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Titles includéd. an this Colleéctszon are listed in the volumes published by the Cornell University Press in the series THE LITERATURE OF THE AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, 1991-1995, Wallace C. Olsen, series editor. (9.000202803)1000000000000000000060000000000000000000000000000000000000000005000000084 a =e CULTURE ee E CITRUS IN CALIFORNIA. timed Ae RESEARCH BY B. M. LELONG, ‘ SECRETARY STATE Boarp oF HorRTICULTURE, AND CHIEF HorTICULTURAL OFFICER, Assisted by Experienced Horticulturists. i ~ 5 3 SACRAMENTO: 4 a J. JOHNSTON, 3 5 : 4 S SUPERINTENDENT STATE PRINTING. 3 1900. ie UVSC UUUUUUUU UU eUUUUEUUUUUUUULUUUSUUUUUUUUUUUULUUUCUUUVUVELecocoLErLL LUULCULTELVESS SSeS aE FUVUVUUUUULUUUUUUUUUUUUEU UU UCU VU UU LULU UCU UUULUUU UL UU UUUUUUUUUUUUULUUUUUUUUUUDUUUULUUUUUUUUUUULUUUULULUUUUUUUUULULUUUUUU EEUU UU UUEUU UU UDUUEUSUUUUUE, Cornell University LIBRARY OF THE DEPARAMENT-OF-E NFSMeERRY Hew Work State College of Agriculture CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE I. WASHINGTON NAVELS—THE “KING OF ORANGES.” (REpDUCED.) CULTURE OF THE CITRUS IN CALTFORNTA. RESEARCH BY B. M. LELONG, SECRETARY STATE BoarpD oF HorTICULTURE, AND CHIEF HorTICULTURAL OFFICER, Assisted by Experienced Horticulturists. SACRAMENTO: A. J. JOHNSTON, : : : : SUPERINTENDENT STATE PRINTING. 1900. CALIFORNIA STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE ELLWOOD COOPER ___..__.-President..._.. -------.--------Santa Barbara Commissioner for the Los Angeles District. FRANK H. BUCK........--.. Vice-President....-.... -.---------. Vacaville Commissioner for the Napa District. WILLIAM B. GESTER..------ Treasurer _._._..--.-------- -------- Newcastle Commissioner for the El Dorado District. PUSS Ti SVE PG void ere IIOP oc se cane aoc eens Se Sacramento Commissioner for the State at Large. STASI ACS 0A SER OE atte eee Ic Stead meaner se NO Commissioner for the State at Large. De WHEOVSTOCR aces « awer vecepewaraseemeeaieeernage oan memeinn Sacramento Commissioner for the Sacramento District. BEGIN onset Oe Bee ORO Ne 6.56 SecdNM eq cose diees. Wo esk sy Goce a Be ons Ae hee 7.51 Mediterranean Sweetie. <22.6 Jose ecteprerep ed ie eee 5.03 The average difference in weight of the three varieties of the light or heavy sizes is 6.36 pounds. Taking the same size for the determination of monthly variation in weight, and comparing the lightest and heaviest month’s fruit of the three varieties named, the following variations in monthly weights appear for the 176 size: Washington Navel— Pounds, Me Drilany es a ee es eee nak een eet eee set MAGN Lasse Goes WTA os. cc nee a antes Semen uae ee nom eam omnes Seedling— WebDruary sexe ec setae om ees Sad szes cede S ase eee eesces 61.24 Maisie eed soeueo sneer sei ease iene coeeee wer On Ok Wms Gosaescor oan so8 Garnier Oaea sax eiee wes 6.27 Mediterranean Sweet— Mia yin es See ee a hacen ck seis seme oe eeseeaeee es O0I90 TMM eect ee ae ae ay Ne PR Ia I Sats Sas ap NOS a 67.10 WAP ho ccas baie oo See Se eee Se oo ea eee 1.14 These deductions are of value in determining the proper sizes of each variety to grow and the profitable season to market each variety. 126 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. The monthly variation of the Washington Navel shows that it matures early, and that it is practically uniform in weight. With the Seedling it is different; the increase in weight from February to May is over ten per cent—surely agood argument against sending to market the immature fruit of the former date. Standard Car of Oranges.—The regulations governing the variety of size in the “standard car of oranges” were adopted by the Fruit Growers and Shippers’ Association of Southern California, as follows: Navel Oranges.—A standard car of Navel oranges to consist of sizes 96’s to 200’s inclusive; not over 15 per cent 96’s and 112’s. Any excess of 15 per cent 96’s and 112’s to be considered off-sizes and invoiced at a reduction of 50 cents per box. Sizes 64’s, 80’s, and 250’s, Navel, to be considered off-sizes and in- voiced at a reduction of 50 cents per box from the price for regular sizes. Sizes 216’s, in Navels, to be considered off-sizes and invoiced at a reduction of 25 cents per box. ° Seedlings, Mediterranean Sweets, etc—The standard car of other varieties (except Valencias and Paper-rind St. Michaels) to consist of sizes 126’s to 250’s inclusive; not to exceed 15 per cent 126’s and not over 15 per cent 250’s. Any excess of 15 per cent 126’s and 15 per cent 250’s to be considered off-sizes and invoiced at a reduction of 25 cents per box. Sizes of seed- ling oranges larger and smaller than 126’s to 250’s, inclusive, to be considered off-sizes and invoiced at a reduction of 25 cents per box. : It is understood that each car of oranges may contain a reasonable quantity of off-sizes, at the reductions named above. THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—DISEASES, ETC. 127 ORANGE DROPPING, DISEASES, ETC. Generally during the month of June, and as early as May In some years, growers experience a continuous dropping of young fruit, due to various unknown causes. *“ As a rule, growers ascribe it entirely to hot winds, and it is doubtless true that the extremely hot weather finds trees partially dormant and the damage is wrought on the young, tender oranges and lemons before the sap could start to flow- ing freely. But on the other hand, we can see orchards that still have a fair crop of fruit. Why is it? is easily asked, but not so easily answered. The most universal remedy that is recommended is water, and in so far as it is used to put the tree in good condition, is doubtless effective. To do that water should be applied two or three weeks prior to the hot or cold weather, or in other words, the tree should at all times be in strong growing condition. To accomplish this, water in abun- dance down deep in the ground is necessary. Surface irriga- tion is of little avail. It will be noticed that those irrigators who are applying water in the furrow until it reaches the lower end, are the ones who scarcely ever have a crop, whether we have hot or cold weather, or the best of conditions. And right here I might say that the ideal season never comes, for there is always something with which to contend. I plan to irrigate my trees every six weeks, running the water eight or ten hours in each furrow. On heavy soil this would not be sufficient, but on my sandy loam it is. Following the irrigation I culti- vate deeply and thoroughly. I deem the deep cultivation essential so that the surface roots may be destroyed. This is still better accomplished in the wet season by deep plowing. I am thoroughly convinced that deep plowing is beneficial in all seasons, and especially so in dry ones. The roots are forced to go lower to where the supply of moisture is more permanent, consequently such trees are not so quickly affected by any hot wave or sudden change. Therefore, I would say that the first requisite of always securing good crops of oranges is deeply rooted trees irrigated so thoroughly that at all times there is in store a plentiful supply of moisture. Should I stop here and say that this is the one thing needful, I *C. B. Messenger, before Farmers’ Institute at Pomona, October, 1896. 128 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. presume there are some who might declare it a fallacy, and quote their own experience in proof. In fact, in my inquiries I consulted one orchardist who had irrigated thoroughly three different plots, respectively four weeks, two weeks, and one or two days before the first hot wave this spring, and yet a large percentage of his crop went to the ground.” Wm. C. Fuller, of Colton, says: “I find the best crops near the heads of irrigating streams, and use the method described as so fatal by Mr. Messenger. To be sure I do not get as large a crop as some who use this same method. I had twelve car- loads from about fifteen acres.” Yellow and Variegated Leaves on Orange and Lemon Trees.—It is doubtful if there is a section in the State where orange and lemon trees cannot be seen with yellow and variegated leaves. This has been ascribed to various reasons, such as too much or not enough water, too much or lack of cultivation, excessive cold, excessive heat, etc. Prof. 8. M. Woodbridge, of Los Angeles, says: “ Without wishing to offend any one for ill treating so good and paying a friend as the orange and lemon tree, we would suggest the answer in one word: Starvation. The remedy then would naturally lie in feeding. In reviewing the analyses of the soils in Southern California, one is naturally struck with the defi- ciency in sulphuric acid that such soils show. Having been brought up in a section of country where it was definitely settled that the ‘only expensive ingredients that any soil was likely to be deficient in were nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash,’ and considering that there the form of phos- phate was invariably a superphosphate, i. e., made soluble by sulphuric acid, and further finding that untreated bone is the usual form in which it is used there, and also being con- vinced that the soil analysis theory had been exploded years since and discarded by people the world over who are looked upon and considered ‘authorities,’ and having shown, by actual field tests, that potash was beneficial even on soils that had been reported as very rich in potash, and when the theo- retical advice had been given that no potash would be required for many years; and also having followed out the experiments of A. B. Griffiths, Ph.D., F.R.S., of England, with the use of sulphate of iron, and also similar experiments conducted in THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—DISEASES, ETC. 129 France, and not having obtained as satisfactory results from a certain test plot on wornout soil as could have been desired, the writer used sulphate of iron in conjunction with the test plot. The result was so satisfactory that when one of the large growers of lemons and oranges last September asked what remedy could be applied to prevent his trees from turning yellow and much of the fruit from ripening prematurely when not half grown, I suggested a liberal dose of complete fertilizer— that is, one containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash— together with about seventy-five pounds of sulphate of iron per acre. The orchard had previously been liberally treated with stable manure, yet some of the trees were not in a healthy condition. Now the trees have a healthy green appearance, and nearly if not quite all of the new growth is of a bright or deep green color, whereas the trees that were not treated have the new growth showing a variegated, streaked leaf. Since the first experiment was tried several other plots have been treated in the same way, with the most gratifying results. As to the why and wherefore of the encouraging results obtained from the use of sulphate of iron, we confine ourselves to quoting what Dr. Griffiths says upon the subject: “Three years’ experiments show that a small dressing of a hundredweight of iron sulphate per acre is a most beneficial manure. “¢The author’s proposition (Chemical News, Vol. XLVI, p. 27) was that a “fairly large proportion of soluble iron in a soil is favorable to the growth of plants developing a large amount of chlorophyll.” And all subsequent investigations on the growth of crops with iron sulphate have entirely confirmed the accuracy of that proposition. “¢A]] goils contain iron as a constituent, but the iron is not always in a form to be readily taken up by growing crops. This being so a crop must suffer, iron being one of the ingre- dients requisite for the formation of green chlorophyll. “¢Chlorophyll is a substance of primary importance in every plant (giving rise in the first instance to starch, woody fibers, fats, and carbohydrates generally); therefore it is necessary to add soluble iron compounds, where the soil is deficient in these ingredients, or where the iron is not in a form for root-absorp- tion. Some soils are certainly deficient in soluble iron, and-no 9c 130 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. amount of nitrates, ammonia salts, etc., will replace this ingredient. The farmer must add soluble iron salts to his land if he desires to obtain a full yield with the least expense. Dr. E. Wolff, the German authority, found that when soluble iron was omitted in certain culture experiments, the young plants became yellow and sickly, but they quickly became green and assumed a luxuriant growth when a small quantity of iron solution was added.’ (Griffith on Manures, p. 268, etc.)” Gum Disease.—There are various forms of so-called “gum diseases.” One attacks both young and old trees at the crown and roots of the tree, while another appears on the large limbs in the form of a “scab,” and another on the trunks and main branches. The most deadly of these is the “root form,” which is preva- lent almost everywhere. This form of the disease is first detected on the trunks of trees close to the ground, and is an exudation of the sap, which breaks through the bark and con- geals in the form of a gum. No citrus tree is free from the disease, and one of the newest facts regarding its appearance is that frequently the finest trees are attacked. It often hap- pens that in making a search for the early development of the disease, no trace of it is observed until exudation has freely commenced. It often happens, too, that in digging away the surface soil around the stem, little more than a black scratch about one to two inches long has been discovered, which when cut open shows the gummy fluid more or less encircling the wood under the bark. Remedy for the Gum Disease.—The best method of con- trolling this disease is to cut away the bark surrounding the place from whence the gum is oozing, in order to detect the main parts affected. The wood where the gum is oozing is cut out with a chisel and left for a day or so, to determine if all the disease has been removed. If it is not altogether removed, the affectedsparts soon commence to ooze out gum, when more of the wood is cut until it ceases. Yellow. streaks of sour sap are generally seen in the grain of the wood, which are traces of the disease. If the affected parts show no further exudation it is proof that the disease has been removed, and the affected parts so treated are either waxed over or covered with a good PELL PLATE CITRUS CULTURE. ( CALIFORNIA BF poe WS ae x OF rs BET ee Z tes ee Trunk of tree cured of citrus scab dis- An infected tree cured by the removal of the Tree infected by gum disease, showing removal of ease by the removal of same. diseased portion. park over infected part, ready to cut out. THE GUM AND SCAB DISEASES PREVALENT ON CITRUS TREES. 132 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. coat of rubber paint. Where the disease has reached around the tree there is no possible cure for it, and in such cases it is better to remove the tree and put a healthy one in its place. The spot where the tree stood is disinfected by a slacking of fresh lime, and leaving the ground exposed for a reasonable time. This disease being of a bacterial form, all chips and scrapings should be carefully collected and burned, to prevent the spread of the disease through the orchard. The tools should also be dipped in some disinfectant before being used on other trees. Some growers are led to believe that badly diseased trees can be restored to perfect health by cutting back the tops and removing all large limbs to force a new growth. In all badly infected trees there are always a few healthy roots that furnish enough vitality to the tree to keep it alive. The cutting away of all the foliage forces new growth, and while the trees some- times produce large, coarse, puffy, and sour oranges for a few years, they finally succumb to the effects of the disease, and it is only a waste of time and energy to try to restore them. *“Crude commercial carbolic acid was found to be the best remedy, and was used in varying strengths. When mixed with its own weight of water it was found to answer the pur- pose admirably, the gum having been previously cut away, so that the application could be made directly on the parts most affected. The result in almost every case was that new bark began to grow over the diseased parts, at the lines where the old bark was healthy. In cases where the roots had become affected, the ground was carefully pulled away from the roots of the tree to the depth of from six to ten inches, and, after a day or two exposure, the diluted carbolic acid was applied, and in the course of three or four weeks a second application was made, when the soil was put back to its original position, and subsequent applications of diluted carbolic acid were made, from time to time, above the surface of the ground. Coal tar has been found to be very efficacious also. It is applied by taking the soil away from the roots of the tree and putting from one half pint to a quart (according to the size of the tree) in the soil about the roots of the tree, and covering the tar *Prof. 8. M. Woodbridge, in essay before Furmers’ Institute, Santa Bar- bara, 1894. THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION. 133 with the soil so removed. Among those so treated are some trees in the famous orange avenue of Sunny Slope. Too much care cannot be exercised in the use of carbolic acid. The strength of the commercial acid varies, and it must be diluted to such an extent that the vegetable tissues will not be destroyed by it.” FERTILIZATION. *“The question of fertilizers for the orange orchard has in some form been almost continuously before the club. What kind of fertilizers are the best, and how and when they should be put on ? are questions often asked, but never as yet answered to the satisfaction of all. Careful experiments are being made by members of the club, but as yet we have nothing definite to report. However, it is known that the different commercial fertilizers on the market are good, and that freely applied they generally give satisfactory results. But the growers believe that they are too expensive, and that by buying the chemicals and doing their own mixing, or by applying the chemicals in suitable quantity to the soil without mixing, they may reduce the expense almost one half. This method is likely to be adopted by many growers, and that will tend to lower the price of the fertilizers now on the market. “There is a growing conviction among our orchardists that stable manure is one of our most valuable fertilizers, when it can be secured at reasonable figures. A member of our club has a small Navel orchard, fifteen years old, a part of which has been fertilized exclusively with stable manure. It has borne regularly, and the fruit has been fully up to the average standard in quality. But it is probably better as a rule to vary the kind of fertilizer applied.” *From report of J. M. Edmison to Riverside Horticultural Club, Feb- ruary, 1899. 134 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. THE USE OF FERTILIZERS.* In the use of any kind of fertilizer there are so many unknown conditions prevailing, so great difference in soils and in there general treatment, and the ignorance of the construc- tion of the fertilizer, that with me it is difficult to attend to this important work with any scientific exactitude. I presume those who will make the question a study may eventually gain such knowledge as will enable them to discern the wants of their soil, and become sufficiently posted in agricultural chemistry that they will know how to provide these requirements at the least expense and with the greatest degree of accuracy. But what is the ordinary rancher going to do about it? Uncertain Results.—The growers of my section have experi- mented with almost every kind of fertilizer, but the results, in the way of better crops, have not been so marked and so plainly attributed to the applied articles, that many of us dare speak with any degree of certainty. Wewish we could. One grower, and the only one I have talked with who has continued to use the same compounded article for so long as four years, has gathered each year a profitable crop. A neighbor adjoining, who has used nothing, has also harvested good crops. Another, who has used different kinds of fertilizers, and with no attempt at regularity, has usually gathered abundance. This, of course, is not conclusive evidence that fertilizers are not helpful, but when similar experiences are general it leaves one in great doubt as to what should be done. We have no money to spend upon that which does not at least bring an equivalent in larger or better crops, yet we are quite anxious to do that which will enhance the quality of the fruit and maintain the groves in vigor for the longest possible time. The soil in the Fullerton and Placentia districts in general abounds in the essential elements—potash, nitrogen, and phos- phoric acid—and is capable of sustaining an enormous draft upon it for a considerable time, if properly manipulated. Win- ter plowing, a couple of good irrigations, and proper cultivation, I believe, have never failed to produce a good crop, providing always that the trees are free from scale and intelligently pruned. We do not consider it prudent, however, to make too * By C. C. Chapman, Pomological Meeting, Covina, 1898. THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION. 135 great demands upon the soil without giving back some equiva- lent in the way of plant-food. I think many of our people have tried to discover just what is most needed in the way of substantial diet, but as previously stated, only a few have found that which is satisfactory. As our groves advance in age, how- ever, more marked results may be noticed in the application of fertilizers. Pretty much every brand of commercial fertilizer finds users among our growers, but so far as my information goes, with one exception, of those who are not interested in some way in the sale of these goods, the users have no very decided views as to results. They are unable to say positively that one kind has given better results than another, and in many cases are not convinced that any favorable returns were obtained from their use. There may be reasons for these discouraging experiences which can be explained by those informed. If we only knew just what to employ with that degree of certainty that we use hydrocyanic acid gas to kill scale, we should feel that the pro- duction of citrus fruits could be regulated with almost scientific accuracy. Great Anticipations.—I recognize one difficulty in the employ- ment of commercial fertilizers that not infrequently prevails, and that is, the too great expectation of immediate good results to be derived from their use. The fertilizer is scattered about and then a magical change is looked for, and a consequent inactivity in cultivation results, and in the end perhaps dis- appointment. We should follow the example of the good Baptist deacon who prayed most fervently for a good crop, and then turned all hands out early to help the Lord answer his prayer. We should not depend upon the fertilizer, however high priced, to take the place of the whole process of crop roduction. An Experiment.—I have been frequently questioned as to what fertilizer we use on the San Isabel ranch; the parties inquiring wishing to know that they might employ that which had produced such excellent results. I regret very much that I have been unable to reply to these inquiries in a manner that makes the answer of any practical value. Two years ago I made what I intended to be a fairly practical test of different 136 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. fertilizers. I cannot say that the experiment was satisfactory in giving the information that would guide me in the future as to what to do to insure a good crop. Upon a plot of one thousand trees I put a light dressing of sheep manure. Upon the next one thousand J used commercial fertilizer. The adjoining one hundred I passed without giving anything. Upon the next plot I used lime cake. Next to this I used bone meal. Then, upon another plot, I used the sheep manure, commercial fertilizer, bone meal and lime cake, and some wood ashes—a little of each. The crop came, and it was in great abundance in all parts of the orchard. I am frank to say that I could not distinguish any material difference in the size, quality, or texture of the fruit grown upon the various plots. This was not a little disappointing, for I had looked forward to this plan of testing soil requirements and the rela- tive value of various fertilizers to decide this most perplexing question. I supposed I would be able to tell thereafter just what the soil demanded in order to produce desired results. But I was still left in the dark. I will add that while I may have been unable to distinguish any material difference in results after employment of fertilizers, I have noticed unmis- takable evidences of the value of proper irrigation and cultivation. The vear following, last year, being able to secure sheepmanure at what I considered a reasonable price, I used it in giving the orchard a light dressing, with the exception of two plots. The harvest was the heaviest ever secured, and the fruits of the highest grade, and I still could distinguish no material difference in the yield in any part of the orchard. I am quite aware that there was a combination of favorable influences generally prevailing last year, which gave the great- est abundance of fruit to non-users of fertilizers as well as to their most enthusiastic advocates, or to those who used a com- mon article, as to those who applied the most expensive com- mercial production. So I am still in doubt. The portion of the orchard which is the heaviest set this year is the plot that had the entire combination of fertilizers two years ago. Other favorable conditions, I think, are at least in a measure responsible for this. Aération of the Soil—I am convinced that we have much plant-food in some of our soils that is not utilized on account THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION. 1387 our failure to sufficiently aérate the soil by proper and aquent cultivation. The air, I believe, is an essential factor carrying on the process of nitrification. A circulation of air rough the soil will unquestionably increase the available ipply of nitrogenous food. I know little of chemistry, but I observe that soils kept open id thoroughly aérated produce great growth, even without ie application of fertilizers of any kind; whereas, soils com- acted, however rich in plant-food, will not compare in results. thus philosophize because I believe much plant-food will aver be utilized until the soil is properly aérated. Cultivation therefore an important factor in proper fertilization of soil. How to Apply.—Fertilizers are variously applied by orchard- ts. One grower, and he has a fine, well-kept orchard I notice, satters barnyard or sheep manure immediately around the ‘unks of the trees, and extending out five or six feet. Generally, owever, fertilizers are scattered broadcast between trees and lowed under; some, however, drill them in. The latter, for mmmercial goods or ground sheep manure, is the best method 1 my opinion. I observe that the grove first referred to is igorous in growing, but this year has a light crop. However, the advocates of these different methods generally oint to good crops as the result of their plans. One thing is ortain, it either makes little or no difference with us what is sed, or how applied, or else the fertilizers are so all-powerful iat it is only necessary to have them come in contact with ae soil to have it respond. Some of our people have experimented with green crops for wtilizing, but have nothing satisfactory to report. Perhaps if aey had used some of the leguminous plants recently secured -om Europe, and so highly recommended by Professor Hilgard nd others, results might have been quite different. More Investigation Desirable—I want to commend this ubject to the careful investigation of the more observing and sientific of our growers, so that the work of fertilizing our itrus orchards may be reduced to a science so plain, simple, nd practical that any of us may comprehend it, and that the ssults will be such that an all-assuring faith in its principles aay prevail. I am pleased to note that the Agricultural epartment of our State University, as well as those interested 138 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. in the manufacture of fertilizers, have made and are making careful study of the subject, and have done much in dissemi- nating general knowledge of the question and in educating the public. Those who give the matter candid and honest thought should be commended, and while they may be pri- marily promoted by selfish motives in the way of financial zain, yet if they devote any special ability they may possess to a more perfect comprehension of the question they should be regarded as public benefactors. FERTILIZING CITRUS TREES.* Some four or five years ago I commenced hauling stable manure on the orchard, and on the information of good authority, that the trees would not need fertilizing probably ior some years, and that when they did it would be nitrogen, I bought and applied in the fall Chile saltpeter, a small amount per tree, with the evident result that I had more puffy fruit than I ever had before up to that date. I say evident result, as the orange-growers who used it in Los Angeles County had the same experience. Four years ago I commenced to apply Woodbridge’s Orange Fertilizer. Following this use my oranges improved in color— at least had a higher color—the increased yield making the oranges smaller and more desirable. Last December I sowed twelve pounds of Woodbridge’s Orange Fertilizer No. 1 per tree, and cultivated it in. Then in January and Febru- ary last 1 put in addition upon one section of the orchard fifteen pounds per tree of the West Coast Fertilizer; and on another portion of the orchard fifteen pounds of Bradley’s Nursery Stock Fertilizer; and on another portion of the orchard fifteen pounds of pure guano, to test their relative values. From the portion of the orchard where I used West Coast Fertilizer the fruit was the tenderest I ever had; per- haps the word softest would explain the character—and it needed shipment first. My opinion was that it should go under ice; but Chicago said not to ice. When the fruit arrived in the East, then the advice came to ice the cars. After shipping this fruit I commenced on the section where I had used the Bradley Nursery Stock Fertilizer, and this fruit, * Extracts from essay by N. W. Blanchard, President of the Lemonia Sompany of Santa Paula, before Farmers’ Institute, 1897. THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION. 139 while not soft like the first, did not stand up well, and a large amount of it became puffy and could only be classed as culls. The last shipments of oranges came from the portion of the orchard where guano was used. The fruit was not puffy, although it was late in June. The oranges, however, had com- menced to drop a good deal and did not keep much better than the rest. Itshould be added here that the promise for the next year’s crop of oranges is best where I used the Bradley fertil- izer; then next the West Coast, and last where the pure guano was used. It should be said that there was a general com- plaint last year that all the oranges did not keep well. I was told in both San Francisco and Sacramento that never before did oranges keep so poorly. Now, the interesting question is, Why did the oranges not keep as well as formerly, and what was the cause of the difference in the quality and keep- ing of the oranges? It will be remembered that the rains of last winter came slowly and timely for the agriculturists, and a larger portion of the rain was taken up by the soil than in any winter of my remembrance since I have been in the valley, a period of twenty-five years. The orchards were soaked with water for several months. This probably explains the reason for the general non-keeping quality of the last orange crop; and the only reason I can assign for the differ- ence in the keeping quality of the oranges from the different sections of my orchard was the difference in the amount of nitrogen in the different fertilizers—the poor crop being accentuated, perhaps, by the stable manure put on the orch- ard. One point was called to my attention, to wit: that the trees bordering a deep ditch through the orchard had better fruit than the trees more distant from the ditch, indicating that the ground needed draining. In regard to the use of nitrogen or ammonia, I had supposed that the same result would attain in whatever form it was used, and have only recently learned that this is not the case. For instance, ammonia in Chile saltpeter is very quickly taken up by the tree roots, or washed out of the soil by rains or irri- gation, while it may be so combined in other materials as to give up its ammonia slowly, and this would make a difference in the value of fertilizers of the same analysis. A few years ago I found some of the limbs of the orange trees dying and some dead. This I have arrested, I believe, 140 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. : by fertilization. I am this year using the Bradley Orange Tree Fertilizer at the rate of thirty pounds per tree, or twenty- four hundred pounds per acre, making two applications in the year, say one in January and one in July. ECONOMY IN FERTILIZATION.* Numerous inquiries regarding the necessity or expediency of potash fertilization in this State, and the fact that active mis- representation of my views and teaching in the premises has been made by interested parties, render it expedient that these views should be briefly formulated in print for the benefit of persons interested. What the Plant Needs.—It is an elementary fact, pretty generally understood, that, strictly speaking, ali substances used by plants for building up their tissues are of equal impor- tance; in so far asin the entire absence of any oneof them, plant development cannot occur at all. But it is universally known and admitted that all but three or four of these are present in ordinary soils in sufficient amounts and in an available con- dition for the purposes of plant growth. The only ingredients usually required to be replaced by the use of fertilizers are potash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and lime. Any fertilizer containing all of these may be considered “complete,” and when supplied after each crop in the same amount and in the same proportion as has been finally withdrawn by the sale of the crop, soil exhaustion can be indefinitely prevented and fertility perpetuated. The only question, then, about which there can be any discussion is: whether in every case the use of all the four substances ts really necessary, or whether one or more can, for the time at least, be omitted. This question arises most obviously with reference to the great differences existing in the kind and amount of draft made by different crops on the soil. Thus, root crops withdraw very large amounts of potash from the soil, while drawing but lightly upon phos- phoric acid and nitrogen; on the other hand, cereal crops are known to bear very heavily on phosphoric acid and nitrogen, while taking up a comparatively small amount of potash only. These facts form the main basis of the utility of rotation of *By Prof. E. W. Hilgard, Director of Agricultural Experiment Station, University of California. In ‘‘ Pacific Rural Press,’ November 4, 1896. THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION, 141 ops; and the same principle is recognized in the practical rtilization of the root crops with fertilizers that include defly potash, while for grain a combination of nitrogen and 1osphoric acid is usually given and found most profitable. Supplying Deficiencies.—The reason why in many cases the turn of one or two of these fertilizing ingredients can be nitted from the replacement is that the soil itself frequently ntains a larger proportion of one or several of these same gredients in a form available to plants; that, moreover, these gredients, usually occurring in the soil chiefly in a difficult luble condition, are gradually set free by the “ fallowing”’ ‘tion of the atmosphere from their insoluble combinations, as to become available to plants; and that if the soil is iturally rich in one or more of these ingredients, the return such ingredient may be omitted, either after a fallow or after crop that has drawn but lightly upon it. Thus, after a root op phosphoric acid may usually be omitted from fertilization, if e soil is known to be (naturally or artificially) rich in phos- 1oric acid; and the same, of course, is true of potash and trogen in other cases. In so doing, the husbandman draws yon the natural resources of the land, availing himself of the lvantages of a rich soil; but those who cultivate soils nat- ‘ally poor may be compelled to return in every case each one the three or four ingredients needed for and commonly used fertilization. Wasteful Practice—Were the immediate return of everything at the crop takes away necessary on every soil, the possessor rich land would have no advantage over the owner of poor nd, for as soon as the first flush of fertility is exhausted in e virgin soil, both would be equally obliged to supply the full aount of ingredients withdrawn from the soil by each crop. it the experience of centuries has shown that such integral placement is altogether unnecessary on very many lands, and, a result, the use of a “complete” fertilizer is in Europe a re exception, save as regards stable manure. Farmers buy e individual ingredients as furnished in commerce, according the supposed requirements of the land, as deduced either ym its previous history or from the known richness of the il in either one or the other ingredient in question. & 142 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. Complete Fertilizers.—In the United States the habit of. pur- chasing everything “ready made” prevails to an unusual extent, and fertilizer manufacturers mostly cater to this demand by supplying “complete fertilizers,” compounded in accordance with the known requirements for certain crops, therefore on the supposition that the soil supplies nothing of itself. In purchasing these complete fertilizers the farmer is, therefore, likely to pay for one or perhaps two ingredients which the soil may not require at all to produce the most profitable crops, when his money would be probably much better spent in procuring a larger amount of one substance specially needed. The enor- mous waste of money thus incurred is now so well recognized in Europe that the manufacture and sale of mixed fertilizers has been almost completely superseded by that of the simples themselves. The farmer buys superphosphate, potash salts, or nitrogenous fertilizers separately, in accordance with a rational understanding of the requirements of his land, more particularly with reference to the nature of the preceding crop, the amount and the kind of draft made on the land, and the character of the latter. That this is the only rational and economical mode of using commercial fertilizers is indisputable; it is only in the case of stable manure itself that the farmer is compelled to use all the ingredients indiscriminately. The farmer who, either from lack of knowledge or from inertness, spends his money for ‘‘com- plete” fertilizers, a part of which he may not need at all, need not be surprised if the increase of crop resulting from their application does not yield adequate returns for the outlay incurred. The fertilizer manufacturer naturally desires to sell his wares and is not specially interested in reducing the farmer’s expenditures therefor. California Soils.—As regards the soils of this State, experience has shown that an unusually large proportion of them remain profitably productive without fertilization for a considerable length of time, and that when virgin soils, or such as have been under cultivation for a short series of years only, fail to pro- duce satisfactory crops, it is usually due to other defects than lack of fertility, requiring to be supplemented by fertilization. Even in the East it takes from seven to thirty years to reduce the production of “fresh” soils below profitableness, and the nature of the crops grown being known, it is not difficult to THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION. 143 jetermine what ingredient or ingredients are most urgently required to restore production. A simple leaching with water shows many of our valley soils to contain, in water-soluble condition, a large proportion of potash salts, so as to render the idea of supplying more of the same substance simply absurd. Thus, the ten-acre experi- mental tract near Chino contains per acre an average of over 1,200 pounds of water-soluble potash in the first three feet, equivalent to the amount required for eight twenty-ton crops of sugar beets, without drawing on the less soluble but much more copious soil store. Similar cases are common in other valley regions of the State. These facts speak for themselves. Equally simple tests show that in the great majority, proba- bly at least three fourths, of the soils of the State, lime is so abundant that it need not be supplied for centuries to come at least. These facts are easily ascertainable by any one having even a superficial knowledge of chemistry. But more elaborate investigation and analysis show that while both lime and potash are present in unusually large pro- portion, as compared with soils east of the Mississippi and in Europe, phosphoric acid and nitrogen are, on the contrary, as a rule, present in small amounts, and likely to become defi- cient in a short time under exhaustive cultivation. What to Use First—Upon these plain.and simple facts is based my recommendation to California farmers that, when- ever production of their land becomes unsatisfactory, they should try any large-scale fertilizer first with phosphates and nitrogen, and, should this not prove fully satisfactory, then with potash also; this being the order in which these substances are likely to become deficient in most of our soils under culti- vation. In the course of time potash fertilization will become widely necessary in this State, also; but it is certainly not among the first things generally required, as is actually the case in the Kast and in Europe. Under continuous heavy cropping with root crops, such as beets, potatoes, or artichokes, or with small fruits, such as strawberries, potash fertilization has already, as a mat- ter of fact, become necessary at some points and will gradually become more so. On the gray soils of the foothills of Amador and Placer counties we have found it necessary from the very 144 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. outset, these soils being as poor in potash as Eastern lands. The same is true of some of the sandy lands of the interior. My advice to the farmers of California is and has been simply that, in order not to waste their money for the purchase ol ingredients probably not necessary, they should begin by sup- plying those most likely to be required at the time, and to turn to the use of potash fertilizers only after they have found the effect of phosphatic and nitrogenous ones to be unsatisfactory. The efforts of those interested in selling as much as possible of their manufactured products are, quite naturally, in opposi- tion to this policy, but the advice of the interested party is not usually the one most likely to benefit the taker. How to Make Experiments.—-Plot experiments made with dif- ferent fertilizers must, in order to be of definite value, be made on a sufficiently large scale to eliminate the source of error arising from local differences in soil and subsoil, and must be checked by several check plots so interposed between the others as to not only check them by direct comparison, and to prevent the washing of fertilizers from one fertilized plot to another, but must also be compared, first of all, among themselves, so as to determine what is the normal product of the unfertilized land. It will frequently be found that these unfertilized check plots differ more widely between themselves than do the fertil- ized ones from them or from each other. It usually takes several seasons to come to definite results. A question wholly aside from those discussed above is that of the special modification of crops by the use of a surplus of certain substances known to produce a specific effect. Thus, common salt is known to make asparagus and some other vegetables more succulent and tender; nitrogenous matter increases the size and succulence of fruits, and some experi- ments made with potash fertilizers on oranges point to an increase of sweetness thereby. It is then simply a question whether or not purchasers appreciate such modifications suff- ciently to render their attainment a profitable undertaking, apart from any increase of the crop or the maintenance of soil fertility. THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION. 145 ADVANTAGE OF FERTILIZING SMALL TREES.* Careful experiments have established another important point in bringing a young orchard into speedy and profitable bearing. That is, that by giving it a moderate dressing of stable manure, or some other good fertilizer, it may be brought into bearing one or two years earlier than if no fertilizer had been used. Experiments have been made by fertilizing some parts of a young orchard and leaving another part without, demonstrating that the part fertilized would bear enough more than the other, the first crop, to far more than pay for the fer- tilizer used, while, owing to the increased growth of the trees, a still greater difference in productiveness would be realized in the second crop. The fact is well established that a young orchard judiciously fertilized and well cared for, at five or six years from planting may be brought into profitable bearing, while one of the same age which has not been fertilized will give small and unsatisfactory returns. The two orchards cost the same for water and care, and yet the one fertilized yields a handsome profit, while the other little more than pays ex- penses. FERTILIZING THE SOIL AS AFFECTING THE ORANGE IN HEALTH AND DISEASE.+ Fertilizing for Growth and Fruit.—Primarily the orange- grower desires to know how to fertilize so as to stimulate either growth or fruit production. With oranges, as with many other agricultural plants, one may fertilize in such a manner that excessive growth is stimulated at the expense of fruit produc- tion. A strong nitrogenous fertilizer results usually in much growth and little fruit. This seems to be particularly true if the ammonia is added in an organic form. While trees are young it is probably well to favor the growth of wood princi- pally, but at an age of seven or eight years from the bud, the tree, if it has grown properly, will have attained sufficient size to begin to produce a fair quantity of fruit. It should then be given a slightly modified fertilizer, containing more potash and *From report of J. M. Edmison, to Riverside Horticultural Club, Febru- ary, 1899. + Extracts from an article by Herbert J. Webster, Assistant in Division of Vegetable Pathology, Washington, D.C. A deduction from Florida experi- ence, which naturally will interest California citrus-growers. 10c 146 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. phosphoric acid and less nitrogen, to stimulate fruit production as much as possible. The so-called chemical manures appear to be much more active in stimulating fruit production than organic manures. Effect on Quality of Fruit——The experience of many orange- growers indicates that the quality of the fruit may be largely controlled by fertilization. As oranges are purchased very largely on their appearance and quality, this becomes an important consideration in manuring. Many intelligent grow- ers are coming to believe that the best results can be obtained by giving the trees an application of that element only which seems to be lacking, and not using, as a majority do, a com- plete fertilizer, in definite proportions, regardless of whether all the elements are needed by the plant or not. If it can be determined by the appearance of the tree and fruit what element is lacking, this would seem to be the most rational way to fertilize. It seems reasonable to suppose that by careful study patho- logical characters induced by starvation might be found, which would serve to indicate clearly the lack of any particular element. Some growers claim to be able to recognize these characters now, and are fertilizing largely on this modified plan, _taking advantage of what we might call the sign language of the tree. Some of these characters will be mentioned below under the consideration of the different elements used. Effect on Soil Moisture.—In fertilization at least two factors must usually be considered: the element of plant-food supplied, and the effect of this upon the soil as aiding it in supplying the plant with moisture. The heavy application, in late fall or early spring, of an organic manure, like blood and bone, which is extensively used in Florida, is liable to lead to injuri- ous effects during the spring drought, if the trees are on high and dry land. On the other hand, such soils might be ameli- orated by using substances which attract water and increase the surface tension of soil moisture. Nitrogen, for instance, used in the form of nitrate of soda, and potash, in the form of kainit, would tend to draw up the subsoil moisture and prob- ally aid largely in supplying the necessary moisture during this trying season. The use of organic manures, on the con- trary, would only exaggerate the damage produced by drought. ‘THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION, 147 If groves are on very moist land, as is frequently the case in Florida, where the necessity is to lessen the moisture rather than to increase it, some form of organic manure, as muck or blood and bone, might be found of benefit. Effect of Fertilizers on the Orange in Health.—The elements which need to be supplied in fertilization to most Florida orange groves are nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus; or, using the terms in which they are expressed in most analyses of fertil- izers, ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid. The application of lime would also prove of benefit to many groves. Probably no element of plant-food used in the fertilization of orange groves should be more carefully considered, with respect to both form and quantity, than nitrogen. It is the most costly and at the same time the most dangerous element to use, as excessive applications are liable to result in extensive dropping and splitting of the fruit or in the production of the serious disease known as die-back. Effect of Nitrogen-—A grower may with considerable certainty determine by the appearance of his trees the condition of his grove in respect to the supply of nitrogen available in the soil. An abundance of nitrogen is indicated by a dark green color of the foliage and rank growth. The fruit shows the effect of an abundance of nitrogen by being, in general, large, with a com- paratively thick and roughrind. If the trees have a yellowish foliage, with comparatively small leaves, and show little or no growth, there is probably a lack of nitrogen. In this case there is but little fruit formed, and that formed is small and usually colors early. If the tree is starving from a lack of nitrogen, the foliage will become very light yellow and sparse, and the small limbs will die, as will also the large limbs in extreme cases. If the starvation is continued, no fertilizer being added, the tree will finally die back nearly to the ground and prob- ably die out entirely. The extreme symptoms of general starvation from lack of all elements are probably nearly the same. The nitrogen used in fertilization is commonly derived from mineral or organic sources. Of the former, sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda are the forms most used; of the latter, muck, dried blood, blood and bone, cottonseed meal, tankage, fish scrap, stable manure, etc., are the forms most commonly employed. 148 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. Stable Manure of Doubtful Utility—Barn manure is largely used by many growers, who still hold to the tradition that chemical manures are injurious to the plants. The benefits of barn manure in an orange-grove are in serious question. The fruits produced by nitrogen from this source are usually large, coarse, thick-skinned, with abundant rag, and of inferior flavor. If barn manure is used—and most growers have a limited quantity and desire to use what they have—it should be spread over the grove lightly, so that each tree receives only a small amount. Where such manure is depended upon as the main element of fertilization, liberal dressings of potash should be occasionally applied; this will tend to correct the evils of an overbalanced nitrogenous fertilizer. What has been said as to the effect of barn manure on the quality of fruit applies equally to the effects produced by muck, cottonseed meal, blood and bone, tankage, etc. In general, organic fertilizers do not stimulate fruiting to the same extent as the mineral fertilizers. It is probably better economy to apply such fertilizers to annual crops, cereals, garden truck, etc. Mineral Nitrogen.—The mineral nitrogen manures, nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, apparently stimulate pro- duction of fruit more than organic manures, and yet promote a fair general growth. The fruit produced by fertilization with these salts, used in correct proporticns with the other elements which it is necessary to apply, is usually of good quality, being solid, juicy, and rich, with thin skin and little rag. Sulphate of ammonia has the effect, growers testify, of sweetening the fruit to a considerable extent. There seems to be little doubt as to the correctness of this view, but why it is so remains in question. The sweetening is probably more marked if there is a slight deficiency in potash. The use of very large quantities of either sulphate of ammunia or nitrate of soda may result disastrously, acting as ‘chemical poison,” killing the trees outright and causing them to throw off their leaves. Sulphate of ammonia has been very widely used among orange-growers. Nitrate of soda has been but little used thus far, but is apparently growing in favor. Its insecticide and water-attracting properties are probably much greater than those of sulphate of ammonia. THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION. 149 Potash Fertilizers.—In fertilizing the orange, potash is most frequently used either in the form of the sulphate or of wood ashes. While sulphate of potash has been most widely used, there is apparently little evidence that it is superior to other forms. Muriate of potash, containing the equivalent of about fifty per cent of actual potash, the form probably most used in the apple and peach orchards of the North, has been little used in orange groves. Apparently those who have used this form have obtained uniformly good results. Kainit, or German potash salt, which is a crude double salt of magnesium sulphate with calcium chloride, containing the equivalent of from twelve to fourteen per cent of actual potash, is a form much used in Northern orchards and is promising for use in orange groves. Its very active effect in increasing the surface tension of the soil moisture, and thus attracting water to the trees, might make it an excellent form to add in early spring to aid the plant in withstanding the spring drought, which is so frequently injurious to the orange tree and sometimes fatal to the fruit crop. Growers not supplied with facilities for irrigation would, undoubtedly, find it profitable to consider carefully points of this nature in fertilization. The noticeable effect of potash on the orange tree appears to be its aid in completing and matur- ing the wood. Apparently an insufficient amount of potash is shown by an excessive growth of weak, immature wood, which does not harden up as winter approaches and is liable to be injured by frost. An abundance of potash, in the form of sulphate of potash or tobacco stems, is said by many growers to produce excess- ively sour fruit. That potash is very necessary in fruit production is shown by the fact that the fruit contains a large percentage of this element. An average of fifteen analyses of different varieties of Florida oranges shows 52.05 per cent to be about the usual amount of potash in the ash of the orange fruit. The ash in these fifteen analyses averaged 0.916 per cent, or less than one per cent of the total weight of the fruit. Phosphoric Acid.—Phosphoric acid, which is a very necessary element of fertilization on Florida orange lands, is mostly used in the form of dissolved bone black, acidulated bone or phos- phate rock, soft phosphate, raw bone, guano, etc. The immedi- ate effect of phosphoric acid on the orange tree and fruit is little understood. Several intelligent growers claim to be able 150 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. to recognize the effect of phosphorus starvation by the appear- ance of the new growth of leaves. If these, when they first push out or while they are still young and tender, present a slightly variegated appearance, mottled with light and dark green, it is claimed they are suffering from lack of phosphorus, and that if a liberal application of some soluble phosphate is applied this appearance may be checked. If this can be shown to be true it will prove a valuable index to the available quantity of phosphoric acid in the soil. A similar appearance may, however, appear in light cases of the so-called “‘frenching,” a disease, or probably more properly a symptom of disease, which is not uncommon. Phosphorus starvation, it is true, may have some effect in inducing this disease. Lime.—Lime, it is usually supposed, is present in sufficient quantities in most of our soils. It may he questioned, how- ever, whether the common high pine land and scrub land, and indeed much of the flat woods and hammock of the interior of Florida, might not be benefited by dressings of lime. From the superiority of oranges grown on soils which are known to be rich in lime it would seem that this is probably a very desirable and necessary element for the production of superior fruit. The fine, smooth-skinned, and deliciously flavored Indian and Halifax River oranges, with their characteristic aroma, are grown largely on soils rich in lime from shell mounds and coralline and coquina rock. The oranges pro- duced in the noted Orange Bend hammock, which are of dis- tinctive quality, with delicate, rich aroma, and thin, smooth rind, are produced on a soil underlaid by a mari rich in lime. Lime soils are in many orange countries considered superior for orange growing. Dr. A. Stutzer, in his work on the Fertilization of Tropical Cultivated Plants, writes: “The orange and citron fruits desire a deep, porous, dry soil, rich in lime. If sufficient lime is not present the fruit will be thick-skinned and not have a fine aroma.” It appears also that the effect of abundant lime is to hasten to some extent the time of ripening. Fruits grown on soils rich in lime appear to color and become suit- able for shipping somewhat earlier than those grown on soils containing but little lime. To secure a good quality of fruit the regular application of lime may be found very desirable in many groves. THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—-FROST PROTECTION. 151 Fertilization as Affecting Disease. —Probably the most com- mon cause of injury to orange trees is a lack of fertilization, yet it is not infrequent for disease to be induced or serrated by excessive or improper fertilization. This may, indeed, be of much more importance than we are at present inclined to believe. One of the forms of die- back, a common and destructive disease of the orange, is quite evidently due to errors in fertilization. In other cases the disease appears to be caused by planting in improper soil. FROST PROTECTION, The Riverside Horticultural Club appointed a committee consisting of J. H. Reed, E. W. Holmes, E. L. Koethen, E. A. Zumbro, and J. H. Martin—all practical orange-growers—to investigate the question of orchard protection against frost. The committee, after a careful investigation of all the methods in use and experimented with, made its report, which was adopted, as follows:* With the assistance of some fifteen or twenty citizens inter- ested in the study of the points involved, a most complete test has been made of the many different methods employed to pre- vent frost damage. With such a force of competent and impar- tial observers, it was possible to secure data of much value in forming an estimate of the efficiency of the various plans made use of. Careful comparison was made between those orchards where no work was done, and where no direct effect of the fire was probable, and those where the different methods were being tried. As indicated by our partial report at the last meeting of the club, these tests were in some particulars eminently satis- factory, as showing the way to definite conclusions. The exceptionally long period of cold following gave addi- tional opportunity to verify the first conclusions reached, and subsequent investigations made by ourselves, as well as by other citizens who have awakened to the possibility of protecting their property, strengthened and confirmed the opinion formed as the result of the tests already partially reported upon. * Riverside Press, February 19, 1898. 152 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. Some theories are proven to have little practical value, and members of your committee have modified their views some- what in consequence. No preconceived notions have been allowed to stand in the way of a thoroughly practical study of the facts as they exist, to the end that the growers may not, for the lack of definite knowledge as to the direction their efforts should take, neglect reasonable precautions hereafter to insure the safety of their crops. These, therefore, are our conclusions: First—There is no doubt whatever that the temperature of our orchards may be materially raised by the use of dry heat. Second—The radiation of the earth’s heat can be very con- siderably lessened by moist smudges, when these are started early enough and are properly managed. Third—The possibility of raising the dew point on one of the dry cold nights peculiar to our climate, sufficiently to prevent damage, by means of steam-producing apparatus, seems impracticable. Fourth—Fruit and trees can undoubtedly be saved, even in the coldest sections, by covering them with cloth or matting; but the expense involved makes this method impossible on the part of the ordinary grower. Fifth—It is found that the temperature in an old seedling grove, or where tall windbreaks afford to smaller fruit trees a like protection, the temperature is almost invariably one or two degrees higher than in exposed orchards in the immediate neighborhood. This fact seems to thoroughly upset the theory strongly held by many intelligent growers that the tall, well- located windbreak is a disadvantage, the contrary seeming to be the truth. Sixth—It is found that the temperature twenty feet above the ground is from one to two degrees higher than at the sur- face, and that, as a rule, when the cold is severe enough to injure the ripest fruit, fifty feet from the ground there is almost invariably a temperature above the freezing point of water. Prof. Zumbro, who has given special attention to this matter, finds that at the height of fifty feet the temperature is from five to ten degrees higher than at the surface, when the air is not in motion. When there is any considerable breeze it varies but little. Seventh—Our conclusion is that, all things considered, the coal baskets, sufficiently numerous, will prove the most satis- THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FROST PROTECTION. 153 factory and effective means of warming the orchards yet made use of. It is true, the oil pots make a far hotter fire, and are neither expensive nor difficult to manage, but the deposit of lampblack upon tree and fruit resulting from their use con- demns this system for general use. As to the value of smudging, the members of your com- mittee are not so well agreed. Because of less sharply defined results, we find it more difficult to come to definite—at least uniform—conclusions. But, under certain conditions, we are convinced that, properly used, it may be made a valuable means of protection. We think this especially true in locali- ties where the temperature never falls but little below the danger point, and where there are considerable solid areas of young orchards exposed. Here it will work well if the protec- tion is made general. But where the danger is considerable, we think it wise to be prepared to use dry heat even where in connection with the smudge. The benefit from smudging is probably as much from its protecting fruit and trees from the sudden rays of the morning sun after a freezing night as from modifying temperature during the time of danger. Experience demonstrates that flooding or running water in connection with dry heat or smudging is a valuable adjunct. One of the committee who has been testing this matter care- fully for three years is disposed to think that the direct benefit from running water is overestimated by the majority of grow- ers. Its value in putting orchards in condition to withstand quite severe weather safely is unquestioned, but the committee are inclined to think that entire dependence upon this method will occasionally result in serious loss to those who trust to this means alone, especially when used in young orchards. As to the number of baskets needed when coal is used, we find the most decided and satisfactory results have been gained where from twenty to fifty coal fires have been used to each acre. If intelligently and energetically used, this plan will never fail, except when the mercury drops below 24° for a long while, and even then it is believed the larger portion of a crop may be saved if anything like a general use of such fires be secured. The smaller number of fires named has in numerous cases, and even when a man was working alone, secured a rise of from three to five degrees and saved a crop. Can it be doubted that fifty fires per acre used in every orchard would 154 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. save both trees and crop on the coldest night ever known in California’s history ? To equip an orchard with fifty baskets to the acre means an outlay of only a little over $5. The fuel to run them one night costs from $2.50 to #3. If a crop of Navels upon it is worth $400, it will pay well to spend in fuel and labor $4 per night, or one per cent of the value of the crop to insure its safety. In the orange region of Southern California it is not usual to have more than two or three nights in a season when the fruit is in danger. But even if, as in the present season, the period of cold is more extended, will it not pay to expend at least as much as one pays for his irrigating water to secure the safe maturing of a crop it has cost him a year’s labor and heavy expense to produce? The conclusion is obvious that we have only to provide for the insurance of this sort of property exactly as we would in the case of that lable to destruction by fire, to be enabled to follow the business of orange and lemon growing with the certainty of having perfect fruit to market at the season’s end. While the practicability of protecting our orchards from frost seems established, the problem of the most economical and scientific means of accomplishing this is probably yet to be solved. However well the wire baskets may serve us now, there doubtless will be improved methods for burning coal, and even other material may be found that will serve the pur- pose better; and while wet straw seems at present to be the most available for smudges, doubtless, when the need is made known, chemists will find some vapor-producing material more compact, efficient, and economical. Hence we recommend that the club appoint a permanent committee to continue these investigations. ROOFING PROTECTION AGAINST FROST, AND HEAT IN SUMMER. After having tried several other methods of protecting trees from frost, none of which proved absolutely safe, the Everest Rancho incorporation at Arlington Place, Riverside County, decided to roof over a portion of their orange grove. Such were the results of the first trial on three acres that the past year they extended it over seventeen acres, shown in the accompanying illustrations, made from photographs taken on THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FROST PROTECTION. 155 the spot. The proposition embraced in the covering is to pre- vent the warm air from leaving the immediate vicinity of the trees at night. During the day the earth and trees become warm, but as the night cools the atmosphere the process of Roofing over an orange grove at the Everest Rancho, Arlington Place, Riverside County. radiation sets in and the heat from the earth and the trees is carried off, the cold frosty atmosphere taking its place. The idea was conceived of covering the orchard with canvas, which could be rolled up in the morning and let out at night. One Covering shown from beneath. acre was covered in this way, but it was found to be too expen- sive and unstable, as the canvas would get wet and decay. The present method costs about $450 an acre. The fruit borne by the trees under this covering has matured perfectly and the 156 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. covering serves two purposes, ¢. e. protecting the trees from the effects of frost, and from excessive heat in the summer. The posts are 3x4 redwood, 18 feet long. The trees are so planted that the posts are placed 21 feet 3 inches apart each way, setting them 38 feet in the ground, thus allowing about 15 feet in the clear for height of the trees, which is suf- ficient for most Navel trees. These posts are connected by pieces of 1x4 pine suitably braced, on top of which another strip of 1x4 has been securely nailed to prevent the whole from swaying sideways with the weight of the cover. This, when placed in position, is braced horizontally with braces of 1x8 pine, 7 feet long. Thus is secured a framework that is quite rigid and on which a man may walk freely, provided he has a head clear enough to walk on a four-inch strip. Over this were stretched galvanized iron wires, diagonally, of No. 11 wire, which are securely stapled on top of each post and to the horizontal braces. These diagonal wires are stretched very tight with iron stretchers, and throw a portion of the weight of the cover on to posts directly that would otherwise increase weight on the bents of 1x4 pine, 21 feet 83 inches long. These diagonal wires are supplemented by wires running across the framework at right angles to the direction in which the cover is laid. ‘These four wires—two diagonal and two cross wires— steady the whole construction and distribute the weight more evenly. Thus is the framework completed. For the cover Arizona laths were used, being the lightest and best for the purpose, and were wove on a lath machine into common chicken fencing, placing the lath one inch apart and weaving with six wires— three double strands. This is made in sections 21 feet 3 inches long and rolled up preparatory to being taken to cover. In covering the framework four rolls made of four-foot lath and one roll of five-foot lath are used, thus filling out the space over each tree of 21 feet 3 inches as nearly as is necessary. It takes 100 lath to each roll, or 500 to each tree; and as the trees are planted 100 to the acre, 50,000 laths are required to the acre. ‘This Arizona lath is cheaper than ordinary pine in that part of the State. The crop of fruit under this covering the present season was of good size, color, and quality, and while the construction of the cover could be improved upon and no doubt will be, it has THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—QUESTIONS. 157 proved of great benefit as built. The trees have blossomed very well this spring, and a good crop of fruit is expected the coming winter. LEAF SHELTER AN ADVANTAGE.* Old “Sunny Side” has again covered herself with glory. Hight consecutive big crops is her record. I had sold five carloads before the chilly night of December 29th, and have just finished delivering the second lot of five cars on a satis- factory cash sale. Since the ‘‘chill” I have delivered in bulk at the packing-house, and the fruit has packed nearly four fifths “fancy,” and this fruit, too, was, by special contract with the buyer, picked from the outside of the trees where most exposed. The fact is that my twenty-acre orchard of 1,500 orange trees is well prepared to resist chilly weather. The trees are so large, so thrifty, and so densely covered outside, that they are like so many houses shingled with broad orange leaves clear to the ground. The interior spaces under each tree, filled with the sun-baked air of the day, bid defiance to “Jack” on a cool night, and prevent him getting in his diabolical work before another day’s sunshine comes along to oust him entirely. I have never lost a crop, though of course some of the fruit on the outside will sometimes “take cold”; but there is great protection in a shelter of thick, broad, healthy, glossy leaves. QUESTIONS AFFECTING ORANGE CULTURE. During the year 1898 the Horticultural Society of Highlands invited its members and citrus-growers having any questions regarding any phase of orange culture to send them to the Society, for submission to the orange-growers of the State. The following were received and answered: t Question: Should hardpan within two feet of the surface be considered a barrier to the planting of orange trees? Pror. E. W. Hirearp, of Berkeley: Yes, if impenetrable by roots. J. H. Reep, of Riverside: Yes. *B. B. Barney, in California Fruit Grower, February 1, 1896. +Reported by W. M. Bristol, chairman of committee. 158 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. H. D. Moors, of Redlands: Hardpan within two feet of the surface will eventually ruin any orchard. Its effects will probably be noticed by the third or fourth year. DicEst or Discussion BY THE CLUB: The question doubtless refers to the natural hardpan underlying the red mesa soil common in California, and not to the artificial hardpan so called, which is formed in orchards by the tramping of horses used in cultivating. The latter occurs immediately below the cultivated stratum, and is caused by driving over the ground too soon after rain or irrigation. The natural hardpan may be divided into three classes, namely: gravelly, sandy, and clayey hardpan. It is found at varying depths, and runs from a few inches to several feet in thickness. Analysis shows it to be deficient in nitrogen, but rich in potash and phosphoric acid, the same being true of the looser soil found underlying it. In many cases it is impervious to either water or roots, and consequently marks the downward limit of the soil capable of holding moisture or of yielding plant-food to the tree. Question: Is tt advisable to break up this hardpan, and will at stay broken wp? Pror. Hitearp: Yes, to both. Mr. Reep: Other conditions being markedly favorably, yes. If well done it will stay broken up. Mr. Moore: If an orchard is already planted in such soil, it would be advisable to put in three or four cartridges at equal distances around the trees. The soil has been found to pack- down hard again in three years after blasting. C. E. Mosnur, of Pasadena: Yes. Hardpan once ‘broken up will not form again. Tue Ciup: Yes, if the stratum is not too thick. The grav- elly hardpan, which is probably the hardest for roots or water to penetrate, is the most easily and permanently broken up. QueEstion: What is the best method of blasting in such cases, and what ts the expense? Proressor Hitgarp: Bore into the hardpan and use one- half pound of No. 2 giant powder in each hole. Mr. Reep: Giant powder. Expense depends on condition of hardpan. Mr. Mosner: I took the contract for blasting the hardpan THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—QUESTIONS. 159 on seven acres of land near Raymond Hill, South Pasadena, at 15 cents per hole, and cleared $5 a day at it. The top soil was 24 feet thick, the hardpan 38 feet. I dug the holes to hard- pan, then with a 14-inch wood bit welded onto a 5-foot shank I bored down 20 inches into it, put in one stick of No. 2 giant powder, tamping it with fine earth. It blew a hole clear through the hardpan, the hole afterward being cleaned out and filed with top soil. Tue Cius: The foregoing replies were indorsed. No. 2 giant powder is preferable to No. 1, because its slower action cracks and shakes the hardpan more thoroughly. Good results have been obtained in orchards already set, by putting one stick of powder directly under the tree. It is important that the charge be in the hardpan—not under it. If exploded below the hardpan its force is expended in making a cavity there without breaking up the overlying stratum. It is well to clean out the hole and fill with sand, thus insuring the free penetration of water to the substratum. Of course in putting the blast directly under the tree, the hole must be made slanting. Some roots are necessarily broken, but the benefits are largely in the majority. CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE XIV. | | ) i} | FRUIT AND BRANCH—PRIMAL TYPE. | (Citrus Limonum Vulgaris.) | THE LEMON INDUSTRY. THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA. 161 ry THE LEMON. Citrus medica limonum, Risso. SEEDLINGS.—IIypocoty! becoming woody, erect, terete, tinely pubescent, wiry, pale green, 2.3-2.9 cm. long. Cotyledons two, rarely three, mostly alternate, fleshy, oblong, obtuse, pale green, finely pubescent, sessile or subsessile, somewhat notched at the base. Stem woody, erect, terete, finely pubescent, wiry; first internode variable, 1.6-2.3 em. long: second, 21m.; third, 3mm.; fourth, 7.5 mm. Leaves compound, cauline, alternate, exstipulate, petiolate, glabrous, deep green, shining, pubescent on the nerves beneath when young, permeated with translucent glands, doubly crenulate, emarginate; petioles subpubescent, winged with a prominent midrib, and tapering toward the base. Nos. 1 and 2 unifoliate, frequently also Nos. 3 and 4. All alternate at greater or less distances from each other, or in pairs, or all four verticillate, ovate, obtuse, emarginate, articulated at the top of their petioles, or the lowest pair articulate at the base only. Nos. 3 and 4 frequently digitately trifoliate, the terminal leaflet being lanceolate-elliptic, attenuate at the base; the lateral leaflets arise by segmen- tation from the terminal one. No. 4. In some instances five-foliolate; the rachis between the basal and next pair of leaflets winged and tapering toward the base in the same way as the primary petiole; leaflets sessile, lanceolate-elliptic, emarginate, minutely and doubly crenulate, smaller than the leaflets of unfoliate leaves.—Sir Joun Lussock, ‘‘Contribution to our Knowledge of Seedlings,” Vol. I, 1892. The flower of the lemon is of medium size, with a reddish tint outside, but white within. Fruit pale yellow, generally oval, ending in a nipple-like point, seldom round or pyriform. The skin is smooth, about the thickness of that of the orange, becoming greatly reduced, thin, pliable, and leathery to the touch after being stored away, styled “curing.” The lemon is not so hardy a tree as the orange and is more susceptible to frost. While this is true it is also true that it does not require so high a temperature to bring out its best qualities, which it will attain on the coast, where the orange is inferior. The lemon is a prolific tree, bearing more fruit than the orange and requiring more water, but the treatment of the tree in the matter of planting, cultivating, etc., except pruning, is the same as that required by the orange, and the rules laid down for the latter apply equally to the former. 1lc 162 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. The lemon has received less attention in California than the orange, owing partly to the extra care required in its prepara- tion for market, and partly to the impression that it was not so profitable a fruit to grow. Of late years, however, much more attention has been given to lemon culture, and the area adapted to lemon growth has been widened. It was thought that this fruit would flourish only in a few favored nooks in the citrus section, but experience has proved that there are numerous places in the higher lands—the foothills and mesas— of the southern and central counties where the lemon will flourish. The result of this has been a great impetus in lemon planting in San Diego, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, Los Angeles, Ventura, Santa Barbara, and Tulare counties. This has been aided, too, by the fear that the very extensive planting of oranges would result in the reducing of profits in orange-growing. Improved methods of handling and curing the lemon—the outcome of years of experiments—have resulted in securing a fruit which commands a good price and competes with the imported article, making lemon-growing profitable. These facts have turned the attention of planters toward the lemon, and it is probable that this fruit will steadily advance in popularity until it reaches a place in our fruit exportations beside that of the orange. VARIETIES. The varieties of the lemon are not as numerous as those of the orange. While many varieties have been introduced, some of our choicest have originated here. The common seedling, of poor shipping and keeping qualities, that used to be met with in almost every orchard in the State, has been discarded, and in its place stand varieties which possess exceedingly high merit. The fruit of the varieties now grown is not over-large, but of a uniform medium size, good keepers, with a sweet rind anda delicious strong acid. Lisson.—Fruit of medium size, fine grain, sweet rind, acid strong, few seeds, an excellent keeper. Grows very uniform on the tree, and ripens evenly. The tree is a strong grower, very prolific, thorny, but thorns decrease as the trees grow older. Imported from Portugal. GROCER as, ft . SRA. THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 163 Dr. J. H. Needham, in an essay before Pomological Society, at Covina, in 1898, says: “The advantages claimed for the Lisbon are that it bears its fruit uniformly all through the tree. But the disadvantage is that the tree is thickly stud- ded with long, sharp thorns, which, when the branches are waved by the winds, puncture much of the fruit, spoiling it for the market, especially the Eastern market. Another objec- tion is that it does not come into bearing until it is from seven to ten years in orchard, and bears only one crop a year.” Vitis Franca.—Fruit oblong, slightly pointed at the blos- som end, rind thin, without any trace of bitterness, acid strong, ‘Sof nent 2 Cross-sections of Villa Franca Lemon (cured specimens)—natural size. juicy, nearly seedless. Tree almost thornless, branches spread- ing, and somewhat drooping, foliage very abundant, which pro- tects the fruit from scorching. The tree is a strong grower and less susceptible to cold than most varieties. Imported from Europe. Dr. J. H. Needham, in an essay before Pomological Society, at Covina, in 1898, says: “The advantages claimed for the Villa Franca are that it makes a more compact tree and bears its fruit more uniformly over the entire tree; but, from my experience, it requires at least one year longer to come into bearing, and the fruits on young trees are shorter when they have the requisite diameter for picking than either the Eureka or Lisbon.” 164 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. Acme (syn., “Sweet Rind,” “ Hale’s Seedling ”).—This is an old established variety; originated at Los Angeles. Resembles the Lisbon in many of its characteristics, so much so that it has been confounded with it. The fruit is similar to the Lisbon, grows uniformly, of medium size, strong acid, with a sweet rind; a good keeper. The tree is a more upright grower than the Lisbon, has fewer thorns, and is of a much less spreading habit. Evrexa.—Fruit medium size, sweet, smooth, glossy rind, and an excellent keeper. Acid strong and most pleasant, with very few seeds. Tree semi-dwarf, sparse foliage, inclined to bear at the extremities of the branches. and endangering the fruit to sunburn. A remarkable lemon. Originated at Los Angeles. Dr. J. H. Needham, in an essay before Pomological Society, at Covina, in 1898, says: ‘““The advantages of the Eureka are its comparative freedom from thorns, its tendency to early bearing, and, when properly trained, to enormous crops when it comes into full bearing, by its continuous blooming and setting of lemons all the year, especially in sections that are comparatively free from frost. The objections are its tendency to set its fruit on the tips of the branches, and the inclination to grow long canes with but few laterals, and to drop its leaves on the long canes or branches, thus leaving the limbs and fruit too much exposed to the hot rays of the sun in the heated term of summer. But this can be remedied by proper pruning from the time the tree is one or not more than two years in the orchard, being careful to keep off all sucker growth, and cutting back the long branches to not more than twelve to eighteen inches, in the spring and fall; June and October being a fair division of the growth of the year. Always cut away the larger of the two or three branches that have started near where the branch was pruned the previous time, as the bold rapid growers will only make a wood growth, while the smaller twigs or branches will form the fruit spurs, which bud, bloom, and bear the fruit.” Grnoa.—Fruit medium size, oval, sweet rind, and nearly seedless; a good keeper. Tree of a dwarf habit and thornless. This is one of the best lemons grown in the State. AsiaTic.—Fruit medium size, oval, thin rind, with an agree- able strong acid. Tree semi-dwarf, thornless. THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 165 BonntE Brae.—A vigorous growing tree, quite thorny, and with distinct foliage. The fruit, which resembles a lime in appearance, is of a medium size, ribbed, and with exceedingly thin rind. Siciy.—Fruit large and coarse; keeps only with extreme care; inferior. AGNEs.—Fruit medium size, sweet rind, pulp very fine, with strong acid, and few seeds. Thorns few, short and blunt. Tree a rapid grower, medium dwarf, and drooping in character. Oxivia.—Fruit medium size, of good quality, acid strong. Tree a thrifty grower and a good bearer; thorny. “Royat Messina.”’—Introduced from Florida, under the name of Sicily, but there being numerous varieties under this name, ‘‘ Royal Messina” was applhed to it, identifying the same with one grown in Florida by that name. It is a choice lemon of medium size, seedless, strong acid, skin thin, pliable, and an excellent keeper. Tree nearly free from thorns, strong in growth, and of dark, elegant foliage. GARCELON’s Knoppy.—Fruit medium size, when cured very thin rind, juicy. Tree a good grower and prolific. Bouron.—Fruit medium size, sweet rind when cured, very seedy. Tree very thorny; inferior. Sweet Rinp.—Fruit very large; tree very thorny; inferior. Mitan.*—Fruit medium size; an exceptionally fine Jemon. CALIFORNIA Sictty.—Name applied to common seedling lemons. CuInEsE.—F ruit large, the size of a citron, which it resembles. Fruit of little commercial value, except the peel, which is used for preserving purposes. Tree is of a dwarf habit—a bush. In former years it was extensively used as a stock, but being subject to the gum disease and unable to support the growth of the orange and lemon, it has been discarded. Ever-Brarinc.*—Fruit large and coarse. Decreases in size as the tree grows older. Sicrt1an.*—A lemon of superior quality. Lame.*—Fruit medium; strong acid. Bisou.*—Fruit medium, and a good keeper. VARIEGATED. —The leaves are mottled with white; ornamental. Napo.tron.—Fruit medium size, thin rind, oblong. A pro- lific bearer. #Plorida varieties; some have been introduced into California. 166 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. Avaust.*—Fruit medium size, elongated, a good shipper. Tree a rapid grower. Bexvarr Premium.*—Fruit medium size, without bitterness. Tree a strong grower and thrifty. Considered the best variety grown in Florida. Frenco SrEeDLING.*—Fruit quite small, sweet rind, and a strong acid. Tree a strong grower, almost thornless. Frencu, oR Fioripa.*—Rough; used as a stock. Frencu SeEDLING.*—Said to be very good. OTHER VARIETIES— Valentina* Genoese Castilian Bracy* Leghorn* Garden Lemon Royal Imperial* Neapolitan* (inferior) Candian Long* Makay* Mela Rosa Chio Naples* Meranda* Paradise Praos Sweet Brazilian* Malta* Communis Messina* Tuberculata* Waring's Seed- Suacco Roman Waring’s Seedless* ling* Melaroce St. Jerome The Sweet, or Bergamot, Lemon. Citrus limonum, var. Dulcis, Risso. This species of the citrus family has been grown in a small way in dooryards and gardens by early settlers, and must have had its origin, or was introduced, at a very early period. It has never assumed much importance in the markets, and for this reason has only been grown to a very limited extent. The flowers are pure white, slightly tinged with purple on the out- side and white within. The leaves are large, ovate roundish, serrated; petioles subulate, very smooth and aromatic. The fruit resembles the lemon in appearance, but globose, with a blunt, nipple-like protuberance at the blossom end, a firm rind, sweet pulp, and a non-aromatic juice. The tree is a prolific bearer, is easily grown from cuttings, and is also worked on orange stocks or vice versa. The tree requires the same treatment and conditions for its growth as the lemon, and on its own root is very much subject to the attacks of gum disease. There are various types grown, and while some possess marked qualities, perhaps owing to the climatic conditions, soil, etc., none have been so far classed as distinctive varieties. *Florida varieties; some have been introduced into California. CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE XV LisBoN—Natural size. | VILLA FrRaNcA—Slightly reduced. THE LEMON INDUSTRY—VARIETIES. CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTU PLATE XVI. BONNIE BRAE—Cross-section—Natural size. BONNIE BRAE—Cross-section, showing seed (Cured specimen.) variation and thickness of rind. (Uncured.) THE LEMON INDUSTRY—VARIETIES. Natural size. EUREKA— RS ce ize. EuREKA—Cross-sections—Natural s 1ze. GeNoA—Natural s THE LEMON INDUSTRY—VARIETIES. “RoyaL MEsstna’’—Cross-sections—Natural size. THE LEMON INDUSTRY—VARIETIES. BA Sicity—Cured specimen—Natural size. THE LEMON INDUSTRY—VARIETIES. 172 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. PRUNING THE LEMON. “How shall we prune, andwhen shall wedoit?” I.C. Wood, of Ontario, Cal., an experienced lemon-grower, answered the question before the Southern California Pomological Society, as follows: ‘Tf the tree is one year old, I would cut it to about three and one half feet high; if older, possibly higher, according to strength of plant. Then let it branch from near the ground, say one to one and a half feet. As soon as the young shoots are strong enough, select from four to six or more of the best of them; see that they are evenly distributed on every side of Lemon orchard pruned high, without cutting back the upper shoots, which continually break by the weight of the fruit. the stem and at different heights from the ground; allow the uppermost to form the leader, which should be encouraged from year to year to continue as a leader, so as to avoid as far as possible decided forks. “At end of first year prune in all side shoots and top according to the amount of wood made—usually one half will be about right for the lower branches, and more severe for the upper ones. The object is to shape the tree and keep it in the form of a letter “A,” limbed right from the ground or nearly so. In pruning, do not cut at random, especially at this stage, but see which way you want the upper buds to grow, as the upper bud usually makes the leader which we want to THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 178 encourage to go upward and not outward, as we are laying a foundation for a heavy crop of fruit and we want to keep that crop protected as much as possible by a mass of foliage, and equally distributed through the tree and close to the stronger or main branches. The object is to make the tree carry a full crop, and that, too, without props or ropes, which are expensive, take time and labor to put in place, besides being unsightly and in the way. Moreover, the tree will be so compact in its make-up that should we be located where subject to winds, the resisting power of the tree will be much greater and losses of fruit and breakage of branches very much lessened. The crop of fruit will be found very largely on the inside of the tree, insuring less sunburn or that unpleasant deep yellow color on the side exposed, as is so general when the crop is allowed to bear on the outside and at the extremities of the branches. “Tn this section (Ontario) there is a half-dormant season during the months of February, March, and a part of April, which I would consider the proper time for making our heavy cutting. If it becomes necessary at any time, which may be the case with young and thrifty trees not yet in bearing, I have before recommended pruning the lighter wood at the time of picking the fruit, and experience has taught me that there is no time when we can do pruning so effectually. When this method is followed up we invariably find a large amount of the fruit on the inside of the tree, and on small, willow-like branches. When the stronger growth has been kept in check, these smaller branches are encouraged and live on, because they receive a fair proportion of the tree sap, which would otherwise go to the stronger parts, and if allowed, the smaller shoots, especially on the inside, would die, and the inside of the tree would become a scraggy mass of small dry branches.” *“The idea of growing as large a tree as possible in three or four years, or until bearing age, must be reversed; must be done by cutting back the tree when one year old and keeping it cut back and thinned out until the growth is controlled. The wood must never be cut on its first growth; let it become hard, not less than two growths old. The older the wood the more inclined to small fruit growth when cut back. The length to leave depends altogether on size of wood and location of *J. W. Scott, in Covina Argus, October, 1895. 174 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. branches; but seldom leave more than eight inches, and often only one or two buds. The one great mistake made by some in cutting back heavily is to shear off the crown of the tree year after year, causing it to grow thicker and thicker each year, sacrificing all of the lateral fruit growth and the fruit growth inside the tree. “Tn cutting trees three years old and upward, one must understand the nature of the tree especially, or he will leave too much foundation for new growth. After the new wood is dormant it should be thinned out, leaving plenty of lateral and inside growth, but taking out everything from the top that has a tendency to shoot upward, especially large wood. The idea is to keep the top down and work for a lateral growth, always keeping out suckers and large young wood. Above all do not try to form any more branches by utilizing a sucker to fill in a vacancy; better let time fill it up with the old wood, or grub up the tree and put in a new one. “During pruning, use very little water, if any, until the first growth is dormant. I believe there is a great mistake made in watering lemon trees at just the wrong time. Until they are in full bearing they do not require much water. I think the majority of growers will agree with me that the time to water the lemon tree is when dormant, then a good, healthy stock of wood is secured, but it requires more labor keeping out suckers. I think the time will come when lemon-growers in irrigation districts will build their own private reservoirs that they may be able to use the water when needed. I have made the assertion that a lemon tree needs more water than the orange, and it is very evident, for the reason that when a lemon tree comes into bearing it is capable of producing at the same age and with the same care, two or three times as much fruit as the orange, and is setting fruit all through the year.” G. W. Garcelon, a pioneer lemon-grower of Riverside, says: “After the tree is set let it grow. As soon as suckers appear, remove them, although some growers leave them for a time to protect the trunk of the tree from the sun. Rather burlap the trunks and let the growth come from the top, which will con- stitute two thirds of the tree. Allow all top growth to remain, except shortening in any too luxuriant branches, or winds will prune for you, and more than is desirable. Now this is all THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—-PRUNING. 175 that is necessary, except annually to clean out any wood in the tree which has got through being useful to the tree, always remembering that the best fruit of the lemon comes from the inside of the tree and nearest the ground.” The lemon tree being a strong and vigorous plant, requires liberal irrigation and above all, judicious pruning, for almost before a person is aware of it, long straggling branches will hinder cultivation, and must be cut back, thereby entailing an absolute waste and greatly lessening the vitality of the tree. To prevent this waste and loss, the ends of the branches should be pinched off at the proper time, and with such dis- cretion as will result in forming a symmetrical and well- balanced top. Great care should alsu be taken in thinning out the small and weak branches, so as to afford circulation and allow sunshine to penetrate. Pinching off the ends of the limbs will cause them to throw out spurs, thereby bringing the fruit nearer the body of the tree. *“We have learned from observation that the lemon tree produces its best fruit on twigs or small branches in the interior of the tree. To get any considerable quantity of such twigs we must cut back the branches, for the habit of the tree is to send out long shoots that fruit on the end, often leaving two or three feet without a break. The fruit that grows on these branches is largely culls. If the branches are properly cut back, the body of the tree will probably fill up with fine wood, which will furnish bearing surface for all the fruit that the tree can properly mature. “Two difficulties have confronted us as growers: one, that much of our fruit does not attain the proper size before we are obliged to pick it in order to prevent its deteriorating in quality; and the other, that our crop is ready to gather too late for one market and too early for another, or during the early winter months. The former of these difficulties can probably be largely overcome, and the latter by somewhat reducing the bearing surface of the tree and bringing the fruit nearer to the source of supply. All experiments along this line go to show that both the grade and size of the lemon are improved by the process. Many lemons, from being too small or too highly colored before picking, go into the second grade or culls that otherwise should #J. W. Freeman, in “ Pacific Rural Press,” April 25, 1897. 176 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. go into the first or second grade. One can easily see that it pays better to grow twelve boxes of lemons at $1.25 per box than to grow fifteen boxes of second grade at $1, or any number of culls for nothing, as the cost per box is the same in each case. “Tt is thought by some that by certain methods of pruning the habits of the lemon tree can be so changed that from bear- ing the bulk of its fruit in the fall and early winter it may be made to bear in the summer. It would seem that in certain localities that is the habit of the tree, but we speak of this as we know it; that to our minds is unquestionable. The possi- bility of it hes, of course, in the fact that the tree is a continu- ous bearer; but supposing that it could be done, the thing of itself is of doubtful benefit, especially in the localities subject to injury by frost. The so-called summer crop is on the trees during the winter months, and if it passes through safely, is just the thing to be desired. Until we can devise some method of protection (from the elements, we mean), it would seem that the wisest course will be to do what we can to hasten the time of maturity of our fall crop to catch as much of the early market as possible, and to hold the balance of our crop over until spring, if necessary. This fruit is of much better keeping quality than the summer crop. “If this method is adopted it will be much better to begin with the trees when they are young, but with old trees the sooner the better. Some have the practice of rounding up their trees like a billiard ball, irrespective of what may be the length of the limbs in the body of the tree. This seems to us to be a mistake, as it will leave the tree with too dense a growth of foliage. Others cut them off like a billiard table. This is open to the same objection, besides taking from the tree much wood that is already in the place desired. Each limb should be treated by itself and cut back to within six or eight inches of the fork; when limbs spring from this, instead of cutting each one off at the same distance, they should be thinned out to two or three, cutting the surplus shoots right back to the branch. Jt may be necessary to reduce the surface still further each year by cutting out a portion of the bearing wood, so that each limb shall not carry more fruit than it can mature. We can show trees treated in this way that are now one mass of bloom right through the whole body of the tree, so that one could scarcely put his hand in without touching a blossom. THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 177 This may in time need thinning out, but that is an easy matter. “This may seem like heroic work, and many dislike to undertake it, though they may be convinced that it will pay in the end. It does not mean the total loss of a year’s crop by any means. The yield will not be so large, it is true, but the actual returns may not be far behind. Let me call your atten- tion to the saving that will be effected in the cost of picking. To go into the top of a large tree five or six times a year for a half box of lemons is an expensive business and runs the cost of picking up to almost more than the actual value of the fruit. By this method of pruning, the fruit will be kept within easy reach. “To get the best results from this system of pruning the work must be followed up and all useless growth re- moved while the process will shock neither the feelings of the grower nor the sensibilities of | the tree. ; af A low-pruned tree headed back, and supporting a large Let me say here quantity of lemons. that the grove that yielded the largest returns in this section seems to me to have been pruned nearly in line with these suggestions. By a com- mon-sense method of pruning, lemon trees are gotten into such shape that the wind causes less damage to fruit and tree, and the branches are not broken if overburdened with fruit. Props and twenty-foot ladders are rendered unnecessary, the cost of picking is reduced from one third to one half, the quality of the fruit is materially improved, the returns are largely aug- mented, and the grower made correspondingly happy.” 12c 178 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. *“ Head the tree about two and a half feet from the ground; keep it shortened in for three or four years, forcing a thick, stocky basis for after-growth. The tree by this time is bear- ing freely, and the fruit will pull or bend down the long shoots, which will then put up or throw out small fruit-bearing timber all along the upper side of the drooping limb. I think this preferable to a continuous shortening of ail long growth. A dense, shady tree is what is wanted, since the denser the shade the more symmetrical and smooth the fruit will be. Limbs that reach to and lie upon the ground may from time to time, as needed, be tipped off.” THE BARONIO METHOD OF PRUNING THE LEMON. The so-called “ Baronio Method” of pruning the lemon takes its name from A. C. Baronio, an Italian gentleman: who recently introduced it into some orchards at La Mesa, San Diego County, and who is now a resident of that locality. While this method of pruning is not new, it is practically new as applied to the lemon in this State. Gallesio, in his treatise on the citrus family, written nearly a century ago, mentions “the lemon of Genoa as a vigorous tree which will also extend itself en espalier (on a trellis) and bear an abundance of fruit.” He also mentions other varieties “that will not submit to be trained en espalier.” This system partakes of the principles laid down by Du Breuil, Barry, and Downing in the Espalier and Cordon systems of pruning long in vogue, but applied to decid- uous trees. Mr. Baronio claims that the present method as practiced by him on the lemon is the outcome of a series of years of personal tests and practical experience as a matter of study, which led him to the conclusion that it is preéminently suited to the lemon, especially in various sections in the south- ern part of the State. Whether this method and others that have come into general use of late, will ever be pronounced eminently successful time can only determine. Suffice it to say, however, that they are much believed in and are applied in many orchards. The method is described as follows by A. C. Baronio: The method of pruning the lemon as practiced by me, although having been mistaken for the old vase, or the “ tronco *Dr. W. B. Wall, an extensive lemon-grower of Tustin, before Southern California Pomological Society, June, 1896. THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 179 rovesciato” form of the Italians, is entirely different, because it brings the tree under such a control as is not to be obtained by any other method. It really aims at producing a very low, wide open standard tree, possessing all the merits of an espalier with none of its drawbacks. When once the tree has been brought under subjection, every part of it is kept within easy reach of an ordinary man stand- ing on the ground, the structure strong enough to carry a great weight of fruit and capable of standing undisturbed by wind and weather. The fruit is of superior quality, frée from culls, the succession of crops regulated, and the fruit-bearing surface Lemon orchard of T. F. Jones, at La Mesa, cut back by Mr. Baronio in July, 1898. Photo taken October 30, 1899. can be enlarged and directed at will as the tree acquires age and strength, so that it is a question of laying the foundation for a permanent structure, which may be enlarged for an indefi- nite time. Of course it necessitates an entire reconstruction (unless so raised from the beginning) in order to lay the foun- dation for such a lasting and progressively profitable tree, which cannot be done by a single operation. I have emphatically warned those who may be enticed by some of the half-and-half attempts which have sprung up since as new systems and which find favor in some quarters as a happy compromise on what would seem to be too radical a reform. But these are merely makeshifts or bad imitations likely to lead to temporary encouragement and ultimate disappointment, through lack of knowledge and experience in the proper application of vital 180 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. principles. Instead of the pruner being able to control the tree, it will be found that the tree is master of the situation, growing its own way without proper foundation. The lemon tree is either a most tractable or the most obstinate of servants, but the choice rests with the intelligence of its master. The great object in view is to grow lemons for “profit,” which must be progressive as the age and strength of the tree advance, always with due regard to its future life and well-being. The method is based on well-formulated physiological principles, of which the following are the most important: (a) A tree is most profitable when the flow of sap is evenly distributed over all its surface, each branch maintained prop- erly covered with elaborated growth all along from its base extending outward in methodical form; and when it is held under absolute control so that the root shall always be capable of feeding the whole top, which is kept within easy reach from the ground. (b) The sap circulates faster through a shoot running straight up in the air than through a branch going out in a lateral direction. (c) There is little or no elaboration along the length of a straight shoot until the top is reached. (d) There is a larger amount of elaboration along a branch in proportion as it goes out in a lateral direction. (e) There can be no fruitfulness without elaboration; there- fore, (f) A lateral branch is more fruitful than an upright one. (g) If a young, vigorous shoot (commonly called a sucker) running straight up is allowed to persist on a branch; it will draw most of the sap and tend to starve the other growth below. (h) A branch may be built slightly crooked and strong in short sections made up of wood of different ages, and so pruned that a rush of sap never being permitted it is forced to elaborate a lot of small fruiting growth all along its length. (i) Fruitfulness and excellence are the results of a slow but steady circulation. (j) An over-accelerated circulation tends to foster unneces- sarily vigorous or rank wood formation. (k) A tree must never be permitted at the top to outgrow its root system, but allowed only sufficient wood formation to keep 7 THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 181 it growing, and all the fruit compatible with its ase and strength. 3 (1) Branches should never be so crowded as to preclude the free admission of light and air between them. (m) In order that-a tree might have the sap evenly distrib- uted, its main branches must be of equal sizé and run out at similar angles. (x) A limb which branches off at an acute angle is liable to split at the fork. Fig. 1—Baronio method of pruning the lemon. (From a sketch by G. P. Hall, of San Diego.) (0) A limb which branches off at a blunt angle is not liable to split. (p) A limb (like a chain) is no stronger than its weakest point, and therefore there must be no weak points about it. (q) The strongest points of a limb must commence at its base. (r) Foundation branches can never be built too strong. (s) Limbs seldom break down by mere weight, but mostly by vibration, which brings all the strain on the weakest point at the fork. 182 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. (t) Main branches should be perfectly stiff, not affected by any vibration whatever. It is impossible, in a short article like this, to do full justice to the system or even attempt to partly explain it in detail. A few hours with me in the field will do more than can be attempted here on paper, especially since I am willing and capable of explaining everything about it. The method is Fig. 2—Baronio method of pruning the lemon. (From a sketch by G. P. Hall, of San Diego.) shown in the accompanying illustrations, made from sketches and photographs taken on the spot. Figs. 1, 2, and 8 represent three rather extreme cases of straggling Kurekas taken immediately after the first operation. With the center leader, which probably carried a top to the height of about ten feet, cut out so that little if anything is left, any one with a timid heart who did not know any better would certainly think it impossible to get anything like a tree back again, but it is astonishing how quickly an entirely new and THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 183 better structure is brought into existence. First of all, by the removal of the great leverage which the high top exercised on the root, this at once gets a chance to obtain a firmer hold of the ground; the tree puts forth a new effort, and by a much more vigorous growth and healthier foliage, which act as new lungs to it, a correspondingly increased activity goes on under ground, forcing the formation of fresh rootlets, the trunk begins to thicken in proportion, and so an altogether more satisfactory condition of things is established. The great necessity for a good and strong constitution is a proportionately large stem from the base up, since a tree, like a man, of a strong consti- tution can stand more thanacripple. Now, fixing our attention Fig. 3—Baronio method of pruning the lemon. (From a sketch by G. P. Hall, of San Diego.) : on Fig. 1,according to my plan the tree is branched too high, for I consider sixteen inches the best height, and if more it should not exceed two feet; it will therefore be noticed that on the stem about a foot below the first branch two suckers are already started, the intention being to let them run straight up, like the one shown in Fig: 2, then arch them over as seen in Fig. 3. Observe how the two suckers have been intentionally selected not to be exactly opposite, one about four inches below the other, this being essential to form strong, independent branches. It would require a great number of diagrams and a too lengthy description to attempt an explanation of the process whereby the perfect conditions of principle are secured. How weak “66ST ‘Og 19q0300 UHL} OJON “gest ‘Aine ur ‘oruoreg “aq Aq yowq yng ~esow ey ‘souor Wz, yo preyoro uy ‘COHLEW OINOUVE FHL AG CANNUd FAUL NOWAT “XX GLV1Td ‘HAOLTNAO SAULIO VINUOAITVO “66ST ‘OE 19q0100O USHBI OJON ‘66ST JO J9MITINS OF dn my Aq 10y posed pus ‘vegt ‘Ajue UT ‘opuoIeg “IW sq Worq yng ‘esa BT ‘dnaysnou, a “¥ ‘fo prvyoso ur ‘COHLAN OINOUVEA AHL Ad GANNUd AAUL NOWYT IxxX ULVId “HUONLTINO SNOULIO VINYOWITVO 186 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. limbs are made strong enough to overtake those which are strong already, and how new ones are raised at any desired position, may be seen in the various orchards of Mr. G. 0. Hilton, and on the ‘Ana Belle” ranch of Mr. T. F. Jones, all of which are situated in the ‘Lemon Villa” tract of the San Diego Mesa, where new limbs from one and a half to two inches thick have been raised in less than two years, notwith- standing the exceptionally dry seasons. When the necessary well-placed limbs have been obtained, the most eligible ones are selected for structural purposes, future fruit, whereas the others are reserved for present fruit only. The same remarks apply to Fig. 2; and as to Fig. 3, although at present it looks to be the most unlikely thing out of which to evolve a good tree, it will nevertheless make the best structure and get into shape quicker than either of the other two. All that is wanted to make it perfect would be to have the two branches right and left in the picture not located so nearly opposite to each other. On each of these three arched branches two suckers are allowed to run, say one about one foot and the other sixteen inches from the trunk (all other growth being suppressed), and when properly matured these suckers are similarly arched, one to the right and one to the left of the respective original three branches, which by this time will be set into position and may therefore be shortened in, leaving to each a sufficiently long projecting stub to which the corresponding newly arched suckers may be fastened, and thus no longer obstruct the ground below. There will then be three main branches, each subdivided into two secondary branches, giving six structural points around a circle; and by a succession of similar operations these are in due time doubled to make twelve, and so on, always remembering to leave sufficient space between each of these fan-like main branches so as to allow a man to crawl through them and get into the middle of the tree to command the inside surface as far as he can reach. Everything, in fact, is reduced to a perfect system, rendering the work a pleasure rather than a toil. Plates XX and XXI commend themselves, but here the structural frame is not visible at all, or the effect would proba- bly be as startling as in the three cases discussed above. Of THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 187 course, each tree being a separate proposition in itself, it is needless to say that where there is found already a tolerably good supply of well-placed branches, an opportunity is offered for an almost immediate symmetrical appearance. But this ambition must not be too greatly encouraged to the detriment of solidity, for it is easier and quicker to build a proper branch anew than to patch up an old one. To know what to remove and what to leave is an art to be acquired only by practice. OPEN-CENTER PRUNING OF THE LEMON.* (Modified from the Baronio Method.) Skeleton sketch of a cross-section of an open-center tree. Hair lines indicate where to cut limbs. In the early days of citrus culture in California many lemon- growers did not believe in pruning. At the present time there may be a few who still cling to the idea that nature should be let alone; but nearly all observant growers have been forced, by the logic of facts, to the conclusion that the lemon tree, in all its varieties, needs pruning, more or less severe, to bring about the best results. While the untrained tree grows rapidly and produces heavy *By C. W. Leffingwell, Jr., Manager of the “ Leffingwell Orchards,” Fullerton, Cal. ; 188 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. crops, the fruit runs largely to culls, and often fails to come to a profitable size. The tree, with its great load of fruit grow- ing at the ends of long limbs, is at the mercy of the winds, and is often split and ruined by the mere weight of its burden. Therefore, it may be true that the lemon tree left to itself will produce heavily, but it is generally recognized that to produce the largest per cent of good-sized and fancy lemons the tree noust be intelligently pruned. In the method of pruning given in the sketch the main object has been to shorten back and strengthen the scaffold or main limbs, so that they will carry their load nearer the center of the tree and be stocky and stiff enough to withstand strong winds without swaying and bruising the fruit. This method, properly carried out, has produced good results. It has, how- ever, caused a tendency in the tree to form too thick and dense a head; a tendency very hard tocombat. Even when carefully thinned out, trees shortened back in this way grow faster in their tops than in their lateral branches; on the principle that the sap flows most freely in vertical lines. The result is apt to be a tree high and all top; and this top, while beautiful to behold (to a “tenderfoot”’) is not fruitful, but consists chiefly of rank-growing, vertical leaders, commonly called suckers. These suckers are not supplied with fruit spurs, and are as worthless as so much bamboo. Even did they bear fruit, it would be almost inaccessible, and expensive to pick. The lower limbs, naturally the most fruitful, are robbed of sap by the superior drawing powers of the top, and fail to do their duty. To overcome these difficulties the “open center” style of pruning has been tried, and has given good results. By eliminating the top entirely, the sap is thrown into the lower branches. These limbs being horizontal rather than vertical, and more or less bent, elaborate or digest the sap and produce heavy crops of good-sized fruit. This fruit, moreover, is within reach from the ground and can be economically picked. When the tree is once adapted to this form, the regular prun- ing is more easily and quickly performed, the number of limbs to be cut being greatly reduced, and all being within reach from the ground. An explanation of the details of this system should properly come under two heads: “the pruning of young trees,” and THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 189 ‘‘the alteration of old trees.”” As most of the lemon trees in California are three years old or over, this paper will be con- fined to a discussion of the method of altering old trees to conform to the “open center” style. It is assumed that the trees to be altered are branched fairly near the ground. If they have been up high no system of pruning will bring the fruit within reach from the ground, but to cut out the tops will save sap and make the lower limbs, sueh as they are, more fruitful. Lemon tree pruned by the open-center method. Assuming, then, that the grower has trained his trees near the ground, and has not caused the branches to grow up for elephants to walk under, the method of procedure is as follows: Draw an imaginary line around the outside of the tree, as high up aS a man can reach standing on a picking-box. All the limbs that terminate above this line should be cut out. Cut them off at their juncture with the limbs that terminate below the imaginary line. The sketch on page 187 shows roughly 190 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. the places where to cut to eliminate the top. When this ; done the top of the tree, looking down into it, will look like th inside of an inverted cone, and the tree may be called oper centered. If the trees are small, cut out all limbs that extend up fror the center of the tree at an angle greater than forty-fiv degrees from the horizontal. The tree in appearance will the be proportionately the same as the older tree above describec and can be trained gradually to the same limit of height. The after-treatment of an open-centered tree, whatever it size, resolves itself into two distinct operations: the treatmen of the hollow top. and the training of the main branches. The hollow, cone-shaped opening in the top of the tree wil soon be filled with shoots springing from buds on the mai limbs, these buds being now exposed to the sun and excite into growth. Some of these shoots will stop growing when fron six to twelve inches long, and will harden up and form frui spurs. Others of these shoots will continue to grow at thei terminal bud, retaining the color and appearance of tende sucker growth. When all have grown long enough to shov their character, cut out the suckers and leave the fruit spurs As a result the saucer-like top of the tree will in time bi clothed with short spurs, shading the main limbs, and bearin; fruit of finest quality. The top, before a dense thicket, is nov made fruitful, without in any way interfering with the remain. ing (most fruitful) branches. With each growth the sucker: will for some years persist in coming, but are easy to take ow as soon as they show their identity. The treatment of the lower branches which remain is the same as if the top had not been removed. If the tree ha: been well trained from the start its skeleton will consist o three or four strong main branches leaving the trunk near the ground, and running out more or less horizontally; and one 01 two more sets or decks of the same number of branches, leaving the trunk above these and extending out at an angle of from thirty to forty-five degrees. These limbs will have beer pruned back at intervals, and, forming forks at each pruning will be found to support an increasing number of branches a: the outside of the tree is approached. The problem is now to handle the new growth on the tips o these branches. In solving this problem we should keep ir THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 191 mind the objects in view, which are: to make the tree stocky, and at the same time to keep it from getting too dense. The pruning should be confined entirely to an effort to control the erowth of the skeleton of the tree, letting nature take care of the fruit spurs with which this skeleton is clothed. The terminal shoots or leaders of the tree should be left alone until they have grown to be several feet in length and from one quarter to one half inch in diameter. They should then be cut back, Jeaving from six to ten inches from the last pruning. In cutting back a vertical leader, cut to a bud that points out, away from the tree; horizontal leaders should be cut toa bud that points up. By persevering in this practice the limbs can be trained out, then up, then out again; they will be angular and crooked, which is conducive to fruitful- ness. Their angling direction will help to brace them against the evergrowing leverage of their fruit and foliage, so that, while they may in time be bent down to the horizontal, they will never droop and rest upon the ground. After each cutting back these leaders should be left alone and nature given full sway; and this is what will happen: Five or six buds nearest the cut will be excited into growth. Then will ensue a struggle to see which of these buds will get the most sap. The terminal bud is sure to get. its share, and become a strong, sucker-like shoot. Probably one or two others will secure enough nutriment to become suckers likewise. The rest of the buds will have to give up their ambition to shine, and will settle down to the domestic réle of bearing lemons, and thus perpetuating their species. These are the shoots that we are after. Were it not for the cutting back these buds would become dormant and lost to use; the leader on which they are situated would grow five or six feet perhaps, before nature would make another branching, and give more buds a chance to go to housekeeping. How to handle the shoots which get the sap and become leaders is an important question. It is right here that judi- cious thinning should be done, to keep the tree from becoming too dense. All the shoots should be left until long enough to show which will be fruit spurs and which leaders. All but one of the leaders, the one which points in the desired direction, should be cut off clean. This leader will thus become the foundation of all future growth on this branch. At the 192 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. next pruning it would be well to leave two leaders, laying the foundation for a new branch. By alternating in this way we can increase the number of ramifications of the tree, without getting it too dense—the trouble with most lemon trees. These new leaders, when grown big enough, should in turn be cut back, and treated in the same manner. Beyond this, and keeping water-sprouts out of the center, little need be done to the tree. Nature will take care of the rest. It may seem impracticable to apply one set of rules to all varieties of the lemon tree, but in the experience of the writer, all have responded to this method of treatment. The Lisbon, being first and last a lusty grower, is bound, whatever the style of pruning, to make a rank mass of new wood. Let it grow, and cut off what is not wanted; let it grow again, and cut it back again. It can be made to bear plenty of fruit within easy reach; if left to itself it will produce little but “stovewood. The Eureka and Villa Franca, being of more tractable habits, form less and less new wood as they grow older and their crops increase; so that in time little or no pruning is necessary. The question has been asked, whether the fruit spurs of the lemon go on bearing, or die after bearing a few crops; mak- ing necessary a constant growth of new wood, as with the orange and peach. From observation the writer believes that the lemon spur, with the apple and pear, is long lived and goes on bearing for years. If, on the other hand, the spurs are really short lived, severe pruning alone will insure new wood. No radical system should be generally adopted without care- ful trial. The “open center” system has been applied to a large acreage of lemon trees, with unmistakable benefits, and the number of acres so treated is increasing. In the orchards in charge of the writer sixteen thousand trees, mostly three years old, have been changed to conform to this style. Hardly a lemon has been lost in the transformation, and prominent horticulturists pronounce the trees unsurpassed for their age, ‘in size, condition, or fruitfulness. Where before was despair as to what to do with the troublesome tops, now all is simple and easily done. It would pay every lemon-grower to try these suggestions on a few trees, and let the results speak for themselves. THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 193 OPEN HORIZONTAL TRIMMING.* It is so called because the tree is trimmed to present this form. It is a compromise between the one-deck form of the perfect Baronio, and the method of allowing trees to run to suckers. The principles of Barry, Downing, and Baronio are well established, and their utility is understood by observing stu- dents of horticulture. : Trees can be trained to grow in the square, espalier, globe, vase, or neglected form. The requisite is to have a definite idea of the form desired and of the office the tree is to per- form. We get peculiar ideas of form rather from sentiment than from thought of utility or profit. We think the form we have been used to seeing is the only proper one to produce, hence cannot think of an apple tree trimmed on the cordon plan (raising fruit on parallel limbs not two feet from the ground). There was a man who thought lemon trees should be trimmed up high like he had seen apple trees in New York—so that horses could pass under the lowest limbs. He is now clerking in a livery stable. We do not fail to trim the grape until a vineyard looks like a conception of a portion of Inferno by Dante and Doré. But it is the profitable way to do. We sucker corn because we want ears instead of bare stalks. Why not treat the lemon as commercially? It is simply a business proposition to remove all the superfluous timber, and to retain the bearing surfaces. It means dollars to have the tree low and open, rather than so lofty that the price of the fruit is consumed in traveling up and down the stepladder to get it. Trees arrange their forms by reason of the different methods of the distribution of sap. The oak differs from the cypress by reason of this unerring law. Shrubs, conifers, palms, and all forms of vegetation assume their respective shapes because the sap is differently disposed. Some trees, if left to themselves, run all the sap to the extremities, as is the case with the peach, apricot, and others, hence in their case the extremities must be severely cut back, or there is a crop of dead wood in the center of the tree. We deduce from this principle, which we have not time to *By George P. Hall, of San Diego. 13¢ 194 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. enlarge upon here, the conclusion that the vigor of the tre depends upon an equal distribution of the flow of sap. Deac wood is the result of loss of sap in either root or limb. Tree: left to themselves assume an individuality that is seldom profitable. The wild apple, orange, and lemon are of little value commercially. We must therefore train them along line: of production. To obtain certain results we must direct the flow of sap in the channels we wish it to flow, having a definite purpose in view, otherwise all so-called trimming is simply butchery. The tree must be balanced, therefore arrest growth where there is a superfluity and encourage growth where it is lacking. Trim short when wood growth is desired. Use the biblical injunction, “To him that hath shall be given, and to him that hath not shall be taken away even that which he hath.” Cut feeble limbs short and encourage upright growth, because upright growth produces wood. The feeble parts deprived of fruit will produce wood; the strong parts loaded with fruit will produce less wood. Bend the strong parts down, keep the weak erect. The more erect the branches the greater the flow of sap to the growing parts, hence the feeble parts left erect attract more sap than the strong parts bent down or inclined. Sap acts with more force on a limb pruned short than on a long one. Two buds with the same flow of sap asin twenty buds will be stronger than any of the twenty. Prune short for wood branches, because vigorous shoots produce few fruit buds. Prune long for fruit, as it is the most tender and feeble buds that produce the fruit; bending the limbs at an angle or to a horizontal position to produce fruit buds. Prune short the parts that have overborne; to secure a prolongation, prune to a vigorous wood bud and let nothing interfere. The more the sap is obstructed in its circulation the more the tree is disposed to produce fruit. The sap traveling slowly is subjected to slower assimilation and is better adapted to the production of fruit. To change a fruit branch to wood give it an upright position; to make a wood branch bear fruit bend it to nearly a horizontal position. Light and air are essential. The rapid growth is toward the source of light. Upward growth gives strength of wood but less fruit. I do not say the horizontal method is the only one, for fruit THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 195 can be produced on a tree of different form, but I do say that the principles which I have stated must be followed in order to obtain the best results financially, and also to promote the longevity of the tree. My reasons for advocating the horizontal form are that fruit raised on short spurs is less expensive to pick, is of better quality, and the tree relieved of its superfluous wood may develop into a fruit producer instead of being a specimen of growth under the timber culture act. The tree cannot produce an immense amount of wood and bear a large quantity of good fruit at one and the same time. Educate the tree to cease raising suckers, and the height and size of your trees are controlled. In cutting back large trees and in retaining all the horizontal limbs, the tree immediately turns its attention toward fruit- fulness, because the sap is directed along fruitful channels instead of being sent toward the sky. By preserving all well- placed limbs a foundation to build on is secured, with some expectation of reaping a reward for labor expended. The cost of picking fruit from trees trimmed on the horizon- tal plan, and not more than eight or ten feet in height, is greatly reduced. We can but barely hint at the wideness of the application of the principles of the horizontal method, so we simply recapitulate: Trees receive their individual form by the natural direction of the sap, therefore direct the sap and you control the tree. Most trees send the sap to the top, being drawn thereto by the sun. Change the habit. Vigor of the tree depends on equal distribution of the sap, therefore distribute it by judicious trimming. Trees left entirely to themselves are seldom profitable. The wild tree must be civilized by grafting or budding, and pruning. Trees can be trained to assume at the same time profitable and symmetrical forms. Results come from systematically directing the growing life of the tree. The tree must be balanced top and root. Pruning gives activity to root growth. Loss of limbs incites healthy action of the roots. 196 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. Deprive the feeble parts of fruit, and make the vigorous parts bear all they will. Bend the strong parts down, put the weak erect. Tie and arrange limbs as you want them. Make the tree your servant. The greater the number of erect limbs in a tree, the sooner will its vitality be exhausted; it lives too fast. Fruit grown on short spurs is less liable to injury. The horizontal type of pruning gives a definite plan for the life and habit of your tree, which is immensely superior to all others. Lay a horizontal superstructure, and you build your tree strongly. It is important that the man who plans the form of the tree should follow its training thereafter. Do not deliver it over to the accidental haggler who does not understand your pian, and has none of his own. Snipping is not trimming. There is but little loss of fruit, or time, in changing the form of the tree by the horizontal method of pruning; the tree immediately begins a fruitful career. Tree pruned by the so-called ‘‘ Semi-Baronio System.”’ SEMI-BARONIO SYSTEM. As is often the case, there are always many who believe they can improve upon whatever method may be used, as in this instance. Several orchards have been treated by what is called THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—TREATMENT. 197 the “Semi-Baronio System.” This consists mainly of taking out the center of large trees, allowing the ingress of air and light, but otherwise without any scientific principle. The growth at the top and on the outside is cut back as in the rounding system of old. The branches put forth numerous shoots, which are again shortened the season following, and so the work goes on. TREATMENT OF THE LEMON. The systems of processing the lemon for market are numerous, but in all the main objects are to reduce the thickness of the rind, to close up the pores of the skin in a natural way, so as to render the texture smooth and velvety to the touch, while the lemon remains firm and solid, to increase its juiciness, and to hold the fruit in that condition to supply the market when it is at its best. J. W. Freeman, of Ontario, gives the following suggestions in handling and processing lemons, derived from the experience of years of processing and marketing lemons by the Ontario Exchange: ‘The question that is now to the front in the lemon industry is what might properly be termed lemon-holding. Those most familiar with the business have, for some time, been convinced that some way should be devised for taking the surplus fruit off the winter market, and holding it for the summer trade. Indeed, the life of the industry seemed to depend upon the possi- bility of that being successfully done. With that end in view a few of our growers, beginning with the November pick, held their winter lemons until May, June, and July, of the season of 1896-97, securing satisfactory results as to keeping qualities and prices. Encouraged by the success of these, some eighty of our members pursued the same plan the following season, with like results, excepting that some of the fruit was marketed in August, a month later than the year before. It would be only fair to say that success has not been uniform in each case, but it has been in proportion to the care taken and the facilities for storing the fruit. An expensive house is not necessary, indeed almost any place will do in winter, but appliances for keeping a low, even temperature are necessary in summer, and doubt- less are desirable in winter as well. A fairly tight box with 198 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. plenty of fresh air circulating about it, at a temperature between 60° and 70°, seems to us to be the essential condition for the best success in holding lemons. Shade will greatly help in keeping down temperature, and is, by some, thought to be equal to a double wall. Means should be provided, by doors, windows, or ventilators, for thoroughly changing the air every night, unless in very damp weather, when it might be advisable to airin daytime. Fruit should not be allowed to wilt before putting away, but the boxes should be left somewhat open for a time, varying according to the conditions of the place in which they are, to allow surplus moisture to pass off. The top boxes should be well covered so that the fruit will not dry out and thus become worthless. It is desirable to retard what is known as the curing process as long as possible, so each grower should study the conditions of his house, and have as little evaporation as possible, without allowing moisture to collect on the fruit. This will also prevent the fruit’s getting soft. Stacking fruit in large piles without spaces between should be avoided, although we have known it to keep well for a time in that way, when it was not in a close room. Medium-sized houses seem to be preferable. To be in ideal condition the fruit should come out firm, with stems fast and green. This will not be the case if fruit heats or sweats. The fruit should be placed so that it can be inspected occasionally, that defects may be remedied. ‘Having said this much, any description of a house will be unnecessary, aS such a one as will meet the requirements of each grower will readily suggest itself. I might say, however, that a sloping roof inside with air holes at ridge will give better ventilation than a flat ceiling. We deem it desirable, if not essential, that each grower hold his own fruit. “A word as to the fruit. All that has ever been said as to the need of carefully handling the fruit should have full weight. The trees should be kept clean. The fruit cannot be at its best if the trees are infested with scale and the fruit has to be washed; but should that be the case, the lemons should, by all means, be brushed or washed when taken from the trees. The fruit should be looked over carefully and the inferior, dark-colored, and small-sized kept by themselves with a view to earlier marketing. Fruit carefully picked and properly stored under right conditions, if uninjured by frost, will need very THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—TREATMENT. 199 little handling, if any, before shipping. The less handling the better. So much fruit as the trade will take at fair prices should be marketed during the winter. The matter of the desirability of winter marketing will have to be governed by the outlook for the coming summer and the supply. “What effect a heavy rain or an irrigation has on the keep- ing qualities of fruit picked immediately after, is a disputed question. Ordinarily no harm can come by waiting, and good may. The important points regarding the question of storing are, we think, fairly well covered, so far as our experience goes, and they are: Experience in picking the lemons at their proper maturity and size; the greatest care and tenderness in hand- ling them in all the processes of storage and marketing; keep- ing them in an even temperature of from 60° to 70°, and frequent change of air in the storage house and apartments; and individual holdings.” A. J. Everest, manager of the Everest orchards at Riverside, in the ‘California Fruit Grower” of November 25, i895, describes his method of picking, curing, and packing lemons for shipment, as follows: ‘We pick our lemons whenever they are large enough, with- out regard to color, preferably while green or slightly turned, taking care that no fruit smaller than the 300 size to the box is picked, as the fruit shrinks some in curing, and thus increases the number to the box. We have used rings to determine the size, but find it too much trouble to try a ring on each lemon, and now give each packer a lemon of the proper size, and let him continually compare his picking. “ After being picked we haul the lemons to the shed, and pile them up in the picking-boxes for two or three weeks or until most of the moisture is dried out, before placing them in the curing-house. We then wrap the lemons separately in tissue paper and lay them on trays one layer deep, having previously graded the fruit. We then store them in our curing-house, which is made with double walls, filled in with sawdust to keep the room at an even temperature. We have ventilators in ceiling and floor of room, and regulate amount of fresh air and temperature by them, allowing temperature to stand from 56° to 60° as a rule. “Storage curing trays are about three inches deep with a cleat on each end, thus raising them up to allow the air to 200 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. rirculate among the fruit, and to keep everything dry as far as advisable. We find that fruit picked early and while quite zreen, say in November, always cures the best and with the east possible shrinkage or loss by decay. “ When packing the fruit for shipment, the wraps that were ised for curing can be used, except where the paper has been noistened by decay in the vicinity or is torn or wet from other sauses. It is better to remove all old wraps, regrade the fruit, ind then pack the same as oranges, using if possible the Sicily style of box, which is obtainable now on this Coast.” In 1890, N. W. Blanchard, of Santa Paula, an extensive emon-grower, and President and General Manager of the Lemonia Company, of Santa Paula, read an essay on “The emon and its treatment,” before the State Fruit-Growers’ Con- vention, in which he described his method of curing lemons, sssentially the same as now practiced by him. In 1894, in an »xssay before the Farmers’ Institute at Santa Barbara, he said: “The essentials for keeping lemons several months are to »xclude the air, or any circulation of air around the fruit, and it the same time to give ample circulation of air about the ‘rays or boxes that contain the lemons. My experience is, that f there are a good many boxes of lemons closely massed, even vith cool weather some of the fruit will decay. When one emon begins to rot heat is generated, and this acts like yeast, sausing fermentation and rottenness to spread rapidly. I do aot think expensive buildings are necessary. I have seen 10 better cured and preserved lemons than some that were wrapped in pieces of newspaper, placed in layers in common yoxes with more paper between layers, the boxes covered with ight covering so as to shut off all circulation of air, and all piled n the end of an airy barn. These lemons were shown to me n July, and I was informed that they were cut in November yrevious. The lemons were firm, finely colored, and in excel- ent condition for shipment. “I know no reason for changing my method of curing emons. I continue to use trays two by three feet and three nches deep, each holding only one layer of lemons. They are onvenient to work with and to examine the lemons. They hould be carefully made, so that when the trays are stacked me on the other there is no chance for the air to reach the ruit. THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—TREATMENT. 201 “The lemons are picked frequently, if there are any suitable to pick, so as to prevent having over-large and over-ripe fruit. I generally use a ring two and one quarter inches in diameter, and take all that will not pass through it. “The lemons are cut close to the fruit, handled very care- fully, hauled from the orchard in a truck on springs, washed immediately if smutty or dusty, then placed on trays, and from one to ten days afterward piled away for keeping, if they are to be kept or need the darkness to color. If already colored and needed for immediate consumption, the trays are cross piled, so as to give them all the air possible. If for remote shipment, the lemons should be shipped quite hard, and even a little green, for they will cure in transit and in the hands of the jobber and retailer.” T. J. Ashby, Secretary of the Pasadena Lemon-Growers’ Association, in a report to the association, says: “The stems must be cut close, but care must be taken not to cut, scratch, or bruise the fruit. It is found that many culls are made by careless clipping and long finger nails. “The desirable sizes are the 360’s in summer and the 300’s in winter. These measure 24 and 24 to 23 inches. Lemons above and below are graded, subject to the discretion of the manager. “Lemon groves should be picked over once a month. Use padded baskets or pails, into which the fruit should be laid, not dropped or thrown, then carefully transfer to boxes placed in the shade. “Pick before irrigation or wait several days. Never pick lemons moist from fog or dew, or leave them unprotected after gathering. : “Haul to the warehouse on easy springs; drive carefully and have the lemons covered to protect from dust and sun. We advise delivering or placing in barn or shed as soon as possible after picking. “Smutty fruit received will be washed or sponged at the expense of the grower. Members have the option of doing this for themselves, but it is well to remember that spraying or fumigating is much less of an expense. “Tt will pay the grower to cull his own fruit and not be forced to haul it both ways. Experience will soon show a novice what to reject. 202 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. “The sum of these suggestions is that the one who brings the best grade of carefully handled fruit is the one who gets the best returns at the least personal expense.” The Advisory Board of the Lemon-Growers, who are affiliated with the Southern California Fruit Exchange, through Morton Haig, of San Gabriel, formulated and published, in April, 1897, the following hints regarding the gathering, etc., of fruit: “Have pickers’ nails trimmed short; few will believe how much fruit goes as ‘culls’ from damage by long finger nails. “Clip the fruit close to the stem. “Do not use sacks in which to gather; lemons are thereby bumped and bruised with every movement of the body. Use baskets lined with sacking. “Do not tumble fruit from the baskets into boxes, but handle lemons as you would eggs, from start to finish. “Never pick when there is moisture from fog, and wait at least four to five days after rain or irrigation. “Place all filled boxes on the north side of the tree, and shade closely from the sun. “Go over trees once every four or five weeks, and thus save sunburned and over-sized fruit, all of which goes as a third- grade fruit, or is, more frequently, thrown out. ‘Pick in winter months to a uniform size of 24 inches in diameter, and in summer months to a uniform size of 24 inches. Metal rings for this purpose can easily be obtained or made. “Loaded wagons should never be allowed to trot or bump over plow furrows, ditches, or chuckholes. “Tf dirty fruit has to be washed, let this process be gotten over quickly; by employing the greatest number possible to this end, will save the fruit immensely. During all undue exposures the work of deterioration is rapidly progressing. Here again avoid all dumping of the fruit, and look to washer’s nails. “Tf fruit has to be taken to depot or central packing-house, let it be done in summer during the cool of the morning or evening. “The grower, in following out such suggestions, has then done his level best. A responsible curer, packer, and a good market will do the rest. THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—SIZES, HANDLING, ETC. 203 “The above applies equally to oranges in their separate treatment. There would be fewer complaints of fruit arriving at its journey’s end ‘heated,’ etc., if growers were more partic- ular with regard to handling. “It has been specially noted, for instance, by the exchanges, that during the wet months serious damage has ensued from gathering oranges too early after a heavy rain, and in many districts the ‘washing and scrubbing’ system has been added to the already soft and soddened fruit conditions.” LEMON SIZES—STANDARD BOX. The sizes of lemons packed for shipment differ from those used in packing the orange for shipment. The sizes are 210, 240, 250, 275, 288, 800, 360, and 420. Occasionally larger and smaller sizes are packed, should the market warrant their shipment. Of the sizes named, the 300 and 360 are recognized by the trade as regular sizes, and all others known as off sizes. The standard lemon box, and the one now generally used in California is— Standard Lemon Box, 10%¢"x 14" x27”. Ends). < -2.2 sooo eee see cet ee pieces aa’ MAOIs” me 14" Sides 2. Jeeta tee ee ote sad sere ce pleCes iz ae OIE De Tops and bottoms-.. ___---...----------4 pieces 144" x 634” x 27” Cleats: -s22 = occas ce edie teee ete ces es 2 pieces 84" Re 34 Re 1314" COST OF HANDLING LEMONS. The cost of handling lemons from the tree to the car, without including the expenses mentioned, was given to the Tariff Com- mittee of Southern California as follows by N. W. Blanchard, of Santa Paula: “Actual cost of picking, brushing, sorting, and packing lemons, per box, including paper wrappers and boxes, for the year 1896, as per account kept of same, was 63 cents. The box used for lemons was the orange box. The standard lemon box is fifteen per cent larger than the orange box, the standard box being 103” x 14” x 124”, inside measurements for each of the two compartments. Adding fifteen per cent to the above cost of 63 cents would make the cost of the standard lemon box 72 cents. 204 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. “For labor I pay the following prices per day: MOnpirls eo carsseeskaacweseee Ueto sande: bela se ee emeese ne For ordinarymen slabOls 22222532 Sasha oe eee aS Formiore experienced men. oso oe a ec eeees For foremen of the pickers in the orchard ---_-.- For overseer in packing lemons -_-.---.---.----- “The cost of handling lemons, as above, does not include anything for general overseer of the orchard, or for clerical help in the office.” B A. Woodford, Secretary and Manager of the Ontario Lemon Exchange, gave the same committee a statement show- ing in detail the cost of a box of lemons from the tree to the car, as follows: Picking (Hauling calculated in orchard expenses). $0 15 to $0 18 Exchange expense 20 Packin'gy oss anaes ec en ne a oe ee en oa 08 Rent of plant ($5,000 investment) ____. __ 3 08 Curing expense (labor)---__-.-.-.---..---- 15 Office and miscellaneous expense _.-_-.---.---. --- 14 Total expense to car, per box.---.--_.---.-------. $0 80 to $0 83 HOP D G22 edwin doe ak Jk ee FE tte) ay atten ae 1 00 Cost:of selling, winter... .2--c2cccscs scec cece ceeeee 12 Total cost per box, winter shipment __._._-___-_- $L 92 to $1 95 Summer Shipment. Wanter shipment... cosa2ostasceeacew cee ses $1 92 to $1 95 Increased cost of selling (25c.) -._--.---.------------ 13 DCU Geen ahs parse eho ele oe Mak ce et ee aR 229 Cost per box, summer shipment.--.--_.-_-. -------- $2 279 to $2 309 Lemon Grove, Chula Vista. THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY. 205 SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY. By W. Carron Grassy, F.L.S. (Being a summary of notes collected by him as Honorary Commissioner for the South Australian Government.) Sicily, the Home of the Lemon.—Sicily is a triangular island, with a narrow coastal plain bordering a central moun- tainous plateau, rugged and largely forest-clad, terminating on the east in the black, fissure-furrowed, lava-covered slopes of volcanic Etna. On the north coast is Palermo, the largest town, and chief center of the lemon industry. Messina on the east coast to the north of Etna, and Catania to the south of the same mountain, divide the major portion of the remaining trade. The Australian lemon trade is chiefly in the hands of Messina merchants, and the fruit is sent via Naples, Brindisi, or Marseilles. Sulphur, citric acid, oil of lemon, and sumac chiefly pass through the trade channels of Genoa or London, or both. Sicily is preéminently the home of the lemon. It does well in many other places, but it reaches perfection in Sicily. Why? The question is a most important one, and I have thought over it a great deal. The St. Michael orange, the Jaffa orange, or the Sicilian lemon, even when grown from trees raised in other places and taken to other parts of the world, generally, for the time at least, possess the outward form and general characteristics, but lack the fine quality of the luscious fruit which has secured a world-wide reputa- tion. There is a close relationship, not at all understood, between local conditions and the product of the plants. A close study of the problems of fruit culture has led me to think that while we should introduce all new and desirable varieties of fruits from all parts of the world, because we never know which will prove particularly valuable under our conditions, we should pay a great deal more attention to the improvement of our own varieties. I must not, however, discuss the whole question now. It is only necessary to emphasize the fact that the conditions of soil and climate in Sicily are particularly suited to the lemon, and that by generations of experience the * Published in ‘Garden and Field”? of Adelaide, South Australia; five chapters, commencing in the December, 1898, number. 206 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. Sicilian has learned how to deal with lemons better than any one else. It does not follow, however, that the whole of Sicily is adapted to lemon culture, or that the lemons grown in the various districts are of equal quality. Mountain and Coastal Lemons.—A study of the varying conditions in Sicily, when considered in relation to the vary- ing conditions in South Australia, leads to valuable lessons. Speaking generally, Sicilian lemons are known as mountain- grown lemons and coastal or plains lemons. This distinction, however, does not always mean that the lemons were grown among the mountains, but rather that they were grown in soil corresponding to the soil of the mountain lemon districts. As a rule the coastal plains consist of a light sandy soil, often with a gravelly subsoil. The hillside soils are stronger and consist of a well-drained clay loam, and it is on these soils that lemons of the best quality are produced. The fruit so grown is more solid and more juicy, and altogether of finer quality. Speaking of this, the United States Consul at Messina, Mr. Jones, said: ‘The soil has a great influence upon the maturing and keeping qualities of oranges and lemons. The fruit ripens earlier on light sandy soil than on clay soil. Fruit grown on light sandy soil cannot be left long on the trees without losing quality through becoming dry and spongy, whereas on clay soils it is sometimes allowed to hang from December or Jan- uary until April. The fruit grown on sandy soil is smaller, and of a paler yellow. That grown on the clay soils is larger and keeps better. Trees on clay soil resist drought much better.’ As an example, it may be mentioned that the fruit grown in the groves to the southwest of Palermo district is much more highly prized than that from the groves on the northwest, the sole difference being the clay and sandy char- acters of the soils. ‘‘ Mountain lemons,” which is synonymous with fruit grown on loamy clay soil, bring as much as one third more than “coast fruit,” which is grown on light sandy soil. The superiority is always attributed to the soil more than to the elevation. ‘Fruit produced on the plains of Portello, the soil of which is clay, brings the same price as that grown on the heights of Monreale,” about the beauties of which and the wonderful mosaics of the Cathedral, I hope to have something to say at another time. THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—CULTURE. 207 Climatic Conditions.—From what I have just said it will be gathered that the lemon lands of Sicily may be divided into two classes—first with respect to soil, and second with respect to altitude. The coastal zone embraces the narrow coastal plains and the lower portions of the valleys up to 1,000 or 1,500 feet above sea-level. The mountain region includes the higher valleys and hills from 1,500 to about 3,000 feet above sea-level. Beyond this the climate is too moist, and the frost too severe for lemon culture. This wide range of altitude within a limited area is an important factor in the production and marketing of lemons. The fruit near the coast ripens first, and the lemon harvests succeed one another as one proceeds into the interior. It will be readily seen that it is difficult to summarize the climatic conditions of a range of country such as I have indicated. The best I can do is to give the range of temperature of Palermo, which is on the north coast. Ordinarily the thermometer ranges from about 34° Fah. in winter to 95° Fah. in summer. The average for the year is about 70° Fah. Occasionally it rises as high as 104° Fah., and sinks as low as 30° Fah. There is not, however, much difference between Palermo and Adelaide in temperature, but the climate of Palermo is more humid than ours, and the contrasts less sudden. The hot south wind of Sicily comes from the deserts of North Africa, but it has to travel over the moisture-laden surface of the Mediterranean, so that when it reaches Sicily, although it is hot, it has lost the parching power of our north wind, fresh from the almost treeless plains of the vast interior of Australia. The year may be divided into a wet and adry period. During the winter, or from the end of September to April, the prevail- ing winds are strong and constant, and bring a Jarge amount of moisture. The fall during the six months named averages 22 inches, and the average for the year is between 25 and 30 inches. SICILIAN LEMON CULTURE. The methods of culture of the lemon in Sicily vary more or less in different districts under different conditions. It is impossible to describe all the varying details, so that it will be necessary for the reader to consider my remarks as the pre- yailing conditions. My notes are the result of careful inquiry 208 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. and observation, extending from the coastal region well up into the mountains, and I have verified them as far as possible by reference to the scanty literature on the subject. This is almost entirely confined to more or less brief references to the subject in British and American consular reports. The most complete account of Sicilian lemon culture I have seen is that by Acting- Consul de Garston, made in 1895. Some of the statements in some of these reports appear to me to be a little misleading, in consequence, I think, of the writers’ not being familiar with fruit culture, and so misunderstanding the information given by growers, but they are valuable in many respects. The Nursery.—For convenience and clearness, I will divide the life of the tree into two periods. These are clearly marked, but very unequal in duration. The first is the nursery period, and extends over from five to six, and sometimes seven years. The second is the management of the tree in the lemon grove. The usual care is taken to secure a suitable plot of ground for the seed-bed, but I did not find the practice followed by our nurserymen of raising seedlings in frames to be in operation. Formerly young trees were largely raised from layers or cut- tings, but this practice is almost discontinued, because the trees are considered less robust and more subject to disease. Up to within the last twenty years the stocks were raised from lemon seed, but now the bitter orange, Citrus bigaradia, is almost always used. I think it is called Cedrangoli amari by the Sicilian growers. The dry seed from this stock is, I believe, sold at from 1.50 lire to 2.00 lire per kilogram (a kilo is about 2.2 pounds, so that the seed costs roughly 8d. per pound). The bitter orange is a free, vigorous grower, and possesses a hardy constitution not subject to disease. The seed-bed, having been carefully prepared of sandy loam, is divided into rectangular plots, each surrounded by a raised border or bank, so arranged that water can be run into each for irrigation purposes and the plot flooded. About a quart of orange-pips are sown on a plot about ten feet by two feet, and are covered with about one inch of sandy soil. The pips are planted in spring (March or April), and are frequently soaked in water before sowing. When sown, the plot is well watered, and it is kept moist during the whole of the summer until the first autumn rains, by watering every four days at least. The young plants show in about two THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—CULTURRE. 209 months, and are set out in the nursery in the following spring, when about eighteen inches high. Method of Culture.—The amount of labor involved in rais- ing a lemon tree and bringing it into bearing appears to be many times greater than with us, and I think we expect to obtain crops two or three years earlier than does the Sicilian, who does not bud his stocks until the fourth or fifth year, and does not expect them to bear until they are eight years old. In this connection it should also be mentioned, that if he waits three years longer he expects his trees to give him a crop for from forty to one hundred years. It is stated that in some cases both orange and lemon trees in Sicily live to be two hundred years old. In thinking over this I am led to ask, Do we force our trees too much? Were the stocks used on our old trees of a poor quality? Or why do our old trees cease to pro- duce good fruit and die so much earlier than those of Sicily? I do not know, but it may be worth considering these questions. The nursery is very carefully chosen, the two main consider- ations being the soil and the sunny aspect. After being thoroughly well worked it is divided into small plots, each with a raised mound of soil. These plots are not of uniform size. In some districts what is called the “ Mettere a Casella” (plant- ing in a cell) system is adopted. In this system the nursery is divided into small cells or plots about eighteen inches square, and a year-old seedling, generally about eighteen inches high, is planted in each corner of the cell. Each plant is tied to a straight stick, and so made to grow as straight as possible. At the beginning of the third year alternate plants are taken out and replanted. This is called planting in “piantonaio.” In the fifth year the stocks are usually budded. I was struck with the fine, large, tall, straight saplings which the stocks formed in their fifth year. In other districts a somewhat different method is followed. The pilots are much larger. Each one is surrounded by a mound of soil, and is placed end on to an irrigation channel, so arranged that the water can be run onto the plots one after the other for the frequent irrigations. In these plots the seedlings are set out at a distance of not less than eighteen inches. The plants are carefully tended and watered every week during the first year, and every second week afterwards. In the fifth year 14c 210 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. they are tall, well-grown trees of, say,an inch in diameter, and are then grafted or budded. Sometimes this is done in the nursery, and sometimes the saplings are planted out in their permanent position first. In either case the bud or graft is made about four feet from the ground. The methods followed are in no important point different from those followed here. The most frequent practice is to use the shield-bud method in early summer, and when this fails, to bud again in autumn, and allow the bud to remain dormant until spring. The land for the lemon grove is well prepared, and in the hot months of July and August the ‘‘formelle,” or holes for planting, are dug about three feet deep, and in the late autumn, or early spring, the saplings are removed from the nursery and planted out. Before planting, the trees are often made to undergo a peculiar treatment, called the “Ordeal of Darkness.” They are dug up from the nursery and put in wicker baskets filled with loam and conveyed to a dark room, where they are kept away from the light for about fifteen days. They are then exposed to half-light for five days, and then placed in an ex- posed, but shady spot, fora month. Shoulda tree show signs of sickness it ig again conveyed to the dark room for eight or ten days more. Itissaid that trees subjected to this ordeal seldom, if ever, fail to take speedy root and thrive. The trees are planted at from twelve to fifteen feet apart, and the rows are placed as nearly north and south as can be managed. How Trees are Trained.—The system of training the trees with a high, straight stem, and planting closely together, ren- ders it necessary to prune trees much more than is done in South Australia. The trees meet overhead, but one can walk upright under the main branches. Sunlight and a free circu- lation of air are essential to the lemon, therefore the trees are kept open by systematic pruning and trimming, so that in an old grove there is an even distribution of fruit over the whole area. Annual Crops Between Trees.—It is the custom to grow cereals, vegetables, peas, beans, lupines, and other crops between the trees for some years. Quite frequently, too, vines or cotton plants are grown in the young lemon groves. Of course, such groves receive much hand cultivation, regular manuring, and liberal cultivation. When the development of THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—CULTURE. 211 the lemon trees prevents the further cultivation of annual crops, the work assumes a regular character. Irrigation.— Wherever possible, irrigation takes place at regular intervals through the summer months. In the moun- tains this is done by gravitation from the mountain streams, and the irrigation ditches are always a prominent feature in the lemon grove. Usually each tree stands in the center of a basin, formed by a small mound of soil, and into this basin the water is run at in- tervals. On the lower lands I found artificial means of raising water were used, and I was struck with the ex- tent and complete- ness of the steam pumping plants in some of the larger plantations. I think there must have been many miles of concrete channels. These channels were sometimes five or six feet above the level of the ground, and were carried on concrete walls ‘about eighteen inches thick. When it was necessary to cross one of the road- ways which divided the grove into regular blocks for conven- ience of gathering the crop, and other work, an earthenware inverted siphon was used, carrying the water under the road and up the other side. Except for the siphons, these channels reminded one of the old Roman aqueducts on a small scale. The first irrigation is given in June, when the fruit from the ie ce oS Sicilian lemon tree, showing method of pruning. 212 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. early bloom are the size of a pea, and the trees are still in bloom. In dry districts perhaps nine other waterings will be given. Pruning and Trimming.—In a former article, in speaking of the training of lemon trees in Sicily, I used two terms— “pruning” and “trimming.” These must be explained, or they may lead to misunderstanding. By trimming (“rimondaments”) is meant the removal of all dry twigs, suckers, water shoots, stunted or rank growth, and Sicilian lemon trees planted on side hills. twigs which have borne and become exhausted. This is done in the winter, and should be carefully attended to every year. In addition to this about every three years the trees are gone over more thoroughly, and thinned out after the main crop is gathered. This is called pruning, and should not be required to any great extent if the trimming has been properly done. The object is to maintain an open tree into which light and air can freely penetrate as a preventive of disease and so that the fruit may be evenly distributed on the inner as well as the outer branches. It must not be understood that the Sicilian lemon trees are pruned with open centers, for that would be quite misleading. THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—CULTURE. 2138 The trees are usually trained with a main trunk stem, from which the branches put out at irregular intervals. The pruning simply gives an airy, open-branched tree, which is necessary, because the trees are planted so closely together—from twelve to sixteen feet—that the branches meet and interlace, so that if the tops were not kept open light and air would be excluded. Again, allowing the trees to grow into one another it becomes necessary to cut away all the lower limbs and train the trees with high trunks, in order that the workmen and pickers may pass beneath. In giving these reasons I am in a measure theorizing, because the Sicilian does not know why he does this or many other things, except that his father and grand- father did the same. I did find a few groves where the trees were planted at from eighteen to twenty-four feet apart, and then they were allowed to assume much the same shape as those to be seen in the Payneham and Marden orangeries. This was particularly noticeable in a large orangery of about one hun- dred acres that I visited about six miles from Palermo, in connection with the Villa Elleanora del Principe di Scalea. The tendency is to give more room to the orange trees than to the lemon trees. The lemon groves are generally surrounded with stone walls about five feet high, but often eight or nine feet high. The latter I gather were originally built as a protection to the people in the lawless condition of the country. This idea is also seen in the character of the buildings. At present they serve as protection from winds. I found them a nuisance, for they often necessitated my stopping my driver and going inside, when had the walls been low, I could have satisfied myself by looking over. Cultivation and Fertilization.—The care taken of Sicilian lemon groves varies as greatly as does the attention given to fruit trees in all countries I have visited. Asa rule, however, they are generally well cared for, and an immense amount of labor is expended on them. I was informed that notwith- standing the low wages of from Is. to 2s. a day for men, the average cost of working a lemon grove is not less than 650 lire per hectare. This is equal to about £10 an acre, and I was informed that near Catania the expense was sometimes three times that. 214 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. The soil is dug or hoed from three to five times a year. The Sicilian hoe is like a small shovel on a bent handle. In January or February it is dug fairly deep, and the trees are manured. In April the soilis stirred again, and the “conche,” or embanked basins, are formed. In June it is dug again for weeding. Lemon trees are manured every year in some groves, every other year in others, and every third year in perhaps the majority. The decomposed droppings of different animals, decayed litter and leaves, bones, ashes, etc., are used as they are available, and in some cases artificial manures are applied. A year after the tree is planted the soil is cleared away around the base, commencing at a distance of perhaps two feet and to a depth of a foot, or fifteen inches, and into the trench are emptied two baskets of compost, weighing perhaps forty or fifty pounds. The trench is then filled up, and the earth placed to form a mound around the tree. A similar method is followed in applying manure to old trees, but the trench is made at a greater distance from the base, according to the size of the tree. For old trees, from eighty to ninety pounds of compost are applied to each tree. Manure is best applied in winter or in early spring. Autumn manuring is considered to unfavorably affect the quality of the lemons. In driving through the country, and in more closely inspect- ing many groves of varying areas in different localities, no fact more strongly impressed me than the very striking difference in the healthiness, cleanliness, and freedom from disease of orchards and trees, often on adjoining properties. When a grower, from want of capital, laziness, or bad management, does not irrigate, manure, and cultivate his grove, the trees tell even the passer-by of the neglect. The generality of the lemon groves are well cared for, the trees are healthy and the fruit clean. In some localities I found the lemon round scale fairly frequent, but no systematic treatment with insecticides is practiced. CROPS. I have already referred to the succession of crops, and to the fact that as the lemon is cultivated over a considerable range of climate, the lemon harvest continues for many months. It was pointed out that the April blossoms produced a crop of lemons in October, those of May in November and THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—CROPS. 215 December in any given locality. The October fruit is known as ‘“primo-fiore,” or choice fruit; and that ripening in Novem- ber and December is nearly as good. The fruit of these three months constitutes the most abundant crops as well as the best fruit. The June blossoms produce fruit which ripens in January and February, and is of second quality. The July blossoms usually fall off, and little notice is taken of them. Blossoms in August give fruit in March, which is of poor quality; while September blooms give fair quality lemons, which are gathered in April and May, and are very valuable on account of the season. Trees which blossom in October, November, and December produce what are known as bastards, or poor quality lemons, which are gathered in June, July, and August. The Lemon Harvest.—The grower bases his calculations on the October to December crop, and the first gathering of the lemon harvest is made in October. Many of the lemons at this time are not ripe, and care is taken to pick only those which are fully three inches in diameter. All under that size are left for the November gathering. Practiced gatherers gauge the fruit with the thumb and second finger. This first crop is the most valuable, and is very carefully selected and packed for immediate shipment. The second gathering takes place in November, and is as good as that of October. If properly gathered, selected, and packed, it will keep for months. The fruit is lighter in color and harder to the touch than the October gathering. The pickers gather all fruit which is ripe, whatever its size, and all fruit which has reached the standard size, whether ripe or not. The first quality fruit not immediately salable is often put away in cases until March, when it is repacked and will keep for some time. All small or damaged fruit is used for making oil of lemon, citric acid, or candied lemon peel, which indus- tries will be described farther on. The November fruit is especially valuable for essences, citric acid, and lemon juice. In a well-cared-for lemon grove I was informed that from three fourths to seven eighths of the fruit was suitable for shipment, the rest being used for essences, ete. The fruit gathered in December on the plains and lower lands near Palermo, is inferior to that of November, only 216 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. about five eighths being suitable for export, the balance being used for peel and essences. The January fruit is of still less value, only three eighths being fit for packing. The fruit gathered at this time is fully ripe and quite yellow. The inferior fruit of this month’s gathering is largely cut in halves, packed in brine, and exported for lemon-peel making. The remains of the crop are gathered in February, and is called “old fruit.” It is of inferior quality. Nothing is now left on the tree except the green fruit from the August blos- soms. Fully three fourths of the February gathering is used for essence, acid, and peel. Out-of-Season Crops.—I was much struck with what are called out-of-season, or extraordinary, crops. In one grove I visited, one half was bearing a fine crop of lemons ready for the second gathering. On the other half there was hardly a ripe lemon, but the trees were carrying a good crop of fruit about one fourth grown. I found that it was a fairly common practice to force the trees into bearing such crops. Sometimes peculiar climatic conditions will do it, but usually it is the result of special cultivation and irrigation. If trees are deprived of irrigation during the hot months of July and August, and then abundantly watered in September, a prolific amount of blossom will generally result, producing a valuable May crop. This cannot be done every year, for the tree sutfers from the privation mentioned, and takes a season to recover its normal condition. Still, the May fruit being of fairly good quality and valuable on account of the demand, realizing as much as 80s. and 40s. for one thousand lemons, the temptation to force crops is considerable, the price compensating for the scanty succeeding crop. GATHERING, PACKING, AND STORING LEMONS. In the preceding pages I have dealt at considerable length with the general features of the cultivation of the lemon tree in order to produce the splendid fruit for which Sicily is so famous. So important is this industry that the British Consul at Rome says that four fifths of the total lemon and orange trade of Italy is confined to the Island of Sicily. The magni- tude of the trade, nearly the half of which was, until a few THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY— GATHERING, ETC. 217 years since, with the United States, is due to the inherent quality of the fruit, owing to the peculiarly favorable climate, the care paid to the cultivation of the tree, and the skill and care of the Sicilian in handling the fruit. I have often been asked how the lemons are cured in Sicily in order to keep so long and well. People can hardly realize the truth that, in the sense understood by the questioners, they are hardly cured at all. A Succession of Crops.—All Sicilian lemons will not keep. Lemon trees bear a series of crops, there being, however, a main crop of the finest and best quality fruit. It is the best of this crop only that will keep well and long. J have described how the lemon is grown on varied series of soils and at different altitudes, from sea-level to 3,000 feet up the mountainous interior of the island. As the main crop ripens on the sea coast from October to December, and the same crop continues to mature later and later as we ascend the mountains, I may state that the main crop is ripening in different districts from October to February. Then it must be remembered that the good fruit will hang on the trees without serious loss of quality for three months, so that it may be stated that the chief lemon harvest may be extended from October to May. It is, however, not considered good, for either the fruit or the trees, to allow the lemons to hang too long, because the fruit will keep better if properly packed and stored. In this connection it must be remembered that the weather during all these months is cool, and that is, next to care in picking and handling, the most essential condition for success in keeping lemons—or indeed any fruit. Keeping Qualities Depend on Soil, etc.—I must not omit to mention that the keeping qualities of lemons depend a good deal on the soil and situation in which they are grown. Lemons grown on light, sandy soil deteriorate quickly. They get dry and spongy, and will not stand shipment well. On the other hand, lemons grown in loamy clay, or loam with well-drained clay subsoils, such as predominate in the moun- tainous lemon districts, keep much better. So great is this influence that lemons grown in these soils sell at one third higher price than those grown on the sandy land. “Moun- tain,” i. e., fruit grown on the loamy soils with clay subsoil, is 218 © STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. firmer and keeps better. Fruit dealers mark the best fruit “M,” meaning “Mountain.” Here is a sample quotation, which indicates the difference in price of the different grades: “Mountain,” 25 to 50 lire per 1,000; “ Hilly,” 21 to 27 lire per 1,000; “Plains,” 17 lire per 1,000. I may, in this connection, here repeat that the ideal situation for a lemon grove is in “deep loamy clay land, well drained, open, and exposed to the rays of the sun all the year, trees planted in rows running north and south, sheltered from strong winds and _ frosts, water always available.” How Lemons are Handled.—I was fortunate in being in Sicily during the gathering of the main crop, and therefore saw the lemons at their best. I knew care was taken in handling the fruit, but I was hardly prepared to find how much. In connection with many cultural operations the use of such implements as the Planet cultivators, in the hands of intelligent Australian workmen, and drawn by our horses, will more than compensate for the cheap labor of the Mediter- ranean; but when it comes to handling fruit, the cost of labor is simply prohibitive of the same care and attention. The wages paid are, for men Is. 8d. to 1s. 10d. a day, for women 3d. to 6d. The Sicilian handles lemons as gently as eggs, from custom, and he does it quickly. But let. me describe what I saw of the picking and handling of lemons for export. I could not follow the one parcel of fruit; but as I saw each operation repeated, I think my description is in every general particular correct. Picking.—The picking is done by men, women, and girls. The pickers have small wicker baskets, holding from one and a half to two gallons, and lined with soft canvas like bran bagging, in the form of a bag hardly resting on the bottom. They pick the lemons with the fingers, breaking off from one to three inches of the twig with the lemon. In going over the trees they take—(1st) All lemons, no matter how green, which are three inches in diameter, and three and one half ounces in weight or over. The pickers learn to judge the size and weight with wonderful accuracy, using the thumb and finger as a gauge. (2d) All lemons which are turning yellow, whether they reach the standard or not. THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—GATHERING, ETC. 219 Suipping and First Grading.—The pickers take their baskets to the roadways, where the foreman sits with several women and a number of baskets of about a bushel capacity lined with canvas. The lemons are taken one by one from the pickers’ baskets, and the stem is snipped off close with the same pattern of snips used by lemon-gatherers in California and Mildura. If apparently perfect, and of large size, it goes into No. 1 basket, if perfect but smaller into No. 2, and so on, about four grades being made. The defective or lower quality fruit goes off at once, and is used for extracting oil of lemon, or making citric acid or lemon peel. Drying.—The good fruit of first or second grade is at once taken to the fruit house, where it is spread out on the floor (if the floor be stone, mats are spread over it). The depth and length of time they remain depend on circumstances. The object is to allow the moisture to evaporate from the skin, but care must be taken that the lemons in the bottom layer do not heat. They may be piled from one to three feet, and remain from twenty-four hours up to six days. Sorting and Wrapping for Market.—When dry, the lemons are carefully sorted over, all defective fruit being put aside. Thesound lemons are wrapped in tissue paper, carefully packed in boxes, and taken to the warehouse of the merchants, who may either store the fruit or ship it. Storing Lemons.—lIf fruit is to be stored it is kept in cool stores, and carefully gone over every three weeks. Each lemon is unwrapped, examined, and if sound rewrapped and put back, but if it shows any signs of not keeping it is taken away. I believe lemons are also stored in dark underground grottos or cellars without being wrapped and cased, but I did not see one. When this method is adopted, I understand the fruit is gone over every week or two, so that, put into a sentence, the art of preserving lemons in Sicily is to handle them frequently with care, and remove all showing signs of decay. Packing for Export.—I had much difficulty in gratifying my determination to see the operation of packing for shipment. This was in marked contrast to the freedom I was allowed in visiting the orchards and watching all operations there, in- cluding the drying and packing for market. I felt that the 220 STATE ROARD OF HORTICULTURE. excuses made were not genuine, and at Palermo waited a full week over my time for departure in order to break down the opposition which had hitherto baffled me. At length I obtained free entry to several packing-houses and was able to take several photographs of the well-built, well-lighted, beautifully clean, conveniently arranged packing rooms of Sefior B. Mercadante. TI should say that I was greatly indebted to this courteous gentleman for many kindnesses and much information. At the time of my visit (beginning of January), the best lemons were coming from the interior, although I saw splendid fruit being gathered in the hills about ten miles from Palermo. The price quoted then was 7s. a case of 300, C. 1. F. to New York. The price paid in Palermo for mountain Jemons, he said, varied from 7s. to 16s. per 1,080. Mr. A. P. Brown, the representative of the Bronte estates,and manager of the Palermo ice works, Mr. Seymour, the American Consul, and Mr. Weiner, the genial proprietor of the Hotel de France, also assisted me greatly. A drive and picnic with the latter to his wine cellars and chateau at Pareo, in the mountains, is one of the most pleasant of my recollections. I am, of course, all through describing the preparation of the best lemons which have made the name of Sicily famous. When lemons are to be exported they are taken either direct from the lemon groves, or from the stores, as described, to the packing-houses. Here the boxes are opened, the lemons unwrapped and carefully examined. The sorters are experts. A lemon with a blemish which could not be distinguished except as the result of continued practice, is at once detected and put aside. The fruit is regraded, because from the time of gathering it has shrunk considerably. The work is thus divided: (1st) Girls unpack and unwrap the lemons, putting them into lined baskets; (2d) The expe- rienced graders (men) sort them, putting them into other baskets; (3d) Another set of girls wrap them in fresh tissue paper; (4th) Boys carry the baskets to the packers; (5th) Ex- pert packers pack them into the various sized boxes required by the different markets. This packing is one of the smartest and cleverest things I have seen in connection with any branch of the fruit industry. The fruit is handled with particular care, but is packed very closely. As the box becomes full it is noticed that the fruit in the middle is higher than at the sides, THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—GATHERING, ETC. 221 and when the last layer of lemons is put on, the outside fruit stands about half an inch above the sides of the box, but the middle is fully three inches above. The boxes are made of very thin beech wood, and in order to make them hold together wooden hoops are nailed over. It requires much skill to fasten down the lids, for it involves the bending of the cover, and the elasticity of the wood is sufficient to occasionally draw out the nails. When nailed down this elasticity pre- vents any movement of the fruit, and allows for shrinkage, which is, however, not great atter the lemons have been Assorting and packing lemons in Sicily, showing lined baskets used for the purpose. stored. Lemons cut in November and packed three hundred in a box will by February have shrunk so that three hundred and sixty will pack into the same box. It is this November crop (ripening in November near the coast, and on to Febru- ary on the mountains) which keeps the best, so that shipments of it are frequently made to New York up to May. It is this crop, but not usually the first grade of it, which is sent to Australia. The subject dealt with in this chapter is of considerable importance, and I regret that my inquiries have not enabled me to give readers a simple, cheap recipe for storing lemons 222 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. from September to January in South Australia. It can be done easily enough with the aid of cool chambers, and provided lemons of the desired quality are plentiful and cheap, it should pay todo so. Ii my conclusions that our lemon country will yet be found in the hills, or southeast be correct, it may be that grottos may be tunneled into the hills where the fruit can be kept at a temperature not exceeding 60° Fah. until midsummer. In the cool chambers they should be kept at 40° to 45° Fah. MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS OF THE LEMON. Lemon Juice.—There are two qualities, “agro crudo,” which is the natural juice of the lemon, and “agro cotto,” which is the juice in concentrated form, and keeps much better than the other. The juice after being pressed from the poorer quality lemons is left to settle for a time. It is then boiled in large tinned copper pans one third full. While boiling it is fre- quently stirred with an iron rod having the knob end wrapped in canvas to prevent it damaging the bottom of the copper, and to keep the sediment from sticking. As the quantity decreases the coppers are replenished from supplementary coppers, kept hot for the purpose, so that the process of evaporation shall not be checked. When the required density is attained it is poured into vats to cool, and is finally drawn off into casks for export. The original volume is reduced by this process to about one eighth, and the concentrated liquid should contain about thirty per cent of citric acid. Citrate of Lime.—Until recently the manufacture of citric acid was almost’ neglected in Sicily; but of late years the industry has been developed to a greater extent. Still most of the lemon juice is either sent away in the concentrated form above described, or is changed into citrate of lime, this sub- stance being readily made and is easily carried. The value of the citrate depends largely on the purity of the chalk employed. “The concentrated juice is first clarified with whites of eggs, and warmed. It is then drawn off and filtered into tinned boilers, in which it is heated nearly to boiling point and thoroughly saturated with finely powdered chalk, which is added gradually to the liquid while it is being continuously stirred until the effervescence caused by the admixture of the MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS OF THE LEMON. 223 carbonate of lime has ceased, when the deposit of citrate will be approximately complete; the rem aining residue of acid citrate is reduced with lime milk. The liquid is now drawn off, and the solid, insoluble citrate is compressed and dried.” Oil of Lemon.—Every one is familiar with “essence of lemon,” but comparatively few know that the “essence” is really spirits of wine, in which is dissolved a greater or less proportion of oil of lemon, obtained from the rind of lemons. If a fresh lemon be examined, it will be found that the skin contains vast numbers of oil cells, and when the rind is cut off and bent the oil is seen to fly off in minute drops. The separation and collection of this oil is one of the important industries of Sicily. Practically the work is done entirely by hand, and is carried on at night-time because, I believe, the oil is so delicate that a very brief exposure to sunlight causes it to oxidize, and so lose its delicate aroma. : Fruit intended for the manufacture of oil of lemon need not be of the first quality; but it is necessary that it be outwardly and inwardly sound, healthy, and fresh, so that punctured fruit, windfalls, and defective fruit are used for manufacturing lemon juice, and not for oil of lemon. The lemons are so sliced that the rind is to a large extent freed from the pulp, and is in fairly large but not unwieldy pieces. I do not know whether my experience is in any way unusual, but I found very great difficulty in obtaining admission to an oil of lemon factory. Time after time I tried and failed; but at last I was able to make a bargain with a Sicilian merchant, who desired to open up trade, to give him the information and introduction he desired on condition that he obtained permis- sion to visit, and acted.as my guide to, one or two oil of lemon factories. It may be that I did not see the best, for they were not the cleanest places I have seen; and, indeed, were in marked contrast to some of the lemon-packing stores. The verv strong smell of ammonia indicated a sanitary condition not desirable. I found that the sliced rind was first soaked for perhaps twenty minutes in cold water, it being considered that this renders the expression of the oil more easy. The workmen sit in rows, each with a small glazed earthenware dish on his knees and a larger vessel of lemon rind at his side. In his 224 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. left hand he holds a small sponge, and with his right hand he picks up the pieces of rind and, with a deft circular movement, rotates it against the sponge, at the same time bending it backward to break the oil glands, and so force the oil onto the sponge. The operation is very quickly done, but when performed by a skilled hand completely exhausts the supply of oil of lemon. When the sponge is saturated it is squeezed into the bowl. There is at first a large proportion of lemon juice, etc., with the oil; but this sinks to the bottom, and the oil is poured off, filtered, and as quickly as possible put into copper “carboys” for exportation. The method of payment is, as a rule, peculiar, each workman being paid in proportion to the weight of oil he extracts from each thirty-five kilos of rinds. Salted Lemons.— Walking along the wharf the day after my arrival in Palermo, I saw some hundreds of large casks, which, I was informed, were filled with salted lemons. Further inquiries showed that large quantities of lemons are exported in this form to Leghorn, Genoa, Britain, and other parts of Europe, to America, and even to Australia, chiefly for making candied lemon peel. Although the finest fruit is never thus dealt with, lemons to be salted must of necessity be sound. The fruit is usually halved, and then soaked in salt water for from three to seven days prior to shipment. On arrival at its destination it is soaked in fresh water repeatedly until all the brine is removed. The salt preserves the peel satisfactorily, but removes the essential oil, so that the fine flavor of the fresh iemon is quite lost. For this reason only fruit which cannot be used on the island or profitably shipped fresh is dealt with in thisway. The fruit is halved merely to insure a thorough preservation of the rind by an equal saturation of the inner and outer surfaces. Candied Lemon Peel.—As far as I could learn, no candied lemon peel ig prepared in Sicily. In “The Sayings of Agur” it is written— “There be three things which are too wonderful for me, Yea, four, which I know not: The way of an eagle in the air; The way of a serpent upon a rock; The way of a ship in the midst of the sea; And the way of a man with a maid.’’—Proverss. MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS OF THE LEMON. 225 To these I would add the way of trade on the sea, for there appears to be no Known law by which one can understand why certain industries establish themselves in given localities. Why, for example, should the candied citron and lemon peel industry become centered in Leghorn? The lemons and citrons are all imported from Corsica, Sicily, Calabria, and even from Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco. The fuel comes from England, the sugar is imported from Egypt, the wood for the boxes from Trieste, and the earthenware vessels from Florence. The peel is sent away to Britain, Germany, America, etc. I cannot learn of any special advantage which Leghorn possesses; but there this particular branch of the candied fruit industry is centered, and so it is necessary to leave Sicily for a time with the salted lemons and note the treatment they receive in Leghorn. The first process is the separation of the fruit from the rind. Women sit around a big vessel, skillfully gouge out the pulp with the thumb and forefinger, and throw the rind into a vessel ready to receive it. The rind is then soaked for several days in cold, fresh water to remove the salt. It is then boiled in copper vessels for one or two hours for the double purpose of removing any remaining salt and softening the rind. It should now be soft enough to absorb the sugar readily. The absorption of sugar takes fully eight days, for the essen- tial principle is that the process must be very gradual and slow. To this end it is first treated with a weak solution, but as the process goes on ‘the solution may be gradually strengthened, for the power of absorption grows. Fresh rind absorbs with great difficulty; and if at once plunged into strong syrup the process is slow and irregular, whereas if repeated at once with a strong solution it becomes permeated with that, and further absorption is more easy. I have repeated this because it is the essential principle in making candied peel or candied fruits. The candying-room is fitted with rows of immense earthen- ware vessels, after the fashion of the ancient wine jars of the Romans. These are perhaps four feet high and thirty inches in diameter, with short necks and wide mouths. For description, the jars may be grouped into sets of eight, and as what goes on in one set goes on in all other sets, it will save confusion to consider the room as having only eight jars. As each jar will 15c 226 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. hold many hundred pounds of syrup and peel, the workmen find it easier to manipulate the syrup than the peel. Each jar is furnished with a simple perforated wooden well, in which a simple suction pump is inserted, so that the syrup can be pumped from one jar into the adjoining one. Supposing jar No.1 is the one which has just been filled with peel brought direct from the copper boiler before men- tioned, then No. 8 will contain peel in the last stage of candying. A syrup of thirty degrees strength by the particular densometer used is prepared and poured into jar No. 8. Here it remains for a day, and then having been weakened by the amount absorbed by the peel, it is pumped into No. 7, and next day from there into No. 6, and so on, so that when it comes to No. 1 it is weak, as is required by new peel. At each operation the density is tested, and should it get too weak it is strengthened. In this way the process is to a large extent self-regulating. A slight fermentation often takes place in the jars, and this is considered beneficial if it is not allowed to go too tar. After the eighth day the fruit is removed from the jar, and boiled in a syrup of a density of forty degrees in large copper vessels over slow coke fires, the peel being gently stirred with a wooden paddle to prevent its adhering to the vessel. When taken from the fire it is spread on coarse wire netting over wooden troughs, into which the surplus syrup drains while the peel dries. The final operation is the candying, or covering the surface with candied sugar. For this purpose sugar is dissolved in a little water in a copper boiler, and the dry peel is immersed and boiled for a short time over a slow fire. It is poured from the coppers on to the wire, and again dried, the sugar this time forming candy or crystals over the surface, and it is ready for the packing-room. , Citric Acid.—This is manufactured from the citrate of lime. The citrate is mingled with a liquid composed of six parts of water and one part of pure sulphuric acid. The latter decom- poses the citrate of lime, unites with the lime to form sulphate of lime, or gypsum, and liberates the citric acid in solution in the water, from which it is separated by evaporation in pans. The crystals are afterward redissolved, and purified with animal carbon and hydrochloric acid. THE CITRON IN CALIFORNIA. pall else ce ee) Citrus medica cedra, Linn. The citron grows and fruits well in California wherever the lemon thrives. The tree is easy of culture, and the preparation of the rind simple, j therefore there is hardly any reason why the California- grown citron, were it accorded the same protection that the orange and lemon now have, should not supplant the imported. The fruit of the citron is generally oblong, or of conical shape and swollen, more or less striped or furrowed, and particularly large. The skin is of the color of the lemon, and is very aromatic. Some varieties are very smooth, while others are covered with warty excres- cences and _ very thick -and highly scented. The pulp is less acid than that of the lemon, and quite bitter. The flowers with their delicious perfume are purplish outside and white within; leaves subserrate; young branches violet tinged. The tree blooms at all seasons of the year, and is very susceptible to frost, as much so as the lime. THE CITRON—PRIMAL TYPE. (Citrus cedra vulgaris.) 228 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. Most varieties of the citron have ‘two rinds,” ¢@. ¢., the outer one, thin, with miliary glands full of very fragrant oil; the inner, thick and white, very sweet and agreeable. It is for this inner rind that the citron is valued, and it is used exten- sively in cookery, both in its candied and preserved forms. PROPAGATION. The propagation of the citron is quite simple, and is multi- plied by ene by budding, or grown from the seed. The cuttings are planted in the spring of the year. They are cut from one or two year old wood and from eight to fourteen inches long, vary- ing in thickness from the size of % a lead pencil to one or more «, Wen inches in diameter. They read- ily take root and can be moved to orchard form in the spring following, but are generally left two years in the nursery in order to obtain a better *... and stronger root system. The citron takes readily on stock of any of the citrus fruits, but being susceptible to the gum disease should be budded at least a foot from the ground, so that it may not emit roots of its own. The best time to bud the citron is in the spring, just as the stocks begin to put forth and the sap flows freely. Buds inserted early in the on id season start with vigor, and by fall Bieta ees havea large and thrifcy top: The citron root is quite delicate and brittle, more so than that of the lemon. While the cutting system is one of the quickest ways to grow the citron, budding on hardier stocks, such as the sweet orange, is most preferable. ‘CHIH, INQ dx9NaIyY—OLNAUUOS UO ‘NONAI-GOLANWOO AO NOULIO AHL TIXX ULV Td “MU OLTOO SOULIO VINYOWTTVO 230 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. From Seed.—The seeds of the citron germinate quite easily, but much care is required to be successful in raising seedlings. After the seed is washed out of the fruit it is kept moist and never allowed to get dry, for in drying the kernel loses its power of germination. The seed is planted in the spring after all danger of frost has passed, either in prepared seed-beds or in boxes. It is sown broadcast and covered with an inch of leaf mould mixed with sand. Great care must be taken from this time on that the soil be kept moist and yet not too wet, as the seeds rot easily. The seeds germinate in about a month, or longer if the weather be cold. The following spring the plants are planted in nursery row. VARIETIES. Numerous varieties have been introduced, many of which are yet in the experimental state. Lemon, oR Sorrento (Plate XXII).—This variety was among the first introduced, and has fruited regularly ever since. Shape oblong, like the lemon, with a very pleasant aroma, which ismuch esteemed. Skin bright yellow, smooth and very glossy; inner skin white, coarse and thick, with very little trace of bitterness. Pulp very bitter and deficient in juice. The fruit grows irregularly, some very large and others very small, the largest weighing from three to five (or more) pounds each. Lyman.—A Florida variety, said to be very good. OrancEe.—A round citron. Other varieties grown here: Pomo de Adamo Testa de Turco Dulcis Sulcata Macrocarpo Limonzania Florentina Costata Incompio Cornuta Elongata Glabra Pireltone Salodiana Rugosa Simoniformis Cedro Vara Plena Romana Parra PREPARATION OF CITRON RIND. The fruit before assuming a yellow color, and also when bright yellow, is picked and placed in barrels filled with brine, and left for at least a month. The brine is renewed several times, and the fruit allowed to remain in it until required for use, often for a period of four or five months. When the citrons are COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF THE CITRON. 231 to be candied they are taken from the barrels and boiled in fresh water to soften them. They are then cut into halves, the seed and pulp are removed, and the fruit is again immersed in cold water, soon becoming of a greenish color. After this it is placed in large earthen jars, covered with hot syr- up, and allowed to ® stand about three weeks. During this time the strength of the syrup is gradually increased. The fruit is then put into boil- ers with crystallized sugar dissolved in a small quantity of water, and cooked; then allowed to cool, and boiled again until it will take up no more sugar. It is then dried and packed in wooden boxes. Cross-section of citron, showing pulp and thickness of rind—reduced one half. COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE. So far the citron consumed in the United States is imported from Europe. Most of it is shipped to Eastern houses and by them prepared for market. In this way importers avoid the payment of a duty on same. The citron commonly used by confectioners, bakers, and candy-makers is imported already prepared. For several years there have been regular importations of citron in brine coming in large hogsheads, almost entirely from Leghorn. It has come to two houses in New York and to four houses in Chicago, all of whom put it through the process of candying or sugaring. It costs about four cents a pound landed in New York in the brine. I am informed that the yearly demand for the United States equals about 12,000 cases of some 250 pounds each after it has been candied. 232 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. In answer to an inquiry regarding importations and pros- pective competition from California prepared citron, the following interesting data were obtained: Cuicaco, August 23, 1899. Mr. B. M. Letone, Sacramento, Cal.: Dear Sir: Yours of Ist received and contents fully noted. The citron that we import to this country is mostly grown on the isle of Corsica, some being shipped from Messina, Italy, and some from Greece, but that shipped from those countries is not considered as good as that which is shipped from Corsica. The price generally rules from 12 shillings and 6 pence up to 18 shillings and 6 pence, cost and freight N. Y. We do not know of any citron grown in this country. It would be a saving to the trade west of the Rocky Mountains, but it would not be if shipped east of the Rocky Mountains, as the freight would be more, than the freight from the isle of Corsica. Yours truly ‘ SPRAGUE, WARNER & CO. Cuicaco, August 16, 1899. Horticulturai Department, State Board of Horticulture, Sacramento, Cal.: GENTLEMEN: Your letter regarding citron has been handed the writer, who is manager of our citron department. The amount of citron imported annually into America is about two thousand tons. The firms who are curing or manufacturing citron from raw citrons that are imported in brine are: Hills Bros. Company, New York City; Andrew L. Causse, New York City. The Chicago manufacturers are Sprague, Warner & Co., Franklin MacVeagh & Co., J. B. Inderrieden & Co., and ourselves. The best quality of citron is raised in Corsica, the next best quality in Greece, and the poorest in Sicily. We understand the culture of citron is very difficult and that the trees require the most constant care and attention, and even then failures of crop are frequent. As to whether it can be pro- duced successfully in California is of course a question that we cannot answer. This is about all the information that we can think of that would be of service to you. Yours very truly, REID, MURDOCH & CO. New Yorg, August 12, 1899. B. M. Letone, Secretary State Board of Horticulture, Sacramento, Cal. : Dear Sir: In due course of mail we received your esteemed favor of 28th ult., relative to citron, and in reply can tell you that for several years there have been regular importations of citron in brine coming in large hogsheads, almost entirely from Leghorn. It came to two houses in this city and to three or four houses in Chicago, all of whom put it through a process and candied (glacé) and sugared it. We understand it costs about four cents a pound landed here in the brine, and there is no duty on it. The demand for this whole country yearly, we are told, equals about 12,000 cases of some 250 pounds each after it has been candied. We are unable to ascertain whether it is a profitable business or not, although one would judge that it would not have been continued during late years if it had been found unprofitable. One of our informants, a man pretty well posted, says he does not believe one penny profit is made, but none of these people care to give it up, hoping for better times, etc. COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF THE CITRON. 233 Trusting that this is the information you desire to have, and always at your service, we remain, Very truly yours, SGOBEL & DAY. Cuicaao, October 14, 1899. Mr. B. M. Letone, Secretary State Board of Horticulture, Sacramento, Cal.: Dear Sre: We should have replied to yours of July 28th before this. However, we wanted to give you positive information as to whether there were any established houses in the East who were preparing the citron of com- merce for market. We are now in a position to inform you that this article, which is shipped from Europe in brine, is very small and shipped only as an experiment, which, as far as we can learn, has been a failure. The citron commonly used by confectioners, bakers, and candy-makers is imported already prepared. This, however, should not prevent California growers from raising citron in that State in larger quantities than they do now, and pre- paring it for market right in their own State. Like a great many industries, California would soon head the list as a citron-producing State and would no doubt at no distant date supply the demand of at least the United States. Yours truly, JOHN ZUCCA & OO. French method of protecting the limbs of the Citron and its fruit. PLATE XXIII. CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. hi we ¢ Nth WW i tS aN CASTLEMAN LIME— A MonstTgeR. A hybrid — Lime x Pomelo. THE LIME IN CALIFORNIA. THE LIME IN CALIFORNIA—CHARACTERISTICS. 235 THE LIME. Citrus limetta, Risso. The lime is naturally a straggling bush or tree, and is frequently trimmed into hedge form; it grows from ten to fif- teen feet high. The fruit is small, round or ovate, or depressed, with a bitter rind. The juice is much “ sharper ” than that of the lemon. The lime is more susceptible to injury from frost than the lemon, and should not be planted except in locations absolutely free from danger of frost, and on this account it is not grown successfully except in the warm belts and sheltered localities. Since the Government placed a duty of one cent per pound on foreign citrus fruits, very few limes are imported. This should stimulate the planting of the lime in our suitable localities. The lime is very easily propagated from seed. The seeds always germinate without much difficulty, and the plants come true from the seed; the seeds “ sport” only in exceptional cases. It is also budded on the orange. The tree does not resent pruning as the lemon does, and may be fashioned into any shape to please the fancy of the grower. It is well, however, to consider the natural habit of the tree and to leave it as much in bush form as possible. The lower limbs that rest on the ground and all superfluous and interfer- ing wood should be removed. The methods of planting and cultivating the lime are similar to those required for the lemon. Like the latter, the fruit should be picked before it ripens, but does not require process- ing before being shipped to market. Lime trees are planted fifteen or sixteen feet apart, and begin to bear at the fourth year, being in full bearing at eight. 236 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. VARIETIES. ImpeRIAL.—Fruit large, about the size of the Genoa lemon, Imperial] Lime—natural size. with strong acid, few seeds. Tree tender, wood brittle, but very productive and a good, thrifty grower; fruits all the year round; not as thorny as the Mexi- can, and not as suscep- : tible to frost. Mexican. — Fruit small, very popular, identical with the im- ported limesin ourmar- kets. Tree dwarf, and suitable for hedges, but very susceptible to cold. Taniti.—Fruit large, coarse, and of inferior quality. Prar-SHAPED.—Fruit large, pyriform, of a pale yellow color, with smooth, thin skin, and a strong aroma, partaking of the shaddock. Pulp juicy, with strong acid; seeds few and small. Tree very large and hardy—orna- mental sort, undoubtedly a “sport.” Grown by I. A. Castleman, of River- side. Bearss.—A superb vari- ¥ ety, seedless or almost so. Fruit large, about the size of the Imperial, nearly round, with a thin, tough skin. Flesh tender and very juicy, acid somewhat mild. Grown by J. T. Bearss, of Porterville. Cross-section of Imperial Lime—natural size. Miscellaneous Varieties.—The following varieties have been introduced in recent years, princtipally from Florida: THE LIME IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 237 JEWIsH.—A small conical lime. GrNoESE.—Large, like a lemon in shape. FLoRENTINE.—Hybrid. Monster.—Fruit extra large, resembles a lemon. SaLo.—A small, round lime. PreRs!aAn.—A large, coarse lime; inferior. CITRONELLA.—A large, coarse lime, with thick rind. AssaM.—Said to be a strong grower. Fioripa SEEDLING.—A large lime, the size of a lemon, quite coarse. OrHER VaRIETIES.— Valentine, Knatta, Kaghazir, Sour Kurna, Sour Turan, Sour Rangpur, Sour Jamberi, Sour Galgal, Sada- phal, Verucene. Cross-section of Bearss Lime—natural size. CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. PLATE XXIV. BLossomM OF DOUBLE-FLOWERED RERGAMOT ORANGE, From which Neroli is manufactured. PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS. PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS. 239 PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS. Although there are innumerable varieties of the citrus, which, owing to their inferiority, are worthless for cultivation, yet all, or nearly all, have merit in one way or another. In Europe every part of the tree is utilized for various purposes. The flower, the leaf, the pulp, the rind, the wood—all enter into articles of commerce. R. C. Haldane, in his work, “Subtropical Cultivations and Climate,” London, 1886, gives the following formulas, which I quote, with due thanks to the author: “Orange- Flower Perfume.—In the early morning the blossoms are collected as soon as the petals begin to fall, by shaking the tree over a sheet spread on the ground. A tree yields from two to ten pounds of flowers. The perfume is generally extracted by enfleurage, as follows: A frame is required six feet high, thirty inches wide, and twenty inches deep; in this grooves are cut to allow trays one and a half inches deep torun. These trays are covered with wire gauze. Between every two trays there is a sheet of stout glass, framed; on this, grease or vaseline is thickly spread. The whole should be as air-tight as possible. Every morning fresh flowers must be put in the wire-gauze traps; and this is continued for a month or two, when the grease is removed. “The grease is mada as follows: Melt equal parts of beef- suet and lard, or mutton-suet, beef-suet, and lard, well together. Pound well in a mortar and wash until perfectly clean. Melt over a slow fire, adding three ounces of powdered alum and a little salt to each hundredweight. Heat the grease until it begins to bubble, and then strain into a deep pan and let it clarify for two or three hours. The clear grease is then put on a charcoal fire, and three quarts of rose water and half a pound of powdered gum-benzoin added; it is gently boiled, and all scum taken off till it ceases to appear. Put the grease in deep pans to cool; when solid remove any water there may be in it, liquefy, and pour into vessels for future use. Besides grease, 240 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. glycerine, vaseline, and paraffine are all used. Formerly, instead of using grease in enfleurage, oiled linen was employed to absorb the odor and afterward squeezed in a screw press. “A superior system is by employing Piver’s pneumatic frame, which has two bellows on the top which send a constant cur- rent of air through the flowers. The most primitive is the Spanish, which consists of two bowls—the upper one, or cover, being lined with grease, while the lower holds the flowers. “To extract the perfume from the grease, or ‘ pomade,’ as it is called after being scented, chop up eight pounds of pomade, put it in one gallon of sixty over-proof alcohol, and let it remain for one month at summer heat. “Essence or Extract of Orange-Flower is prepared by tincturation. Four ounces of orange-flowers are steeped in one gallon of alcohol until all the perfume has been absorbed by the spirit. This preparation is also known as extract of neroli. “Essential Oils of Orange are expressed thus: The peel is cut from the pulp in three longitudinal slices, leaving the pulp in a triangular shape. The peel and pulp are kept separate. Next day the outer surface of the peel is bent convexly, and pressed four or five times against a flat sponge held in the left hand of the workman. From time to time the oil is squeezed from the sponge into a vessel, from which it is drawn after the watery fluid separatesfrom the oil. Four hundred oranges yield from nine to fourteen ounces of oil. The pulp is distilled for the small amount of essential oil it contains. When lemons are thus treated, the pulp is pressed until the lemon juice is all extracted, and then distilled. “ Petit-Grain Oil.—Prepared from young tender shoots and leaves of both Sweet and Seville oranges, the latter being most valuable. The oil is obtained by distillation with water. “Neroli, or Oil of Orange-Flower.—Obtained by distilling the flowers of the sweet and bitter orange with water. The bitter orange gives a superior oil. It is very fluid, is lighter than water, in which it is slightly soluble. One hundred pounds of flowers give from three to six ounces of neroli. It is generally adulterated with alcohol or essence of petit-grain. Essential oils of orange, lemon, or bergamot are better extracted PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS. 241 a by aid of an implement known as the ecuelle & piques, a saucer- shaped vessel of pewter about eight inches wide, with a lip on one side. The bottom is armed with numerous brass pins about half an inch high, which stand upward. The center has a tube five or six inches long, and half an inch in diameter, closed at the farthest end. The whole resembles a shallow funnel. The - peel is rubbed against the pins by hand, and when the tube is full of oil it is emptied into another vessel. “The Peel of the Bitter Orange is used in medicine as an aromatic tonic, but more frequently for counteracting the nauseous taste of other medicines. The most common forms are syrup of orange, tincture of orange, and confection of orange. “Oil of Lemon.—It is extracted from green fruit by pressing the rind against a sponge, or by the ecwelle. An inferior oil is produced by rasping the peel of the fruit and distilling with water. One hundred frait should yield from two and one half to three and one half ounces of oil. The lemons are sometimes scarified and thrown into hot water, and the oil skimmed off. “Citric Acid.—Is obtained trom lemon juice by saturating it with chalk or whiting until effervescence ceases, by which citrate of lime is formed. This is precipitated, the super- natant liquid run off, and the precipitate well washed. The precipitate is then treated with dilute sulphuric acid; sulphate of lime and citric acid are the results. The former sinks, and the clear solution is evaporated in leaden boilers and then erystallized—the crystals being purified by being again dis- solved and recrystallized.” Uses to Which Lemons May Be Put.—A firm of lemon- packers in Italy gives the following as among the uses to which lemons may be put: “During the last influenza epidemic in London, the Board of Health of said city advised the public to make free use of lemons to combat said epidemic. “A warm lemonade, taken in bed, will immediately produce an abundant perspiration, and a positive relief from a cold. “4 few drops of fresh lemon juice added to drinking water will kill any microbes and greatly help digestion. “Lemons used in a bath will act as a disinfectant, clean the pores of the skin, hence revive their action. 16c 242 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. “Lemon juice is also universally known as one of the best remedies for rheumatism; and when diluted with warm water and salt and sniffed up the nostrils and used as a gargle is an excellent cure for catarrhal affections. “No cuisine is perfect without lemons, and this fruit is a necessary condiment to nearly all viands.” Orange Wine.—Take one part orange juice, well strained, one part water, three pounds sugar per gallon. Any kind of sugar will do, and the darker the sugar the richer will be the color of the wine. For each ten gallons put up keep about one gallon of the same for refilling the casks during fermentation. Lay casks on the side, fill full, and leave bung open. Do not let it be exposed to much cold. Fill up the casks every day, from the quantity kept out, as the scum is thrown off, and watch closely, until the wine passes through the stage of alcoholic fermentation. This will usually require from ten to twenty days, or longer if the weather is cool, and can easily be determined by scum ceasing to rise, and the cessation of brisk fermentation. When it arrives at this stage, place the bung in loosely. Watch closely for a few days, and as active fermenta- tion ceases, put the bung in fast. Let it stand two months. then rack off carefully into clean casks. If perfectly clear, seal and let it stand six months, when it may be bottled. If not clear, it should be racked off a second time in two months after the first time, and sealed for six months before bottling. Be sure your casks are full, for contact with the air will cause the wine to pass into acetic fermentation. Considerable wine from oranges has been manufactured in Florida, and the demand for it has been very good at $5 per gallon. The wine. continues to improve with age. ESSENCES AND LEMON JUICE.* “Kssences.— With three strokes of his sharp knife the cutter peels the lemon lengthwise and lets the peel fall into a tub. under the chopping-block. He then cuts the lemon in two and throws it from his knife into a bucket. He works with wonder- ful rapidity and fills from ten to twelve tubs with peel a day and is paid 5 cents a tub, weighing 77 pounds. His left hand and right index are protected with bands of osnaburgs or: *Report of Wallace S. Jones, of Messina, ‘Fruit Culture in Foreign Countries,” 1890. PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS. 243 leather. Decayed fruit is not peeled, as its oil cells, being atrophied, yield no essence, “Fresh peel is soaked in water fifteen minutes before the essence is extracted. Peel that has stood a day or two should remain in soak from thirty to forty minutes, that it may swell and offer a greater resistance against the sponge. The opera- tive holds a small sponge in his left hand, against which he presses each piece of peel two or three times—simple pressure followed by rotary pressure. The women employed in this work run a piece of cane through their sponges to enable them to hold them more firmly. The outside of the peel is pressed against the sponge, as the oil glands are in the epicarp. The crushing of the oil cells liberates the essence therein contained. The sponge, when saturated with the essence, is squeezed into an earthenware vessel the operative holds in his lap. He is expected to press the peel so thoroughly as not to overlook a single cell. This is ascertained by holding the pressed peel to the flame of a candle; should it neither crackle nor diminish the brilliancy of the flame the cells areempty. This process yields besides the essence a small quantity of juice and feccia (dregs). The separation of the essence, juice, and feccia soon takes place if the vessels are not disturbed; the oil floats on the juice and the dregs fall to the bottom. These three products derived from the peel have no affinity with one another. As the essence rises to the surface it is skimmed off, bottled, and left to settle for a few days. It is then drawn off with a glass siphon into copper cans, which are hermetically sealed. “The yield of essence is very variable. This industry is carried on five months in the year. Immature fruit contains the most oil. From November to April, in the province of Messina, one thousand lemons yield about 14 ounces of essence and 17 gallons of juice. An operative expresses three baskets of lemon peel (weighing 190 pounds) a day, and is paid 20 cents a basket. The essence is so valuable that the operatives are closely watched; they are most ingenious in secreting it about their persons. Six men work up eight thousand lemons a day; two cut off the peel while four extract the essence, and obtain 136 gallons of lemon-juice and 7 pounds of essence. In the extraction of essence defective fruit—thorn-pricked fruit, blown down by the wind, or attacked by rust—is used. This fruit is sold by the “ thousand,” equivalent to 260 pounds, and 244 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. thus classified: First, mixed lemons, as they come from the groves during December and January, of good quality but not always marketable, often from top branches; second, lemons from March blooms; third, lemons refused at the packing- house; fourth, dropped fruit; fifth, shriveled or deformed fruit. Prices do not depend exclusively upon the classification of the fruit; the locality where it was grown is taken into consid- eration. Lemons grown on clay soil yield more essence and juice than those grown on sandy or rocky soil. The essence of sour orange, mixed with the essence of lemon, produces an aroma similar to that of the essence of bergamot; the latter is much used by confectioners in flavoring ice-creams, etc. “Raw and Concentrated Lemon Juice.—Lemons are peeled, cut in two, and pressed. If the juice is to be exported raw, only perfectly sound lemons can be used; but if the juice is to be boiled down, one fifth of the lemons may be of an inferior quality and two fifths of them pretty well decayed. The juice from sound lemons is yellowish in color, and gives a pleasant aroma; its density decreases with age. With all classes of lemons the yield of juice and its acidity vary considerably from month to month. The amount of juice increases from October to April, its acidity and density decrease, and the same is the case with the density of the essence, owing to the winter rains. “An addition of five per cent of alcohol will prevent raw lemon juice from spoiling. Lemon juice is adulterated with - salt or tartaric acid. Raw and concentrated lemon juice is exported in casks of 180 gallons capacity. It requires 1,500 lemons to yield 26 gallons of raw juice, while it takes 2,500 to yield the same quantity of concentrated juice, and 200,000 more or less, according to their acidity, to give a cask. “The value of lemon juice is governed by its acidity. The rule is that concentrated lemon juice shall show 60 degrees of acidity (the juice extracted from the bergamot or the sour orange must show 48 degrees, or one fifth less than that derived from the lemon; it also sells for one fifth less than lemon juice). Formerly a citrometer, known as Rouchetti’s gauge, was used to ascertain the per cent of acidity; now, how- ever, resort is had to chemical analysis, which is more satis- factory to both seller and buyer. Lemon juice is used in the printing of calicoes.” INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. 245 INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. The insect pests that afiect the citrus are numerous, but are now easily kept in subjection by artificial means, aided largely by their natural enemies—parasitical and predaceous. In combating insect pests California has taken the lead over every State and country in the world, and it is to be hoped that through the fostering care accorded by the people the State will not revert to primitive methods of allowing injurious insect pests and tree and plant diseases to be introduced and obtain a foothold in our orchards. The life of insects is divided into four periods: First, the ovum (egg), which is motionless, and apparently lifeless; Second, the larva (grub), which is ‘active, voracious, and grows rapidly, but without wings; Third, the pupa (chrysalis), which is incapable of locomotion, and is in color and outward form entirely unlike the larva from which it proceeds; Fourth, the imago (perfect insect), which is active, has wings, does not increase in size, and which lays eggs for future generations, thus perpetuating its kind. The mode in which the life of an insect is passed and the different species of trees it infests differ very widely in the various stages of its existence. The fructification of citrus trees in particular is mostly accomplished by different species of insects, which convey the pollen from tree to tree, and also from the stamens to the stigma of the same tree. On the other hand there are multitudes of baneful ones, which injure tree, fruit, etc., and are only checked in their progress by other insects that prey upon them, or by artificial means. SCALE INSECTS. Family COCCIDIDA. ‘““Male and female larve similar, apterous, naked or covered, active. Females in all stages apterous, metamorphosis semi-complete, naked or covered, active or stationary; rostrum usually present in all stages, some- times absent in adult; feet sometimes absent after larval stage; tarsi, where present, monomerous; feet, where present, ending in a single claw, eyes somewhat absent. 246 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. “‘ Male pupe apterous, naked or covered. Adult males with two wings and two halteres; metamorphosis complete; rostrum present in larva and pupa, always absent in adult; tarsi monomerous, feet ending in a single claw; abdomen terminating in a spike which forms the sheath of the penis; eyes present in adult; ocelli often large, sometimes exceeding three in number.’’— W. M. MasKkeEtt, F.R.M.S., ‘The Scale Insects,” New Zealand, p. 37. This group of insects is of the utmost importance to horticul- turists, as but few trees are exempt from its attacks. While the study of economic entomology is comparatively new in Califor- nia, its incipiency dating back but a few years, these insects have attracted wide attention, as nearly every branch of the fruit industry has felt their effects more or less. In this State there is a great diversity of industries in the fruit line, and trees and plants have been imported from almost every country. Upon them many injurious species of insects have been brought in. The pernicious scale, or “San José” so called, which does not affect the citrus, but deciduous trees principally, was the first species of this group which gave this important study its incentive. It made its presence felt in Santa Clara County as early as 1878. Whence it came is not definitely known, but was no doubt brought here on cuttings or trees. As very little was then known of this species, effective measures were not adopted for its suppression, and it spread to adjoining orchards and was afterward taken to other counties on nursery trees. For a time it threatened to be a menace to the deciduous fruit industry, and it appeared as if its progress could not be checked; but effective measures were discovered for its suppres- sion in the way of insecticides, and lately, beneficial insects have accomplished great good in practically exterminating it throughout the State. In 1868 another species, the cottony cushion scale, was brought into our State on plants from Australia, its natural home. This species played great havoc in many sections, especially to orange and lemon orchards. Every means pos- sible were applied, and for a time it baffled the combined wisdom of scientists and fruit-growers. It was not that the insecticides applied did not kill the pest, but because all insects could not be reached, enough escaping to reinfest the tree. Here again nature came to our relief. The Vedalia cardinalis, Mulsant, in one season reduced it to such an extent that it can no longer do injury. Where this scale appears in isolated localities INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. 247 and where the Vedalia do not appear, colonies of the Vedalia should be procured. In 1872, the Aspidiotus awrantii, Maskell, was introduced, also on trees from Australia. These were planted at Los Angeles and subsequently some were taken to Orange, from which localities the pest spread. This species was described by Prof. Maskell and was imported into New Zealand from Sydney, thus settling the question as to its source. Prior to 1880, little or no damage was done by this pest. The greatest injury and spread occurred between 1880 and 1890. While no effective parasite that preys on this species has been found, the discovery of the hydrocyanic acid gas treatment has proved a great boon to the citrus industry, through which means the pest is kept under control. In 1872 the Aspidiotus citrinus, Coquillett, was also intro- duced, presumably from Australia or Japan, into the San Gabriel Valley on orange trees. At first the insect made slow progress, and was not considered a very serious pest. Between the years 1883 and 1889 it spread very rapidly, in fact alarm- ingly, throughout the valley. In 1889 a parasite of the genus Coccophaqus was discovered preying upon the scale, and it is now kept in subjection. Other species, the Mytilaspis citricola, Packard, and Mytilas- pis Gloverii, Packard, have been introduced on nursery trees, principally from Florida, but as yet they have been confined to those trees in certain localities and have not spread. Numerous other species are continually being discovered on plants and trees from many parts of the world. SPECIES IN CALIFORNIA. Genus ASPIDIOTUS, Bouche. This genus includes species of Diaspinz, in which the scale of the female is circular or nearly so, with the exuvie at or near the center, and the scale of the male somewhat elongated, with the larval skin at one side of the center or near one extremity. The last segment of the female usually presents four groups of spinnerets; in a few species there are five groups, and in some they are wanting. 248 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. The following species of this genus infest citrus trees in California: (1) Red scale—Aspidiotus aurantit, Maskell. (2) Yellow scale—Aspidiotus citrinus, Coquillett. (8) Oleander scale—Aspidiotus nerit, Comstock. (1) Rep ScaLe. A circular, flat scale, known by the popular name of “red scale,” from the color of its shell. Scale of female is light gray, quite translucent. Female light yellow in adolescent stages; as it reaches maturity becomes brownish. Viviparous. Ventral view of insect. Red Scale on leaf. Scale of male resembles female, except that it is only one fourth as large. Male light yellow, thoracic band brown; eyes purplish black. This insect is the worst enemy to citrus culture in California. It attacks the trunk, branches, leaves, and fruit. So far no effective parasites are known to attack it, excepting predaceous insects, which do not increase rapidly enough to check its progress. : Treatment.—Rosin solution (formula No. 1), and gas treat- ment (formula No. 4). (2) YELLow ScALE. A small yellow scale, infesting citrus trees in the San Gabriel Valley, Los Angeles, Sacramento, Oroville, and Marysville. INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. 249 This species differs but slightly from 4. aurantii, excepting in habits and color. ‘ Scale of female circular, body pale yellow. Male smaller than female, nearly circular, white, marked with irregular yellow spots. Viviparous. This species only attacks the leaves and fruit, seldom the wood. Supposed to have been introduced from Japan in 1872. Treatment.—Rosin solution (formula No. 1), and gas treat- ment (formula No. 4). Yellow Scale on leaf. Ventral view of insect. (3) OLEANDER SCALE. A small whitish scale infesting the oleander. It attacks oranges and lemons; does not infest the trees to their material injury, although harmful to the fruit. Scale of female flat, whitish or light gray, and with exuvie central or nearly so. Female nearly circular in outline. Scale of male slightly elongated, with larval skin nearly central, snowy white; diameter, .04 inch. Oviparous. This species has often been mistaken for the true “red” scale when on lemons, as it assumes a pinkish tint. Treatment.—Rosin solution (formula No. 1), and gas treat- ment (formula No. 4); kerosene emulsion has also given satisfactory results. 250 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. Genus LECANIUM, Illiger. Females naked, flat or convex, viviparous or oOviparous, propagating without ovisac, arboreal. The following species have been discovered in this State: (1) Black scale—Lecanium olex, Bernard. (2) Soft scale—Lecanium hesperidum, Linneus. (3) Hemispherical scale—Lecanium hemisphxricum,Targioni. (1) Buack Scare. (Fig. 6, Plate XXVL.) A blackish-brown scale, very common throughout the State. Infests nearly every kind of tree and plant. It is more troublesome on the olive, next to which citrus trees suffer the most from its attacks. Adult female dark brown, nearly black, nearly hemispherical in form, often quite as long as broad; average length, 4 mm. to 5 mm.; average height,3 mm. Eggs long, oval, 0.4 mm. in length, color yellowish. Larva flat and six-jointed. Undoubtedly European, and infests a greater variety of plants than any other insect of this group. There are several parasites that attack it, and with the aid of predaceous ones, especially the Fhizobius ventralis, recently introduced, it is kept in check in some localities to a considerable extent. It is most troublesome in the coast and bay regions. As this scale has but one brood a year, which is hatched during the summer, it is greatly reduced in number by the heat in the interior regions. Treatment.—Rosin solution (formula No. 2), kerosene emul- sion (formula No. 3), and gas treatment (formula No. 4). On all trees which do not shed their leaves the gas treatment is the only remedy found to efficiently destroy this scale. When properly applied it should destroy over 99 per cent. The washes and sprays are with difficulty made to reach over 80 or 90 per cent of the tree area. The remaining live scale soon reéstablish themselves. (2) Sorr Scae. A dark brown, oval scale, infesting citrus trees and orna- mental plants. OL SQOTUALNI SLOUSNT ‘OZIS [BINIBN —(V}0IL;29 sidspjjAfy) “yUBY 9UO poonpsey—(wnpiuopyd snido) 9[BdS e[ding 94} YIM pejsesul UOUI[ Jo YOuBIg—zZ* > eee z -Ajovq) 8ng Away ey Aq paysojut youviq uome [—] ‘31a Sa — — — = —___— ee “MUOLTOO SAULIO VINYOMITVO ‘AXX HLVId 252 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. Adult female, 3mm. to 4 mm. long; yellow, inclined to brown upon disk, shape elongate-oval, nearly flat, smooth and shin- ing. Antenne seven-jointed, legs slender and long. Young larva oval, long. Viviparous. This species is not a serious pest and is easily subdued. There are several parasites that keep it in check, so much so as to prevent its doing material injury. Treatment.—Rosin solution (formula No. 1), and kerosene emulsion (formula No. 3). (3) HemIspHERICAL SCALE. A dark brown, hemispherical scale; infests citrus trees prin- cipally—the lime the most. The scale settle on the hmb and on the leaf, mostly on the latter along the midrib, but along the margin the most. The average length of the adult female is 3.5 mm., width 8 mm., height 2 mm. The shape and pro- portions vary greatly, according as the scale is formed upon leaf or twig. Treatment.—Kerosene emulsion (formula No. 3). Genus MYTILASPIS, Targioni-Tozzetti. Female and male puparia similar, or nearly similar, in shape, but the male puparium is smaller. Puparia enlongated, generally more or less mussel-shaped or pyriform, usually convex, more or less curved, pellicles at one end. Male pupa- ria not carinated. Five groups of spinnerets in the female, but the groups are sometimes continuous. The following species are found in this State: (1) Purple scale—Mytilaspis citricola, Packard. (2) Long scale—Mytilaspis Gloverit, Packard. (1) Puree Scae. (Fig. 2, Plate XXV.) A long purple scale; infests citrus trees principally. In Florida it is a very troublesome pest, and was recently intro- duced into California on trees imported from that State. Scale of female long, more or less curved and widened pos- teriorly, brown, with exuvize of same color; length, .12 inch. Female yellowish white. Scale of male usually straight, or nearly so, of same color as scale of female. Egg white, arranged irregularly under the scale. INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. 253 Treatment.—This scale is somewhat difficult to destroy, and will only yield effectually to the gas treatment (formula No. 4). (2) Lone Scare. This species, like the preceding one, is very common through- out Florida, and is usually associated with M. citricola. It infests citrus trees principally. Scale of female differs from M. citricola in being much nar- rower, color light yellow, varying to light brown. Female, body light purple. Egg white when first laid, becomes tinged with purple before hatching, and they are arranged in two rows, in an irregular manner. Scale of male similar in form to that of the female. Treatment.—Like the preceding one, this scale is difficult to destroy. Use the gas treatment (formula No. 4). Genus ICERYA, Signoret. Antenne eleven-jointed, body covered with a cottony matter of several shades of color, and with a secretion of still longer filaments. Skin with rounded spinnerets and with long, scat- tered hairs. Antenne of nearly the same size throughout their whole length, and with a long pubescence. The digitules of the claw elongated and buttoned; of the tarsi as simple hairs. Genital apparatus terminating in a tube internally, with a reticulated ring, and without hairs at its extremity. An- tenne of the larva six-jointed, with a very long pubescence and with four hairs upon the last joint much longer than the others. Lateral lobes of the extremity of the abdomen with a series of three very long, frequently interlaced bristles. Cortony CUSHION SCALE. A cottonylike insect, infesting citrus trees and ornamental plants. Adult female dark orange red, legs and antenne black, covered with yellowish powder. LEgg-sac white, tinged with yellow, and is ribbed longitudinally, and longer than the body of the insect, filled with loose cottony mass containing the eggs. Egg oval in shape, red, 0.7 mm. long. Newly hatched larva reddish brown, antenne six-jointed, begins in a short time to excrete tufts of yellow waxy matter along the dorsal surface 254 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. of the body and lateral margins. The young creep along at first, then settle along the underside of the leaves and on the branches, which they seem to prefer, but after passing through the second or third molt migrate to other parts of the tree. Since the introduction of the Australian ladybirds, Vedalza cardinalis and Novius Koebelei, which devour it, this scale is no longer considered a pest. Treatment.—When spraying is desired, formula No. 1 or No. 3 will be found effective. Two distinct forms of Cottony Cushion Scale. (After Craw.) Genus DACTYLOPIUS. To this genus belong the insects commonly known as mealy bugs. The antennz of the female are six-jointed in the larva, and eight-jointed in the adult. The male larva has seven- jointed antenne. The tarsi are furnished with four digitules and the anal ring with six hairs. Meaty Bue (Dactylopius adonidum, Signoret.) (Fig. 1, Plate XXV; Fig. 2, Plate X XVII.) This mealy bug has made its presence felt in some portions of the State. It congregates in large numbers in portions of the tree, especially among the clusters of fruit. Treatment.—This insect is effectually destroyed by the ordi- nary washes used for scale, and by the ladybird Cryptolemus montrouztert, lately introduced. This ladybird is as effectual in destroying the mealy bug as the Vedalia and Novius are in devouring the cottony cushion scale. INSECT PESTS—FORMULAS FOR THEIR DESTRUCTION, 255 SIX-SPOTTED MITE. Tetranychus 6-maculatus, Riley. This mite was introduced into the lower portion of the State on citrus trees from Florida. In that State it has done consider- able damage to citrus fruits. Infested trees may be recognized by a mottled appearance. The mites congregate on the under- side of the leaves, usually pro- ducing a coneavity. The upper surface of the leaves is marked with vellow blotches. SIX-SPOTTED Mite. a, insect, enlarged; hb, tarsus; c, ros- Treatment.—Formula No. 5. trum and palpus, still more enlarged; d, tip of palpus, still more enlarged. FORMULAS FOR DESTROYING INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. The following formulas of insecticides for the destruction of the various pests that affect citrus trees have proved the most effectual in this State: (1) Rosin Solution. (For the Red and the Yellow Scale on citrus trees.) IWOSIN igure ates estos wees el 20 pounds: Caustic soda(70' per Cent) snssecewsse uote. cues nesses 7 pounds. Hise Ol ses2 ocd 2 oes erec asks ecco sas asen St scke te meses: OpINtS: DWV BVO Ts G0 SIN Cate a ae ese ae al 100 gallons. Place the rosin, caustic soda, and fish oil in a boiler, pour over them about 20 gallons of water, and cook thoroughly over a brisk fire for three hours; then add hot water, a little occa- sionally, and stir well, until diluted to 50 gallons of hot solu- tion. Place this in the spray tank and add cold water to make the necessary amount. Never add cold water when cooking. 256 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. (2) Rosin Solution. (For newly hatched Black Scale and Soft Brown Scale.) FOS iia ie ots era eeu enene ews Saat ta. POUNDS. Caustie:soda.(70' per Cent) =. 2.2.2e20 sce. at eck ecseens 5 pounds. Cll oheaGce cmetous Seeue ces ouae eee Geaoweaeuus 21 pints. Water; tO Make: son. 2 eto ee snes Soke bees Sects 100 gallons. Prepare as directed in formula No. 1. The black scale generally completes hatching in most sections by September ist, therefore this formula should be used during that month. (3) Kerosene Emulsion. (For Black Scale and Soft Brown Scale on citrus trees.) Kerosene oil (Pearl, 150° test) .....---.----.---------- 5 gallons. Comino Wunery SOA pcucccsud sous cyaeeethasus seesaw 114 pounds. Water ease are eS ace ne en eemue eee eee ee anes eee BANONS: Dissolve the soap by boiling in 24 gallons of water, and while boiling remove to another vessel; add the kerosene, and churn for fifteen minutes, or until a perfect emulsion is formed. Afterward dilute with 63 gallons of hot water for each gallon of oil, and to the mixture add 23 pounds of home-made soap dissolved in hot water. Apply at a temperature of 140° F. (4) The Hydrocyanic Acid Gas Treatment. (For destroying scale insects on citrus trees.) This treatment should be used in the night to avoid light, heat, and sea breeze, which neutralize the effects of the gas. The chemicals used for producing the gas are: Sulphuric acid (commercial), cyanide of potassium (98 to 99 per cent), and water. The following instructions must be carefully observed: First, the tent, which must be air-tight, is placed over the tree; second, the tent is made air-tight around the bottom, by throw- ing some loose soil over the bottom of the canvas; third, the necessary amount of sulphuric acid, together with the required amount of water, is put in a glazed earthenware vessel, and placed under the canvas, and the cyanide of potassium is added. A piece of sacking or burlap is thrown over the top of the vessel, to spread the gas and prevent it from burning the leaves immediately above the generator. The tree is left covered forty minutes. INSECT PESTS—-FORMULAS FOR THEIR DESTRUCTION. 257 The chemicals are to be used in the following proportions, as recommended by the Riverside County Board of Horticultural Commissioners: Height of Tree. |Diameter of Tree | Water. Cyanide C. P.,98 Sulphuric Acid, fj Shiga | per cent. | 66 per cent. Feet. Feet. Ounces. | Ounces. Ounces. 6 4 2 1 al 8 6 3 iy | Ly 10 | 8 5 234 oi | 2 2 19 l4 lt 5 | Bly 16 16 | 17 8 | 9 20 16—20 22 10 | 12 20—24 18—22 30 14 16 24—30 | 20-28 34 16 | 18 S036 25—30 52 | of | 28 The cyanide should be used as coarse as possible, so that the chemical action will be less violent. The gas is also generated more evenly, and there is not so much danger of the chemicals boiling over or spattering the tent. As soon as the tent is removed the vessel is rinsed with clean water and prepared for another charge. (5) For Mites (Tetranychus) on Citrus Trees. (To be applied in summer. ) Caustic soda (70 per cent)..------.---+-+=-+++-.....--. 10 pounds. Sul phi. axe ce eas Sees ess oe eee ease anclemes 20 pounds. Dissolwertn waleres cn. 5 5.cnc se Secise cee ea eee 20 gallons. Take the sulphur, mix to a paste—not sloppy—with cold water in a barrel; then add to this wet sulphur 10 pounds of caustic soda (98 per cent) and it will boil the sulphur just like lime slacking; have 20 gallons of water to add to it as it boils, to prevent burning. This is the stock solution. When ready to spray the mites or spiders, put 40 gallons of water in another barrel, and take a half gallon of the stock solution and add to the 40 gallons of water, straining it to take out any sediment there may have been in the sulphur. Apply with a spray pump under one hundred pounds pressure. L7E 258 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. Kahles’* Distillate Solution. (For Black Scale on citrus trees; apply in the fall.) Distillate, 28° (untreated) 222 2.22ese¢cecececss.ceee 0: gallons: Mots water 22, sexta nescec eae: aayacsesemeen seme). | Pallouss WihalerollysOape secs cancuee cate Ce bee sewed eieeaes 114 pounds. The whale-oil soap must first be dissolved in the water. Then add the dissolved soap to the distillate. It is important that the distillate be placed in the mixing vessel first; then place the dissolved soap on top. Attach your spraying pump to the bottom of the vessel in which you are mixing the com- pound, and keep pumping it out of the vessel through the spraying pump back into the vessel, until the whole becomes of a rich creamy substance. Keep pumping or churning it through the pump until it becomes a complete emulsion, with- out a speck of free oil in sight, which will take from ten to fifteen minutes. When properly emulsified, it should increase in volume about one third, because it becomes aérified. If the ground is in good condition, containing proper moisture, and the trees are healthy and growing, you can apply the spray in the proportion of eleven parts of water to one of the emulsion. If the trees are dormant do not use it so strong; say about twelve or fourteen gallons of water to one gallon of the stock compound. Always put your emulsion in the apparatus first, then add the water. The stock compound and the cold water will mix as readily as milk and water, and when finished should resemble milk in all appearances. When spraying be careful to observe any particles of oil which may not have been thoroughly emulsified, and which rise to the surface. in this event, only use the correct emulsion, and when near the bottom empty the oil off. About 200 gallons of the stock mixture can be made for $6.25. The distillate costs 5 cents a gallon, and the soap about 5 cents per pound. Two hundred gallons of stock mix- ture at eleven to one give 2,200 gallons of spraying mixture. This solution is made the same as the kerosene emulsion, only this distillate contains all the natural oils and strength of the crude oil, nothing being taken therefrom except the asphaltum. Therefore, it is a great deal stronger and stays *F, Kahles, Superintendent of Crocker-Sperry Lemon Grove, Montecito. BENEFICIAL INSECTS—PREDACEOUS. 259 longer on the trees without evaporating. Eleven to one is the strongest it can be used with safety on citrus trees. This remedy is used by Mr. Neff, Superintendent of the Win- dermere Orchards at La Mirada, but he uses twenty pounds more whale-oil soap, on account of lime in the water at that place. On this account it requires nearly an hour to prepare a perfect emulsion. He also uses warm water to add to the stock solution, as it works better than cold water. Mr. Neff says: “Some distillates will kill very large ‘black scale,’ while another lot of distillates, apparently the same, does not kill any scales larger than a pinhead.” BENEFICIAL INSECTS—PREDACEOUS. In no part of the world has the value of predaceous and parasitical insects been more fully demonstrated than in this State. The cottony cushion scale (Jcerya purchasi, Maskell) had gained a very strong foothold here, especially on citrus trees, and the damage done by its ravages can hardly be esti- mated. Everywhere was noted its resistless and ruthless march. Watchfulness did not guard against its spread. The most heroic treatments proved of no avail. But in the deep night of our despair there came to our relief a minute ladybird, the Vedalia cardinalis, which in less than a year entirely freed the orchards of California of that pest, thereby accomplishing a work entirely unprecedented in the annals of economic entomology. In 1892 another ladybird, Novius Koebelet (see Plate XX VI), also a foe to this scale, was introduced, although a repetition of the work achieved by the Vedalia was gravely doubted. What energy, science, and money could not perform in years, these minute creatures accomplished in a short period of time, and to those who closely watched their work it seems almost incomprehensible. These friendly foes are assisted materially by other species, and especially by internal parasites. That other insects with similar instincts could ever be discovered was doubted, but through persistence and faith on the part of the State Board of Horticulture, a further search was instituted, which was rewarded by the discovery of two other species. One, the Rhizobius ventralis (see Plate XXVI), is an effective foe of the black scale (Lecanium olex), which it is diminishing very 260 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. rapidly in many sections of the State. This ladybird has proved most eflective in the coast and bay counties, where it finds a congenial home. The other species, the Cryptolamus montrouzteri (see Plate XX VII), has proved an effective enemy of the mealy bug. The investigation is still in progress, and George Compere, “Special Agent” of the State Board of Horti- culture, accompanied by Prof. Albert Koebele, is at present traveling over the Old World in quest of the natural enemies of insect pests, which mission will no doubt be crowned with success. CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE XXVI Fig, 2. * x * RRR | Fig. 1. Novius Koebelei— | female, eularged. | Fig. 2. Novius Noebelei— Jarva, enlarged. | Fig. 3. Vovius Hoebelei— | maie, enlarged. | Fig. 4. Rhizobius ventra- lis—enlarged. | | Fig. 5. Rhizobius ventra- | lis—larva, enlarged. ' Fig. 6. Rhizobius ventra- lis--larve at work on black | scale (Lecanium olec). kk * Oo* * LADYBIRDS—Newty Intropucep SpEciEs IMporTED By STATE BoarpD oF HorticuLTuRE THAT Have ProvepD EMINENTLY SUCCESSFUL. PLATE XXVII. CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. vliemus montrouzieri—larva, enlarged. Crypt Fig. 1— twig showing Jarva aud pupa, natural size. Cryptolomus montrouziert —Cryptoleemus montrouzieri—pupa, Fic. 4 3—Cryptoliomus nontrouzreri— perfect insect, enlarged. Fic. enlarged. State Boarp or LADYBIRDS—Newty Intropucrep Specres IMPORTED BY Horticutture THAT Have Provep EMINENTLY SUCCESSFUL.