such times, even at considerable distances.
The frightful reports about the terrible horn of the tomato-
worm larva are mere nonsense; a more harmless animal does
not exist. My little boy of four years, and girl of only two,
used to bring them to mein the summer, and regard them as
admiringly as would their father upon receiving them from
the delighted children.

If we except bees and wasps, there are no true insects that
need be feared; nor need we except them, for with fair usage
even they are seldom provoked to use their cruel weapon. The
so-called ‘‘ kissing bugs,’’ which usually bite on the legs, and
not on the lips, are too rare to be feared. There are two or
three species of these biting bugs.

SEX-ORGANS OF INSECTS.

The male organs consist of the testes (Fig. 37, a), which are
double. These are made up of tubules or vesicles, of which
there may be from one, as in the drone-bee, to several, as in
some beetles, on each side the abdominal cavity. In these
vesicles grow the sperm cells, or spermatozoa (Fig. 50), which,
when liberated, pass through a long convoluted tube, the vas
deferens (Fig. 37, 6, 6), into the seminal sac (Fig. 37, ¢, c),
where, in connection with mucus, they are stored. In most
insects there are grandular sacs (Fig. 37, d) joined to these
seminal receptacles, which, in the male bee, are very largé.
The sperm cells mingled with these viscid secretions, as they
appear in the seminal receptacle ready for use, form the
seminal fluid. Extending from these seminal receptacles is
the ejaculatory duct (Fig. 37,¢,/, 2), which, in copulation,
carries the male fluid to the penis (Fig. 37, 4), through which it

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY,. 93

passes to the oviduct of the female. Beside this latter organ
are the sheath, the claspers, when present, and, in the male
bee, those large yellow glandular sacs (Fig. 37, 2), which are
often seen to dart forth as the drone is held in the warm hand.

Fic. 37,

Male Organs of Drone, much magnified.

a Testes. e Common duct.
bb Vasa deferentia. Jg Hjaculatory duct.
cc Seminal sacs. h. Penis.

d Glandular sacs. i Yellow saccules.

The female organs (Fig. 38) consist of the ovaries (Fig.
38, 0, 0), which are situated one on either side of the abdominal
cavity. From these extended the two oviducts (Fig. 38, D),
which unite into the common oviduct (Fig. 38, D), through
which the eggs pass in deposition. Inthe higher Hymenop-
tera there is beside this oviduct, and connected with it, a sac

94 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

(Fig. 38, s, 5) called the spermatheca, which receives the male
fluid in copulation, and which, by extruding its contents, must
ever after do the work of impregnation.

This sac was discovered, and its use suggested, by Mal-

Female Organs, magnified, from Leuckart.

O Ovaries. Py Poison glands.
DD Oviducets. Sg Sting glands.
“$b Spermatheca. *S Sting.

Pb Poison sac.

pighi as early as 1686, but its function was not fully demon-
strated until 1792, when the great anatomist, John Hunter,
showed that in copulation this was filled. The ovaries are
multitubular organs. In some insects, as laying workers,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 95
there are but very few tubes—twoor three; while in the queen-
bee there are more than one hundred. In these tubes the ova
or eggs grow, as do the sperm-cells in the vesicles of the testes.
The number of eggsis variable. Some insects, as the mud-
wasps, produce very few, while the queen white-ant extrudes
millions. The end of the oviduct, called the ovipositor, is
wonderful in its variation. Sometimes it consists of concen-
tric rings, like a spy-glass, which may be pushed out or drawn
in; sometimes of a long tube armed with augers or saws of
wonderful finish, to prepare for eggs; or again of a tube
which may alsoserveas a sting. The females of all Hymenop-
tera possess a very complex sting, saw, or ovipositor, which
can be said of no other order.

Most authors state that insects copulate only once, or at
least that the female meets the male but once. Many species
like the squash-bug mate several times. In some cases, as we
shall see in the sequel, the male is killed by the copulatory
act. I think this curious fatality is limited to few species.

To study viscera, which of course requires very careful
dissection, we need more apparatus than has been yet
described. Here a good lens is indispensable. A small dis-
secting-knife, a delicate pair of forceps, and some small,
sharp-pointed dissecting scissors—those of the renowned
Swammerdam were so fine at the point that it required a lens
to sharpen them—which may also serve toclip the wings of
queens, are requisite to satisfactory work. Specimens put in
alcohol will be improved, as the oil will be dissolved out, and
the muscles hardened. Formalin is much cheaper, and on
many accounts better than alcohol. It does not evaporate as
readily, and the specimens preserved in it do not smell offen-
sive. Placing specimens in hot water willdo nearly as well,
in which case oil of turpentine will dissolve off the fat. This
may be applied with a camel’s-hair brush. By dissecting
under water the loose portions will float off, and render effect-
ive work more easy. Swammerdam, who had that most
valuable requisite to a naturalist—unlimited patience—not
only dissected out the parts, but with small glass tubes, fine
as a hair, he injected the various vessels, as the alimentary
canal and air-tubes. My reader, why may not you look in

96 TH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

upon these wondrous beauties and marvels of God’s own
handiwork—Nature’s grand exposition? Father, why would
not a set of dissecting instruments be a most suitable gift to
your son? You might thus sow the seed which would germi-
nate into a Swammerdam, and that on your own hearth-stone.
Messrs. Editors, why do not you keep boxes of these instru-
ments for sale, and thus aid to light the torch of genius, and
hasten apiarian research ?

TRANSFORMATION OF INSECTS.

What in all the realm of nature is so worthy to awaken
delight and admiration as the astonishing changes which
insects undergo? Just think of the sluggish, repulsive cater-
pillar, dragging its heavy form over clod or bush, or mining
in dirt and filth, changed, by the wand of Nature’s great
magician, first into the motionless chrysalis, decked with
green and gold, and beautiful as the gem that glitters on the
finger of beauty, then bursting forth as the graceful, gorgeous
butterfly ; which, by its brilliant tints and elegant poise, out-
rivals even the birds among the life-jewels of Nature, and is
made fit to revelin all her decorative wealth. The little fly,
too, with wings dyed in rainbow hues, flitting like a fairy
from leaf to flower, was but yesterday the repulsive maggot,
reveling in the veriest filth of decaying Nature. The grub
to-day drags its slimy shape through the slums of earth, on
which it fattens; to-morrow it will glitter as the brillant set-
ting in the bracelet and ear-drops of the gay and thoughtless
belle. |

There are four separate stages in the development of
insects: The egg, the larva, the pupa, and the imago.

THE EGG.

This is not unlike the same in higher animals. It has its
yolk, the real egg, and its surrounding white or albumen, like
the eggs of all mammals, and farther, the delicate shell, which
is familiar in the eggs of birdsand reptiles. Eggs of insects
are often beautiful in form and color, and not infrequently
ribbed and fluted (Fig. 41), as by a master hand. The form of
eggs is very various—spherical, oval, cylindrical, oblong,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 97

straight, and curved (Fig. 39, a, 6). Through the egg is an
opening (Fig. 41, 4, B, m), the micropyle, through which
passes the sperm-cells. All insects seem to be guarded by a
wonderful knowledge, or instinct, or intelligence, in the pla-
cing of eggs onor near the peculiar food of the larva, even
though in many cases such food is no part of the aliment of
theimago. The Hy has the refined habits of the epicure, from
whose cup it daintily sips, yet its eggs are placed in the horse-
droppings of stable and pasture.

Inside the egg wonderful changes soon commence, and
their consummation is a tiny larva. Somewhat similar
changes can be easily and most profitably studied by breaking
and examining a hen’s egg each successive day of incubation.
As with the eggs of our own species, and of all higher ani-
mals, the egg of insects, or the yolk, the essential part—the
white is only food, so to speak—soon segments or divides into
a great many cells—in the morula stage—which soon unite into
three membranes, the blastoderms—blastula stage—which are
the initial animal; these blastoderms soon form a single arch
or sac, and not a double arch, one above the other, as in our
own vertebrate branch. ‘This sac, looking like a miniature
bag of grain, grows by absorption, becomes articulated, and
by budding out is soon provided with the various members.
At first the sixteen or seventeen segments are much alike, and
all bear appendages. From the three segments of the head
come the antennez and mouth organs, from the three thoracic
rings the three pairs of legs, while the remaining abdominal
joints generally soon lose all show of appendages, which are
never present in the imago. The trachee, and fore and hind
intestines, all but the stomach, are but invaginations of the
ectoderm or skin membrane, and so are shed when the skin is
moulted. Asin higher animals, these changes are consequent
upon heat, and usually, not always, upon the incorporation
within the eggs of the sperm-cells from the male, which enter
the egg at an opening called the micropyle. The time it takes
the embryo inside the egg to develop is gauged by heat, and
will, therefore, vary with the season and temperature, though
in different species it varies from days to months. The num-
ber of eggs which an insect may produce is subject to wide

98 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

variation. There may be a score of them; there may be
thousands.
THE LARVA OF INSECTS.

From the egg comes the larva, also called grub, maggot,
caterpillar, and very erroneously worm. These are worm-
shaped (Fig. 39), usually have strong jaws, simple eyes, and
the body plainly marked into ring divisions. In some insects
there are fourteen of these rings or segments, or ten besides the
head and three rings of the thorax. In bees, and nearly all
other insects (Fig. 39, /), there is one less abdominal ring.
Often, as in case of some grubs, larval bees, and maggots,
there are no legs. In most grubs there are six legs, two to
each of the three rings succeeding the head. Besides these,
caterpillars have usually ten prop-legs farther back on the
body, though a few—the loopers or measuring caterpillars—
have only four or six, while the larve of the saw-flies have
from twelve to sixteen of the false or prop-legs. ‘The alimen-
tary canal of larval insects is usually short, direct, and quite
simple, while the sex-organs are slightly if at all developed.
The larve of insects are voracious eaters—indeed, their only
work seems to be to eat and grow fat. This rapid growth is
well shown in the larva of the bee, which increases during its
brief period from egg to full-grown larva—less than five days—
from 1200 to 1500 times its weight. As the entire growth
occurs at this stage, their gormandizing habits are the more
excusable. I have often been astonished at the amount of food
that the insects in my breeding cases would consume. The
skin or crust of insectsis unyielding, hence growth requires
that it shall be cast. This shedding of the skin is called
moulting. It isa strange fact, already mentioned, that the
treachez and a part of the alimentary canal are cast off with
the skin. Mostinsects moult from fourto six times. That
bees moult was even known to Swammerdam. Vogel speaks
of the thickening of the cells because of these cast-skins. Dr.
Packard observed many years since, thatin the thin-skinned
larve, such as those of bees, wasps, and gall-flies, the moults
are not apparent; as these larve increase in size, they out-
grow the old skin which comes off in shreds. The length of

OR, MANUAL OF THH APIARY. 99

time which insects remain as larve is very variable. The
maggot revels in decaying meat but two or three days; the
larval bee eats its rich pabulum for nearly a week; the apple-
tree borer gnaws away for three years ; while the seventeen-
year cicada remains a larva for more than sixteen years,
groping in darkness and feeding on roots, only to come forth
fora few days of hilarity, sunshine, and courtship. Surely,
here is patience exceeding even that of Swammerdam. The
name larva, meaning masked, was given to this stage by Lin-
nus, as the mature form of the insect is hidden, and can not
be even divined by the unlearned.

THE PUPA OF INSECTS.

In this stage the insect is in profound repose, as if resting
after its meal, the better to enjoy its active, sportive days—
the joyous honeymoon—soontocome. At this time the insect
may look like a seed, as in the coarctate pupa of diptera, so
familiar in the ‘“‘ flaxseed’ state of the Hessian-fly, or in the
pupa of the cheese-maggot, or the meat-fly. The form of the
adult insect is very obscurely shown in butterfly pupe, called,
because of their golden spots, chrysalids, and in the pupe of
moths. Other pupz,as in the case of bees (Fig. 39, g) and
beetles, look not unlike the mature insect with its antenne,
legs, and wings closely bound to the body bya thin membrane,
hence the name pupa which Linne gave—referring to this con-
dition—as the insect looks as if wrapped in swaddling clothes,
the old cruel way of torturing the infant, as if it needed hold-
ing together. The pupa, andso of course the imago, has less
segments than has the larva. In the bee, the first ring of the
abdomen becomes the petiole, and the last three are merged
into one, and thus the number of segmentsin the adult are
only six. The dronehas one more. The spiraclesand ganglia
are also reduced in number. Aristotle called pupe ‘‘ nymphs ’”’
—a name stillin use. The word nymph is now used to desig-
nate the immature stages, both larval and pupal, of insects
with incomplete transformations like locusts. Inside the pupa
skin great changes are in progress, for either by modifying
the larval organs or developing parts entirely new by use of
the accumulated material stored by the larva during its pro-

100 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

longed banquet, the wonderful transformation from the slug-
gish, worm like larva, to the active, bird-like imago is accom-
plished. Sometimes the pupa is surrounded by a silken
cocoon, either thick, as the cocoon of some moths, or thin and
incomplete as the cocoon of bees. The cocoon is spun by mov-
ing the head back and forth. The liquid thread quickly dries,
andis drawn forth as the head moves. These cocoons are

Fic 39.

Development of the Bee, after Duncan.

ab Eggs. g Pupa.
edef Larve. k Caps.
Z Queen-cell.

spun by the larve as their last toil before assuming the restful
pupa state. The length of time in the pupa stage varies from
afew days toas many months. Sometimes insects which are
two-brooded remain as pupe but a few days in summer, while
in winter they are moths passing the quiescent period. Our
cabbage-butterfly illustrates this peculiarity. Others, like the
Hessian-fly and coddling-moth, remain through the long, cold
months as larve. How wonderful is this! The first brood of

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 101

larve change to pupz at once, the last brood, though the
weather be just as hot, wait over inside the cocoon till the
warm days of coming spring.

THH IMAGO STAGE.

This term refers to the last or winged form (Fig. 40), and
was given by Linnzus because the image of the insect is now

Fic. 41,

Queen-Bee, magnified.—Original.

Bee-Egg.—Original,

A Egg. B Large end.
m Micropyle.

realand not masked as when in the larva state. Now the
insect has its full-formed legs and wings, its compound eyes,
often complex mouth-parts—a few insects, like the bot-flies, .
have no mouth organs—and the fully developed sex-organs.
In fact, the whole purpose of the insect now seems to be to
reproduce itself. Many insects do not even eat, only flit in
merry marriage mood for a brief space, when the male flees
this life to be quickly followed by the female, she only wait-
ing to place her eggs where the prospective infants may find
suitable food. Some insects not only place their eggs, but
feed and care for their young, as do ants, wasps and bees.
Again, asin case of some species of ants and bees, abortive

102 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

females perform all, or most, of the labor in caring for the
young. The life of the imago also varies much as to duration.
Some imagos live but for a day, others make merry for several
days, while a few species live formonths. Very few imagos
survive the whole year. The queen-bee may live for five years,
and Lubbock has queen-ants.which are fifteen or more years

old.
INCOMPLETE TRANSFORMATION.

Some insects like the bugs, lice, grasshoppers, and locusts,
are quite alike at all stages of growth, after leaving the egg.
The only apparent difference is the smaller size and the absence
or incomplete development of the wings in the larve and pupe.
The larva and pupa are known as nymphs. The habits and
structure from first to last seem to be much the same. Here,
as before, the full development of the sex-crgans occurs only
in the imago.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE
HONEY-BEE.

With a knowledge of the anatomy and some glimpses of
the physiology of insects in general, we shall now find it easy
tolearn the special anatomy and physiology of the highest
insects of the order.

THREE KINDS OF BEES IN EACH FAMILY.

As we have already seen, a very remarkable feature in the
economy of the honey-bee, described even by Aristotle, which
is true of some other bees, and of ants, is the presence in each
family of three distinct kinds, which differ in form, color,
structure, size, habits and function. Thus, we have the queen
(Lubbock has shown that there are several queens in an ant
colony), a number of drones, and a far greater number of
workers. Huber, Bevan, Munn, and Kirby, also speak of a
fourth kind, blacker than the usual workers. These are
accidental, and are, as conclusively shown by Baron von Ber-
lepsch, ordinary workers, more deeply colored by age, loss of
hair, dampness, or some other atmospheric condition. Ameri-
can apiarists are too familiar with these black bees, forafter
our severe winters they prevailin thecolony, and, as remarked

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 103

by the noted Baron, ‘‘They quickly disappear.’? Munn also
tells of a fifth kind, with a top-knot, which appears at swarm-
‘ing seasons. Iam ata great loss to know what he refers to,
unless it be the pollen-masses of the asclepias, or milk-weed,
which sometimes fasten to our bees and become a severe
burden.

THE QUEEN-BEE.

The queen (Fig. 40), although referred to as the mother-
bee, was called the king by Virgil, Pliny, and by writers as
late as the last century, though in the ‘‘ Ancient Bee-Master’s
Farewell,’’ by John Keyes, published in London in 1796, I find
an admirable description of the queen-bee, with her function
correctly stated. Reaumur, as quoted in ‘‘ Wildman on Bees,”’
published in London in 1770, says, ‘‘ This third sort hasa grave
and sedate walk, is armed with a sting, and is mother of all
others.”’

Huber, to whom every apiarist owes so much, and who,
though blind, through the aid of his devoted wife and intelli-
gent servant, Francis Burnens, developed so many interesting
truths, demonstrated the fact of the queen’s maternity. This
author’s work, second edition, published in Edinburgh in 1808,
gives a full history of his wonderful observations and experi-
ments, and must ever rank with the work of Langstroth asa
classic, worthy of study by all.

The queen, then, is the mother-bee; in other words, a
fully developed female. Her ovaries (Fig. 38, 0,0) are very
large, nearly filling her long abdomen. The tubes, already
described as composing them, are very numerous, there being
more than one hundred, while the spermatheca (Fig. 38, s 4) is
plainly visible. This isa membranous sac, hardly 1-20 of an
inch in diameter. It is fairly covered with interlacing nerves,
which give to it its light, glistening appearance. ‘he sper-
matheca has a short duct, joined to whichis the duct of the
double appendicular glands which closely embrace the sper-
matheca. These are described by Siebold and Leuckart, who
suppose that they furnish mucus to render the sperm-cells
more mobile, so that they will move more freely. Leuckart
also describes muscles, which connect with the duct of the

104 THER BEE-KHEPER’S GUIDE;

spermatheca (Fig. 38), which he thinks act as sphincters or
dilators of this duct, to restrain or permit the passage of the
spermatozoa. When the duct is opened the ever-active sperm-
cells rush out, aided in their course by the secretion from the
appended glands.

The spermatheca, according to Leuckart, may contain
25,000,000 spermatozoa. We see, then, why it does not run

Fic. 43.

Labium of Queen.—Original.

a Ligula.
ad d Paraglosse.
6 Labial palpi.

Part of Leg of Queen, maynified, after Duncan.

t Tibia. p Broadened tibia and basal tarsus.
ts Tarsal joints.

empty, even though Siebold thought that each of the one and
one-half million of eggs that a queen may lay, receives two or
three sperm-cells. I think itis now proved that but one sperm-
cellenters each egg. The eggs, which, as Girard states, do
not form as early in the ovaries as do the sperm-cells in the
organs of the drone, which are matured while the drone is yet

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 105

a pupa, area little more than 1-16 of an inch long, slightly
curved, and rather smaller at the end of attachment to the
comb. The outer membrane (Fig. 41) appears cellular when
magnified, and shows the micropyle at the larger end (Fig. 41,
B,m). The possession of the ovaries and attendant organs is
the chief structural peculiarity which marks the queen, as
these are the characteristic marks of females among all ani-
mals. But she has other peculiarities worthy of mention: She
is longer than either drones or workers, being more than

Fic. 44.

Diagram of Abdomen of Queen, from Cowan.

F Ovaries. # Rectum. St Sting.
M Honey stomach. WN Gsophagus. A Anus.
D Stomach. S s Sheath. V Oviduct.

seven-eighths of an inch in length, and with her long, tapering
abdomen, is not without real grace and beauty. The queen’s
mouth organs are developed to a less degree than are those of
the worker-bees. Her jaws (Fig. 65, 6) or mandibles are weaker,
witha rudimentary tooth, and her tongue or ligula (Fig. 42, a,
and 49), as also the labial palpi (Fig. 42, 6,and 49) and maxille,
are considerably shorter. Of the four pairs of glands (Fig. 59)
so elegantly figured, and so well described by Schiemenz, the
queen has the first pair very rudimentary, and the others well
developed. The fourth pair, or Wolff’s glands, are much larger
than in the worker-bees. Her eyes, though like, yet hardly
as large as the same in the worker-bee (Fig. 4), are smaller

106 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

than those of the drones, and do not meet above. So the three
ocelli are situated above and between the compound eyes. The
queen’s wings (Fig. 40) are relatively shorter than those of
either the workers or drones, for instead of attaining to the
end of the body, they reach but little beyond the third joint of
the abdomen. The queen, though she has the characteristic
posterior tibia and basal tarsus (Fig. 43, p) in respect to
breadth, has not the cavity and surrounding hairs which form
the pollen-baskets of the workers. The legs of the queen (Fig.
43) are large and strong, but, like her body, they have not the
pollen-gathering hairs which are so well marked in the worker.
The queen possesses a sting which islonger than that of the
worker, and resembles that of the bumble-bee in being curved
(Fig. 44, Ss), and that of the bumble-bees and wasps in having
few and short barbs—the little projections which point back
like the barb of a fish-hook, and which, in case of the workers,
prevent the withdrawing of the instrument, when once fairly
inserted. While there are seven quite prominent barbs on
each shaft of the worker's sting (Fig. 74), there are only three
on those of the queen, and these are very short. As in case of
the barbs of the worker's sting, so here, they are successively
shorter as we recede from the point of the weapon. Even
Aristotle discovered that a queen will rarely use her sting. I
have often tried to get a queen to sting me, but without suc-
cess. Neighbour gives three cases where queens used their
stings, in one of which she was disabled from farther egg-
laying. She stings with slight effect. The use of the queen’s
sting is to dispatch a rival queen. The brain of the queen is
relatively small. We should expect this, as the queen’s func-
tions are vegetative. So the worker, possessed of more intri-
cate functions, is much more highly organized. Figure 44
gives the relation of the viscera of the queen.

Schiemenz and Schonfeld are unquestionably correct in
the belief that the queen, and the dronesas well, are fed by
the workers, the same food that the larve are fed. Thus, the
digestion is performed for both queen and drones.

I have known queens to lay over 3,000eggsaday. These
I find weigh .3900 grams, while the queen only weighs .2299
grams. Thus, the queen may lay daily nearly double her own

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 107

weight of eggs. This, of course, could only be possible as she
was fed highly nutritious food, which was wholly digested for
her. The larval bee fed the same food doubles in weightin a
single day—a further proof of the excellence of this diet.
Schonfeld finds that the queen, like the drones, will soon die
if she be shut away from the workers by a double wire-cage,
even though in the hive and surrounded with honey. The fact
that pollen-husks—cuticula—are never found in the queen’s
stomach, gives added proof of the above fact. The contents
are grayish. I never saw a queen void her feces. Vogel
reports having seen it, and Mr. Cowan reports to me that he
has seen a queen pass a yellowish gray liquid. We also find
the queen’s alimentary canal comparatively small, though the
renal tubules are large and numerous. The queen, like the
worker-bees, is developed from an impregnated egg, which, of
course, could only come from a queen that had previously
mated. These eggs are not placed ina horizontal cell, but in
one specially prepared for their reception (Fig. 39,7). The
queen-cells (Fig. 45) are usually built on the edge of the comb,
or around an opening in it, which is necessitated from their
size and form, as usually the combs are too close together to
permit their location elsewhere. These cells extend either
vertically or diagonally downward, are very rough (Fig. 45, c),
and are composed of wax cut from the old combs, mixed with
pollen (Mr. Cheshire says all kinds of refuse is used in con-
structing queen-cells), and in size and form much resemble a
peanut. The eggs must be placed in these cells, either by the
queen or workers. Huber, who, though blind, had wondrous
eyes, witnessed this act of the queen. I have frequently seen
eggs in these cells, and without exception in the exact position
in which the queen always places her eggs in the other cells.
John Keyes, in the old work already referred to, whose descrip-
tions, though penned so long ago, are wonderfully accurate,
and indicate great care, candor, and conscientious truthfulness,
asserts that the queen is five times as long laying a royal egg
as she is the others. From the character: of his work, and its
early publication, Ican but think that he had witnessed this
rare sight. Some candid apiarists of our own time and coun-
try—E. Gallup among the rest—claim to have witnessed the

108 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

same. Theeggs are so well glued, and are so delicate, that,
with Neighbour, I should doubt the possibility of a removal
except that some persons assert that they have positive proof
that it is sometimes done. Possibly the young larvae may at
times be removed from one cell to another. The opponents to
the view that the queen lays eggs in the queen-cells, base their
belief on a supposed discord between the queen and neuters.

The conditions which lead tothe building of queen-cells,
and the peopling of the same are: Loss of queen; whena
worker-larva from one to four days old will be surrounded by
a cell; inability of a queen to lay impregnated eggs, her sper-
matheca having become emptied ; any disability of the queen ;
great number of worker-bees in the hive; restricted quarters,
the queen not having place to deposit eggs, or the workers
little or no room to store honey ; or lack of ventilation, so that
the hive becomes too close. These last three conditions are
most likely to occur at times of great nectar-secretion.

A queen may be developed from an egg, or, as first shown
by Schirach, from a worker-larva less than three days old.
(Mr. Doolittle has known queensto be reared from worker-
larve taken at four-and a-half days from hatching.) In such
cases the cells adjacent to the one containing the selected
larva are removed, and the larva surrounded bya royal cell.
The development of the queen-larva is much like that of the
worker, soon to be detailed, except that it is more rapid, and
the queen-larva is fed richer and more plenteous food, called
royaljelly. Thisis an excellent name for this substance, as
Dr. A. de Planta has shown (B. B. J., 1887, p.185) that this
royal jelly is different from the food both of the worker and
drone larva. It is doubtless digested pollen, as first suggested
by Dufour, and so ably proved by Schonfeld. I have fed bees
honey with finely pulverized charcoalin it, and found the same
in the royal jelly. This could not be true if the latter were a
secretion, as the carbon is not osmotic. Dr. Planta’s re-
searches show that the royal jelly is richer in fatty elements
and proteids than the larval food either of the drones or
workers; but not asrich in sugar. It contains more albumi-
nous material,and much more fatty matter than the food of
the drone-larve. Quite likely evaporation may change the

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 109

nature of this royal jelly. There is never undigested food fed
to queen or worker larvz, but the drone-larva is thus fed, as
the microscope shows the pollen. This peculiar food, as also
its use and abundance in the cell, was first described by
Schirach, aSaxon clergyman, who wrote a work on bees in
1771. It is thick, like rich cream; slightly yellow, and so
abundant that the queen-larva not only floats in “it during all
its period of growth, but quitea large amount remains after
her queenship vacates the cell. We sometimes find this royal
jelly in incomplete queen-cells, without larve.

What a mysterious circumstance is this: These royal
scions simply receive a more abundant and nutritious diet,
and occupy a more ample habitation—for I have more than
once confirmed the statement of Mr. Quinby, that the direction
of the cell is immaterial—and yet what a marvelous transfor-
mation. Not only are the ovaries developed and filled with
eggs, but the mouth organs, the wings, the legs, the sting,
aye, even the size, form, and habits, are all wondrously
changed. The food stimulates extra development of the
ovaries, and, through the law of compensation, other parts are
less developed. That the development of parts should be
accelerated, and the size increased, is not so surprising—as in
breeding other insects I have frequently found that kind and
amount of food would hasten or retard growth, and might even
cause a dwarfed imago—but that food should so essentially
modify the structure, is certainly a rare and unique circum-
stance, hardly to be found except here and in related
animals. Bevan has suggested that laying workers, while
larve, have received some of this royal jelly from their posi-
tion near a developing queen. As the workers vary the food
for the several larve, as Dr. Planta has shown, may they not
sometimes make a mistake and feed royal jelly to workers ?
Surely, in caring for so many young, this would be very par-
donable. Langstroth supposes that they receive some royal
jelly, purposely given by the workers, and I have previously
thought this reasonable and probably true. But these pests
of the apiarist, and especially of the breeder, almost always,
so far as I have observed, make their appearance in colonies
long queenless, and I have noticed a case similar to that given

110 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

by Quinby, where these occurredin a nucleus where no queen
had been developed. May it not be true thata desire for
eggs or unrest stimulates in some worker, which was perhaps
over-fed as a larva, the growth of the ovaries, growth of eggs
in the ovarian tubes, and consequent ability to deposit? The
common high-holder, Colaptes auratus—a bird belonging to the
wood-pecker order, usually lays five eggs, and only five; but
let cruel hands rob her of these promises of future loved ones,
and, wondrous to relate, she continues to lay more than a
score. One thus treated, on the College campus, actually laid
more than thirty eggs. So we see that animal desires may
influence and move organs that are generally independent of
the will. It may be that in queenless colonies the workers
commence to feed some worker or workers, the rich nitrogen-
ous food, and thus their ovaries are stimulated to activity.

The larval queen is longer, and more rapid of development
than the other larve. When developed from the egg—as in
case of normal swarming—the larva feeds for five days, when
the cellis capped by the workers. At any time during this
period the larva can be removed, as first shown by Mr. J. L.
Davis, of Michigan, in 1874, anda newly hatched larva placed
in it instead. This is easily done by use of a quill tooth-
pick. The infant queen then spins her cocoon, which occupies
about one day. The fibrous part of the cocoon, which is also
true of both drone and worker larve, is confined to the outer
end, as is easily seen by microscopic examination. Yet a thin
varnish continues this over the whole interior of the cell. This
latter becomes very thick in worker-cells, as many bees are
reared in each cell, while in the queen-cell it is thin, as but
one bee is reared in each cell. A similar varnish coats the
cocoons of all silk-moths. This may be the contents of the
alimentary canal simply, which, of course, is moulted with the
last larval skin, very likely a special secretion is added. These
cocoons are shown nicely when we melt old comb in the solar
wax-extractor. The queen now spends nearly three days in
absolute repose. Such rest is common to all cocoon-spinuing
larve. The spinning, which is done by a rapid motion to-and-
fro of the head, always carrying the delicate thread, much like
the moving shuttle of the weaver, seems to bring exhaustion

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 111

and need of repose. She now assumes the pupa state (Fig.
39,7). At the end of the sixteenth day she comes forth a
queen. A short time before the queen emerges the workers
thin off the wax from the end of the cell (Fig. 45, D). The
reason for this is obscure, as the queen could easily come forth
without it. The queen cuts her way out by use of her jaws,
and leaves the cap hanging as a lid to the cell (Fig. 45, C).

Fic. 45,

svat hie — cen

Queen-Cells, from A. 1. Root Co.

A Queen-cell from modified worker-cell just started.

B Imcomplete cell.

C Cell, after queen has emerged, showing cap hanging.
D Thioned cell. £ Cell cut into from side.

While a queen usually comes forth in sixteen days, there may
beadelay. Cold will delay hatching of the egg, and retard
development. Sometimes queens are kept fora time in the
cell, after they are really ready to come forth. Thus, there
may be rarely a delay of even two days. Huber states that
when a queen emerges the bees are thrown into a joyous
excitement, so that he noticed a rise in temperature in the hive
from 92 degrees F’. to 104 degrees F. I have never tested this
matter accurately, but I have failed to notice any marked

112 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE,

demonstration on the natal day of her ladyship the queen, or
extra respect paid her asa virgin. When queens are started
from worker-larve they will issue as imagoes in ten or twelve
days from the date of their new prospects. Mr. Doolittle
writes me that he has known them to issue in eight and one-
half days. My own observations sustain the assertion of Mr.
P. LL. Viallon, that the minimum time is nine and one-half
days.

As the queen’s development is probably due to superior
quality and increased quantity of food, it would stand to
reason that queens started from eggs, or larve just hatched,
are preferable ; the more so as, under normal circumstances,
I believe they are almost always thus started. The best
experience sustains this position. As the proper food and
temperature can best be securedin a full colony—and here
again the natural economy of the hive adds to our argument—
we should infer that the best queens would be reared in strong
colonies, or at least kept in such colonies till the cells were
capped. Experience alsoconfirms this view. As the quantity
and quality of food and the general activity of the bees are
directly connected with the full nourishment of the queen-
larva, and as these are only at the maximum in times of
active gathering—the time when queen-rearing is naturally
started by the bees—we should also conclude that queens
reared at such seasons are superior. My experience—and I
have carefully observed in this connection—most emphatically
sustains this view.

Five or six days after issuing from the cell—Neighbour
says the third day—if the day is pleasant the queen goes forth
on her “ marriage flight ;’’ otherwise she will improve the first
pleasant day thereafter for this purpose. Mr. Doolittle says
that mid-summer queens fly out in from four to nine days,
while early spring and fall queens may not mate for from two
to four weeks. Rev. Mr. Mahin has noticed, as have many of
us, that the young queens fly out several times simply to exer-
cise, and then he thinks they often go from two to five miles to
mate; while Mr. Alley thinks the mating is performed within
one-half mile of the hive. I have known queens to be out on
their mating tour for thirty-five minutes, in which case it

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 113

would seem certain that they must have gone more than one-
half mile. It has been reported by reliable persons that the
queens are out from ten minutes to two hours. Sometimes
queens will meet drones, as shown by the white thread tipping
the body, and yet not be impregnated. The spermatozoa did
not reach the spermatheca. In such cases, a second, and per-
haps a third, mating is required. Huber was the first to prove
that impregnation always takes place on the wing. Bonnet
also proved that the same is true of ants, though in this case
millions of queens and drones often swarm out atonce. I
have myself witnessed several of these wholesale matrimonial
excursions among ants. I have also taken bumble-bees that
were copulating while on the wing. I havealso seen both
ants and bumble-bees fall while united, probably borne down
by the expiring males. That butterflies, moths, dragon-flies,
etc., mate on the wing is a matter of common observation. It
has generally been thought impossible for queens in confine-
ment to be impregnated. Prof. Leuckart believes that suc-
cessful mating demands that. the large air-sacs (Fig. 1, /) of
the drones shall be filled, which he thinks is only possible
during flight. The demeanor of the drones suggests that the
excitement of flight, like the warmth of the hand, is necessary
to induce the sexual impulse.

Many others, with myself, have followed Huber in clip-
ping the virgin queen’s wing, only to produce a sterile, or
drone-laying queen. One queen, however, whose wing was
clipped just as she came from the cell, and the entrance to
whose hive was guarded by perforated zinc so the queen could
not get out, was impregnated, and proved an excellent queen.
1 should doubt this if I couldsee any other way to explain it.
Yet, from a great number of experiments, I feel sure that
mating in confinement can never be made practical, even if
desirable. And if Leuckart is correctin the above sugges-.
tion, which is very probable, it is not desirable. Some bee-
keepers claim to have mated queens by hand. I have tried
this thoroughly, as also mating in boxes, green-houses, etc.,
and from entire lack of successI believe such mating is im-
possible, at least with most bee-keepers. J.S. Davitte, of
Georgia, claims to have mated many queens in a large circu-

114 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

lar tent. The drones are permitted to fly only in the tent, and
so are at home.

If the queen fails to find an admirer the first day, she will
go forth again and again till she succeeds. Huber states that
after twenty-one days the case is hopeless. Bevan states that
if impregnated from the fifteenth to the twenty-first she will
be largely a drone-laying queen, That suchabsolute dates can
be fixed in either of the above cases is very questionable. Yet
all experienced breeders know that queens kept through the
winter as virgins are sure toremain so. It is quite likely that
the long inactivity of the reproductive apparatus, especially of
the oviduct and spermatheca, wholly or in part paralyzes it, so
that queens that are late in mating can not impregnate the
eggs as they desire. This would accord with what we know of
other muscular organs. Berlepsch believed that a queen that
commenced laying as a virgin could never lay impregnated
eggs, even though she afterwards mated. Langstroth thought
that he had observed to the contrary.

If the queen be observed after a successful ‘‘ wedding
tour,’’ she will be seen as first pointed out by Huber, to bear
the marks of success in the pendant drone appendages, which
are still held in the vulva of the queen.

Itis not at all likely that a queen, after she has meta
drone, ever leaves the hive again except when she leaves with
aswarm. It has been stated that an old queen may be im-
pregnated. I feel very certain that this is an error. <

If the queen lays eggs before meeting the drone, or if for
any reason she fail to mate, her eggs will only produce male
bees. This strange anomaly—development of the eggs with-
out impregnation—was discovered and proved by Dzierzon, in
1845. Dr. Dzierzon, who, asa student of practical and scien-
tific apiculture, ranks very high, is a Roman Catholic priest of
Carlsmarkt,Germany. This doctrine—called parthenogenesis,
which means produced from a virgin—is still doubted by some
quite able bee-keepers, though the proofs are irrefragable:

Ist. Unmated queens will lay eggs that will develop, but
drones always result.

2d. Old queens often become drone-layers, but examina-
tion shows that the spermatheca is void ofseminal fluid. Such

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 115

an examination was first made by Prof. Siebold, the great
German anatomist, in 1843, and later by Lenckart and Leidy.
I have myself made several such examinations. The sperma-
theca can easily be seen by the unaided vision, and by crush-
ing it on a glass slide, by compressing with a thin glass cover,
the difference between the contained fluid in the virgin and in
the impregnated queen is very patent, even with a low power.
In the latter it is more viscid and yellow, and the vesicle more
distended. By use of a high power, the active spermatozoa or
sperm-cells (Fig. 50) become visible.

3d. Eggs in drone-cells are found by the microscopist to be
void of the sperm-cells, which are always found in all other
fresh-laid eggs. This most convincing and interesting obser-
vation was first made by Von Siebold, at the suggestion of
Berlepsch. It is quite difficult to show this. Leuckart tried
before Von Siebold, at Berlepsch’s apiary, but failed. I have
also tried to discover these sperm-cells in worker-eggs, but as
yet have been unsuccessful. Siebold has noted the same facts
in eggs of wasps.

4th. Dr. Donhoff, of Germany, reports that, in 1855, he
took an egg from a drone-cell, and by artificial impregnation
produced a worker-bee.

Late investigation by Mr. Weismann, of Germany, leaves
no doubt of this fact of parthenogenesis in the production of
drone-bees.

Parthenogenesis, in the production of males, has also been
found by Siebold to be true of other bees and wasps, and of
some of the lower moths in the production of both males and
females. Adler has shown that this agamic reproduction pre-
vails among the Chalcidide, a family of parasitic Hymenop-
tera, and it has long been known to characterize the cynips or
gall-flies ; while the great Bonnet first discovered what may be
noticed on any summer day ali about us, even on the house-
plants at our very windows, that parthenogenesis is best illus-
trated by the aphides, or plant lice. In the fall males and
females appear which mate, when the females lay eggs which
in the spring produce only females; these again produce only
females, and thus on for several generations, sometimes fifteen
or twenty, till with the cold of autumn come again the males

116 THE BEEK-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

and females. Any person can easily demonstrate this fact for
himself. The summer plant-lice are hatched within the
mother-louse, or are ovoviviparous. It is easy to capturea
young louse just as it is born, and isolate it on a plant, when
soon we shall find it giving birth to young lice, though it has
never even seen any louse, male or female, since birth. Bon-
net observed seven successive generations of productive vir-
gins. Duval noted nine generations in seven months, while
Kyber observed production exclusively by parthenogenesis in
a heated room for four years. So we see that this strange and
almost incredible method of increase is not rare in the great
insect world. is

In two or three days after she is impregnated, the queen,
under normal circumstances, commences to lay, usually
worker-eggs. It is rare not to find eggs by the tenth day
from the birth of the queen. The queens rarely go three
weeks before laying. Such tardiness does not recommend
them. It is reported that giving unhatched brood will start
the queen to laying. If this be true, it is doubtless explained
by her receiving different food from the workers. If the con-
dition of the hive impels to no further swarming that season,
no drones will be required, and so only worker-eggs will be
laid. In many localities, and in certain favorable years in all
localities, however, further swarming will occur.

It is frequently noticed that the young queen at first lays
quite a number of drone-eggs. Queen-breeders often observe
this in their nuclei. This continues for only a few days. This
does not seem strange. The act of freeing the sperm-cells
from the spermatheca is muscular and voluntary, and that
these muscles should not always act promptly at first, is not
strange, norisit unprecedented. Mr. Wagner suggested that
the size of the cell determined the sex, as in the small cells the
pressure on the abdomen forced the fluid from the sperma-
theca. Mr. Quinby also favored this view. I greatly question
this theory. All observing apiarists have known eggs to be
laid in worker-cells ere they were hardly commenced, when
there could be no pressure. In case of queen-cells, too, if the
queen does lay the eggs—as I believe—these would be unim-
pregnated, as thecellis very large. I know the queen some-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 117

times passes from drone to worker cells very abruptly while
laying, as Ihave witnessed such a procedure—the same that
so greatly rejoiced the late Baron of Berlepsch, after weary
hours of watching—but that she can thus control at the in-
stant this process of adding or withholding the sperm-cells
certainly seems not so strange as that the spermatheca, hardly
bigger than a pin-head, could supply these cells for months,
yes, and for years. Who that has seen the bot-fly dart against
the horse’s legs, and as surely leave the tiny yellow egg, can
doubt but that insects possess very sensitive oviducts, and can
extrude the minute eggs just at pleasure. That a queen may
force single eggs at will, past the mouth of the spermatheca,
andat the same time add or withhold the sperm-cells, is, I
think, without question true. What gives added force to this
view is the fact that other bees, wasps and ats exercise the
same volition, and can have no aid from cell-pressure, as all
the eggs are laid in receptacles of the same size. As already
remarked, the males and workers of Apis dorsata are developed
in the same sized cells, while the malesof A. indica are smaller
than the workers. The Baron of Berlepsch, worthy to bea
friend of Dzierzon, has fully decided the matter. Hehasshown
that old drone-cells are as small as new worker-cells, and each
harbors its own brood. Very small queens, too, make no mis-
takes. With no drone-cells, the queen will sometimes lay
drone-eggs in worker-cells, in which drones will then be reared,
and she will, if she must, though with oe, reluctance, lay
worker-eggs in drone-cells.

Before laying an egg the queen takes a iene into the cell,
probably to see if allis right. If the cell contains any honey,
pollen, or an egg, she usually passes it by, though, when
crowded, a queen will sometimes, especially if young, insert
two or three eggs ina cell, and sometimes, when in such cases
she drops them, the bees show their dislike of waste, and
appreciation of good living, by making a breakfast of them.
If the queen find the cell to her liking, she turns about, inserts
her abdomen, and in an instant the tiny egg is glued in posi-
tion (Fig. 39, 5) to the bottom of the cell.

The queen, when considered in relation to the other bees
of the colony, possesses a surprising longevity. It is not un-

118 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

common for her to attain the age of three years in the full
possession of her powers, while queens have been known to do
good work for five years. Lubbock has queen ants in his
nests that are fifteen or more years old, and still they are
vigorous layers. Queens, often at the expiration of one, two,
three or four years, depending on their vigor and excellence,
either cease to be fertile, or else become impotent to lay im-
pregnated eggs—the spermatheca having ‘become emptied of
its sperm-cells. In such cases the workers usually supersede
the queen, that is, they rear a new queen before all the worker-
eggs are gone, and then destroy the old one.

It sometimes happens, though rarely, that a fine looking
queen, with the full-formed ovaries and large spermatheca
well filled with male fluid, will deposit freely, but none of the
eggs will hatch. Readers of bee-papers know that I have
frequently received such for dissection. I received one Aug.
12, 1900, from Mr. E. R. Root. The first one I ever got was a
remarkably fine looking Italian, received from the late Dr.
Hamlin, of Tennessee. All such queens that I have examined
seem perfect, even though scrutinized with a high-power
objective. Wecan only say that the egg is at fault, as fre-
quently transpires with higher animals, even to the highest.
These females are barren; through some fault with the
ovaries, the eggs grown therein are sterile. To detect just
what is the trouble with the egg is a very difficult problem, if
it is capable of solution at all. Ihave tried to determine the
ultimate cause, but without success. Cases have also been
observed where mated and impregnated queens fail to lay
impregnated eggs. Here the delicate organism of the sperma-
theca and its duct is at fault. Queens that have been chilled,
as shown by Siebold, Leuckart, and our own Langstroth, are
often made drone-layers—that is, they lay only unimpregnated
eggs. Ihave also had one queen that produced many her-
maphroditic bees. These hermaphrodites are not really her-
maphrodites; as, so far as I have examined, they have only
ovaries or testes, but externally they have drone-organs in
part, as, for instance, the appendages of the head and thorax;
and worker-organs in part, as the abdomen, will be like that of
a drone. Indeed, I now have a very strange hermaphrodite,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 119

where one side is worker, the other drone. It is very probable
that these peculiarities arise from a diseased condition of the
queen, or else from diseased spermatozoa. I have known one
queen, many of whose bees were thus abnormal. If a queen
is not impregnated for three or four weeks, she often com-
mences to lay without impregnation, and then is a ‘‘ drone-
layer,’ and, of course, worthless. She may lay as regularly
as if impregnated, though this is not usual. She is, of course,
betrayed by the higher cappings, and exclusive drone-brood.

The function of the queen is simply to lay eggs, and thus
keep the colony populous, and this she does with an energy
that is fairly startling. A good queen in her best estate will
lay two or three thousand eggsa day. I have seen a queen in
my observing hive lay for some time at the rate of four eggs
per minute, and have proved by actual computation of brood-
cells that a queen may lay over three thousand eggsin a day.
Both Langstroth and Berlepsch saw queens lay at the rate of
sixeggsa minute. The latter had a queen that laid three
thousand and twenty-one eggs in twenty-four hours, by actual
count, and in twenty days she laid fifty-seven thousand. This
queen continued prolific for five years, and must have laid,
says the Baron, at a low estimate, more than 1,300,000 eggs.
Dzierzon says queens may lay 1,000,000 eggs, and I think these
authors have not exaggerated. As already stated,a queen
may lay nearly double her weight of eggs daily. Yet, with
even these figures as an advertisement, the queen-bee can not
boast of superlative fecundity, as the queen white-ant—an
insect closely related to the bees in habits, though not in struc-
ture, as the white-ants are lace-wings, and belong to the order
Neuroptera (Isoptera), which includes our day-flies, dragon-flies,
etc.—is known to lay over 80,000 eggs daily. Yet this poor,
helpless thing, whose abdomen is the size of a man’s thumb,
and composed almost wholly of eggs, while the rest of her
body is no larger than the same in our common ants, has no
other amusement; she can not walk; she can not even feed
herself, or care for her eggs. What wonder then that she
should attempt big things in the way of egg-laying ? She has
nothing else to do, or to feel proud of.

Different queens vary as much in fecundity as do different

120 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

kinds of life. Some queens are so prolific that they fairly
demand hives of India rubber to accommodate them, keeping
their hives gushing with bees and profitable activity; while
others are so inferior that the colonies make a poor, sickly
effort to survive at all, and usually succumb early, before the
adverse circumstances which are ever waiting to confront all
life on the globe. Thislack of fecundity may be due to dis-
ease, improper development, or to special race or strain. This
fact promises rich fruit to the careful, persistent breeder. The
activity of the queen is governed largely by the activity of
the workers. The queen will either lay sparingly, or stop
altogether, in the interims of storing honey, while, on the
other hand, she is stimulated to lay to her utmost capacity
when all is life and activity in the hive. As the worker-bees
feed the laying queen, it is more than probable that with no
nectar to gather, the food is withheld, and so the queen is
unable to produce the eggs which demanda great amount of
nutritious food all ready to be absorbed. Thus, the whole mat-
ter is doubtless controlled by the workers. ‘This refusal to lay
when nectar is wanting does not hold true, apparently, with
the Cyprian and Syrian bees.

The old poetical notion that the queen is the revered and
admired sovereign of the colony, whose pathway is ever lined
by obsequious courtiers, whose person is ever the recipient of
loving caresses, and whose willis lawin this bee-hive king-
dom, controlling all the activities inside the hive, and leading
the colony whithersoever it may go, is unquestionably mere
fiction. Inthe hive, as in the world, individuals are valued
for what they are worth. The queen, as the most important
individual, is regarded with solicitude, and her removal or.loss
is noted with consternation, as the welfare of the colony is
threatened ; yet, let the queen become useless, and she is dis-
patched with the same absence of emotion that characterizes
the destruction of the drones when they have become super-
numeraries. It is very doubtful if emotion and sentimentality
are ever moving forces among the lower animals. There are
probably certain natural principles that govern in the economy
of the hive, and anything that conspires against, or tends to
intercept, the action of these principles, becomes an enemy to

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 121

the bees. Allare interested, and doubtless more united than -
is generally believed, ina desire to promote the free action of
these principles. No doubt the principle of antagonism among
the various bees has been overrated. Even the drones, when
they are being killed off in the autumn, make a sickly show of
defense, as much as to say, the welfare of the colony demands
that such worthless vagrants should be exterminated. How
relentlessly the bees drag out even the worker-bees that have
become loaded with the pollen-masses of milkweed, or other-
wise disabled. Such bees are of no more use, and useless
members are not tolerated in the bee-community. It is most
probable that what tends most for the prosperity of the colony
is well understood by all, and without doubt there is harmo-
nious action among all the denizens of the hive to foster that
which will advance the general welfare, or to make war on
whatever may tend to interfere withit. If the course of any
of the bees seems wavering and inconsistent, we may rest
assured that circumstances have changed, and that could we
perceive the bearing of all the surrounding conditions, all
would appear consistent and harmonious. The holding of
young queens in the cells, and guarding them, seems an
exception.
THE DRONES.

These are the male bees, and are generally found in the
hive only from May to November, though they may remain all
winter, and are not infrequently absent during the summer.
‘Their presence or absence depends upon the present and pros-
pective condition of the colony. If they are needed, or likely
to be needed, then they are present. There are in nature sev-
eral hundred, and often thousands, in each colony. The num-
ber may and should be greatly reduced by the apiarist. The
drones (Figs. 46, 47) are shorter than the queen, being less than
three-fourths of an inch in length, and are more robust and bulky
than either the queen or workers. The drones weigh about
1-2000 of a pound, while the workers only weigh 1-5000. They
are easily recognized, when flying, by their loud, startling
hum. Asin other societies, the least useful make the most

noise. Thisloud hum would seem to be caused by the less
a

122 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

rapid vibration of their large, heavy wings. Landois showed
many years since, that the hum of bees and other insects, was
due first to vibrations of wings, secondly to vibrations of the
abdominal rings, and, thirdly, to what he styled true voice in
the thoracic spiracles, where there are cavities which he
thought were voice cavities. He thought the humming tone of
bees and other insects came from the spiracles. The drone’s
flight is more heavy and lumbering than that of the workers.
Their ligula (Fig. 49), labial palpi and maxilla—like tne same

Fic. 46. Fie. 48.

(Original.)

Fic. 47.

Part of Leg of Drone, magnified, after Duncan.

Drone-Bees, magnified, from
Newman,

in the queen-bee—are short, while their jaws (Fig. 65, a) pos-
sess the rudimentary tooth, and are much the same in form as
those of the queen, but are heavier, though not so strong as
those of the workers. Their eyes (Figs. 3, 47) are very promi-
nent, meet above, and thus the simple eyes are thrown for-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 123

ward. The ommatidia, or simple eyes which form the com-
pound eyes of the drone (Figs. 3, 47), are, as shown by Laco-
daire, more than twice as numerous as those of either queen or
worker. The drones also have longer and broader antenne,
with far more of the olfactory cavities, though not so many
tactile hairs as are found in the antenne of the workers.
Entomologists now believe that the better sight and smell, as
also the large wings, are very useful tothedrone. They make
success more probable, as the drone flies forth with hundreds of
other drones in questofa mate. Wecan alsosee how, through
the law of natural selection, all these peculiarities are con-

Fic, 49.

Heads of Worker, Queen and Drone, showing comparative length of Tongues,
from Cowan.

A Worker. B Queen. C Drone.

stantly strengthened. Their posterior legs are convex on the
outside (Fig. 48), so, like the queens, they have no pollen-
baskets. As we should expect, the branching hairs, both on
the body and legs, are almost absentin drones ; what there are
are coarse, and probably aid in mating. ‘The drones are with-
out the defensive organ, having no sting, while their special
sex-organs (Fig. 37) are very interesting. These have been
fully described and illustrated by Leuckart. The testes are
situated in the abdomen, in an analogous position to that of
the ovaries in the queen. Like these organs in higher ani-
mals, there are in each testis hundreds of tubes in which are
developed the sperm-cellsin bundles. As Leuckart shows, the

124 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

testes are larger in the pupa than in the imago, for even then
the spermatozoa have begun to descend to the versicule semi-
nales (Fig. 37, c, c). Thus, in old drones, the testes have
shrunken. The spermatozoa are very long, with a marked
head (Fig. 50), which, as Mr. Cowan remarked to me, look
like cat-tail flags, as there is a short, small projection beyond
the head. These sperm-cells are so very small, and so long
and slender, that itis difficult to isolate or trace them; hence,
in microscopic preparations they look like one hopeless tangle
(Fig. 50). It is incomprehensible how they can be separated

Spermatozoa.—Original.

and passed, one, two, or more at a time, by the queen as the
eggs are to be impregnated. Appended to the versicule semi-
nales (Fig. 37, c,c) just where they pass to the ejaculatory duct
are two large glandular sacs (Fig. 37, 2d), which add mucus to
the seminal fluid. The ejaculatory duct (Fig. 37, ¢) is rather
long and very muscular. This passes to a pouch (Fig. 37, /),
where the sperm-cells are massed, preparatory to coition.
Leuckart called this mass of spermatozoa the spermatophore.
This is what is passed to the spermatheca of the queen during
coition. Below this is the organ proper. It has, as may be
seen by pressing a drone, three pairsof appendages, somewhat
horn-like, and certain roughness or pleats (Fig. 37, 2, 7), which
serve to make connection more close during coition. These
little barb-like teeth, rough projections and horns, as they are

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 125

grasped and firmly pressed by the vulva or enlargement just
at the end of the oviduct of the queen, are held as ina vice;
and so we see why they are torn from the drone during coition.
As Leuckart has so admirably described, the external organs
of the droneare drawn up intothe so-called bean or sac (Fig.
37, f), as the finger of a glove, to use the words of Girard, often
turns in as we draw the glove off the hand. As we pressa
drone, or hold it in our warm hand as it has just returned from
a long flight, when its air sacs are distended ; or when it meets
the queen, the sexual act is accomplished wholly or in part,
and the external organ is everted or turned out as we turn the
glove-finger out. Incase of coitus, this eversion is very com-
plete, so that the bean or sac (Fig. 37, f) turns out, and the
spermatophore is passed into the oviduct of the queen, and by
her muscular oviduct pushed into the spermatheca. This
seems a wonderful operation, almost beyond the possible. Yet
the passage of the egg from the ovaries in higher animals is
almost as surprising. Leuckart is undoubtedly correct in sug-
gesting that for full and complete impregnation the drone
needs tense muscles, full air sacs, and thus the vehement
exercise on the wing is very important in the sexualact. If
this be true, then impregnation of the queen in confinement is
as undesirable as it seems to beexceptional. While it may not
be absolutely necessary to have these conditions for impreg-
nation, as I think I have positive proof, it doubtless is better,
and usually necessary, that they exist. At this time the
queen’s ovaries are small, and thus her smaller size before
impregnation. Hence, there is lack of high tension within
the abdomen of the queen, which also tends to aid in the sex-
ual act.

The drone has not the wax-glands beneath the abdomen.
On the ventral plates are scattering compound hairs, which
doubtless have importance in the sexual act. The drone, like
the queen, is without the lower head or pollen-digesting glands,
and so is largely fed by the workers. Schonfeld has proved
this by caging drones in full colonies. If caged in a single-
walled cage, soas to be accessible to the workers, they live;
if in a double-walled cage they all soon die, though all have
abundant honey. While honey is necessary it is not enough.

126 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

It was discovered by Dzierzon in 1845, that the drones
hatch from unimpregnatedeggs. This strange phenomenon,
seemingly so incredible, is, as has been shown in speaking of
the queen, easily proved and beyond question. These eggs
may come from an unimpregnated queen, a laying worker—
which will soon be described—or an impregnated queen which
may voluntarily prevent impregnation. It isasserted by some
that the workers can change a worker-egg to a drone egg at
will. When the workers are able to abstract the sperm-cells,
which are so small that we can see them only by using a high-
power microscope, then we may expect to see wheat turn to
chess. Such eggs will usually be placed in the larger horizon-
tal cells (Fig. 78, a), in manner already described.

The drone-cells are one-fourth of an inch in diameter, and
project beyond the worker-cells, so they are alittle more than
one-half an inch long. Very rarely drones are produced in
worker-cells. Such drones are diminutive, and undesirable in
the apiary. As stated by Bevan, the drone feeds six anda
half days asa larva before the cell is capped. As the micro-
scope shows, undigested pollen is given to the drone-larve
after the fourth day, which is not true of either the queen or
worker. The capping of the drone-cells is very convex, and
projects beyond the plane of the same in worker-cells, so that
the drone-brood is easily distinguished from worker, and from
the darker color—the wax being thicker and less pure—the
capping of both drone and worker brood-cells enables us easily
to distinguish them from honey-cells. In twenty-four days
from the laying of the eggs, the drones come forth from the
cells. Of course, variation of temperature and other condi-
tions, as variable amount of diet, may slightly retard or ad-
vance the development of any brood, in the different stages.
The drones—in fact all bees—when they first emerge from the
cells, are gray, and are easily distinguished from the mature
bee.

Just what the longevity of the male bee is, Iam unable to
state. It is probable, judging from analogy, that they live
till accident, the worker-bees, or the performance of their
natural function, cause their death. The worker-bees may
kill off the drones at any time, which they do by constantly

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 127

biting and worrying them; though principally, I think, by
withholding their albuminous food. They may also destroy
the drone-brood. It is not very rare to see workers carrying
out immature drones even in midsummer. At the same time
they may destroy inchoate queens. Such action is prompted
by a sudden check in the yield of honey, and in case of drones
iscommon only at the close of the season. Thebees seem
very cautious and far-sighted. If the signs of the times pre-
sage a famine, they stay all proceedings looking to the increase
of colonies. On the other hand, nectar secretion by the
flowers, rapid increase of brood, crowded quarters—whatever
the age of the queen—are sure to bring many of the male bees,
while any circumstances that indicate a need of drones in the
near future, like loss or impotency of the queen, will prevent
their destruction even in late autumn.

The function of the drones is solely to impregnate the
queen, though when present they add to the heat of the hive.
Yet for this they were far better replaced by worker-bees.
That their nutrition is active, is suggested by the fact that,
upon dissection, we usually find their capacious honey-stomachs
filled with honey. 4

Impregnation of the queen always takes place, as before
stated, while on the wing, outside the hive, usually during the
heat of a warm, sunshiny day. After mating, as before sug-
gested, the drone-organs adhere to the queen, and may be seen
hanging to her for some hours. The copulatory act is fatal to
the drone. By holding a drone just returned from a long
flight in the hand, the ejection of the sex-organs is quickly
produced, and is always followed by immediate death. As the
queen meets only a single drone, and that only once, it might
be asked why nature was so improvident as to decree hundreds
of drones to an apiary or colony, whereas a score would suffice
as well. Nature takes cognizance of the importance of the
queen, and as she goes forth amidst the myriad dangers of the
outer world, itis safest and best that her stay abroad be not
protracted, that the experience be not repeated, and, especially,
that her meeting a drone be zot delayed. Hence, the super-
abundance of drones—especially under natural conditions,
isolated in forest homes, where ravenous birds are ever on the

128 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

alert for insect game—is most wise and provident. Nature is
never ‘‘penny wise and pound foolish.’”’ In our apiaries the
need is wanting, and the condition, as it existsin nature, is
not enforced. Again, close impregnation or in-breeding,
which is not conducive to animal vigor, is thus prevented,
where otherwise it would be necessary and always the practice.

The fact that parthenogenesis prevails in the production
of drones, has led to the theory that from a pure queen, how-
ever mated, must ever come a pure drone. My own experience
and observation, which have been very extended, and under
circumstances most favorable for a correct judgment, have
fully and completely confirmed this theory. Yet, if telegony
or the impure mating of our cows, horses, and fowls renders
the females of mixed blood ever afterward, as is believed and
taught by many who would seem most competent to judge—
though I must say I am very skeptical in the matter—then we
must look closely as to our bees, for certainly, if a mammal,
and especially if a fowl, is tainted by impure mating, then we
may expect the same of insects. In fowls such influence, if it
exist, must come simply from the presence in the female
generative organs of the sperm-cells, or spermatozoa, and in
mammals, too, there is little more than this, for though they
are viviporous, so that the union and contact of the offspring
and mother seem very intimate during the fetal development,
yet there is no intermingling of blood, fora membrane ever
separates that of the mother from that of the fetus, and only
the nutritious and waste elements pass from one to the other.
To claim that the mother is tainted through the circulation, is
like claiming that the same result would follow her inhaling
the breath of her progeny after birth. If such taint be pro-
duced, it probably comes through the power of a cell to change
those cells contiguous to it. That cells have such power is
proved every day in case of wounds, and the spread of any
disease. Icanonly say that I believe this whole matter is
still involved in doubt, and still needs more careful, scientific
and prolonged observation. I have tried very extensive experi-
ments with both chickens and bees, and all the evidence was
against telegony. My brown Leghorn hens ran with light
Brahma roosters all winter, then were removed for three

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 129

weeks, after which they were purely mated, and every one of
the two hundred chickens were without any Brahma marks.
Even the legs were absolutely clean. Likewise, thousands of
drones, reared from pure Syrian queens, but mated to Italian
drones, showed not the slightest Italian taint. I believe teleg-
ony is a very doubtful hypothesis.

THE NEUTERS, OR WORKER-BEES.

These, called ‘‘the bees”’ by Aristotle, and even by Wild-
man and Bevan, are by far the most numerous individuals of

Fic. 51,

Worker-Bee much magnified, from Newman.

the hive—there being from 15,000 to 40,000 in every good col-
ony. Itis possible for a colony to be even much more popu-
lous than this. (Lubbock says that there are often 50,000
worker-ants ina nest.) These are also the smallest bees of
the colony, as they measure but little more than one-half of
an inch in length (Fig. 51.) As already stated, it takes about

130 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;

5,000 worker-bees to weigh a pound. Prof. W. R. Lazenby
found the weight of a worker to be .0799 grams, a load of
honey weighed .043 grams. This is maximum. The average
is .022 grams; a load of pollen weighs .006 grams. Prof.
Lazenby is probably correct in the assertion that usually only
honey or pollen is carried by the bees; but I have repeatedly
known of bees carrying both honey and pollen at the same
time.

The workers—as taught by Schirach, and proved by Mlle.
Jurine, of Geneva, Switzerland, who, at the request of Huber,
sought for and found, by aid of her microscope, the abortive

Fic. 52.

B

Ovaries of Worker-Bee, from Ovaries of Laying- Worker, from
Leuckart. Leuckart.

ovaries (Fig. 52) are undeveloped females. Rarely, and prob-
ably very rarely except when a colony is long or often queen-
less, as is frequently true of our nuclei, these bees are so far
developed as to produce eggs, which, of course, would always
be drone-eggs. Such workers—known as “ fertile ’’—were
first noticed by Riem, while Huber saw one in the act of egg-
aying. Paul L, Viallon and others have seen the same thing
often. Several laying workers, sent me by Mr. Viallon, were
examined, and the eggs and ovaries (Fig. 53) were plainly
visible. Leuckart found, as seen in the figure, the rndiment
of the spermatheca in both the common and the laying worker.
Except in the power to produce eggs, they seem not unlike the
other workers. Huber supposed that these were reared in cells
contiguous to royal cells, and thus received royal food by

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 131

accident. The fact, as stated by Mr. Quinby, that these occur
in colonies where queen-larvze were never reared, is fatal to
the above theory. Langstroth and Berlepsch thought that
these bees, while larvae, were fed, though too sparingly, with
the royal aliment, by bees in need of a queen, and hence the
accelerated development. As already stated, the queen-larva
is fed different and more abundant food than is the worker,
and hence her accelerated and varied development. Is it not
possible that these laying workers receive an excessof food
as larve? Again, we have seen that laying workers occur in
hopelessly queenless colonies ; and that queens are fed by the
workers. May it not be that colonies hopelessly queenless
take to feeding some special workers the chyle, and thus arise
the laying workers? These are interesting inquiries that
await solution. The generative organs are very sensitive,
and exceedingly susceptible to impressions, and we may yet
have much to learn as to the delicate forces which will move
them to growth and activity. Though these laying workers
are a poor substitute for a queen, as they are incapable of
producing any bees but drones, and are surely the harbingers
of death and extinction to the colony, yet they seem to satisfy
the workers, for often the latter will not brook the presence of
a queen when a laying worker is in the hive, frequently will
not suffer the existence in the hive of a queen-cell, even though
capped. They seem to be satisfied, though they have very
slight reason to be so. These laying workers lay indifferent!y
in large or small cells—often place several eggsin a single
cell, and show their incapacity in various ways. Laying
workers seem to appear more quickly and in greater abundance
in colonies of Cyprian and Syrian bees, after they become
hopelessly queenless, than in Italian colonies.

The maxillez and labium of the worker-bee (Fig. 56) are
much elongated (Fig. 54). The maxille (Fig. 54, A, mx, mx)
are deeply grooved, and are hinged to the head by strong
chitinous rods (Fig. 54, A, c, c, St, St), to which are attached
the muscles which move these parts. The gutter-like extremi-
ties (Fig. 54, 4,7, 2) are stiffened with chitine, and, when
approximated, form a tube which is continued by a membrane
to the mouth-opening of the pharynx, just between the bases

132 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

Fic. 54.
@f

Tongue of Worker-Bee, much magnified. —Original.

mx mx Maxille. mp, mp Max. palpi. kk Labial palpi.
bb Lora. o Sub-mentum. t Tongue.
cee Cardines. m Mentum., J Funnel.
St, St Stipes. p, p, Paraglosse. # Tubular rod.
7, t Lacinie. B Ligula, with sac ss Colorless membrane.
s Colorless membrane. distended. f Funnel.
& Sheath. A Maxille and labium. C Cross-section of
£L Tubular rod. ligula,

(The above figure is drawn to the same scale as Fig. 27.)

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. * 133

of the jaws. This tube forms the largest channel through
which nectar passes +o the pharynx. The labium varies in
length from .23 to .27 of an inch. By the sub-men-
tum (Fig. 54, 4, 0) and two chitinous rods, the lora (Fig.
54, A, 6, d), it is hinged to the maxilla. The base or mentum
is chitinous beneath and membranous above. From the men-
tum extends the tongue or ligula (Fig. 54, 4, #), the paraglosse
(Fig. 54, 4, ~, ~), sac-like organs which connect with the
cavity of the mentum, and so are distended with blood when
the mentum is pressed. They also stand out like leaves or
plates, and aid in directing the nectar which is drawn through
the ligula into the mouth (Fig. 16). The labial palpi (Fig. 54,
A, k, &) are four jointed, and in arrangement, form and func-
tion resemble the maxilla. The tongue or ligula consists of
an annulated sheath (Fig. 54, C, S) which is slitted along its
under side to near the end. This is very hairy. Within this
is a tubular rod (Fig. 54, Band C, R) which is also slitted
along its under side to near the end, and opens above at its
base between the paraglosse (Fig. 54, C), Each margin of
this slitted rod is united by a thin pubescent membrane to the
corresponding margin of the surrounding sheath (Fig. 54, CG, s).
(So far as I know I was the first to discover this membrane.)
Hence any pressure within the annular sheath may throw the
central rod out (Fig. 54, 2, R). This results when we press on
the mentum ; as the blood pushes into the sheath and straight-
ens the folded membrane (Fig. 54, C, 5s), The bee then can
take nectar in three ways, first rapidly when sipping from
flowers containing much nectar (Figs. 54, 4, 57, 0, 0) by the
large channels formed by approximating its maxille and
labial palpi (Fig. 54, 4, Fig. 57, 0,0); secondly, slowly from
deep tubular flowers, when it sips through the central rod;
and, thirdly, it may lap from a smeared surface because of the
slitted ligula. By use of colored liquids I have demonstrated
that the bee does actually sip in all these ways. At the end of
the ligula there is a funnel (Fig. 54, 4, f, 56, 6).

Strange to say the structure and physiology of the tongue
of the honey-bee were more correctly explained by old Swam-
merdam, than by most modern writers. Both heand Reaumur
were quite accurate in their descriptions. Wolff, in his ele-

134 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

gant monograph from which I have taken several figures,
described with beautiful illustrations the mouth organs of the
honey-bee, but was in doubt as to their physiology. Dr.
Hyatt, of New York, did much to explain the anatomy of the
bee’s tongue; but so faras I know I was the first to explain
accurately the anatomy and physiology of this organ. Within
the mentum (Fig. 55, C, #) are strong muscles for retracting

Fic. 55.

Tongue bent under Head,

Tongue extended for

sucking.
m Maxille- f Retractor muscles. The
LE LVigula. opening opposite L. at upper
sm Sub-mentum, base of tongue between par-

D Duet from upper aglosse. All from Wolff.
head and tho-
racic glands. Base of Labium.

the organ. The force of suction is doubtless analogous to the
act of drinking on our own part. The rhythmical motion of
the ligula in sipping honey is thus explained. By the muscles
of the mouth the cavity is enlarged, producing suction, when
by pressure swallowing is accomplished.

When not in use, the tongue with the attendant mouth
organs, are bent back under the head (Fig. 55, 8).

GLANDULAR ORGANS.

These important organs, which have been so fully
described by Siebold, Wolff, and especially by Schiemenz, are

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 135

Fic. 56.

Head and Tongue of Bee, magnified twelve times.

(From Department of Agriculture.)

a Antenna. mz p Maxillary palpus. lp Labial palpus.
m Mandibles. pg Paraglossa. 7 Ligula.
g Epipharynx. mz Maxilla. bd Funnel of tongue.

136 THH BEE-KREPER’S GUIDE}

so intimately connected with the mouth organs, are so evi-
dently useful in digestion, and are so well developed in the
worker-bees, that they deserve full consideration. All the
glands have a chitinous inner intivna and outer propria, anda
middle epithelial membrane.

The spinning gland of the larval bee is a simple tubular
gland, and is well illustrated by Schiemenz (Fig. 58). On
each side within the head of the worker-bee (Fig. 59; uh g) are
large glands, discovered by Meckel in 1846, and fully described
by Siebold in 1870, which are very rudimentary in the queen
and entirely absent in the drone. They are often called the
lower head-glands. These are in form of the meibomian

Fic. 57,

Cross section of Tongue in use, after Cowan.

11 Labial palpi. o o Tube for sucking the nectar.
mm Maxille. p Overlapping maxille.

glands in our own eyelids; that is, a long duct bears many
follicles rich with secreting cells, the whole looking like a
compound leaf with small leaflets. Dr. Packard says each
follicle is unicellular. While all the others are acinose. The
ducts empty on the floor of the mouth. These glands are very
marked in nurse-bees, but smaller in aged bees. Schiemenz
believes that these glands secrete the food for the larval bees
and also for the laying queen. Their large size, their full
development only in the nurse-bees, and their entire absence
in queen and drones, surely seem to give great force to this
view. As already stated, the queen-larva is fed very liberally,
and almost exclusively, of this so-called bee-milk. Berlepsch
says that the little pollen sometimes (?) found in the digestive
tube of the queen-larva is accidental. The worker-larva re-
ceives less of this secretion, and to that fedto the drone is

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 137

added, just at the last, some partially digested pollen which is
shed when the alimentary canal is moulted with the last larval
skin. The fact that undigested pollen is found in the larval
food shows that this food is from the stomach, and is nota
secretion. It has been suggested that the difference which Dr.
Planta and others find in the composition of the larval food of
worker, queen and drone larvye is wholly due to this partially
digested pollen which is withheld from the inchoate queen and
workers.

There are also large compound racemose or acinose glands
(Fig. 59, 272 g)in the head, and also a similar pair (Fig. 58, / g)

Fic, 58.

Spinning Gland of Larva, and cross section of same, after Schiemenz.

C Gland. S Sinus.
J Duet. D Common duct.

in the thorax, which are by some thought to be the modified
spinning glands of the larva. These four glands unite intoa
common duct, which passes through the mentum and opens
just at the base of tongue on top in the groove between the
paraglosse (Fig. 55, C, Z, and 56). The thoracic glands were
discovered by Ramdohr in 1811, while Meckel also discovered
the second pair of cephalic glands, these are the upper head-
glands; Schiemenz is probably correct in thinking that these
glands, which are present in all bees, are for digesting the

138 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

nectar. The cane-sugar of nectar is certainly digested or
changed into the more osmotic and assimilable glucose-like
sugar of honey. Very likely these compound racemose glands
supply the digestive ferment which accomplishes this part of

Fic. 59.

Gland System of Bee, after Girard.

digestion. We similarly digest all the cane-sugar that we eat.
As honey is not always fully digested, the drones and queens,
as well as the workers, possess these glands.

Wolff’s glands are large follicular glands (Fig. 60), situated
at the base of the mandibles. From their position we might
suppose that their secretion was useful in forming wax into
comb, but their large size in the queens, and the fact that the

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 139

secretion from them is acid, would rather argue that they, like
the racemose glands, were also digestive in their function. I
would suggest that we call the thoracic glands, the glands of
Ramdohr; the racemose glands of the head, the glands of
Meckel, and the other glands of the head-glands of Siebold, in
compliment to the excellent work which has been done in their
study and elucidation ; while the glands at the base of the
mandibles may well be called, from their discoverer, Wolff’s
glands. In studying the digestive organism we are greatly

Fic. 60.

ON

Jaw of Worker showing Wolff’s gland, after Wolff.
M Muscles. J Jaws. G Gland.

indebted to Schiemenz and Schonfeld, who have not only ex-
plained by use of beautiful illustrations the detailed anatomy
of the alimentary canal, but have been equally happy in
describing the wonderful physiology of digestion in bees.
Schonfeld, from a very elaborate series of experiments, con-
cludes that the theory of Schiemenz and v. Siebold is not cor-
rect. Hethinks the lower head-glands secrete saliva which
moistens the pollen, and aids in digesting it. The fact that it
is acid adds force to the theory. They empty on the floor of
the mouth just where they should pour out the saliva. As the
queen and drones never eat pollen, but are fed by the workers,
they do not need these glands. Schonfeld thinks the larval
food is digested pollen, and he claims to have found this in the
true stomach of nurse-bees. Partially digested pollen he
terms chyme, which, just before the drone-larve are to be

THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

140

Fic. 61.

)
g 3:
Sow ~~
vo’.
8s gs
a 98
a) ny so
§ oS
88 RE
Bt
ae
§ &

“BTSurry “Hh
“OUTISOIUT B.OIB'T *2°7
‘soTnqny uelysidieyy 7 ¢
“YORU s ena, ‘so
“‘qqnoul-yoewmoyg c

=
>
Fa
N
&

qowmoys-Aauoyy s y
‘snsvqdosay 2
“XRIONIB AT vpare
“XBIOYIBSa]Y Ysare

“XBIOTIOI p0ud

‘SPUBLS [BIDIY 7
“OUNSOJUT [[BUIG 2 ¢
‘SPURS ORIOL, COAT
‘spurs pray gaddq ¢ ‘ONT
“Spuvls Peey Jao ] ‘oAr

‘JIBIY JO syusuiAag aa
“WABI IO TOSSAA [BSING ap
‘sada punodwiag a
“BITINR]T x we
‘Tdyed [erqey, c 2

OR, MANUAL OF THER APIARY. 141

sealed up, is fed to them. The chyle and larval food he finds
to contain blood corpuscles, and he thinks them identical with
the same in the blood of the bee. Schonfeld fed indigestible
material like iron particles to starving bees that had brood.
The chyle, the larval food, but not the blood of the nurse-bees
contained thisiron. This food of the larvae then must be chyle
and nota secretion. I confirmed this by feeding bees sugar
syrup in which I mixed finely pulverized charcoal. The char-
coal appeared in the royal jelly in the queen-cells. As the
charcoal is utterly non-osmotic, it could not pass to the blood,
and so could not appear in any secretion, but could and would
be in any regurgitated food. This secretion then appears to
answer to the gastric juice in our own digestion. Again, the
fact that it is acid, makes this conclusion more than war-
ranted. This experiment certainly settles the matter.

Again, these same lower head-glands are foundin some
insects that do not feed their larve at all, as species of Eris-
talis—wasp-colored two-winged flies—and of Nepa, a genus of
water-bugs.

Dr. Planta and others have shown that the chyle fed to
queen-larve is not the same as that fed to drone-larve, nor yet
like that fed to worker-larve. If this is chyle the difference
could be explained, as it would arise from variation of food.
If a secretion, it could not be easily explained. ‘This view is
adopted by Mr. Cowan, the ablest and most learned British
authority on bees. Bordas has found two other pairs of
glands in both worker and drone bees, which he terms, from
their position, the internal mandibular and sublingual. It
would be interesting but difficult to determine what secretion,
if not all the secretions, aided in kneading the wax.

As in our own development, so in the embryo bee, the mid-
intestine arises from the endoderm or inner layer of the initial
animal. As the ectoderm or outer layer is around this, not
only the mouth and vent, but the fore and hind intestine—all
but the true stomach—arise by absorption at these points, or
from invagination (a turning in) of the outerlayer. Infants
are not infrequently born with an imperforate anus. In such
cases there is an arrest, the absorption does not take place,
and the surgeon’s knife comes to Nature’s relief. Strangely

142 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

enough in the bee—this is also true of ants and some wasps—
this condition persists all through the larval period. Thus
bee-larve have no anus or vent, and so void noexcreta. But
as known both to Swammerdam and Newport, when the last
larval skin is moulted the whole canal, with its contents, is

Fic. 62.
HS.

Section showing s'ructure of Honey-stomach, Stomach-mouth and Stomach,
after Schiemenz.

HIT S Honey-stomach, EF Epithelial cells.
S Stomach. V Stomach valve.
m Muscles. h Hairs to hold pollen,

S m Stomach-mouth,

moulted with the skin. As already stated, the spinning
glands in the larva become the thoracic, or glands of Ramdohr,
in the adult bee.

The cesophagus or gullet, the fine thread which is pulled
out as we behead a bee, passes from the mouth through the
muscular thorax (Figs. 25 and 27) to the honey-stomach, which
is situated in theabdomen. Often,as every bee-keeper knows,
this honey-stomach (Fig. 36, 4s, 61 4s) comes along with the

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 143

cesophagusas we pull the bee’s head from the body. The
cesophagus (Fig. 61, @) is about .20f an inch long and .02 of
an inchindiameter. In form and function the cesophagus is
not different from the same organin other animals. It is
simply a passageway for the food (Fig. 27, 61 oe).

The honey-stomach (Fig. 62, 2, s) or honey-sac is a sort of
a crop or proventriculus. This sac is oval about .1 of an inch
in diameter. While this organ is lined with a cellular layer
(Fig. 62, HS, £), the cells are not large and numerous asin

Fic. 63.

Four pieces forming Stomach-Mouth, after Schiemenz.

ce Cells, T m Transverse muscles. Hs Longitudinal muscles.

the true stomach (Fig. 62, S, #). The muscular layers of this
sac are quite pronounced (Fig. 62, m), as we should expect, as
the honey has to be régurgitated fromit to the honey-cells.
This is truly a digestive chamber, as the nectar—cane-sugar—
is here changed to honey—glucose-like sugar—but this is prob-
ably through the ferment received from the glands of Meckel
and Ramdohr, and not from any secretion from the organ
itself. The pollen is also very slightly digested here, as Schon-
feld has shown, through the action of the saliva from the
glands of Siebold, or lower head-glands. At the posterior end
of this honey-stomach is the stomach-mouth (Fig. 36, 62, s, m,
and 61, #) of Burmeister, which is admirably described by
Schiemenz. It is really a stomach-mouth. Spherical in form,
.02 of an inch in diameter, and, as Schonfeld well says, re-
minds one of a flower-bud. It (Fig. 61) can be seen by the

144 THE BEE-KEREPER’S GUIDE;

unaided eye, and as Schonfeld suggests, is easily studied with
a low-power microscope. There are four jaw-like plates which
guard this stomach-mouth (Fig. 63),and as Schimenz shows,
open to let food pass to the true stomach. This same author
tells us how by pressing with a needle, while viewing the
stomach-mouth under a microscope, we can see the jaws open
and shut. These plates have fine hairs, pointing down (Fig.
62, 4), which would, if a portion of the honey-containing pollen
were taken by this very muscular stomach-mouth, retain the
pollen-grains, while the honey could be passed back into the
honey-stomach. Hence, Schiemenz very naturally concludes
that this is a sort of strainer, constantly separating the pollen
and honey as the bee is sipping nectar from flower to flower.

Fic. 64.

a a

o
fom

ell “4 e

Stomach-mouth in Honey-Stomach, after Cowan.

A Normal. a Hsophagus. d Vales.
B Raised in regurgitation. b Honey-stomach, e True stomach,

As will be seen, this stomach-mouth has not only great longi-
tudinal muscles (Fig. 62, +), but also circular muscles as well
(Fig. 62, #). If Schiemenz is correct, then this stomach-mouth
is to separate the honey and pollen. Even with this interest-
ing apparatus, much of our honey has not a few pollen-grains,
as every observing bee-keeper knows. The fact that nectar
has much more pollen in it than does honey, makes Schie-
menz’s view all the more probable.

There is also a long prolongation (Fig. 62, v) from the
stomach-mouth into the true stomach. This is .04 of an inch
long, and is rich in cells, which are held by a very delicate

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 145

membrane which extends on still further. Schiemenz believes
that this is a valve, and certainly unless drawn by the strong
muscles in the walls out of the stomach as Schonfeld believes,
it would act as a most efficient valve. If this does act as a
perfect valve, then of course the nurse-bees can never feed the
larve or queen any digested food from the true stomach. This
is Schiemenz’s view. Pastor Schonfeld, however, still holds,
and seems to have proved, that while this may serve as a
valve it is under the control of the bee, and may be so drawn
up by the very muscular honey-stomach as to permit regurgi-
tation (Fig. 64). In this regurgitation of chyle, the stomach-
mouth closely approximates the stomach end of the cesopha-
gus (Fig. 64, 82); and so the chyle does not pass into the
honey-stomach. This prolongation then isa valve under the
control of the bee, and is another wonderful structure in this
highly organized insect.

The true stomach (Fig. 61, c, s) is curved upon itself, and
is .4of aninch long and .1 of an inch in diameter. It is
rugose, and the circular wrinkles or constrictions are quite
regular. It is richly covered within by secreting cells (Fig.
62, s,c). The mucous membrane is folded, and hence there
are very numerous gastric cells. Undoubtedly the function of
the gastric juice is the same as in our own stomachs, it aids
to liquify or render osmotic—capable of being absorbed—the
albuminous food, in this case the pollen. This view is con-
firmed by the fact that we almost always find pollenin all
stages of digestion in the true stomach of the bee. We may
not wonder at the varied source of this digestive secretion ;
these gastric cells, the lower head-glands, and possibly Wolff’s
glands. Where among animals is such thorough digestive
work accomplished ? Emptying into the pyloric or posterior
end of the stomach (Fig. 61, 6¢) are numerous tubules, the
Malpighian tubules. These are the urinary organs, and re-
move waste elements from the blood. They are really the
bee’s kidneys. Like our own kidneys, they are nothing more
than tubules lined with excreting cells. The small intestine
is often called ileum (Fig. 61,72). This portion of the diges-
tive tube is lined with very minute, sharp chitinous teeth,
which Schiemenz believes are used to further masticate the

146 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

pollen-grains, that have not yielded to the digestive action of
the stomach. This opinion is sustained by the strongly mus-
cular nature of the tube (Fig. 36, 4). The diameter of the
ileum is hardly .02 of aninch. The rectum, or last portion of
the intestine (Fig. 61, 77), is much larger than the ileum, and
carries on its mucous or inner surface six glands (Fig. 36, , g),
which Schiemenz calls rectal glands. It is quite likely that
these may be excretory in function. Their position would
make this view seem probable at the least. Minot claims that
these are not glands nor absorbant organs. Fernald thinks
them valvular, and believes they restrain the injesta.

Before leaving the subject it seems well to remark that it
now seems certain that the old view of Dufour, so ably adyo-
cated by Pastor Schonfeld is, despite the arguments and
researches of Schiemenz, the correct one. Our experiments
with charcoal prove this absolutely. The queen, drone and
larve do not get their food asa secretion—a sort of milk—but
it is rather the digested pollen modified, as the bees desire by
varying their own food. In addition to this albuminous food

a Jaw of Drone. b Jaw of Queen. c Jaw of Worker.
(Original.)

the queen and dronesalso take much honey. Thus they need
the glands which furnish the ferment that changes cane to
reducible sugar, and they have them. If all honey were fully
digested, then the drones and queen would not need any glands
atall. The fact that the pollen that the larve do get is par-
tially digested is further proof that this is chyme, or partially
digested pollen.

The jaws (Fig. 65, c) are very strong, without the rudimen-
tary tooth, while the cutting edge is semi-conical, so that when

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 147

the jaws are closed they form an imperfect cone. Thus these
organs are well formed to cut comb, knead wax, and perform
their various functions. As we should expect, the muscles of
the jaw are very large and powerful (Fig. 60). Wolff’s glands
empty at the base of these, and are doubtless excited by their
action—a proof that their secretion is gastric in nature. The
worker’s eyes (Fig. 4) are like those of the queen, while their
wings, like those of the drones (Fig. 46), attain the end of the
body. These organs (Fig. 2), as in all insects with rapid
flight, are slim and strong, and, by their more or less rapid
vibrations, give the variety of tone which characterizes their
hum. Thus we have the rapid movements and high pitch of
anger, and the slow motion and mellow noteof content and joy.

Landois proved many years since, that aside from the
noise made by the wings, bees have a true voice. Thus he
showed that a bumble-bee without wings, or with wings glued
fast, would still hum. This voice is produced in the spiracles.
Who has not noticed that a bumble-bee imprisoned closely in
a flower still hums? Ihave also heard a carpenter-bee ina
tunnel hardly larger than its body, hum. loudly. Landois
found this hum ceased when the spiracles were closed with
wax. Hedescribes quite an intricate voice-box, with a com-
plex folded membrane, the tension of which is controlled
through the action of a muscle and tendon. Thus we see that
bees have a vocal organization not very unlike our own in the
method of its action. The piping of the queen is probably this
true voice. Landois also states that bees and other insects
also make noise by the movement of the abdominal segments,
the one on the other. From the enornious muscles in the
thorax (Fig. 25) we should expect rapid flight in bees. Marked
bees have been known to fly one-half mile, unload and return
in six minutes, and double that distance in eleven minutes.
In thirty minutes they went two and one-half miles, unloaded
and returned. Thus they fly slower when foraging at a dis-
tance. These experiments were tried by my students, and the
time was in the afternoon. I think they are reliable. Pos-
sibly, early in the day the rapidity would be greater. Some-
times swarms goso slowly that one can keep up with them.
At other times they fly so rapidly that one needs a good horse

148 THE BEK-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

to follow them closely. Here the rate doubtless depends upon
the queen.

The legs of worker-bees are very strangely modified. As
they are exceedingly useful in the bee economy, this is not
strange. We findin the progressive development of all ani-
mals, that such organs as are most used are most modified, and
thus we see why the legs and mouth organs of the worker-bees
are so wonderfully developed.

The abundant compound hairs on the first joints of all the
legs are very marked in the worker-bees. These are the pol-
len-gathering hairs, and from their branching, fluffy nature
are well suited to gather the pollen-grains.

On the anterior legs the antenna cleaner (Fig. 66) is well
marked, as it is in all Hymenoptera except the lowest families
where it is nearly or quite absent. In the honey-bee, this is
found in the queen and drone as well as in the worker. It is
situated at the base of the first tarsus, and consists of a nearly
semi-cylindrical concavity (Fig. 66, c), armed on the outer side
with from seventy-eight to ninety projecting hairs. These
teeth-like hairs projecting as fringe form a very delicate
brush. Extending from the tibia is a blade-like organ—really

Antenna-Cleaner of Worker-Bee.—Original.

C Cavity. S Spur

the modified tibial spur (Fig. 66, S)—which when the leg is
bent at this joint, comes squarely over the notch in the tarsus.
Near the base on the inside a projecting knob is seen which
perhaps acts asa strengthener. The part of this blade or spur

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 149

that opposes the notch when in use consists of a delicate mem-
brane. In other Hymenoptera this spur is greatly varied.
Often, as in the ants and mud-wasps, it is also delicately
fringed. Sometimes it has a long projecting point, and is
thickly set with spinous hairs.

That this organ is an antenna-cleaner is quickly seen by
watching a bee—preferably a bumble-bee—come from a tubu-

Fic. 67.

Anterior Leg of Worker-Bee.—Original.

C Coxa, T Trochanter.
F Femur, Ti Tibia.
12345 Tarsal joints in order. Cl Claws.

lar flower, like that of the malva, or by placing a honey-bee,
bumble-bee or wasp on the inside of a window-pane and dust-
ing its antenne with flour or pulverized chalk. The insect
at once draws its antennez, one and then the other, through
these admirable dusters, till the organs are entirely free from
the dust. The bee in turn cleans its antenna-cleaners by
scraping them between the inner brush-like faces of the basal
tarsi of its middle legs, which is done each time after they are
used to clean an antenna. The paper-making wasps, and ]

150 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

presume all wasps clean these organs by passing them between
their jaws, much as a child cleans his fingers after eating
candy, except here lips take the place of jaws. Wecan hardly
conceive of a better arrangement for this purpose, a delicate
brush and a soft membrane; even better than the housewife
armed with soft brush anda silk kerchief, for this antenna
cleaner just fits the organs to be dusted. We have seen the
important function of the antennz, as most delicate touch-

Fic. 69.

Tin of Foot of Bee.—Original.

A Pulvilli in use.
B Claws in use.
c.c, Claws. Ah. Hairs.
p.p. Pulvyilli.
t.t, Last joint of Tarsus.

End of Middle Leg of Worker-Bee.—Original.

organs, and as organs of smell, two senses of marvelous devel-
opment in the bee. It is as imperative that the bee keeps its
antenne dust-free as that the microscopist keeps his glasses
immaculate. A delicate brush (Figs. 66 and 67) on the end of
the tibia opposite the spur and also the brush of rather spinous
hairs on the tarsus (Fig. 66) are of use to brush the hairs, eyes
and face, as may be seen by careful observation.

The claws and pulvilli—the delicate gland between the
claws—are well marked on all the feet of bees. The claws
(Fig. 67, cl) are toothed, and are very useful in walking up
wooden or other rough surfaces (Fig. 68, 2), as they are used
just as a squirrel uses its claws in climbing a tree. These

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY, EL

claws are also used in holding the bees to some object, or
together while clustering. What a grip they must have. It is
as if we were to graspa limb or branch and then hold hundreds,
yes thousands, of other persons as heavy as ourselves who had
in turn grasped hold of us. When walking up a vertical wall
of glass or other smooth metal, the claws are of no use, and so
are turned back (Fig. 68, 4), and the pulvilli—glandular
organs—are spread out and serve to hold the bee. These
secrete a viscid or adhesive substance which so sticks that the
bee can even walk up a window-pane. This is why bees soon
cloud or befoul glass over which they constantly walk. We
thus understand why a bee finds it laborious and difficult to
walk up a moist or dust-covered glass or metal surface.

The middle legs of the worker-bee are only peculiar in the
prominent tibial spur (Fig. 69), and the brushes or pollen-
combs on the inside of the first tarsus. It has been said that
the spur is useful in prying off the pollen-masses from the
posterior legs, as the bee enters the hive to deposit the pollen
in the cells. This is doubtless an error. Thequeen and drone
have this spur even longer than does the worker; the pollen
comes off easily, and needs nocrow-bar to loosen it. It is com-
mon among insects, and there are often two. The coarse,
projecting hairs on all the feet are doubtless the agents that
push off the loads of pollen.

We have already seen how the brushes or combs on the
inner face of the first tarsus of the middle legs serve to remove
the dust from the antenna cleaner. Thesealso serve ascombs,
like similar but more perfect organs on the posterior legs, to
remove the pollen from the pollen-hairs, and pack it in the
pollen-baskets on the hind legs. Mr. Root speaks of the
tongue as the organ for collecting pollen. Are not these hairs
really the important agents in this important work ?

' But the posterior legs are the most interesting, as it is
rare to find organs more varied in their uses, andso as we
should expect, these are strangely modified. The branching
or pollen-gathering hairs (Fig. 71) are very abundant on the
coxa trochanter and femur, and not absent, though much fewer
(Fig. 70) on the broad triangular tibia. The basal tarsus (Fig.
70) is quadurate, and it and the tibia on the outside (Fig. 70)

152 THH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

Fic. 70.

Outside of Tibia and Tarsi

of Posterior Leg of Worker-Bee,

showing Corbicula,—
Original,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 153

Fic. 71.

Inside Posterior Leg of Worker-Bee.—
Original.

154 THE BEEK-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

are smooth and concave, especially on the posterior portion,
which shallow cavity forms the corbicula or “ pollen-basket.”
This is deepened by stiff marginal hairs, which stand up like
stakes ina sled. These spinous hairs not only hold the pollen-
mass, as do stakes, but often pierce it, and so bind the soft
pollen to the leg. Opposite the pollen cavity of the first tarsus,
or on the inside (Fig. 71), are about eleven rows of stiff hairs.
They are of golden color, and very beautiful. These may be
called the pollen-combs, for it is they that gather, for the most
part, the pollen from the pollen-gathering hairs of legs and
body, and convey it to and packitin the pollen-baskets. As
we have seen (Fig. 69), there are less perfect combs—similar in
character, position and function—on the middle legs. The
contiguous ends of the tibia and first tarsus or planta are most
curiously modified to form the wax-jaws. The back part of
this joint (Figs. 70, 71) reminds one of a steel trap with teeth,
or of the jaws of an animal, the teeth in this case consisting
of spinous hairs. The teeth onthe tibia, the pecten or comb,
are strong and prominent. These shut against the upper ear-
like auricle of the planta, and thus the function of these wax-
jaws is doubtless to grasp and remove the wax-scales from the
wax-pockets, and carry them to the jawsof the bees. These
wax-jaws are not found in queens or drones, nor in other than
wax-producing bees. They are well developed in Trigona and
Melipona, and less, though plainly marked, in bombus.
Girard gives this explanation in his admirable work Les
Abeilles ; and as he is no plagiarist, as he gives fullest credit
to others, he may be the discoverer of these wax-jaws. If he
is not, I know not whois. The genus Apis is peculiar among
our bees, and really exceptional among insects in having no
posterior tibial spurs. They would, of course, be in the way of
action of the wax-jaws. As before stated, there are six seg-
ments to the abdomen, in the queen and worker-bee (Fig.9), and
seven in the male. Each of these abdominal rings consists of
a dorsal piece or plate—tergite or notum and pleurites united—
which bears the spiracle, and which overlaps the ventral plate
or sternite. These plates are strengthened with chitine.
These rings are connected with a membrane, so that they can

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 155

push in and out, something as the sections of a spy-glass are
worked.

The ventral or sternal abdominal plates of the second,
third, fourth and fifth segments of the worker (Fig. 72) are

Fic. 72.

Underside of Abdomen of Worker-Bee.—Original.

w Wax Scales. w.w. Wax Scales.

modified to form the ‘‘ wax-pockets ;’”’ though wax-plate would
be a more appropriate name. These wax-plates (Fig. 73) are
smooth, and form the anterior portion of each of these ventral
plates. Each is margined with arim of chitine, which gives
it strength, and makes “pocket ’? a more appropriate name,

wp Wax-Plates. ch Compound Hairs.

especially as the preceding segment shuts over these wax-
plates. The posterior portion—less than half the sternite
(Fig. 73)—bears compound hairs, and shuts over the succeed-

156 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

ing wax-pocket. These wax-pockets are absent, of course, in
queen and drones.

Inside the wax-plates are the glands that secrete the wax.
When the wax leaves these glands it is liquid, and passes by
osmosis through the wax-plate and is molded on its outer face.

The worker-bees possess at the end of the abdomen an
organ of defense, which they are quick to use if occasion
demands. Female wasps, the females of the family Mutillide,
and worker and queen ants, also possessa sting. In all other
Hymenoptera, like Chalcid and Ichneumon flies, gall-flies, saw-
flies, horn-tails, etc., while there is no sting, the females
have a long, exserted ovipositor, which, in these families,
replaces the sting, and is useful, not as an organ of defense,
but as an auger or saw, to prepare for egg-laying, or else, asin
case of the gall-flies, to wound and poison the vegetable tissue,
and thus by irritation to cause the galls.

This organ in the worker-bee is straight, and not curved as
is the sting of the queen. The poison which is emitted in
stinging, and which causes the severe pain, is bothan acid and
an alkaline liquid, which Carlet shows are both necessary for
maximum results. These are secreted by a double tubular
gland (Fig. 38, Pg.) and stored in a sac (Fig. 74, c, and 38, Pd.)
which is about the size of a flax-seed. This sac is connected
by a tube (Fig. 74, J7) with the reservoir of the sting. The
sting is a triple organ consisting of three sharp hollow spears,
which are very smoothand of exquisite polish. If we magnify
the most beautifully wrought steel instrument, it looks rough
and unfinished; while the parts of the sting, however highly
magnified, are smooth and perfect. The true relation of the
‘three parts of the sting was accurately described by Mr. J. R.
Bledsoe, in the American Bee Journal, Vol. VI, page 29. The
action in stinging, and the method of extruding the poison,
are well described in a beautifully illustrated article by Mr. J.
D. Hyatt, in Vol. I, No. 1, of American Quarterly Microscopical
Journal. The larger of the three awls (Fig. 74, 4) usually,
though incorrectly, styled a sheath, has a large cylindrical
reservoir at its base (Fig. 74, S), which is‘entirely shut off from
the hollow (Fig. 74, H) in the more slender part of the awl,
which latter serves no purpose whatever, except to give

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 157

strength and lightness. Three pairs of minute barbs (Fig. 74)
project like the barbs on a fish-hook, from the end of this awl.

The reservoir connects at its base with the poison-sac and
below, by a slit, with the opening (Fig. 74, V) made by the

Fic. 74.

Sting with Lancets drawn one side, cross-section of Sting, and a tanta,
much magnified.—Original.

C Poison sac. M Tube from sac to S Reservoir.
A Awl. reservoir. E,E Valves.
0, U Barbs. B,B Lancets. "HT Hollow in awl.
rf Hollows in lancets. 0, 0 Openings from hollow 7,7 Ridges in awl.
” Groove in lancet. in lancets.

approximation of the three awls. The other two awls (Fig. 74,
B, B), which we call lancets, are also hollow (Fig. 74, J, /).
They are barbed (Fig. 74, U, UV) much like a fish-hook, except

158 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

that there are eight or ten barbs instead of one. Five of the
barbs are large and strong. These barbs catch hold and cause
the extraction of the sting when the organ is used. Near the
base of each lancet is a beautiful valvular organ (Fig. 74, Z, £).
Mr. Hyatt thought these acted like a hydraulic ram, and by
suddenly stopping the current forced the poison through the
hollow lancets. It seems more probable that the view of Mr.
T.G. Bryant (Hardwick’s Science Gossip, 1875) is the more
correct one. He suggests that these are really suction-valves—
pistons, so to speak—which, as the piston-rods—the lancets—
push out, suck the poison from the sacs. Carlet shows that the
poison-sac is not muscular, so the pumping is necessary. The
hollow inside each lancet (Fig. 74, 7, 7), unlike that of the awl,
is useful. It opens anteriorly in front of the first six barbs
(Fig. 74, 0, 0), as shown by Mr. Hyatt, and posteriorly just
back of the valves into the central tube (Fig. 74, 4), and
through it into the reservoir (Fig. 74, S). The poison then can
pass either through the hollow lancets (Fig. 74, 7, 7) or through
the central tubes (Fig. 74, VV), between the three spears.

The lancets are held to the central piece by projections
(Fig. 74, 7, 7) from the latter, which fit into corresponding
grooves (Fig. 74, 7) of the lancets. In the figure the lancets
are moved one side to show the barbs and valves; normally
they are held close together, and thus form the tube (Fig.
74, N, Fig. 44, St.)

At the base of the central awl two flexible arms (Fig. 75, 5,0)
run out and up, where they articulate with strong levers (Fig. 75,
D,D). The two lancets are singularly curved and closely
joined to the flexible arms by the same kind of dovetailed
groove and projection already described. These lancets con-
nect at their ends (Fig. 75, c, c) with heavy triangular levers
(Fig. 75, B, B), and these in turn with both Cand Datjands.
All of these levers, which also serve as fulcra (Fig. 75, B, C
and J), are very broad, and so give great space for muscular
attachment (Fig. 75, m). These muscles, by action, serve to
compress the poison-sac, also cause the lever (Fig. 75, B) to
rotate about S as a center, and thus the whole sting is thrown
out something as a knee-joint works, and later the lancets are
pushed alternately further into the wound, till stopped by the

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 159

valves striking against the farther end of the reservoir, in the
central awl (Fig. 74, S). As Hyatt correctly states in his
excellent article, the so-called sheath first cuts or pierces, then
the lancets deepen the wound. Beside the sting are two feeler-
like organs (Fig. 75, £, £), which doubtless determine where
best to insert the sting, though usually there would seem little
time for consideration. Leuckart discovered a second smaller
gland (Fig. 38, Sy,) mentioned also by Girard and Vogel,
which also has a sac or reservoir where its secretion is stored.
This secretion, as first suggested by Leuckart, is supposed to
act asa lubricant to keep the sting in good condition. The
fact that muscles connect the various parts (Fig. 75) explains

Fie. 75.

Sting of Worker-Bee, modified from Hyatt and Bryant.

-how a sting may act, even after the bee is apparently lifeless,
or, what is even more wonderful, after it has been extracted
from the bee. Dr. Miller thinks a sting extracted months
before may still act. The barbs hold one lancet as a fulcrum
for the other, and so long as the muscles are excitable, so long
is a thrust possible. Thus I have known a bee, dead for hours,
to sting. A wasp, dead more than a day, with the abdomen
cut off, made a painful thrust, and stings extracted for several

160 THE BER-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

minutes could still bring tears by their entering the flesh. In
stinging, the awl first pierces, then the lancets follow. As the
lancets push in, the valves force the poison already crowded
into the reservoir forward, close the central tube, when the
poison is driven through the lancets themselves, and comes
out by the openings near the barbs (Fig. 74, 0, 0). The drop
of poison which we see on the sting when the bee is slightly
irritated, as by jarring the hive on acold day, is pushed
through the central opening by muscular contraction attend-
ant upon the elevation of the abdomen and extrusion of the
sting. The young microscopists will find it difficult to see the
barbs, especially of the central awl, as it is not easy to turn
the parts so that they will show. Patience and persistence,
however, will bring success. Owing tothe barbs the sting is
often sacrificed by use. As the sting is pulled out, the body is
so lacerated that the bee dies. Sometimes it will live several
hours, and even days, but the loss of the sting is surely fatal,
as my students have often shown by careful experiment. It is
hardly necessary to say that there is no truth in the statement
that the sting is used to polish the comb; nor doI think there is
any shadow of foundation for the statement that poison from
the sting is dropped into the honey-cells to preserve the honey.
The formic acid of honey doubtless comes from the honey-
stomach. Each is an animal secretion.

The workers hatch from impregnated eggs, which can
only come from a queen that has met a drone, and are always
laid in the small, horizontal cells (Fig. 78, c). It is true that
workers are very rarely reared in drone-cells when the rim is
constricted. Mr. Root found that larger cells of foundation
were likewise narrowed. These eggs are in no wise different,
so far as we can see, from those which are laid in the drone or
queen cells. All are cylindrical and slightly curved (Fig. 39,
a, 6), and are fastened by one end to the bottom of the cell, and
a little to one side of the center. The eggs will not hatch
unless a little food is added. Is thisabsorbed, or does it soften
the shell so as to make exit possible? Girard says that the
egg on the first day stands oblique to the bottom of the cell, is
more inclined the second day, and is horizontal the third day.
As in other animals, the eggs from different queens vary per-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 161

ceptibly in size. As already shown, these are voluntarily fer-
tilized by the queen as she extrudes them, preparatory to
fastening them in the cells. These eggs, though small—one-
sixteenth of an inch long—may be easily seen by holding the
comb so that the light will shine into the cells. With experi-
ence they are detected almost at once, but I have often found
it quite difficult to make the novice see them, though very
plainly visible to my experienced eye.

The egg hatches in threedays. The larva (Fig. 39, d, e, /),
incorrectly called grub, maggot—and even caterpillar, by Hun-
ter—is white, footless, and lies coiled upin the cell till near
maturity. It is fed a whitish fluid, the chyle already described,
though this seems to be given grudgingly, as the larva never
seems to have more than it wishes toeat, so itis fed quite
frequently by the mature workers. It would seem that the
workers fear an excessive development, which, as we have
seen, is most mischievous and ruinous, and work to prevent the
same by a mean and meager diet. Not only do the worker-
larve receive the chyle grudgingly, but just at the last, before
the cellis sealed, a different diet is given. There are more
albuminoids and fats, and less carbohydrates, as shown by Dr.
de Planta. Itis probable that honey is also given them, and
so Dufour was wholly right in urging that digested food was
fed to the larve, for honey is digested nectar. This added
honey is what probably changes the food. He was also correct
in supposing the food of the larva to beasort of chyle. M.
Quinby, Doolittle, and others, say water is also an element of
this food. But bees often breed very rapidly when they do not
leave the hive at all, and so water, other than that contained
in the honey, etc.,can not be added. The time when bees
seem to need water, and so repair to the rill and the pond, is
during the heat of spring and summer, when they are the most
busy. May this not be quaffed for the most part to slake their
own thirst? If wateris carried to the hives it is doubtless
given to the nurse-bees. They may need water when the
weather is hot and brood-rearing at its very heigtit. There is
no reason to doubt that bees, like all other active animals, need
water as they do salt, to aid the physiological processes. They
cool by evaporation, and need water to promote the process.

162 THE BEE-KEERPER’S GUIDE};

When they smother, is not the moisture about themin part
the water of respiration rather than exclusive honey ?

At first the larve lie at the bottom of the cells, in the
cream-like ‘‘ bee-milk.’? Later they curl up, and, when fully
grown, are straight (Fig. 39, 7). They now turn head
down and cast their skin and digestive canal, then turn with
their heads towards the mouth of the cell (Fig. 39, /). Before
this, however, the cell has been capped.

In eight days (Root says nine or ten) from the laying of
the egg, the worker-cell, like the queen-cell, is capped over by
the worker-bees. This cap is composed of pollen and old wax,
so it is darker, more porous, and more easily broken than the
caps of the honey-cells; it is also more convex (Fig. 39, &).
The larva, now full grown, having lapped up all the food
placed before it, spins its silken cocoon, so excessively thin
that it requires a great number to appreciably reduce the
size of the cell. The silken part of the cocoon extends
down from the cap but a short distance, but like moths and
many other insects, the larval bee, just before it pupates,
spreads a thin glue or varnish over the entire inner part of
the cell. These cocoons, partly of silk and partly of glue, are
well seen when we reduce combs to wax withthe solar wax-
extractor. These always remain inthe cells after the bees
escape, and give to old comb its dark color and great strength.
Yet they aresothin that.cells used even fora dozen years,
seem to serve as well for brood as when first used. Indeed, I
have good combs which have been in constant use niheteen
years. As before stated, the larva sheds its skin, and at the
last moults the alimentary canal or digestive tube with its con-
tents as well. These, as stated by Vogel, are pushed to the
bottom of the cell. In three days the insect assumes the pupa
state (Fig. 39, g). In allinsects the spinning of the cocoon
seems an exhaustive process, for so faras I have observed,
and that is quite at length, this act is succeeded by a variable
period of repose. By cutting open cells it is easy to determine
just the date of forming the cocoon, and of changing to the
pupa state. The pupa looks like the mature bee with all its
appendages bound close about it, though the color is still
whitish.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 163

In twenty-one days, it may be twenty with the best condi-
tions, the bees emerge from thecells. Every bee-keeper should
hold in memory these dates: Three days for the egg, six for
the larva, and twelve days after the larva is sealed over. Of
course, there may be slight variations, as the temperature of
the colony is not always just the same.

The old writers were quite mistaken in thinking that the
advent of these was an occasion of joy and excitement among
the bees. All apiarists have noticed how utterly unmoved the
bees are, as they push over and crowd by these new-comers in
the most heedless and discourteous manner imaginable.
Wildman tells of seeing the workers gathering pollen and
honey the same day that they came forth from the cells. This
idea is quickly disproved if we Italianize black bees. We
know that for some days—usually about two weeks if the col-
ony isin a normal condition, though if all the bees are very
young it may be only one week—these young bees do not leave
the hive at all, except in case of swarming, when bees even too”
young to fly will attempt to go with the crowd. However, the
young bees do fly out for a sort of ‘‘ play spell’’ before they
commence regularly to work in the field. They doubtless wish
to try their wings. These young bees, like young drones and
queens, are much lighter colored when they first leave the cell.

The worker-bees never attain a greatage. Those reared
in autumn may live for eight or nine months, and if in queen-
less colonies, where little labor is performed, even longer;
while those reared in spring will wear out in three months,
and when most busy will often die in from thirty to forty-five
days. None of these bees survive the year through, so there
isa limit tothe number which may existin a colony. Asa
good queen will lay, when in her best estate, three thousand
eggs daily, and as the workers live from one to three months,
it might seem that forty thousand was too small a figure for
the number of workers. Without doubt a greater number is
possible. That it is rare is not surprising, when we remember
the numerous accidents and vicissitudes that must ever attend
the individuals of these populous communities.

The function of the worker-bees is to do all the manual
labor of the hives. ‘They secrete the wax, which, as already

164 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

stated, forms in small scales (Fig. 72, w) under the over-lap-
ping rings under the abdomen. I have found these wax-
scales on both old and young. According to Fritz Muller, the
admirable German observer, so long a traveler in South
America, the bees of the genus Melipona secrete the wax on
the back.

The young bees commence work ina day from the cells.
They build the comb, ventilate the hive, feed the larva, queen
and drones, and cap the cells. The older bees—for, as readily
seen in Italianizing, the young bees do not usually go forth
for the first two weeks—gather the honey, collect the pollen,
or bee-bread as itis generally called, bring in the propolis or
bee-glue, which is used to close openings and as a cement,
supply the hive with water (?), defend the hive from all im-
proper intrusion, destroy drones when their day of grace is
past, kill and arrange for replacing worthless queens, destroy
inchoate queens, drones, or even workers, if circumstances
demand it, and lead forth a portion of the bees when the con-
ditions impel them to swarm.

When there are no young bees, the old bees will act as
housekeepers and nurses, which they otherwise refuse to do.
The young bees, on the other hand, will not go forth to glean,
at less than six days of age, even though there are no old bees
to do this necessary part of bee-duties. An indirect function
of all the bees is to supply animal heat, as the very life of the
bees requires that the temperature inside the hive be main-
tained at a rate considerably above freezing. In the chemical
processes attendant upon nutrition, much heat is generated,
which, as first shown by Newport, may be considerably aug-
mented at the pleasure of the bees, by forced respiration. The
bees, by a rapid vibration of their wings, have the power to
ventilate their hives and reduce the temperature when the
weather is hot. Thus they are able to moderate the heat of
summer, and temper the cold of winter.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 165

CHAPTER IIL

SWARMING, OR THE NATURAL METHODS OF
INCREASE.

The natural method by which an increase of colonies
among bees is secured, is of great interest, and though it has
been closely observed, and assiduously studied for a long
period, and has given rise to theories as often absurd as sound,
yet even now it is a fertile field for investigation, and will
repay any who may come with the true spirit of inquiry, for
there is much concerning it whichis involved in mystery.
Why do bees swarm at unseemly times? Why is the swarm-
ing spirit so excessive at times and so restrained at other sea-
sons? ‘These and other questions we are to apt to refer to

_erratic tendencies of the bees, when there is no question but
that they follow naturally upon certain conditions, perhaps
intricate and obscure, which it is the province of the investi-
gator to discover. Who shall be first to unfold the principles
which gévern these, as all other actions of the bees ?

In the spring or early summer, when the hive has become
very populous, the queen, asif conscious that a home could be
overcrowded, and foreseeing such danger, commences to deposit
drone-eggs in drone-cells, which the worker-bees, perhaps
moved by like consideration, begin to construct, if they are not
‘already in existence. Drone-comb is almost sure of construc-
tion at such times. In truth, if possible the workers will
always build drone-comb. No sooneris the drone-brood well
under way, than the large, awkward queen-cells are com-
menced, often to the number of ten or fifteen, though there
may be not more than three or four. The Cyprian and Syrian
bees often start from fifty to one hundred queen-cells. In
these, eggs are placed, and the rich royal jelly added, and
soon, often before the cells are even capped, and very rarely

166 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

before a cellis built—Mr. Doolittle says the first swarms of
the season never leave until there are capped cells—if the bees
are crowded, the hives unshaded, and the ventilation insuffi-
cient, some bright day, usually about eleven o’clock, after an
unusual disquiet both inside and outside the hive, a large part
of the worker-bees—being off duty for the day, and having
previously loaded their honey-sacs—rush forth from the hive
as if alarmed by the cry of fire. Crowded, unshaded and illy
ventilated hives hasten swarming. Swarming rarely takes
place except on bright, pleasant days, and is most common
from eleven to two o’clock. The bees seem off duty for the
day. They load their honey-stomachs, and amid a great com-
motion inside the hive and out, they push forth with the
queen, though she is never leader, and is frequently late in her
exit. Dr. Miller once had a swarm from a colony from which
he had taken a queen an hour before. Of course, the swarm
returned to the hive.

It is often asserted that beesdo no gathering on the day
they swarm, previous to leaving the hive. Thisis not true.
Mr. Doolittle thinks they are just as active as on other days.
The queen, however, is off duty for some time before the swarm
leaves. She even lays scantily for two or three days prior to
this event. This makes the queen lighter, and prepares her
for her long, wearying flight. In her new home she does no
laying for several hours. The assertion that bees always
cluster on the outside preliminary to swarming, is not true.
The crowded hive makes this common, though in a well-man-
aged apiary it is very infrequent. The bees, once started on
their quest for a new home, after many gyrations about the
old one, dart forth to alight upon some bush (Fig. 76), limb, or
fence, though in one case J knew the first swarm of bees to
leave at once for parts unknown, without even waiting to
cluster. After thus meditating for the space of from one to
three hours, upon a future course, they again take wing and
leave for their new home, which they have probably already
sought out, and fixed up.

Some suppose the bees look up a home before leaving the
hive, while others claim that scouts are in search of one while
the bees are clustered. The fact that bees take a right-line to

Fic. 76.

Hiving a Swarm.—From Department of Agriculture.

168 THE BERE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

their new home, and fly too rapidly to look as they go, would
argue that a home is pre-empted, at least, before the cluster is
dissolved. The fact that the cluster remains sometimes for
hours—even over night—and at other times for a brief period,
hardly more than fifteen minutes, would lead us to infer that
the bees cluster while waiting for anew home to be found.
Yet, why do bees sometimes alight after flying a long distance,
as did a first swarm one season upon our College grounds?
Was their journey long, so that they must needs stop to rest,
or were they flying at random, not knowing whither they were
going? This matter is no longer a matter of question. I now
know of several cases where bees have been seen to clean out
their new home the day previous to swarming. In each case
the swarm came and took possession of the new home the day
after the house-cleaning. ‘Thereason of clustering is no doubt
to give the queen a rest before her long flight. Her muscles
of flight are all ‘‘soft,’? as the horsemen would say. She
must find this a severe ordeal, even after the rest.

If for any reason the queen should fail to join the bees,
and rarely when she is among them, possibly because she finds
she is unfit for the journey, they will, after having clustered,
return to their old home. They may unite with another swarm,
and enter another hive. Many writers speak of clustering as
rare unless the queen is with the swarm. A large experience
convinces me that the reverse is quite the case.

The youngest bees will remain in the old hive, to which
those bees which are abroad in quest of stores will return.
Most of these, however, may be in time to join the emigrants.

The presence of young bees on the ground immediately
after a swarm has issued—those with flight too feeble to join
the rovers—will often mark the previous home of the swarm.
Mr. Doolittle confines a teacupful, or less, of the bees when he
hives the swarm, and after the colony is hived he throws the
confined bees up in the air, when he says they will at once go
to the hive from which the swarm issued.

Soon, in seven days, often later if Italians—Mr. E. E.
Hasty says in from six to seventeen days—the first queen will
come forth from her cell, and in two or three days she will, or
may, lead a new swarm forth; but before she does this, the
peculiar note, known as the piping of the queen, may be heard.

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 169

This piping sounds like “ peep,” ‘‘ peep,” is shrill and clear,
and can be plainly heard by placing the ear to the hive, nor
would it be mistaken. This sound is Landois’ true voice, as it
is made even in the cell, and also by a queen whose wings are
cut off. Cheshire thinks this sound is made by friction of the
segments, one upon the other, as the queen moves them. The
newly hatched queen pipes in seven or eight hours after com-
ing from the cell. She always pipes if a swarm is to issue,
and if she pipes a second swarm will go unless weather or man
interferes. The second swarm usually goes in from thirty-five
to forty-five hours after the piping is heard. This piping of
the liberated queen is followed by a lower, hoarser note, made
by a queen still within the cell. The queen outside makes a
longer note followed by several shorter ones; the enclosed
queens repeat tones of equallength. This piping is best heard
by placing the ear to the hive in the evening or early morning.
If heard, we may surely expect a swarm the next day but one
following, unless the weather be too unpleasant.

Some have supposed that the cry of the liberated queen
was that of hate, while that by the queen still imprisoned was
either enmity or fear. Never will anafter-swarm leave, unless
preceded by this peculiar note. Queens occasionally pipe at
other times, even in acage. This is probably a note of alarm,
as the attendant bees are always aroused by it.

At successive periods of one or two days, though the third
swarm usually goes two days after the second, one, two, or
even three more swarms may issue from the old home. Mr.
Langstroth knew five after-swarms to issue, and others have
reported eight andten. Thecells are usually guarded by the
workers in all such cases against the destruction of the queen.
These last swarms, all after the first, will each be heralded by
the piping of the queen. ‘They will be less particular as to the
time of day when they issue, as they have been known to leave
before sunrise, and even after sunset. The well-known api-
arist, Mr. A. F. Moon, once knew a second swarm to issue by
moonlight. They will, asa rule, cluster further from the hive.
The after-swarms are accompanied by the queen, and in case
swarming is delayed, may be attended by a plurality of queens.
I have counted five queens in a second swarm. Berlepsch and

170 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

Langstroth each saw eight queens issue witha swarm, while
others report even more. Mr. Doolittle says the guards leave
the cells when the queen goes out, and then other queens,
which have been fed for days in the cells, rush out and go with
the swarm. He says he had known twenty to go with third
swarms. I have seen several young queens liberated in a
colony. How does Mr. Doolittle explain that? Mr. Root
thinks that a plurality of queens only attends the last after-
swarm, when the bees decide to swarm no more. These virgin
queens fly very rapidly, so the swarm will seem more active
and definite in its course than will first swarms, and are quite
likely to cluster high upif tall trees are near by. When the
swarming is delayed it is likely that the queens are often fed
by the workers while yet imprisoned in the cells. The view is
generally held that these queens are kept in the cells that the
queen which has already come from the cell may not kill them.

The cutting short of swarming preparations before the sec-
ond, third, or even the first swarm issues, is by no meansa
rare occurrence. This is effected by the bees destroying the
queen-cells, and sometimes by a general extermination of the
drones, and is generally to be explained by a cessation of the
honey-yield. Cells thus destroyed are easily recognized, as
they are torn open from the side (Fig. 45, Z) and not cut back
from the end. It is commonly observed that while a moderate
yield of honey is very provocative of swarming, a heavy flow
seems frequently to absorb the entire attention of the bees,
and so destroy the swarming impulse entirely.

Swarming-out at other times, especially in late winter and
spring, is sometimes noticed by apiarists. This is doubtless
due to famine, mice, ants, or some other disturbing circum-
stance which makes the hive intolerable to the bees. In such
cases the swarm is quite likely to join with some other colony
of the apiary.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 171

CHAPTER IV.

PRODUCTS OF BEES; THEIR ORIGIN AND
FUNCTION.

Among all insects, bees stand first in the variety of the
useful products which they give us, and, next to the silk-moths,
in the importance of these products. They seem the more
remarkable and important in that so few insects yield articles
of commercial value. True, the cochineal insect, a species of
bark-louse, gives us an important coloring material; the lac
insect, of the same family, gives us the important element of
our best glue—shellac; another scale insect forms the Chi-
nese wax of commerce; the blister-beetles afford an article
prized by the physician, while we are indebted to one of the
gall-flies for a valuable element of ink; but the honey-bee
affords not only a delicious article of food, but also another
article of no mean commercial rank, namely, wax. We will
proceed to examine the various products which come from bees.

HONEY.

Of course, the first product of bees, not only to attract
attention, but also in importance,.is honey. And what is
honey? It is digested nectar, a sweet, neutral substance
gathered from the flowers. This nectar contains much water,
though the amount is very variable, a mixture of several kinds
_of sugar and a small amount of nitrogenous matter in the
form of pollen. Nectar is peculiar in the large amount of
sucrose or cane-sugar which itcontains. Often there is nearly
or quite as much of this as of all the other sugars. We can
not, therefore, give the composition of honey. It will be as
various as the flowers from which it is gathered. Again, the
thoroughness of the digestion will affect the composition of
honey. This digestion is doubtless accomplished through the
aid of the saliva—that from the racemose glands of the head
and thorax (Fig. 59, /hg, lg, and Fig. 61, No, 2 and No. 3).

172 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

The composition of honey is of course very varied. Thus
analyses give water all the way from 15 to 30 percent. The
first would be fully ripe, the last hardly the product we should
like to market. ,

The reducing sugars—so called because they can reduce the
sulphate of copper when made strongly alkaline by the addition
of caustic potash or soda—include all vegetable sugars but
sucrose of cane-sugar; and consist mainly of dextrose, which
turns the ray of polarization to the right, and levulose, which
turns the ray to the left. Dextrose and levulose are both pro-
ducts of various fruits, as wellas honey. Dextrose and levu-
lose are also called invert sugars ; because, when cane-sugar is
heated with a mineral acid, like hydrochloric acid, it changes
from cane-sugar, which revolves the polarized ray to the right,
to dextrose and levulose; but the latter is most effective, so
now the ray turns to the left, hence the terms inversion, or
invert sugar. Glucose is a term which refers to both dextrose
and levulose, and is synonymous with grape-sugar.

The amount of reducing sugars varies largely, as shown
by numerous analyses, usually from 65 to 75 percent ; though
a few analyses of what it would seem must have been pure
honeys, have shown less than 60 percent. Butin such cases
there was an excess of cane-sugar. It seems not improbable
that in such cases honey was gathered very rapidly, and the
bees not having far to fly did not fully digest the cane-sugar
of the nectar. Dr. J. Campbell Brown, in a paper before the
British Association, gave as an average of several analyses
73 percent of invert or reducing sugars ; 36 and 45-100 percent
was levulose, and 36 and 57-100 percent was dextrose. Almost
always pure honey gives a left rotation of from two to twelve
degrees. This wide variation is suggestive. Does it not show
that very likely the honey from certain flowers, though pure
honey, may give a right-handed rotation with a large angle
because of a large amount of dextrose and little levulose? It
occurs to me that these two uncertain factors, incomplete
digestion and the possible variation in nectar, make determi-
nation by the analyst either by use of the polariscope or chemi-
cal reagents a matter of doubt. I speak with more confidence,
as our National Chemist pronounced several specimens of

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 173

what I feel sure were pure honey, to be probably adulterated.
Ithink that now he has perfected his methods so that such
mistakes would rarely occur.

While nearly or quite half of the nectar of flowers is cane-
sugar, there is very little of such sugar in honey. While from
one to three percent is most common it not infrequently runs
to five or six percent, and occasionally to twelve or sixteen per-
cent. Quite likely in this last case, imperfect digestion was
the cause. The nectar was not long enough in the stomach to
be changed ; or else for some reason there was too little of the
digestive ferment present. Of course, twelve to fifteen percent
of sucrose would almost surely rotate the plane to the right.
There is a very interesting field for study here. What flowers
yield nectar so rich in cane-sugar that even the honey is rich
in the same element? Honey often contains, we are told, as
much as four percent of dextrine. This, of course, tends to
make it rotate the ray to the right, and further complicates
the matter. Again, it is easy to see that in case flowers
secrete nectar in large quantities the bees would load quickly,
and so proportionately less saliva would be mixed with it, and
digestion would be less thorough.

We see now why drones and queens need salivary glands
to yield the ferment to digest honey. Often the worker-bees
do not thoroughly digest it. We see, too, why honey is such
an excellent food. We have to digest all our cane-sugar. The
honey we eat has been largely digested for us.

Albuminoids—evidently from the pollen—vary from five
to seventy-five hundredths of one percent. These vary largely
according to the flowers. It is quite likely that in case of
bloom like basswood where the honey comes very rapidly—
fifteen pounds per day sometimes for each colony—the stomach-
mouth can not remove all the pollen. Here is an opportunity
for close observation. If we know we have honey that was
vathered very rapidly, we should have a test made for albumi-
nous material to see if its quantity increases with the rapidity
with which the honey is gathered. While there may be quite
an amount of this pollen in honey, usually there will be but
little.

Besides the above substances, there is a little mineral mat-

174 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

ter—fifteen hundredths of one percent—which I suppose to be
mainly malate of lime; a little of the essential oils which pos-
sibly give the characteristic flavor of the different kinds of
honey, and more or less coloring matter, more in buckwheat
honey, less in basswood. Thereis also a little acid—formic
acid—which probabiy aids to digest the nectar, and possibly
with the saliva, may, like the acid gastric juice of our own
stomachs, resist putrefaction, or any kind of fermentation. It
has been urged that this is added to the honey by the bees
dropping poison from the sting. I muchdoubt thistheory. It
is more reasonable, however, than the absurd view that the
bee uses its sting to polish its cells. If the poison-glands can
secrete formic acid, why can not the glands of the stomach?
Analogy, no less than common sense, favors this view. The
acid of honey is often recognizable to the taste, as every lover
of honey knows. The acid isalso shown by use of blue litmus.
The specific gravity varies greatly of course, as we should
expect from the great variation in the amount of water. I
have found very thick honey to have a specific gravity of 1.40
to150. The fact that honey is digested nectar or sucrose,
shows that in eating honey our food is partially digested for
us, the cane-sugar is changed to a sugar that can be readily
absorbed and assimilated.

I have fed bees pure cane-sugar, and, when stored, the
late Prof. R. F. Kedzie found that nearly all of this sugar was
transformed in much the same way that the nectar is changed
which is taken from the flowers.

It is probable that the large compound racemose glands
in the head and thorax of the bees (Fig. 59, dag, lg, and Fig.
61) secrete an abundant ferment which hastens these transfor-
mations which the sugars undergo while in the honey-stomach
of the bee. I once fed several pounds of cane-sugar syrup at
night to the bees. I extracted some of this the next morning,
and more after it was capped. Bothsamples were analyzed by
three able chemists—Profs. Kedzie, Scovell, and Wiley—and
the sample from the capped honey was found to be much bet-
ter digested. This shows that the digestion continues in the
comb. Much of the water escapes after the honey is stored.

The method of collecting honey has already been described.

OR, MANUAL OF THER APIARY. 175

The principles of lapping and suction are both involved in the
operation.

When the stomach is full the bee repairs to the hive and
regurgitates its precious load, either giving it to the bees or
storing itin the cells. This honey remains for some time
uncapped that it may ripen, in which process the water is
partially evaporated; and the honey rendered thicker. If the
honey remains uncapped, or is removed from the cells, it will
generally granulate, if the temperature be reduced below 70
degrees. Like many other substances, most honey, if heated
and sealed while hot, will not crystallize till it is unsealed. In
case of granulation the sucrose and glucose crystallize in the
mellose. Some honey, as that from the South, and some from
California, seems to remain liquid indefinitely. Some kinds
of our own honey crystallize much more readily than others.
I have frequently observed that thick, ripe honey granulates
more slowly than thin honey. The only sure (?) test of the
purity of honey, if there be any, is that of the polariscope.
This, even if decisive, is not practical except in the hands of
the scientist. The most practical test is that of granulation,
though this is not wholly reliable. Granulated honey is almost
certainly pure. Occasionally genuine honey, and of superior
excellence, refuses, even in a zero atmosphere, to crystallize.

When there are no flowers, or when the flowers yield no
sweets, the bees, ever desirous to-add to their stores, frequently
essay to rob other colonies, and often visit the refuse of cider-
mills, or suck up the oozing sweets of various plant or bark
lice, thus adding, may be, unwholesome food to their usually
delicious and refined stores. It is a curious fact that the queen
never lays her maximum number of eggs except when storing
is going on. In fact, in the interims of honey-gathering, egg-
laying not infrequently ceases altogether. The queen seems
discreet, gauging the size of her family by the probable means
of support. Oritis quite possible that the workers control
affairs by withholding the chyle, and thus the queen stops per-
force. Syrian bees are much more likely to continue brood-
rearing when no honey is being collected than are either Ger-
man or Italian bees.

Again, in times of extraordinary yields of honey the stor-

176 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

ing is very rapid, and the hive becomes so filled that the queen
is unable to lay her full quota of eggs; in fact, I have seen the
brood very much reduced in this way, which, of course, greatly
depletes the colony. ‘This might be called ruinous prosperity.
The natural use of the honey is to furnish, in part, the
drones and imago worker-bees with food, and also to supply,
in part at least, the queen, especially when she is not laying.

WAX.

The product of the bees second in importance is wax. The
older scientists thought this was a product formed from pollen.
Girard says it was discovered by a peasant of Lusace. Lang-
stroth states that Herman C. Hornbostel discovered the true
source of wax in 1745. Thorley in 1774, and Wildman in 1778,
understood the true source of wax. This is a solid, unctuous
substance, and is, as shown by its chemical composition, a fat-
like material, though not, as some authors assert, the fat of
bees. This is lighter than water, as its specific gravity is .965.
The melting point is never less than 144 degrees F. Thus, it
is easy to detect adulteration, as mineral wax, both paraffine
and ceresin, have a less specific gravity. Paraffine also hasa
much lower melting point. It is impossible to adulterate wax
with these mineral products for use as foundation. They so
destroy the ductility and tenacity that the combs are almost
sure to break down. Ceresin might be used, but it is distaste-
ful to the bees, and foundation made from wax in which
ceresin is mixed would have novalue. Only pure beeswax is
used in manufacturing foundation in the United States. I
have this on the authority of Mr. A. I. Root, whose dictum in
such matters is conclusive.

As already observed, wax is a secretion from the glands
just within the wax-plates, and is formed in scales, the shape
of an irregular pentagon (Fig. 72, w) underneath the abdomen.
These scales are light-colored, very thin and. fragile, and are
secreted by the wax-gland as a liquid, which passes through
the wax-plate by osmosis, and solidifies as thin wax-scales on
the outside of the plates opposite the glands. Neighbour
speaks of wax oozing through pores from the stomach. This
is not the case, but, like the synovial fluid about our own

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 177

joints, it is formed by the secreting membrane, and does not
pass through holes, as water througha sieve. There are, as
already stated, four of these wax-pockets on each side (Fig. 72),
and thus there may be eight wax-scales on a bee ata time.
This wax can be secreted by the bees when fed on pure sugar,
as shown by Huber, whose experiment I have verified. I
removed all honey and comb froma strong colony, left the
bees for twenty-four hours to digest all food which might be
in their stomachs, and then fed pure sugar, which was better
than honey, as Prof. R. F. Kedzie has shown by analysis that
not only filtered honey, but even the nectar which he collected
right from the flowers themselves, contains nitrogen. The
bees commenced at once to build comb, and continued for sev-
eral days, so long as I kept them confined. This is as we
should suppose; sugar contains hydrogen and oxygen in pro-
portion to form water, while the third element, carbon, is in
the same, or about the same, proportion as the oxygen. Now,
the fats usually contain little oxygen and a good deal of car-
bon and hydrogen. Thus the sugar, by losing some of its
oxygen, would contain the requisite elements for fat. It was
found true in the days of slavery in the South that the negroes
of Louisiana, during the gathering of the cane, would become
very fat. They ate much sugar; they gained much fat. Now,
wax is a fat-like substance, not that it is the animal fat of
bees, as often asserted—in fact, it contains much less hydro-
gen, as will be seen by the following formula from Hess:

ORY Bet i.5 iG cuerades wlageeeiaa See taecnainie: eine W ba same IAS 7.50
CAE DOM ie fecetodiacia ticivactes dccecd fologeses acatssueis pbsde iisonnsaiajeundounainrass 79.30
FAY Arogett isisisins sicicnes ace eeasaureee ne ana ce ee eens sees 13.20

—but itis a special secretion fora special purpose, and from
its composition we should conclude that it might be secreted
from a purely saccharine diet, and experiment confirms the
conclusion. Dr. Planta has found that there is a trace of
nitrogen in wax-scales, a little less than .6 of one percent,
while he findsin newly made comb, nearly .9 of one percent.
It has been found that bees require about twenty pounds of
honey to secrete one of wax. The experiments of Mr. P. L.
Viallon show this estimate of Huber to betoo great. Berlepsch
says sixteen to nineteen pounds when fed on sugar without

178 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

pollen, and ten pounds when fed both. My own experiments
would sustain Huber’s statement. In these experiments the
bees are confined, and so the conclusions are to be received
with caution. We can not know how much the results are
changed by the abnormal condition in which the bees are
placed.

For a time nitrogenous food is not necessary to the secre-
tion of wax. Probably the small amount of nitrogen in the
scales and in the saliva may be furnished by the blood. This,
of course, could not continue long; indeed, the general nutri-
tion would be interfered with, and ill health can never do
maximum work.

It is asserted that to secrete wax, bees need to hang in
compact clusters or festoons in absolute repose. Such quiet
would certainly seem conducive to most active secretion. The
food could not go to form wax, and at the same time supply
the waste of tissue which ever follows upon muscular activity.
The cow, put to hard toil, could not give so much milk. But I
find, upon examination, that the bees, even the oldest ones,
while gathering in the honey season, yield up the wax-scales
the same as those within the hive. During the active storing
of the past season, especially when comb-building was in
rapid progress, I found that nearly every bee taken from the
flowers contained the wax-scales of varying sizes in the wax-
pockets. By the activity of the bees, these are not infre-
quently loosened from their position and fall to the bottom of
the hive, sometimes in astonishing quantities. This explains
why wax is often mentioned as an elementof honey. Its pres-
ence, however, in honey is wholly accidental. It is probable
that wax-secretion is not forced upon the bees, but only takes
place as required. So the bees, unless wax is demanded, may
perform other duties. When we fill the sections and brood-
chamber wholly with foundation, it is often difficult to find
any bees bearing wax-scales. In such cases I have often
looked long, but in vain, to find such scales in situ to show to
my students. A newly-hived colony, with no combs or foun-
dation, will show these wax-scales on nearly every bee.
Whether this secretion is a matter of the bee’s will, or whether
it is excited by the surrounding conditions without any

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 179

thought, are questions yet to be settled. No comb necessitates
quiet. With us and all other higher animals, quiet and heavy
food-taking favors fat deposits. May not the same in bees
conduce to wax-production ?

These wax-scales are loosened by the wax-jaws of the pos-
terior legs, carried to their anterior claws, which in turn bear
them to the mouth, where they are mixed with saliva probably
from Wolff’s glands (Fig. 60), or mixed saliva.

After the proper kneading by the jaws, these wax-scales are
fashioned into that wonderful and exquisite structure, the comb.
In this transformation to comb, the wax may become colored.
This is due to aslight admixture of pollen or old wax. Itis
almost sure to be colored if the new comb is formed adjacent
to old, dark-colored comb. In such cases chippings from the
old soiled comb are used.

Honey-comb is wonderfully delicate, the base of a new cell
being, according to Prof. C. P. Gillette, in worker-comb, be-
tween .0032 and .0064 of an inch, and the drone between .0048
and .008. The walls are even thinner, varying, he says, from
-0018 to .0028 of an inch. ‘Thecells are so formed as to com-
bine the greatest strength and maximum capacity with the
least expense of material. It need hardly be said that queen-
cells are much thicker, and contain, as before stated, much
that is not wax. In the arch-like pits in queen-cells, we
farther see how strength is conserved and material economized.

Honey-comb has been an object of admiration since the
earliest time. Some claim that the form is a matter of neces-
sity—the result of pressure or reciprocal resistance and not of
bee-skill. The fact that the hexagonal form is sometimes
assumed just as the cell is started, when pressure or resistance
could not aid, has led me to doubt this view; especially as
wasps form their paper nests of soft pulp, and the hexagonal
cells extend to the edge, where no pressure or resistance could
affect the form of the cells. Yet I am notcertain that the
mutual resistance of the cells, as they are fashioned from the
soft wax, may not determine the form. Mullenhoff seems to
have proved that mutual resistance of the cells causes the
hexagonal form. The bees certainly carve out the triangular
pyramid at the base. They would need to be no better geome-

180 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

tricians to form the hexagonal cells. The assertion that the
cells of honey-comb are absolutely uniform and perfect is
untrue, as a little inspection will convince any one. The late
Prof. J. Wyman demonstrated that an exact hexagonal cell
does not exist. He alsoshowed that the size varies, so that in
a distance of ten worker-cells there may bea variation of one
cell in diameter, and this in natural, not distorted, cells. Any
one who doubts can easily prove, by a little careful examina-
tion, that Prof. Wyman was correct. This variation of one-
fifth of an inch in ten cells is extreme, but variation of one-

Fic 77.

Irregular Cells, (modified) from Cowan.

tenth of aninchis common. The sides, as also the angles,
are notconstant. ‘The rhombic faces forming the bases of the
cells alsovary. The idea which has come down from the past
that mathematics and measurement exactly, agreed upon the
angles of the rhombs, that the two opposite obtuse angles were
each 109° 28’ 16’”’ and the acute 70° 31’ and 44’ is without foun-
dation infact. Mr. Cowan figures (Fig. 77) triangular, quad-
rangular, and even cells with seven sides. Of course, such
deformity is very rare.

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 181

The bees change from worker (Fig. 78, c) to drone cells
(Fig. 78, a), which are one-fifth larger, and vice versa, not by
any system (Fig. 78, 4), but simply by enlarging or contract-
ing. It usually takes about four rows to complete the transfor-

Fic, 78.

Lhombs, Pyramidal Bases
and cross-sections of cells.
—ITilustrated,

Honey-Comb.— after Duncan.
a Drone-cells. ¢ Worker-cells.
bd Deformed cells. dd Queen-cells.

mation, though the number of deformed cells varies from two,
very rarely one, to eight. The perfect drone-cells may be,
often are, contiguous to perfect worker-cells, the irregular cells
being used to fill out the necessary irregularities. An English

182. THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

writer criticises Langstroth’s representation of these irregular
cells, and adds that the angles can never be less than 100
degrees. This is far from the truth, as I have found many
cells where an angle was considerably less than this. Mr.
Cowan, in his excellent ‘‘ Honey-Bee,’’ describes and figures
cells where the angle is even acute.

The structure of each cell is quite complex, yet full of
interest. The base is a triangular pyramid (Fig. 78, ¢), whose
three faces are rhombs (Mr. Cowan has found and photo-
graphed cells with four faces), and whose apex forms the very
center of the floor of the cell. From the six free or non-
adjacent edges of the three rhombs extend the lateral walls or
faces of the cell. The apex of this basal pyramid is a
point where the contiguous faces of the three cells on the
opposite side meet, and form the angles of the bases of three
cells on the opposite side of the comb. ‘Thus the base of each
cell forms one-third of the base of three opposite cells. One
side thus braces the other, and adds much to the strength of
the comb. Each cell, then, is in the form of a hexagonal
prism, terminating in a flattened triangular pyramid.

The bees usually build several combs at once, and carry
forward several cells on each side of each comb, constantly
adding to the number, by additions to the edge. The bees, in
constructing comb, make the base or so-called mid-rib, the
“‘fish-bone ’’ in honey where foundation is used, thick at first,
and thin this as they add to the cells in lengthening them.
Prof. C. P. Gillette demonstrated this by coloring foundation
black. The color reached nearly tothe end of the cell, and
extended an inch below the foundation. Thus we understand
why bees take so kindly to foundation. To work this out is
not contrary to their instincts, and gives them a lift. Huber
first observed the process of comb-building, noticing the bees
abstract the wax-scales, carry them to the mouth, add the
frothy saliva, and then knead and draw out the yellow ribbons
which were fastened to the top of the hive, or added to the
comb already commenced.

The diameter of the worker-cells (Fig. 78, c) averages little
more than one-fifth of an inch—Reaumur says two and three-
fifths lines, or twelfths of an inch—while the drone-cells (Fig.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 183

78, a) area little more than one-fourth of an inch, or, according
to Reaumur, three and one-third lines. But this distinguished
author was quite wrong when he said: ‘‘ These are the in-
variable dimensions of all cells that ever were or ever will be
made.’’ A recent English author, after stating the diameter
of cells, adds: ‘The statement many times made that
twenty-five and sixteen of these, respectively, cover a square
inch, is erroneous, as they are not square.’’ He says there are
28 13-15 and 18 178-375. I find the worker-cells per square
inch vary from 25 to 29, and the drone-cells from 16 to 19 per
square inch. The drone-cells, I think, vary more in size than
do the worker-cells. The depth of the worker-cells is a little
less than half aninch; the drone-cells are slightly extended,
so as to be a little more than half an inch deep. Thus worker-
comb is seven-eighths and drone-comb one and one-fourth
inches thick. This depth, even of brood-cells, varies, so we
can not give exact figures. Thecellsare often drawn out so
as to be an inch long, when used solely as honey receptacles.
Such cells are often very irregular at the end, and sometimes
two are joined. The number of cells in a pound of comb will
vary much, of course, as the thickness of the comb is not uni-
form. This number will vary from thirty to fifty thousand.
In capping the honey the bees commence at the outside of
each cell and finish at the center. The capping of the brood-
cells is white and convex. The capping of honey-cells is
made thicker by black bees than by the other races, and so
their comb honey is more beautiful. Another reason for the
whiter color comes from a small air-chamber just beneath the
capping. The inner surface of the capping is, therefore,
usually free from honey. This chamberis usually a little
larger in the honey-comb of black bees. The cappings are
strengthened by tiny braces of wax, which, as we should
expect, are most pronounced in drone-comb.

The strength of comb is something marvelous. I have
known a frame of comb honey eleven inches square to weigh
eleven pounds, and yet to be unsupported at the bottom, and
for not more than one-third of the distance from the top on the
sides, and yet it held securely. The danger in cold weather,
from breaking, is greater,as then the comb is very brittle.

184 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

Prof. Gillette has found that comb one inch thick will weigh
only from one-twentieth to one twenty-fifth the weight of the
honey which it may hold.

‘The character of the cells, as to size, that is, whether they
are drone or worker, seems to be determined by the relative
abundance of bees and honey. If the bees are abundant and
honey needed, or if there is no queen to lay eggs, drone-comb
(Fig. 78, a) is invariably built, while if there are few bees, and
of course little honey needed, then worker-comb (Fig. 78, c) is

Fic. 79.

Foney-Comb Coral.—Original.

almost invariably formed. It is also a curious fact that if the
queen keeps along with the comb-builders in the brood-cham-
ber, then no drone-comb is built; but let her fail to keep cells
occupied, and drone-comb is at once formed. It would seem
that the workers reasoned thus: We are going to have comb
for storing, for such we better fashion the large celled or
drone-comb.

All comb, when first formed, is clear and translucent. The
fact that it is often dark and opaque implies that it has been
long used as brood-comb, and the opacity is due to the innu-
merable thin glue-like cocoons which line the cells. This may

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 185

be separated by dissolving the wax; which may be done by
putting it in boiling alcohol, or, better still, by use of the solar
wax-extractor. Such comb need not be discarded, for if com-
posed of worker-cells it is still very valuable for breeding pur-
poses, and should not be destroyed till the cells are too small
for long service, which will not occur till after many years of
use. The function, then, of the wax, is to make comb and

Fic. 80.

Honey-Comb Coral,—Original,

caps for the honey-cells, and, combined with pollen, to form
queen-cells (Fig. 78, d) and caps for the brood-cells.

A very common fossil found in many parts of the Eastern
and Northern United States is, from its appearance, often
called petrified honey-comb. We have many such specimens
in our museum. In some cases the cells are hardly larger
than a pin-head; in others a quarter of an inch in diameter.
These (Figs. 79, 80) are not fossil honey-comb as many are led
to believe, though the resemblance is so striking that no won-

186 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

der the public generally are deceived. These specimens are
fossil coral, which the paleontologist places in the genus
Favosites; favosus being a common species in the Northern
United States. They are very abundantin the lime rockin
northern Michigan, and are very properly denominated honey-
combcoral. The animals of which these were once the skele-
tons, so to speak, are not insects at all, though often called so
by men of considerable information.

The species of the genus Favosites first appeared in the
Upper Silurian rocks, culminated in the Devonian, and dis-
appeared in the early Carboniferous. No insects appeared till
the Devonian age, and no Hymenoptera—bees, wasps, etc.—
till after the Carboniferous. So the old-time Favositid reared
its limestone columns and helped to build islands and conti-
nents untold ages—millions upon millions of years—before any
flower bloomed, or any bee sipped the precious nectar. In
some specimens of this honey-comb coral (Fig. 80) there are to
be seen banks of cells, much resembiing the paper-nests of
some of our wasps. This might be called wasp-comb coral,
except that both styles were wrought by the self-same animals.

POLLEN OR BEE-BREAD.

An ancient Greek author states that in Hymettus the bees
tied little pebbles to their legs to hold them down. This fan-
ciful conjecture probably arose from seeing the pollen-balls on
the bees’ legs.

Even such scientists as Reaumur, Bonnet, Swammerdam,
and many apiarists of the last century, thought they saw in
these pollen-balls the sourceof wax. But Huber, John Hunter,
Duchet, Wildman, and others already referred to, noticed the
presence and function of the wax-scales already described, and
were aware that the pollen served a different purpose.

This substance, like nectar, is not secreted nor manufac-
tured by the bees, only collected. The pollen-grains form the
male elementin plants. They are in plants what the sperma-
tozoa or sperm-cells are in animals; and as the sperm-cells are
much more numerous than theeggs or germ-cells, so pollen-
grains are far more numerousin plants than are the ovules or

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 187

seeds, In Chinese wistaria, Wistaria sinensis, there are, says
Goodale, about 7,000 pollen-grains to each ovule. The color of
pollen is usually yellow; but we often find it orange, reddish,
nearly white, andin several Giliasin California it is bright
blue. Pollen-grains are really single cells, and have two
coats; the outer is the extine, which may be smooth, variously
soulptured, or even thickly set with spines (Fig. 81). These
spines, as also the color, often enable us to tell the species of
plant from which the pollen came. Usually the extine is per-

Fic. 81,

Pollen-Grains, from A. I. Root Co.

forated, though the inner wall—intine—is not. These perfora-
tions are also definite in number within the species. These
holes give opportunity for the pollen-tubes (Fig. 252, 7) to push
out after the pollen-grain reaches the stigma of the flower.
Where there are no perforations of the extine, the wall breaks.
In some cases like orchids, pollen-grains are held together by
an adhesive substance. In our milkweeds we notice a similar
grouping of pollen-grains (Fig. 227) which often are very dis-
turbing to bees and other insects.

The composition of pollen, says Goodale, is protoplasmic

188 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

matter, granular food materials, such as starch and oil and
dissolved food matters, sugar and dextrine.

Dr. A. de Planta gives the following analysis of pollen of
the hazel (B. B. Journal, Vol. XIV, p. 269). He finds proto-
plasm, oils and starch—the important food elements.

Before drying he found :
Water

ESD seri cotceiy iets’ ols 6i8 Aiba lowe ado esos ATE Oe BabonT Ga
After drying thoroughly he found :
Nitrogenous Matter

Non-nitrogenous...... ...... sae a
AIS Hy cayse-on ahr. ie ealelselatns, wee here ea ine wnat a

He found no reducing sugar, but did find 14.70 percent of
cane-sugar.

As will be seen, pollen, like our grains, is rich in the
albuminoids. Like our grains, or even different specimens of
the same grain, the composition of pollen will doubtless vary
to quite an extent. As we note that pollen contains besides an
ash, albuminoids, sugar, starch, and oils, we understand its
excellence as a food; it contains within itself all the impor-
tant food elements. The bees usually obtain it from the
stamens of flowers; but if they gain access to flour when there
is no bloom, they will take this in lieu of pollen, in which case
the former term used above becomes a misnomer, though
usually the bee-bread consists wholly of pollen. I have also
known bees to gather extensively for bee-bread from the com-
mon raspberry rust. Very likely the spores of others of these
fungi or low vegetables help to supply this nutritious sub-
stance. Occasionally there is a drouth of bee-bread alike in
hive and flowers, then bees will seek this kind of food in meal
or flour box or bin. Hence, the wisdom of feeding rye-flour
which the bees will readily take if it is needed. Flour may be
added to candy and fed to bees.

As already intimated, the pollen is conveyed in the pollen-
baskets (Fig. 70) of the posterior legs, to which it is conveyed
by the other legs, as already described, page 154, and com-
pressed into little oval masses. The motionsin this convey-
ance are exceedingly rapid, and are largely performed while

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 189

the bee ison the wing. The bees not infrequently come to
the hives not only with replete pollen-baskets, but with their
whole under-surface thoroughly dusted. Dissection will also
show that the same bee may have her sucking stomach dis-
tended with honey, though this is rare. Thus the bees make
the most of their opportunities. It isa curious fact, noticed
even by Aristotle, that the bees, during any trip, almost
always gather only a single kind of pollen, or gather only
from one species of bloom. Hence, while different bees may
have different colors of pollen, the pellets of bee-bread on any
single bee will be uniform in color throughout. It is possible
that the material is more easily collected and compacted when
homogeneous. It seems more probable that they prefer the
pollen of certain plants, and work on such species so long as
they yield the desired food, though it may be a matter of sim-
ple convenience. From this fact we see why bees cause no
intercrossing of species of plants; they only intermix the
pollen of different plants of the same species.

The pollen is usually deposited in the small or worker
cells, and is unloaded bya scraping motion of the posterior
legs, the pollen-baskets being first lowered into the cells. The
bee thus freed, leaves the wheat-like masses to be packed by
other bees, which is packed by pushing with the head. The
cells, which may or may not have the samecolor of pollen
throughout, are never filled quite to the top, and not infre-
quently the same cell may contain both pollen and honey.

.. Such a condition is easily ascertained by holding the comb
between the eye andthe sun. Ifthereis no pollen it will be
wholly translucent ; otherwise there will be opaque patches.
A little experience will make this determination easy, even if
the comb is old. Combs in small sections, especially if sep-
arators are used, are not likely to receive pollen or be used for
breeding. It is often stated that queenless colonies gather no
pollen, but itis not true, though they gather less than they
otherwise would. It is probable that pollen, at least when
honey is added, contains all the essential elements of animal
food. It certainly contains the very important principle
which is not found in pure nectar or honey—nitrogenous
material. I do not think the bee-moth larva will destroy

190 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

combs that are entirely destitute of pollen, surely not unless
they have been long used as brood-combs. The intruder must
have proteid food.

The function of bee-bread is to furnish albuminous food
to all the bees, adults no less than larve. As already stated,
brood-rearing is impossible without it. And though it is cer-
tainly not essential to the nourishment of the adult bees when
in repose, it still may be so, and unquestionably is, in time of
activelabor. This point is clearly proved from the fact that
pollen-husks are almost always found in the intestines of bees.
We may say it feeds the tissues of the imago bees, and is
necessary that the workers may form the food for the queen,
drones and larve. Schonfeld thinks the bees must have it in
winter, and in case no bee-bread is in the combs, he thinks the
bees scrape it from thecells and old combs. I believe bees
often winter better when there is no pollen in the hive.

PROPOLIS OR BEE-GLUE.

This substance, also called bee-glue, is collected as the
bees collect pollen, and is not made or secreted. It is the pro-
duct of various resinous buds,and may be seen to glisten on
the opening buds of the hickory and horse-chestnut, where it
frequently serves the entomologist by capturing small insects.
From such sources, from the oozing gum of various trees,
from varnished furniture, and from old propolis about unused
hives that have previously seen service, do the bees secure
their glue. Probably the gathering of bees about coffins to
collect the gluefrom the varnish, led to the custom of rap-
ping on the hives to inform the bees, in case of a death in the
family, that they might join as mourners. This custom still
prevails, as I understand, in some parts of the South. Propolis
has great adhesive force, and though soft and pliable when
warm becomes very hard and unyielding when cold.

The use of bee-glue is to cement the combs to their sup-
ports, to fill up allrough places inside the hive, to seal up all
crevices except the place of exit, which the bees often contract
by aidof propolis, and even to cover any foreign substance
that can not be removed. Intruding snails have thus been
imprisoned inside the hive. Reaumur found a snail thus in-
cased; Maraldi a slug similarly entombed ; while I have myself

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 191

observed a Bombus, which had been stripped by the bees of
wings, hair, etc.,in their vain attempts at removal, also en-
cased in this unique style of a sarcophagus, fashioned by
the bees. Alcohol, benzine, gasoline, ether, and chloroform are
all ready solvents of bee-glue, and will quickly remove it from
the hands, clothing, etc. Boiling in water with concentrated
lye will remove propolis completely. Even steam and hot
water used as a spray have been found to do the same.

PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

For very full lists of books, etc., see Packard’s Text-Book
of Entomology.

Alley, Henry—Thirty Years Among the Bees, 1880, and Queen-
Rearing, 1883.

Adair, D. L.—Annals of Bee-Keeping, 1872.

Amans, Dr.—Essai sur le vol des Insectes, 1883.

Ballantine, Rev Wm.—Bee-Culture, 1884.

‘* Bee-Master,’”’—The Times Bee-Keeping, 1864.

Benton, Frank—The Honey-Bee, 1899.

Berger, E.—Untersuchungen uber den Bau des Gehirnes und
der Retina der Arthropoden, 1873.

Berlepsch, A. Baron von—Die Biene und ihre Zucht, 1873.

Bevan, Dr. E.—The Honey-Bee, 1838.

Blanchard, E.—Recherches anatomique sur le systeme nerveux
les Insectes, 1846. .

De la circulation dans les Insectes, 1848.

Du grand sympathique chez les Animaux articules, 1858.

Bonnet, C.—Cjuvres d@’histoire naturelle, 1779-1783.

Bonnier, G.—Les Nectaires, 1879.

Bordas, L.—Glandes salivaries des Apides, Apis mellifica,
(Comptes rendus Acad. Sci. Paris,) 1894. Appareil glandu-
laire des Hymenopteres (Ann. Soc Nat. Zool. Paris,) 1894.

Brandt, E.—Comparative Anatomy of the Nerve System of
Insects (in Russian,) 1878.

Briant, T. J.—Notes on the Antenne of the Honey-Bee (Jour.
Linn. Soc.,) 1883.

On the Anatomy and Functions of the Tongue of the

Honey-Bee (Jour. Linn. Soc.,) 1884.

Antennz of Honey-Bee (Jour. Linn. Soc.,) 1885.

British Bee Journal—1873 to 1889. Present Editor, T. W.
Cowan, F.L.S., etc.

Brougham, Lord H.—Observations, Demonstrations, and Ex-
periments upon the Structure of the Cells of Bees (Natural
Theology,) 1856.

Buchner, L,.—Mind in Animals, 1880.

Burmeister, H.—Handbuch der Entomologie, 1832.

192 THE BEEK-KHEPER’S GUIDE;

Butschli, O.—Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Biene, 1870.

Cameron, P.—On Parthenogenesis in the Hymenoptera (Trans.
Nat. Hist. Soc. of Glasgow,) 1888.

Chambers, V. T.—On the Tongue of some Hymenoptera (Jor.
Nat. Hist. Soc. Cincin.,) 1874.

Cheshire—Bees and Bee-Keeping, two volumes, 1886.

Claparede, E.—Morphologie des,zusammengesetzten Anges
bei den Arthropoden (Zeit. fur Wiss. Zool. ») 1860.

Clute, Dr. O.—Blessed Bees, 1878.

Collin, Abbe—Guide du proprietaire d’Abeilles, 1878.

Comstock, H. J.—Manual for the Study of Insects, 1895. Re-
cent and authoritative.

Cowan, T. W.—The Honey-Bee, 1890. Very accurate and full.

Bee-Keeper’s Guide Book, 1881.

Dadant, Chas. and Son—Langstroth on the Honey-Bee, 1899,

Dahl, F.—Archiv. £. Naturg., 1884, pp. 146-193.

Darwin, C.—Origin of Species, 1859, 1872, 1878.

Debeauvoys, M.—L’Apiculteur, 1853.

Dewitz, H.—Vergleichende Untersuchungen uber Bau und Ent-
wickelung des Stachels der Honigbiene, 1874.

Doolittle, G. M.—Scientific Queen-Rearing, 1889.

Donhoff, Dr.—Bienenzeitung, 1851-1854.

Dufour, Leon—Memo. pres. par divers savants a l’Acad. des
Sci. de 1’Inst. de France. Tome VII.

Dujardin, F.—Memoire sur le systeme nerveux des Insectes,
1851.

Observations sur les Abeilles, 1852.

Dumas et Milne Edwards—Sur la production de la cire des
Abeilles, 1843-1844,

Duthiers, L.—Recherches sur Parmure genitale des Insectes
(Ann des Scien. Nat.,) 1848-1852.

Dzierzon, Dr.—Bienenzeitung, 1845-1854.

‘Theorie und Praxis des neuen Bienenfreundes, 1849-1852.

Rational Bee-Keeping. English translation by Dieck
and Stutterd, 1882.

Erichson—De fabrica et usu antennarum in Insectis, 1847.

Exner, S.—Ueber das Sehen von Bewegungen und die Theorie
des zusammengesetzten Auges, 1875.

Die Frage der Functionsweise der Facettenaugen (Biol.
Centralblatt,) 1880, 1882.

Figuier, L.—The Insect World, translated by P. Martin Dun-
can, 1872.

Fischer, G.—Bienenzeitung, 1871.

Geddes, Prof. Patrick and J. A. Thomson—The Evolution of
Sex, 1889.

Girard, M.—Sur la chaleur libre degagee par les animaux in-
vertebres et specialement les Insectes, 1869.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 193

Traite elementaire d’Entomologie, 1873.

Les Abeilles, organes et fonctions, 1878.

Girdwoyn, M.—Anatomie et physiologie de l’Abeille, 1876.

Gottsche, C. M.—Beitrag zur Anat. und Physiol. des Auges der
Fliegen, etc. (Mull. Arch. fur Anat.,) 1852,

Graber, Dr. V.—Ueber die Blutkorperchen der Insekten, 1871.

Ueber den propulsatorischen Apparat der Insekten, 1872.

Verlaufiger Bericht uber den propulsatorischen Appa-

rat der Insekten, 1872.

a neue otocystenartige Sinnesorgane der Insekten,

1878. ;

Die Chordotonalen Sinnesorgane und das Gehor der In-
sekten (Arch. fur. Mic. Anat.,) 1882.

Grassi, Dr. B.—Intorno allo sviluppo delle Api nell’ uovo, 1883,
1884, 1886.

Grenacher, H.—Untersuchungen uber das Sehorgan der Arth-
ropoden, 1879.

Abhandlungen zur vergleichenden Anatomie des Auges,
1886.

Grimshaw, R. A. H.—Heredity in Bees (British Bee Journal,)
1889,

Gundelach, F. W.—Die Naturgeschichte der Honigbiene, 1842.

Hauser, G.—Physiologische und histologische Untersuchungen
uber das Geruchsorgan der Insekten, 1880.

Haviland, J. D.—The Social Instincts of Bees, their Origin
and Natural Selection, 1882.

Heddon, James—Success in Bee-Culture, 1886.

Helmholz—Sensations of Tone.

Hicks, Dr. J. Braxton—On a new structure in the Antenne of
Insects (Jour. Linn. Soc.,) 1857.

On certain Sensory Organs in Insects, hitherto unde-

scribed, 1860. :

The Honey-Bee (Samuelson and Hicks,) 1860.

Hickson, Dr. S. J.—The Eye and Optic Tract of Insects (Quart.
Jour. Mic. Science,) 1885.

Hopkins, Isaac—Australasian Bee-Manual, 1886.

Huber, F.—Nouvelles observations sur les Abeilles, 1814, (and
other editions.)

Hunter, J.—On Bees (Philosophical Trans.,) 1792.

Manual of Bee-Keeping, 18—

Hutchinson, W. Z.—Advanced Bee-Culture, 1883.

Comb Honey, 1897. .

Hyatt, J. D.—The Structure of the Tongue of the Honey-Bee
(Amer. Quart. Mic Jour.,) 1878, p. 287.

The Sting of the Honey-Bee (ibid,) 1878, p. 3.

The Sting of the Honey-Bee (Pop. Sc. Mon.,) 1879.

Janscha, I. A.—Hinterlassene vollstandige Lehre von der Bien-
enzucht, 1775.

194 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

John, Dr. Martin—Ein neu Bienen-Buchel, 1691.

Jurine, Mademoiselle—Huber’s Nouvelles observations sur les
Abeilles, 1792-1814.

King, H.—Bee-Keepers’ Text-Book, 1883.

Kirby, W.—Monographia Apum Angliae, 1802.

Kirby and Spence—Introduction to Entomology.

Klein, Dr. E.—Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory,
1873.

Elements of Histology, 1884.

Kowalevsky—Embryologische Studien an Wurmern und Arth-
ropoden, 1871.

Kraepelin, Dr. K.—Phys. und Hist. uber die Geruchsorgane
der Insekten (Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool.,) 1880.

Ueber die Mundwerkzeuge der saugenden Insekten

(zbzd,) 1882.

Ueber die Geruchsorgane der Gliederthiere, 1883.

Krancher, Dr. O.—Der Bau der Stigmen bei der Insekten, 1881.

Die dreierlei Bienenwesen, 1884.

Lacordaire—Iutroduction a l’Entomologie, 1861.

Landois, Dr. H.—Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des
Schmetterlingsflugels in der Raupe und Puppe, 1871.

Die ton und Stimmapparate der Insekten, 1867.

Langstroth, L. L.—The Honey-Bee, 1859-1873.

Latreille, P. A.—Eclaircissemens relatifs a l’opinion de M.
Huber fils, sur l’origine et Vissue exterieure de la Cire
(Acad. Roy. des Sciences,) 1821. Cours d’entomulogie, 1831.

Leeuwenhoek, A.—Select works, translated by H. Hoole.

Lefebvre, A.—Note sur le sentiment olfactif des Insectes (Ann.
Soc. entom. de France,) 1838.

Leuckart, Dr.—Zur Kentniss des Generationswechsels und der
Parthenogenesis bei der Insekten, 1858.

Leuckart, R.—Ueber Metamorphose, ungeschlechtliche Ver-
mehrung, Generationswechsel, 1851.

Leydig, F.—Das Auge der Gliederthiere, 1864.

Zur Anatomie der Insekten (Mull. Archiv. f. Anat.,) 1859.

Lhuilier, S. A. J.—Memoire sur le minimum de cire des alveoles
des Abeilles, et en particulier sur un minimum minimorum
relatif a cette matiere, 1781.

Lowe, J.—Trans. Ent. Soc. Vol. V. pp. 547-560, 1867.

Lowne, B. T.—On the Simple and Compound Eyes of Insects
(Phil. Trans.,) 1879.

On the Compound Vision and the Morphol. of the Eye in
Insects (Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond.,) 1884.

Lubbock, Sir J.—Ants, Bees and Wasps, 1882.

The Senses, Instincts and Intelligence of Animals, 1889.

Lucas, I. G.—Entwurf eines wissenschaftlichen Systems fur-
Bienenzucht, 1808.

Lucas, M. H.—Cas de cyclopie observe chez un insecte Hymen-
optere (Apis mellifica,) 1868.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 195

Lyonet, Pieter—Traite anatomique de la chenille qui ronge Le
bois de saule, etc., 1762. ,

Macloskie, G.—The Endocranium and Maxillary Suspensorium
of the Bee (Amer. Natural, pp. 567-573,) 1884.

Maraldi, G. F.—Observations sur les Abeilles (Mem. Acad. des
Sciences,) 1712.

Marey, E. J.—Animal Mechanism: A Treatise on Terrestrial
and Aerial Locomotion, 1883.

Mayer, Dr. Paolo—Sopra certi Organi di Senso nelle Antenne
dei Ditteri, 1878-79.

Meckel, H.—Muller’s Archiv. fur Anatomie, 1846.

Miller, Dr. C. C.—A Year Among the Bees, 1888.

Milne-Edwards—Manual of Zoology, 1863.

Moufet,T.—Insectorum sine minimorum animalium Theatrum,
1634,
Mullenhoff, Dr. K.—Formation of Honey-Comb (Pfluger’s
Archiv f. gesammt. Physiol., XXXII, pp. 589-618,) 1883.
Structure of the Honey-Bee’s Cell (Arch. f. Anat. und
Physiol., pp. 371-375,) 1886.

Muller, J.—Zur vergleichenden Physiologie des Gesichtsinnes,
1826.

Fortgesetzte anatomische Untersuchungen uber den
Bau der Augen bei den Insekten und Crustaceen, 1829,

Munn, N. A.—Beyan on the Honey-Bee, 1870.

Neighbour, ‘Alfred —The Apiary, 1878.

Newman, Thomas G.—Bees and Honey, 1892.

Newport, G.—On the Respiration of Insects, 1836.

Insects (Todd’s Cyclopedia, Anat. and Phys.,) 1839.

Article ‘Insecta,’ in Todd’s Cyclopedia of Anat. and

Physiol., Vol. II, p. 980, 1839.

On the Uses of the Antennz of Insects (Trans. Ent.

Soc.,) 1837-40.

On the Structure and Development of Blood (An. of Nat.

Hist., XV., pp. 281-284,) 1845.

On the Temperature of Insects, and its Connection with

the Functions of Respiration and Circulation, 1837.

Extracts from Essay in Martin Duncan’s Transforma-
tion of Insects.

Packard, Dr. A. S.—A Text-Book of Entomology, 1898. Very
full and excellent.

Guide to the Study of Insects, 1869.

Pancritius, Paul.—Beitrage zur Kentniss der Flugelentwick-
lung bei den Insekten, 1884.

Parker & Haswell—Text-Book of Zoology, 1897.

Perez, J.—Bulletin de la Soc.d’ Apicul. de la Gironde, 1878-1880

Les Abeilles, 1889.

Perris, Ed—Memoire sur le siege de 1’odorat dans les Articules,
1850.

196 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

Pettigrew, J. Bell—On the Mechanical Appliances by which
Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom (Trans. Linn.
Soc.,) 1870.

Plateau, F.—Palpes des Insectes broyeurs (Bul. de 1a Soc. Zool.
de France,) 1885.

Recherches exp. sur la vision chez les Arthropodes
(Comptes Rendus de la Soc. Ent. de Belg.,) 1887, (Bull. de
VAcad. Roy. de Belgique,) 1888.

Planta, Dr. A. von—Die Brutdeckel der Bienen (Schweitz.
Bienenzeitung and Bul. d’Apic. de la Suisse Romande,)
1884.

Coloration de la ciredes Abeilles (Revue Internationale,)

1885.

Ueber die zugammensetzung einiger Nektar Arten (Brit.

Bee Jour., Nectar and Honey,) 1886.

Ueber den Futtersaft der Bienen, 1888.

Nochmals uber den Futtersaft der Bienen (Schweitz.
Bienenzeitung,) 1889.

Pollmann, Dr. A.—Die Biene und ihre Zucht, 1875.

Porter, C. J.—American Naturalist, XVII., p. 1238, 1883.

Quinby, M.—Mysteries of Bee-Keeping, 1885.

Ramdohr, T. C.—Kleine Abhandlungen aus der Anatom. und
Physiol. der Insecten, 1811, 1813.

Ranvier—Lecons sur l’histologie du systeme nerveux, 1878,
Ratzeburg, Dr. J. T. C.—Untersuchung des Geschlechtszus-
tandes bei den sogenannten Neutris der Bienen, 1833.
Reaumur, R. A. F.—Memoires pour servir a l’histoire des In-

sectes, 1734-1742. English Translation, 1744.

Reid, Dr.—The Honey-Bee, by E. Bevan, p. 388, 1838.

Rehberg, A.—Ueber die Entwicklung des Insectenflugels, 1886.

Rendu, V.—L’ intelligence des Betes, 1864.

Rombouts, Dr. J. E.—Locomotion of Insects on smooth Sur-
faces (Amer. Mon. Mic. Jour.,) 1884.

Root, A. I.—A B C of Bee-Culture, 1890.

Root, L. C.—Quinby’s Mvsteries of Bee-Keeping, 1884.

Schiemenz, P.—Uber das Herkommen des Futtersaftes und die
Speicheldrusen der Biene, nebst einem Anhange uber das
Riechorgan, 1883.

Schindler, E.—Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Malpighi’schen
Gefasse der Insekten, 1878.

Schirach, A. G.—Physikalische Untersuchung der bisher un-
bekannten aber nachher entdeckten Erzeugung d. Bienen-
mutter, 1767.

Schonfeld, Pastor—Bienenzeitung, 1854-1883.

Illustrierte Bienenzeitung, 1885-1890. %

The Mouth of the Stomach in the Bee (British Bee
Journ.,) 1883.

Schultze, M.—Untersuch. uber die zusammengesetzten Augen
der Krebsen und Insekten, 1868.

-.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 197

Sedgwick-Minot—Recherches histologique sur les trachees de
’Hydrophilus piceus (Arch. de Physiol. Paris,) 1876.

Shuckard, W. E.—British Bees, 1866.

Siebold, Dr. C. T. E. von—On a True Parthenogenesis in
Moths and Bees, 1857.

Bienenzeitung, 1872.

Ueber die Stimm und Gehororgane der Krebse und In-
sekten (Arch. fur Mic. Anat.,) 1860.

Simmermacher, G.—Untersuchungen uber Haftapparate an
‘Tarsalgliedern von Insekten, 1884.

Smith, Dr. J. B.—Economic Entomology, 1896.

Straus-Durckheim, H.—L,’Anatomie comparee des animaux
articules, 1828.

Swammerdam, J.—Biblia Naturae, (in Dutch, German and
English,) 1737-1752.

Tegetmeier, W. B.—On the Formation of Cells (Rep. Brit. As-
soc., pp. 132, 133,) 1858.

On the Cells of the Honey-Bee (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.,
p. 34,) 1859.

Thorley, J.—Melissologia ; or the Female Monarchy, 1744-1765.

a ae oc of the Silkworm. (In Russian)
1879.

Tinker, G. L.—Bee-Keeping for Profit, 1880.

Treviranus, G. R.—Vermischte Schriften, 1817, and Zeitsch.
fur Physiol., 1829.

Treviranus, L. Ch.—Medizinische Zoologie, 1833.

Viallanes, H.—Recherches sur les terminaisons nerveuses mot-
rices dans les muscles stries des Insectes, 1881.

Vogel, F. W.—Die Honigbiene und die Vermehrung der Bien-
envolker, 1880.

Waterhouse, G. R.—On the Formation of the Cells of Bees and
Wasps, 1864.

Weismann, A.—Zeitschrift f. Wissenschaft. Zool., 1863.

Westwood’s Introduction to the Study of Insects, 1840.

Wolff, Dr. O..J. B.—Das Riechorgan der Biene (Nova acta der
K.L,. Arch. Deutsch. Akad. d. Naturf.,) 1875.

Wyman, Dr. J.—Notes on the Cells of the Bee, 1866.

Zoubareff, A.—Concerning an Organ of the Bee not yet de-
scribed, (Brit. Bee Jour.,) 1883.

PART SECOND.

THE APLAR Y:

ITS CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

MOTTO :—" Keep all colonies strong.”

Serr

INTRODUCTION TO
PART II. :

: STARTING AN APIARY.

In apiculture, as in all other pursuits, it is all-important to
makea good beginning. This demands preparation on the
part of the apiarist, the procuring of bees, and location of the
apiary.

PREPARATION.

Before starting in the business, the prospective bee-keeper

should inform himself in the art.

READ A GOOD MANUAL.

To do this, he should procure some good manual, and
thoroughly study, especially that portion which treats of the
practical part of the business. If accustomed to read, think
and study, he should carefully read the whole work, but other-
wise he will avoid confusion by only studying the methods of
practice, leaving the principles and science to strengthen, and
be strengthened by, his experience. Unless a student, he would
better not take a journal tillhe begins the actual work, as so
much unclassified information, without any experience to
correct, arrange and select, will but mystify. For the same
reason he may well be content with reading a single work till
experience, anda thorough study of this one, make him more
able to discriminate ; and the same reasoning will preclude his
taking more than one bee-journal until he has hadat leasta
year’s actual experience.

VISIT SOME APIARIST.

In this work of self-preparation, he will find great aid in
visiting the nearest successful andintelligentapiarist. If suc-
cessful, such a one will have a reputation; if intelligent, he
will take the journals, and will show by his conversation that

202 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;

he knows the methods and views of his brother apiarists, and,
above all, he will not think he knows it all, and that his is the
only way to success. If possible he should spend some weeks
during the active season with such a bee-keeper, and should
learn all he could of such a one, but always let judgment and
common sense sit as umpire, that no plans or decisions may be
made that judgment does not fully sustain.

TAKE A COLLEGE COURSE.

It will be most wise to take a course in some college, if
age makes this practicable, where apiculture is thoroughly
discussed. Here one will not only get the best training in his
chosen business, as he will study, see and handle, and thus
will have the very best aids to decide as to methods, system
and apparatus, but will also receive that general culture
which will greatly enhance life’s pleasures and usefulness,
and which ever proves the best capitalin any vocation. At
the Michigan Agricultural College there is a fully equipped
apiary, and the opportunities for special study in bee-keeping
and entomology are peculiarly good. Michigan is not ex-
ceptional.

DECIDE ON A PLAN.

After such a course as suggested above, it will be easy to
decide as to location, hives, style of honey to produce, and
general system of management. But here, asin all the arts,
all our work should be preceded by a well-digested plan of
operations. As with the farmer and the gardener, only he
who works to a plan can hope for the best success. Of course,
such plans will vary as we grow in wisdom and experience. A
good maxim to govern all plans is, ‘‘Go slow.’’ A good rule
which will insure the above, ‘‘Pay as you go.’’? Make the api-
ary pay for allimprovements in advance. Demand that each
year’s credits exceed its debits; and that you may surely
accomplish this keep an accurate account of all your receipts
and expenses. This willbe a great aid in arranging the plans
for each successive year’s operations.

Above all, avoid hobbies, and be slow to adopt sweeping
changes. ‘‘ Prove all things, hold fast that which is good.”

'

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. ” 203

HOW 10 PROCURE FIRST COLONIES.

To procure colonies from which to form an apiary, as is in
almost all kindred cases, itis always best to get them near at
hand. We thus avoid the shock of transportation, can see the
bees before we purchase, and in case there is any seeming
mistake can easily gain a personal explanation and securea
speedy adjustment of any real wrong.

KIND OF BEES TO PURCHASE.

Atthe same price always take Italians or Carniolans, as
they are certainly best for the beginner. If common black
bees can be secured for three, or even for two dollars less per
colony, by all means take them, as they can be Italianized at
a profit for the difference in cost, and, in the operation, the
young apiarist will gain valuable experience.

Our motto will demand that we purchase only strong colo-
nies. If, as recommended, the ‘purchaser sees the colonies
before the bargain isclosed, it will be easy to know that the
colonies are strong. If the bees, as they come rushing out,
remind you of Vesuvius at her best, or bring to mind the gush
and rush at the nozzle of the fireman’s hose, then buy. In the
hives of such colonies all combs will be covered by the middle
of May with bees, and in the honey season brood will be abun-
dant. Itisalways wisest to begin ina small way. He will
generally succeed best who commences with not more than
four or five colonies.

IN WHAT KIND OF HIVES.

As plans are already made, of course it is settled as to the
style of hive to be used. If bees can be procured in such hives
they will be worth just as much more than though in any
other hive, as it costs to make the hive and transfer the bees.
This will certainly be as muchas two or three dollars. No
apiarist will tolerate, unless for experiment, two styles of hives
in his apiary. Therefore, unless you find bees in such hives
as you are to use, it will be best to buy them in box-hives if
possible and transfer (see Chapter VII) to your own hives, as
bees in box-hives can always be bought at reduced rates. In
case the person from whom you purchase will take the hives

204 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

back at a fair rate, after you have transferred the bees to your
own hives, then purchase in any style of movable-comb hive,
as it is easier to transfer from a movable-comb hive than from
a box-hive. Some bee-keepers, who were willing to wait, have
purchased a queen and bees by the pound, and thus secured
colonies at very slight expense. A single pound of bees with
a queen will develop into a good colony in a single year.

WHEN TO PURCHASE.

It is safe to purchase any time in the summer. In April or
May (of course you purchase only strong colonies) if in the
latitude of New York or Chicago—it will be earlier further
south—you can afford to pay more, as you will secure the
increase both of honey and bees. If you desire to purchase in
autumn, that you may gain bythe experience of wintering,
either demand that the one of whom you purchase insure the
safe wintering of the bees, or else that he reduce the selling
price, at least one-third, from his rates the next April. Other-
wise the novice would better wait and purchase in the spring.
If you are to transfer at once, it is desirable that you buyin
spring, as it is vexatious, especially for the riovice, to transfer
when the hives are crowded with brood and honey.

HOW MUCH TO PAY.

Of course the market, which will ever be governed by sup-
ply and demand, must guide you. But to aid you,I will
append what at ‘present would be a reasonable schedule of
spring prices almost anywhere in the United States:

For box-hives, crowded with black bees—Italians would
rarely be found in such hives—three dollars per colony isa
fair price. For black bees in hives such as you desire to use,
five dollars would be reasonable. For pure Italiansin such
hives, seven dollars is not too much.

If the person of whom you purchase will take the movable-
comb hives after you transfer the bees, you can afford to pay
three dollars for black bees, and five dollars for pure Italians.
If you purchase in the fall, require 33% percent discount on
these rates. The above is, of course, only suggestive,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 205

WHERE TO LOCATH.

If apiculture is an avocation, then your location will be
fixed by your principal business or profession. And here I
may state that, if we may judge from reports which come from
nearly every section of the United States, from Maine to
Texas, and from Florida to Oregon, you can hardly go amiss
anywhere in our goodly land.

If you are to engage as a specialist, then you can select
first with reference to society and climate, after which it will
be well to secure a succession of natural honey-plants (Chap-
ter XVII), by virtue of your locality. This suggestion is im-
portant, even in California, though it has far less weight than
in other sections. If our location is along a river we shall find
our honey harvest much prolonged, as the bloom on the upland
will be early, while along the river flats it will be later. Who
knows how much the many successful bee-keepers along the
Mohawk Valley owe to their excellent location? The same
holds true of the mouth of the canyons in California. The
flowers of both mountain and valley: will then contribute of
their sweets. Wealso gain in the prolonged honey-flow, as
the mountain bloom is much the later. It will also be well to
look for reasonable prospects of a good home market, as good
home markets are, and must ever be, the most desirable. It
will be important, also, that your neighborhood is not over-
stocked with bees. Itis a well-established fact, that apiarists
with few colonies receive relatively larger profits, especially
in rather poor seasons, than those with large apiaries. While
this may be owing in part to better care, much doubtless
depends upon the fact that there is not an undue proportion of
bees to the number of honey-plants, and consequent secretion
of nectar. To have the undisputed monopoly of an area reach-
ing at least two and one-half miles in every direction from
your apiary, is unquestionably a great advantage.

If you desire to begin two kinds of business, so that your
dangers from possible misfortune may be lessened, then a
small farm—especially a fruit-farm—in some locality where
fruit-raising is successfully practiced, will be very desirable.
You thus add others of the luxuries of life to the products of

206 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

your business, and at the same time may create additional
pasturage for your bees by simply attending to your other
business. In this case, your location becomes a more complex
matter, and will demand still greater thought and attention.
Some of America’s most successful apiarists are also noted as
successful pomologists. A dairy farm, especially where win-
ter dairying is carried on, would combine well with bee-keep-
ing. The alsike clover would please alike the cattle and the
bees. This is equally true in sections of California and
Arizona, etc., only alfalfa takes the place of alsike clover.

Bees are often taken ‘‘on shares.’”’ It is usual for one
party to furnish the bees, the other to perform all the labor.
The expenses are shared equally, as are the proceeds, both of
bees and honey. Where one has more colonies of bees than
will do well in one place—more than 100° East, more than 250
in California—then ‘‘out-apiaries’”’ are often desirable. Such
men as Dr. Miller, Messrs. Manum, France, Dadant, Elwood,
Mendleson, and Hetherington, find these very profitable. Of
course, this is like running a railroad, and success will only
mate with brains, gumption and pluck. The out-apiaries
should be as convenient as bee-forage, roads and location will
permit. If possible, it is wise to locateon some farm, and
arrange so the farmer will have an interest that will insure
some oversight when the apiarist is away. A fruit-grower
may be wise enough to covet the presence of the bees, and so
give service to secure it.

Of course, convenient hives for moving, and a wagon
arranged with suitable rack, are very desirable. Great pains
must be taken that the bees are all secure.. Horses stung may
mean great loss and harm. Mr. Manum makes assurance
doubly sure by covering his horses entirely with cotton blan-
kets. One enterprising and energetic enough to found out-
apiaries will have the gumption to success, and fully meet
every emergency.

For position and arrangement of apiary see Chapter VI.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 207

CHAPTER V,
HIVES AND SECTIONS.

An early choice among the innumerable hives is of course
demanded ; and here let me state with emphasis, that none of
the standard hives are now covered by patents, so let no one buy
rights. Itis in nearly all sections of our country, happily,
unnecessary to decry patent hives. Our excellent bee-periodi-
cals have driven from among us, forthe most part, that excres-
cence—the patent-hive man. His wares were usually worth-
less, and his life too often a lie, as his representations were
not infrequently false to the letter. As our bee-men so gen-
erally read the bee-papers, the patent-hive vendor will grow
less and less, and will soon exist only in the past. It will be
a blessed riddance.

Success by the skillful apiarist with almost any hive, is
possible. Yet, without question, some hives are far superior
to others, and for certain uses, and with certain persons, some
hives are far preferable to others, though all may be meritori-
ous. Asachange in hives, after one is once engaged in api-
culture, involves much time, labor and expense, this becomes
an important question, and one worthy of earnest considera-
tion by the prospective apiarist. I shall give it a first place,
and a thorough consideration, in this discussion of practical

apiculture.
BOX-HIVES.

I feel free to say that no person who reads, thinks and
studies—and sticcess in apiculture can be promised to no other
—will ever be content to use the old box-hives. In fact,
thought and intelligence, which imply an eagerness to investi-
gate, are essential elements in the apiarist’s character, and to
such a one a box-hive would be valued just in proportion to the
amount of kindling-wood it contained. I shall entirely ignore
box-hives in the following discussions, for I believe no sensi-
ble, intelligent apiarists, such as read books, will tolerate
them, and that, supposing they should, it would be an expen-

‘

208 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

sive mistake which I have no right to encourage, in fact, am
bound to discourage, not only for the benefit of individuals,
but also for the art itself.

To be sure of success, the apiarist must be able to inspect
the whole interior of the hive at his pleasure, must be able to

Fic. 82.

The Munn Hive, after Munn.

exchange combs from one hive to another, and to regulate the
movements of the bees—by destroying queen-cells, by giving
or withholding drone-comb, by extracting the honey, by intro-
ducing queens, and by many other manipulations to be ex-
plained, which are only practicable with a movable-comb hive.

MOVABLH-COMB HIVES.

‘There are, at present, two types of the movable-comb hive
in use among us, each of which is unquestionably valuable, as
each has advocates among our most intelligent, successful, and
extensive apiarists. Each, too, has been superseded by the
other, to the satisfaction of the person making the change.

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY,. 209

The kind most used consists of a box, in which hang the
frames which hold the combs. ‘The adjacent frames are so far
separated that the combs, which just fill them, shall be the
proper distance apart. In the other kind, the ends of the
frames are wider than the comb,and when in position are
close together, and of themselves form two sides of a box.
When in use these frames are surrounded bya second box,
without a bottom, which, with them, rests on a bottom-board.
Each of these kinds is represented by various forms, sizes,

Fic. 83.

Munn’s Improved Hive, after Munn.

etc., where the details are varied to suit the apiarist’s notion.
Yet, I believe thatall hives in present use, worthy of recom-
mendation, fall within one or the other of the above-named

types.
HARLY FRAME HIVES.
In 1843, Mr. Augustus Munn, of England, invented a mov-
able-comb hive (Fig. 82), which I need hardly say was not the
Langstroth hive, nora practical one. In 1851 this hive (Fig. 83)

210 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

was improved (?). Well does Neighbour say in his valu-
able hand-book, ‘‘ This invention was of no avail to apiarists.”’

M. DeBeauvoys, of France, in 1847, and Schmidt, of Ger-
many, in 1851, invented movable-comb hives. The frames
were tight-fitting, and, of course, not practical. Dzierzon
adopted the bar hive in 1838. In this hive each comb had to
be cut loose as it was removed. It is strange that Mr. Cheshire
speaks of Dzierzon’s hive in connection with the Langstroth.
It was a different type of hive entirely.

THE LANGSTROTH HIVE.

In 1851 our own Langstroth, without any knowledge of
what foreign apiarian inventors had done, save what he could
find in Huber, and edition 1838 of Bevan, invented the hive
(Fig. 84) now in common use among the advanced apiarists of

Fic. 84.

iN =
7a |

I
Att rh ——"

Two-story Langstroth Hive-—From A. I. Root Co,

America. It is this hive, the greatest apiarian invention evel
made, that has placed American apiculture in advance or that
of all other countries. What practical bee-keeper of America
could agree with H. Hamet, edition 1861, p. 166, who, in speak-
ing of the DeBeauvoys’ hive, says that the improved hives
were without value except to the amateur, and inferior for
practical purposes? Our apiarists not native to our shores,
like the late Adam Grimm, Mr. C. F. Muth and Mr. Charles
Dadant, always conceded that Mr. Langstroth was the inven-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 211

tor of this hive, and always proclaimed its usefulness. Well
did the late Mr. S. Wagner, the honest, fearless, scholarly,
truth-loving editor of the early volumes of the American Bee
“Journal, himself of German origin, say: ‘‘ When Mr. Lang-
stroth took up this subject, he well knew what Huber had done,
and saw wherein he had failed—failing, possibly, only because
he aimed at nothing more than constructing an observatory
hive suitable for his purposes. Mr. Langstroth’s object was
other and higher. He aimed at making frames movable, inter-
changeable, and practically serviceable in bee-culture.”” And
how true what follows: ‘‘ Nobody before Mr. Langstroth ever
succeeded in devising a mode of making and using a movable
frame that was of any practical value in bee-culture.’’ No
man in the world, besides Mr. Langstroth, was so conversant
with this whole subject as was Mr. Wagner. His extensive
library and thorough knowledge made hima competent judge.

Mr. Langstroth, though he knew of no previous invention
of frames contained in a case, when he made his invention, in
1851, does not profess to have been the first to have invented
them. Every page of his book shows his transparent honesty,
and his desire to give all due credit to other writers and inven-
tors. He does claim, and very justly, to have invented the
first practical frame hive, the one described in his patent,
applied for in January, 1851, and in all three editions of his
book.

For this great invention, as wellas his able researches in
apiculture, as given in his invaluable book, ‘‘ The Honey-Bee,”’
he has conferred a benefit upon our art which can not be over-
estimated, and for which we, asapiarists, can not be too grate-
ful. It was his book—one of my old teachers, for which I have
no word of chiding—that led me to some of the most delightful
investigations of my life. It was his invention—the Lang-
stroth hive—that enabled me to make those investigations.
For one, I shall always revere the name of Langstroth, as a
great leader in scientific apiculture, both in America and
throughout the world. His name must ever stand beside those
of Dzierzon and the elder Huber. Surely this hive, which left
the hands of the great master in so perfect a form that even
the details remain practically unchanged by many, I think

212 THE BEEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

most, of our first bee-keepers, should ever bear his name.
Thus, though many use square frames like the Gallup, or deep
frames, yet all are Langstroth hives.

CHARACTER OF THE HIVE.

‘The main feature of the hive should be simplicity, thereby
excluding drawers and traps of all kinds. The hive should be
made of good pine or whitewood lumber, thoroughly seasoned,

~~

Se
or]

Ss

=

ONS
LL

2

Principle of Warping.—From A. I. Root Co.

planed on both sides, and painted white on the outside. In
making the hive nail the heart side of the board out, so as to
prevent warping. To understand why see Fig.85. Figure 84

ss

o

ll
FECL

itl

One-story Langstroth Hive-—From A, I, Root Co.

represents a two-story Langstroth hive. As will be seen, this
has a portico, and a bottom-board firmly nailed to the hive.
Although Mr. Langstroth desired both these features, and
many now are like-minded, many others omit both features.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 213

This hive holds eight frames, which are as many as such bee-
keepers as Messrs. Heddon, Taylor and Hutchinson desire.
Figure 86 represents the Simplicity one-story Langstroth
hive as made by A. I. Root. This contains 10 frames, which,
unfortunately, were slightly modified so that they are 175%
instead of 173g inches long. Thus, this is not the Langstroth

Fic. 87.

Two-story Langstroth Hive (Gallup Frame.)—Original.

a Cover hinged to hive. b Upper story.
e Brood-chamber. d@ Bottom-board.
e Alighting-board. i Wide section-frames.

Brood-frames. h, h Frames outside hive,

214 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;

frame, but the Simplicity-Langstroth. This style, one-story,
is designed for securing comb honey, while the two-story (Fig.
84) is intended for use in obtaining extracted honey. Figure
87 represents a two-story Simplicity-Langstroth hive with
Gallup frame; which is 11!{ inches square. This hive is pre-
ferred by G. M. Doolittle. I have used it more than any other,
and it has much to recommend it. The Simplicity feature
invented by A. I. Root, I think, consists of a bevel union of
hive with cover and bottom-board (Fig. 87). I think Mr. Root
prefers this style no longer. Any Langstroth hive, with what-
Fic. 88.

= —_—— ae _

a 'S
il: mn)
TT i a_i TT : an
: eR si

ce INTE He qo

KONO IN Hl Ta i COC a

UT
NA

il ne |
ANC = a
Ht ba ~ il S|

Jones’ Chaff-Hive, Frame, Frame for Beets, Division-Board and eye
ated-Zine Division-Board.—From D, A, Jones.

ever frame, with these bevel connections is a Simplicity hive.
‘This hive can be used to secure either comb or extracted
honey. The bottom-board, d, and the alighting-board, ¢, may
be separate from each other and from the hive; the opening
may be made by cutting a V-shaped space in the bottom-board,
while the cover, a, may or may not be hinged to the upper
story. Mr. Root, in the original Simplicity, used the cover as
a bottom-board, and formed an entrance by pushing the hive a
little toone side. Many prefer to have the cover with a gable
(Fig. 88), so madeas to join the hive with a rabbet (Fig. 86 and
88), or to shut over the hive and rest on shoulders formed by

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 215

nailing cleats about the hive near the top. These are heavy
and costly. I much prefer a flat cover, and, if necessary to
keep out water, we can follow Mr. Doolittle’s plan and sheet
with tin or zinc, though I think this unnecessary.

Figure 88 represents the Jones chaff hive. This takesa
deep frame, and has double walls for chaff packing. ‘These
chaff hives are expensive, hard to handle and awkward to man-
age. After years of experience I discarded the chaff hives as
no better in summer than the single-walled hives, and not so
safe in winter asa good cellar. I have disposed of all of mine
except three, which I keep for examples. Many, however,
prefer such hives, and in some sections, and with some bee-
keepers, they may be desirable.

WHAT STYLE TO ADOPT,

For many yearsI have used the Heddon-Langstroth, and
like it so much that I recommend it above all others that I have
tried. It is not only the simplest hive I have ever seen, but
possesses many substantial advantages that are not possessed
by any other hive so farasI know. It can be used with any
size frame desired. I have it in use both with Langstroth and
Gallup frames. I am free to express my preference for the
Langstroth hive, with Langstroth frames. Its excellence
warrants me in doing so, and the fact that it is by far the most
used of any hive in the country, gives great advantage when
one wishes to buy or sell bees. No beginner can make a mis-
take in adopting this hive. I will describe the hive for Lang-
stroth frame, but would advise any one to geta good hive asa
pattern, if he is to adopt them, as much depends upon perfect
exactness. :

The bottom-board and alighting-board (Fig. 87) may be
separateif preferred, or not nailed tothe hive. Mr. Heddon
nails the bottom-board fast, and lets it project at one end, as
seen in the figure (Fig. 89). A hive-stand is made by taking
two boards (Fig. 89, F) six inches wide, and nearly as long as
the bottom-board. Connect these at one end by a board 4%
inches wide, and as long as the hive is wide, nailed firmly at the
bottom, and into the ends, and at the other end by a like board
nailed the same way. We see (Fig. 94) this end-piece at the

216 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

front of the hive nailed at the bottom so it rests on the ground.
At the opposite end a like piece is nailed in the same way, so
that all is even on the bottom. Figure 89 explains this better.
The bottom of the hive (Fig. 89, 4) is 13x19% inches, outside
measure, the sides made of six-eighths inch, bottom and cover of
five-eighths, and ends of seven-eighths inch lumber. The
height of this piain box is just 10 inches; that is, it is made of

Fre. 89

= — —

————
=
|

“or

———

Heddon-Langstroth Hive-—From James Heddon.

F Bottom-board. A Brood-chamber.
C Honey-board. D Case with sections.
E Cover.

boards 10 inches wide. The side boards are 19% inches long,
so that they nail to the ends of the end-boards. If the corners
are rabbeted, or, better, dovetailed (Fig. 90), they will be
stronger, and less apt to separate with age and use. When
used with the Gallup frame the ends of the hive project, and
are nailed into the ends of the side-boards. The end-boards
are rabbeted on top. This rabbet is cut three-eighths of an
inch deeper than the thickness of the top-bar of the frame.
With the Gallup frame (Fig. 96) we rabbet the side-boards. If
the top-bar is three-eighths of an inch thick this rabbet should

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 217

be six-eighths precisely. This is very important, as we must
have a three-eighths space exactly between the top-bar and the
top of the hive. If we make the hive ten and one-eighth (10%)
inches high we give a space of half-inch between the bottom
of the frame and bottom of hive. I like this wide space, and
there is no objection to it. Near the top of the hive we will
nail narrow cleats entirely around it; these strengthen the
hive, and are convenient supports by which to lift the hive.
Hand grooves (Fig. 90) can also be cut in end and side-boards
for convenience in handling, if desired. Mr. Root favors these
hand-holes always. They are easily cut, and are surely a
convenience.

The entrance is cut in the end of the hive (Fig. 89), and
the size is easily regulated by use of the Langstroth triangular

Fic. 90.

i Hors as f

Betis Hi ive.—From A, I. Root Co

blocks (Fig. 89, 8, &). Thus we may gauge the size to our
liking. I would have the entrance the whole width of the
hive, and seven-eighths of an inch high. This may aid to
prevent the bees hanging out of the hive, and likewise may
restrain the swarming impulse. The opening in the bottom-
board (Fig. 87) is preferred by many. This is enlarged or
restricted by simply pushing the hive forward or back, and, of

218 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE 3

course, can only be used with loose bottom-boards. ‘The fact
that most bee-keepers nail the bottom-board firmly and cut the
opening from the hive, argues that this on the whole is the
better style. For shipping and moving bees, which, with
‘‘out-apiaries ’’ and change of location to secure better pastur-
age, promises to be more and more the practice, the nailed

Fic. 91.

Queen-Excluding Honey-Board.—From D, A. Jones.

bottom-boards are very desirable; for quick cleaning of the
hives when spring opens, the movable bottoms are preferable.

There should never be but this one opening. Auger-holes
above, and openings opposite the entrance, are worse than
useless,

Except in very damp locations the hive should not rest
more than five or six inches from the ground. Tired and
heavily laden bees, especially on windy days, may fail to gain
the hive, if it is high up, as they return from the field.

For extracted honey, we use a second story precisely like
the body of the hive, exceptit is a half-inch lessin depth;
that is, the sides are 9% instead of 10 inches wide. Mr. Dadant
prefers half-story hives for the extracting frames, but he uses
the large Quinby frame (Fig. 95). If we wish we can follow Da-
dant, and use two or more of these upper stories, and tier up, in

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 219

which case we would not need to extract until the close of the
harvest, when the honey would be ripened in the hive.

Upon the body of the hive rests the slatted honey-board
(Fig. 91). It is seen in place (Figs. 89 and 93). This is also 13
by 19% inches. The outer rim of this valuable invention and
the slats are in one plane on the under surface, and the slats
are three-eighths of an inch apart, leaving passages that width
for the bees to pass through. On the upper surface the
rim projects three-eighths of an inch above the slats, so that if
a board be laid on the honey-board its lower surface will be
three-eighths of an inch above the slats. When the honey-
board is placed on the hive, the spaces between the slats must
rest exactly over the center of the top-bars of the brood-frames
below. In using hives with the Gallup or American frames
the slats of course will run crosswise of ‘the honey-board, and
as before must break joints with the top-bars of the frames.

i ivision-Board. Perforated-Zine Division-Board.
pen —From D. A. Jones.

The use of this prevents the bees from building brace-combs
above the brood-frames, and keeps the sections very neat. No
one after using this will do without it, Iamsure. By tacking
a piece of perforated-zinc (Fig. 92) on the under side of this
honey-board it also becomes a queen-excluder. The grooves
in the zinc must be very exact. They are .165 of an inch wide.
It is cheaper, and so better, simply to place a narrow strip of
the perforated-zinc between the slats of the honey-board (Fig.

220 THE BRE-KREPER’S GUIDE;

91). By grooving the edges of the slats it is easy to insert the
zinc strips when making the honey-board. ‘The honey-board
may be wholly of zinc with a wooden rim. The objection to
this is the fact that the zinc is likely to sag and bend. Mr.
Heddon suggests that a V-shaped piece of tin be soldered across
the middle to strengthen the zinc and prevent sagging. The
tin should be so placed as not to touch the frames below, but
come between them. Mr. Heddon also suggests that the
wooden rim be replaced by a narrow margin of the zinc itself,
bent at right angles to the plane of the metal.

THE HEDDON SURPLUS-CASEH.

As this admirable case is also a part of this hive, I will
describe it right here, though it properly belongs to the sub-
ject of case for surplus honey. This caseis just as long and
broad as the hive, and three-eighths of an inch deeper than the
height of the section to be used. (See Fig. 89, D.) Thus, on
the hive described it will be 13 by 19% inches, andif we use
common 1-pound sections, which are 4% inches square, it will
be 456 inches deep. Partitions are fastened in by use of
screws or nails just far enough apart to receive the sections;
thus, in the 1-pound sections, 414 inches apart. These parti-
tions are as wide as the crate or caseis deep. Narrow strips
of tin are nailed to the bottom of these partitions and to the
bottom of the ends of the case, projecting enough to sustain
the sections when they are placed in the case. It will be seen
that when in place the sections reach to within three-eighths of
an inch of the top of the case. This must be just three-eighths
of an inch. It keeps the sections all clean, but will not if not

Just this bee-space. .
THE COVER.

The cover of the hive (Fig. 89, £) isa plain board, a little
wider and longer than the hive. The ends of this are fitted
into a grooved cross-piece about twice as thick as the board,
and firmly nailed. These cross-pieces prevent the top from
warping and splitting. If preferred, the cover need be no
longer or wider than the hive. In this case cross-pieces should
be firmly nailed on the upper side to prevent warping or split-
ting. It will be seen that we have here no telescoping, and no

OR, MANUAL, OF THER APIARY. 221

beveling—simply one board rests upon another. At first I
was much prejudiced against this simple arrangement. After
giving it a thorough trial I wish nothing else. The only criti-
cism I have for this hive after several years’ experience is,
that if the board cover is used in spring, the protection is in-
sufficient. We break the propolis or glue in examining the
bees, and then as the bees can not glue all close at this early
season, the brood is apt to chill, and the bees to suffer, espe-
cially if the sides of the hives have shrunken, or the cover
warped. By use of a quilt or warm woolen cloth just the size
of the hive placed above, and a crate filled with dry sawdust
above this, allis made snug and comfortable, and even this
objection disappears. To adopt this style of hiveis not ex-
pensive. Wecan use the same frames as before, and can make
all new hives of this simple, plain pattern, and in time we will
have only these hives.

To shade the hive nothing is so good as a shade-board
made considerably wider than the hive, and nailed to two
cleats five inches wide. Thus, when resting on the hive this
shade-board will be five inches above the top of the hive. This
has never blown off of my hives. Should it do so a brick
could easily be fastened to the under side, out of sight, and
thus make it entirely safe against winds.

Thus I have described the Heddon-Langstroth hive
minutely, as with W. Z. Hutchinson, R. Ll. Taylor, and many
others of our most able and intelligent apiarists, I find it, upon
trial, as excellent as it is simple. Surely, when we can har-
ness excellence and simplicity together we have a most desir-
able team. The simple union of parts by mere plain contact
of the edges, or the cover simply lying on the hive, while it is
just as acceptable to the bees, makes the hive far more simple
of construction, and easy of manipulation. The honey-board
and bee-spaces keep all so neat, that as one bee-keeper well
says, their extra expense is very soon savedin the saving of
time which their use insures. Any who may think of trying
this hive better do as I did, try two or three at first, and see if
in their judgment the ‘‘ game is worth the candle.”

All hives should be well painted with white paint. This.
color makes the heat less trying to the combs and bees, While

222 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

it may not be profitable to paint, yet when neatness and dura-
bility are both considered, surely painting pays well. For
paint I would use white lead, zinc and oil—avout one-third as
much zinc as lead. Mr. Doolittle, whose opinion justly ranks
very high among American bee-keepers, thinks that white
paint makes shade unnecessary.

DIVISION-BOARD.

A close-fitting division-board (Fig. 92) is very important,
and no Langstroth hive is complete without it. Mr. Heddon,
in his excellent book, follows the English, and calls this a
dummy. Itis especially useful in autumn, winter and spring
in contracting the hive, and thus economizing heat, and at
the harvest seasons in contracting the brood-chamber, so as to
secure the honey in the sections where it is desired. It is
made the same formas the frames, but is alittle larger so
that it is close-fitting in the hive. It iseasily made by nailing
a top-bar of the usual frame on top of a board that will just fit
in the hive, and reach to the top of the rabbet. If desired the
board may be beveled at the edges. When the division-board
is inserted in the hive it separates the brood-chamber into two
parts by a close partition. Many bee-keepers make them like
a close-fitting frame and cover with cloth, which is stuffed
with chaff. Others groove the edges and insert a strip of cloth
orrubber. Thechaff board is for greater warmth, the rubber
to make the board fit closely, and yet give enough to make it
easy to withdraw the division-board when it swells from
dampness. Mr. Jones prefers that the division-board should
not reach quite to the bottom of the hive (Fig. 88). This en-
ables the bees to pass under, and as heat rises there is very
little objection to this bee-space under the division-board.

We use the division-board to contract the chamber in winter,
to vary it so as tokeep all combs covered with bees in spring, to
contract the brood-chamber when we wish to securea full
force of bees in the sections, to convert our hives into nucleus
hives for queen-rearing, and in case we secure comb honey in
two-story hives, which, however, we do not practice now, to
contract the upper chamber when the season first opens.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 223

CLOTH COVERS.

After the season is over, and the weather becomes cold,
about the 20th of September, it is well to remove the honey-
board, and to cover above the bees with a piece of heavy factory
cloth, which thus forms the immediate cover for the beesin
winter. The section-case full of dry, fine sawdust has now
this cloth for its bottom, while the cover of the hive rests on
the section-case.

It will be noted that I have made no mention in the above
of metal rabbets, or, more correctly, metal supports. I have
tried these for some years, and have usually recommended
them, but for the past several yearsI have omitted them, and
think I shall have no further use for them in my hives. If we
wish them we have only to cut the rabbeta little deeper and
tack inside the hive, just below the rabbet, a narrow strip of
heavy tin, which shall projecta little above the wooden rabbet,
just enough to raise the top of the frame to within three-
eighths of an inch of the top of the hive. Theadvantages of
these are that they make a very narrow rest or support for the
frames, and so the latter are more easily loosened, and in care-
less hands are less apt to kill bees when put into the hives. It
is always easy, however, by meansof a chisel to loosen frames,
and if we are often manipulating our bees, as when extracting
in summer, the frames are easily loosened without the metal
supports. Some apiarists make hives without rabbets, making
the frames to rest on the topof the hive. I have tried such
hives thoroughly, and wish no more of them. Of course, with
such hives the valuable honey-board and bee-spaces are im-
possible.

THH NEW HEDDON HIVE.

Mr. Heddon has patented and offered to the public a new
hive which combines in principle the Langstroth and the
Huber. Ihave tried this hive only for a short time, and so,
guided by the rule I have always adopted, I do not recommend
it. Yet the experienced bee-keeper can often judge correctly
of what he has never tried, and I will add that I fully believe
this hive and the method Mr. Heddon gives of manipulation in
his valuable book, are well worth our attention. Mr. Heddon

224 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

is so able that he rarely recommends what is not valuable.
Several others have tried this hive, and speak in the highest
terms of its value. Among these are no less authorities than
R. L. Taylor and W. Z. Hutchinson. At the beginning of this
chapter I caution all against patent hives. This is necessary,
as so many frauds have been committed under this guise; but
if Mr. Heddon has given us something as valuable as it is
unique and original, he well deserves a patent, which should
be thoroughly respected, as should all worthy inventive effort.
From my brief experience I fear the hive is too complicated
for the average bee-keeper. With a much longer experience
(1900) Ican not recommend it. It works admirably if every-
thing is perfectly exact; otherwise it isa vexation. Absolute
exactness is rare in our day and world.

I shall describe the hive only in brief, advising all who.
wish to investigate this newcomer, to procure Mr. Heddon’s
work, ‘‘ Success in Bee-Culture,’’ as this will bean excellent
investment aside from the matter of the hive.

This hive (Fig. 93) has close-fitting frames fastened in a
case by use of wooden thumb-screws. The end-bars of the
frames are wide like those of the Huber hives, and rest on tin
supports. The top and bottom bars of the hives are only as
wide as the natural comb, seven-eighths of an inch. The
frames are only five and three-eighths (534) inches deep, and
this with the wide spaces between them makes it possible to do
much withont removing the frames. There is a three-eighths
inch space above the frames, and a honey-board as in the
Heddon-Langstroth hive.

Thus, one or two shallow hives can be used, and to con-
tract the brood-chamber at any time we have only to remove
one of them. Figure 93 shows the hive, which, with two
brood-chambers, gives about the capacity of a 10-frame Lang-
stroth hive. As all frames are securely held by the screws,
any brood-chamber can be reversed, or any two can change
places at the pleasure of the bee-keeper. I have found the
screws to swell and work with extreme difficulty. I think Mr.
Taylor excludes the screws, and wedgesthe frames instead.
As the combs will all be firmly attached on all sides to the
frames, there is no space for hiding, and the queen can gen-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 225

erally be found without removing the frames. I haveseen Mr.
Taylor find several queens with these hives in a few minutes
time.

Fic. 93.

i ins
ih SO

The New Heddon Hive.—From James Heddon.

d Stand. D E S8ection-cases. H Thumb-screw.
B C Two sections, M Slatted honey-board. F Cover.

226 THE BHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

The bottom-board (Fig, 94) has a raised rim. Thus the
frames are one-half inch from the bottom. Of course, the
bottom-board is loose. Mr. Heddon recommends single-story
wide-frames with separators for the sections. These are alsc
secured by the screws, and so any frame or the whole case can
be reversed at will.

Of course, the old Heddon case without separators could be
used, but could not be reversed. The points of excellence
claimed for this hive,and I know from my experience that
they are real, are easy contraction of brood-chamber, quick
inversion of the brood-chamber or section-case, ease and quick-

Fic. 94.

Heddon Bottom-Board.—From James Heddon.

ness Of manipulation, and the interchangeableness of the
brood-chambers forming the hive,and the power we have by
quick and easy contraction of the brood-chamber to get all
light-colored honey in the sections if we so desire.

Mr. J. M. Shuck has also patenteda hive for which he
claims the same advantages gained in the new Heddon hive. I
have not worked with it enough to recommend it. I fear the
hives are too complex for the general bee-keeper. The fact,
too, that perfection of work and measurements despite our best
care are very rare, urges against this hive, as it must be very
accurate or itis asore vexation. I advise all to go slowin
adopting them, as we know the old, tried ones are excellent. 7

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 227

fear that in the hands of the general bee-keepers these new
hives will not prove satisfactory.

THE FRAMES.

The form and size of frames, though not quite as various
as the persons whouse them, are still very different (Fig. 95).
Some prefer large frames. I first tried the Quinby frame, and
afterward the Langstroth (Fig. 95). The advantage claimed

Fic. 95.
12
18% re
by
l= AMERICAN.
QUINBY. x
ny
175%
£g GALLUP.
LANGSTROTH. ®
od
13% n 19%
ADAIR. X

CLOSED END QUINBY. [2

Brood- Frames.—From A. I. Root Co.

for large frames is that there are less to handle, and time is
saved; yet may not smaller frames be handled so much more
dextrously, especially if they are to be handled through all the
long day, as to compensate, in partat least, for the number ?
The advantage of the shallow frame is, as claimed, that the
bees will gointo boxes more readily; yet they are not consid-
ered by some bee-keepers as safe for out-door wintering. This
is the style recommended and used by Mr. Langstroth, which
fact may account for its popularity in the United States.

228 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

Another frame in common use, is one about one foot square. I
have long used one 11)4 inches square, and still think that this
frame has much to commend it. It is light, easily handled,
convenient for nucleus hives, and perhaps the best form for
forming a compact winter cluster; and yet upon mature re-
flection I have decided to use in future, as already stated, the
Langstroth frame, and advise all others to do so.

It is very desirable to have beesin hives such as others
will wish in case we sell bees, as every bee-keeper is almost

Fic. 96.

Gallup Frame.—Original.

a Top-bar. ec Comb-guide.
b, b Side-bars or uprights. d Bottom-bar.

sure to do more or less each year. The Langstroth hive is used
much more generally than any other, and thatit is excellent
is shown in the fact that most of our successful bee-keepers,
from Canada to the Gulf, use it, and I am free to say that,
taking the whole country through, it is doubtful if a better
style or form exists than the regular Langstroth. The chief
objection urged against its use, that it is not the best form
to secure safe wintering, lacks force in view of the fact that
many who have been most successful use this frame. Indeed,
with thorough protection this frame is as good as any, and
most bee-keepers are learning that in our Northern States pro-
tection is absolutely essential to success.

That we shall ever have a uniform frame used by all api-
arists, though exceedingly desirable, is too much to be hoped.
Ido not think there is sufficient advantage in any form to war-
rant us in holding to it, if by yielding we could secure this
uniformity. Nor doIthink the form and size so material as

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 229

to make it generally desirable for the apiarist tochange all his
hives, to secure a different style of frame.

To make a Langstroth frame I would use a top-bar (Fig.
96)—the figure illustrates a Gallup frame which is square, and
will serve to make this explanation clearer, eighteen and seven-
eighths (187%) inches long, seven-eighths (7%) of an inch wide,
and one-fourth (4%) of an inch thick. The end-bars (Fig. 96,
6, 6) should be eight and five-eighths (854) inches long, and as
wideand thick as the top-bar. The top-bar is fastened to the
end-bars, as shown in the figure, by nailing through it into

Fic. 97.

Reversible Frame, Upper one hung in the Hive, Lower one partly reversed.
—From James Heddon.

the ends of the end-bars, soas to leave the top-bar projecting
three-fourths (34) of an inch. The bottom-bar is seventeen and
three-eighths (1734) inches long, and as wide arid thick as the
other parts—though it may be only one-half as thick if pre-
ferred. It is also nailed to the ends of the end-bars, so that it
isaslong asthe frame. The parts when made at the factory
are often dovetailed so as to be more securely united.

For some years I have used the reversible frame (Fig. 97),
which has valuable features which would warrant its use were

230 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

it not for its complexity. With this frame there is no danger
of the top-bar sagging, which is sure to enlarge the bee-space
above and create mischief, and by inverting we secure the firm
attachment of the comb to the frame along all its edges,
and it helps to force our bees into the sections, simply
by inverting the combs. This may not always succeed with
the unskillful—some bee-keepers report failure—and it re-
quires some time and attention. Figure 97 shows the charac-
ter of the reversible frame as made by Mr. Heddon, and which
I have found to work the best of any that I have used. As
will be seen, the reversible partis a rectangle, pivoted in the
center to the bottom of the short end-bars. These short end-
bars at the top come within one-fourth (4%) inch of the side of
the hive, and thin a little as they run down, so that the lower
end is three-eighths (3s) of an inch from the side of the hive.
The bottom of the frame, indeed all below the short end-bar,
is three-fourths (34) of an inch from the side of the hive. This
makes it easy to put in the frames without crushing the bees.
It might be supposed that the bees would build combs between
the lower end of the frame and the hive, but I have never seen
acase of the kind, andI have used such. frames now quite
extensively for several years. These frames reverse very
easily, and I do not know a single person who has thoroughly
tried them, who does not value them highly. Here again let
me suggest that in making changes, a few be tried first, and
not all till we know we wish them.

As the use of comb foundatiow secures straight combs,
with no drone-cells, it isvery desirable. When this is fastened
by merely pressing or sticking it to the top-bar, it is apt to
sag and warp, hence it is becoming quite the custom to wire
the frames (Fig.97). This insures perfect safety if we wish to
ship our bees, and secures against sagging or bulging of the
foundation. If the foundation is put on with the Given press
as the foundation is made, No. 36 wire is used; if pressed on
by hand No. 30 wire is better.

The timber for frame should be thoroughly seasoned, and
of the best pine or white wood. Care should be taken that the
frame be made so as to hang vertically, when suspended on

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 231

the rabbets of the hive. To secure this very important point—
true frames that will always hang true—they should always
be made around a guide.

A BLOCK FOR MAKING FRAMKES.

This may be made as follows: Take a rectangular board
(Fig. 98) eleven and one-eighth by thirteen and a quarter
inches. On both ends of one face of this, nail hard-wood
pieces (Fig. 98, ¢, e) one inch square and ten and three-fourths
inches long, so that one end (Fig. 98, g, g) shall lack three-
eighths inch of reaching the edge of the board. On the other
face of the board, nail a strip (Fig. 98, c) four inches wide and
eleven and three-eighths inches long, at right angles to it, and
in such position that the ends shall just reach to the edges of

Block for making Gallup Frames.—Original.

the board. Midway between the one-inch-square pieces, screw
on another hard-wood strip (Fig. 98, d) one inch square and
four inches long, parallel with and three-fourths of an inch
from the edge. To the bottom of this, screw a semi-oval piece
of hoop-steel (Fig. 98, 6, 5), which shall bend around and press
against the square strips. The ends of this should not reach
quite to the bottom of the board. Near the ends of this spring
fasten, by rivets, a leather strap an inch wide (Fig. 98, a),

232 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

which shall be straight when thusriveted. These dimensions
are for frames eleven and one-fourth inches square, outside
measure, and must be varied for other sizes. Instead of the
iron and strap, some use two pieces of wood with a central
pivot. The upper ends of these levers are united by a strong
elastic cord, so that the lower ends are constantly pressed
against the side-pieces of the block. Recently we have used
in such blocks, both for frame and section-making, a single
hard-wood strip, a little shorter than the distance between the
strips¢ande. Thisis pivoted at the center to the center of
the block. This isa very simple way to hold the side-pieces
firmly against the strips ¢, e. We have only to turn this lever.

To use this block, we crowd the end-bars of our frames
between the steel springs (Fig. 98, 6, 5) and the square strips
(Fig. 98, e, e); then lay on our top-barand nail, after which we
invert the block and nail the bottom-bar, as we did the top-bar.
Now press down on the strap (Fig. 98, a), which will loosen
the frame, when it may be removed all complete and true.
Such a gauge not only insures perfect frames, but demands
that every piece shall be cut with great accuracy, and some
such arrangement should always be used in making the
frames.

The above description and Fig. 98 are for Gallup frames.
For Langstroth frames the hard-wood strips would be eight
and five-eighths (85g) inches long, and the distance between
them would be sixteen and seven-eighths (16%) inches, that is,
if the frames are made of pieces one-fourth of an inch thick.
To make reversible frames we use two such guides. Wire nails
are very excellent for making frames, and just the thing for
the pivots in reversible frames.

When the frames are in the hive there should be at least a
one-fourth or three-eighths inch space between the end of the
frame and side of the hive. As before stated, the space below
the frame may be one-half inch. A much wider space on the
sides than that given above is likely to be filled with comb,
and so prove vexatious. The wide space below gives no such
trouble,and in winter it is desirable, as also in case the hive
shrinks. It is very undesirable to have the frames reach to
the bottom of the hive.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 233

The distance between the frames may be one-half of an
inch, or best one and three-eighths inches from center to cen-
ter of the frames. This is better than one and one-half, as
the brood is kept warmer, and worker-brood is more likely to
be reared. A slight variation either way does noharm. Some
men, of very precise habits, prefer nails or wire staples in the
side and bottom of the frames. Mr. Cheshire calls these his
suggestions, though Mr. Langstroth used them over twenty
years ago, which, if I am correctly informed, was before Mr.
Cheshire kept bees at all. These are to insure equal spacing
of the frames. Mr. Jones prolongs the sides and bottom of
the frame (Fig. 88) for the same purpose. These projections
extend just a quarter of aninch, so as to maintain this un-
varying distance. Some bee-keepers use frames with wide,
close-fitting end-bars, or with top-bars wide and close-fitting

Fic. 99.

Hoffman Frames,—From A. I. Root Co,

attheends. Mr. Root now favors the Hoffman frame (Fig.
99), as he calls it, which has the top-bar and upper ends of the
end-bars wide and close-fitting. He claims more rapid hand-
ling, as the frames, he says, can be handled in groups. I
have tried all these styles, and do not like them. It is easy for
any bee-keeper to try them. ‘‘Prove all things; hold fast
that which is good,” or that which pleases you.

COVER FOR FRAMES.

As before stated, a board covers the hive all through the
honey season. This rests upon the upper story of the hive, or
upon the upper section-case. From September to June, in the

234 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

cold Northern climate, a piece of thick factory cloth should
rest on the frames as before stated. This is just the size of
the hive, and when properly adjusted no beecan pass above it.
By cutting on three sides of an inch square, we form a flap in
this cloth which may be turned back to permit the bees to enter
the feeder, when feeding isdesired. In fall, winterandspring,
a section-case left on the hive and filled with fine sawdust or
chaff is a most desirable substitute for a heavy, awkward chaff
hive. Dr. Miller covers the year through with a cloth cover.

THE HUBER HIVE.

The other type of hives originated when Huber hinged
several of hig leaf or unicomb hives together so that the frames
would open like the leaves of a book. In August, 1779, Huber
wrote to Bonnet as follows: ‘I took several small fir-boxes, a
foot square and fifteen lines wide, and joined them togther
by hiuges, so that they could be opened and shut like the
leaves of a book. When using a hive of this description, we
took care to fix a comb in each frame, and then introduced all
the bees.”’ (Edinburgh edition of Huber, p. 4.) Although
Morlot and others attempted to improve the hive, it never
gained favor with practical apiarists.

In 1866, Mr. T. F. Bingham, then of New York, improved
upon the Huber hive, securing a patent on his triangular-frame
hive. This, sofaras Ican judge, was the Huber hive made
practical. Mr. Bingham now uses a modification of this hive
(Fig. 101).

In 1868, Mr. M. S. Snow, then of New York, now of Minne-
sota, procured a patent on his hive, which was essentially the
same asthe hives now known as the Quinby and Bingham
hives.

Soon after, the late Mr. Quinby brought forth his hive,
which is essentially the same as the above, only differing in
details. No patent was obtained by Mr. Quinby, whose great
heart and boundless generosity endeared him to all acquaint-
ances. Those who knew him best never tire of praising the
unselfish acts and life of this noble man. If we except Mr.
Langstroth, no other man, especially in the early days, did so
much to promote the interest and growth of improved apicul-

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 235

ture in the United States. His hive, his book, his views of win-
tering, and foul brood, hisintroduction of the bellows-smoker—
a gift to apiarists—all speak his praise asa man andan api-
arist.

The facts that the Bingham hive, as now made, is a great
favorite with those that have used it, that Mr. Quinby pre-
ferred this style or type of hive, that the Quinby form is used
by the Hetherington brothers—Capt. J. E., the prince of Ameri-
can apiarists, with his thousands of colonies, and O. J., whose
neatness, precision, and mechanical skill are enough to
awaken envy—are surely sufficient to excite curiosity and be-
speak a description.

The Quinby hive (Fig. 100) as used by the Hetherington
brothers, consists of a series of rectangular frames (Fig. 100)

Fic. 100.

Frame, Bottom-Board and Frame-Support, of Quinby Hive.—Original.

twelve by seventeen inches, outside measure. The end-bars
of these frames are one and one-half inches wide, and half an
inch thick. The top and bottom one inch wide and half an
inch thick. The outer halves of the end-bar project one-fourth
of an inch beyond the top and bottom bars. This projection
is lined on the inside with sheet-iron, which is inserted in a
groove which runs one inch into eachend of the end-pieces,
and is tacked by the same nails that fasten the end-bars to the
top and bottom bars. ‘This iron at the end of the bar bends in
at right-angles (Fig. 100, 2), and extends one-fourth of an inch
parallel with the top and bottom bars, Thus, when these

236 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

frames stand side: by side, the ends are close, while half-inch
openings extend between the top and bottom bars of adjacent
frames. The bottom-bars, too, are one-fourth of an inch from
the bottom-board. Tacked to the bottom-board, in line with
the position of the back end-bars of the frames, is an inch
strip of sheet-iron (Fig. 100, 4, 6) sixteen inches in length.
One-third of this strip, from the front edge back, is bent over
so it lies not quite in contact with the second third, while the
posterior third receives the tacks which hold it to the bottom-
board. Now, when in use, this iron flange receives the hooks
on the corners of the frames, so that the frames are held
firmly, and can be moved only back and sidewise. In looking
at the bees we can separate the combs at once, at any place.
The chamber can be enlarged or diminished simply by adding
or withdrawing frames. As the hooks are on all four corners
of the frames, the frames can be either end back, or either side
up. This arrangement, which permits the inversion of the
frames, is greatly praised by those who have triedit. It was
claimed by the Hetheringtons years ago that by turning these
frames bottom up the comb would be fastened above and
below, and the bees, in their haste to carry the honey from the
bottom of the frames, would rush at once into the sections.
Boards with iron hooks close the side of the brood cavity,
while a cloth covers the frames.

The entrance (Fig. 100, e) is cut in the bottom-board, as
already explained, except that the lateral edges are kept
parallel. A strip of sheet-iron (Fig. 100, d) is tacked across
this, on which rest the ends of the front end-bars of the frames
which stand above, and underneath which pass the bees as
they come to and go fromthe hive. A box, without bottom
and with movable top, covers all, leaving a space from four
to six inches above and on all sides between it and the frames.
This gives chance to pack with chaff in winter, and for side
and top storing in sections in summer.

The Bingham hive (Fig. 101) is not only remarkably sim-
ple, but is as remarkable for its shallow depth, the frames
being only five inches high. ‘These have no bottom-bar. The
end-bars are one and a half inches wide, and the top-bar
square. The nails that hold the end-bars pass into the end of

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 237

the top-bar, which is usually placed diagonally, so that an
edge, not a face, is below; though some are made with a face
below (Fig. 101, £), to be used when comb is transferred. The
frames are held together by two wires, one at each end. Each
wire (Fig. 101, a) is a little longer than twice the width of the
hive when the maximum number of frames are used. The
ends of each wire are united and placed about nails (Fig. 101,
6,6) in the ends of the boards (Fig. 101 c,c) which form the sides
of the brood-chamber. A small stick (Fig. 101, a) spreads

Fic. 101.

IS

Frames and Bottom-Board of the Bingham Hive—From A. I. Root Co.

these wires, and brings the frames close together. A box
without bottom and with movable cover, is placed about the
frames. Thisislarge and high enough to permit of chaff
packing in winter and spring. The bottom-board may be
made like the one already described. Mr. Bingham does not
bevel the bottom-board, but places lath under three sides of
the brood-chamber, the lath being nailed to the bottom-board.
He uses the Langstroth blocks to contract the entrance (Fig.
101, g).

The advantages of this hive are simplicity, great space
above for surplus frames or boxes, capability of being placed
one hive above another to any height desired, while the frames
may be reversed, end for end, or bottom for top, or the whole
brood-chamber turned upside down. Thus, by doubling, we
may have a depth of ten inches for winter. It will be seen at
once that this hive possesses all the advantages claimed for
the new Heddon and Shuck hives, except the frames are not
held so securely. Yetitis far more simple, which is greatly
in its favor.

238 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

The objections which I have found in the use of such hives
are the fact that so few usethem, and danger of killing bees
in rapid handling. They can be manipulated with rapidity if
we care not how many bees we crush. It hurts meto killa
bee, and soI find the Langstroth style more quickly manipu-
lated. Mr. Snow, too, who was the first to make the above
style of hive, has discarded it in favor of the Langstroth. His
objection to the above, is the fact that the various combs are
not sure to be so built as tobe interchangeable. Yet that such
apiarists as those above named prefer these Huber hives, after
long use of the other style, is certainly not without significance.

OBSERVATORY HIVE.

To study bees while they are at work, requires a hive so
constructed that we can look in upon all the bees of the hive

Fic. 102.

Observatory Hive.—Original.

at pleasure. For this purpose I haveused a small Langstroth
hive (Fig. 102) containing one frame. Glass is used each side
of ‘the frame, and this is shaded by doors hung on hinges. We
are able to look at the bees or make all dark inside at pleasure.
To prevent the hive from becoming too crowded, we must every
twenty-three or twenty-four days shake the bees from the

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 239

frame, and replace the latter with another frame, which shall
contain no brood. From sucha hive, in my study window, I
have received much pleasure and information.

APPARATUS FOR PROCURING COMB HONEY.

Although I feel sure that extracted honey will grow more
and more in favor, yet it will never supersede the beautiful
comb, which, from its exquisite flavor and attractive appear-
ance, has always been, and always will be, admired and
desired. So, nohive is complete without its arrangement of
section frames and cases, all constructed with the view of
securing this delectable comb honey in the form that will be
most tempting to the eye and palate.

SURPLUS COMB HONEY IN SECTIONS.

Honey in several-pound boxes is no longer marketable,
and is now almost wholly replaced by comb honey in sections.
In fact, there is no apparatus for securing comb honey that
promises so well as these sections. That they are just the
thing to enable us to tickle the market is shown by their rapid
growth in popular favor. Some years ago I predicted, at one
of our State conventions, that they would soon replace boxes,
and was laughed at. Nearly all who then laughed, now use
these sections. They are cheap, and with their use we can get
more honey, and in a form that will make it irresistible.

The wood should be white, the size small—two-pound sec-
tions are as large as the market wlll tolerate. One-pound
sections are more salable, andin some markets even one-half
pound sections are best of all. Of late, Mr. W. Harmer, of
Manistee, Mich., is making and using successfully a two-
ounce section. Thisis very neatandcheap. It is madeofa
shaving, andis glued. Such sections would be the thing to
sellat fairs. ‘The size of the sections has nothing to do with
the amount of honey secured, and so the market and extra cost
should guide the apiarist in this matter.

As early as 1877 I used veneer sections, which were essen-
tially the same as the one-piece sections now so popular.
After this I used nailed sections. At present only the very
neatest sections can catch the market, and so we must buy our

240 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

sections of those who can make them by machinery neater and
cheaper than we possibly can by hand.

Dr. C. C. Miller, James Heddon, and many others, prefer
sections made as are children’s toy blocks—the sides fastened
by a sort of mortise and tenon arrangement (Fig. 103). These
are preferred, as they do not have the shoulder of the one-

Fic. 103.

Dovetailed Section.—From A. I. Root Co.

piece section. They are objected to from the longer time re-
quired to put the pieces together, and their lack of rigidity
when together, so that they are likely to get out of shape.

The Wheeler section—invented and patented by Mr. Geo.
T. Wheeler, of Mexico, N. Y., in 1870—is remarkable for being

Fic. 104.
One-Pound Section.—From A. I. Root Co.
Fic. 105.

es —— a

Prize Section.—From A. I. Root Co.

the first to be used with tinseparators. Instead of making the
bottoms narrower for a passage, Mr. Wheeler made an open-
ing in the bottom.

Another style of section, termed the one-piece section (Fig.
104), is, as its name implies, made of a single piece of wood,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 241

with three cross cuts so that it can be easily bent into a square.
The fourth angle unites by notches and projections, as before
described. ‘These one-piece sections are now, I think, the
favorites among bee-keepers. I prefer these to the dovetailed.
They are quickly and safely bent, if dampened slightly before
bending, and are firm when in shape foruse. Dr. Miller wets
these quickly by pouring hot water at the to be corners while
they are yetin the package. They must be even in the pack.
If, as argued by Messrs. Dadant, Foster and Tinker, the sec-
tions open on all sides are superior, then we must perforce use
these one-piece sections, rather than the dovetailed.

This last desirable feature is best secured in the plain
section (Fig. 106), so-called in distinction from the bee-space

Fic. 106.

Plain Sections in Super, Showing Frame-Holders and Fence.
—From A, I, Root Co.

or bee-way sections just described. These are like the ends of
the one-piece section all around (Fig. 106); that is, the bottom
and top are not cut out to form bee-spaces. These plain sec-
tions give free communication, and thus are more readily
filled, andas the honey projects to the very edge they look
neater (Fig. 108). Of course, there is less wood thanin the
bee-space sections, and all edges are even. They are more
easily and quickly scraped to remove propolis, etc. They are

242 THE BEK-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

rapidly growing in favor. These are used with ‘‘fences,’’ to
be described, and in the ordinary supers (Fig. 106).

Heretofore there have been two prevailing sizes of sec-
tions in use in the United States—the prize section (Fig. 105),
which is five and one-fourth by six and one-fourth inches, and
the one-pound section (Fig. 104), which is four and one-fourth
inches square. The latter is coming rapidly to the front, as

Fic. 107.

Plain Sections in Super; Showing Fence.—From A. I. Root Co.

honey in it sells more readily than if in a larger section. Even
half-pound sections have taken the lead in the Boston and
Chicago markets. It is barely possible that these small sections
will rule generally in the markets of the future. They would
often sell more readily, and are far better to ship, as the combs
will seldom if ever break from the sections. If, in arranging
our sections, we desire to have them oblong, we would better
' make them so that they will be longestup and down. Mr. D.
A. Jones finds that if so made they are filled and capped much
sooner (Fig. 108). Captain J. E. Hetherington prefers the
oblong section, being one which is three and seven-eighths by
fiveinches. Mr. Danzenbaker uses one which is four by five
inches. He thinks honey in such sections (Fig. 108) sells fora
higher price. In the depth of the section, which fixes the
thickness of the comb, a change from the common style seems
to be desirable. Heretofore they have been generally made
two inches deep. With such sections we must use separators
to secure perfect combs. Dr. Miller uses separators, and pre-
fers a depth of one and five-sevenths, or two inches. By
reducing the depth to from one and three-eighths to one and

CX, MANUAL OF THH APIARY. 243

three-fourths inches, the expense of separators is found by
some to be unnecessary. In feeding back to have sections
completed, or where each section is removed as soon as capped,
separators are indispensable. While I have never succeeded
satisfactorily without separators—as the sections of comb
would not be regular enough to ship well—yet I prefer the
depth of my sections to be one and five-sevenths inches, or
seven to the foot. These hold about three-fourths of a pound.
I now believe that the best section for to-day is one four and
one-quarter inches square and one and five-sevenths inches in

Fic. 108.

Aa X 4/4

Oblong and Square Sections.—From A. I. Root Co.

depth. We secure nicer comb forthe table, with the thinner
combs, and more bees are ableto work on a super or frame of
sections, so that the foundation is more speedily drawn out.
While a little more honey might be secured in two-pound sec-
tions, the market would, I think, make their use undesirable.
Of course, any decided change in the form and size of our sec-
tions involves no stnall expense, as it requires that the supers

244 THE BER-KERPER’S GUIDE;

or frames for holding the sections should also be changed.
Often, however, by a little planning we can vary the form so
as to reduce the size, without necessitating this expense.

HOW TO PLACK SECTIONS IN POSITION.

There are two methods, each of which is excellent, and
has, as it well may, earnest advocates—one by use of frames,
the other by supers. ©

SECTIONS IN FRAMES.

Frames for holding sections (Fig. 109) are made the same
size as the frames in the brood-chamber. The depth of the

Fic. 109.

Gallup Section-Frame.—Original.

frame, however, is the same as the depth of the sections. The
bottom-bar is three-eighths of an inch narrower than the
remainder of the frame, so that when two frames are side by
side, ‘there is three-eighths of an inch space between the bot-
tom-bars, though the top and side pieces are close together.
In case sections are used that are open on all sides, then the
ends of the section-frames must also be narrow. I should fear
such an arrangement would be objectionable from the amount
of propolis that would be used by the bees to make all secure.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 245

The sections are of such a size (Fig. 110) that four, six or
nine, etc., will just fill one of the large frames. Nailed to one
side of each large frame are two tin, or thin wooden, strips
(Fig. 110, ¢, 2) in case separators are to be used, as long as the
frame, and as wide into one inch as are the sections. These
are tacked half aninch from the top and the bottom of the

Fic. 110.

Gallup Frame with Sections, —Original.

large frames, and so are opposite the sections, thus permitting
the bees to pass readily from one tier of sections to another,
as do the narrower top and bottom bars of the sections, from
those below to those above. Captain Hetherington tells me
that Mr. Quinby used these many years ago. It is more
trouble to make these frames if we have the tins set in so as
just to come flush with the edge of the end-bars of the frames,
but then the frames would hang close together, and would not
be so stuck together with propolis. These may be hung in the
second story of a two-story hive, and just enough to fill the
same—my hives will take nine—or they can be put below,
beside the brood-combs. Mr. Doolittle, in case he hangs these
below, inserts a perforated division-board, so that the queen
will not enter the sections and lay eggs.

246 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

The perforated-zinc division-board (Fig. 92) would serve
admirably for this purpose. A honey-board (Fig. 91) of the
same material keeps sections, either in supers or frames, that
are above the hive, neat, and also keeps the queen from enter-
ing them. ‘The workers enter just as freely.

In long hives, the ‘‘ New Idea’’—which, though I would
not use, nor advise any one else to use, I have found quite sat-
isfactory, after several years’ trial, especially for extracted
honey—I have used these frames of sections, and with good
success. The Italians enter them at once, and fill them even
more quickly than other bees fill the sectionsin the upper
story. In fact, one great advantage of these sections in the
frames is the obvious and ample passageways, inviting the

Fic. 111.

Langstroth Frame with One-Pound Sections.—From A. I. Root Co.

bees to enter them. But in our desire to make ample and invit-
ing openings, caution is required that wedo not overdo the
matter, and invite the queen to injurious intrusion. So we
have Charybdis and Scylla, and must, by study, learn so to
steer between as to avoid both dangers.

Mr. Jones finds that by using the division-board made of
perforated-zinc (Fig 92), the queen is kept from the sections,
and they can be safely placed in one end of the body of the
hive.

Figure 111 shows a Langstroth frame full of one-pound
sections. As already stated, Mr. Heddon recommends the use
of one-story wide-frames, with separators, and so madeas to
admit of inversion (Fig. 93). At first I used these deep frames
exclusively. The great objection to them is the daubing with
propolis, and difficulty of removing the sections from the wide

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 247

frames. This has led me to replace the wide frames by the
more convenient and desirable section-case or crate.

CRATES OR, RACKS.

These (Fig. 112) are to be usedin lieu of large frames, to
hold sections, and are very convenient, as we can use one tier

Fic. 112.

Crate for Sections.—Original.

at first, and asthe harvest advances tier up, or “‘ storify,”’ as
our British friends would say, until we may use three, or even

7 Fic. 113.

L Super.—From A. I. Root Co.

four, tiers of sections on a single hive. I think this far the
best arrangement for securing comb honey.

Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, have long used a
very neat rack, as seen in Fig. 112.

248 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

It will be seen that the Heddon case (Fig. 93), already
described (page 225) as a part of the Heddon-Langstroth hive,
is only a modification of the Southard crate. This crate does
not permit the use of separators.

The case or super preferred and used by Dr. C. C. Miller
(Fig. 113) is one with | shaped tin supports, on which rest the
sections. This is just like the Heddon case, except the parti-
tions are omitted. Projecting tin strips are tacked on the bot-
tom of the sides as wellas ends. These strips on the ends
help hold the end rows of sections, while those on the sides
hold the | shaped tins, which in turn support the sections. As
the vertical part of the | supports the separator, it should not
be more than one-half inch high. As most of us use—must
use—separators, this is probably one of the best section-honey

Fic. 114.

Hilton T Super.—From A, I. Root Co.

cases for us, and so one of the best arrangements for securing
comb honey. Mr. Hilton (Fig. 114), of Michigan, does not like
the movable | supports, and so he omits the projecting tin
pieces, and tacks the 4 tins at the endsto the bottom of the
side of the case.

Mr. Heddon has a case (Fig. 93) which permits inversion,
through the use of wide frames and thumb-screws. Still
another method to support sections (Fig. 115) has many advo-
cates. The case is like the one used with the | tins, but has

‘ projecting tin supports tacked to the ends only. On these rest

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 249

plain frames with no top-bar (Fig. 115), which in turn support
the sections. If bee-space sections are used, then the bottom-
bar of these frame-supports must have bee-ways or spaces cut

Fic. 115.

SE ==
Dovetailed Super with Frames and Section-holders.—From A. I. Root Co.

D Wooden Separator.
£ Sections with Foundation Starters.

in them. These are also used to hold the plain sections (Fig.
106), in which case, as the fence (Fig. 116) always used with
these sections furnishes a bee-way, the frames, like the sec-
tions, are entirely plain. Of course, separators can be used
with these supports, in case we use the bee-space sections.

Fic. 116.

Fence for Plain Sections.—From A, I. Root Co.

FENCES.

The fence is simply a slatted separator made by nailing
three boards (Fig. 116) three-sixteenths of an inch apart to end
posts, which project three-eighths of an inch below the lowest

,

250 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

board; cross-pieces of the same thickness as the corner posts,
three-sixteenths of an inch, are like the corner posts nailed on
each side connecting the boards of the fence. They do not
reach below the lowest board. Thus, these fences permit very
free communication (Figs. 106, 107). The whole distance at
the bottom of the sections has a wide bee-way which also
reaches part way up the ends. Of course, the cross-pieces are
exactly opposite the ends of the sections which they separate.
As these separators have spaces, they give ample connection
between sections, and favor rapid comb-building and honey-
storing. Fences are also placed outside the last row of sec-
tions. They secure added warmth by the double wall of bees,
and so better filled sections. No wonder that these plain sec-
tions and fences are rapidly coming into use. ‘Their use, of
course, necessitates the use of cases with frames having no
top-bars to hold the sections and fences (Fig. 106).

If we discard separators the old Heddon case is excellent;
if we must use separators then the case with | shaped tin
supports is perhaps the best in the market. Theplain sections
are so admirable that they will be largely used; then the frame
supports must be used. In any casea follower (Fig. 115, D)
should be used to crowd the sections with separators close
together. This may be pushed by use of a thumb-screw (Fig.
114), wedge, or steel spring.

Mr. Adam Grimm once wrote that boxes above the hive
should not be closely covered. As already stated, Mr. Heddon
puts no close cover over his sections. Mr. Hasty is pleased
with simply a cloth, cheap muslin, above his sections, and a
board cover to protect from rains. Such ventilation of the
sections is scientific as well as practical.

All apiarists who desire to work for comb honey that will
sell, will certainly use the sections, and adjust them by use of
either frames or cases. Each method has its friends, though
I think cases or supers are justly taking the lead.

SEPARATORS.

These may be of woodor tin. While the tin were first
used, and do work well, the wood seem to be growing in favor,
and seem likely wholly to replace the tin. The wood are poorer

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 251
conductors of heat, and also give a foothold for the bees, both
of which are desirable qualities.

FOOT-POWER SAW.

Every apiarist, who keeps only a few bees, will find, if he
makes his own hives. a foot-power saw very valuable. I have
used, with great satisfaction, the admirably combined foot-
power saw of W. F. & John BarnesCo. It permits rapid work,

Fic. 117.

i

;
Wy

tt Mi) ee
; ue

Horse-Power.—From A. I. Root Co,

insures uniformity, and enables the apiarist to give a finish to
his work that would rival that of the cabinet-maker.

Those who procure such a machine should learn to file and
set the saw,and should ever run the machine when not in
perfect order.

When just beginning the business it will generally be
wise to secure a fully equipped hive of some bee-keeper or
dealer in supplies. If there is a hive factory near at hand, it
may pay to buy all hives ready made ; otherwise high freights
may make thisunprofitable, If a person wishes to manufacture

252 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

hives by the score, either for himself or others, even the foot-
power saw willsoon become tooslow and wearying. In this
case some use wind-power, which is too uncertain to give full
satisfaction ; others use horse-power, and still others procure
a small steam-engine.

Mr. M. H. Hunt, a very thoughtful apiarist, uses a very con-
venient horse-power (Fig. 117). The large wheel is fifteen feet
in diameter, the horse is inside the rim, and the band consists

Fic. 118.

Saw-Table.—From A. I, Root Co.

of a chain, that it may not slip. To get the horse in position,
the wheel is simply lowered.

I have used a tread-power which pleases me much. It is
safe, can be used under shelter, and if one has colts or young
horses it serves well to quiet them. As gasoline engines are
now so cheap, and convenient; and as crude oil for steam en-
gines is so cheap, such engines will generally be preferred
when one’s business is at all extensive. In case we use other
than foot or hand power, our saw-table must be firm and heavy.
The one illustrated here (Fig. 118) is recommended by Mr. A.
I. Root.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 253

CHAPTER VIL
POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF APIARY.

As it is desirable to have our apiary grounds so fixed as to
give the best results, and as this costs some money and more
labor, it should be done once for all. As plan and execution
in this direction must needs precede even the purchase of bees,
this subject deserves an early consideration. Hence, we will
proceed to consider position, arrangement of grounds, and
preparation for each individual colony.

POSITION.

Of course, it is of the first importance that the apiary be
near at hand. In city or village this is imperative. In the
country, or at suburban homes, we have more choice, but close
proximity to the house is of much importance. In a city it
may be necessary to follow Mr. Muth’s example, and locate on
the house-tops, where, despite the inconvenience, we may
achieve success. The lay of the ground is not important,
though, if a hill, it should not be very steep. It may slope in
any direction, but better any way than toward the north. Of
course, each hive should stand perfectly level.

ARRANGEMENT OF GROUNDS.

Unless sandy, these should be well drained. If a grove
offers inviting shade, accept it, but trim high to avoid damp.
Such a grove could soon be formed of basswood and tulip
trees, which, as we shall see, are very desirable, as their bloom
offers plenteous and most delicious honey. Even Virgil urged
shade of palm and olive, also that. we screen the bees from
winds. Wind-screens are very desirable, especially on the
windward side. Such ascreen may be formed of a tall board
fence, which, if it surrounds the grounds, will also serve to
protect against thieves. Yet theseare gloomy and forbidding,

254 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

and will be eschewed by the apiarist who has an eye to
esthetics. Evergreen screens, either of Norway spruce,
Austrian or other pine, or arbor vite, each or all are not only
very effective, but are quickly grown, inexpensive, and add
greatly to the beauty of the grounds. In California eucalyp-
tus is very desirable shade. The species grow vigorously,
stand drouth, and if wisely selected afford much honey. Such
a fence or hedge is also very desirable if the bees are neara
street or highway. It not only shuts the bees away, as it
were, but it so directs their flight upward that they will not
trouble passers-by. If the apiary is large, a small, neat, inex-
pensive house in the center of the apiary grounds is indispen-
sable. This will serve in winter as a shop for making hives,
frames, etc., and as a store-house for honey, while in summer
it will be used for extracting, transferring, storing, bottling,
etc. In building this, it will be well to construct a frost-proof,
thoroughly drained, dark and well-ventilated cellar. (See
Chapters XVIII and XIX.)

PREPARATION FOR EACH COLONY.

Virgil was right in recommending shade for each colony.
Bees are forced to cluster outside the hive, if the bees are sub-
jected to the full force of the sun’s rays. By the intense heat
the temperature inside becomes like that of an oven, and the
wonder is that they do not desert entirely. I have known
hives, thus unprotected, to be covered with bees, idling outside,
when, by simply shading the hives, all would go merrily to
work. The combs, too, and foundation especially, are liable,
in unshaded hives, to melt and fall down, which is very dam-
aging to the bees, and very vexatious to the apiarist. The
remedy for all this is always to have the hives so situated that
they will be entirely shaded all through the heat of the day.
This might be done, as in the olden time, by constructing a
shed or house, but these are expensive and very inconvenient,
and, therefore, to be discarded.

If the aiarist has a convenient grove this may be trimmed
high, so as not to be damp, and will fulfill every requirement.
So arrange the hives that while they are shaded through all
the heat of the day, they will receive the sun’s rays early and

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 255

late, and thus the bees will work more hours. I always face
my hives tothe east. Sucha grove is also very agreeable to
the apiarist who often must work all the day in the hottest

Fic. 119,

5 ap
—

Nucleus and Simplicity Hive Shaded by Grape-vine.—From A. I. Root Co.

sunshine. If no grove is at command, the hives may be placed
on the north of a Concord grape-vine (Fig. 119), or other vig-
orous variety, as the apiarist may prefer. This should be

256 THE BEE-KEHPER’S GUIDE;

trained to a trellis, which may be made by setting two posts,
either of cedar or oak. Let these extend four or five feet above
the ground, and be three or four feet apart. Two or three
supporting arms of narrow boards can be nailed at right
angles to a single post on which to train the vines, or we may
connect them at intervals of eighteen inches with three gal-
vanized wires, the last one being at thetop of the posts. Thus
we can have shade and grapes, and can see for ourselves that
bees do not injure grapes. These should be at least six feet
apart. A. I. Root’s idea of having the vine of each succeeding
row divide the spaces of the previous row, in quincunx order
(Fig. 120), is very good ; thoughI should prefer the rows in this
case to be four instead of three feet apart. I have tried grape-
vines and evergreens to shade hives, and do not like them.
They are too much in the way. UnlessI can have a grove
trimmed high up I much prefer a simple shade-board as already
suggested. This is simply a wide board nailed to the edge of
two cross-boards, which are about fourinches wide. I make
these eighteen inches wide by two feet long. I have some
even larger. If one cross-board is a little narrower it gives a
slant that insures a rapid removal of the waterin arain. I
have never known these shade-boards to blow off. Should
they do so a second board parallel to the shade-board could be
nailed to the cross-boards. A brick placed on this would make
all secure. This shade-board is inexpensive, always out of
the way, and ready for service.

Many apiarists economize by using fruit-trees for shade,
which, from their spreading tops, serve well, though often
from their low branches they are not pleasant to work under.
Mr. Doolittle thinks if hives are painted white shade is unneces-
sary. Mr. A. I. Root’s idea of having sawdust under and
about the hives has much to recommendit. The objection to
sawdust is the danger from fire. I have used sawdust, cement,
asphalt, etc. I think on the whole a fine grass lawn kept
closely and smoothly mown is as convenient as any plan, and
it certainly has taste and beauty to recommendit. If closely
mown, one will rarely lose a queen. While ashes or sawdust
make a queen walking upon them more conspicuous, I much
prefer the beautiful grass plat.

OR, MANDUAT, OF THE APTARY. 257

Peake

iso
ime

|
te
re

ee — SS

Fia. 120. Grape-Vine Aptary.—From A. I. Root Co.

258 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

CHAPTER VIL
TO TRANSFER BEES.

As the-prospective bee-keeper may have purchased his
bees in box-hives, barrels, or hollow logs, and so, of course,
will desire to transfer them immediately into movable-frame
hives, or, asalready suggested, may wish to transfer from one
movable-frame to another, I will now proceed to describe the
process. :

Among the many valuable methods which Mr. Heddon has
given to the bee-keeping public, not the least valuable is that of
transferring. This method should be used only at or just before
the swarming season—the best time to transfer. After blow-
ing a little smoke into the hive, sufficient to alarm the bees,
we set it a little aside, and put in its place the new hive full of
wired foundation. We now turn the old hive, whatever it may
be, bottom side up, and place a ‘box over it. If the bees are
sufficiently smoked, it will make no difference even if the box
is not close-fitting to the old hive. Yet the beginner will feel
safer to have it so; and in this case no stinging can take
place. We then with a stick or hammer rap onthe hive for
from ten to twenty minutes. The bees will fill with honey
and go with the queen into the upper box and cluster. If
towards the last we carefully set the box off once or twice, and
vigorously shake the hive, and then replace the box, we will
hasten the emigration of the bees, and make it more complete.
I got this last suggestion from Mr. Baldridge. A few young
bees will still remain in the old hive, but these will do no harm.

We next take the box, which contains the queen and nearly
all the bees, and shake the bees all out in front of the hive
already placed on the old stand. The bees willat once take
possession, draw out, or better, build out, the foundation ina
surprisingly short time, and will give us a set of combs which
will surpass in beauty those procured in any other way.
Should the bees be unable to gather any honey for some days,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 259

which at this season is not likely to occur, of course we must
feed them.

We set the old hive aside for twenty-one days, when the
young bees will all come from the cells. Should the weather
be cold, it might be well to put thisin a warm room, so the
brood will not chill. At the time of swarming this will rarely
be necessary. We now drum out these bees as before, kill the
queen, which has been reared, and unite the bees with the
others, or form a separate colony as before, as the number of
bees determines. We can now split out the corners of the
old hive, split the gum, or separate the staves of the barrel,
so as not to break the comb. This should be carefully cut
loose, and the honey extracted by use of the wire comb-holder
(Fig. 150), and the comb melted into wax for foundation. The
only loss in this method is the time which the bees require to
build out the foundation, and this is far more than made upin
the superior combs which are secured. I think the time
expended in melting up the combs, etc., is more than made up
by the time saved in transferring.

THE OLD METHOD.

If one has no foundation, or desires to give the bees the
comb and honey at once, even at the cost of less shapely
combs, he then should drum the bees out as before, on a warm
day when they are busy at work, and put the box containing
the bees on the old stand, leaving the edge raised so that the
bees which are out may enter, and so all the bees can get air.
This method is difficult, except in early spring, and is best
done about noon, when the bees are busy on the fruit-bloom.
It is not safe to transfer on a hot day, when the bees are idle,
as the risks from robbing are too great. If other bees do not
trouble, as they usually will not if busily gathering, we can
proceed in the open air. If they do, we must go into some
room. I have frequently transferred the comb in my kitchen,
and often in a barn.

Now knock the old hive apart, as already described, cut
the combs from the sides, and get the combs out of the old
hive with just as little breakage as possible. Mr. Baldridge,
if transferring in spring, saws the combs and cross-sticks

260 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

loose from the sides, turns the hive into the natural position,
then strikes against the top of the hive with a hammer till the
fastenings are broken loose, when he lifts the hive, and the
combs are all free and in convenient shape for rapid work.

We now need a barrel, seton end, on which we placea
board fifteen to twenty inches square, covered with severai
thicknesses of cloth. Some apiarists think the cioth useless,
but it serves, I think, to prevent injury to comb, brood or
honey. We now place a comb on this cloth, and seta frame
on the comb, and cut out a piece of the comb the size of the
inside of the frame, taking pains to save all the worker-brood.
Now crowd the frame over the comb, so that the latter will be
in the same position that it was when in the old hive ; that is,
so the honey will be above—the position is not very important
—then fasten the comb in the frame, by winding about all one
or two small wires, or pieces of wrapping-twine. ‘To raise the
frame and comb before fastening, raise the board beneath till

Fic. 121. Fic, 122.

Transferring-Clasp.—
From American Bee Journal,

Transferred Comb.—From American Bee Journal.

the frame is vertical. Set this frame in the new hive, and
proceed with the others in the same way till we have all the
worker-comb—that with small cells—fastened in. To secure
the pieces, which we shall find abundant at the end, take thin
pieces of wood, one-half inch wide, and a trifle longer than the
frame is deep, place these in pairs either side the comb,
extending up and down, and enough to hold the pieces secure
till the bees shall fasten them (Fig. 121), and secure the strips
by winding with small wire, just below the frame (Fig. 122),
or by use of small rubber bands, or else tack them to the frame

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 261

with small tacks. Some bee-keepers use U-shaped pieces of
wire or tin to hold the comb in the frame.

Captain Hetherington has invented and practices a very
neat method of fastening comb into frames. In constructing
his frames, he bores small holes through the top, side and
bottom bars of his frames, about two inches apart ; these holes
are just large enough to permit the passage of the long spines
of the hawthorn. Now, in transferring comb, he has but to
stick these thorns through into the comb to hold it securely.
He can also use all the pieces, and still make a neat and secure
frame of comb. He finds this arrangement convenient, too,
in strengthening insecure combs. In answer to my inquiry,
this gentleman said it paid well to bore such holesin all his
frames, which are eleven by sixteen inches, inside measure.
I discarded such frames because of the liability of the comb
to fall out.

Having fastened all the nice worker-comb into the frames
—of course, all other comb will be melted into wax—we place
all the frames containing brood together in the center of our
new hive, especially if the colony is weak, or the weather cool,
and confine the space by use of the division-board, adding the
other frames as the bees may need them. We now place the
new hive on the stand, opening the entrance wide, so that the
bees can enter anywhere along the alighting-board. We then
shake all the bees from the box, and any young bees that may
have clustered on any part of the old hive, or on the flooror
ground, where we transferred the comb, immediately in front
of the hive. They will enter at once and soon be at work, all
the busier for having passed ‘‘from the old house into the
new.”? Intwo or three days remove the wires, or strings or
sticks, when we shall find the combs all fastened and smoothed
off, and the bees as busily engaged as though their present
home had always been the seat of their labors.

In practicing this method, many proceed at once to trans-
fer without drumming out the bees. Inthis case the bees
should be well smoked, should be driven, by the use of the
smoker, away from the side of the old hive where the combs
are being cut loose, and may be brushed direct from the old
combs into the new hive. This method will only be preferred

262 * HE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE;

by the experienced. The beginner will find it more easy and
pleasant first to drum out all the bees before he commences to
cut out the combs.

Of course, in transferring from one frame to another, the
matter is much simplified. In this case, after thoroughly
smoking the bees, we have but to lift the frames and shake or
brush the bees into the new hive. Fora brush, a chicken or
turkey wing, a large wing or tail feather from a turkey, goose
or peacock, or atwig of pine or bunch of asparagus twigs
serves admirably. Cheap and excellent brushes (Fig. 154) are
now for sale by all supply-dealers. Now cut out the comb in
the best form to accommodate the new frames, and fasten as
already suggested. After the combs are alltransferred, shake
all remaining bees in front of the new hive, which has already
been placed on the stand previously occupied by the old hive.

Sometimes bees from trees in the forest are transferred to
hives and the apiary.

HUNTING BEE-TREES.

Except for recreation, this is seldom profitable. It is
slow and uncertain work. The tree, when found, is not our
own, and though the owner may consent to our cutting it, he
may dislike to do so. The bees, when found, are difficult to
get alive; itis even more difficult to get the honey in good
condition, and, when secured, the honey and bees are often
almost worthless.

The principle upon which bees are ‘‘lined’”’ is this: That
after filling with honey, a bee always takes a direct course—
‘a bee-line ’’—to its hive. To hunt the bee-trees we need a
bottle of sweetened water, a little honey-comb, unless the bees
are gathering freely from forest flowers, and a small bottom-
less box with a sliding glass cover, and a small shelf attached
to the middle of one side on the inside of the box. A shallow
tray, or piece of honey-comb, is to be fastened to this shelf.
If the bees are not found on flowers, we can attract them by
burning a piece of honey-comb. If on a flower, set the box
over them after turning a little of the sweetened water in the
comb or tray on the shelf. It is easy to get them to sipping
this sweet. Then slide the glass, and, when they fly, watch

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 263

closely and see the direction they take. By following this
line we come to the bee-tree, or more likely to some neighbor’s
apiary. By getting two lines, if the bees are from the same
tree, the tree will be where thelines meet. We should be care-
ful not to be led to neighboring apiaries, and should look very
closely when the bees fly, to be sure of the line. Experience
makes a person quite skillful. It need hardly be said that in
warm days in winter, when there is snow on the ground, we
may often find bee-trees by noting dead bees on the snow, as
also the spotting of the snow, as the bees void their feces.
When a tree is found, we must use all possible ingenuity to
get the combs whole if we wish to transfer the bees. We may
cut in and remove the comb; may cut out the section of tree
containing the bees and lower this by use of a rope; or we
may fellthe tree. In this last case we may make the destruc-
tion less complete if we fall the tree on other smaller trees to
lessen the jar.

264 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

CHAPTER VII

FEEDING AND FEEDERS.

As already stated, it is only when the worker-bees are
storing that the queen deposits to the full extent of her capa-
bility, and that brood-rearing is at its height. In fact, when
storing ceases, general indolence characterizes the hive. This
is peculiarly true of the German and Italian races of bees.
Hence, if we would achieve the best success, we must keep the
workers active, even before gathering commences, as also in-
the interims of honey-secretion by the flowers; and to do this
we must feed sparingly before the advent of bloomin the
spring, and whenever the workersare forced to idleness during
any part of the season, by the absence of honey-producing
flowers. For a number of years I have tried experiments in
this direction by feeding a portion of my colonies early in the
season, and in the intervals of honey-gathering, and always
with marked results in favor of the practice. Ofcourse it is
not well to feed unless we expect a honey harvest the same
season. Thus, I would not feed after clover or basswood
bloom unless I expected a fall harvest. The fact that honey
seasons are uncertain, makes the policy of feeding merely
to stimulate questionable.

Mr. D. A. Jones has truly said that if feeeding in the
autumn be deferred too long, till the queen ceases laying, it
often takes much time to get her to resume, and not infre-
quently we fail entirely.

Every apiarist, whether novice or veteran, will often
receive ample reward by practicing stimulative feeding early
in the season; then his hive at the dawn of the white clover
era will be redundant with bees, well filled with brood, and in
just the trim to receive a bountiful harvest of this most
delicious nectar. pa

Feeding is often necessary to secure sufficient stores for

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 265

winter—for no apiarist, worthy of the name, will suffer his
faithful, willing subjects to starve, when so little care and
expense will prevent it. This is peculiarly true in Southern
California, where severe drouths often prevent any harvest,
and these may occur on two successive years.

If we only wish to stimulate, the amount fed need not be
great. Ahalf pounda day, or even less, will be all that is
necessary to encourage the bees to active preparation for the
good time coming. For information in regard to supplying
stores for winter, see Chapter XVIII.

Bees, when very active, especially in very warm weather,
like most higher animals, need water. ‘This very likely is to.
permit evaporation in respiration, and the necessary cooling
of the body. At such times bees repair to pool, stream or
watering-trough. As with other animals, the addition of salt
makes the water more appetizing, and doubtless more valuable.
Unless water is near, it always ought to be furnished to bees.
Any vessel containing chipsor small pieces of boards to secure
against drowning will serve for giving water. In case bees
trouble about watering-troughs, a little carbolic acid or kero-
sene-oil on the edge of the trough will often send them away.

WHAT TO FEED.

For this purpose I would feed granulated sugar, reduced to
the consistency of honey, or else extracted honey kept over
from the previous year. If we use two-thirds syrup and one-
third good honey we save all danger of crystallization or
granulation. We add the honey when the syrup is hot, and
stir. The price of the honey will decide which is the more
profitable. The careful experiments of R. L. Taylor show
that nearly three times as much honey as syrup will be con-
sumed. This argues strongly for the syrup. Dark, inferior
honey often serves well for stimulative feeding, and as it is
not salable, may well be used in this way. To make the
syrup, I use one quart of water to twoof sugar, and heat till
the sugar is dissolved. Mr. R. lL. Taylor first boils the water,
hen stirs in the sugar till all boils, when l:2 says it will not
granulate even with no acid added. This also removes all
danger of burning the syrup, which must never be done. By

266 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

stirring till all the sugar is dissolved we may make the syrup
without any heat. We use equal parts of sugar and water,
and may easily stir by using the honey extractor. We putin
the water and add the sugar as weturn the machine. A little
tartaric acid—an even teaspoonful to fifteen pounds of syrup—
or evena little extracted honey, will also prevent crystalliza-
tion. If fed warm in early spring it is all the better.

Many advise feedin the poorer grades of sugar in spring.
My own experience makes me question the policy of ever using
such feed for bees. The feeding of glucose or grape sugar is
even worse policy. It is bad food for the bees, and its use is
dangerous to the bee-keeper’s reputation, and injurious to our
brother bee-keepers. Glucose is so coupled with fraud and
adulteration that he who would ‘‘avoid the appearance of
evil”? must let it severely alone.

In all feeding, unless extracted honey is what we are
using, we can not exercise too great care that such feed is not
carried to the surplus boxes. Only let our customers once
taste sugar in their comb honey, and not only is our own repu-
tation gone, but the whole fraternity is injured. In case we
wish to have our combs in the sections filled or capped, we
must feed extracted honey, which may often be done with
great advantage. I have often fed extracted honey back to
the bees, after the honey-flow ceased, when it would be quickly
stored in the sections. More frequently, however, I have
utterly failed of success.

HOW TO FEED.

The requisites of a good feeder are: Cheapness, a form to”
admit quick feeding, to permit no loss of heat, and so arranged
that we can feed at all seasons without in any way disturbing
the bees. The feeder (Fig. 123), which I haye used with good
satisfaction, isa modified division-board, the top-bar of which
(Fig. 123, 6) is two inches wide. From the upper central por-
tion, beneath the top-bar, a rectangular piece the size of an
oyster-can is replaced with an oyster-can (Fig. 123, g), after
the top of the latter has been removed. <A vertical piece of
wood (Fig. 123, d)is fitted into the can so as to separate a
space about one inch square, on one side, from the balance of

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 267

the chamber. This piece does not reach quite to the bottom
of the can, there being a one-eighth inch space beneath. In
the top-bar there is an opening (Fig. 123, e) just above the
smaller space below. In the larger space is a wooden float
(Fig. 123, f) full of holes. On one side opposite the larger
chamber of the can, a half-inch piece of the top (Fig. 123, e) is
cut off, so that the bees can pass between the can and top-bar
ou to the float, where they can sip the feed. The feed is
turned into the hole in the top-bar (Fig. 123, 2), and without
touching a bee, passes down under the vertical strip (Fig. 123,
d) and raises the float (Fig. 123, /). The can may be tacked to

Fic. 123.

Division- Board Feeder.—Original.

Lower part of the face of the can removed, to show float, etc.
—Original.

the board at the ends near the top. Two or three tacks
through the can into the vertical piece (Fig. 123, d) will hold
the latter firmly in place; or the top-bar may press on the
vertical piece so that it can not move. Crowding a narrow
piece of woolen cloth between the can and board, and nailing
a similar strip around the beveled edge of the division-board,
makes all snug. ‘The objection to this feeder is that it can not
be placed just above the cluster of bees. On very cold days in
spring the bees can not reach their food in any other position.
The feeder is placed at the end of the brdod-chamber, and the

268 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

top-bar covered by the quilt. To feed, we have only to fold
the quilt over, when with a tea-pot we pour the feed into the
hole in the top-bar. Ifa honey-board is used, there must bea
hole in this just above the hole in the division-board feeder.
In either case no bees can escape, the heat is confined, and our
division-board feeder is but little more expensive than a
division-board alone.

Some apiarists prefer a quart can set on a block (Fig.
124), or it may be used with a finely perforated cover. This is

Fic. 124.

Fruit-Jar Feeder.—From A. I. Root Co.

filled with liquid, the cover put on, andthe whole quickly
inverted and set above a hole in the cover just above the bees.
Owing to the pressure of the air, the liquid will not descend so
rapidly that the bees can not sipit up. ‘The objections to this
feeder are, that it is awkward, raises the cushions so as to per-
mit the escape of heat, and must be removed to receive the
feed. Mr. A. I. Root recommends the little butter-trays sold
at the groceries, for feeding. These cost only one-third of a
cent. ‘‘ Need no float, and work admirably.’’ I have tried
these, and think they have only their cheapness to recom-
mend them. They raise the cover, can not be filled without
disturbing the bees, leak, and daub the bees. Even paper
sacks of good quality, with smail holes in them, have been
used. They are laidon the frames, and cost very little. As
feeders last fora lifetime, I prefer to pay more and get good
ones,

. OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 269

The Simplicity feeder (Fig. 125), invented by A. I. Root,
is shown on its side in the illustration. This is used at the
entrance, and so is not good for cold weather. As the feed is

Fic. 125.

Simplicity Bee-Feeder.—EFrom A. I. Root Co.

exposed it can only be used at night, when the bees are not
flying. Itis never, I think, desirable to feed outside the hive.

The Shuck feeder (Fig. 126) is a modification of the Sim-
plicity, anda great improvement. This is used at the en-
trance of the hive, or by nailing two together, so that the sides
marked D will face each other, we can use it above the bees.
We then would place the opening D above a hole in the cloth

Fic. 126,

Shuck’s Boss Bee-Feeder.—From American Bee Journal.

cover, or honey-board, turn the feed in at C,and the bees
would come up at D, pass under the cover, and down into the
saw-cuts (Fig. 126, A, A), when they would’sip the feed, and
then crawl up on the partitions. This feeder works admirably.
but it is patented, costs too much, and is improved in the

270 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

SMITH FEEDER.

This feeder (Fig. 127) is larger than the Shuck—I make
them eight by twelve inches—and is covered all over with wire
gauze (Fig. 127, a), which is raised by the wooden rim so that
the bees can pass readily over the partitions (Fig. 127). The
central saw-cuts (Fig. 127) do not reach the end of the feeder,
sothereisa platform left (Fig. 127, 6) through whicha hole
(Fig. 127, c)is made. This rests above a hole in the cloth

Fic. 127,

Smith Bee-Feeder.—Onriginal,

below, and is the door through which the bees reach the feed.
When in position just above the bees it may be covered by a
shingle or piece of pasteboard, to prevent daubing the cloth or
cushion, and all by the chaff cushion. To feed, we have only
to raise the cushion and the pasteboard, and turn the food
through the gauze. No bees can get out, there is no disturb-
ance, no danger from the robbers, and we can feed at any
time, and can feed very rapidly if desired. I like this feeder
the best of any I have ever tried. I make them out of two-inch
plank. :

The Heddon feeder (Fig. 128) is much the same in princi-
ple as the Smith, and has all the advantages. It is the size of
a section-crate, and soholds many pounds. The figure makes
it plain. The spacesin this are not saw-cuts, but are formed
by thin boards nailed in a box vertically, anda space on one
or both sides (Fig. 128) does not connect with the food reser-
voir, but serves as a passage-way for the bees from hive to

OR, MANUAL OF THI APIARY. 271

feeder. In the center is a passage (Fig. 128, c) which connects
with the food reservoir, but is not accessible to the bees. In
this the food is poured when feeding, which makes it unneces-
sary to have the wire gauze above, or tosmear the top when
feeding, asin case of the Smith feeder, yet this feeder does
not retain the heat in spring. The center of the cover slides
back, so the whole cover need not be removed when feeding is
done. The vertical partitions, except the one next to the space
(Fig. 128) where the foodis added, do not run quite to the
board which covers the feeder, and so the bees can pass into

Fic. 128.

all the spaces except where we pour in the food. No partition
except the one next to the space where the bees pass to and
from the hive runs quite to the bottom, so the food will pass
readily from one space to the other, and will always be equally
high in all. :
Mr. D. A. Jones and many others having tight bottom-
ooards to their hives use no feeder, but turn the feed right
into the hive. Dr. C. C. Miller, like L. C. Root, prefers to
feed by filling frames of empty comb with the syrup or honey.
The empty combs are laid flat, in a deep box or tub, under a
colander or finely perforated pan. The syrup, as it falls, fills
the cells of comb. After the comb is filled on both sides, we
have only to hang it in the hive. I have found that by use of
a fine spray-nozzle and force-pump we can fill frames very fast.
‘The best time to feed is just at nightfall. In this case the

212 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

feed will be carried away before the next day, and the danger
to weak colonies from robbing is avoided.

In feeding during the cold days of April, all should be
close above the bees to economize heat. In all feeding, care is
requisite that we may not spill the feed about the apiary, as
this may, and very generally will, induce robbing.

If, through neglect, the bees are found to be destitute of
stores in mid-winter, it is not best to feed liquid food, but solid
food, like the Viallon candy or the Good mixture of honey and
sugar, which will be described under the head of shipping
queens. Cakes of either of these should be placed on the
frames above the cluster of bees. Mr. Root has had excellent
success in feeding cakes of hard candy made as follows:
Granulated sugar is put in apan and a very little water
added. Thisis heated by placing on a stove, but never in
direct contact with the fire. In the latter case it may be
burned,.as shown by the taste, odor, or from the fact that it
kills the bees. If the pan is placed on the stove, the contents
will never be burned. It must be boiled untilif dropped ona
saucer in cold water, or if the finger is wet in cold water, then
dipped in the hot sugar, and again in water, the hard sugar is
brittle. It must be boiled until the hardened product is brittle,
or else it will be too soft and will drip. It can now be stirred
untilit begins to thicken and then molded in dishes, or in the
regular comb frames. In this last case we lay the frame close
on a board covered with thin paper, and turn the thickening
sugarintoit. By adding one-fourth rye-meal we havea good
substitute for pollen, which may be used in case of a scarcity
of the latter. Of course, frames of this hard candy may be
hung right in the hive. In acellar or on warm days outside
frames of honey may be given to the bees.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 273

CHAPTER IX,
QUEEN-REARING.

Suppose the queen is laying two thousand eggs a day, and
that the full number of bees is forty thousand, or even more—
though as the bees are liable to so many accidents, and as the
queen does not always lay to her full capacity, it is quite
probable that this is about an average number—it will be seen
that each day that a colony is without a queen there is a loss
equal to about one-twentieth of the working force of the colony,
and this a compound loss, as the aggregate loss of any day is
its special loss augmented by the several losses of the previous
days. Now, as queens are liable to die or to become impotent,
and as the work of increasing colonies demands the absence of
queens, unless the apiarist has extra ones at his command, it
is imperative, would we secure the best results, ever to have at
hand extra queens. Queen-rearing for the market is often
very remunerative, and often may well engage the apiarist’s
exclusive attention. So the young apiarist must learn early

HOW TO REAR QUEENS.

As queens may be needed early in the spring, preparations
looking to the rearing of queens must commence early. As
soon as the bees are able to fly regularly, we must see that
they have a supply of bee-bread. If there is not a supply from
the past season, and the locality of the bee-keeper does not
furnish an early supply, then place unbolted flour (that of rye
or oats is best) in shallow troughs near the hives. It may be
well to give the whole apiary the benefit of such feeding before
the flowers yield pollen. If the bees are not attracted to this
we need not add honey, etc., to induce them totakeit. This
isa sure sign thatitis not needed. I found that in Central
Michigan bees can usually gather pollen by the first week of
April, which, I think, is as early as they should be allowed to
fly, and, in fact, as early as they will fly with sufficient

274 THE BEEK-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

regularity to make it pay to feed the meal. I much question,
after some years of experiment, if it is ever necessary at this
place to give the bees a substitute for pollen. In case of long
storms, the bee-bread may be exhausted. I have never known
such a case, when the hard candy frames with rye meal
described at the close of the last chapter may be hung in the
hive.

The best colony in the apiary—or if there are several colo-
nies of equal merit, one of these—should be stimulated to the
utmost, by daily feeding with warm syrup, and by increase of
brood taken from other colonies. As this colony becomes
strong, a comb containing drone-cells should be placed in the
center of the brood-nest. Very soon drone-eggs will be laid.
I have often had drones flying early in May. As soon as the
drones commence to appear, remove the queen and all eggs
and uncapped brood from some good, strong colony, and re-
place it with eggs or brood just hatched from the colony con-
taining the queen from which itis desired to breed. By hav-
ing piaced one or two bright, new, empty combs in the midst
of the brood-nest of this colony four days beforehand, we shall
have in these combs just such eggs and newly hatching brood
as we desire, with no brood that is too old.

If we have more than one colony whose excellence war-
rants their use to breed from, then these eggs should be taken
from some other than the one which has produced our drones.
This will prevent the close in-breeding which would neces-
sarily occur if both queens and drones were reared in the same
colony; and which, though regarded as deleterious in the
breeding of all animals, should be practiced in case one single
queen is of decided superiority to all others of the apiary. The
queen and the brood that have been removed may be used in
making a new colony, in a manner soon to be described under
‘“‘Dividing or Increasing the Number of Colonies.’’ This
queenless colony will immediately commence forming queen-
cells (Fig. 93). Sometimes these are formed to the number of
fifteen or twenty, and in case of the Syrian and Cyprian races
fifty or sixty, andthey are startedin a full, vigorous colony ;
in fact, under the most favorable conditions. Cutting off
edges of the comb, or cutting holes in the same where there

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 275

are eggs or larve just hatched, will almost always insure the
starting of queen-cells in such places. It will be noticed that
our queens are started from eggs, or from larve but just
hatched, as we have given the bees no other, and so they are
fed the royal pabulum from the first. Thus we have met every
possible requisite to secure the most superior queens. As we
removed all the brood the nurse-bees will have plenty of time,
and be sure to care well for these young queens. By removal
of the queen we also secure a large number of cells, while if
we waited for the bees to start the cells ‘preparatory to natural
swarming, in which case we secure the two desirable condi-
tions named above, we shall probably fail to secure so many
cells, and may have to wait longer than we can afford.

Even the apiarist who keeps black bees and desires no
others, or who has only pure Italians, will still find that it
pays to practice this selection, for, as with the poultry fancier,
or the breeder of our larger domestic animals, the apiarist is
ever observing some individuals of marked superiority, and he
who carefully selects such queens to breed from, will be the
one whose profits will make him rejoice, and whose apiary will
be worthy of all commendation. It occurs to me that in this
matter of careful selection and improvement of our bees by
breeding, rests our greatest opportunity to advance the art of
bee-keeping. As will be patent to all, by the above process we
exercise a care in breeding which is not surpassed by the best
breeders of horses and cattle, and which no wise apiarist will
ever neglect. Nor do I believe that Vogel can be correct in
thinking that drones give invariably one set of character and
the queens the others. This is contrary to all experience in
breeding larger animals.

It is often urged, and I think with truth, that we shall
secure better queens if we wait for the queen-cells to be started
naturally by the bees, under the swarming impulse; and by
early feeding and adding brood from other colonies we can
hasten this period; yet, if we feed to stimulate, whenever the
bees are not storing, and keep the colony redundant in bees
of all ages by adding plenty of capped brood from other colo-
nies, we shall find that our queens are little, if any, inferior,
evenif their production is hastened by removal of a queen

276 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

from the hive. If these directions are closely followed, there
will be little brood for the bees to feed, and the queen-cells
will not suffer neglect. Mr. Quinby not only advised this
course, but he recommended starting queen-cells in nuclei;
but he emphasized the importance of giving but very little
brood, so nearly all the strength of the nurse-bees would be
expended on the queen-cells.

After we have removed all the queen-cells, in a manner
soon to be described, we can again supply eggs, or newly-
hatched larve—always from those queens which close obser-
vation has shown to be the most vigorous and prolific in the
apiary—and thus keep the same queenless colony or colonies
engaged in starting queen-cells till we have all we desire.
Yet we must not fail to keep this colony strong by the addition
of capped brood, which we may take from any colony as most
convenient. It is well also to feed a little each day in case the
bees are not gathering. We must be cautious that our cells
are started from only such brood as we take from the choicest
queen. I have good reason to believe that queen-cells should
not be started after the first of September, as I have observed
that late queens are not only less prolific, but shorter lived.
In nature, late queens are rarely produced, and if it is true
that they are inferior, it might be explainedin the fact that
their ovaries remain so long inactive. As queens that are so
long unmated are utterly worthless, so, too, freshly mated
queens long inactive may become enfeebled. However, some
of our queen-breeders think late queens just as good. Possibly
they may be, if reared with the proper cautions.

In eight or ten days the cells are capped, and the apiarist
is ready to form his nuclei. For the rearing of a small num-
ber of queens, the above is very satisfactory. If, however, we
are rearing queens forthe market, in which we must have
numerous cells at our command, and to avoid cutting comb and
to secure better spacing better-metheds-have been devised.
Mr. Henry Alley cut narrow single-celled strips of worker-
comb with newly-hatched larve, fastened these to the top-bar
of his frame, or to bars inserted parallel to the top-bar, and by
inserting the brimstone endof a match and turning it destroys
each alternate larva. These put in a colony dequeened, but

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 277

with many young bees and much hatching brood, gave him
good cells rightly spaced. Others have used drone comb cut
in the same way, and in each alternate cell have inserteda
little royal jelly from a queen-cell about ready to be capped,
and then added a worker-larva. This accomplishes the same
purpose, and mutilates no worker-comb.

Mr. Doolittle, who has given much time to research in this
line, first used the partially built queen-cells always to be ,
found in every hive. These could be fixed to comb or cross-
bars at pleasure, and by placing in eacha particle of royal
jelly and a newly-hatched larva, he secured good queen-cells.
-If these were in a queenless colony with abundant young bees,
the best of queens were reared. Mr. Doolittle found, what I
am sure is true, that the best queens, bred naturally, wére
those reared before the: natural swarm issued, or were always
started as queens veryearly, if not from the egg itself, were
reared with plenty of_nurse or young bees in the hive, andin
times, usually, of_rapid gathering of honey. Mr. Doolittle
found that he could not always get his queen-cups or incipient
queen-cells when needed, and soon invented the valuable

Fic. 129,

Form for making Cups.—From A. I. Root Co.

method of dipping and producing artificial cups at pleasure.
He describes the whole method of discovery in his valuable
and very interesting book. The mould, or dipping-stick (Fig.
129), is like a rake-tooth with one end fashioned so as just to
fit into a good, normal queen-cell. This is immersed first in
water, then for gine-sixteenths of an inch into melted wax
which is kept melted by use of alamp. It is inserted seven or
eight times alternately in the water and in the wax, but fora
less and less distance each time im the latter. This makes the
cup heavy and thick at the bottom andthin at the top. A
twirling motion, when held at various angles, makes the walls

278 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

of the cup uniform. Atleast a little pressure loosens the cell
from the stick, when it is dipped once more and stuck to the
strip (Fig. 130), which will hold itin the frame. Usually there
are twelve or fourteen to one strip. This can be fastened
close below the comb in a partly filledframe. A little royal
jelly from a queen-cell just ready to be capped is now inserted
in each cup, anda larva less than one day old, always with

Fic. 130.

pS

SZ ANY ae
Doolittle Cell-Cups.—From George W. York & Co.

food about it, is transferred to this in precisely the same posi-
tion it had in the worker-cell. Anear-spoon or quill toothpick,
cut and bent into a spoon-like form, or hard-wood stick of
similar shape, is excellent to transfer the jelly and larve.

One queen-cell will furnish enough j ight to
twelve or fourteen Of course, the larve will be taken

from the best queen in the apiary. To get these cells cared
for, the frame is put in an_upper story of a strong colony with
a queen-excluding honey-board (Fig. 91) between two frames
full of brood in all stages. They can be built out and finished
below by using a_perforated-zinc_ division-board (Fig. 88, 92),
which will surely keep the queen away. It should be placed
between the same kind of frames as when put above. In ten
or twelve days we have probably twelve very fine capped
queen-cells which can be easily removed.

Mr. W. H. Pridgen, of North Carolina, has improved Mr.
Doolittle’s scheme by a wholesale method of forming the cups.
He fastens twelve or more of the dipping-sticks to a strip of

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 279

wood and dips all of them at once. He even suggests that
these may be mounted on the circumference of a wheel which
carries them alternately through the water and wax and auto-
matically raises so as to preserve the right depth in the melted
waxeach time. They may be-inserted in close-filling holes in
a narrow board so as to be quite easily moved up and
down. ‘These are dipped till the cups are satisfactory, then all
dipped once more at the end, touched to a narrow board (Fig.
131) to which they will adhere. Then by wetting the tips and

Fic. 131,

Pridgen Cell-Cups.—From George W. York & Co.

board, the dipping-sticks are easily removed one at a time
(Fig. 131). Each dipping-stick is fiye-eighths of an inch in
diameter. It commences to taper five-sixteenths of an inch
from the end, tapers strongly one-eighth of an inch, then grad-
ually tothe end. The strips with cells adhering are one-half
inch square, and are fastened in frames by a single wire nail
at each end passing through the side of the frame and into the
and of the square piece. Comb may be close above them. As
ilready explained, each worker brood-cellis lined with a sec-
ond cell consisting of many cocoons. By cutting off the walls

280 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

of old dark comb to within an eighth of an inch of the base by
use of a sharp, warmed knife, these inner cells, which Mr.
Pridgen and others call cocoons, may be easily loosened by
bending the comb. These were first used by the Atchleys.
He loosens them in this way, when they contain larve about a
day old, from his best queen. By pushing into these a trans-
ferring stick, concave at the end (Fig. 132), he can raise the
inner cell-larva, food and all, and insert them into a cup. This
isa quick way to people the cells with larve. Mr. Pridgen
often bores small five-sixteenth inch holes nearly through the
stick to receive the cups, waxes the stick, and then presses the
newly-formed cups into these. In this case he pushes them in

with a stick much like the dipping-sticks, only longer andi
trifle smaller. In these may be placed a little jelly and the

larve as already described. Mr. Pridgen places these fora

Fic. 132,

Pridgen Transferring-Stick (full length and size.)
—fFrom George W. York & Co.

few hours in a hive which was filled with brood twelve days
before, and placed with a queen-excluder on another coldny.
When he wishes to give the cups and larve, he removes the
upper hive, shakes the bees that they may soon find that they
, are queenless, shuts them in over a broadly ventilated bottom-
‘board, and in a few hours gives them the cups. They accept
the care of these at once. He has had thirty-six received and
fedin this way. Hesoon removes these to an upper story over
a colony, with the queen-excluder, of course, between them.
In from ten to twelve days he has a fine lot of cells for the
nuclei. Mr. Pridgen puts acomb partly-filled with water in
the hive that is shut up. As we have seen, this would bea
time when water would be very essential. The bees are con-
fined and worried. While some queen-breeders still use the
Alley method, most now use the Doolittle, and most will soon
adopt the Pridgen improvement, as many have done already.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 281

NUCLEI.

A nucleus is simply a miniature colony of bees—a hive
and colony on a small scale—for the purpose of rearing and
keeping queens. We want the queens, but can afford to each
nucleus only a few bees. The nucleus hive, if we use frames
not more then one foot square, need be nothing more than an
ordinary hive, with chamber confined bya division-board to
the capacity of three frames. If our frames are large, then it
may be thought best to construct special nucleus hives. These
are small hives, which need not be more than six inches each
way, that is, in length, breadth and thickness, and made to
contain from four to six frames of corresponding size. These
frames are filled with comb. Ihave for many years used the
first-named style of nucleus hive, and have found it advanta-
geous to have a few long hives made, each to contain five
chambers ; while each chamber is entirely separate from the
one next to it, is five inches wide, and is covered by a separate,
close-fitting board, and the whole by acommon cover. The
entrances to the two end chambers are at the ends near the
same side of the hive. The middle chamber has its entrance
at the middle of the side near which are the end entrances,
while the other two chambers open on the opposite side, as far
apart as possible. The putside might be painted different col-
ors to correspond with the divisions, if thought necessary,
especially on the side with two openings. Yet I have never
taken this precaution, nor have I been troubled much by losing
queens. They have almost invariably entered their own
apartments when returning from their wedding-tour. It seems
from observation that the queen is more influenced by position
than by color of hive in returning to -it from mating. Who
that has watched his bees after moving a hive a little one side
of its previous position—even if only a few inches—can doubt
but that the same is true of the worker-bees. These hives I
use to keep queens in during thesummer. Except the apiarist
engage in queen-rearing extensively as a business, I doubt the
propriety of building such special nucleus hives. The usual
hives are good property to have in the apiary, will soon be
needed, and may be economically used for all nuclei. In

282 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

spring Imake use of my hives which are prepared for pro-
spective summer use, for my nuclei.

Mr. EK. M. Hayhurst, one of our best queen-breeders, uses
the full-size Langstroth frame, in full-sized hives, for queen-
rearing, while Mr. Root uses the same frames in small special
hives which hold three frames. These (Fig. 119) he fastens
high up on his grape-vine trellises, just back of his other hives,
which can be used for seats as he works with the nuclei.

We now go to different hives of the apiary, and take out
three frames for each nucleus, at least one of which has brood,
and so on, till there are as many nuclei prepared as we have
queen-cells to dispose of. The bees should be left adhering to
the frames of comb, only we must be certain that the queen is
not among them, as this would take the queen from where she
is most needed, and would lead to the sure destruction of one
queen-cell. To be sure of this, we never take such frames till
we have seen the queen, that we may be sure she is left behind.
It is well to close the nucleus for at least twenty-four hours,
so that enough bees will surely remain to cover the combs,
and so prevent the brood from becoming chilled. Another
good way to form nuclei, is to remove the queen from a full
colony, and as soon as she is missed use all the frames and
bees for nuclei. Weform them as already described. In this
way we are not troubled to find but one queen. If any desire
the nuclei with smaller frames, these frames must of course
be filled with comb, and then we can shake bees immediately
into the nuclei, till they have sufficient to preserve a proper

_temperature. Such special articles about the apiary are costly
and inconvenient. I believe that I should use hives even with
the largest frames for nuclei. L. C. Root, who uses the large
Quinby frame, uses the same for his nuclei. In this case we
should need to give more bees. Twenty-four hours after we
have formed this nucleus, we are ready to insert the queen-cell.
We may do it sooner, even at once, but always at the risk of
having the cell destroyed. To insert the queen-cell—for we
are now to give one to each nucleus, so we can never form
more nuclei than we have capped queen-cells—the old way was
to cut it out, using a sharp thin-bladed knife, commencing to
cut on either side the base of thecell, at least one-half inch

OR, MANUAI, OF THE APIARY. 283

distant, for we must notin the least compress the cell, then cut-
ting up and out for two inches, then across opposite the cell.
This leaves the cell attached to a wedge-shaped piece of comb
(Fig. 133), whose apexis next tothe cell. If we get our cells
by the Doolittle or other improved methods, we can easily cut
down and pry each cell off. A similar cut in the middle frame
of the nucleus, which, in case of the regular frames, is the one
containing brood, will furnish an opening to receive the wedge
containing the cell. The comb should also be cut away

Fic. 133.

Grafted Queen-Cell.—From A. I. Root Co. Queen-Cell with Hinged Cap.
From A. I, Root Co.

beneath (Fig. 133), so that the cell can not be compressed. Mr.
Root advises a circular cut (Fig. 133). Of late I have just
placed the cell between two frames, and succeed just as weli.
If two or more fine cells are so close together that separation
is impossible, then. all may be insertedin a nucleus. By close
watching afterward we may save allthe queens. If we have
used bright new comb as advised above, we can see the queen
move in the cell if she is ready to come out, by holding it
between us and the sun, and may uncap such cells, and let the

284 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE;

queen run in at the entrance of any queenless hive or nucleus
atonce. In selecting combs for queen-cells, we should reject
any that have drone-comb. Bees sometimes start queen-cells
over drone-larve. Such cells are smoother than the others,
and of course are worthless,

After all the nuclei have received their cells and bees, they
have only to be set in a shady place and watched to see that

Fic. 134.

Eutrance-Guard,.

sufficient bees remain. Should too many leave, give them
more by removing the cover and shaking a frame loaded with
bees over the nucleus; keep the opening nearly closed, and
cover the bees so as to preserve the heat. The main caution

Fic. 135.

Drone-Trap.—From A. I. Root Co.

in this zs to be sure not to get any old queen in a nucleus. In
two or three days the queens will appear, and in a week longer
will have become fecundated, and that, too, in case of the first
queens, by selected drones, for as yet there are no othersin
the apiary. Ican not over-estimate the advantage of always
having extra queens. To secure mating from selected drones,
later, we must cut all drone-comb from inferior colonies, so
that they shall rear no drones. If drone-larve are in uncapped
cells, they may be killed by sprinkling the comb with cold
water. By giving the jet of water some force, as may be easily
done by use of a fountain pump, they may be washed out, or

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 285

we may throw them out with the extractor, and then use the
comb for starters in our sections.

It is very important that those who rear queens to sell
shall have no near neighbors who keep bees, and shall keep
only very superior bees, that undesirable mating may be
prevented. If one has neighbors who keep bees, he can see
that they keep only the best, or possibly he can rear his queens
before others have drones flying. He can also get his neigh-
bor to use the Alley drone-trap (Fig. 135). If drones are flying
from undesirable colonies, they can be kept from leaving the
hive by use of the entrance-guards (Fig. 134), or may be cap-
tured or destroyed by use of the Alley drone-trap (Fig. 135).
These are made of the perforated-zinc, and while they permit
the passage of the workers, they restrain the queen and drones.

Fic. 136.

=
R
&
NI
mS
Ss
N
=
N
SN
N
iS
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N

Queen-Cage.—From A. I. Root Co.

The spaces in these are .165. In England they make them .180
of an inch, but small queens may pass through these larger
spaces. By shaking all the bees in front of the hive, we can,
by use of these, soon weed out all the’ drones. With these in
front of hive, we can keep the queen from leaving witha
swarm. Occasionally, however, a queen will pass through
unless the smaller spaced zinc is used. By keeping empty

286 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

frames and empty cells in the nuclei, the bees may be kept
active; yet with so few bees one can not expect very much
from the nuclei. After cutting all the queen-cells from our
old hive, we can again insert eggs, as above suggested, and
obtain another lot of cells, or, if we havea sufficient number,
we can leave a single queen-cell, and this colony will soon be
the happy possessor of a queen, and just as flourishing as if
the even tenor of its ways had not been disturbed. If it is
preferred, the bees of this colony may be used in forming the
nuclei, in which case there is no danger of getting a queen in

| any nucleus thus formed, or of having the queen-cells destroyed.
)We can thus start seven or eight nuclei very quickly. Mr.
Doolittle forms nuclei by disturbing the bees—jarring the
hive—till they fill with honey, then shakes them intoa hive or
box and sets them in a dark room or cellar for twenty-four
hours. Then they will always, he says, accept a queen-cell or
a virgin queen of any age at once. A full colony may be
usually re-queened in the same way.

QUEEN LAMP-NURSERY.

This aid to bee-keeping was first used by F. R. Shaw, of
Chatham, Ohio. The double wall enclosing water was the
invention of A.I. Root. It is substantially a tin hive, with
two walls enclosing a water-tight space an inch wide, which,
when in use, is filled with water through a hole at the top.
Each nursery may hold from six to eight frames. Some pre-
fer to have special frames for this nursery,each of which
contains several close chambers. The queen-cells are cut out
and put in these chambers.

By use of a common kerosene lamp placed under this nur-
sery, the temperature must be kept from 80 degrees F. to 100
degrees F. By placing the frames with capped queen-cells in
this, the queens develop as well asif ina hive or nucleus. If
the young queens, just from the ceil, are introduced intoa
queenless colony or nucleus, as first shown by Mr. Langstroth,
they are usually well received. Uuless one is rearing a great
many queens, this lamp-nursery is not desirable, as we still
have to use the nucleus to get the young queens fecundated,
have to watch carefully to get the young queens as soon as

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 287

they appear, must guardit carefully as moths are apt to get
in, and, finally, unless great pains are taken, this method will
give us inferior queens. Mr. W. Z. Hutchinson, one of our
best queen-breeders, thinks very highly of the lamp-nursery.
Some bee-keepers use a cage (Fig. 136) with projecting
pins which are pushed into the comb, so that they hold the
cage. Acellis put into each of these, and then they may be
put into any hive. Of course the bees can not destroy the cell,
as they can not get at it. Dr. Jewell Davis’ queen-nursery

Fic. 137.

West Cell-Protector.—From A. I. Root Co.

consists of a frame filled with such cages, which can be hung
in any hive. I have tried both, and prefer this to the lamp-
nursery. The West cell-protector (Fig. 137) is excellent. The
cell can not be destroyed, and as the protector is open at the
end the queen comes forth into the nucleus, and is almost sure
to be well received. This is an excellent way to insert queen-
cells. Mr. Root recommends putting a little honey at the end
of the cell, so the queen will get this at once. Mr. Doolittle,
tointroduce virgins, puts them in a cage with candy, and
covers the opening with paper, as well as candy, so as to delay
her egress. Rarely they fail to eat through this, when they
must be liberated.

«

288 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

SHALL WE CLIP THE QUEEN’S WING ?

In the above operation, as in many other manipulations
of the hive, we shall often gain sight of the queen, and
can, if we desire, clip her wing, zf she has met the drone; but
never before, that in no case she shall lead the colony away to
parts unknown. Thisis an old practice, for Virgil speaks of
retaining the bees by tearing off the wings of ‘the king.”
This does not injure the queen, as some have claimed. General
Adair once stated that such treatment injured the queen, as it
cut off some of the air-tubes, which view was approved by so
excellent a naturalist as Dr. Packard. Yet I am sure that this
isalla mistake. The air-tube and blood-vessel, as we have
seen, go to the wings to carry nourishment to these members.
With the wing goes the necessity of nourishment and the need
of the tubes. Aswellsay that the amputation of the human
leg or arm would enfeeble the constitution, as it would cut off
the supply of blood.

Many of our best apiarists have practiced this clipping of
the queen’s wing for years. Yetthese queens show no diminu-
tion of vigor; we should suppose they would be even more
vigorous, as useless organs are always nourished at the
expense of the organism, and, if entirely useless, are seldom
long continued by nature. The ants set us an example in this
matter, as they bite the wings off their queens, after mating
has transpired. They mean that the queen shall remain at
home, zolen volens, and why shali not we require the same of
the queen-bee? Were it not forthe necessity of swarming in
nature, we should doubtless have been anticipated in this mat-
ter by Nature herself.

Some of our first apiarists think that queens with wings
clipped are not as acceptable to the other bees, I have now
had experience for thirty years in this practice, and have yet
to see the first indication that the aboveistrue. Still, if the
queen essays to go withthe swarm, andif the apiarist is not
at hand, she will sometimes be lost, never regaining the hive;
but in this case the bees will be saved, as fhey will return with-
outfail. Many of our farmers are now keeping bees with
marked success and large profits, who could not continue at

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 289

all except for this practice. Mr. GecrgeGrimm kept about
eighty colonies of bees, and said he worked only ten days in
the year. Buthe clipped the queens’ wings, and his wife did
the hiving. ;

Some apiarists clip one primary wing the first year, the
secondary the second year, the other primary the third, and, if
age of the queen permits, the remaining wing the fourth year.
Yet, such data, with other matters of interest and importance,
better be kept on a slate or card, and firmly attached to the
hive, or else kept in a record opposite the number of the hive.
The time required to find the queen is sufficient argument
against the “‘queen-wing record.” This is not an argument
against the once clipping of the queen’s wings, for, in the
nucleus hives, queens are readily found, and even in full colo-
nies this is not very difficult, especially if we keep Italians or
any other races of yellow bees. It will be best, even though
we have to look up black queens in full colonies. ‘The loss of
one good colony, or the vexatious trouble of separating two or
three swarms which had clustered together, and finding each
queen, or the hiving of a colony perched high up on some
towering tree, would soon vanquish this argument of time.

To clip the queen’s wing, which we must never do until
she commences to lay eggs, take hold of her wings with the
right thumb and index finger—never grasp her body, especially
her abdomen, as this will be very apt to injure her—raise her
off the comb, then turn from the bees, place her gently on the
left hand, and press on her feet with the left thumb sufficiently
to hold her. Now with the right hand, by use of a small,
delicate pair of scissors, cut off about one-half of one of the
front or primary wings. ‘This method prevents any movement
of legs or wings, and is easy and quick. I think Mr. Root
advises grasping the queen bythe thorax. I prefer the method
given here.

Some bee-keepers—inexperienced they must be—complain |
that queens thus handled often receive a foreign scent, and
are destroyed by the worker-bees. I have clipped hundreds
and never lost one.

LAYING WORKERS.

We have already described laying workers. As these can

290 THE BEE-KEEBPER’S GUIDE;

only produce unimpreginated eggs, they are, of course, value-
less, and unless superseded by a queen will soon cause the
destruction of the colony. As their presence often prevents
the acceptance of cells or a queen, by the common workers,
they areaserious pest. The absence of worker-brood, and
the abundant and careless deposition of eggs—some cells being
skipped, while others have received several eggs—are pretty
sure indications of their presence. The condition that favors

Fic. 138.

Hive-Sceraper.—Original. ’
these pests, is continued absence of a queen or means to pro-
duce one; thus they are very likely to appear in nuclei. They
seem more common with the Cyprian and Syrian bees.

To rida colony of these, unite it with some colony witha
good queen, after which the colony may be divided if very
‘strong. Simply exchanging places of a colony with a laying
worker, and a good, strong colony will often cause the destruc-
tion of the wrong-doer. In this case, brood should be given to
the colony which had the laying worker, that they may reara
queen ; or better, a queen-cell or queen should be given them.
Caging a queen in a hive, with a laying worker, for thirty-six
hours, wili almost always cause the bees to accept her. We
may also use the Doolittle candy cage with the opening covered
with paper. Her escape is so tardy that she will be safe.
Shaking the bees off the frames two rods from the hive, will
often rid them of the counterfeit queen, after which they will
receive a queen-cell ora queen. But prevention is best of all.
We should never have a colony or nucleus without either a
queen or means torear one. It is well to keep young brood in
our nucleiat all times. Queens reared from brood four days

_ from the egg are often drone-layers, and never desirable.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 291

In all manipulation with the bees we need something to
loosen the frames. Many use a chisel or smalliron claw. I
have found an iron scraper (Fig. 138), which I had made by a
blacksmith, very convenient. It serves to loosen the frames,
draw tacks, and scrape off propolis. It would be easy to add,
the hammer.

QUEEN-REGISTER OR APIARY REGISTER.

With more than a half dozen colonies it is not easy to
know just the condition of each colony. Something to mark
the date of each examination, and the condition of the colony

Fie. 139,
QUEEN REGISTER. got May,
EGGS. Ro ‘Sp
No. SS 2
MISSING. BROOD. a 0 =
a a
NOT APPROVED. o CELL. eC, &
oy, ? oh
ergy vs
APPROVED. HACTHED. MARCH.
Oct. APRIL.
LAYING.

DIRECTIONS.— Tack the a ona cpurpiovous Peet of SEPT. ° MAY.
ine oe pin into the conte® oLeach cirele, aitorit febent ©. AUG, JUNE
in such a manner that the head will press securely on any
figure or word. These Cards mailed free, at 6c. per doz. JULY.
or 40c. per hundred.

A. I. Root, MEDINA, O.

Use tinned or galvanized tacks; they will stand rain, &c.

at that time is very desirable. Mr. Root furnishes the Queen-
Register (Fig. 139). With this it is very easy to mark the date
of examination of each hive, and the condition of the colony at
the time. Mr. Hutchinson prefers this. Mr. Newman fur-
nished an Apiary Register which served admirably for the
same purpose. Each hive is numbered. Dr. Miller tacks a
small square piece of tin bearing the number in black paint to

292 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

each hive. A corresponding number in the Register gives us
all desired facts. We have only to note down at the time the
condition of each colony and date of examination in the Regis-
ter. Mr. Root prefers a slate whose position on the cover of
the hive shows the condition of colony, and dates can be writ-
ten on it.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 293

CHAPTER X,
INCREASE OF COLONIES.

No subject will be of more interest to the beginner than
that of increasing colonies. He has one or two, he desires as
many more, or, if very aspiring, as many hundred, and if a
Jones, a Hetherington, or a Harbison, as many thousand. This
isa subject, too, that may well engage the thought and study
of men of no inconsiderable experience. I believe that many
veterans are not practicing the best methods in obtaining an
increase of colonies.

Before proceeding to name the ways, or to detail the
methods, let me state and enforce that it is always safest, and
generally wisest, especially for the beginner, to be content
with doubling, or certainly with tripling, his number of colo-
nies each season. Especially let all remember the motto:
‘Keep all colonies strong.”’

There are two ways to increase: The natural, known as
swarming, already described under natural history of the bee;
and the artificial, improperly styled artificial swarming. This

is also called, and more properly, ‘‘ dividing.” r

SWARMING.

In case of the specialist, or in case some one can be near
by to watch the bees, swarming is without doubt the best way
toincrease. Therefore, the apiarist should be always ready
with both means and knowledge for immediate action. Of
course, necessary hives were all secured the previous winter,
and will never be wanting. Neglect to provide hives before
the swarming season is convincing proof that the wrong pur-
suit has been chosen.

If, as { have advised, the queen has her wing clipped, the
matter becomes very simple, in fact, so much simplified that
were there no other argument, this would be sufficient to

294 THE BEE-KEEPER‘'S GUIDE;

recommend the practice of clipping the queen’s wing. Now,
if several swarms cluster together, we have not to separate
them ; they will usually separate of themselves and return to
their old homes. To migrate without the queen means death,
and life is sweet even to bees. and is not willingly to be given
up except for home and kindred. Even if they all enter
one hive, the queens are not with them, and it is very easy to
divide them as desired. Neither has the apiarist to climb
trees, tosecure his bees from bushy trunks, from off the lattice-
work or pickets of his fence, from the very top of a tall, slen-
der, fragile fruit-tree, or other most inconvenient places. Nor
will he even be tempted to pay his money for patent non-
swarming hivers or patent swarm-catchers, He knows his
bees will return to their old quarters, so he is not perturbed by
the fear of loss or plans to capture the unapproachable. It
requires no effort ‘‘to possess his soul in patience.’’ If he
wishes to increase, he steps out, takes the queen by the
remaining wings, as she emerges from the hive, soon after the
bees commence their hilarious leave-taking, puts her in a
cage, opens the hive, destroys, or, if he wishes to use them,
cuts out the queen-cells as already described, gives more room
—either by adding a super of sections or taking out some of
the frames of brood, as they may well be spared—places the
cage enclosing the queen under the quilt, and leaves the bees
toreturnat their pleasure. At nightfall the queen is liber-
ated, the hive may be removed to another place, and very
likely the swarming-fever is subdued for the season.

If it is desired to unite the swarm with a nucleus, exchange
the places of the old hive with the caged queen, as soon as the
swarm is out, and the nucleus hive, to which, of course, the
swarm will now come. The queen-cells should be removed at
once from the old hive, and the queen liberated. The nucleus
colony, now strongly enforced, should have empty frames, but
always with starters, added, making five in all; and a super of
sections with thin foundation added at once. ‘Ihe five frames
Langstroth size, more if smaller—are put on one side and the
rest of the space filled by division-boards. Here the nucleus is
at once transformed into a large, strong colony.

If it is desired to hive the swarm separately—and usually

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 295

this gives the best results, even if we do not care for increase
—we remove the old hive to one side, and turn it entirely
around, so that the entrance that was eastis now west. We
now place a new hive with five or six empty frames, which
have narrow starters, right where the old hive previously
stood, in which the caged queen is put. We fill the extra
space in this hive with division-boards, and set on it the super
of sections previously placed on the old hive; or in case this
colony that just swarmed had not previously received a super
of sections, we place a super witha queen-excluding honey-
board on the hive where the new swarm is now to enter.

As this colony has no comb in the brood-chamber, only
foundation starters, and has sections with comb or thin foun-
dation, the bees will commence to work vigorously in the sec-
tions, especially as the brood-chamber is so restricted. This
idea originated with Messrs, Doolittle and Hutchiuson, and’is
fully explained in ‘‘ Advanced Bee-Culture,”’ Mr. Hutchinson’s
excellent book, which should be in the hands of every comb-
honey producer.

The hive from which the swarm issued—now close beside
the hive with the new colony—should be turned a little each
day so that by the eighth day the entrance will be as before to
the east, or close to that of the other hive. On the eighth day
this hive is carried to some distant part of the bee-yard. Of
course all the bees that are gathering—and by this time they
are numerous—will go to the other hive, which will so weaken
the still queenless colony that they will not care to send out
another or second swarm, and so will destroy all remaining
queen-cells and queens after the first queen comes forth. This
isa quick, easy way to prevent after, or second, swarms. It
originated with Mr. James Heddon, and I find that, with rare
exception, it works well. I believe where one is with his bees,
this last-described plan is the most profitable that the bee-
keeper can adopt. Sometimes the mere introducing of a new
queen into the old hive will prevent any further swarming.
The queen at once destroys the queen-cells.

Some extensive apiarists, who desire to prevent increase
of colonies, when a colony swarms, cage the old queen, destroy
‘all queen-cells, and exchange this hive—after taking out three

296 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

“or four frames of brood to strengthen nuclei, replacing these
with frames with starters of foundation—with one that recently
swarmed, which was previously treated the same way. Thus
a colony that recently sent out a swarm, but retained their
queen, has probably, from the decrease of bees, loss of brood,
and removal of queen-cells, lost the swarming-fever, and if we
give them plenty of room and ventilation, they will accept the
bees froma new swarm, and spend their future energies in
storing honey. If the swarming-fever is not broken up, we
shall only have to repeat the operation again in a few days.

Still another modification, in case no increase of bees but
rather comb honey is desired, is recommended by such apia-
rists as Doolittle, Davis, and others. The queen is caged seven
days, the queen-cells in the hive are then destroyed, the queen
liberated, and everything is arranged for immense yields of
combhoney. In this case the queen is idle, but the bees seem
to have lost not one jot of theirenergy. I tried this plan many
years ago with great success, and recommended it to Mrs. L.
B. Baker, who prized it highly. Dr. C. C. Miller, instead of
caging the queen, places her with a nucleus on top of the old
hive, thus keeping her at work, by exchange of frames. After
seven days he destroys the queentcells in the old hive and
unites the nucleus with it. Here the queenis kept at wark,
the swarming impulse subdued, and a mighty colony made
ready for business. This plan slightly modified has the sanc-
tion of such admirable apiarists as Messrs. Elwood and
Hetherington.

Two objections are sometimes raised right here. Suppose
several swarms issue at once, one of which is a second swarm,
which of course has a virgin queen, then all will go off
together, and our lossis grevous indeed. I answer that sec-
ond swarmsare unprofitable, and should never be permitted.
We should be so vigilant that this fate would never befall us.
If we will not give this close attention without such stimulus,
then it were well to have this threatening danger hanging over
us. Again, suppose we are not right at hand when the swarm
issues, the queen wanders away and is lost. Yes, but if
unclipped the whole colony would go, now it is only the queen.
Usually the queen gets back. If not,a little looking will

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 297

generally find her not far away within a ball of friendly
workers. At nightfall smoke these bees, and by watching we
learn the colony which swarmed, as the bees about the queen
will repair at once to it. Mr. Doolittle suggests that we may
always find what colony swarmed when a swarm is out. If
we take a portion of the bees from the cluster into a pail and
swing them around lively, then throw them out, they will at
once, he says, fly to the old home. When aswarm first issues,
young bees, too young to fly, crawling about the hive, will
often reveal the colony that swarmed.

HIVING SWARMS.

But in clipping wings, some queens may be omitted, or,
from taste, or other motive, some bee-keepers may not desire
to ‘‘deform her royal highness.’”’ Then the apiarist must
possess the means to save the would-be rovers. The means
are: good hives in readiness ; some kind of a brush—a turkey-
wing will do; a basket with open top, which should be at least
eighteen inches in diameter, and so made that it may be
attached to the end of the pole; and two poles, one very long
and the other of medium length.

Now, let us attend to the method: As soon as the cluster
commences to form, place the hive in position where we wish
the colony to remain, leaving the entrance wide open. As
soon as the bees are fully clustered, we must manage as best
we can to empty the whole cluster in front of the hive. As the
bees are full of honey they are not likely to sting, but will
sometimes. I have known bees, when clustered in a swarm, to
be very cross. This, however, is not usual. Should the bees
be on a twig that could be sacrificed, this might be easily cut
off with either a knife or saw (Fig. 140), and so carefully as
hardly to disturb the bees, then carry (Fig. 76) and shake the
bees in front of the hive, when with joyful hum they will at
once proceed to enter. If the twig must not be cut, shake
them all into the basket, and empty before the hive. Should
- they be on a tree trunk, or a fence, then brush them with the
wing into the basket, and proceed as before. If they are high
up on a tree, take the pole and basket, and perhaps a ladder
will also be necessary. Many devices like a bag on a hoop, a

298 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

RW fe
ei Se
45

ae

Fic. 140,

Whitman's
Fountain Pump,
—Irrom
A. I. Rovt Co.

Auli

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 299

suspended wire-basket, with a tripod to sustain it, etc., are
often recommended. These are not much seen in the apiaries
of our best bee-keepers. Always let ingenuity have its perfect
work, not forgetting that the object to be gained is to get just
as many of the bees as is possible on the alighting-board in
front of the hive. Carelessness as to the quantity might
involve the loss of the queen, which would be serious. The
bees will not remain unless the queen enters the hive. Should
a cluster form whereit is impossible to brush or shake them
off, they can be driven into a basket, or hive, by holding it
above them and blowing smoke among them. All washes for
the hive are more than useless. Itis better that it be clean
and pure. With such, if they are shaded, bees will generally
be satisfied. But assurance will be made doubly sure by
giving them a frame of brood, in all stages of growth, from
an old hive. This may be inserted before the work of hiving
is commenced. Mr. Doolittle thinks this does little or no good,
and tends to induce the building of drone-comb. Mr. Bet-
singer says they are even more apt togooff; but I think he will
not be sustained by the experierice of other apiarists. He
certainly is not by mine. I never knew but one colony to
leave uncapped brood; I have often known them to swarm out
of an empty hive once or twice, and to be returned, after brood
had been placed in the hive, when they accepted the changed
conditions, and went at once to work. We should expect this,
in view of the attachment of bees for their nest of brood, as
also from analogy. How eager the ant to convey her larve
and pupze—the so-called eggs—to a place of safety, when the
nest has been invaded and danger threatens. Bees doubtless
have the same desire to protect their young, and as they can
not carry them away to a new home, they remain to care for
them in one that may not be quite to their taste. Of course if
swarming is permitted either with or without clipped queens,
the bees must be closely watched at the swarming season. Dr.
Miller secures a bright, active girlor boy to watch. He says
the watcher can sit in the shade and go and look once in every
four or five minutes. For 100 ‘colonies it takes the whole time
of one person, as the noise made by somany flying bees makes
actual inspection of all hives necessary. This watching is

300 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

necessary from 8 a.m. till 2 p.m.; or in very best weather from
6a.m.to4p.m., or even later. Of course there is relief on
rainy days.

Farmers can keep many colonies and attend to their farm
work as usual. They have only to havea boy or girl to catch
and cage the queens—the ‘ gude wife’? may do this—and
inform at noon or night what colonies have swarmed. When
acolony swarms, the impulse seems to be general, and often a
half dozen colonies will be on the wing in atrice. These will
very often—generally, in truth—cluster together. In this
case, to find the queens is well nigh impossible, and we can
only divide up the bees into suitable colonies, and as soon as
we find any starting queen-cells, givethem a queen. Of course
we may lose every queen but one. In view of this trouble,
and the expense and doubtful practicality of the various
swarm-catchers in vogue, I would say, Clip the queen’s
Wing.

If no more colonies are desired, the swarm may be given
to acolony which has previously swarmed, after removing
from the latter all queen-cells, and adding to the room by
putting on the sections, and removing some frames of brood
to strengthen nuclei. These frames may be replaced with
empty combs, foundation, or frames with starters. We may
even return the bees to their old home, by taking the same
precautionary measures, with a good hope that storing and
not swarming will engage their attention in future ; and if we
change their position, or better, exchange their position with

hat of a nucleus, we shall be still more likely to succeed in

overcoming the desire toswarm. A swarm may be given toa
colony that was hived as a swarm a day or two before with
great safety, by shaking all the bees of bothin front of the
hive. Some seasons, usually when honey is being gathered
each day for long intervals, but not in large quantities, the
desire and determination of some colonies to swarm is im-
placable. Room, ventilation, changed position of hive, each
and all will fail. Then we can do no better than to gratify
the propensity by giving the swarm a new home, and make
an effort.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 301

TO PREVENT SECOND SWARMS.

The Heddon method of preventing second swarms has
already been explained. This method is valuable because it
requires no looking up of queen-cells, and thus saves time.

As already stated, the wise apiarist will always have on
hand extra queens. Now, if he doesnot desire to form nuclei
(as already explained), and thus use these queen-cells, he will
at once give the old colony a fertile queen. At the same time
this practice secures only carefully reared queens from his best
colonies. As the queen usually destroys all queen-cells,
farther swarming is prevented. The method of introduction
will be given hereafter, though in such cases there is very
little danger incurred by giving them a queen at once. If
desired, the queen-cells can be used in forming nuclei, in man-
ner before described. If extra queens are wanting, we have
only to look carefully—very carefully, as it is easy to miss a
small, worthless cell in some cranny or corner of the comb—
through the old hive and remove all but one of the queen-cells.
A little care will certainly make sure work, as after swarming
the old hive is so thinned of bees that only carelessness will
overlook queen-cells in sucha quest. Mr. Doolittle waits till
the eighth day, or till he hears the piping of the young
queen ; then cuts out all queen-cells, when, of course, he cer-
tainly inhibits second swarms. When this practice fails, as
it very rarely does, it is because two cells were left.

TO PREVENT SWARMING.

As yet wecan only partly avert it. Mr. Quinby offered
a large reward for a perfect non-swarming hive, and never had
tomake the payment. Mr. Hazen attempted it, and partially
succeeded, by granting much space to the bees, so that they
should not be impelled to vacate for lack of room. The Quinby
hive, already described, by the large capacity of the brood-
chamber, and ample opportunity for top and side’ storing,
looks to the same end. Mr. Simmins, of England, thinks he
can prevent swarming by keeping unoccupied cells between
the brood-nest and entrance to the hive. Mr. Muth says if we
always have empty cells in the brood-nest swarming will sel-

302 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

dom occur. Yet he says ‘‘seldom.’’ We may safely say that
a perfect non-swarming hive or system is not yet before the
bee-keeping public. he best aids toward non-swarming are
shade, ventilation, and roomy hives.{ But as we shall seein
the sequel, much room in the brood-chamber, unless we work
for extracted honey—by which means we may greatly repress
the swarming fever—prevents our obtaining honey in a desir-
ablestyle. If we add sections, unless the connection is quite
free—in which case the queen is apt to enter them and greatly
vex us—we must crowd some to send the bees into the sections.
Such crowding is almost sure to lead to swarming. I have, by
uncapping the combsof honey in the brood-chamber, as sug-
gested tome years ago by Mr. M. M. Baldridge—causing the
honey to run down from the combs—sent the bees crowding to
the sections, and thus deferred or prevented swarming. Those
who have frames that can be turned upside down, or invertible
hives, may often secure the same results by simple inversion.
By placing the sections in the brood-chamber till the bees
commence to work on them, and then removing them above,
or by carrying brood up beside the sections, the bees are gen-
erally induced to commence working in sections. Some sec-
tions with combs in them often aids much. ‘This requires too
much manipulation, and sois not practical with the general
bee-keeper. .

It is possible that by extracting freely when storing is
very rapid, and then by freely feeding the extracted honey in
the interims of honey-secretion, we might prevent swarming,
secure very rapid breeding, and still get our honey in sections.
My experiments in this direction have not been as successful
as I had hoped, andI can not recommend the practice, though
some apiarists claim to have succeeded. Even if this could be
made to work it involves too much labor to make it advisable.

The keeping of colonies queenless, in order to secure
honey without increase, is practiced and advised by some even
of our distinguished apiarists. As already stated, I have done
this with excellent results. Dr. C,. C. Miller’s method, already
described, accomplishes the same object, and keeps all the
queens at work all the time.

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 303

ARTIFICIAL INCREASE.

While, as already remarked, there is no better way than to
allow swarming as just described, when one’s circumstances
make it possible todo so, yet itis true that some of our best
bee-keepers prefer to divide. In somecases the bee-keeper can
be with his bees only at certain times—often early in the
morning, late in the afternoon, or perchance at the noontide
hour; then, of course, artificial dividing becomes necessary.
It is practiced to secure any desired increase of colonies, also to
prevent loss from swarming when no one is by. This requires
more time than swarming, as detailed above, and may not—
probably often doos not—secure quite as good results. Yet I
am very sure, from a long experience, that, with sufficient care,
artificial colonies may be formed that will fully equal natural
swarms in the profits they bring to their owners. Iam surelI
could get ten colenies from one in a season, and if I had combs
and should feed I think I could nearly double these figures.

HOW TO DIVIDE.

Mr. Cheshire argues against natural swarming and in
favor of dividing, as the former tends, through selection, to
develop the swarming habit. I do not accept his reasoning, as,
unless we permit swarming, we can not tell what colonies to

reed from, as we have no way to know their tendencies.
Often, too, swarming only indicates great prolificness.} By
the process already described, we have secured a goodly num-
ber of fine queens, which will be in readiness at the needed
time. Now, as soon asthe white clover harvest is well com-
menced, early in June, we may commence operations. If we
have but one colony to divide, it is wellto wait till they become
pretty populous, but not until they swarm. Take one of our
waiting hives, which now holdsa nucleus with laying queen,
and place the same close alongside the colony we wish to
divide. This must be done on a warm day, when the bees are
active, and better be done while the bees are busy, in the mid-
dleof the day. Remove the division-board of the new hive,
and then remove five combs well loaded with brood, and. of
course, containing some honey, from the wld colony, bees and
all, to the new hive. Also take the remaining frames and

304 THE BEE-KHEPER’S GUIDE;

shake the bees into the new hive; only be sure that the queen
still remains in the old hive. Fill both the hives with empty
frames—if the frames are filled with empty comb it will be
still better; if not, it will always pay to give at least starters
of comb or foundation—and return the new hive to its former
position. The old bees will return to the old colony, while the
young ones will remain peaceably withthe new queen. The
old colony will now possess at least seven frames of brood,
honey, etc., the old queen, and plenty of bees, so that they
will work on as though naught had transpired, though perhaps
moved to a little harder effort, by the added space and five
empty combs or frames with starters or full sheets of founda-
tion. These last may all be placed at one end, or placed
between the others, though not so as greatly to divide brood.
The new colony will have eight frames of brood, comb, etc.,
three from the nucleus and five from the old colony,a young
‘laying queen, plenty of bees (those of the previous nucleus and
the young bees from the old colony), and will work with a sur-
prising vigor, often even eclipsing the old colony.

If the apiarist has several colonies, it is better to make the
new colony from several old colonies, as follows: Take one
frame of brood-comb from each of six old colonies, or two
from each of three. and carry them, bees and all, and place
with the nucleus. Be sure that no queen is removed. Fillall
the hives with empty combs, or frames with starters of foun-
dation, as before. In this way we increase without in the
least disturbing any of the colonies, and may add a colony
every day or two, or perhaps several, depending on the size of
our apiary, andcan thus almost always, so experience says,
prevent swarming.

By taking only brood that is allcapped, we can safely add
one or two frames to each nucleus every week, without adding
any bees, asthere would be nod danger of loss by chilling the
brood. In this way, as we remove no bees, we have to spend
no time in looking for the queen, and may build up our nuclei
into full colonies, and keep back the swarming impulse with
great facility.

These are unquestionably the best methods to divide, and
so I will not complicate the subject by detailing others. The

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 305

only objection that can be urged against them—and even this
does not apply to the last—is that we must seek out the queen
in each hive, or at least be sure that we do not remove her,
though this is by no means so tedious if we have Italians or
other races of yellow bees, as, of course, we all will. I might
give other methods which would render unnecessary this cau-
tion, but, to my mind, they are inferior, and not to be recom-
mended. If we proceed as above described, the bees will sel-
dom prepare to swarm at all, and, if they do, they will be dis-
covered in the act, by such frequent examinations, and the
work may be cut short by at once dividing such colonies, as
first explained, and destroying their queen-cells, or, if desired,
using them for forming new nuclei.

CAPTURING ABSCONDING SWARMS.

Sometimes swarms break cluster and take wing for their
prospective home before the bee-keeper has hived them.
Throwing dirt. among them will sometimes cause them to
alight again. Throwing water among them inthe form of a
fine spray (Fig. 140) will almost alwaysdo this. For such pur-
pose some hand pump is very desirable. Whitman’s fountain
pump is one of the most convenient. It costs about $7.00.
Another important use for such a pump in the apiary is this:
Ifa swarm, when clustered, is sprinkled occasionally, it will
remain clustered indefinitely. This permits us to retain a
swarm in case it is more convenient to hive it later. While
most customs have a reasonable basis, the common one of
horns and bells and beating of pans to stop a swarm is a nota
ble exception. It does not do the least good.

306 THE BEE-KEEKPER’S GUIDE}

CHAPTER XL
ITALIANS AND ITALIANIZING.

The history and description of Italian bees have already
been considered, so it only remains to discuss the subject ina
practical light.

The superiority of the Italians seems no longer a mooted
question. Inow know of no one among the able apiarists in
our country who takes the ground that a thorough balancing
of qualities will make as favorable a showing for the German
as for the Italian bees, though I think that the late Baron of
Berlepsch held to this view.

I think Iam capable of acting as judge on this subject. I
have never sold a dozen queens in my life, and so have not
been unconsciously influenced by self-interest. In fact, I have
never had, if Iexcept six years, any direct interest in bees at
all, and all my work and experiments had only the promotion
and spread of truth as the ultimatum. Again, I have kept
both blacks and Italians side by side, and carefully observed
and uoted results during eight years of my experience. I have
carefully collected data as to increase of brood, rapidity of
storing, early and late habits in the day and season, kinds of
flowers visited, amiability, etc., and 1am more than persuaded
that the general verdict, that they are superior to the German
race, is entirely correct. The Italians are /ar superior to the
German bees in many respects, and, though I am acquainted
with all the works on apiculture printedin our language, and
have an extensive acquaintance with the leading apiarists of
ourcountry from Maine to Galifornia, yet I know hardly a man
that has opportunity to form a correct judgment, does not
give strong preference to the Italians. The black bees are in
some respects superior to the Italians, and if a bee-keeper’s
methods cause him to give these points undue importance, in
forming his judgments, then his conclusions may be wrong.
Faulty management, too, may lead to wrong conclusions.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 307

The Italians certainly possess the following points of
superiority :

first. They possess longer tongues, and so can gather .
from flowers which are useless to the black bee. This point
has already been sufficiently considered. How much value
hangs upon this structural peculiarity Iam unable to state. I
have frequently seen Italians working on red clover. I never
saw a black bee thus employed. It is easy to see that this
might be, at certain times and certain seasons, a very material
aid. How much of thesuperior storing qualities of the Italians
isdueto this lengthened ligula, Iam unable tosay. Mr. J.
H. Martin hasa very ingenious tongue measurer by which the
length of the tongues of beesin the several hives can be
quickly and accurately compared. I have madea very simple
and convenient instrument to accomplish the same end ; two
rectangular pieces, one of glass and the other of wire gauze,
are so set in a frame that the glass inclines to the gauze. At
one end they touch; at the other they are separated three-
fourths of aninch. Honey is spread on the glassand all set
in the hive. The bees can only sip the honey through the
gauze. The bees that clean the farthest from the end where
it touches the gauze have the longest tongues. This gives
only relative lengths, while Mr. Martin’s register tells the
absolute length.

Second. 'They are more active, and, with the same oppor-
tunities, will collect a good deal more honey. This is a matter
of observation, which I have tested over and overagain. Yet
I will give the figures of another: Mr. Doolittle secured from
two colonies 309 pounds and 301 pounds, respectively, of comb
honey, during the one season. These surprising figures, the
best he could give, were from his best Italian colonies.
Similar testimony comes from Klein and Dzierzon over the
sea, and from hosts of our own apiarists.

Third. They work earlier and later. This is not only true
of the day, but of the season. Oncool days in spring I have
seen the dandelions swarming with Italians, while not a black
bee was to be seen. On May 7, 1877, I walked less than half a
mile, and counted sixty-eight bees gathering from dandelions,
yet only two were black bees. This might be considered an

308 THE BHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

undesirable feature. Yet, from careful observation covering
thirty years, I think that Italian bees are quite as apt to win-
ter welland pass the spring months without harm as are black
bees.

Fourth. They are far better to protect their hives against
robber-bees. Robbers that attempt to plunder Italians of their
hard-earned stores soon find that they have ‘‘dared to beard
the lion in his den.”’ This is so patent that even the advo-
cates of black bees are ready to concede it.

Fifth. They are proof against the ravages of the bee-
moth’s larve. Thisis also universally conceded. This is no
very great advantage, as no respectable bee-keeper would
dread’ moths, even with the black bees.

Sixth. The queens are decidedly more prolific. This is
probably in part due to the greater and more constant activity
of the workers. Thisis observable at all seasons, but more
especially when building up in the spring. Noone who will
take the pains to note the increase of brood will long remain
in doubt on this point.

ux Seventh. They are less apt to breed in winter, when it is
desirable to have the bees very quiet.

Eighth. The queen is more readily found, which is a great
advantage. In the various manipulations of the apiary, it is
frequently desirable to findthe queen. In fullcolonies I would
rather find three Italian queens than one black one. Where
time is money this becomes a matter of much importance.

Ninth. The bees are more disposed to adhere to the comb
while being handled, which some might regarda doubtful
compliment, though I consider it a desirable quality.

Tenth. They are, in my judgment, less liable to rob other
bees. They will find honey when the blacks gather none, and
the time for robbing is when there is no gathering. This may
explain the above peculiarity.

Eleventh. In my estimation, a sufficient ground for pref-
erence, did it stand alone, is that the Italian bees are far more
amiable. Years agol got rid of my black bees because they
were socross. A few years later I got two or three colonies,
that my students might see the difference, but to my regret;
for, as we removed the honey in the autumn, they seemed

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 309

perfectly furious, like demons, seeking whom they might
devour, and this, too, despite the smoker, while the far more
numerous Italians were safely handled, even without smoke.
The experiment at least satisfied a large class of students as
to superiority. Mr. Quinby speaks in his book of their being
cross, and Capt. Hetherington tells me that if not much
handled they are more cross than the blacks. From myown
experience, I can not understand this. Hybrids, between
blacks and Italians, are ofttimes even more cross than are the
pure black bees, but otherwise are nearly as desirable as the
pure Italians.

Ihave kept these two races side by side for years; I have
studied them most carefully, and I feel sure that none of the
foregoing eleven points of excellence are too strongly stated.

The black bees will go into sections more readily than
Italians, yet the skillful apiarist will find it easy to overcome
this objection in the manner already described.

There is no question but that the German bees produce
nicer, whiter comb honey than do the Italians. This supe-
riority is due in part to thicker cappings, and to a wider air-
space between honey and capping. This, however, is too nice
a point to count very greatly in their favor. The comb honey
produced by Italians does not have to go begging in the
markets.

The advantages of the Italians, which have been consid-
ered thus fully, are more than sufficient to warrant the exclu-
sion of the German bees from the apiary. I say truly, no one
needs to be urged to a course that adds to the ease, profit and
agreeableness of his vocation. Darwin showed, years ago, -
that introduced or newly imported plants or animals usually
possessed more vigor than those ‘‘ to the manor born.’’ Hence
the wisdom of frequent and repeated importations from Italy.
This is the more desirable unless the queen-breeder works
carefully and scientifically to improve his stock. {No doubt we
have American queen-breeders whose bees are superior to any
they might secure from Italy, Yet even these may find it
desirable to bring occasional fresh stock from the Ligurian
hills,

310 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

THE NEW RACKS OF BEES.

All of the valuable characteristics of the Italian bees are
exaggerated in the Syrian bees, except that of amiability.
This feature—irritability—would not be an objection toan
experienced bee-keeper. I believe, after several years’ experi-
ence with the Syrians, that they would soon become as pleas-
ant to manage and handleas are the Italians. { They are not
so readily subdued with smoke as are the Italians, and require
careful handling.} They are astonishingly prolific, and keep
or not. As the queen fills a comb before leaving it, the brood
is kept very compact. They start a large number of queen-
cells, and so for queen-rearing they are super-excellent. The
comb honey of these bees is said to be quite inferior, because
of thin caps—a point I have failed to observe. I think the
honey about equal to that of the Italians in appearance. ‘The
Cyprian bees are in no way superior to the Syrians, so far as
Ican learn, though I have had no experience with them, and
they are considerably more irritable. The Carniolans (Figs.
11, 12, 13) are much praised by European bee-keepers. They
are certainly very amiable, and so excellent for the beginner.
From seeing Mr. Frank Benton handle his Carniolans the
summer of 1899, in Washington City, I am persuaded that their
amiability has not been exaggerated. The bees were not
gathering, it was about sunset, and yet Mr. Benton handled
them with no smoke or protection, and that very roughly, yet
we received no stings. Mr. Benton, whose experience surely
makes him a competent judge, values the Carniolan bees as of
superior excellence.

WHAT BHES SHALL WE KEEP ?

The beginner certainly better keep Italians or Carniolans.
The Italians are so excellent that the Syrians, good as they
are, did not take root among us.

HOW TO ITALIANIZE.

From what has been already explained regarding the natural
history of bees, it will be seen that all we have to do to change
our bees is tochange our queens. Hence, to Italianize a col-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 311

ony, we have only to procure and introduce an Italian queen.
The same, of course, is true of Cyprianizing orSyrianizing. If
we change the queen we soon change the bees.

HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN.

In dividing colonies, where we give our queen to a colony
composed wholly of young bees, it is safe and easy to intro-
duce a queen in the manner explained in the section on arti-
ficial increase of colonies. To introduce a queen to a colony
composed of old bees requires more care. First, we should
seek out the old queen and destroy her, then cage our Italian
queen in a wire cage (Fig. 141), which may be made by wind-

Fic. 141.

Queen-Cage.—From A, I. Root Co.

ing a strip of wire-cloth, three and one-half inches wide, and
containing fifteen to twenty meshes to the inch, about the
finger. Let it lap each way one-half inch, then cut it off.
Ravel out the half-inch on each side, and weave in the ends of
the wires, forming a tube the size of the finger. We now have
only to put the queen in the tube and pinch the ends together,
and the queen is caged. The cagecontaining the queen should
be inserted between two adjacent combs containing honey,
each of which will touch it. The queen can thus sip honey as
she needs it. If we fear the queen may not be able to sip the
honey through the meshes of the wire, we may dip a piece of
clean sponge in honey and insert it in the upper end of the
cage before we compress this end. This will furnish the
queen with the needed food. In forty-eight hours we again
open the hive, aftera thorough smoking, and also the cage,
which is easily done by pressing the upper end at right angles
to the direction of the pressure when we closedit. In doing

312 THE BEK-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

this do not remove the cage. Now keep watch, and if, as the
bees enter the cage, or as the queen emerges, the bees attack
her, secure her immediately and re-cage her for another forty-
eight hours. Ihave introduced many queens in this manner,
and have very rarely been unsuccessful. At such times if the
queen is not well received by the bees, then she is ‘‘ balled,’’
asit is termed. By the expression, ‘‘ balling the queen,’’ we
mean that the worker-bees press about her in acompact cluster,
so as to forma real live ball as large as a good-sized peach.
Here the queen is held till she dies; or at least I have

Fic. 142.

Queen-Cage.— From A. I. Root Co.

repeatedly had queens balled and the next day would find them
in front of the hive dead. By smoking the ball or throwing it
into water the queen may be speedily liberated. Mr. Dadant
stops the cage with a plug of wood (Fig. 141), and when he
goes to liberate the queen replaces the wooden stopple with
one of comb, and leaves the bees to liberate the queen by eat-
ing out the comb. Mr. Betsinger uses a larger cage, open at
one end, which is pressed against the comb till the mouth of
the cage reaches the middle of it. If I understand him, the
queen is thus held by comb and cage till the bees liberate her.
It is a better way to form a nucleus, all of young bees, and let
the bees liberate the queen from a cage with the opening
stopped with candy.

If, upon liberating the queen, we find that the bees “‘ ball”
her, that is, gather so closely about her as to form a compact

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 313

cluster, we must at once smoke the bees off and re-cage the
queen, else they will hold her a prisoner till she is dead.

The Peet cage (Figs. 136 and 142), which is not only an
introducing but a shipping cage, is a most valuable invention.
The back of the cage is tin (Fig. 142), and may be drawn ont,
which leaves the back of the cage entirely open. The piecesin
front (Fig. 136) are to be tacked on in shipping. ‘They prevent
the accompanying bees from stinging any one who may handle
the cage, and also secure ventilation. The tin points, which
turn easily, are turned at right angles to the cage, as shown
in the figure. The cage is pressed close up to a smooth piece
of comb containing both brood and honey, where it is held by
the tin points, and then the tin back is withdrawn. The bees
will soon eat under the comb and thus liberate the queen and
almost always accept her. I have had such admirable success
with this cage that I heartily recommend it. The food in’the
cage will keep the queen, even though the bees do not feed her
through the wire, and there is no honey in thecomb. The
Benton cage (Fig. 144) is a modification of the Peet cage, and
asit is now almost universally used for shipping and intro-
ducing, it must be an improvement. Here candy holds the
queen a prisoner, and she is safe from starvation until the bees
liberate her by eating the candy, which ought, and usually
does, make them sweet and amiable.

Judge Andrews, of Texas, states a valuable point in this
connection, which, though I have not tried, Iam glad to give.
The reputation of Judge Andrews and the value of the sug-
gestion alike warrant it. He says the queens will be accepted
just as quickly when caged ina hive with a colony of bees,
even though the old queen is stili at large in the hive. Such
caged queens, says the Judge, after two or three days, are just
as satisfactory to the worker-bees as though ‘‘to the manor
born,” and even more safe when liberated—of course the old
queen is first removed—as the bees start uo queen-cells, if the
old queen has remained in the hive until this time, and the
presence of queen-cells agitates the newly liberated queen,
which is pretty sure to cause her destruction. Here, then, we
may cage and keep our queens after they have been fecundated
in the nuclei, and at any time can take one of these, or the old

314 THE BEE-KEHPER’S GUIDE;

queen, at pleasure, to use elsewhere, though, if the latter, we
must liberate one of the caged queens, which, says the Judge,
‘‘will always be welcomed by the bees.’’ Mr. Doolittle, as
already stated, causes the bees to fill themselves with honey,
then shakes them into a box, which is set for a day in a cool,
dark room, when the new queen can be given them at once,
even though she be a virgin. It is also stated that if we
remove a queen at noonday, and after dark smoke the colony,
after keeping the queen fasting for half an hour, we may
safely introduce her at once. I have tried neither of these
methods. I think this is the method of Mr. Simmins, of
England.

When bees are not strong, especially if robber-bees are
abundant, it is more difficult to succeed, and at such times the
utmost caution will occasionally fail of success if the bees are
not all young. Sometimes a queen may be safely introduced
into a queenless colony by simply shaking the bees all down
in front of the hive, and as they pass in, letting the queen run
in with them. If the queen to be introduced is in a nucleus,
wecan almost always introduce hersafely by taking the frame
containing the queen, bees and all, and setting it in the mid-
dle of the hive containing the queenless colony; though it is
well to smoke the colony well.

A young queen, just emerging from a cell, can always be
safely given at once to a colony, after destroying the old
queen.

A queen-cell is usually received with favor, especially if
the colony has been queenless for twenty-four hours. If we
use a cell we must be careful to destroy all other queen-cells
that may be formed; and if the one we supply is destroyed,
wait twenty-four hours and introduce another. If we wait
seven or eight days, and then destroy all their queen-cells, the
bees are sure to accepta cell. If we use the West cell-protec-
tor (Fig. 137) then there is of course no danger.

If we are to introduce an imported queen, or one of very
great value, we might make a new colony, allof young bees.
We simply place two or three combs of fully matured brood in
a hive, and the queen on them. By nightfallthere will bea
goodly cluster of young bees. Unless the day and night are

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 315

warm the hive must be set in a warm room. The entrance
should be closed, in any case. This keeps the queen from
leaving, and robber-bees from doing harm. As the number of
bees warrant it, more brood may be added, and by adding
capped brood alone we may very soon have a full-sized colony.

By having a colony thus Italianized in the fall, we may
commence the next spring, and, as described in the section
explaining the rearing of queens, we may control our rearing
of drones, queens, and all, and ere another autumn have only

Fic. 143.

Valentine's Comb- Stand. Young’s Easel,
—From A. I. Root Co.

the beautiful, pure, amiable, and active Italians. I have done
this several times, and with the most perfect satisfaction. I
think by making this change in blood, we add certainly two
dollars to the value of each colony, and I know of no other
way to make money so easily and pleasantly. Newly intro-
duced queens will often commence laying at once; almost
always within two or three days; although if introduced in

316 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

late autumn, when the bees have ceased activity for the win-
ter, they may not lay until spring.

VALENTINE’S COMB-STAND.

In the work of finding queens, and in other manipulations,
it is often desirable to take out frames. If these are set down
beside the hive they are liable to injury. J. M. Valentine has
given us a ‘‘comb stand’’ (Fig. 143). As will be seen this
holds two frames. The platform is handy to receive tools,
and the drawer serves well to hold scissors, knife, queen-
cages, etc.

Mr. M. G. Young has invented an ‘“ Easel” (Fig. 143) for
the same purpose. This will hold several combs. Of course
it will not do to leave combs thus exposed, except when bees
are busy in the field, or we will have great trouble with rob-
ber-bees. Ihave not found such devices of sufficient use to
trouble with them.

TO GET OUR ITALIAN QUEENS.

At present the novice, and probably the honey-producer
who prefers to purchase rather than rear his queens, better
send to some reliable, experienced breeder, and procure ‘‘ dollar
queens.’’ Unless these are impurely mated, which will rarely
happen with first-class breeders, they are just as good as
“tested queens.’’ Testing only refers to the matter of pure
mating.

I have felt, and still feel, that this cheap queen-traffic
tends to haste, not care, in breeding, and that with ‘‘ dollar
queens ”’ ruling in the market, there is lack of inducement for
that careful, painstaking labor that is absolutely requisite to
give us the best race of bees. It is justly claimed, however,
in favor of the ‘‘ dollar queen ’’.business, that it has hastened
the spread of Italian bees, gives those who rather buy than
rear their queens a cheap market in which to purchase, and,
best of all, weeds out of the business all but the most skillful,
cautious, and honest breeders. Only skillful men can make it
pay. Only cautious, honest men can finda market for their
stock. Weknow that men are making a handsome profit in
the business, and at the same time are giving excellent satis-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 317

faction. This is the best argument in favor of any business.
I repeat, then, that the beginner better purchase ‘dollar
queens”’ of some reliable breeder—one who has made queen-
rearing a success for years, and given general satisfaction.

I have feared that this ‘‘cheap queen ”’ traffic would crush
the hard effort, requiring study, time, money, and the most
cautious experiment and observation, necessary to give usa
very superior race of bees. There is reason to hope now that
it will, at most, only delay it. Enterprising apiarists see in
this the greatest promise for improved apiculture, and already
are moving forward. Enterprising bee-keepers will purchase
and pay well for the bee of the future that gives sure evidence
of superior excellence. One thing is certain, ‘‘dollar queens ’”’-
are in the market, and are in demand; so, whether the busi-

Fic. 144.

Benton Cage.— From Department of Agriculture.

ness tends to our good or evil, as rational men we must accept
the situation and make the most of things as they exist.

Let me urge, however, upon the progressive apiarist, that
there is no possible doubt but .that the bees of the future will
be immensely superior to those of to-day. Man can and will
advance hereas he has in breeding all other stock. If the
obstacles in the way are greater because of the peculiar natural
history of the bee, then the triumph, when it comes, will be
greater, and the success more praiseworthy.

TO SHIP QUEENS.

For shipping queens the character of the shipping-cage
and of the food are of the first importance. Nothing serves
better for a cage than Benton’s (Fig. 144), already mentioned.

318 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

As shown in the figure, the block from which the cage is made
has three holes bored almost through it, which do not touch,
but are connected by another smaller hole. The hole at one
end is ventilated by small holes, as seen in the figure. The
grooves prevent suffocation when the cage is wrapped or is
snug inthe mail-bags. At the other end the hole is waxed,
and into this the candy is packed, and before the wire-gauze
is added comb foundation is laid on to preserve the moisture.
Over the wire-gauze, which covers the holes, wood is tacked.
The candy or food apartment has a corked opening at the end,
the others at the side. The food should never be honey. This
may daub the queen and cause her death. If the food consists
of hard candy, then the cage must contain a bottle of water,
the cork of which has a small opening, through which is
passed a small cotton string. These bottles are not satisfac-
tory, and so our queen-breeders have discovered a moist candy
which makes them unnecessary. Fig. 145 shows the cages
ready for mailing.
THE ‘‘ GOOD ’”’ CANDY.

This consists of powdered sugar moistened with the best
extracted honey. We are indebted to Mr. I. R. Good for this
cheap and excellent food, although a similar candy was recom-
mended in Germany by Scholz years ago. The only caution
required is to get it just moist enoughto keep it soft, and not
so moist that it will drip at all. The honey is heated, but only
to thin it; then the sugar is stirred in and kneaded. It should
stand two or three days. If too thin more sugar may be added.
For spring feeding, as before stated, it has been suggested to
stir in one-fourth of rye meal, to serve for pollen. In many
sections this is unnecessary.

PREPARATIONS TO SHIP.

We have only to catch the queen and about ten workers
and introduce them into the cage. We hold the cage in the
left hand with the thumb over the hole, to keep the bees in,
and with the right hand pick up the queen and eight or ten
worker-bees—bright ones, neither very young nor old—by
grasping the wings with thumb and index finger, and put
them into the cage. Close the opening by inserting the cork,
and our queen is ready to mail,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 319

We should send queens by mail (Fig. 145). They go as
safely as by express, and it costs butacent ortwo. No one
should presuine, on any account, to send a queen by matl, unless
the queen-cage ts covered by this double screen and is provisioned
as before directed, instead of with honey. If shippers neglect
these precautions, so that the mails become daubed, or the
mail agents stung, we shall again lose the privilege of send-
ing queens by mail.

We have already learned how to introduce the queen. We
have only to place her in the hive under the quilt or between

Fie. 145.

a

Mailing-Cage.—From A. I. Root Co.

two frames, and to withdraw the cork at the candy end. The
bees will soon eat the candy, and the queen will befree. If
we use this cage to introduce a virgin of some age, we may
well paste paper over the holes to delay the exit.

TO MOVE COLONIKS.

Should we desire to purchase Italians or other colonies,
the only requisites to safe transport are: A wire-cloth cover
for ventilation—in shipping by express in hot weather it is
wise to put wire below as well as above—securely fastening
the frames so they can not possibly move, and combs so old
that they shall not break down and fallout. Of course the
Hoffman (Fig. 99) close-fitting frames need little fastening.

320 THER BEH KEEPER’S GUIDE};

They fasten themselves. In spring, wire-gauze over the
entrance usually affords enough ventilation. If the colony is
very large, and the weather very warm, the entire top of the
hive should be open and covered with gauze, or the bees may
smother. The entrance ought also to be covered with gauze.
Dr. C. C. Miller, in his valuable book, ‘‘ Forty Years Among
the Bees,”’ offers a good suggestion. Itis to double a narrow
piece of wire-gauze, a little longer than the entrance to the
hive, and tack the cut edges to one side of a similar shaped
piece of soft wood, so that it will project one-half inch below.
By screwing or tacking this strip just above the entrance of a
hive, we quickly shut the bees in. Severalof these may be
madein advance. I find them very convenient. If combs are
built from wired foundation they will not break down, even if
new. Beesthus shut up should never be left where the sun
can shine on them. I believe that comb partly filled with
water would be grateful to the bees in case of along journey
in hot weather. In the cars the frames should extend length-
wise of the cars. In moving in a wagon, springs or a good
bed of straw should be used, and the frames should extend
crosswise of the wagon. I would never advise moving bees in
winterin regions of cold winters, though it has often been
done with entire safety. I should wish the bees to havea
flight very soon after such disturbance. Of course this does
not apply to such localities as California.

36

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 32t

CHAPTER XIL
EXTRACTING AND THE EXTRACTOR.

‘The brood-chamber is often so filled with honey that the
queen has no room to lay her eggs, especially if there isany
neglect to give other room forstoring. Honey in brood-combs
is unsalable, because the combs are dark, and the size unde-
sirable. Comb is very valuable, and should never be taken
from the bees, except when desired to render the honey more
marketable. Hence, the apiarist finds a very efficient auxiliary
in the

HONEY-EXTRACTOR.

No doubt some have expected and claimed too much for
this machine. It is equally true that some have blundered
quite as seriously in an opposite direction. For, since Mr.
Langstroth gave the practical movable frame to the world, the
apiarist has not been so deeply indebted to any inventor as to
him who gave us, in 1865, the ‘‘Mel Extractor,’’ Herr von '
Hruschka, of Germany.

The principle which makes this machine effective is that
of centrifugal force, and it was suggested to Major von
Hruschka by noticing that a piece of comb which was twirled
by his boy at the end of a string was emptied of its honey.
Herr von Hruschka’s machine was essentially like those now
so common, thoughin lightness and convenience there has
been a marked improvement. His machine consisted of a
wooden tub, with a vertical axle in the center, which revolved
in a socket fastened to the bottom of the vessel, while from the
top of the tub fastenings extended to the axle, which projected
for a distance above. The axle was thus held exactly in the
center of the tub. Attached to the axle was a frame or rack
to hold the comb, whose outer face rested against a wire-cloth.
The axle with its attached frame, which latter held the
uncapped comb, was made to revolve by rapidly unwind-

322 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

ing a string which had been previously wound about the axle,
after the manner of top-spininng. Replace the wooden tub
with one of tin, and the string with gearing, and it will be
seen that we have essentially the neat extractor of to-day.

Fic. 146. Fic. 147.

+
i | a4

uh) iit i

me ii

mal Comb-Basket.
—From Cod. Muth.

Fic. 148.

Muth Extractor.
—~ From C.F, Muth,

United States Extractor.
—From American Bee Journal,

The machine is of foreign invention, is not covered by a patent,
and so may be made by any one who desires to do so.

The first American honey-extractor was that made by
Messrs. Langstroth and Wagner (see American Bee Journal,
Vol. III, No. 10), inthe year 1867. As we should expect, our
enterprising friends, A. I. Root (Novice), M. M. Baldridge,
who, I think, was first, and others were soon in the field.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 323

Some of these early extractors, like the Peabody, ran without
gearing; others, like Mr. Baldridge’s, were of wood, while
Mr. Langstroth’s, if we may judge from the engraving, was
very much like the ones of to-day.

DESIRABLE POINTS IN AN EXTRACTOR.

The machine (Fig. 146) should be as light as is consistent
with strength. It is desirable that the can be made of tin, as
it will be neater and more easily kept sweet andclean. The
can should be stationary, so that only a light frame (Fig. 147)
shall revolve with the comb. In some of the extractors (Fig.
147) the walls of this frame incline. This keeps the frames
from falling in when the machine is at rest, but varies the
centrifugal force at the top and bottom of the comb, which is
urged as an objection. Of course this difference in force is
very slight. Some of the extractors, like the United States
(Fig. 146), are made so that the whole center can be removed in
a moment, and with the central axis removed so that combs can
be reversed without removal from the extractor, both of which
are substantial improvements. But the most decided improve-
ment is seen in the automatic extractor. This extractor (Fig.
149) is so made that the combs can be quickly reversed without
removal from the extractor. This machine, although it costs
more than any other, will be especially prized in large apiaries.
By simply reversing the motion the combs are also reversed.

It is desirable that the machine should run with gearing,
not only for ease, but also to insure or allow an even motion,
so that we need not throw even drone-larve from the brood-
cells while in the act of extracting. In some machines the
crank runs in a horizontal plane (Fig. 146), in others in a ver-
tical plane (Fig. 148). Both styles have their friends. I think
there is little choice between them. The arrangement for exit
of the honey should permit a speedy and perfect shut-off. A
molasses-gate is excellent to serve for a faucet. I also prefer
that the can should hold 30 or 40 pounds of honey before it
would be necessary to let the honey flow from it. Large api-
arists, like Mr. McIntyre, use power to run the extractor, and
let the honey run continuously into a large tank below.

In case of small frames, I should prefer that the comb-

324 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

basket might hold four, or even more, frames. The comb-
basket should be placed so low in the can that no honey will
be thrown over the top to daub the person using the extractor.
I think that a wire attachment with a tin bottom (Fig. 150, a, d)
and made to hook on to the comb-basket, which will hold pieces
of comb not in frames, is a desirable addition to au extractor.
‘At present all our large apiarists use automatic reversing

Fic. 149.

n 4

f er

i |

oe
a

Inside Cowan's Automatie Extractor.
. —From A. I. LootCo.

extractors, invented, I think, by Mr. Thos. W. Cowan. These
reverse the combs automatically while in motion, and so area
great saving of time.

The can, if metal, which is lighter, and to be preferred to
wood, as it does not sour nor absorb the honey, should be of
tin, soas not to rust. A cover (Fig. 148) to protect the honey
from dust, when not in use, is very desirable. The circular
cloth cover, gathered around the edge by a string or a rubber,
as made by Mr. A. I. Root, is excellent for this purpose. As

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 325

no capped honey can be extracted, it is necessary to uncap it,
which is done by shaving off the thin caps. To do this, noth-
ing is comparable in excellence to the Bingham & Hethering-
ton honey-knife (Fig. 151). After a thorough trial of this

Fic. 150.

From American Bee Journal,

knife, here at the college, we pronounced it decidedly superior
to any other that we have used, though we have several of the
principal knives made in the United States. I do not think
the bee-keeper can afford to use any other knife. This knife
is peculiar for its thick blade, which is beveled on the edge.

USE OF THE EXTRACTOR.
Although some of our most experienced apiarists say nay, it
is nevertheless a fact, that the queen sometimes remains idle,

Fic. 151.

Bingham Knife.—From T. F-. Bingham.

or extrudes her eggs only to be lost, simply because there are
no empty cells. The honey-yield isso great that the workers
occupy every available space, and sometimes they even become
unwilling idlers simply because of necessity. It is true that
the proper arrangement and best management of frames for
surplus would prevent this. Yet in every apiary such a condi-

326 THE BEE-KHEPER’S GUIDE;

tion will occasionally occur; at such times we should always
extract from the brood-chamber.

The extractor also enables the apiarist to secure honey—
extracted honey—in poor seasons, when hecould get very little,
if-any, in sections or boxes. By use of the extractor we can
largely avoid swarming, and thus work for honey instead of
increase of colonies.

By use of the extractor, at any time or season, the apiarist
—especially the beginner—can secure nearly, if not quite,
double the amount of honey that he could get in combs. It
requires much more skill to succeed in procuring comb honey
than is required to secure extracted. The beginner will
usually succeed far better if he work for extracted honey.

The extractor enables us to remove uncapped honey in the
fall, which, if left in the hive, may prove injurious to the bees.
It is usually better, however, to letthe beesdo this. By giving
many frames—hundreds at a time—these may be given to bees
in a box orin hives piled high above each other, right in the
apiary.

By use of the extractor, too, we can throw the honey from
our surplus brood-combs in the fall, and thus havea salable
article, and have the empty combs, which are invaluable for
use the next spring.

If the revolving racks of the extractor have a wire basket
attachment (Fig. 150), as Ihave suggested, the uncapped sec-
tions can be emptied in the falland used the following spring
ata marked advantage. These, of course, may be cleaned by
the bees, as above described, or, if we have but few, by plac-
ing them in a super aboveanystrongcolony. Pieces of drone-
comb cut from the brood-chamber, which are so admirable for
starters in the sections, can be emptied of their honey at any
season.

By use of the extractor we can furnish at two-thirds the
price we ask for comb honey, an article which is equal, if not
superior, tothe best comb honey, and, which, were it not for
appearance alone, would soon drive the latter from the market.
Extracted honey is also much more easily and safely shipped.

Indeed, extracted honey is gaining so rapidly in public

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 327

favor that even now its production is far in excess of that
of comb honey.

Of course, extracted honey will never sell ata price equal
to that of comb. Yet many bee-keepers will secure enough
more to more than make up for this. Again, the extractor is
ever a temptation to rob the bees, so that with winter will
come starvation.

WHEN TO USE THE EXTRACTOR,

The novice should not extract unless the bees are working,
else he. will be very likely to induce robbing. Even the experi-
enced bee-keeper must be very careful at such times. The
bee-tent, soon to be described, is a great help then.

If extracted honey can be sold for half that secured for
comb honey, the extractor may be used profitably the summer
through ; otherwise it may be used as suggested by the prin-
ciples stated above.

I would always extract just as the bees commence capping
the honey. Then we avoid the labor of uncapping, and still
have the honey thick and nearly ripe, as it is styled. I have
proved over and over that honey may be extracted when quite
thin, and artificially ripened or evaporated, and be equal to the
very best. However,as there is danger of imperfect ripening it is
wisest to leave it in the combs till the bees commence capping
it. Many tier up and leave all in the hive till the busy season
is over, then extract all, when the honey is of course thick and
of the best quality. Thisis the method advised and practiced
by such able authorities as the Dadants. This requires great
care because of robbing. Unripe honey usually has a greenish
tinge, and does not granulate as completely as does well-
ripened honey. If the honey granulates, it can be reduced to
the fluid state with no injury by heating, though the tempera-
ture should never rise above 200 degrees F. This can best be
done by placing the vessel containing the honey in another
containing water, though if the second vessel be set on a stove,
a tin basin or pieces of wood should prevent the honey vessel
from touching the bottom, else the honey will burn. As before
stated, the best honey is pretty sure to crystallize, but it may
often be prevented by keeping it ina temperature which is

328 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

constantly above 80 degrees F. If canned honey is set on
top of a furnace in which a fire is kept burning, it will remain
liquid indefinitely. If honey is heated to 180 degrees F. and
sealed, it will be uninjured, and generally remains ever after
liquid. It may be cheaply canned in the usual fruit cans, or
in bottles, if we dip the tops in melted wax after corking, to
insure making all air-tight. Granulated honey, if reduced,
will often remain permanently liquid. It is a curious fact that
unripe honey is quicker to granulate than is honey that is
thoroughly evaporated. If we drain the liquid from honey
thatis partially granulated, and melt the hard crystals, we
secure a very superior product. If candied honey is but par-
tially crystallized, the liquid part may color all as we melt the
crystals, even though we do not burn it.

The fact that honey granulates is the best test of its
purity. To be sure, some honey does not crystallize, but if
honey does we may pretty safely decide that it is unadulterated.

To render the honey free from small pieces of comb or
other impurities, it should either be passed through a cloth or
wire sieve—I purposely refrain from the use of the word
strainer, as we should neither use the word strained, nor allow
it to be used, in connection with extracted honey—or else draw
it off into a barrel, with a faucet or molasses-gate near the
lower end, and after all particles of solid matter have risen to
the top, draw off the clear honey from the bottom. In case of
very thick honey, this method is not so satisfactory as the
first. I hardly need say that honey, when heated, is thinner,
and will of course pass more readily through common towel-
ing or fine wire-cloth. If a sheet of queen-excluding zinc is
used between the brood-chamber and upper story we shall
have no brood above. This saves great loss in honey, for
rearing drones is very expensive, and also saves a deal of
vexation. The apiarist enjoys full frames of honey, and is
annoyed at great patches of drone-brood in the extracting
supers; neither does he enjoy cutting off the heads of drone-
brood to rid the hives of these expensive hangers on.

Never allow the queen to be forced to idleness for want
of empty cells. Extract all uncapped honey in the fall, and
the honey from all the brood-combs not needed for winter,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 329

unless we allow the bees toclean the combs as above described.
The honey should also be thrown from pieces of drone-comb
which are cut from the brood-frames, and from the uncapped
comb in sections at the close of the season.

Fic. 152.

IAN |
wiih WW

i

es

ll

Comb-Bor.—From A, I. Root Co.

The apiarist should possess one or two light comb-boxes or
baskets (Fig. 152) of ‘sufficient size to hold all the frames from
asingle hive. ‘These should have convenient handles, anda
close-fitting cover. Many large apiarists prefer a comb-cart

Osburn’s Gini eyie 2 A. Fa ‘aol On:

(Fig. 153). The box of this is much likea hive, and to one
end a cloth cover is tacked. Thus, the combs are easily cov-
ered and carried. ‘The bees may be shaken off or brushed off
with a large feather, pinetwig, orotherbrush, A little experi-

330 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

ence makes it easy to shake bees—even Italians—from a comb.
A quick, forcible, vertical jerk will always doit. We often
find that a mild jar, quickly followed by an energetic one, will
fell nearly every bee from the comb. The Davis brush (Fig.

Fic. 154.

Davis Brush.—From A. I. Root Co,

154) is excellent for removing bees from the combs. It is kept
for sale by supply dealers. A soft brush broom (Fig. 155) is
excellent. It should be long and slim, and will be less harsh
if partially thinned. If the bees are trouvdlesome, close the

Fie. 155,

==

Coggshall Bee-Brush,—From A, I, Root Co.

box or cart cover as soon as each comb is placed inside. The
Porter or other good bee-escape (Fig. 160) is a bonanza in
extracting. Weshould have several honey-boards, each with
anescape. One is placed under the extracting-combs of each

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 331

colony at nightfall. In the morning the bees will be all below,
and so each extracting-hive of combs can be carried at once to
the extractor. By having extra sets of extracting-combs we
may at once replace the ones removed, and thus have only to
gotoahiveonce. Because of the cool nights these escapes
do not always work as wellin California. Extract the honey
from these, using care not to turn.so hard as to throw out the
brood. If capped, and it always should be partially capped
before extracting, with a thin knife pare off the caps, and
after throwing the honey from one side turn the comb around

Fic. 156.

MeIntyre’s Uncapping-Box.—
From A. I. Root Co.

Dadant’s Uncapping-Can.—
From A. I. Root Co.

and extract it from the other. The Dadant uncapping-can
(Fig. 156) will be very convenient. It is formed like the extrac-_
tor, and consists of two parts, about equal. The upper fits
into the lower, which has a fine wire screen at the top, anda
discharge gate at the bottom. A comb-rest holds the combs.
This drains the cappings, and gives us a very superior quality
of honey. Mr. McIntyre uses a large box (Fig. 157) six feet
long, with a tin tray at the bottom. The comb-rest is ona
pivot, so as to turn readily. The large size insures quick
drainage, so that the cappings are soon ready for the solar

332 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

wax-extractor. If the combs are of very different weights, it
will be better for the extractor to use those of nearly equal
weights on opposite sides, as the strain will be much less.
Now take these combs to another colony, whose combs shall
be replaced by them. ‘Then close the hive, extract this second
set of combs, and thus proceed till all the honey has been
extracted. At theclose, the one or two colonies from which
the first combs were taken shall receive pay from the last set

Fic. 158.

Roots Bee-Tent, folded and pitched.
—From A. I. Root Uo.

extracted, and thus, with much saving of robbing, in case
there is no gathering, we have gone rapidly through the apiary.

Some apiarists take the first set of combs froma single
colony, and leave the colony without combs till they are
through for the day. A better way is to keep an extra set of
combs on hand. If the bee-keeper works for extracted honey,
the extracting-combs should be kept separately in an upper
story (Figs. 84 and 87), while the queen and breeding should
be kept below in the lower story of the hive.

In case the bees are not gathering, we shall escape rob-
bing and stings by the use of the tent (Fig. 158). This covers

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 333

the hive and operator. The one figured is very ingenious in
its construction, is light and cheap. Mr. Root sells it all made
for use for $1.50.

TO KEEP EXTRACTED HONKY.

Extracted honey, if to be sold in cans or bottles, may be
run into them from the extractor. The honey should be thick,
and the vessels may be sealed or corked, and boxed at once.

If large quantities of honey are extracted, it may be most
conveniently kept in barrels. These should be frst-class, and
ought to be waxed before using them, to make assurance
doubly sure against any leakage. No rosin should be used
with the wax, as it injures the honey. Good second-hand alco-
hol barrels are excellent, and cost but $1.00. These and
whisky barrels need no waxing. They must be thoroughly
cleaned, but must never be charred by burning inside. To
wax the barrels, we may use beeswax, but paraffine is cheaper,
ard just as efficient. Three or four quarts of the hot paraffine
or wax should be turned into the barrel, the bung driven in
tight, the barrel twirled in every position, after which the
bung is loosened by a blow with the hammer, and the residue
of the wax turned out. Economy requires that the barrels be
warm when waxed, so that only athin coat will be appro-
priated. Barrels must be tight without soaking, though it is
best to drive the hoops well before using them. We should
also test them by use of a little hot water before use. If, when
sealed, no steam escapes they are surely tight. Cypress kegs
are much used for smaller vessels, but are more expensive,
while the second-hand alcohol barrel holds about 500 pounds.
Kegs that hold respectively 50, 100, and 175 pounds cost 40, 60,
and 80 cents. Barrels or kegs should never be soaked, as the
honey absorbs the water, and leaking will almost surely fol-
low. If driving the hoops and waxing will not make them
tight, then they are unfit for use.

Large tin cans, waxed and soldered at the openings after
being filled, are cheap, and may be the most desirable recepta-
cles for extracted honey. Tin cans are rapidly replacing bar-
rels for honey. These are made of various sizes,and are
shipped either in a wooden jacket (Fig. 189) or packed in bar-

334 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE;

rels. Inthe dry climate of California these are absolutely
necessary. Barrels are unsafe.

Extracted honey, unless sealed, should always be kept in
dry apartments. If thin when extracted, it should be kept in
open barrels or cans in a warm, dry room till it has thoroughly
ripened. If quite thin it must be kept in a quite warm room,
in very shallow vessels. In this way I have ripened very thin
honey, so it was of excellent quality. In all such cases the
vessels should be covered by cheese-cloth. To remove ex-
tracted honey from a barrel, etc., we may remove one head, or,
if practicable, the vessel may be put in hot water, which
should never be above 180° F., and soon the honey will run
off.

Mz
A

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 335

CHAPTER XIIL
WORKING FOR COMB HONEY.

While extracted honey has so much to recommend it, and
is rapidly growing in favor with American apiarists, still such
reports as that of Dr. C. C. Miller, who in 1884 increased his
174 colonies to 202, and took 16,000 pounds of comb honey in
one-pound sections, which netted him very nearly $3000; and
that of. Mr. Doolittle, who has secured nearly 100 pounds of
comb honey per colony fora long series of years, may well
lead us not to ignore this branch of our business. The showy
horse, or the red short-horn, may not be intrinsically superior
to the less attractive animals; but they will always win in the
market. Socomb honey, in the beautiful one-pound sections,
will always attract buyersand secure the highest price. As
more embark in the production of extracted honey, higher will
be the price of the irresistible, incomparable comb honey.
Well, then, may we study howto secure the most of this
exquisite product of the bees, in a form that shall rival in
attractiveness that of the product itself, for very likely the
state of the market in some localities will make its production
the most profitable feature of apiculture.

POINTS TO CONSIDER.

To secure abundance of comb honey the colonies must be
very strong, and the brood-combs full of brood at the dawn of
the honey harvest. The swarming-fever must be kept at bay
or cured before the rapid storing commences, and the honey
should be secured in the most attractive form.

TO SECURE STRONG COLONIES.

By feeding daily, whenever the bees are not storing, com-
mencing as soon as the bees commence to store pollen, we
shall most certainly, if the bees have been well wintered,
secure this result. Yet bees are naturally active after their

336 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

long winter’s rest, and this stimulative feeding rarely pays.
We should also use the division-board, and keep the bees
crowded, especially if weak in the spring. Only give them
the number of combs that they can cover. It is very impor-
tant to keep all warm. Doolittle says this necessitates a tele-
scope cover to the hive. Though this last may with proper
management be unnecessary, it certainly does no harm; it
may aid greatly. True, Mr. Heddon objects to this work of
feeding and manipulating division-boards, and secures much
honey and inoney. I have often wondered what his genius
and skill would accomplish should he vary his method in this
respect. Instead of feeding by use of the Smith (Fig. 127) or
other feeder, we may uncap a comb of honey and with it
separate combs of brood as the bees get twoor three full frames
of the latter. This will stimulate the bees, andas they will
carry the honey from the uncapped cells the queen will be
impelled to most rapid laying. We may also fill empty combs
as already described, and place these in or close beside the
brood-nest. By turning around the brood-combs, or separating
them by adding combs with empty cells as the colonies gain
in strength, we hasten brood-rearing to the utmost. This
matter of separating the brood-combs must be very cautiously
managed or brood will be chilled and much harm done. Most
bee-keepers do not take all this pains. Each one’s experience
must be guide.

TO AVOID THE SWARMING-FEVER.

This is not always possible by any method, and has ever
been the obstacle in the way of successful comb-honey produc-
tion. The swarming impulse and great yields of this delecta-
ble product are entirely antagonistic. Messrs. Heddon, Davis,
and others, let the bees swarm. They hive these swarms on
foundation, and hope to have this all done, and both colonies
strong, in time for the honey harvest. Messrs. Hutchinson
and Doolittle hive the swarm oun empty frames, always, how-
ever, with starters, placing sections with their foundation, or
better, comb, on the hive at once. It is specially desirable to
have a few combs in the sections, to bait the bees and attract
them to the supers. They also restrict the brood-chamber,

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 337

either by filling the space with division-boards (Doolittle), or by
using the lower half of a horizontally divided brood-chamber
(Hutchinson), see new Heddon hive, p. 189. In this way the
whole working force is put at once into the sections. Some of
our best Michigan and New York bee-keepers, with Dr. Miller,
let the bees swarm, and return them, either caging the queen
or placing her in a nucleus for seven days, then return her to
the bees, after cutting out the queen-cells. This takes nothing
from the energy of the bees, and will doubtless work best of
all methods in the hands of the beginner. In this case, as the
full energy of the colony is turned to storing, the amount of
honey would be theoretically greater. My practice sustains
the theory. Such authorities as Messrs. Hetherington and
Elwood practice this method. J. H. Robertson kills the old
queen, and in seven days destroys all but the largest queen-cell,
and so gains the same end, and requeens his apiary. If
increase is desired, however, then Mr. Hutchinson’s method
should be followed. The yield of comb honey in this last case
will not usually be so great, though in excellent seasons it
may be greater.

Some very able bee-keepers manipulate so skillfully by
adding empty combs to the hives, as to keep this swarming
impulse in check, and still keep the bees increasing most
rapidly. Others divide the colonies, and so hold at bay the
swarming-fever. All must practice as their own experience
proves best, as the same method will not have equal value
with different persons. We must work as best we can to secure
strong colonies, and check or retard the swarming-fever, and,
while learning by experience to do this, may well work the
most of our bees for extracted honey, which is more easily
secured, and is sure to be in demand, even though the price is
less. The quantity may more than compensate for lower
price.

ADJUSTMENT OF SECTIONS.

As before suggested, a wide space between bottom-bars of
sections—three-eighths inch—is desirable. J. A. Green has
half-story supers with frames only one-half as deep for
extracting. ‘These are put one on each hive at the dawn of
the honey harvest. As soon as the bees commence to work in

*

338 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

them, they are removed or raised and a section-case put in
their place. As the bees commence in the sections these
extracting half-story hives are used one above another with
such colonies as are worked forextracted honey. The sections
should be on at the very dawn of each honey harvest, as white
clover, basswood, etc. At first the full set of sections better
not be added, but as soon as the bees commence to work well
in them, they all should be added, on side and top, if side-stor-
ing is practiced, and, if we wish to tier up, the case of sections
first added should be raised and others added below. I like
this practice of tiering up very much. As soon as the bees are
working well in all the sections I raise the case and place
another underneath. This is continued, often till there are
three cases of sections on a single hive. Some think that if
the unfilled case of sections is placed above instead of below,
that less unfilled sections will remain at the close of the
season, as the warmth higher upis grateful to the bees. As
already stated, it is best not to have the sections too closely
shutin. Slight ventilation is often desirable.

If the queen troubles by entering the sections, use may be
made of the perforated zinc (Fig. 91), or, better still, the queen-
excluding honey-board (Fig. 91), to keep her from them. As
already suggested, we must arrange the form and size of sec-
tions as the market and our hives and apparatus make most
desirable. We may vary the size and form of our sections so
as to make them smaller, and yet use the same cases or frames
that we used with larger sections. Small sections are most
ready of sale, and safest to ship; yet with their use we may
secure less honey.

If we can get nice, straight combs by having them less
thick without using separators in the sections, so that these
latter can be readily placed side by side in shipping-cases,
then we, by all means, better omit the separators. If we use
separators, we can use wood or tin. Wood is cheapest, andI
find that in practice it serves even better than tin. The plain
sections with fence (page 241) give separators and wide con-
nections, and are sure to grow in favor.

OR, MANUAI, OF THE APIARY. 339

GETTING BEES INTO SECTIONS.

The crowded hive or brood-chamber, with no intent to
swarm, the wide spaces between sections, and a rich harvest
of nectar will usually send the bees into the sections witha
rush. If they refuse to go, sections with comb, a little drone-
brood, or the exchange of sections temporarily from above to
the brood-nest, or the moving of a brood-frame up beside the
sections for a short time, as before described, will frequently
start the bees into the sections. Some apiarists will have their
cases with sections so made that they can be placed between
the brood-frames till the bees commence to work in the sec-
tions; others accomplish the same end by inverting the frames.
Sections filled with foundation—only very thin foundation
should be used in sections—are more attractive to the worker-
bees. I find that a few sections full of combin the section-
case very greatly aid to tempt the bees to work in the sections.
We often may gain our point by taking a case of sections, bees
and all, from a hive whose bees are working in the sections,
and giving them to the reluctant colony. Or we may gain the
same end by giving the bees a one-half story or case of
extracting-combs. The bees may enter these at once, when
we may raise them and add our section-cases. Later these
half-story extracting-combs may be used elsewhere, and may
serve there to cut short unprofitable loafing, and to prevent
swarming. I also have used the invertible frames to excellent
purpose in obtaining the same result. I invert the frames and
at the same time uncap the honey inthem. The hives must
always be shaded from the hot sun. With experience will
come the skill which can accomplish this, and make comb-
honey production the most fascinating feature of bee-keeping.

REMOVAL OF SECTIONS.

The three-eighths inch space between the upper as well as
the lower bars of the sections enables us to see quickly the con-
dition of each section just by removal of the cover. Each
section should be removed as soon as capped, if we would have
it very nice. Yet it is certainly true that the rich, delicate
flavor will be increased if left on the hive even for a month or

340 THE BEE-KEREPER’S GUIDE;

more. This, of course, can not be done unless we use separa-
tors. Any delay will make it dark and hurtitssale. During
the harvest we should add other sections to take the place of
those removed. ‘Towards the close of the harvest we should
not add other sections, for, by contracting the space, the last
sections will be more surely filled and quickly capped. To

Fic. 159.

=|

= ia

| il
i

Wy

The Reese Cones.—From A. I. Root Co.

remove the bees from single sections taken from frame or
case, we have only to brush them off.

Few bee-keepers will stop to remove single sections. In
fact, the tiering-up process is, in my opinion, the key to the
successful production of comb honey. If we remove a full
case we can often shake a large portion of the bees from the
sections, then by piling the cases in a box overspread bya

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 341

sheet, or in a bee-tent, or even in the honey-house, the bees
will all leave the sections. J. S. Reese, of Kentucky, invented
double cones of wire-gauze, one smaller than and within the
other, to remove the bees from sections. These are fastened
with their bases (Fig. 159) just over an inch holeina board
just the size of a section-case. When it is desired to cleara

i)

: ie

Porter Bee-Escape.—From A. I. Root Co.

case of sections of bees, the case is raised and an empty case
with the board upon it, and the cones projecting downward, is
placed beneath (Fig. 159). One need not try this to know that
it would be practical.

The Porter bee-escape (Fig. 160) is much superior to the
cones. It lies horizontal, and so requires no more space than
the board (Fig. 161) which contains it.

Fic. 161.

Porter Bee-Escape in Honey-Board.—From A. I. Root Co.

To remove the sections from the case, we invert the case
and set it on a shallow box just the size of the case. This need
not be more than two inches high. We now lay a block, which
will cover a row, on the sectious, when, by a smart blow from
a mallet, a whole row of sections is loosened at once. Even

" with the best care and management there will be some unfilled
sections at the close of the season. In large apiaries, where
there are thousands of these, they may be safely placed in

342 THE BEE-KHEPER’S GUIDE};

hives, one above the other, and fed to the bees right in the
apiary. This will never do except on a very large scale, as it
would cause robbing. If nearly full they may be sold in the
local market. They may be extracted and the sections used as
decoys the next year. Occasionally we can feed extracted
honey, and have them filled. This is likely to cause robbing
unless very carefully managed, and usually fails to pay.

Of course, all sections must be scraped, as any stain or
show of propolis makes second-grade honey. Scraping requires
much care, or the honey will be bruised, which would make a
bad matter worse. Special boxes of convenient height, with
shelves at ends to hold sections so that the edge of section may
be flush with edge of the shelf, are used to advantage in clean-
ing sections. Some have used machinery, such as moving
belts, wheels, or moving sandpaper, to accomplish this work.
Most use the common case-knife,and usually, especially with
the small bee-keeper, that is the best. The box, however, to
catch litter, and with end shelves to bear the sections, first sug-
gested by Mr. Boomhower, of New York, is a valuable feature.

If there is any possible danger of moths, the comb honey
should be fumigated by use of burning sulphur (see Bee-Moth).
Bisulphide of carbon may be used instead of sulphur. It is
equally good, and requires less labor. As this last is thought
to kill the eggs, it is much to be preferred. This is a wise pre-
caution, even though the bee-keeper rarely sees one of these
insects. A single moth can stock several cases of sections
with the fatal eggs.

R. L. Taylor, one of Michigan’s most stccessful bee-
keepers, who produces large harvests of comb honey, gives
the following points to be heeded in producing comb honey :

1. Bees must winter well.

2. There must be a goodly amount of honey in the hive in
the spring. Bees never prosper on scant rations.

3. Keep colonies warm in spring.

4. Tier up and leave sections on the hive till just at the
close of the season.

5. When removed, pile the cases of sections one upon
another, fumigate, and keep in a warm room till sold.

The above are points well worthy consideration, and may
be called the axioms of comb-honey production.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY,. 343

CHAPTER XIV,
HANDLING BEES.

But some one asks the question, Shall we not receive those
merciless stings, or be introduced to what ‘‘Josh”’ calls the
‘*business end of the bee ?’’ Perhaps there is no more cause-
less or more common dread in existence than thisof bees’
stings. When bees are gathering, they will never sting unless
provoked. When at the hives—especially if Italians or Car-
niolans—they will rarely make an attack. ‘The common
belief, too, that some persons are more liable to attack than
others, is, I think, erroneous. With the best opportunity to
judge, with our hundreds of students, I think I may safely say
that one is almost always as liable to attack as another, except
that he is more quiet, or does not greet the usually amiable
passer-by with those terrific thrusts, which would vanquish
even a practiced pugilist. Occasionally a person may havea
peculiar odor about his person that angers bees and invites
their darting tilts, with drawn swords, venom-tipped; yet,
though I take my large classes each season, at frequent inter-
vals, to see and handle the bees, each for himself, I still await
the first proof of the fact that one person is more liable to be
stung than another, providing each carries himself with that
composed and dignified bearing that is so pleasing to the bees.
True, some people, filled with dread, and the belief that bees
regard them with special hate and malice, are so ready for the
battle that they commence the strife with nervous head-shakes
and beating of the air,and thus force the bees to battle,
nolentes volentes. I believe that only such are regarded with
special aversion by the bees. Hence,I believe that xo one
need be stung.

Bees should never be jarred, nor irritated by quick
motions. It is always wise, also, to stand at one side and
never in frontofthe hive. Those with nervous temperament—
and I plead very guilty on this point—need not give up, but at

344 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

first better protect their faces, and, perhaps, even their hands,
till time and experience show them that fear is vain; then
they will divest themselves of all such useless encumbrances.
Bees are more cross when they are gathering no honey, and at
such times, black bees and hybrids especially, are so irritable
that even the experienced apiarist will wish a veil. Exposing
honey about the apiary at such times willincrease quickly this
irritability. There are some bees that are chronically cross,
and are ever about with their menacing cry. Doolittle advises
killing these at once. He usesa small paddle-like board for
this purpose. I have never minded these chronic grumblers.
They usually respect indifference ; at least they rarely sting me.

THE BEST BEE VHIL.

This should be made of black tarlatan, or, better, silk
tulle, sewed up like a bag, a half yard long, without top or
bottom, and with a diameter of the rim of a common straw-
hat. Gather the top with braid, so that it will just slip over
the crown of the hat—else, sew it to the edge of the rim of
some cheap, cool hat; in fact, I prefer this style—and gather
the bottom with rubber cord or rubber tape, so that it may be
drawn over the hat rim, and then over the head, as we adjust
the hat.

Some prefer to dispense with the rubbercord at the bottom
(Fig. 162), and have the veil long so as to be gathered in by
the coat or dress. If the black tarlatan troubles by coloring
the shirt or collar, or if the silk tulle is thought too expensive,
the lower part may be made of white netting ; indeed, all may
be made of white netting except a small square to be worn
just in front of the eyes. When in use, the rubber cord draws
the lower part close about the neck, or the lower part tucks
within the coat or vest (Fig. 162), and we are safe. This kind
of a veil is cool, does not impede vision atall, and can be made
by any woman at a cost of less than 20 cents. Common buck-
skin or sheepskin gloves can be used, as it will scarcely pay to
get special gloves for the purpose, for the most timid person—
I speak from experience—will soon consider gloves as unneces-
sary and awkward.

Special rubber gloves are sold by those who keep on hand

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 345

apiarian supplies. It is reported that heavily starched linen
is proof against the bee’s sting, and so may be used for gloves
or other clothing. Some apiarists think that dark clothing is
specially obnoxious to bees. It is certainly true that fuzzy
woolen, and even hairs on one’s hands, are very irritating to
them. Clothes with a heavy nap should be rejected by the
bee-keeper, and the Esaus should singe the hair from their
hands.

For ladies, my friend, Mrs. Baker, recommends a dress
which, by use of a rubber skirt-lift or other device, can be

Fic. 162.

Bee- Veil.—Original.

instantly raised or lowered. This will be convenient in the
apiary, and tidy anywhere. The Gabrielle style is preferred,
and of a length just to reach the floor. It should be belted at
the waist, and cut down from the neck in front one-third
the length of the waist, to permit the tucking in of the veil.
The underwaist should fasten close about the neck. The
sleeves should be quite long to allow free use of the arms, and
gathered in with a rubber cord at the wrist, which will hug
the rubber gauntlets or arm, and prevent bees from crawling
up the sleeves. The pantalets should be straight and full, and
should also have the rubber cord in the hemto draw them
close about the top of the shoes.

346 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE;

Mrs. Baker also places great stress on the wet “‘ head-cap,”’
which she believes the men even would find a great comfort.
This isa simple, close-fitting cap, made of two thicknesses of
coarse toweling. The head is wet with cold water, and the
cap wet in the same, wrung out, and placed on the head.

Mrs. Baker would have the dress neat and clean, and so
trimmed that the lady apiarist would ever be ready to greet
her brother or sister apiarists. In such a dress there is no
danger of stings, and withit there is that show of neatness
and taste, without which no pursuit could attract the attention,
or at least the patronage, of our refined women.

TO QUIET BEES.

In harvest seasons the bees, especially if Italians, can
almost always be handled without their showing resentment.
Our college bees—hybrids, between Syrians and Carniolans—
are so gentle that I go freely among them without protection
each May and June, with my largeclasses. At first each
student puts on the veil, but soon these are thrown aside, and
it is rare indeed that any one gets a sting. Even Mr. Doolittle
always uses a veil when steadily at work in the apiary. But
at other times, and whenever they object to necessary famil-
iarity, we have only to cause them to fill with honey—very
likely it is the scare that quiets the bees—to render them
harmless, unless we pinch them. This can be done by closing
the hive so that the bees can not get out, and then rapping on
the hive for a short time. Those within will fill with honey,
those without will be tamed by surprise, and all will be quiet.
Sprinkling the bees with sweetened water will also tend to
render them amiable, and will make them more ready to unite
to receive a queen, and lessapt tosting. Still another method,
more convenient, is to smoke the bees. A little smoke blown
among the bees will scarcely ever fail to quiet them, though I
have known black bees, in autumn, to be very slow to yield.
It is always wise upon opening a hive to blow a little smoke in
at the entrance.

The Syrian bees, when first imported, are maddened rather
than quieted by use of smoke. I find, however, that with
handling they soon become more likeItalians. Deliberation is

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 347

specially desirable when we first open the hive of Syrian bees.
Dry cotton-cloth, closely wound and sewed or tied, or,
better, pieces of dry, rotten wood are excellent for the purpose
of smoking. These are easily handled, and will burn fora
long time. But best of allisa

BELLOWS SMOKER.

This is a tin tube attached to a bellows. Cloth, corn-cobs,
damp shavings, or rotten wood (that which has been attacked
by dry-rot is the best) can be burned in the tube, and will
remain burning a long time. The smoke can be directed at

Fic. 164.

Direct-Draft Perfect
BINGHAM

BeeSmoker

Fic. 163.

Quinby Smoker.
—From L. C. Root.

PATENTED
878, 1882 and 1892.

a
Bingham Smoker.—From T. F. Bingham.

pleasure, the bellows easily worked, and the smoker used with- .
out any disagreeable effects or danger from fire.

THE QUINBY SMOKER.

This smoker (Fig. 163) was a gift to bee-keepers by the
late Mr. Quinby, and was not patented. Though a similar
device had been previously used in Kurope, without doubt Mr.
Quinby was not aware of the fact, and as he was the person to
bring it to the notice of bee-keepers, and to make it so perfect

348 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

as to challenge the attention and win the favor of apiarists
instanter, he is certainly worthy of great praise, and deserving
of hearty gratitude.

Mr. Bingham was the first to improve the old Quinby
smoker in establishing a direct draft (Fig. 164). Later Mr.
Bingham added a wire fire-guard to the chimney, and hinged
the latter to the fire-tube. Mr. Clark next added the cold draft
(Fig. 165). This hasa large fire-chamber, but it is awkward
in form, and the small cold-air tube soon chokes with soot.

Fic. 165.

Clark Smoker.—From A. I. Root Co.

There are now several smokers on the market, each of
which has its merits and its friends. I have tried nearly all,
and, in my opinion, the Bingham is incomparably superior to
any other. I should have it at double or triple the price of any
other. Still, I know excellent bee-keepers who prefer the
Clark. No person who keeps even a single colony of bees can
afford to do without some one of them.

TO SMOKE BEES.

Approach the hive, blow a little smoke in at the entrance,
then open from above, and blowin smoke as required. If, at
any time, the bees seem irritable. a few puffs from the smoker
will subdue them. Thus, any person may handle his bees
with perfect freedom and safety. If, at any time, the fire-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. . 349
chamber and escape-pipe of the smoker become filled with soot,
they can easily be cleaned by revolving an iron or hardwood
stick inside of them.

CHLOROFORM.

Mr. Jones finds that chloroform is very useful in quieting
bees. He puts a dry sponge in the tube of the smoker, then a
sponge wet in chloroform—it takes but a few drops—then puts
in another dry sponge. ‘These dry sponges prevent the escape
of the chloroform, except when the bellows is worked. Mr.
Jones finds that bees partially stupefied with chloroform
receive queens without any show of ill-will. Assoon as the
bees begin to fall, the queen is put into the hive, and no more
of the vapor added. I tried this one summer with perfect suc-
cess. This was recommended yearsago in Germany, but its
use seems to have beenabandoned. It is more than likely that
Mr. Jones’ method of applying the anzsthetic is what makes
it more valuable. The smoker diffuses the vapor so that all
bees receive it,and none get too much. I should use ether
instead of chloroform, as with higher animals it is a little
more mild and safe. Our British friends of late are recom-
mending carbolic acid in lieu of smoke to quiet bees. By
means of a feather the liquidis brushed about the entrance
and along the top of the frames, or else a cloth dampened with
the acid is placed over the frames. This is also used to fumi-
gate the bees for the same purpose. Mr. Cheshire advises a
little creosote placed in the common smoker, to make the
smoke more effective. There is no question but that this
obnoxious substance will quiet the bees; but it seems tome,
from a brief experience, that it is far less convenient than the
smoker. With fuller experience I say unhesitatingly that for
convenience and effectiveness, smoke is quite superior to any
of these substances.

TO CURE STINGS.

In case a person is stung, he should step back a little fora
moment, as the pungent odor of the venom is likely to anger
the bees and induce further stinging. By forcing a little
smoke from the smoker on the part stung, we will obscure
this odor. The sting should be rubbed off at once. I say

350 THE BEE-KEHPER’S GUIDE;

rubbed, for we should not grasp it with the finger-nails, a;
that crowds more poison into the wound. If the pain is such
as to prove troublesome, apply a little ammonia. The venom is
an acid, andis neutralized by the alkali. A strong solution
of saltpeter I have found nearly as good torelieve pain as the
ammonia. Ice-cold water drives the blood from any part of
our body to which it is applied, and so it often gives relief to
quickly immerse the part stung in very cold water. In case
horses are badly stung, as sometimes happens, they should be
taken as speedily as possible into a barn (a man, too, may
escape angry bees by entering a building), where the bees will
seldom follow, then wash the horses in soda water, and cover
with blankets wet in cold water. Cows picketed many rods
from the apiary, in the line of flight to ‘a spring, have been
stung to death. Unlike horses, cows will not run off. This
fact surely suggests caution.

A wash or lotion, ‘‘ Apifuge,’’ is praised in England asa
preventive of stings. The hands and face are simply washed
init. I have triedit, but could see no advantage. The sub-
stances used are oil of wintergreen or methyl salicylate.

THE SWEAT THEORY.

It is often stated that sweaty horses and people are obnox-
ious tothe bees, and hence almost sure targets for their barbed
arrows. In warm weatherI perspire most profusely, yet am
scarcely ever stung, since I have learned to control my nerves.
Ionce kept my bees in the front yard—they looked beautiful
on the green lawn—within two rods of a main thoroughfare,
and not infrequently let my horse, covered with sweat upon
my return from a drive, crop the grass while cooling off, right
in the same yard. Of course, there was some danger, though
less as I always kept careful watch, but I never knew my horse
to get stung. Why, then, the theory? May not the more
frequent stings be consequent upon the warm, nervous condi-
tion of the individual? The man is more ready to strike and
jerk, the horse to stamp and switch. The switching of the
horse’s tail, like the whisker trap of a full beard, will anger
even a good-natured bee. I should dread the motions more
than the sweat. —

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 351

Often when there is nohoney to gather, as when we take
the last honey in autumn, or prepare the bees for winter, the
bees are inordinately cross. This is especially true of black

Fic. 166.
‘ T Torry ty
t HHH} H
= ‘ Hin
mt t
AE So
aS EeEy N
on s
it a
4
HN
PONE
x 1 CO
: a He na
mt ™ os Bosses: et
am i
t 1
eet e TTT
0 oe es 4 }-)-4 ;
nee mit
eH re Hoe |
= tans a Sil |
3 iss eH ra
SS aaGl T a rt
& Gel TT u
a { | oa
aan 1
= nel “| 4
et mi i
= 4
SS

Bee-Tent.—Original.

bees and hybrids. At suchtimesI have found an invaluable
aid in
THE BERE-TENT.

This also keeps all robbers from mischief. It is simply a
tent which entirely covers the hives, bees, bee-keeper and all.
The one I use (Fig. 166) is light, large, and easi!y moved, or
folded up if we wish to put it in the house. The sides are
rectangulur frames made of light pine strips, well braced (Fig.
166, 6, 6‘, and covered with wire-cloth. The top and ends are

352 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

covered with factory-cloth, firmly tacked except at one end,
where it is fastened, at will, by rings which hook over screws.
‘The two sides have no permanent connection of wood, except
at the ends (Fig. 166, c, c). The small strips which connect at
these places are double, and hinged to the side frames, and the
two parts of each hinged together. Thus these may drop, and
so permit the side frames to come close together where we
wish to ‘‘ fold our tent.’’ The sides are kept apart by center
cross-strips at the ends (Fig. 166, a, a), from which braces (Fig.
166, 7, 2) extend to the double cross-strips above. These center
strips, with their braces hinged to them, are separate from the
rest of the frame, except wnen hooked on as we spread the
tent. Ihave since made a similar tent, and for end-pieces
used simply four round sticks, the ends of wuich fitted very
closely into holes bored into the uprights of the side frames,
one into the top and one into the middle of each. These end-
pieces are as long as can be crowded in. This is very simple
and excellent.

After use of this tent several years, I can not praise it too
highly. Itis also admirable in aiding to get bees out of sec-
tions—in which case cones, like the Reese cones (Fig. 159), will
permit the bees to escape, and touse at fairs, when bees can
be manipulated in the tent. I have so used it. The tent
should always be used, if we must handle bees when no gath-
ering is being done. There norobbing will be caused. I have
already referred to a cheap tent made by A. I. Root (Fig. 158).
That, however, is not as convenient as this one,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 353

CHAPTER XV.
COMB FOUNDATION.

Every apiarist of experience knows that empty combs in
frames, comb-guides in the sections, to tempt the bees and to
insure the proper position of the full combs, in fact, combs of
almost any kind or shape, are of great importance. So every
skillful apiarist is very careful to save all drone-comb that is
cut out of the brood-chamber—where it is worse than useless,
as it brings with it myriads of those useless gourmands, the
drones—to kill the eggs, remove the brood, or extract the
honey, and transfer it to the sections. He is equally careful
to keep all his worker-comb, so long as the cells are of proper
size to domicile full-sized larve, and never to sell any comb,
or even comb honey, unless a greater price makes it desirable.

Fic. 167.

Comb Foundation.—From American Bee Journal.

No wonder, then, if comb is so desirable, that German
thought and Yankee ingenuity have devised means of giving
the bees at least a start in this important yet expensive work
of comb-building, and hence the origin of another great aid to
the apiarist—comb foundation (Fig, 167).

HISTORY.

For more than forty years the Germans have used im-
pressed sheets of wax as a foundation for comb, as it was first
made by Herr Mehring,in 1857, These sheets are several

354 THER BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

times as thick as the partition at the centerof natural comb.
This is pressed between metal platesso accurately formed that
the wax receives rhomboidal impressions which are a fac simile
of the basal wall or partition between the opposite cells of
naturalcomb. The thickness of this sheet is an objection, as
it is found that the bees do not thin it down to the natural
thickness, though they may thin it much, and they use the
shavings to form the walls. Prof. C. P. Gillette (Bulletin 54,
Colorado Experiment Station), by mixing lampblack with wax,
proved what we have long known, that bees extend the midrib
and foundation to complete the cells. As we have seen, the
bees form comb in the same way, when they make their own
foundation.

AMERICAN FOUNDATION.

-Mr. Wagner secured a patent on foundation in 1861, but as
the article was already in use itn Germany, the patent was, as
we understand, of no legal value, and, certainly, as it did noth-
ing to bring this desirable article into use, it had no virtual
value. Mr. Wagner was alsothe first to suggest the idea of
rollers. In Langstroth’s work, edition of 1859, page 373, occurs
the following in reference to printing or stamping combs:
“Mr. Wagner suggests forming these outlines with a simple
instrument somewhat like a wheel cake-cutter. Whena large
number are to be made, a machine might easily be constructed
which would stamp them with great rapidity.’’ In 1866, the
King Brothers, of New York, in accordance with the above
suggestion, made the first machine with rollers, the product of
which they tried to get patented, but failed. These stamped
rollers were less than two inches long. This machine was
useless, and failed to bring foundation into general use.

In 1874, Mr. Frederick Weiss, a poor German, invented the
machine which brought the foundation into general use. This
was the machine on which was madethe beautiful and practi-
cal foundation sent out by ‘‘ John Long,” in 1874 and 1875, and
which proved to the American apiarists that foundation
machines, and foundation, were to be a success.

In 1876, A. I. Root commenced in his energetic, enthusi-
astic way, and soon brought the roller machine (Fig. 168) and

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 355

foundation into general use. These machines, though a great
aid to apiculture, were still imperfect, and though sold at an
extravagantly high price—through no fault of Mr. Root, as he
informs me—were in great demand. Next, Mrs. F. Dunham
greatly improved the machine by so making the rolls that the
foundation would have a very thin base and high, thick walls,
which, in the manufacture, were not greatly pressed. These
three points are very desirable in all foundation—thin base
and thick, high walls, which shall not be compactly pressed.

Fic. 168.

NT Tm TN
ot rT TATA ] i

Roller Comb Foundation Machine.—From American Bee Journal,

Mr. Chas. Ohlm invented a machine for cutting the plates,
which greatly cheapened the machines. This was purchased
by Mr. Root, and he says that ninety percent of the foundation
made in the United States has been made on machines, the
rollers of which were embossed by this Ohlm machine.

Mrs. Dunham is not only entitled to gratitude for the
superior excellence of the machines she manufactured, but by

356 THE BHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

putting so excellent a machine on the market at a lower price,
all roller machines had to be sold more reasonably. Mr. Van-
dervort also improved the rollers, so that his machine secures
the same results as does Mrs. Dunham’s, while the form of the
foundation is somewhat more natural, though not preferred by
the bees, I think. Another form of foundation—that with flat
bottom—is made by the Van Deusen mill. This has a very

Fic. 169,

Given Press,—From American Bee Journ,

thin base, andis very handsome. It was made to use with
wires. This can be made very thin, and many bee-keepers
praise it very highly. Mr. P. H. Elwood, I think, still prefers
it for use in sections. Mr. Root has kept his machine abreast
with the latest improvements. Mr. A. B. Weed has shown
great inventive genius in manufacturing very complete comb
with natural base and cells nearly complete, so that it is very
like natural comb. ‘The bees, however, seem to prefer that
with less length of cell, and the greater cost and more difficult
transportation makes its use undesirable. At least, it has

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 357

made no hit in practical bee-keeping. Mr. Weed uses types
for the cells, and so the cells must be exactly alike. ;

THE PRESS FOR FOUNDATION.

Mr. D. A. Given, of Illinois, has made a press (Fig. 169)
that stamps the sheets by plates and not by rolls, which, for a
time gave nearly, if not quite, as good satisfaction as the
improved roller machines. This shuts up like a book, and the
wax sheets, instead of passing between curved metal rollers,
are stamped by a press after being placedin position. The
advantages of this press, as claimed by its friends, are that
the foundation has the requisites already referred to, par
excellence, that it is easily and rapidly worked, and that
foundation can at once be pressed into the wired frames.
Rubber plates have also been made, but as yet have not won
general favoror acceptance. Plaster of Paris molds made
directly from the foundation are made and used satisfactorily
by some excellent bee-keepers. At present I think the press is
little used. The roller machine seems to have quite displaced
it. Mr. Root says this is because it isslow. Yet he thinks
the press gives the most perfect foundation. Allof the im-
provea machines give us foundation of exquisite mold, and
with such rapidity that it can be made cheap and practical.
As Mr. Heddon says, the bees in two days, with foundation,
will do more than they would in eight days without it. Every
one who wishes the best success must use foundation, often in
the brood-chamber, and always in the sections, unless nice
white comb is at hand. Whoever has 100 colonies of bees may
well own a machine for himself, though it usually pays better
topurchase. The specialist can make nicer foundation than
the mere amateur.

HOW FOUNDATION IS MADE.

The process of making the foundation is very simple.
Thin sheets of wax, of the desired thickness, are pressed
between the plates or passed between therolls, which are made
so as to stamp either drone or worker foundation, as desired.
Worker is best, I think, even for sections. The only difficulty
in the way of very rapid work is that from sticking of the
wax sheets to the dies. Mr. Heddon finds that by wetting the

358 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

dies with concentrated lye the wax is not injured, and sticking
is prevented. Mr. Jones uses soapsuds with excellent success
for the same purpose. Think of two men running through
fifty pounds of foundation in an hour! That is what I saw
two men do at M1. Jones’, with a Dunham machine, by use of .
soapsuds. The man who put in the wax sheets was not
delayed at all. The kind of soap should be selected with care.
Mr. Root prefers common starch to either lye or soapsuds.
New machines are more liable to trouble with sticking than
are those that have been used for some time. It is said that
dipping the sheets in salt brine also prevents this troublesome
sticking. Mr. Baldridge gives this hint, but conceals the
name of the discoverer. Mr. Weed now secures the wax in
continuous sheets, wound on a spool, and these are fed con
tinuously. So the old, sticking trouble is done away with.
Mr. Root says three-fourths of our foundation and one-half of
that of the world is now made by this new Weed process.

TO SECURE THE WAX SHEHTS.

The wax should be melted in a double-walled tin vessel,
with water between the walls, so thatin no case would it be
burned or overheated.

To form the sheets, a dipping-board of the width and
length of the desired sheets is the best. It should be made of
pine, and should be true and very smooth. ‘This is first dipped
into cold water—saltin the water makesit easier to remove
the sheets—then one end is dipped quickly into the melted
wax, then raised till dripping ceases—only a second—this end
dipped into the cold water, grasped by meansof a dextrous
toss with the hands, and the other end treated the same way.
The thing is repeated, if necessary, till the sheet is thick
enough. Twice dipping is enough for brood-combs, once for
sections. We now only have to shave the edges with a sharp
knife, and we can peel off two fine sheets of wax. As the Weed
machine forms continuous sheets which can be readily fed
into a roller machine, and the sheets of foundation accurately
cut and all perfect and automatic, oi course, the dipping of
wax sheets will soon be entirely a thing of the past.

For cutting foundation nothing is so admirable as the

OR, MANUAI, OF THE APIARY. 359

Carlin cutter (Fig. 170, a), which is like the wheel glass-cutters
sold in the shops, except that a larger wheel of tin takes the
place of the one of hardened steel. Mr. A. I. Root has sug-
gested a grooved board (Fig. 170, 6) to go with the above, the
distance between the grooves being equal to the desired width
of the strips of comb foundation to be cut.

For cutting smaller sheets for the sections the same device

Fic. 170.

a b
From A. I. Root Co.

may be used. I saw Mr. Jones cut these as fast as a boy would
cut circular wads for his shot-gun, by use of a sort of modified
cake-cutter (Fig. 171).

USH- OF FOUNDATION.

Unless to force the bees into sections, when, as we have
seen, it is better tohive swarms on empty frames, with mere
starters, we better always use foundation in brood-frames. It
is astonishing to see how rapidly the bees will extend the cells,
and how readily the queen will stock them with eggs. The
Joundation should always be the right size for worker-comb.
Even for surplus comb honey the smallcells are best. The
honey evaporates more quickly, and so will be sooner capped,
and it looks better. For brood-combsI prefer wired frames.
The sheet of foundation should not quite fill the frame. ‘The
advantage of foundation is, first, to insure worker-comb, and

360 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE 3

thus worker-brood; and, second, to furnish straight, nice
combs. We have proved in our apiary repeatedly, that by use
of foundation and a little care in pruning out the drone-comb,
we could limit or even exclude drones from our hives, and we
have but to examine the capacious and constantly crowded
stomachs of these idlers to appreciate the advantage of sucha
course. Bees may occasionally tear down worker-cells, and

* build drone-cells in their place; but such action, I believe, is
not sufficiently extensive ever to cause anxiety. Iam also
certain that bees that have to secrete wax to form comb do less
gathering. Wax-secretion seems voluntary, and when rapid
seems to require quiet and great consumption of food. As
before suggested, may this not be due to greater or less activity
of the bees? If we make two artificial colonies equally
strong, supply the one with combs, and withhold them from
the other, we will find that this last sends less bees to the
fields, while all the bees are more or less engaged in wax-
secretion. Thus, the other colony gains much more rapidly in
honey; first, because more bees are storing; second, because
less food is consumed. This is undoubtedly the reason why
extracted honey can be secured in greater abundance than can
comb honey.

It also pays remarkably well to use foundation in the
sections. If we use very thin foundation—eleven or twelve
feetto the pound—all talk about ‘‘the fish-bone”’ need not
frighten any one. Foundation for the sections should be
twelve or thirteen feet to the pound, while that for the brood-
chamber is better at seven or eight feet. Prof. Gillette’s
experiments and measurements show that the thickness of
midrib of natural comb varies from .003 to .006 of an inchin
worker, and from .0048 to .008 in drone, and is thickest towards
the top. The cell-walls were found as thin where foundation
was used as were the natural walls. The walls vary in thick-
ness from .0018 to .0028 of an inch. Bees always thin the base
if thicker than natural, but never thin it to equal the natural
base. Prof. Gillette found drone-comb weighed 4.32 feet to
the pound, worker 5.40, and that from thin foundation 4.23.
As comb honey is generally in drone or store comb, we see we get
but little more in wax honey from thin foundation. The foun-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 361

dation may or may not fill these sections. It is recommended
by Dr. Miller and our Canadian friends, to put two pieces of
foundation in each section—an inch strip from the bottom,
and a piece from the top to reach within one-eighth of an inch
of the lowerstrip. Of course, this takes time andcare. When
only one piece is used, I have had best success leaving one-
eighth inch space on sides and bottom. Many prefer to fasten
to both top and bottom. Of course, foundation for the sec-
tions—in fact, all foundation—should be made only of nicest,
cleanest wax. Only pure, clean, unbleached wax should be used
in making foundation. We should be very careful not to put
on the market any comb honey where the foundation has not

Fic. 172.

Parker Foundation Fastener.—From American Bee Journal.

been properly thinned by the bees. If we always use thin
foundation there will be no trouble.

Foundation can be fastened into the sections by means of
melted wax. This method, however, is too slow; though my
friend, R. L. Taylor, hasan ingenious arrangement whereby
he melts the edges of the foundation and fastens itin the
sections with great accuracy and rapidity.

The Parker foundation fastener (Fig. 172) for pressing
starters or full sheets of foundation into sections, is prized
very highly by most who haye used it. The figure shows how
it is used,

362 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

The Daisy fastener (Fig. 173) uses heat from a lamp, and
so fixes by melting rather than pressure. It is preferred, as it
is quicker, neater, and saves wax. In the Parker the pressed
portion is of course lost.

Still other machines for the same purpose are in the mar-
ket. Our British friends recommend grooving the sections on
all sides in the center to receive the foundation, as we often
groove the top. They also recommend splitting the top in

Fic. 173.

Daisy Foundation Fastener.—From A. I. Root Co.

the middle andin placing together, after adjusting one-half,
add the foundation, and: then crowd down the other side, thus
holding the foundation in place. These methods may be
easily tried.

Foundation can be fastened in the brood-frames rapidly
and very securely by simply pressing it against the rectan-
gular projection from the top-bar already described. This may
be done by use of a case-knife, dipped in honey to prevent its
sticking. In this case a block (Fig. 174, a) should reach up
into the frame from the side which is nearest to the rectan-
gular projection—it will be remembered that the projection is

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 363

alittle to one side of the center of the top-bar, so that the
foundation shall hang exactly in the center—so far that
its upper surface would be exactly level with the upper
surface of the rectangular projection. This block has shoul-
ders (Fig. 174, c), so that it will always reach just the proper
distance into the frame. It is also rabbeted at the edge where
the projection of the top-bar of the frame willrest (Fig. 174, 5),
so that the projection has a solid support, and will not split off
with pressure. We now set the frame on this block, lay on
the foundation, cut the size we desire, which will be as long
as the frame, and nearly as wide. The foundation will rest
firmly on the projection and block, and touch the top-bar at
every point. We now take a boardas thick as the projection

Fic. 174.

Original.

is deep, and as wide (Fig. 175, d)as the frame is long, which
may be trimmed off, so as to have a convenient handle (Fig.
175, e), and by wetting the edge of this (Fig. 175, d@) either in
water, or better, starch-water, and pressing with it on the
foundation above the projection, the foundation will be made
to adhere firmly to the latter, when the frame may be raised
with the block, taken off, and another fastened as before. I
have practiced this plan for years,and have had admirable
success. I have very rarely known the foundation to drop if
made of good wax, though it must be remembered that our
hives are shaded, and our frames small. If the top-bar of

364 THE BEEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

the frame has not the projection, the comb can be pressed
directly on the top-bar and then bent at right angles, as with
the Parker foundation fastener. To make this more secure
a narrow strip may be tacked to the top-bar, pressing the
foundation. Our English friends use g double top-bar which
is dovetailed to the uprights of the frame. Thus, in putting
together the frame the foundation is pressed between the two

Fic. 176.

From A. I. Root Co.

halves of the top-bar, and so firmly held in place. Sometimes
a groove is cut into the top-bar, which may receive the edge of
the foundation, which is held by a wedge (Fig. 176), which is
pressed in beside it.

The above methods are successful, but probably will
receive valuable modifications at the hands of the ingenious
apiarists of ourland. If we have frames with the V-shaped
top-bar (Fig. 96), we may easily break the foundation and
press it on, as shown in Fig. 177.

WIRED FRAMES.

But as foundation does sometimes fall or sag, so that
many cells are changed to drone-cells, or warp in awkward
shapes, especially if the hive is unshaded, or receivesa full
colony of bees with all its frames full of foundation, and as
the wax is sometimes so brittle that it will not hold together,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 365

however well fastened, wired frames (Figs. 178 and 70) are
rapidly coming into use. Another point strongly in favor of
such frames is that they can be handled or shipped, and there
is not the least danger of their combs falling from the frames.
Mr. Jones states that with wired frames we may use thinner

So sone x
S86 Soe

From American Bee Journal,

foundation, and thus save one-third the expense. The wires
should be two inches apart, and the extreme wires not more
than one-half inch from the side of the frame. They may be
fastened by passing through holes in the top and bottom bars
of the frames, which must be exactly in the center, or they
may be hooked over little hooks, such as may be made by driv-

Fic. 178.

NOY

Root’s Wired Frame. End-wires are too far from End-bars.
—From A. I. Root Co.

ing a staple into the frame after we have cut one limb of
the staple off near the curve. If holes are not made through
the top-bar of the frame, they can be easily formed by use of
sharpawls. If these are set ina strong block, like an iron
rake, each bar can be pierced at one stroke by use of a lever
press. If the foundation is to be stamped in the frame by the
Given press, then the wire should be No. 36; if it is to be put

\

366 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

on by hand, then No. 30 must be used. Tinned wire should be
used. To cut wire the right length for frames and not have it
tangle, it may be wound lengthwise about a board of the right
length, so that one round of wire will be just enough fora
frame. Then tie two or three strings tightly around board,
wire andall. The strings extend at right angles to the wire.
We now cut across all the wires at oneendof the board. Thus,
the wires are all the proper length, and are held firmly ready
for use. Some, even with the Given press, prefer to put the
foundation on the wires by hand. In this case the foundation
should be warmed till quite soft, then laid on a board and the
frame placed over all so that the wires rest on the foundation.
Then by use of a shoe-buttoner, with a longitudinal groove cut
into the convex side of the curve, the wires are pressed into the
foundation. This work is easily and rapidly performed. A tin

Fic. 179.

Wire-Imbedder.—From A. I. Root Co.

wire-imbedder (Fig. 179) works admirably and costs very little.
Mr. Cheshire states that the brood dies over the wires. There is
no such trouble in my apiary. In Germany it is recommended
to press the foundation for extracting-combs on a board, and
so have the cells built out only on one side and elongated so
astohold much honey. This gives strong combs and saves
turning the frames when extracting. But wired combs are
strong, and our improved extractors make turning very easy
aud rapid. Again, evaporation or ripening in deep cells is
very slow. I havealso found that bees object to foundation
on a board, and often bite it off.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 367

SAVE THE WAX.

As foundation is becomiug so popular, it behooves us all
to be very careful that no old comb goes to waste. Even now
the supply of wax in the country is scarce equal to the demand.
Soiled drone-comb, old, worthless worker-comb, all the comb
in the old hives, if we use Mr. Heddon’s method of transfer-

Fic. 180.

Swiss Wax-Extractor.—From American Bee Journal.

ring, and all fragments that can not be used in the hives,
together with cappings, after the honey is drained out, should
be melted, cleansed and molded into cakes of wax, soon to be
again stamped, not by the bees, but by wondrous art.

METHODS.

A slow and primitive method is to melt in a vessel of
heated water, and to purify by turning off the top, or allowing
it to cool, when the impurities at the bottom are scraped off,
and the process repeated till all impurities are eliminated.

A better method to separate the wax isto putit intoa
strong, rather coarse bag, then sink this in water and boil.
At intervals the comb in the bag should be pressed and stirred.
The wax will collect on top of the water.

To prevent the wax from burning, the bag should be kept
from touching the bottom of the vessel by inverting a basin
in the bottom of the latter, or else by using a double-walled
vessel with hot water between the walls. The process should
be repeated till the wax is perfectly cleansed.

368 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

But as wax is to become so important, and as the above
methods are slow, wasteful, and apt to give a poor quality of
wax, specialists, and even amateurs who keep ten or twenty
colonies of bees, may well procure a wax-extractor (Fig. 180).
This is also a foreign invention, the first being made by Prof.
Gerster, of Berne, Switzerland. These cost from five to seven

Fic. 181.

a |

a,

Jal

“0

ot
s

Jones Wax-Extractor, aie ‘om D. A. Jones.

dollars, are made of tin, are very convenient and admirable,
and can be procured of any dealer in apiarian supplies.

The comb is placed in the perforated vessel, and this in
the larger can, which is set on a kettle of boiling water. The
clean, pure wax passes out the spout. Mr. Jones has improved
the common wax-extractor (Fig. 181). This is what he says
of it:

‘‘Put the extractor on the stove in the same manner as an
ordinary pot, having beforehand filled the lower tank with
water, aud the perforated basket above the tank with broken

’

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 369

comb or whatever material you wish to extract wax from.
The steam passes through the perforated metal walls of the
basket, melting every particle of wax from the crude material;
the wax runsoutof a spout for the purpose, turned downwards ;
under this spout have a receptacle, which have slightly oiled,
to keep the wax from adhering to its walls. The tube turned
upwards serves two very important purposes, viz.: To fill
water into the lower tank, and to see if the tank requires
replenishing, without taking out the basket above. Keep
everything but the spout closed, in order to lose no steam and
give it full force. When not in use as an extractor it is
excellent asan uncapping-can ; the cappings drop into basket,

Fic. 182.

\ ZE

ie

|

Solar Wax-Extractor.—Irom A. I. Root Co.

the honey drains off, leaving the cappings just where you want
them to extract from.”’

Still better than the above is the solar wax-extrac tor (Fig.
182). This ischeap, and can be easily made at small cost.
A box lined with tin has hinged to its top, first, a glass cover,
and then to the top of this glass cover, a wooden cover lined
with tin, or a glass mirror.

A perforated tin wax-pan is made to set just undcr the
glass cover. This is placed conveniently where the sun can
strike it, and is always ready for pieces of wax. By raising
the upper cover the reflector hastens the work. I value the
solar wax-extractor very highly. It is always ready for pieces
ofcomb. The Boardman extractor (Fig. 183) has only the
glass cover, and is on rockers to give proper incline to catch
the sun. The solar wax-extractor, indeed, all the methods

370 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

thus far described, fail to secure all the wax from old, black

combs, hence the
WAX-PRESS.

This valuable invention was given us by Mr. Wm. W. Cary.
Mr. C. A. Hatch says it will pay if one has one hundred pounds
of wax torender. In old combsit will save ten percent or
more. Mr. Hatch says two men will render three hundred
poundsin one day. Itisalsoaneat way. Neatness, despatch,
thoroughness—surely, a grand trio.

The press is used much as we use a cider-press to express
apple-juice. Mr. Hatch uses a large kettle in which to melt

Fic. 183.

Boardman Solar Wax-Extractor,—From A. I. Root Co.

the wax. This is done out-of-doors. About eight gallons of
water are kept in the kettle. Only four other parts are needed.
A frame with screw (Fig. 184), which may be turned down as
seen in figure; a tray about eighteen inches square with lip,
aform fifteen inches square and four inches high, and the
slotted rack, which Mr. Hatch makes of triangular pieces.
such as he uses for the top-bars of his frames. These may be
one-eighth of an inch apart. Of course,a good quality of

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 371

burlap and a square board follower are required. The cheese
is made by dipping the melted comb and wax into the form,
which has the slotted rack below, and the burlaps laid over
all. Mr. Hatch pins the burlaps over the cheese with long,
slim wire nails. Of course the form is in the tray, andit is
easy to see that the press will do the work.

By these last inventions all the wax, even of the oldest
combs, can be secured, in beautiful condition, and as it is per-
fectly neat, there is no danger of provoking the ‘‘ best woman

Fic. 184.

Wax-Press.—From A. I. Root Co.

in the world,’? as we are in danger of doing by use of either
of the first-named methods—for what is more untidy and per-
plexing than to have wax boil over on the stove, and perhaps
get on the floor, and be generally scattered about ?

All pieces of comb should be put into a close box, or in the
solar wax-extractor if we have one, and if any larve are in it,
the comb should be melted so frequently that it will not smell

372 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE‘

badly. It will often pay to use the press on comb that has
been melted in the solar wax-extractor—nearly always in case
of very old comb. By taking pains, both in collecting and
melting, the apiarist will be surprised at the close of the sea-
son, as he views his numerous and beautiful cakes of wax, and
rejoice as he thinks how little trouble it has all cost.

Beeswax as bought on the market is of all colors, and often
full of impurities. If this is melted in water containing sul-
phuric acid—one pound to overy 100 gallons of water—it may
be entirely cleansed, and made uniform. In very dirty comb
the acid should be doubled. If the combis quite clean, not
more than half as much is required. Mr. Doolittle uses vin-
egar and water, half and half. One pint of vinegar answers
for ten pounds of wax. This is more expensive than is the
sulphuric acid. Thisis usually melted in a wooden vessel—a
barrei serves well. Itis melted by steam, and so there is no
danger of burning. Care is necessary that it does not boil
over, and that all the wax is melted. Thus, after it seems
melted it should simmer for a time. When cooled down to
near the point of solidification, it is dipped out, down to any
foreign matter, then cooled, and any remaining wax scraped
off. Wax thus cleansed makes the finest foundation.

Wax is readily bleached by placing thin sheets or ribbons
in the sun. Unbleached wax is better for foundation, and in
use is practically as beautiful.

Wax is adulterated with tallow, paraffine and ceresin. We
can usually detect tallow by the odor and taste. The latter is
betrayed by chewing. Wax is brittle, while wax adulterated
with these coal-oil products is salvy, and so chews up like
gum. As stated on page 176, these petroleum products are
lighter than wax, soif,we add alcohol to water untila speci-
men of wax of known purity just sinks, we have a sure detec-
tion of this latter kind of adulteration. Mr. Root says he can
nearly always detect adulteration in these ways.

Hot water and benzine are excellent to clean wax from ves-
sels, etc. We must not melt wax in galvanized-iron vessels,
as it will injure the wax.

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 373

CHAPTER XVI
MARKETING HONEY.

No subject merits more attention by the apiarist than that
of marketing honey. There is no question but that the supply
is going to increase continually ; hence, to sustain the price
we must stimulate the demand, and by doing this we shall not
only supply the people with a food element which is necessary
to health, but we shall also supersede in part the commercial
syrups, which are so often adulterated as not only to be
crowded with filth the most revolting, but are often even teem-
ing with poison. (Report of Michigan Board of Health for
1874, pages 75-79.) To bring, then, to our neighbor’s table the
pure, wholesome, delicious nectar, right from the hive, is
philanthropy, whether he realizes it or not.

Nor is it difficult to stimulate the demand. I have given
special attention to this topic for the last few years, and am
free to say that nota tithe of the honey is consumed in our
country that might and should be.

HOW TO INVIGORATE THE MARKRET.

First. See that no honey goes to market from your apiary
that is not in the most inviting form possible. Grade all the
honey thoroughly, and expect prices to correspond with the
grade. If,as estimated by twoof our most successful bee-
keepers, it costs from five to eight cents to produce extracted
honey, and from seven to thirteen cents to produce comb
honey, we see that all should labor that prices for first-class
honey should never fall below eight cents for extracted and
twelve cents forcomb. The best grades ought always to sell
for ten cents for extracted and fifteen cents for comb. See
that every package and vessel is not only attractive, but so
arranged as not to make the dealer any trouble, or cause him
any vexation. One leaky can or case may do great injury.

Second. See that every grocer in your vicinity has honey

374 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

constantly on hand. Doall you canto build up a home mar-
ket. The advice to sell to only one or two dealers is, I think,
wrong. Whether we are to buy or sell, we shall find almost
always that it will be most satisfactory todeal with men whom

Fic. 185.

a4] )

|

Ae i rn

7 ( Wee

nc

1a

Show-Case.—From A, I. Root Co.

we know, and who are close at hand. Only when you outgrow
your home market should you ship to distant places. This
course willlimit the supply in large cities, and thus raise the
prices in the great marts, whose prices fix those in the country.
Be sure to keep honey constantly in the markets.

Third. Insist that each grocer make the honey very con-

Sy.
OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 375

spicuous. If necessary, supply large, fine labels, with your
own name almost as prominent as that of the article.

Fourth. Deliver the honey in small lots, so that it will be
sure to be kept in inviting form, and, if possible, attend to the
delivery yourself, that you may know that all is done
‘‘decently and in order.”’

Fifth. Tastruct your grocers that they may make the
honey show to the best effect (Fig. 185), and thus captivate the
purchaser through the sight alone.

Sixth. Never send honey toa commission man of whose
standing you are not assured. Your banker may be able to
secure this for you. The fact that a commission man adver-
tises in the bee-papers is a pretty safe guarantee of his honesty.
It is for the interest of the journals to protect the bee-keepers
in this regard.

Seventh. Call local and general conventions, that all in the
community may know and practice the best methods, so that
the markets may not be demoralized by poor, unsalable honey.

Eighth. There should be a Bee-Keepers’ Exchange which
should be modeled after the very successful Citrus Fruit
Exchange, of Southern California. Such co-operation in every
State would remove all uncertainty. It is suretocome. All
bee-keepers should do all in their power to hasten the day of
its coming.

It is of the greatest importance to encourage State, inter-
State, and National Associations. Happily, our civilization
makes every person affected by the acts of each person. Self-
ishness, not less than Christianity, urges us all to be inter-
ested in each other. The honey-traffic reaches from State to
State. Bee-keeping will never be perfect as an art till all bee-
keepers act asone man. Heis short-sighted that decries con-
ventions. It is the experience of the world that they are
valuable in other arts. Bee-keeping is no exception. Let us
all urge that the associations act in unison, from the local to
the general; that all other apiarian interests no less than the
markets shall bein the highest degree fostered. Hach asso-
ciation, from the most local to the most general, has its spe-
cial mission which no other can perform. Such associations
will usually promote general co-operation.

276 OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY.

PREPARATIONS FOR MARKETS.

Of course, the method of preparation will depend largely
upon the style of honey to be sold, so we will consider the
kinds separately.

EXTRACTED HONEY.

As before intimated, extracted honey has all the flavor,
andis in every way equal, if not superior—comb itself is
innutritious and very indigestible—to comb honey. As Dr.

Fic. 186.

RLES FM
CINCINNATI.

0!

(Ee
a

"WARES FMUTH
INGINNAT 1.0,

f

|

al

FOUND
RE ||

Miller has pointed out, granulated honey, thoroughly drained
and then melted, gives a most delicious article. When people
once know its excellence—know that it is not ‘‘ strained ’’—
then the demand for extracted honey will be vastly increased,
to the advantage both of the consumer and the apiarist.
Explain to each grocer what we mean by the word
“‘extracted,’’? and ask him to spread wide the name and char-
acter of the honey. Leave cups of honey with the editors and
men of influence, and get them to discuss its origin and merits,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 377

I speak from experience, when I say that in these ways the
reputation and demand for extracted honey can be increased
toa surprising degree, and with astonishing rapidity.

HOW TO TEMPT THE CONSUMER.

First. Have it chiefly in small cupsor pails. Many per-
sons will pay twenty-five cents for an article, when, if it cost
fifty cents, they would not think of purchasing.

' Second. Study the kinds of receptacles that will take best
with the buyers.. Some persons will prefer such vessels as
jelly-cups or glass fruit-jars, etc., that will be usefulin every
household when the honey is gone. As Dr. Mason and Mr.
‘Cutting have shown, jelly-cups, by simply® dipping the upper
edge in melted wax, then quickly filled and covered, are quite
securely sealed. Mr. Root recommends that the honey be
covered with a paper dipped in white of egg, which further
seals the vessel. Others will prefer more showy vessels, like
the Muth one-pound and two-pound jars (Fig. 186), even

Fic, 187.

From American Bee Journal.

though they cost more. At present the neat tin pails (Fig.
187), holding from one-half pound to twelve pounds, are very
popular inthe markets. The covers shut inside, and if the
honey is granulated they are very excellent. The bails make
them more convenient and salable. Mr. Jones has a pail that
is easily sealed with wax strings, and is beautifully decorated
with chromoed labels. Such pails are cheap, convenient, and
leave little to be desired. Their beauty aidsthe sale. Mr. A.
I. Root pronounces them the best receptacle for extracted
honey.

378 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

If the honey is to be sent to adistant market it may be put
in soft wood—spruce, pine or hemlock—kegs (Fig. 188). These
are light, and if we carefully drive the hoops, and test by use
of boiling water, we need not wax them. Hard wood barrels

Tic. 188.

e
From American Bee Journal,

must be waxed, then if the honey granulates the hoops must
be loosened to take out the head. This cracks the wax anda
leak results. As before stated on page 333, alcohol barrels are
cheap, and safe even without waxing. At present large tin

Fic. 189,

Pe tian

| i
Le

|

il

; |

Cans for Extructed Honey in Jucket.—From A. I. Root Co.

vessels in wooden jackets (Fig. 189) are rapidly gaining in
‘favor. These are absolutely necessary in such dry climates
as California. Even small tin vessels of honey can be safely
and cheaply shipped as freight by packing in barrels, using
straw tomake all close and secure. Mr. Doolittle has even

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 379

boxed thoroughly candied honey and shipped it safely for long
distances. He has quite a trade in such packages.

Third. Explain to the grocer thatif kept above the tem-
perature of 70° or 80° F., it will not granulate; that granula-
tion is a pledge of purity and superiority, and show him how
easy it is to reduce the crystals, and ask him to explain this to
his customers. If necessary, liquefy some of the granulated
honey in his presence. Put on the labels directions for
reliquefying candied honey. Honey, like many other sub-
stances, will not granulate if heated to 180° F., and then sealed
while hot. This does no injury to the honey, but it is trouble,
and makes the honey less convenient to ship, though at times
it may pay until we can educate our patrons in reference to
the excellence of granulated houey. ;

Lastly. If you do not deliver the honey yourself, be sure
that the vessels will not leak in transit. It is best, in case
jelly-cups are used, that they be filled at the grocery, and
sealed as already described. Do not forget the large label,
which gives the kind of honey, grade, and producer’s name.

If the honey is extracted before it is fully ripened—before
the bees cap it—it should always be kept in an open can or
barrel, covered with cloth, and ina dry, warm room. Thus
arranged it will thicken as wellas in the hive. No honey
should ever be kept in a cool, damp room.

The admirable work of the late Mr. C. F. Muth, in Cincin-
nati, educating people in reference to extracted honey, fighting
all adulteration, pushing it into the candy, tobacco, and con-
fectionery establishments, deserves our hearty gratitude. Mr.
Muth’s market became stupendous, and graphically shows
what this trade is to be in the near future, when all our cities
have a Muth to work for us. I would also recommend to ali
the very valuable little pamphlet of Mr. Chas. Dadant, on the
production and sale of extracted honey. It is most interesting
reading to the honey-producer, and shows what energy and
thought may accomplish in this direction. Every bee-keeper
should watch the markets, and so must have one, or, better,
two of the best bee-periodicals. He shouldalsocirculate honey
leaflets to encourage sales.

380 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

COMB HONEY.

This, from its wondrous beauty, especially when light-
colored and immaculate, will always bea coveted article for
the table, and will ever, with proper care, bring the highest
price paid for honey. Soit will always be best to work for
this, even though we may not be ableto procure it in such
ample profusion as we may the extracted. He who has all
kinds will be able to satisfy every demand, and will most surely

meet with success.
RULES TO BE OBSERVED.

This should be chiefly in small sections (Fig. 108), for, as
before stated, such are the packages that surely sell. Sections
from three to six inches square will just fill a plate nicely, and
look very tempting to the proud housewife, especially if some
epicurean friends are to be entertained.

The sections should surely be in place at the dawn of the
white clover season, so that the apiarist may secure the most
of this irresistible nectar, chaste as if capped by the very snow
itself. They should be taken’ away as soon as all are capped,
or at least as soon as the harvest is over, as delay makes them
highways of travel for the bees, which always mars their
beauty.

In case old combs are near by, the bees incorporate chip-
pings from it in the cappings, much to the injury of the comb
honey. Thus sections should be always produced in supers
above the brood-combs, or distant from old, dark combs.

When removed, if demanded, glass the sections, but before
this we should place them in hives one upon another, or spe-
cial boxes made tight, with a close cover, in which to store
either brood-frames in winter or sections at any season, and
fumethem with burning sulphur. This is quickly and easily
done by use of the smoker. Get the fire in the smoker well to
burning, add the sulphur, then place this in the top hive, or
top of the special box. The sulphurous fumes will descend
and deal out death to all moth-larve. This should always be
done before shipping the honey, if we regard our reputations
as precions. Itis well todo this within two weeks after re-
moval, and also two weeks later,so as to destroy the moth-
larva not hatched when the sections are removed. Bisulphide

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 381

of carbon is more easily used than is sulphur, and is quite as
effective. This needs only to be turned into the close box
holding the sections. Sections may be treated in a close barrel
covered with oil-cloth. Thevapors form very quickly, and are
deadly to allinsects. It is used in mills to kill flourinsects ; in.
special houses or barrels to kill pea and bean weevils; in their
runs to kill squirrels and gophers; in holes, or in their hills,
to killants. Inallsuch use great care must be exercised, as
it is as inflammableas is gasoline, and it vaporizes even more
quickly. The quick vaporization is what makes it so effective.
An inferior article, which is as good for all these purposes,
sells very cheaply.

If one-pound sections are used with separators bees will
seldom enter them to store pollen, and, with no pollen at all in

Fic. 190.

12-lb. and 24-lb, Shipping-Cases.—From A. I. Root Co.

the combs, moths are not likely to be troublesome. If separa-
tors have been used, these sections are in good condition to ship,
as they may stand side by side and not mar the comb.

The shipping-case (Fig. 190) should be strong, neat and
cheap, with handles—such handles are also convenient in the
ends of the hives (Fig. 159), and can be cutin an instant by
having the circular saw set to wabble. With handles the case
is more convenient, and is more sure to be set on its bottom.
The case should also be glassed, as the sight of the comb will
say: ‘‘ Handle with care.’’ It is always wiser to buy ship-
ping-cases in the “ knock-down.’’ They are neater, and
usually cheaper than home-made ones. Strong paper trays

382 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

should be placed in them. The sections should rest on cleats,
which are nailed to hold the paper. We must do all possible
to prevent leaking.

Mr. Heddon makes a larger case (Fig. 191), which is neat
andcheap. Itis best to have single-tier cases (Fig. 190), and
when full they should not weigh more than twenty-four pounds.

Fie. 191.

Shipping-Case.—From James Heddon.

However, some prefer forty-eight pound cases. These are
double (Fig. 191). Even twelve-pound cases are preferred by

many.
Fic. 192.

Carton for Comb-Honey.—From A, I. Root Co.

It may be wellto wrap the sections in paper, as thus
breakage of one will not mean generalruin. A carton (Fig.
192) is often very helpful. These are neat and convenient,
and with neat label cost less than one cent, Mr, Crane, of

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 383

‘Vermont, praises these very highly. Grocerymen may well be
urged to use them.

In shipping in freight cars, it is desirable that the sections
be set lengthwise of the cars, as the danger from the shocks of
starting and stopping will be much less. Always ship a car-

Fic. 193

Fancy. No. 1. No. 2.
Comb-Honey.—From A. I. Root Co.

load, if possible, so as to avoid re-shipping. When moving
honey in a wagon the combs should extend crosswise of the
wagon. _

In groceries, where the apiarist keeps honey for sale, it will
pay him, unless the groceryman will use a fine exhibition case,
to furnish his own boxes. These should be made of white-
wood, very neat, and glassed in front to show the honey, and
the cover so fixed that unglassed sections—and these, probably
will soon become the most popular—can not be punched or
fingered. Be sure, too, that the label, with kind of honey,
grade, and name of apiarist (Fig. 185) be so plain that ‘he
who runs may read.’’

384 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

The grading of the honey can not be too carefully and
honestly done. One or more inferior sections in the middle of
acase may, and ought to, do the packer great harm. ‘An
honest pack ” should be the motto and pride of every man who
has honey or any other commodity to sell. All sections well
filled should be called ‘‘ fancy’ (Fig. 193), and all filled wholly,
“extra fancy”’ (Fig. 194). If not quite filled out at the corners

Fic. 194.

Comb Honey, Extra Fancy, in Plain Sections.
—From A, I. Root Co,

it may be No.1; when quite a space is empty, No. 2. (See
Fig. 193.) These four grades will be enough. The kind of
honey should be on the label, as ‘‘ Buckwheat, Extra Fancy,”
“Clover, Fancy,” etc. All honey below No. 2 should be kept,
and after being cleaned out as before described, retained for
baits the next season.

Every bee-keeper should encourage the sale of honey by
broadly circulating the honey leaflets, showing how honey can
be used in cookery, etc. The following recipes are used in

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 385

making gems and jumbles, which are largely sold in the
markets :

GEmMs.—2 quarts flour, 3 tablespoonfuls melted lard, % pint
honey, % pint molasses, 4 heaping tablespoonsfuls brown

sugar, 114 even tablespoonfuls soda, one even teaspoonful salt,
¥% pint water, 4 teaspoonful vanilla extract.

JUMBLES.—2 quarts flour, 3 tablespoonfuls melted lard, 1
pint honey, 4% pint molasses.1%4 even teaspoonfuls soda, 1
even teaspoonful salt, 4% pint water, % teaspoonful vanilla
extract. :

Mr. Root, in the ‘‘A B C of Bee-Culture,’ gives many
recipes, besides-the above, which call for honey.

Comb honey that is to be kept in the cool weather of
autumn, or the cold of winter, must be kept in warm rooms,
or the comb will break from the sections when handled. By
keeping it quite warm for some days previous to shipment, it
may be sent to market even in winter, but must be handled
very carefully, and must make a quick transit.

Above all, let ‘‘ taste and neatness”’ ever be your motto.

MARKETING BEES.

Before leaving this subject, let me say a word about selling
bees.
SELLING QUEENS.

As queen-rearing and shipping have already been suffi-
ciently described, it only remains to be said that the vender of
queens can not be too prompt, or fair, or cautious. Success,
noless than morality, demands the most perfect honesty. If,
for any reason, queens can not be sent promptly, the money
should be returned at once, explanation made, and, if reason-
able, delay may be requested. The breeder, who, by careful
selection and care in following the rules of breeding, shall
secure a type of bees pronounced in excellence, will surely win
in the race. There is no reason why the capable, persistent
breeder of bees should not equal in success the best breeders
of cattle and horses.

I have described shipping bees. The rules just given
should guide also in selling whole colonies.

386 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

SELLING BEKS BY THE POUND.

This has been quite a business, and originated, I think,
with Mr. A. I. Root. The bees are put, by use of a large tin
funnel, into a cage (Fig. 195) made of sections, as shown in the
figure. The handle makes it easy to carry them, and they get
careful handling without any special request. It is said that
a pound of bees can be prepared for shipment in five minutes.
The cages are provisioned with ‘‘Good candy.” It is always

3

ACRES:
noice

From A. I, Root Co.

safe to get a pound of bees in Juneor July, with a queen,
expecting to have a good colony by winter. It is reported that
from such a start, even five good colonies have been secured,
all of which wintered. In this case they were fed.

VINEGAR FROM HONEY.

Mr. T. F. Bingham utilizes the cappings secured while
extracting to produce wax and a most excellent quality of
vinegar. The honey is drained from the cappings, which are
then covered for an hour or two with water. The cappings
from 1000 pounds of honey will sweeten enough water for forty-
five gallons of vinegar. The water is now drained intoan
open barrel, which should be keptcovered with cloth. The
scum should be removed as it rises. In about a year the
change to first-class vinegar will have been accomplished.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 387

After the water is drained from the cappings they can be con-
verted into pure wax, as already described.

The poorer grades of honey and rinsings from cleaning
barrels and honey from utensils may also be profitably used
in the same way. One and one-half pounds of honey will
make one gallon of the best vinegar. Mr. E. France adds
honey to water until an egg sinks soasto expose a surface
about the size of a ten-cent piece. It should be put in a close
barrel with a one-inch auger-hole to permit escape of gases.
Some good vinegar or yeast should be added to start fermen-
tation. After working or fermentation commences draw off a
pailful occasionally and turn it back. If one or two kegs or
barrels are working at the same time, turn from one into the
other. It is well to turn old vinegar into new or unripe, but
the reverse should never be done, as it injures the keeping
qualities. By using old, sour barrels and old vinegar to start

‘ “fermentation, vinegar may be made in one year, else it will
take two.
FAIRS AND THE MARKET.

Our English friends have demonstrated that large honey
exhibitions are most powerful aids in developing the honey
market.

Till within a few years our American honey exhibits have
been a disgrace and a hindrance, and they are largely so to-
day. A little second-rate honey sandwiched in with sugar and
sytups, and supplemented by a cake or two of black, dirty wax,
describes the honey exhibit of most of our fairs to-day. The
premiums range from twenty-five cents to fifty cents.

WHAT SHOULD WE HAVE?

Our industry demands a separate building, filled with
tons, not pounds, of honey, and exhibiting everything that is
valuable in modern apiculture. Bees may be exhibited in
hives covered by wire-gauze, and if it is desired to manipulate
them, this can be readily done in a bee-tent, to the great satis-
faction and pleasure of many who know nothing of such mat-
ters. I have proved this by actual trial.

It can be arranged with the managers that sales of honey

388 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

and all apparatus be made at any time at this -building, on
conditions that the exhibit should be in nowise interfered with.
The premiums should range from one dollar to twenty, and the
total should reach to the hundreds.

We have found in Michigan that all that is necessary to
effect this grand and invaluable transformation is a little life
and energy on the part of the bee-keepers. Through the enter-
prise of H. D. Cutting and others, the bee-keeping exhibit of
our State fairs, in a separate building, leaves little to be
desired, and is a credit to the industry.

EFFECTS OF SUCH EXHIBITS.

They show that apiculture is no second-rate business.
They attract attention and educate as nothing elsecan. They
gohand in hand with local conventions in instructing bee-
keepers so that no inferior honey will go on the markets.
They enable bee-keepers to see and buy just what they need
in the more intelligent prosecution of their business. They
scatter the little pint, half-pint, and gill pails of honey into
thousands of homes, and develop a knowledge and taste that
stimulate the honey market most powerfully. Tons of honey
have been sold at the Toronto fairs, the influence of which has
been a lasting surprise even to the most enterprising pro-
ducers, I believe that the great quartet that is to advance
apiculture is fairs, associations, co-operative organizations,
and improved bees.

LOR,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 389

CHAPTER XVIL
HONEY-PLANTS.

As bees are dependent mainly upon flowers for honey, it
of course follows that the apiarist’s success will depend largely
upon the abundance of honey-secreting plants in the vicinity
of hisapiary. True it is that certain bark and plant lice

Fic. 196,

Tulip-Tree Bark-Louse, 3, 4,5, and 6, Greatly Magnified.—Original.
1 Scale on Twig. 2 Underside of scale.
3, 4 Young Lice. 6 Leg.
5 Antenna,
secrete a kind of liquid sweet, which, in the dearth of any-
thing better, the bees seem glad to appropriate. I have thus
seen the bees thick about a large bark-louse which attacks the
tulip-tree, and thus often destroys one of our best honey-trees.
I have described this insect (Fig. 196) under the name of

390 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

Lecanium tulipifera. In 1870 it did no small injury to our
tulip-trees at the Michigan Agricultural College. It has seri-
ously injured this tree in the States bordering the Ohio River.
The tulip is often called poplar, which is quite incorrect. The
poplar belongs to the willow family, the tulip to the magnolia.
This louse is of double interest to bee-keepers. It ruins one of
our best honey-trees, and supplies a poor substitute for plant
nectar to the bees. All bark-lice, which include the orange-
tree scale and the San Jose scale, are best destroyed by use of
kerosene oil. This latter is best applied in the form of an
emulsion, with soap. Tomake the kerosene and soap emulsion
Imake a very strong suds, using one-eighth of a pound of
whale-oil soap, or one quart of soft soap, and two quarts of
water. Tothis is added one quart of kerosene oil, and all
churned by use of a force-pump, pumping it back into itself till
itis thoroughly and permanently mixed. I then dilute with
water till the kerosene oil forms one-twelfth of the whole. In
California it is found that a distillate emulsion is more
effective than kerosene emulsion. One-fourth pound of whale-
oil soap is dissolved in one gallon of water. Then one gallon
of untreated distillate is added and allis violently stirred.
This is then diluted with water one to ten. Itischeap and
effective. It is found that spraying can not be done thor-
oughly enough for evergreens like the orange-tree, and so
fumigation by aid of tents with cyanide of potassium is
adopted by most of the progressive citrus fruit-men of Cali-
fornia. This emulsion often spots the fruit.

Ihave also seen the bees thick about several species of
plant-lice. One—the Erisoma imbricator, Fitch—works on
beech-tree. Its abdomen is thickly covered with long wool,
and it makes a comical show as it wags this up and down upon
the least disturbance. The leaves of trees attacked by this
louse, as also those beneath the trees, are fairly gummed with
a sweetish substance. I have found that the bees avoid this
substance, except at times of extreme drouth and long-pro-
tracted absence of honeyed bloom.

Another species, Thalaxes ulmicola, gives rise to certain
solitary galls, which appear on the upper surface of the leaves
of the redelm. These galls are hollow, with a thin skin, aud

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 391

within the hollows are the lice, which secrete an abundant
sweet that often attracts the bees to a feast of fat things, as
the gallis torn apart, or cracks open, so that the sweet exudes.
This sweet is anything but disagreeable, and may not be un-

Fic. 197,

Female. ale,

Sycamore Plant-Louse, much enlarged.—-Original.

Fic. 198.

Female. Male.
Apple-Tree Aphis, much magnified.—Original.

wholesome to the bees. ‘The larch-louse, Lachnus laricis,
secretes a liquid that is greedily taken by the bees. The honey
is very excellent.

+ Another of the aphides, of a black hue, works on the

392 THH BERE-KEEPER'S GUIDE ;

branches of our willows, which they often entirely cover, and
thus greatly damage another tree valuable for both honey and
pollen. Were it not that they are seldom numerous two years
in succession, they would certainly banish from among us one
of our most ornamental and valuable honey-producing trees.
These are fairly thronged in September and October, and not
infrequently in spring and summer, if the lice are abundant,
by bees, wasps, ants, and various two-winged flies, all eager
to lap up the oozing sweets. This louse is the Lachnus den-
tatus of Le Baron, and the Aphis salicti of Harris.

I have received from apiarists of Indiana and Ohio a large,
dark-gray plant-louse, which worked on the sycamore, and is
reported from both States as keeping the bees actively em-
ployed for some weeks. This louse is one-fourth of an inch
long. The winged lice measure three-eighths of an inch to
the tips of their wings. The veins of the wings, as also the
short nectaries—the tubes at the posterior part of the abdomen
—show that this louse (Fig. 197) belongs to the genus Lachnus.
The lice of the genus Aphis—of which there are innumerable
species—have longer nectaries (Fig. 198), from which ooze
large drops of nectar. This is much relished by the ants,
which often care for these lice as tenderly as for their own
young.

Doubtless many have supposed that the bees were gather-
ing secretion from the plants, when closer inspection would
have shown that some species of plant-lice was wholly re-
sponsible. Honey-dew may not always be a secretion from
insects; but that it is almost always is certainly true. We
can see how it serves the insects. It attracts the bees and
wasps, which repel the birds, which else would devour the
insects. If plants do secrete nectar (?) from their leaves, it
surely serves them some valuable purpose. It would seem, in
attracting the black fungus—smut—that it harmed the foliage.
Is honey-dew ever a product of the foliage? This nectar from
plant-lice is very often entirely wholesome and unobjection-
able. I would, however, never consider it a safe food for bees
in winter, unless it was agreeable to my taste, and fit for my
own table. .

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 393

REAL HONEY-DEW.

Many plants, like the cotton and cow-pea (Fig. 199) of the
South, have extra floral-glands which secrete nectar. Incase
of the cow-pea these glands are on the peduncles or flower-

Fic. 199.

Cow-Pea—Original.

a, a Glands. b Flower. . ¢ Pods.

stems, just at the base of the flowers (Fig. 199, a, a). Prof.
Trelese thinks that this nectar serves the plant by attracting
bees, wasps, etc., which keep injurious insects from attacking

394 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE 3

it. If honey-dew is secreted from the general foliage, as so
many believe, then surely, as stated above, it serves the plants
in some such way. ,

SWEET SAP AND JUICES.

Bees often gather much nectar from the stubble of wheat
that is cut early, while the straw is yet green. The sap from
the maple and other trees and plants also furnishes them
sweets. They gather juices of questionable repute from about
cider-mills, some from grapes and other fruit which have been
crushed or eaten and torn by wasps and other insects. Bees
in gathering from cider-mills annoy the cider-maker, and
store a product unfit for winter use. They are also often
drowned in great numbers. It is wise, then, to screen them
from the room where the juice is being expressed. By use of
mosquito-netting this may be quickly and cheaply done. That
bees ever tear grapes or other fruit isa question of whichI
have failed to receive any personal proof, though for yearsI
have been carefully seeking it. I have lived among the vine-
yards of California, and have often watched bees about vines
in Michigan, but never saw bees tearopen the grapes. I have
laid crushed grapes in the apiary, when the bees were not
gathering, and when they were ravenous for stores, which,
when covered with sipping bees, were replaced with sound
grape-clusters, which, in no instance, were mutilated. I have
even shut bees in empty hiveson warm days and closed the
entrance with grape-clusters, which even then were not cut.
I have thus been led to doubt if bees ever attack sound fruit,
though quick to improve the opportunities which the oriole’s
beak and the stronger jaws of wasps offer them. Mr. Root
finds that the Cape May warbler is even more ready than the
oriole to pierce the grapes. Such habit is exceptional with
the warblers, which are usually wholly insectivorous. My
friend, Prof. Prentiss, suggests that when the weather is very
warm and damp, and the grapes very ripe, the juice may ooze
through small openings of the grapes and so attract the bees.
It is at just such times that attacks are observed. I feel very
certain that bees never attack sound grapes. I judge not only
from observation and inquiry, but from the habits of the bee.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 395

Bees never bore for nectar, but seek, or even know only of that
which isfully exposed. Bees are, however, a tremendous aid
to the fruit-grower in the great work of cross-pollination,
which is imperatively necessary to his success, as has been so
well shown by Dr. Asa Gray and Mr. Chas. Darwin. It is true
that cross-pollination of the flowers, which can only be
accomplished by insects, and early in the season by the honey-
bee, is often, if not always, necessary to a full yield of fruit
and vegetables. In dicecious plants, like the willows and
many nut-bearing trees, the stamens that bear the pollen or
male element, are on one plant or flower (Fig. 202), and the

Fic. 200.

Blossoms of Figwort, after Gray.

A Developed stamens and pollen. S In two left-hand ftowers ripe
S In right-hand flower unripe stigma. stigma.
n Nectar. FP Unripe stamens.

pistils that grow the ovules—the female element—on another.
Here, then, insects must act as ‘‘marriage priests’’ that
fructification may be accomplished at all. In other plants,
where the organs are all in the same flower, pollination is
wholly dependent upon insects. The pollen-grains must reach
the stigma. Often this is, from the very structure of the
flower, entirely dependent upon insects. Often, as in the
willow-herb (Fig. 252) and figwort (Fig. 200), as my colleague
and esteemed friend, Dr. Beal, was first to discover, the
pollen and stigma are not ripe simultaneously, and so pollen

396 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

must be brought from one flower to the stigma of another, and
this must be done by insects—chiefly bees. Nature thus
makes close pollination impossible. Indeed, color and odor
in flowers are solely to attract insects for the good of the
flowers. In cases like red clover, where pollination is pos-
sible without aid, my colleague, Prof. Beal, has shown that,
unless insects are present, the yield of seed is meager indeed.
The seeds in the uncovered blossoms were to those in the
covered as 236:5. Prof. Waite, of the Department of Agricul-
ture, has shown that many varieties of pears, apples, etc.,
will fruit very scantily unless cross-pollinated by insects. I
have proved the same in California with pears, plums, olives,
and citrus fruits. The navelorange is an exception. It fruits
just as fully without pollination, and so, of course, is usually
seedless. It bears no pollen. Thus many fruit-growers keep
bees to do this very important work, which they find they can
not afford to neglect. Isuspect in very favorable years, or in
very favored localities, fruits like the Bartlett pear may be fer-
tile to their own pollen, when at other times they will be
wholly sterile. The fruit-men, then, must see that bees are
abundant hard by their orchards. Thereis then entire reci-
procity between the bees and flowers. The bees are as neces-
sary to the plantsas are the plantsto the bees. I am informed
by Prof. W. W. Tracy, that the gardeners in the vicinity of
Boston keep bees that they may perform this duty. Mr. Root
found in New York a greenhouse, where bees were kept at
work all winter, to save the otherwise necessary hand-pollina-
tion, which was very laborious and expensive. That bees
ever injure blossoms and thus effect damage to the fruitage of
such plants as buckwheat—or to any plants, as is sometimes
claimed—is utterly absurd and without foundation. It is now
contended by able authorities, like Profs. Waite and Pierce,
that bees carry the germs of pear-blight. Very likely this is
true. Yet other insects are sufficiently abundant to do this,
and yet too few to do the work of pollination. A few inocula-
tions will scatter the blight, while pollination must be done in
wholesale fashion.

But the principal source of honey is still from the flowers.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 397

WHAT ARE THE VALUABLE HONEY-PLANTS ?

In the northeastern part of our country the chief reliance,
for May, is the fruit-blossoms, willows, and sugar maples. In
June, white clover, alsike clover, and raspberries yield largely
of the most attractive honey, both as to appearance and
flavor. In July, the incomparable basswood and sweet clover
make both bees and apiarist jubilant. In August, buckwheat
offers a tribute, which we welcome, though it be dark and
pungent in flavor, while in Michigan, August and September
give a profusion of bloom which yields to no other in the rich-
ness of its capacity to secrete nectar, and is not cut off till the
autumn frosts—usually abort Sept. 15.

Thousands of acres of willow-herb (Fig. 252), goldenrod,
boneset, asters, and other autumn flowers of northern Michi-
gan as yet have blushed unseen, with fragrance wasted. This
unoccupied territory, unsurpassed in its capability for fruit-
production, covered with grand forests of mapleand basswood,
and spread with the richest of autumn bloom, offers oppor-
tunities to the practical apiarist rarely equaled except in Texas
and the Pacific States.

In the following table will be found a list of valuable
honey-plants. Those mentioned first are annual, biennial
or perennial; the annual being enclosed in a parenthesis thus:
(); the biennial enclosed in brackets thus: [ ] ; while those
mentioned later are shrubs or trees; the names of shrubs
being enclosed in a parenthesis. The date of the commence-
ment of bloom is, of course, not invariable. The one appended,
in case of plants which grow in that State, is about average
for Central Michigan. Those plants whose names appear in
small capitals yield very superior honey. Those with (a) are
useful for other purposes than honey-secretion. All but those
with a * are native or very common in Michigan. Those
written in the plural refer to more than one species. Those
followed by a + are very numerous in species. Of course I
have not named all, as that would include some hundreds
which have been observed at the college, taking nearly all of
the two great orders, Compositaz and Rosaceae. I have only
aimed to give the most important, omitting many foreign
plants of notoriety, asI have had no personal knowledge of them.

398 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE 3

HERBACEOUS HONEV-PLANTS, TREES AND SHRUBS.

DATE OF BLOOMING. ANNUALS AND PERENNIALS.

*Gilias—California—Blue Pollen.
*Gallberry—South.

February to July.......
February and March....

March to fall ........... ALFALFA OR LUCERNE (a)—Calif., Colo.
ADELE saene's ga nec eee Skunk Cabbage.

ot | eee Crocus.

April and May.. Res Dandelion.

Apriland May.......... Crowfoot.

April and May.......... Strawberry. (a)

April and May.......... Crimson Clover (a)—South—Not California,
ST e icdicce ib tise sae CE CRS (Seven-Top Turnip.)

May and June....,..... *Hoarhound—California,

May and June
May and June
May and June
May and June..
Mayand June
May to August.........
May to August .........
May ¢6 fall cas seca very sy

June to August.........
June to August.........
June to August.........
June tofrost............
June to frost............
Junetofrost..... Wotens
Junetofrost............
Junetofrost............

July to August .........
July to August.........

*Sumac—California. .
*Coffee-Berry —California.
*HorsEMINT—Texas.
False Indigo.

Lupine.

Ground Ivy or Gill.
Cow-Pea. (i)

(Cow-Pea.) (a@)—South.

*Stone Crop—South.
Mammoth Red Clover. (a)

*California Figwort—California.

(Hemp.) (a)

Gumbo or Okra.

WHITE CLOVER. (i)

Beans (a)-—California.

ALSIKE CLOVER. (:)

RED CLovER. (a)

Crimson CLOVER. ()

*(SwEET CLOVER. |
oarhound.

Ox-Eyed Daisy—Bad Weed.

Bush Honeysuckle.

*( Partridge Pea.)
Burdock— White Pollen.
Matrimony Vine.

*Sage.

Motherwort.
*(Borage.)
*(Cotton.) («)
Pleurisy Root.

Silk or Milk Weeds,

[Cabbage.] (a)

(Mustard) +

*(Rape.) ae
St. John’s Wort.

(MIGNONETTE.) (a)

(Corn.) (a)

*(Teasel.) (a)

Basils or Mountain Mint.
Catnip. (a)

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

Jily 10: AMOUSE coca bvae
July to August .........
July to August.........
July to August .........
July to August...
July to August...
July to August
DADE BO AMUSE cca casey
July to August.........
July to frost
July to frost
July to frost
July to frost
July to frost
July to frost............
July to frost............
BSF WTO cei oceans
Ply VOABOSL, « cessg veces 9
JUL TOTPOSE, wna on
July todrost. « secs esaaes

August to September...
August to September...
August to September ...
August to September ...
August to frost.........
August to frost
August to frost
August to frost
August to frost
August to frost
August to frost

January to January.....
January to January.....
January to May ........
January to May.........
January to May ........
January to May ........
February to June.......

pe and May..........
April and May..........
April and May..........
April to Junc...........
April to-Paly vas 5 <ceeis

399

Chamomile.
*Asparagus. (a)
(Cucumber, aaah Pumpkins, Melons, ete) (a)
*(Rocky Mountain Bee-Plant) —Colorado.
*Viper’s Bugloss (Blue Thistle.)
Blue Vervain or Verbena.
White Vervain or Verbena.
*Fog-fruit, Lippia—Texas.
Marsh Milkweed.
Boneset.
Bergamot.
Chicory.
Figwort or Carpenter’s Square.
Giant Hyssop.
Malva.
Tronweed.
Fireweed.
Culver’s Root.
Indian Plantains.
*SPIDER FLOWER.
cc eierae (a)
Snapdragon.)
(Touch-me-not or Swamp Balsam.)
(GREAT WILLOW-HeERzB, Fireweed.
Golden Honey-Plant.
*Heartsease, or Smartweed, or Knotweed—
Mississippi Valley.
Large Smartweed.
(GOLDENROD.) t
ASTERS. +
Marsh Sunflower. t
Tick-Seed. +
Beggar-Ticks or Bur Marigold. +
Spanish Needles. t Coreopsis.
Rattlesnake Root or Tall White Lettuce.

TREES AND SHRUBS.

Lemon—South and California.
Eucalyptus, many species—California.
*Manzanita—California.
*Rattan—South.
*(Willow) t—California.
*Chaparall—California Lilac.
*(Gall Berry )—South.
*Orange—South and California.
Madrona—California.
Box-Elder or Ash-Leaf Maple.
Red or Soft Maple. («)
Elm.
Poplar or Aspen.
Silver Maple.
(Willows) + also Trees.
*Black Gum—South.
*Judas Tree—South.
(Chinkapin, Chinquapin Dwarf Chestnut.)
Mesquite—Texas and West.

400

April to duly wf cus ve
April to Ly yin cea san
April to. July oes esea say
April to July ...........

May and June..
May and June..
May and June..........
May and June..........
May and June.. Bae
May and June..........
May and June..........
May and June,.........
May to September ......
May to September ......

June to July ...........
DUNC TO) UY oo scnaw iene «
June to July ...........
JUDE TO TPOBE 6 occc xo nace

July to August.........
July to September......
AUGUSE sees nicsleacacoes os
August to September...
August to September...
August to frost. si5e2% 4s
August to December....
August to January.....

THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

*WHITE SacE—California. :
*BaLL, BLack, or Burron Sace.—California
*Rhododendron— South and West.
Honeysuckle.
(Shadbush, or June-berry, or Service-berry.)
(Alder. )
Maples—Sugar Maple. (a)
Crab-Apple.
Apricot.
(Hawthorns. )
Fruit Trees—A pple, Plum,Cherry, Pear,ete(a)
(Currant and Gooseberry. (a)
stenneae Vine—South.)
*(Chinese Wistaria Vine—South).
*(Japan Privet—South.)
*Varnish Tree—South.
*Acacia—South and California.
(Bladder Nut.)
*Persimmon (a)—South.
*Saw PaLtMEeTTo—South.
Mountain Laurel—South,
Buckeye.
Horse-Chestnut.
(Barberry.)
(Grape Vine.) (a)
Poplar, Tulip.
Tulip-tree or Whitewood, Poplar—South.
(Sumac. )
*Buckthorns—South. California Feb. to July.
*BLack MANGROVE—Florida.
Locust or Black Locust.
*Banana—South.
Cobcea scandens. Vine.
Catalpa.
*Magnolias—South. California.
Honey-Lucust.
Wild Plum.
(Black Raspberry.) (a)
Locusts.
(RED RASPBERRY.) (a)
(Blackberry. )
Chestnut. (a)
*Sourwood—South.
Wild Buckwheat—California.
(Button Bush.)
Basswoop. (a)
(Virginia Creeper.) (a) Vine.
*CABBAGE PALMETTO.—South.
*Blue-Gum—California.
Catalpa. (a)
*Pepper-tree—California.
*(St. John’s Worts.)
(Late Sumac.)
Indian Currant, Coralberry, or Buckbush,
or Snowdrop.
*Rea-Gum—California.
*Japan Plum—South.
(Germander or Wood-Sage.)

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 401

DESCRIPTION, WITH PRACTICAL REMARKS.

As this subject of bee-pasturage is of such prime impor-
tance, and as the interest in the subject is so great and wide-
spread, I feel that details with illustrations will be more than
warranted.

We have abundant experience to show that forty or fifty
colonies of bees, take the seasons as they average (except in
such very highly-favored localities as Southern California,
where in good seasons two or three hundred are profitably
kept in a single apiary, even six hundred having been proved
in the best seasons to do well), are all that a single place will
‘sustain to the greatest advantage. Then how significant the
fact that when the season is the best full three times that
number of colonies will find ample resources to keep all
employed. So this subject of artificial pasturage becomes
one well worthy of close study and observation. The subject,
too, is a very important one in reference to the location of the
apiary.

It is well to remember in this connection, that while bees
do sometimes go from five to seven miles for nectar, two or
three miles should be regarded as the limit of profitable gath-
ering. ‘That is, apiaries of from fifty to one hundred or more
colonies should not be nearer than four or five miles of each

other.
MARCH PLANTS.

In Florida the orange gives early bloom, and the thou-
sands of trees in that land, not only of flowers but of honey,
will have no small influence in building up the colonies for
the grand harvest of mangrove and palmetto soon to follow.

The gall-berry of the South commences to bloom even in
February, and yields abundant nectar. In Florida this shrub
gives the main supply of honey during the swarming season.

APRIL PLANTS.

As we have already seen, the apiarist does not secure the
best results, even in the early spring, unless the bees are
encouraged by the increase of their stores of pollen and honey ;
hence, in case we do not practice stimulative feeding—and

402 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

many will not—it becomes very desirable to have some early
bloom. Happily, in all sections of the United States our
desires are not in vain.

Early in spring there are many scattering wild-flowers, as
skunk-cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus), which supplies abun-
dant pollen and some honey; the blood-root (Sanguinaria
canadensis), liver-leaf (Hepatica acutiloba), end various others

Fie. 201.

Red Maple.—Original,

Uf Male blossoms. F Female blossoms.

ft Fruit.
of the crow-foot family, as also many species of cress, which
belong to the mustard family, and the gay dandelion (Taraxa-
cum dens-leonis), which keeps on blooming for weeks, etc., all
of which are valuable and important. The dandelion affords
nectar for excellent honey. Wereit not so concurrent with
fruit-bloom, it would be more valuable, yet it anticipates and
succeeds the orchard bloom.

The maples, which are all valuable honey-plants, also con-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 403,

tribute to the early stores. Especially valuable are the silver
maples (Acer dasycarpum), the red or soft maples (Acer
rubrum) (Fig. 201), and the box-elder or ash-leaf maple
(Negundo aceroides), as they bloom so very early, long before
the leaves appear. The bees work on these in Michigan the
first week of April, and often in March. They arealso mag-
nificent shade-trees, especially those that have the weeping
habit. Their early bloom is very pleasing, their summer form

Fic. 202.

Willow.—Original.

and foliage beautiful, while their flaming tints in autumn are
indescribable. The foreign maples, sycamore (Acer pseudo-
platanus), and Norway (Acer platanoides), are also very beau-
tiful. Whether superior to ours as honey-plants Iam unable
to say.

The willows, too (Fig. 202), rival the maples in the early
period of bloom. Some are very early, blossoming in March,
while others, like the white willow (Salix alba) (Fig. 202),
bloom in May. The flowers on one tree or bush of the willow
are all pistillate—that is, have pistils but no stamens—while

404 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

on others they are all staminate, having no pistils. On the
former, bees can gather only honey, on the latter only pollen.
That the willow furnishes both honey and pollen is attested
by the fact that Isaw both kinds of trees, the pistillate and
the staminate, thronged with bees the past season. Indeed,
the willow furnishes abundant honey nearly every spring.

Fic. 204.

Mesquite—From Dept. of Agriculture. Judas Tree.—Original.

Were bees numerous thus early, and were the weather propi-
tious, the honey from willow would be very important. It is
in stimulating breeding. The willow, too, from its elegant
form and silvery foliage, is one of our finest shade-trees. It
grows everywhere in the United States. The mesquite (Proso-
pis juliflora), a shrub or tree of the bean family (Fig. 203), is
exceedingly valuable for honey from Texas to Arizona. The
honey is excellent in quality and very abundant. It blooms
from April on to July.

In the south of Michigan, and thence southward to Ken-
tucky, and even beyond, the Judas tree, or red-bud (Cercis
canadensis), (Fig. 204), is not only worthy of cultivation as a

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 405

honey-plant, but is also very attractive, and well deserving of
attention for its ornamental qualities alone. The red flowers
precede the foliage, and are very striking. This blooms from
March to May, according to the latitude.

Fic. 205.

Eucalyptus Robusta.—Krom University of California.

The poplars—not the tulip—also bloom in April, and are
freely visited by the bees. The wood is immaculate, and is
used for toothpicks and sections for comb honey.

In California, the unique and exquisite Manzanitas (spe-

406 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

cies of Arctostaphylos), together with the willows and many
other flowering plants, keep the bees busy from January till
March. The Gilias, many of which furnish blue pollen, bloom
in January and on till June. The wondrously fragrant orange
and lemon hang out their profuse bloom even in January, and
the lemon is alwaysin bloom. Some species of gum eucalyp-

Fic. 206,

\_ 4

Oth
°E

\\
/

Se

Wy)
OD PY ty

Pepper.— Original.

tus (Fig. 205) is in bloom nearly every month of the year. The
beautiful peppers (Fig. 206), so exquisite in grace, have a very
wide period of bloom. The eucalyptus honey is agreeable, as
I have surely proved. I think the pepper only furnishes pollen
extensively. The tree is dicecious. The female trees are the
more attractive for the red fruit of winter. They are tran-

scendently beautiful for roadside planting, as are many of the
gums,

OR, MANUAL OF THH APIARY. 407

MAY PLANTS.

In May we have the grand sugar maple (Acer saccta-
rinum), (Fig. 207), incomparable for beauty, also all our vari-

Fic. 207.

Sugar-Maple.—Original.

ous fruit-trees, peach, cherry, plum, apple, etc.; in fact all the
Rosacee family. Despite adverse criticism, I have found fruit
honey excellent. Our beautiful American wistaria (Wistaria

408 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

frutescens), (Fig. 208), the very ornamental climber, or the
still more lovely Chinese wistaria (Wistaria sinensis), (Fig.
209), which has longer racemes than the native, and often
blossoms twice in the season. These are the woody twiners
for the apiarist. I regret to say that neither one is hardy in
Michigan.

The barberry, too (Berberis vulgaris), (Fig. 210), comes
after fruit-blossoms, and is thronged with bees in search of
nectar in spring, as with children in winter, in quest of the
beautiful scarlet berries, so pleasingly tart.

Fic. 208.

th Ae

LN ‘S
Zz AN g & . iN

y

: 4) )\

American Wistaria.—Original.

In California, the sumac, the hoarhound, the famous ball
or black sages (Fig. 211), (Ramona stachyoidesand R. palmeri),
with their most beautiful and delicious honey, and the more
common and equally excellent white sage (Ramona poly-
stachya), (Fig. 212), keep the bees roaring with activity, in
favorable seasons, from April even unto June. It is charac-
teristic of California bloom to continue for weeks. The long
racemes of white sage may open in April and continue in
blossom away to June.

In the South, asI learn from that able apiarist, Dr. J. P.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 409

H. Brown, they are no less favored. The Japan privet, the
varnish tree, the acacia, the black-gum or sour-gum (Nyssa
aquatica), and the persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) stir the
bees up to their best endeavorin May. The banana (Musa
sapientum) blooms not only in May, but, as Mr. W.S. Bart,
of Florida, writes me, it is in blossom the year around. So
rich are the flower-tubes in nectar that Mr. Hart says he cou’¢

Fic. 209.

Fic. 210.

Chinese Wistaria.—Original. Barberry.—Original,

soon gather a teacupful, by hand, of clear, beautiful nectar of
good flavor. Chinquapin (Castanea pumila) is an excellent
honey-plant in the Carolinas.

The horse-mint (Fig. 213), (Monarda aristata), especially
in Texas, is sending the bees loaded to their hives with its
peculiar, aromatic nectar. ‘This, with the buckthorns, species
of Rhamnus and Ceonothus, yield honey into June. These
plants often’ cover acres in Wisconsin and Minnesota. Mr.

410 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;
Fic. 211.

Bail or Black Sage.—Original,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 411

Freeborn, of Wisconsin, has often secured a large harvest
from this source when all else failed. The buckthorns are
very common in California. Some of the blooms are delicate

Fic. 212.

White Sage.—From A. I. Root Co.

blue, and are known as the ‘‘ California lilacs.”” They arein
bloom—different species—from March to July.
The saw palmetto (Serenoa serrulata) forms a dense growth

412 THE BEE-KHEPER’S GUIDE;

and makes clearing the land no small expense in Florida. The
slim trunk creeps along the ground for twenty feet, and sends
roots beneath for nourishment. The leaves arise from this
stem, and are from four to six feet long. The clusters of

Fic. 213.

Horsemint.—Oriyinal,

small, yellowish-white blossoms are immense in size. The
blossoms last from the middle of April til June. The honey
is yellow, thick and fine. The fruit of this palm is about
twice the sizeof the Concord grape, and from October till
Christmas the oozing nectar keeps the bees at work. Thisis

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 412

dark honey, but very good for stimulative feeding. The date-
palms (species of Phoenix), and many others, grow magnifi-
cently in California, and are ‘valuable aids to the bee-keeper.
The growing of date-palms promises a rich harvest in Califor-
nia and Arizona.

JUNE PLANTS.

With June comes the incomparable white or Dutch clover
(Trifolium repens), (Fig. 214), whose chaste and modest bloom
betokens the beautiful, luscious, and unrivaled sweets which

Fic. 214,

White or Dutch Clover.

are hidden in itscorolla-tube; alsoits sister, Alsike or Swedish
clover (Trifolium hybridum), (Fig. 215), which seems to
resemble both the white and red clover, is now beautiful and
fragrant. Thisis not a hybrid, as its name would suggest.
It is a stronger grower than the white, and has a whitish
blossom tinged with pink. Mr. Doolittle says the honey is
often a little off-color, and its presence may so tinge basswood
honey as to make it second grade. Messrs. Doolittle and Root
think that white clover furnishes about fifty pounds of honey
tothe acre during the season. I am sure that Alsike may
furnish much more than this, and I believe the same is true of

414 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

Fic. 215.

iy

Alsike Clover.—From American Bee Journal.

THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ; 415

white. This forms excellent pasture and hay for cattle,
sheep, etc., and may well be sown by the apiarist. When pas-
tured the bloom is much prolonged. It will often pay apiarists
to furnish neighboring farmers with seed as an inducement to
grow this excellent honey-plant. It will be easy to get all
farmers within two miles of the apiary to sow this seed, if we
sell it to them for six dollars per bushel of sixty pounds, when
the price is eight or nine dollars. This would be a wise plan.

Fic. 216.

Mammoth Red Clover.—From A. I. Root Co,

Like white clover, it blooms all through June and
into July. Both of these should be sown early in spring with
timothy, four or five pounds of seed to the acre, in the same
manner that red clover seedis sown. As Alsike seeds itself
each year, and so lasts much longer than red clover, I think it
pays well to mix the seed, using about three pounds of Alsike
clover seed and five or six of redclover. As Alsike clover is
visited freely by honey-bees the first growth of the season,
unlike red clover, itseeds bountifully. By cutting Alsike clover

Fic. 217,

Crimson Clover.— From A. I. Root Co.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 417

just as it commences to bloom, it may be made to come into
blossom the second time, so as just to fill the vacant space in
August. This is a very important fact, and may well be
acted upon. I have known Alsike clover to give a good harvest
of nectar during a dry year, when white clover utterly failed.
Red clover (Trifolium pretense), especially mammoth (Fig.
216), is a wondrous honey-plant, but its long flower-tubes
place the nectar beyond the reach of black bees, and of most

Fic. 218.

Melilot Clover.—Original.

Italians. Can we breed longer tongues in our bees, or shorter
tubes in the clover? I see no reason why we may not do both.
Crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum), (Fig. 217), is popular
in some sections. It is a failure in Southern California. The
blossoms are large and fine, and they are visited freely by the
bees. Itis used in the East and South for green manuring. I
do not think it will compare with white or Alsike clover asa
honey-plant.
Sweet clover, yellow and white (Melilotus officinalis and
Melilotus alba), (Fig. 218), are well named. They bloom from
the middle of June tothe first of October. Their perfume

,

418 THE BEE-KEREPER’S GUIDE;

scents the air for long distances, and the hum of bees that
throng their flowers is like music to the apiarist’sear. The
honey, too, is just exquisite. These clovers are biennial, not

Fic. 219.

Aifalfiy Honey-Plant,—From A, I. Root Co.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 419

Fic. 220.

Alfaifa.—From A. I. Root Co.

blooming the second season. They perpetuate themselves,
however, through the seed, so as really to become perennial.
A disagreeable fact is that they have little value except for

420 THE BEE-KEHPER’S GUIDE;

honey. Some bee-keepers claim to have found them valuable
for pasturage and for hay. Ihave wished and tried to use
them, but my horses and cow would not co-operate. The
Bokhara clover is only a variety of the above.

Fic. 221.

Alfalfa in Bloom.—From A. I. Root Co.
«, b Seed pods. ce Seed.

The other clovers—lucerne, yellow trefoil, scarlet trefoil,
and alfalfa—(Figs. 219, 220 and 221) have not proved of any
value in Michigan, perhaps owing to locality. The alfalfais
valued highly for bees in the Western States. In California,
Nevada, Arizona and Colorado it is a marvelous plant for both

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 421

hay and honey. Eight cuttings a season have been made,
though five are the average in Sonthern California. A yield
of three tons per cutting per acre is not exceptional. The hay
is the very best. It is pre-eminently a crop for irrigation, and
sois not stayed by the drouth. Bee-keepers in central Cali-
fornia and Arizona report two hundred pounds per colony
from alfalfa, even with very largeapiaries. While most prefer
to cut before it is in full bloom, as it is eaten better, yet there

Fic. 222. Fic. 223.

Borage.—Original. Mignonette.

is always much bloom whereit is grown extensively. Itisa
sure honey-producer in the famous San Joaquin Valley of
California.

Borage (Borago officinalis), (Fig. 222), an excellent bee-
plant, blooms from June till frost, and is visited by bees even
in very rainy weather. It seems not to be a favorite, but is
eagerly visited when all others fail to yield nectar.

Mignonette (Reseda odorata), (Fig. 223) blooms from the
middle of June till frost, is unparalleled for its sweet odor,
furnishes nectar in profusion, and is well worthy cultivation.
It does not secrete well in wet weather, but in favorable

422 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

weather it is hardly equaled. It will never be grown in
quantities to give any large returns.

Okra, or gumbo (Hibiscus esculentus), (Fig. 224), also
bloomsin June. It is as much sought after by the beesin
quest of honey, as by the cook in search of a savory vegetable,
or one to give tone to soup.

Sage (Salvia officinalis), hoarhound (Marrubium vulgare),
motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca), and catnip (Nepeta cataria),
which latter does not commence to bloom till July, all furnish
nice, white honey, remain in bloom a long time, and are very

Fic. 224. Fre. 225.

Okra.—Original. AM int.—Original,

desirable, as they are in bloom in the honey-dearth of July
and August. They, like many others of the mint family (Fig.
225), are thronged with bees during the season of bloom. ‘The
first and last are of commercial importance, while very few of
our native plants afford so much nectar, are such favorites
with the bees, and are so independent of weather as mother-
wort (Fig. 226). It is crowded with bees from the dawn of its
bloom till the last flower withers. By cutting it back in May
it can be made to blossom just at the dearth of nectar-secreting
ploom ; otherwise it comes in June and early July, just when

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 423

linden is yielding its precious harvest. Few plants are more
desirable to sow in waste-places. Mr. Doolittle says truly,
“If any plant will pay to grow solely for honey, itis this
one.’”’ He is correct in the opinion that none will pay.

Fic, 226.

Motherwort.— Original.

The silk or milkweed furnishes abundant nectar from
June to frost, as there are several species of the genus Asclep-
ias, which is wide-spread in our country. Indeed, pleurisy-
root or butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa) is the bee-plant
that Mr. Heddon has praised so highly. He thinks it one of

424 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE;

our best indigenous honey-plants. These are the plants
which have large pollen-masses which often adhere to the
legs of the bees (Fig. 227), and sometimes so entrap them as to
cause their death. Prof. Riley once very graciously advised
planting them to kill bees! I say graciously, as I have
watched these very closely, and am sure they do little harm,
and are rich in nectar. Seldom a bee gets caught so as to hold
it long, and when these awkward masses are carried away
with the bee, they are usually left at the door of the hive,

Fic. 228.

Fic. 227.

Pollen of Milk-Weed on Bee's Foot. Black Mustard.—Original.
—Original,

where I have often seen them in considerable numbers. The
river bank, hard by our apiary,is lined with these sweet-
smelling herbs, and we would like even more. Occasionally,
however, the bees are held to the plant by them, and more
often become so burdened with these pollen-masses that the
other bees drag or drive them from the hive, as no longer fit
for labor or worthy to live. Bees are veritable Hottentots—
they kill, though they do not eat the old and the feeble.

Black mustard (Sinapis nigra), (Fig. 228), white mustard

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 425

(Sinapis alba) and rape (Brassica campestris), (Fig. 229), all
look much alike—all are species of the great family Crucifere—
and are all admirable bee-plants, as they furnish much and
beautiful honey. The first, if self-sown, blooms in Michigan
July 1st, the others June Ist; the first about eight weeks after
sowing, the others three or four. The mustards bloom for
four weeks, rape for three. These are all specially commend-
able, as they may be made to bloom during the honey-dearth
of July and August, secrete honey late as well asearly in

«

Fic. 229.

Rape.

the season, and are valuable plants to raise for seed. The
mustards were grown in Southern California for seed during
the Civil War, and have run wild in parts of San Diego County
where they grow very extensively. Though the hills are
yellow with this plant for miles, I have heard no special com-
mendation of it for honey. Very likely our scant rainfall is
not favorable for nectar-secretion. Rape seems to be very
attractive to insects, as the flea-beetles and the blister-beetles
are often quite too much for it, though they do not usually
destroy the plants till after they have blossomed. Rape is

426 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

now grown extensively in Michigan and contiguous States for
sheep, etc. It pleases the stockmen and the bee-keepers alike.
Three pounds per acre of seedis the amount to sow. Ihave

Fic. 230.

Tulip.—Original.

several times purchased what purported to be Chinese mus-
tard, dwarf and tall, but Prof. Beal, than whom there is no
better authority, tells me they are only the white and black,
and certainly they are no whit betteras bee-plants. These

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 427

plants, with buckwheat, the mints, borage and mignonette,
are specially interesting, as they cover, or may be made to
cover, the honey-dearth from about July 20th to August 20th.

The mustards may be planted in drills about eight inches
apart, any time from May 1st to July 15th. Four quarts will
plant an acre.

In this month (though I have known it to bloom in Micnhi-
gan in May, while South it blossoms in April) blooms the

Teasel.—Original.

tulip-tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), (Fig. 230)—often called
poplar in the South, which is not only an excellent honey-
producer, but is oneof our most stately and admirable shade-
trees. It is also very valuable for its lumber, which is known
as whitewood. It would be of more worth did it not shrink so
much. Dr. Brown, of Georgia, says this is the great depend-
ence—the basswood of the South. He saysthat along rivers
especially the bloom is so prolonged, being earlier on the up-
lands, that the harvest is long as bountiful. Now bloom the
sumacs, though one species blooms in May, the wild plum, the
raspberries, whose nectar is unsurpassed in color and flavor,
and the blackberry. The raspberry is specially to be praised.

428 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

It blooms between the usual fruit-blossoms and clover. It
yields nectar in wet weather, which most plants fail to do, and
the honey is unexcelled. Bees sometimes gather the juice
from very ripe raspberries. This colors the honey red. The
blackberry comes quite late, some days after the raspberry. I
think itis far less valuable as a honey-plant. Corn yields
largely of honey as well as pollen, and the teasel (Dipsacus
fullonum), (Fig. 231), is said, not only by Mr. Doolittle, but by
English and German apiarists, to yield richly of beautiful

Fic. 232.

Common Locust.—From American Bee Journal.

honey. It blossoms at the same time with basswood, and the
honey is much thinner at first. This last has commercial
importance. In central New York it is raised in large quanti-
ties. The spinous fruit-heads are used in preparing woolen
cloth. Machinery is now taking the place of teasel, and as no
plant can be profitably grown for honey alone, this plant will
be of little importance in the future. The fragrant locust
(Robinia pseudacacia), (Fig. 232), opens its petals in June
opportunely, for it comes between fruit-bloom and clover.
Unfortunately, it furnishes nectar only occasionally. The

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 429

honey is fine, as we should expect, as it belongs with the
clovers, tothe great family of Leguminose. From its rapid
growth, beautiful form, and handsome foliage, it would rank
among our first shade-trees, were it not that it is so tardy in
spreading its canopy of green, and so liable to ruinous attack
by the borers, which last peculiarity it shares with the incom-

Fic. 233,

Partridge Pea.—Original.

parable maples. Washing the trunks of the trees in June and
July with soft soap will in great part remove this trouble.

In June, mammoth red clover (Trifolium pratense), (Fig. 216)
comes out in one mass of crimson. This, unlike common red
clover, has flower-tubes short enough for even the ligula of the
black bee. It is pretty coarse for hay, but excellent for pas-
ture and for green manuring. The partridge-pea (Cassia
chamecrista), (Fig. 233), furnishes abundant nectar, and, like

430 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

the cow-pea (Vigna sinensis) of the South, (Fig. 199) has extra
floral as well as floral glands. Lupine (Lupinus perennis) and
gill or ground-ivy (Nepeta glechoma) began blooming in May,
and now are fully out. This last isa mint, a near relative of
catnip. I find there are foreign mints which are excellent
honey-plants, and very likely would pay well to sow in waste-
places. The matrimony vine (Lycium vulgare), and the beau-
tiful honey-locust (Gleditschia triacanthos), (Fig. 234) are now

Fic. 234,

Honey-Locust.—From American Bee Journal.

full of life, as the bees come and go full-loaded ‘with nectar.
In California, the figwort (Scrophularia californica) contributes
to the honey-supply. The wild buckwheat (Fig. 235) blooms
profusely in all parts of Southern California from June to
frost. It yields much amber honey of excellent quality,
though from its color it is second grade. Next to the sages it
is the best wild honey-plant of the section. Our brothers of
the South reap a rich harvest from the great staple, cotton

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 431

(Gossypium herbaceum), (Fig. 236), which commences to bloom
early in June, and remains in blossom even to October. This
belongs to the same family—Mallow—as the hollyhock, and,
like it, blooms and fruits through the season.

Fic. 235.

Wild Buckwheat.—Original.

The cow-pea, which blooms from April to August (Fig.
199), is not only good for bees, but for feed, and to enrich the
soil. The stone-crop (Sedum pulchellum) is another valuable
honey-plant of the South. In June the magnolias (Fig. 237)—

432 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ;

there are several species in the South—are in bloom. In many
parts they commence to blossom in May. One of the finest of
these is the Magnolia glauca (Fig. 237). One would suspect at
once that it was a near relative of the tulip tree. This is also
common in Southern California.

Fic. 236.

Cotton,.—Originul.

JULY PLANTS.

Early in this month opens the far-famed basswood or lin-
den (Tilia Americana), (Fig. 238), which, for the profusion and
quality of its honey, has no superior. Mr. Doolittle got 66
pounds of linden honey from a single colony in three days. It
is what has given Wisconsin its proud place as a bee-section.
There israrely a year that it does not give us some of its
incomparable nectar. It has been estimated that one linden
tree would furnish, in a favorable year, fifty pounds of honey.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 433

The tree, too, from its great, spreading top and fine foliage, is
magnificent forshade. Five of these trees were within two
rods of my study window, and their grateful fragrance and

Fic. 237

Magnolia.—Original.

beautiful form and shade were often the subject of remark by
visitors. This tree is par excellence for roadside planting. It
bears transplanting admirably, and is very little disturbed by

434 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

insects. Wehave only to keep stock away from it, and they
are death to any tree. Maples, and even elms in mrany parts

Fic. 238,

ls

eal

: : i

Ne fl ;
Vi ie y
Eu ,

pa
ie
My

Hf
I

Basswood.—From A. I. Root Co.

of the United States, may well give place to the linden. The
beautiful white lumber, and its rapidly growing use for boxes,

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 435

sections, and furniture, as also for pulp for paper, threaten the
continuance of this incomparable honey-tree. Yet the fact

Fic. 239.

Figwort.—From A. I. Root Co.

that it will grow toa large tree in fifteen years, and will com-
mence to bloom in five years from setting, is full of promise.
Figwort (Scrophularia nodosa), (Fig. 239), often called

436 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

Rattleweed, as the seeds will rattle in the pod, and Carpenter’s
Square, asit hasa square stalk, is an insignificant looking
weed, with inconspicuous flowers, that afford abundant nectar
from the middle of July till frost. I have received almost as
many for identification as I have of the asters and goldenrods.
Prof. Beal remarked to me, years since, that it hardly seemed
possible that it could be so valuable. We can not always
rightly estimate by appearances alone. It is a very valuable

Fic. 240.

Chapman Honey-Plant.—From A. I. Root Co.

plant to be scattered in waste-places. The Chapman honey-
plant (Echiops spherocephalus), (Fig.240), commences to bloom
late in July and continues till in August. We have many
better native plants, and as no plant can be profitably grown
for honey alone, we have no use for this foreigner. It takes
its first name from its spines, and the second from its round
flower-head.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 437

Fic. 241.

Locky Mountain Bee-Plant.—Original,

THH BEHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

438

Boneset.—Original,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 439

That beautiful and valuable honey-plant from Minnesota,
Colorado, and the Rocky Mountains, Cleome, or the Rocky
Mountain bee-plant (Cleome serrulata), (Fig. 241), if self-sown,
or sown in the fall, blooms by the middle of July and lasts for
long weeks. Norcan anything be more gay than these bril-
liant flowers, alive with bees all through the long fall. While
this isa very valuable honey-plant in its native Colorado, it
gives little or no promise East.

Fic. 243.

Button-Ball,—Original.

Now commence to bloom the numerous Kupatoriums, or
bonesets, or thoroughworts (Fig. 242), which fill the marshes
of our country, and the hives as well, with their rich, golden
nectar. These are precursors of that profusion of this com-
posite order, whose many species are even now budding, in
preparation for the sea of flowers which will deck the marsh-
lands of August and September. Wild bergamot (Monarda
fistulosa), which, like the thistles, is of importance to the api-

440 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

arist, also blooms in July. As before remarked, this is one of
the plants whose long flower-tubes are pierced by the Xylocopa
bees. Then the honey-bees help to gather the abundant nec-
tar. This is a near relative of the horsemint which, as will be

Fic. 244.

Sour- Wood.—Uriyinal,

seen, it closely resembles. The golden honey-plant (Actino-
meris squarrosa),so praised by Dr. Tinker, and rattlesnake
root (Nabalus altissimus), which swarms with bees all the day
long, are alsocomposite plants.

The little shrub of our marshes, appropriately named but-
ton-bush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), (Fig. 243), also shares

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 441

the attention of the bees with the linden ; while apiarists of
the South find sourwood, or sorrel tree (Oxydendrum arboreum),
(Fig. 244), a valuable honey-tree. It yields much very excel-
lent honey. The honey is not quite as light-colored as sage,
clover and basswood. It is slow to granulate. This plant is
grown at the Michigan Agricultural College, but it is not

Fic. 245,

Mountain Laurel.—From Department of Agriculture

A Flowering branch. J Filaments.
BO Expanded flower. pg Shower of pollen-grains.
ap, ap Antler pockets. a Free anthers.
s Stigma. ca Calyx.
e Enlarged stamens. d Section flower-bud.

hardy, as it kills back nearly every winter. It belongs to the
Heath family, which includes the far-famed heather-bloom of
England. It also includes our whortleberry, cranberry, blue-
berry, and one plant which has no enviable reputation, as
furnishing honey which is very poisonous, even fatal to those
who eat, the mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), (Fig. 245).
There is good reason to question these reports as to poisonous

442 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

honey. We can easily see how mistakescould occur. It is not
easy to understand, if these plants furnish poisonous nectar,
why poisonous honey (?) isso very rarean occurrence. A near
relative of K. latifolia, which grows at the South (Andromeda
nitida), is said to furnish beautiful and wholesome honey in

Fic. 246.

From A. I. Root Co.

great quantities. The yellow jasmine (Gelsemium semper-
virens), (Fig. 246), is also said to furnish honey that is poison-
ous to both peopleand bees. It blooms in Georgia in February
and March. Like Kalmia, it is a poisonous plant, which pos-
sibly accounts for the evil reputation of the honey. I have :
eaten freely of several samples of this so-called poisonous

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 443

honey with not the slightest inconvenience. The Virginia
creeper also blooms in July. I wish that I could say that this
beautiful vine, transplendent in autumn, is a favorite with the
honey-bee. Though it often, nay always, swarms with wild
bees when in blossom, yet I have rarely seen honey-bees visit
the ample bloom amidst its rich, green, vigorous foliage.

The St. John’s wort (Hypericum), with its many species,
both shrubby and herbaceous, offers bountiful contributions

Fic. 247.

Cabbage Palmetto.—Original.

to the delicious stores of the honey-bee. The catnip (Nepeta
cataria), which Quinby said he believed would pay better than
any other plant for special planting, blooms at this time; also
asparagus—which, if uncut in spring, will bloom in June—so
delectable for the table, and so elegant for trimming table
meats and for banquets in autumn, come now to offer their
nectarian gifts, and beautiful, orange pollen.

Basil, or mountain mint (Pycnanthemum lanceolatum), we
might almost include all the mints; the blue and white ver-

>

444 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

vains or verbenas (Verbena hastata and V. stricta); also fog-
fruit (Lippia lyceroides), another of this family, is valued very
highly in Texas—it grows ten feet high, and bears beautiful

NZ) \\

aN OSS

True Mangrove.—Originul.

white flowers; the ironweeds (Vernonias), the malvas, Cul-
ver’s root, Veronica Virginica—another of the figwort family;
Indian plantains, Cacalias, and viper’s bugloss—the so-called

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 445

blue thistle—all contribute to the apiary in July; the viper’s
bugloss (Echium vulgare), so-called blue thistle, though most
common South, is very abundant at Beeton, Canada. Mr.
Jones has it growing allabout his apiaries. It is a near rela-
tive of borage, and does not belong even to the family—Com-
posite—of the thistles. Like the borage, itis not a trouble-
some weed.

In California, the blue-gum and the red-gum (Eucalyptus
globulus and E,. rostrata), introduced from Australia, furnish

Fic. 249,

Buckwheat.—Original

honey from July and August till December. There are over
one hundred species of gum-trees (Fig. 205). Some are very
beautiful in habit, foliage and blossom. They blossom at
nearly all seasons, summer and winter, so by carefully select-
ing the species, the apiarist may have the flowers at will.

The catalpa,a very rapid-growing tree, throws its large,
showy blossoms to the breeze and beesin July. It is rapidly
growing in favor as a shade-tree, and is incomparable for
posts. It lasts fora great many years when imbedded in the
earth. But ‘‘the noblest Roman of them all”’ is the cabbage

446 THE BHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

palmetto—Chamecerops palmetto (Fig. 247). As Mr. Hart, of
Florida, says, this is the linden of the South. It yields abun-
dant honey, which, as all who saw and tastedit at the last
convention at Cincinnati, can vouch, is unsurpassed in flavor.
Mr. Muth well said that he wished no finer. This tree grows
to the height of seventy feet. The trunk is leafless nearly to

Fic. 250.

Gulden-Rod.—From A, I. Root Co

the top. The small, white blossoms nestle among the long
palm leaves in profusion, and are rich in both nectar and pol-
len, from June 1st till August. The tree is found from the
Carolinas to the Gulf. The various palms, as already stated—
Chamerops, Phoenix, Cocus, etc.—add not only to the beauty
but to the honey-resources of California. The true date-palm
(Phoenix dactylifera) bids fair to become an important fruit-
tree of Arizona. If it does, it will be very valuable for honey,

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 447

and add further to the excellent reputation of that section for
bees.

At the same time with the above, the white blossom of the
black mangrove (Avicennia tomentosa), and its near relative,
Avicennia oblongifolia, come forth with their abundant and
incomparable nectar, which hangs in drops. The honey from
this and the cabbage palmetto is clear, and as fine and beauti-

Fic. 251.

Aster.

ful as that of white clover. This tree is confined to the
Peninsula of Florida, where it is regarded as the best honey-
plant that grows in that locality.

Here we see the danger of common names, This is nota
mangrove at all; though the leaves resemble those of the true
mangrove, they are more tomentose or hairy, and, like that
tree, it grows down to the very water’s edge, so it is not
affected by drouth. This is an evergreen, and forms an

448 THE BHE-KEEPHR’S GUIDE;

impenetrable thicket on the muddy shores of the sea. It
belongs to the same family as our verbenas—the vervain
family. ,

The true mangrove (Fig. 248) has yellow blossoms, and
like the renowned banyan tree, sends numerous stems to the
earth, each of which takes root. This tree belongs to the
mangrove family, and is Rhizophora mangle.

AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER PLANTS.

The cultivated buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), (Fig.
249), usually blooms in August, as it is sown the first of July—
three pecks per acre is the amount to sow—but by sowing the
first of June, it may be made to bloom the middle of July,
when there is generally, in most localities, an absence of
nectar-secreting flowers. Farmers have often grown oats,
then raised a crop of buckwheat which matures in two months
from sowing, and then have sown to wheat all the same sea-
son,and have secured good crops of each, all on the same
ground. Itoften failsto givea cropof honey, though even
then it may serve to keep the bees at work and breeding. The
bees rarely work on buckwheat after eleven o’clock. Their
visits are always a benefit, and never an injury, to the grain.
The honey is inferior in color and flavor, though some people
prefer this to all other honey. It usually sells for much less
than clover or linden honey. The silver-leaf buckwheat
blooms longer, has more numerous flowers, and thus yields
more grain than the common variety. The Japan buckwheat
is much superior to either the common or silver-hull. The
grain is larger, and one thousand have been taken from a
single stalk. Eighty bushels have been grown on a single
acre. Buckwheat is often plowed under to enrich the soil. It
is good to loosen the soil and furnish humus, but does not add
nitrogen, and so is not equal to clover, peas, lupines, or other
legumes. Sown on ground infested with wire-worms, it
flourishes, and the insects disappear. Heartsease, or western
smart-weed (Polygonum persicaria), is a close relative of the
buckwheat. It grows very luxuriantly along the Mississippi
River. The white or purple flowers hangin great clusters.
Mr. T. R. Delong reported at the Lincoln, Nebr., convention

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 449

that each of two colonies gathered 450 pounds of honey from
this plant; and that His entire apiary averaged 250 pounds, ali
from heartsease. The honey is quite light-colored, and very
excellent in quality.

The odd shrub, Hercules’ club (Aralia spinosa), is grown

‘as acuriosity North, but is indigenous in Kentucky and Ten-
nessee, and yields abundant nectar. It blooms at Lookout
Mountain early in August, just after the sourwood.

Now come the numerous goldenrods. The species of the
genus Solidago (Fig. 250),in the Kastern United States, num-
ber nearly two score, and occupy all kinds of soils, and areat
home on upland, prairie and morass. These abound in all
parts of the United States. They yield abundance of rich,
golden honey, with flavor that is unsurpassed by any other.
Fortunate the apiarist who can boast of a thicket of Solidagos
in his locality.

The many plants usually styled sunflowers, because of
their resemblance to our cultivated plants of that name, which
deck the hillside, meadow and marsh land, now unfurl their
showy involucres, and open their modest corollas, to invite the
myriad insects to sip the precious nectar which each of the
clustered flowers secretes. Our cultivated sunflowers, I think,
are indifferent honey-plants, though some think them big
with beauty, and their seeds are relished by poultry. But the
numerous species of asters (Fig. 251), so wide-spread, the beg-
gar-ticks and Spanish-needles, Bidens, of our marshes, the
tick-seed, Coreopsis, also, of the low, marshy places, with
hundreds more of the great family Composite, are replete with
precious nectar, and with favorable seasons make the apiarist
who dwells in their midst jubilant, as he watches the bees
which fairly flood the hives with the rich and delicious honey.
The Hon. J. M. Hambaugh found Spanish-needles—Coreopsis
—very abundant in the low flats of Illinois. Almost every
year it gave much very thick and excellent honey. It weighed
twelve pounds to the gallon. Often the bees took over twelve
pounds daily for more than a week at a time. For several
years, also, those fifty colonies of bees stored over a ton of this
most excellent honey each season. In allof this great family,
the flowers are small and inconspicuous, clustered in compact

450 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE 3

heads, and when the plants are showy with bloom, like the
sunflowers, the brilliancy is due to the involucre, or bracts,
which serve as a frill to decorate the more modest flowers.
The great willow-herb, or fireweed (Epilobium angusti-
folium), (Fig. 252), is often the source of immense honey-har-
vests. The downy seeds blow to great distances, and, finding

Great Willow-/lerb, afler Gray.

A Flower with ripe stigma. S Ripe stigma.
St Unripe stamens. J? Flower with ripe pollen.
LP Petal. Po Pollen-grain.

T Pollen-tube.

a lodgment, their vitality makes them burst forth whenever
brush is burned or forest fires rage. Hence the name, fire-
weed. ‘This handsome plant often covers acres of burnt lands
in northern Michigan with its beautiful pink bloom. Unlike
most nectar from late bloom, the honey from this flower is

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 451

white as clover honey. It often givesa rich harvest to the
apiarist of northern Michigan.

Fic. 253.
Spider-Plant.

Another excellent fall honey-plant of wide range is the
coral-berry or Indian currant (Symphoricarpus vulgaris). The

452 THE BEHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

honey-product of this plant is worthy its name. The closely
related snow-drop (S. racemosus), common in cultivation, is
also a honey-plant. I close this account with mention of
another, Cleome, the famous spider-plant (Cleome spinosa),
(Fig. 253). This plant thrives best in rich, damp, clay soil. It
is only open for a little time before nightfall and at early
dawn, closing by the middle of the forenoon ; but when open
its huge drops of nectar keep the bees wild with excitement,
calling them up even before daylight, and enticing them to
the field long after dusk. Itisanative of the tropics, and is
found now from south New Jersey to Florida and Louisiana.

I have thus mentioned the most valuable honey-plants of
our country. Of course, there are many omissions. Let all
apiarists, by constant observation, help to fill up the list.

BOOKS ON BOTANY.

Iam often asked what books are best to make apiarists
botanists. Iam glad to answer this question, as the study of
botany will not only be valuable discipline, but will also
furnish abundant pleasure, and give important practical
information. Gray’s Lessons and Manual of Botany, in one
volume, published by Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman & Co., New
York, is the most desirable treatise on this subject. A more
recent work by Prof. C. E. Bessey, and published by Henry
Holt & Co., is also very excellent. Coulter’s and Atkinson’s
Botanies are also most excellent. The first treats of syste-
matic, the second of physiological botany, while the last two
are up to date and very fascinating.

PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS.

It will pay well for the apiarist to decorate his grounds
with soft and silver maples, for their beauty and early bloom.
If his soilis rich, sugar-maples and lindens may well servea
similar purpose. Indeed, every apiarist should strive to have
others plant the linden. No tree is so worthy a place by the
roadside. The Judas and tulip trees, both North and South,
may well be made to ornament his home. For vines, obtain
the wistarias, where they arehardy. In California, encourage

OR MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 453

long aventies of eucalyptus, the graceful peppers, and the
incomparable date-palms.

Sow and encourage the sowing of alsike clover and silver-
leaf or Japanese buckwheat in your neighborhood. Be sure
that your wife, children, and bees can often repair to a large
bed of the new giant or grandiflora mignonettte, and remem-
ber that it, with figwort, spider-plant, Rocky Mountain bee-
plant, and borage, bloom till frost. Study the bee-plants of
your region, and then study the foregoing table, and provide
for a succession, remembering that the mustards, rape and
buckwheat may be made to bloom almost at pleasure, by sow-
ing at the proper time. Do not forget that borage and the
mustards seem comparatively indifferent to wet weather. Be
sure that all waste places are stocked with motherwort, catnip,
pleurisy-root, figwort, cleome, viper’s-bugloss, asters, etc.

The foregoing dates, unless specially mentioned, are only
correct for Michigan, northern Ohio, and similar latitudes,
and for more Southern latitudes must be varied, which, by

comparison of a few, as the fruit-trees, becomes no difficult
matter.

QS

454 THE BEEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

CHAPTER XVIIL
WINTERING BEES.

This is a subject, of course, of paramount importance to
the apiarists of the Northern States, as this is the rockon
which some of even the most successful have split. YetI
come fearlessly to consider this question, as from all the mul-
titude of disasters I see no occasion for discouragement. If
the problem of successful wintering has not been solved
already, it surely will be, and that speedily. So important an
interest was never yet vanquished by misfortune, and there is
no reason to think that history is now going, to be reversed.
Of course this chapter has no practical value to the apiarists
of the South and Pacific Coast. There safe wintering is
assured, except as the careless bee-keeper permits starvation.

THE CAUSES OF DISASTROUS WINTERING.

I fully believe (and to no branch of this subject have I
given more thought, study, and observation) that all the
losses may be traced to either unwholesome food, extremes of
temperature, or protracted cold. I know from actualand wide-
spread observation, that the severe loss of 1870 and 1871 was
attended in Michigan with unsuitable honey in the hive. The
previous autumn was unprecedentedly dry. Flowers were
rare, and the stores were largely honey-dew, collected from
scale insects, and consequently were unwholesome. I tasted
of honey from many hives only to findit nauseating. Cider,
if collected too freely, will also work ruin in winter. We must
remember that bees do not void their intestines for long
months, so good food is absolutely imperative.

Extremes of heat and cold are also detrimental to the
bees. If the temperature of the hive becomes too high, the
bees become restless, eat more than they ought, and if con-
fined to their hives are distended with their feces, become

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 455

diseased, besmear their comb and hives, and die. If, when
they become thus disturbed, they could have a purifying
flight, all would be well. Again, if the temperature become
extremely low, the bees, to keep up the animal heat, must
take more food; they are uneasy, exhale much moisture, which
may settle and freeze on the outer combs about the cluster,
preventing the bees from getting the needed food, and thus in
this case both dysentery and starvation confront the bees.
That able and far-seeing apiarist, the lamented M. Quinby,
was one of the first to discover this fact; and here, as else-
where, gave advice that, if heeded, would have saved great
loss and sore disappointment. Dr. Miller is doubtless correct
in the belief that he has cured and prevented dysentery by use
of a coal-stove in the cellar. Of course, Dr. Miller’s good
judgment and caution were coupled with the artificial heat. I
have little doubt, in fact I know from actual investigation,
that in the past severe winters, those bees which under con-
finement have been subject to severe extremes, were the ones
that invariably perished. Had the bees been keptin a uniform
temperature, ranging from 40 to 45 degrees, F., the record
would have been materially changed. Bees do not hibernate
in the sense that other insects do, though if the temperature is
just right, from 40 to 45 degrees F., they are very quiet and
eat but little. Yet that they are even then functionally active
is readily shown by the high, independent temperature in the
hive and their frequent change of position in the cluster.

Excessive moisture, especially in cases of protracted cold,
is always to be avoided. Bees, like all other animals, are
constantly giving off moisture, which, of course, will be
accelerated if the bees become disturbed and are thus led to
consume more food. This moisture not only acts as explained
above, but also induces fungous growths. The mouldy comb
is not wholesome, though it may never cause death. Hence,
another necessity for sufficient warmth to drive this moisture
from the hive, and some means to absorb it without opening
the hive above and permitting a current which will disturb the
bees, and cause the greater consumption of honey. It is
probable that, with the proper temperature, moisture will do
little harm.

456 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

THE REQUISITE TO SAFK WINTERING-—-GOOD FOOD.

To winter safely, then, demands that the bees have thirty
pounds by weight, not guess—I have known many cases where
guessing meant starvation —of good, capped honey (granulated
sugar is just as good). With the extractor the temptation is
ever with us, to take too much honey from the hive. It is
always safest to leave enough, thirty to sixty pounds of the
best honey—the best is none too good—for a year’s, or in
California for two years’, stores. Itis now proved that it is
even saferto feed a syrup made of granulated sugar. We
thus are sure that the stores are good and suitable. Often it
pays to do this, as we get enough for the extracted honey to
pay well for the sugar and our time and trouble. If desired,
this may be fed as previously explained, which should be done
so early that all will be capped during the warm days of
October.

The bees should be able to pass over or through the combs.
Hill’s device—bent pieces placed above the frames so as to
raise the cloth cover—will permit the first, while small holes
cut through the combs will enable the bees to pass from one
comb to another without having to pass around. In a good
cellar it is not necessary to domore at most than so to arrange
that the bees can pass over the frames. I used to cut holes,
but dosono more. This preparatory work I always do early
in October, when Iextract all uncapped honey, take out all
frames after I have given each colony the thirty pounds, dy
weight, of honey, confine the space with a division-board,
cover with the quilt and chaff, and then leave undisturbed till
the cold of November calls for further care. We must most
carefully exclude honey-dew from scale insects, and must see
that cider is not stored for winter food. I prefer that the
combs have no pollen in them, and that they be so full of
honey that six or eight will be enough. Pollen usually does
no harm, though sometimes it is injurious. If the bees can fly
often, or if keptin a uniform temperature at from 40 to 45
degrees F., the pollen willdo no harm. The combs may well
be one-half inch apart. If the bees have been neglected, and
mid-winter finds them destitute of stores, then they should not

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 457

be fed liquid honey, though this has been done with success,
but either the Good or Viallon, or some other solid candy,
should be placed on the frames just above the cluster. Or we
may run the candy into a frame and hang it in the hive. (See
Candy, page 318.)

SECURE LATE BREEDING.

Keep the bees breeding till the first of September. Except
in years of excessive drouth, this will occur without extra care.
Failure may result from the presence of worthless queens.
Any queens which seem not to be prolific should be superseded
wheneverthe fact becomes evident. 7 regard this as most
important. Few know how much is lost by tolerating feeble,
impotent queens in the apiary, whose ability can only keep
the colonies alive. Never keep such queens about. Here,
then, is another reason for always keeping extra queens on
hand. Even with excellent queens,a failure in the honey-
yield may occasionally cause breeding to cease. In such
cases, we have only to feed as directed under the head of Feed-
ing. It is not true that very large colonies will winter better
than smaller ones. Yetitis important that the bees be nor-
mal in age and condition.

TO SECURE AND MAINTAIN THK PROPER TEMPERATURE.

We ought also to provide against extremes of temperature.
It is desirable to keep the temperature about the hive between
38 and 50 degrees F., through the entire winter, from Novem-
ber to April. If no cellar or house is at hand, this may be
partially accomplished as follows: Some pleasant, dry day in
late October or early November, raise the stand and place
straw beneath ; then surround the hive with a box a foot out-
side the hive, with movable top, and open on the east ; or else
have a long wooden tube, opposite the entrance, to permit
flight ; this tube should be six or eightinches square to permit
easy examination in winter. The same end may be gained by
driving stakes and putting boards around. Then we crowd
between the box and the hive either cut straw, chaff or shav-
ings. After placing a good thickness of cut straw above the
hive, lay on the cover of the box, or cover with boards. This

458 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

preserves against changes of temperature during the winter,
and also permits the bees to fly, if it becomes necessary from
a protracted period of warmweather. I havethus kept all our
bees safely during two of the disastrous winters. ‘This plan
usually succeeds well, but will fail in a very severe winter like
that of 1880-81. As some may wish totry, and possibly to

Fic. 254,

= 2s eee

Packing Box, —Original,

adopt it, I will describe the box used at our College, which
costs but one dollar, and is convenient to store away in

summer. :
BOX FOR PACKING.

The sides of this (Fig. 254, a, a) facing east and west are
three and a half feet long, two feet high at the south end,
and two and a half feet at the north. They are in one
piece, which is secured by nailing the matched boards which
form them to cleats, which are one inch from theends. The
north end (Fig. 254, 6) is three feet by two and a half feet, the

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 459

south (Fig. 254, 6) three feet by two feet, and made the same
as are the sides. Theslanting edges of the side (Fig. 254, a, a)
are made by using for the upper boards the strips formed by
sawing diagonally from corner to corner a board six inches
wideand three feet long. The cover (Fig. 254, g), which is
removed in the figure, is large enough to cover the top and
project one inch at both ends. It should be battened, and held
in one piece by cleats (Fig. 254, 4) four inches wide, nailed on
tothe ends. These will drop over the ends of the box, and
thus hold the cover in place, and prevent rain and snow from
driving in. When in place this slanting cover permits the
rain to run off easily, and will dry quickly aftera storm. By
a single nail at each corner the four sides may be tacked
together about the hive, when it can be packed in with cut
straw (Fig. 254) or fine chaff, which should be carefully done,
if the day is cold, so as not to disquiet the bees. At the center
and bottom of the east side (Fig. 254, c) cut out a square eight
inches each way, and between this and the hive place a bot-
tomless tube (the top of this tube is represented as removed in
figure to show entrance to hive), before putting in the cut
straw or chaff and adding the cover. This box should be put
in place before the bleak, cold days of November, and retained
in position till the stormy winds of April are passed. This
permits the bees to fly when very warm weather comes in win-
ter or spring, and requires no attention from the apiarist. By
placing two or three hives close together in autumn—yet never
move the colonies more than three or four feet at any one time.
as such removals involve the loss of many bees—one box may
be made to cover all, and at less expense. This will also be
more trustworthy in very cold winters. Late in spring these
boxes may be removed and packed away, and the straw or
chaff carried away, or removed a short distance and burned.

CHAFF-HIVES.

Messrs. Townley, Butler, Root, Poppleton, and others,
prefer chaff-hives, which are simply double-walled hives, with
the four-inch or five-inch chambers filled with chaff. The
objections to these I take to be: First, they are not proof
against severe and long-continued cold, like the winter of

460 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

1880-81; second, such cumbrous hives are inconvenient to
handle in summer; and, third, they are expensive. That they
would in part supply the place of shade, is, perhaps, in their
favor, while Mr. A. I. Root thinks they are not expensive.

Mr. O. O. Poppleton, one of our most intelligent bee-
keepers, shows practically that the first objection given above
is not valid. So, very likely, the failure in so many apiaries
in 1880-81 was rather due to improper use. Mr. Poppleton
claims numerous advantages for these hives:

1st. In his hands, success.

2d. They permit early preparation for winter.

3d. They giveentire freedom from care of the bees from
September till March.

4th. Preparation for winter requires only slight labor.

5th. We can easily get at the bees at any time.

6th. The bees are not excited by a slight rise in tempera-
ture, and so are not lost by flying on cold days; do not breed
in winter and spring when they need quiet, and do not
“dwindle ”’ in spring.

7th. They are valuable aids in building up nuclei and
weak colonies at cold periods at any one time of the year.

8th. They are specially desirable to protect the bees in
April and May, and prevent ‘‘ spring dwindling.”

RULES FOR THEIR USE.

Mr. Poppleton urges the following important points:

1st. Pack early in autumn before cold weather, and do not
remove the packing till the warm weather has come to stay.

2d. Have five or six inches on ad/ sides of the bees, of fine
chaff—timothy is best—entirely freed from straw.

3d. Be sure and have the.chaff below the bees, as well as
above and on the sides.

4th. Do not put the chaff above the bees on loose, but con-
fine in sacks. This is for convenience and neatness.

5th. Have as much empty space as possible inside the hive
and outside the packing ; and never let the cover to the hive
rest immediately on the packing.

6th. Crowd the bees on toa few frames—never more than
eight—and the packing close to the bees,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 461

7th. Winter passages should be made through all the
combs.

Mr. Jones prefers that the outer wall of the chaff-hive
should be of narrow boards so as to be more impervious to
dampness. He also uses fine, dry sawdust instead of chaff.
Mr. Root, in his two-story hives (Fig. 255), uses a thicker layer

Fic. 255.

Section of a Chajff-Hive.—From A, I, Root Co.

of chaff below, but carries it tothe top. Of course, the double
wall need not extend on the sidesof the frames. The division-
boards on the sides of the frames may make the double wall.

WINTERING IN A BHE-HOUSE.

As Mr. D, A. Jones has tested bee-houses on a very large
scale, and met with success, I will quote directly frota him :

“The house should be soconstructed that the outdoor
temperature can not affect that of the bee-house; and in order
to accomplish this its walls should be packed tightly with
two feet of dry sawdust or three feet of chaff packing, over-
head the same thickness, and the bottom so protected that no

462 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

frost can penetrate. Next, it should have a ventilating tube
at the top, of not less than one square inch to each colony of
bees. It should have sub-earth ventilation by means of a
tube laid below the depth frost will penetrate, and from one to
three hundred feet in length, coming in contact with outside
atmosphere at the other end; as air passes through this tube
itis tempered by the distance through the earth, and comes
into the house at an even temperature. By means of slides at
these ventilators, the temperature can be arranged in the bee-
house, which should stand from 43 to 46 degrees, andin no
case should it fall lower than 42 degrees. There should be
tight-fitting, triple doors, which will make two dead-air spaces.
‘When the bee-house is filed, and during warm weather
inthe spring, the bees should not be set out on the summer
stands until the first pollen appears (which is generally from
the tag alder or black willow)—it is necessary that the tempera-
ture of the room be kept at the wintering standpoint. This
may be done by means of an ice-box or refrigerator, filled with
ice or snow, and suspended at the top of the room in close
proximity to the ceiling. The bottom of the box must be so
constructed that while the warm air may be allowed to pass up
through the refrigerator, the drippings will not drop to the
floor and create moisture. This latter may be prevented by
means of a tube running from the box down through the floor.”
The rules for removing and storing in the house are the
same as those for cellar. Fromexpense and difficulty in main-
taining a uniform temperature, I think the house less desirable

than the cellar.
WINTERING IN A CELLAR.

North of the latitude of Central (and I think we may say
Southern) Ohio, I think a good cellar is not only the safest,
but the best place in which to winter bees. I have kept bees
for many yearsin sucha cellar with noloss. The great point
is to have perfect control of the temperature. This must be
kept between 38 degrees F. and 50 degrees F., and should never
vary suddenly. It were best if it were always at 45 degrees F.
With a cellar ali is under ground, and we are thus fortified
against the effects of our sudden changes of temperature. The
sub-earth ventilator, as described above, though not necessary,

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 463

as the experience of many has fully proved, isa help. It is
still better if the vertical shaft or pipe connect with a stove
above which is much used in winter. This creates a draft,
and as the airis brought underground through the long sub-
earth pipe, the airis warmed. The pipe should connect with
the stove-pipe above at quite a height above the stove, or the
stove may smoke. I found at the Michigan Agricultural Col-
lege that we got quite a draft, especially on windy days, even
if there was no fire, but the vertical pipe—a common stove-pipe
served excellently well—connects simply with a chimney
which projects above the house. Such an arrangement not
only controls the temperature but ventilates the cellar. A __
large cistern full of water, or water running through a cellar
deep under ground, is a wonderful moderator, and will surely
keep the temperatureat the proper point. It isimperative that
every bee-keeper have a thermometer in his cellar, and by
frequent examination KNow that the temperature is at the
proper point. Unless he finds that he can not control the tem-
perature without, he would better not goto the expense of
either sub-earth ventilation or a cistern.

Dr. C. C. Miller keeps a small coal-stove burning with an
open stove-door in each cellar, and thus keeps the temperature
justas he desires. My brother keeps as many beesin his
house-cellar with no such pains or labor, and yet is as success-
fulasis Dr. Miller. The thing to remember is, we must con-
trol the temperature.

I commence preparation for winter as soon as the first
frost shows that the harvest isover. I then put five Lang-
stroth or seven Gallup frames at one side or endof the hive,
where they are to remain for the winter. If these have not
enough food I feed till they have. If other frames have brood
I put these close beside, and remove them as soon as the brood
has all matured, and close up the other frames by use of a
division-board. I now cover all with a cloth and with a super
of chaff or dry sawdust. For the past two years I have left all
the combs in very strong colonies, and covered simply with a
board, and these colonies have done well. In a good cellar
bees need no packing about or above the brood-chamber.

Before cold weather—any time from the first to the middle

464 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

of November—the bees are carried into the cellar. This would
better be done carefully, soas not to disturb the bees. YetI
am not sure that such disturbance is any specialinjury. To
prevent the bees from coming out in case of disturbance, the
entrance-blocks must close the entrances. Dr. Miller uses wet
cloths to effect this.

In the cellar the hives should rest a foot from the bottom,
and may rest on each other, breaking joints, the weakest colo-
nies at the top. When all arein, and quiet, the entrances are
opened wide. I would (if it were not for the expense, and I
had loose bottom-boards so that I could) place a rim under each
hive so as to raise it two or three inches above the bottom-
board. Except for the open entrance, I give no special venti-
lation to each hive. Now we shut our two or three doors, and
if our cellar is right we have no more care for the bees till the
succeeding April. Should the bees become uneasy and soil
their hives about the entrance—they will not if the food is all
right and the temperature keeps at the right point (from 38
degrees to 50 degrees F.)—then it may be well to put the bees
out fora flight in February or March, in case a warm day
affords opportunity. In case there is snow, a little straw may
be scattered over it. The day must be quite warm. It is far
wiser to have our cellar right so we shall not need to do this.

If the bees get short of stores in winter—this would show
great neglect on the part of the bee-keeper—they should be
fed ‘‘Good candy,”’ cakes of which may be laid on the frames
and covered with cloth. Frames of honey or syrup, filled as
already described, may be given bees in mid-winter. The idea
that bees can not be examined in winter is incorrect. Frames
may be taken out or added, though it were doubtless better to
leave the bees undisturbed. The cellar should be dark and
quiet. If everything is just right, light does no harm; but if
it gets pretty cold or too warm then the bees become uneasy
and fly out, never to return. Some bees always leave the hive
in winter. These are veterans,and are ready todie. Thus,
with 100 colonies of beesin a cellar, we need not be anxious
even if a good many quarts come out to die.

In spring, when the flowers have started, so that the bees
can gather honey and pollen, they may beset out. This better

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 465

be too late than too early. In Central Michigan, April 15th is
usually early enough. I repeat: Better too late than too early.
The colonies are put each on its own stand, and each hive well
cleaned out. Each colony should have plenty of honey. Scant
stores in spring always bring loss, if not ruin. We now take
away extra frames of comb, giving the bees simply what they
will cover, but alwaysa good amount of honey. A frame of
pollen taken away the previous autumn may also be added.
We close up about the bees with a division-board, and cover
warmly above by adding a chaff-filled super.

If we give abundant stores, I am not sure but for strong
colonies a full set of frames and board above, which, however,
must fit very snugly, is as good as a chaff covering or chaff-
hive. For the simple Heddon-Langstroth hive, however, I
think a warm cloth under the coveris very desirable. I tried
some colonies in this way in two springs, and was pleased with
the results. Iam not yet sure but itis always better to cover
with chaff, sawdust or leaves; but we must give plenty of honey,
and perhaps we must cover warmly and snugly, to win the best
success. LIalways thought soin the past, but nowlIam in
doubt. Even if better, it may still prove more profitable to
give plenty of honey, and let the hives alone, with a full set
of combs in each. This saves much time. Geo. Grimm and
my brother have long practiced this and have succeeded.

Perhaps I ought to say that all colonies should be strong
in autumn; but Ihave said before, never have weak colonies.
As before stated, a colony need not be very large to winter
well; but they should be strong, in possession of a good queen,
and the proper proportion of young and vigorous bees. Yet
for fear some have been negligent, I remark that weak colonies
aud nuclei should be united in preparing for winter. To do
this, approximate the colonies each day, four or five feet, till
they are side by side. Now remove the poorest queen, then
smoke thoroughly, sprinkle both colonies with sweetened water
scented with essence of peppermint, put a sufficient number of
the best frames, alternating them as taken from the hives, and
put all the bees into one of the hives, and then set this midway
between the position of the hives at the commencement of the
uniting. Shaking the beesin front of the hive also tends to

466 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

make the union morecomplete. The bees will unite peaceably,
and make a strong colony. In case of nucleiI usually unite
three for winter. Uniting colonies may pay at other seasons.

It may seem rash to some, yetI fully believe that if the
above suggestions are carried out in full, I may guarantee
successful wintering. Butif we do lose our bees, having all
our hives, combs and honey, we can buy colonies in the spring
with a perfect certainty of making a good percent on our
investment. Even with the worst condition of things, we are
still ahead, in way of profit, of most other vocations.

BURYING BEES, OR WINTHRING IN CLAMPS.

In principle this is the same as cellar-wintering. There
are two serious objections to it. First, we do not know that
the temperature is just right, and, secondly, if aught goes
wrong we know nothing of it—the bees are away out of sight.
If this is practiced, the ground should be either sandy or well
drained. If we can choose a side-hill it should be done.
Beneath the hives, and around them, straw should be placed.
I should advise leaving the entrance well open, yet secure
against mice. The hives should all be placed beneath the sur-
face level of the earth, and a mound should be raised above
them sufficient to preserve against extreme warmth or cold.
A trench about the mound to carry the water off quickly is
desirable. In this arrangement the ground acts as a modera-
tor. I would urge the suggestion that no one try this with
more than a few colonies, for several years, till repeated suc-
cesses show that it is reliable in all seasons. I tried burying
very successfully for a time, then for two winters lost heavily.
These last winters the bees would have wintered well 6n their
summer stands, as the weather was very warm. The bees
became too warm, and were worried to death.

SPRING DWINDLING.

In the early years, before the forests were cleared away,
the winters were less severe and disastrous, wintering or
spring dwindling were seldom experienced. The warmer
winters, and possibly better honey in the hive, were the reasons.

As already suggested, spring dwindling is not to be feared

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 467

if we keep our bees breeding till autumn, prepare them well
and early for winter, and use a good cellar for wintering. It
may be further prevented by forbidding late autumn flights,
frequent flights in winter, when the weather is warm, and too
early flying in spring.

Iam aware that this matter of spring dwindling is most
stontly urged as an objection to cellar-wintering, and as an
argument in favor of chaff-hives. I have had excellent success
in cellar-wintering, and never yet lost a colony by “‘spring
dwindling.’’ Crowd the bees on a few frames when taken
from the cellar; give them abundant food; cover warmly
above and at the sides of division-boards with generous bags of
sawdust, and leave these on the hives if the weather remains
cool, until we wish to place the section supers or extracting
second story on the hives, and bees from the cellar—a good
cellar—will come through the spring in excellent condition.
In the winter of 1881-82, I put some chaff-hives into my cellar
alongside of my single-walled hives, arranged as just
described, and the bees in them did no better in spring after
removal from the cellar than in other hives. Be sure in early
spring that the bees have no more combs than they can cover,
and cover warmly, and spring dwindling will lose its terror.
Good wintering, and ample spring stores, are the antidote to
spring dwindling. Never set bees permanently on their sum-
mer stands from the cellar tillthe flowers and warmth will
enable them to work. Below 60 degrees F. in the shade is too
cold for bees to fly. At 70 degrees F. we may safely handle
our bees without chilling the brood. When not clustered, bees
chill at about 55 degrees.

I have little doubt but that bees wili do better if no breed-
ing takes place in winter. Perfect quiet should be our desire.
If the bees have no pollen, of course no breeding will take
place, and so I advised its removal. Itis not for winter use.

468 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

CHAPTER XIX.
THE HOUSE-APIARY AND BEE-HOUSE.

The house-apiary (Fig. 256) is a frost-proof house in which
the bees are kept the year through. The entrances to the
hives are through the sides of the house, and all manipulation
of the bees is carried on inside. From what I have said about

Fic. 256.

House-Apiury.—From A. I. Root Co.

wintering, it at once appears that such a house should preserve
a uniform temperature. As many such houses were builta
few years ago, and are now, with very few exceptions, used for
other purposes, I would advise all to study the matter well
before building a house-apiary. Where queen-rearing is car-
ried on extensively, or where little room is at command, they

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 46S

may be desirable. Several excellent bee-keepers are now using
them with success, and great satisfaction. The old-time
objection, of bees collecting in houses while working with
them, is now removed, as are the bees by aid of bee-escapes.
If the bee-escapes are put on the hives the night before, the
extracting or comb honey supers will be practically free of
bees in the morning, and all work can be done in the house
with very slight annoyance from the presence of the bees. As
we ail know, cross colonies lose their pugnacity if placed in a
house-apiary. ‘They seem cowed by the enclosure. The walls,

Fic. 257.

House-Apiary on Wheels.—From A. I. Root Co.

of course, should be double, and filled in with shavings, and
the hives should be the same as are used out-of-doors. A mov-
able house-apiary, on wheels (Fig. 257), has been used, and in
some cases may be desirable. ;

BEE-HOUSHS.

Asa goodand convenient bee-house is very desirable in
every apiary of any considerable size, I will rive a few hints
in reference to its construction.

First, I should have a goodcellar under the house, entirely
under ground so as certainly to be frost-proof, mouse and rat
proof, thoroughly grouted, and ventilated as already described,

470 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

I would have three doors to this from the east, the outer one
inclined. In our college apiary we hada vestibule to the cel-

Fic. 258.
0! w———_
inate sags oce oe FS mules prema pesy. i
' : Cistern. 8 x 14, H
| y outside measure,
41% ft. high,
{
|
( T
| 1
\3 til >
3 Cullar, 7 feet high, ne
12 grouted on the Lol- He
1
ee tom, and plastered i| -)
is with water-lime or
x
~ ceiled above.
:
\
1
| 1
| t
| i
I 1
! | Stairs
i i to Cellar
aaa eee te |
30 feet, oulside mesure, ee a
Diagram of Cellar.
Ww 44-ft. De w
a 30 £t., outside measure.
2
3
°
2
we Ceiling 8 ft, ay
S Pomp
346-ft. Stairs
ath Chimney aed
15 ft.
3
a
3
~ This Room
w Hard-wood Floor. -) Lathed and w
r Plastered.
3 Cellar Trap-
st Door-double.

*
ee Ww

Diagram of First Floor,—Original. j

lar.and four doors beside the slanting one, two to the inner
one or bee-cellar, and two tothe outeror vestibule. I should

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 471

have the entrance an inclined plane, which, especially if the
apiary is large, should be so gradual in its descent that acar
could pass down it into the cellar ona temporary track. The
cellar should be well drained, or if water be permitted to pass
through it, this should be kept in prescribed channels. In our
cellar we have a large cistern. This is mostly in the outer
cellar, but partly in the inner or bee-cellar. A tight partition
separates the two rooms except at bottom of the cistern. In
case of large apiaries the track and car make the removal of
the bees to and from the cellar an easy matter. The first floor
I should have, if my apiary was large, on a level with the
ground. This (Fig. 258) should contain three rooms, one on
the north for a shop, one on the southeast for comb honey, and
one on the southwest for extracting, and storing extracted
honey and brood-combs. For 100 colonies of bees, this build-
ing need not be more than 20x24 feet. A chimney should pass
from the attic at the common angle of these three rooms
through the roof. Wide doors on the south, if the apiary is
large, should permit the car to enter either of the rooms on
an extemporized track, whenever extracting or taking off comb
honey isin operation.

The house should be so constructed as tobe always free
from rats and mice. In summer, wire-gauze docrs should be
used, also wire-gauze window-screens made to swing out like
common window-blinds. Ours are single, not double, light,
and so hung that when opened they remain so till shut. At
the top the gauze extends outside the upper piece of the frame,
andis separated fromit bya bee-space width. At the topa
few three-eighths inch round holes are made. This permits
all bees to leave the house, while the character of the opening
precludes outside bees fromentering. Inside doors should per-
mit our passing directly from any of these rooms to the others.
The position of the chimney makes it easy to havea fire in
any of the rooms. This would be desirable in the shop, in
winter, when hive-making, etc., is in operation, or when visit-
‘ng with other bee-keepers is in progress. The ripening of
honey or late extracting make it often desirable to have a fire
in the extracting-room. If comb honey is kept in the desig-
nated room late in the season, it is desirable to warm that

472 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

room, Of course, alarge stove in the shop might be made to
heat any or all of the rooms. I would have the comb-honey
room very tight, and ventilated by an easily regulated slide
into the chimney for the purpose of easy fumigation.

The extractor-room should have close, moth-proof cup-
boards for receiving brood-combs. Those in our house are
high enough for three rows of frames, and wide enough just
to receive the top-bar of a frame crosswise. Cleats nailed on
to the inside hold the frames, which are turned diagonally a
little to pass them to the lower tier. This room ought also to
have a table for work, uncapping-box (Fig. 156), and large open
tanks, open barrels, or extractor-cans, to hold the honey while
itripens. If the building is painted dark, this room will be
warmer in summer. ‘The warmer it becomes the more rapidly
the honey thickens.

A chamber above costs but little, and serves admirably as
a place for storage. This may be entered by stairs from the
shop.

A neat bench and sharp tools, all conveniently placed,
make the shop a very desirable fixture to every apiary.

I have spoken of a car and track in large apiaries; such
an arrangement, which costs but little, is exceedingly desir-
able. The tracks run close to the rows of hives, and by means
of simple switches, the car can be run anywhere in the apiary.

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 473

CHAPTER XX.
EVILS THAT CONFRONT THE APIARIST,

There are various dangers that are likely to vex the api-
arist, and even to stand in the way of successful apiculture.
Yet, with knowledge, most, if not all, of these evils may be
wholly vanquished. Among these are: Robbing among the
bees, disease, and depredations from other animals.

ROBBING.

This is a trouble that often very greatly annoys the inex-
perienced. Whenever bees leave the hives, except at a time of
swarming, with the honey-stomach full, we may be sure rob-
bing isin the air. Bees only rob at such times as the general
scarcity of nectar forbids honest gains. When the question
comes: Famine or theft? like many another, they are not
slow to choose the latter. It is often induced by working with
the bees at such times, especially if honey is scattered about or
left lying around the apiary. It is especially to be feared in
spring, when colonies are apt to be weak in both honey and
bees, and thus are unable to protect their own meager stores.
The remedies for this evil are not far to seek :

First.—Stroug colonies are very rarely molested, and are
almost sure to defend themselves against marauders; hence,
itis only the weaklings of the apiarist’s flock that are in dan-
ger. Therefore, regard for our motto, ‘‘Keep all colonies
strong,’’ will secure against harm from this cause.

Second.—italians—the Cyprians and Syrians are even
more spirited in this work of defense than are the Italians—as
before stated, are fully able, and quite as ready, to protect
their rights against neighboring tramps. Woe be to the
thieving bee that dares to violate the sacred rig ‘ts of the home
of our beautiful Italians, for such temerity is almost sure to
cost the intruder its life.

But weak colonies, like our nuclei, and black bees, are still

“

474 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

easily kept from harm. Usually, the closing of , the entrance,
so that but a single bee can pass through, is all sufficient. Mr.
Jones closes the entrance by use of wet grass, straw, or shav-
ings. Mr. Hayhurst places a frame six inches by eighteen
inches covered by wire-gauze over the entrance. This keeps
the robbers out, and still affords ventilation.

Another way to secure such colonies against robbing is to
move them into the cellar for afew days. Thisis a further
advantage, as less food is eaten, and the strength of the indi-
vidual bees is conserved by the quiet, and as there is no nectar
in the fields no lossis suffered. Mr. Root recommends ‘‘ quiet ”’
robbing at such times to cure robbing. He places hives con-
taining honey near by, with the entrances so contracted that
only one bee can enter at a time. The bees seem to prefer
this quiet, unresisted robbing, and cease from the other. This,
of course, would be expensive in case other apiaries were near
by. Itisa good way to get partially filled sections or combs
emptied. It works very wellin case we give them access to a
larger quantity of honey, else robbing may still be kept up.

In all the work of the apiary at times of no honey-gather-
ing, we can not be too careful to keep all honey from the bees
unless placed in the hives. The hives, too, should not be kept
open long at atime. Neat, quick work should be the watch-
word. Mr. Root does necessary work at such times by night,
using alantern. I do not like night work; the bees crawl
about one’s clothes, and often reach quite objectionable places.
During times when robbers are essaying to practice their
nefarious designs, the bees are likely to be more than usually
irritable, and likely to resent intrusion; hence, the impor-
tance of more than usual caution, if it is desired to introduce a
queen. Working under the bee-tent (Figs. 158 and 166) prevents
all danger of inciting the bees to rob. Dr. Miller inserts a
funnel-shaped (Fig. 159) bee-escape in the top of the tent. Such
atent might be placed over the colony being robbed. Mr.
Doolittle prizes highly a common sheet in the apiary. In case
of robbing he covers the entire hive being robbed with this
sheet.

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 475

DISEASE.

The common dysentery—indicated by the bees soiling
their hives, as they void their faces within instead of without
—which so frequently works havoc in our apiaries, is, without
doubt, I think, consequent upon wrong management on the
part of the apiarist, poor honey, like cider, rotten apple-juice,
rank honey-dew, or burnt sugar, or bad wintering, usually the
result of severe weather, as already suggested in Chapter
XVIII. As the methods to prevent this have already been
sufficiently considered, we pass to the terrible

FOUL BROOD.

This disease, said to have been known to Aristotle—
though this is doubtful, as a stench attends common dysen-
tery—though it has occurred in our State as well as in States
about us, is not very familiar to me. Of late I receive many
samples of this affected brood each season. It is causing sad
havoc in many regions of our country. No bee-malady can
compare with this in malignancy. By it Dzierzon once lost
his whole apiary of 500 colonies. Mr. E. Rood, first President
of the Michigan Association, lost all his bees two or three
times by this terrible plague.

The symptoms areas follows: Decline in the prosperity
of the colony, because of failure to rear brood. The brood
seems to putrefy, becomes ‘‘brown and salvy,” and gives off
a stench which is by no means agreeable. With a slight
attack, the bad smell is not apparent. In aclose box very
little of the brood gives the characteristic odor. I often detect
it in boxes received by mail before I open them. Later the
caps are concave instead of convex, and many will have little
holes through them. Holes will often be found in healthy
brood-cells. As the cappings were never completed, such holes
are smooth at the margins, while those of foul brood are jag-
ged. The most decided symptom is the salvy, elastic mass in
the brood-cell. With a pin-head we never draw forth a larva
or pupa, but this brown, stringy mass which afterwards dries
down in the cell, when it lets go of the pin-head, because of
its elasticity, it flies or springs back. This is sometimes less
marked.

476 THH BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE;

Fic. 259.

Foul Brood Photographed.—From A. I. Root Co.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 477

There is no longer any doubt as to the cause of this fearful
plague. Like the fell ‘‘ Pebrine,’? which came so near exter-
minating the silk-worm, anda most lucrative and extensive
industry in Europe, it, as conclusively shown by Drs. Preusz
aud Schonfeld, of Germany, is the result of minute parasitic
organisms. Schonfeld not only infected healthy bee-larve,
but those of other insects, both by means of the putrescent
foul brood and by taking the spores. Professor Cohn discov-

Fre. 260.

Healthy Stage. Early Stage.

Foul Brood—From A, I. Root Co.

ered, in 1874, that the cause of foul brood was a microbe,
Bacillus alveolaris. Mr, Hilbert, the following year, showed
that these micro-organisms existed in the mature bees as well
as in the brood. Later Mr. Cheshire gave the microbe the
name of Bacillus alvei.

Fungoid growths are very minute, and the spores are so
infinitesimally small as often to elude the sharp detection of
the expert microscopist. Most of the terrible contagious dis-
eases that human flesh is heir to—like typhus, diphtheria,

478 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

cholera, smallpox, etc.—are now known to be due to-micro-
scopic germs, and hence to be spread from home to home, and
from hamlet to hamlet, it is only necessary that the germs or
the contained spores, the minute seeds, either by contact or by
some sustaining air current, be brought to new soil of flesh,
blood, or other tissue—their garden-spot—when they at once
spring into growth, and thus lick up the very vitality of their
victims. The huge mushroom will grow ina night. So, too,
these other plants—the disease-germs—will develop with mar-

Fre. 261

Middle Stage. Late Stage.
Foul Brood.—From A. I, Root Co.

velous rapidity; and, hence, the horrorsof yellow fever, scar-
letina and cholera. ‘The foul-brood Bacillus, like all bacilli,
is rod-shaped (Fig. 261). The spore develops in one end, which
becomes slightly enlarged.

Tocure such diseases the microbes must be killed. To
prevent their spread they must be destroyed, or else confined.
But as theseare so small, so light,and so invisible—easily
borne and wafted by the slightest zephyr of summer—this is
often a matter of the utmost difficulty.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 479

In “foul brood’? these germs feed on the larve of the
bees, and thus convert life and vigor into death and decay. If
we can kill this miniature forest of the hive, and destroy the
spores, we shall extirpate the terrible plague. The spores
resist heat, are more tenacious of life-and more difficult to
kill than are the bacilli themselves.

Some of the facts connected with ‘‘ foul brood’? would
lead us to think that the germs or spores of this fungus are
only conveyed in the honey. This supposition, alone, enables
us to understand one of the remedies which some of our ablest
apiarists hold to be entirely sure.

REMEDIES.

“Prevention is better than cure.’? In case foul brood,
black brood, or any suspected germ malady isin the neighbor-
hood or apiary, it will always be wise to feed medicated syrup.
Beta napthol is now preferred, as it is non-odorous, and not
offensive to the bees. Mr. Thos. W. Cowan uses this success-
fully as follows: One ounce of the powder is put into a half-
pint bottle ; just enough wood alcohol is added to dissolve it
fully, when the bottle is filled with water. This will medicate
280 pounds of syrup, made by mixing 140 pounds each of water
and granulated sugar. The solution and mixing can best be
performed by use of the extractor. Gentle turning soon dis-
solves the sugar, and thoroughly mixesthe beta napthol. Thus
we use no heat. (See page 266.)

TO CURE.

No doubt Mr. Hilbert, of Germany, cured foul brood by
use of salicylic acid. Mr. Muth did the same,and rendered
the solution more easy by adding borax. That this extract of
the willow is a powerful germicide is well known. In the cure
of foul brood it has so often proved a partial or complete fail-
ure, that no one, except for experiment, can afford to use it
in this warfare at all.

In 1874, Bontleroff, of Russia, suggested the use of car-
bolic acid or phenolasa cure of foulbrood. Dr. Preusz also
thought very highly of it. There is no doubt that this is also
avery excellent bacillicide. Only the purest crystals of the
acid should be used. To use this to medicate the syrup—one-

480 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

fortieth of an ounce to a pound of syrup—would be wise as a
prevention except that, as stated above, beta napthol is pref-
erable. But, like salicylic acid, these carbolic acid derivatives
are too uncertain. So many have failed to cure with these
remedies.

Solong as we have a safe, sure remedy which works in
the hands of all, we can illy afford to risk our success with
remedies that so generally fail.

Mr. D. A. Jones, and scores of others, are successful with
what is termed the starvation method: ‘The bees are drummed
into an empty hive, placed in a cellar, and given no food
for three or four days, till they have digested all honey in their
stomachs. They are then given foundation and food, and the
combs melted for wax, the honey scalded, and the hives
scalded thoroughly before being again used. It would seem
that the spores are in the honey—we know surely that they
are in the chyle, though Schonfeld finds that they are not in
the blood of the bee—and by taking that, the contagion is
administered to the young bees. The honey may be purified
from these noxious germs by subjecting it to the boiling tem-
perature, which is generally, if not always, fatal to the spores
of fungoid life. The microbe is killed surely by a tempera-
ture even less than the usual boiling, 212 degrees F. The
spores, however, are only killed by prolonged boiling. So we
better add water to the honey and then boil for an hour to
make it safe, after which the honey may be safely fed. Some
of wide experience say that it is safe touse the hives, even
though they have not been boiled. Mr. McEvoy, of Ontario,
after his very extensive experience, urges this. The combs
are melted for wax. The disease is probably spread by robber-
bees visiting affected hives, and carrying with them in the
honey the fatal germs. Mr. Doolittle, after some experience,
agrees with the lamented Quinby, thatit is not necessary to
cause the bees to fast as described by Mr. Jones. They can at
once be hived safely on foundation, In this case, all honey is
used up before any brood is present to be fed. To secure this,
they are after four days changed again on to new foundation,
We must in all this be most careful not to scatter honey, or to
permit a single robber-bee to get at it. Great care, and the

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 481

wisest exercise of judgment, is all important. A wee blunder,
or little carelessness, may spread the evil rather than effect a
cure.

From this remedy it would seem certain that the germs are
in the honey.

It should be remembered that it is easy to scatter these
fatal germs, and whatever cure is adopted, too great care can
not be exercised. Mr. R. L. Taylor tells me that after an
experience of two years he does not greatly fear this malady.
He finds it easy, by means of the fasting cure, and free use of
carbolic acid, to hold it in check or tocureit. Yet he admits
that without much care and judgment it might work fearful
havoc.

(I have found that a paste made of gum tragacanth and
water is very superior, andI much prefer it for either general
or special use to gum arabic. Yet it soon sours—which means
that it is nourishing these fungoid plants--and thus becomes
disagreeable. I have found that a very little salicylic acid
will render it sterile, and thus preserve it indefinitely.)

BEE-PARALYSIS.

This isa common malady, more serious, it is claimed, in
the warmer parts of the country. The bees become black,
show a curious trembling motion, and are often dragged from
the hive. Often so many die that the colony is seriously
depleted. Change of queen is often a cure. Spraying with
salt water has been thought to be of service. I believe this to
bea fungoid disease, and, if so, feeding the medicated syrup
(page 479) will be a wise practice. I have often seen this
trouble in my apiary, but it always disappeared with no serious
harm.

NEW BEE-DISEASE.

In California and some other sections, the brood dies with-
out losing its form. We use the pin-head, and we draw forth
alarva much discolored, often black, but not at all like the
salvy mass that we see in foul brood. This is doubtless a
germ disease, which Ihave greatly mitigated by simply feed-
ing. I believe with this and the similar, if not identical black
brood, and all kindred maladies, we should feed freely with

482 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

the medicated syrup. The removal of old combs and honey,
forcing the bees to build new, thus to remove germs would also
abet the cure.

Black brood is not ropy like foul brood, and the brood
shows affection earlier. It is serious in New York, and is
treated precisely as is foul brood. The bees are transferred
to other hives on starters of foundation, and this repeated in
four days.

ENEMIES OF BEES.

Swift was no mean entomologist, as is shown in the fol-
lowing stanza:

“The little fleas that do us tease,
Have lesser fleas to bite them,
And these again have lesser fleas,
And so ad fvfinitum.”

Bees are no exception to this law, as they have to brave
the attacks of reptiles, birds, and other insects. In fact, they
are beset with perils at home and perils abroad, perils by night
and perils by day.

THE BEE-MOTH—GALLERIA MELLONELLA.

This insect, formerly known as G. cereana, belongs to the
family of snout-moths, Pyralide. This snout is not the
tongue, but the palpi, which fact was not known by Mr. Lang-
stroth, who was usually so accurate,as he essayed to correct
Dr. Harris, who stated correctly that the tongue was “very
short and hardly visible.’’ This family includes the destruc-
tive hop-moth, and the noxious meal and clover moths, and its
members are very readily recognized by their usually long
palpi, the so-called snouts. The family is now more restricted,
and named Galleriidz.

The eggs of the bee-moth are white, globular, and very
small. These are usually pushed into crevices by the female
moth as she extrudes them, which she can easily do by aid of
her spy-glass-like ovipositor. They may be laid in the hive,
in the crevice underneath it, or about the entrance. Soon
these eggs hatch, when the gray, dirty-looking caterpillars,
with brown heads, seek the comb on which they feed. To pro-
tect themselves better from the bees, they wrap themselves in

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 483

a silken tube (Fig. 262), which they have power to spin. They
remain in this tunnel of silk during all their growth, enlarg-
ing it as they eat. The noise, as they eat, can be heard
plainly by holding the comb to the ear. As they tunnel

Fic. 262. Fic. 263.

Tunnel of Bee-Moth Larva.—-Original. Tunnel in Comb.— Original.

among the larvz in brood-combs, the larve are destroyed, and
will be removed from the hives. Thus, the presence of dead
larve in front of the hiveis often asign of the presence of
insects in the hive. By looking closely, the presence of these

Fic, 264.

Larve of Bee-Moth.—Original.

larve may be known by this robe of glistening silk, as it
extends in branching outlines (Fig. 263) along the surface of
the comb. A more speedy detection, even, than the defaced
comb, comes from the particles of comb, intermingled with

484 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

the powder-like droppings of the caterpillars, which will
always be seen on the bottom-board in case the moth-larve
are at work. Soon,in three or four weeks, the larve are full
grown (Fig. 264). Now the six-jointed and the ten prop-legs—
making sixteen in all, the usual number possessed by cater-
pillars—are plainly visible. These larve are about an inch
long, and show by their plump appearance that they at least
can digest comb. However, though these are styled wax-
moths they must have either pollen or dead bees to mingle
with their wax. While it is true that there is a little nitrogen-
ous material in wax, there is not enough so that even the wax-

Fic. 265, Fic. 266.

Bee-Moth.—Original.

Cocoons.— Original.

moth larva could thrive on it alone. They now spin their
cocoons, either in some crevice about the hive, or, if very
numerous, singly (Fig. 265, a) or in clusters (Fig. 265, 6) on the
comb, or even in the drone-cells (Fig. 265, c), in which they
become pupz, and in two weeks, even less sometimes, during
the extreme heat of summer, the moths again appear. In
winter they may remain as pupz for months. The moths or
millers—sometimes incorrectly called moth-millers—are of an
obscure gray color, and thus so mimic old boards that they are
very readily passed unobserved by the apiarist. They are
about three-fourths of an inch long, and expand (Fig. 266)

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 485

nearly one and one-fourth inchcs. The females are darker
than the males, possess a longer snout, and are usually a little
larger. The wings, when the moths are quiet, are flat on the
back for a narrow space, then slope very abruptly. They rest
by day, yet, when disturbed, will dart forth with great swift-
ness, so Reaumur styled them ‘‘nimble-footed.’’ They are
active by night, when they essay to enter the hive and deposit
their one or two hundred eggs. If the females are held in the
hand they will often extrude their eggs; in fact, they have
been known to do this even after the head and thorax were
severed from the abdomen, and, still more strange, while the
latter was being dissected.

It is generally stated that these are two-brooded, the first
moths occurring in May, the second in August. Yet, as I have
seen these moths in every month from May to September, and
as Ihave proved by actual observation that they may pass
from egg to moth in less than six weeks, I think under favor-
able conditions there may be even three broods a year. It is
true that the varied conditions of temperature—as the moth-
larve may grow in a deserted hive, in one with few bees, or
one crowded with bee-life—will have much todo with the
rapidity of development. Circumstances may so retard growth
and development that there may be, not more than two, and pos-
sibly, in extreme cases, not more than one brood in a season.

It is stated by Mr. Quinby that a freezing temperature
will kill these insects in all stages, while Mr. Betsinger thinks
that a deserted hive is safe; neither of which assertions is
entirely correct. Still, I believe exposure of combs to cold the
winter through would kill most,if notall, of the bee-moth
larve. I believe, in very mild winters, the moth and the
chrysalids might be so protected as to escape unharmed, even
outside the hive. It is probable, too, that theinsects may pass
the winter in any one of the various stages, though they gen-
erally exist as pupe during the cold season.

HISTORY.

These moths were known to writers of antiquity, as even
Aristotle tells of their injuries. They are wholly of Oriental
origin, and are often referred to by European writers as a

486 THH BERE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

terrible pest. The late Dr. Kirtland, the able scientist, and
first president of our American bee-association, once said in a
letter to Mr. Langstroth, that the moth was first introduced
into America in 1805, though bees had been introduced long
before. They first seemed to be very destructive. It is quite
probable, as has been suggested, that the bees had to learn to
fear and repel them; for, unquestionably, the bees do grow in
wisdom. In fact, may not the whole of instinct be inherited
knowledge, which once had to be acquired by the animal?
Surely bees and other animals learn to battle new enemies,
and vary their habits with changed conditions, and they also
transmit this knowledge and their acquired habits to their
offspring, as illustrated by setter and pointer dogs. In time,
may not this account for all those varied actions, usually
ascribed toinstinct? At least I believe the bee to bea crea-
ture of no small intelligence.

REMEDIES.

In Europe, late writers give very little space to this moth.
Once a serious pest, it has now ceased to alarm, or even to
disquiet the intelligent apiarist. In fact, we may almost call
it a blessed evil, as it will destroy the bees of the heedless, and
thus prevent injury to the markets by their unsalable honey,
while to the attentive bee-keeper it will work no injury at all.
Neglect and ignorance are the moth-breeders,

As already stated, Italian bees are rarely injured by
moths, and strong colonies never. As the enterprising api-
arist will possess only these, it is clear that he is free from
danger. Theintelligent apiarist will also provide not only
against weak but queenless colonies as well, which, from their
abject discouragement, are the surest victims to moth inva-
sion. Knowing that destruction is sure, they seem, if not to
court death, to make no effort to delay it.

As my friend, Judge W. H. Andrews, asserts, no bees,
black or Italian, will be troubled with these insects so long as
all the combs are covered with bees.

In working with bees an occasional web will be seen glis-
tening in the comb, which should be picked out with a knife
till the manufacturer—the ruthless larva—is found, when it

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 487

should be crushed. Any larva seen about the bottom-board,
seeking place to spin its cocoon, or any pupa, either on comb
orin crack, should also be killed. If, through carelessness, a
colony has become thoroughly victimized by these filthy wax-
devourers, then the bees and any combs not attacked should
be transferred to another hive, after which the old hive should
be sulphured by use of the smoker, as before described; then
by giving one or two each of the remaining combs to strong
colonies, after killing any pupe that may be on them, they
will be cleaned and used, while by giving the enfeebled colony
brood, and if necessary a good queen, if it has any vigor
remaining it will soon be rejoicing in strength and prosperity.

We have already spoken of caution as to comb honey and
frames of comb (page 380), and so need not speak further of
them.

THE WEE BHE-MOTH.

In 1887 another smaller moth attacked comb in New York
and Michigan. Mr. W. J. Ellison, of South Carolina, wrote
me that this insect does much harm in his State. It is Ephestia

Fic. 267.

Wee Bee-Moth.—Original. Wing.—Uriginal.

interpunctella, Hub., and belongs to the same family of moths,
Pyralidz, or snout-moths, that contains the old bee-moth. I
shall call this (Fig. 267) the Wee bee-moth. The moths lay
eggsin Julyand August, upon thecomb. The larve feed in
August, September and October upon the pollen, and do mis-
chief by spreading a thin layer of silk over thecombs. Mr.
Ellison says the web on the comb honey is no small injury.
Very likely there is an early summer brood.

REMEDIES.

The only suggestion I can offer at present is that the
combs shall not be exposed. Fumigation, of course, either

488 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

with the bisulphide of carbon or sulphur fumes, will destroy
these also, and might be desirable in case comb honey is
injured.

TWO DESTRUCTIVE BEETLES.

There are two destructive beetles that often work on the
comb, more, however, for the pollen and dead bees than for
the wax. One of these, Tenebrio molitor, Linn., is the
common flour or meal beetle. It is dark brown in color, and
five-eighths of an inch (16mm.) long. The larva or grubis of
a lighter color, and when fully developed is one inch (25 mm.)
long. It resembles very closely the larva of our Elater beetles
—the wire-worms. ‘The other is the bacon beetle, Dermestes
lardarius, Linn. (Fig. 268), which is a sore pest in museums,

Fic. 268.

i

D. Lardarius.—Original.

as it feeds on all kinds of dried animal tissues. The beetle is
black, while nearly one-half of the wing-covers, next to the
thorax, are yellowish-gray, lined in the middle with black.
The beetle is three-eighths of an inch (10mm.) long. The
larva is some longer, very hairy, and ringed with brown and
black bands. These beetles are not very troublesome in the
apiary, and can be readily destroyed by use of bisulphide of
carbon. Care is necessary, however, in the use of this very
inflammable and explosive liquid. It is no more to be feared
than would be gasoline. We have only to keep the match or
lighted cigar away. There are other beetles and moths of
similar habits, which are likely at any time to invade the
apiary. :
ROBBER-FLIES.

There are several of these flies that prey upon bees. The
most common is Asilus missouriensis, Riley. This is a two-
winged fly, of the predacious family Asilide, which attacks

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 489

and takes captive the bee and then feeds upon its fluids. It is
more common in the southern part of our country. The fly
(Fig. 269) has a long, pointed abdomen, strong wings, and is
very powerful. I have seenan allied species attack and over-
come the powerful tiger-beetle, whereupon I took them both
with my net, and now they are pinned, as they were captured,
in the college cabinet. These flies delight in the warm sun-
shine, are very quick on the wing, and so are not easily cap-
tured. It is to be hoped that they will not become very numer-

Fic. 269,

Robber-Fly.—Original.

ous. If they should, I hardly know how they could be kept
from their evil work. Frightening them or catching witha
net might be tried, yet these methods would irritate the bees,
and need to be tried before they are recommended. I have
received specimens of this fly from nearly every Southern
State. During the summer-time these flies are usually well
employed in Michigan. They have been observed to kill the
cabbage butterfly by scores. The Asilids are very common in
California, yet I am persuaded that they do far more good than
harm.

Thave alsoa fly of the same family, with the same bee-

490 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

destroying habits, a species of Erax (Fig. 270). In form it
resembles the one referred to above. The wing (Fig. 269), as
will be seen, is quite differentin its venation. I received this

Fic. 270. Fic. 271.

Robber-Fly and Wing.—Original.

species from Louisiana. Fig. 272 shows the antenne magni-
fied. The Nebraska bee-killer, Promachus bastardi, is the

Fic. 272. Fic. 273.

Tead and Tarsus af Robber-Fly.—-Original,

same in general appearance as the above. ‘The second vein of
the primary wing, not the third, asin thecase of Asilus, forks.
In Erax, as seen in Fig. 271, this branch is disconnected.

OR, MANUAI, OF THE APIARY. 491

There are two other insects of this family, Mallophora
orcina and Mallophora bomboides, which differ greatly in
form from those mentioned above; they look more like bum-
ble-bees, for which they have been mistaken.

Ihave received these insects from several of our enterpris-
ing bee-keepers of the South—Tennessee, Georgia, and Florida
—with the information that they dart forth from some conven-
ient perch, and with swiftand sure aim graspa bee, and bear
it to some bush, when they leisurely suck out all but the mere
crust, and cast away the remains.

The insects in question, which in form, size, and color
much resemble bumble-bees, belong to Loew’s third group,

Fic. 274,

A

Wing of Mallophora.—Original.

Asilina, as the antenne endin a bristle (Fig. 272), while the
second longitudinal vein of the wing (Fig. 274, 4) runs into
the first (Fig. 274, a).

The genus is Mallophora. The venation of the wings
much resembles that of the genus Promachus, though the
form of these insects is very different.

In Mallophora and Promachus the venation is as repre-
sented in Fig. 274, where, as will be seen, the second vein (Fig.
274, 6) forks, while in the genus Asilus (Fig. 269) the third
vein is forked, though in all three genera the third joint of the
antenne (Fig. 272) ends in a prolonged bristle.

One of the most common of these pests, which I am
informed by Dr. Hagen, is Mallaphora orcina, Weid., is one
inch long, and expands oneand three-fourths inches (Fig. 275),
The head (Fig. 272) is broad, the eyes black and prominent,
the antennz three-jointed, the last joint terminating in a
bristle, while the beak is very large, strong, and, like the eyes

492 THE BEER-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

and antenne, coal-black. This is mostly concealed by the
light yellow hairs, which are crowded thick about the mouth
and between the eyes.

The thorax is prominent and thickly set with light yellow
hairs. The abdomen is narrow, tapering, and covered with
yellow hairs, except the tip, which is black, though there are
scattering hairs of a grayish yellow color on the black legs.
The pulvilli, or feet-pads (Fig. 273, 6), are two in number,
bright yellow in color, surmounted by strong, black claws
(Fig. 273, a), while below and between is the sharp spine (Fig.
273, c), technically known as the empodium. "

The habits of the flies are interesting, if not to our liking.
Their flight is like the wind, and, perched near the hive, they

Fic. 275.

M. oricina.—Original.

rush upon the unwary bee returning to the hive with its full
load of nectar, and grasping it with their hard, strong legs,
they bear it to some perch near by, when they pierce the crust,
suck out the blood, and drop the carcass, and are then ready
to repeat the operation. A hole in the bee shows the cause of
its sudden taking off. The eviscerated bee is not always killed
at once by this rude onslaught, but often can crawl some dis-
tance away from where it falls, before it expires.

Another insect nearly as common is Mallophora bomboides,
Weid. This fly might be called a larger edition of the one
just described, as in form, habits, and appearance it closely
resembles the other. It belongs to the same genus, possessing
all the generic characters already pointed out. It is very diffi-
cult to capture this one, as it is so quick and active.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 493

This fly is one and five-sixteenths inches long, and
expands two anda half inches. The head and thorax are much
asin the other species. The wings are very long and strong,
and, asin other species, are of a smoky brown color. The
abdomen is short, pointed, concave from side to side on the
under surface, while the grayish yellow hairs are abundant on
the legs and whole under portion of the body. Thecoloris a
lighter yellow than in the other species. These insects are
powerfully built, and if they become numerous must prove a
formidable enemy to the bees. I believe all of the robber-flies
are our friends. They destroy few bees, comparatively, and
hosts of our insect enemies.

Another insect very common and destructive in Georgia,
though it closely resembles the two just described, is of a
different genus. It is the Laphria thoracica, of Fabricius. In
this genus the third vein is forked, and the third joint of the
antenna is without the bristle, though it is elongated and
tapering. The insect is black, with yellow hair covering the
upper surface of the thorax. The abdomen is wholly black,
both above and below, though the legs have yellow hairs on
the femurs and tibie. This insect belongs to the same family
as the others, and has the same habits. It is found North as
well as South.

THE STINGING BUG—PHYMATA EROSA, FABR.

This insect is very widely distributed throughout the
United States. I have received it from Maryland to Missouri
on the South, and from Michigan to Minnesota on the North.
The insect will lie concealed among the flowers, and upon
occasion will grasp a bee, hold it off at arm’s length, and suck
out its blood and life.

This is a Hemipteron, or true bug, and belongs to the
family Phymatide, Uhler. It is the Phymata erosa, Fabr.,
the specific name erosa referring to its jagged appearance. It
is also called the “ stinging bug,’’ in reference to its habit of
repelling intrusion by a painful thrust with its sharp, strong
beak.

The ‘‘stinging bug ’’? is somewhat jagged in appearance,
about three-eighths of an inch long, and generally of a yellow

494 THE BEH-KEERPER’S GUIDE;

color, though this latter seems quite variable. Frequently
there is a distinct greenish hue. Beneath the abdomen, and
on the back of the head, thorax, and abdomen, it is more or
less specked with brown; while across the dorsal aspect of the
broadened abdomen is a marked stripe of brown (Fig. 277, d, d).
Sometimes this stripe is almost wanting, sometimes a mere
patch, while rarely the whole abdomen is very slightly marked,
and as often we find it almost wholly brown above and below.
The legs (Fig. 277, 6), beak and antenne (Fig. 278, a) are
greenish yellow. The beak has three joints (Fig. 278, a, 6, ¢),
anda sharp point (Fig. 278, d). This beak is not only the
great weapon of offense, but also the organ through which the

Fic. 276. Fic. 277. Fic. 278.

~)
9 hs
Side wew, natural size. Magnified twice. Beak much magnified.
—Original. —Original, —Original.

food is sucked. By the use of this, the insect has gained the
sobriquet of ‘‘stinging bug.’’ This compact, jointed beak is
peculiar to all true bugs, and by observing it alone we are able
to distinguish all the very varied formsof this group. The
antenna is four-jointed. The first joint (Fig. 279, a) is short,
the second and third (Fig, 279, 6andc) are longand slim, while
the terminal one (Fig. 279, d)is muchenlarged. This enlarged
joint is one of the characteristics of the genus Phymata, as
described by Latreille. But the most curious structural pecu-
liarity of this insect, and the chief character of the genus
Phymata, are the enlarged anterior legs (Figs. 280 and 281).
These, were they only to aid in locomotion, would seem like
awkward, clumsy organs, but when we learn that they are

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 495

used to grasp and hold their prey, then we can but appreciate
and admire their modified form. The femur (Fig. 281, 6) and
the tarsus (Fig. 281, a) are toothed, while the latter is greatly

Fic. 279,
Fie. 280.
¥
G
oy
a Interior view. Exterior view.
Antenna, much magnified. Anterior Ley, magnified.—Original.

enlarged. Fromthe interior iower aspect of the femur (Fig.
282) is the small tibia, while on the lower end of the tarsus
(Fig. 281, d) is a cavity in which rests the single claw. The
other four legs (Fig. 283) are much as usual.

Fic. 282. Fic. 283.

Claw, enlarged.—Original. Middle Leg, much magni fied.— Original.

This insect, as already intimated, is very predaceous,
lying in wait, often almost concealed, among flowers, ready to
capture and destroy unwary plant-lice, caterpillars, beetles,
butterflies, moths, and even bees andwasps. We have already

496 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

noticed how well prepared it is for this work by its jaw-like
anterior legs, and its sharp, strong, sword-like beak.

It is often caught on the golden-rod. This plant, from its
color, tends to conceal the bug, and from the character of the
plant—being attractive as a honey-plant to bees—the slow bug
is enabled to catch the spry and active honey-bee.

As Prof. Uhler well says of the ‘‘stinging bug’’: ‘“‘Itis
very useful in destroying caterpillars and other vegetable-
feeding insects, but is not very discriminating in its tastes, and
would as soon seize the useful honey-beeas the pernicious saw-
fly.”” And he might have added thatit is equally indifferent

Fic. 284.

Bee-Stabber, and Beak.—Original.

tothe virtues of our friendly insects, like the parasitic and
predaceous species.

We note, then, that this bug is not wholly evil, and as its
destruction would be well-nigh impossible, for it is as widely
scattered as are the flowers in which it lurks, we may well rest
its case, at least until its destructiveness becomes more serious
than at present.

THE BEE-STABBER.

In the Southern States there is another bug, Kuthyrhyn-
chus floridanus, Linn. (Fig. 284), which I have named the
bee-stabber. This bug places itself at the entrance of the
hive and stabs and sucks the bees till they are bloodless. As
will be seen, its powerful four-jointed beak fits it well for this
purpose. This bug is purplish or greenish blue, with dull,

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 497

yellowish markings, as seen in the figure. It is also yellowish
beneath. It is one-half of aninch long. Other similar bugs
may also learn that bees with their ample honey-sac full of
nectar are most toothsome.

BEE-HAWK—LIBELLULA.

These large, fine, lace-wings (Fig. 285) are Neuropterous
insects. They work harm to the bees mostly in the Southern
States, and are called mosquito-hawks. Insects of this genus
are called dragon-flies, devil’s darning-needles, etc. They are

Fic. 285.

Bee-Hawk.— Original.

exceedingly predaceous. Infact, the whole order is insectivo-
rous. From its four netted veined wings, we can tell it at once
from the Asilids, before mentioned, which have but two wings.
The bee or mosquito hawks are resplendent with metallic hues,
while the bee-killers are of sober gray. The mosquito-hawks
are not inaptly named, as they not only prey upon other
insects, swooping down upon them with the dexterity of a
hawk, but their graceful gyrations, as they sport in the warm
sunshine at noonday, are not unlike those of our graceful
hawks and falcons. These insects are found most abundant
near water,as they lay their eggs in water, where the larve

498 THE BHE-KEEPHR’S GUIDE;

live and feed upon other animals. The larvae are peculiar in
breathing by gillsin the rectum. The same water that bathes
these organs and furnishes oxygen, is sent out ina jet, and
thus sends the insect darting along. The larve also possess
enormous jaws, which formidable weapons are masked till it
is desired to use them, when the dipper-shaped mask is dropped
or unhinged, and the terrible jaws open and close upon the
unsuspecting victim, which has buta brief time to bewail its
temerity.

A writer from Georgia, in Gleanings in Bee-Culture, Vol.
IV, page 35, states that these destroyers are easily scared
away, or brought down by boys with whips, who soon become
as expert in capturing the insects as are the latter in seizing

Fic. 286.

Tachina-Fly.—Original.

the bees. One of the largest and most beautiful of these (Fig.
285) is Anax junius. It has a wide range in the United States
(North and South), and everywhere preys upon the honey-bee.

TACHINA-FLY.

From descriptions which I have received, I feel certain
that there is a two-winged fly, probably of the genus Tachina
(Fig. 286), that works on bees. I have never seen these,
though I have repeatedly requested those who have to send
them tome. My friend, J. L. Davis, put some sick-looking
bees into a cage and hatched the flies, which, he told me,
looked not unlike a small house-fly. It is the habit of these
flies, which are closely related to our house-flies, which they
much resemble, to lay their eggs on other insects. Their
young, upon hatching, burrow into the insect that is being
victimized, and grow by eating it. It would be difficult to cope

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 499

with this evil, should it become of great magnitude. We may
well hope that this habit of eating bees is an exceptional one

with it. The affected bees will be found dead at early dawn in
front of the hives.

BEE-LOUSE—BRAULA CCA, NITSCH.

This louse (Fig. 287) is a wingless Dipteron, and one of
the uniques among insects. It is a blind, spider-like parasite,
and serves as a very good connecting link between insects and
spiders, or, still better, between the Diptera, where it belongs,
and the Hemiptera, which contains the bugs and most of the
lice. It assumes the semi-pupa state almost as soon as

Fic. 287.

Larva,
B. ceca,—Original.

hatched, and, strangest of all, is, considering the size of the
bee on which it lives, and from which it sucks its nourishment,
enormously large. Twoor three, and sometimes as many as
ten, are found ona single bee. When we consider their great
size, we cannot wonder that they soon devitalize the bees.
These have done little damage, except in the south of Con-
tinental Europe, Cyprus, and other parts of the Orient. The
reason that they have not been naturalized in other parts of
Europeand America may be owing to climate, though I think
more likely it is due to improved apiculture. Mr. Frank Ben-
ton, who has had much experience with these bee-lice in
Cyprus, writes me that the Braula is no serious pest if the bees

500 THE BERE-KEKPER’S GUIDE;

are properly cared for. ‘‘In fact, if hives are kept clean inside,

and colonies supplied with young queens and kept strong, the
damage done by the Braula is very slight, if anything. In
old, immovable-comb hives, where the combs are black and.
thickened, and in case the queensare old; or where through
some extraneous cause the colonies have become weak, these

lice are numerous on queens and workers. I have not noticed
them onthe drones. Since they are found on workers as well
as the queen, their removal from the latter will bring tem-
porary relief. About tenis the greatest number that I have
seen on one queen. I have only thought it necessary to
remove them in case there were three or more on a queen. The
only way to remove them isto pick them off with a knife,
scissors, forceps or similarinstrument. ‘They are quick-footed,
and glide from one place to another like the wax-moth. I hold
the queen between the thumb and first finger of the left hand,
and with pocket-knife or clipping scissors shave off the para-
site. It is no easy matter to get them the first time, as when
you attempt their removal they glide around to the other side
of the queen so adroitly that you have to turn the queen over
to try again.’”’ Mr. Benton says that it is not practicable to
remove these lice by lessening the size of the entrance to the
hive. He thinks that, with the attention given to bees in
America, the Braula will never become a serious pest, if intro-
duced here. While these lice have been imported to America
several times, they seem to disappear almost at once, which
verifies Mr. Benton’s prophecy.

ANTS.

These cluster about the hives in spring for warmth, and
seldom, if ever, I think, do any harm in our cold climates,
though in California and the South they do much harm.
Should the apiarist feel nervous, he can very readily brush
them away, or destroy them by use of any of the fly-poisons
which are keptin the markets. As these poisons are made
attractive by adding sweets, we must be careful to preclude
the bees from gaining access to them. As we should use them
in spring, and as we then need to keep the quilt or honey-board
close above the bees, and as the ants cluster above the brood-

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 501

chamber, it is not difficult to practice poisoning. One year I
tried Paris-green with success. There are several reports of
ants entering the hives and killing the bees; even the queen
is said to have been thus destroyed.

Ilearn from Mr. H. E. Hill, of Florida, of a large, red ant
peculiar to that section (Fig. 288), which is a terror to bees. It
has destroyed nineteen nuclei in one week, and hundreds of
dollars worth of bees, for Mr. Hill. It hides and burrows in
rotten wood, above and below ground, in hive-covers, in parts
of hives separated by the division-boards—anywhere where

Fic. 288.

Florida Ant, in all stages.—Original.

concealment is possible. So numerous are they that Mr. Hill
thinks there may be thousands in a colony, and he has
destroyed hundreds of colonies within the past two years.
Weak and queenless colonies suffer most, but none are exempt.
Scouts are sent out to locate the prey in the early twilight.
Later the chosen victims are stormed by the ant army and
routed, though many ants die in the conflict. This ant (Fig.
288) is known as the bull-dog ant in Florida. It is known to
science as Camponotus esuriens. (See American Bee Journal,
Vol XLI, page 72.) Mr. Hill finds only one way—burning—to
destroy them, and only one to keep them at bay. The legs of
the hive stands are cut with a basin (Fig. 289), which is waxed
and kept filled with carbolic acid. This is not satisfactory, as
it evaporates quickly. I would suggest mixing kerosene and
lard, both of which are very obnoxious to insects, and fill the

502 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

basins with this. Ants in California are killed by saturating
the runs with gasoline, and then burning all. It is a* quick
remedy, but hard for the ants.

This ant is red except the eyes and abdomen, which may
be nearly all black, large soldiers, or tipped with black—com-
mon workers. There are many hairs on the abdomen.

In such cases, if they occur, it is best to put a sweet poi-
sonous mixture in a box and permit the ants toenter through

Fic. 289,

Leg of Hive-Stand.—Original.

an opening too small to admit bees, and thus poison the ants.
Or we may find the ant’s nest, and, with a crowbar, makea
hole in it, turnin this an ounce of bisulphide of carbon, and
quickly plug it up by packing clay in the hole and on the nest.
The liquid will kill the ants. This better be done when the
ants are mostly in their nest.

THE COW-KILLER.

This ant-like insect, Mutilla coccinea (Fig. 290), has been
sent me from Illinois and the South as faras Texas. Itis a
formidable enemy of the bees. The male has wings and'no
sting. ‘The female has no wings, but is possessed of a power-
ful sting. She is an inch (25 mm.) long, very hairy, and black,
except the top of her head and thorax, and a broad basal band
and the tip of the upper part of herabdomen, which are bright

OR, MANUAL, OF THR APIARY. 503

red. Accentral band of black divides the red spaces of the
abdomen. The entire under part of the body and all the mem-
bers are black. There are several species of varying size and
color in California. Grayish white species are nearly as com-
mon as the red and black ones. Some are as large as a
worker-bee.

So hard and dense is the chitinous crust of these insects
that they enter the hives fearlessly, and, unmindful of stings,

Fic, 290.

Cow-Killer.—Original,

deliberately kill the bees and feed on the young. The males
are said tosting. ‘This is certainly a mistake. The sting isa
modified ovipositor—an organ not possessed by males. These
insects belong to the family Mutillidx, so called because the
females are wingless. They are closely allied in structure to
the ants, which they much resemble.

THE PRAYING MANTIS.

This strange insect I have received from Indiana and other
Southern and Westeru States. Its scientific name is Mantis
carolina, Linn. A similar species I often take in Los Angeles
County, Calif. It is very predaceous, and the female has been
known to eat up her mate immediately after the sexual act.
No wonder that they make our friends of the hive contribute
to their support. This insect (Fig. 291)is a sort of nonde-
script. In the South it is known as devil’s race-horse. Itis a
corpulent ‘‘ walking-stick’’ with wings. In fact, is closely
related to the ‘‘ walking-sticks’’ of the North. Its anterior
legs are very curious. Asit rests upon them, it appears as if
in the attitude of devotion, hence the name, praying mantis.
It also raises these anterior legsin a supplicating attitude,

£04 THE BEE-KEHEPER’S GUIDE;

which would also suggest thename. It might well be preying
mantis. These peculiar anterior legs, like the same in Phy-
mata erosa, are used to grasp its victims. It is reported to
move with surprising rapidity, as it grasps its prey.

Fic. 291.

EE =I

G

Mantis.—Original,

Its eggs (Fig. 292) are glued to some twig, in a scale-like
mass, and covered with a sort of varnish. Some of these
hatched out in one of my boxes, and the depravity of these
insects was manifest in the fact that those first hatched fell to

Fic. 292.

Eggs of Mantis.— Original.

andate the others. They do much good in destroying our
insect enemies.
BLISTER-BEETLES.

I have received from Mr. Rainbow, of San Diego Co.,
Calif., the larve (Fig. 293, a) of some blister-beetles, probably
Meloe barbarus, Lec., as that is a common species in Califor-
nia. Mr. Rainbow took as many as seven from one worker-
bee. Fig. 293, B, represents the female of Meloe angusticollis,
acommon species in Michigan and the East. I have also

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 505

received larve from Mr. Hammond, of New York, who took
them from his bees. He says they make the bees uncomfort-
able. These are likely M. angusticollis. As will be seen, the
wing-covers are short, and the beetle’s abdomen fairly drags
with its weight of eggs. The eggsare laidin the earth. The
larve, when first hatched, crawl upon some flower, and, as
occasion permits, crawl upon a bee and thus are borne to the
hive, where they feast on eggs, honey and pollen. These

Fie. 293.

Blister-Beetle and Larve.—Original,

insects undergo what M. Faher styles hyper-metamorphosis,
as the larva appears in four different forms instead of one.
Two of these forms show in the figure. The Spanish-fly—
Cantharides of the shops—is an allied insect. Some of our
common blister-beetles are very destructive to plants. Girard,
in his excellent work on bees, gives illustrations of all the
forms of this insect.
WASPS.

I have never seen bees injured by wasps. In the South, as
in Europe, we hear of such depredations. I have received
wasps, sent by our Southern brothers, which were caught
destroying bees. The wasp sent me is the large, handsome
Stizus speciosus, Drury. It is black, with its abdomen imper-
fectly ringed with yellow. The wasps are very predaceous,
and do immense benefit by capturing and eating our insect
pests. I have seen wasps carry off ‘‘currant worms’’ with a
celerity that was most refreshing.

506 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

As the solitary wasps are too few in numbers to do much
damage—even if they ever do any—any great damage which
may occur would doubtless come from the social paper-makers.
In this case, we have only to find the nests and apply the torch,
or hold the muzzle of a shot-gun tothe nest and shoot. This
should be done at nightfall, when the wasps have all gathered
home. Let us not forget that the wasps do much good, and so
not practice wholesale slaughter unless we have strong evi-
dence against them.

A BEE-MITE.

It has long been known to chicken fanciers that our poul-
try often suffer serious injury from a small mite. These little
arachnids often enter houses in countless thousands, much to
the annoyance of the owners. Kerosene may be used to repel
them. Other mites attack the cow, the horse, the sheep, etc.

Fic. 294.

Mite.— Original.

The Texas cattle-tick—Boophalus bovis—which so often wor-
ries horses and cattle, and which carries the minute protozoan
(Pyrosoma bigeminum) that causes the terrible Texas fever, is
a colossal mite.

One spring a lady bee-keeper of Connecticut discovered
these mites in her hives while investigating to learn the cause
of their rapid depletion. She had noticed that the colonies
were greatly reduced in number of bees, and upon close obser-
vation she found that the diseased or failing colonies were

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 507

covered with these mites. A celebrated queen-breeder of New
York State sent me these same mites in 1887, with the report
that they killed his queens while yet in the cell. I found great
numbers in a cell sent by this gentleman. The strong and
prosperous colonies were exempt from the annoyance. So
small are these little pests that a score could take possession of
a single bee, and not be near neighbors, either. The lady
states that the bees roll and scratch in their vain attempts to
rid themselves of these annoying stick-tights, and, finally,
worried out, either fall to the bottom of the hive or go forth
to die outside. ;

The bee-mite (Fig. 294) is very small, hardly more than
five mm. (1-50 ofan inch) long. The female is slightly larger
than the male, and somewhat transparent. The color is black,
though the legs and more transparent areas of the females
appear yellowish.

REMEDIES.

The fact that what would be poison to the mite would
probably be death to the bees, makes this question of remedy
quite a difficult one. I can only suggest what Mrs. Squire has
tried—frequent changing of the bees from one hive to another,
after which the hive can be freed from the mites by scalding.
Of course, the more frequent the transfer the more thorough
the remedy.

I would suggest placing pieces of fresh meat, greased or
sugared paper, etc., in the hives, in hopes to attract the pests,
which, when massed on these decoys, could easily be killed.

CALIFORNIA BEE-KILLER.

Mr. J. D. Enas, of Napa Co., Calif., sent me specimens of
a curious bee-enemy (Fig. 295), which he finds quite a serious
enemy of bees. I have taken many of these here at Claremont,
but have not known of their disturbing bees.

This is a Datames, possibly D. Californicus, Simon, though
it does not quite agree with the description of that species. It,
like the mites just described, belongs to the sub-class Arachnida
or spiders, and is related to the scorpions. The group of ani-
mals is known as the family Solpulgide. As will be seen, the
head and thorax are not separate, asthey are in true insects.

508 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

The abdomen is long and segmented, a shield-like plate covers
the head, andthe eyes are far forward, small and globular.
The most peculiar organs are the jaws or falces, which are
immense, and armed with formidable teeth, spines, hairs, etc.
The family is small, little known, and, except in one case,

Fie. 295,

California Bee-Hiller.—Original.
(Jaws and falces, and posterior leg.)

Datames pallipes, Say., which is said to live in houses in Colo-
rado, and to feed on bed-bugs; the habits have not been
described.

Mr. Enas finds this species in his hives, killing and eating
the bees. The remedy must be hand-picking, which will not
be very difficult.

SPIDERS.

These sometimes spread their nets soas to capture bees.
If porticos—which are, I think, worse than a useless expense—
are omitted, there will very seldom be any cause for complaint
against the spiders, which, on the whole, are friends. As the
bee-keeper who would permit spiders to worry his bees would
not read books, I will discuss this subject no further.

THE KING-BIRD—TYRANNUS CAROLINENSIS.

This bird, often called the bee-martin, is one of the fly-
catchers, a very valuable family of birds, as they are wholly

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 509

insectivorous, and do immense good by destroying our insect
pests. The king-birds are the only ones in the United States
that deserve censure. The species in California is Tyrannus
verticalis, or Western king-bird; thatof the East, Tyrannus
tyrannus. Another, the chimney swallow of Kurope, has the
same evil habit. Our chimney swallow has no evil ways. I
am sure, from personal observation, that these birds capture
and eat the workers, as wellas drones, as I have taken worker-
bees from their stomachs ; and, I dare say, they would pay no
more respect to the finest Italian queen. ‘They perch on a tree
or post and dart with the speed of an arrow as their poor victim
comes heavily laden towards the hives. How is it that the
bird is not stung? Some say that they pull the bees apart and >
simply eat the honey-stomach. Do they handle the bee so as
to avoid the stings? Whowill determine this point? King-
birds killed close by an apiary hereat Claremont had only rob-
ber-flies in their stomachs; thusit was befriending the bees.
Yet, in view of the good that these birds do, unless they are
far more numerous and troublesome than I have ever observed
them to be, I should certainly be slow to recommend the death
warrant. ;
TOADS.

The same may be said of toads, which may often be seen
sitting demurely at the entrance of the hives, and lapping up
the full-laden bees with the lightning-like movement of their
tongues, in a manner which can but be regarded with interest,
even by him who suffers loss. Mr. Moon, the well-known api-
arist, made this an objection to low hives; yet, the advantage
of such hives far more than compensates, and with a bottom-
board, such as described in the chapter on hives, we shall find
that the toads do very littledamage. Incase of toads, the bees
sting their throats, asI have taken, on several occasions, the
stings from the throats of the toads, after seeing the latter
capture the bees. As the toads make no fuss, it seems prob-
able that their throats are callous against the stings.

MICK.

These little pests are a consummate nuisance about the
apiary. They enter the hives in winter, mutilate the combs,

510 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}

especially those with pollen or old combs that have been long
used for breeding, irritate, perhaps destroy, the bees, and
create a very offensive stench. They often greatly injure
comb which is outside the hive, destroy smokers, by eating the
leather off the bellows, and, if they get at the seeds of honey-
plants, they never retreat till they make complete the work of
destruction.

In the house and cellar, unless they are made as they
should always be—mouse-proof—these plagues should be, by
use of cat or trap, completely exterminated. If we winter bees
on the summer stands, the hive-entrance should be so con-
tracted that mice can not enter the hive. Incase of packing,
as I have recommended, I should prefer a moreample opening,
which may be safely secured by taking a piece of wire-cloth or
perforated tin or zinc, and, tacking it over the entrance, letting
it come within one-fourth of an inch of the bottom-board. This
will give more air, and still preclude the entrance of these

miserable vermin.
SHREWS.

These are mole-like animals (Fig. 295), and look not unlike
amouse. They havea long, pointed nose like the moles, to
which they are closely related. They are insectivorous, and

Fic, 295.

Shrew.— Original.

have needle-shaped teeth, quite unlike those of the Rodentia,
which includes the true mice. I have received from Illinois
and Missouri species of the short-tailed shrews—Blarina—
which enter the hives in winter and eat the bees, only refusing
the head and wings. They injure the combs but little. As
they will pass through a space three-eighths of an inch wide,
itis not easy to keep them out of hives where the bees are
wintering on their summer stands. I have received a short-

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 511

tailed shrew—Blarina brevicauda, Gray—which was taken in
the hives by Mr. Little, of Illinois.

SKUNKS.

Skunks sometimes annoy bee-keepers. ‘They disturb the
bees at nightfall, and as the bees come out of the hive they
gulp them down. Of course, they can be poisoned or trapped.
But as insect-destroyers they do great good, and I doubtif we
can ever afford to kill the skunks. The small, striped skunk
in Southern California depredates on our poultry. YetI would
use wire-netting and keep them out of the poultry-house, and
not kill them.

Qe
OR

512 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE};

CHAPTER XXI

CALENDAR AND AXIOMS.
WORK FOR DIFFERENT MONTHS.

Though every apiarist will take one, atleast, of the sev-
eral excellent journals relating to this art, printed in our coun-
try, in which the necessary work of each month will be detailed,
yet it may be well to give some brief hints in this place.

These dates are arranged for the Northern States, where
the fruit-trees blossom about the middle of May. By noting
these flowers, the dates can be easily changed to suit any

locality.
JANUARY.

During this month the bees will need little attention.
Should the bees in the cellar or depository become uneasy,
which will not happen if the requisite precautions are taken,
and there comes a warm day, it were well to set them on their
summer stands, that they may enjoya purifying flight. At
night, when all are again quiet, return them to the cellar.
While out I would clean the bottom-boards, especially if there
are many dead bees. This is the time to read, visit, study,
and plan for the ensuing season’s work.

FEBRUARY.

No advice is necessary further than that given for Jan-
uary, though if the bees havea good flight in January, they
will scarcely need attention in this month. The presence of
snow on the ground need not deter the apiarist from giving
his bees a flight, providing the day is warm and still. Itis
better to let them alone if they are quiet, as they should and
will be if allis right. In California we must be sure the stores
are sufficient.

MARCH.

Bees should be kept housed, and those outside still retain

about them the packing of straw, shavings, etc. Frequent

OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 513

flights do no good, and wear out the bees. Colonies that are
uneasy and besmear their hives are not wintering well, and
may be set out and allowed a good flight and then returned.
In California we do the April work of the Kast.

APRIL.

Early in this month the bees may all be put out. It will
be best to feed all, and give all access to flour, when they will
work at it, though usually they can get pollen as soon as they
can fly out to advantage. Keep the brood-chamber contracted
so that the frames will all be covered, and cover well above
the bees to economize heat.

The colony or colonies from which we desire to rear queens
and drones should now be fed to stimulate breeding. By care-
ful pruning, too, we may and should prevent the rearing of
drones in any but the best colonies. If from lack of care the
previous autumn any of our colonies are short of stores, now
is when it will be felt. In such cases feed either honey, sugar,
or syrup, or place candy on top of the frames beneath the oil-
cloth cover. Remember that plenty of stores insures rapid
breeding. In California we will do the May work of the Kast
in April.

MAY.

Prepare nuclei to start extra queens. Feed sparingly till
bloom appears. Give room for storing. Extract if necessary,
and keep close watch for swarms. Now, too, is the best time
to transfer.

JUNE.

Keep all colonies supplied with vigorous, prolific queens.
Divide the colonies or allow swarming as may be desired.
Extract if necessary, or best, adjust frames or sections, if comb
honey is desired, and be sure to keep all the white clover honey,
in whatever form taken, separate from all other. Now is the
best time to Italianize.

JULY.

The work this month is about the sameas thatof June.
Keep the basswood honey by itself, and tier up sections as

514 THE BHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE;

soon as the bees are wellat work inthem. Be sure that queens
and workers have plenty of room to do their best, and do not
suffer the hot sun to strike the hives.

AUGUST.

Do not fail to supersede impotent queens. Between bass-
wood and fall bloom it may pay to feed sparingly. Give
plenty of room for queen and workers, as fall storing com-

mences.
SEPTEMBER.

Remove all surplus boxes and frames as soon as storing
ceases, which usually occurs about the middle of this month.
See that all colonies have enough stores for winter. If neces-
sary to feed honey orsugar for winter, it should be done at this

time.
OCTOBER.

If not already done, prepare colonies for winter. See that
all have at least 30 pounds, by weight, of good, capped stores,
and that all are strong in bees. If the bees are to be packed,
it should be done early in October.

NOVEMBER.

Before the cold days come, remove the bees to the cellar or
depository.
DECEMBER.

Now isthe time to make hives, honey-boxes, etc., for the
coming year. Also labels for hives. These may contain just
the name of the colony, in which case the full record will be
keptin a book; or the label may be made to contain a full
register as to time of formation, age of queen, etc. Slates are
also used for the same purpose.

I know from experience that any who heed all of the above
may succeed in bee-keeping—may win a double success—
receive pleasure and make money. I feel sure that many
experienced apiarists will find advice that it may pay to follow.
It is probable that errors abound, and certain that much
remains unsaid, for of all apiarists it is true that what they do
not know is greatly in excess of what they do know.

OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 515

AXIOMS.

The following axioms, given by Mr. Langstroth, are just
as true to-day as they were when written by that noted author :

There are a few first principles in bee-keeping which ought
to be as familiar to the apiaristas the letters of the alphabet.

First,—Bees gorged with honey never volunteer an attack.

Second.—Bees may always be made peaceable by inducing
them to accept of liquid sweets.

Third.—Bees, when frightened by smoke or by drumming
on their hives, fill themselves with honey and lose all disposi-
tion to sting, unless they are hurt.

Fourth.—Bees dislike any guick movements about their
hives, especially any motion which jars their combs.

Fifth.—In districts where forage is abundant only fora
short period, the largest yield of honey will be secured bya
very moderate increase of colonies.

Sixth.—A moderate increase of colonies in any one season
will, in the long run, prove to be the easist, safest, and cheapest
mode of managing bees.

Seventh.—A queenless colony, unless supplied with a queen,
will inevitably dwindle away, or be destroyed by the bee-moth
or by robber-bees.

Eiighth.—The formation of new colonies should ordinarily
be confined to the season when bees are accumulating honey ;
and if this or any other operation must be performed when
forage is scarce, the greatest precaution should be used to
prevent robbing.

The essence of all profitable bee-keeping is contained in
Oettl’s Golden Rule: KEEP YOUR COLONIES STRONG. If you
can not succeed in doing this, the more money you invest in
bees the heavier will be your losses; while, if your colonies
are strong, you will show that you are a bee-master as well as
a bee-keeper, and may safely calculate on generous returns
from your industrious subjects.

““ Keep all colonies strong.”’

GLOSSARY.

Abdomen—The third or last part of bee’s body, p. 54, 65.

Absconding Swarm—Swarm that has separated from cluster and is going
to its new home, p. 305.

Adulteration—Making impure, as mixing glucose with honey, p. 175.

After-Swarms—Swarms that issue within a few days after the first swarms,

p. 168.

Air-Tubes—Trachez; Lungs of insects, p. 86.

Albino—Usually applied to animals with no pigment in skin, hair, ete. In
bee-culture it refers to a variety of Italians with white rings, p. 55.

Alighting-Board—Board in front of entrance, on which bees alight as they
return to their hives, p. 214.

American Hive—Langstroth hive with frames one foot square.

Antenne—Horn-like organs of insects, p. 70.

Antenna Cleaner—Organ on anterior leg of bees, wasps, ctc., to dust an-
tenne, p. 148.

Apiarian—Adjective, as apiarian implements; incorrectly used as a noun
for apiarist,

Apiarist—One who keeps bees.

Apiary—Place where bees are kept, including bees and all.

Apiculture—Art of bee-keeping.

Apide—Family of bees, p. 38.

Aphis—Plant-lice, p. 390.

Apis—Genus of the honey-bee, p. 44.

Arthropada—Branch or phylum of insects, p. 31.

Articulata—Old name for branch containing insects, p. 31.

Artificial Fecundation or Impregnation—Fecundation in confinement (?).

Artificial Heat, Swarms, Pasturage, ete.—Furnished by man; not natural,

Atavism—Inheriting from a remote ancestor.

Balling of Queen—Bees gathering snugly about the queenin form of a
sphere, p. 312.

Bar-Hives—Hives with bars across the top to which the combs are at-
tached, p. 210.

Barren—Sterile; not able to produce eggs or young, p. 118.

Bees—Insects of the Family Apida, p. 38.

Bee-Bird or Bee-Martin—A fly-catcher that captures bees, p. 508.

Bee-Bread—The albuminous food of bees, usually pollen, p. 186.

Bee-Culture—Keeping bees.

Bee-Dress—Special suit worn by apiarist while working with bees, p. 345.

Bee-Escape—Device for clearing upper story of hive or section-case of
bees, pp. 3380, 341, 469

Bee-Glue—Propolis, p. 190.

518 GLOSSARY.

Bee-Gum— Section of hollow tree used as a bee-hive.

Bee-Hat—Hat so arranged as to prevent bees from stinging the face, p. 344.

Bee-Hawk—Dragon fly, p. 497.

Bee-Hive—Box for bees. See bee-gum and skep, p. 207.

Bee-House—House where bees are kept, where bee-work is done, or bees
wintered, p. 468.

Bee-Keeper—One who keeps bees; apiarist.

Bee-Line—Straight line, like the route of bee from field to hive, p. 262.

Bee-Louse—Braula Ceca, p. 499.

Bee-Martin—King or bee bird, p. 508.

Bee-Master—English, bee-keeper.

Bee-Moth—Galleria mellonella, formerly G. cereana, moth that feeds on
wax, etc., p. 482.

Bee-Pasturage—Honey-plants, p. 389.

Bee-Plants—Plants which secrete nectar, and so are visited by bees, p. 389.

Bee-Space—Space that will just allow a bee to pass: it is three-sixteenths
of aninch. A double bee-space, three-eighths of an inch minus, is
the space that bees do not fill with brace-combs or glue.

Beeswax—Secretion of the bee from which comb is fashioned, p. 176.

Bee-Tent—Tent covering hive and bee-keeper, pp. 332, 351. In England,
tent for lectures on bees.

Bee-tree— A hollow tree in which bees breed and store, p. 262.

Bee-Veil—Veil for protecting face while working with bees, p. 344.

Bell-Glass—Glass vessel used for surplus comb-honey storing.

Bingham-Knife—Uncapping knife with beveled edge, p. 325.

Bingham-Smoker—Bee-smoker with open draft, p. 348.

Bisulphide of Carbon—Valuable insecticide, pp. 880, 487.

Black Bee— Common or German race of bees, p. 52.

Black Brood—Diseased brood, but not foul brood, p. 482.

Bottom-Board—Floor of hive, pp. 215, 217, 226.

Box-Hive—Plain box in which bees are kept, p. 207.

Box-Honey—Comb honey stored in boxes.

Brace-Combs—Incorrectly called ‘‘ burr-combs.’? Small columns of wax
connecting brood-combs, p. 219.

Brain—Nerve mass in head of insects, p. 82.

Breed—Race; Italian breed, p. 53.

Breeding-In—Close breeding, as when a queen is fecundated by one of
her own drones.

Bridal Trip—Flight of queen to meet drone, p. 112.

scaly na ase bees with sulphur. Now happily obsolete, pp. 380,

Brimstone—The same as sulphur, pp. 380, 487.

Broad-Frame— Wide frame for holding sections, p. 244.

Brood—Immature bees, or bees yet in the cell, p. ¥8.

Brood-Comb—Comb used for breeding, p. 179.

Brood-Nest—Space in hive used for breeding.

Brood-Rearing—Rearing of brood.

Brown Bee—A supposed variety of the common black bee, p. 52.

Bumble-Bee— Our large wild bee or humble-bee, p. 40.

Burr-Combs—Small pieces of wax built above the top-bars of the frames,
p. 219.

Candied Honey—Honey crystallized or granulated, p. 175.
Cane Sugar—Common sugar, or the sugar of nectar, p. 177
Cap—Box to shut over top of a hive, p. 220.

GLOSSARY. 519

Cap—To seal or close a cell.

Capped Brood—Brood sealed.

Capped Honey—Honey sealed.

Cappings or Caps—Thin wax sheets cut off in extracting.

Card—Frame of comb. Rare.

Cardo—Part of maxilla, p. 66.

Carniolans—Same as Krainer. Race of black bees from Krain, Austria,
pp. 57, 310, 346.

Carton—Paper box to hold comb honey, p. 382.

Casts—After-swarms. Rare.

Caterpillar--Larva of butterfly or moth.

Caucasian Bee---Variety of black bee,from Caucasian Mountains,pp. 48,52.

Cell—Opening in comb for brood, honey or bee-bread, p. 179.

Chaff-Hive—A double-walled hive with space filled with chaff, pp. 215,459.

Chitine—Substance which makes crust of insects hard, p, 32.

Chyle—Digested food; probable food of larva, p. 141.

Chyme—Partially digested food; word of doubtful use, p. 141.

Chrysalid or Chrysalis-~Pupa of butterflies. Sometimes applied to other

pape.

Clamp—Hives placed close together and covered, p. 466.

Cleansing Flight—Removing bees from cellar that they may fly, p. 464.

Closed End or Top Frames—Where end-bars of frames and ends of top-
bars are close fitting, p. 233.

Cluster—Bees in compact mass, pp. 166, 167.

Clustering—Many bees hanging together, pp. 166, 167.

Clypeus~-Portion of head of insects below the eyes, p. 66.

Cocoon—Case, often containing silk fibers, which surrounds a pupa; cup
lining cells of comb, pp. 90, 101, 162, 184.

Collateral System—Side-storing. English.

Colon—Part of intestine, rectum, pp. 89, 145.

Colony—The bees of one hive.

Comb—The fabric which holds the brood and honey, p. 179.

-Comb-Basket—The frame of an extractor which holds the comb, p. 323.

Comb-Carrier—Box for carrying Gombs; most used in extracting, p. 329.

Comb foundation—Thin sheets of impressed wax, like the foundation of
real comb, p. 353.

Comb Foundation Machine—Machine for making comb foundation, p. 394.

Comb-Guide—Strip of wood, comb or foundation on the bottom of top-
bar of frame, to induce bees to build comb in proper place, p. 361.

Comb-Holder—Device for holding combs, 324.

Comb Honey—Honey in comb, p. 335.

Compound Eyes—Large eyes of insects, so called as they consist of many
simple eyes, p. 73.

Corbicula—Pollen-basket on hind leg of worker-bee, p. 154.

Cover—Lid of hive, or cover of brood-frames, pp. 220, 223, 233.

Coxa—First part or joint of the insect’s leg, p. 79.

Crate—Box for sections on the hive,or for shipping comb honey ,pp.247,381,.

Cushion—Quilt or bag for covering bees, p. 223.

Cyprian Bees—A yellow race from the Isle of Cyprus, p. 55.

Dalmation Bees—A variety of black bees from Dalmatia, the Southwest-
ern Province of Austria, p. 58.

Darts—Lancets of sting, p. 157.

Decoy Hive—Hives set to catch absconding swarms.

Diarrhea—-Dysentery, p. 475.

520 GLOSSARY.

Dipping-Board—Board for securing thin wax sheets in making founda-
tion, p. 358.

Dividing—Forming colonies artificially, p. 316.

Division-Board—Board for reducing the size of the brood-chamber, p. 222.

Dollar Queens—Queen sold for one dollar, p. 361.

Driving Bees—Causing the bees to pass out of a hive intoa box placed
above by rapping on the hive, 258.

Drone—Male bee, p. 121.

Drone-Brood—Brood which produces drone-bees, p. 126.

Drone-Comb—Comb with large cells,in which drones may be reared,p.183.

Drone-Eggs—Eggs that produce drones, p. 126.

Drone-Trap—Trap for catching drones, p. 285.

Drumming Bees—Forcing bees from one hive to another hive or box by
rapping on the first with a stick or hammer, p. 258.

Dry Feces—Supposed dry excreta of bees.

Ductus Ejaculatorus—Part of male apparatus, p. 92.

Dummies—Division-boards, p. 222.

Dysentery—Winter disease of bees, p. 475.

Dzierzon Theory—Parthenogenesis; agamic reproduction; theory that
unfecundated eggs will develop, and in bees such eggs always pro-
duce drones, p. 126.

Egg—The initial or first stage of all the higher animals, pp. 95, 101.

Egyptian Bee—Yellow bee from Egypt. p. 57.

Eke—Rim to raise and enlarge the hive; often a half hive.

Embryo—The young animal while yet in the egg or before birth.

Entrance—Opening of the hive where the bees enter, p. 217.

Entrance-Blocks—Pieces of wood, usually triangular, for contracting or
closing the entrance of hive, p. 217.

Entrance-Guard—Perforated zine to prevent drones or queen from leay-
ing the hive, p. 285. .

Epicranium—Part of head between and above the eyes, p. 66.

Epipharynx—Part of mouth.

Extracted Honey—Honey thrown from comb by use of extractor, pp.281,

Extractor—Machine for extracting, p. 321. [333, 376.

Exuvium—Cast-skin of larva. Substance left in cell when bee emerges,
pp. 9, 98, Lod.

Eyes—Organs of sight in insects; there are usually two large compound
and three small simple or Ocelli, p. 73.

Feces—Intestinal excreta of animals.

Farina—Flour; incorrectly used for pollen.

Fecundate—Union of sperm and germ cells; to impregnate, p. 103.

Feeder—Device for feeding bees, p. 266.

Femur—Third and largest joint of an insect’s legs, p. 79.

Fence—Separator to be used with plain sections, p. 242.

Fertile—Productive; often used for impregnated or fecundated. A queen
that can lay eggs is fertile; after mating she is fecund.

Flagellum—Outer part of antenna, p. 69.

Foul Brood—Malignant disease of a fungoid character which attacks.
bees, p. 475:

Foundation, Fdn.—Stamped wax sheets, p. 353.

Frame—Device for holding comb in the hive, p. 227.

Fumigate—To surround with fumes. We fumigate the bees with smoke
and the combs with sulphur fumes, pp. 380, 487.

GLOSSARY. 521

Gallup Frame—Frame 114 inches square, p. 229.

Ganglia—Knots of nerve matter like the brain, p. 81.

Gastric Juice—Digestive ferment secreted by stomach.

Gena—Cheek of insects.

German Bee—Common black bee, p. 52.

Glands—Tubular or sack-like organs which form from elements taken
from the blood a liquid called a secretion. Bees have several pairs
of glands, p. 134.

Glassing—Covering or protecting sections of comb honey with glass.

Glucose—Reducing sugar, p. 172.

Good Candy—Candy made by mixing sugar and honey, p. 318.

Grafted Cells—Queen-Cells with the larva replaced by another, p. 278.

Grafting Cells—Taking small larva from cells and placing them in queen-
cells, p. 278.

Granulated Honey—Honey that has crystallized or candied, p. 175.

Green Honey—Unripe honey, p. 327. °

Grub—Larva of beetle, p. 98.

Guide Comb—Narrow piece of comb or starters fastened to top-bar of
frame or section, p. 295.

Gullet—Csophagus, pp. 89. 142.

Hatch—To issue from egg; egg hatches, the brood develops and emerges
from cell. :

Hatching Brood—Incorrectly used to refer to bees coming from cells.

Heart—Circulating organ; in insects a tube along the back, p. 84.

Heath Bees—Variety of German bees from Luneberg Heath, Europe, p. 57.

Heddon Hive—Hive with divided brood-chamber, the division being hori-
zontal, p. 223.

Heddon-Langstroth Hive—Langstroth hive as used by Heddon, p. 215.

Hexapoda—Class insects, p. 32.

Hill’s Device—Curved sticks used to raise cloth a little from the frames
in winter. p. 456.

Hive—Box or receptacle for bees, p. 207.

Hiving—Removing a swarm of bees from cluster to hive, p. 297.

Hiving Basket or Box—Basket or box used in hiving swarms, p. 297.

Holy-Land Bees—Yellow bees from Southern Palestine, p. 48.

Honey—Nectar digested by the bees, p. 171.

Honey-Bee—Apis Mellifera, the domestic bee, p. 52.

Honey-Bag—Honey stomach, pp. 89, 143.

Honey-Board—Board between brood-chamber and section-case, p. 219.

Honey-Box—Box for surplus comb honey.

Honey-Comb—Fabric that holds the honey and brood, p. 179.

Honey-Dew—Nectar from insects like Aphides and bark-lice, or from ex-
tra floral glands, pp. 392, 393.

Honey-Extractor—Machine for extracting honey, p. 321.

Honey-Gate—Faucet to draw extracted honey from an extractor or barrel.
It is closed instantly by a slide or gate.

Honey-Knife—A knife for uncapping honey, p. 325.

Honey-Sac—Honey stomach, pp. 89, 143.

Honey-Slinger—Honey extractor, p. 321,

Honey-Stomach—Honey-sac where bee carries honey, pp. 89, 143.
House-Apiary—Building frost-proof where bees are kept continually,p.468.
Hungarian Bee—Variety of the black bee from Hungary, p. 58

522 GLOSSARY.

Hybrid—Properly an animal which is a cross between two different spe-
cies. A hybrid bee is across between two different races; all the
bees except the drones from an Italian queen mated to a black
drone will be hybrids; the drones will be pure if the queen is (see
Dzierzon theory).

Hymenoptera—Order of insects which includes bees, ants and wasps, p. 35.

Hymettus—A mountain of Greece famed for its delicious honey.

Hypopharnyx— Membrane or curtain conuecting the base of the mouth
organs.

LIleum—Small intestine, pp. 89, 145.

Imago--The mature insect; the last or winged stage of an insect, p. 101.

Insects—Hexapoda—Class of bee, p. 32.

Intestine—Digestive tube beyond the stomach, p. 145.

Tntroducing— Method of making bees accept a strange queen. p. 311.

Introducing-Cage—Cage for introducing a queen, p. 312.

Inverting—Turning a hive, section, case or frame bottom up. Reversing
is also used, p. 230.

Italian Bee—A yellow race from Italy. Every worker-bee has three well
marked yellow bands, jp 538, 307.

Italianizing—Changing bees from some other race to Italians, p. 306.

Jaws—Same as mandibles, p. 146.

Krainer Bees—Bees from Krain, Austria; same as Carniolans, pp. 57,
310, 346.

Labium—Under lip of an insect, pp. 66, 131.

Labrum—Upper lip of an insect, p. 66.

Lamp-Nursery—-Tin double-walled box used for rearing queens. p. 2S6.

Langstroth Frame—Adopted by Mr. Langstroth for his hive; size 173g by
Wg, pp.215, 227.

Langstroth Hive—L. Hive; hive with frame suspended ina case or box;
invented by Rev. L. L. Langstroth, p. 210.

Larva—plu. Larve—Immature bees, p. 98.

Laying Worker—Worker-bee that lays eggs, p. 130.

Ligula—End of labium; the tongue in bees, pp. 66, 131.

Ligurian Bee—Same as Italian; named from Liguria, a province in Italy,
pp. 53, 307.

Lining Bees—Noting direction of flight to find bee-tree, etc., p. 262.

Loose Frames—Frames not fixed, p. 233.

Lora—Part of labium, p. 132.

Maggot—Footless larva of two-winged flies; often applied to any footless
larve.

Maiden Swarm—First swarm.

Malpighian Tubules—Renal tubules attached to the stomach, p. 90.

Mandibles—Main jaws of insects, p. 146.

Manipulation—Handling.

Marriage Flight— Mating of queen, p. 112.

Mat—Flexible cover to place over brood-frames, made of slats, straw, etc.

Maturing Brood—Where the bees are just emerging from the cells.

Maxille—The second or under jaws of insects, pp. 66, 131.

Mel Extractor— Honey extractor, p, 321.

Meliput—Honey extractor, p, 321.

Mentum—Second joint of labium or under lip, p. 1381,

GLOSSARY. 523

Meso-Thorax—Second joint of thorax, p. 78.
Meta-Thorax—Third joint of thorax, p, 78.

Metal Corners—Tins to fasten and unite corners of frames.
Micropyle—Openings in eggs where sperm-cells enter, p. 101.
Midrib of Comb—Center partition of comb, p. 182.
Miller—Moth, which is the more proper word, p. 482.
Mismated—Not purely mated.

Moth—All scale-winged insects except butterflies.
Moth-Larva—Immature moth, p. 483.
Moth-Miller—Incorrect term often used for moth, p. 484.
Moth-Trap—trap for catching moths.

Movable-Frame Hive—Langstroth hive, p. 210.
Muscles—Organs that produce motion, p. 80.

Nadir—The under story of a two-story hive; a wide eke, p. 213,

Nectar—Sweet substance, as the liquid in nectaries of flowers, p. 171.

Nectaries—Nectar-glands of flowers.

Nerves—White threads which connect organsto convey impressions or
impulses, p. 81.

Nervures of Wings—Same as veins, p. 45.

Neuter—Incorrect name for worker-bees; they are not neuters, but unde-
veloped females, p. 129.

New Idea Hive—Long one-story hive with many frames.

Non-Swarming Hive—A purely ideal hive, supposed to prevent swarming.

Normal—Usual; regular,

Nucleus—plural, nuclei; miniature colony of bees for queen-rearing,p.281.

Nurse-Bees—Young bees or ones that feed the brood, p. 164.

Nursery—Device for rearing queens. See lamp-nursery, p. 286.

Nymph—An insect in the pupa state; the immature bee in cell that is the
form of adult Le2 is a nymph, p. 99.

Observatory Hive—Hive with glass sides, so that bees can be seen without
disturbing them, p. 238.

Ocelli—Simple eyes on epicranium, usually three, p. 73.

Csophagus—Tube leading from pharynx to honey-stomach, pp. 89, 142.

Open Sections—Sections that do not touch on sides, p. 240.

Ovary—Essential organs of the female, where the eggs grow, p. 94.

Over-stocking— Where more bees are kept than a locality can supply with
a full harvest of nectar.

Oviduct—Tube for passage of egg from ovary, p. 94.

Ovipositor—Same as oviduct, p. 94.

Ovum—Egg, pp. 95, 101.

Palestine Bees—Race of yellow bees found in Southern Syria; the so-
called Holy-Land bees, p. 48.

Paraffine—Wax-like crystalline substance used to coat barrels and pre-
vent leakage; one of the products of crude petroleum.

Parasite—An organism that feeds upon another, p. 37.

Parent Colony—The colony from which a swarm has issued.

Paraglosse—Short appendages at base of tongue, pp, 67, 132.

Parthenogenesis—Reproduction without males, p. 126.

Pasturage— Plants from which food is secured, p. 389.

Pecten of Legs—Fringe or comb of hairs.

Perforated Zinc—Zine with holes cut so worker-bees can pass, but drones

and queens can not, p, 219.
Pharynx—Throat or back of the mouth, p. 89,

524 GLOSSARY.

Phenol—Pure carbolie acid, p. 479.

Pincers—Wax jaws of hind legs, p. 153.

Piping of Queens—Noise made by young queens when one has emerged
from cell and others have not, p. 168.

Plain Sections—Sections with no inset or bee-way; the edges are straight,

p. i

Planta—Soles or bottom of feet, p. 150.

Poison-Sac—Sac at base of sting to hold the poison, p. 157.

Pollen—Male cell or element of flowers; bee-bread.

Pollen-Basket—Corbicula; cavity on posterior leg for carrying pollen,
pp. 152, 186,

Pollen-Combs—Rows of hairs on first tarsus of second and third pairs of
legs of worker, on the inside, also pecten, p. 153.

Pollen-Hairs—Compound or webbed hairs of bees, used for collecting
pollen, p. 79.

Portico—Porch to hive, p. 210.

Pound Section—Section 41¢ inches square, p. 242.

Prime Swarm—First swarin.

Prize Section—Section 614 by 5', inches, p. 242.

Propolis—Bee-glue.

Propolize—To cover with propolis, p. 190.

Prothorax—First joint of thorax, p. 78.

Prune—To cut out undesirable comb, as drone or old.

Puff-Ball—A large fungus, which, when pressed, sends out myriads of
spores; it is sometimes used to subdue bees.

Pulvilli— Adhesive disks on the last joint of an insect’s leg, p. 150.

Pupa—Third stage of insects, that between larva and imagu; also called
nymph, p. 99.

Pygidium—Last joint of abdomen.

Queen—Mother-bee, p. 102.

Queen-Cage—Cage for introducing queen, p. 312.

Queen-Cell—Cell in which queen is reared, pp. 100, 111.

Queenless—Having no queen.

Queen-Rearing—Rearing of queens, p. 273.

Queen Register—Card to show state of hive as to queen, p. 291.

Queen’s Voice—Noise made by queen like piping; true voice, p. 168.

Queen-Yard--Box with perforated zinc, to keep a clipped queen from
being lost when she comes out with aswarm, also called queen-trap.

Quilt—Cover for brood-frames, consisting of two cloths containing wool
or cotton sewed together, p. 223.

Quinby Hive--Large Huber style of hive, p. 235.

Quinby Frame—Large frame 1814 by 1114 inches, p. 227.

Quincunx—W here things in rows alternate, thus, .°

Rabbet—Where one side of the edge of a board is planed down for a short
distance, p. 216.

Race—Breed. Where a variety has been closely bred so long as to trans-
mit its peculiarities to its offspring. Race is a natural breed, p. 52.

Rack—Crate or case; section-rack.

Rectal Glands—Glands in the rectum, p. 146.

Rectum—Large intestine, p. 146.

Rendering Wax—Melting and cleaning wax, 367.

Reversing--Inverting; turning bottom up, pp. 229, 339.

Rhomb—Four equal sided figure, two of whose opposite angles are equal
and acute, the others equal and obtuse,

GLOSSARY. 525

Ripe Honey—Honey that has cured or evaporated, so it is thick, p. 327.
Robbing—When bees steal honey from another colony, p. 473.
Royal Jelly—Food fed to queen-larve, p. 108.

Saliva—Secretion of the mouth, p. 91.

Scape—Base of antenna, p. 69. <

Scouts——Bees that go forth just before swarming to find and prepare the
new home, p. 166.

Seal—To close.

Sealed Brood—Brood in cells that the bees have capped, p. 162.

Sealed Honey—Honey in cells that are capped, p. 183.

Section—Small frame for comb honey, 239.

Seminal Vesicle—Sac to hold sperm-cells or semen, p. 93.

Separator—Wood or tin strip, very thin, for separating sections, so that
bees will build straight and true combs, p. 250,

Septum—Base between cells of comb; incorrectly called midrib, p. 182.

Sholtz Candy—Good candy; sugar and honey mixed; invented years ago
by Sholtz, a German, p. 318.

Skep—Straw hive, such as were used in olden times.

Smell—Sense located in antennz of insects, p. 70.

Smoker—Instrument used to smoke or quiet bees, p. 348.

Smyrnian Bees—A variety or race of bees from a province—Smyrna—in
Asiatic Turkey, vp. 58.

Species—Animals so long bred as to have distinctive characteristics more
fixed, p. 52.

Spent Queen—One sterile with age, p. 118.

Spermatheca—The sac off oviduct of queen that holds the sperm, p. 104,

Spermatozoe—Sperm-cells; the male element or fecundating principle,

p. 124,
Spring Dwindling—-Rapid dying of bees in the spring, p. 466.
Stand—Support of hive. Incorrectly used for colony.
Starter--A small piece of comb or foundation fastened to the top-bar of a
hive, 295.
Sterile Queen—One that does not lay, or whose eggs do not hatch, p. 118.
Sting—The organ of defense of bees, wasps, etc., p. 156.
Stock—Wrongly used for colony; if used at all it should refer to bees,
hive and all.
Stomach—Where the food is mainly digested, pp. 90, 143.
Stomach-Mouth—Organ at base of honey-stomach, p. 142.
Storify—Used in England for adding upper stories to hives.
Storifying—English, tiering up.
Strain—A variety, as a strain of bees, developed by the bee-keeper.
Strained Honey—Honey strained through a cloth, not extracted honey.
Sulphur—A yellow mineral used to fumigate honey. : :
Super—Upper story, either for extracted honey or honey in sections, p.214.
Supersede--To replace with another.
Swarm--Bees that leave hive in natural division, p. 166.
Swarming-Basket—Basket to convey swarm from place of clustering to
hive, 297.
Swarming Impulse or Fever—Desire of the bees to swarm.
Swarming Season—Season of year when bees are likely to swarm.
Syrian Bee—Race of yellow bees from Northern Palestine, p. 55.

Taking up Bees—Destroying bees to get the honey. Rare now.
Tarsus—Last one to five joints of insect leg; foot, p. 79.
Tested Queen— One proved pure by examination of her offspring.

526 GLOSSARY.

Thorax—-Second part of insect’s body, p. 64.

Tibia—Fourth joint of an insect’s leg, from the body, p. 79.

Tibial Spur—Spur at end of tibia, p. 79.

Tier Up—Setting additional stories or supers of sections on a hive.
Tongue—Sucking tube of bee, p, 132.

Tracheze—Air-tubes or turbular lungs of insects, p. 81.
Transferring—-Removing colony of bees from one hive to another, p. 258.
Transformations—Changes from larva to pupa to imago, p. 96.
Travel-Stain—Soil of comb when left long in hive.

Trochanter—Second joint of insect’s leg, 79.

Uncapping—Cutting caps from comb-cells, p. 325.
Unfertile—Queen or eggs that can not produce young.
Uunicomb Hive—Hive with one comb and glass sides; observatory hive,

Uniting—To put two or more colonies into one, p. 465.
Unqueening—Removing queen from colony.

Unripe—Thin honey; honey not cured or evaporated, p. 327.
Unsealed—A pplied to honey and brood when not capped.
Untested Queen— One whose purity has not been demonstrated.
Urinary Tubules—Tubes attached to the stomach of a bee, p. 9u.

Variety—Division of a race; a strain, p. 52.
Veil—Protection for face, p. 344.

Velum—Part of antenna cleaner, p. 148.
Ventilation—-Changing the air so it shall be constantly pure.
Virgin—Unmated queen.

Wax—Secretion formed between the abdominal segments of worker-bees,

Wax-press—Press for expressing wax, p. 371.

Wax-extractor—Device for separating the wax from comb, p. 367.

Wax Plates or Pockets—Place where the wax-scales form on the underside
of a worker-bee, p. 155.

Wedding Flight—Flight of queen to mate with the drone, p. 112.

Wild Bees—Bees in the forest, etc., with no owner.

Wind-Break—High fence or evergreen hedge to protect from wind, p. 253.

Winter-Passages—Holes through the center of combs so bees can pass
through, p. 456.

Wired- ao with opposite sides connected with fine wire, pp.
2

Worker- Bees—The undeveloped females; the bees that do the work ex-
cept-+that of egg-laying.

Worker-Eggs—Eggs that develop into workers, p. 129.

Worm---Term usually applied to a larva; really a footless cylindrical
animal like an angle-worm, p. 31.

INDEX.

AB Cof Bee-Culture...
Abdomen of insects...
Abnormal swarming
Absconding swarms...........

Albino bees.
BUBNER s-5 seciere'sinrern's HRe weaves
figure of..........
Alighting-board ..............
Alimentary canal........... 81, 89
Alley queen-rearing........... 276
Alsike clover.............. 397, 413
WOO oc nspan kas dma ce 414
Amateur bee-keepers....13, 16, 205
‘American Bee Journal ........
American Bee-Keeper......... 23
Anatomy of honey-bee........ 102
Anatomy of insects...... ... «64
AVTeNNS CHOW pec eyes y eee ws 148
POON OT sone seve soon kom 148
PUNCHOU Ole vases o ¢ ela ek 149
ANODNR: yes esseses ore lae Bee os 70
description of.............
figure of...... :

function of

UOTE B nin cane eaten se RES e eds

APB os%s. dyotacs ec essiuia +-Sesninacldceas eee Xt
DIED cain ties edad ge BS HS
grape-vine
grounds of
grove for..........
location of
shade for ...........+++-. *

Apifuge .

ADB is, aiid accedtaondscduaactes 39,
BPCCIES Of viii ine cdces wae 45
wholly foreign......... 48, 52

ADS GOGO cok ee nen vewdes 48
HEUTE OF vos eseees aceven vend s.. 49

Apis mellifera ................ 52

Apparatus for comb honey.... 239

April honey-plants............ 401

Arachnida ..... .84, 85
Aristotle... . 53, 59
BPUDPOP ONE cn. vce wvlen bxacun oe 31
ATtHCUlALCB ise bien c caas ¢ hseke 31
Artificial increase............. 303

method of................ 303
SDAA DUB si wssiiies cede austieeys sche 443
ASSOCIATIONS. omen cake neon on 375
BUS rae a caleba tidy a agin Boke 449

POCO OL acne ease? Mae abs 447
BRIO. o ies e Kee des 8x es 515
TCO 5 sien chata wcancissecacccets Sesians soo 38

COSCPIMUION OT nos g cscu Gees 88

JarvaniOlss: acnng sts eee yee oe 38
ACO DECC S ¢ cog acpi wae ssece 488

HOUNG Of egg gw kes oh hive 488
Baker, Mrs. L. B.............. 18

figure of
Honey TION oa: cans ware 390
how to kill............... 390

528

INDEX.
Bee-books (see books) ........ 24 | Bee-Moth—( Continued):
Bee-bread (see pollen) ........ 186
Bee-dress......... - 8345 figure of.............. 484
for ladies... . 345 MeSeription Of... nis sncaes 482
Bee-enemies.................. 482 figure of.......... 0.00.55 484
Bee-escapes...........000.. 00 340 fumigation for............ 487
figure of.............0 eee, 341 galleries of ..........-..-- 483
Bee-glue (see propolis) ........ 190 ___ figure of.............- 483
function of HIBEOEY 08 nee niece wooed 485
Bee baticiccs dooce setiae sehaeas remedies for.............. 486
figure Of.............. 000. WOO. ea cotices nc ane es ciasts 2a 48?
Bee-hawk......... figure of............-. 487
figure of...... Bee-papers—

Bee Dives. eat. finet is tues Psion American Bee Journal..... 22
Bee-house........... ee eee 6 American Bee-Keeper..... 23
HEUTE OF, ies ea tees a eae a 470 Bee-Keepers’ Review......

for winter .............--. abn British Bee Journal.,..... 25
Bee-journals................-- 22 Canadian Bee Journal.... 23
Bee-keepers— Gleanings in Bee-Culture.. 23

farmers as ............. 13, 14 Lone Star Apiarist........ 24

POCCTROS ones a p eee ee en 13 Progressive Bee-Keeper... 24

TAO BB wt od So wea Be 13, I? | Bee-pasturage ................
Bee-Keepers’ Review.......... 23 | Bee-poison...... ee eee
Bee-Keeping for Beginners.... 25 inoculated with...........
Bee-keeping .................. 201 | Bee-space.................005

aids the nation............ 99 | Bee-stabber...................

BIAS 1O).2.,; scorers Lowes onamiedd 21 figure Of................0

attending coventions., 21 | BeeS...-..............+00+5

BOOKS vacuo daeged sans ace branch of...-........
Papers..............05 22 collections of ........

visiting bee-keepers... 21 diseases of................ 475

for women................ 17 do not injure fruit........ 394

inducements to do not injure flowers...... 396

preparation for handling of............... 343

proceeds from ............ how tomove.............. 319

profits of ...............05 kinds of in colony........ 102

requisites to successful.... 21 WarVe eee eee 39

enthusiasm ........... o7 MOViNg...... 2.66. eee 379
experience............ 21 natural history.........: 38, 102
mental effort.......... 21 quieting.............-.. 0. 346
promptitude .......... 26 shipping.............. 319, 385
Bee-killers......... 0.00.00 000- 488 sold by the pound......... 386
Georgia ...............08- 491 species Of................. 52
figure of.. USeLUL es waece ieee tied ts 13, 395
Louisiana ... which are best......... 306, 310
PEUTIC Lair scsets-o ssn ge who may keep............ 13
Missouri................-. amateurs ............. 13
: : SPOCIRIISES occu ve ok ee 13

iced eaten who should not keep...... 14

Bees and homey. cc: geudy4 wean 25

Be@swax.......eecee ee eees 176, 367

INDEX.

Bingham .
Bingham hive. 5

figuresf,, ois 5 cace eciet
Bingham smoker.
ViV 310: (0) cee ar ee
Birds destroying fruit......... 394
Bisulphide of carbon. .342, 880, 487
Black bee (see German bee). 52, vo
Blackberry ................00%
Black: brood) cies 2 esc ccw keen
Black eu deci varsiatiste teuheour es
Black sage...............0..0.
figure of..... .
Blister pean
. figure
Block for Te making.......
figure of

BGG Oc has ok iden ea oven ae
Blue-thistle (viper’s ie Sia ie

Boardman’s wax-extractor . * $05
figure Of .............0005 370
Bokhara clover ...............- 420
Bombus .................6- 39, 40
BONG RO eos wai 8 san eae 439
figure of. eiice as nnaemae 3 438
DOGG oc, Succtenisse senna dame 24, 59, 191
ABCof Bee Culture..... 24
Advanced Bee-Culture 25

Bee-Keeping for Beginners 25

Bees and Bee-Keepiog..... 25

Bees and Honey .......... 25

POVEIEU s dawns theese voce 2% 25
Langstroth on the Honey-

Cs see vasty ag pons areas 24

OUD. OTE a cso as seas 452

Scientific Queen-Rearing.. 25

Books— (Continued):

The Honey-Bee
BORA gO sts co age coterie:

Borers in locust-tree ..
BROLIN onsis avayucee, eran anen wie atk
Atkinson’s ...............

” 996

Box for packing hives......... 458
BOX: DIVES 2: sense sce dct aces oa 207
Brain of bee.................. 83

figure of... 83
Brain of insects............... 83

‘figure of............ 81, 83, 84
Branch Arthropoda........... 31
Bridal trip.................00. 112
Brimstone............ 342, 380, os
British Bee Journal...........
Brood caps .................. 183
Brood-chamber, restricting.... 336
Brusbsiiis.cctiee's wales oan 4 Kae 330

Coggshall ................ 330

figure: Of sees 4 cosas aeais 330
DD RWIS sco ie, haces SEs stevens 330
FGUPO OL 6 bee cscs asine 330

Buckthorn
Buck wheat

figure of

Wald. sca 5

Burying bees
Button-bush
figure of

for queens..
mailing....
PCC bieehce cares ese
Caging queens
Calendar ................2000
AI GULE Ofiricek.c aie twice eet
Candied honey
reliquefied

530 INDEX.

CRN GS sires iersnuse 4 8 aeclee Mecitice 318, 457
GOO, os cenewe uma oy 318, 457

CBG, icone nsterscceetansets 2 eevee 8 333, 378
for extracted honey ...338, 378
WOCRD PINE cay ar45 eake ena’

Carbolic acid ................
for foul brood ..
to quiet bees. . nets a
Carniolan bees.............
description of
POSTE OL ba cee Saws sad
Carpenter bees, . x scc0 4 cazax cy
CABOS 0 ainitet 5 sativa ceeinn a ates sedis

Heddon...............005

one story...
plain section..

Southard .................

TWOSSCOLY wcccccweas deleted oe 382
MB Epc edd SERRE RL
RAP io hing utah wiper oleae ee
Caucasian ..............00000-

Ol nding carand aaeeranns cadena
PADDINE OF cise wmes vaca dae
Cel ar peciecit y atene she pha ee ae 16%

Centipedes
Chaff hive
HEUTE Olin «wee way 24 x
Chapman’s hovey-plant...... *, 436
Cheshire. . .25, 72, 107, 233, 803, 477
Chinquapin 1 eden pens oucgert apa ast 409
Chitine
Chloroform for bees
CV LCD cso. secant tuchapatcaen Meatless tege
Cider..
Circulatory system of insects.
OAS 2d tice Galea ohana @ WES | 466
Clark’s cold-draft smoker..... 348
figure: OL2 «ss., 8 actseh etic dares 848
Class Insecta .............-.0- 32
Claws........ er 150
PENTEL cess sis a tease ness 150
Cleansing flight............... 464
CTC OM EC? gs. o- espe 5 Recoped syateeiaes 439, 452
Clipping queen’s wing ........ 288
how done................. 288
very desirable............. 288
DION GR i sc asevaneng eevrans dies ennresaias 413
PRU BG. jusssee: juaited auiag go 397, 418
PUUSON, .25 2 hadow ames 2048 417
mammoth red......... 417, 429
BOG vavek pints See etaee 8g 417
BWC i cc ccdee inine sana anal 417

(lover—( Continued):

RIG a si chrne tegpl a Shed te 397, 413
CVOStOPIN Eo. 2 see cists s Box 166, 169
fig TOO bis es coxnce aca enoieers 167
Chutes: O cg ceankaeer aries 1b, 16
Cly peu's scx oc einic cakeltay skier sha 66
Cocoon—
BE DOG nls ooo vino wae, 162
Ol TISCCISs 2 cas yo aeken vee. 100
Of QUGON 43.2 ossicles teas eras 110
Coggshall brush .............. 330
BOR oa 5 bain 6b ern w tment 330
Cold- Arar smoker ............ 848
College bee-house............. 469
figure of.................. 470
Colonies, how to move . pegs)
Columella .... ....... 59
SEG gases alas cs way lees na Ra 7
CONS OF 6 aavema tenn cat 180, 182
TAStONING occ ioew Beans eee 260
HEUTE OL vee 5 oe daec se ose 181
how to keep .......... 330, 487
tiekness OF 4 os yeaa ees 360

figure Ola o evens wlan Pans 329

history of

DOW: TRG, ssrendee! ssatecty, trices 357
PORN GOR co ceases swank BAD
MOOT. uae v el G eaes 355

HROTS OF ss os ana ne 355

PC ect wn ie 5 seat Bee 357
POUCOs ooo sed then celts 356
Comb guide............... 228, 364
Comb-holder.................. 326
COMD: DONEC s.iios 2 seeds Conca sieves 835
esirable ios: wseday yceacees 335
high priced............... 835
how to secure......... 835, 342
remove queens........ 337

restrict brood-chamber 336

strong colonies. . .. 385

swarming checked... 336

INDEX. $31
Comb Honey— (Continued); Dipping-board ........ Suesaseieases 358
marketing of.............. 350 a eee Mare rake Ie a
2 PUES AOR «cite ices esas 380 | Diptera..............00.0 0.
shipping-ease for..." . 881 | Diseases of bees 0.00000,
gure or ....... ~ ++. ++-881, 382 | Dissecting microscope. . ae
stored before shipping .... 380 figure of
ise ch ariratats eG nbbn geet og ‘ Dissection ......,....s+ 0s + 8,
ficure of instruments for ........
y et Dividing ..................0.. 3038
Groat fares es _ method of. .............. 303
Compound eyes eee ates Orgad ce tan Sas a
Copulation ......... 0.0... perforated-zine........... 9
only ONC: «wisn aware eet use of 292. 337
‘ ills the drone ......... 95, 127 | pollar queens............. ” 316
OFA vs earnest seers a wee 186 ittle’ een-Reat ines... 5
fossil honey-comb......... 186 oes ae MsRORVEDE 2
figure of figure of.......0.0....0...
Coral-berry Driving bees..................
Corbicula .. Drone
Cee figure of antennaof...............5
C ue Po brood Ofsesacs suse iene.
OUON .. ee eee eee ee eee characters of............
figure of comb of ......
Cena ce Sis cue oavika lave dca Pang ehtinties copulation of ..
c ar TPR acne ie destruction of ............
OW ARAM tis ace vats saat eaetulds development of........... 126
figure of OL EG ceive. c5itis eaciceca ns ai He
Cow-pea......... figure of
,_ figure of £000 Of. 2 csi ccwerecames tg
cue Wane e Garey Pigs Stes yas function of..............%
EBD aes cg: essed 0 holaie Goatecbtorsts bile glands of,................
Gre WAS oo io55 2.5 Sseepsd cs santnae aise g head of
Crimson clover figure of..............
figure of how to select .
Crustacea .... leg of . Da
Cyprian race figure of
description of............. 55 longevity of
Cuckoo bees................4. 43 mating of 2 taste
Culver’s root ........-.0..0255 444 mouth parts of ........... 122
CUVIER soos cases snes Bae Y 31, 62 organs Of..............+ 123
Cyprian bees,............. 55, 310 figure of.............- 98
PULILY Ol ois ch cciessae oes 128
DOGBNE x esau x odes yes ea Ss spermatozoa of ........... 124
pamphlet Of 5... 56+ : BONE OE asses waco cave 124
Dadant’s uncapping can . 455 testes: Of 4 isices sce ene 128
TREO ic opetiia vue xa de figure of............ 93
Daisy foundation fastener..... 362 TAB TOR. dace end atin akin 285
figure of 36: A BUTO Of- ieis3:< gies eevee 284
Dalmatian bees WEIEE Oa. ciaes cape enens 121
Dandelion ......... Drumming out................ 258
Datames.............. fie sepak toate Dufour's theory 04ers e ees 146
Dextrose. oi racemose peck es oe Dummy (cee division-board).. 222
Digestive system of insects.... 89 | Dunham foundation machine.. 355
POULO OE ci55 diandeawaureee 81 | Dzierzon theory .......... 114, 125

$32 INDEX
Hal o30.2-sauene sayy escnae ete 2 ee 1G: |. AIS so oxen rac sendin aig de 387
TISES 0 ,. cians caind-e earamer ies 316 what they shouldbe....... 387
Velewtine 8 oc. cacy un dang eee BlG: | Fabricias:.. . sanse sees suas on ans 61
ae S de ifogur nai: 2 vaste 816 | Family of honey-bee.......... 38
HI GG 0. sasae Sains Geant 6 96, 104 | Farmers as bee-keepers.13, 17, 300
aolonmen of .. 97 | Favosites coral 186
Egg-laying ..... tir ULE Il RO COS se wiaderase seaatiase oneneeas
Eggs of insects................ 104 | Fecundation, voluntary
GERNOS Oly oes ew iey nsey eH 101 | Feed for bees .................
Egyptian bees ................ 57 HOW FOG oo 5 omcrdsdnsa soe ad
dnenies Of DOCS ic. :4 23 5x ears 25 482 BOW ss eoes « oe5y weaks 4%
AMES GM seis Meckve tod seenerheats 500 WDRGLO 6s screseneinceowiine ogee 265
Florida ants ...<...5 0s 501 when t0...............
bacon-beetle .............. 485; |) WeOdersy sacsie-wnaies ete ue ee ate
bee-hawks .........-...... 497 close bottom-board for .... 271
bee-killers ............ 488, 507 division-board ............ 267
bee-stabber ............... 496 TREO ois cas ig deme es 267
blister-beetle.............. 504 fruit-jars for.............. 268
California bee-killer....... 507 UTC: Of siercsnsians od haces. cid 268
ROWARUIED, gin aw pacers shoes + 502 FLO AGO Di. -: ccustivecssncrons-evaveneusia 270
King-Dird 2 ssa< dakcax waa nae 508 AiPUTe Ofc cascae veins 271
TOUSEH Sakic teiaaatend agente 499 SUCH ets eats caters deo osapacets 269
TURE s os eka eee s es eo 503 TRIPE Oho 5 na Sa ae 2g 269
Simplicity... sc evesae os 269
FAGOTTO OL. isdn sacnn ee 269
PUREE 2 2 ace ee A A Se 270
Beure Ol. vise save ce 270

1-10) 06 F<) ee 508
stinging-bug....... ..... 493
TSCHINGTNY <.ccs caeieenesae 498
TOMS cidinre Sieh Mees wah aw 509
WASPS, scent. Fafa cides Doe 505
Entomological books....... 59, 191
HEMtran Ce. 22. oe eee sen denne 214, 217
Entrance-blocks .............. 217
Entrance-guards.............. 285
TPOCG Clie gccaue ew Aas 284
Eucalyptus................ 445, 406
figure Oh er ee gesetnee | 405
Extracted honey .......... 333, 376
Dadant’s book on......... 327
How 6 Weep oo cade ccaces 333
management of ........... 327
POON OL 5. pened vases 334
Extracting ste. onde wea acces od 829
DSB ogc cd veut eu 321, 367
HONCY ici soos Lesace glee ae 321
WN ys utes da wie ee Ree es 367
Eyes of insects................ Ti
compound................ 73
illustrated ...... 78, 74, 75

BIDS 6 send oboe eo necen he 73

WT. cocks od tain ween a ae
Female orgaus
figure of..
FOMiGT ooo 544 4.2 tacm

fig ULC OL. ac asiewidernie ss

Flight of bees..........
rapidity of ‘
PYOUIOESSS oo 5 cei meee vamos
TGUPC OL: 4 a.craa se uavde veers 32
Flowers, fertilized by bees..... 895
Foot-power saw............... 251
Bares os cies sens wane 3 vie 201
POreign DOOKG ooo ce a vemmncn ws 25
POT oc 2 covcgke ats Kt Wek 44 95

HOOLES Ol juss cage 476, 477, 478

INDEX. 533

Foul Brood—(Continued): Gall-berry ........ 00.0000 eee 401
BOWE esta alas wees 480 | Gall-flies..............0..00. . 88

PHENOM? ec eatin anak 470 | Gell p TOM 26 en. 6 cae aceus en 228
salicylic acid.......... BE SOO sg cin as gaGa weak RAED 81
Foundation....... 353 | Genus.......... .. «44

American... 354 BIS io 6 sien gene wn ug.

cutting of ...... . 858 pe the honey-bee.......... 44

fastener.......... 361, B62 | German race............... 52, 309

361, 362 descriptiion of............ 52

for brood-frames.......... 359 | Gill or ground-ivy............. 430

for sectionS............... 3860 | Gillette, Prof.............. 354, 360

BUSCOPE OT onan y aalcu euced 4 ee experiments withcomb,... 360

how made é experiments with fdn ..... B54

WMBCWINGS co doads cas ONE. s Gaede Phd HS 83, 104, ie

Given, Presss.saikc-c mica Soca: he 357
POUTS GL, gag pono 4 28x sate 356
AS oo dag anlar esunae even
FUPEE OL. oe cn nes
OT UGE ins eee ans e wet Ao
Of; INGCCHS). io viercescasey
OLA LVES dts roca tieitincad taeaees
of Meckell. ii. igeuv ince s
OF Far O I cis cee a 4 noses! we
achkitette GP aivesee seeethes aes of Siebold .
Van Deusen .............. of thorax .
Foundation press functions «

HBNTC Ol as se wien tas ¥ ERE SS of upper head,............ 137
Fountain pump............... functions of .......... 137
POG TIO 5 ccna cadre oe 8s ogy wax
IAMOS (eae deresrawias an wales oiees Wolff's

figures of .227, 228, 229, 233, i

Ks mete gu accahiie: Fh bain artes 245 | Gleanings in Bee-Culture

Gallup.......... 228 | Glossary

figure of... eae 228° || GLOVES. 05:65. 65-05
History Of 5 ¢-dg¥ie:6 weiss lee 209 of buckskin
HORMAN 0.0605 pace et e88 e Les 233 of cloth

Powe: OF codes hae cous 233 of rubber

HOw mee os ov eens ge xe 229 | Glucose

Langstroth .............-. 227 | Golden honey-plant........... 440

reversible..............00+ 229-| GOldONTOG, <5. frie: stauiw eieiecd o's ess

AS ULE: OF. nies peer Fete 229 figure: Of no)... eins ceerices

BECHOM: occa entire nea a6 244 | Good candy...............000.

BIA hgh 6 ain Aneta wiace 233 | Grading honey............

WIRE 2256 cca eee Bees oak 364 figure of ....... ee

PiGUNe OE oes dds os 229, 365 | Granulated honey. ‘
Frame hives .............0.005 209 | Grapegsand bees.. ............
MUD (4 essay 3 kth sates oa 209 | Grape-vine apiary
Foire OL sic dassuaise es 209 figure! Of: vi. oasis esi eas

DeBeauvoys .........-.+5- 210 | Grounds for apiary............ 253
Wrame Mae os cscs ce ewe nd ee 231 made safe in city.......... 254

lock FOF pecs ewe ssesas 231 | Grove for apiary .......... 253, 259

figure Of.........-..4- Q3BL | Grubs ........ceevesecreeesnes
Fruit,sound,not injured by bees 394 | Guide-comb......
Fruit-jar feeder .............-- 268 .

figure Of........-.+eee eee 268 | Handling bees

Wumigation .........6+006: 380, 487 | Harrison, Mrs. L

534

GUS OP median viena casein 8 640s 71

Head of insects om
OUSINS Of. oa es ceyy aenaesy 64
figures of .......... 65, 123
Hearing in insects............ 72
Heart of insects...........,... 85

FEU O OF se ccsics Lisscwaresuesons Hoc

Heath bees ................00.
Heddon feeder ae
TP UPC ORs sys waa gees te

TEE ooo vanes a ogc cdad

SOTO ect wasiders yen Cae

Hermaphrodites .............. 118
Herzegovinian bees .
Hill’s device......

De Beauvoys.............. 2
dovetailed ......
figure of....

pe (c (2) ee

Rind $0 bays. cance
Langstroth ...............
figure of..............
lumber for................
MVIDD sieises alae vata eordlans 3
figure of..........

figure of..............

Schmidt
SUE. os. ce sincera eaves aes

INDEX.

Hive—( Continued):

two-stOry.... cece eee eee 218
Heures OL, cage weed ne ss 213
EET oui gs ere w aries ska 2 ee 297
PORTO oaks 6b awe wane 298
Hiving-basket ................ 297
Hoffman frames ........ ..... 232
TSUPC Ol: svat yeahs exe8 233
ONC iis ees season adie vacons a ayers 171
albumen of ........... 171, 173
analysis Of................ 172
composition of....... 171, 173
Tor fO0d «sexu ee Sage icone ss 873
from cider-mills .......... 394
from maple.....
from sap......
from stubble
function of ...............
grading...............
granulation of ........ 175, 328
FECIPES [OT USC. ce sea eas 384
PCN OE ao ca eee ace 334
BOUPCO UE oc as deus 7% watery 05 171
tests for ..............0006 172
unreliable ‘ 172
Honey-bee.................... 102
branch of................. 31
natural history of......... 102
Honey-board (slatted} ........ 219
queen-excluding ...... 218, 338
Honey-comb..................
NUS OE paises erase eae oiaa
description of
figure of
POSSI: sca s savas’
figure of
not uniform
opaque, why
SEVERED. OL oo iene nraw'e s va
translucent ...............
thickness of
Honey-comb coral ............ 186
figures of ............. 184, 185
Honey-dew ............ .. 389, 393
Honey-extractor ..............
American................. 822
PUTO Ole icy ates dees 822
BULOWAUE ccc ce axes eee 324
figure of.............. B24
Cover f0F ws. c sease vines evan B24
good points in............ 223
HISLOLPY OE ose p38 dion crs 821
Hrusechka’s....... ...... 321

when to use...... cman 327

INDEX. 535

Honey-knife ................86 825 | Honey-Plants— (Continued):
figure Of..............0005 825 NOOTUSOREE cy staves dane 448
Honey-locust ................. 430 Herewies’ C10 yc .6 veg 4g cue
figure Of occ asic taiens os 430 Hhoney-locust.... 02 eas eens
Honey-plants................. 389 HOPCUONIN io. y exes cack ps
BOAO 65 cacueee 2 sateen ad gf ey 409 POPS OG es cw naan
alfalfa Indian currant, 60.66. c.es
Alsike clover .....: Indian plantain
April sacheeende 40) iron-weed............ Pe sata, 444
asparagus Japan privet
ASLOTS voice. caress esrawias neaneee 449 jasmine..................6
August and September.... 448 GOSSARD NIG ia 5 sscen Hae d Hea
DEAT, << ening enagh ae eae E 409 figure of
barberry ...............60- 408 Judas-tree .............004
Masia scarce eosg es ooh ed 443 duly plants
RASEWOOEy scaven toavwdexee 432 June plants
beggar-ticks . 449 liver-leaf .....
bergamot... wee. 489 locust ......
TAC DOTY occu 4 doen cman es 427 lucerne........
black gum................ 409 lupine.........
DlACk: SACs cise vests cates 408 magnolia ......
BIOOC-TO0s eo. pe cee 402 THAN OW ie caiseic cies odevee She
blue gum ............. 406, 445 MAL VA. caosus aaiaees 8 Sacer eaien’s
Bokharaclover............ 420 MIAN EVOVE wane co eradnwes ae
VOMESCE . 0 cues ceee sw cas 9 439 manzanita .............66-
buckthorn .. ates FOO
buckwheat. 397, 430, 448
buatton-bWS «c06 ee eee geeon 440 matrimony-vine
(C1 of: alee ee eRe eee 445 May plants...............
CAINID: \...5).-ceaeeeeee sd wots 422 mesquite ......... ec eae ee
Chapman’s........ ....-. 436 mignonette ...........0.-
COIGUBDIN 5204 ccecd we ious 409 wiles, vivsc sa se eeteas
clover Was cba wee sae anes
mountain-laurel .......... 441
i mountain-mint............ 443
red motherwort... 422
mustard ..
OUT Bes cesscsvastaendmenasicitncd wretenend
coral berry orange
COMM ici SaeeGse BG Eu palmetto ;
cotton PAINS 0. cra,cosrave nissein ig a/siene
cow-pea, partridge-pea
CPOSSON au ke esas eyes ees pepper
Culver’s root persimmons :
dandelion........ ee PlOUNICP TOOL .e.scneen eee 423
date-palm ....... a poplars...... .. 405
oieehata Rasa RSS 0! TADE ni yee .. 425
a eens a aghaline soe 5 FASPDOLTY «cava evoaas 0.000, der
Sas ing GA tank Seip SOR 0 rattle-snake root.......... 440
iuras Sen gttis SSids SAVROR POON 2 aideg to eae vom 445
Rocky Mountain bee-plant 439
SAL ose ye aecdaunvas ashe eae 422
saw-palmetto ............. 411
g skunk-cabbage............ 402
Golden honey-plant ....... 440 SOUTSRUM: Cacao ainiar wees S oece 409

goldenrod ...,....-.-...5 449 SOUL-WOOd .... 6.0... eee 441

536 INDEX.

Honey-Plants—(Continued): Increase of colonies........... 293
P é PLeVENted .; oss, ce seg sees
special planting........... 452 | Indian currant.
spider-plant .............. 452 | Indian plantain
sunflower... 2.1.6.2... 449 | Inducements to bee-keeping... 14
Spanish-needle eld eae i sae 449 adaptation to women...... 17
St. John’s-wort ........... 443 aids the nation............ 20
stone crop ........... excellence for amateurs... 16
sugar-maple gives food................ 19
SUNDA sis ihe Hens e aca ais mental discipline.......... 19
sweet clover * pollinates flowers......... 20
table of...............000. Profits... 0.0... cele
Coase) oi: gare cater sige Sean recreation
tick-seed..............504. 449 | Infertile queen
CUED sora e a achis re eae g, AE Routes B2G | Tisectiocccis cnckeoncre coe ses
valuable SES Bee BALES SS 397 collection of
varnish-tree .. 409 description of
verbenas........ - 44 MMIC OOP acies cciaiesiner sole
viper’s-bugloss............ 444 larva Of............ 0-0-0.
Virginia-creeper ahaa Oe Sa 443 metamorphoses ........: 34
WERE i aes sock cee vax 4. partsof...................
white clover PUPS Of ease wasaetacs cere
white sage : respiration of............. 86
willow .. 6.2.0.0... 005. Internal anatomy of insects... 80
willow. herb Intestines................4. 90, 145
WIGTGITO: suse vawadek, we figure of .... 0... ee cece eee 140
Honey-stomach ; Introducing-cage 287, 311, 317, 318
figure of................4. Introduction of queen......... 311
Honey-vinegar................ Simmins’ method......._. 314
Horehound .... .............. very valuable............. 314
Horsesstung..............-6.- Tron-weed ....................
Horse-mint .................0. Italianizing .
figure: Of ..00.¢:e0csane vas Italian race
HOrse-pOWer sie-06 cee coe vent Gescription of.............
AUPE OL 5, goes Cond figure of..............
House-apiary ............. 044 BISCOR POR coc s aa
cee ee beet e eter e serene origin Of... 6. .... eee.
On Wheela sesso. eeca ew pis i é A
iB e 469 points of excellence in .
TUURGOMG Es 3 ba ah ere a nae aoe 321 | Japan buckwheat.............
Huber, Francis............. 22, 103 | Japan privet..................
Bhaber sbi. ksi s Veen 234 | Jasmine......................
objection to............0 08 238 FIP UTC OL 6522 swe eae RAGS
Hum of insects............... 122 | Jaws... 0... ec eee ccc eee eae
Hungarian bees............... 58 figure: Of sscas ccs esc de
Hunting bee-trees. .......... 262 | Jones, i A.,importation of bees
Hutchinson, W. Z............. OCI) GSAS te ee Aa Seedy) 55
Hymenoptera ...............4. 35 | J Sigua Saves waka one ac ese ayy td 22
description of........ ana 1380 American Bee Journal.... 22
highest of insects 4 38 American Bee-Keeper 23
Bee-Keeper’s Review. . 23
Ichneumon flies British Bee Journal ......., 25
WIO@UUY ces Sasy Saree ca laee gant Canadian Bee Journal 23
Imago state.... 6... eee Gleanings in Bee-Culture,. 23
Impregnation ............. By Lone Star Apiarist........ 24
Increase, artificial,............ 303 Progressive Bee-Keeper ... 24

INDEX. 537
Judas-tree oe eee 404 | Magnolia .............ceeceeee 431
AZUL Obs twain sone txeeos 404 | figure of............ 433
Metuts re’s uncapping- -bo 331
Kegs for honey Mailing cage.................. B19
Kidneys of insect figure of
King-bird........ Male bees...............0000..
DUG: penis sc vastes 4s state es Winbeaee 325 | Male organs................
‘uncapping 2 figure of
Krainer bees (see Carniolan).. 57 BV AS 5c- cezcins 4 ictajerere etancin ie Wiest aie
; Mammoth red clover
Labium.................... 66, 131 figure of
Gabru, 5 69s cars 4 Had eas as 66 | Malpighian ................
Ladies’ bee-dress.............. 345 | Mandibles....................
Lamp-nursery ................ 286 | Mangrove.... ...............
TANG OIS: ssp ccanise shaun ee as 122 See re en
theory of................. 122
Langstroth, Rev. L. L......... 211
Langstroth frame............. 227
Langstroth hive . 210
figure of... 210
tWOSLOTY oo vs cease vases va 210
Langstroth on the Honey-Bee 24 | March honey-plants........... 401
Larval worker................ 16L | Marketing.................... 373
fed What... occu cress as 161 WER cx kare wawae vee 2 Salsa a sae 385
figure of ....... 100 by the pound ......... 386
Laying workers... 130 CRSOB LONG ie cieccs wainscutes 386
eaused by...............-. 131 PABES LOP cooing Out de eau wibe 381
Gestroyed................. 290 POTS OE: sco aye waste 645 381
ovaries of..............00. 130 comb honey .............. 380
BOULC Of acs pees caw ny 130 extracted honey........... 376
why present.............. 131 HON GY ced. Seiind aceaen bases vas 373
Larva of bees................ 39 GQUCENS yc essc-drin3 ah ayantce anaes 385
Larva of insects .............. 98 rules for.. 380
figure of..... 100 | Marriage-flight. .. 112
great eaters... 98 | Mason bees...... veaw, 48
MOULIOE Of 00 ewes eas aa 98 | Mating of queen.............. 112
Datretlle iis: ciety ies teen 61 | Matrimouy-vine .... ......... 430
Lege of inseets. oc ice ee vese vs oO: | Mabie Insets 2 « ues wens pans 101
Lepidoptera . oes cen cna ae ce BE MAN ie econo heel asveoa cevvenve ee taes 66
LQUCRAT es 2 ops 2k tee yeas 108; 104: | Meal neccns ieds)s wee sag pee 188
TOV UI OSO: acess Soaced Sores cns eooenrice 172 feeding of ................ 188
Wigula cis pci es whee ears 66, 133 | Meal-beetle
Ligurian bee (see Italian)..... 53 | Megachile.....
SNES GE sa cacs ee comdee sue bos 54 cells of
TY ohio ois ony Bey ee 432 leg of .....
Taping Des... sca. onnea teen yas 262 | Mehring...:.....
Di 6 Gis cee srirpesspeantis a koaneice es 60 | Melipona........
Ment: j.ica 6 dicineanvianian cater
Metal rabbets
BOE xo os ng
Micropyle.....
Microscope
figure of
right side out............. 212 | Mignonette...................
figure of.............. 212 figure of...
GW PIM eG ve seascis sictenete «cio sche wlovndoua do 430 | Milkweed.................0005

538 INDEX.
Milkweed— (Continued) : figure Of.......... cee ee ee 422
PolensOk ss isso vas aes gee 424 | Open sections.................- 240
HOU OL. occu nck wun 424 | Order of honey -bee............ fi)
Miller; ‘Dr... 'C sinecs aie ones VG! |) OSM A we. wees varnishes, o snciets x ase 43
MiUMID OOS: acssanexicns ol ales aaron ove BAS | OV APIOB irs céce cies acd ce iecg ovslerndracniers 93
WESIEEY ics 2 ogc eeiea tate ae Bis AUPE OE as pees eek Geag 94
SOUS ae eae x amalins peed’ pada ts 422 of laying workers......... 130
HP ULOOL: ¢ aacctes co's wneeseess bo 422 figure of.... 130
IMI LO8 io t.cs sass Sauces wo ete ce tae Sd 506 OL WOOL REP xcs nen es oy t
TNO OE widen waa Wats De 506 figure of
Moth (see bee-moth).......... 482. | Oviduct iyo: cca tome eee eet
Motherwort................04 422
PIOUEO OF 6 ccccnia ‘sesisie-avs aoe ge 423 | Packing-box...............4..
Moulting ............... 89, 98, 184 WOUPOOL yen ngg ev ewes 4 sus
Mountain-laurel .............. 441 | Pails for honey
figure of...... figureof cca sara sYsewaey
Mountaio-mint . Palestine bees
Palette: cc asag. snc
figure: Of ieee. gdare esas wees
PO MB nc ceee Shanice Soviye te
history OL ies peace ireveaeaes Papers (see bee-papers)....... 22
Moving bres...........2...005 Paraglossa..... 9 ..... ene OC
MOving COlOMIES . occu june cae PATASICES 5 gis sie ccc ieesecg Btls a 37
Munn hive..................05 Parker foundation fastener 361
figure of..............208, PIQUE: OF oases b specs ease eseseseien 36L
Muscles of insects............. Parthenogenesis .. 114
Mis Card) its ox'ntac ceutentsine 17 28 Partridge-pea... a: ... 429
POPE IAL io cies Ase & samen boc OURS Oliaae cece cicadas 429
Muth, Cs Pes cues es ih NNER RE B79 || Pasturage: oo vss siewes ss ta Bsg
DEUON BOT ER ace owas vedas wee Beer | POC OGG Go. ox wah se sakannseae 313
NOUPOLOl co. assesses oko 3 figure: Ofc svccac cece 312
Meyrinpods. cance oe sowe vas Bt POPPOr vans giant se iearcadentere seat 406
TUG OP coe 5 shows ebb 406
NeCtarix, 2 sae e¢ nuns sees ddan nos Perforated 2m .. goacsseeac ee 219
digestion ................. Periodicals (see papers) .. 22
Nervous system of insects Persimmon .......... ... 409
Nowe OF 21.42 ype revere. PRE BOC TES fica a cave chek wees 86
(0) a, PHAR YN 36. o.cccsientanie Aa Set 89
feure Ol. srs us eens cs PHO ota w aches ve inkn ease 479
Weuter PEGS... cds 4c yiwee naan L60 TOU] DOO" 260s bawaas xe 479
New Deedireist sc ees a cose 8 ee Pigkled Or000n a. 5 cx 4s yes as de 481
Newman, ThomasG........... Pista OCU Rit vncon ewes ee ku 169
INUGI OL 5 soetnist cy cah cureadeustneteanoa-ast PISINSGRTIOUE, ay casa cdwne coe 240
hives for.. CASO OP: citidenate saduncdee wre: 24L
how forme firures of ......... 241, 242
Doolittle’s plap....... Planta, Dr.. 108, 141, 161, 177, te
Wire OOS cy aeks soy ogc eae analyses of CHV cic sess Se
cia dices sikaeady agiayed deneyods analyses of wax........... i
valiete MAURO TS wad op ee compo:ition of pollen..... 188
apache Resa heen estate Plant-lice. ........ 0... 8
figure Ob, woes sieas esa eas
OF APPL i. o sescei acsrinsia Soaiacs eo
figure of
OE. RePOM. «23.47 earns «
of elm.............
of sycamore
Obs scence sine eee onanttenen eat 3 422 > WIIONE os a aces eta oe :

INDEX.

composition of.
figure of ve cscess wees
function of...............
how gathered.............
nature of................. 190
Pollen-basket................. 151
AGUS OF. svsecioces wees
Pollen-combs an
figure Of. cscs

DY DOCB 25.c0h orci ss salaceandle a8

very Important, cass coy. ae 395
RODIBIS! ov cacciore steicandie nates sevens 405
Porter bee-escape ............. 341
POPHCO:) scsi aucnsnns ade ices
Pound section r
Praying mantis (see mantis)... 503
Pridgen’s queen-rearing....... 278
Products of bees ..............

Profits of bee-keeping
PLOpPOlis) sisvcsicw's: auyes wean «seh ot
TRUATO OF cs cach x's nace Soom

Pulvilli.........
figure of.. a

Pupa of insects............... 99
AB UPCIOL nes cen care oad

ASU OL. . c.na sk es
clipping wing of..
development of ...

dollar spire cama: ae
DEES ME ocd wth ceva aes
ROUTE OL ye exnals pene amarces 101
CYVOS: Ole. x viedgan vegies ss .-» 105
fecundity of .............. 106
fed by workers............ 107
POU Oh ices wnis warwe'e 3 101
food of..... cen LOT
Fora OF, «ue. vase LOR
FUNCHON OF oie cowie osscee ove 119

glands of.......... ore 105

539

Queen—( Continued);

how reared ............... 273
unfertile................08 118
introduction of .. .. 287
legs of....... 106
figure Of cies ese sers ,- 104
ey (3) ee 117
LOS ei Y asusiaive hin eee
mailing of..
marketing ..
mating of.................
mouth-parts of............
ovaries of........
figure of
piping of .............
TOATIDG Of ioc. i65 cies oko vg
Alley method
Doolittle method ...... 277
Pridgen method....... 278
removing of .............. 337
shipping of............... 317
spermatheca of............ 103
BEET ys saysicins <ishaig-ctangsc acai 118
SUING OF, 6 veoiiss citrate ete tare 106
OU PG Oo ay 5 aie a Bilis wee 105
figure of.............. 104
tap fOr. woe ccecs cons snes 285
where to purchase ........ 316
why developed............ 112
young virgin easily intro-
MCOds 2 iiss eae wean eey 314
Queen-cage ................... B11
figure of......311, 312, 317, ae
Queen-cells................... 110
TOOLS OF 4 css ss cadaain 111, 288
CUPS. 6: Lawas ayaa nme a rteais 277
figures of ......... 278, 279
formed when.......... 165, 274
LOPMS! TOR |. orcas ooiatins sisene 277
MULE OF vies scaes vais. 277
placing innucleus......... 282
WHC DOSE os aad cag amas os Lr
Queen-excluding honey-board
OPUTE Olesk. sets viens eo ew 219
Queen lamp-nursery .......... 286
Queen-rearing ................ 273
HOW CONE: iscsi oes 's oe 273
selection in............... 274
Queen-register..............5. 291
figure of
Queen-trap ..
. figure of.
Quinby hive

figure of

540 INDEX.

Quinby smoker ............... 347
AB UNC Of se ecsiens sean arate e cats 347
TRAD DEG sot 5 a6eh have alaeew on 216
Races Of beeSies «a5 ax dase 52, 310
ED G scke Miak Mileameicing aineee as 425
AU GULCLOL 3 ci sccis 2 Sass a eeianeee 425
Raspberry..............0.. 397, 427
Reaumur....... 60,71, 74
FRC yore oss 4 kn 8 Scag vs hens 445
Red or soft maple............. 402
Figure Of sss cscs seuh aways s 402
Reese cones................... 341
DE OE as cence omenronar 340
Register for queen............ 291
Reproductive organs... .92, 103, 124
LOMA Oso Wee evict 93, 103
PEUUG OF case ncn ead 94, 105
1104-1 (eee ee Cann re eer 93, 124
figure Ofss oc¢sy cade ess 93
Respiration of insects...... 86, 88
MOUPCHON 4s osc y cae a8 a 33
Respiratory system of insects.. 86
Reversible frames............. 229
IROVGPSIN EG ton..3 2s cers tears saens ens 839
Ripe HOMEY co cataecuceed newy wows 8384
Robber-flies.......0....0....04 488
Robbing .... ... . 473
POMIOUY TOE ook sa weceen . 474
Rocky Mountain bee-plant .... 439
AB ORE! Of, oh ceadice s ssesh doshas 437
Root, Ac Tico wee ieecs uae pase 23
Royal jelly...............0004. 108
Bae cae oir sies eueis a hoeusa teens 422
blaelias sauce seu phen Ets 408
AS UTE OF esses ke eataes 410
WIG bs feta sua steeper ages 408
figure: Of. 55 sqieiess eos 411
BalCylie BOM oa. ecg b ame d 479
fortoul braod 4. niece sas 4s 479
for mucilage.... ;
eee glands ae 4.3
MOB W. Go ctus. a hetatore ctincitrnsedecchite witte tnt as 202
Ba GS or dae cage acs
Saw-palmetto..............0..
SAW-tADIE a. cs on cceea thea eae is 5
Scale insects.................. t
HEU COs conics cccictesins sesicaciee 3
remedy for
Schiemenz............
PREOTY OE icc diay ee pears
OHONTEID 6g wiig yy sexe
SCPA DORs ceaavcsctnes aahdees eae gse
ni f=.0 1 3120) ee renee eee caer 390
Sealed broods was seep x2 2iacx 0 x8 162

SOCHONS orca nse -d. cu need tee 239
adjusting of.............. 339
comb: honey in, s .4ss4< sees 239
GOVOURUOD oc cad 0 hewmen 240

figurerOb eii.20 vae se eats 240
freed of bees.............. 340
getting bees into... .. 2.0.45 339
HIStO0y Ol. occas y pees a ua yn 239
how placed ............... 241
INV CPAteS x.y vss. s eeoa sage 247

figures of. ... 247,
in wide frames............

figure of. ‘

DEVS ase viva y keds a lee ee 28 242

size and style of ......¢
width of...........
Separators............ 242,
Shade-board

TOMO S 2 ciscesat drasenere cverats, eters

DICRES ain: <3 9 ode 8 BERS 320

figure of

tigure of

figure of
Slotted honey-board.
Small intestine................

BOA EOL crea casey Shon Atavauete ns

INDEX. 541
Smyrnian bees................ 58 | Surplus case..................
Sourwood ... .............00. 441 Hdd OD. 2 sie s cis e-stinicie sae
figure BL oc wan en vatnlrw ners 440 | Surplus comb honey ..........
Spanish-needles Soest rere 449 | Swammerdam..............
Species of APIS. eiokies aoe a seu 52 | Swarming.................
adonsoni 46 eutshort...........
HOPOB cies 5 o2.qen ain Sess 51 preparation for .... a
comb of 51 PICV CUE i.e cmon sean: taccs
dorsata Nasnaids aescesd 48 | Swarms—
DG's ber: Paneer pene ne erOreRY dL absconding ............... 305
comb of 50 PELOR sot wala see eo si cccesen's 168
: figure Of. s.....5ci-cs 50 MIVIN GY Ac Aecesstsedendied Aneczs 297
MMNICOLOM os csnacea samc naa 48 BO CONG 9p ise oe cisievacorsiaad suwans 6 168
BOW BBE 5 cies-otiza ce acciosess 8 Sckietie 2 46 PREVENled gp. suis x eaux 300
Specialists ...............0..... 13 several at once........ 296, 300
Species of honey-bee.......... 52 | Sweat theory .................
Spermatheca......... .94, 103 | Sweet clover..
Sperm-cells....... ay BBy Vee Fb): 0) ager a
TEULC OL e:.-. csctdessconhioe acest 124 | Syrian race...............5.
Spermatophore ............... 124 description ...............
Spermatozoa .............. 92, 124 :
Spider-plant.................. 452 | Tachina-fly ...............0.00. 498
figure Ol: iis cs varce-wdien vs 451 OS UNO Of sss evnton site ar 498
SONS oc de diets wa aay ween 85, 508 | Tailor-bee .................66. 42
Spring dwindling ............. 6G | EOP a aes v ahue oan Baene be 148
SUAPUOR ccc sci secs ceee cdareay leanne 361 | Taylor’s foundation fastener .. 361
Sterile queen ................. 118 | Teasel............
Stimulative feeding. ..264, 273, 401 figure of.. Safe
Stinging bug ................. AOB™ |! DOLE ROY sca, sis ganar seapsstvene se Serve ane
figure Of .............. 494, 495 | Temperature for winter ....... 457
Stingless bees................. 40 | Test for honey................ 1%5
Sting of bees.................. 156) |. exas: fever: . dss coves scat 35
ammonia for.............. SOOM], PAOLA dss iccte aces: Saints iia a wAsd %8
anatomy of............... 156 muscles of................ 78
description of............. 156 HQULC: OF sseesdieee ac 78
figure of . 157, 159 OF INSCCUB Soins sede eins 64
glands of... ase 156 OPTANG OD igi esate a aan use 65
how cured................ 849 | Tick, Texas................... 35
how to prevent............ 848, | ‘Tickseedsiccess segs sac cened cee 449
of other Hymenoptera..... 5G: - | -SETDIA avs 22 cisterna cerned os 148
physiology of............. 156
St. John’s-wort ......... ..... 448
StOM BOD iaticc dveireleeng os Mogren 145
OL TREC Bc isos heeds 90
Stomach-mouth............... 144
GOUT DE soso esas ieca ds 148, 144
Stomach-valve ................ 144
BUTE OL, trate aie 142 34
MEOUE-CPOD 4.025 case wane cease 431 PUT OF pu savy euees 67, 132
Sub-earth ventilator........... 462 | Tongue register 307
ROBT EY cdoee ainda @18eadd Rueies W'scey Tk EBON ocd teeae cages BARE RAE
SUI PHUTING 65. caaes ve é figure of
Sumac of insects
Sunflowers Transferring
Supers clasps ...
COMB i oiscer5 ok eat CaS Sa

542

Transferring— (Continued):

Heddon’s method......... 258
Old MOtHOd «6 cus cseaw dees 259
Transformations of insects.... 96
POMIPLELG ans sc avupeeeee stuns 96
incomplete................ 102
stages Of ees esses ses eyes 96
Traps—
PONE eased cnsnes Dae eens
QUCON secs e steno deine ahr
Tread-power
WPEIZON Din %s fag aes BOAR ENS
SEROGHANLER 5 acide ge sisiene: phar 2 case
FAV SUPOT: vais siscceoyaies acicedaaeh
figure of
Tulip bark-louse.......... 389
BOUPO Ol. scene owas icee 389
RUC so au ge 4 sedowe wae Shaa0 427
figaresOf 3 occ cs pele. leans 5 ao 426
Tunisian bee.................. 58
UpCeU PIN. csu su daw s ewlte eg aoe 825
Uncapping-can ............... 331
HEULE! Of vicscavnasnd vate te 331
Unéappine-b0e 424201 saas%s o0 831
PEUTE OF. acd ajcse dessa bone 831
Uneappine-knife.. accv aes avce B25
Bingham’s 325

Uniting

WOPWIRIC POE oy saben eo ce nw ae
BUD ss tras wine ade ugodenes tole ead
AIP UTS Of... ised cence d heed 2 oe
WErbenals sade swings sakee une e ad
VACBAY sinae 2 ux
Viper’s-bugloss . ¢
War gil. 3: ctehisancacsinn is vaeek ee osece de 3,
Virginia-creeper
Vision-of imstts,.c¢c:4caccn e 8
Voie GL UCC. ng ook ew vou Too, 147
Voice of queen.............604 169
Wagener, Samuel. vias oss ee ue 22
"WES DSi. -o-s-syines evs c, actaoures ata 505
Water for bees................ 161
Ks cited weet ane Venn meine ® 176, 367
adulteration of........ 146, S72
DIGR CHIR ees suey eaten eee 372
ClOAN SIDS ic. jc05 4 ashe Coa woud 872
ORTAClOP! oc kot ean ee oe 367
Boardman ............ 369
POWER « sis vis) ahuasan 368
FiGUTE Of os ies 368

INDEX.

Waz—(Continued):

BOWIE Ol: ucve ees oa
function of...............
how seeured . 42.45 sas 400s
MALULC Ole occ de neem d owe
POTN Of eas a ues numero ee

POMUDUIY 464 cue ce woes

why secreted..............
Wex-Ox Factor wu, cis sce was cee
Boardman ................

figure of.............. 367
Wax-jaws .............00.0055 154
Beare OF cis nner4 paw 152, 153
Wax-plates ............-....4. 155
POUR OCOE, a wa ess Ex ee RE 155
"WAR ROCKCUS: cue ve naa 6080s wa 155
MOUTON os 4 5 ass Vees be 155
"WREADLOBS wc been iuceniwchaee 370
DOOTO OL. casks xine ee B71
Wax-sheets................00. 358
Wedding-flight ............... die
Wee bee-mot: pac yoy oh dene as 487
RPV OL 6 asin sweeney 5 osc ase 487
remedy for................ 487
Weetentot bees. 4 .oks vs veds 121, 130
Weight of honey-load......... 130
Weight of pollen-load.........
West cell-proteetor 4.4. osu ss
POWO OL. pied ado nage
White clover.............. 397, 413
TPUPO LOL. sseaiesie.§, agra avasncson 13
WILG S826 <u cove eases ddasaes
TOUTS Oli aia x cca cena ad
Whitman pump...............
Who may keep bees...........
Who should not keep bees....
Wide frames.................4.
HEUKE OL ou. o4 cues 244, 245,
Wild bees ........... 40, 41, 42,
WAllOW: se ansncateats peso 2 Gamien.'s
AO UT OOF 55, wenesecs ¥ genet aes
Willow-herb ......... 395, 397, 450
DPR SOE cao ypariiecnam ee oa ones 450
Wind: brea 3. saccz sas toca saac 235
OD hao a ee ailing x a entn y hoes 45
OE DOG eee ssecs 6 sentisst avewtsedecetc 45
ACUTE Of ise sothes et hae, 45

INDEX. 543
Wings— (Continued) : Workers— (Continued) :
_ Of insects..............0 8. 8 figure of ..... 149, 152, 153
Wintering bees ............... 454 MUGS: sic scscsrsccierecctvecnsare 151
why difficult...........0.. 454 POSLOTIOR oo curaa vw aces 151
requisties to .............. 456 FIPUPO OF oa een 152
Wired frames............. 230, 364 longevity Of eo cxeacxavexs
PQUNGHOF, ozs kts acai blscgine, 365 mouth-parts of
Wire imbedder,............... 366 figures of .........
AP UTE LOR. seis asanscdacci owes 366 OVATIOS Of 6o.6-5: perisasecanew ee
Wisteria: dcotescmenea wma 407 | __ figure of,.............
FiGUTCS OL iiss sieed sesccce vias 408, 409 | ~— stingof...................
Women as bee-keepers........ TP BI Tain onan ne xceate
Workers: cocnon soma aniun eee eA29 f LONGUS Ofrcccnirranccnsias
development of ........... 10 GRUPO Ol cecws- ean
HD COE ee eo wet tueceviasssonase

NOOO. OF WAIVE nes cg en gia
function of. Seen
of olds...

OOO wie cate poner betave ce 41
Work, George: W sso cesses xs 22
Po 316
ASUTCLOL, cs wine. gs. csws meres 815
ADC srs talgs oie a Pa a vol end 219
perforated ............ 219, 86

CCCCECCECECEECECCECEECECCECECCECE

CCCCCCCECLECCECECCESe

The American Bee Journal.

In order to become a progressive bee-keeper, and at the same time
realize the most money from your bees, you cannot afford to be with-
out a good bee-paper. The American Bee Journal, established in
1861, is a16-p. weekly, wellillustrated, and fully up-to-date in every-
thing pertaining to bee-culture.

Some of Its Departments:

Contributed Articles.—Discussions of important topics and bee-
keeping experiences—by experts.

Convention Proceedings.—Just what this implies.

Dr. Miller’s Answers.—In charge of Dr. C. C. Miller, a bee-keeper
of over 40 years’ experience, who answers all questions. Invaluable
to beginners in bee-keeping.

Beedom Boiled Down.—The cream of current bee-literature,

Hasty’s Afterthoughts —In charge of E. E. Hasty, who reviews
what has appeared in recent copies ofthe American Bee Journal,
pointing out errors and commending the good things.

Our Bee-Keeping Sisters.—In charge of Emma M. Wilson, a
prominent aud successful bee-keeper. ;

From Many Fields.—Reports. short experiences, etc.

Honey and Beeswax Market Quotations.

8@> The Bee Journal is $1.00 a year (Sample Copy Free); or for
$2.00 we will mail it a year with a copy of this (Prof. Cook’s) book.

George W. York & Co., 334 Dearborn St., Chicago, Il.

THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE;

OR

MANUAL OF THE APIARY,

By A. J. COOK, Pomona College, Claremont, California,
Late Professor of Entomology in the Michigan State Agricultural College.

19,000 Already Sold. 544 Pages. 295 Ilustrations.

This is a new edition of Prof. Cook’s Manual of the Apiary, enlarged
and elegantly illustrated. The first edition of 3000 copies was exhausted
in about 18 months—a sale unprecedented in the annals of bee-culture.

This edition has been thoroughly revised, much néw matter and many
costly illustrations added, and it has been produced with great care,
patient study, and persistent research. It comprises a full delineation of
the anatomy and physiology of the honey-bee, illustrated with many ex-
pensive wood engravings; the products of the honey-bee; the races of
bees; full descriptions of honey-producing plants, trees, shrubs, etc.,
splendidly illustrated; and last, though not least, detailed instructions for
the various manipulations necessary in the apiary.

READ THE FOLLOWING OPINIONS OF THE BOOK.

I believe yours the best practical work in the world.—Z. L. Lang-
stroth.

I feel like thanking God that we have sucha man as Prof. Cook to
take hold of the subject of bee-culture in the masterly way in which he
has done it.—Gleanings in Bee-Culture.

It isa book which does credit to our calling; one that every bee-
keeper may welcome as a fit exponent of the science which gives pleasure
to all who are engaged in it.— American Bee Journal,

Cook’s new ‘‘Manual of the Apiary’? comes with high encomiums
from America, and certainly it appears to have cut the ground from under
future book-makers for some time to come.— British Bee Journal.

Prof. A. J. Cook’s ‘‘Manual of the Apiary’’ contains, besides the
description of the anatomy and physiology of the honey-bee, beautifully
illustrated, the products and races of the bees, honey-plants, the instruc-
tions for the different operations performed in the hives. All agree that
it is the work of a master, and is of real value.—L’ Apiculteur, Paris.

Every point connected with the subject is handled in a clear, exhaus-
tive, yet pithy and practical manner.— S/tural New- Yorker.

The most thorough work on the apiary ever published, and the only
one illustrating the various bee-plants.—Lansing (Mich.) Republican..

Treating the art in allits different branches in a clear, concise, and
interesting manner.— The Canadian Entomologist.

It is the fullest, most practical and most satisfactory treatise on the
subject now before the public.—Country Gentleman.

We have perused with great pleasure the vade mecum of the bee-
keeper. It is replete with the best information on everything belonging
to apiculture. To all taking an interest in this subject we say: Obtain
this valuable work, read it carefully, and practice as advised.—Agricuwl-
turist, Quebec.

It is so greatly superior to all the other works that I recommend no
other.—D. A, Jones.

Price, by mail, $1.20. Liberal discount made to dealers, and to news-
papers who may desire to send it as a premium.

A. J. COOK,

Claremont, California. Author and Publisher.

aoe
He tea yr