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arte, ROSA BoNHEuR.
A TYPICAL HORSE, FROM A PAINTING BY THE WORLD’S GREATEST ANIMAL PAINTER.
THE
SUCCESSFUL > STOCKMAN
AND
MANUAL OF HUSBANDRY.
Editor-in-Chief,
ANDREW A. GARDENIER, Pu. D.,
Author of Standard Physiology, Standard Physician’s Manikin, Anatomical Study, etc.
Assistant Editors,
H. D. GILL, V. St, Dean New York College of Veterinary Surgeons.
Hon. F. R. GILBERT, Judge of Supreme Court of New Youk.
The King-Riehardson Co.
Springfield, Mass.
RIcHMOND. Des Moines. INDIANAPOLIS. San Jost.
DALLas. TOLEDO.
1901.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year eighteen hundred and ninety-nine,
BY THE KING-RICHARDSON COMPANY,
In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
eH ne ha
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
THE HORSE.
Management in Sickness and Health.
Diseases and How to Cure Them.
CHAPTER I.
MANAGEMENT AND CARE.
PAGE.
Intelligence Required. Our Domestic Animals. First Requisites. Box-
Stall. Good Bed. Clothing. Remove Shoes. Food. Bran Mash.
Linseed Mash. Bread Mash. Fresh Water Important. Hand Rub-
bing. Cold Water Bathing of the Legs. Steaming. How to Make
Poultices. Blisters. Antiseptics. Deodorizers. Hot Water Bathing.
Slings. Bandages. Rarey’s System of Throwing or Casting. How
to Give Medicine. Electuaries. Injections. Giving a Ball. Making
a Ball. Giving Liquids. General Advice... ..........0..005. 23
CHAPTER II.
FEEDING AND CARE,
General Requisites. Watering Horses When Warm. The Quantity of
Water Required. Kinds of Food. Digestion of Two Kinds. Feed
Oats After Hay. Common Error. Horse Has a Small Stomach.
Ten Pounds of Hay a Day. Description of the Value of the Various
Grains, Roots, and Dried and Green Grasses............ 36
vI. TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III. PAGE.
DRUGS AND MEDICINE, THEIR DOSES AND EFFECTS.
Time Required for Drugs to Take Effect. Explanation of the Effect
of Drugs. Doses of Medicine According to Age. How Often to
Give Medicine. Table of Drugs. Their Doses and External and
Internal Action. Common Names for a Few Drugs..........
CHAPTER IV.
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
Description of the Alimentary Canal. Diseases of the Teeth, Mouth,
Gullet and Csophagus, Stomach, Intestines, Liver, Intestinal
Worms, Classification of the Causes That Produce Colic.......
CHAPTER V.
THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
Description of the Organs of the Thoracic Cavity. Diseases of the
Nostrils, Nasal Chambers, Sinuses, Pharynx, Larynx, Wind-
Pipe, Bronchi, Bronchial Tubes, Air-cells, Pleura, Etc......
CHAPTER VI.
THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
Description of the Heart, Arteries, and Veins. Inflammatory Dis-
eases. Functional and Organic Diseases of the Heart. Diseases
of the Arteries, Veins, and the Lymphatic System.........
CHAPTER VII.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Divisions of the Nervous System. Functions of the Various Parts.
Inflammation of the Brain. Mad Staggers. Sunstroke. Spasm of
the Thigh. Lock-Jaw. Hydrophobia. Electric Shock. Etc... 1
CHAPTER VIII.
THE URINARY ORGANS.
Diabetes Insipidus. Saccharine Diabetes. Bloody Urine. Poisoning
by Albuminoids. Inflammation of the Kidneys. Spasm of the
Bladder. Inflammation of the Bladder. Urinary Calculi. Ete. . 1
41
49
73
OI
13
TABLE OF CONTENTS. : VII.
CHAPTER IX. PAGE.
GALLS AND BRUISES.
Abscesses or Boils Caused by Contusion. Bruises and Their Treat-
ment. Chafing by the Harness, and Saddle or Collar Galls. Etc. 125
CHAPTER X.
GENERAL DISEASES.
Influenza, Pink-Eye or Epizooty. Strangles. Distemper or Ca-
tarrhal Fever. Pleuro-Pneumonia. Horse-Pox, and Rabies. ... 131
CHAPTER XI.
GLANDERS OR FARCY.
Glanders and Farcy the Same Disease. Can be Communicated to
Man. Chronic Farcy. Chronic Glanders. Acute Farcy Glanders. 151
CHAPTER XII.
EXTERNAL EVIDENCES OF MANY DISEASES.
The Common Names Given to Deformities. Their Causes Produc-
ing Many Familiar Diseases. Lack of Conformation. ..... 163
CHAPTER XIII.
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT.
Anatomical Description of the Parts. Physiological Functions.
Faults of Formation. Interfering. Cocked Ankles. Wind Galls.
Quittor. Corns. Sand-Cracks. Ringbone. Splint. Spavin. Etc. 169
CHAPTER XIV.
THE SKIN.
Structure of the Skin. Cracked Heels or Scratches. Nettle Rash or
Surfeit. Horny Sloughs or Sitfasts. Warts. Congestion with
Pimples. Animal and Vegetable Parasites. Fistula. Etc... . 227
CHAPTER XV.
SHOEING.
Why Necessary. Common Errors. Preparing the Foot for the Shoe.
The Shoe. Finishing Touches. Winter Shoeing. Special Shoeing. 242
° CHAPTER XVI.
THE TEETH.
Age as Indicated by the Teeth. Alterations in the Teeth. Temporary
Teeth. Permanent Teeth. Parrot Mouth. Bishop-ing. Etu. ... 255
VIII. TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CATTLE DEPARTMENT.
THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
PAGE.
The Short-horns. Their Characteristics. Climate Adapted to the
Short-horns, The Herefords. Asa Dairy Cow. Asa Working
Ox. As a Beef Animal. Aberdeen-Angus. Characteristics.
The Devons. Description. The Ayrshires. As a Dairy Cow.
Asa Beef Animal. The Jerseys. Their Characteristics. The
Red Polls. The Holsteins and their Characteristics. ........ 271
DISEASES.
Mtomatitis. Sore Throat. Choking. Hoven, Tympanitis, or Bloat-
ing. Indigestion. Colic. Loss of Cud. Diarrhea. Dysentery.
White Scours. Inflammation of the Bowels. Worms. Jaundice.
Liver Diseases. Peritonitis. Pleurisy. Pneumonia. Bloody
Urine. Contagious Abortion. Mange or Itch. Lousiness. Etc. 298
GENERAL TOPICS.
Dehorning Cattle. Use of the Separator. How to Take Care of
Milk. The Aeration of Milk. Birth and after-birth........ 335
SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
Descriptions of the Southdowns, the French Merinoes, the Cheviots,
the American Merinoes, the Shropshires, the Black-Faced Scotch,
the Oxford-Downs, the Hampshire-Downs, the Dorsets, the Lin-
colns, the Leicesters, the Cotswolds, and the Cross-Bred Sheep . . 351
DISEASES.
Constipation or Costiveness. Diarrhea. Dysentery. Inflammation
of the Bowels. Hoven. Cold or Catarrh. Bronchitis. Inflam-
mation of the Lungs. Influenza. Congestion of the Liver.
Inflammation of the Liver. Poisoning by Sheep Laurel. Injur-
ious Effects of Plaster and Lime. Inflammation of the Bladder.
Inflammation of the Brain. Water on the Brain. Staggers.
Contagious Foot-Rot. Common Foot-Rot or Gravel. The Sheep
Gad-fly. The Sheep Louse. Scab Insect. Castration. Tape
Worms. Spasmodic Colic. Constipation in Lambs. ........ 375
TABLE OF CONTENTS, 1X,
SWINE HUSBANDRY.
THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
PAGE.
The Berkshires. Their Characteristics. Quality of Meat. Matur-
ity. The Suffolks. Their Characteristics. The Essexes. Their
Characteristics. The Poland-Chinas. ‘Their Characteristics. ‘The
Victorias. The Durocs. The Cheshires, or Jefferson County
Swine. Jersey Reds. Chester Whites. Vorkshires....... 393
DISEASES AND GENERAL SUBJECTS.
Mange. Recipe for Mange Ointment. Pigs Losing Their Tails.
Inflammation of the Brain, or ‘‘Blind Staggers.’’ Diarrhea.
Constipation. Lice. So-Called ‘‘Hog Cholera. Etc. Curing
and Preserving. Sows Eating Their Pigs. Swine Breeding. .. 408
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
Special Advantages and Disadvantages of the Andalusians, Brah-
mas, Cochins, Leghorns, Brown Leghorns, Game, White Ply-
mouth Rocks, Dominiques, Langshans, Dorkings. Classification
of the Characteristics of the Various Breeds. .......... 419
DISEASES.
Causes. Crop-bound. Gapes. Roup. Common Cold or Catarrh.
Bronchitis. Disorders of the Egg Organs. Cramp. Consump-
tion. Diphtheria. Bumble-Foot. Apoplexy. Feather Hating.
Cholera. Diarrhea. Etc., Etc. . 2... cee eee eee eee eee 432
GENERAL SUBJECTS.
Suitable Place in Which to Keep Fowls. Building a Hen-house.
Crowding of Fowls. ‘The Most Profitable Breed to Keep. Etc. 438
THE POTATO.
ITS ENEMIES.
Late Blight or Downy Mildew. Early Blight or Leaf-Spot Disease.
Bacterial Blight. ‘Treatment of Diseases of the Potatoes. Po-
tato Scab. ‘Treatment. Caution. Bordeaux Mixture. How
to Prepare Carbonate of Copper... 6. - ee eee eee eee 443
X. TABLE OF CONTENTS.
STANDARD RECEIPTS.
PRACTICAL AND VALUABLE REMEDIES.
PAGE,
Liniments and Pain Killers. Ointments. Plasters and Blisters.
Poultices. How to Produce Sweating. Emetics. Worm Rem-
edies. Cough Remedies. Medicated Syrups. Medicinal Essen-
ces. How to Measure Medicine. To Prevent Contagion and
Blood Poisoning. Accidents and Emergencies. Paints and Var-
nishes. Whitewash and Kalsomine. To Remove Stains and
Grease Spots. Harness and Leather. Boots and Shoes. Clean-
ing and Polishing. Paste, Glue, and Mucilage. Wagon ‘Tires
and Fence Posts. Annoying Insects. Rats and Mice. Preserv-
ing and Salting Meat. Fruit and Vegetables over Winter. Soap
Making. Cider, Vinegar, and Wines. Miscellaneous. ...... 447
FRUIT CULTURE.
INJURIOUS INSECTS AND GENERAL SUBJECTS.
Budding. Grafting. Insects Injurious to Plants. The Codling
Moth. Rose Beetle. Tent Caterpillar. Woolly Louse of the Ap-
ple. Flat Headed and Round Headed Apple Tree Borer. Amer-
ican Procris. Plum Curculio. Canker Worm. Various Other
Insects. The Latest Insect Destroyers. Concise Directions for
Spraying Cultivated Plants. Howandwhento Spray....... 531
LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
LEGAL FACTS IMPORTANT TO ALL.
Contracts. How to do Banking Business. Line Fences. Road
Fences. Damage by Vicious Animals such as: Bulls, Horses, and
Dogs. Damage to Property by Animals-at-Large. Rights of
Drainage Surface Water. Line Trees... ........... 563
GLOSSARY.
EXPLANATION OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS........ 607
PREPAwGE.
HIS work has been prepared to meet the requirements of the
busy men of our country, who have felt the need of a reliable
systematic work which would aid them to properly. care for
their domestic animals in health and sickness and give them practical
and valuable knowledge on other general subj ects in a condensed
form ready for reference or use. They have looked in vain for a simple
and authentic treatise on the causes, symptoms, prevention, and cure
of the diseases with which their domestic animals are so often afflicted.
The works now on the market are for the use of practitioners of med-
icine or are merely compilations by unscientific and unprofessional wri-
ters, whose works are misleading and dangerous. Most of the diseases
can be easily detected and properly treated by the intelligent farmer and
stock-owner, and it is the aim of this work to assist them in their study
and aid them in fully understanding the principle of the application of
the various remedies and their effects.
In order to prepare a work practical in all its details, much time has
been spent conferring with the intelligent farmers and stock-raisers, in
the various parts of our country, regarding the contents of a work to
meet their approval. Every suggestion has been faithfully carried out
and we hope that our work will meet with the hearty approval of the
American public. This experience and observation among the practical
and experienced stock men leads to the belief that a practical work of
this kind will be a great benefit to every owner of domestic animals.
Most of the special features of this work are the result of the recom-
mendations of successful farmers and stock-raisers. To them we feel
thankful for their generous aid.
Care has been taken to have the language so simple as to be readily
xii PREFACE.
understood by even the humblest reader. . Scientific words are ex-
plained, and the directions have been carefully and simply worded.
The remedies are as far as possible those that can be easily procured,
prepared, and administered. Ina work of this kind it has sometimes
been necessary to use unfamiliar words, and phrases, so in order
that all may be thoroughly understood, a glossary has been prepared
in which the words not familiar in every day life have been thoroughly
explained.
In the veterinary department will be found the causes producing the
diseases, so that knowing the cause the disease may be avoided. That,
‘‘An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure,’’ has been kept in mind
throughout the book. Great care has been taken to accurately explain
THE SYMPTOMS so that the disease may be properly located, and there-
fore know WHAT TO Do.
Acting upon the belief that no one man, nor any half-dozen men know
all there is worth knowing on a subject so extensive, we have freely
drawn from such able authors and practitioners as Drs. Law, Salmon,
Trumbour, Liautard, Kneidecker, and Dickson, whose ability and
standing in their profession and their specialities cannot be doubted.
Special charts or MANIKINS OF THE BODY OF THE HORSE
AND COW have been prepared, also one of the KNEE, FETLOCK,
ANKLE AND FOOT. By the study of these MANIKINS, which
have never before been given to the public, an accurate knowledge of
the construction of the bodies of the various animals, the location of the
various organs and their functions can be accurately learned. A thorough
study, and thereby an accurate knowledge of the construction, location,
and uses of the various parts of the body will aid very much the ability
to quickly judge the various diseases.
In conclusion, let us hope that those who attentively study these pages
and accurately follow out the suggestions and directions hereby given,
may by their increased success, profit, and pleasure, feel warranted in
giving the work their fullest endorsement. If this proves to be the case
the labor has not been in vain.
THE EDITOR.
5.
POINTS
OF THE HORSE.
= ae "Pap,
Copvetghted 1896
by A, Gardener. ~
OF MUSCLES.
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THIS
MANIKIN
Andrew A. Gardenier, Ph.D.,
_ EXPRESSLY FOR
THE SUCCESSFUL STOCKMAN
AND
MANUAL OF HUSBANDRY.
‘The King-Richardson Co.,
SPRINGFIELD, MASS.
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EXPLANATORY KEY
MANIKIN OF THE HORSE.
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16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24,
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
Face.
Nostril.
Upper Lip.
Lower Lip.
Zygomatic ridge.
Cheek.
Hollow above the eye.
Maxillary joint.
Forelock.
Nape of neck or poll.
Crest or mane.
Throat.
Withers.
Back.
Loins.
Side of chest.
Breast.
Floor of chest.
Abdomen.
Flanks.
Prepuce or Sheath.
Shoulder.
Point of shoulder.
Arm.
Elbow.
Fore-arm.
Knee. :
Cannon-bone or shank.
Fetlock-joint.
Pastern.
Coronet.
Heel.
Hoof.
Chestnut.
Haunch.
Croup.
Hip-joint.
Upper thigh.
Stifle.
Lower thigh.
Hock.
Chestnut.
Root of the tail.
Hair of the tail.
THE MUSCLES.
1, Transverse muscle of nose,
2. Zygomatic.
3. Sphincter muscle of nose.
4, Elevator of upper lip.
5 Wing of nostril.
6. Muscle of eyelids.
7. Masticator muscle.
8. Depressor muscle.
9—10. Temporalis muscle.
11. Splenius.
12. Trapezium.
13, Serratus magnus.
14. Levator humeri.
15. Sterno-maxillaris.
16. Latissimus dorsi-
MANIKIN OF THE HORSE.
17. Antea spinatus.
18. Postea spinatus.
19. Teres externus.
20. Triceps extensor brachii.
21. Latissimus dorsi.
23. Intercostal muscles.
23. Oblique abdominal external.
24, Coraco-brachialis.
25. Extensor metacarpi magnus.
26. Anterior extensor of phalanges.
27. Extensor suffraginis.
28. Anterior extensor of phalanges.
29. External flexor of metacarpus.
30. Extensor of phalanges.
31. Extensor suffraginis.
32. Flexor perforatus.
33. Flexor perforans.
34. Suspensory ligament of fetlock.
35. Internal flexor of metacarpus.
36. Ligament.
37. Rectus abdominis.
38. Gluteus maximus.
39. Superficials.
40. Muscle of fascia lata.
41, Biceps abductor femores.
42. Semitendinosis.
43, Semimembranosus.
44.—45. Biceps abductor femores.
46. Oblique flexor of phalanges.
47. Gastrocnemius.
48. Perforatus, superficial.
49. Flexor of perforatus.
50. Perforatus, deep.
51. Lateral extensor of phalanges.
52, Anterior extensor of phalanges.
53. Flexor of metatarsus.
54. Tendon Achilles.
55, Oblique tiexor of phalanges.
56. Muscles draw tail downward.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
Main artery or aorta.
Aorta, anterior portion.
Aorta, posterior portion.
Left coronary artery.
Bwhr
17.
26.
Left sub-clavian artery.
Superior cervical artery.
Vertebral artery.
Carotid artery, beginning of
Thoracic artery, internal.
Thoracic artery, external.
Cervical artery, inferior.
Carotid artery, right.
Jugular vein.
Carotid artery, bronchial branch.
Thyro-laryngeal artery.
Branches to larynx.
Branches to esophagus.
Auricular.
Occipital.
Retrograde,
External maxillary.
Maxillary artery, lower lip.
Maxillary artery, upper lip.
Artery of nose.
Artery of face.
Artery of angle of the eye.
Temporal artery.
Auricular artery.
Axillary artery, muscular artery
Axillary artery colateral of elbow
Epicondylvid.
Anterior radial artery.
Posterior radial artery.
Interosseous, or trunk artery.
Digital artery.
Radio-palmar.
Latent artery of foot.
Perpendicular artery of foot,
Anterior artery, coronary cushion
Posterior ‘ se te
Circumflex artery of coronary.
Preplantar artery.
Plantar ungual artery.
Semilunar anastomis.
Intercostal arteries, fourteen pair
Bronchial arteries to lungs.
Esophageal.
Diaphragmatic.
Lumbar arteries.
Abdominal arteries.
55.
58.
95.
98.
MANIKIN OF THE HORSE.
Tlio cecal.
Gastric artery.
Splenic artery.
Mesenteric, anterior.
Arteries of small intestines.
Branches to small intestines.
Anterior branch of posterior mes-
enteric.
Posterior branch of posterior mes-
enteric.
Arteries of the kidneys.
Artery of posterior bowels.
Branch of posterior mesenteric.
Spermatic artery.
Tliac artery.
Pelvic artery.
Coccygeal, inferior.
Caudal arteries.
Gluteal arteries.
Tlio-lumbar artery.
Pudic, external artery.
Obturator.
Pudic, internal artery.
Abdominal aorta, terminal portion
lliac artery, external.
Testicular small, (in females uter-
ine anterior).
Pudic external, (in females mam-
mary uterine artery).
Abdominal, posterior.
Femoral or crural.
Femoris profunda artery.
Saphena artery.
Popliteal artery.
Tibial artery, anterior.
Tibial artery, posterior.
Tibial recurrent artery.
Plantar artery.
Pedal artery.
Digital arteries.
Pulmonary artery.
Vena cava, anterior.
Jugular vein.
Dorsal vein.
Vena azygos.
Esophageal.
21
100. Bronchia.
101. Vena cava, posterior.
102. Iliac veins.
103. Hepatic veins.
104. Portal vein circulation.
105. Portal vein.
106. Circulation of hoof.
THE BONES.
1. 1 Prime to 18 prime, ribs,
1. Upper jaw bone.
2. Lower maxillary.
3. Occipital.
4. Parietal.
5. Frontal.
6. Upper tusk found only in smaez
7. Superior maxillary.
8. Upper molars.
11. Nasal bone.
12. Lachrymal.
13. Lower tusk.
14. Zygomatic.
15. Lower molars.
18. Atlas.
18—24. Cervical vertebra,
25—43. Dorsal vertebra.
48. Lumbar.
49—54, Sacrum.
54—73. Cocygeal vertebra.
74, Sternum.
76. Illium.
77. Os magnum.
78. Elbow joint.
79. Elbow joint.
80. Radius.
81. Trapezium.
82. Cuneiform bone.
83. Lunar bone,
84. Os magnum.
85. Unciform.
86. Metatarsal.
88, Sesamoid.
89. Os suffraginis.
90. Os Corono.
91. Coffin bone or Os pedis.
22
92.
94,
96.
98.
99.
100.
102,
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
“10.
MANIKIN OF THE HORSE.
Scapula. 93. Head of Femur.
Pelvis. 95. Pubis.
Femurs, 97. Scaphoid bone.
Tibula
Tibia.
Calcis.
Large scaphoid bone.
Small scaphoid bone.
Cuneiform.
Splint bone.
Metatarsal.
Sesamoid bone.
Os suffraginis or large pastern.
Os corona or small pastern.
Coffin bone or Os pedis.
DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
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Cerebrum.
Cerebellum,
Medulla oblongata.
Spinal cord.
Section of cervical vertebra.
Section of dorsal veterbra.
Section of sacral vertebra.
Coceygeal vertebra.
Ligamentum nuche.
Turbinated bones.
Pharynx.
Entrance to larynx.
Thyroid gland.
Bronchi and their division.
Front lobe of lung.
Palate with ridges.
Molars.
Tongue.
Thoracic cavity.
Tendinous portion of diaphragm.
Muscular portion of diaphragm.
37.
53.
Left ventricle.
Right ventricle.
Pulmonary artery.
Common aorta.
Right auricle.
Right ventricle, interior.
Left auricle, interior.
Tendine chorde of tricuspid valves
Left auriculo-ventricular valves.
Right auriculo-ventricular valves.
Tending chord# of auriculo-ven-
tricular valves.
Opening of pulmonary vein into
left auricle.
Biliary duct.
Hepatic vein.
Posterior vena cava.
Duodenum.
Tleumn.
Lower portion cf colon.
Upper portion of colon.
Pelvic portion of colon.
Upper portion of colon,
Pelvic portion of colon.
Pelvic portion of rectum.
Anus,
Left ureter.
Right ureter.
Scrotum.
Spermatic cord.
Location of penis.
Location of vagina.
Abdominal cavity,
Pelvic cavity.
On flap. Vagina.
Young in position vefore birtm
Unbilical cord.
Walls of uterus.
Chorion.
THE HORSE.
CHAPTER I.
Management and Care in Sickness.
INTELLIGENCE REQUIRED, OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS, FIRST’ REQUISITES,
BOX STALL, GOOD BED, CLOTHING, REMOVE SHOES, FOOD, BRAN
MASH, LINSEED MASH, BRAD MASH, FRESH WATER IMPORTANT,
HAND RUBBING, COLD WATER BATHING OF THE LEGS, STEAMING,
HOW TO MAKE POULTICES, BLISTERS, ANTISEPTICS, DEODORIZERS,
HOT WATER BATHING, SLINGS, BANDAGES, RAREY’S SYSTEM OF
THROWING OR CASTING, HOW TO GIVE MEDICINE, ELECTUARIES,
INJECTIONS, GIVING A BALL, MAKING A BALL, GIVING LIQUIDS,
GENERAL ADVICE.
KEEPER of animals in a menagerie is required to study the
habits of the animals and the conditions under which they live
and thrive in their native wilds, before he is allowed to have full
control of their feeding and care. These conditions must be du-
plicated as far as practical. ‘The Polar bear must be supplied with ice,
and food as nearly like that which he would feed upon, if he should be
returned to his native land, as possible. But how many of our stock
owners place the care of valuable animals in the hands of the entirely
ignorant. It requires an intelligence far superior to that which is usual-
ly found in our ordinary stable-hand, to properly care for our domestic:
animals.
Our Domestic Animals have for so many generations been under
conditions entirely contrary to their nature, that even they have changed
somewhat in their habits and requirements. Our climate is far different
from that in which they are found in their native state. The use to
which man has put the noble horse is to blame for most of his diseases.
In his native state the diseases which we find so troublesome are
entirely unknown. ‘The sooner sickness is recognized and the proper
remedies used, the sooner the animal will be restored to health. But to
24 THE HORSE.
recognize disease it is obviously necessary to know the animal when
well. If nothing is known regarding the natural pulse, how can one
expect to know whether the heart beats regularly and natural or not.
Study the condition of the animal in health as to pulse, number of res-
pirations, color and quantity of the excretions, and remember if these
change there has come a time to be specially observant of the actions of
the animal, so as to determine the cause. Should these changes be the
result of disease, determine its nature and be governed accordingly. A
quick recognition of an ailment and promptness in treatment will the
sooner restore health and less will be the liability of death and loss.
First Requisites. Provide the animal with plenty of pure, fresh
air, always avoiding draughts. Make the stall as comfortable as possible;
cool in summer and warm in winter. Keep the temperature as nearly
55° to 60° as possible. See that the drainage is good, and the place dry.
Box Stall. 1 to 2 drams.
Colchicum and
Laxative |---+-+-+-- I to 2 drams.
Collodion |,,,,,., Adhesivé 9 js aca ee ee
Copaiba, balsam of |Diuretic |... .--- ¥% to 1 ounce.
Antiseptic Caustic ¥ tor fluid dram.
Creasote and and
Tonic Antiseptic ¥% to 1 fluid dram.
Chalk, prepared Antacid Absorbent 2 to 4 ounces.
Croton oil Purgative Irritant 20 to 30 drops.
Astringent Erodent 1 to 2 drams.
Copper, sulphate of and and
Tonic Excitant 1 to 2 drams.
Calomel Cathartic Bate, GSE Boe ¥% to 2 drams.
Corrosive sublimate | Alterative Caustic 5 to Io grains.
Digitalis Narcotic |......-. 1 to 2 drams.
Ergot Parturient |....... 2 to 4 drams.
Ether Antispasm Refrigerant |q to 6 fluid drams.
Flax seed Demulcent |[|....... Ad lib.
Gentian Tories | teu ueylen'e'A 2 to 4 drams.
Gentian, tincture Tonic |... +25 ¥% to 1 fluid ounce.
Ginger Tonic | sei avuces 2 to 4 drams,
46 THE HORSE.
Table of Medicinal Substances, Their Doses and Action.
ACTION. > :
AGENT: 4a e.9 aig claire's DOSE.
INTERNALLY. EXTERNALLY.
Glycerine Nutrient Emollient 4 to 6 ounces.
Henbane, extract of | Narcotic Sedative 1 to 2 drams.
Narcotic
Henbane, tincture and Sedative 1 to 2 ounces.
Anodyne
Glandular Glandular
Iodine and and 5 to 10 grains.
Excitant Excitant
Astringent
Tron, sulphate of and |e ae al er he 2 to 4 drams.
Tonic
Alterative
Iron, iodide of and; I awa al as % to1 dram.
Tonic
Linseed oil Laxative Emollient ¥% to 1 pint
Mercury, bichloride | Alterative Caustic 5 to Io grains.
Alterative io te 20 grains.
Mercury, chloride and
Cathartic |. ..... ¥% to 2 drams.
Magnesia Antacid y% to I ounce.
Magnesia, sulphate |Laxative |....... ¥% to 1 pound.
Antiseptic
Myrrh and ‘Traumatic 2 to 4 drams.
Tonic
Nut-galls Astringent | Astringent 2 to 4 drams.
Nitrate of silver |. ...... Caustie: op ne el Ses
Demulcent
Olive oil and Emollient 1 to 1% pint.
Laxative
Narcotic
Opium and, lk a ee . |I to 2 drams.
Antispasm
DRUGS AND MEDICINES 47
Table of Medicinal Substances, Their Doses and Action.
ACTION.
AGENT: = Sv soe Gee a as ae DOSE.
INTERNALLY. EXTERNALLY.
Narcotic
Opium, tincture of and Anodyne ¥% to 2 fluid ounces.
Antispasm
Petroleum Stimulant Stimulant 2 to 4 ounces.
Stimulant
Pimemta (allspice) aid, etken Res 2 to 4 drams.
Tonic
Pitch, Burgundy |....... Rubefacient |. .......0..
Pitch. (Tar) fee ew Rubefacient |... ......
Potash. tee ee ts Catistie: | ft ae daui che hte
Antacid
Potassium carbonate ANG, fide Geode Se Ss 2 to 4 drams.
Diuretic
Potassium, chlorate |Stimulant(?)|....... 1 to 2 drams.
Febrifuge Refrigerant
Potassium, nitrate and and 2 to 4 drams.
Diuretic Antiseptic
Quinine Tonie |.x grees ¥y to1 dram.
Resin Diuretic a ee ¥% tot dram.
Sabina .... .. . | Irritant ae eo ech teas
Antacid
Soap and Stimulant ¥% to 2 ounces
Diuretic
Antacid
Sal-soda and 2 to 4 drams.
Diuretic
Soda sulphate
(Glaubers salt)| Diuretic [|.....-.-- ¥% to 1 pound.
Diuretic
Spirit of nit. ether. and. | xe dwaws 1 to 2 fluid ounces.
Antispasm
Sulphur, iodide Alterative Detergent ¥% to 1 dram.
48 THE HORSE.
Table of Medicinal Substances, Their Doses and Action.
ACTION.
AGENT? Wes Soh Sebtdueae Gad DOSE.
INTERNALLY. EXTERNALLY.
Strychnine a reach eee ee eee mre 1 to 3 grains.
Laxative
Sulphur and Detergent 1 to 4 ounces.
Alterative
Nauseant
Tartar, emetic and Irritant ¥% tor dram.
Diaphoretic.
Turpentine Diuretic Digestive ¥% to 1 ounce.
Diuretic ||... ....., 2 to 4 fluid drams.
Tupentine oil Antispasm | Irritant 3 to 6 fluid ounces.
Cathartic f|....... ¥% to 1 pint
Zinc, acetate |....,., Astringent |. |...
Zine, carbonate |,,...., Astringent ., | |...
Caustic
Zinc, chloride |......, ts | (he ene ene
Antiseptic
Zinc, oxide - 2 ee ee | RBETINgeNt fp
Astringent | Erodent
Zinc, sulphate and and I to 2 drams.
Tonic Astringent
Common Names for a Few Drugs.
Tincture of Opium Laudanum.
Sulphate of Iron . Copperas.
Mercury, bichloride . Corrosive Sublimate.
Mercury, mild chloride Calomel.
Sulphate of Zinc
Cantharides
Nitrous Ether
Argentum Nitrate
White Vitriol.
Spanish Fly,
Sweet Spirits of Nitre.
Nitrate of Silver.
CHAPTER IV.
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
Their Diseases and How to Cure Them.
DESCRIPTION OF ALIMENTARY CANAL, DISEASES OF THE TEETH,
DISEASES OF THE MOUTH, DISEASES OF THE GULLET AND G{SOPHAGUS,
DISEASES OF THE STOMACH, DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES, DIS-
EASES OF THE LIVER, INTESTINAL, WORMS.
HE process carried on by the various organs of the alimentary
canal thereby changing the form and character of the food, in or-
der that it may be absorbed into the blood as nourishment is known
as digestion. The organs whose functions it is to perform this
work are known as the digestive organs. The first portion of the ali-
mentary canal is the mouth, where are found the teeth for making the
food fine and mixing it with the saliva from the salivary glands which
open into thisorgan. By mixing the saliva with the food, dry sub-
stances become soft, are easily swallowed, and more easily digested.
This saliva has another very important duty and that is, that by aid of a
peculiar ferment called ptyalin, the starchy substances found in hay,
grain, and roots are changed to maltose, then by taking on water further
change to grape sugar. The digestion carried on in the stomach is
called gastric digestion or stomach digestion, that in the small intestines
intestinal digestion. The large intestines are used principally in ab-
sorbing the liquid coming from the small intestines and carrying off the
refuse matter after the nourishing portion has been absorbed by the villi
5° THE HORSE.
which are processes or projections which line the small intestines, the
greater number being found in their upper half. Whenever any portion
of this wonderful canal does not properly perform its duties, there is a
waste of food, and a lack of proper nourishment of the body. The fol-
lowing are the diseases to which this portion of the body is liable to-
gether with the treatment as given by Dr. Charles B. Michener, V. S.
Inspector of Bureau of Animal Industry and Professor of Pathology and
Obstetrics at New York College of Veterinary Surgeons. An authority
that cannot be questioned.
DISEASES OF THE TEETH.
Cutting Teeth. From birth to the age of five years, the young
horse is cutting his teeth. During this time two sets have made their
appearance, the first or milk teeth and the second or permanent teeth.
More difficulty is experienced in cutting the latter, and the mouth
should be frequently examined, in order to see if one or more of the
milk teeth are not remaining too long, causing the second teeth to grow
in crooked, in which case the first teeth should be removed by the for-
ceps. Also, see if the second teeth are causing little red tumors on the
gums, if so make incisions through the gums down to the coming teeth.
There is atendency among farmers and veterinarians to pay too little
attention to the teeth of young horses. Percival relates an illustration
of this which is best told in his own words:
“‘T was requested to give my opinion concerning a horse, then in his
fifth year, who had fed so sparingly for the iast fortnight, and so
rapidl, declined in condition in consequence, that his owner, a veterin-
ary surgeon, was under no light apprehension about his life. He had
himself examined his mouth, without having discovered any defect or
disease ; though another veterinary surgeon was of opinion that the
difficulty or inability manifested in mastication, and the consequent
“cudding,’’ arose from preternatural bluntness of the surfaces of the
molar teeth, which were, in consequence filed, but without beneficial re-
sults. It was after this that I saw the horse; and I confess I was, at
my first examination, quite as much at a loss to offer any satisfactory in-
terpretation as others had been: While meditating, however, after my
inspection, on the apparently extraordinary nature of the case, it struck
me, I had not seen the tusks. I went back into the stable and dis-
covered two little tumors, red and hard, in the situation of the inferior
tusks, which when pressed gave the animal great pain. I instantly took
DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 51
out my pocket-knife and made crucial incisions through them both,
down to the coming teeth, from which moment the horse recovered his
appetite and by degrees his wonted condition.’’
Irregular Teeth. In large cities there is a class of ‘‘veterinary
dentists’ and it is a fashion to call these humbugs and have the teeth
regularly ‘‘floated’’ or ‘‘rasped.’? In some instances rasping is benefi-
cial, but in most cases it is entirely unnecessary. The rubbing or grind-
ing surface of the horse’s teeth should be rough, hence rasping them
down fiat and even is injurious, Remember that the upper jaw is a
little wider than the lower and hence the teeth do not fit exactly one
over the other and after a sharp ridge is left unworn on the inside of the
lower molars and the outside of the upper molars, it may excoriate,
(lacerate or cut) the tongue or lips. This condition can readily be felt
and these sharp cutting ridges when found should be rasped down by a
guarded rasp. Any one can do this without the aid of a veterinarian.
In some instances the first or last molar tooth is unnaturally long, owing
to the absence of its fellow on the other jaw opposite. If this is the
case, call a veterinarian who has the necessary forceps or chisel for
cutting it.
Decayed Teeth. When a tooth is decayed it is quite common to
find the tooth, corresponding to the decayed one, on the opposite jaw
very much lengthened, sometimes so much that the mouth can not be
perfectly closed. Such teeth also need a veterinarian with proper tools.
In all cases where horses ‘‘quid’’ their food, or where they are slobber-
inz, or show pain when chewing their hay or grain, which is shown by
their holding their head to one side when chewing, the teeth should be
examined. If as in most cases these symptoms are due to sharp corners,
or edges these must be removed by the rasp. If decayed teeth are
found or any other serious difficulty call an expert.
Toothache. ‘This is very rare in the horse, and usually is caused
by a decayed tooth. It is only found in the molar teeth. The horse
will show pain while drinking cold water, or while eating. They will
sometimes suddenly stop chewing, throwing the head to one side, and
slightly open mouth. They act as if some sharp body had punctured
the mouth. If these symptoms appear, examine the horse for some for-
eign body, and if not found carefully examine each tooth. If you are
not able to do this with the hand in the mouth, you can in most in-
stances discover the aching tooth by pressure from the outside. The
horse will flinch when the sore tooth is pressed upon.
52 THE HORSE.
What to Do. ‘The only thing that can be done in most cases, is to
take the tooth out, and this should only be attempted by the veteri-
narian.
Parrot-mouth. ‘This is a deformity of the mouth that interferes
with the teeth fitting properly one over the other, hence hindering
proper mastication and thus indirectly digestion. In a parrot-mouth
the upper incisors (front cutting teeth) project in front of and beyond
the lower ones. ‘The teeth of both jaws become unusually long, as
they are not worn down by friction. Horses having parrot-mouths find
it very difficult to eat grass if not cut for them.
What to Do. Littlecan be done, except to frequently examine the
mouth and if the teeth of the lower jaw become so long that they bruise
the ‘‘bars’’ of the upper jaw, they must be shortened by the rasp or saw.
Horses with this deformity should never be left entirely at pasture.
DISEASES OF THE MOUTH.
Lampas. The mucous.membrane (skin) covering the hard palate
(roof of the front part of upper jaw) occasionally becomes swelled and
projects in a more or less prominent ridge just back of the upper front
teeth (incisors.) This is called lampas. In rare instances, particularly
while teething, there is congestion and swelling of this part of the roof
of the mouth sufficient to interfere with feeding. In one instance only
in the extensive practice of Dr. Michener has he found a:case where the
swelling was so.extensive as to have it caught between the front teeth
when the horse attempted to eat.
What to Do. If the swelling is very bad a resort to scarifying
should be had, being careful not to cut deeply into the structures. A
wash of strong alum water may also be beneficial. Burning of the
lampas, so often recommended, is cruel and unnecessary, it should
never be permitted, as it often causes serious results to follow.
Notr.—It is a quite common opinion among owners of horses and
stablemen that lampas is a disease that very frequently exists. In fact
whenever a horse fails to eat, and if he does not exhibit very marked
symptomis of a severe illness, they say at once ‘“‘he has the lampas.’’ It is
almost impossible to convince them of their error, yet in a practice of
fifteen years Dr. Michener has never seen but two or three cases of what
is called lampas that gave the least trouble, or that called for any treat-
ment whatever. It may be put down, then, as more of a disease of the
stableman’s imagination than of the horse’s mouth.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 53
Inflammation of Lining of the Mouth. This is scientifically
called stomatitis. It is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lin-
ing the mouth, and is produced by irritating medicines, foods, or other
substances. The symptoms are swelling of the mouth, which is hot and
painful to the touch; copious discharge of saliva; mucous membrane
reddened; sometimes ulcers appearing.
What to Do. The treatment is simple, soft feed alone often being
all that is necessary In some cases it may be advisable to use a wash
of chlorate of potash, borax or alum, about one-half ounce to a pint of
water. Hay should be fed steamed, and all other foods in soft condi-
tion.
Inflammation of the Tongue. The true name is glossitis and
is very similar to stomatitis, generally exists with it and due to same
causes. The treatment is the same. If it is caused by injuries to the
tongue which are severe enough to produce lacerations or abcesses, call
an expert.
Excessive Saliva. Ptyalism or salivation isan excessive secretion
of saliva. Often seen as a symptom of irregular teeth, inflammation of
mouth or tongue, or use of such medicines as lobelia, and mercury. Some
foods produce it, as clover, particularly second crop ; wheat chaff or corn-
cobs lodged in the mouth. When cause is removed, usually the trouble
ends. Alum water may be applied to the mouth with a sponge.
Pharyngitis. This is inflammation of the lining of the pharynx
(back part of the mouth). Generally accompanied by stomatitis, glos-
sitis, or laryngitis. When mostly confined to pharnyx, there are fever
symptoms, difficulty in swallowing ; soreness over larnyx (large ring of
windpipe); increased flow of saliva ; difficulty of swallowing liquids and
cough only when trying to drink.
What to Do. Give chlorate of potash in half ounce doses three or
four times a day. Mix with licorice root powder and honey and give
with a strong spoon or wooden paddle. Borax or alum in same size
doses may be given suspended in warm water, if the chlorate of potash
is not handy.
Paralysis of the Throat. Thisis properly called Paralysis of the
Pharnyx, and is one of the most stubborn diseases of the horse. The
horse is unable to eat ; manger contains saliva and frothy food that has
returned through the nose ; horse has anxious countenance ; pulse, respi-
ration, and temperature, at first about the same as in health; animal
tries to eat or drink but unable to do so; if water is offered the animal
54 THE HORSE.
will try to drink by the hour, and apparently does so, but the water in
the pail does not lower ; food returns through the nostrils or is dropped
from the mouth quidded. There is no apparent obstruction and no
symptoms except that the parts are flabby to the touch.
What to Do. ‘Treatment is very unsatisfactory. Apply some blis-
ters behind and under jaw. Swab mouth frequently with alum or chlorate
of potash, one ounce to a pint of water, by means of sponge on end of
stick. Strychnine is the best thing to be used to overcome this paralysis,
and should be given in one-grain doses three or four times a day. This
medicine should be given as a hyperdermic injection deep into the
pharnyx. Asa rule the external blister, frequent swabbing as above,
and a nerve stimulant are all that can be done.
Abscesses in the Pharnyx. Symptoms resemble laryngitis or
distemper. If breathing is interfered with, which increases, and with-
out swelling or only slight and increasing fullness there may be an ab-
scess in this location. About all that can be done, is to hurry the ripen-
ing of abscess, by steaming with hops, or hay. If the abscess can be felt
through the mouth call a veterinarian to open it.
DISEASES OF THE GULLET.
Choking. The mechanical trouble of choking is quite common. It
is often caused when the animal is suddenly startled while eating apples
or roots, and we should never suddenly approach or put a dog after
horses or cows that are feeding upon such substances. If left alone they
rarely choke, but if startled they try to swallow before the food is proper-
ly masticated and choking is the result. Choking also arises from horses
bolting their food, hence avoid narrow deep grain mangers. Wheat
chaff is also a frequent source of choke. Whatever the object causing
the choking it may lodge in the upper part of the cesophagus (pharynegeal
choke) in the middle part (cervical choke) or close to the stomach
(thoracic choke). The symptoms will vary according to position of the
body causing the choke.
Pharyngeal Choke. The object is lodged in upper portion of the
cesophagus. Animal in great distress; hurried breathing; frequent
cough; sweating; trembling or stamping of fore-feet. Abdomen rapidly
distend with gas. The object can usually be felt in the upper part of
the throat, and can be removed by the hand.
Cervical Choke. The object is lodged anywhere between the
throat-latch and the shoulder. The object can be both seen and felt.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 55
Symptoms not so severe ; animal occasionally draws himself up ; arches
his neck ; and sometimes utters a loud shriek ; expression anxious, and
attempts at vomiting made; abdomen full. Soften or lubricate the ob-
struction by pouring oil or mucilaginous drinks, as flax-seed tea, down
the gullet. Endeavor to move object by gentle pressure with the hands.
If oats or chaff, gently squeeze the lower portion trying to loosen a little
at a time. Work at least an hour before giving up, then if a failure, use
the probang. ,
Thoracic Choke. Symptomis less severe, yet similar to above, and
if choke is not found between throat-latch and shoulder, it is
probably lower down. It can be successfully treated by means of the
introduction of oils and mucilaginous drinks and the probang.
Probang and How to Use It. In the absence of the regular in-
strument, which must always be flexible and finished with a smooth cup-
shaped extremity, use an inch hose. Keep mouth open with a gag of
wood, head slightly raised and extended. The probang carefully guided
by the hand into the upper part of the gullet and gently forced down
until the obstruction is reached. Pressure then should be gradual and
firm. Do not use too much force, keep up a firm pressure until you feel
the object moving, after which you are to follow it rapidly to the
stomach. Never allow a whip-stalk or shovel handle to be used.
DISEASES OF THE STOMACH.
Stomach Staggers or Gorged Stomach. Properly named im-
paction. The stomach is so filled and distended that it loses all power
of contracting upon its contents. It is occasioned by too largea feed
after a long fast, or when animal has gotten loose and gained access to
grain bin and eaten ravenously. The small stomach of the horse and
inability to vomit will account for its frequent occurence. The animal
is dull and heavy, or drowsy; slight colicky symptoms are observed,
which are continuous; rarely lies down; carries head extended and low;
nearly touching the ground. Dullness increases; eyes are partially closed,
vision impaired; thrusts head against side of stall; paws or even climbs
with fore-feet. Breathes less frequently than in health; the pulse slow and
sluggish. All symptoms increase rapidly in severity; soon becomes de-
lirious; cold sweat on body; trembles violently; slobbers out a sour fer-
menting mass, staggers from side to side, and plunges till he drops
dead.
56 THE HORSE.
Treatment. This is very unsatisfactory. Give a purgative of Bar-
badoes aloes, one ounce. ‘Then try to stimulate the walls of the stom-
ach to contract by giving cayenne pepper, one-half ounce, or Jamaica
ginger one-half ounce. Give rectum injections of two ounces of turpen-
tine into eight ounces of linseed oil.
Tympanitis of the Stomach. This is of frequent occurrence yet
not treated separately in works on veterinary medicine. Causes and
symptoms similiar to the last, yet distinct enough to enable the careful
observer to tell one from the other. In tympanitis the distension is
caused by gas instead of by food. This corresponds to “‘hoven’’ in cat-
tle and is due to overloading the stomach with young growing herbage,
clover in particular, or feeding extra meal immediately before a hard
journey. The flanks are distended with gases and the horse tries to
retch or vomit.
What to Do. Treatment must be prompt and energetic. Some
antacid must be given. Asit usually occurs on the road and probably
some distance froma drug store, hasten to the first house. Get com-
mon BAKING SODA and give two to four ounces as quickly as possible.
One-half ounce of cayenne pepper or two ounces of black pepper may
be added to this with advantage, as it serves to aid the walls of the
stomach to contract and expel the gas. Any medicine that will check
or stop fermentation, or absorb the gas may be given, as for example:
charcoal in any amount; chloride of lime, one-half ounce; or carbonate
of ammonia, one-half ounce. A physic of one ounce of aloes or one
pint of linseed oil should be given to unload the stomach. Learn this
lesson from these attacks—that when an animal is expected to do an un-
usual amount of work it will be best done on its usual amount of
feed. Don’t be so humane (?) as to extra feed just before the journey,
but wait until your journey’s end, and even then don’t feed until the
animal is thoroughly rested. Many a faithful animal has been killed by
the kindness of its master.
Rupture of the Stomach. This usually occurs as a result of en-
gorged or tympanitic stomach, and there is no treatment that can be of
any use whatever. Could one be sure that this is the trouble it would
be best to destroy the animal at once, but there is always au uncertain-
ty, as it may be only a very severe case of engorged or tympanitic stom-
ach and the animal may recover, hence give powdered opium in one
dram doses every two or three hours in addition to remedies as recom-
mended for tympanitis.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 57
Gastritis. This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining
the stomach. Symptoms not well marked and are generally due to me-
chanical irritation or irritating or corrosive poisons in large quantities.
There is a feverish condition, colicky pains, and intense thirst. When
poisons have produced gastritis there will be other symptoms according
to the poison swallowed.
Lead Poisoning. ‘This occurs near paint works, near newly paint-
ed buildings and fences, and where paint kegs are left in the fields, and
where water runs through new lead pipes. Lead poisoning produces
labored breathing, abdominal pains, partial paralysis, tottering gait,
convulsions, and death.
What to Do. Give thirty to sixty drops of sulphuric acid in a
half gallon water. Follow with or precede if not ready at hand, either
milk, white of eggs, oil of any kind, flaxseed, gruel or tea. If the poi-
son is due to long taking of small quantities of lead or from water flow-
ing through new lead pipes, give from one-half toa pound of Epson
salts. Iodide of potassium in one dram doses, twice a day are of much
service. If much pain is manifest, give three to five grain doses ot
. morphine, two or three times a day.
Arsenic Poisoning. When the poison is arsenic there will be
symptoms of abdominal pain, nausea, purging accompanied by an offen-
sive odor, staggering gait, quickened breathing, paralysis of hind ex-
tremities. Poisoning from arsenic is most common where sheep have
been dipped in arsenical baths to cure ‘‘scab’’ and then run on pas-
ture without first drying their wool. Arsenic is thus deposited on the
grass and is eaten by animalsin the pasture. Give oil, milk, white of
eggs, and flaxseed gruel or tea. Powdered opium in one-half dram
doses two or three times a day may be given to allay the pain and in-
flammation. Care should be observed in feeding for a time, giving only
soft and easily digested foods.
Notrr.—Gastritis may also occur from poisoning by copper, corrosive
sublimate, and some vegetable poisons.
Stones in the Stomach. Gastric concretions, calculi (stones) in
the stomach have been most found in millers’ horses. A small piece of
mill stone or other substance forms a centre around which is gathered
in layers the stony substances which abound in their feed, (sweepings
from the mill floor). ‘There are few symptoms exhibited that will lead
us to suspect calculi and probably none by which we can unmistakably
assert its presence. There is a depraved capricious appetite; a disposi-
58 THE HORSE.
tion to eat any thing within reach. ‘They sometimes have repeated at-
tacks of colic, which recover abruptly; and the animal assumes a
position to relieve pain—sitting on haunches, o: standing with front feet
on an elevation. ‘There is no effective remedy, all that can be done is
to give physic to move the bowels, to relieve pain, and to combat the
inflammation.
Bots—lLarvee of the Gad-fly. There are so many wrong opin-
ions concerning the bot and the harm it is supposed to do the horse, that
we give it considerable space. Of the many insect parasites and other
tomentors of the horse, mule, and other solipeds, the gad-fly is of the
most importance. Cobbold, who it the best authority on the subject,
says:
‘‘The common gad fly attacks the animal while grazing late in the
summer, its object being not to derive sustenance, but to deposit its
eggs. This is accomplished by means ofa glutinous excretion, causing
the ova (eggs) to adhere to the hairs. The parts selected are chiefly
those of the shoulder, base of the neck, and inner part of the fore-legs,
especially about the knees, for in these situations the horse will have
no difficulty in reaching the ova with its tongue. When the animal
licks those parts of the coat where the eggs have been placed, the mois-
ture of the tongue, aided by warmth, hatches the ova, and in something
less than three weeks from the time of the deposition of the eggs the
larvee have made their escape. As maggots they are next transferred
to the mouth and ultimately to the stomach along with food and drink.
A great many larvee perish during this passive mode of immigration,
some being dropped from the mouth and others being crushed in the
fodder during mastication. It has been calculated that out of the many
hundreds of eggs deposited on a single horse scarcely one out of the
fifty of the larvee arrive within the stomach. Notwithstanding this
waste the interior of the stomach may be completely covered (cuticular
portion) with bots. Whether there be few or many they are anchored
in this situation chiefly by means of two large cephalic hooks. After the
bots have attained ‘perfect growth they voluntarily loosen their hold and
allow themselves to be carried along the alimentary canal until they es-
cape with the feces. In all cases they sooner or later fall to the ground
and when transferred to the soil they bury themselves beneath the sur-
face in order to undergo transformation into the pupa condition. ” Hay-
ing remained in the earth for a period of six or seven weeks, they final-
ly emerge from their pupal-cocoons as perfect dipterus (winged) :asects
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 59
the gad-fly. It thus appears that bots ordinarily pass about eight
months of their lifetime in the digestive organs of the horse.”’
The species just described infest chiefly the stomach and duodenum
(small intestine leading from the stomach.) ‘The idea, almost univer-
sally obtained, that bots often cause colicky pains is wrong. It is com-
mon to hear by-standers declare that almost every horse with the ‘‘belly
ache’’ ‘‘has the bots,’’ and their treatment is varied and heroic. Dr.
Michiner says in his practice he has never known bots to be the cause of
any disturbance. The opinion that ‘‘bots have eaten through the
stomach’’ when the stomach is found ruptured is also an error. Bors
ARE HARMLESS. Even if they were not, there are no medicines that af-
fect them ; neither acids, nor alkalies, nor anthelmintics (worm medi-
cines) nor anodynes cause them to become loose and pass out the body.
To prevent them watch for their eggs on the legs and different parts of
the body in the late summer and autumn, scrape them off and burn
them. It is useless to try and remove them, they go at their appointed
time during May and June.
Indigestion. This is the name applied to all conditions where from
any cause digestion is imperfectly performed. ‘The trouble called in-
digestion is not severe enough to produce colic, yet it is troublesome and
the most frequent of all digestion disorders. The seat of the trouble
will vary. ‘Teeth are often at fault, examine for sharp irregular edges
or decayed teeth, (see remedies suggested under teeth.) The principal
seat however of the trouble is the stomach or the small intestines.
Whenever the secretions from these organs are excessive or deficient
dyspepsia or indigestion must follow. It is often caused from ‘‘bolt-
ing’’ the food (then get larger manger and spread out feed) or winter-
ing on hard dry hay or corn-stalk, and other bulky and not very
nutritive food ; irregular feeding or over feeding. Indigestion is shown
by irregular appetite, refusing food at one time and at others eating
ravenously ; appetite depraved ; bowels irregular; one day loose and
bad smelling, the next bound; grain often passed through whole ; hay
passed in balls ; animal passes wind having a sour odor ; skin hard, dry,
and tight (hide bound).
What to Do. After observing all that has been said regarding
feeding under its special head if no improvement is seen, give a physic,
aloes one ounce or linseed oil one pint. There is usually a tendency to
gas which distends stomach and bowels, for which use the following
alkaline treatment. Baking powder, powdered ginger, powdered gen-
60 THE HORSE.
tian, four ounces each, mix and give heaping tablespoonful twice a day
before feeding. This powder is best given by dissolving the above dose
in a half pint of water and given as a drench.
DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES.
Spasmodic or Cramp Colic. Commonly called gripes. It is
that form of colic produced by contraction, or spasm, of a portion of the
small intestines. It is caused by indigestible food ; foreign bodies, as
nails or stones in the bowels; large drinks of cold water when the ani-
mal is warm ; driving a heated animal through deep streams ; cold rain ;
draughts of cold air ; etc.
Study the Symptoms. Study carefully the symptoms to dis-
tinguish this from other forms of colic requiring quite a different treat-
ment. Spasmodic colic always begins suddenly. If feeding, the horse
stops suddenly, stamps impatiently, looks backward, then resumes feed-
ing, to be followed by pawing, suddenly lying down, rolling, and getting
up. Then an interval of ease, and the animal eats again and appears
well. Then the pain returns increasing in severity only to pass off for
atime. ‘The intervals of ease getting shorter and shorter. Animals
with this kind of colic show the most severe pain; they throw them-
selves down; roll over and over; jump up; whirl about; drop down again;
paw or strike with the front feet ; steam and sweat ; make frequent at-
tempts to pass urine with partial erection. Only a small quantity of
water passed at a time, because the bladder being so frequently emptied,
THERE IS BUT LITTLE WATER TO PASS. The attempts to urinate are
often thought to be sure symptoms of kidney and bladder trouble. Re-
member diseases of the bladder or kidneys are very rare. ‘The stomach
and intestines are diseased a thousand times, where the kidneys or blad-
der is once. The attempts to pass water and failure to do so are not
enough to warrant the decision that the animal has ‘‘trouble with his
water,’’ neither should a statement be made that the horse has kidney
disease, even if it yields or sinks when pinched over the loins. Try this
pressure on any horse, and nearly all will yield; this is rather a sign of
health than a symptom of disease.
Keep in mind the conditions to which the animal has been subjected ;
the suddenness of the attack ; the intervals of a lessening of pain (grow-
ing shorter as the case progresses); the severe pain ; the temperature and
pulse getting natural during the intervals of pain ; the frequent attempts
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE @RGANS. 61
to pass urine ; if a male, the erections, etc.; and there is but little danger
of mistaking this for any other form of colic.
What to Do. The pain being due to spasms or cramps of the
bowels, medicines should be given to overcome these spasms, viz.: anti-
spasmodic. The best remedy is one ounce of chloral hydrate in a half-
pint of water. Another remedy quite common and effectual is two
ounces each of sulphuric ether and laudanum in half-pint of linseed oil.
Still another remedy may be composed of two ounces each of sulphuric
ether and alcohol in eight ounces of water. If nothing else is at hand
give one half pint of whiskey in hot water. If the animal is not
relieved in an hour repeat the dose.
Keep the body very warmly clothed and try to get the animal to per-
spire. Blankets dipped in very hot water to which a small quantity of
turpentine has been added, should be fastened around the belly and coy-
ered with dry blankets ; the belly may be rubbed with stimulating lini-
ments or mustard water. The difficulty of keeping the hot blankets in
place while the horse is violently moving about during the spasms of
pain forces them in most cases to be abandoned. If the cramp is due to
irritants in the bowels, a cure is not complete till the offending irritant
is removed, and a cathartic consisting of one ounce of aloes or one pint
of linseed oil should be given. Injections into the rectum of warm soapy
water, or salt and water, aid the cure. The injection or enema should
be lukewarm and from three to six quarts given ata time. Exercise
will aid the action of the bowels in this and similar colicky troubles,
but severe galloping or trotting should be avoided.
Wind Colic. Sometimes called tympanitis or bloat. The most
frequent causes of this form of colic are sudden changes of food; too
long fasting and then food given while the animal is very tired ; new
hay or grain ; large quantities of green food; food that has soured in
the manger or mixing tub; indigestible food; irregular teeth ; crib-
biting ; in fact anything that interferes with digestion.
Symptoms. This colic is not so suddenly developed, nor are the
symptoms so severe, as in spasmodic or cramp colic. The animal is at
first dull, paws slightly, may or may not lie down. The pains are con-
tinuous ; the belly enlarged, and when struck in front of the haunches a
drum-like sound is heard. If not soon relieved the symptoms are ag-
gravated and in addition there is difficult breathing ; profuse sweating ;
trembling of hind legs ; animal sighs when breathing ; staggers from
side to side; and, finally, plunges forward dead. The distinguishing
62 THE HORSE.
symptom of flatulent or wind colic is the bowels filled with gas, which
is detected by the bloated appearance and the drum-like sound when
struck in front of the haunches.
Treatment for Wind Colic. The treatment for wind colic differs
very much from the treatment for spasmodic or cramp colic. Gases
have been formed and alkalies are used to neutralize them and they
must be promptly given. Give baking-soda (bicarbonate of soda) in
doses of two to four ounces. If this fails give chloride of lime in half-
ounce doses, or the same quantity of carbonate of ammonia, every half-
hour till relieved. Charcoal may be given in large quantities. Relax-
ants and antispasmodics are beneficial in this form of colic, and as
chloral-hydrate is a relaxant and antispasmodic and also an anti-ferment
and pain-reliever it is particularly well adapted in the treatment of wind
colic. Give in doses of one ounce in a half-pint of water. A physic
should always be given in flatulent colic as early as possible, the best
being aloes in doses of oneounce. Injections into the rectum of turpen-
tine one totwo ounces, mixed with linseed oil eight ounces, may be
given to stimulate the peristaltic movement of the bowels to aid in the
expulsion of the gases.
Wind colic is more fatal than spasmodic and requires prompt and per-
sistent treatment. It is unsafe to predict results, some mild cases going
on to speedy death, and some severe ones responding easily to treat-
ment. Do not give up your efforts till you are sure the animal is dead.
Blankets wrung out of hot water and renewed every five or ten minutes
will do much to afford relief.
Impaction of the Large Intestines. This is a very common
bowel trouble, and one if not recognized and properly treated results in
death. It is caused by over-feeding especially of grain, and is most
common where rye is fed either alone or with other grain; old, hard,
dry hay, or stalks when largely fed; lack of water; want of exercise ;
etc.
Symptoms. There is abdominal pain, which may disappear for a
day or so to return again. The feces passes more frequently but in
small quantities and dry; the ‘‘belly’’ is full, but has no drum-like
sound; the animal paws and then looks back at his side. The most
characteristic sign is the horse lying flat on his side, head and legs ex-
tended, occasionally raises his head to look at his flank; he remains on
his side often from ten minutes toa quarter of an hour. The animal
rises at times, walks about the stall, paws, look at his sides, backs up
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 63
against the stall which he presses with his tail, and then lies down on
his side again stretching out his legs. The pulse is littie changed at
first, being full and sluggish; later if condition is aot improved, the
pulse becomes rapid and feeble.
The Treatment. ‘This consists in efforts to produce movements of
the bowels. A cathartic is to be given, care being taken to give a full
dose. Powdered aloes, one ounce ; calomel two drams ; and powdered
nux vomica one dram should be given. In place of this linseed oil
one pint and fifteen drops of croton oil may be used. Some give Epsom
salts one pound with one-quarter pound of common salt claiming this
makes the animal thirsty and the water of which it will drink large
quantities will soften the hardened mass in the large intestines thus
favoring its expulsion. Remember it takes from twenty to thirty hours
before a horse responds to a physic, and under no circumstances should
the dose be repeated in less time. If aloes have been given and have
failed to operate, follow at the proper time with oil or some different
cathartic. Give the animal all the water he will drink. The action of
the physic may be aided by giving every three or four hours, one-half
ounce of tincture of belladonna, or one-half dram of nux vomica. In-
jections into the rectum should be given every hour using at least six
quarts at a time and varied; give first soapy water, then salt and water,
then one ounce of turpentine mixed with eight ounces of linseed oil.
Rubbing or kneading of the ‘‘belly,’’ putting on stimulating liniments
or strong mustard water will at times favor the expulsion of the harden-
ed mass. When relief is not obtained it runs into inflammation of the
bowels, and death follows.
Constipation or Costiveness. This is a common disease in the
adult horse, particularly in the foal. Many colts die every vear from
failure on the part of the attendant to note the coniior of the powels
soon after birth. Whenever the foal fails to pass feces or shows signs
of colicky pains, immediate attention must ve given. A few injections
of soapy water in the rectum to break down any hardened mass 1s
usually all that is necessary. If this is not effective, a purgative must
be given. Oils are the best for these young animals, and two to four
ounces of castor oil should be given. The foal should always get the
first of it mother’s milk, as this milk, for a few days, possesses decided
laxative properties. Constipation in adult horses is usually the result of
feeding on dry, innutritious food, scanty water supply, or lack of ex-
ercise. Usually a change to light, sloppy food linseed gruel or tea,
64 THE HORSE.
with plenty of exercise is all that is required. Sometimes two-dram
doses of extract of belladonna three times a day will be necessary, or
daily handful doses of Epsom salts in the feed.
Intussusception or Invagination. ‘This is a slipping of a por-
tion of the intestine into another portion immediately following, like a
partially turned glove finger. It may occur at any part, but most com-
mon in the small intestines. This is most likely to occur in horses that
are suffering from spasm of the bowels. It may occur during the ex-
istence of almost any abdominal trouble, as diarrhea, spasmodic colic,
inflammation of the bowels, etc. ‘There are no symptoms by which it
can be positively known. If there is severe straining it should be given
attention, particularly if accompanied by colicky pains and constipation.
In some cases the horse recovers and if this is suspected, call a veterin-
arian, he may beable to relieve the animal.
Twisting of the Bowels or Gut-tie. Volvulus or gut-tie is
a somewhat common accident, and occurs quite frequently from the
violent manner in which the horse throws himself about when affected
with spasmodic colic. The symptoms are the same as those of obstruc-
tion of the bowels and should be treated in the same manner.
Diarrhea. Moldy or musty food, stagnant water, diseased teeth,
eating irritating substances, feeding on low, marshy pastures and ex-
posure during cold nights, will produce this disease. It is more often a
symptom of some other disease; rather than an organic disease.
Diarrhea may exist as a complication of other diseases, as pneumonia
and influenza or during disease of the liver. The symptoms are fre-
quent liquid stools, with or without abdominal pains.
What to Do. ‘Treatment at times is very simple, but requires the
utmost care and judgment. If due to faulty food and poor water,
change them. If due to some irritant in the intestines, give one pint of
linseed oil. If however purging continues, it may be checked by giv-
ing wheat flour in water, starch water, white-oak bark tea, or half dram
doses of sulphuric acid in one-half pint of water two or three times a
day. Powdered opium, two drams; subnitrate of bismuth, one ounce;
repeated three times a day, gives good result. Horses that scour on the
road, should be watered and fed as long as possible before driving, If
there is much bloating or flatulency during diarrhea, baking soda in
doses of from two to four ounces often cures. If the discharges are very
offensive in odor this can be remedied by giving one ounce of sulphite
of soda or half a dram of carbolic acid in water, morning and night.
DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 65
Superpurgation. This is the name given to that diarrhea or flux
induced by and following the action of a physic. It is accompanied by
irritation or even inflammation of the bowels, and is always of a serious
character. In rare cases it follows an ordinary dose of physic. It is
usually the result of too large a dose of physic; to giving physic to hors-
es suffering from pneumonia, influenza, or other debilitating diseases;
to riding or driving a horse when purging; to exposure or draughts of
cold air, or giving large quantities of cold water while physic is operating.
There is always davger of superpurgation if a physic is given a horse
suffering from diseases of the respiratory organs. When physic is given
always feed the animal on sloppy food or mashes, until the physic be-
gins to operate; clothe the body with a warm blanket; keep out of
draughts. After physic has thoroughly operated, the purging can gen-
erally be stopped by feeding dry oats and hay. If it does not stop give
flax-seed tea, oatmeal or wheat-flour gruel. If these are not satisfactory
in result, give one-half dram doses of sulphuric acid in one-half pint of
water twice or three times a day. Ifthe animal has become weakened,
give brandy in doses of from two to four ounces, with milk and eggs
four or five times aday. ‘‘Founder’’ is a frequent result of this disease,
and should be guarded against by removing shoes and standing the
horse on moist sawdust or some similiar bedding.
Dysentery or Bloody Flux. This disease is characterized by
coffee-colored or bloody discharges, liquid, and very offensive in odor
and passed with much tenesmus (straining). It is rare in the horse.
Symptoms. The first symptom is a chill which will probably pass
unnoticed. ‘The discharges are offensive and for the most part liquid,
although it is common to find lumps of solid fecal matter floating in tke
liquid portion; sheds of mucous membrane and blood are passed; there
is much straining, and, occasionally, symptoms of abdominal pain; the
animal lies downa great deal; pulse is quickened and the temperature
raised. ‘The appetite may remain fair, but in spite of this the horse
continues to lose flesh, and becomes a sorry looking object. Thirst is a
prominent symptom. Death usually follows in from one to three weeks.
What to Do. Care and feeding is more to be depended upon than
any drugs or medicine. First the horse should be placed in a warm,
dry, well ventilated stable; the skin is to receive attention by frequent
rubbings and the body should be well blanketed and the legs bandaged.
Water pure and given in stall quantities; the food should be light and
easily digested. As to medicine give first a light dose of castor oil,
66 THE HORSE.
about one-half pint to which add two ounces of laudanum. The veget-
able and mineral astringents may also be given. Starch injections con-
taining laudanum often afford great relief. Strength should be kept up
by milk punches, eggs, beef tea, oat-meal gruel, etc. In spite of the
best of care arid treatment, dysentery proves fatal oftener than it comes
to a successful ending.
Inflammation of the Bowels or Enteritis. This is an inflam-
mation of the mucous membrane lining the bowels. This inflammation
may extend and effect the muscular and also the serous coats. The dis-
ease is rare unless it is caused by irritants or corrosive poisons, or follow-
ing invagination or twisting of the bowels.
How to Know Enteritis. Fever symptoms mark, from the out-
set, all attacks. The lining of nose, mouth, and eyes are congested and
reddened, the mouth is hot and dry, respirations are increased, pulse is
hard and rapid, temperature is raised to 103° or 105°. Colicky pains
are continuous. Horse keeps moving; paws; lies down carefully; and
will often turn himself upon the back, remaining in that position for
some time; thirsty, and asa rule the bowels are sluggish or inactive,
but when due to irritant foods or medicine purging may be present.
The inflammatory pulse; position of horse when down; coldness of ears
and legs; high temperature; continuous pain, which is increased upon
pressure, will enable the careful observer to safely diagnose a case of
inflammation of the bowels.
What to Do. Rely principally upon opium internally. Give one
to two drams of powdered opium every three or four hours. One dram
extract of belladonna should be added to the above doses of opium.
Calomel in one dram doses to be given twice a day is recommended. Do
not as arule give purgatives or enemas; and keep the bowels as quiet
as possible. Hot blankets applied to the belly and counter-irritants to
abdomen are useful. Give linseed tea, oatmeal gruel, and starch water.
Avoid solid food, especially if hard dry and indigestible. If when the
inflammation has subsided, the bowels do not act, encourage action by
walking the horse and give injections into the rectum. Should these
fail then give oil.
Apoplexy of the Large Bowels. By some called muco-enteri-
tis. This is much more common and most rapidly fatal of the bowel
diseases. It is most common in heavy draught horses. It seems to be
induced by the same causes that produce enteritis. Post-mortem ex-
amination reveals extensive clotting of blood between the mucous and
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 67
muscular coats of the large bowels; and thickened walls sometimes two
or three inches in thickness.
Symptoms. There is arapid and very weak pulse; profuse perspi-
ration; severe and persistent pain, labored respiration, and a paleness of
the mucous membrane of the anus. A peculiar, anxious expression ex-
ists that, when once seen is always remembered to denote this disease.
Toward the last the horse sighs, breathes loudly, staggers and pitches
about, and dies in a state of delirium. ‘They rarely live more than ten
or twelve hours, and often die inside of six.
What to Do. The case has usually advanced so far, before noticed
‘that treatment is of no avail. The best common remedy is white-oak
bark tea given in large and frequent doses. Tannic acid, one dram or
fluid extract of ergot, one ounce is more desirable if at hand, and should
be given every half-hour till four or five doses have been administered.
Apply blankets to body, wrung out of Hor water, in which turpentine
has been sprinkled; mustard water should be applied with sharp rub-
bing to the legs.
Peritonitis. This is an inflammation of the membrane lining the
cavity and covering the viscera contained in the cavity below or back of
the diaphragm, and known as the abdominal cavity. Peritonitis is
often caused by injuries to the abdomen such as wounds, blows, kicks,
and is still more common following the operation of castration.
Symptoms. ‘This disease is usually preceded by a chill; the animal
does not care to move, and if forced to do so, moves with a stiff or sore
gait; paws with front feet and may strike belly with hind ones; lies
down very carefully; stands most of the time; walks uneasily about.
Generally constipated. Pressure on belly, causes sharp pain, and the
horse will usually bite, strike, or kick at you if so used; the body is
tucked up; and the feet, legs, and ears are cold. Temperature reaches
102° to 104°. ‘The pulse is almost enough in itself to determine the
disease; it is quickened, beating seventy to ninety times a minute, and
HARD and WIRY.
What to Do. Treat similiar to enteritis. Powdered opium one or
two drams, with calomel, one-half dram, should be given every two,
three, or four hours. These constitute our main dependence in this dis-
ease. Extensive mustard plasters or even mild blisters over the belly
are very beneficial. NEVER give purgatives during the disease. Should
it be necessary to move the bowels it may be done by gentle enemas,
This is seldom necessary.
68 THE HORSE
DISEASES OF THE LIVER.
Horse Has No Gall Bladder. ‘The liver in the horse is rarely
the seat of disease. There is a difference in the anatomical arrangement
of the liver in the horse from that of man. It isa very common thing
to hear some local ‘‘horse-doctor’”’ say that a horse ‘‘has disease of his
gall bladder.’’ Truly a little learning is a dangerous thing, and this
local ‘“‘horse doctor’ thus unwittingly exposes his ignorance, as the
horse has no such organ. Diseases of the liver in horses are very
obscure and generally remain unnoticed till death. There are a few
symptoms when present, that should make us examine the liver care-
fully. These are yellowness of the lining of the mouth, nose and eyes;
and the condition of the dung, it being light in color and pasty.
Inflammation of the Liver. This disease is technically known
as hepatitis, and may assume an acute or chronic form.
Symptoms. The distinguishing characteristics are dullness; evi-
dence of internal pain, but not of a severe type; constipated and clay
colored dung balls; scanty and high colored urine; and general fever
symptoms. Lies down on left side; looks towards the right side; which
upon close inspection will be found to be enlarged over the posterior
ribs, (see location of liver in manikin) where pain is manifested if pres-
sure is used. The symptoms of this trouble are very obscure, especially
the chronic form, and even with the experienced veterinarian it is mere
‘“guess-work.’’
What to Do. Give first one ounce of Barbadoes aloes or some
other physic. Apply a large blister to the right side, extending from a
little back of the girth backward to the last rib, and about fifteen inches
wide, midway between the middle and back of belly. Four to six
quarts of blood may be drawn from the jugular vein, (see location of
same on manikin) if taken in the early stages of the disease. After
physic operates, saline medicines to act on the liver should be given.
One ounce doses of saltpeter or muriate of ammonia, three or four times
a day are beneficial. Feed the horse sparingly and principally on bran
mashes. If recovery takes place, which is somewhat doubtful, give the
animal regular exercise and light food.
Jaundice, the Yellows or Icterus. This is the result of the bile
being absorbed into the blood. It is not a disease, but asymptom of dis-
order of the liver, or a plugging of the bile duct. The nose, lips and eyes
will be yellowish instead of the pale pink color of health; the urine is
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 69
saffron-colored; the excrement dirty gray in color; and generally consti-
pation is present.
What to Do. Endeavor to get rid of the excess of bile in the sys-
tem, and this is best accomplished by giving purgatives that act on th-
liver. Calomel, two drams; with aloes, seven drams should be iven.
Glauber salts in handful doses, once or twice a day for a week is also cf-
fective May-apple (podophylin), rhubarb, castor oil, and other cathar-
tics that act upon the first or small bowels, may be given. Avoid hard,
dry, bulky foods and see that the bowels are kept open.
Gall-Stones, or Bilary Calculi. These are rarely found in the
horse, but occasionally they occupy the hepatic ducts, giving rise to
jaundice and colicky pains. There are no symptoms by which gall
stones can be positively determined; but if a horse has repeated symp-
toms of wind colic, accompanied with violent pains, and that during or
following these attacks there is evidence of jaundice, a good guess is that
the animal has gall-stones. ‘There is not much that can be done except
to give medicine to overcome pain, and trust that these formations may
pass out of the ducts into the bowels, where they will not occasion any
trouble, on account of their small size.
INTESTINAL WORMS.
Description of the Common Kinds. Although there are sev-
eral kinds of worms found in the intestines of horses, it will be sufficient
to refer to three or four of the most common ones. Weak and debilita-
ted and young horses are most frequently afflicted.
Lumbricoid. This isa worm four to twelve inches in length, al-
though some have been seen over thirty inches long. In form it is
much like the common earth-worm (fish-worm). ‘These worms are
white or reddish in color, and vary in thickness from a wheat straw toa
lady’s finger, being thickest at the middle and growing. smaller toward
both ends. They are found singly and in groups, and live chiefly in the
small intestines.
Pin-Worm. This is avery common variety of worm and they are
found mostly in the large intestines. They are semi-transparent;
thread-like in form; and measure from one to two inches in length.
Tape-worm. ‘This is a white, flat, thin, broad, jointed worm.
The head is found at the smaller end of the worm. ‘Tape-worms of the’
horse sometimes measure from twenty to thirty feet in length.
70 THE HORSE.
Symptoms of Intestinal Worms. Slight colicky pains at times
are noticed or there may be only switching of the tail ; frequent passages
of manure; slight straining ; itching of the anus ; and rubbing of the
tail or rump against the stall or fence. The horse will be in poor con-
dition; does not shed his coat; is hide-bound and pot-bellied ; the ap-
petite is depraved—licking the walls ; biting the wood-work of the stalls ;
licking parts of his body ; eating the ground ; and very fond of salt. The
bowels are irregular, constipated, then diarrhea being noticed. Some
place much dependence on the itching of the upper lip, as shown by the
horse frequently turning it up and rubbing it upon the wall or stall.
The one symptom, that should always be looked for, and one that will
not deceive, is seeing the animal pass the worms in the excrement.
How to Expel Worms. Remedies to destroy worms are most
effective if given after a long fast, and then followed by a physic to
carry off the worms. The best worm medicines are santonine, turpen-
tine, tartar-emetic, infusion of tobacco, and bitter tonics. ‘To destroy
tape-worms, areca nut, male-fern, and pumpkin seeds are best. If the
long round worms are being passed, give twice daily, for three or four
days, a drench composed of turpentine, one ounce, and linseed oil, two or
three ounces, to be followed on the fourth day by one ounce Barbadoes
aloes.
If pi1-worms are seen, use injections into the rectum, of infusions of
tobacco or infusion of quassia chips one-half pound to a gallon of water,
once or twice daily for a few days, and follow by a physic. Remem-
ber intestinal worms are mostly seen in horses that are in poor condition;
and an important part of our treatment is to improve the appetite and
powers of digestion. This is done by giving the vegetable tonics.
One-half ounce of Peruvian bark, gentian, or quassia is to be given in
the food twice a day. Unless the system is toned up, the worms will
rapidly accumulate again, even though they may all seem to have been
expelled by the worm medicine.
Note. — The following powders are very effectual in removing intestinal worms.
After giving twelve of these powders as directed, give with the last dose one ounce
ot turpentine and four ounces of linseed oil.
1 ounce Ferri. Sulphate.
1 ounce Tartar Emetic,
lL ounce Carbo. Lig,
2 ounces Areca Nut.
Mix and divide into twelve powders, and give one night and morning.
THE HORSE. 71
CLASSIFICATION OF THE CAUSES THAT PRODUCE
THE VARIOUS KINDS OF COLIC.
Whenever a horse presents symptoms of abdominal pain (pawing,
lying down, rolling, etc.) it has been the custom from time immemorial
to call it colic. Asa great number of different diseased conditions in
the abdominal cavity cause such symptoms the treatment should there-
fore be varied.
Many of these diseases of course cannot be clearly differentiated
during life, although we are able to notice characteristics which are in a
measure peculiar to certain diseased conditions which enable us to make
a positive diagnosis.
The statistics show that ten to twenty per cent. of horses affected
with colic die, and that forty per cent. of the deaths of horses are due to
this trouble.
Certain medical compounds have been put upon the market as specifics
for colic. This is what makes the treatment of colic unsatisfactory and
increases the mortality. The classification of the causes of colic is as
follows:
1st. Food colic.
(a) Over feeding colic.
(b) Colic due to damaged or improperly prepared food.
(c) Starvation colic.
2d. Colic caused by obstruction to the gut.
(a) Colic due to impaction of dried, woody food in the large in-
testine of adult horses. The retained uncomium or the in-
gested straw and hay of the foal.
(b) Mechanical obstructions, such as twisted gut, intussusception
rupture, and tumours.
3d. Colic due to paralysis of the intestine.
4th. Colic due to plugging of the blood vessels of the intestines.
(Thrombosis and embolism).
5th. Nervous colic, due to exposure, fatigue and other causes. (Spas-
modic colic).
6th. Colic due to worms.
7th. Colic due to foreign bodies in the intestines, such as stones
‘calculi), sand or dirt.
The chief danger is the accumulation of gas from which relief should
72 THE HORSE.
be given promptly and practically as possible, for the following reasons:
1st. ‘To avoid rupture of the stomach, intestine, and diaphragm.
2d. To prevent suffocation.
3d. To prevent the effect of the absorption of gases.
4th. To permit healthy intestinal movement and prevent paralysis.
sth. To relieve pain.
6th. To prevent intestinal displacement.
The most prompt and safe way to remove gaseous distention is to use
trochar and canula, and plunge this into the highest part of the right
flank. This of course should be done by a skillful veterinarian.
ie aig ee : at .
SHIRE MARE, “8LOSSOM II."
(QUIE FROPEDTY OP THE EARL OF ZLLESMERR WOBSLEY KRALL MANONESTER, “BRED BY JOUN DOPPER NORTASIDR WEITTCRSEA
CHAMPION MARE AT SHIRE HORSE SHOW, LONDON. 1888
CHAPTER V.
RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
Their Diseases and How to Cure Them.
DESCRIPTION OF ORGANS OF THORACIC CAVITY, DISEASES OF THE NOS-
TRILS, THE NASAL CHAMBERS, THE SINUSES, THE PHARYNX, THE
LARYNX, THE WIND-PIPE, THE BRONCHI, THE BRONCHIAL TUBES,
AIR-CELLS, PLEURA, AND DIAPHRAGM.
ESPIRATORY organs are those that are used for, or aid in
breathing. Some of the organs are used almost entirely in the
process of breathing, while others serve a double function. The
taking or drawing inof the air into the lungs is called inspiration.
The side walls and front of the chest move upward and outward forming
a vacuum and the air rushes in to fill the cavity. The sending of air
out of thelungs is called expiration. This is ordinarily accomplished
by the weight of the chest, which sinks down, displacing the air.
Description of the Respiratory Organs. The organs aid-
ing in respiration nay be classed as follows:
NOSTRILS—the nasal openings, the place where the skin gradually
changes to mucous membrane;
NASAL CHAMBERS—the cavities through which the air passes to
the head. These chambers are completely separated, the right from the
left, by partitions of cartilage;
SINUSES—the compartments which communicate with the nasal
chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same membrane;
74 THE HORSE.
PHARYNX—the back part of the mouth and above the first rings of
the gullet. It is common to the functions of respiration and digestion;
LARYNX—the complicated structure situated at the top of the wind-
pipe, and just back of the root of the tongue. It may be considered a
box which opens into and is continuous with the wind-pipe:
WIND-PIPE OR TRACHEA—the air tube consisting of rings of
cartilage which extends downward from the larynx to opposite the
fourth or fifth dorsal vertebra;
BRONCHI—the two parts into which the wind pipe divides. The
one going to the right lung is called the right bronchus, the one to the
left lung is the left bronchus;
BRONCHIAL TUBES—the division of the bronchi which penetrate
and carry air to all parts of the lungs;
AIR-CELLS—the small recesses at the end of the bronchial tubes.
‘These are separated from each other by a delicate membrane, between
the layers of which lies the plexus formed by the pulmonary artery.
The blood is thus exposed to the air on two surfaces;
LUNGS.—the bronchial tubes, the air-cells and plexus together make
up what is commonly called the lungs. There are two divisions, one
on the right and the other on the left;
PLEURA—the thin double membrane that surrounds the lungs.
One layer of this membrane is attached to the lungs, the other to the
chest wall. This membrane secretes a fluid to lubricate their: surfaces
as they move one upon another;
DIAPHRAGM.—the muscular division which separates the heart,
lungs, and large blood vessels from the stomach, liver, and intestines.
It is the muscle of inspiration.
Causes of Diseases of Respiratory Organs. These organs
are more liable to disease than the organs connected with any other
functions of the body, and as nearly all are the results of carelessness it
is well to know and study causes. In the spring and fall when anima's
are changing coats, there is a tendency to contract disease, and care
should be taken at these periods to prevent other exciting causes.
Avoid badly ventilated stables.
Avoid taking horse from pasture and putting in too warm a stable,
Avoid cold, close, damp stables as well as hot, close, and foul
ones.
Avoid changing from a hot to a cold stable.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 75
Avoid stables not well ventilated or not well cleaned.
Avoid allowing an overheated horse to dry by letting the hair dry
by evaporation. Rub the horse dry.
Avoid letting a horse (especially if warm or covered with sweat)
stand in a draught. Walk the horse till cool.
Avoid prolonged or fast work, when animal is out of condition.
Avoid leaving horses, that have been out in cold rains, to dry by
evaporation. Rub them dry.
Avoid leaving on horse blankets that have become moist from the
sweating animal. ‘Take them off and put on dry ones.
DISEASES IN THE HEAD.
Catarrh or Cold in the Head. Catarrh meansa discharge of
fluid from the mucous membrane. Catarrh is at first a congestion fol-
lowed by inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cay-
ities. It usually extends into the sinuses of the head, and sometimes
to the membranes of the larnyx and pharynx, causing sore throat. The
nasal duct which leads from the eyes to the nose is lined with the same
membrane, and often the congestion and inflammation extends to the
eyes as shown by their redness and flowing of tears.
Symptoms. ‘The mucous membrane is at the beginning of the at-
tack, dry and congested; much deeper pinkish-red or red than natural;
then a watery discharge makes its appearance; the eyes may become af-
fected, and tears flow on the cheeks. ‘The animal has some fever which
may be easily detected by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feel-
ing of heat coming to the finger will be greater than the natural; the
animal may be dull; frequently emitting a sort of sneezing snort, but
does not cough unless the throat is affected; very often forces air
through his nostrils as if he was ‘‘blowing his nose.’’ A few days after
the attack the discharge changes from a watery to a mucilaginous state,
and is of a yellowish-white color.
Notre.—To become quite expert in ascertaining the changes of
temperature in the horse, it is only necessary to place the finger often
in the mouths known to be healthy.
How to Cure. ‘This disease is not serious, but if left to go its
own way, it may run into a dangerous complication and should receive
prompt attention. Have the horse inhale steam about fifteen minutes
at a time, four or five times a day, as suggested under MANAGEMENT
76 THE HORSE.
AND CARE. Pay particular attention tothe diet. Feed bran mashes,
scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass if in season. If constipation ap-
pears, relieve the animal by injections (enemas ) of warm water into the
rectum, three or four times a day. But under no circumstances give
physic.
To simple cases the above is all that is necessary, but if appetite is
gone and the animal appears dull, give three times a day three ounces
of the solution of acetate of ammonia and two drams of powdered chlor-
ate of potash, diluted with a pint of water.
When the inflammatory symptoms subside and the appetite does not
return give two ounces each of the tincture of gentian and spirits of
nitrous etherin a pint of water as a drench, every night and morning for
several days. If after ten days the discharge continues, give one dram
of powdered sulphate of iron three times a day.
Chronic Catarrh. This is an inflammation of some part of the
membrane affected by a common cold which has become persistent.
The sinuses of the head are the usual seats of the trouble, and it is mani-
fested by a more or less continuous discharge of a thick, white or
yellowish-white matter from one or both nostrils.
Symptoms. The long-continued discharge just mentioned will in-
variably indicate the disease. Exercise great caution in examining
these cases to distinguish them from glanders. This disease is neither
dangerous nor contagious, although at times it is dificult to cure. The
discharge may be irregular, quite large quantities being discharged at
times, while at others scarcely any.
Treatment. The animal should have nutritive food and regular
light exercise. ‘The food should be placed in a box on the ground, and
the hay where the head must be lowered to eat it. For eight days give
one of the following powders night and morning; sulphate of iron, three
ounces; powdered nux vomica, one ounce; mix and make into sixteen
powders. Then for the next eight days, give night and morning one of
the following: sulphate of copper, four ounces; powdered gentian, six
ounces; mix and divide into sixteen powders. After this give one dram
of iodide of potassium dissolved in a pail of drinking water, one hour
before each meal. A blister over the face is often of much benefit.
The ordinary fly blister plaster of the drug store mixed with one-third
its weight of lard is very efficient. As a disinfectant sprinkle
chloride of lime about the stall, and a small quantity may be placed in
the manger under the hay.
DISEASES OP THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 77
Inflammation of the Pharynx. In the back part of the pharynx
is the canal through which the food and water pass to the stomach.
Inflammation of the pharynx is a complication of other diseases, viz: in-
fluenza, strangles, etc., and is probably more or less complicated with
inflammation of the larynx. ‘The treatment is the same as for inflamma-
tion of the larynx, which is next described.
Laryngitis or Sore Throat. The mucous membrane lining the
larynx is so highly sensitive that the smallest particle of food, which
happens to drop into it will cause it to contract and violent coughing en-
suses, which is continued until the foreign matter isejected. Inflamma-
tion of the larynx is a serious and sometimes fatal disease and as before
stated, is usually complicated with inflammation of the pharynx, con-
stituting what is generally known as ‘“‘sore throat.’’
Symptoms. A cough is first noticed followed by the difficulty in
swallowing. In many cases the difficulty in swallowing isso great that
the water, and occasionally the food, is returned through the nose.
The mouth is hot and saliva dribbles from it. The glands between the
lower jaw bones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the
larynx induces a violent fit of coughing. The head is more or less
‘poked out;’’? membrane in the nose becomes red; discharge from nos-
trils soon appears. As the disease advances, the breathing may assumea
more or less noisy character; sometimes a rasping snore is given with
each breath; and the breathing becomes hurried.
How to Cure Sore Throat. In all cases steam the nostrils as
advised for ‘‘cold in the head’’ or catarrh. In bad cases keep up the
steaming for hours, or until relief is gained. Have a fresh bucketful
of boiling water every fifteen or twenty minutes. In each bucketful of
water put a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine, which will be carried
along with the steam to the affected parts. In mild cases, steaming the
nostrils every two hours will suffice.
The body should be blanketed, and bandages applied to the legs.
The feed should consist of soft food, such as, bran mashes, scalded oats,
linseed gruel, and grass if in season. Fresh water should be before the
animal all the time. Constipation (if it shows itself) must be relieved
by injections of warm water three or four times every twenty-four
hours.
A liniment made of olive oil, two ounces; solution of ammonia, one
ounce; and tincture of cantharides, one ounce; should be thoroughly
rubbed-in, about the throat from ear to ear, and about six inches down
78 THE HORSE.
over the windpipe and in the space between the lower jaws. Apply this
liniment once a day for two or three days.
If the animal can swallow without much difficulty, give the following
as a drench, to be repeated every six hours: fluid extract hyoscyamus,
one dram; powdered chlorate of potash, two drams; molasses, two
ounces.
Should great difficulty be experienced in breathing, do not attempt to
give drenches, but persevere in steaming the nostrils, and dissolve two
ounces of chlorate of potash in every gallon of water given. Even if
this is not swallowed and returned through the nose it will be of bene-
fit as a gargle to the pharynx.
If breathing begins to be loud, relief is sometimes afforded by giving
as a drench two ounces of jaborandi in half a pint of water. If this
benefits, repeat the dose five hours after the first. This will cause a
free flow of saliva from the mouth within a half hour.
Roaring This is caused by an obstruction to the free passage of the
air in some parts of the respiratory tract. This is really a symptom of
some ailment and not a disease of itself. ‘There are many causes that
may induce temporary, intermitting or permanent noisy breathing; but
in nine out of every ten cases of chronic roaring, the cause is paralysis
of the muscles of the larynx. A skilled veterinarian who is able to de-
termine the cause of the trouble, may be able to benefit, but the result
is doubtful.
Norg.—An animal that isa roarer should never be used to breed
from, no matter how valuable the stock. This taint is transmittible,
and the offspring is born with a predisposition to this trouble.
High Blowing. This is a noisy breathing that is decidedly a nasal
sound, and must not be confounded with ‘‘roaring.’? ‘Tbe sound is pro-
duced by the action of the nostrils. This is a habit and not an un-
soundness. In “‘roaring’’ when the animal is put to severe exertion the
sound increases, in ‘“‘high blowing’’ the sound ceases.
Whistling. This is one of the sounds made by a ‘‘roarer’’ and
therefore needs no further notice, except to state that this sound may be
made during an attack of severe ‘‘sore throat’’ and will pass away with
the disease that causes it.
Thick Wind. This is another term which ls applied to a disease,
which is only a symptom. The great majority of horses called ‘‘thick
winded’’ belong either to the‘‘roarers’’ or have the ‘‘heaves.’’? Occa-
sionally a mare heavy with foal, or horses excessively fat are affected
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS, 79
with heavy breathing that may be caled ‘“‘thick wind.’’ In the one
nature will cure; while in the other there is needed a light diet that will
lessen the fat, and plenty of exercise.
Guttural Pouches. There are two sacks not included in the organs
of respiration, that are near the pharynx and larynx. They are peculiar
to solipeds and their use is unknown. In health they contain air, but
sometimes pus collects in them, causing considerable interference with
respiration,
Symptoms. Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent
discharge of matter from one or both nostrils, especially if head is low-
ered. The swelling is soft, and if pressed upon, matter will escape
from the nose, if head is lowered.
What to Do. Turn the animal out to grass or feed from the
ground. In addition give the tonics recommended for ‘‘nasal gleet’’ or
as it is more properly called chronic catarrh.
DISEASES WITHIN THE CHEST.
How to Detect the Diseases Within the Chest. It is nec-
cessary to study the horse in health, as to pulse and respiration, to be
able to distinguish the change so as to recognize disease. Study care-
fully the MANIKIN OF THE HORSE, soas to be abie to locate the
organs.
Where to Take the Pulse. By this is meant the beating of
the arteries which correspond in number and character to the beating of
the heart. The artery usually selected for ‘‘taking the pulse’ is the
submaxillary artery where it winds around the lower jaw-bone. On
the inner side of the jaw-bone the artery may be readily felt and to
“take the pulse’’ should be pressed against the bone. The number of
beats in a minute; the regularity or irregularity; the strength or feeble-
ness; and other peculiarities may be easily noted. ;
Number of Pulse Beats per Minute. In the healthy horse the
average number of beats in a minute is about forty. But in different
horses will vary from thirty-five to forty-five. In the low-breed large
lazy horse it will not be more than thirty-five, while in the highly-
bred nervous animal it may reach forty-five. Work and excitement
increase the number of pulsations. If the pulse of a horse be taken
while standing quietly in the stable, it will be less frequent than when
at pasture
80 THE HORSE.
Peculiarities of the Pulse. A little study of the following will
aid much in the determination of the various peculiarities of the pulse.
If the pulse beats fifty-five or more times in a minute while the horse is
is at rest, it is an evidence that fever is present.
FREQUENT PULSE—is one that beats an increased number of
times in a minute.
INFREQUENT PULSE—is the reverse.
QUICK PULSE has reference to the time occupied by each separate
pulse. The beat may strike the finger either quickly or slowly. The
pulse may beat forty quick pulsations in a minute, or forty slow
ones.
INTERMITTING PULSE—is one in which a beat is occasionally
omitted. The beat which is omitted may come at the end of some
given number of pulsations, when it is called regularly intermittent.
LARGE PULSE—is one that seems to feel fuller and seems to strike
the finger over a larger space than usual.
SMALL PULSE—means the opposite.
FEEBLE PULSE—is one in which the artery is easily pressed down
and conveys the idea of emptiness.
HARD PULSE—“is one that causes the feeling of hardness or resis-
tance. The artery feeling full and the pulse beating with force;
DOUBLE PULSE—is one in which the beat seems to give two rapid
beats at once.
The pulse may include the character of two or more of the foregoing
classes. ‘Thus a horse may have a quick, intermitting, feeble pulse, etc.
Temperature. The temperature of the healthy horse is slightly
above that of man, ranging from 994° to 101%° F. The average is
about 100° F. High surrounding temperature and exercise as well as
digestion will increase the animal temperature. The most accurate way
of taking temperature is by introducing a self-registering thermometer
into the rectum. ‘The thermometer should remain in three or four min-
utes before it is removed.
Respiration. The character of breathing is much changed by dis-
ease. These peculiar characteristics are very essential in determining
the location and nature of a disease.
Respirations Per Minute. In health, standing quiet, the horse
breathes from twelve to fifteen times a minute; work or excitemeut in-
creases the number.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 8r
Kinds of Respiration. The following terms are used in explain-
ing the various characteristic breathings.
QUICK BREATHING—tefers to an increased number of respira-
tions per minute, which may be due to exercise or disease.
DIFFICULT BREATHING—is always the result of something ab-
nornal, and it is often a perfect guide to the trouble.
STERTORIOUS BREATHING—is not to be confounded with diffi-
cult breathing. It is more of a snore-like breathing, and is due to a re-
laxation of the palate, and not to disease of this part. It is generally
associated with brain disease, when the consequent derangement of the
nervous functions causes the relaxation of the soft palate.
ABDOMINAL BREATHING—is when the ribs are kept nearly
stationary, and the abdominal muscles assist in breathing to a greater
extent than is natural. The ‘‘belly’’ is seen to work like a bellows. In
pleurisy, owing to the pain caused by moving the ribs, abdominal
breathing is always present.
THORACIC BREATHING—is the opposite of abdominal breathing,
that is the ribs rise and fall more than usual, while the abdomen re-
mains fixed. This is due to abdominal pains, such as peritonitis, etc.
IRREGULAR BREATHING—is shown to good advantage in
heaves, and often in acute diseases during their critical stage.
Secretions. During the first days of an inflammatory disease no-
tice carefully the secretions. In acommon cold, there is first dryness,
then watery discharge, followed by thick mucus. In pleurisy the
membranes are at first dry, which can be easily determined by putting
the ear against the chest over the affected part and there will be heard
the dry rubbing sound, like two pieces of paper rubbing one against the
other.
Cough. The surface being congested there is usually an effort as if
to remove some source of irritation in the respiratory track.
The DRY COUGH is heard during the first stages of a disease of the
respiratory organs. In pleurisy the cough is a dry one, and the animal
tries to suppress it.
The MOIST’ COUGH is heard when the secretions have been re-es-
tablished. Cough is but a symptom—the effect of a disease. Roaring,
heaves, pleurisy, and pneumonia have each a cough peculiar to the
affection.
Detecting Disease by Sound. Auscultation is the term ap-
plied to the detecting. of diseases of the organs within the chest by
82 THE HORSE.
listening to the sounds. Generally the ear is placed directly against the
part but occassionally an instrument called the stethoscope is used.
The ear is best for horses. First, get accustomed to the sounds in a
healthy horse, which can be done by practice only. Then more patience
and practice with your sick animals and you will be able to distinguish
signs of disease and their indications.
Percussion. ‘This term in the practice of medicine means striking
some part cf tue body to determine the condition of the internal organs.
If the wall of a cavity is struck the sound is easily distinguished from
that emitted when a solid substance is knocked npon. ‘This method of
examination requires practice with the healthy as well as with the un-
healthy animal. ‘
Bronchitis. This is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. The
mucous membrane lining the tubes may alone be affected or it may ex-
tend to the whole structure. When confined to the largest tubes it is less
serious than when the smaller ones are affected.
Symptoms. The animal appears dull; appetite wholly or partially
lost; head hangs; the breathing is much quickened; the cough, at first
dry, and having somewhat the character of a ‘‘barking cough’’ is suc-
ceeded in afew days by a moist rattling cough; the mouth is hot; the
visible membranes in the nose are red; the pulse frequent, hard, and
quick in the first stages, but as disease advances becomes smaller and
more frequent. Ina few days a whitish discharge from the nostrils,
which may be tinged with blood may make its appearance. ‘The ribs
rise and fall more than is usual, which proves the animal has not the
pleurisy. The horse persists in standing throughout the attack. Urine
decreased in quantity and darker in color than usual.
Bronchitis affecting the smaller tubes is one of the most fatal diseases,
while that of the larger is never serious. It is an extremely difficult
thing for the non-expert to discriminate between the two forms, and also
he will have difficulty in distinguishing between bronchitis and pneu-
monia.
Treatment. Put animal in well ventilated box-stall. Cover body
with blanket. Hand rub legs till warm, then apply flannel band-
ages from hoof to knees and hocks. If the legs cannot be made
wari by rubbing apply liniment recommended for ‘‘sore-throat.’? Rub
in thoroughly and then put on bandages. Rub the same liniment over
side of chest, and that part of the side occupied by the lungs as indi-
cated by the MANIKIN OF THE HORSE. Repeat application to
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 83
the chest in about five days. If applied oftener it will be apt to irritate
the animal too much and make him restless.
Compel animal to inhale steam. In each gallon of water put a table-
spoonful of oil of turpentine. In serious cases give steam every hour,
and in any case the oftener it is done the greater will be the benefits.
Three times a day, give as a drench; solution of acetate of ammonia,
three ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, two ounces; bicarbonate of po-
tassium, one-hadf ounce; water one pint. Care must be used in drench-
ing. If it makes animal worse, don’t persist, but give instead one-half
ounce of bicarbonate of potassium in every bucketful of water the ani-
mal will drink. Keep cold water before him all the time.
If the horse is prostrated and has no appetite, give tne following
drench: spirits of nitrous ether, two ounces; rectified spirits, three
ounces; water, one pint. Repeat dose every four or five hours, if it ap-
pears to benefit.
If the horse is hard to drench give the following ball: pulverized car-
bonate of ammonia, three drams; linseed meal and molasses sufficient to
make the whole into a stiff mass; wrap it with a small piece of tissue
paper and it is ready to give. This ball may be repeated every four or
five hours. Do not let this ball break in the mouth as it will make the
mouth sore, and prevent the animal from eating.
If constipated give enemas of warm water. Do not bleed the animal.
When the symptoms have abated and nothing remains of the disease
except the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all medicines
except the following tonic treatment should be discontinued. Give the
following mixture: pulverized sulphate of iron, three ounces; powdered
gentian, eight ounces; mix well together and divide into sixteen pow-
ders. Give a powder every night and morning mixed with bran and
oats if the animal will eat it, or shaken with about a pint of water and
administered as a drench.
If cough remains for so long a time as to lead you to think it will be-
come chronic, say three or four weeks after the horse is apparently well,
apply the liniment above recommended to the throat and well over the
wind-pipe and breast. Also give one dram of iodide of potassium dis-
solved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before each meal for’
two or three weeks if necessary.
Chronic Bronchitis. This is due to same causes as the acute-
form, or may follow it. Chronic bronchitis may change into the acute
form by a very slight cause. Its course is slower, less severe, and not’
84 THE HORSE.
accompanied with as much fever as acute. The general symptoms are
the same and the non-expert is apt to say, ‘“‘the horse has a touch of
bronchitis;’’ but as the animal does not improve he at last is forced to
commence treatment.
What to Do. Do not work the animal. Rest is necessary if a
cure is desired. Give the same general treatment prescribed for the
acute form. If the animal is not benefitted to a marked degree, give
the following: powdered nux vomica, three ounces; powdered arsenic,
seventy grains; powdered sulphate of copper, three ounces; mix to-
gether and divide into thirty-six powders. Give a powder mixed with
bran and oats every night and morning.
If all other treatment fails, try the following: hydrocyanic acid
(Sheller’s strength), twenty minims; nitrate of potassium, three drams;
bicarbonate of soda, one ounce; water, one pint. This dose should be
given every morning and evening for one or two weeks, if necessary.
Congestion of the Lungs. Inflammation of the lungs is always
preceded by congestion, or we may say congestion is the first stage of
inflammation. Congestion is an excess of blood in the parts affected.
Congestion may exist as an independent affection, and is generally
caused by over-exertion when the animal is not in a fit condition to un-
dergo more than moderate exercise.
Symptoms. If the animal is taken ill on the road, he will slacken
his pace, show a desire to stop, and may stagger and even fall. The
nostrils will be dilated; the flanks heaving; the countenance haggard;
and every other appearance ot suffocation will be evident. If the
symptoms do not appear until returned to the stable the horse will be
found with his head down; legs spread out; eyes wildly staring or dull
and sunken; breathing rapid and almost gasping; body covered with
sweat, which may soon dry, leaving legs and ears cold; breathing both
thoracic and abdominal; the chest rises and falls and the flanks are
powerfully brought into action. If pulse can be felt at all, it will be
very frequent, often reaching one hundred or more a minute. ‘The ani-
mal may tremble all over, and if the ear is placed against the side of
chest, a loud murmur or perhaps a fine crackling sound will be
heard.
Treatment. If taken on the road, do not attempt to return to the
stables. If in the stable give plenty of pure air. If weather is warm,
open air is best. Let the animal stand still; he has all he can do to get
enough pure air to sustain life. If possible set three or four men at
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 85
o
work, rubbing body and legs, until the skin feels natural. Do not let
the men stop short of a good vigorous rubbing.
Rub over the cold part of the legs the same liniment used in bronchi-
tis, but do not put it on the chest.
The medicines needed are diffusible stimulants. Give two ounces
each of spirits of nitrous ether and alcohol, diluted with a pint of water,
every hour till relief is afforded. But if it takes too long to get this
medicine, give a quarter of a pint of whiskey ina pint of water every
hour, or the same quantity of brandy. An ounce of tincture of arnica
in a pint of water every hour for four or five hours, may be used, if the
last can not be obtained.
If none of these remedies are at hand give two ounces of oil of turpen-
tine, shaken with a half pint of milk. This will be of benefit till the
better remedies can be obtained. A tablespoonful of aqua ammonia
(hartshorn), diluted with a pint of water, and given every hour, may
be of service in saving life when nothing else can be obtained in time.
Great care must be used after the animal has commenced to improve,
as this disease may be followed by pneumonia. Provide comfortable
stall, avoid draughts, and keep the animal blanketed and legs bandaged.
Apoplexy of the Lungs. This is another term for congestion of
the lungs. When there is bleeding from the lungs during their con-
gested state it iscalled PULMONARY APOPLEXY.
Pneumonia or Lung Fever. This is an inflammation of the
lungs, in which the air cells are the parts principally affected, although
the minute branches of the bronchial tubes are always inflamed to a
greater or less degree.
Symptoms. The first symptoms of pneumonia when a primary dis-
ease, is a chill, more or less prolonged, which in most cases is overlook-
ed, or not seen. ‘The breathing becomes more rapid; the animal hangs
his head and has a very dull appearance; the mouth is hot and has a
sticky feeling to the touch; the heat conveyed to the finger, indicates
fever; if thermometer is used, the temperature will be found to reach
103° F., or higher; pulse beating from seventy to one hundred or more
per minute; character of pulse varies very much, it may be hard or
feeble, large or small, intermitting, etc. There is usually a dry cough
from the beginning, which changes in character as the disease alvances;
if pleurisy sets in the cough will be peculiar to that affection, that is,
cut short in the endeavor to stop it.
The appetite is usually poor, but the desire for water is greater, par-
86 THE HORSE.
ticularly at the beginning of the disease. The legs are cold; the bowels
more or less constipated; the passages being covered with a slimy
mucus.
Treatment. The general treatment is the same as for bronchitis.
Give animal plenty of fresh, cold drinking water. Blanket the body.
Rub legs till warm, then put on bandages from hoof up as far as they
are cold. If hand-rubbing does not make legs warm, put on liniment
recommended in the treatment of bronchitis. At least twice a day the
bandages should be removed and the legs well rubbed, and bandages
again applied.
Over the affected side apply the liniment recommended for ‘‘sore-
throat,’’ and if necessary it may be repeated after five days. Do not
use mustard. Do not clip off the hair and rub in powerful blisters.
Hot applications to the side of the chest are beneficial if the articles
necessary to use to apply them are handy. Do not useaconite. Do not
give physic. If the animal is constipated, relieve it by an allowance of
laxative food, such as scalded oats, bran and linseed mashes, and grass
in season. If this does not relieve, give an injection of about a quart
of warm water three or four times a day. If the animal has no desire
for this food, let him eat anything that he cares for. Make hay tea by
pouring boiling water over good hay into a bucket and allow to cool.
Remove the hay and allow to drink as much as desired. If the animal
will drink milk, it may be supported for days, by giving three or four
gallons of sweet milk, into which may be stirred three or four fresh eggs
to each gallon of milk.
The following drench should be administered every six hours: solution
of acetate of ammonia, three ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, one ounce;
bicarbonate of potassium, three drams; water, one pint. Use great care
in drenching.
If the horse gets very much weakened, use stimulants of a more pro-
nounced character, as follows: rectified spirits, three ounces; spirits of
nitrous ether, two ounces; water, one pint. If benefit is derived repeat
every four or five hours. Or give six ounces of whiskey with a pint of
water instead.
When animal improves and the fever has left, give the tonic medicines
advised in bronchitis.
Pleurisy. This isan inflammation of the double membrane (the
pleura) which surrounds the lungs. In health this membrane moves
upon itself with every breath, and secretes a fluid (called serum) for
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 87
lubricating its walls. This keeps the surfaces always moist and smooth.
In pleurisy the membrane first becomes congested, the surfaces getting
dry and roughened. ‘This dry condition is followed after a time by the
membrane throwing off more fluid than usual. ‘This fluid accumulates
in the space between the lungs and the walls of the chest, causing
‘“‘dropsy of the chest’’ or hydro-thorax.
Symptoms. This disease usually commences witha chill, which is
often overlooked. ‘The animal does not move or turn around. When
compelled to do so, he grunts or groans with pain. The animal stands
stiff; the ribs are fixed, that is has abdominal breathing; both fore-feet
and elbows may be turned out; the animal may be restless, and act asif
he had a slight colic; may lie down, but does not remain long.
After the membrane begins to secrete the excessive fluid mentioned
above, a furrow will be found running along the lower part of the chest,
from behind the elbow to the flank; this is due to the endeavor of the
animal to keep the ribs fixed in as near as possible an unmovable
position. Every movement of the chest causes severe pain, therefore
the cough is peculiar; it is short and comes as near no cough as the ani-
mal can make it.
The breathing is hurried, the mouth hot, the temperature being raised
from 102° or 103” to 105° F. The usual fever symptoms, such as cos-
tiveness, and scanty and dark-colored urine are present. ‘The pulse
is frequent, perhaps seventy or more a minute, and is hard and wiry.
If the ribs are struck with the knuckles, there will be some spot,
more or less extended where the blows cause more or less pain. The
animal may grunt or groan every time it is struck. By listening at the
side you will come to a place where there will be distinguished a sound
very much like that produced by rubbing two pieces of coarse paper to-
gether. In many cases the friction is so great that it can be felt by
placing the hand over the diseased part. When the dry state is suc-
ceeded by the secretion of fluid, the sound disappears.
If the quantity of the fluid is large, the large amount retards the pro-
cess of absorption to a great extent. In some cases the symptoms
manifest a serious state. The pulse becomes more frequent; the breath-
ing more hurried and labored; flanks work like bellows; the nostrils
flap; the eyes stare wildly; countenance expresses anxiety; and general
signs of breaking up are plain. After a short time swellings appear un-
der the chest and belly and down thelegs. Pleurisy is most often con-
fined to the right side.
88 THE HORSE.
Treatment. This is quite similar to the treatment of bronchitis and
pneumonia, but as pleurisy is so apt to be complicated with either of
these diseases the treatment may be considered as merely an addition to
the treatment for these ailinents. The kot applications applied to the
chest as suggested in the treatment for pneumonia are very beneficial,
and should be kept up wile the symptoms show the animal to be in
pain.
The liniment should not be applied till the symptoms of pain, have
somewhat subsided, then rub it well over the affected part. Apply every
other day till several applications have been made. From the beginning
the following drench should be given every six hours: solution of the
acetate of ammonia, three ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, one ounce; bi-
carbonate of potassium three drams; water one pint.
If the pain seems very severe in the beginning of the attack, causing
the animal to lie down or paw; give the following drench; tincture of
opium, two ounces; raw linseed oil, twelve ounces. If the pain con-
tinues the opium may be repeated after four hours.
Should the case after ten or twelve days not progress favorably, it is
due to the excessive fluid not being absorbed; hence effort must be
made to excite absorption. Apply the liniment over the lower part of both
sides and the bottom of the chest, and give the following drench three
times a day, for a week, if it appears necessary and of benefit; tincture
of perchloride of iron, one ounce; tincture of gentian, two ounces; water
one pint. Also give one dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in the
drinking water one hour before feeding, every night and morning for a
week or two.
If tapping of the chest is neccessary it should be done, before the
strength of the animal is lowered beyond recovery, and it is best to call
a veterinary to perform the operation.
Pleuro-Pneumonia. When an animal is affected with pleurisy
and pneumonia combined, which is often the case, it is called PLEURO-
PNEUMONIA. At the beginning only one of the affections may be
present, but the other soon follows. The symptoms of both diseases are
present, but usually that of pleurisy, is the most prominent. The course
of treatment is the same as recommended for pneumonia and_pleurisy
when they occur repeatedly. Thensymptoms of both diseases are pres-
ent, but usually that of pleurisy is the most prominent. ‘The course of
treatment is the same as recommended for pneumonia and pleurisy when
they occur separately. The symptoms will be the guide whether it is
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 89
best to give laudanum and oil for the pain if the pleurisy is very severe.
Do not give it unless absolutely necessary to relieve the pain.
Broncho-Pleuro-Pneumonia. This is the name given when
bronchitis is present with pleurisy and pneumonia. It is not a common
occurrence It is impossible for a person not an expert to determine
this combination with certainty, as the apparent symptoms are the
same a pleuro-pneumonia.
Broncho-Pneumonia. This is a common complication. Either
the bronchitis or the pneumonia may be first. The treatment is the
same as for the diseases when separate.
Heaves—Broken Wind—Asthma. The popular mind is much
confused with regard to the nature of ‘‘heaves.’’ Many horsemen apply
this name to all ailments when the breathing is noisy or difficult. This
disease is thought to be due to spasm of the small circular muscles that
surround the bronchial tubes. This continued affection leads to a
paralysis of these small circular muscles, and is thought to be one of
the first stages of the disease. There is good foundation for the
opinion of some emminent veterinarians, that the cause of this trouble
is due to a lesion of the pneumo-gastric nerve. This trouble is al-
ways, connected with some disorder of the digestive organs.
How to Know the Heaves. Nearly every experienced horse-
man is able to detect this disease. The cough which is present in this
disease is peculiar; the sound is short, and something like a grunt.
When the air is drawn in, it appears to be done in the same manner as
in health, but when expelled, the lungs having lost most of their power
of contracting, the great change in breathing is then very plainly seen.
The abdominal muscles are brought into play; those about the flank
contract, then pause a moment, then complete the act of contracting,
thus making a double bellows-like jerky motion with every breath. A
wheezing noise is heard when the animal is exerted, and the same can
be heard to a less degree when the animal is at rest, if the ear is put
against the chest.
Indigestion is always present; the animal has a depraved appetite,
often eating dirt and soiled bedding instead of the clean food in the
manger; they often overload the stomach; the animal often gets ‘‘pot-
bellied;’’ wind of an offensive odor often passes: attacks of colic may
occur and they are usually fatal; the bowels are often loose; and the
animal can not perform much work, as the muscles are soft. Never let
a day go by without giving light exercise.
go THE HORSE.
What to Do. When this disease is once settled there is no cure
for it. ‘The treatment must be such as to rélieve the symptoms, which
are ready to return any time, if the animal overloads the stomach or is
given food of a bad quality. Proper attention to the food is necessary.
Clover hay and bulky food generally have much to do with the cause of
the disease, and therefore should be omitted. Moldy or dusty hay, or
fodder of any kind is very injurious. Hay should be fed only once a
day, and then only in small quantities. Always water before feeding;
never directly after; slightly dampen hay, fodder, and oats to allay the
dust; do not work the animal under an hour after a meal; turning to
pasture gives relief; carrots, potatoes, or turnips chopped fine and mix-
ed with the oatsor corn makes a good diet.
Arsenic is the only medicine that is considered by the best authori-
ties as of any value, and this only palliates the symptoms. Use the so-
lution of arsenic in hydrochloric acid, which should be purchased at a
drug-store because it isthen of uniform strength. Each ounce of this
solution should contain about four and one-half grains of arsenic. For
about two weeks, mix with the bran or oats three times a day, a table-
spoonful of this solution; then for the next two weeks give the same
dose only twice a day; then once a day for a month. If bowels are cos-
tive, give one pint of raw linseed oil, once or twice a month. Medicine
is only secondary; the food is of the greatest importance. Never breed
from animals having the ‘‘heaves.’’
Norre.—If buying a horse of one of the ‘‘smart’’ individuals, a care-
ful examination should be made for the purpose of detecting the heaves.
These ‘‘jockeys’’ by keeping the stomach and intestines empty, and
giving depressing medicines, manage to hide the symptoms of heaves
for a short time. To detect the heaves, give the horseall the water he
will drink, and then have him ridden or driven up a hill, or on a heavy
road. This will bring out the peculiar breathing, common to the
heaves. The giving of arsenic to suppress the symptoms is one of their
favorite tricks.
Chronic Cough. A cough of this character may succeed acute
disease of the respiratory organs, such as laryngitis, bronchitis, and
pueumonia. It isa symptom and not a disease, therefore the proper’
treatment is to find the cause of the trouble and cure that disease if pos-
sible. Chronic cough accompanies the ‘‘heaves,’’ chronic bronchitis,
and chronic roaring. It is a symptom of chronic indigestion and
worms.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. gi
Pleurodynia. A rheumatism of the intercostal muscles, (muscles
between the ribs). The symptoms toa non-expert are similiar to pleu-
risy. It is distinguished from pleurisy on account of lack of fever,
cough, and friction sound is absent when the ear is applied over the
lungs. The tieatment is the same as for rheumatism of the other
parts.
Wounds Penetrating the Walls of the Chest. It is well
to calla veterinarian immediately as the treatment of wounds of this
character require professional skill, and even that as soon as possible.
Thumps or Spasm of the Diaphragm. This disease is often
thought to be palpitation of the heart. While it is true ‘‘palpitation of
the heart’’ is occasionally called thumps, yet the disease we here deal
with is of a very different character. The diaphragm is the essential
organ of respiration and the spasmodic or irregular contractions of it
produce what is known as hiccoughs in man. Thumps in horses are
identical with hiccoughs in man, although the peculiar noise is not made
in the throat in all cases.
This affection should be easily distinguished from palpitation of the
heart. ‘The whole body is affected by the ‘‘jerky motion”’ and it is not
confined to the region of the heart. Place one hand over the heart and
the other near the middle of the last rib, and the ‘‘jerky motion’’ will
be felt under the last rib and will have no connection with the beating
of the heart.
What to Do. Since the trouble is produced by the same causes
that bring on congestion of the lungs, the same remedies should be
used that, have been recommended for that disease. If not relieved
death usually results from congestion of the lungs, and it is often seen
in connection with that disease.
Rupture of the Diaphragm. Examinations of the bodies after
death, show a great many cases of rupture of the diaphragm. It is the
general opinion that this happens after death, and is caused by gases
which arise as the result of the decomposing remains. It is possible to
happen before death but there are no symptoms by which it can be de-
termined.
- CHAPTER VI.
CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
Their Diseases and How to Cure Them.
DESCRIPTION OF THE HEART, ARTERIES, AND VEINS, INFLAMMATORY
DISEASES, FUNCTIONAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES OF THE HEART, DIS-
EASES OF THE ARTERIES, DISEASES OF THE VEINS, DISEASES OF THE
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
ONDERFUL as it seems with our present knowledge, it is only
a few centuries ago that Harvey discovered the circulation of the
blood. Since that time it has been discovered that their is still
another system of circulation in the body intimately connected
with the blood vessels. That is known as the lymphatic or absorbent
system and consists of a series of tubes which absorb and convey to the
blood certain fluids. These tubes lead to sac-like structures called iym-
phatic glands, through which these fluids pass on their way to the right
lymphatic vein and thoracic duct. These lymphatic glands contain
lymph which is on its way to the larger trunks undergoing a sort of fil-
tration.
The Heart. Nearly in the center of the chest isa hollow, cone
shaped muscular organ called the heart. Its average weight is between
six and seven pounds. It extends from near the third to the sixth rib,
having the base of the cone near the third rib, and extending downward,
backward, and toward the left side. It is suspended from the spine by
the large blood-vessels and held in position by the sac in which it is con-
94 THE HORSE.
tained being fastened to the breast-bone (sternum). ‘The sac in which
the heart is contained is called the pericardium (peri=around, cardium
=the heart). This is a membrane of a fibrous, dense nature, which is
lined with a delicate serous membrane, of which there are two layers,
the inner one closely fastened to the heart, the outer to the fibrous sac.
There is a space between them in which is founda small amount of
serum, which is secreted by this serous membrane for the purpose of
lubricating the surfaces, which rub against each other every heart beat.
How Divided. The heart is divided into four cavities, having two
on the right side which contain the venous (blue) blood, and two on the
left which contain the arterial (red) blood. It is so divided that the
cavities on the right side have no communication with those on the left,
but the two cavities on either side are connected by valves. The upper
cavities are called AURICLES from their supposed resemblance to a dog’s
ear. ‘The one on the upper right side is called the right auricle, the one
on the left, the left auricle. The cavities at the lower part of the heart are
called ventricles, taking the names right ventricle and left ventricle accord-
ing to location.
Action of Heart. The right side of the heart receives the dark
blue blood from the VENA CAvA. It is received into the right auricle,
where it passes through the TRICUSPID valve into the right ventricle. It
is there forced out into the lungs through the pulmonary artery. The
blood here gives up its CARBON-DIOXIDE, takes on OXYGEN, and re-
turns to the left auricle, through the pulmonary vein. The blood, now
of a bright scarlet hue, passes through the BICUSPID VALVES into the left
ventricle, from which: it is forced out through the aorta into the arteries,
by which it is distributed over all parts of the body.
Movements of the Heart. When the heart closes to force out
the blood, the movement is called sysToLE, and when expanding,
DIASTOLE, There is a pause following such expansion. Hence the
heart takes a rest after each beat. This amounts to several hours per
day.
Functions of Blood-vessels. The blood-vessels carry blood to
and from the various parts of the body. They are divided into three
classes: THE ARTERIES AND ARTERIOLES, carrying blood from the heart;
the CAPILLARIES, bring the blood into close relation with the tissues;
and the VEINS, carrying the blood back to the heart.
Arteries. These are hollow tubes carrying blood to the capillaries,
which are situated in all parts of the body. ‘he arteries contain no
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 95
valves, but consist of three layers. The inside one forms a smooth sur-
face for the blood to pass over, the outside one an elastic layer, while be-
tween them is a muscular layer which regulates the amount of blood re-
ceived by each part. This coat is necessary, as it is manifest that the
heart cannot regulate the supply of blood sent to each portion of the
body.
Capillaries. The capillaries are interposed between the ends of the
arteries and the beginning of the veins and not only carry blood, but,
owing to the construction of their walls, they enable the blood to come
in intimate relations with the tissues. By the blood thus coming so in-
timately connected with the tissue, it is enabled to deposit nourishment,
give up its oxygen, and take in return what has been chemically united.
They take from the blood the nourishment, and give it off as a fluid
known as LyMpH, whose function is to irrigate and nourish.
Veins. In most veins are valves which flap back against the side as
the blood flows onward toward the heart. Thus the blood cannot be
forced backward by any cause. The walls of veins are not so thick,
strong, or elastic as are those of the arteries—the strength and elasticity
not being needed, as the blood simply flows through the veins and is not
forced through as it is in the arteries. The blood is aided in its course
through the veins by a contraction of the voluntary muscles, indirect
action of the valves in the veins, and by suction produced by the move-
ments of the thorax in breathing.
Pulse. Atcertain portions of the body arteries come near the sur-
face. If the finger be placed over these blood-vessels a beating can be
felt. These beats are caused by the heart forcing the blood into the
arteries. Each pulse represents a heart beat.
Character of the Pulse. This has been described under the
chapter DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
INFLAMMATORY DISEASES OF THE HEART.
General Structures. There are three parts to the heart that are
liable to inflammation. From the names of these structures the names of
the diseases are derived. Myocardium is the muscular structure of the
heart; endocardium is the serous membrane lining the heart; and peri-
cardium is the sac surrounding the heart.
Myocarditis. An inflammation of the muscular structure of the
heart. This is rarely detected without being connected with inflamma-
tion of the endocardium or pericardium. The causes are over-exertion
96 THE HORSE.
or heart strain, influenza, rheumatism, etc. Since it is not recognized
unless involved with one or the other of the above mentioned diseases,
and the symptoms and treatment are so closely connected with those
diseases, it will suffice to describe them under those ailments.
Endocarditis. This is an inflammation of the serous membrane
lining the heart. It is often found in general rheumatism which involves
the serous membrane.
Symptoms. The most prominent symptoms which characterize this
disease are a staggering gait with painful movement of the fore-legs; a
constant irregularity of the heart’s action; but there will be equality of
strength regardless of the rapidity of the beating of the heart. In the
chronic form there is generally a persistent palpitation with irregularity
of the rapidity of the heart beats. This disease may be ushered in by a
chill, with sudden and marked rise in temperature. The pulse rapidly
decreases in strength or may become irregular, while the heart beats
more or less tumultuously. In early stages soft blowing sounds may be
heard by placing the ear over the heart on the left side, which corres-
pond in number and time to the heart’s beating. In nearly all
cases there is partial suppression of the urine. In fatal cases death often
occurs about the fourth or fifth day.
What to Do. The most reliable medicine known to control the ir-
ritability of the heart, is the tincture of digitalis in twenty-drop doses,
repeated every hour. After the desired action upon the heart is obtained
the dose may be repeated every two or three hours, or as the case re-
quires. Fluid extract of convallaria majalis, in two-dram doses, will
quiet the tumultuous action of the heart where digitalis fails. Avoid
bleeding; cold applications around the chest or over the heart; blistering;
and stimulating applications to the chest. Chlorate of potash, in two-
dram doses given in drinking water every four hours for the first five or
six days, and followed by the nitrate of potassium, in half-ounce doses
for a week, or until the urine becomes very profuse. Where rheuma-
tism is present give two-dram doses of salicylate of soda instead of the
chlorate of potash. Iodide of potassium in one-dram or two-dram doses
should be given early in the disease, and may be repeated two or three
times a day for several weeks.
Absolute rest and warm stabling, with comfortable clothing, are
necessary.
Pericarditis. This is an inflammation of the sac into which the
heart is enclosed. It may be caused by cold and damp stabling, expos-
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 97
ure and fatigue, from wounds caused by broken ribs, etc. It is usually
associated with an attack of rheumatism, influenza or pleurisy.
Symptoms. This disease shows itself abruptly by a brief stage of
chills accompanied by evidence of pain in moving; a short painful cough,
rapid and short breathing; and high temperature, with a rapid and hard
pulse. The fever, with corresponding pulse, is highest in the evening
and lowest in the morning. In the early stages the pulse is regular in
beat; later the heart-beat becomes muffled, and may be doubled. By
placing the ear against the left side of the chest behind the elbow a rasp-
ing sound may be heard, corresponding in number to the heart-beat. Be-
tween the second and fourth days this sound disappears and by striking
on the surface over the heart, there will be found an increased dullness.
In the acute form of this disease the animal may die in a few days, but
in the chronic form the case progresses much more slowly.
What to Do. ‘In acute or subacute pericarditis the tincture of
digitalis and tincture of aconite root may be mixed, taking equal quan-
tities, and give twenty to thirty drop doses every hour till the pulse and
temperature become reduced. Bandages should be applied to the legs; if
they are very cold, tincture of capsicum should be first applied; the body
should be warmly clothed in blankets to promote perspiration. When
the suffering from pain is very severe, two ounces of tincture of opium may
be given once or twice a day; nitrate of potassa, half an ounce, in drink-
ing water, every six hours; after the third day, iodide of potassa, in two-
dram does, may be substituted. Hot packs to the chest in the early
stages of the disease may give marked relief, or smart blisters may be
applied to the sides of the chest with benefit. If the disease becomes
chronic, iodide of iron and gentian to support the strength will be indi-
cated, but the iodide of potassa, in one or two-drain doses, two or three
times a day, must not be abandoned so long as there is an evidence of
effusion or plastic exudate accumulating in the pericardial sac. Where
the effusion is great and threatens the life of the patient, tapping, by an
expert veterinarian, may save the animal.”
FUNCTIONAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES OF HEART.
Palpitation of the Heart. This is a tumultuous and usually an
irregular beating of the heart. It may be caused by indigestion, sudden
excitement, excessive speeding, etc. (See ‘‘Thumps’’). Study care-
fully the difference in the symptoms of the two diseases.
a
98 THE HORSE.
Symptoms. The heart beats may be violent enough to jar the whole
body, and often it may be heard quite a distance from the animal. The
jar will correspond to the beating of the heart. This disease can usually
be traced to the cause, which may be avoided or overcome in the future.
Rest, a mild stimulant, or a dose or two of tincture of opium or tincture
of digitalis will generally give relief. It must be regarded as a symp-
tom when organic.
Enlargement of the Heart. Hypertrophy of the heart, or car-
diac enlargement frequently follows an increased demand for propelling
power.
Symptoms. In addition to the usual symptoms manifested in or-
ganic diseases of the heart, there isa painful and heavy pulsation at each
heart beat. ‘These pulsations are regular. When full andstrong at the
jaw, there is a tendency to congestion of the capillary vessels, but if
small and feeble an obstacle to the escape of blood may be suspected.
Treatment. If the cause can be discovered and removed it should
be done. Hydrocyanic acid in thirty drop doses twice a day, may re-
lieve muscular irritability. Give general tonic, avoid overwork or ex-
citement as well as bulky food.
DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES.
Inflammation of the Artery. This disease is rarely observed in
the horse as a primary disease. It may extend only to the inner coat
or it may involve all of the layers of which there are three.
Symptoms. There will be a painful swelling along the inflamed
vessels, throbbing pulse, coldness of the parts fed by the inflamed
artery.
Treatment. Give one-dram doses of the carbonate of potassium
mixed with four ounces of liquor acetate of ammonia, every six hours.
Feed scalded bran enough to produce loosening of the bowels. Put on
applications of hot water or hot hop infusions.
DISEASES OF THE VEINS.
Phlebitis. Inflammation of veins may be confined to a limited por-
tion of a vein or it may attack the vein for a long distance, occasionally
extending from a limb or foot to the heart.
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 99
Symptoms vary according to the extent and the severity of the in-
flammation. ‘The vein is usually swollen and thickened so as to resem-
ble an artery.
What to Do. Apply a smart blister over the affected part; open
any abscess that may be formed; give animal complete rest; and keep
bowels loose with bran mashes. When fever runs high give half-ounce
doses of nitrate of potassium, in the drinking water, which may be
changed in two or three days for dram doses of the iodide of potassium.
Give animal carbonate of ammonia, one dram, and powdered gentian
three drams every six hours should the animal show great weakness.
Varicose Veins. Otherwise named varix, and dilatation of veins.
This disease is the result of weakening of the coats of the veins from in-
flammatory diseases. The vein which lies near the surface on the inside
of the hock-joint is sometimes affected. This is sometimes due to the
pressure of a spavin. It is occasionally seen in stallions as dilatation of
the cord of the testicles. Piles or hemorrhoidal veins are occasionally
met with, principally in horses which run at pasture.
Treatment. Piles may often be reduced by astringent washes—tea
made from white oak bark ora saturated solution of alum. Stallions
having enlarged testicular chord should wear suspensory bags, when ex-
ercised.
DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
Inflammation of the Lymphatic Structures. This inflamma-
tion usually effects a hind-leg, very seldom a fore-leg. This application
is sudden in its attack, exceedingly painful, accompanied by a high tem-
perature, and great general disturbance.
Symptoms. Usually commences with a chill, rise in temperature,
and some uneasiness; in a short time it is followed by lameness in one
leg and swelling on the inside of the thigh. The limb is very tender to
the touch; the animal perspires; the breathing is accelerated; pulse hard
and quick; and the temperature may reach 106° F. ‘The bowels become
constipated; urine becomes scanty; symptoms on-the increase for about
two days, then stationary for same time; the fever then lowers; swelling
goes down and becomes less painful. ‘Theswelling seldom all leaves the
leg; there is left behind a permanent enlargement, and attacks return
occasionally.
bere) THE HORSE.
Elephantiasis. In severe cases the skin loses its hair in patches,
the limb remains more or less enlarged due to a fibrous growth, which is
known by the name of Elephantiasis.
What to Do. Externally; bathe the leg every ten or fifteen minutes
for six or eight hours with vinegar and water, equal parts, to which add
two ounces of nitrate of potassium to each gallon of the mixture. At
the end of the bathing; dry with woolen cloths and bathe with camphor-
ated soap liniment. Internally; give tincture of digitalis and aconite root,
equal parts of each, thirty drops every hour until the fever and pulse
become reduced Half-ounce doses of nitrate of potassium in the drink-
ing water every six hours; bran mashes; and complete rest. This treat-
ment if used early in the attack very often brings about a remarkable
change within twenty-four hours.
DISEASES OF THE MUSCLES.
Lameness of the shoulder, caused by violent muscular contraction in
starting heavy loads, jumping, slipping on smooth, icy roads or barn
floors, is of frequent occurrence. The external symptons are not usually
very well marked, and errors often occur’ by mistaking this trouble for
other affections. The lameness is not intermittent but continued. It is
more marked when the bones are diseased together with the muscles.
When the animal moves the shoulderblade (92) and the bone of the upper
arm (77) are sometimes almost immovable, and when walking the entire
mass of muscle is displaced by being dragged forward without either
flexion or extention. In many cases there is a certain amount of swell-
ing, and in other cases instead there is muscular atrophy. This is com-
monly called ‘‘Sweenied.’’ It is not itself a cause of shoulder lameness,
although this condition may interfere with perfect action ‘‘Sweenied’’
shoulders are more often caused by diseases below the fetlock than to
affections above the elbow.
Give the animal plenty of vest. Warm wet blankets are of great
service, and in addition put on camphor, belladonna, or liniments.
Later it may be necessary to use the blistering compound on page 162,
and finally, when necessity demands it, the firing iron and the seton.
The great essential condition of cure, and the one that will help pre-
vent a relapse, is vest, irrespective of any other prescriptions with which
it may be associated.
CHAPTER VII.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Its Diseases and How to Cure Them.
DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, FUNCTIONS OF THE VARIOUS
PARTS, INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN OR ENCEPHALITIS, MAD STAG-
GERS OF THE OLD WRITERS OR MENINGITIS, SUNSTROKE OR HEAT
EXHAUSTION, SPASM OF THE THIGH, INFLAMMATION OF THE MEM-
BRANES SURROUNDING THE SPINAL CORD, LOCK-JAW, HYDROPHOBIA,
ELECTRIC SHOCK, ETC.
ITUATED within the body having the brain as a center is a won-
derfully complex system of nerves, which is almost entirely
controlled by the will of the animal. Besides this there is
another set, independent of this system, which regulates the beat-
ing of the heart, and all other movements over which the will has but
little or no control. ‘The latter consists of numerous small centers, call-
ed ganglia, extending in two great chains from the head to the tail, on
each side of the back-bone, and closely connected with the other system
by a peculiar communication. They are usually considered and defined
as follows:
Divisions of the Nervous System. There are two divisions of
the nervous system, the CEREBRO-SPINAL or that presiding over animal
life, and the sympathetic, that regulating organic life.
102 THE HORSE.
Structure. It is composed chiefly of two structures; the gray,
originating impulses and receiving impressions, and the white, conduct-
ing impressions.
Cerebro-spinal System. This consists of the BRAIN, SPINAL
GANGLIA, CRANIAL NERVES, and SPINAL NERVES.
Membrane Surrounding the Brain. The membrane which
lines the skull constituting an interior periosteum is called the DURA
MATER; beneath this is a delicate membrane called the ARACHNoID, and
still beneath this is another membrane, which even dips into the con-
volutions of the underlying brain. ‘This is called the pia mater. ‘These
three divisions taken together are called the meninges.
Divisions of the Brain. The divisions of the brain are the
CEREBRUM, CEREBELLUM, PONS VAROLII and MEDULLA OBLONGATA.
Functions of the Cerebrum. ‘‘The cerebral hemispheres are
the organs by which perception is carried on and from which motor im-
pulses are given out. They contain the organ of the will; they possess
memory, or the means of retaining impressions of sensible influences.’’
(HARE. )
Functions of the Cerebellum. ‘‘It is absolutely insensible to
irritation and may be cut away without any signs of pain; its removal
from the body or destruction by disease is generally unaccompanied by
loss or disorder of sensibility. Animals from which it is removed can
see, hear, and feel pain to all appearance as perfectly as before. It
governs the coordination of movements, and while irritation of the cere-
bellum produces no movements at all, remarkable results are produced
by removing part of its substance. As portion after portion of it is cut
away the animal gradually loses the power of springing, walking, stand-
ing, or preserving its equilibrium. If laid upon its back it cannot re-
cover its normal posture but struggles to get up, and if a blow is threat-
ened tries to avoid it, but fails to do so. According to Gowers, the
middle lobe of thecerebellum governs equilibrium by means of afferent
fibres from the semi-circular canals and the ocular muscles and also the
muscles of the legs.’”’ (HARE).
Function of the Pons Varolii. ‘It contains a large number of
nerve fibres both transverse and longitudinal, and is a conductor of im-
pressions from one part of the spinal axis to another. Concerning its
functions as a nerve centre little or nothing is certainly known.”
(HaRE).
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 103
Medulla Oblongata. This is the prolongation of the spinal cord,
extending from the spinal cord to the pons (bridge) Varolii.
This part of the brain is very large in the horse; it is pyramidal in
shape, the narrowest part joining the cord.
Spinal Cord. This occupies the cavity of the backbone. It ex-
tends from the brain down to the last vertebra. It is protected by the
same membranes as the brain, but in the brain the gray matter is on the
outside, while in the spinal cord the gray matter is within. It is divided
into halves and these again subdivided into two parts. It contains
two nerves of motion and two of feeling. The nerves of motion are the
ones which carry the orders of the mind to the different organs, while
the nerves of feeling bring back impressions which they receive.
Spinal Nerves. These are forty-two or forty-three in number,
arise each by two roots, a superior or sensory and an inferior or motor.
The nerves originating from the brain are twenty-four in number, and
arranged in pairs, which are named first, second, third, etc., counting
from before backward. ‘They also receive special names, according to
their functions, or the parts to which they are distributed, viz:
1. Olfactory. 5. Trifacial. g. Glosso-Pharyngeal.
2. Optic. 6. Abducens. 10. Pneumogastric.
3. Oculo-motor. 7. Facial. 11. Spinal-Accessory.
4. Pathetic. 8. Auditory. 12. Hypoglossal.
INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN TISSUES AND
ITS MEMBRANES.
Encephalitis. Inflammation of the brain is caused by exposure to
extreme heat or cold; excessive continued excitement; direct injuries to
the brain; and sometimes appears as a result of influenza, pyeemia, and
poisons that directly affect the brain matter.
Symptoms. Acute inflammation may commence by an increased
sensibility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contraction
of the pupil of the eyes, and a quick hard pulse. These symptoms are
not always present in acute attacks. There will follow twitching of the
muscles, convulsive or spasmodic movements, eyes wide open with
shortness of sight. ‘The animal becomes afraid to have his head handled.
Convulsions and delirium will develop, with inability of muscular con-
104 THE HORSE.
trol, often followed by stupor and coma. When the membranes are
much implicated convulsions and delirium with violence may be expect-
ed, but where the brain substance is principally affected, stupor and
coma will be the most prominent symptoms. When the brain sub-
stances is principally affected the pulse will be soft or depressed with
sometimes a dilation of pupils and deep, slow, stertorous breathing; but
if the membranes are implicated the pulse will be quick and hard. The
animal may become very violent early in the disease, and by rearing up,
striking with the fore-feet or falling over do himself great injury, but
usually the animal maintains the standing position, propping himself
against the manger, until he falls from inability of muscular control.
Treatment. See treatment under head ‘‘General Treatment for In-
flammation of the Various Brain Structures.’’
Meningitis or Mad Staggers of the Old Writers. This is
an inflammation of the cerebral envelopes. It is caused by excess of
heat or cold, wounds of the skull and its contents, rheumatism, influ-
enza, rupture of the blood-vessels of the membrane surrounding the
brain.
Symptoms. In an attack of the acute form the symptoms are often
very violent. The animal has violent pains in the head which is indi-
cated by the animal flying back in the halter; plunging forward or run-
ning ahead, without regard to any obstructions; the pulse is very rapid;
the breathing accelerated or panting; the pupils of the eyes contracted;
the muscles of the body quivering. These symptoms may develop in a
few minutes or in a few hours. If the animal does not get relief, spasms
or stiffness of the muscles along one or both sides of the neck or back will
become evident; the head will be held up higher than usual; the eye-balls
will be drawn back in their sockets; the eye-lids twitch; convulsions and
furious delirium will soon appear, followed by coma (insensibility) and
death.
During the whole course of the disease the least noise will seem to
bring on violent paroxysms (spasms), which are very marked during
the disease. Between these paroxysms there are quiet moments in which
the animal seems dull and drowsy. ‘he urine is frequently forced out
in spurts and great efforts are made to effect passage of the bowels.
In the SUB-ACUTE form the symptoms develop more slowly and are
less marked by violence. In such attacks the animal may suffer for a
week or longer and ultimately recover.
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 105
In meningitis the temperature varies from 103° to 107° F., according
to the severity of the disease.
Do not confound the violent symptoms of this disease with hydropho-
bia (rabies). In hydrophobia the animal directs his violence toward
some object or upon himself; but in this desire there is only the evidence
of severe pain, in the head. Meningitis may be distinguished from en-
cephalitis and cerebritis by there not being any marked symptoms of
paralysis of local parts or of coma till near the approach of death.
Teatment. See treatment under head ‘‘General Treatment for In.
flammation of the Various Brain Structures.’’
Cerebritis. Inflammation of the brain substance has many causes.
Those that produce either of the two last, together with cystic and cal-
careous tumors, thrombi, urzemic poisoning, etc.
Symptoms. When notin connection with other diseases this disease
is seldom recognized during life. It is always confined to some specific
portion of the brain, and the symptoms vary according to the part affect-
ed. The treatment as given below will be all that can be usually done.
As it would not be recognized except by an expert it is unnecessary to
give a list of the symptoms.
General Treatment for Inflammation of the Various
Brain Structures. ‘‘When the animal is found in the first stages of
the disease, where the animal is unnaturally excited or has stupor with
high temperature and quickened pulse bleed from the jugular vein.
Especially in acute meningitis, bleeding is imperatively demanded. The
finger should be kept on the pulse, and the blood allowed to flow until
there is a marked fluttering or softening of the pulse. As soon as the
animal recovers somewhat from the shock of the bleeding, the following
medicine should be made into a ball or dissolved ina pint of warm water
and be given at one dose: barbadoes aloes, seven drams; calomel, two
drams; powdered ginger, one dram; tincture of aconite, twenty drops.
The animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from noise
as possible, and cloths wrung out of hot water placed on his head. Re-
new frequently for twelve hours. When the animal becomes thirsty
half an ounce of saltpeter may be dissolved in his drinking water every
six hours. Inject warm water into the rectum to aid the action of the
physic. Norwood’s tincture of veratrum viride, in twenty drop
doses, should be given every hour, and one dram of solid extract of
belladonna every four hours, until the symptoms become modified and
the pulse regular and full.
106 THE HORSE.
If this treatment fails to give relief the disease will pass into the ad-
vanced stages, or if the animal has been neglected in the early stages
the treatment must be supplanted with the hypodermic injection of er-
gotin, in five grain doses, dissolved in a dram of water every six hours.
The limbs may be poulticed above the fetlocks with mustard. Cold
water or ice-bags should now take the place of the hot water cloths on
the head. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, to be used in all
cases in which there is not much perspiration.
“Tf the disease becomes chronic—encephalitis or meningitis—use alter-
atives and tonics, with such other treatment as special symptoms may
demand. Iodide of potassium in two dram doses should be given twice
a day, and one dram of calomel once a day, to induce absorption.
Tonics, in the form of iodide of iron in dram doses, to which is added
two drams of powdered hydrastis, may be given every six or eight
hours, as soon as the active fever has abated. In all cases, after the
disappearance of the acute symptoms, blisters (cantharides ointment)
should be applied behind the poll. When paralytic effects remain after
the disappearance of all other symptoms, sulphate of strychnia in two
grain doses, in combination with the other tonics, should be given twice
a day, and be continued until it produces muscular twitching. Many of
the recoveries will, however, under the most active and early treatment,
be but partial, and in all cases the animals become predisposed to subse-
quent attacks. A long period of time should be allowed to pass before
the animal is exposed to severe work or great heat. When the disease
depends upon mechanical injuries they have to be treated and all causes
of irritation to the brain removed. If it is due to stable miasma,
uremic poisoning, pyzemia, influenza, rheumatism, toxic agents, etc.,
they should receive prompt attention for their removal or mitigation.’’
Sunstroke or Heat Exhaustion. The term ‘‘sunstroke’’ is ap-
plied to troubles caused by exposure to the direct ray’s of the sun for
hours, when the animal has not received proper care in feeding, water-
ing and rest; and also when caused by the action of great heat, com-
bined with other disturbing elements such as dryness of the air, and an
unusual accumulation of electricity.
Symptoms. Generally comes on suddenly. The animal stops,
drops his head; begins to stagger; and soon falls to the ground insensi-
ble. The breathing is stertorious; the pulse is slow and irregular; cold
sweats cover the body; and the animal dies without becoming con-
scious.
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 107
Previous to the other symptoms coming on the animal often requires
urging for some time; the perspiration is checked; the animal becomes
weak in his gait; the breathing hurried or panting; the eyes watery and
bloodshot; nostrils dilated and highly reddened, assuming a dark,
purple color; the pulse rapid and weak; the heart bounding.
What to Do. Apply ice or very cold water to the head and along
the spine. Give six ounces of whiskey or half an ounce of carbonate of
ammonia in a pint of water. Injections into the rectum of ginger tea,
moderately strong, or weak ammonia water may benefit. Brisk friction
of the limbs, using spirits of camphor when possible, will often yield
good results. The stimulant should be repeated in one hour if the pulse
has not become stronger and slower.
If the animal is suffering from heat exhaustion instead of sunstroke
use the same treatment, only use hot water on the cloths instead of cold.
In either case as the animal gets better give as a tonic during con-
valescence: sulphate of iron, one dram; gentian, three drams; red
chincona bark, two drams; mix and give in the feed morning and even-
ing.
How to Prevent. In very hot weather, keep wet sponges or light
sunshades on the head while at work, or sponge the head with cold
water as often as possibie during the day. Do not over feed; water
often; keep stables cool and well ventilated. If an animal seems weak
and exhausted from work or disease, give tonics.
Spasm of the Thigh or Cramp of the Hind Leg. Horses
standing on sloping plank floors, or subject to severe exercise are liable
to this disease.
Symptoms. The leg becomes rigid, and efforts to bend it are unsuc-
cessful; it is cold; there is not much pain manifested, unless efforts are
made to change position of the leg. The cramp may be of short dura-
tion, or it may continue for several days. This ‘‘cramp’’ is often taken
for a dislocation of the stifle-joint. In dislocation, the foot is extended
backward, and the horse being unable to advance it, drags the foot be-
hind him. An examination of the joint will also show a change of
form.
What to Do. Rub the cramped muscles with liniment composed
of soap liniment four parts and chloroform one part. Compulsory
movement usually causes the muscles to relax very quickly. Therefore
take animal out and force him to run or trot. Sometimes a single crack
of the whip or a smart blow will cause relaxation, Should this fail, the
108 THE HORSE.
liniment may be used along the inside of the thigh, and chloroform,
ether, or laudanum given internally. One ounce chloral hydrate will
relieve the spasm when given internally, but the cramp may return very
quickly after the effect has passed off.
Spinal Meningitis. This is an inflammation of the membranes
surrounding the spinal cord. It may be the result of irritating proper-
ties of blood poisons, exposure, all forms of injury to the spine, rheuma-
tism, ete.
Symptoms. May be introduced by a chill; a rise in temperature;
general weakness; or shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, spasmodic
twitching of the muscles set in, followed by a hardness of muscles along
the back-bone, when the animal will move very stiffly and evince great
pain in moving; evidences of paralysis develop; either holds the urine,
or it runs away without effort; and marked fever at the beginning of the
attack, together with spinal symptoms. This disease generally becomes
seated and is then principally known by a paralysis back of the seat of
the disease. The whole or only portions may be paralyzed.
Treatment. Put along the spine, bags filled with broken ice, to be
followed later by strong blisters. Control fever by giving twenty-drop
doses every hour of Norwood’s tincture of veratrum viride, until the de-
sired effect is obtained. One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to
control pain and the flow of blood to the meninges may be given every
five or six hours till the pupils of the eyes become much enlarged. If
the pain is very severe inject hypodermically five grains’ of sulphate of
morphine. Keep the animal as free from excitement as possible. If the
urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn off every six hours.
In very severe attacks the animal dies in a few days. If the animal
grows better give two-dram doses of iodide of potassium in the drinking
water, morning and evening. Also once a day give one-dram of nux
vomica and twice a day same dose of iodide of iron.
Cerebro-Spinal-Meningitis. This disease is very apt to attack
every animal in a stable, although it is conceded by good authority that
it is neither contagious nor infectious. It seems to be connected in some
way with the food or general surroundings. In many cases the disease
has broken out in various localities, where portions of the same lot of
oats, hay, and brewers grains have been fed.
Special Precautions Necessary. If this disease breaks out ina
stable, remove all the animals at once. Provide them with clean, well-
ventilated, well drained stables elsewhere, and give each animal one-
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 109
dram or the extract or half an ounce of the tincture of belladonna, twice
a day for several days as a preventive. Clean the old stable thoroughly
from all matter, throw over it some chloride of lime, and give the stable
a coat of whitewash in which four ounces of carbolic acid has been
dissolved in every gallon. Let the stable dry thoroughly.
Symptoms. There are three grades of attack into which the
symptoms may be divided.
FIRST GRADE. In the most rapidly fatal cases, the first indica-
tions are usually a weak, staggering gait; part or total loss of power to
swallow; eyesight is poor; muscles twitch and slight cramps may be
noticed; soon followed by paralysis of the whole body; inability to
stand; sometimes a delirium in which the animal goes through a series
of movements as if trotting or running; the delirium becomes violent,
and the animal may seriously bruise himself in his struggles, but a deep
sleep usually renders him unconscious till he dies, which usually follows
in from four to twenty-four hours, from the beginning of the first
symptoms. ‘The pulse is variable during the disease; it may seem al-
most gone at times; then very rapid and irregular; the breathings
generally quick and catchy. When this severe and rapidly fatal form
appears, it may not be possible to determine it from encephalitis, only
from the fact of other animals in the same stable or neighborhood being
similarly affected.
SECOND GRADE. This is in not so severe a form as the last.
The first noticable symptom is a difficulty in swallowing; a slowness in
the chewing of the food; and a weakness which may be first noticed by
a loss of strength of the tail, the animal being unable to switch it or
offer any resistance if you raise it up over the croup. The pulse is
generally a little slow; no evidence of pain; breathing unchanged;
temperature little less than in health; bowels may be constipated. If
the result will terminate favorable, there will be no change of symp-
toms for two or three days, after which gradual improvement. But if
the termination will be death, immediately following the stationary con-
dition the animal may lose its power to swallow, and the weakness in
gait becomes more and more noticable; then sleepiness or coma may ap-
pear; the pulse depressed, slow and weak; stertorous breathing; unable
to stand; and some rigidness of the spinal muscles or partial cramp of
the neck. Death follows in such cases in from four to six days.
THIRD GRADE. In this last or mildest form, the inability of
voluntary control of the limbs becomes but little marked; the power of
IIo THE HORSE.
swallowing while lessened is never entirely lost; the animal has no
fever, pain or unconscious movements. The animal will begin to im-
prove about the fourth day and recover.
When changes for the better take place the symptoms usually leave
in the reverse order in which they came on, but local paralysis may re-
main-for some time.
Treatment. ‘‘In the worst class of cases treatment is very seldom
successful, and it is dangerous to attempt to give medicine by the mouth
because the animal cannot swallow. Cold shower baths may possibly
induce revulsive action in connection with stimulants into the rectum,
four to six ounces of whisky in two pints of milk; the breathing of
ammonia vapor from a sponge wet with dilute aqua ammonia may bring
the animal to consciousness.
In the second class of cases the treatment recommended by Professor
Large consists in giving a cathartic composed of one ounce of aloes and
the giving of one to two drams of the solid extract of belladonna, alter-
nated every three hours with thirty drops of tincture of aconite root,
and the application of blisters to the neck, spine, and throat. When
the animal is unable to swallow, one-fourth-grain doses of sulphate of
atropia may be hypodermiically injected under the skin every four, six,
or eight hours, as the case may demand. ‘The atropia is a heart stimu-
lant, increases capillary circulation, and quiets pain and excitability.
When the most prominent symptoms abate give such food as the animal
may be able to eat; keep fresh, cool water constantly before him; sup-
port him in slings if necessary; clean stabling and plenty of fresh air are
of the utmost importance.”’
Lock-Jaw or Tetanus. ‘This disease is specially shown by
spasms which affect the muscles of the face, neck, body, and limbs and
all the muscles supplied by the cerebro-spinal nerves.
Symptoms. ‘The first indication of this disease is difficulty in chew-
ing and swallowing; an extention of the head; and a membrane called
the haw,. protruding over the inner part of the eye. This haw will turn
farther over the eye if the nose is lifted. The animal is not able to open
the jaws to their full extent, and the effort to do so will produce spasms
of the muscles of the jawand neck. The muscles of the neck and along
the spine become rigid and the legs are moved as if they were stiff.
The least noise throws the animal into increased spasm of all the affect- .
ed muscles. The tail is usually raised and held without moving; the
bowels constipated; the temperature and pulse not much changed.
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. III
These symptoms in an acute attack become rapidly worse till the muscles
become hard—in a state of rigid spasm—with a tremble continuously
running through them; cold sweat breaks out on the body; breathing
becomes painful; jaws are set; eye-balls drawn back; lips drawn tightly
over the teeth; nostrils enlarged; and the animal showing extreme
agony till death comes.
In the sub-acute cases the jaws are never entirely locked; the muscles
are not so rigid; the nerves not so excitable. There is some stiffness of
the neck or spine, which is shown when the animal is turning or mov-
ing; the haw is turned over the eye-ball when the nose is lifted. All
symptoms gradually increase for about ten days and then gradually di-
minish under careful treatment, or otherwise they go on to the most
severe type and end in death.
Tetanus may be mistaken for spinal meningitis, but the peculiarity of
the spasm-locked jaw; the peculiarity of spasms due to swallowing; the
haw over the eye; and the eye-balls drawn back into the head should
easily note the difference.
Treatment. Put the animal ina dark box stall without bedding,
as far away from other horses as possible; cover with sheet in fly time;
keep every noise away from the animal.
Give at once aloes, six to eight drams; mixed with solid extract of
belladonna, two drams. Give in form of ball; but if the animal is too
much excited or can not swallow, mix it with two ounces of olive oil
and throw on the back of the tongue with asyringe. If the jaws are set,
or nearly so, do not try to give medicine by the mouth. In such cases use
hypodermic injection under the skin of one-quarter of a grain of atropia;
and five grains of sulphate of morphia; dissolved in one dram of pure
water. Repeat often enough to keep animal under its influence all the
time. Good results may be obtained by injecting per rectum the fluid
extract of belladonna and of cannabis indica, of each one dram, every
four or six hours. ‘This may be diluted with a quart of milk. If un-
able to swallow liquids give rectum injections of oatmeal gruel and milk.
This will help sustain the strength of the animal. Good results may be
obtained by putting woolen blankets over the upper part of the head
and neck and the greater part of body, and keeping them wet with very
warm water. Continue this for several hours at a time.
Hydrophobia or Rabies. Thisis the result of a bite from a rabid
animal—generally a dog or a cat. ‘The disease follows the bite in from
three weeks to three months—very rarely in twelve or fourteen days.
112 THE HORSE.
Prevention. When it is positively known that an animal has been
bitten by a rabid animal, immediately, cauterize the wound with a red-
hot iron. This may destroy the poison before it is taken up by the
blood.
Symptoms. The first evidences of the disease may be excitability
and viciousness. The approach of a person, causes the animal to kick,
strike, or bite at any object near him. "Often the animal will bite his
own legs or sides, tearing the skin. The eyes are staring and blood-
shot; ears held up; and the head erect. In some cases the animal wiil
continually rub and bite the wonnd caused by the rabid animal. ‘This
symptom may precede all others. ‘The furious symptoms appear spas-
modically; at other times the animal is quiet and may eat and drink,
although swallowing becomes painful near the end.
Rabies may be mistaken for lock-jaw. In that disease there is rigid-
ness of the muscles of the jaws or stiffness of the neck or back very
early in the attack, and the animal shows no signs of viciousness.
Treatment. As soon as the nature of the disease is ascertained the
animal should be killed.
Electric Shock. Since electric wires are becoming so common,
the accidents arising from coming in contact with them is of frequent
occurence, and has the same effect upon the animal system as a shock
of lightning. ‘There are two degrees of electric shock; the one killing
directly and the other producing temporary insensibility, from which re-
covery is possible. In the latter case the animal is usually insensible;
the respiration slow, labored or gasping; the pulse slow, feeble, and ir-
regular; and the pupils dilated and not sensitive, or they may be con-
tracted and sensitive. ‘The temperature is lowered. There may be a
tendency to convulsions or spasms. ‘The predominating symptoms are
extreme heart and respiratory depression.
Treatment. Sulphate of atropia should be given hypodermically
in one quarter grain doses every hour or every two hours until the
heart beats are strengthened, the number and fullness of the breathing
increased and consciousness returns. Stimulating injections into the
rectum may also be useful in aiding the circulation; for this purpose
whisky or ammonia may be used.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE URINARY ORGANS.
Their Diseases and How to Cure Them.
DIABETES INSIPIDUS, EXCESSIVE URINE, SACCHARINE DIABETES, GLY-
COSURIA, BLOODY URINE, POISONING BY ALBUMINOIDS, ACUTE IN-
FLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS, SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLAD-
DER, INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER, URINARY CALCULI, ETC.
HESE organs to a large extent are the sanitary scavengers and
purifiers of the system. It is through their action that most of
the products of normal cell-life are carried off. The body is a
great chemical laboratory and within it is carried on wonderful
changes, which renew the tissues of the body as well as destroy those
that are worn out. These chemical changes produce many poisons that
will cause disease if left within the body. To remove these poisons,
with the aid of the skin, is the function of the urinary organs. The
kidneys are the organs which separate from the blood the substance by
which the nitrogen of the decomposed or worn out tissue is given off.
This subtance is called UREA. Most of the other secretions of the body
are useful in various ways, as the bile from the liver and the gastric fluid
from the stomach are used in digestion, and the perspiration is a means
of cooling the body by evaporation, but the secretion of the kidneys can-
not be utilized in any other process and hence must be removed from
the system.
Kidneys. These glands are two in number, one lying on each side
of the vertebrae just forward of the loins. The left kidney, weighing
114 THE HORSE.
twenty-three ounces, is shaped like a French bean (SEE MANIKIN
OF THE HORSE) and extends from the loins forward to beneath the
heads of the last two ribs. The right kidney (SEE MANIKIN OF
THE HORSE) is the shape of the heart of cards, and extends from
the loins forward beneath the head of the last rib. Each kidney consists
of these distinct parts :
a. The external or vascular part, in which the blood-vessels form
elaborate capillary network within the globe-like sac’s which form the
beginnings of the secreting tubes.
b. The internal part, made up in the main of the blood-vessels, lymph-
atics, and nerves extending between the notch on the inner border of
the kidney to and from the outer vascular portion, in which the secretion
of urine is almost exclusively carried on.
c. A large sac-like reservoir in the centre of the kidney into which all
the urine tubes empty their secretions. From this reservoir there leads a
tube, called the ureter, which carries off the urine to the bladder. There
are two of these tubes, one from each of the kidneys, and they open by
a valve-closed orifice into the roof the bladder just in front of the neck.
Action. ‘The arteries which carry the blood to the kidneys are called
RENAL arteries, and the veins which carry the blood from the kidneys to
the large veins leading to the heart are called RENAL veins. The kid-
neys do not act constantly but alternate in their action. ‘The blood
passes into the kidneys through the arteries, it then reaches the capil-
laries of the kidneys which have the power of removing the watery part
of the blood containing urea. The blood is then taken up by the small
veins and carried to the renal veins.
Bladder. ‘This is a reservoir which receives the urine from the kid-
neys through the arteries, and holds it until the distension is sufficient
to cause its voluntary discharge. Circular muscular fibers surround the
neck of the bladder which keep it closed, and looped muscles extending
in all directions forward from the neck around the unopen end of the
bladder empty it by contracting. A dilatable tube (urethra) extends
from the neck of the bladder backward on the floor of the pelvis. Inthe
male the urethra extends through the penis toits free end, where it
opens through a conical papilla of a pink color. In the full grown
female the urethra is nor far from an inch in length, and it is surrounded
by the circular muscular fibers which closes the neck of the bladder. It
opens directly in the middle line of the floor of the vulvas about four and
one-half inches from its outside opening.
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. II5
Changes in the Urine. In health the urine of the horse is of a
deep amber color and it has a strong odor. On a feed of grain and hay
it may show a uniform transparency, while on grass there is an abundant
white deposit of lime. There is scarcely an important organ of the
body that can suffer derangement without its showing in the urinary
system. Therefore, the condition and changes found in the urine, while
_they may not mark a direct disorder of the urinary system, they serve as
an indication of a disturbance of some organ, and these changes are often
a great help in determining the character of a disease. ‘The action of
the skin and the action of the urinary system are closely allied. In
summer when there is profuse sweating, the quantity of urine is less-
ened, but in winter when there is but a small quantity of liquid exhaled
through the skin, the urine is increased in quantity. This action of the
skin and kidneys usually balance and keep within the limits of health,
but the quantity of urine may become so small that there is not enough
liquid to properly hold in solution and éarry off the solids, and then
crystalize and form stone and gravel.
A disordered liver may produce an excess of biliary coloring-matter
and stain the urine, or may cause an excess of acid (hippuric) and allied
products which being less soluble than the normal product of tissue
change (urea) favor the formation of stone.
A disorder which causes a decrease in the functions of the lungs may
cause an excess of acid (hippuric) and allied bodies, or of oxalic acid or
sugar in the urine, which will irritate the kidneys even if they do not
produce solid deposits in the urinary passages.
A disease of the nervous system, especially those that affect the base
of the brain and spinal cord, may induce a urinary disorder prominent
among them are diabetes, albumenaria, and chylous urine.
A disease that causes imperfect nutrition or a destruction of the bony
tissues, causes a deposit of phosphates of lime and magnesia, in the
urine. This may lead to the formation of stone and gravel.
An extended inflammation or an acute fever will lessen the liquids of
the urine, while tle solids (waste products) are increased, and the over-
charged urine is irritating tothe urinary organs, or the waste products
not being taken out by the action of the kidneys will poison the system.
Feeding green vegetables covered with hoar-frost or furnishing an ex-
cess of food rich in phosphates (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, len-
tils, rape-cake, cotton-seed cake) or a privation of water which entails a
concentrated condition and high density of the urine may irritate the
116 THE HORSE.
kidneys. Exposure in cold rain or snow storms, cold draughts of air,
and damp beds are liable to further disorder an already overworked or
irritable kidney.
Examination of the Urine. In some cases the changes of the
urine are the only signs of disease that can be detected. Of these
changes the following may be looked for :
CoLor—White from deposits of salts of lime; brown or red from blood-
clots or coloring matter; yellow or orange from bile or blood-pigment;
pale from excess of water. In giving medicine remember santonin makes
it red; senna and rhubarb, brown; tar and carbolic acid, green.
Density—The horse’s urine may be 1.030 to 1.050, but it may greatly
exceed this in diabetes and may sink to 1.007 in diuresis.
CHEMICAL, RE-ACTION—as ascertained by blue litmus or red test papers.
The horse on vegetable diet has alakline urine turning red test papers
blue, while in the sucking-colt and the horse fed on flesh or on his own
tissues (in starvation or abstinence during disease) it is acid, turning
blue litmus red.
ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS—as when glairy from albumen coagulable by
strong nitric acid and boiling, when charged with microscopic casts of
the uriniferous tubes, with the eggs or bodies of worms, with sugar,
blood, or bile.
In ITs SALTS—which may crystalize out spontaneously, or on boiling,
or on the addition of chemical re-agents.
Saccharine Diabetes or Glycosuria. ‘This disease is also called
Diabetes Mellitus and Inosuria. This is primarily a disease of the nerv-
ous system or liver rather than of the kidneys, but since the most prom-
inent symptom is the sweet urine it may be treated under this head. Its
CAUSES are varied, but are chiefly disorder of the liver and disorder of the
brain. One of the most prominent functions of the liver is the formation
of glycogen, a principle allied to grape-sugar, and the passing of it
into the blood for further oxidation. This is a constant function of
the liver, but in health the resulting sugar is chemically destroyed in the
circulation and does not appear in the urine. On the contrary, when
the supply of oxygen is defective, as in certain cases of the lungs, the
whole of the sugar does not undergo combustion and the excess is given
off by the kidneys. Also in certain forms of enlarged liver the amount
of sugar produced is more than can be disposed off in the natural way,
and it appears in the urine. A temporary sweetness of the urine often
occurs after a hearty meal on starchy food, but this is due altogether to
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 117
the superabundant supply of the sugar-forming food, and last for a few
hours only, and has no significance. In many cases of fatal glycosuria
the liver is found to be enlarged, or at least congested, and it is found
that the disorder can be produced experimentally by agencies which
produce an increased circulation through the liver. Certain chemical
poisons also cause saccharine urine, notably woorara, strychnia, morphia,
phosphoric acid, alcohol, ether, chloroform, quinia, ammonia, and arsenic.
Symptoms. ‘These are ardent thirst and profuse secretion of a pale
urine of a high density (1.060 and upward), rapid loss of condition,
scurfy, unthrifty skin, costiveness or irregularity of the bowels, indiges-
tion, and the presence in the urine of a sweet principle, grape-sugar, or
inosite, or both. ‘This mav be most promptly detected by touching the
tip of the tongue with a drop. Sugar may be detected simply by add-
ing a tea-spoonful of liquid yeast to four ounces of the urine and keeping
it lightly stopped at a temperature of 70° to 80° F., for twelve hours,
when the sugar will be found to have been changed into alcohol and
carbon dioxide. ‘The loss of density will give indication of the amount
of sugar transformed; thus a density of 1.035 in a urine which was
formerly 1.060 would indicate about fifteen grains of sugar to the fluid
ounice.
Inosite or muscle-sugar, frequently present in the horse’s urine, and
even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. Its presence may be in-
dicated by its sweetness and the absence of fermentation, or by Gallois’
test. Evaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost to dryness,
then add a drop of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evaporate carefully
to dryness, when a yellowish residue is Jeft that is changed on further
cautious heating to a deep rose-color, which disappears on cooling and
re-appears on heating.
In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under the chest and
belly, puffy, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the
lungs, weak, uncertain gait, and drowsiness may be noted.
Treatment. This is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some
curable disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver disease,
a run at pasture in warm weather, or in winter a warm, sunny, well-
aired stable, with sufficient clothing and sulphate of soda, one ounce
daily as a laxative, and carbozate of potassium, one-fourth ounce as an
alkali, may benefit. ‘To this may be added mild blistering, cupping, or
even leeching over the last ribs. Diseases of the brain or pancreas may
be treated according to their indications. The diet should be mainly
118 THE HORSE.
albuminous, such as wheat-bran or middlings, pease, beans, and milk.
Indeed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very best remedial agencies.
It may be given as skim milk or butter-milk, and in the last case com-
bines an anti diabetic remedy in the lactic acid. Under such an exclu-
sive diet recent and mild cases are often entirely restored, though at the
expense of an attack of rheumatism. Codeine, one of the alkaloids of
of opium, is strongly recommended by Dr. Tyson. The dose for the
horse would be three grains thrice daily. In cases in which there is
manifest irritation of the brain bromide of potassium, four drams, or
ergot, one-half ounce, may be resorted to. Bitter tonics (especially nux
vomica, one-half dram) are useful in improving digestion and general
health.
Excessive Secretion of Urine, or Diabetes Insipidus. This
disease is also known as diuresis or polyuria. It consistsin an excessive
secretion of a clear, watery urine of a low specific gravity (1.007) with
a correspondingly ardent thirst, a rapidly advancing emaciation, and
great loss of strength and spirit.
Causes. It may be caused by any agent, medicinal, alimentary, or
poisonous, which unduly stimulates the kidneys; the reckless adminis-
tration of diuretics, which form such a common constituent of quack
horse-powders; acrid diuretic plants in grass or hay; new oats still im-
perfectly cured; an excess of roots or other very watery food; a full
allowance of salt to animals that have become inordinately fond of it;
but, above all, feeding on hay, grain, or bran which has not been prop-
erly dried and has become musty and permeated by fungi. ‘Thus hay,
straw, or oats secured in wet seasons and heating in the stack is espec-
ially injurious. Hence this malady, like (sleepy staggers), is wide-
spread in wet seasons, and especially in rainy districts.
Symptoms. The horse drinks deep at every opportunity and passes
urine on every occasion when stopped, the discharge being pale, watery,
of a low density, and inodorous; in short, it contains a great excess of
water and a deficiency of the solid excretions. So great is the quantity
passed, however, that the small amount of solids in any given specimen
amounts in twenty-four hours to far more than the normal, a fact in
keeping with the rapid wasting of the tissues and extreme emaciation.
The flanks become tucked up, the fat disappears, the bones and muscles
stand out prominently, the skin becomes tense and hidebound, and the
hair erect, scurfy, and deficient in luster. The eye becomes dull and
sunken, the spirits are depressed, the animal is weak and sluggish,
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 119
sweats on the slightest occasion, and can endure little. ‘The subject
may survive for months, or he may die early of exhaustion. In the
slighter cases, or when the cause ceases to operate, he may make a
somewhat tardy recovery.
Treatment. This consists in stopping the ingestion of the faulty
drugs, poisons or food, and supplying sound hay and grain free from all
taint of heating or mustiness. A liberal supply of boiled flaxseed in the
drinking water at once serves to eliminate the poison and to sheath and
protect the irritated-kidneys. Tonics like sulphate or phosphate of iron
(two drams morning and evening) and powdered gentian or Peruvian
bark (four drams) help greatly by bracing the system and hastening
repair. To these may be added agents calculated to destroy the fungus
and eliminate its poisonous products. In that form which depends on
musty food nothing acts better than large doses of iodide of potas-
sium (two drams), while in other cases creosote, carbolic acid (one
dram), or oil of turpentine (four drams) properly diluted, may be
resorted to.
Poisoning by Albuminoids or Hemoglobinuria. Also known
as azoturia or anazoturia. This is commonly supposed to be a disease
of the kidneys, because the prominent symptoms are ropy and dark-
colored urine and loss of control over the hind limbs; but it is rather a
disease of the liver and blood-forming functions. This disease is never
seen at pasture, rarely when the animal has constant daily work. It is
connected with high feeding, especially food rich in nitrogen, such as
oats, beans, and cotton-seed meal, and is made to show itself by taking
the horse from the stable and subjecting it to work. The poison does
not seem to be diffused, when starting, as the horse is usually lively
and spirited, but within the first quarter or half mile it usually
succumbs.
This disease is peculiar to solipeds. In all others the portal veins have
no communication with the vena cava (SEE MANIKIN OF THE
HORSE) except through the capillaries of the liver, but in the solipeds
there is a persistence through life of a condition common to foetal mam-
mals, of several good-sized veins leading directly from the veins of the
stomach and intestines (portal veins) into the posterior vena cava and
heart. By the accelerated breathings there seems to be drawn directly
into the blood the stored up nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxi-
dized condition, thus rendering the blood unable to retain the healthy
functions of the nerve centers and muscles.
120 i THE HORSE.
Symptoms. Inthe milder forms this affection may appear as a
laineness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succeeaing to some sudden
exertion and attended by a dusky-brown color of the membranes of the
eye and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are struck. The
severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full ration, when
the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred yards or more.
The fire and life with which he had left the stable suddenly give place
to dullness and oppression, as shown in heaving flanks, dilated nostrils,
pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling body. The muscles of the
loins or haunch become swelled and rigid, the subject moves stiffly or
unsteadily, crouches behind, the limbs are carried half doubled, and he
soon drops, unable to support himself. When down, the body and limbs
are moved convulsively, but there is no power over the movement in the
muscles. The pulse and breathing are quickened, the eyes red with a
tinge of brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be highly colored,
dark brown, red, or black, but it contains neither blood clots nor glob-
ules. The color is mainly due to haemoglobin and other imperfectly
elaborated constituents of the blood.
It may end fatally in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue,
which is usually more speedy and perfect if it has set in at an early
stage. In the late and tardy recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind
limbs may last for months.
Prevention. ‘To avoid this serious affection, restrict the diet and
give daily exercise when the animal is not at work. A horse that has
had one attack should never be left idle for a single day in the stall or
barn-yard. When a horse has been condemned to absolute repose on
good feeding he may have a laxative (one-half to one pound Glauber
salts), and have exercise, beginning with a short walk and increasing
day by day.
Treatment. In mild cases give a laxative, graduated daily exercise,
and a daily dose of saltpeter (one ounce). Sudden attacks will some-
times promptly subside if taken on the instant and the subject kept still
and calmed by a dose of bromide of potassium (four drams) and sweet
spirits of niter (one ounce), ‘The latter has the advantage of increasing
the secretion of the kidneys. In severe cases, as a rule, it is desirable to
begin treatment by a full dose of aloes (four to six drams) with the
above-named dose of bromide of potassium, and this latter may be con-
tinued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be requisite to calm the
nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm water over the loins are
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 121
always useful in calming the excitable condition of the spinal cord,
muscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favoring secretion from the two
latter. On the second day give diuretics, such as saltpeter, one-half
ounce, and powdered colchicum, one-half dram, to be repeated twice
daily. A laxative may be repeated in three or four days should the
bowels seem to demand it, and as the nervous excitement disappears
any remaining muscular weakness or paralysis may be treated by one-
half dram doses of nux vomica twice a day and a stimulating lini-
ment (aqua ammonia and sweet-oil in equal proportions) rubbed on the
torpid muscles.
During the course of the disease friction to the limbs is useful. When
the patient can not stand he must have a thick, soft bed, and should
be turned from side to side at least twelve hours. As soon as he
can be made to stand he may be helped up and even suprpoRTED in
a sling.
Chronic Inflammation of the Kidneys. Chronic inflamma-
tion of the kidneys is more commonly associated with albumen and casts
in the urine than the acute form, and in some instances these conditions
of the urine may be the only prominent symptoms of the disease.
‘Though it may follow blows, injuries, and exposures, it is much: more
commonly connected with faulty conditions of the system, such as indi-
gestion, heart disease, lung or liver disease, imperfect blood formation or
assimilation. In short, it is rather the attendant on a constitutional in-
firmity than on a simple local injury.
It may be associated with various forms of diseased kidney, as shrink-
age (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red congestion, white
enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases rather than a
disease by itself.
Symptoms. There may be stiffness, weakness, and increased sensibil-
ity of the loins, and modified secretion of urine (increase or suppression )
or the flow may be natural. Usually it contains albumen, the amount
furnishing a fair criterion of the gravity of the affection, and microscopic
casts, also most abundant in bad cases. Dropsy shown by swelled legs,
is a significant symptom, and if the dropsy takes place along the lower
line of the body, or in chest or abdomen, the significance is increased.
A scurfy, unthrifty skin, lack-luster hair, inability to sustain severe
or continued exertion, poor or irregular appetite, loss of fat and
flesh, softness of the muscles, and pallor of the eyes and nose are
equally suggestive. So are skin eruptions of various kinds. Any
122 THE HORSH.
one or more of these symptoms would warrant an examination of
the urine for albumen and casts, the finding of which signifies renal
inflammation.
Treatment. This is not always satisfactory, as the cause is liable
to be maintained in the disorders of important organselsewhere. If any
such disease of another organ or function can be detected, that should
be treated first or simultaneously with this affection of the kidneys. In
all cases the building up of the generai health is important. Hence a
course of tonics may be given (phosphate of iron, two drams; nux vom-
ica, twenty grains; powdered gentian root, four drams, daily), or sixty
drops of sulphuric acid or nitro-muriatic acid may be given daily in the
drinking water. If there is high temperature of the body and tender-
ness of the loins, fomentations may be applied, followed by a mustard
pulp as for acute inflammation, and even in the absence of these symp-
toms the mustard may be used with advantage at intervals of a few days.
In suppression of urine, fomentations with warm water or with infusion
of digitalis leaves is a safer resort than diuretics, and cupping over the
loins may also benefit. To apply a cup shave the skin and oil it; then-
take a narrow-mouthed glass, rarify the air within it by introducing a
taper in full flame for a second, withdraw the taper and instantly apply
the mouth of the glass to the skin and hold it closely applied till the
cooling tends to form a vacuum in the glass and to draw up the skin,
like a sucker.
As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to secure
warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air.
Bloody Urine or Heematuria. Bloody urine in the horse is
usually the result of injuries, as sprains and fractures of the loins, lacera-
tions of the sub-lumbar muscles, irritation caused by stone in the kid-
ney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. Bloody urine may occur with acute
congestion of the kidney, with tumours in its substance, or diseased
growth in the bladder. The presence in the food of acrid diuretic plants
may lead to the escape of blood from the kidney. ‘The horse is not as
predisposed to Bloody Urine as the ox or sheep, the reason is that there
is greater plasticity of the horse’s blood in connection with the larger
quantities of fibrine. If the blood comes from the kidneys it is likely to
be found diffused through the urine, while if it comes from the bladder
or urinal passages it-is usually present in blood clots. Again if the
blood comes from the kidney, the microscope will reveal minute cylin-
drical blood clots surrounding blood-globules. ‘The location of the in-
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS, 123,
jury may be better ascertained by observing whether there is sprain of
the loins, stone, or tumour of the bladder or urethra.
Treatment. Since the disease is mainly due to direct injury, the
cause should be removed if possible, and then general and local syptics
should be applied. Irritants in the food must be avoided; if from sprain,
give it proper treatment; if stone in the bladder or urethra it should be
removed. Give freely of slippery-elm or linseed tea, and doses of the
following : three drams of tincture of chloride of iron; one-half dram of
the acetate of lead; one-half dram of tannic acid; or one ounce of the oil
of turpentine. If the bloody discharge is considerable in quantity apply
cold water to the loins and keep the animal very quiet.
Acute Inflammation of the Kidneys or Acute Nephritis.
The inflammations of the kidneys have been variously divided according
to their varying symptoms and conditions, but for ordinary utility it is
sufficiently extended to divide into AcuTE and CHRONIC.
CausEs. The causes of inflammation of the kidneys are varied and the
congestion may be the result of any of the following :
1. Altered and irritant products passing through the kidneys during
inflammation of other organs, and during fevers. The inflammation
may last during the existence of the cause, or may continue and become
aggravated.
2. The blood-pressure being thrown back on the veins and kidneys as
a result of heart disease.
3. The escape of urine from the kidney being prevented by disease of
the ureter or bladder, thereby causing increased fullness in the pelvis and
tubes of the kidney.
4. When urine is detained in the kidneys from any cause, it becomes
decomposed and produces ammonia and irritants.
5. The advance of bacteria from the bladder to the kidney through
the ureter.
6. The receiving into the body with hay or other fodder acrid or irri-
tating plants, including fungi.
7. The absorption of cantharidine from a surface blistered by Spanish
flies, (cantharides); the reckless giving of diuretics; the presence of cal-
culi (stones) in the kidney; exposure to cold and wet; and blows on the
loins or sprains.
8. Liver disorders which throw on the kidneys the work of excreting
irritating products.
124 THE HORSE.
Symptoms. ‘These are more or less fever; stiffness of the back and
a straddling gait with the hind legs; evident difficulty in lying down and
rising; the animal will sometimes groan with pain if compelled to walk
in a circle; arching of the loins and tucking up of the flanks; looking
back at the belly as if there were colicky pains, and tenderness of
the loins to pinching, especially just beneath the bony process six
inches from the median line, (See manikin for location of kidneys, and
also page 60 the last four lines of Srupy or SYMPTOMS. )
Urine is passed frequently, a small quantity at a time, of a high color,
and sometimes mixed with blood or even pus. Under the microscope it
shows microscopic casts. The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also
the dependent parts beneath the belly, and chest, and effusions of liquid
may occur within the chest or abdomen. In the male animal the alter-
nate drawing up and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are sug-
gestive, and in small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum
may reach the kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness.
Treatment. This consists in removing any cause that may be recog-
nized. Then, if the suffering and fever are high, two or four quarts of
blood may be abstracted from the jugular vein; in weak subjects unless
in high fever this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys as far as
possible by throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint of cas-
tor oil is less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the kidneys. Tro
affect the skin a warm stall and heavy clothing may be supplemented
by dram doses of Dover’s powder. (Dover’s Powder consists of sixty
grains ipecac in No. 60 powder, sixty grains powdered opium, four
hundred eighty grains sugar of milk in No. 30 powder). Boiled flaxseed
may be added to the drinking water, and also thrown into the rectum as
an injection, and blankets saturated with hot water should be persistently
applied to the loins. This may be be followed by a very thin pulp of
the best ground mustard made with tepid water, rubbed in against the
direction of the hair, and covered up with paper anda blanket. This
may be kept on for an hour, or until the skin thickens and the hair
stands erect. It may then be rubbed or sponged off and the blanket re-
applied. When the action of the bowels has been started it may be kept
up by a daily dose of two or three ounces of Glauber salts.
During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica one scruple,
ground gentian root four drams), should be given. The patient should
also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some time
after all active symptoms have subsided.
CHAPTER IX.
GALLS AND BRUISES.
Their Effects and How to Avoid Them.
ABSCESSES OR BOILS CAUSED BY CONTUSION, BRUISES AND THEIR
TREATMENT, CHAFING BY THE HARNESS, AND SADDLE OR COLLAR
GALLS, ETC.
ouNDs and bruises often produce inflammation as a result of the
injury of the affected part. If the wound is a puncture of some
joint as the hock, fetlock, or knee, often there is discharged
a thin, whitish or yellowish fluid, called joint-oil, or joint-water.
If it is a bruise it often causes abscesses or the accumulaticn of pus. If
it is caused by a continued rubbing, (chafing) it often leads to sores
that are hard to heal, and even when healed the hair often grows in
white or there is left a calloused condition of the skin.
Abscesses. These consist of accumulations of pus within circum-
scribed walls, at different parts of the body, and may beclassed as acute,
and cold or chronic abscesses.
Acute abscesses follow as the result of local inflammation in glands,
muscular tissue, or even bones. ‘They are very common in the two
former. ‘The abscesses most commonly met with in the horse (and the
ones which will be here described) are those of the salivary glands,
occurring during the existence of “‘strangles’’ or ‘‘colt distemper.*’
The glands behind or under the jaw are seen to slowly increase in size,
becoming firm, hard, hot, and painful: At first the swelling is uni-
formly hard and resisting over its entire surface, but in a little while
126 THE HORSE.
becomes soft (fluctuating) at some portion, mostly in the center. From
this time on the abscess is said to be ‘‘pointing’’ or ‘‘coming to a head,”’
which is shown by a small elevated or projecting prominence, which at
first is dry, but soon becomes moist with transuded serum. The hairs
over this part loosen and fall off, and in a short time the abscess opens,
the contents escape, and the cavity gradually fills up—heals by granu-
lations.
Abscesses in muscular tissue are usually the result of bruises or inju-
ries. In all cases where abscesses are forming we should hurry the
ripening process by frequent hot fomentations and poultices. When
they are very tardy in their development a blister over their surface is
advisable. It isacommon rule with surgeons to open an abscess as
soon as the pus can be plainly felt, but this practice can scarcely be rec-
ommended to owners of stock indiscriminately, since this little operation
frequently requires an exact knowledge of anatomy. It will usually be
found the better plan to encourage the full ripening of an abscess and
allow it to open of itself. This is imperative if the abscess is in the re-
gion of joints, etc. When open, we must not squeeze the walls of the
abscess to any extent. They may be very gently pressed with the fin-
gers at first to remove the clots (inspissated pus) but after this the ori-
fice is simply to be kept open by the introduction of a whalebone probe,
should it be disposed to heal too soon.
If the opening is at too high a level another should be made into the
lowest portion of the abscess. Hot fomentations or poultices are some-
times required for a day or two after an abscess has opened, and are
particularly indicated when the base of the absess is hard and indu-
rated. As a rule, injections into the cavity of abscesses are not in-
dicated, though in cases of serous abscesses (if one may be allowed
such latitude of terms), as cysts of the elbow, knee, etc., astringent in-
jections (sulphate of zinc, fifteen grains to the ounce of water) are
required to cause adhesions of the walls of the cavity and prevent it
from refilling. If abscesses are foul and bad-smelling their cavities
must be syringed with a weak solution of carbolic acid or other an-
tiseptics.
Cold abscess is the term applied to those large, indolent swellings that
are the result of a low or chronic form of inflammation, in the center of
which there is a small collection of pus. These are mostly met with at
the base of the neck and in front of the shoulder joint. The swelling is
diffuse and of enormous extent, but slightly hotter than surrounding
GALLS AND BRUISES. 127
parts, and not very painful upon pressure. There is a pronounced stiff-
ness, rather than pain, evinced upon moving the animal. Such ab-
scesses have the appearance of a hard tumor, surrounded by a softer
cedematous swelling, involving the tissues to the extent of a foot or
more in all directions from the tumor. ‘This diffused swelling gradually
subsides and leaves the large, hardened mass somewhat well defined.
One of the characteristics of cold abscesses is their tendency to remain
in the same condition for a great length of time. There is neither heat
nor soreness; no increase nor lessening in the size of the tumor; it re-
mains statu quo. If, however, the animal should be put to work for a
short time the irritation of the collar causes the surrounding tissues to
again assume an cedematus condition, which, after a few days’ rest, dis-
appear, leaving the tumor as before or but slightly larger. Upon care-
ful manipulation we may discover what appears to be a fluid deep seated
in the center of the mass. The quantity of matter so contained is very
small (often not more than a tablespoonful) and for this reason it can not
in all cases, be detected.
Cold abscesses are mostly, if not always, caused by the long-contin-
ued irritation of a loose and badly fitting collar. There is a slow in-
flammatory action going on, which results in the formation of a small
quantity of matter, inclosed in very thick and but partially organized
walls, that are not as well defined as is the circumference of fibrous tu-
mors, which they most resemble.
Treatment. he means recommended to bring the acute abscess
“to a head’’ are but rarely effectual with this variety; or, if successful,
too much time has been occupied in the cure. We must look for other
and more rapid methods of treatment. These consist in, first of all,
cirefully exploring the tumor for the presence of pus. The incisions
must be made over the softest part, and carried deep into the tumor (to
its very bottom if necessary), and the matter allowed to escape. After
this, and whether we have found matter or not, we must induce an active
inflammation of the tumor in order to promote solution of the thick
walls of the abscess. This may be done by inserting well into the in-
cision a piece of oakum or cotton saturated with turpentine, carbolic
acid, tincture of iodine, etc., or we may pack the incision with powdered
sulphate of zinc and keep the orifice plugged for twenty-four hours.
These agents set up a destructive inflammation of the walls. Suppura-
tion follows, and this should now be encouraged by hot fomentations
and poultices. The orifice must be kept open, and should it be dis-
128 THE HORSE.
posed to heal we must again introduce some of the agents above
described. A favored treatment with many, and it is probably the
best, is to plunge a red-hot iron to the bottom of the incision, and
thoroughly sear all parts of the walls of the abscess. This is to be
repeated after the first slough has taken place, if the walls remain thick-
ened and indurated.
' Itis useless to waste time with fomentations, poultices, or blisters in
the treatment of cold abscesses, since, though apparently removed by
such methods, they almost invariably return again when the horse
is put to work. Extirpation by the knife is not practical, as the
walls of the tumor are not sufficiently defined. If treated as above
directed, and properly fitted with a good collar after healing, there will
not remain any track, trace, or remembrance of the large, unsightly
mass.
Bruises. These are nothing but contused wounds, where the skin
has not been ruptured. There is often considerable solution of continuity
of the parts under the skin, subcutancous hemorrhage, ete., which may
result in local death (mortification) and slough of the bruised part. If
the bruise or contusion is not so severe, very many cases are quickly
cured by constant fomentation with hot water for from two to four
hours. The water should be allowed, about this time, to gradually be-
come cool and then cold. Cold fomentation must then be kept up for
another hour or two. Dry the parts thoroughly and quickly, and bathe
them freely with camphor one ounce, sweet oil eight ounces.
AN ENGLISH DORSET HORN YEARLING RAM.
The Dorsets are a quiet, docile, hardy breed, and will adapt them-
selves readily to varying conditions. They get their growth early, and
when fed on turnips alone, at two years will weigh one hundred twenty-
five. ‘The fleece is not heavy, but yields about six pounds of soft, clean,
white wool. The lambs produce the ‘‘lamb’s wool’’ of which babies’
underclothing is often made.
370 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
The Dorsets, when crossed with the Southdown, do not produce so
many twins, but the lambs will shear about two pounds of very soft,
valuable wool. These lambs, when full-grown, are larger than their
Dorset mothers, and are a larger and thriftier sheep, with a heavier and
finer fleece.
They have been imported into this country, and are beginning to
attract attention. ‘ af
| ;
:
ee
YY ee per Y
ae
A LINCOLN RAM.
The Lincoln. ‘This is one of the ‘‘long-wool’’ sheep which orig-
inated in the rich low-lands of England. These lands, however, were
so productive of high-priced, marketable crops, that the sheep have been
driven from their native soil to the uplands. All the other of the well-
known ‘‘long-wool’’ varieties have been almost entirely driven out from
this low, rich, alluvial soil, leaving the Lincoln almost undisputed pos-
session.
This breed is the heaviest bodied sheep in existence. Full-grown
sheep of this variety have dressed nearly one hundred pounds per quar-
ter. Itis not an unusual thing for yearlings to dress one hundred
pounds and shear a dozen pounds of wool. This breed will be called a
long-wooled sheep, because the wool, when full grown, often measures
nine inches in length. There is a record of twenty-six pounds and six
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 371
ounces having been cut from a fourteen months old lamb of this
variety.
The Lincoln requires great care and skillful management. The soil
must be rich and produce sweet herbage in abundance. It is not at
present the sheep for the general farmer in America, and if it has a
place in this country it is apparently only in the hands of a skillful
breeder.
A fine flock of these sheep has been imported into America and
their adaptability to our climate is being tested.
AE
A TYPICAL SUFFOLK RAM.
Uy
The Leicester. Originally this breed was a large, heavy, coarse
animal, with poorly flavored flesh. It had flat sides on a thin carcass,
which was large boned. They were poor feeders, light weight, and the
had long, coarse wool, of poor quality. ;
But by a systematic breeding the sheep has changed its character and
to-day is found without horns and a white face and legs. Its head is
fine and small and has no wool on the poll. It has a deep neck and
broad shoulders, a broad, straight, flat back, a large, bright eye, and a
deep body. Its legs are clean and the bones are small.
The flesh is sweet, but has too much outside fat to be desirable. Its
fleece is fine, white, silky, and glossy, and of medium length, weighing
six to eight pounds.
372 SHEEP IIUSBANDRY.
The Leicester as now bred is not a hardy sheep, and requires good
care, extra good shelter, and special attention to keep it in a thriving
condition. It can not be called a farmer’s sheep, and unless improved,
will not become valuable to the American farmer, only as a cross to
refine the wool of the Cotswold, by a judicious cross.
a ‘ : =a a. ee Ss
——SS= ——— =
SSS
PRIZE WINNING BORDER LEICESTER EWE.
The Cotswold. ‘‘This breed has become so common in America,
and has been bred so extensively without fresh importations of new blood
that it may well be adopted as a native sheep. Many excellent flocks
are now self-sustaining, and under their American nativity lose nothing
of their original excellenee.
They were originally very coarse animals, with thick heavy fleece,
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 373
well adapted to their home upon the bleak exposed Cotswold hills. So
valuable and staple a breed could uot long remain without improvement.
Naturally, the sweet nutritious herbage of the limestone covering these
hills, favored this improvement, and as the pastures became enclosed,
and agriculture improved in character, the flocks improved with it.
The modern Cotswold is still capable of enduring hardship and expos-
ure, and is at home on all sorts of soils. It produces a large carcass of
excellent mutton, and a heavy fleece of valuable combing wool, adapted
by its peculiar character for a class of goods of wide consumption, it be-
ing in demand for various manufactures from the small matters such as
worsted dress braids, up to various kinds of cloth for men’s and women's
garments. Moreover the breed matures at an early age. It is not un-
usual to find sheep of one hundred twenty pounds and over, at a
year old. A full-grown sheep exhibited at a Christmas cattle market
in England, dressed three hundred forty-four pounds, or eighty-six
pounds per quarter. The weight of the fleece should average eight
pounds for a flock of all kinds. and some of our naturalized flocks sur-
pass this weight of fleece. The description of a well-bred Cotswold is
as follows: the face and legs are white, but sometimes dashes of gray
or brown derived from the original stock, may be found on both face
and forelegs. The head is strong and massive with sometimes a Roman
nose, without horns, and having a thick forelock of wool upon the fore-
head. The neck and forequarters are not so square and heavy, nor the
brisket so prominent, as in the best Leicesters; but the hind quarters are
square, full, and the ribs well sprung, giving a round body; the flanks
are deep; the legs are clean, and of moderate length.’’—SHEPHERD’S
MANUAL.
Cross-Bred Sheep. At the present time there seems to be more
money in cross-bred sheep than in full ‘‘bred.’’ The wool producing
sheep are of slow growth and are slow in maturing. The ‘‘mutton’’
sheep are great eaters aud require the most careful treatment. They
have been so highly bred that they have weak constitutions, and are not
as good breeders as the farmer would like. By a judicious cross there is
still retained the quick growth, early maturity, and the good quality of
the mutton. The sheep are more hardy, more easily kept, and produce
more pounds of marketable mutton at a less cost than the pure ‘‘bloods.”’
The most conspicuous crosses are the Cotswold—Merino; the South-
down—Merino; the Leicester—Merino; the Cotswold—Leicester; and
the Cotswold—Southdown.
374 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
HOW TO TELL THE AGE OF SHEEP AND OTHER
USEFUL FACTS.
Teeth as an Indication of Age. The sheep has eight incisors
or cutting teeth, which are all found upon the lower jaw. The remain-
der of the teeth, twenty-four in number, are divided among the upper
and lower jaws equally. While there isa general rule as to dentition in
sheep, yet there are few breeds that mature early, and what would be
correct in judging the ages of one class of sheep, would not be accurate
in another. The following are the accepted periods of dentition, and
may be found useful in determining the age of a sheep:
At one month there are eight temporary front teeth or INCISORS, aud
three temporary MOLARS on each side of each jaw.
At three months there will be added a permanent MOLAR to the three
temporary ones.
At nine months there will appear the second permanent MOLAR.
At twelve months the first pair of permanent INCISORS appear. ‘This
is often delayed till about the age of fourteen months.
At eighteen months the third permanent MOLAR appears.
At twenty-one months there will be four permanent INCISORS.
At twenty-seven months the temporary MOLARS drop out and permia-
neut ones begin to show.
At thirty months there are six permanent INCISORS.
At forty months all the eight permanent INCISORS have appeared.
Relative Weight of Carcass. The result of experiments in
which sheep were weighed before slaughtering, and the carcass weighed
after, showed the value of dressed meat less the caul fat to be a little
over one-half the live weight.
Ticks on Lambs and Sheep. Ticks often appear on lambs and
sheep late in the spring, and are annoying to the animal and injurious
to their constitution. The best remedy for this pest is to dip both the
sheep and lambs into water into which coarse tobacco has been steeped,
in the proportion of four pounds of tobacco to twenty gallons of water.
When thoroughly steeped add one pound of flowers of sulphur. The
liquid should be kept warm while dipping the animals, by adding fresh
hot liquid. A temperature of 120° F. is necessary to kill the tick. The
liquid that drips from the sheep should be caught and reheated and
used again.
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 375
DISEASES COMMON TO SHEEP, THEIR CAUSES,
PREVENTION, AND TREATMENT.
Constipation or Costiveness. This is more of a symptom of an
approaching disease, than a disease in itself. It occurs occasionally
upon flocks going from pasture to dry food. In such cases feed the
animals a little linseed-cake meal or some succulent root. If stubborn,
give one ounce of linseed oil, and inject warm soap and water.
When the costiveness is so severe or of so long standing as to cause
the animal to stretch itself and stand with its feet spreading apart, rais-
ing its head and curving its back, give once a day one tea-spoonful of
Flowers of Sulphur, mixed with a small quantity of molasses, which
should be put on the animal’s tongue to be swallowed.
Diarrhea or Scours. The opposite of costiveness. This is likely
to occur upon turning sheep to pasture in the spring, or when fed rich
succulent green food. This is not dangerous in itself, but may, by re-
ducing the strength of the animal, cause complications. A regular sup-
ply of salt, careful regulation of food, and the avoiding of sudden
changes will usually prevent this symptom of disease. Give two table-
spoonfuls of the following twice a day, and if a lamb, about one-half the
quantity, eccording to age:
4 drams Pulverized Ginger,
8 drams Catechu,
2 ounces Prepared Chalk,
1 dram Opium,
Mix with one pint peppermint water, and always shake the bottle
before using.
The diarrhea may be caused by irritating substances in the intestines,
and is shown by there being a slimy matter in the passages from the
bowels. In this case the treatment should be to remove the irritating
matter and therefore a physic should be given, as follows:
1 dram Ginger,
1 ounce Epsom Salts,
or,
1 dram Ginger,
2 ounces Linseed Oil.
Give the above in gruel. Follow the treatment by a careful nursing
and feeding.
376 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
Diarrhea or ‘““White Scours.’’ In the nursing lamb diarrhea
takes the form of a liquid discharge of a white color. The milk passes
through the body without digestion, and to this condition is given the
name ‘‘White Scours.’’ This sometimes is caused by the milk of the
mother being changed by feeding upou some succulent food. In such
cases change the food of the ewe to a more solid and nutritious food. If
it comes from a disordered condition of the digestive organs of the lamb,
give the following physic :
5 drops Essence of Ginger,
1 tea-spoonful Linseed Oil.
As soon as it has operated, give two tea-spoonfuls of the following
twice a day:
1 ounce Prepared Chalk,
$ dram Opium,
2 drams Powdered Ginger,
4 drams Powdered Catechn.
Mix in one pint of peppermint water. Always shake well before
administering.
Dysentery. Many people are not able to distinguish the difference
between diarrhea and dysentery, yet they are two different conditions
and require different treatment. They are often induced by the same
conditions but the discharge from the bowels is of a different c!:aracter.
In dysentery there is more or less fever according to the severity of the
case. The dung mixed with mucus and blood shows that the lining
of the bowels is inflamed. The discharge is frequent, lumpy and scanty
and has a fetid smell. The voiding of the discharge is attended with
pain, causing the sheep to arch its back and moan. The wool often
loosens from the pelt after the disease has been running a short time.
The treatment for this disease is to first remove the contents of the
bowels, together with some anodyne to ease the pain. The following
may be given mixed in oat-meal or linseed gruel:
2 grains Powdered Opium,
2 ounces Linseed Oil.
Give oat-meal gruel as a nourishment quite frequently during the day,
and then follow for several days with daily doses of the following:
2 grains Powdered Opium,
1 dram Ginger.
If the bowels do not become regular or are constipated give one ounce
of oil every other day.
SHEEP HUSBANDRY, 377
This disease is Induced by dry indigestible food; impure water; a lack
of water; neglected diarrhea: and feeding in a pasture in warm weather;
that has been occupied by sheep that have had this disease, the sheep
taking the poison from the grass that has been contaminated by their
discharges.
Inflammation of the Bowels. This is not a common disease in
this country, but occurs occasionally as the result of continued indiges-
tion or bad feeding and bad water in warm weather. ‘The disease makes
its first appearance by weeping and redness of the eyes, and a tired and
pained expression to the face. There is a loss of appetite and no rumi-
nation (chewing of the cud). There is weakness and staggering, swell-
ing of the flanks, high fever and difficult breathing.
To prevent its spread, if it once makes its appearance, change the pas-
ture to high grounds and supply plenty of pure water. It is not conta-
gious and only spreads when conditions favor the disease. When the
sheep are put back in their old pasture, as a preventive give them salt
which has had one ounce each of the sulphate of iron, powdered gentian
and powdered ginger mixed with every six pounds.
To cure, give an ounce of Linseed or Castor Oil, or Epsom salts, and
follow after it has operated with one dram doses of the Sulphite of Soda,
twice a day. The food should be glutinous and semi-liquid, such as oat-
‘ meal or linseed gruel. Unless the animal is very valuable, it is a ques-
tion whether it will pay to attempt a cure in a serious case, as the
recovery is slow, and the debility caused by the disease is of itself
often fatal.
Hoven. This is a disease common to ruminants and as the sheep is
one of this class, it, like the others, is subject to the disease. It arises
from the forming of gases by the food that is in the first stomach or ru-
men. ‘This gascollects in such large quantities that the rumen (paunch)
is so distended that it presses forward against the diaphragm and inter-
feres with the action of both the heart and lungs. It shows it-
self outwardly by a distention of the left side of the abdomen, by which
the skin is tightly drawn until it seems in danger of bursting.
Treatment. An alkaline that will absorb the gas is the best treat-
ment. ‘The best alkaline fluid that can be given is as follows:
1 tea-spoonful Aqua Ammonia, (Hartshorn Water),
$ pint Water.
This should be given as a drench. A rubber tube of the proper size
should be kept on hand to be used as a probang. This could be forced
378 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
down and the gas could escape through the opening, and the alkaline
fluid could also be administered through it. If necessary an opening
may be made through the rumen with a small bladed knife if a trochar
and canula are not at hand. If a knife is used a goose-quill should be
inserted into the opening made, to allow the gas to escape. The alka-
line fluid could also be injected through the quill in the rumen by use of
acommon syringe. The opening should be made at the place where the
greatest swelling is apparent.
After the gas has somewhat subsided give with a horn, the following:
1 pint Water,
1 dram Powdered Ginger,
2 ounces Epsom Salts.
If the gas still continues givea dram of chloride of lime.
Cold or Catarrh. ‘This disease is caused by exposure to damp-
ness, sudden changes in temperature, or too warm a shed or pen. If
your flock is very carefully housed and then exposed by open doors, or
letting out into the yard, you may look for catarrh.
Protect your sheep from chilling rain-storms in winter, give them
plenty of ventilation, but no draft of cold air. Partly open sheds are to
be preferred to closed ones with open windows and doors for ventilation.
Chasing by dogs, or overdriving, thus overheating the animal, is a cer-
tain cause for colds.
The disease is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, lining the
throat, windpipe, and nostrils, and the sinuses of the head. It is the
same asa ‘‘cold’’? in man. ‘There isa mucus discharge from the nose,
caused by congestion of the membrane, and irritation and coughing.
Treatment. Give something to stimulate action, as a half tea-
spoonful of ground ginger. A small quantity of pine pitch or tar rubbed
on the nose, so that the sheep will lick it off, is beneficial. Usually
there is a fever and the nose is dry and hot, when it is best to give
1 dram Ground Ginger,
1 dram Saltpeter,
3 ounce Epso.u Salts.
Mix with molasses and give as a soft mixture. The dose may be
mixed with thin gruel and administered by means of a small drench-
ing horn.
Be sure and give good nursing and feed on slightly warm mucilaginous
drinks, as linseed or oat-meal gruel.
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 379
Bronchitis. This a catarrh or cold that has settled on the air pas-
sages in the lungs or bronchial tubes. This inflammation will rapidly
spread so as to affect the lungs. The cough is more prominent than in
a ‘‘cold in the head”’ or ‘“‘throat.’’ The pulse and breathing are quick-
er and there is a fever and poor appetite.
Treat same as for Cold or Catarrh, but continue longer and change
the dose to the following if the first does not seem to cause improve-
ment.
1 ounce Linseed Oil,
1 ounce Powdered Gentian,
1 dram Saltpeter.
Mix and give one dose a day for three days, reducing the last day the
amount of saltpeter to one-half dram. Keep animal dry and quiet, with
plenty of fresh air and pure water.
Inflammation of the Lungs. This is pneumonia and is quite
common. Often the sheep is too far gone with pneumonia before the
owner is aware that his sheep is sick. This disease to be cured requires
immediate and proper treatment or it will prove fatal.
Symptoms. There is a difficult and painful cough; a discharge of a
thick yellow mucus from the nostrils; a high fever attended with great
thirst; a hard, quick pulse; labored breathing and painful heaving of the
flanks; together with a loss of appetite.
Treatment. This is of no avail unless commenced immediately.
Bleed from the jugular vein, till animal staggers and give immediately
two ounces of Epsom salts. If this does not operate as a good physic,
in three hours give one-half a dose. Unlike the horse, the sheep seems
to do better with a good purging. Give rectum injections of oat-meal
or linseed gruel every two hours. Administer twice a day in gruel of
some kind.
20 grains Tartar Hmetic,
20 grains Powdered Digitalis,
1 dram Nitrate of Potash.
When the animal improves and moves about, give every four hours in
gruel, half dram of powdered Gentian. This disease in sheep as well
as in man is the result of carelessness, and by proper care and attention
can be avoided.
Influenza. This disease is due to causes which seem to exist at
times over extended portions of the country, and is liable to affect a
large number of animals at a time. It is not contagious, but breaks out
380 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
and spreads under conditions that are favorable to its propagation.
It is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal and
bronchial passages, which is accompanied with fever and prostration.
The whole system seems disturbed. There is redness of the eyes; run-
ning at the nose; indigestion, causing loss of appetite; a cough; and
great weakness. It is generally prevalent after a few days of cold, damp
weather, and is most severe along river bottoms, where fogs and mists
abound. During such weather carefully house and shelter the flocks,
and feed them some salt in which sulphur has been mixed in the pro-
portion of one pound of the flowers of sulphur to a peck of salt.
If the disease is mild, give the following purgative :
4 ounce Epsom Salts,
1 dram Ginger.
Mix in molasses and give by putting a small quantity at a time on the
back of the tongue with a wooden spatula.
If the animals are seriously affected, give every six hours,
1 ounce Solution of Acetate of Ammonia,
8 drops Tincture of Aconite.
At the third dose give only five drops of aconite, at the fourth only
three, and then give the aconite of ammonia alone. When convalescent,
feed on bran and linseed mashes, boiled Indian-corn mush, with a little
powdered ginger or gentian mixed in each mess.
Congestion of the Liver. This is caused by excessive feeding of
stimulating food and no exercise, in which case the liver is liable to be-
come gorged with blood. This excessive fullness of blood causes con-
gestion. It is caused by disordered digestion and involves the liver.
The symptoms are constipation, yellow tinge to the eyes, and dullness.
If the yellow tinge in the eye appears, do not delay treatment or it may
run into inflammation of the liver.
Give an active physic every morning until the yellow tinge in the eye
has disappeared, and there is an improvement in the appetite. The fol-
lowing purge may be mixed with molasses and given:
3 grains Calomel,
1 ounce Epsom Salts.
Always supply the sheep with a warm drink soon after giving the
medicine.
Inflammation of the Liver. By neglect, congestion of the liver
may turn to inflammation. When this happens the system becomes
fevered; the nose and mouth hot and dry; the breath fetid; the ears
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 381
cold; the eyes pale and glassy; the pulse is irregular; breathing is slow,
and the expirations short and sudden; the dung is dry, hard, black, and
glazed with a greasy yellowish-green mucus; the urine is highly colored,
scanty, hot, and smells disagreeably. Pressure on the right side, near
the short ribs, produces pain, and the animal moans.
The treatment consists of purgatives and injections. For a purgative
the following may be given twice a day in infusion of linseed or gum
Arabic, or in molasses, well mixed together and placed on the tongue:
2 drams Sulphate of Potash,
5 grains Calomel,
1 grain Powdered Opium.
Injections of warm water and castile soap may be given until the
bowels act freely.
When improvement occurs, and the appetite returns, great care in
feeding should be observed, and only the most easily digested food
should be given. Pulped sugar beet, scalded clover-hay, chaff, lin-
seed-meal, boiled meat, or sifted corn-meal, may be given with
linseed tea for drink, or water acidulated with a few drops of aromatic
sulphuric acid.
Poisoned by Sheep Laurel. The narrow-leaved Kalmia, (Kal-
mia angustifolia) is commonly called sheep laurel, because at certain
seasons of the year the sheep seems tempted to eat of the plant, which
often proves fatal to them. When poisoned by this plant they are lazy,
disinclined to move, froth at the mouth and nose, have a slower pulse
than usual, blood-shot eyes and a staggering gait. Laurel poisoning is
usually fatal within ten or twelve nours, and therefore immediate atten-
tion is necessary. Give at least two ounces of Epsom salts in a pint of
warm water, and give a pint of warm water every hour thereafter for
three or four hours. Use rectum injections of warm soap suds or oil,
which will help the poisonous matter to pass out of the bowels. Sheep
should not be allowed during the spring or winter to pasture where a
laurel grows. Beside the common sheep laurel, they will also feed on
the large leaved laurel, (Kalmia latifolia).
Injurious Effects of Plaster and Lime. It is very injurious
to sheep to turn them upon a pasture that has been freshly sown with
phosphate, bone-dust, plaster or lime, until there has been sufficient rain
to thoroughly wash these from the grasses.
Inflammation of the Bladder. This is the most frequent of the
diseases of the urinary organs. It is induced by eating too often and
382 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
too much corn meal, or drinking very hard water. The eating of St.
john’s-wort, rag-weed, and lobelia is often the cause of the disease.
It is an inflammation of the inner coat of the bladder, which usually
spreads to the muscle around the neck of the bladder, causing it to close
and prevent the passage of the urine. The bladder being thus filled
causes the animal to be uneasy, lift its hind feet and stamp with them,
spread them out, and strain itself in endeavoring to pass urine. As the
animal strains in its efforts to void the urine, it will moan in pain.
Bleed the animal from the neck, and give the following :
2 drams Laudanum,
2 ounces Linseed Oil.
If it is a small sized sheep or lamb, reduce the dose accordingly. If
the animal does not improve in forty-eight hours, bleed again and give
a half dose of the above and continue giving one dose a day until the
animal has improved.
Feed for some time on light mucilaginous foods, as oat-meal or linseed
gruel.
Inflammation of the Brain. This is caused by continued high
feeding or some condition of the digestive apparatus which causes a
“rush of blood’’ to the brain. It seldom appears only as a secondary
condition which has at first produced what is commonly called Staggers.
The animal is apparently temporarily blind, staggering about and run-
ning against walls and fences. The eyes are inflamed and swollen. By
giving a purgative of Epsom Salts, and mucilaginous diet, the animal
usually returns toits normal condition. If not and it runs into inflam-
mation of the brain, the symptoms are much more exaggerated. The
animal dashing here and there as if mad, and finally falls down and dies
in convulsions. ‘The remedies are not very successful, but copious bleed-
ing and purging with Epsom salts may relieve the animal and effect a
cure.
Water on the Brain. This a disease for which there is no cure,
and if a sheep is attacked it is best to dispose of it. If in a lamb, it is
not worth trying to raise. This disease is hereditary and if found in
any great numbers in a flock of lambs, the ram should be changed. If
it arises from the mothers, fatten them for the butcher.
Staggers. See Inflammation of the Brain.
Diseases of the Feet. The foot of the sheep is subject to many
disorders. ‘The formation of the foot is unlike that of the horse, because
there are no layers of horn between the outside crust and the tender tis-
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 383
sues inside. Its growth is not like that of the horse, which grows from
the coronet downward, but grows from all parts of the inner tissues.
The outside crust is worn off to an edge by contact with the ground, and
if the sole and crust are worn equally, it shows the foot to be in a
healthy condition. But if the growth is unequal it shows that disease is
present.
Contagious Foot-Rot. This disease is very contagious, and un-
less preventive measures are taken to stop its spreading, will often infect
the whole flock. In this disease there is an inflammation which seéms
to affect the whole hoof. Blisters form between the toes and upon the
heels. These blisters in a few days ulcerate and discharge a fetid mat-
ter. ‘This disease is usually confined to the fore-feet, the animal show-
ing how painful the disease is by going about upon its knees. If noth-
ing is done to stop the disease, in a short time the hoofs are all des-
troyed, and the animal is left with only wounded stumps.
Commence treatment, if possible, before ulceration sets in, because
after this has commenced it takes a long time to cure the animal. As
soon as a case of lameness appears, examine for its cause. It may be a
case of common Foot-rot or Gravel, (which see, for a description of its
symptoms) or a case of Contagious Foot-rot. Ifthe latter, remove all
loose, raw, diseased horn, by cutting itaway. Should the outside horn
be long at the toes, that too should be cut away, and if any pus is found
between the horn and the underlying tissues, the horn should be cut
away until it is exposed. At least twice a week clean the feet by wash-
ing them in water in which carbolic soap has been dissolved, and after
the thorough washing swab them thoroughly with the following
mixture.
1 ounce Arsenic,
6 ounces Acetic Acid,
3 pound Oxide of Copper,
1 pint Molasses.
If more convenient, or if an ointment is preferred, use the fol-
lowing :
1 pint Linseed Oil,
1 pound Powdered Sulphate of Copper,
3 pound Verdigris,
1 quart Pine Tar.
This is to be preferred in wet weather, as it will not wash off like the
solution by travelling in the wet grass. This disease is seldom seen on
dry pastures, except it is brought there by some flock that was affected,
384 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
therefore to cure, keep the sheep in dry pastures. It is said that some-
times this disease is contracted by sheep being put into the same pasture
where sheep were grazing even the year previous.
Common Foot-rot or Gravel. This is not contagious, and is
due to the excessive wear of the horny part of the hoof, caused by walk-
ing upon hard gravel or stony land, or by this crust of the hoof growing
too long in soft, moist pastures. In either case, gravel or some other
foreign matter gets between the crust and the underlying tissues, and
causes inflammation.
Remove the gravel or other foreign matter carefully, by means of a
sharp knife, or a knitting needle or awl. Then clease the foot and put
on the following antiseptic wash:
1 ounce Chloride of Zinc,
1 quart Water.
Blue vitriol may be used in the place of the chloride of zinc, if more
convenient. If the case proves very bad and ulcerates, the wash used
for contagious foot-rot should be applied.
The Sheep Gad-fly. This is a very annoying animal and causes
that disgusting condition, ‘‘Grub in the Head.’”? The gad-flies during
July and August disturb the sheep by trying to deposit their eggs upon
the sheep’s nose. Where the fly is in great numbers the sheep will
crowd together, stop feeding, and hold their noses to the ground, stamp
the feet in their efforts to evade this pest. The fly has a body about
one-half inch long, over which is spread two wings which will, when
extended, measure one inch across. The egg, is deposited on the
sheep’s nose, and as soon as hatched the grub crawls up the nostril
and remains in the sinuses of the head, living on the secretions of the
mucous membrane till the next spring, when it is ready to crawl down
and out, to form a chrysalis which in time will hatch a new gad-fly to
deposit its eggs on the nose of the innocent annimal. In entering the
nostrils and on leaving them the grub causes a great annoyance to the
sheep. The remedy is to prevent the fly from laying its egg on the
nostril, or destroying the egg if deposited. This is successfully accom-
plished by smearing the nose of the sheep every day or so during the
months of July and August with pine-tar diluted with oil, lard, or fresh
butter. This can be easily done by a brush as they pass out from a
yard through a long narrow passage only wide enough for one to pass
through at a time. When the grub gets ready to dislodge in the early
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 385
spring, an injection of good strong tobacco smoke will cause it to quickly
crawl out from its lodging place.
The Sheep Louse. The red sheep-louse, (trichodectes ovis) has
a pale yellow body marked with dark bands, but a head of red color.
This animal lives on the inner, upper parts of the fore and hind legs. It
irritates and annoys the sheep very much, and the sheep will force its
head through between the boards of a fence, so that it can rub the irri-
tated part, and they will often be found impinged and strangled or with
the legs broken in their attempts to again become free. Sheep that have
been dipped in tobacco and sulphur water to be cleared of ticks, are
usually free from this pest. An easy remedy is to rub the parts affected
with the following:
2 ounces Flowers of Sulphur,
1 pound Adeps, (Lard),
2 drops Creosote. .
One pint linseed, olive, or sweet oil may be substituted for the
lard.
Scab Insect. This is an external parasite which digs down into
the skin and finds for itself a lodging place within its tissues. The pres-
ence of the insect causes an irritation of the skin, which in its efforts to
dislodge the parasite secretes a serous-like fluid, which on drying on the
surface forms a scab, hence the name ‘‘scab-insect.’’ The female insect
is larger than the male, and one male suffices for many females and
lives longer. The eggs of the scab-insect are very numerous, and it
takes only three days to hatch, so one female insect can produce over a
million in ninety days. This wonderful increase explains why the dis-
ease spreads so rapidly through a flock, and the need of instant remedies
to drive out and effective preventives to keep it from spreading.
Symptoms. There is at first great uneasiness, and as the disease
progresses the sheep will be seen rubbing or scratching themselves, or
sticking their noses in the wool, biting and nibbling. The skin will be
at first white in color and a little swollen, which is indicated by being
thicker than the rest of the skin, and moist or covered with a yellow
serum. Later the serum forms into a scab and the wool falls off. Ifa
lock of this wool is examined by laying it upon a piece of white cloth,
the mites can be seen as they crawl upon it. If the insects are allowed
to increase in number the scabby spots will increase in size and number,
and great patches of the wool will fall off, leaving bare spots on which
thick brown or yellow scales are seen, and the sheep will be found rub
386 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
bing these bare places against trees and fences till they become great
sores.
Treatment. Many preparations have been tried and found effect-
ive, but many are objectionable on account of their poisonous properties.
The tobacco and sulphur wash recommended for sheep tick is a reliable
remedy. ‘The water should be applied at a temperature of 120° F. and
the sheep kept in the liquid until the wool is penetrated down to the
skin. This softens the scab, and as they are removed (which should be
done with care) the raw surfaces should be thoroughly wet with the
mixture. Do not let the sheep out on the pasture till the water has
ceased dripping, because the tobacco and sulphur might sicken the ani-
mals that ate the grass which it had fouled. Repeat the operation after
ten days to kill any newly-hatched insects. With care the animals can
be thoroughly rid of this parasite, and they can be kept free from them
as well as the sheep-tick and sheep-louse by dipping twice a year.
Castration. ‘‘This necessary operation should be performed as early
as possible, as there is less danger of evil effects following it than when
the lamb is older. The lining membrane of the scrotum is a continua-
tion of that of the abdomen, and when inflammation follows the opera-
tion, it is readily communicated to the abdomen, and peritonitis or in-
flammation of the membrane lining the cavity and enveloping the bowels
results, and this is generally fatal. A lamb a week old may be deprived
of the whole scrotum and testacles, by one stroke of a pair of shears,
without any danger or the loss of more than a few drops of blood. But
when the lamb has become some months old, the organ has become fully
developed as to nerves and vessels, and a more careful operation must
be performed. An excellent method is for the operator to sit upon a
long bench, with one of the lamb’s hind legs beneath each of his thighs,
the head and fore legs being held by an assistant. Taking the scrotum
in the left hand, he presses the testacles towards the lower end, making
the skin tight and smooth. He then makes a free incision with a sharp
knife at the bottom of the scrotum beneath each testacle; the membranes
which surround them are cut through, the cords and vessels which are
attached to them are scraped, not cut asunder, and the operation is com-
pleted. To castrate a mature ram, an incision is made at the bottom of
each compartment of the scrotum, each testacle being removed sepa-
rately, the cords and vessels being always scraped asunder. The main
point to secure is, to have the wound at the bottom of the scrotum, soas
to allow the pus, which will form within it, to escape. If this pus is re-
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 387
tained in the wound, it becomes absorbed, inflammation is communicated
to the adjacent parts, and a fatal termination is likely toensue. To pre
vent this, a small lock of wool is sometimes left in the wound, by which
it is kept open and the danger averted.’’—STEWART.
Docking. ‘‘This operation should be performed on all the lambs
when a week or two old. It is then but slighly painful. The best
method is to take the lamb between the knees, and hold its rump closely
against a block of wood. ‘Then drawing the skin of the tail towards the
rump; a boy gives the chisel a smart rap with a light mallet, and the tail
is severed at one stroke with a smooth cut which leaves the bone ina
good condition to heal quickly. A pinch of powdered copperas may be
placed on the stump of the tail to staunch any bleeeding, and to keep
off flies.’’—STEWART.
How to Feed a Lamb. A twin lamb, or one deprived of its
dam, that may need to be reared by hand, may easily be fed upon cow’s
milk, A fresh cow’s milk is the best fitted for this purpose. Ewe’s
milk is richer in solid mater than that of the cow, and the addition of a
teaspoonful of white refined sugar to the pint of cow’s milk will make it
more palatable to the lamb. At first not more than a quarter of a
pint of milk should be given at once. The milk should be freshly
drawn from the cow, and warmed up to 100° F. beforeit is fed. A con-
venient method of feeding milk to a lamb is to use a small tin can with
a long spout, such as is used for oil. An air-hole is punched in the cov-
er or cork and a piece of sponge covered with a cloth is tied upon the
end of the sponge. ‘The flow is then made easy and equal and the lamb
sucks in an easy manner. A very short time is sufficient to familiar-
ize the lamb with this kind of foster mother.
The Association of Dogs with Sheep. Itis a common prac-
tice among many farmers who have a large herd of sheep, to keep a dog
to assist in driving and caring for his flock. ‘There is a breed of dogs
which is very useful for this purpose, and if it was not for the fact that
dogs are infested with tape-worms they certainly would be a very desir-
able animal to have on the farm.
Dogs, beside the annual slaughter of very many valuable sheep, cause
death by transmitting to sheep a form of tape-worm. ‘The eggs of the
tape-worms are discharged in the dung of the dog upon fields and pas-
tures and are swallowed by the sheep with the green pasture, and the
worm is developed in the body of the sheep, either in the lungs, the ab-
domen, or the brain, causing a disease which prevents the sheep from
388 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
thriving and often causes death. The larva of this tape-worm is a small
watery bladder, or sac, which contains the undeveloped worm. ‘There
are two general varieties of these worms, one the intestinal tape-worm,
which is very rare, and the bladder worms, of which there are three
kinds. Of these bladder worms one variety, the diving bladder-worm,
inhabits the abdomen; another variety, the many-headed bladder-worm
finds a home in the liver; while the third inhabits the brain, and are
called the brain bladder-worm.
Diving Bladder-Worm. ‘These worms are found free in the abdo-
men; enclosed in the adipose tissue (fat); and attached to the liver and
intestines. They vary in size froma hickory-nut to ahen’s egg. They
sometimes are found as large as a goose’segg. These bladders when fed
to a dog, produce the mature teenia marginata (tape worm) about three
feet in length in about three months. ‘Then the sheep or lambs eating
the eggs of this worm produce the hydatids or bladder-worms. If they
are taken into the body in large quantities the animal will soon die.
Many Headed Bladder Worms. This parasite finds a home in
the lungs and liver of the sheep and other ruminants and also is found
in man. Itis a most dangerous parasite, because if it is taken into
the human stomach it may produce ‘‘bladders’’ in the brain. They grow
by a budding process and rapidly increase. It is most commonly found
in the brain. When the head of a sheep containing the bladder-worms
is eaten by a dog the larvee is changed into tape worms. ‘This worm or
its eggs pass out of the body of the dog upon the grass of the pasture
and the eggs are swallowed by the sheep. These eggs are hatched in
the stomach and go to all parts of the body, perishing everywhere but
in the brain, which is its usual habitation. They chiefly affect lambs, old
sheep seeming to be rarely inconvenienced by this parasite. One in-
fested dog will produce thousands of eggs. ‘To prevent the disease, do
not let the heads of sheep be devoured by dogs or hogs. Burn the
heads of the sheep that have died from the malady.
The presence of this parasite produces what is commonly known as
giddiness or turnside in which the sheep turns its head to the right or
left and walks around in a circle in the direction in which the head is
turned until it falls giddy and exhausted.
The location of the worm may be determined by a ‘‘soft spot’’ on the
skull. The worm causes absorption of the substance and the soft tissues
may be easily felt by pressure of the finger. "The treatment consists in
inserting a curved awl through the skull and piercing the bladder. The
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 389
water then escapes and is absorbed, leaving the worm to perish.
Hair-Worms in the Intestines. A species of ‘‘hair-worm’’
called from its peculiar formation TRICOCEPHALUS, is not uncommon in
sheep. It infests the stomach and intestines, causing obstinate diarrhea,
and rapid wasting of flesh. These worms burrow their heads into the
membrane lining the organs, which submits to no treatment while they
remain. A cough is often present along with the diarrhea. Other
species of worms, of habits identical with these, and producing the same
injurious effects, also infest the sheep, but more particularly lambs and
yearlings. Salt in doses of half an ounce, given on alternate days with
one dram doses of sulphate of iron, the salt being given on one day and the
iron the next, is a very sure remedy for this class of parasites, and the
disease which results from their presence. To counteract the debilitating
effect of these parasites, the food should be of the most nutritive and
digestible character, and linseed in some shape should not be omitted.
Tape-worms, or Teenia Plicata. The sheep themselves are
sometimes infested with mature tape-worms. This is easily explained
by the possibility of the sheep swallowing along with their pasture
some of the eggs which may have been voided by any of the numerous
bearers of these worms, both domesticated and wild.
Generally the symptoms developed by the presence of tape-worms are
voracity of appetite, alternating with a refusal of food; loss of condition,
desire to swallow earth, stones, sand, or ashes; the passage of soft dung,
mixed with mucus, which becomes attached to the vent and tail, causing
a very filthy condition; and the evidence of internal pain. The sheep
finally dies greatly emaciated. ‘There is no means of prevention, as the
eggs may be dropped by rabbits, squirrels, skunks, and other wild ani-
mals which frequent the fields. The treatment most effective is to ad-
minister turpentine as follows:
2 ounces Linseed Oil.
3 to 1 ounce Spirits of Turpentine.
This should be repeated twice a week for two weeks. If this is not
effective, three ounces of the Powdered root of Male Fern may be given.
The dose to be repeated in one week. In six hours after this is admin-
istered, a purgative of linseed-oil should be given. The food should be
of the best kind until the lost condition is restored.
‘Tape-worms in any of their forms of life, affect only young sheep and
lambs. When sheep attain the age of two years they are safe from
them, and it is very rare indeed that one older than this becomes in-
fested with them.
390 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
Lambs and Their Diseases. ‘‘ The diseases to which lambs are
subject are but few, and those are mainly the result of carelessness in
their management. The lamb, which appears so delicate and tender an
animal, is really hardy, and resists much ill treatment, else with so little
consideration as they usually receive, the race would soon become almost
extinct. Damp and cold are especially to be guarded against in the
spring, and filthy yards at all seasons. With clean pens and dry, clean
bedding, they will resist the severe dry colds of a northern January, and
thrive and grow while snowstorms rage, if only well sheltered. Sun-
shine has a remarkable effect upon lambs, and the warmth of the sun
will often revive and strengthen a weak lamb that appears past relief.
Extremes of damp and impure air in close pens, and bad drinking water,
will produce diarrhea and paralysis, and these are the chiefly fatal dis-
orders to which they are subject. Constipation is produced by want of
proper laxative food, and permitting them to feed on dry, withered herb.
age that has lost its nutritive qualities beneath the storms of a winter.
If, notwithstanding all possible care, some weakly lambs are found to
require treatment, the simple purgative (a teaspoonful of castor or raw
linseed oil) will be found effective, after two or three doses, in removing
the troublesome matter from their intestines, and restoring the bowels to
healthful action. If in‘any case, a stimulant seems to be needed, as
when great weakness and prostration are present, the safest is a tea-
spoonful of gin, given in a little warm water with sugar. A still more
gentle stimulant and anodyne, but one very effective in prolonged diar-
rhea, is prepared by adding to a pint of peppermint water, one ounce of
prepared chalk, a teaspoonful each of tincture of opium and tincture of
rhubarb ; it is worthy of the name given to it by shepherds, viz. : ‘‘ lambs’
cordial,’’ and at the lambing season no shepherd should be without a
supply of it. The dose is a teaspoonful for a lamb of a few days old,
up to a tablespoonful for one of a month. Exposure to cold rains
should be guarded against, and if by inadvertence a lamb is found chilled
and rigid from such exposure, it may generally be restored by means of
a bath of warm water and a teaspoonful of warm sweetened gin and
water. After the bath the lamb should be gently dried, wrapped in a
warm flannel, and placed near a fire or in a wooden box in a gently
heated oven of a common stove. Where the flock is large, and the
kitchen is not within reach, the shepherd should have the conveniences
of a shed and an old cooking-stove in which he can keep a fire sufficient
to heat the water bath, and provide a warm bed in the oven for any
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 391i
lamb that may need such attention; if the flock numbers several hun-
dred head in all, there will seldom be a day in our changeable spring
seasons when there will not be one or more patients to be treated.’’—
ALLEN.
Constipation in Lambs. This occurs quite frequently with
lambs, and when constipation is present, the dung is scanty and passed
at long intervals in glazed hard lumps. The lamb shows pain during
passage by arching its back and a peculiar but expressive action. To
relieve every six hours inject into the rectum warm water which has
been mixed with a half-ounce of linseed-oil. Two or three injections
are usually all that will be necessary. Feed the lamb on linseed gruel,
sweetened with molasses.
Spasmodic Colic in Lambs. This is shown by severe pains,
occurring spasmodically. ‘The lamb falls and struggles, or remains with
its eyes fixed. This generally accompanies constipation and always in-
digestion. To relieve the spasms give the following mixture with a
spoon: one dram tincture of Rhubarb; one dram carbonate of soda; two
ounces of warm water sweetened with molasses. After the spasms are
relieved, give half an ounce of linseed-oil.
Weaning Lambs. Do not remove the lambs from their dams
abruptly. It is injurious to both. It forces the lambs to load their
stomachs with food which they are not strong enough to digest, thereby
causing them to stop growing by a stinting of food and a nervous irrita-
tion consequent upon their sudden deprivation. The dams in full flow
of milk being deprived of relief, are liable to have the udder engorged
which is followed by congestion. This shock is very injurious and
consequently produces inflammatory disorders of the blood or garget. To
avoid these ill effects of a sudden change, remove the lambs to another
pasture, quite a distance away, giving them as companions the dry ewes
and wethers of the flock. A new pasture will cause them to forget their
dams and they being so far distant that they do not hear their bleating,
will remain quiet. At night turn them into the fold with the ewes
whose full udders they will soon relieve. Place the ewes on a short
pasture and deprive them gradually of any extra food hitherto given them
and in a couple of weeks their supply of milk gradually decreases, and
the lambs may be weaned with perfect safety to themselves and
the ewes.
‘‘After having been weaned, the lambs should have the first choice of
pasture and the best and tenderest cuttings of the fodder crops. Many
392 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
farmers have found it advantageous in every way to turn newly weaned
lambs into a field of corn in the month of August. The corn is too far
grown to be injured, the suckers only will be nibbled by the lambs, and
the weeds which grow up after the corn is laid by, will be eaten closely.
‘The lambs also have the benefit of a cool shade, and where such a field
can be conveniently applied to this purpose, there are several reasons
why it might well be done.
The condition of the ewes must not be neglected at this time. The
chief danger is in regard to those that are heavy milkers. Such sheep
should be closely watched, and the milk drawn by hand from those
whose udders are not emptied by the lambs. The first approach to hard-
ness or heat in the udder should be remedied by an immediate dose of
an ounce of epsom salts dissolved in water, and mixed witha tea-spoonful
of ground ginger. The next two days twenty grains of saltpetre should
be given each morning and evening, to increase the action of the kid-
neys. ‘These remedies will generally relieve the udder, and will tend to
greatly reduce the secretion of milk. If hay is given in place of grass,
and the ewe confined in a cool darkened pen, the drying up of the milk
will be hastened.”’
Vermicular Bronchitis. This disease is caused by a white thread-
fikeworm, the Strong ylus filaria, commonly called the lung worm or ‘‘lung
strangle.’’ The symptoms are those of bronchitis with the exception
that the whole herd is affected, and mucus is coughed up and the above
described worms either singly or in bundle are found. A husky cough
is followed by a dry, staring coat, difficult breathing and advancing
emaciation, with diarrhea. This disease when appearing in lambs is
called ‘‘ Hoose.’’
Treatment. Feed liberally on roots, oats, beans, and linseed cake,
to which may be added a mixture of equal parts of gentian, ginger, and
sulphate of iron in the proportion of a scant 1% ounce to each lamb three
months old and over, every other day. Free access to salt and abundant
dry feed is indicated. For the worms a teaspoonful of salt and oil of
turpentine in milk should be given every other day before eating.
SWINE.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
Their Diseases and How to Cure Them.
ROOTING, AND ITS PREVENTION, SOWS EATING THEIR
PIGS, CURING AND PRESERVING, SWINE BREED-
ING AND FEEDING.
HE importance and value of the swine to the people of the United
States is shown by the statistics of the last census. Here by care-
fully prepared tables the income is shown to be equal to that de-
rived from the sale of cattle. There are few people who are aware
that nearly one-half of the swine in the world are reared and fattened in
this country.
Nearly every farmer keeps a few swine, to which he feeds much to
the by-products, which would otherwise go to waste. Others produce
for the market, and it is of importance to them to get as much profit out
of the few or many as possible. This can only be done by a thorough
understanding of the peculiar characteristics of the various breeds and
the advantages to be derived from each variety. Then studying the
conditions about which you will be compelled to surround your animals,
you can determine the value to you of the various breeds. It is cer-
tainly a well established fact, that a breed exactly suited to the wants of
farmers in one locality might not be suited to the needs of those in other
portions of the country who make pork for a different purpose and under
widely different circumstances and for different markets. And further
the man who raises only one or two pigs for his own consumption, and
keeps them the whole of their lives in a small pen, wants a different
breed from the man who has large hog pazsures.
394 SWINE.
The Berkshires. From 1820 to 1833 this breed was largely im-
ported into the United States and sold at exorbitant prices. But the
careless neglectful system of farming then so common, caused the breed
to lose the good qualities given them by the English, who at that
time gave them careful management as regards both their breeding and
feeding. The breed so deteriorated that the farmers became prejudiced
and for years afterwards would hardly accept a Berkshire as a gift.
But at the close of the Civil war new importation of the finest speci-
mens of English bred Berkshires that could be found, were made. The
character of farming having changed from back-woods to more modern,
and the good qualities of the Berkshires becoming known, they have
become as popular to-day as they were despised sixty years ago.
Their good qualities may be stated as follows:
Great vitality, which renders them less liable to disease than many
other breeds.
They have great muscular power and are very active.
They have good digestive and assimilating power. They therefore
return a large amount of fat and flesh for the quantity of food eaten.
‘The sows are careful mothers, good sucklers and are very prolific.
The pigs at birth are strong and active and therefore are not liable to
mishaps.
They are easily fattened at any age for market, yet can be fed to any
reasonable weight.
There flesh is of a very fine quality.
They are uniform in color, markings, and quality.
The male when used as a cross transmits the good qualities of the
breed to its progeny.
Characteristics. The ‘‘Swine Breeders’’ Convention at New York
gave the following as a good description of the characteristics and
markings of the Berkshires: Color black, with white on feet, face, tip
of tail, and an occasional splash of white on the arm; while a small spot
of white on some other part of the body does not argue an impurity of
blood, yet it is to be discouraged to the end that uniformity of color may
be attained by breeders; white upon one ear, or a bronze or copper spot
on some part of the body argues no impurity, but rather a reappearance
of original colors. Markings of white other than those named above are
suspicions, and a pig so marked should be rejected.
Face short, fine, and well dished, broad between the eyes; ears generally
almost erect, but sometimes inclining forward with advancing age, small,
SWINE. 395
thin, soft, and showing veins; jowl full; neck short and thick; shoulder
short from neck, to middling deep from back down; back broad
and straight, or a very little arched; ribs—long ribs, well sprung, giving
rutundity of body; short ribs of good length, giving breadth and level-
ness of loins; hips good length from point of hip to rump; hams thick,
round, and deep, holding their thickness well back and down to the
hocks; tail fine and small, set on high up; legs short and fine, but
straight and very strong, with hoofs erect, legs set wide apart; size
medium; length medium, extremes are to be avoided; bone fine and
compact; offal very light; hair fine and compact; skin pliable.
The Bershires are hardy, prolific, and excellent nurses; their meat is
of superior quality, with fat and lean well mixed.
Size. There have been improved Berkshires, both in England and
America, whose dead weight, dressed, occasionally exceeded eight
hundred pounds; but the general weight, full grown, is from three
hundred to six hundred pounds, according as the smaller or larger pigs
are selected from the litters for fattening, and as they are subsequently
fed and attended. The smaller sizes mature several months the quickest,
and are preferred in the markets for fresh pork; and for curing also, for
those who are particularly nice in the choice of their meat, find their
meat more tender and delicate than the larger animals.
Quality of Meat. The meat of the improved Berkshire, like that
of the unimproved, abounds in a much greater proportion of sweet, ten-
der, juicy lean, well marbled with very fine streaks of fat, than other
breeds of swine; but the former is far more delicate now, than the latter
ever was. This renders the whole carcass the most suitable of all for
smoking. ‘The hams and shoulders almost entirely lean, a thin rim of
fat covering only the outside.
Maturity. The improved Berkshire can be fattened at any age.
Barrows mature in twelve to eighteen months, according as selected
from the litters, whether the largest or smallest, and as subsequently fed
and treated. It takes boars and sows reserved for breeding about six
months longer to get their fullest size and weight, as they are not
pushed by high feed so rapidly as those destined for more immediate
slaughter.
The Suffolks. F. D. Coburn, in ‘‘Swine Husbandry,’’ has the fol-
lowing to say regarding this breed:
“The Suffolks are not raised pure, or used as a cross in the principal
pork producing States so extensively as several other breeds. nor are
they so well known to a majority of farmers, who have a belief, 11 not
396 SWINE.
positive knowledge, that they are rather delicate, and difficult to raise.
The objections to them are, that they are not large enough, not satis-
factory as breeders and nurses, and that their skins are too tender, aud
thinly haired, to withstand the exposure to which the average farmer’s
hogs are subjected.
As to size, the best strains of Suffolks are large enough for those who
prefer to raise hogs of medium weights, while for quietness and easy
keeping qualities, no breed of swine can excel them, and to those who
like pets, we would recommend a cleanly-kept Suffolk pig in preference
toany ‘‘poodle,’’ or other diminutive canine we ever saw. ‘The sows
FIRST PRIZE ENGLISH MIDDLE-WHITE Sow.
are not so prolific, so regular as breeders, nor usually so good sucklers
as others that mature less early, and not so predisposed to excessive fat-
ness while young.
Experience with the Suffolks has convinced many that wind, sun, and
mud, make sad work for their tender, papery skins, and we have seen
them, when reasonably well kept, become chapped and cracked all over,
and the smaller pigs so mangy and sore as to present the appearance of
a solid scab. Of course, all Suffolks are not so affected, and we think
that in many localities, they are no more liable to suffer in this way than
any other white breed. The climate of some Western and Southern
States is unmistakably severe on white hogs, not well haired, and when
SWINE. 397
such are constantly exposed to biting frosts, drying winds, and scorch-
ing sun, the results will, in most cases, be anything but satisfactory, and
the balance will be found on the wrong side of the ledger.
As now bred, we can not look upon them as a reasonably profitable
hog for general use, but Suffolk boars can be used to good advantage on
many farms where white hogs are preferred, and more refinement is
desired.”’
Further Description. Mr. Wentworth, in a communication to the
‘“Prarie Farmer,’’ says.
“I read, with great interest, the report of the committee at the late
yi
PRIZE ENGLISH MIDDLE-WHITE PIGS.
Swine Breeder’ Association upon the characteristics of the Suffolk hogs.
I have had them exclusively for the past eighteen years, and my sales
will average one hundred every year for the past ten years, and I think
I have haa all the importations represented in my herd.
There is a liability in all Suffolks to have round bluish spots upon their
skins, although covered with white bristles, and these spots seem to in-
crease with age. My present boar was selected for me by Mr. Harrison,
Secretary of the New York State Agricultural Society. When he ar-
rived, aged about six months, he was spotless, and so continued until
about two years of age, and then bluish spots of the size of an old-
tashioned silver dollar commenced growing upon him. Now, at four
years of age, he has about twenty of them, although the bristles cov-
398 SWINE
ering them are white. Of course, these spots are exceptions, not one in
ten having them, and very few inside of one year old; yet there is a
tendency to them and no hog should be rejected as a pure Suffolk on
their account. ‘These spots are easily detected from black spots.
At one of the State Fairs at Chicago, one of my boars not only took
the first premium as the best Suffolk, but the sweepstake prize as the
best boar or any age or breed upon the ground. He had several of
these spots upon him at that time, although having none until he was a
year old. I notice these bluish spots occasionally upon hogs at the stock
yards, which have, in all respects, characteristics of the Suffolks.
A correspondent of yours, whilst finding fault with the size of the
Suffolk, thinks they are the best for crossing upon other hogs. I know
this to be the invariable opinion of men who want a breed of hogs of their
own, independent of everybody else. Wherever they start, whatever
may be their groundwork, before they get through making their new
breed of hogs they invariably incorporate somewhere a cross of the
Suffolk.
Your paper says that four hundred is the profitable size of the hog.
The Suffolks can easily be made to weigh this amount, by feeding them
lightly until their legs have acquired sufficient strength to support their
weight of carcass. The inferior weight attributed so often to Suffolks
arises entirely from overfeeding them when young.’’
Characteristics. The characteristics and markings are as fol-
lows : ‘‘Head small, very short; cheeks prominent and full; face dished;
snout small and very short; jowl fine; ears short, small, thin, upright,
soft, and silky; neck very short and thick, the head appearing almost as
if set on front of shoulders; no arching of crest; chest wide and deep—
elbows standing out; brisket wide but not deep; shoulders thick, rather
upright, rounding outwards from top to elbow; crops wide and full;
sides and flanks, long ribs, well arched out from back, good length be-
tween; shoulders and hams, flanks well filled out, and coming well
down at ham; back broad, level, and straight from crest to tail, no fall-
ing off or down at tail; hams wide and full, well rounded out, twist very
wide and full all the way down; legs small and very short, standing
wide apart, in sows just keeping belly from the ground; bone fine ; feet
small, hoofs rather spreading; tail small, long, and tapering; skin thin,
of a pinkish shade, free from color; hair fine and silky, not too thick;
color of hair pale yellowish white, perfectly free from any spots or other
color; size small and medium.”
*
SWINE. 399
Essex. Coburn on swine has the following to say regarding this
breed: ‘“The Essex breed of swine is comparatively unknown among the
farmers of the Mississippi Valley, and we have no knowledge of their
being raised in any considerable numbers for pork. Still in some local-
ities, they are bred in a limited way (more, perhaps in Kentucky, than
elsewhere) and we have never encountered a person who has once tried
them, who did not place a high estimate on their value as a small breed,
and especially on the boars to use for crossing on sows of larger breeds.
They seem to be essentially the same as Suffolks, except in their
black color, and less liability to skin diseases, which would in a
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PRIZE ESSEX BOAR.
majority of cases make them the favorites over their white com-
petitors.
We think that there is small probability of the Essex swine, as now
bred, ever becoming the prevailing breed, from the fact that they are
a smaller class of hogs than most farmers care to raise, or packers to
buy and handle, and we deem it improbable that the next fifty or hun-
dred years will witness the raising of smaller swine, generally, than the
Berkshires, and it is more than likely that in the future, the happy
medium will be an animal in size between the best modelled small-
boned Berkshire and the coarser Poland-Chinas of the present time.’'
me
406 SWINE.
Characteristics. The Essex is a black hog, originating in the
south of England. ‘They are of small to medium in size, and are exten-
sively used in England to cross on the large, coarse swine, to improve
their fattening qualities.
The best specimens may be known as follows: Color black; face short
and dishing; ears small, soft, and stand erect while young, but coming
down somewhat as they get age; carcass long, broad, straight, and deep;
ham heavy and well let down; bone fine; carcass, when fat, composed
mostly of lard; hair, ordinarily rather thin. ‘The fattening qualities be-
ing very superior.
As breeders and nurses, they are very fair, though not equal to the
Berkshires. In fact, all thorough-bred animals, as they become refined,
or ‘‘high bred,’’ lessen their fecund propensities to a greater or less ex-
tent; but ordinarily, with good management, no serious difficulty need
be experienced on this point with well bred Essex. It is essential, how-
ever, that the brood sows be matured, and not permitted to become too
fat, which latter is often apt to be the case, with good feed and man-
agement.
Good pasture, with plenty of water, will keep them in excellent con-
dition for breeding, throughout the whole grazing season. In fact, they
often come out of a good clover field in the fall, ‘‘killing fat,’’ without
having had any other feed. They are good graziers, and have the ad-
vantage over some of the more tender-skinned white hogs, of being able
to withstand, (at any age, however young, ) the hottest sun of July or
August, without having their backs or skin in the least affected, and
they are never known to scald or mange.
The young pigs of the Essex are usually more delicate than those of
the coarser breeds, and will appear quite inferior to the latter, at the
same age, up to eight or ten weeks, when they will begin to shoot ahead,
and ‘‘show their breeding.’’ ‘This is not alwavs the case, but often is,
and is attributed to the mothers not being such good mikers as some
other kinds. It seems to be their nature to run to fat rather than
milk.
Poland China. The history of this well-known breed was pre-
sented at the National Swine Breeders’ Convention, and the following
was adopted as authentic:
‘In the early history of swine-breeding in the Miami Valley, in Ohio,
it is clear, from the best written authorities available, and from oral tes-
timony, that there were two breeds, which to a great extent had been
SWINE. 401
profitably crossed with the common bristled breed of the country. These
were the Russia and Byfield breeds. The Bedford breed is also named
in connection with the other two. ‘To what extent it was used, can not
now be readily determined.
In 1816, we have positive proof from an unquestioned source, that the
Shakers of Union Village, situated in Warren county, Ohio, and being
four miles from Monroe, in Butler county, purchased at Philadelphia
one boar and three sows of what was at the time believed to be pure
China. ‘They were represented to be either imported or the immediate
descendants of imported stock. They were called ‘Big China hogs.’
These animals were the first China hogs ever brought into south-
POLAND-CHINA.
western Ohio. Subsequently other China hogs were introduced and
extensively used.
The Shakers and other judicious breeders in Warren and Butler coun-
ties, continued to use the breeds at command, and produced by repeated
crosses a hog of exceeding fine qualities, for that period, which was gen-
erally known as the ‘Warren County Hog.’ These hogs continually in-
creasing in good qualities, were bred in both counties, and the very best
specimens were carefully and interchangeably used so as to make the
best crosses.
Such was the progress that had been made in forming the groundwork
402 SWINE,
of a good specimen of a hog. This condition of the breed continued
until about the year 1835 or 1836, when Mr. Munson Beach, of Warren
county, first introduced the Berkshire, which was obtained from C. N.
Bement, of the state of New York; other lots of Berkshires continued
to flow into the Miami Valley until about 1841.
The Berkshire blood was liberally introduced into the stock existing
in, not only southwestern Ohio, but in Kentucky also. Crossing with
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A PRIZE LITTER. "
the Berkshires was almost exclusively done until about 1838 or 1839,
when Mr. Wm. Neff, of Cincinnati, imported some choice specimens of
the Irish Grazier. This breed soon grew into high favor, and as a con-
sequence, was liberally used in making crosses with the best specimens
of the crosses previously made. This intermingling of blood, this cross-
ing of breeds continued for some time. In a few years, however, the
use of the purer blooded Berkshire was entirely discontinued, and there
SWINE. 493
were no further importations made of the Irish Grazier. The breeders
of swine in the Miami Valley settled down to the conviction that the
basis of a good breed of hogs had been established, and’ that in the fu-
ture judicious and discriminating breeders could use, and if necessary
modify, the material furnished, so as to meet the highest demands of
public. For more‘than thirty years no new blood has been introduced
into our breed, and no effort made to obtain a new supply of the blood
of either breed previously used.
While this is true, our breeders have not been indifferent to the fur-
ther improvement of our breed. Stimulated by their success, they have
perseveringly aimed to improve what they have been so successful in
forming. The best points or qualities have been preserved, and, where
practicable, have been made even more excellent. All defective points
or undesirable qualities have been corrected or improved by the care,
skill, and judgment of our experienced breeders.
Thus, we have a breed thoroughly established, or fixed characteristics,
of fine style, and unquestioned good qualities, which can be relied upon
for the production of a progeny of like qualities and character.
Characteristics. The best specimens have good length, short legs,
broad, straight backs, deep sides, flanking well down on the leg, very
broad, full square hams and shoulders, drooping ears, short heads, wide
between the eyes, of spotted or dark color; are hardy, vigorous, and
vrolific, and when fat are perfect models all over, pre-eminently combin-
ing the excellences of both large and small breeds.”’
Victorias. The family of pigs known as Victorias originated with
Col. Frank D. Curtis, Kirby Homestead, Charlton, Saratoga county,
New Vork. They were made by crossing the Byfield hogs with the
native, in which there was a strain of the Grazier. Subsequently crosses
were made with the Yorkshire and Suffolk; the result being a purely
white hog, of medium size. The name hasno significance, unless it is
intended as a compliment to the English Queen. The pigs if pure bred,
should have a direct descent from a sow called Queen Victoria, which
may be said to be the mother of the family. She was pronounced by
good judges, to be almost perfect, and was the winner of a number of
first prizes. Breeders in the Eastern states have long felt the want of a
medium-sized white hog, with all the good points of the English breeds,
without their objectionable features; a breed which would mature early,
and be covered with a good coat of hair to protect it from the cold in
winter and heat in suimmer. Col. Curtis began breeding nearly twenty
404 SWINE.
years ago to try and meet this want. At the fair of the New York State
Agricultural Society which was held at Elmira, he exhibited a sow,
Princess Alice, and six pigs, which was the first time the Victorias have
been presented at a State fair for competition with other swine. The
first prize was awarded to the pigs, and the second to the sow.
Characteristics. The color is white, with a good coat of fine soft
hair; the head thin, fine, and closely set on the shoulders; the face
slightly dishing; the snout short; the ears erect, small, and very light or
thin; the shoulders bulging and deep; legs short and fine; the back
broad, straight, and level, and the body long; the hams round and swell-
ing, and high at the base of the tail, with plaits or folds between the
thighs; the tail fine, and free from wrinkles or rolls; feathers or rosettes
on the back are common; the skin is thin, soft, and elastic; the flesh
fine-grained and firm, with sinall bone and thick side-pork. The pigs
easily keep in condition, and can be made ready for slaughter at
any age.
Durocs. There is another family of heavy hogs called Duroc, which
are bred in Saratoga county, New York, which are finer in the bone
and carcass than the Reds. They have been bred, with their crosses,
in that region of thecountry, for about twenty years. They are very
hardy, and grow to a large size.
Characteristics. The true Duroc or Jersey Red should be long,
quite deep-bodied, not round, but broad on the back, and holding the
width well out to the hips and hams. The head should be small, com-
pared with the body, with the cheek broad and full, with considerable
breadth between the eyes. The neck should be short and thick, and the
face slightly curved, with the nose rather longer than in the English
breeds; the ears rather large and lopped over the eyes and not erect.
Bone not fine, nor yet coarse, but medium. The legs medium in size
and length, but set well under the body and well apart, and not cut up
high in the flank or above the knee. The hams should be broad and
full well down to the hock. There should be a good coat of hair of
medium fineness, inclining to bristles at the top of the shoulders; the tail
being hairy and not small; the hair usually straight, but in some cases a
little wavy. The color should be red, varying from dark, glossy, cherry
red, and even brownish hair, to light yellowish red, with occasionally a
small fleck of black on the belly and legs. The darker shades of red are
preferred by most breeders, and this type of color is the most desirable.
In disposition they are remarkably mild and gentle. When full grown
SWINE. 405
they should dress four hundred to five hundred pounds, and pigs at nine
months old should dress from two hundred fifty to three hundred
pounds.
Cheshire, or Jefferson County Swine. These hogs originated
in Jefferson county, New York, and it is claimed by some of the breeders
that they started from a pair of pigs bought of Mr. Woodford, of Albany,
New York, which were called Cheshires. However that may be, there
is no such distinct breed of hogs known as Cheshires, in England, and
there is no record of any hogs of this name having been imported into
this country.
Pride of Oxford. paccmipiiie: Somann 202
ENGLISH SMALL WHITE PRIZE PIGS, USUALLY CALLED THE SMALL
YORKSHIRES.
Yorkshires have been imported into Jefferson county from time to
time, and the so-called Cheshires have been improved by crossing
with their best hogs bought in Canada. Mr. A. C. Clark, of Henderson,
was, for a number of years, a prominent breeder of these pigs, and when-
ever he found a pig better than those he owned, he purchased it and
crossed it upon his own stock. In this way this family of hogs have
been produced, and they are known and bred in mauy portions of the
United States.
406 SWINE.
‘Vhey are pure white, with a very thin skin of pink color, with little
hair; are not uniform in this respect, as pigs in the same litter differ
widely in the amount of hair; the snout is often long, but very slender
and fine; the jowls are plump and the ears erect, the shoulders are wide,
and the hams full; the flesh of these hogs is fine-grained, and they are
commended on account of the extra amount of mess pork in proportion
to offal; the tails of the pigs frequently drop off when young.
Jersey Reds. The positive origin of this family of swine is un-
known. They have been bred in portions of the state of New Jersey,
for upwards of fifty years, and with many farmers are considered to be a
valuable variety. They are of large size and capable of making a heavy
growth, five hundred and six hundred pounds weight being common.
THE “LARGE WHITE’’ BREED SOW, HOLYWELL QUEEN.
Mr. David Pettit, of Salem county, N. J., has known of these hogs for
thirty years, and Mr. D. M. Brown, of Windsor, for nearly fifty years.
They are now extensively bred in the middle and southern portions of
New Jersey. In some neighborhoods they are bred quite uniform, being
of a dark-red color, while in other sections they are more sandy, and
often patched with white. They are probably descendents from the old
importations of Berkshires, as there is no record of the Tamworth, the
red hogs of England, ever having been brought into this country; nor is
this likely, as the Tamworth were not considered a valuable breed, and'
SWINE. 407
were confined to a limited breeding. ‘The Reds resemble the old Berk-
shires in many respects, but are now much coarser than the improved
swine of the breed.
Characteristics. A good specimen of Jersey Red should be red in
color, with a snout of moderate length, large lop-ears, small head in
proportion to the size and length of the body; they should be long in the
body, standing high and rangy on thin legs, bone coarse; heavy tail and
brush; hair coarse, including the bristleson the back. They are valuable
on account of their size and strong constitution and capacity for growth.
They are not subject to mange.
Chester Whites. ‘‘The Chester County White hog is a native of
Chester county, Pennsylvania, where the breed originated. ‘The first
impulse to the improvement of swine in this country was induced by the
introduction of a pair of very fine white pigs, brought from Bedfordshire,
England, by Captain James Jeffries, of this county, and put upon his
farm on the Brandywine Creek, near Westchester, the county seat in the
year 1818. Some of our most enterprising farmers, seeing these finely-
bred pigs, were induced to commence an improvement of their swine by
a cross of these, their progeny, and others of the best hogs of the county,
and by continuing a careful selection and judicious crossing for many
years, have produced the Chester White of to-day, a most desirable, well-
formed, good-sized, easily fattened, and perhaps the best bacon hog for
the general farmer in this or any other country.’’—Thomas Wood, in
Swine Husbandry.
Characteristics. Head short, broad between the eyes; ears thin,
projecting forward and lap at the point; neck short and thick; jowl
large; body lengthy and deep, broad on back; hams full and deep; legs
short, and well set under for bearing the weight; coating thinnish white,
straight, and if a littly wavy not objectionable; small tail, aud no
bristles.
Yorkshires. ‘‘Their color and characteristics have been traced, in
a greater or less degree, into every popular breed of swine which has
been made up or attempted to be established as thorough-bred, either in
the United States or England; indeed, into every breed, save the Essex,
or Neapolitan, imported by Lord Western. ‘These are the only pure
bred black hogs either in this country or the old. It may safely be said
of these white hogs, that they are the only pure and distinct breed of
hogs or pigs, save the black, that are now bred on this continent. All
breeds in this country of mixed colors are what their color indicates—
408 SWINE
mixed or cross bred, hence not pure and distinct breeds. That this
is correct, is fully established by the history of each popular breed, as
given by the breeders themselves, as well as by Youatt, Harris, and
others, who have given detailed accounts of how each valuable breed has
been formed. Nearly or quite all of these breeds are indebted for many
of their valuable qualities to their crosses with the Yorkskire and other
white English and China hogs. And among the breeds so indebted are
the Chester White, the Berkshire, and the Magie, or Poland-China. All
these breeds seem to have borrowed some of their good qualities from
these original white hogs, and all are made up from crosses of the white
and black hog; hence the character of the English or white hog crops
out occasionally in almost every breed known in this country or Eng-
land. Accordingly, it may be said that they are the purest breed of
hogs, and the best in this country or England from which to make
crosses in forming a new or reliable breed.
The English white hogs, like other breeds, vary much in size, from
the large hog to the China pig, so that the breeder can change the size
of his stock, or the coat it wears from a heavy coat of hair to the
short and smooth, to suit his fancy or the condition of the climate in
which he lives. All white hogs are noted for possessing quiet dis-
positions.
The Cumberland, a middle-bred Yorkshire, have, we think, attained
nearer perfection than any other breed known to us. The are not gen-
erally distributed throughout the west, but when through-bred speci-
mens have been introduced, they are held in great esteem, as well for
an animal for exhibition purposes, as for family use. They are special
favorites with packers, who buy their stock on foot, for the reason that
they yield larger proportionate net weights than any other hogs which
grow large enough for their use. They are small in bone, but large in
flesh, of the very best quality, evenly and proportionally spread over the
whole frame.’’
CURING AND PRESERVING.
‘*To cure meat of any kind, it is desirable to have it from animals that,
before slaughter, were in a considerable degree matured, or had attained
their natural growth. After dressing, as before intimated, the first
requisite is temperature so low the eggs cannot hatch, the Jatter being
not often practicable.
SWINE. 409
The season of the year, in which meats may becured on the farm with
the best success, is from December 15th to February 15th, the interval
between these dates affording two indispensable conditions, viz: cool
weather and immunity from insects and pests.
Pork is cut to suit the demands of the different markets in which it is
sold, and the various uses for which it is intended, but the aim should,
in all cases, be to have it in such form as to pack snugly, and we re-
peat, never pack down until thoroughly cooled throughout.
Where it is intended to use brine, the meat may be packed in layers;
salt, at the rate of eight pounds to each hundred pounds of pork, is to be
sprinkled evenly over.and around each layer, until the cask is full; then
clean rain or other pure water, is poured in, until all the interstices are
filled and the meat thoroughly covered. None of the meat should, at
any time, be allowed to remain above the brine, and in open casks, or
tubs, some attention will be necessary to keep weights so arranged as to
hold it under.
Many persons prefer to prepare the brine by adding to the salt some
sugar, or molasses, and saltpeter, dissolving these in the water, and
pouring the pickle over the packed meat. A very good recipe is as fol-
lows: for one hundred pounds of pork take four ounces saltpeter, three
pints common molasses, or two pounds brown sugar, and seven pounds
clean salt; when thoroughly dissolved, pour over the meat, which it
will cover if properly packed. Many boil the pickle before using it, as
the impurities from the salt, sugar, etc., will rise, and can be skimmed
off; when this is done, the brine should be thoroughly cool, before add-
ing it to the meat.
Hams and shoulders, to keep well afterwards should be in pickle from
one to two months; the length of time depending on their thickness.
For curing them without brine, a favorite recipe is: twelve pounds fine
salt, two quarts molasses, one-half pound powdered saltpeter; when
these are well mixed, they will have about the consistency and appear-
ance of damp brown sugar, and will be sufficient for one hundred and
fifty pounds of meat. Rub hams and shoulders thoroughly with the
mixture, and lay singly on a platform in a cool, dry place. At the end
of the first, and of the second week, rub them again as at first, and then
expose to continuous smoke for ten days.
A simpler way, in which any portion, or all, of the hog’s carcass can
be cured, is to put a layer of, say, half an inch of salt on a platform,
floor, or the bottom of a large box, or cask, then a layer of meat, on this
410 SWINK.
a liberal sprinkling of salt, and so on, until all is packed and the top
well covered with salt.
Such portions as are not to be smoked, should be stored in brine be-
fore insects appear, and the smoked meat may, like the hams of com-
merce, be covered securely with canvass, and whitewashed, or packed
well in bran, dry ashes, oats, or shelled corn. For considerable quanti-
ties, packing in tight barrels is a good plan, and for family use, a swing-
ing shelf, with sides and ends covered with wire cloth, inside of which
the pieces are hung, is convenient, and is also secure against rats and
mice, as well as insects.’’—Coburn in Swine Husbandry.
SOWS EATING THEIR PIGS.
It is well known that sows not unfrequently attack and destroy their
young; or, if prevented in this will not let down their milk, so that the
young pigs necessarily die for want of nourishment. When this con-
dition of things is not caused by a diseased condition of the uterus, it is
said that the sow can be brought to terms by pouring a mixture of ten
to twenty drops of spirits of camphor, with one to three drops of tinc-
ture of opium, into the ear. The sow will immediately lie down on the
side to which the application was made, and remain quiet in this posi-
tion for several hours, without interfering with her pigs; and on recov-
ery from her stupor, will have lost her irritability in regard to them.
The experiment has been tried in Germany hundreds of times, accord-
ing to one of the agricultural journals, without any injurious effects. It
is also said that the eating of pigs by the parent sow can be readily pre-
vented by rubbing thei all over with brandy, and making the same ap-
plication about the nose of the sow herself, or saturate a small woolen
cloth with kerosene and carefully moisten the hair of the pigs with it,
but be cautious to not get much of it on their tender skins. Usually
the kerosene dressing will spoil the sow’s relish for raw pig.
DISEASES AND HOW TO CURE THEM.
Mange. Mange, itch, or scab, in the lower animals is a skin dis-
ease of a purely local nature, due to an insect which induces irritation,
ulceration, suppuration, and incrustation on the surface of the body
generally. It is a contagious disease, never originating spontaneously,
SWINE. 4ll
and requiring for its development the passage of the parasites or their
eggs from diseased to healthy animals. In men, this disease is termed
“the itch,’’ and in the lower animals it is usually alluded to as ‘‘mange”’
and in sheep it is well known as a fearfully destructive disease, under
the name of ‘‘scab.’’
The mange of the pig is due to the presence of a burrowing sarcoptes.
Sarcoptes suis is much like the human sarcoptes and the horse sarcop-
tes. Itch and mange are known to be essentially skin diseases, curable
alone by topical remedies; and the medicines used are valuable almost
in proportion to the rapidity with which they destroy the life of the
parasites which give rise to the irritation and other morbid appearances.
In treating the mange we should first cover the body with soft soap,
and wash it off some time afterwards with warm water, and have
the animal well brushed; or a wash may be used, consisting of one part
caustic potash to fifty parts of water; or one part of creosote to forty
parts of oil, well mixed; or sulphuret of potassium in water, in the pro-
portion of one to ten parts; or a decoction of tobacco, in the ratio of one
to twenty-five; or lastly, concentrated vinegar. One or two days after
the thorough application of either one of these preparations, wash the
body well with soap and water or potash lye. When scabies is treated,
it is essential to purify all objects with which animals can come in con-
tact. Thus, all rubbing-places and sties should have a covering of lime,
or chloride of lime. The sties should be cleaned out entirely, or the
pigs removed for a few months to a new pen.
Recipe For Mange Ointment. Melt half a pound of common
turpentine with a pound anda half of Lard. Stir well therein a pound
of flowers of sulphur, and when cool, rub down upon a marble slab, two
ounces of strong mercurial ointment with these.
Pigs Losing Their Tails. Pigs occasionally have their tails
frozen, which causes them to drop off, or may result from an hereditary
tendency toa disease of the skin which attacks the young pig at that
particular point, the circulation is interfered wit: and the member per-
ishes and drops off.
If the disease appears, apply carbolic soap to the affected part, or wash
tlean, and apply glycerine, sweet oil, or a little fresh lard.
The most effectual preventive is to keep pigs clean, dry. and abun-
dantly nourished.
Inflammation of the Brain, or ‘Blind Staggers. ‘his dis-
ease frequently attacks swine. esnecially when changed to rich, abun-
412 SWINE.
dant food, or exposed to stormy, changeable weather. At first the ani-
mal appears dull, stupid, and disinclined to move. ‘The eyes become red
and inflamed, the bowels constipated, the pulse hard and quick. In a
short time, if not relieved, the animal runs wildly about, usually ina
circle, seems blind, will run against objects, the breathing becomes rapid
and laborious.
When a hog is attacked, dash bucketsful of cold water over the body,
and throw into the rectum a purgative injection, composed of six ounces
of sulphate of soda and one or two tea-spoonsfuls of spirits of turpen-
tine in ten ounces of water. Setons saturated with the turpentine may
be inserted under the skin behind the ears; or the back of the neck may
be blistered by actively rubbing in the following mixture: Spirits of
turpentine and liquid ammonia, one ounce of each; powdered cantharides,
two drams. When it occurs in summer, or hot weather, its severity can
be greatly modified by providing shelter in a shed, where they can be in
the shade during the heat of the day; but at the same time a free circu-
lation of air should be secured. Water, too, should be constantly within
the reach of the animals, and, if possible, a pool of it provided in which
they can lie at will.
Diarrhea. Many of our swine breeders in the West sustain consid-
erable loss annually by their pigs dying from the effects of what is com-
monly called scours, caused by the bad quality of the sow’s milk. The
disease is more apt to make its appearance when the sow has been fed
upon dry corn or musty food. It generally attacks them within one or
two days after their birth, and seldom after eight or ten days: Tio cure
give the sow as much sulphur of the third decimal trituration as will
stand on a nickel five-cent piece, once a day. It may be given ina little
sweet milk, or upon a small piece of bread, and should be given one hour
before feeding. The medicine can be procured of any Homeepathic
physician. Common sulphur will cure, but the above is preferable.
Constipation. If swine void hard, dry dung in compact, ball-like
masses, it denotes fever, therefore change to more loosening, cooling
diet. Any kind of soft, easily digested food is good; bran mashes pre-
pared with hot water, or flax-seed tea.
In obstinate cases, an ounce of Epsom salts may be given, in an injec-
tion of warm soap suds.
Lice. The following remedy will clean off lice by a couple of appli-
cations. Put about one gill of kerosene in an old dish, and with a paint
brush or old woolen rag rub the oil up and down the back of the animal,
SWINE. 413
and behind the fore-leg, and on the flank. Be particular about the last
two places, for it is where the lice deposit their eggs, which, if not de-
stroyed will hatch out in five days. If it be a black hog, these eggs
can be plainly seen, being about the size of a timothy seed, and laying
elose to the skin fast to the hair. No one need fear to use the oil freely,
as it will not injure the hog in the least.
HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE.
Nearly all diseases of swine are called ‘‘ Hog Cholera’’ by people not
familiar with them. Yet there is a destructive plague to which the term
hog cholera may be appropriately applied, and another disease which is
almost as common and as destructive which is properly termed swine
plague.
These two diseases are both contagious and of bacterial origin. They
resemble each other so very closely in their external symptons that it
requires an examination of the internal organs to determine between
them, and often then only microscopic study will reveal the difference.
These diseases must be fought by measures which will destroy the
bacteria, and prevent other animals fromm coming in contact with the
germs. The sick animals must be treated by remedies that will reduce
the fever, stop the increase of the germs of disease, and assist the dis-
eased organs in resuming their normal functions.
While it is important to know that the animal has one of these two
diseases, yet it is not important to know which, as the agents used to
destroy the germs of the one will destroy the other. In the most acute
and severe cases the animals die very suddenly, either before sickness
has been observed or after illness of only a few hours. In the greater
number of cases the progress of the malady is slower. There is first
seen signs of fever, shivering, unwillingness to move, more or less loss
of appetite, temperature may reach 106° or 107°, the animals are stupid
and dull, and like to hide in the litter and remain covered by it. The
bowels may be normal or constipated at the beginning, but later there
is a liquid and fetid diarrhcea. The eyes at first watery, but soon have
the lids gummed together. The breathing is more rapid than usual and
may be labored in the later stages. The animals may cough when
driven from their beds. The skin is often congested and red over the
abdomen, inner surface of the limbs, under surface of the neck, and on
the ears. The color varies from a pinkish red to dark red or purple.
414 SWINE.
An eruption is sometimes seen, which leaves crusts or scabs over the
skin. There is a rapid loss of flesh, the animal grows weak, stands with
arched back and the abdomen drawn up, and walks with a tottering,
uncertain gait. There is less and less inclination or ability to move, and
the weakness and exhaustion increase until death results. The disease
runs from one day to three weeks.
The symptons of swine plague in many cases are not noticeably differ-
ent from those of hog cholera. Frequently the lungs are extensively
imflamed in swine plague, and the breathing is more oppressed and
jabored, and the cough more frequent and painful.
The best remedy which has been tried is the following:
1 pound Wood Charcoal,
1 pound Sulphur,
2 pounds Sodium Chloride,
2 pounds Sodium Bicarbonate,
2 pounds Sodium Hyposulphite,
1 pound Sodium Sulphate,
1 pound Antimony Sulphide (Black Antimony).
The dose is a large tablespoonful for each 200 pounds weight of hogs
to be treated, given only once a day. When hogs are affected with these
diseases they should have at least once a day soft feed, made by mixing
bran and middlings with hot water, and then stirring into this the proper
quantity of the medicine. Hogs are fond of this mixture, and when
they once taste of food with which it has heen mixed they will eat it
though nothing else would tempt them.
Animals that are very sick and that will not come to the feed should
be drenched with the medicine shaken up with water. Do not turn the
hog on its back to drench it, but pull the cheek away from the teeth so
as to form a pouch, into which the medicine may be slowly poured, It
will flow from the cheek into the mouth, and when the hog finds out
what it is, it will stop squealing and swallow.
This medicine may also be used as a preventive of these diseases, and
for this purpose should be put in the feed of the whole herd. In cases
where it has been given a fair trial, it has apparently cured most of the
animals which were sick and has stopped the progress of the disease in
the herds. It is an excellent appetizer, and when given to unthrifty
hogs it increases the appetite, causes them to take on flesh, and assume
a thrifty appearance.
SWINE. 415
SWINE BREEDING AND FEEDING.
“Tt isa true saying ‘that farm stock will be just what its owner makes
it.’ It is true of swine to a greater extent perhaps than any other ani-
malonthe farm. They can exist under adverse conditions and live
with less care than any other stock, except, perhaps, the hen. On the
other hand they will more readily respond to good care and feed than
any animal we raise on the farm. ‘They can eat anything from dish
water to grass and grow upon it, if given something else to fill up the
ration.
Therefore, by this quality mentioned, he becomes a very valuable
animal to the farmer and farm. ‘There has been but little attention paid
by the average farmer to the breeding of swine, and less care given to
the selection of breeding stock, than any other branch of live stock.
Sometimes an enterprising farmer would break away from the custom of
keeping runts for breeding stock and buy a thoroughbred male and use
it on ordinary sows; but, also, the male from this cross was used by him
and his neighbors instead of buying another thoroughbred and using it
ots the females of the first cross. But many did not even go as far as
this; but were content to keep on breeding the same old razor back, with
long legs, narrow chests, thin hams and an ugly disposition—pigs that
looked large but weighed light. Now in the breeding of all animals we
must have some end in view, so too with the swine. As I am speaking
of the breeding of swine for profit, we have first to consider what the
market affords. In most markets the demand seems to be for a pig that
will weigh when dressed from one hundred to one hundred twenty-five
pounds with as much lean meat as we can get. With some packers a
one hundred fifty pound pig is more desirable. But heavy hogs seem to
be slow sale, and the time when tons of lard would be sold as pork for a
big price has passed away. Therefore, in the selection of breeding stock,
we should try to get what will weigh from one hundred to one hundred
twenty-five pounds, dressed, in the shortest time with the least amount
of food. ‘This is not an easy matter, but by a careful and judicious se-
lection governed by an unprejudiced study and trial of the different
breeds will enable one to come very close to getting the pig which will
accomplish this. There are several other things in the breeding of swine
that should not be neglected. As a pilot in steering his boat to the har-
bor must avoid all breakers, shallows and reefs, so too must the swine
breeder, in his effort to get the pig he wants, see that he discards the
416 SWINE.
pig with no constitution or one that is unprolific. How many breeders
in the effort to shorten the snout of their swine have ruined their strength
and vigor? Many more in their haste to broaden the back have very
materially shortened the heart girth, and in their effort to make their
legs small have made them weak and crooked. Poland-China breeders
of the west have a nice-looking, growthy pig; but, as a breeder of them
in central New York told me, his litters were from four to seven,
and small litters is the complaint of the west. There is also among them
a tendency to weak legs. Berkshires have been bred for fineness of
bone until they became too small, although in the last few years there
has been a great improvement in them. The Chester-Whites have been
bred for size until they are made up of masses of fat, to which the
butchers object. The Cheshires are a prolific and active breed, but are
rather too restless and, also, quite narrow on the back. The Duroc-
Jerseys are not as smoothly made as the Berkshire or Poland China, hut
in prolificness and quickness of growth will exceed either of them. Either
of these, that is the Duroc-Jersey, Berkshires or Poland-Chinas, I would
recommend to the farmer to use on ordinary sows, choosing the one
which will suit his fancy best. In choosing a male from these breeds
select one that has a snout of medium length, a slight dished face, good
size heart girth (be careful that there is not much depression back
of the shoulders), good length and breadth of back, a good wide space
between the front legs with a deep body and good square hams; also
lave the flank well down and a set of short, stout and straight legs.
The skin should not be thick and wrinkly, but thin and smooth with
soft bristles not too thickly set. This kind of a pig can be found better
at some reliable breeders, as he and others before him, have been work-
ing for years to get this type of a pig, and are, therefore, better prepared
to furnish the desired article. But by all means use a thoroughbred
sire and on his offspring use another one, thereby raising the quality of
your breeding stock. Be sure to start right in this direction so that your
feed and care in the future will produce the best results.
Having selected your breeding stock, the next thing is the keeping of
them. There has been a mistaken idea that breeding swine to do well
must be fed only enough to keep them just alive. Now, we know all
other breeding stock should be kept in good condition, and swine form
no exception. When mated, both the sire andthe dam should be in the
pink of condition to produce strong and healthy pigs, and during the
period of gestation the dam should be well fed on a variety of foods so
SWINE. 417
that she may store up food to feed the coming generation. Then, if she
is allowed a chance to exercise and good, dry quarters to nest in, barring
accidents, she will bring forth a good litter of strong pigs. As the time
of farrowing draws near she should be separated from others and given
a litter of short rye or wheat straw. Let her be kept as quiet as possible,
and if she has been rightly handled she will be gentle and allow any at-
tention.that is necessary., Give her sparingly of food for a few days and
increase her ration as you think the demands of her sucklers require.
Have the trough long enough so that the pigs can learn to eat. When
the pigs are four or five weeks old have, if possible, a pen where they
alone have access, and then give them what feed they wiil eat. At two
months of age wean them, and if the sow is kept for breeding, let her
again mate, which she will do within a week. Now, when the pigs are
weaned is the time to be careful. They should be fed at least five times
a day on a well-balanced ration, and not much at once, or their stomachs
wil] become distended and indigestion (which will stunt them) will be
apt to follow. They should have a nice pasture or orchard to run in, as
grass and apples will keep them growing and healthy.
A hog’s stomach being very nearly like a man’s; in fact, an old maid
once said to her class in physiology ‘the internal organs of a hog are the
nearest like a human being of any dumb brute, unlessit bea man.’ That
is the reason they do not agree any better, perhaps. For a single food,
give skimmed milk; next, wheat middlings. The best pigs can be raised
by feeding on wheat bran, corn meal, oil meal and skimmed milk, with
arunin pasture and orchard. But the most profit comes to him who
feeds the by-products of the farm in connection with a grain ration.
Small potatoes, windfall apples, even pumpkins will help put flesh on the
pigs. Do not feed much whole grain to a pig, as his teeth soon get sore
and it passes the stomach without being digested. But give him just
enough to clean his teeth after his soft feed. Never throw his feed in
the dirt, for although a hog needs fresh dirt, yet let them take it sepa-
rate. Be careful not to overfeed, as it will derange the stomach and the
pig becomes restless, rooting and eating stones, and there will be a loss
of feed as well as a loss of gain in the weight of the pig. Always make
it a rule to have the pig look for more without squealing for it. This
only can be done by watching them eat occasionally. To feed a pig all
he will eat at any great length of time is always attended with a loss.
The ocean steamer to cross the Atlantic a day quicker than the usual
time will consume twice the amount of coal besides the extra wear on
418 SWINE.
her machinery caused by the high rate of speed. So it is with the high-
fed pig, besides the loss of feed there is the extra amount of fat, which is
undesirable.
Remember, no butcher wants a pig over one hundred fifty pounds, but
would rather have them at one hundred pounds. It also costs less to
make a pig of that size than one heavier. Experiments show that one
hundred pounds of growth can be made, on a pig weighing fifty pounds
to start with, by feeding two hundred seventy-three pounds of feed,
while it requires four hundred seventy-nine pounds of the same kind of
food to make a like gain on a pig that weighs one hundred fifty pounds,
and it requires five hundred seventy-one pounds of food to make a one
hundred pounds gain on a two hundred fifty pound pig, showing that it
costs double to make a pound of pork on a two hundred fifty pound pig
that it does on a fifty pound one. So the man who feeds heavy pigs
produces what the market does not want at a greater cost than he who
feeds light ones.
Now, a few words as to the care of swine. Swine are natives of a
tropical climate, and are, therefore, sensitive to cold and dampness.
Then give them dry, warm quarters with not too much litter. Do not,
for the sake of your pocket, allow them to shiver and squeal all through
the storms and cold of winter. And last, but not least, do not kick and
club them when you wish to drive them, or when driven by hunger they
seek to satisfy their wants in forbidden places. But with kindness he
will go where you wish him to, and with proper feed and fence will stay
where you put him. No domestic animal will respond to kind treatment
and good feed quicker than the pig, and no animal will make a pound of
flesh with as small a cost as a pig. ‘There is no branch of farming
which has brought as much clean profit as pork making; to him who has
kept his pigs in clover doubly so. ‘That is, the man who has studied
intelligently to supply the wants of his swine.”’
LLEWELLYN LENT.
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
How to Make Poultry Keeping Profitable.
A CONCISE DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS
WITH THEIR SPECIAL ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES.
OULTRY is raised to a greater or less extent on every farm, and
whether they are kept for special profit or only for family use,
they should be cared for and thoroughly managed, as well as
other departments of the farm, so that whether few or many, a
profit may result from the investment of time and money.
The farmer has the advantage of plenty of room for his poultry, food
for them at first cost, and in return, by grafting this upon his other
work without any great extra expense, receives, if he does not care to
sell in the market, plenty of eggs for family use, choice young poultry
for his table, and a compost to enrich his soil.
If the poultry is raised for profit the farmer has the means of getting
his produce to market at once, and can contract with hotels and private
families, who want only good ‘‘fresh-laid eggs.’’ But this business, like
every other kind, to be really successful, requires thought, attention,
care, and intelligence, and when these are exercised under proper condi-
tions, there is sure to be ‘‘money in it.”
Nature’s laws are to be respected if success istofollow. Fowls, when
wild, live entirely in the open air, having perfect freedom, and the
farmer with his land may approach this condition as far as it is necessary.
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
420
“STMOA NVISQIVANV
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 421
Description. We here givea short description of the various breeds,
together with their characteristics, so that it will be easy to decide which
one will be the most suitable for the place where they are to be kept.
Andalusians. This is sometimes called the Blue Spanish and is one
of the leading varieties of the Spanish group. This group has been de-
scribed as follows:
“A close, compact, smallish-sized body, placed upon legs of a good
length ; the neck rather long, with a fine head; a large, upright-single
comb ; in the hen also large, but falling over one side; and the cocks
have large sickle-shaped tails.’’ Of course the color of plumage, legs, &c.,
are different in the several varieties, but the general appearance is as
here described.
In Andalusians the plumage is slate-colored, but on the cock’s neck
and back it is dark purple or nearly black. The birds are of a good
size, are prolific layers of large white eggs, are precocious as chickens,
very hardy, bear confinement well, are fair table birds when young, can
be kept on all fairly dry soils and are non-sitters. In selecting birds at-
tention should be paid to size, to erectness of carriage; and any white on
the face, which ought to be red, should be avoided, as this indicates a cross
with the black Spanish.’’
Brahmas. ‘This breed is one of the most prominent breeds of fowls.
It is chiefly valuable for its great size and hardiness, and for laying well
in winter. The eggs, which are buff in color, are often small, but are
rich in quality.
‘They are not a first-class table fowl, so far as quality of flesh is con-
cerned, having more of the flesh laid on the legs than on the breast; but
when young they are desirable, especeially when size is considered.
For a family fowl they are unequalled, and a large Brahina chicken is
a dinner for a fair sized family.
There are two varieties of Brahmas, the dark and the light, which are
alike, save in color. The bird is of pleasing shape, well-proportioned
and handsome. It has deep, massive body, neat head, small pea-comb,
and heavily-feathered legs. ‘They are good sitters and mothers, though
clumsy when old; are very quiet in habits; moderate layers; and can be
kept on any soil. ‘They are so large and the wings so weak they can
be kept in bounds with an ordinary fence.
Cochin. ‘This was once the most popular breed of all. Cochins
somewhat resemble the Brahmas in shape and appearance, but have more
feathers and are rather rounder. As winter layers they are fairly good,
422 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
AN RS
COCHIN, ENGLISH TYPE,
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 423
but in the spring they want to eternally sit, so few eggs are the result.
Of all fowls the Cochins are the greatest sitters, and when a Cochin
wants to sit, sit she will, even on stones or small blocks of wood, if she
has no eggs. They are clumsy and often break the eggs and kill the
young chicks.
The flesh is coarse and the bones are large, hence they make poor
table fowls.
There are four colors, buff, black, white, and partridge, all of which
look good on exhibition, in fact are handsome, and they are the fowl
where appearance, and not utility is looked for.
As a commercial fowl the Cochin is very undesirable.
a
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BZ
LACED WYANDOTTES.
Wyandottes. This is a variety of American origin, and one which
has won such great favor that it has become one of the most popular, if
not the most popular fowl of the present time. It carries the Sebright
lacing, and this makes it a very handsome bird, when it approaches any-
thing like perfection. The Silver Laced Wyandottes were the first of
this deservedly popular variety, but the Golds and the Whites have
since made their appearance. The Golds are very rich in color and are
very pleasing birds. It is a large breed, with the Asiatic shape, having
no feathers on the legs, and a rose comb. Itcombines most of the good
qualities, being a good table fowl, a prolific layer, a good sitter and
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
424
‘“dNVO HSIIONS G10
POULTRY DEPARTMENT, 425
mother. The average farmer can make no mistake in introducing this
admirable bird for general use.
Leghorns. ‘This bird has a peculiar history. It is a sub-variety of
the Spanish type of fowls, ard being principally bred in Northern Italy,
it is all over the continental part of Europe called the Italian fowl. It
was brought from Italy to the United States, and then taken again
across the water to be introduced into England.
This is a breed of utility, and not a breed of fancy points. Originally
there were only two varieties, the white and the brown, but to these
have been added the black, the cuckoo, the darkwing, and the buff.
The Leghorns have a good-sized, single, deeply-cut comb, with saw-
tooth edges, which extends down well over the back of the head, and in
the hen falls over on one side, in a single fold; the wattles are long and
hanging; has white ear-lobes, yellow bill, red face, clean yellow legs,
and in the cock a sweeping tail.
The body is small, but close and compact, and their general appear-
ance is pleasing.
BROWN LEGHORNS, the subject of our illustration, have mark-
ings much like the brown-red game.
In the cock the hackles are golden bay, striped with biack; the back
is of general red color, each feather having a brighter bay stripe; the
breast is a rich black; their dark red wings are of good size and striped
across with bars of bay and a greenish-black; their long sickles are green
and black; and their legs are yellow.
In the hen the hackles are yellow, striped with brown; the back is
brown with slight pencilings; the breast is a light salmon-brown; the
remainder of the female bird does not vary much in appearance from the
male.
The other varieties are named from their general color or peculiarities,
and are easily identified. The blacks are self-color, the cuckoos are
black and white mixed, the darkwings are very similiar to game, and
the buffs have yellow feathers.
Leghorns are good layers, and their eggs are fair size, the White Leg-
horus laying the largest eggs and the greatest number.
They are a hardy fowl, bear confinement well, will thrive on any soil,
but are not first-class as a table-bird. They are small eaters, and when
at liberty will hunt diligently for food. As a producer of eggs for mar-
ket it is one of the best breeds that can be kept.
426 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
BROWN LEGHORNS.
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 427
Game. This is without doubt the oldest of the pure English breeds,
and for generations has been bred with great care and skill. In former
years game fowls were bred for cock-fighting, and courage and endur-
ance were the points most considered. But with a higher standard of
taste, and the laws against this cruel pastime, cock-fighting is done away
with, except such as is carried on secretly. Unfortunately, the fighting
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INDIAN GAME.
qualities remain, and for this reason it is difficult to keep pure bred
games. But for crossing purposes they are the very best, because all
kinds of games are fair layers, splendid sitters, attentive mothers, have
finer eating flesh than any other domestic fowl, are easy to rear, and can
be kept on any soil when at liberty. If the crossing is judiciously done
these characteristics can be largely retained, and the fighting qualities
lessened.
428 POULTRY DEPARTMENT,
Minorcas. ‘This is a fowl of Spanish origin, which has been care-
fully bred in the south-western part of England. A few years ago their
WHITE MINORCAS.
great laying qualities attracted the attention of the outside world, and
they have become very popular. They are hardy, easily adapt them-
selves to all soils and conditions, (whether confined or free to run), pro-
duce large eggs in abundance, and get their full growth young. They
are one of the most desirable breeds, being great egg producers and non-
sitters. ‘They surely merit their position as the first among the laying
ureeds of poultry.
‘The Minorcas are called by many ‘‘Red-faced Spanish,’’ because in
shape and appearance they much resemble the Black Spanish. It is pos-
sible that the two breeds were once the same, both having red faces, but
that the Spanish having
been bred to produce
the white face, lost
much of the good qual-
ities and strength of the
Minorcas,
In shape they resem-
ble the Leghorns, but
have a larger comb, red
face, white ear-lobes,
and cleanlegs. We give
: : illustrations of the two
RLACK MINORCAS. kinds, the black and the
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 429
white, but the white are very scarce and not so desirable as the black
for general purposes. ‘The black isa fine all-around bird. ‘Their met-
alic black plumage makes them a ‘‘bird of beauty.”
They are among the best as layers, and can be kept on any soil, are
good fowls to hunt for their food, and small eaters.
Black Spanish. This breed is a small eater, a great layer of large
eggs, bears confinement well, and formerly merited all that could be said
in its favor. It was at one time the most popular of all breeds, but that
was before it was ruined by the breeders. ‘The fanciers have bred points,
the main one being the white face, until the original bird has lost its
strength and become a tender bird.
Though bred in this way, it is still a
good producer of eggs, but the chick-
eus are tender and hard to rear, slow in
feathering, and the moulting of the
full-sized bird seems to be attended
with difficult. and it is not a first-class
table bird.
There are a few strains which not
having been bred for exhibition, retain
their old qualities. In these the White
face is not prominent, but they are
difficult to get. If crossed with tha
Black M‘norcas strength will be secured
and without injury to the laying qualities.
The Black Spanish must be kept warm and in a dry soil. Thechick-
ens need special care, and the adult fowl during the moulting season
reqttires special treatment. They have bright black plumage, white
face, sweeping tail, and Llack legs. ‘The comb is single, laying over in
the hen, but erect in the cock.
Hamburghs. ‘The Hamburghs have the record of being the bes(
laying breed in existence. It is not an unusual thing for the hens ta
produce two hundred eggs a year. But as the eggs are small and the
fowls do not bear confinement, they are of little use to the general
farmer.
They are now generally regarded as the fanciers’ fowl, because of
their great beauty. The cock has a neat head, beautiful plumage, close
compact shape, sweeping tail, pure ear-lobes, and a handsome, well-
shaped rose comb. ‘he hen is rich in color, sprightly in carriage, and
WHITE FACED BLACK SPANISH.
430 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
neat and saucy. ‘There are five varieties, the black, the gold penciled,
the silver penciled, the gold spangled, and the silver spangled. Of these
the most useful are the blacks, being the largest and laying the largest
eggs.
If this breed is crossed with some other that will increase the size of
the eggs, the result will be profitable, provided they are given plenty of
room. If confined it needs a very high fence to restrain them, but on a
farm where they can run they will do well. A few fowls can of course
be kept in a confined position, but where there are sixty or more they
need room. Under these conditions the Hamburghs are hardy, easy to
raise, and non-sitters, and where the number of eggs is of more import-
ance than the size, they make a very useful fowl.
White Plymouth Rocks. This useful bird, which originated in
old Massachusetts, is very popular wherever it goes. ‘There are three
varieties; the barred, white and black. Their bodies are large, the fall-
grown bird often
weighing from ten to
twelve pounds; their
legs are yellow and
strong; are fair lay-
ers of smalleggs, rich
in flavor; their flesh
is tender and sweet,
and they have a good
supply on the breast.
They are very hardy,
and can be kept on
any soil, and bear be-
ing shut in very well.
They are fair sitters and good mothers. ‘They are great favorites and
compete with the popular Leghorns for first place, as a general utility
fowl.
WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCKS.
Dominique. The Dominiques have not become a fowl of general
favor. It has many good qualities and would, if it could be procured
pure bred, well pay any one who would raise them. They are of Ameri-
can origin, and look some like the Cuckoo Dorkin, but the Dominiques
have arosecomb ‘They are a hardy fowl; will thrive on any ordinary
soi]; and are good table birds; capital layers; good sitters and mothers,
They have the much sought for yellow legs.
POULTRY DEPARTMENT’. 431
Tanshans. ‘This breed of fowls resembles the Black Cochin, and
there is much contention regarding its origin. It was introduced into
this country from England. It is an improvement on the Cochin in
everything but beauty, since the Langshan is a splendid layer, a fine
table bird, not a determined sitter, and a most valuable fowl for general
purposes, and the cochin is the opposite of all these.
LANGSHANS.
The Langshan is a large bird, which has long, slightly feathered legs.
It has a single comb standing upright; plumage of a beautiful metalic
lustre; very hardy; easily reared; bears confinement; very faithful moth-
er; anda fair sitter. It is a very valuable bird, and its beautiful bright
plumage makes it very attractive.
Dorkings. This is one of the oldest and best preserved of all Eng-
lish pure-bred fowls. ‘They are a great table fowl but not great layers.
The hens when full grown weigh eight pounds, and the cocks from ten
to twelve. Their bones are small and there is great quantities cf flesk
on their deep breasts.
‘The birds are tender and while enduring any amount of cold, they can
not endure dampness.
432 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
Classification of the Characteristics of the Various Breeds.
We herewith classify for convenience the various breeds under their
general characteristics. In selecting a variety for profit, all the circum-
stances should be considered. "The amount of confinement, the soil,
and the care that can be given, are elements that must not be overlooked
in selecting the fowls. ‘Then determine whether there is wanted a table
fowl, or egg producers or a general-utility breed. A careful study of
the conditions and a judicious selection of the stock will be rewarded
by profitable results, provided the flock is properly cared for and
managed.
GOOD LAYERS, TABLE FOWLS, AND SITTERS.
Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and Langshans.
GOOD MOTHERS AND SITTERS.
Dorkings, Games, Dominiques, Plymouth Rocks, Langshans, and
Wyandottes.
NON-SITTING BREEDS.
Hamburghs, Minorcas, Leghorns, Andalusians, Houdans, and
Spanish.
TABLE FOWLS.
Dorkings, Houdans, Langshans, Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes.
ON CLAY SOIL.
Avorr Dorkings, Spanish, and Polish.
CHoosE Minorcas, Leghorns, Houdans, Langshans, Game, Andale:
sians, or Wyandottes.
FOR VERY CLOSE CONFINEMENT.
Minorcas, Leghorns, Houdans, Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes.
THE DISEASES OF POULTRY.
Causes. Naturally birds have but few diseases, but there is no
doubt but that these few have been greatly fostered and increased by the
system of keeping fowls which is now in vogue. The over-feeding upon
rich or unsuitable foods, the over-crowding and confinement, and the
keeping upon the same ground year after year, the in-breeding for
points, the exposure by sending to shows, have a tendency to make
birds subject to various diseases to which they formerly were strangers.
ft is much better to prevent diseases than to try to cure them after
attacking the fowl.
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 433
As a preventive of the spread of diseases, where there is a fair sized
flock, it is best to destroy the sick bird immediately, ‘provided there is
any indication of a contagious disease.
It is somewhat difficult to recognize diseases of chickens, as the bodies
are covered with feathers, and there are so few ways in which the dis-
eases can be determined. Still there are symptoms to be found accom-
panying all diseases that may by a little careful examination be discov-
ered, and from these it is possible to determine what is the matter with
the fowl.
Never let a fowl that shows any signs of illness remain for a minute
with the flock. Put the diseased fowl in a separate place, where chlo-
ride of lime has been sprinkled. It is well in case of contagious disease
breaking out in a flock of birds, to well disinfect the grounds and
house.
If a fowl is seen moping or refusing its food, remove at once. If the
illness proves to be a contagious disease, the remainder of the flock may
be kept free, and if it is not, certainly no harm has been done.
Crop-bound. Occasionally a fowlis unable to pass the food from the
crop into the gizzard, and the crop becomes so filled with food that it
hangs like a bag in front of the bird. Although the crop is full, the
bird will if not relieved die of starvation, because no food will pass into
the stomach, so long as the obstruction continues.
Try and soften up the food by pouring some warm milk and water
down the throat, and kneading the crop with the hands. If taken in
time this usually effects a cure. If it does not, make an incision into
the crop, through the skin, and remove the contents with a very small
spoon, being careful to remove every particle. Then wash out the crop
with warm water, and sew up the incision, first the inside skin, then
the outside, with silk or horse hair. Feed the fowl on soft food without
water, for a few days and the cure is effected.
Gapes. A very common disease of chickens is known as gapes, on
account of the constant gaping of the mouth. This is caused by a small
worm which gets into the throat, and if not removed by the chicken
sneezing or by the hand, the chicken soon dies of suffocation.
It is difficult to determine the cause of these worms and where they
come from, but it is sufficient for us to know they are there and must be
removed. They may sometimes be prevented by applying to the heads
of newly-hatched chicks murcurial ointment, but in other cases all efforts
to get rid of them are in vain.
434 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
Fumigating with carbolic acid is without doubt the most effectual
cure, and where many are affected with it, it is worth considerable trou-
ble to save their lives. Another and most common method is to remove
the worms by using a small quill feather dipped in turpentine. This is
passed into the throat, where it is twisted around and suddenly jerked
out, thus removing the worm. :
Some place the chicks in a box or barrel and dust them with fine lime
and ashes, which gets into the throats of the chickens, causing them to
sneeze and throw out the worms.
In fumigating with carbolic acid or dusting, care should be taken not
to carry it so far as to suffocate the young birds.
Apoplexy. Birds in fine condition are often found lying on the
ground in a helpless condition, unable to move or stand. This is apo-
plexy, and is caused by overfeeding, by which is meant not only too
much food, but also too rich food, especially the latter. Indian corn
is a very rich food, and it has been found to be the cause of
this disease in many instances. If there is a death in the flock from
apoplexy, take it as a warning that the remainder of the flock are sub-
ject to the same disease, and if you would save them reduce the food in
quantity and quality. ‘The helpless bird may be saved by bleeding on
the under side of the wing and by feeding on light food for some time.
Feather Eating. This disgusting habit is seldom found among
birds that are free to roam, and even in confinement it is principally
found in the Asiatic varieties and Houdans. When the habit is once
formed it is very difficult to cure, and it is best to remove any bird found
with the habit, and if not valuable, kill it; at the same time try to re-
move any cause that may exist.
Idleness is the great cause, so give the fowls a chance to run, and
some fresh soil, in which has been mixed bone meal. Put a small quan-
tity of salt in their food and give plenty of water. The following trans-
lation from a French Poultry Journal indicates the measures that are
most successful toward breaking up this bad habit :
‘The cause appears to us, to be attributed to the general discomfort
felt by all classes of poultry during the cold weather, and especially the
east winds. ‘The poor things, huddled together in a sheltered corner,
dare not come out in the open unless at feeding time, and then. they
never scratch about nor look for insects, grass, or those little nothings
which constitute the essential part of their food, and which is found in
every run well attended to. Under these circumstances the want of ani-
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 435
mal food has made itself felt, and the opportunity and temptation being
within their reach, they have pulled at one another’s feathers, which
they eat with evident satisfaction. ‘Tie only immediate remedy is to
set them at liberty, but as this cannot be done in every case, one has to
be satisfied with the means at his disposal. Let them have, several
times a day, green-meat. Mix with the soft food, some meat cut up
into small pieces. Avoid tainted meat. Renew the sand in the runs,
and especially put dry sand under the sheds where the fowls generally
dust themselves. Care must be taken with a hen, although not picked
herself, but always pursuing the others, to isolate her. One single bird
is sufficient to set a bad example. In small runs it is the cock which is
generally picked first. Is it from excess of affection, or is it spite and
revenge? Itis dificult tosay. At all events, he seldom resentsit, and
and allows himself to be plucked without resistance. In this case the
best way to protect him, is to rub him over with a sponge dipped in
parafine. In repeating this operation two or three times, at an in-
terval of some days, the hens will entirely cease to strip their lord
and master.’’
Cholera. This disease is epidemic in its attacks, and is seldom seen
in any other country. It attacks isolated flocks and yards having poor
drainage or care, and often nearly depletes them. It is undoubtedly
malarial in character; and is very rapid in its action and termination.
The poison of the malaria affects the liver, poisons the blood, and causes
violent diarrhea. The fowl having this disease appears droopy, weak,
in high fever, has rough and draggled plumage, and is very thirsty. Its
droppings are of a greenish color. The following pill is highly recom-
mended :
60 grains Blue Mass. 25 grains Camphor.
80 grains Cayenne Pepper. 48 grains Rhubarb,
6 drops Laudanum.
Mix and make into twenty pills, giving one every four hours till they
act freely, and when they have acted follow with a tea-spoonful castor
oil and ten drops laudanum to each fowl.
Diarrhea. This complaint must not be confounded with ‘‘cholera,”’
and it can be readily distinguished by a difference in the color of the
droppings and the attendant symptoms, which are very marked in a
case of cholera. A simple diarrhea can usually be checked by the use
of bonemeal as a food. Boiled rice mixed with pounded chalk will often
stop it, and if possible to check it by either of these remedies, it is best
435 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
to do so. When these remedies are not sufficient to check the disease,
give chlorodyne in water as prescribed on the bottle.
Roup. ‘This is a very contagious and fatal disease, and when it once
gets into a flock is very difficult to get rid of. Especial care is necessary
to see that it is not communicated from one fowl to another, and as long
as there is a case of roup about the place wash all dishes every day with
carbolic acid water, and the houses should be lime-washed once a week.
The affected bird, of course, will be separated from the flock, and as soon
as it is positively known that roup is the disease, killed off at once, and
very deeply buried.
The bird seems to have a cold, but roup is known by the offensive
breath, swollen face and eyes, and a discharge from the nostrils.
If this attacks a very valuable fowl and it is desirable to try and cure,
the following remedies may be successful. Wash the face, nostrils and
mouth with chlorinated soda to kill the mucus which gathers there.
Give sulphur or charcoal to cure the scrofula symptoms, and copaiba
capsules for the cold.
Common Cold, or Catarrh. This disease in poultry produces
the same symptonis that it does in man, namely: a running at the nose,
and a slight swelling of the eyes. It arises from exposure, and if not
attended to, may result seriously. To cure the cold the bird should be
kept in a warm place and have doses of copaiba capsules, and be given
nutritious food.
Bronchitis. Common colds sometimes settle on the bronchial tubes
instead of in the head, and the fowls are seen constantly coughing with-
out any other signs of a cold. ‘These symptoms are caused by bronchi-
tis. Generally all that is necessary to cure is to remove the bird at once
toa warm, moist atmosphere. A warm day should be chosen to re-
turn the fowl to its former house. If the cold lingers, give one grain of
calomel and one grain of tartar emetic each morning till an improve-
ment is seen.
Disorders of the Egg Organs. Bad feeding sometimes is the
cause of the delicate mechanism by means of which the egg is formed
and voided getting so disordered that it can not perform the functions of
nature. ‘These organs may be disordered by lack of a sufficient supply
of shell-forming material, which results in soft-shelled eggs. Birds that
are free to run generally find enough of the shell-forming material, so
that they are rarely troubled with this difficulty. Occasionally a hen
becomes egg-bound. When this happens inject into the oviduct a little
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 437
castor or olive oil. Handle the bird carefully, as rough treatment may
easily break the egg. Such a circumstance is usually followed by a fatal
result.
Cramp. Chickens are sometimes seen with their toes curled in, and
later are found walking on their knuckles. This is cramp, caused by
being upon a clay or damp soil. Tocure, place the chicken upon a per-
fectly dry floor, and feed on corn-meal with warm milk. Bathe the
feet in warm water, rub dry and paint with turpentine.
Consumption. This is often an hereditary disease, and when so
it can not be cured, but there is a form caused by damp, dark, badly
ventilated houses. The bird gradually wastes away, there is a contin-
ual mucus discharge from the mouth, and a cough, and the poor bird
soon dies, leaving simply a mass of bones and feathers. If the disease
is acquired it may be cured if taken in time. The best treatment is
good housing, wholesome and abundant diet, and capsules of cod-liver
oil with quinine. Do not breed from any bird that has had the con-
sumption, even though apparently cured.
Diphtheria. This disease seldom makes its appearance in ordinary
poultry yards, being chiefly confined to exhibitions, and the ordinary
keeper need not fear the disease except when buying birds.
Its indications are, severe cold with high fever, and in the throat
white spots are seen filling the glottis. Any bird so affected should be
immediately killed, as it is very contagious, and when once it gets into
a flock it is seldom driven out without the sacrifice of all the birds.
Bumble-Foot. This disease is largely confined to the Dorkings and
Houdans. It is caused by a wart-like substance appearing in the ball
of the foot, which, if allowed to grow, will cause the bird to become so
lame it can not walk. The cause is high perches and constant walking
on stone or cement floors. The wart-like substance should be cut out
with asharp knife, and the part touched with nitrate of silver. after
which the fowl should be kept on a floor thickly covered with cut straw.
If very much inflamed do the foot up in cloths, which should be kept
wet with cold water.
438 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
POULTRY KEEPING FOR FARMERS.
The following paper was read at the Farmer’s Institute at South
Easton, New York. Itis from the pen of O. B. Wilbur, one of the most
practical farmers in the country. We give it because of its great value
and practical suggestions:
‘“The question, ‘Is it profitable for a farmer to engage in the raising
of poultry?’ can only be answered by considering many of the condi-
tions under which the farmer is compelled to work, the help which could
be depended upon from the other members of the family, the convenience
to a ready market, the adaptability of himself or some member of the
family to the werk of disposing of the surplus product and many of the
circumstances which enter into the life of every industrious and hard
working farmer’s family.
The most essential thing contributing to the success of any business
is a liking of the person for that business. You can as well expect a
person who dislikes the care of horses or cattle to become a successful
stock raiser as look for a man who cares little for the fowls to succeed in
the poultry business. A love for the work is necessary in this as in any
other business. If a person has this satisfaction in caring for his poul-
try, there will be no other part of the farm work which will give him
more thorough enjoyment than this. ,
The next most important question is, ‘Will it pay?’ ‘There is no
doubt some of us present who would enjoy hitching up a high-spirited,
mettlesome horse, one which has known nothing of the pressure of a
hame collar upon his shoulders, or the fatigue of a hard day's work be-
fore the plow, take our little family into the carriage and drive into the
village on a pleasant summer afternoon to do our shopping and show our
valuable roadster. I haven’t the slightest doubt but what this would be
exceedingly gratifying to many of us, but I hardly think it would pay
the average farmer to keep a horse which is too high-spirited or valuable
to do the ordinary routine of farm work.
In the same way, it might be suited to our tastes to care for and ex-
hibit at the numerous shows, valuable thoroughbred poultry, but this
question, ‘ Will it pay?’ is the one which interests the most of us in the
greatest degree.
To the question, ‘ Will it pay the average farmer to keep poultry in
sonnection with the almost infinite variety of work which is found upon
ail general farms,’ I answer most emphatically, yes. If the work of
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 439
caring for poultry is as well done as other work, I think there is hardly
any other kind of work on the farm which will prove so remunerative.
But we can not keep hens and neglect them and expect to realize much
profit from them. ‘With proper care a flock of hens on almost any farm
might be made to pay clear of all expenses from one dollar to two dol-
lars per head, and even more than that in many cases. I had much
rather have invested fifty or one hundred dollars in good laying hens
than an equal amount in sheep, hogs or cows.
If a man should tell me his fifty dollar cow had turned over to him a
clear profit of two hundred dollars in a single season, I should be inclined
to question his veracity, but should he or a dozen others say that from
their flock of fifty-cent hens they had in the same length of time cleared
above all expenses two dollars per head, I should not question them for
a moment, but would say, well done; I am glad you have found the
secret of success in poultry raising.
In the brief time which can be given to this paper, I can only outline
a few of the requirements necessary to the successful prosecution of this
part of the farm work.
The first thing is a suitable place in which to keep your fowls. One
need not necessarily go to the expense of erecting a costly building for a
hen-house, although were I to keep only twenty-five or fifty hens, I
should prefer to build a good substantial building separate from all
others, for a poultry-house, for the reason that so few farm buildings
would have a room which could be fitted up suitably forthe purpose. In
locating a building a dry spot should be selected, if possible sloping to
the south, then you can have your yards south of the house, thus being
protected from the cold north winds of winter, and in the spring the
warm, sunny days will quickly melt the snow so the fowls can sooner
get to the ground and scratch to their heart’s content.
The plans for building a hen-house are as numerous as the number of
people building them, but whatever the details of the plans are, it is
necessary to keep in mind that the house must be made comfortable and
warm, being free from cracks through which the wind can penetrate,
causing an indefinite number of diseases among your feathered tribe. Of
the two extremes, little ventilation or large cracks and holes in the wall,
I should by all odds choose the former. JI tried one winter to keep my
house thoroughly ventilated by opening trap doors in the ceiling up into
the loft, but I found my fowls were constantly being attacked with
sneezing and colds in the head. Since then I have kept the trap door-
440 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
closed, even in the heat of summer, preferring to ventilate from below
the fowl’s resting place, and they have continued free from disease.
In building a hen-house, there is a tendency among amateurs to get
too many windows. Anything like an even temperature can not be
maintained when a large part of one side of the house is glass, unless by
means of shutters, curtains, or something of that kind. In the daytime
when the sun shines, you will have summer weather inside, but at night
the rapid radiation through the glass causes the temperature to rapidly
fall toa low point, thus exposing the fowls to great extremes in tem-
perature.
Do not crowd too many fowls into a limited space. The usual rule is
to allow ten square feet of floor area for each hen, and I have no doubt
but what more money. can be made per hen if they are given this amount
than if confined to closer quarters. I have, however, considered this
question from another standpoint, which is this. Many of us can keep
more hens in summer than our house will accommodate in winter, were
we to allow the usual ten square feet of space to each hen, so unless we
feel like enlarging the house, we must keep less in summer than we wish
to, or put more in the house in the winter than the rule will allow.
Now, I look at it in this way, that it is the total profit at the end of
the year which we realize that we are looking after, soif Ican make but
two dollars per hen by wintering one hundred, it is better than three
dollars per head for fifty. Ithus prefer to lessen slightly the profit in
winter that they may be increased in summer when the hens can run at
large and pick up a considerable part of their living.
Hens, to do their best, must have the most liberal hand to feed them,
and their bill of fare should be almost as varied as that of human bipeds.
Perhaps the plan which I attempt to follow in my own case may prove
of some interest to you. Every other morning the first thing I do after
U get up is to put a pail of small potatoes in the oven to bake, and by the
time we have our chores done and breakfast eaten they are ready to take
out and mash. I bake them for the simple reason that at this time in
the morning the oven is usually unoccupied, whereas the top of the
stove is being used in getting breakfast, so have no chance to boil them
without making a separate fire. After they are mashed I add some
water or skimmed milk, a small handful of salt, and every two or three
mornings a tea-spoonful of Condition Powders, tincture of iron, pow-
dered charcoal or half tea-spoonful of cayenne pepper. Experience
teaches me just how much water to put in, so that when the meal
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 44t
is added, the whole will form a crumbly mass, being neither sloppy nor
containing dry meal.
The mornings when I do not bake potatoes as a basis for mash, I have
soaked over night in boiling water a quantity of clover heads and leaves,
which have fallen off the clover hay as it is pitched out of the mow to
feed. I have a clover cutter, but as this plan is handier than cutting
the whole hay, I have adopted it. The meal of which the mash is made
is composed of two parts of corn and oats ground together, two parts
wheat bran, two parts wheat middlings, and one part of either buck-
wheat middlings or rye shorts and some chopped boiled meat, and
frequently to this is added a handful of either oil meal or cotton-
seed meal.
At noon their food consists either of oats or buckwheat scattered in
the wheat chaff which covers the floor about four or five inches in depth.
At night they are given about all the corn or wheat they will eat. This
is also scattered in the chaff, if they have time to scratch it out before
they go on the roost, if not, I put it in the trough. I say, about all they
will eat, for when they stuff themselves completely full at night their
appetite in the morning is not so good as I would wish, and as the morn-
ing feed is cheaper than the evening meal, I endeavor to have them have
the best appetites, when I can fill them up on good egg-food for the
least money. I endeavor to have a constant supply of pure water before
them, also a supply of coarse ground bone, ground oyster or clamshells,
and—by the way—I much prefer clamshells, for they act partially
as grit, besides supplying the lime necessary for the egg-shell and
coarse ground charcoal, together with plenty of grit of some kind.
Heads of cabbage are hung up in convenient places for them to pick at
during the day, and specked apples, beets, etc., are frequently given.
I suppose a more varied diet might be given to them, but this
seems to agree very well with the constitution of my flock, so I have
adopted it.
The question is often asked, what is the most profitable breed to keep.
To this question I always answer, it all depends upon the fancy
of the person keeping them, and the purpose for which they are
kept. Ifa person seems to fancy Cochins, or Brahmas, or Langshans,
or any of the large breeds, and wants to raise poultry for market, the
variety which suits his fancy is the one for him, for he will do better
with the breed which pleases him, and there is no very great difference
in the value of the different varieties, if meat is what they are looking
442 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
after. In the same way, if you fancy the Spanish, the Hamburg,
the Andalusians, the Minorcas, or the Leghorns, and keep fowls for
the number of eggs which they will produce, I say, choose the variety
which best suits you.
So, if your object is to produce the greatest number of eggs for the
least money, you don’t want any of the larger breeds; or if your object
is the production of meat, you do not want any of the Mediterranean
breeds. I think, however, most farmers are better adapted to a union
of the two objects, and desire a fowl which will lay a good quantity
of eggs, and at the same time have a good sized carcass when a chicken
is desired for the table, so would recommend some of the varieties
of Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes, or some other of the medium-
sized fowls.
I will close by saying that no farmer should expect to be successful in
poultry-raising, unless he takes and carefully reads some of the numer-
ous papers devoted exclusively to the raising and care cf poultry. An
enterprising farmer can not afford to be without an agricultural paper,
and in no part of farm work should there be more deviation from the old
style of farming than in the care of poultry.. So I consider it necessary
for a live, energetic farmer, to take at least one good wide-awake poultry
journal.”’
BRONZE TURKEY,
THE POTATO.
Fungi and Bacteria Affecting the Potato.
1
LATE BLIGHT OR DOWNY MILDEW, EARLY BLIGHT OR
LEAF SPOT DISEASE, BACTERIAL BLIGHT, THE
POTATO SCAB, ETC.
HE diseases of the cultivated plants caused by fungi inflict upon
agriculture an enormous loss. Scientific investigation has been
carried on by the governments in various parts of the world, and
the recent experiments in spraying with arsenites for the destruc
tion of insects, and the copper solution or Bordeaux mixture for the
treatment of fungous diseases, proves that a large proportion of this en-
ormous loss might be saved by their applications.
This chapter is devoted to the fungous enemies of the potato. The
enemies of our fruit plants and trees are described under ‘‘FRUIT
CULTURE.”’
Late Blight or Downy Mildew. This disease is caused by a
fungi, (phytophora infestans) which generally appears rather late in
in the season. Its attacks are usually sudden and fatal, the plants that
are affected often being entirely destroyed in a few days.
The tubers are usually affected; rotting and giving off during the
process a foul odor. This disease spreads very rapidly during warm,
moist weather, and at such times it is very destructive.
The first indication of its presence is the appearance of brownish spots
upon the leaves in the shape of a downy mildew. These spots grad-
nally enlarge and finally the whole leaf turns dark brown or blackish.
444 ' THE POTATO.
Soon the remainder of the leaves become affected and the whole plant
eventually wilts and dies.
At the first appearance if the plants are sprayed several times with
Bordeaux mixture its ravages will be prevented.
A large number of the potato maladies of this country have until re-
cently been attributed to this fungus. Late investigations show that
there are other diseases that attack the potato, for which the Late Blight
has been held responsible. There is however one consoling fact whether
we are able to differentiate between this and other troubles or not, and
that is, that the remedy for this disease is likewise effective in those for
which it may be mistaken.
Early Blight or Leaf-Spot Disease. This disease which ap-
pears early in the summer is caused by the fungi called the macrospor-
ium solani. It shows itself in the shape of small, brown brittle spots
which are scattered over the leaf. Ifa careful study is made of the leaf
it will be found that their upper surfaces are somewhat roughened by
darker spots which are raised above the dead tissue which assumes a
gray color. ‘These spots are at first small but they slowly increase in
size and finally run together and form large brown patches between
which is found the leaf becoming yellowish or sickly green in color.
The plant finally withers and dies before the tubers are half grown.
This fungus is difficult to study in the potato field, because the spores
are produced on only a portion of the affected plants. It winters over
in the spore stage on the dead vines. Potato vines should always be
burned, and if the disease has appeared one year give several early appli-
cations of Bordeaux mixture. Do not plant potatoes on the same field
the next season.
Bacterial Blight. There is a potato disease due to bacteria.
Since it developes in the tissues that are attacked by the fungus just
described it is probable that the two have been confounded. ‘There
seems to be this difference however, the bacterial blight developes in all
parts of the plant, and generally starts from the seed planted which rots
in the ground. This disease is most troublesome in warm climates and
is shown by the early death of the plants, they oftentimes suddenly
wilting and the young potatoes decay.
Treatment of Diseases of the Potatoes. Experiments show
that these diseases may be prevented by spraying with the Bordeaux
mixture. Vines thus sprayed remain in a healthy condition long after
THE POTATO. 445
untreated vines are dead, thereby developing larger potatoes and con-
sequently a greater yield.
At the experimental station in Rhode Island two rows in the center of
a. field were not treated with the Bordeaux mixture and the leaves
blighted and dried up soon after August ist., leaving only the bare,
dead stems, while the plants in the rows that were treated remained
with their leaves green and healthy. When the potatoes were dug in
the fall the untreated rows yielded marketable tubers at the rate of
thirty-three barrels per acre, while the others averaged ninety-seven
barrels per acre.
The first application of Bordeaux mixture should be made when the
vines are one-third grown or earlier if the disease appears. If it is
washed off by rain repeat after two weeks. If the Colorado beetle is
present add half a pound of London purple or Paris green to each forty
gallons of Bordeaux mixture.
Potato Scab. Nearly every farmer is more or less familiar with
the disease of potatoes called ‘‘scab.’’ It is scientifically named Oospora
scabies. Farmers have noticed that this disease is most prevalent in
fields that have been heavily fertilized by barnyard manure. ‘his is
supposed to be caused by the stock being fed with potatoes that have
been affected by the scab. ‘The spores of this disease do not seem to
lose their fertility during digestion and passes out into the compost to
be spread over the field and attack the developing tubes. It can often
be seen on partially developed scabby potatoes in the shape of fine white
threads running over the surface. Repeated experiments show that if
scabby potatoes are planted, scabby potatoes will be dug in the fall.
Treatment. Dr. Roland Thatcher after many years of study and
experiment describes the preventive measures as follows :
1. The seed must be freed from scabs.
2. Land that has produced scabby potatoes must not be planted with
potatoes in less than three years.
3. Land planted with potatoes must not be fertilized with manure from
stock that have been fed scabby potatoes or beets.
4. Scabby potatoes should not be fed stock raw, but should always be
thoroughly cooked, even if the Jand on which the manure is to be placed
is not to be immediately planted with potatoes.
5. Any other fertilizer is to be preferred to barnyard manure, even if
free from droppings of animals fed on diseased potatoes.
6. If the potatoes show evidence of ‘‘scab’’ dig as soon as mature, be-
446 THE POTATO.
cause if left in the ground the diseased spots spread and deepen.
7. The disease may be prevented by placing the seed (cut if desired)
in coarse sacks like coffee-sacks through which liquid will readily pass
and soak for an hour or two in the following: to two ounces of finely
pulverized corrosive sublimate (murcuric bichloride) add three gallons
of hot water and allow to stand over night or until it is dissolved. To
this add twelve gallons of water and stir thoroughly for five or six
hours. ‘The potatoes after being in the liquid for the required time
should be dried before being planted.
Caution. Plant all potatoes treated. This solution is a deadly
poison, but at this strength is not dangerous unless taken into the
stomach. ‘The poison being corrosive should only be placed in wooden
vessels. NEVER USE METALLIC VESSELS.
Bordeaux Mixture. This fungicide originated in France. For
directions how to muke see page 540.
How to Prepare Carbonate of Copper. Dissolve in a barrel
twenty-five pounds of copper sulphate in hot water. In another barrel
dissolve thirty pounds of sal soda in hot water. Allow both solutions to
cool, then slowly pour the solution of sal soda into the copper sulphate
solution, stirring the same. Fill the barrel with water, and allow the
precipitate of copper carbonate to settle. Upon the following day
siphon off the clear liquid. ‘This operation washes the carbonate free of
most of the sodium sulphate which contaminates it. Make a filter of
stout muslin, by tacking the same to a square wooden frame, which will
just fit over the top of the second barrel, letting the muslin hang down
loosely so as to forma sack; through this filter the precipitate, so as to
drain off the excess of water, and as the filter fills remove the precipi-
tate, and allow it to dry in the open air, when it is ready for use.
Carbonate of copper is commonly used in the form of an ammoniacal
solution, made by dissolving four ounces of carbonate of copper in two
quarts of ammonia, and then adding to a barrel of water. The carbon-
ate will dissolve more readily if mixed with water enough to form a
paste before it is added to the ammonia. Itis a simple fungicide, easy
to make and apply, and as it is a clear solution there is no trouble with
it clogging nozzles.
STANDARD RECEIPTS.
“THOROUGH INFORMATION IN PLAIN LANGUAGE,
RELIABLE AND SCIENTIFIC.
Practical and Valuable Remedies.
COMPREHENSIVE, THOROUGH, AND EASILY UNDERSTOOD.
®
e
Good Samaritan Liniment or Pain Killer. This is one of
the best liniments made. It affords relief in bruises, sprains, burns,
rheumatism, neuralgia, and headache.
2 quarts 95 per cent. Alcohol, 1 ounce Spirits of Turpentine,
1 ounce Balsam of Fir, 1 ounce Chloroform,
1 ounce Oil Sassafras, 1 ounce Oil Hemlock,
1 ounce Tincture Catechu, 1 ounce Tincture Guaiacum,
2 ounces Oil Origanum 3 ounce Gaim Camphur,
3 ounce Oil Wintergreen.
Dissolve the gum camphor and oils in the alcohol, before adding the
other ingredients.
Rheumatic Liniment. This can not be surpassed for human ail-
ments, such as, rheumatism, sprains, bruises, lameness, etc.
1 ounce Oil of Spike, 1 ounce Gum Camphor,
1 ounce Oil of Wormwood, 1 ounce Oil of Hemlock
2 ounces Sweet Oil, 1 ounce Oil of Origanum,
1 ounce Spirit of Ammonia, 1 pint Alcohol.
Mix well together and keep well corked. By adding one ounce
spirits of turpentine it makes an unequalled horse liniment.
448 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
Arnica Liniment. ‘This is a valuable liniment for wounds, stiff
joints, rheumatism and sprains.
1 pint Sweet Oil,
2 table-spoonfuls Tincture of Arnica.
The leaves may be used instead of the tincture, by putting them in
the oil and heating over a slow fire. Then strain.
Chilblain Liniment. This will allay the itching burning sensa-
tion and by proper care effect a cure.
1 ounce of Liquor of Subacetate of Lead,
2 ounces of Spirits of Camphor.
Mix thoroughly and apply at least four times a day.
Chloroform Liniment. This is one of the best applications for
neuralgic and rheumatic pains.
1 ounce of Chloroform, 1 ounce Spirits Camphor,
1 ounce Ether, 1 ounce Tincture of Opium,
4 ounce Tincture of Cayenne Pepper.
Bathe frequently, or until pain becomes subdued.
Camphor Liniment. As an application it isa very powerful out-
ward stimulant. It is most valuable in chronic rheumatism and other
painful affections. It is especially valuable as an outside application in
sore throat or diseased bowels.
1 quart Olive Oil.
4 ounces Gum Camphor.
Mix and put the bottle in hot water. Keep in hot water till the camphor
is thoroughly dissolved. Its full strength and benefit is best obtained,
if the parts treated are covered with oil-silk after the liniment is applied.
Spirits of Camphor. A quantity of this remedy should always
be on hand, ready to be used as an external application for sprains,
local pains and stitches.
1 quart of Alcohol,
4 ounces of Camphor Gum.
The gum will readily dissolve in the alcohol. It should be applied by
rubbing the painful part with the hand. Cover the part after rubbing
with flannel, wet with the camphor. i
Camphor may be beaten for some time in a mortar and not be reduced
to a powder, but if a few drops of the spirits of wine be added it may de
easily be made fine. Adding water to camphor dissolved in alcohol
turns it white.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 449
OINTMENTS.
Camphor Ointment. This is an ointment which will be of bene-
fit to ripen (bring to a head) tumors.
2 ounces Adeps (Lard),
1 ounce Powdered Gum Camphor.
Mix thoroughly. This is to be applied by putting on cloths and
placing over the sore.
Pile Ointment. This when faithfully used will relieve the itching
burning sensation so common to this annoying disease. Keep the bow-
els loose and regular, and be careful of the diet.
2 ounces Adeps (Lard),
1 ounce White Wax,
3 scruples Powdered Opium,
6 scruples Flour of Sulphur.
Melt together the lard and wax, stirring constantly till cold, then
add the other ingredients.
Wonder Ointment. This ointment should be in the cupboard of
every family, to use in case of burns, scalds, cuts and sores. It is heal-
ing and soothing. Gather your roots while you can, and prepare a few
boxes.
1 ponnd Root ot Yellow Dock,
1 pound Root of Dandelion,
$ pound Root of Plantain.
Put to steep in water and extract the juices. Press out the juices
after steeping. Strain carefully and simmer the liquid till half its
original bulk. Add some oil and fresh butter and again simmer till all
the water is gone. Then box and keep ready for use.
Iodoform Ointment. This remedy is largely used to heal sores
caused by syphilis.
1 dram of Iodoform.
_ 15 drams of Adeps (Lard).
Add sufficient alcohol to make into an ointment. ‘This has been used
with success in many very severe cases.
Tar Ointment. This is a popular remedy among the Southern
people,,who use it for scalds and burns.
6 ounces Tar,
8 ounces Mutton Tallow.
Melt together and stir till cold. It is an excellent remedy for scald-
450 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
head and ringworm. For scald head, first wash the head well then ap.
ply the ointment.
Carbolic Ointment. ‘This salve should be used, when there is the
least danger of ‘‘proud flesh.’’ It is what is known as the antiseptic
treatment. ‘That is the treatment that will destroy the germs of the air,
that often are absorbed into wounds and prevent their healing.
1 fluid dram Carbolic Acid,
4 ounces Adeps (Lard),
Melt lard at a gentle heat, add the carbolic acid and stir till cold.
Cucumber Ointment. A soothing ointment good for allaying the
feverish condition of the skin, or chapped hands or lips.
6 fluid ounces Oil Sweet Almonds, 2 ounces Spermaceti,
4 ounce White Wax, 1 fluid ounce Glycerine,
4 pounds Green Cucumbers.
Chop the cucumbers into small pieces, and mash them in a stone jar,
let them lie in their own liquor over night, then press and strain. Melt
the spermaceti and wax together and add the almond oil. Set the pan
in which the melting ingredients are, into a larger pan of boiling water.
When melted, add to it the strained cucumber liquid, stirring all the
time so as to have them thoroughly mix. Set on cellar bottom or in an
ice-box till cold, then stir with wooden spoon, when the watery portion
of the cucumber will separate from the ointment; pour off this watery
portion and then mix the glycerine with the ointment without heating
by thoroughly working with a spoon or the hands. Put into jars and
cover with a few drops of rose water. Keep in a cool place.
PLASTERS AND BLISTERS.
Plasters. These are extensively used for holding together the edges
of cuts or wounds. They are also according to their composition used
to relieve pain, reduce swellings or soothe inflamed surfaces. Sub-
stances which, when applied to the skin produce a redness and increase
of heat, are often the main part of what is commonly called a
plaster.
Blisters. A substance applied to the surface of the body to cause a
secondary morbid action, with the view of relieving one already exist-
ing, is called a blister.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 451
Adhesive Plaster. This is the well known adhesive plaster, so
much used for drawing together the edges of a cut or wound and hold-
ing them in position, till healed. It is also used to protect from the air
and further injury portions of the body when the skin has been ac-
cidentally removed. It is slightly stimulating and it is supposed to aid
in the healing process.
1} pounds Litharge,
1 quart Olive Oil,
1 gill Water.
Mix with an iron spoon, in a well polished copper kettle the litharge
and water, then add the oil and boil, stirring all the time until the plas-
ter is sufficiently hard when cold. This process requires considerable
time. Take:
5 ounces of Above Mixture,
1 ounce Resin.
Mix by a moderate heat, and spread thinly upon muslin, or linen. A
thin paper moistened with olive oil, and then wiped dry, may be laid
over the surface and the plaster rolled up, put in an air-tight tin tube
and be ready in emergencies.
Court Plaster. This plaster is merely a kind of varnished silk.
By following the directions here given, a very superior article is the re-
sult. It will not crack nor break, which makes it far superior to much
that is on the market.
pound of Isinglass
pint Proof-Spirits of Wine,
ounce Balsam of Peru,
Silk on which to apply.
Dissolve the isinglass in as small a quantity of warm water as possible.
Let it simmer on the back of the stove till the water is well out, then
supply its place by the spirits of wine which will combine with the
isinglass. Strain through a piece of muslin, and have it reduced in
quantity till like a jelly. Tack the silk tightly on frames, and with a
camel’s hair brush apply three coats of the prepared isinglass, which has
been made liquid by gently heating. Do not put on the second coat,
till the first is dry. After the isinglass coats are dry, give the surface
two or three coats of the balsam of Peru.
he
A Corn Cure. Cut a piece of paper the size of a one-cent piece,
and in the centre of this cut a hole the size of the corn. Put this over
a piece of adhesive plaster cut to the same size, and warm the plaster
452 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
shown by the hole. To this small portion add a little nitrate of silver.
Remove paper and apply tothe corn. A couple of applications seldom
fail to cure.
Strengthening Plaster. This an excellent plaster to relax the
muscles and for weak joints caused by sprains and bruises.
6 ounces of First Part of Adhesive Plaster,
1 ounce of White Resin,
4 ounce each Yellow Wax and Olive Oil,
1 ounce Red Oxide of Iron.
Rub the oxide well into the oil, melt the other parts and add. Mix
well together. Spread the plaster on leather, cut into narrow strips
and wind around the sprained joint.
Mustard Plaster. This will furnish an ever ready mustard plaster
which is far superior to the untidy, annoying wet. plaster so often used.
4 pound Pulverized Black Mustard Seed,
6 ounces Mucilage of Gum Arabic.
Cover paper or smooth cloth with the mucilage and dust over the sur-
face the powdered black mustard seed. The strength will depend up-
on the amount dusted on the surface. When dry put away in air-tight
fruit-jar. When wanted plasters of anv size can be cut from the
roll,
Spanish Fly Blister. This is a strong and active blister, which
will act quickly and powerfully.
6 ounces Burgundy Pitch, 2 ounces Beeswax,
9 ounces Venice Turpentine, 6 ounces Cantharides,
$ ounce Powdered Mustard, 3 ounce Powdered Black Pepper.
Mix over heat but it must be less than boiling water.
POULTICES.
Poultices. These are generally made of substances that will take
up and hold large quantities of water, and retain a soft condition.
Their power to cure depends upon the heat retained by the poultice and
the liquids with which they are mixed. Milk will not evaporate as
quickly as water. Glycerine added to a poultice will aid in keeping it
soft. A layer of mosquito netting between the poultice and the skin
will keep the mass together so that there will be no trouble in chang-
ing the poultices when fresh ones are needed. Poultices should be kept
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 453
warm and moist by covering the outside with oil-silk, a sheet of gutta-
percha or India-rubber cloth. A square cut from some old gossamer,
will be the best that can usually be obtained.
Slippery Elm Poultice. This poultice will remove inflammation
sooner than any other. It is used to allay pain and hasten suppuration.
It is extremely valuable in boils and ulcers.
1 pound Slippery Elm Bark,
3 ounce Tincture of Myrrh.
Stir in hot or warm milk or water, enough of the slippery elm bark to
make a poultice of the required size, stir thoroughly and add its propor-
tion of the tincture. Apply warm and keep it moist by covering.
Flaxseed Poultice. This poultice is of much value because it will
not crack when it becomes dry.
2 ounces Powdered Flaxseed,
1 gill Hot Milk or Water.
Prepare by slowly sprinkling the flaxseed into the liquid, all the time
thoroughly stirring with a spoon.
Charcoal Poultice. This poultice should always be used with ul-
cers or with any sore that has a tendency to mortification. ‘The char-
coal is an antiseptic which has great purifying properties, as well as the
power to destroy the offensive smell coming from putrid sores.
1 pound Powdered Flaxseed,
3} pound Powdered Charcoal.
Add hot water or milk to make it the proper consistency. Add some
glycerine to keep it soft. The following may be used if preferred:
4 ounces Dry Bread,
1 pint Boiling Water,
2 ounces Powdered Flaxseed,
1 ounce Powdered Charcoal.
Soak the bread in water till soft, add the flaxseed and three-fourths
of the charcoal. Before applying, sprinkle the remainder of the char-
coal over the surface of the poultice.
Soap Poultice. This is an old fashioned remedy having much vir-
tue. It is of greatest value in scalds and burns.
2 ounces of Scraped White Soap,
$ pint Boiling Water.
Dissolve the soap thoroughly in the water and use the liquid for mix-
ing with sufficient bread or flaxseed to make a poultice.
454 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
HOW TO PRODUCE SWEATING.
Perspiration. Colds may be ‘‘broken up,’’ by a good ‘‘sweat’’
that would otherwise terminate in a long run of fever. Common reme-
dies are usually at hand; and it is only necessary to know how to use
them. ‘lake a sweat as soon as a cold is noticed.
Boneset Tea. A valuableremedy that can be always at hand.
Gather the boneset while in blossom or procure at the drug-store.
2 ounces Boneset,
1 quart Boiling Water.
Boil for half hour. ‘Take four table-spoonfuls as hot as possible every
thirty minutes. This will produce a profuse perspiration,
Sweating Tea. This will produce sweating in many of the most
obstinate cases.
2 ounces Pleurisy Root,
3 Pints Water.
Simmer for half hour. Take a tea-spoonful as often as the stomach
will bear it.
Sweating Drops. Take a tea-spoonful of peppersauce upon sugar
before going to bed. Cover up warm, and a good sweat will be the re-
sult.
EMETICS.
Common Emetic. An emetic that can be obtained at a moments
notice is sometimes essential. This may be obtained at almost any
home, and is a reliable emetic.
2 tea-spoonfuls Common Salt,
2 tea-spoonfuls Mustard.
1 glass Warm Water.
Drink all the stomach will take.
Emetic Syrup. This is a valuable emetic, and a family having
children should never be without a bottle of this syrup.
1 ounce Simple Syrup,
1 ounce Wine of Ipecacuanha,
2 ounces Water.
Mix and take from one-half to one ounce every quarter hour till
vomiting takes place. For a child give twenty drops or more according
to age
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 455
WORM REMEDIES.
Symptoms. The symptoms denoting worms are quite common to
the various species. The surest is to find them in the passages of the
bowels. The other symptoms are: starting during sleep; grinding of
the teeth; itching of the nose; and indigestion with a variable appetite.
Stomach Worms. ‘To expel these from young children use the
following faithfully and success will follow:
2 ounces Fluid Extract Pink-root,
16 grains Santonine.
Mix and give a child two years old one tea-spoonful night and morn-
ing, until it physics.
Pin Worm Remedy. The thread or seat worm may be washed
away by an injection of quassia which has been soaked for twenty-four
hours in water enough to cover. This should be followed by doses of
the stomach worm remedy. It is well to take a tonic after the expulsion
of worms.
COUGH REMEDIES.
Cough Mixture. A large number of cough remedies contain some
form of opium, as laudanum or paregoric, which while having the de-
sired effect upon a cough has a tendency to constipate the bowels,
which has to be overcome by a cathartic. The following is a val-
uable remedy which does not constipate.
4 ounces Iceland Moss, A table-spoonfuls Pearl Barley,
2 ounces Tincture of Lobelia, 4 ounces Poppy Capsules,
2 pint Molasses, 4 quarts Water,
3 pound Sugar Candy.
Mix all together excepting the candy, and boil down to three quarts,
then dissolve in it the candy. Dose, one table-spoonful when the cough
is troublesome.
Cough Mixture No. 2. This is a valuable remedy for coughs and
hoarseness.
2 ounces Horehound, 1 ounce Comfrey Root.
2 ounces Boneset, 1 ounce Spikenard,
2 ounces Lobelia Herb, 1 ounce St. John’s Wort,
1 ounce Poppy Capsules, 3 pound Loaf Sugar,
4 quarts Water.
Mix all together excepting the sugar and let stand in warm place for
456 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
three hours, then add sugar and boil down to asyrup. A table-spoon-
ful is a dose.
Valley’s Mixture for a Cough. This remedy while being a
valuable remedy has the feature of being pleasant to take. Children
will not refuse the medicine.
1 tea-cupful Flaxsed,
14 ounces Powdered Licorice Root,
¢ pound Chopped Raisins,
2 quarts Water.
Put the licorice root and raisins into the water and boil till the
strength is extracted, then add the flaxseed which has been soaked over
night. Let all boil for an hour, watching and stirring to prevent it
from burning. Boil in a rice-kettle if it can be obtained. Strain and
add lemon juice and granulated sugar to taste. Take a tablespoonful
whenever cough is troublesome, and the same quantity warm just before
retiring.
Hive Syrup. This old and well known remedy has been changed
some in the composition, substituting sugar for honey. When made of
honey it fermented almost invariably. Made after the following receipt
it will keep without spoiling. Largely used in croup.
1 ounce Squills,
1 ounce Seneca Snake-Root,
1 pint Water,
Boil down to one-half and strain. Add one-half pound of sugar and
twelve grains tartrate of antimony. Dissolve the sugar by agitation
without heat. Dose, as an expectorant for adults twenty to thirty
drops. For children five drops as an expectorant. As an emetic which
may be repeated every fifteen or twenty minutes till vomiting is the re-
sult, give ten drops to a tea-spoonful.
Hive Syrup, No. 2. This can be prepared by purchasing the
compound syrup of squills, instead of making the same as in the first
receipt.
6 ounces Compound Fluid Extract quills,
48 grains Tartar Emetic,
40 fluid ounces Simple Syrup.
1 fluid-ounce Hot Water.
Dissolve the tartar emetic in the water, and with the other ingredi-
ents.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 457
Murphy Cough Syrup. This combination is specially useful for
asthma, hoarseness, aud coughs.
ounce Slippery Elm Bark,
ounce Elecampane,
ounces White Root,
ounce Snake Root,
ounce Horehound,
quart Water,
1 pint Holland Gin.
1 ounce Blood-root,
1 ounce Colt’s Foot,
2 ounces Spikenard Root
% ounce Comtrey Root,
3 ounce Poplar Bark,
1 gill Molasses,
Mike eR De
Mix all together excepting the gin, and let simmer for one hour.
When cool strain and add the gin. Dose, one table-spoonful every hour,
or three tablespoonfuls three times a day.
Blood Root Syrup. This is one of the standard remedies and is of
great value in bronchial troubles, coughs, and difficult breathing.
5 ounces Bruised Blood Root,
3 ounces Sugar,
3 pints Water.
Simmer gently till it thickens, then add one table-spoonful of paregor-
ic. Dose is one table-spoonful occasionally, for a child one tea-spoonful
or less according to age.
To Cure a Cold. Often a cold is accompanied with an annoying
cough. The following remedy is very soothing and healing.
3 pounds Pine Needles,
4 pound Loaf Sugar.
Steep the needles in water and boil down. Add the loaf sugar and
boil till it thickens. Drink of it while warm, during the day and before
going to bed.
MEDICATED SYRUP.
Simple Syrup. The solutions of sugar in water more or less strong
according to the use for which it is intended are known as syrups If
care be taken in the manufacture and only the best of sugar and pure
water be used the danger of fomentation (working) is largely avoided.
There is one proportion which is considered stancard among druggists
and is known by them as simple syrup. Often times the manufacturer
of medicines requires weaker syrups, and the dishonest druggist uses
them instead of the standard.
458 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
Two pounds of the best quality of loaf sugar toa pint of water. This
should be boiled in copper until if a little be placed between
the forefinger and thumb, on opening them it will be drawn into a
small thread. A little of the white of an egg well beaten, put in before
set on the fire; and placing it so it will simmer not bubble nor boil, will
clarify the syrup by rising to the top. As soon as the scum appears,
take off the scum, and let it simmer, taking off the scum until the syrup
becomes clear, and the scum as white as milk. To prevent granulation
add half dram of acetic acid to each pint of syrup.
Rhubarb Syrup. Rhubarb is well known as a gentle physic, but
it is bitter and unpleasant to the taste. Prepared as a medicated syrup
it loses its unpleasant taste.
3 ounces Fluid Extract Rhubarb,
1 pint Simple Syrup.
Mix, and shake the botttle a few times during the day. Then filter
next day and it is ready for use.
Rhubarb and Senna Syrup. Rhubarb and senna in combination
operate quicker as a physic than rhubarb alone.
2 ounces Rhubarb Root,
2 cunces Senna Leaves,
3 ounce Cardamon Seeds,
1 quart Dilute Alcohol.
Put the senna leaves, cardamon seeds, and the rhubarb root (bruised)
with the alcohol into a well covered fruit can, and let stand at least two
weeks in a moderately warm place, shaking it at least twice a day.
Then simmer to one-half the quantity, strain and add half pint of simple
syrup.
Sarsaparilla Syrup. This is the basis of the sarsaparillas sold
on the markets as patent medicines. Sarsaparilla is not considered at
the present time by the medical fraternity as possessing much virtue,
but it is largely used as a medium in which to take other medicines.
14 pounds Sarsaparilla, 3 ounces Guaiacum Wood,
2 ounces Licorice Root, 2 ounces Pale Rose Senna,
3 pints Diluted Alcohol.
Mix and allow tc stand in closed vessel forty-eight hours. Filter
through a very slow filter, that will not allow the liquid to pass through
faster than a drop at a time. Add dilute alcohol occasionally till the re-
sult is about ten pints. Evaporate over steam or water to five pints.
Add and thoroughly mix five drops each, oils of sarsafras and anise and
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 459
three drops oil of gaultheria, which have been thoroughly rubbed with
a small portion of the solution.
Chamomile Syrup. This preparation is as clear as the syrup and
has the advantage of being quickly prepared.
4 ounces Fluid Extract Chamomile,
12 ounces Simple Syrup.
Dose is from two to four drams, or two to four tea-spoonfuls,
MEDICINAL ESSENCES.
Peppermint. This an old and reliable remedy. Much that is sold
at drug and grocery stores is far from being up to the standard
strength.
1 ounce Oil of Peppermint,
4 ounce Peppermint Herb,
1 pint Spirits of Wine.
Let stand for a week or more till the peppermint herb colors it to a
pale tint of green. This coloring process is not necessary, nor is it
necessary to use any of the herbin the above, but many people prefer to
have the essence of this pale green color.
This is a strong essence, the usual strength being one ounce of the oil
to a quart of the spirits. A dose of the strong would be about ten to
twenty drops.
Wintergreen. Often used in the place of peppermint. Ordinary
strength is as follows:
1 ounce Oil of Wintergreen,
1 quart Spirits of Wine.
Dose, from twenty to sixty drops.
Jamaica Ginger. This is an inexpensive and easily prepared
‘incture of ginger.
4 pound Jamaica Ginger,
3 pints Spirits of Wine.
Bruise the Jamica ginger and let stand two weeks. Then press and
strain. Dose, one tea-spoonful.
Essence of Beef. A very valuable remedy for nourishment, when
a person is not able to digest more solid food.
1 pound Lean Beef,
4 pint Water.
Chop the beef yery fine and put in a quart bottle, then add the water.
460 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
Put the bottle into a kettle of cold water, and put over the fire. Let it
boil violently for half an hour. Then pour off the liquid and boil the
remaining meat in one pint of water for the same time. Strain both
liquids and mix. Flavor with salt and pepper and put while boiling
hot into air tight bottles or cans. Keep in a cool place.
Bitter Essence. This is a well known tonic and stomatic. It is
usually taken combined with mixtures.
1 ounce Gentian Root, 4 ounce Bitter Orange Peel,
+ ounce Wormwood, + ounce Blessed Thistle,
12 ounces Alcohol.
Mix and let stand for two weeks, shaking occasionally. Strain and
it is ready for use. Dose from one-half to two tea-spoonfuls.
Tincture of Camphor. The tincture of camphor of the stores is
not as strong as the spirits of camphor previously described. The tinct-
ure of camphor of the stores is about
9 drams Gum Camphor,
1 quart Alcohol.
The spirits of camphor can be reduced and made of the strength of
this solution by adding spirits of wine.
To Color Essences. Asa matter of appearance the tinctures are
often times colored. The best method is to steep a portion of the herb
of which the tincture is made in a little water for several hours. The
essence of cinnamon is often colored with the tincture of red sandal
wood.
HOW TO MEASURE MEDICINE.
Measures and Equivalents. For the sake of convenience, in the
absence of proper instruments, we often make use of means of
measurements, which are not precice nor uniform, yet are sufficiently
accurate for ordinary purposes. There are a few common household
implements which correspond to a certain extent with the regular
standard measures.
1 Tea-spoon holds about 60 drops.
1 Tea-spoon holds about 1 fluid dram.
1 Dessert-spoon holds about 2 fluid drams.
1 Table-spoon holds about 4 fluid drams.
1 Thimble holds about 34 of a fluid dram.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 461
1 Wine-glass holds about 2 fluid ounces.
1 Tea-cup holds about 4 fluid ounces.
1 Coffee-cup holds about 8 fluid ounces.
t Tumbler holds adout 8 fluid ounces.
1 Pinch of leaves weighs about 1 dram.
1 Handful of leaves weighs about ro drams.
Doses at Different Ages. The doses of medicines at different
ages vary. Children and aged people should receive less than the or-
dinary dose. Opiates should be given in less quanties than other med-
icine, because they seem to take greater effect on the young. The fol-
lowing table will give the dose as usually administered.
Under six mouths one-sixteenth of a full dose.
Under one year one-thirteenth of a full dose:
Under two years one-seventh of a full dose.
Under three years one-fifth of a full dose.
Under four years one-fourth of a full dose.
Under seven years one-third of a full dose.
Under ten years five-elevenths of a full dose.
Under fifteen years one-half of a full dose.
Under twenty years two-thirds of a full dose.
TO PREVENT CONTAGION AND BLOOD POISONING.
Antiseptics. In cases of wounds it is often the case to find that
poisonous germs existing in the air are absorbed, and the wound does
not heal properly because of the germs producing putrefaction in the
injured tissue. Blood-poisoning may follow the absorption of these mi-
croscopic organisms. Certain agents have the power of destroying
these poisonous germs, and are known as antiseptics.
Deadly Poisons. Some of the most valuable antiseptics are among
the deadliest poisons, even in very small quantities. They should nev-
er be used except under the direction of a physician. People who are
wounded should insist on antiseptics being used. If the attending
physician refuses or neglects his duty in this respect, choose another.
Among the antiseptics corrosive sublimate is the best known. It occurs
in the form of small, white granules, and is very poisonous. It is used
by dissolving three grains in a pint of hot water. A small quantity of
glycerine placed upon the corrosive-sublimate, before adding the hot
water will hasten the solution. This solution is used in washing and
462 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
cleaning the wound. Carbolic acid, salicylic acid, blue vitriol, iodoform,
sugar, and alum are all among the antiseptics.
Disinfectants are agents which have the power of destroying or
neutralizing infectious matter which is the product arising from those
suffering from a contagious disease, as small pox, measles, scarlet fever,
and a variety of other somrces, as sewers, cess-pools, decaying matter,
etc. Disinfectants are used in solid forms or in solution to destroy the
infectious germs contained in the clothing and cesspools, and often found
in the apartments of the sick.
Fumigation is disinfection by means of a gas instead of by the use
of solids or solutions. This is very valuable in disinfecting air, and ar-
ticles which would be destroyed by wetting.
Precautions Against Contagious Diseases. While disinfec-
tions destroy the germs left behind by a disease, yet it is well to observe
all precautions posssible to prevent contagion. Should a pupil be taken
ill of a contagious disease in a school-room or in a family, the room
should be fumigated before those who have not been exposed to the
contagion should be allowed to enter. The patient should be removed
to the top of the house or to a distant part of the dwelling. Before do-
ing this remove from the room to be occupied by the patient everything
not needed for the comfort of the sick. No one should be allowed to
enter the room except the one caring for the patient, and that person
should communicate with the family as little as possible. All clothing
and bed linen should be disinfected before removing from the room.
Even the dishes should receive proper attention. The attendant should
be careful never to eat or drink anything that has been standing in the
room. As the patient recovers, several warm sponge baths should be
given, with an antiseptic solution consisting of three grains of corrosive
sublimate to a quart of water, before leaving the room. Clothing that
has not been kept in the room should be placed upon the patient im-
mediately preceding departure.
Dead bodies should be wrapped in linen saturated in a solution of cor-
rosive-sublimate of fifteen grains to a pint of water, or a solution of six
tea-spoonfuls of carbolic acid toa pint of water. The corrosive-sublimate
has not a disagreeable odor, while carbolic acid is more or less unpleas-
ant.
A Few Disinfectants. In the sick room fresh air and cleanliness
are always at hand. Besides these we have
BRIMSTONE (Roll Sulphur) for fumigation.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 463
COPPERAS (Sulphate of Iron), one and one half pounds to a gallon
of water is used in cesspools and sewers.
COMMON SALT AND SULPHATE OF ZINC (White Vitriol),
four ounces of each to a gallon of water to disinfect clothing and bed
linen.
CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, (Bichloride of Mercury), sixteen
grains to a quart of water, is used to receive discharges from the body,
when the patient has cholera, typhoid fever, etc. The quantity used
should equal the amount of discharge. This is very poisonous, and
must be used with greatest caution.
CHLORIDE OF LIME. This isa very valuable disinfectant, but it
will discolor clothing that has coloring matter in them that will be at-
tacked by the free chlorine given out from the compound. Clothing is
best disinfected by common salt and sulphate of zinc. Use chloride of
lime, one pound to three gallons of water, to sprinkle on floors and
wash out sinks that are offensive. Dry chloride placed in rat-holes from
which come offensive odors, will soon purify the atmosphere. It should
be used in urinals, night commodes, water-closets, privy-vaults, butcher
stalls, slaughter-houses, fish-markets, pig-pens, and stables, especially
if the latter are near the house. Use it freely whenever a contagious
disease or an epidemic of any nature is in the neighborhood.
How to Use Disinfectants. All clothing, towels, and bed-linen
before removing from the room, should be placed in a tub of boiling salt
and zinc solution. All discharges should be received in vessels which
contain either the corrosive-sublimate or the copperas solution.
Prevention of Diphtheria.” Every person in contact with:a per-
son afflicted with diphtheria should use disinfectant gargles as a prevent-
ive. A physician should prepare the gargle and give directions for its
use.
Prevention of Typhoid Fever. This disease is largely trans-
mitted through the passages from the bowels. Some one of the disin-
fectants should be used in the commode, allowing the stule to pass di-
rectly into the liquid prepared as suggested. Corrosive-sublimate, (Di-
chloride of mercury), is the most efficient. Sulphate of zinc, (white
vitriol), is also very valuable. If proper care be taken in this regard
there is very little danger of typhoid fever being transmitted to another
person.
Scarlet Fever and Measles. These diseases, while disinfection
does not prevent their being contagious, seem to be modified by the
464 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
proper use of disinfectants. Often those attacked by the disease, where
disinfectants have been properly used, have it in a much modified form.
Typhus Fever and Small Pox. Do not for a moment neglect
the use of disinfectants, and use them freely. Do not burn rags nor
clothing that have been on the patients, but drop them in some strong
disinfectant fluid.
How to Fumigate. Every opening, such as doors, windows,
ventilators, and chimneys should be tightly closed. All blankets, bed-
ding, and other articles which cannot be treated to the zinc solution
should be hung on lines in the room. All colored articles should be
thoroughly dry, because if moist the fumes will destroy some of rhe col-
ors. Mattresses and upholstered furniture should be taken apart. The
hair or other filling should be treated to the zinc solution, while the
other parts should be exposed.
Take a wash tub or barrel and place in it bricks on which to set an
iron kettle. Pour water in the tub or barrel until it nearly covers the
bricks. Place in the iron kettle, which sets on the bricks, roll sulphur
and set it on fire by means of hot coals, or with the aid of a little alco-
hol poured over it and then ignited. About three pounds of sulphur,
should be used to every thousand cubic feet. Keep the room closed at
least twenty-four hours, after which thoroughly air.
Cesspool Disinfection. To every five hundred pounds of the es-
timated contents use one pound of corrosive sublimate in solution.
Sprinkle chloride of lime daily over the contents during epidemics and
at least every two weeks at other times.
To Disinfect Sinks and Drains. These often become very
offensive and are always a source of danger, breeding diphtheria and
malarial fevers, unless properly disinfected. Copperas dissolved in
water, one-fourth of a pouud to a gallon, and poured intoa sink and
water drain occasionally will keep them pure and wholesome. One-
half pound of chloride of lime to a gallon of water will have the same
effect
Where large quantities are used to disinfect vaults or stables, a home
made preparation as follows will be very efficient: dissolve one bushel
of salt in a barrel of water, and with this salt water slack a barrel of
lime. This should make the lime wet enough to form a thin paste. If
not add more water.
To Disinfect a Cellar. A damp musty floor may be sweetened
by sprinkling upon the floor pulverized copperas or chloride of lime.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 465
Cellars that have contained potatoes, carrots, turnips, cabbage or other
vegetables during the winter should be thoroughly disinfected early ev-
ery spring by sprinkling the floors, walls, and bins that held the
vegetables, with water that contained one-half pound of chloride of lime
to the gallon.
Deodorizers are agents which destroy or neutralize the offensive
odors arising from decaying matter or in the sick room. ‘They may or
may not have the power of destroying contagious matter, their use be-
ing to mask unpleasant odors. ‘Those that have disinfectant properties
as well as deodorizing, are carbolic acid, chloride of lime and chloride of
zinc. ‘The simple deodorizers are burning cotton, paper, or coffee. A
portion of chloride of lime placed on a plate on the mantel is a very
good constant deodorizer.
How to use Deodorizers. Chloride of zinc, an ounce to a quart
of water, sprayed about the room occasionally is an effectual means of
destroying offensive odors.
Chloride of Lime used as above suggested.
Use the disinfectanls as suggested for the discharges from the body
Burn paper; cotron, or coffee. and let the smoke pass in the room.
Chlorine. This is a very powerful disinfectant. It is a green gas
and attacks chemically nearly all contagious matter. It is used in the
form of gas which is generated and allowed to pass into the rooms. If
this is generated in cellars where vegetables and other articles mold it
will destroy the fungus. It is very penetrating and has bleaching prop-
erties. Articles that would be injured by this gas should be removed
and disinfected by other means.
Fragant Odor. A pleasant odor may be imparted to a sick cham-
ber by a small quantity of the oil of sandal wood upon a hot shovel or
on the top of a hot stove.
ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES.
What to Do. If an artery is cut red blood spurts. Bandage it
above the wound. If a vein is cut, dark blood flows. Bandage it above
and below the wound.
If choked get upon all fours and cough. A sharp blow between the
shoulders may help in expelling whatever is in the throat or cesphagus.
For slight burns, dip the part into cold water; if the skin is destroyed
cover with linseed oil, Common baking soda is a good remedy for
burns.
466 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
Send for a physician in case of a serious accident, but do what is here
directed till he comes.
Clothing Catching Fire. If you see a person whose clothing is
on fire, throw him to the ground and roll him over and over. Throw
a coat, rug, carpet, or any banket at hand over him. The object of this
is to prevent the flames being swallowed.
Scalds and Burns. ‘These are common accidents, and an under-
standing of what to do may save a life and much suffering.
The first, best, and often the only remedies necessary are sheets of
fine wadding or cotton and flour or chalk. The object is to exclude the
ir, because if the air is excluded, and care is taken not to expose
the tender part till a new skin is formed, nature generally effects a cure.
Incase of a scald or burn cover immediately the part with a sheet of
wadding or cotton, taking care not to break any blister that may have
formed, or even waiting to cut away burnt clothing that may adhere to
the surface. Cover immediately to keep out the air. A coating of
oil over the cotton is a great help in keeping out the air. A light
bandage to firmly hold the cotton in place should then be used. When
their is no cotton at hand, cover the wound with flour.
IF THE SKIN IS BADLY INJURED and the cotton can not be
readily obtained, cover some linen with fresh butter or lard and lay the
same over the part, and give the patient if much exhausted, a little
brandy. If not much injured, yet very painful, dip cotton in lime and
linseed oil and apply. If nothing else is handy scraped raw potato may
be used, or put on common molasses and dust the surface over with
flour.
Cuts and Wounds. Clean-cut-wounds, whether deep or only
superficial, which are likely to easily heal, should be washed with an
antiseptic lotion, and then evenly and smoothly closed by bringing both
edges together and securing them in that position by adhesive plaster.
Cut the adhesive plaster into thin strips and fasten on one side of the
cut, then bringing the parts of the wound together, edge to edge fasten
the loose end. Ordinary cuts are easily dressed in this way, but if the
cut be large and the edges difficult to hold together some assistance
from a second person may be necessary.
Bruises or “Black and Blue Spots.’’ Put on hot water cloths
or if there is much pain, a hot poultice, renewing the same every two
hours.
Dirt in the Eye. Dirt in the eye generally adheres to the upper
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 467
or lower lid. As the lower lid is the more easily examined it is well to
see if the dirt is adhering to this part. ‘This is done by standing in
front of the person, and pressing the finger upon the flesh of the cheek-
bone and drawing down the skin. Then if the dirt is in sight it can be
removed by the moist corner of a handkerchief. If the dirt is not on
the lower lid, place a match or knitting kneedle over the upper lid, and
by pressing downward, and at the same time raising the upper lid it will
be turned inside out. This will expose to view the offending particle
which may be removed as before. The eye should then be bathed in cold
water and the light excluded. If the inflammation is severe, put on
cold tea leaves or scraped potato or bathe in salt and water.
Fainting and Fits. Fainting is caused by a lack of blood to the
brain, which has been caused by the stoppage of the heart or the blood
going to some other part of the body. Place the person who has fainted
on the back with head low; loosen the clothing about the neck and chest;
sprinkle cold water in the face; and apply smelling salts to the nostrils.
Do not raise the head higher than the body, uuless the face is red, or
dark colored, which is an indication that it is not an ordinary fainting
fit, and should be treated differently. In cases of this kind raise the
person on a seat and put cold water on the head immediately.
PAINT AND VARNISHES.
When to Paint. Paints put on late in the fall or early in the
spring, when the weather is cold and there is no dust or bothersome in-
sects will last longer than if applied at any other time. The cold weath-
er seems to delay drying and the paint hardens on the surface, often
forming a surface that a knife blade will hardly penetrate.
Glossy or Dead Surface. Paint mixed with turpentine will give
a dead surface, while one mixed with oil produces a gloss. When
paints contain both oil and turpentine the paint loses its gloss in pro-
portion as the oil is lessened and the turpentine increased. Paints
should never be put upon a damp surface; let the boards thoroughly dry
after rain or showers before painting. Never put on the second coat of
paint till the first is thoroughly dry. Use a little more dryer when the
weather is cold than when it is warm. Keep the paint thoroughly
stirred so as to have it of a uniform thickness.
To Kill Knots Before Painting. Shellac varnish is most com-
monly used. If the paint is of a deep color shade, red lead may be mixed
468 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
with it to advantage. On the side of buildings where the sun strikes
very directly in the afternoon, cover the knot with oil and glue-size, and
apply the thinnest tinfoil that can be found. Silver leaf is better, less
liable to come off and is not very expensive. It is the heat from the
sun and stove that draws the pitch out of the knot through the paint.
Sticky Painted Surfaces. Often after painting it is found that
the surface is sticky. The back of a chair may stick to a coat or dress,
or the paint on the door stick to the hand on opening or closing. This
can be overcome by giving the surface a coat of Japan and turpentine,
which should be well rubbed in.
How to Mix Paints. ‘The first named color is to be used in the
largest quantity. ‘The others according to the shade required.
Buff is made by mixing White, Yellow Ochre, and Red.
Cream is made dy mixing White and Yellow Ochre.
Fawn is made by mixing White, Yellow, and Red.
Flesh is made by mixing White, Yellow Ochre, and Vermilion.
Gray is made by mixing White and Black.
Gold is made by mixing White, Stone Ochre, and Red.
Lemon is made by mixing White and Chrome Yellow.
Peach is made by mixing White and Vermilion.
Pink is made by mixing White, Vermilion, and Lake.
Rose is made by mixing White and Madder Lake.
Chestnut is made by mixing Red, Black, and Yellow.
Maroon is made by mixing Red, Black, and Medium Yellow.
Claret is made by mixing Red, Umber, and Black.
Copper is made by mixing Red, Yellow, and Black.
Violet is made by mixing Red, Blue, and White.
Dark Brown is made by mixing Red, Black, and Blue.
Orange is made by mixing Yellow and Red.
Olive is made by mixing Yellow, Blue, Black, and White.
Grass-Green is made by mixing Lemon Yellow and Bronze Green.
Snuff is made by mixing Yellow and Vandyke Brown.
Turkey-Red is made by mixing Vermilion and Black.
Cracks of the Floor. Use putty to fill the cracks of the floor,
before painting; apply with an old knife, and smooth neatly. If the
floor has never been painted before give it oue coat before applying the
putty.
Stain for Floors. If it is desirable to stain a floor that has been
previously oiled, it is easily done by first washing the floor with strong
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 469
copperas-water, and when dry, rubbing it carefully with linseed-oil,
giving it two coats. It can be kept bright by wiping it with a damp
cloth.
Walnut Stain. Black-walnut stain may be made at home if the
black-walnut bark can be procured. Slowly boil an ounce of the bark
in a pint of water for an hour, and then add a lump of alum the size of
a hickory nut to set the color.
Varnishing Old Furniture. Twocommon mistakes frequently
made in varnishing are in preparing the article for varnishing and in us-
ing too much varnish. The furniture or woodwork should first be
washed with soap and warm water to remove all dust and grease,
and then wiped perfectly dry. Turpentine can be used to thin the var-
nish as the work proceeds. Woods finished in oil that look dull or
cloudy can be freshened by rubbing them with a flannel cloth on which
a little of the following mixture has been poured: equal parts of turpen-
tine and linseed oil, put in a bottle and shaken until thoroughly mixed.
The success of the work depends upon using a small quantity of the
mixture, and plenty of friction.
To Not Injure the Gloss. ‘Thie is at times an important matter,
and has been a problem with those who have had much of it to do.
The Palace car companies direct that the highly polished surfaces of the
interior of their cars, be cleaned with a mixture of powdered soap and
tripoli, in proportions of about three parts of soap to seven of tripoli, ap-
plied with a wet sponge. The slight solvent action of the soap does not
injure the varnished surface, but it removes the dirt, and the grit of the
tripoli, which must be very fine, cuts off such matter as the soap fails to
remove.
How to Polish Furniture. Once the polish mixture is obtained
the chief thing is the rubbing. Any lack of this will be sure to result
in disappointment and failure. Skill is less requisite than perseverance.
Wax Polish. ‘he ingredients for this simple polish can be found
in nearly every household. It isa good polish and will keep well and
be always ready for use.
2 ounces Beeswax,
$ ounce White Soap,
1 pint Boiling Water,
Apply by rubbing a little with a cloth on a small space at a time, rub
with a second cloth and polish with a third.
470 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
To Soften Varnish. Apply ammonia freely, using a sponge fast-
ened to a handle, and as soon as the varnish softens it may be scraped
away with a knife or a piece of glass. An application of strong spirits
of camphor will remove almost any varnish or polish from furniture,
but care must be taken to allow plenty of time for the spirits of camphor
to evaporate before repolishing or varnishing, as the camphor will in-
jure the riew coat.
Resin Polish. The base of this polish is resin, and after the
liquids are evaporated there is left a thin covering of very fine resin,
which is very hard and glossy.
2 ounces Resin, 4 ounces Ether,
12 ounces Alcohol, 2 ounces Balsam Fir,
8 ounces Boiled Linseed Oil.
Keep this polish well protected from the air, as it will soon evaporate
and leave only oil and resin behind.
Simple Polish. A simple and reliable polish that is used to re-
move finger marks.
1 pint Olive Oil,
2 pints Vinegar.
Shake well before using and apply with a woolen cloth, after which
rub vigorously with a dry cloth of the same material, or use a chamois
instead.
Common Furniture Polish. Where the varnish of furniture
has become old and much tarnished use this polish.
4 ounces Shellac, 1 pint Spirits Turpentine,
2 pints Alcohol, 4 ounces Ether,
3 pints Linseed Oil, 4 ounces Ammonia.
Mix thoroughly the shellac and alcohol, and then add the other in-
gredients. Shake well when using and apply with a sponge.
Oil Polish. When there are cracks in the varnish, this polish will
fili them and make the surface appear new.
2 pints Linseed Oil, 2 ounces Butter of Ammonia,
4 pint Alcohol. % pint Spirits Turpentine,
$ pint Vinegar.
Shake well before using and apply with a woolen rubber, that is a
woolen cloth over a smooth piece of hard wood.
Finishing Polish. Take one-half pint spirits of wine, two drams
shellac and two drams gum benzoin. Put these ingredients into a bottle
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 471
and keep it in a warm place until the gum is all dissolved, stirring it fre-
quently. When cold, add two tea-spoonfuls of the best clear white
poppy oil. Shake all well tcgether and the polish is then ready for use.
Keep well stirred while using.
This preparation is useful for finishing after any of the foregoing re-
ceipts; as it adds to the lustre and durability of the polish, and removes
any defects left by the latter. It gives the surface a most brilliant ap-
pearance. It is used the same as the polishes; but in order to remove
dull places the pressure in rubbiug must be increased.
Olive oil and water, mixed in the palm of the hand, is said to be the
best means of polishing pianos and organs. Mix and rub on vigor:
ously with the hand.
French Polish. A method largely used in France for imparting
to furniture a brilliant and lasting polish is described as follows: a solu-
tion is made by beating gum acacia and the whites of two eggs ina
mortar until they thoroughly mix, then a half pint each of raw linseed
oil and best vinegar are added, together with eight ounces methylated
spirits of wine, one ounce hydrochloric acid, and two ounccs muriate of
antimony.
To use the French polish properly, only a very small quantity must
be nsed at a time; and it must be applied with a rubber made witha
ball of cotton wool covered over with a soft cotton cloth or linen rag.
The ball is dipped into the polish, then covered over with the rag, and
this dipped into a drop of linseed oil to prevent it sticking to the wood.
Use the rubber gently, polishing from a centre in a circular motion.
Finish with a drop of spirits of wine on a clean rubber, which will ex-
tract the oil. If there is any difficulty in getting polish to ‘‘take,’’
rub the wood over first with a rag moistened with a little linseed or
olive oil.
Re-Varnishing Furniture. When furniture requires re-varnish-
ing, it should first be well washed with strong soda water, which will
remove every particle of grease. Then wash with soft water into which
a little vinegar, (oxalic acid is better) has been put. Try to neutralize
the soda.
Wipe dry and coat with a good quality hard-drying varnish. When
dry, rub off with a bunch of curled hair, to remove the gloss, and flow
ona full coat of cabinet fiinishing varnish.
To Ebonize Pine. The wood isimmersed for forty-eight hours
in a hot, saturated solution of alum, and then brushed over several
472 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
times with a logwood decoction, prepared as follows: boil one part log-
wood with ten parts of water, filter through linen and evaporate at a
gentle heat until the volume is reduced to one-half. To every quart of
this add from ten to fifteen drops of a saturated solution of indigo, com-
pletely neutral. After applying this dye to the wood, rub it with
asaturated and filtered solution of verdigrisin hot, concentrated acetic
acid, and repeat the operation until a black of the desired intensity is
obtained. It must always be retnembered when handling chemicals that
great care must be taken to protect the hands.
WHITEWASH AND KALSOMINE.
Out-Door Whitewash. For the covering of out-buildings or fen
ces that have commenced to grow rough from age, the action of the
weather, or that need a cheap durable covering, this out-door white
wash is without an equal. ‘The zinc and salt hardens the wash and
prevents it from cracking.
1 bushel Lime,
4 pounds Sulphate of Zinc,
2 pounds Common Salt.
Slack the lime by pouring boiling water over it ina closed barrel.
Put water enough on to cover the lime about a foot deep. Stir continu-
ally until it is thoroughly slacked. A cream color may be made of this
wash by adding six to eight pounds of yellow ochre. ‘This can be read-
ily applied with a whitewash brush.
United States Lighthouse Whitewash. The keepers of light-
houses in the United States were directed by the department of the
government having them in charge, to keep the stone and woodwork
covered with this whitewash, using it as hot as it was possible.
1 bushel Unslacked Lime,
6 pounds Ground Rive,
1 pound Spanish Whiting,
2 pounds White Glue.
Slack the lime in boiling water then strain and add one-half bushel of
fine salt, which has been dissolved in warm water. Put the ground rice
in boiling water and boil to a thin paste. Dissolve the glue and the
whiting in warm water. Mix and let stand for a week, Stir thorough-
ly and heat sufficient quantity to use. Put on with large painter’s or
whitewash brush. This will last almost as long as lead and oil.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 473
Gloss Whitewash. This preparation applied in the manner in-
dicated, will give a fine, smooth, glossy surface.
Mix with thin starch paste, a quantity of the oxide of zine and ap-
ply with a whitewash brush to the sides and ceiling. Then apply a
second coat in which the chloride of zinc has been mixed with the
paste.
Kalsomine. Whitewash is composed of the milk of lime, but this
after several coatings would form a thick crust on the walls, which
would scale off, so various articles were tried till zinc white mixed with
water and glue were found to be the most satisfactory. This combina-
tion is named Kalsomine, and has the advantage over common white-
wash of being easily colored. One pound of Kalsomine when mixed
according to the following will cover about eighty square feet of side
wall or ceiling two coats.
For ceilings, use:
34 pound White Glue,
8 pounds Zinc White.
For side walls to prevent rubbing off, use
4 pound White Glue,
8 pounds Zince White.
Soak the glue over night in water and liquefy over the fire next day.
Then add more water and the zinc white. If too much glue is added
it will be difficult to put on evenly, and it will be more liable to crack
and fall off in scales.
Various coloring matter may be mixed with the Kalsomine to give al-
most any shade desired.
Brick Colored Wash For Walls. Brick fonndations, sidewalls,
or chimneys that it seems best to keep the color of the original brick,
should have this preparation applied.
2 ounces Cheap Glue,
1 gallon Water,
$ pound Venetian Rod,
1 pound Spanish Brown.
Dissolve the glue in water and then add about one-half pound of alum.
Heat and add the Venetian red and the Spanish brown. If too light in
color add more red and brown.
Fence Wash. Slack the lime in boiling water and to each three
gallons of the ordinary whitewash add one pound fine salt and one pint
molasses. ‘Two coats are sufficient.
474 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
TO REMOVE STAINS AND GREASE SPOTS.
Ink Stains. There are two kinds of ink stains, aniline and gall-
nut. Many inks made now are aniline, so it is always best to treat all
ink stains first with diluted tartaric acid, increasing its strength until
the spot begins to disappear. Should this acid, however, have no effect
then treat for ink made from nut-galls. The cloth containing the spot
is spread out tightly over a bright, hot, tin plate and rubbed with a hot
solution of oxalic acid, using a piece of iron to rub with, such as an iron
key. It often happens that in silk goods nothing can be done to remove
the stain.
Ink Stains on Table Linen. The best way to take ink out of
table linen is to soak the spots in sour milk. Put the cloth in the fresh
milk and set it where it will turn sour. The process of souring seems
to assist in drawing out the stains. Rub the spots after they have been
soaking twenty-four hours in the milk, (provided it has curdled in that |
time), just as you would wash any spot in water. They will finally be-
come very faint and may now be washed out in water, and the first time
they are put through the weekly washlng the probability is that all
traces of the ink stains will have disappeared.
Grass Stains. These are very readily removed by moistening with
Stannous chloride and rinsing well in water.
Fruit Stains. Fruit stains in white goods must be bleached out
with Javelle water, (see directions how to make), and well rinsed in
clear water. Do not try soap except as a last resort, as it sometimes
has the effect of setting the color and rendering the stain difficult to re-
move. For colored silks use warm water, Castile soap suds, and ammo-
nia. This applies in general to all vegetable stains, including red wine
and to red ink stains.
An old fashioned way of removing fruit stains is to pour boiling water
upon them. ‘This is best done by spreading the section of cloth contain-
ing the spot out firmly over a bowl or pan and pouring boiling water
upon it from the spout of a tea-kettle.
Fruit stains are easily removed fron table-linen by wetting the spots
with spirits of camphor befere being washed. If camphor is not at hand
whisky will answer.
Acid Stains. Excepting those from nitric acid which are perma-
nent, acid stains can be neutralized by the action of an alkali, strong
ammonia usually being the most effective. If the stain is fresh and of
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 475
a red color, it will sometimes disappear by moistening it with water and
holding over the mouth of a bottle of ammonia so that the fumes may
come in contact with it. In general, however, the acid stain should be
neutralized by the direct application, drop by drop, of strong ammonia,
meanwhile watching carefully the colors of the fabric, so that they may
not be injured.
Coffee Stains. Coffee stains may usually be removed by moisten-
ing the spots and holding them over the fumes of a small piece of sul-
phur placed in an iron vessel. Sulphur being an acid, the stained parts
must at once be carefully washed with water containing a little soda or
ammonia to save the fibre from injury. Ifa spot is quite small, it
may be moistened and held over the fumes of a few sulphur matches.
The vapor from burning sulphur will often remove stains that nothing
else will affect. But the fabric must be immediately and thoroughly
rinsed in every instance.
To Remove Paint. Paint and varnish may be removed by using
turpentine, gasolene or benzine. On silk, ether gives the best results.
Old spots on woolen goods should be covered with olive oil and allowed
to remain for several hours; then treat with chloroform. This applies
also to all resinous stains.
Kalsomine Stains. Kalsomine yields at once to water and acetic
acid, though like all stains, even these simple blemishes may be fixed in
cloth, if unduly experimented with.
Iron Rust. This is removed by holding the spot over a bowl of
water to which a little ammonia has been added, and applying with a
glass rod, or a small piece of wood, eighteen per cent, muriatic acid.
‘The instant the stain disappears immerse the spot in the water thereby
preventing the acid from affecting the texture of the cloth. Before
using muriatic acid, it is best to test it om one corner of the ‘fabric.
Should you find that it changes the colors, then treat as for ink stains
described above.
Mildew. Generally speaking mildew is not affected by chemicals,
though it sometimes yields to their action. It may best be treated with
a stiff paste made by boiling down Castile soap shavings, spreading a
thick layer of this upon the stain and scattering over it some powdered
potash. .Moisten slightly with water and bleach out on the grass.
Javelle Water or Bleaching Compound. Javelle water for
bleaching white goods is prepared as follows: place one pound of chlor-
ide of lime in an earthen jar having a tight cover and add four and a
476 : STANDARD RECEIPTS.
half pints of water. Dissolve in a separate vessei twenty ounce of or-
dinary washing soda and pour into the first solution. When cold add
two more pints of water, making eleven pints in all. Strain through
muslin and allow it to settle and pour off the resulting clear liquid.
Candle Grease. Parafine or tallow is best removed with chloro-
form, though every housekeeper knows the old trick of ironing over a
piece of blotting paper.
Grease and Oil. Grease and oil spots in wash goods may be re-
moved with soap, ammonia, and water. For silks try first absorption,
which is done by sprinkling the spot heavily with chalk or magnesia,
placing a piece of blotting paper on both sides and ironing with a warm
iron. Many a man who thinks he knows the best way to eradicate this
most common of all stains finds that within a few weeks after treatment
the garment has an unsightly ring where the spot was. ‘This is due to
the fact that when the stain was rubbed and the grease loosened, it,
lacking an absorbent, spread itself into the surrounding fabric.
This is the right way to remove a greasespot. ‘Take benzine, turpen-
tine, gasolene, or best of all, ether, and moisten a large ring around the
grease spot, gradually working towards the center; when this is reached
immediately saturate two pieces of blotting paper with the spirit, place
one beneath and the other above and press with a weight. By this
means the grease will be absorbed as soon as dissolved. Care must be
taken in the use of ether, gasolene, or benzine, not to bring it near a
flame, as the vapors of all three are highly inflammable.
HARNESS AND LEATHER.
To Preserve Harness. First remove the dirt with a moist sponge.
Do not-use too much water, nor any soap. No harness gets so muddy
that a moist sponge will not remove the dust, if cleaned while the mud
is moist. Now give the leather a good coat of lampblack and castor or
neat’s-foot oil. Then with a good warm soap-suds sponge the harness
thorougly removing all the dirt. When the harness becomes dry, rub it
over with a mixture of oil and tallow, equal parts, with which has been
mixed Jampblack or Prussian blue to give it color. Do not use more of
this last compound of oil and tallow than is actually necessary, and rub
it in thoroughly.
Leather Blacking. Take one ounce of copperas and one and one-
half pints of water, and thoroughly mix. This is used by harness mak-
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 477
ers and shoemakers for blacking the edges of newly cut leather, or
staining places that have become red or ‘‘foxy.’’
Water-proof Blacking. A blacking that will not injure the leath-
er is most desirable. There is no ingredient in this blacking that is in
any way destructive to the fibre.
15 pounds Beeswax, 3 ounces Linseed Oil,
14 ounces Prussian Blue, 6 ounces Ivory Black,
1 ounce Copal Varnish, 6 ounces Soft Soap,
1 pint Oil of Turpentine.
Mix well together by gentle heating and keep the paste in old tin
fruit cans.
Uncolored Leather. Russet lines, shoes, and uncolored leather
may be nicely cleaned and made to look almost as good as new, by ap-
plying with a sponge a very weak solution of oxalic acid dissolved in
water.
Old Harness Made Like New. Harness after long exposure
to the air loses its luster and turus brown, and requires a new coat of
blacking. This will not enter the grain, while there is any grease on
the surface, and it must be removed by a careful washing in potash
water. After drying apply a coating of the LEATHER BLACKING.
Then apply a coating of oil to the surface to fasten the color and make
the harness pliable.
BOOTS AND SHOES.
To Make Water-Proof. Melt together equal quantities of bees-
wax and mutton suet. While warm rub over the shoe or boot, soles as
well as top.
To Soften. Leather that has hardened by water may be made soft
and pliable by an application of kerosene oil. Neat’s-foot oil, well rub-
bed in, is the best and most lasting for restoring softness and pliancy to
leather, that has become hard.
Brilliant Liquid Blacking. A liquid blacking is easily applied
and while not so often used on men’s shoes, it is always the article ap-
plied to ladies’ and children’s shoes.
1 pound Ivory Black,
1 pint Molasses,
2 ounces Sweet Oil,
1 pint of each, Beer and Vinegar.
Rub together the first three, till the oil seems to have disappeared,
then add the beer and vinegar.
478 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
Oil Paste Blacking. This is made of the same ingredients as the
foregoing, only the quantity of beer and vinegar is reduced so that the
result is a paste instead of a liquid.
CLEANING AND POLISHING.
To Clean Copper or Brass. The next time you think you have
done with a lemon just dip it in salt and rub your copper kettle with it.
You will be surprised to find what a brilliant surface you will obtain if
you rub the article instantly with a dry soft cloth. You can polish all
brass work by the same means, every stain disappearing as if by magic.
If the brass is on furniture in the shape of knobs or ornaments use
either powdered whiting or scraped rotten stone, mix with sweet oil
and rub on with chamois skin.
Cleaning Brass. 1. Rub the surface of the metal with rotten stone
and sweet oil, then rub off with a piece of cotton flannel and polish with
soft leather.
2. A solution of oxalic acid rubbed over tarnished brass soon re-
moves the tarnish, rendering the metal bright. Theacid must be wash-
ed off with water, and the brass rubbed with whitning and soft
leather.
3. A mixture of muriatic acid and alum dissolved in water, imparts a
golden color to brass articles that are steeped in it for a few seconds.
4. Put together two ounces sulphuric acid, an ounce and a half nitric
acid, one dram saltpetre and two ounces rain water. Let stand for a few
hours, and apply by passing the article in and out quickly, and then
washing off thoroughly with clean rain water. Old discolored brass
chains treated in this way will look equally as well as when new.
Silver, Keeping Bright and Clean. ‘To clean silver never use
a particle of soap on your silver-ware, as it dulls the lustre, giving the
article more the appearance of pewter than silver. When it wants clean-
ing rub it with a piece of soft leather and the following mixtures:
3 pound prepared Chalk or Whiting,
z ounce Gum Camphor.
1 ounce each of Aqua Ammonia and Alcohol.
3 ounces Benzine.
Mix well together, and apply with a soft sponge, and allow it to dry
before polishing.
To Keep Bright. For the preservation of the lustre of articles of
silver or plated ware, when not needed for actual use for a considerable
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 479
time, a coating of collodion (to be had at the drug stores), may be em-
ployed to great advantage. The articles are to be heated, and the col-
iodion then carefully applied by means of a brush, so as to cover the sur-
face thoroughly and uniformly. It is used most conveniently when di-
luted with alcohol, as for photographic purposes. Articles thus pre-
pared exhibit no trace whatever of their covering, and have stood for
more than a year in shop windows and in dwellings, retaining their white »
lustre and color, while other pieces not thus prepared became seriously
tarnished.
To Clean Silver. One of the largest britannia firms in New Eng-
land recommends the following to clean silver.
4 pound Sal-soda,
8 quarts Water.
When at a boiling heat dip the pieces of silver, and immediately wash
in soap suds, and wipe dry with a piece of cotton flannel.
Silver Polish. There is no better silver polish than the old fash-
ioned Spanish Whiting, when moistened and applied with a soft flan-
nel and a silver brush. When dry, rub with a chamois and dry whit-
ing.
To Keep the Stove Bright. Mix the stove blacking with vin-
egar to the consistency of cream, add pinch of sugar, put on with a
brush, and polish with old newspapers. It will give a beautiful and
lasting polish.
To Clean Marble. To clean marble, take two parts of common
soda, one part of pumice stone, and one part of finely powdered chalk;
sift it through a fine sieve and mix with water; then rub it well over
the marble, and the stains will be removed; finally, rub the marble over
with salt and water.
To Clean Willow Ware. To clean willow furniture which is
not varnished, use salt and water. Apply it with a stiff brush, scrub
well and dry thoroughly.
To Whiten Ivory. Rub with finely powdered pumice-stone and
water, and expose to the sun while still moist, placing over ita glass
shade to prevent cracking. Repeat the treatment until the proper hue
is produced. Keeping a piano open on fine days so the sun’s rays will
fall directly on the keys, will keep the latter from turning yellow.
To Clean Steel. Mix emery powder with linseed oil and form a
paste; rub it on with a piece of flannel. Do not let it remain on but
at once rub off with emery powder till the steel is bright. Polish with
480 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
a leather. If rusty, clean first with fine sand paper, and then apply the
emery as instructed.
To Clean Glass. First wash well with a soft sponge, using clear
water and squeezing the sponge as dry as possible. Then dip the damp
sponge in whiting and rub over the surface of the glass. When dry
rub clean with a soft cloth.
PASTE, GLUE, AND MUCILAGE.
Paste, That Will Keep. Dissolve a teaspoonful of alum in a
quart of warm water. When cold, stir in as much flour as will give it
the consistency of thick cream, being particular to beat up all the lumps;
stir in as much powdered resin as will stand on a dime, and throw in
half-a-dozen cloves to give a pleasant odor. Have on the fire a teacup-
ful of boiling water; pour the flour mixture into it, stirring well all the
time. In a very few minutes it will be of the consistency of mush. Pour
it into jars and when wanted for use it can be readily thinned with
water.
Liquid Glue. First soak in cold water all the glue you wish to
make at one time, using only glass, earthen, or porcelain dishes; then by
gentle heat dissolve the glue in the same water, and pour ina little nitric
acid, sufficient to give the glue a sour taste, like vinegar, or one ounce
to each pound of glue.
Water-Proof Glue. One ounce of gum sandarac and one ounce of
mastic are to be dissolved together in a pint of alcohol, to which one
ounce of white turpentine is to be added. At thesame time avery thick
glue is to be kept ready, mixed with a little isinglass. The solution of
the resins in alcohol is to be heated to boiling in a glue pot, and the glue
added gradually with constant stirring, so as to tender the whole mass
homogeneous. After the solution is strained through a cloth, it is ready
for use, and is to be applied hot. It dries quickly and becomes very
hard, and surfaces of wood united by it do not separate when immersed
in water.
Glue as Mucilage. ‘Take of isinglass and parchment size, each
one ounce, sugar candy and gum tragacanth, each two drams; add to
them one ounce water, and boil the whole together till the solution ap-
pears (when cold) of the consistency of glue; then pour it into any form
you please. If this glue be wet with the tongue. and rubbed on the
edges of paper, silk or leather that are to be cemented, they will, being
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 481
laid together, pressed slightly, and suffered to dry, be as firmly united as
other parts of the substance.
Elastic Glue. If glue or gelatine is incorporated with about one-
quarter of its weight of glycerine, it loses its brittleness, and becomes
useful for many purposes for which it is otherwise unfit, such as dressing
leather, giving elasticity to parchment or enameled paper, and for book-
binding.
Mucilage. 1. Put three ounces of gum arabic in an earthenware
vessel containing half a pint of cold water. If the liquid is occasionally
stirred, the gum in twenty-four hours will be dissolved and the mixture
ready for use. Cloves will keep it from moulding.
2. Fine clean glue, one pound; gum arabic, ten ounces; water, one
quart; melt by heat in a glue kettle or water-bath; when entirely melted,
add slowly ten ounces strong nitric acid, and set off to cool. Then bot-
tle, adding a couple of cloves to each bottle.
WAGON TIRES AND FENCE POSTS.
Wagon Tires Kept From Loosening. If this plan is careful-
ly followed, tires on wagons will not get loose and require resetting.
Use a tin-pan long and narrow, and deep and fill with oil, setting it on an
oil stove. Let the oil come to a boiling heat, and then placing the stove
and pan near a post or studding, hang the wheel on a peg put in the
post or studding, so that the felloe of the wheel will run in the oil.
Thoroughly soak each felloe an hour. The timber should be dry, as
green timber will not take oil. Care should be taken that the oil is not
made hotter than a boiling heat or the timber will be burned. Timber
filled with oil is not susceptible of injury by water, and is rendered
much more durable by this process.
Fence Posts. Any sort of timber, when employed for fence-posts
will be more than twice as durable if allowed to become well seasoned
before being set in the ground: The durability of seasoned posts may
be promoted, so as to make them last for an age, by the application of a
heavy coat of coal-tar to the portion buried in the earth, anda few in-
ches above the surface of the tar. The ground-end may be put in hot
tar and let boil for fifteen minutes. When cool, cover with coal-tar
thickened with ground slate or ground brick. The boiling causes the
pores to absorb tar. The coating prevents the action of moisture. But
such a treatment of green posts would do but very little good and per-
haps mischief. The better way is to season the post well before setting
482 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
it, and when the post-hole is filled to within ten inches of the surface of
the ground, to apply a heavy coat of tar and fill up with earth. As
fence-posts always decay near the surface of the ground, it is only nec-
essary to protect the post a few inches above the surface, and about a
foot below it. The timber begins to decay, usually on the surface of
the posts. Therefore, if the surface can be protected by some antisep-
tic material, posts will last a lifetime.
ANNOYING INSECTS.
Exterminating Insects. By scattering chloride of lime on a
plank in a stable, biting flies are driven away. Sprinkling beds of veg-
etables with a weak solution of this salt effectually preserves them from
caterpillars, slugs, etc. It has the same effect when sprinkled on fruit-
trees and shrubbery. Mixed in a paste with fatty matter, and applied
in a narrow band around the trees, it prevents insects from creep-
ing up.
Another plan is to carry all the toads you can find to your gardens.
They will devour immense number of bugs. A toad will swallow the
largest specimen of the tomato worm, though sometimes he will have a
hard time of it.
Hens, wasps, and spiders are all devourers of your enemies. A com-
mon duck will go up and down rows of tomato and potato vines, and
pick off the large worms usually found on such vines, as fast it can see
them; and they willsee a half dozen when a man could not see one.
Young turkeys will do the same service, though they are not so easily
controlled and guided.
All fallen fruit is to be picked up once or twice a day, and boiled, and
then given to your cattle to be devoured. By doing this it will pay ten
times over, and the result of it will be that the next year you will not
have insects.
To Exterminate Bed Bugs. ‘There are various remedies for
getting rid of these annoying insects. The following are the most re-
liable.
1. Put a few drops of oil of cinnamon into naptha and annoint the
openings and cracks. Do not take near fire or burning lamp.
2. Two ounces red arsenic, one-quarter pound of white soap, one-half
ounce of camphor dissolved in a teaspoonful of alcohol, made into a
paste of the consistency of cream. Use to annoint the bedstead.
STANDARD RECEIPTS, 483
To Destroy the Striped Bug. ‘The striped bug on cucumbers
and melons may be destroyed as follows:
1. By a strong solution of hen-house manure—sav one peck of the
manure to one and a half gallons of water; let it stand twenty-four honrs
and sprinkle the plants freely with it after sunset.
2. By sifting charcoal dust over the plants; if repeated three or four
times the plants will be entirely freed from the annoyance.
3. Plant a few kernels of buckwheat in each hill of cucumbers or mel-
ons, and striped bugs will not trouble the vines.
Roach Exterminator. Borax is one of the best roach extermin-
ators. ‘There is something either in the odor or touch of borax which
is certain death to them. Purchase it pulverized and sprinkle around
the infested places.
Red Ants. Sprinkle oil of pennyroyal on the pantry shelves and
the ants will disappear.
Flies on Horses. As a preventive of horses being teased by flies,
take two or three small handfuls of walnut leaves, upon which pour two
or three quarts of cold water; let it infuse for one night, and pour the
whole next morning intoa kettle, and let it boil for fifteen minutes.
When it becomes cold it will be fit for use. No more is required than
to moisten a sponge, and, before the horse goes out of the stable, let
those parts which are most irritable be smeared over with the liquor—
namely, between and upon the ears, the neck, the flanks, etc. Not
only the lady or gentleman who rides out for pleasure will derive pleas-
ure from the walnut leaves thus prepared, but the coachman, the wag-
oner, and all others who use horses during the summer.
To Keep out Mosquitoes. 1. Oil of pennyroyal scattered about
in small quantities. This is best sprayed about the room with a per-
fume atomizer.
2. Take of gum camphor a piece about one-third the size of an egg,
and evaporate it by placing it in a tin vessel, and holding it over a lamp
or candle, taking care that it does not ignite. The fumes will soon fill
the room and expel the mosquitoes.
3. Carbolic acid has recently been successfully used for the extermin-
ation of mosquitoes and flies. A small piece of cloth saturated with the
acid, was hung in the room, and in two hours the flies had entirely
disappeared. In the evening the acid was tried in the kitchen where
the mosquitoes were very troublesome, and there it met with the same
success.
484 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
To Prevent Mosquito Biting. 1. Dilute a little of the oil of
thyme with sweet oil, and dip pieces of paper in it. Hang in your room
or rub a little on the hands and face when going to bed.
2. Petroleum is a good mosquito bar, if used in this way; a little coal
oil is dropped on some raw cotton, the excess of it squeezed out, and the
cotton then rubbed over the face and hands. The little pests will not
cone near. ‘The remedy seems nearly as bad as the disease; to those
who do not mind the smell of kerosene it will be found to be very
useful.
To Cure Mosquito Bites. 1. Apply sweet spirits of nitre to mos-
quito bites and it will draw out all the soreness and itching, if the skin
is not broken by scratching it.
2. Apply at once a few drops of aqua ammonia, or an infusion of to-
bacco, either of which will allay the itching and soreness almost imme-
diately.
3. Carbolic acid has also been tried, and with good success, but it
should be diluted, to prevent producing a blister.
Bee and Wasp Stings. 1. These stings though very painful are -
not dangerous to a healthy person, unless in the mouth, throat, or eye-
lid. The sting of a bee being barbed at the end, it is always left in the
wound, and should when possible, be carefully removed. That of a
wasp is pointed only, so that they can sting more than once, which a
bee cannot do. If, after the sting of the bee is extracted, the wound be
sucked, very little inflammation will follow; and if spirits of ammonia
be then applied, a prompt healing will result.
2. Common whiting, moistened with water, and applied immediately,
and in a few minutes washed off, will prevent pain and swelling from
following the sting of a bee or wasp.
3. The slice of a common onion rubbed on the sting of a wasp, or, if
in the throat, chewed slowly and the piece swallowed, will result in a
certain cure.
The Bites of Bees, Wasps, Hornets, scorpions, etc., may be
instantly relieved by the immediate and free application of spirits of
hartshorn as a wash to the part bitten. ‘The part may afterwards be
covered with a little sweet oil.
Harvest Bug. The best remedy is benzine, which immediately
kills the ifisect. A drop of tincture of iodine has the same effect.
Many sufferers prevent the attacks by sprinkling a little benzine over the
stockings before walking.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 485
To Destroy Cockroaches. 1. Strew the roots of black hellebore
at night, in the places infested by these vermin, and they will be found
in the morning dead or dying. Black hellebore grows in marshy ground.
where it may easily be gathered, or it may be purchased at any drug
store.
2. Take pulverized borax, four ounces; flour, one ounce; mix inti-
mately and distribute the mixture in cupboards which are frequented by
the roaches, or blow it by means of a bellows, into the holes or cracks
that are infested by them.
3. Take carbolic acid and powdered camphor in equal parts; put them
in a bottle; they will become fluid. With a painter’s brush of the size
called a sash-tool, put the mixture on the cracks or places where the
roaches hide; they will come out at once. Then kill.
Fleas on Dogs and Cats. Fleas are usually brought into the
family circles by pet dogs and cats. The oil of pennyroyal will drive
these insects off; but a cheaper method, where the herb flourishes, is to
throw your cats and dogs into a strong tea made by steeping the penny-
royal in water. When the herb cannot be got, the oil can be procured.
In this case, saturate strings with it and tie them round the necks of
dogs and cats. ‘These applications should be repeated every twelve or
fifteen days.
To Kill Caterpillars. Boil together equal quantities of rue,
wormwood, and tobacco, in common water. The liquid should be very
strong. Sprinkle it on the leaves and young branches every morning
and evening during the time tle fruit is ripening.
To Kill Crickets. A little ginger and water placed in a dish be
fore the fire will attract the crickets, and on partaking of the liquor they
will die. ‘The best mode of destroying the insects in their nest is to put
snuff into the chinks of the grate.
Moths in Clothing and Furs. Either one of the following
methods will keep out the moths provided the clothes are put away
without any eggs being on them. Put in boxes and PASTE PAPER ALL
AROUND THE COVER, making it impossible for them to get in.
. Sprinkle allspice berrics among the clothes.
2. Sprinkle the clothes with the seeds of the musk plant.
3. Procure shavings of camphor-wood, and enclose in bags.
4. Procure shavings of cedar-wood, and enclose in muslin bags,
which should be distributed among the clothes.
5. An ounce of gum camphor and one of the powdered shell of red
486 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
pepper are macerated in eight ounces of strong alcohol for several days,
then strained. With this tincture the furs or clothes are sprinkled over
and rolled up in sheets.
6. Carefully shake and brush woolens in the spring, so as to be cer-
tain that no eggs are in them; then sew them up in cotton or linen
wrappers, putting a piece of camphor gum, tied up ina bit cf muslin,
into each bundle, or into the chests and closets where the articles are to
lie. No moth will approach while the smell of camphor continues.
When the gum is evaporated it must be renewed. Enclose them in a
moth-proof box with camphor. Furs or woolens put away in spring
time, before moth eggs are laid, into boxes, trunks, or closets even,
where moths cannot enter, will be safe from the ravages of mothworms,
provided none were in them that were laid late in the autumn, for they
are not of spontaneous production.
Flies, Their Habits and Kinds. Flies are scavengers and eat
not only the sweet things and fresh blood, but also things unclean, espe-
cially decaying animal substances. With their proboscis, sucking up the
juices which by evaporation would contaminate the air, they are very
useful indeed, in the houses of slovenly housekeepers.
The blue-bottle, or blow-fly, deposits its eggs on animal substances,
which are recognized as fly-blows. Ina warm temperature they hatch
in three or four hours after they are laid, and then are called larve or
maggots. The maggots from three flies will consume a dead horse al-
most as quickly asa lion. So voracious are they that they increase in
weight about two hundred times in twenty-four hours.
The flesh-fly, a little longer than the blow-fly, drops living maggots
on dead fish, the maggots being hatched within the fly.
The cheese-fly is very small; of a shining black color, with transparent
wings and yellow hind legs. It deposits about two hundred or two
hundred and fifty eggs into the cracks in cheese, which are developed in-
to skippers.
The maggots of some species of flies spin cocoons; with others, the
skin simply hardens and incases the pupa, or chrysalis. At length the
fully developed fly makes its escape by forcing off with its head the
chrysalis case.
The different-sized flies, are different varieties, and not young and old,
as some suppose; for flies never grow to any very perceptible extent. A
large pooportion of the swarms of flies hatched during the warm weather
of summer are destroyed by the frosts of winter. Only a few that are so
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 487
fortunate as to find shelter and warm places escape; and in similar situa-
tions, some of them pass the winter in chrysalis state, and only hatch
out when warm weather returns. ‘The house-fly is a domestic insect,
and is said never to be found except in the vicinity of man’s present or
recent home.
To Destroy Flies. House flies are present just in proportion to
the dirt and uncleanliness there is in a house. ‘The cleaner the house
and surroundings, the fewer flies there will be. Try any of the reme-
dies here suggested and be rewarded by a decrease of these annoying
pests.
1. They may be effectually destroyed by putting half a spoonful of
black pepper in powder on a teaspoonful of brown sugar, and one tea-
spoonful of cream; mix them well together and place them in a room
where the flies are troublesome, and they will soon disappear.
2. Laurel oil, freely used, the smell of which, although a little strong,
is not very offensive, drives away flies; and they dare not come near the
walls or the wainscots which have been rubbed with it.
3. Flies usually propagate in stables and they can be kept away so as
to prevent annoyance to the animals or further propagation by scatter-
ing about in the stables, sawdust which is saturated with dilute carbolic
acid (one part acid to one hundred parts water). A similar application
to the kitchen floor will keep them away.
Sticky Fly Paper. Melt resin in any vessel over the fire, and
while soft add to it enough sweet oil to make it as thick as molasses.
Spread upon writing paper with a brush and it will not dry ina long
time and is so sticky as to hold fast the legs of any insect attracted to it,
or accidentally coming in contact. It may be placed about the house,
the pantry or elsewhere, and will soon attract and hold fast ants and other
insects. It is also used on table legs, the edges of shelves and other
places to prevent the ascent of ants. Strips of this paper fastened close-
ly about the trunks of trees, plants, etc., the varnish side out, prevents
the ascent of insects. It possesses the great advantage over the ordinary
fly papers in that it is not poisonous.
4. Put about a quart of water sweetened with molasses in a tin wash
basin or smooth glazed china bowls. Set it at evening in a place fre
quented by the bugs. Around the basin put an old piece of carpet that
the bugs may have easy access tothe top. They will go down in the
water, and can not get out.
5. Mix upa quantity of fresh burned plaster of paris (gypsum, such
as is used for making molds and ornaments), with wheat flour and a
488 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
little sugar, and distribute on shallow plates and box boards, and place
in the corners of the kitchen and pantry, where they frequent. In the
darkness they will feast themselves on it. After three or four nights
renewal of the preparation, no cockroaches will be found on the
premises.
Moths in Carpets. Wring a coarse towel out of clear water,
spread it smoothly on the carpet, iron it dry with a good hot iron, re-
peating the operation on all parts of the carpet suspected of being in-
fested with moths. No need to press hard, and neither the pile nor
color of the carpet will be injured, and the moths will be destroyed by
the heat and steam.
RATS AND MICE.
To Kill or Drive Away Rats. 1. Mix some fine plaster of
Paris with an equal quantity of flour; put the mixture in the place
infested by the vermin, and a vessel full of water beside it. The rats
will devour the mixture and then drink; whereupon the plaster, brought
in contact with the water, will become solid, and like a stone in their
stomachs, and will cause their death. This method is evidently
highly preferable to the use of arsenic, which is always attended with
danger.
2. Mix up the following and put on bread or cheese :
3 ounces Sugar.
1 pound Flour,
8 ounces Sulphur.
8 ounces Phosphorus.
3. When a house is infested by rats which refuse to nibble at toasted
cheese, and the usual baits, a few drops of the highly scented oil of rho-
dium, poured on the bottom of a cage top, will always attract before
morning. Where a trap baited with all manner of edibles had failed to
attract a single rat, the oil of rhodium caused it to be completely crowded
night after night.
4. Mix powdered nux vomica with oatmeal, and lay it in their haunts,
observing proper caution to prevent accidents.
5. (PHOSPHORUS PASTE.) Take of phosphorus one part, liquify
it in twenty parts of luke-warm water, pour the whole into a mortar, and
add immediately twenty parts of rye meal ; when cold, mix twenty parts
of butter melted, and fifteen parts of sugar. If the phosphorus is in a
finely-divided state, the ingredients may be all mixed at once, without
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 489
melting them. ‘This mixture will retain its efficacy for many years, for
the phosphorus is preserved by the butter and only becomes oxydized
on the surface. Rats and mice eat this mixture with avidity, after
which they swell out and soon die.
6. Cover the floor near their holes, with a thin layer of moist caustic
potash. When the rats walk on this it makes their feet sore. These
they lick with their tongues, which makes their mouths sore, and the
result is that they not only shun this locality, but appear to tell all the
neighboring rats abont it, and eventually the house is entirely abandoned
by them, notwithstanding that the neighborhood may be teeming with
them.
7. Corks, cut as thin as wafers, roasted or stewed in grease, and
placed in their tracks ; or dried sponge in small pieces, fried or dipped
in honey, with a little oil of rhodium, or bird-lime, laid in their haunts,
will stick to their fur and cause their departure. If a liverat be caught,
and well rubbed over with tar, and oil, and afterward let escape in the
holes of others, they will disappear.
8. Cover a common barrel with stiff, stout papers, tying the edge
around the barrel; place a board so that the rats may have an easy
access to the top; sprinkle cheese parings or other ‘‘feed’’ for the rats
on the paper for several days, until they begin to believe they have a
right to the food. Then place a cover balanced near the centre and the
rat will fall into the barrel. Have water in the bottom which covers a
stone all but place enough for one rat. ‘Then the second rat gets in the
barrel, there will be a fight for a place on the stone, and this noise will
call other rats to the barrel. Each time a rat gets on the head it will
add one rat to the number inside.
Mice. ‘These are disposed of in about the same manner as rats.
Gather spearmint, peppermint, or any other kind of mint, and scatter it
about their holes, and they will forsake the premises.
PRESERVING AND SALTING MEAT.
To Cure Hams. For each twelve pounds of ham use the following:
2 pounds Common Salt,
2 ounces Saltpetre,
4 pound Bay Salt,
2 pound Brown Sugar.
Reduce the solids to the finest powder. Rub the hams well with it.
490 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
Then place them in a deep pan, and add a wine-glassful of good vinegar.
Turn the hams every day; for the first three or four days rub them well
with the brine; after that time it will suffice to ladle it over the meat
with a wooden or iron spoon. They should remain three weeks in the
pickle. When taken from it wipe them well, put them in bags of brown
paper and then smoke them with wood smoke for three weeks. Most
grocers, dealers in hams, and others, who are particular with their meat,
usually take the precaution to case each one, after it is smoked, in can-
vass, for the purpose of defending it from the attacks of the little fly,
(dermestes lardarius), which by laying its eggs in it, soon fills it with its
maggots. ‘This troublesome and expensive process may be altogether
superseded by the use of pyroligneous acid. With a painter’s brush,
dipped in the liquid, one man, in the course of a day, may effectually
secure two hundred hams from all danger. Care should be taken to in-
sinuate the liquid into all the cracks, etc., of the under surface. This
method is especially adapted to the preservation of hams in hot climates.
2. Make the following pickle and let the meat lay in it six weeks:
23} pounds Sugar,
7 pounds Coarse Salt,
2 ounces Saltpetre,
4 gallons Water.
Boil together and put to cool. The above is sufficient for one hundred
pounds of meat.
3. Toa cask holding, say from twenty-five to thirty hams, after pack-
ing them closely and sprinking them slightly with salt, let them lie thus
for three days; then make a brine sufficient to cover them, by putting
salt in clear water, making it strong enough to bear up a sound egg or
potato. Then addone-half pound of saltpetre, and a gallon of molasses;
let them lie in brine for five weeks. Then take them up and let them
drain; then while damp, rub the flesh side and the end of the leg with
finely pulverized black, red, or cayenne pepper; let it be as fine as dust,
and dust every part of the flesh side, then hang them up and smoke.
You may leave them hanging in the smoke house or other cool place
where the rats cannot reach them as they are perfectly safe from all
insects.
To Keep Smoked Hams. Make sacks of coarse cotton cloth,
large enough to hold one ham, and fill with chopped hay all around
about two inches thick. The hay prevents the grease from coming in
contact with the cloth and keeps all insects from the meat. Hang in
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 491
the smokehouse, or other dry, cool, place, and they will keep a long
time.
To Pickle Mutton Hams for Drying. First take weak brine
and put the hams into it for two days, then pour off and apply the fol-
lowing, and then let it remain on from two to three weeks according to
size: for each one hunared pounds, take salt six pounds; saltpetre, one
ounce; saleratus, two ounces; molasses, one pint; water, six gallons; will
cover these if closely packed.
Corned Beef. 1. Cut up the beef, and weigh and bulk it up, sprink-
ling a little salt over it, and let it lay ten or twelve hours, then pack it
down in the barrel. To one hundred pounds of beef take one quart of
salt, three and one half pints of molasses, one table-spoonful of saltpetre.
Put all this into sufficient water to cover the beef; boil the pickle, and
skim off all the scum, and when cold pour it over the beef, and weigh it
down. Keep the beef covered with the pickle.
2. Rub each piece of beef very lightly with salt; let them lie singly on
a tray or board for twenty-four hours, then wipe them very dry. Pack
them closely in a tub, taking care that it is perfectly sweet and clean.
Have the pickle ready, made thus: boil four gallons of soft water with
ten pounds of coarse salt, four ounces of saltpetre, and two pounds of
coarse brown sugar; let it boil fifteen minutes, and skim it while boiling
very clean. When perfectly cold pour it on the beef, laying a weight
on the top to keep the meat under the pickle. This quantity is sufficient
for one hundred pounds of beef if closely packed.
Dried Beef. The good qualities of dried beef as an article of food
for the family are not fully appreciated. In point of excellence it is one
of the nicest articles, when properly prepared, that we have in our store-
room. It is also one of the most economical articles of food; quite a
small gantity of dried beef, shaved very fine, and cooked with a nice
gravy, will serve for meat for a family at a very small expense. It
is so convenient to have; always ready; always acceptable. To people
who live convenient to market, it is not of so much importance; but to
those, who live at a distance from towns, dried beef is one of the neces-
sary articles in our bill of fare.
There are several methods of cooking it. Some prefer it cooked with
a gravy of water, seasoned with butter, thickened with flour, and per-
haps eggs broken in while cooking. Others cook it with crumbs of
sausage, frying the sausage first, then adding the beef with water, and
thickening with flour. It is also very good cooked with a little sweet
492 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
milk and sweet cream, the gravy being thickened with flour; allow it to
boil once; that is all the cooking it requires. A dish of dried beef,
properly cooked, served with toast, baked potatoes, and boiled eggs, is
a very nice provision for breakfast or a dinner prepared in haste. When
too salt, it can be remedied by soaking, after cutting and before, and
adding a little white sugar while cooking, to restore the sweetness lost
by soaking. Sugar cured beef is much nicer than that cured with salt
alone.
To Cure Bacon. ‘The reputation of the Hampshire bacon is owing
entirely to the care with which it is cured. The hogs, which are fatted
on peas and barley meal, are kept fasting for twenty-four hours at least
before they are killed; they are used as gently as possible in the act of
killing, which is done by inserting a long-pointed knife into the main
artery which comes from the heart. The hair is burned off with lighted
straw, and the dirty surface of the skin scraped off. The carcass is
hung up after the entrails have been removed, and the next day, when
the meat has become quite cold, it is cut up into flitches. The spare-
ribs are taken out, and the bloody veins carefully removed; the whole is
then covered with salt, with a small quantity of saltpetre mixed with it.
Sometimes a little brown sugar is added, which gives a pleasant sweet-
ness to the bacon. ‘The flitches are laid on a low wooden table, which
has a small raised border at the lower end. ‘The table slantsa little, so
as to let the brine run off into a vessel placed under it, by a small open-
ing in the border at the lower end.
The flitches are turned up and salted every day; those which were up-
permost are put under, and in three weeks they are ready to be hung up
to dry. Smoking the bacon is no longer as comuion as it used to be, as
simply drying in the salt is found sufficient to make it keep. Those
who from early association like the flavor given by the smoke of wood,
burn sawdust and shavings in a smothered fire for some time under the
flitches.
When they are quite dry they are placed on a board rack for the use
of the family, or are packed with chaff into chests till they are sold.
To Keep Butter Sweet. To every twenty pounds of butter take
three pounds salt, one pound loaf sugar, one-quarter pound pulverized
saltpetre; mix and put a layer of butter about eight inches thick; then
sprinkle on a light covering alternately, until your cask is full.
Pack in air-tight casks. Butter packed in this way will keep sweet
for two or three years.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 493
FRUIT AND VEGETABLES KEPT OVER WINTER.
To Keep Grapes. 1. They must not be tooripe. Take off the im-
perfect grapes from the bunches. On the bottom of a keg put a layer
of bran that has been well dried in an oven, or in the sun. Onthe bran
put a layer of grapes, with bran between the bunches so that they may
not bein contact. Proceed in the same way with alternate layers of
grapes and bran, till the keg is full; then close the keg so that no air
can enter.
2. In a box first lay a paper, then a layer of grapes, selecting the best
bunches and removing all imperfect grapes, then another paper, then
more grapes, and so until the box is full; then cover all with several
folds of paper or cloth. Nail on the lid, and set in a cool room where it
will not freeze. Use small boxes, so as not to disturb more than enough
to use in a week or so. Give each bunch plenty of room so they will
not crowd, and don’t use newspapers. Some seal the stem with sealing
wax and wrap each bunch by itself, but it is not necessary to go to that
trouble. The grapes should be looked to several times during the win-
ter. Should any mould or decay, they should be removed and the good
ones again repacked.
3. Cut a piece out of a ripe pumpkin or gourd, making an aperture
large enough to admit the hand. Clean out the interior of seeds and
place the ripe grapes inside, and replace the cover and press it in firmly.
Keep the pumpkins in a cool place—and the grapes will be found to
retain their freshness for a long time. A very careful selection must be
made of the pumpkin, but the common field pumpkin, however, is well
adapted for the purpose in question.
To Keep Cabbage. Sink a barrel in the ground to within an inch
or two of the top, cut off the heads and fill the barrel full, put on a board
to keep out water, and that is all the covering that is needed.
To Keep Apples. 1. Select the best of fruit, and carefully wrap
each specimen separately in paper so that the air cannot pass through,
and the time of keeping in a sound and eatable condition can be greatly
prolonged. After covering each apple with paper, select a light wooden
box and cover it on the inside, or outside, with paper either before or
after putting in the fruit, as the case may be. Those persons who are
desirous of preserving a small quantity of apples will be amply repaid for
their trouble by trying the above experiment. The fruit should not be
494 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
disturbed after packing until the box is opened at the time the fruit is to
be eaten.
2. Sprinkle a layer of dry sawdust at the bottom of a box, and then
place a layer of apples init, so that they will not touch each other. Upon
these place a little layer of sawdust, and so on until the box is filled.
The boxes, after being packed in this way, are to be placed on the wall
in the cellar, up from the ground, where they will keep, perfectly retain-
ing their freshness and flavor until brought out.
3. Apples for keeping should be laid out on a dry floor for three
weeks. They then may be packed away in layezs, with dry straw be-
tween them. Each apple should be rubbed with a dry cloth as it is put
away. ‘They should be kept in a cool place, but should be sufficiently
covered with straw to protect them from frost. They should be picked
ona dry day. They also keep if packed in dry sand.
4. An excellent method for preserving apples through the winter is
to put them in barrels or boxes, surrounding each apple with some dry
mould or gypsum (plaster of Paris)—not the calcined used for casts,
models, etc.,—and keep in a dry, cool outhouse.
To Keep Celery. This may be kept in good condition during the
winter in a cool, dry cellar, by having it set out in earth. When a
small quantity only is wanted, take a box and stand the celery up in it,
placing a little earth about the roots. The farmers who raise quantities
of it cften keep it in their old hot-beds, standing up, and protecting it
from frost. There is no vegetable more relished than this, and every
person who has a garden should raise enough for his own use, if no
more.
To Keep Potatoes from Sprouting. To keep potatoes intended
for the use of the table from sprouting until new potatoes grow, take
boiling water, pour into a tub, turn in as many potatoes as the water
will entirely cover, then pour off all the water, handle the potatoes care-
fully, laying up in a dry place on boards, only one layer deep, and see
if you do not have good potatoes the year round, without hard strings
and watery ends caused by growing.
Pears Kept Fresh. After they have been allowed to lay on the
shelves in the fruit-room, and sweat, they should be wiped dry, and
packed in boxes with dry sawdust enough to exclude the air from them.
If they were packed in dry sand, they would keep equally as well and
perhaps better; but the objection is that it is difficult to clean them from
sand, and they eat gritty when so kept.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 495
TO PRESERVE OR PICKLE EGGS.
To Keep Eggs Without Spoiling. For each twelve quarts of
water put in one pint of fresh slaked lime, and one pint of common salt,
mix well, fill a barrel about half full of this fluid, then with a dish, let
the fresh eggs down into this, and they will settle right side up with
care every time, and they will keep any reasonable length of time with-
out any further care than to keep them .covered with the fluid. Eggs
may be laid down in this way any time after June.
2. Dip them into a solution of gun-cotton, (collodion), so as to ex-
clude the air from the pores of the shells, or the collodion may be applied
with a brush.
3. Keep them at the temperature of 4o° F. or less in a refrigerator.
Specimens have been exhibited, which were fourteen months old, and
still perfectly fresh and sweet.
4. Pack the eggs in a cask with the smaller end downward, and fill
the cask with melted tallow. This method is practiced very extensively
in Russia and in other parts of Europe, and is generally successful.
5. Apoly with a brush a solution of gum arabic to the shells, or im-
merse the eggs therein; let them dry, and afterwards pack them in dry
charcoal dust. This prevents their being affected by any alterations of
temperature.
6. Eggs may be preserved by keeping them buried in salt, or dipping
them during two or three minutes in boiling water. The white of the
eggs then forms a kind of membrane, which envelops the interior, and
defends it from the air.
7. Take of quick-lime one pound; salt, one pound; saltpetre, three
ounces; water, one gallon. It is necessary that the solution be boiled
ten or fifteen minutes, and when cold put in the eggs, small end down-
ward, using a vessel lined with lead, and placing in a cold but dry
cellar.
8. Get a good sweet wooden box, put about an inch of salt on the
bottom; take sweet grease of any kind, lard or dr:ppings, rub the eggs
all over with it and put them, the little end down, in the salt; then
spread a layer of salt and then add more eggs.
9. Dissolve gum shellac in alcohol, when the mixture may be applied
with a common paint brush. When dry, pack in bran, points down-
ward. Eggs so preserved will keep a long tite. When about to be
used, the varnish may be washed off.
496 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
10, A Parisian paper recommends the following method for the pre-
servation of eggs: dissolve four ounces of beeswax in eight ounces of
warm olive oil; in this put the tip of the finger and annoint the egg all
around. ‘The oil will immediately be absorbed, and the shell and pores
filled up by the wax. If kept in a cool place the eggs after two years,
will be as good as if fresh laid.
11. An old sea captain says: ‘“The week before going tosea, ona four
months’ voyage, I gathered in sixty dozens of eggs for cabin sea-stores,
taking special pains to prove every egg of the lot a good one; besides, I
bought them of my farmer friends, and know they were all fresh. Then
I fixed them for keeping, by taking five or six dozens at a time in a bas-
ket, and dipping them about five seconds in the cook’s ‘‘copper’’ of
boiling water. After scalding, I passed the eggs through a bath, made
by dissolving about five pounds of the cheapest brown sugar in a gallon
of water, and laid them out on the galley floor to dry. ‘There I had my
sixty dozens of eggs sugar-coated. I packed them in charcoal dust in-
stead of salt; I tried salt ten years, and I don’t believe it preserves eggs
aimite. The steward had strict orders to report every bad egg he should
find. During the voyage he brought three, not absolutely spoiled, but
a little old. All the others, or what was left of them, were as fresh
when we came in as they were when I packed them away.”’
SOAP AND SOAP MAKING.
How to Make Soap. Animal fat, such as tallow, is the sub-
stance most at hand of all fatty matter for soap-making, although
vegetable oils, such as castor, sunflower, olive and other oils, and also
resin, are used in soap making occasionally, but tallow being more eas-
ily obtainable, and generally at a lower cost than any of the oils above
enumerated, is most extensively employed in the manufacture of domes-
tic soap.
For this purpose the grease after being freed of skin, by boiling
straining, and remelting, is heated to the temperature of boiling water,
and mixed on the fire with a hot solution of either soda, potash, or Both,
in water called the lye; the whole is gradually transferred into an itor
pot, larger by at least one third than the whole mixture, about one
quart of the melted fat being first ladled into it, then as much or more
of the hot lye, the mixture constantly stirred on the fire till a sort of
creamy matter is formed, the ladling kept on alternately till all the fat
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 497
and lye are mixed together; the stirring to be kept up till the mixture
boils, some ten or fifteen minutes, according to the strength of the lye
employed.
Then transfer from the boiler into a form, a tight box, in which
muslin has been placed overhanging the box, so that the soap may be
afterward more easily drawn out of it for the purpose of drying, or it
may be poured in acommon wash-tub, previously soaked in water to
prevent adhesion to the tub, and there allowed to harden fora few
days, from which it is put upon a table, to dry and be cut in bars for
use, by means of a wire.
To Preserve Soap Grease. Boil all the scraps, rinds, and bones
in a weak lye, and the purer grease in clear water. Let the mixture
cool, take off the cake of grease, and strain it. It is well to do this oc-
casionally, as you save it; for when kept a long time, impure grease
becomes offensive. You must be careful to dry off all the water before
laying it away in your grease tub, if you wish it to keep sweet.
To Purify Soap Grease. If the grease is very foul in smell, it
should be put in a boiler with water, on the fire (about three times as
much water as of the grease), and adda tea-spoonfu: of permanganate
of potash to each ten pounds of grease, stirring well, and after the mix-
ture has cooled a little it is strained through a cloth, and allowed to rest,
when the cake of fat is taken out and put in a cool place, or in the pot
in which it is to be remelted for trausformation into soap. The purpose
of the permanganate of potash is to remove the rank odor of the grease,
which otherwise would be found in the soap.
Soft Soap. 1. Take one gallon of soft soap, to which add one gill
of common salt, and boil an hour. When cold, separate the lye from
the crude. Add to the crude two pounds of sal-soda, and boil in two
gallons soft water till dissolved. If you wish it better, slice two pounds
of common bar soap, and dissolve in the above. If the soft soap makes
more than three pounds of crude, add in proportion to the sal-soda and
water.
2. For one barrel take potash, eight pounds; melted and clarified fat,
eight pounds. Crack the potash in small lumps, and put it into a large
iron pot of three or four gallons capacity, with hot boiling water to
nearly fill it. Heat the fat in another iron pot quite hot. Put three or
four gallons of hot water in the barrel, previously cleaned and ready for
use, and ladle in it alternately the hot fat and hot lye; stir the whole
briskly for a while before more lye and fat are ladled in, and gradually
498 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
add enough hot water to fill the barrel; stir again the whole, after each
ladle of hot water, till the whole becomes a creamy mass, uniform in its
appearance. Allow it to rest for three months in a temperate place or
cellar.
3. Dissolve a quarter of a pound of lime in a gallon of cold water, then
take off the clear; dissolve a half pound of sal-soda in a quart of water,
and mix it with the clear lime-water; one pound of brown soap dissolved
in a gallon of water, and then to be added to the clear liquor formed
with the sal-soda and lime-water, and this forms the soap. This soft
soap is excellent for boiling white linens. It removes all grease that is
in them, because it contains an excess of caustic lye. About one quart
of it is sufficient for boiling clothes in a ten gallon copper. A quantity
of this may be made up for constant use.
To Make Good Lye. Use hickory-wood ashes when possible,
but those from beech, maple, or any kind of hard wood, except oak,
will answer well. A hogshead, set upon an inclined platform, will
make a good leach. Firstin the bottom of the leach pile some wood
crosswise of each other, making it a foot high, over this put a piece of
of old carpet or straw, put on a few inches of ashes, thena peck of lime,
fill with ashes, moistened and tamp down well, making it firmest in the
centre. Put on warm water. If the lye is not strong enough to float a
potato or egg, put back on the ashes again and let run through till it
will do so.
Mrs. Gordon’s Soft Soap. Shave two and one-half pounds of
good white soap and melt in two gallons of soft water, add one and one-
fourth pounds of sal-soda and one-quarter pound powdered borax; when
all is melted pour in keg or barrel with ten or twelve gallons warm
water; stir in thoroughly two table-spoonfuls strong ammonia; two of al-
cohol; and one of turpentine; stir occasionally till cold. This soap is
ready for use as soon as mixed. ‘The borax, soda, turpentine or am-
monia may be increased if desired.
Hand-Made Sal-Soda Soap. It sometimes happens that caustic
soda is not within reach, and yet sal-soda is to be had. ‘To transform
this material into a suitable lye for soap-making is an easy process; dis-
solve sal-soda, say three pounds, in two gallons of warm water; slack in
a firkin three pounds of good lime; add to it the soda solution; stir the
whole thoroughly with a stick, and add two gallons of boiling water;
stir again, and let it settle.
To make soap pour off the clear liquor into a clean iron boiler and
STANDARD RECEIPTS, 499
place on the fire, and stir into it six pounds of clarified grease, and two
ounces of powdered borax. Let it boil slowly till it gets thick and ropy
(about ten minutes boiling), and pour it intoa tub or tight box, as stated
above. Soap thus made 1s an excellent hard soap for family use; after
drying a month or so in a dry-room, and cut into bars, it is fit for use.
One Cent a Pound Soap. Soap for family use can be made very
cheap and of excellent quality with little trouble by the use of a common
article sold in all drug stores. This is lye put up in aconcentrated form
in small iron boxes holding one pound. These boxes cost about twenty
cents, and will make twenty pounds of soap.
The plan of proceeding is merely to take a box of this substance, knock
off the lid, and throw it into a gallon of boiling water. After standing
ten hours the lye will be clear, and must be thrown into a wash-boiler
with another gallon of boiling water; when the contents of the vessel
boils, add slowly four pounds of any grease and stir well. When well
mixed, the boiler should simmer slowly for four or six hours, and half
an hour before taking off, another gallon of hot water may be added,
together with half a tea-cupful of salt. The latter is not necessary, how-
ever, and if too much is used, the soap is curdled or made short so that
it breaks and wastes. When the soap is thought to be done, plunge a
case knife in; if the mass drops clear and ropy and chills quickly, it is
soap and will be firm and hard whencold. Haveready atub well wet on
the bottom and sides; pour the soap in and let it set; in a few hours it
‘will be hard enough to cut out and be as white as snow.
This process makes twenty-five pounds of soap; or, by the aid of
grease, four pounds; lye, one pound; twenty-four pounds of water; (less
four pounds driven off in boiling), are converted into excellent soap.
Since the grease is saved from the family waste, the soap has only cost
what the lye has come to, and as the loss by drying is only twenty per
cent., twenty pounds of soap can be made for twenty cents.
Country Soft or Hard Soap. In most parts of the country it is
cheaper and much more convenient to make soap from the lye of leached
ashes than from a boughten ‘‘‘concentrated lye.’’ Leach the ashes as
suggested, then filla kettle two-thirds full of lye that will float a potato
or egg. Put in the fat ina melted condition, a little at a time, and stir
well. When the soap gets to the right consistency (which is found
by testing) let the fire out and the soap cool. If hard soap is required
add salt while hot by handfuls until of proper hardness.
2. A farmers wife give the following method of making soap: ‘‘Start
500 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
the lye to boiling and then while boiling, if the lye is not strong enough
to eat the feather of a quill, boil it down until it is. When it will just
eat the feather, let the kettle be a little more than one-third full of lye,
and put in grease, skins of the hogs, bacon rinds, meat-fryings, and the
like, until the kettle is about two-thirds full. The kettle must not be
full, for with the least bit too much fire, over the soap goes. It is bet-
ter to put in a little less than the necessary amount of grease. Lye and
grease combine in certain proportions; but pass the limit no amount of
boiling will take up an excess of grease. It will remain on top hot or
cold, and it will be very troublesome; whereas a little too much lye will
sink to the bottom when the soap comes. If the proportions are good,
a little fire only is required to keep it boiling, and in a few hours it is
done. Then take a bucket of weak lye and let it boil up with the soap
once. This will not disturb the already made soap, but will wash the
dirt out that was in the grease, and with it settle to the bottom. When
the soap is cold it can be cut out in cakes.’’ A small quantity of salt
will help harden.
Fluid Soap. Sweet oil seven parts; caustic potash, one part; rose
water, sufficient quantity to reduce it to a proper state. Rub the oil,
alkali and a few spoonfuls of the water together in a hot mortar until
united, then add the remainder of the water as required.
Wash-Boiler Soap. ‘Take one pound of sal-soda, one pound of
yellow bar soap, and five quarts of water. Cut the soap in thin slices,
and boil together two hours; strain, and it will be fit for use. Put the
clothes to soak the night before you wash, and to every pail of water in
which you boil them, add a pound of soap. They will need no rubbing;
merely rinse them out, and they will be perfectly clean and white.
White Hard Soap. To fifteen pounds of lard, or suet, made boil-
ing hot, add slowly six gallons of hot lye, or solution of potash, that
will bear up an egg high enough to leave a piece big as a shilling, bare.
Take out a little and cool it. If no grease comes to the top it is done.
If any grease appears, add lye, and _ boil till no grease rises. Add three
quarts of fine salt, and boil up again. If this does not harden well on
cooling, add more salt. If it is to be perfumed, melt it next day, add
the perfume and run it in moulds, or cut in cakes.
Hard Soap. 1. Take six pounds of sal-soda, six pounds grease.
and three pounds lime. ‘Thoroughly mix the soda and lime in four gal-
lons of water, pour off from the sediment, put in the grease and boil
¢wenty minutes; pour off and before entirely cold cut in bars.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 501
2. Glauber salts has been used to harden soap, which made from in-
ferior fats, would otherwise be too soft. ‘This substance (inelted on a
shovel or otherwise, ) added to the soap in the proportion of one pound
of the salt to twenty pounds or the soap, is said to remedy the defect,
and to make a hard and sound soap out of what would otherwise be too
soft for economical use.
3. HARD SOAP WITH LARD. Sal-soda and lard, of each six
pounds; stone lime three pounds; soft water, four gallons; dissolve the
lime and soda in the water, by boiling, stirring, settling and pouring
off; then return to the kettle (brass or copper) and add the lard and boil
until it becomes soap; then pour into a dish or moulds, and when cold,
cut it into bars and let it dry.
4. HARD SOAP FROM SOFT. Take seven pounds good soft
soap; four pounds sal-soda; two ounces borax; one ounce hartshorn;
one-half pound resin, to be dissolved in twenty-two quarts of water,
and boiled about twenty minutes.
Whale Oil Soap. For the destruction of insects: render common
tye castic, by boiling it at full strength on quick-lime; then take the lye
and boil it with as much whale oil foot as it will change to soap; pour
off into moulds, and, when cold, it is tolerably hard. Whale oil foot
is the sediment produced in refining whale oil.
How to Test Soap. The value of boiled sodps of course depends
greatly on the quality of the materials used. This accounts for the dif-
ference in price and quality. The purest materials, such as clean tallow
or pure oils, thoroughly saponified, yield the most valuable soaps, cost-
ing more per pound, but they are cheaper in the end. A good soap isa
perfectly neutral compound, and will in no case injure the most delicate
fabrics. ‘The simplest method of testing soap is by tasting. If it is
sharp and biting on the tongue, there is an
any old flour-barrel, and put into the bottom a layer of hardwooc
ashes; put a layer of bones on the top of the ashes, filling the space
between the bones with them; then add bones and ashes alternately,
finishing off with a thick layer of ashes. When your barrel is filled.
pour on water (urine is better), just sufficient to keep them wet, but do
not on any account suffer it to leach one drop; for that would be like
leaching your dungheap. In the course of time they will heat, anc
eventually soften down so that you can crumble them with your finger
When sufficiently softened, dump them out of the barrel on a heap o:
dry loam, and pulverize and crumble them up till they are completely
558 MANURES.
amalgamated into one homogeneous mass with the loam, so that it
can be easily handled and distributed whenever required. You may
rely on it, this manure will leave its mark, and show good results
wherever it is used.
How ro DouBLE THE USUAL QUANTITY OF MANURE ON A FarM.—
Provide a good supply of black swamp mould or loam from the
woods within easy reach of your stable, and place a layer of this, one
foot thick, under each horse, with litter, as usual, on the top of the
loam or mould. Remove the droppings of the animal every day, but
let the loam remain for two weeks; then remove it, mixing it with
other manure, and replace with fresh mould. By this simple means
any farmer can double, not only the quantity, but also the quality, of
his manure, and never feel himself one penny the poorer by the trouble
or expense incurred, while the fertilizing value of the ingredients
absorbed and saved by the loam can scarcely be ¢stimated.
Twenty DoLiars’ WorTH OF MANURE FOR ALMOST NOTHING.— If
you have any dead anmial, say, for instance, the body of a horse, do
not suffer it to pollute the atmosphere by drawing it away to the
woods, or any other out cf the way place, but remove it a short dis-
tance only from your premises, and put down four or five loads of
muck or sods, place the carcass thereon, sprinkle it over with quick-
lime, and cover over immediately with sods or mould sufficient to
make, with what had been previously added, twenty good wagon loads,
and you will have within twelve months a pile of manure worth $20 for
any crop you choose to put it upon. Use a proportionate quantity of
mould for smaller animals, but never less than twenty good wagon
loads for a horse; and, if any dogs manifest too great a regard for the
enclosed carcass, shoot them on the spot.
ASHES FROM SOIL BY SPONTANEOUS ComBuSsTION.— Make your mound
twenty-one feet long by ten and one-half feet wide. To fire use
seventy-two bushels of lime. First a layer of dry sods or parings on
which a quantity of lime is spread, mixing sods with it, then a cover-
ing of eight inches of sods, on which the other half of the lime is
spread, and covered a foot thick, the height of the mound being about
a yard. In twenty-four hours it will take fire. The lime should be
fresh from the kiln. It is better to suffer it to ignite itself than to
effect it by the operation of water. When the fire is fairly kindled,
fresh sods must be applied, but get a good body of ashes in the first
MANURES. 559
place. I think it may be fairly supposed that the lime adds full its
worth to the quality of the ashes, and when limestone can be got I
would advise the burning a small quantity in the mounds, which would
be an improvement to the ashes, and would help to keep the fire
burning.
SUBSTITUTE FOR BARN MANURE.— Dissolve a bushel of salt in water
enough to slack five or six bushels of lime. The best rule for prepar-
ing the compost heap is, one bushel of this lime to one load of swamp
muck intimately mixed, though three bushels to five loads makes a
very good manure. In laying up the heap let the layers of muck and
lime be thin, so that decomposition may be more rapid and complete.
When lime cannot be got, use unleached ashes, three or four bushels
to a cord of muck. Ina month or six weeks overhaul and work over
the heap, when it will be ready for use. Sprinkle the salt water on the
lime as the heap. goes up.
Ashes may be pronounced the best of the saline manures. They are
also among the most economical; as, from our free use of fuel, they are
largely produced by almost every household. Good husbandry dic-
tates that not a pound of ashes should be wasted, but all should be
saved and applied to the land; and, where they can be procured at a
reasonable price, they should be purchased for manure. Leached
ashes, though less valuable, contain all the elements of the unleached,
having been deprived only of a part of their potash and soda. They
may be drilled into the soil with roots and grain, sown broadcast on
meadows or pastures, or mixed with the muck heap. They improve all
soils not already saturated with the principles which they contain.
The quantity of ashes that should be applied to the acre must depend
on the soil and crops cultivated. Potatoes, turnips and all roots —
clover, lucern, peas, beans and the grasses, are great exhausters of the
salts, and they are consequently much benefited by ashes. They are
used with decided advantage for the above crops in connection with
bone dust; and for clover, peas and roots, their effects are much
enhanced when mixed with gypsum. Light soils should have a
smaller, and rich lands or clays, a heavier, dressing. From twelve to
fifteen bushels per acre for the former, and thirty for the latter, is not
too much; or, if they are leached, the quantity may be increased one-
half, as they act with less energy. Repeated dressings of ashes, like
those of lime and gypsum, without a corresponding addition of vege-
table or barnyard manures, will eventually exhaust tillage lands.
560 MANURES.
O_p Lime PLasTER, FROM WALLS OF BUILDINGS, ETC.— For mead-
ows, and for most other crops, especially on clays and loams, this is
worth twice its weight in hay; as it will produce a large growth of
grass for years in succession, without other manure. But the farmer
cannot too carefully remember that with this, as with all other saline
manures, but a part of the ingredients only is thus supplied to vege-
tables; and, without the addition of the others, the soil will sooner or
later become exhausted.
Savinc BarN-yarD Manure.— The bulk, solubility and peculiar
tendency to fermentation of barnyard manure, renders it a matter of
no little study so to arrange it as to preserve all its good qualities and
apply it undiminished to the soil. A part of the droppings of the cattle
are necessarily left in the pastures, or about the stacks where they are
fed; though it is better, for various reasons, that they should never
receive their food from the stack. The manure thus left in the fields
should be beaten up and scattered with light, long-handled mallets,
immediately after the grass starts in the spring, and again before the
rains in the autumn. With these exceptions, and the slight waste
which may occur in driving cattle to and from the pasture, all the
manure should be dropped either in the stables or inthe yards. These
should be so arranged that cattle may pass from one directly into the
other; and the yard should, if possible, be furnished with wells, cis-
terns, or running water. There is twice the value of manure wasted
annually on some farms in sending the cattle abroad to water, that
would be required to provide it for them in the yard for fifty years.
The premises where the manure is dropped should be kept as dry as
possible; and the eaves should project several feet beyond the side of
the building so as to protect the manure thrown out of the stables
from the wash of rains. The barns and all the sheds should have
eave-troughs to carry off the water, which, if saved in a sufficiently
capacious cistern, would furnish a supply for the cattle. The form of
the yard ought to be dishing toward the center, and, if on sandy or
gravelly soil, it should be puddled or covered with clay to prevent the
feaking and escape of the liquid manure. The floors of the stables
may be so made as to permit the urine to fall on a properly prepared
bed of turf under them, where it would be retained till removed; or it
should be led off by troughs into the yard or to a muck heap.
Vav.ure or Liguip Manures.— The urine voided from a single cow
is considered in Flanders, where agricultural practice has reached a
MANURES. 561
high state of advancement, to be worth $10 per year. It furnishes
nine hundred pounds of solid matter, and, at the price of $50 per ton,
for which guano is frequently sold, the urine of a cow for one year is
worth $20. And yet economical farmers will waste urine and buy
guano! ‘The urine of a cow for a year will manure one and a quarter
acres of land, and is more valuable than its dung, in the ratio by on
of seven to six; and in real value as two to one.
SoLtip ANIMAL Manures.— Of these horse dung is the richest ana
the easiest to decompose. If in heaps, fermentation will sometimes
commence in twenty-four hours; and even in midwinter, if a large pile
be accumulated, it will proceed with great rapidity; and, if not
arrested, a few weeks, under favorable circumstances, are sufficient to
reduce it to a small part of its original weight and value.
The manure of sheep is rich and very active, and, next to that of
the horse, is the most subject to heat and decomposition. The
manure of cattle and swine, being of a colder nature, may be thrown
in with that of the horse and sheep in alternate layers. If fresh
manure be intermixed with straw and other absorbents (vegetables,
peat, turf, etc.), and constantly added, the recent coating will combine
with any volatile matters which fermentation develops in the lower
part of the mass. Frequent turning of the manures is a practice
attended with no benefit, but with certainty of the escape of much of
its valuable properties.
MaANURING WITH GREEN Crops.— This system has within a few
years been extensively adopted in some of the older settled portions of
the United States. The comparative cheapness of land and its pro-
ducts, the high price of labor, and the consequent expense of making
artificial manures, renders this at present the most economical plan
which can be pursued. The object of this practice is, primarily, fer-
tilization; and connected with it, is the clearing of the ground from
noxious weeds, as in fallows, by plowing in the vegetation before the
seed is ripened; and finally to loosen the soil and place it in the mel-
lowest condition for the crops which are to succeed. Its results have
been entirely successful, when steadily pursued with a due considera-
tion of the objects sought, and the means by which they are to be
accomplished. T.ands in many of our eastern States, which have been
worn out by improvident cultivation, and unsalable, have, by this
means, while renumerating their proprietors for the outlay of labor
and expense by their returning crops, been doubled in value.
562 BOOK-KEEPING.
PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR BOOK-KEEPING BY
FARMERS.
Nearly every person keeps a memorandum of contracts madeand the
payments of money, but how many cultivators of the soil keep an
account with each crop, to see if it is raised at a profit, or results ina
loss.
The question of whether a crop has resulted in a profit can be easily
figured, provided the entries are made when transpiring, and not left to
become a question of memory.
Let us take for example acrop of corn. First determine the number
of acres planted, and, at the estimated value of the farm, charge up as
an expense against the corn crop the interest on the value of the land.
Reckon the interest at the legal rate in the State where located.
Next, keep account of the number of days spent in putting the land
in order, and place that on the debit side against your crop. Then
charge the seed used, the fertilizers, the time spent in cultivating, the
time occupied in gathering the crop, preparing for market, and deliver-
ing it. Then charge up an equitable amount of the taxes, and general
wear on the tools and general decrease in value of the farmer’s appa-
ratus, and general expenses such as fencing, etc., etc. This will make
up the sum total to be charged against the crop.
On the credit side should be placed the amount received from the
proceeds of the sale of the product. Also credit the crop with what-
ever fodder, or other product left and used on the farm, as a fertilizer,
or as fodder for cattle or other stock. If there has been a crop of
pumpkins, squashes, or turnips raised among the corn, do not fail to
give the land due credit for all that it produces.
In computing the value of the work done by the farm teams, it would
be hardly fair to charge what the cartman might get for a single day’s
work, but by getting at the cost of keeping a team for a year, the
natural depreciation in their value, together with a moderate charge
for caring for the team and the cost of keeping shod and other expenses,
and dividing this sum by the average number of days the team will
‘ work each year, the cost of a day’s work by the team will be quite well
established.
No special form of book is needed for such an account, and the
method is simple. The farmer, stockman or fruit-raiser will be well
repaid for his trouble and then feel he knowe =hich one af bis many
crops yields him the heet. nrafs,
LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Legal Facts of Importance to All
Citizens of the United States.
AW has been defined as principles of right and justice governing
the actions of men, and defining their different rights in relation
to each other. The object of the law is to give every person the
full enjoyment of these rights; thus protecting the weak and ix-
nocent from the unjust acts of dishonest people.
Law is divided into two classes, viz: that which has been established
by long common practice, or usage and that which is specially passed
by legislatures and is found upon the statute books. The former is
called the Common or Unwritten Law, and is founded in justice and
reason. ‘The last or Statute Law is passed by our legislators and is
called Written Law.
The value of a thorough understanding of the principles of law of
general application is of great importance to every one who has business
of any kind to transact. Those who possess this knowledge have a
shield to protect them from the cunning and trickery of the world.
It is far better to be protected by knowledge from the tricks of the
dishonest than to try to remedy an act, in which a dishonest person has
taken advantage. Skelton says: ‘‘Whoever goes to law goesinto a glass
house, where he understands little or nothing of what he is doing; where
he sees a small matter blown up, like a glass ball, into fifty times the
size of its real contents, and through which if he can perceive any other
564 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
objects, he perceives them all discolored and distorted.”’
The going to law is well illustrated by the story of two men who went
to court about the ownership of acow. The lawyers had the milk dur-
ing the time of litigation, although the two men had to provide it ample
provision, and at the end the court took the cow to pay the judge for the
time he had lost in considering to whom the cow belonged.
Not every man can be a lawyer, yet every man can know enough law
to do business in such a manner as to protect his interests. Let every
contract be worded so that two meanings cannot be taken, have it prop-
erly signed in the presence of a witness who signs his name as witness,
and there can be but little trouble.
It is useless to pay a lawyer or Justice to draw up an ordinary contract
or bill of sale.
CONTRACTS.
What is a Contract? An agreement between two or more par-
ties to do or not to do some specified thing is called a contract. It may
be verbal, (by word of mouth) or written.
This subject isa limitless one, for scarcely a day passes without one
making a contract. ‘The simplest agreement one with another is a con-
tract, and limitless as they arein number, and varied in their require-
ments; they are all governed by very general rules.
Contract Not Valid. An agreement to do a thing contrary to
law, or a thing forbidden by law, can not beenforced. As for example;
the law in the state of New Vork, directs every teacher in the public
schools to attend an ‘‘Institute’’ once a year, and compels the disrict to
pay for the time so spent. Any agreement contrary to the above law
can not be enforced.
Things Necessary. There are certain things necessary, without
which there can be no contract. First there must be parties to the con-
tract, and they must be legally qualified; second, there must be a rea-
sonable consideration; third, there must be the thing to be done or not to
be done, (subject matter); fourth, there must be the consent of all par-
ties to the agreement; fifth there must be a time when the contract is
to be completed. Thus every contract must have five essentials, PAR-
TIES, CONSIDERATION, SUBJECT MATTER, MUTUAL CONSENT, and
TIME.
Parties. Those who make a contract must be considered competent
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 565
to do so, in the eyes of the law. The law says that the parties must be
of legal age and sound mind. In most states the law regards all persons
as infants who are under twenty-one years of age, though in a few states
females are made of age at eighteen. A contract made with a drunken
person, a minor, or an idiot is not binding upon him, except for food,
clothing, or a place to dwell in. Other conditions of incompetency are
insanity and coverture.
A contract made with a minor, while not binding upon him, is bind-
ing upon the other party, provided the minor chooses to enforce the
agreement.
Everyone should be extremely careful in making contracts with peo-
ple who are deemed incompetent by the law, for what might be ordi-
narily considered a necessity, may by reason of the circumstances of
such person be declared by the court as not a ‘‘necessity.’’
The reason for considering infants incompetent to make a binding
contract, is, that they are considered unable, on account of lack of ex-
perience, to guard against fraud and a1tful designing.
Infants are liable, just the same as adults, for fraud, assault, or any
criminal act. While the law protects the infant from deceit and fraud,
it will not, however, allow him to do unlawful acts.
A contract made under compulsion induced by threats of personal
violence or injury, is illegal, but the fact of the threat being made
must be proved.
A contract made by two or more persons with intent of injuring oth-
ers, is illegal.
A contract in which there are misrepresentations or concealments of
a material fact is illegal.
If a person signs a contract through fraud or misrepresentations, being
led to believe that the contract means what it does not, or that the
property purchased is different from what it really is, that contract is
illegal. The burden of proof isin this case always on the person de-
ceived. It requires good and abundant proof, because a written agree-
ment goes farther in law than a single oath against it.
An agreement with a thief not to prosecute, provided goods are re-
turned, is illegal.
Incompetency. ‘‘Persons of unsound mind and memory cannot
make a binding contract, beeause they cannot give clear and intelligent
consent to its terms. A noted writer has said: ‘Want of reason must,
of course, invalidate a contract, the very essence of which is consent.’
566 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Insanity and idiocy are not the same. An insane person is one whose
mind is diseased or deranged; an idiot is one who has no mind; and with
the above the law claswifies the man, who by druukenness, renders him-
self incapable of discharging the ordinary duties of life.
By coverture, is meant marriage; the rule of the common law is that
a married woman cannot, during her marriage, make a binding contract;
but this has changed in nearly every State, giving to her either entire
or modified control over her own property.
Consideration. ‘This is the price or promise, or the cause which
moves the parties to enter into a contract. It may be EXPRESSED or
IMPLIED. A consideration that is distinctly stated in the contract,
whether oral or written, is said to be expressed. In all sealed instru-
ments and salable paper, the consideration is implied; as in promissory
notes and drafts, the words, ‘value received,’ imply, but do not state
the consideration.
Consideration is commonly called VALUABLE, GOOD, SUFFICIENT, LE-
GAL, INSUFFICIENT, etc.
‘The money value of a consideration does not determine whether it is
SUFFICIENT, or not; a very slight consideration will support a contract
if it is what the law recognizes as valuable.
A VALUABLE consideration may be illustrated by the ‘payment of
money, the delivery of property, the performance of work, making a
promise for a promise, etc.’
A Goop consideration is one founded upon affection, relationship,
friendship, or gratitude. This will support a contract that has been
performed, and then only between the parties themselves, but will not
answer for an executory contract; that is, one to be performed in the
future.
An insufficient consideration may be defined as one that is gratuitous,
illegal, immoral, or impossible. ‘There are exceptions to this gratui-
tous consideration; for instance, in case of labor performed for a party
with his knowledge but not his expressed consent. Story and Town-
send both give this illustration: ‘If you work for me, I knowing what
you are doing, and do not interfere or prevent you, it raises an
implied promise, on my part, to pay what your service are reasonably
worth, even though you may have commenced work without my
order’.”’
Subject Matter. The subject matter of a contract is the thing to
be done, or omitted by one or both parties. There are certain contracts
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 567
however, which the law will not enforce. That is, if the thing to be
done is illegal, against the law, immoral, that is, contrary to good mor-
als, (injurious to, or interfering with the public welfare), in general re-
straint of trade, such as an agreement not to oonduct a certain lawful
businsss anywhere, either for a a limited or unlimited time, in general
restraint of marriage, such as a condition that a child may not marry
any person living in the same State or following some particular profes-
sion or trade, if the subject matter operates as a fraud on third persons,
obstructs public justice, that is, suppresses evidence, bribes witnesses or
officers, or if already compelled by law, because an agreement to do
what is already required of one will not increase the obligation, or if it
has in it in any way, the element of fraud, we cannot expect the law to
enforce the contract.
Mutual Assent. This is defined to be a meeting of minds. There
can be no binding contract without the assent of both parties; and they
must assent at the same time and to the same thing. Mutual assent
consists of an offer by one party and its acceptance by the other; when
the offer is verbal, and the time allowed for acceptance is not mentioned
it must be accepted immediately to make a contract. But in case the
offer and acceptance are written and pass through the mails, the con-
tract is complete when the acceptance is mailed; provided the person ac-
cepting has received no notice of the withdrawal of the offer before mail-
ing his letter. When the offer calls for an answer by return mail, any
acceptance later than by return mail will not be binding on the party
making the offer.
Time. When the time in which a contract is to be performed is not
expressed, the execution of the contract must be within a reasonable
time; and this is to be determined by the thing to be done.
Construction of Contracts. In the construction of contracts no
particular form of words is necessary, but the intention of the parties
should be clearly and definitely stated.
Ignorance of Law. This is no reason for an omission or breach
of contract; every one is supposed to know the law.
Simple Contracts are Expressed, Implied, Verbal, Written, Joint,
and Several.
Verbal Contract. A contract made by mere words spoken by the
parties is called a verbal contract.
Written Contract. A contract in which the agreement is in writ-
ing is called a written contract. It is no stronger than a verbal one
568 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
when the law allows it to be verbal, but the method of proof is different;
the written contract generally proves itself.
Expressed Contract. An expressed contract is either verbal or
in writing, in which the terms of the agreement are openly, fully and
clearly stated.
Implied Contract. A contract in which the law presumes what
must have been the agreement intended by the parties, is called an im-
plied contract.
Joint Contract. A contract in which the parties are jointly (that
is together), bound to perform the contract or agreement, is called a
joint contract.
Several Contract. A contract in which two or more persons prom-
ise, each for himself, that he will do the whole thing promised, is called
a several contract.
.Contracts in Writing. While there are certain contracts that are
not required to be in writing, yet it is safest and best te put them in
black and white, because it may prevent frequent misunderstandings.
Trouble more often comes from misunderstandings of verbal contracts
than because the parties to the contract are dishonest. Often the party
who wishes to deceive has a considerable bargaining before the agreement
is concluded, and when the final agreement is made only a few words
are exchanged, and these before an ‘‘accidental’’ witness. The previ-
ous remarks and guarantees given without witness are not in evidence
in case of dispute. ‘The facts sworn to by the ‘‘accidental’’ witness that
no conversation like that which had been previously stated took place at
the closing of bargain, and the case will be decided on the evidence of
the ‘‘accidental’’ witness supported by the evidence of his ‘‘friend.”’
Contracts that Must be Written. Contracts for the conveyance
of real estate; contracts for the lease of land for more than one year;
contracts made upon consideration of marriage; contracts to answer for
the debt, default, or wrongful act of another; contracts that are not to
be performed within one year; and contracts for the sale of personal
property of a specified value (usually fifty dollars); unless the sale is by
auction, or the buyer pays part of the purchase-price, or the seller de-
livers part of the goods.
Guarantee. The seller of goods is not liable for the quality of the
goods sold, unless he has represented or concealed something fraudu-
lently, or has warranted them good and sound.
The rule is: ‘‘If there is no expressed warranty by the seller, nor
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 569
fraud on his part, and if the article is equally open for inspection of both
parties, the buyer who examines the article for himself must abide by
all losses arising from its not being what he wanted or expected.”’
When goods are found to be unsound, or are not such as were ordered,
the purchaser should return them, as soon as the fact is discovered, to
the seller, or give him notice to take them back; otherwise it will be
presumed the quality is satisfactory.
Sale of Stolen Articles. When the buyer purchases goods, he
receives his title in them from the seller; but if the goods prove to have
been stolen, the true owner can reclaim them at any time. They might
have been bought in good faith, in the regular order of business, and
for a valuable consideration; but if the one from whom the buyer
derives his title had none, it transpires that the buyer will have
no title.
Sale of Personal Property. A sale is a contract by which the
ownership is transferred from one person to another for a consideration
in meney paid or to be paid. To make it a sale there must be money
paid or agreed to be paid in exchange for the goods. An exchange of
goods for goods is ‘‘barter’’ or a ‘‘trade.’’
The party who purchases the property is called the purchaser, or
vendee; the one who sells is called the seller or vendor.
The growing or expected products may be bought and sold, viz: the
grain or grass expected to grow upon a field; the fruit that may grow in
an orchard; or the future increase in cattle or other stock.
Delivery. It is not usually necessary that the goods be actually
delivered. When the terms of the contract are agreed to and accepted
the sale is complete. The title of the property then lays in the buyer,
and he is entitled to it upon payment. The buyer can not take the
goods till he pays for them. Here comes a nice distinction between the
right of property, and the right of possession.
If the goods are sold to a person who ‘‘fails’’ or becomes insolvent be-
fore they are delivered, the seller may not deliver them. Even if
shipped, they may be stopped in transit, by notice to the carrier not to
deliver the goods.
Bill of Sale. As a protection against the goods purchased and
named in a bill of sale, being seized for debts or judgments, it is best to
record the same in the official records of the town or county as the law
of the state requires.
KNow ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS, that in consideration of Three
§70 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Hundred Twenty-seven Dollars ($327.), the receipt of which is
hereby acknowledged, I, John S. Peaslee, do hereby sell, transfer, grant,
and deliver unto Ross Hamilton, to have and to hold, all my right, title
and interest in the following goods and chattels, viz:
One bay horse, one set single harness, one Portland cutter, one light
open buggy, one whip, and one blanket.
T’o have and to hold all of said goods goods and chattels forever. And
the said John S. Peaslee hereby certifies that he is the lawful owner of
said goods and chattels; that they are free from all incumbrances; that
he has good right to sell the same, as aforesaid; and that he will war-
rant and defend the same against the lawful claims and demands of all
persons whomsoever.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the said grantor has hereunto set his hand this
12th day of February, 1896.
WITNESSES : JOHN S. PEASLEE.
Samuel Brousseau.
William I. Gardenier.
Contract for Letting Farm on Shares. Copy, making such
such variations as the case requires.
This agreement, entered into this 12th day of February, 1896, by and
between Abram IL. Schermerhorn, of the town of Stuyvesant, Columbia
County, State of New York, party of the first part, and James Johnson,
of Coeymans, Albany County, State of New York, party of the second
part.
It is hereby agreed that James Johnson, party of the second part, will
on or before the first day of April of this year, take possession of the
farm of Abram L,. Schermerhorn and commence the duties of caring for
and cultivating said farm, and will continue the same for the term of
one year from said date, April 1st, 1896.
It is agreed that the said party of the second part shall cultivate said
land in a scientific, workmanlike manner, putting in the crops at the
usual accepted time for so doing, so as to get the best of results obtain-
able.
It is agreed that each shall furnish one-half of the seed used upon the
farm during the year; that said party of the second part shall furnish all
the labor, tools, and horses necessary to properly and timely prepare the
ground for the crops, properly place them in the ground, timely cut,
harvest, protect by placing in the buildings on said farm when harvested,
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 57t
properly thresh, clean or otherwise prepare all crops, as the case demands,
for market; to deliver the same to the nearest market at the usual time
for marketing, unless otherwise hereafter agreed.
Each party to have one-half of the receipts from the sale of the pro-
duce raised during the year.
Each party is to furnish one-half of the cows, sheep, swine, and poul-
try, but the party of the second part is to perform all the labor neces-
sary to properly care for the same, as well as the milking and making of
the butter. Each party to have one-half of the proceeds arising from
the sale of these animals or their productions.
It is further agreed that the party of the second part shall leave the
same amount of wheat or rye sown upon the premises at the expiration
of this lease, as are upon the farm the rst day of April, 1896, namely:
forty acres.
The party of the second part agrees to keep all the gates, fences, and
buildings in good repair, said party of the first part furnishing the neces-
sary material for so doing; and further agrees to prevent, as far as pos-
sible, any injury by person, horses, cattle, or animals of any kind, to
the hedges, trees, or fences.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, we have hereunto signed our names this 12th
dap of February, 1896.
ABRAM L. SCHERMERHORN. | [Seal.]
JAMES JOHNSON. [Seal.]
Contract for Hiring Help. The following form will prevent all
misunderstandings as to wages, or duties. Make two copies exacily
alike and let each take one:
Know ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS:—That Edward lL. Brock-
way hereby agrees to enter the services of John Gray Kittle, for the
term of eight months, beginning April rst, 1896, as a general farm
laborer, and hereby agrees to do any work he may be called upon to do
in connection therewith, in the town of Schodack, Rensselaer County,
State of New York.
In consideration of the above mentioned services, being faithfully and
well performed, the said John Gray Kittle agrees to pay the said Edward
I,. Brockway twenty dollars a month and board.
It is further agreed that should Edward L. Brockway leave the serv-
ices of the said John Gray Kittle before the annual summer harvest is
completed, without consent of said John Gray Kittle, or having just rea-
572 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
sons for so doing, then said Edward L. Brockway is to receive fifteen
dollars a month and board for the time while in the service of John
Gray Kittle, in place of the twenty dollars and board, as agreed.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the said parties have hereto set their hands
this 12th day of February, 1896.
EDWARD LL. BROCKWAY.
JOHN G. KITTLE.
Contract for Sale of Farm or House and Lot. Agreement
entered into this 12th day of February, 1896, between John S. Baker,
of the town of Stuyvesant, Columbia County, State of New York, party
of the first part, and John R. Steele, of the town of Schodack, Renssel-
aer County, State of New York, party of the second part, witnesseth:
That John S. Baker, party of the first part, for a consideration here-
inafter mentioned, shall sell and convey to John R. Steele, party of the
second part, all that part and parcel of land situated partly in the town
of Stuyvesant, Columbia County, State of New York, and partly in the
town of Schodack, Rensselaer County, State aforesaid, and described as
follows:
(Here describe the land to be conveyed according to last deed, or
other boundaries).
It is agreed that said party of the first part shall execute and deliver
to the said party of the second part a warranty deed, containing the
usual warrantee that the place is free and clear of all encumbrances other
than noted in said deed.
That said party of the second part, upon delivery of said deed duly
and legally executed, shall pay to said party of the first part the sum of
Twenty-five Thousand dollars, ($25,000).
It is further agreed that if any default is made in this agreement, or
any part thereof, the party making such default shall pay to the other
party to this contract the sum of five hundred dollars ($500.) It being
agreed that said amount shall constitute the damage to the party not
defaulting, in place of any or all other damages that may appear.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, we have hereunto set our hands and affixed
our seals this 12th day of February, 1896.
JOHN S. BAKER. [L. s.]
JOHN R. STEELE. [.. s.]
WITNESS :
William D. Griffin.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 573
Receipts. Itis always best to take a receipt for moneys paid or
goods delivered, and while a receipt is not always evidence of payment,
yet it throws the burden of proof upon the one who tries to deny its
truth.
Receipt for Money Paid on Account.
$50.00. ALBANY, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1896.
Received of George W. Witbeck, Fifty Dollars ($50), on account.
GARDNER MOREY.
Receipt in Full.
$300.00. ALBANY, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1896.
Received of Charles Hart, Three Hundred Dollars, in full for all
demands to date.
HENRY MURPHY.
Law Concerning Notes.
1. A signature written with a lead pencil is valid.
2. A note lost or destroyed can be collected upon sufficient proof.
3. If no time of payment is mentioned in a note, the note is payable
on demand.
A note is not transferrable if the words
not appear on the face.
‘
‘or order’’ or ‘‘or bearer’’ do
HOW TO DO BANKING BUSINESS.
Deposit Your Money. It is unsafe to keep money about the per-
son or house, on account of the liability of losing it from the pocket. The
house might take fire and destroy the money before it could be removed;
or the money may be stolen by thieves or robbers. It is therefore best
to deposit it in some safe bank that is near by. The money can then be
drawn out by checks made payable to the order of the person to whom
the money is to be paid, and as that person has to put his name on the
back of the check, it is good evidence that the money has been received.
Pay Bills by Checks. It isa good practice to pay all bills by
checks because :
1. The amount paid is always specified in the check.
2. The party receiving the check can not claim that the money has
not. been paid.
3. The check coming back through the bank, endorsed, is evidence
574 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
that the money has been received by the person to whose order the
check was drawn. ,
It is always best to deposit put your money in the bank and check
against it. This will show the amount of money handled during the
year, and often times be a check upon expenditures.
Never make a check payable to bearer, for in that case it is not neces-
sary for the party receiving it to put his name on the back, and if lost,
it can be collected by any one into whose hands it falls.
A check is a.very handy way of sending money in letters. If made
payable to the order of the person to whom the money is sent, it can not
be collected by any one else, even though stolen from the letter.
If dealing witha firm, with which you have no acquaintance, it is
often well to have the cashier of the bank certify the check, before it is
sent. This is done by the cashier writing across the face the word ‘‘cer-
tified’’ and signing his name as ‘‘cashier’’ of the bank.
How to Endorse Checks. Endorsing checks is done by writing
your name on the back. This is properly done by signing the name
across the top about one and one-half inches from the end. This is the
left end as the check lays with its face toward you.
Promissory Note. Occasionally it is necessary or convenient to
ask for time for the payment of a bill, and there is given a Promissory
Note, (promise to pay at some specified time). It is generally written
in the following form:
$100. ALBANY, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1896.
Three months after date I promise to pay to Peter J. Murphy, or
order One Hundred Dollars, at the Albany Commercial Bank, for value
received.
THOMAS A. BURNS.
NATURALIZATION PAPERS.
Declaration of Intention. An alien must make a declaration
under oath, of intention of becoming a citizen of the United States, be-
fore a circuit or district court of the United States, or a court of record
of any of the States.
This Declaration of Intention may be taken at any time, even as soon
as landed, but the time of residence in the country before becoming a
citizen must be five years. Before taking the oath of allegiance whick
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 575
will make him a citizen, the Declaration must have been made two years
before.
Oath of Allegiance. This can be taken after five years residence
in the United States, provided the-Declaration of Intention has been
taken at least two years before.
Exceptions. The following exceptions lessen the time of residence
to become a citizen, and also changes the manner of becoming a citizen.
1. A alien who has served in the United States army and been honor-
ably discharged, may become a citizen without declaration of intention,
provided he has resided in the United States one year.
2. An alien whocame to the United States under eighteen years of age
can become a citizen after being here five years by only taking one oath,
and that is the oath of allegiance.
3. Aliens who become citizens make all their children citizens, who
are under the age of twenty-one at the time of their becoming citizens,
provided they are dwelling in the United States at the time of their par-
ents’ naturalization. All over twenty-one and those living in a foreign
country, must take the general course of naturalization.
NotTE—lIt is not generally known that women are obliged to take the
same steps to become citizens as men. ‘They are, however, made
citizens upon the naturalization of their husbands, or upon marrying a
citizen.
PRINCIPAL AND AGENT.
Definition. ‘‘An agent is one who acts for, in the name, and by the
authority of another, who is called the principal.
Theory. The theory of the law is that whatever business a man
may do for himself, he may employ another to do for him; and what-
ever is done for him by his authority, is to be held the same as though
he did it himself.
Extent. When we consider the fact, that every clerk, laborer, or
employee, is the agent of the one who employs him, we see how impos-
sible it would be to conduct business without the medium of agency.
There are in the employ of the New York Central and Hudson River
Railroads some fifteen thousand persons; each one of whom is an agent
of the company.
How long could Vanderbilt run his great railroad if himself compelled
576 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
to drive the engine or handle the brake? Thus we see how each busi-
ness and every enterprise needs its controlling, its guiding mind, which
works through others.
How Established. Anagency may be established by a person
permitting another to hold himself out to the world as his agent, by a
verbal agreement or by written contract; as little form is necessary to
employ an agent, as to hire a common day laborer. But when the agent
is to have authority to execute a sealed instrument, as for the convey-
ance of real estate, his authority must be given under seal. An agency
is also often implied from the course of business; as for instance, a son
who sells goods in his father’s store, or receives payment of bills due
him with his knowledge and without objection, is the agent of the
father, and may bind him in subsequent transactions of the same nature.
Principal. The princrpar is the person for whom the business is
to be transacted. Generally every person of legal age and competent to
contract, may act as principal. The principal and not the AGENT is
bound by the agent’s acts, so long as the agent does not EXCEED the
authority given him.
Liability of Principal to Third Parties. When an agent acts
within the limits of his authority, the principal is liable to third persons,
the same as though he transacted the business himself. If the agent
violates the instructions given by the principal, the person with whom
he is dealing being ignorant of the fact, or if the agent makes a fraudu-
lent representation, the principal will be held liable. The principle of
the law is that ‘‘when one or two innocent persons must suffer, the one
should sustain the loss who has put it in the power of the wrong-doer to
commit the wrong,’’ but in cases of special agency the agent could not
bind his principal to exceed his special authority.
If an agent is pursuing the business of his agency, and by his negli-
gence or unskillfulness injures another, the principal and not the agent
is liable; for instance, suppose you are riding on an express train from
Albany to New York, you are rushing along with speed that rivals the
wind; a careless engineer has his engine standing upon the track of your
train, when it ought to have been somewhere else; you go crashing into
it, there is a wreck, and you are pulled from the debris only to find your-
self a cripple for life. What do you do? Bring action for damages
against the engineer, who is the agent of the railroad company, or do
you say to the company itself, I have been injured through the careless-
ness of your agent, and to you I look for damages.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 577
Should the act of the agent be willful, the agent, and not the princi-
pal, is liable; to illustrate, I am passing along the street in my carriage
and your servant willfully drives against me, the servant alone is liable.
But had the act been one of carelessness you, the principal, would
be liable.
The Principal is Liable to the Agent for damages sustained
by the agent, without his own default, in following the directions of
his principal.
Duties of Agent to Principal. The first duty of every agent is
to obey instructions. In cases of extreme necessity the agent may be
excused for disobedience of orders; neither is he bound to obey when
told to do an illegal or immoral act.
An agent must transact all business in the name of his principal, or he
will be personally liable.
Au agent must not mix his property with that of the principal, so as
to make it impossible to distinguish one from the other.
Commission Merchants. A commission merchant is one who
sells goods for another, receiving as compensation, a certain percentage
on the sales, called commission. ‘The commission merchant very seldom
discloses the name of his principal. He has actual possession of the
goods to be sold; and is bound to take good and proper care of them,
such as he would take of his own property of a similar nature.
In the sale of goods the commission merchant should observe the in-
structions of the person sending the goods to be sold; but when he
receives no instructions, must use his utmost skill and knowledge, and
sell for the best prices.
It is a common practice for commission merchants to advance money
upon goods consigned to them. In such cases they have a lien upon
them for all cash advanced, and for expenses and commissions. ‘‘A
lien on personal property is a right to hold it against the owner;’’ that
is, the owner can not take away his goods until he has paid the charges
against them. The commission merchant may sell the goods in his pos-
session in order to satisfy his claim, but must pay over the surplus to the
owner.”’
Note.—1. Aseller of goods who accepts, at the time of sale, the note of
a third party, not endorsed by the buyer, in payment, can not in case
the note is not paid, hold the buyer responsible for the value of the goods.
2, An agreement by the holder of a note to give the principal debtor
time for payment, does not discharge the surety.
SPECIAL LAWS.
BY
Hon. F. R. GILBERT.
LAWS RELATING TO RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS ARISING FROM OWNER
SHIP, CONTROL AND CUSTODY OF DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANIMALS,
AND OTHER LAWS OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO LAND AND ANIMAL
OWNERS.
MAN may have an absolute property in domestic animals,
which is not lost by accident or the interference of others.
As to wild animals, they belong to anyone, so long as they
remain in their wild state, but when captured and brought
ander the control of the capturer, so that they cannot escape, they
become the property of the one who captured them.
The most obvious distinction which the law regards is that between
such animals as are generally seen tame and seldom, if ‘ever, found
wandering at large, and such as are usually found wild, and at liberty,
Deer in a private park; doves in a dove house; and fish in a private
pond or tank, are property while they continue in actual possession.
If a deer or any other wild animal which is reclaimed has a collar or
other mark put upon it, and goes and returns at its pleasure, the
owner’s property still continues. (Amory v. Flynn, ro Johns. 102.)
The true point of inquiry in such cases is whether the reclaimed
animal has lost all intention or disposition to return, and if it has, it
may then be said to have regained its natural liberty.
A qualified property may also exist with relation to wild animals by
reason of their inability to remove from the land where they are, as in
the case of young birds which are hatched in nests in a man’s trees,
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 579
“A qualified property in wild animals may be obtained by a person
so confining them that they cannot escape and regain their natural
liberty.’’ (2 Blackstone’s Commentaries, 391.)
Property in this class of animals is acquired only by possession.
Mere pursuit is not sufficient to constitute such possession, though the
animal be kept in sight, the pursuer must, by wounding or securing the
animal, or otherwise, have deprived it of its natural liberty, and
brought it within his control.
Thus, where N. wounded a deer and followed the track until night
and resumed the pursuit in the morning, but the deer, after running,
six miles with N.’s dog in chase, was killed by B. /e/d, that it had
not been deprived of its natural liberty so as to give N. any property
In it.
So, wild fowl which have been tamed, are subjects of property, not-
withstanding they are temporarily astray, if they have not regained
their natural liberty as wild.
So, bees are regarded as animals fer@ nature, but when hived and
reclaimed, a qualified property may be acquired in them. But merely
marking the tree in which bees are found does not reclaim the bees,
nor vest any property in the finder. Wild bees on a tree belong to the
owner of the soil, who may license another to take them, and bees
escaping from a hive and swarming on the land of another do not
belong to the owner of the soil on which they have swarmed, but to
him who had the former possession; but he cannot enter upon the land
of another to take them, without subjecting himself to an action of
trespass unless he has the owner’s permission to do so.
In the case of domestic animals and reclaimed wild animals the
owner has the right to use any of the remedies which the law provides
for the recovery of personal property illegally taken or detained from
the owner. So, the owner of such an animal has a right of action for
damages if one should, either intentionally or negligently, injure,
maim or kill such an animal.
Not only the owner, but one who is in possession of an animal under
an arrangement that renders him accountable for it, or for injury to it,
may sue to recover for any loss or injury done the property while it is
in his possession. In such a case the person in possession is treated
as the owner, and is entitled to all the rights of an owner.
So the owner may recover for accidental or intentional injuries, as
where a dog, followed by his master, was pursuing a fox, and was acci-
580 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
dentally shot by another party who claimed to have shot at the fox,
but accidentally killed the dog, the owner was entitled to damages.
(Wright v. Clark, 50 Vermont, 130.)
Where a hog trespassed on the premises of a neighbor of the owner
and injured his crops, and was pursued by the neighbor and his dog
and killed, the owner of the hog was held to be entitled to damages for
such killing. (Thompson v. State, 67 Ala. 106.)
Where animals when trespassing are killed in a wanton, malicious
and deliberate way, exemplary damages may be recovered.
Injuries inflicted upon animals by negligence entitles the owner to an
action for damages against the one who inflicts the injury, as, where
the owner of a quantity of hay spills some white lead paint upon it, and
tried to separate the damaged part, and thought he had succeeded,
when he sold the undamaged part without giving notice of the fact to
the purchaser whose cows died in consequence of eating thereof.
(French v. Vining, 102 Mass. 132.)
Nor has a party the right to entice by food, voice or other means,
any domestic or reclaimed animal away from the possession of the
owner and bring it under his control. For such conduct the owner has
an action for the value of the animal so obtained, and the party com-
mitting the wrong may be prosecuted criminally for larceny.
In many of the States the registered cattle brand is prima facie
proof of ownership, and, therefore, any wrongful marking or branding
of cattle with intent to defraud isa conversion of the cattle, and indict-
able. But the intent to defraud must be shown, and it is not sufficient
that the owner does not consent.
The offense of altering a brand on cattle may be committed by
merely clipping the hair of the original brand. Putting a brand on an
animal additional to the one already on it is an alteration of the brand
first put on, although the latter brand may not interfere with or change
the form of the first one, and the owner will be entitled to an action.
An unlawful branding of a colt, the owner of which is unknown, is
indictable.
For cases of changing brands or false marking, see DeGarca v. Gal-
vin, 55 Texas, 53; Allen v. State, 42 Texas, s17; Fossett v. State, 11
Texas, App. 40; and Morgan y. State, 13 Fla. 671.
Hiring a horse to travel a certain distance, and driving the horse a
greater distance, or to another place than the one agreed upon is such
a conversion of the horse that an action will lie by the owner.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 581
Where a horse is driven a greater distance than that for which it was
hired, the owner may ratify the wrongful act by accepting compensa-
tion for the extra distance traveled.
In relation to injuries of persons or property by domestic animals,
the following propositions are sustained by the courts of most of the
States:
The owners of domestic animals are generally not liable for the
injuries they may do to property or persons of others, so long as they
are rightfully in the place where it is alleged that the injury or mischief
was done, unless it be shown that the particular animal doing the injury
was vicious and was accustomed to do, or had an inclination to do the
mischief complained of, and that these facts were known to the owner
of the animal before the injury occurred. It is not absolutely necessary
to prove actual or positive knowledge on the part of the owner in or-
der to establish liability, but if the owner has seen or heard facts relating
to the viciousness of the animal which would ordinarily satisfy a man
of prudence and caution, that the animal was liable to do mischief of
the character complained of, it would place him under. obligation to
secure the animal in such a manner as to prevent the injury, and he
would be liable if he did not so secure it.
The rule is different with reference to vicious, wild animals which
have been tamed, such as lions, tigers, and the like, for he who keeps
them is liable without notice on the ground that such animals are
fierce and dangerous by nature.
The owner or keeper of animals viciously disposed or of mischievous
habits, of which the owner had previous actual or implied notice, is
bound at his peril to keep them at all times, and in all cases, properly
secured, and is responsible to anyone who, without fault on his part, is
injured by them. (105 Mass. 71; 106 Mass. 381; 65 N. Y. 54.)
At common law the rule is that every man is bound to keep his ani-
mals within his inclosure at his peril, and that he is liable in damages if
he fails to do so, and they escape to the property of others and do
injury, whether such property be fenced or not; unless the trespass is
committed upon property through defects in fences, which the owner
of such property is bound to maintain.
Every unauthorized entry by animals upon the land of another isa
trespass, whether the land be enclosed or not.
If domestic animals are wrongfully in the place where they do mis-
chief, the owner is liable, though he had no notice that they were accus-
582 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
tomed to do so before. As where oxen break the plaintiff’s close and
kill his cow, the owner of the oxen will be liable to damages, without
proof that he knew they were accustomed to gore.
Adjoining owners and occupants of lands are each required to main-
tain their portion of the division fence, and where injuries are occa-
sioned by domestic animals escaping through defects in that portion of
the fence that the complaining party was under obligation to maintain,
he cannot recover for such injury. Indeed, he may be liable for
injuries which may have resulted to the animals thus escaping, if shown
to be the proximate result of his negligence.
Where there is no division fence, each owner or occupant must keep
his animals upon his own side of the line. Where there is a division
fence and it is divided, each adjoining owner must see to it that his
part of the fence is suitably maintained. Where there is no division of
the line fence, and either party refuses to make a division, then the
law in the various States provides a summary method for a compulsory
division of the fence, and when thus divided, the parties may be com-
pelled to build and maintain it.
THE KEEPING OF DOGS.
Perhaps there is no species of domestic animals in relation to which
controversies more frequently arise than in relation to dogs. The fol-
lowing propositions may be regarded as settled by the courts:
An owner of lands may drive off trespassing animals with dogs, and
will not be liable unless they are vicious and unnecessarily bite and
lacerate the animals. (Smith v. Waldorf, 13 Hun, 127.)
One keeping a vicious dog with knowledge of its propensities, is
responsible for injuries done by it. Negligence, in the ordinary sense,
is not an element of the cause of action. Nor is contributory negli-
gence a defense. To constitute a defense it must be established that
the injured person brought the injury on himself. (Lynch v. McNally,
73 N.Y. 347.)
A person who keeps upon his premises ferocious dogs, and is aware
of their dangerous and vicious propensities, is liable for injuries to a
stranger, not an intentional trespasser, even though they had never
before bitten anyone. (Rider v. White, 65 N. Y. 54.)
A servant may maintain an action against the master for injuries
received from his employer’s dogs, though informed of the dog’s vicious
disposition, where it had been the custom to tell the servant when the
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 583
dog was loose, for the servant assumes, on entering such employment,
only the risk consequent upon keeping such a dog which is fastened,
except when the servant is otherwise notified. He does not take the
risk of being bitten when the dog is negligently left unfastened.
(Muller v. McKesson, 73 N. Y. 195.)
The doctrine of the non-liability of the master to the servant for
injuries of a co-servant, cannot be invoked to shield the owner of a
ferocious animal for liabilities for injuries to the servant occasioned by
negligence of a fellow-servant in not properly fastening the animal, or
of not giving notice of the animal being loose. (Id.)
The owner of a ferocious animal is not relieved from liability for
injuries inflicted by it through slight negligence or want of ordinary
care on the part of the person injured. To constitute such a defense
acts must be proved, with notice of the character of the animal, estab-
lishing that the person injured voluntarily brought the injury on him-
self. (Id.)
Ordinary familiarities with a dog running alone by one without
knowledge of its disposition is not negligence which will relieve the
owner from responsibility. (Lynch v. McNally, 73 N. Y. 347.)
The owner of a dog known by him to be ferocious is liable, unless
the person injured voluntarily incurred the danger with a full knowl-
edge of its probable consequences. (Fanning v. Hagadorn, 9 Weekly
Digest, 36.) :
The owner of a vicious dog which is kept properly chained and under
restraint is not liable for injuries sustained by a person voluntarily
coming within its reach for the purpose of becoming familiar with it by
feeding. (Werner v. Winterbottam, 17 St. Reporter, 751.)
The fact that a dog was kept chained upon defendants’ premises for
their protection, charges the owner with knowledge of its character,
so that he is liable without proof that the animal had actually bitten
any person, before it committed the injury complained of. (Brice v.
Bauer, 108 N. Y. 428.)
The risk of harboring a dog which has habits calculated to frighten
horses lies upon the person who controls him, and and he is liable for
mischief caused thereby. (Putnam v. Wigg, 37 St. Reporter, 304.)
Where plaintiff went upon defendant’s premises to cut grass, given
to him by defendant’s manager for the cutting, and was bitten by
defendant’s dog, held that he was entitled to recover for the injury.
(Hubert v. Bedell, 50 St. Reporter, 251.)
584 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Where a person keeps a dog for the purpose of guarding his prop-
erty, which is usualiy kept chained and muzzled, an inference of knowl-
edge of the propensity of the dog to bite and attack mankind, and of
negligence in allowing him to be at large, is proper. (Hahnke v. Fred-
erick, 140 N. Y. 224.)
At common law, the dog is considered a tame, harmless and docile
animal, and its owner not responsible for any vicious or mischievous
act he may do, unless he had a previous knowledge of mischievous or
vicious propensities of the dog.
By statute in New York, taxes are imposed on dogs in every county,
except New York, as follows:
‘* Upon every bitch owned or harbored by any one or more persons,
three dollars; for every additional bitch harbored by the same persons
or family, five dollars; upon every dog, other than a bitch, owned or
harbored by one or more persons, or any family, fifty cents; and upon
every additional dog owned or harbored by the same person or persons,
or family, two dollars.”’
The owners are required to deliver a description of the dogs to the
assessor, and for refusal are subject to a forfeit of five dollars.
The collector of each town is required to pay over the taxes collected
on dogs to the supervisor of the town, and the moneys so collected and
paid over shall constitute a town fund for paying damages arising in
said town by dogs killing sheep.
If any person whose dog is duly assessed shall refuse or neglect to
pay the tax assessed for five days after demand thereof, it is lawful for
any person to kill the dog so taxed.
Under the same statute it is provided, if any dog shall kill or wound
any sheep or lamb, the owner or possessor is liable for the value of
such sheep or lamb to the owner thereof, without proving notice to the
owner or possessor of such dog or knowledge by him, that his dog was
mischievous or disposed to kill sheep.
When such injury occurs, the owner of the sheep may apply to any
two fence viewers of the town, or assessors of the city, or of the ward
of the city, who may examine the facts relating to such injury, and if
satisfied that the injury was caused by dogs, they shall certify the
extent of the injury and the amount of damages sustained, and the
amount specified in such certificate shall be paid out of the fund above
mentioned.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 585
With reference to the acts of other vicious animals, the following
propositions may be regarded as settled by the courts:
One letting a vicious horse to hire is bound to inform the hirer of its
vices.
In the absence of proof that the animal alleged to be vicious had
done mischief similar to that complained of, or was by habit or nature
of an ungovernable temper, or that the defendants had knowledge or
notice that the animal was unruly, or had done similar acts, the owner
is not liable, unless the vicious act occurred while the anmial was tres-
passing. (Moynehan v. Wheeler, 117 N. Y. 285.)
In an action for personal injuries to plaintiff, caused by his being
attacked by defendant’s bull which was trespassing on plaintiff's land,
the trial judge declined to charge that, if the animal was trespassing
on the land of the plaintiff, and while there trespassing did damage to
him, then, whether he was a vicious animal, or known to be so to the
defendant or not, the plaintiff is entitled to recover for the injury.
Held, that such refusal was error. (Malone v. Knowlton, 39 St.
Reporter, gor.)
A vicious domestic animal, if permitted to run at large, is a nuisance,
and a person who knowingly keeps or harbors it, and thus affords it a
place of refuge and protection, is liable for the maintenance of a
nuisance, and for the damages directly resulting from it. (Quilty v.
Battie, 135 N. Y. 201.)
This liability extends to the case of a married woman who permits
her husband to harbor a vicious dog upon the premises owned by her,
and octupied by her family, she having knowledge of its vicious pro-
pensities. (Id.)
So, the owner of a vicious horse held liable to a servant employed to
drive it, without notice of its vice, who is injured by a kick from the
horse. (Helmke v. Stetler, 69 Hun, 107.)
INCREASE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Of all tame and domestic animals, the brood belongs to the owner
of the dam or mother. (Stewart v. Wallace, 33 Missouri, 154; Han-
zen v. Millet, 55 Me. 184; Hazelbacker v. Goodfell, 64 Ill. 238.)
Put where a dam or mother is hired out for a limited time, the
increase belongs to the hirer, who, by hiring, becomes the temporary
owner of the animal. (Putnam v. Wyley, 8 Jobns. 432; Concklin v.
Havens, 12 Johns. 314.)
586 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
But a father who loans cows to a married daughter and retains the
title in himself, so as to prevent the cows from being sold by an intem-
perate husband, or his creditors, owns the increase. (Orser v. Storms,
g Cowen, 687.)
So, a mortgagee, under a mortgage upon live stock, is entitled to the
increase of the stock, and a purchaser of the increase takes it subject
to the mortgage. (Grundy v. Biteler,6 Il. App. 510; Kellogg v.
Lovely, 46 Mich. 131; Thorpe v. Coles, 55 Iowa, 408.)
A colt foaled while its dam is held under a bailment or executory
contract of purchase, by the terms of which the title is to remain in the
bailor or vendor until the agreed price is paid, is also subject to the
terms of the contract. (Elmore v. Fitzpatrick, 56 Alabama, 400.)
CRUELTY TO ANIMALS.
In various States statutes have been enacted for the prevention of
cruelty to animals. These statutes are so far similar that a general
statement of their provisions is sufficient.
If any persons shall overdrive, overload, torture, torment, deprive of
necessary sustenance, or unnecessarily or cruelly beat, or needlessly
mutilate or kill, or cause or procure to be overdrawn, overloaded, tor-
tured, tormented, or deprived of necessary sustenance, or by unmerci-
fully or cruelly beating, or needlessly mutilated or killed, as aforesaid,
any domestic animal, every such offender shall, for every such offense,
be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, (State v. Gould, 26 W. Va. 258.)
Abandonment of a disabled animal; carrying animals in a cruel man-
ner; transporting animals for more than twenty-four consecutive hours
without unloading for rest; failing to water and feed them during ten
consecutive hours; poisoning or attempting to poison animals; throw-
ing substances injurious to animals, as glass and nails, willfully and
maliciously, in a public place, setting on foot fights between birds and
animals, and keeping a place where animals are fought, are generally
made misdemeanors. Also slaughtering with unnecessary cruelty.
By the Penal Code of the State of New York, it is made a misde-
meanor to overdrive any animal; failing to provide proper sustenance;
abandonment of a disabled animal; failure to provide food and drink to
impounded animals; selling or offering to sell or exposing for sale dis-
abled animals; carrying animals in a cruel manner; wantonly poison-
ing an animal; throwing substances injurious to animals in public
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 587
places; keeping milk cows in unhealthy places, and feeding them with
food producing unwholesome milk; running horses on highways, etc.
A person has no right to kill trespassing animals. He must resort
to his legal remedy of impounding them, or bringing an action for
damages, and it is unlawful to entice a neighbor’s animals into danger
by setting traps baited with strong scented meat, or resorting to any
other contrivance by which they might be injured or destroyed.
DISEASED CATTLE.
It is not unlawful for the owner of cattle affected with a contagious
disease to keep them on his own premises, and he will not be liable if
the disease is communicated to other cattle on adjoining lots, if he,
while knowing of the diseased condition of the cattle, is not negligent
in the manner of keeping them. And it has been held, even if he
keeps them on a portion of his property not enclosed where other
cattle also have a right to come, he will not be guilty of, negligence if
he gives the owners of such other cattle notice of the diseased condi-
tion of his cattle. (Walker v. Herron, 22 Texas, 55.)
This rule does not hold good in Illinois. (Mount v. Hunter, 58 Ill.
246; Herrick v. Gray, 83 Ill. 85.)
In case of trespass by diseased cattle, in consequence of which the
disease is communicated to others, the owner will be liable if he is
unaware of the diseased state of his cattle. (Barnum v. VanDusen,
16 Conn. 200.)
Where defendant allowed diseased sheep to escape through a defect
in his part of the fence, and to communicate the disease to plaintiff’s
sheep, he will be liable, and the fact that the disease had been pre-
viously communicated to his sheep by one of plaintiff’s sheep, will not
avail him. (Herrick v. Gray, 83 Ill. 85, supra.)
The owner of animals affected with a contagious disease has no
right to bring them in contact with other animals, as to water them at
a public tank used by sound animals of other owners, or to bring a
glandered horse upon a farm of another who has a sound horse there.
If by any such means the disease should be communicated, he will be
liable in damages. (Mills v. N. Y. etc. R. Co., 2 Rob. 326; Hite v.
Blandford, 45 Ill. 9.)
The sale of diseased animals, where the vendor knows of the pres-
ence of the disease, and fails to communicate his knowledge to the
purchaser, the vendor is liable for all damages resulting from the
588 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
spread of the disease among the purchaser’s cattle. It must be shown,
however, that the damage was the direct result from the diseased
cattle and not from some remote cause.
The owners of strayed horses and cattle are liable in damages for
injuries done by them, if they are at large by reason of the owner's
negligence.
The owner of animals is bound to bring to the notice of those deal-
ing with his animals, as bailees for hire, farriers, agisters, keepers of
boarding stables, etc., any vicious trick or habit the animals may have,
as biting and kicking of horses; horning of cattle; biting of dogs; else
he will be liable for any injury inflicted upon such persons in conse-
quence of such vicious habits.
But this does not extend to injuries inflicted in consequence of habits
which are not dangerous fer se, as when a horse is in the habit of pull-
ing back on the halter when restless.
In letting a horse the owner impliedly undertakes that the animal
shall be capable of performing the journey for which he is let, and if
without fault of the hirer, the horse becomes disabled by lameness or
sickness, any expense the hirer may incur thereby is a valid claim
against the owner.
One who loans horses is not responsible to a third party for damages
done by reckless driving, or through negligence of a hirer or borrower,
otherwise than when he entrusts his wagon and horse to an obviously
incompetent person.
One who hires a horse is bound to only ordinary care in using it, and
if he uses such care he will not be liable if the horse, during such
reasonable use, is lamed or injured. But if he hires a horse for a
definite period, and uses it after the time has expired, he will be liable
for any injury it may receive during such extra use, and the same prin-
ciple will apply if he drives it beyond the distance agreed upon. The
horse must be used for the purpose it was hired, and for no other.
Where one hires a horse and receives special instructions from the
owner about its use, he must comply with the instructions, or he will
be liable for loss occasioned by disregarding them.
A bailee of animals for hire is bound to exercise that degree of care
and prudence that a prudent man would exercise over his own property,
Animals may be destroyed where it is found necessary to protect ¢
person and in some instances where it is necessary for the preservation
of property (Aldrich v. Wright, 53 New Ham. 398.)
~-" LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 589
Where several animals belonging to several owners unite in doing
mischief, the owners cannot be legally joined in a single action for the
mischief, because each owner is liable for the acts of his own animal,
and not for injuries caused by the animals of others. (Van Steenburgh
v. Tobias, 17 Wendell, 562.)
Chief Justice Swift, in the case of Russell v. Thompson, 2 Conn.
206, states the rule to be: ‘‘ Where two dogs belonging to different
owners made a raid upon a flock of sheep, the owners are responsible
Yor the mischief done by their dogs, but no man is liable for the mis-
chief done by the dog of another, unless he had some agency in caus-
ing the dog to do it. When the dogs of several persons do mischief,
each person is only liable for the mischief done by his own dog, and it
would be repugnant to the plainest principles of justice to say that
dogs of different owners, by joining in doing mischief, could make the
owners jointly liable. This would be giving them a power of agency
which no animal was ever supposed to possess.”’
Under the statutes of some of the States, the several owners of dogs
which unite in doing injury are jointly liable for the injury done.
In Pennsylvania each owner is answerable for the whole damage done
in which his dog is jointly engaged. (Kerr v. O’Connor, 63 Pa. St. 341.)
In New York the owner is responsible for the injury done by his own
dog. (See Auchmuty v. Ham, 1 Denio, 485.) So, where cows belong-
ing to several owners are found in a garden of an individual, commit-
ting a trespass, each owner is liable for the damage done by his own
cow, and forno more. (Partenheimer v. Van Orden, 20 Barb. 479.)
And in the absence of all proof as to the amount of damage done by
each cow, the law will infer that the cattle did equal damage. (Id.)
WARRANTY OF THE SOUNDNESS OF ANIMALS.
What constitutes soundness.
Local custom and usage, as well as circumstances of each case,
determine the meaning of the word sound, when it is applied to the
sale and warranty of horses, sheep and cattle.
The general rule implies the absence of any disease in the animal at
the time which actually decreases its value or its natural usefulness.
There is a great difference, however, among judges as to what consti-
tutes a breach of warranty of soundness, whether the disease must be
temporary or permanent in its nature.
590 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Some of our States follow the English rule, which seems logical and
reasonable, and that is: Any infirmity which renders an animal unfit
in any degree for present use, is unsoundness. In the case of Elton v.
Brogden, 4 Camp. 281, it was proved that the horse was lame at the
time of the sale, but the defendant undertook to prove that the lame-
ness was of a temporary nature, and that the animal had become
sound. The presiding justice said: ‘‘I have always held, and hold
now, that a warranty of soundness is broken if the animal at the time
of sale had any infirmity upon him which rendered him less fit for pres-
ent service. It is not necessary that the disorder should be permanent
or incurable. While a horse has a cough he is unsound, whether that
proves temporary or mortal. The horse in question having been lame
at the time of sale, when he was warranted sound, his condition subse-
quently is no defense to the action.”
This doctrine has long been followed in Massachusetts and some of
the other States. In Brown v. Bigelow, 10 Allen, 242, it was held that
the bill of sale of one horse, sound and kind, is a guaranty of sound-
ness, upon which the person who sold the horse is liable if the horse
prove to be permanently lame, although the purchaser knew he was
lame before he purchased the animal, and the seller then refuses to
give a warranty. The chief justice said: ‘‘ The doctrine that the
warranty of soundness does not include or cover obvious defects, rests
on the reasonable presumption that the parties could not have intended
the warranty to apply to the defect rendering the horse unsound, which
was seen and known to both parties at the time of the sale, but here
the appearance of the horse did not disclose actual unsoundness, the
unsoundness was not apparent. Jameness may or may not make a
horse unsound. If it was only accidental and temporary, it would not
bea breach of warranty, or if it was permanent, arising from causes which
were beyond the reach of immediate remedies, it would be clearly a case
of unsoundness. The reasonable inference is that the warranty was
intended to guard against the liability of loss, in the event that the
lameness proved permanent and serious.’’ In N. H., Judge Woods, in
Roberts v. Jenkins, 21 N. H. 116, said: ‘‘If the horse be afflicted
with an infirmity which renders him less fit for immediate use than he
otherwise would be, less able to perform the proper and ordinary labor
of the horse, it would seem but reasonable that it should be regarded
as an unsoundness, if the party selling the horse warranted its sound-
ness, he should be held responsible. Such an infirmity may well be
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 591
supposed to be the occasion of damages to the purchaser. The in
tention and understanding of the parties to the warranty was, in such
as well as in other contracts, as to their construction, is in the use
of the horse that its value principally consists. It may well be pre-
sumed then that when a horse is purchased that he is purshased for
service, and it is with reference to his ability and fitness for service that
the guarantee for soundness would be required, and given. We can see
no reason for supposing that the future fitness or usefulness of the
horse would be likely to be more an object of solicitude on the part of
the purchaser than its present fitness, and when we consider the subject
matter of such a guarantee we can see no reason to suppose that in
such cases the purchaser would not require a general warranty of sound-
ness. That at the time of the sale the animal is laboring under no dis-
ease or injury which at that time or afterwards does or will diminish
his natural or ordinary usefulness or fitness for service.
h
WHAT CONSTITUTES A WARRANTY.
It is not necessary that any particular form of words should be used
to create a warranty. The word “‘ warrant’’ may not be used at all,
nor the word soundness. Thus: The seller of the horse who says he
is all right in every respect, or similar words, indicates and expresses a
warranty. A statement at time of sale of the horse that the animal is
of specified age, is a warranty that he is no older. But any statement
that he is sound and right or sound and perfect will include a war-
ranty. ‘The statement that a horse is well broken might or might not
include a warranty of gentleness, and the statement that a horse is
sound every way, perfectly gentle, would not be a guaranty that the
horse is well broken or suitable to plow or do any other particular work.
The warranty should not be construed beyond its reasonable signifi-
cation, thus: A bill of sale of one gray horse, five years old, which I
warrant sound and kind, is a warranty of soundness and kindness only,
and the first expression is a matter of description. Generally the mere
affirmation that the horse is sound when exposed to sale and the pur-
chaser’s inspection, is not a warranty unless it is so intended by the
parties, and care should be taken to have the matter properly under-
stood; thus, in reply to the question as to the soundness of the horse,
the reply is, I think the horse is sound, it does not mean a guarantee,
nor the statement that the horse’s eye is as good as any horse’s eye in
592 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
the world. The statement by the seller of a horse, ‘‘ that it is sound
to the best of my knowledge,’’ is not a warranty; nor bill of sale in
which a horse is described, ‘‘ as considered sound,’’ but the statement
that the horse is not lame, accompanied by the statement of the
owner, that, ‘‘I would not be afraid to warrant him, was held to be
enough to establish a warranty. (Quintard v. Newton, 5 Robertson,
N. Y. 72.) If the horse is purchased for a particular purpose, and the
seller knows of that particular purpose, and declares that the horse is
all right, such a statement would amount to a warranty.
Any affirmation of an existing fact distinctly and positively made in
negotiations for trade is deemed a warranty. (Sweet v. Bradley, 24
Barb. 549.)
Any representation of the thing sold, as a direct and express affirma-
tion by the vendor of its quality and condition, may amount to a war-
ranty. (Chapman v. Murch, 19 Johns. 290.)
But to constitute a warranty, it is essential that the affirmation at
the time of sale should be intended for the party as a warranty, other-
wise it is only a matter of opinion. (Sweet v. Colgate, 20 Johns. 196,
but see Hawkins v. Pemberton, 51 N. Y. 198.)
A statement merely descriptive of the quality of the article does na
amount toa warranty. (Greenthal v. Schneider, 52 How. Pr. 133.)
DEFECTS COVERED BY GENERAL WARRANTY.
In Vermont a farmer purchased a number of sheep, and the seller
warranted the sheep sound and free from footrot; on the next day
when the farmer went to pay for them, he discovered they were un-
sound, and the seller repeated his statements. It was held that the
two interviews constituted one trade and one warranty. Judge Wilson,
in deciding the case said: ‘‘ It seems to me now well settled, that the
rule of law which exempts a seller from liability upon a general war-
ranty of soundness, where the defect is plainly visible and obvious to
the senses, is not a question as to the apparent defect but power to
understand the true nature and extent of which requires the aid
of skill and judgment, nor is the rule applicable to the case where
the seller has resorted to any means of representation in respect to the
property intended or naturally calculated to throw the purchaser off
his guard and induce him to omit such thorough examination of the
condition of the property as he might, and very likely would have
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 593
made, if he had relied solely upon his own judgment in making the
purchase. But the warranty may be so worded as to protect the pur-
chaser against all consequences growing out of even an obvious defect.
Thus: A farmer may bargain for a horse known to him to be afflicted
in some way, but the seller agrees to deliver the horse at the end of ten
days, free from blemish. It was held in that case that the warranty
included the defect above mentioned. (Liddard v. Kain, 2 Bing. 183.)
A general warranty of soundness does not extend to visible defects.
This rule, however, does not extend to a visible defect, which could
not be discerned by the ordinary observer, and where skill is required
in its detection. (Birdseye v. Frost, 34 Barb. 367.)
Nor does a general warranty cover defects of which the purchaser
had notice at the time of the agreement of purchase or acceptance of
the property. (Hinton v. Wilson, 22 Weekly Digest, go.)
A vendor of personal property is not liable for latent defects known
to him, but unknown to the purchaser, unless he has used some artifice
to deceive the purchaser in regard to such defects, or has warranted
the article. (McDonald v. Christie, 42 Barb. 36.)
Where an article is warranted as fit for certain purposes, the seller is
liable for the injury sustained by the vendee in consequence of its
unfitness. (Milburn v. Belloni, 39 N. Y. 53.)
But a warranty of the fitness of an article for a specific purpose will
not be implied from a knowledge on the part of the vender that it is
intended for such purpose. (Bartlett v. Hoppock, 34 N. Y. 118.)
On the sale of an article known to be intended for food, there is an
implied warranty that it is sound, wholesome and fit to be used as an
article of food. (Burch v. Spencer, 15 Hun, 504.)
In every sale of a personal chattel, there is an implied warranty of
title. (Carman v. Trude, 25 How. Pr. 440.)
A sound price does not imply a warranty of soundness. (Hotchkiss
vy. Gage, 26 Barb. 141.)
And this implied warranty of title extends to prior liens and incum-
brances. (Dresser v. Ainsworth, 9 Barb. 619.)
This implied warranty of title does not extend to a case where the
chattel is not in the possession of the vendor at the time of the sale,
(Scranton v. Clark, 39 N. Y. 220.) —
On the transfer of every negotiable security there is an implied war-
ranty that it is genuine, and not tainted with usury. (Herrick v.
Whitney, 15 Johns. 240; Meridan Nat. Bank v. Galludet, 120 N. Y. 298.)
504 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
DEFECTS WHICH CONSTITUTE UNSOUNDNESS
OF HORSES.
Glanders, corns, bone-spavins, blindness or any organic defect, back-
ing when a confirmed habit, biting when dangerous, crib-biting, affect-
ing the health, have been held by various courts to constitute
unsoundness. Bad fermation which does not produce disease or lame-
ness at the time of the sale is not usually considered unsoundness.
WATER RIGHTS.
Every owner of land upona natural stream of water has aright to use
the water for any reasonable purpose, if it does not interfere with
similar rights that are vested in the owners of land above, below or
beside him. He may take water to supply his dwelling or water his
land, or for the use of his cattle, may use it for manufacturing pur-
poses, such as running water wheels or supplying steam boilers, so
long as the amount taken does not injuriously affect the volume, but it
is the mere privilege that goes with the land and not the water itself.
If the stream is very small and does not supply water more than
enough to answer the natural wants of the different owners living on
the stream, no one of them can use the water for free irrigation or
manufacturing, thereby depriving the other owners of its use. But for
domestic purposes or for watering stock, he would be justified in con-
suming all the water. Chief Justice Shaw states the general doctrine
as follows: ‘‘ Every person through whose land a flowage of water
courses, such person has a right to the benefit of it, as it passes
through his land, to all useful purposes to which it may be applied, and
no proprietor of land on the same water-course has a right to prevent
it from flowing through his premises, or obstructing it in passing them,
or to curb or destroy it.”
DIVERSION OF WATER.
Every person who owns land situated upon a stream has the follow-
ing rights: First, to the natural flow of the stream; second, that the
stream should continue to run in the natural channel; third, that it
should flow upon his land in its usual quantity and its natural place;
fourth, that it should flow off his land upon the land of his neighbor in
its accustomed place and at its usual level. These rights he has and
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 595
Cannot be deprived of them, so the owner of property should not make
a change in the natural flow of the stream that would materially injure
any other owner situated upon it, or interfere with the stream flowing
as it is its wont to flow, or he will be responsible for the damage it
will occasion. Of course these rights are subject to the privilege of
each owner to make reasonable use of the water while it is passing
through his land. A diversion of the stream may be made by the
owner of the land if it is returned toits natural channel before it leaves
his premises.
DIveRsION OF WaTER BENEATH THE SuRFACE.—If the owner of
land, without any intention of injuring his neighbor, and while making
use of his land for any lawful purpose, cuts off hidden currents, though
he destroys altogether the use of water which has no visible course,
but has been accustomed to flow into the land of his neighbor, an
action cannot be maintained against him for the diversion or stoppage
of such water. He may, therefore, drain the land, dig a well, open
and work a mine, although by so doing he may cut off the supply of
water of the springs and wells in his vicinity. But where the course
of a stream is well known, and it leaves the surface at some point and
flows for adistance beneath the surface, then emerges again, the owner
of the land lower down upon the stream has the same right as he would
have if the stream remained entirely above ground.
MILL PRIVILEGES.
A person who has a natural stream of water flowing through his
land, has a right to use the water for mills, providing he does not cut
off the water from those living lower down the stream, and he is not
liable for an action for using and obstructing the water for his mill; for
which it appears that the dam is of the size that is adapted to the
capacity of the stream and quantity of water usually flowing therein,
and that his mode of using the water is not unusual or unreasonable,
and is in accordance with the general custom of the country in the
case of dams upon similar streams. In many of the States laws have
been passed encouraging the erection of mills by authorizing the owners
and occupants, through condemnation proceedings, to take land of other
persons by paying such damages as may be legally assessed.
596 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
CORRUPTION OF WATER.
Every owner of land through which a stream of water flows has a
right to the use of the water in its natural state, and is liable if he
renders the water unwholesome, or unfit for purposes for which it is
used, unless he has acquired by grant, or otherwise, an adverse right
against the lower or adjoining owner.
Erecting cess-pool or depositing manure, or obnoxious substance
near the stream would be such a wrong.
An action for damages is not the only remedy for the unlawful pol-
lution of a stream. The party thus wrongfully interfering may be
restrained by an order of any court having jurisdiction.
EASEMENT OF DRIP.
When a land owner places a house on the line of his lot, and eaves
project upon his neighbor’s land, as to throw the water from the roof
thereon, it is an encroachment upon the neighbor’s lot to the extent at
least of the projection. One adjoining owner cannot legally subject the
lands of the other adjoining owner to the drip from eaves of his building.
LAND BOUNDED ON NAVIGABLE AND UNNAVI-
GABLE WATERS.
The owners of land bounded on navigable rivers where the tide ebbs
and flows has a title to high-water mark. The land lying between high
and low-water mark belongs to the State as trustee of the public, but
in many of the States the deeds read to low-water mark. This point
is settled by the law in the various States, and is not common to ali,
but as to streams not navigable which run by the side ot a man’s farm,
the owner has title to the center of the stream. If the same person be
owner of the land on both sides of the stream, he owns the whole stream
to the extent of the length of his land upon it. But if by freshets the
stream suddenly changes, the owner over whose lands the new channel is
made, is entitled to the old boundary line as it existed before the freshet.
SURFACE WATER AND DRAINAGE.
The water which flows upon the surface of the land, not gathered in
ponds or streams of running water, is usually designated ‘‘ surface
water.’ It is somewhat difficult to distinguish between surface water,
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 597
as such, and running water, and perhaps the best way to distinguish it
is to ascertain what a running stream is. Where there is a channel or
canal which is made by a general contour of the surrounding land from
which the water is collected into one channel, it may be natural or
artificial, it flows, however, in a definite channel having a bed and sides,
and usually discharges itself into some other stream. The water need
not flow continuously therein, as there are many large rivers which are
sometimes dry, but they have a well-defined channel. The owner of
the land has a right to the surface water which runs in no definite
channel, and he may prevent its flow into a neighboring stream, thus:
If there are two fields adjoining each other, one lower than the other,
the owner of the upper field has a right to the water that flows on his
land; he need not let it flow off from the same on the land below.
The owner of the lower field, however, has no right to erect an embank-
ment to stop the water from the upper field flowing upon it, nor has the
owner of the upper field a right to divert the flow of water from its
natural channel and cause it to make a new channel on the lower
ground, nor can he collect into one large stream waters usually flowing
off into his neighbor’s fields by several streams, and thus increase the
rush upon the lower field. The law has always recognized a distinction
between the right of the owner to control the surface water which falls
or collects on his lands and his right to control water of a natural
water course; the owner of the land is admitted to have an absolute
property in the surface water before it leaves his land and becomes a
part of a definite water course and he may appropriate it to his own
use or get rid of it in any way possible, provided he does not collect it
and interfere with its flow as to injure adjoining owners.
EMPLOYER AND LABORER.
There is a difference in some respects between a person employed to
work upon a farm or as a domestic servant and a person employed to
work in afactory. The laws of the country have regulated the number
of hours per day for many kinds of labor, but between the former
laborer and the farmer the hours of labor rest wholly upon contract,
express Or implied. The laborer is bound to render the services and
the farmer to pay the price agreed upon or the value thereof, if no
arrangement is made as to the price. It is essential that the parties
have the legal capacity to make a contract, otherwise the contract
598 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
could not be enforced, thus: if a boy under age hires for a specified
time at a fixed price, he is not bound by his contract, but may abandon
it at any time, although he cannot recover on his contract, yet he can
recover what his services are actually worth, and that without any
deduction for damages for his breach of contract. If there is no fixed
period of employment agreed upon, the employer has the right to dis-
charge a laborer, and the laborer has the right to leave at any time.
If there is no special agreement as to the price, the employer must
pay a reasonable value for the services, depending on the current rate of
wages for similar services at the same time and place.
CONTRACTS FOR MoRE THAN A YEAR.—Contracts for services which
cannot be performed within a year, must, by the statute of frauds, be in
writing, in order to be legally binding. In Broadwell v. Getman,
2 Denio, N. Y. 87, it was held that where it was agreed orally in the
month of January to clear a piece of woodland and fence a part, one
portion in one year from the ensuing spring, when the party who
cleared the land was to put in the crop, which, with the wood and
timber he was to have for his compensation. It was held that the con-
tract was within the statute of frauds, and void, being an oral contract
which was not to be wholly performed within the year.
If an oral contract is made to employ a laborer for a year, and the
contract cannot be completed within the year, it is binding. But if the:
performance of such contract is to commence at some future day, it
cannot be enforced, yet it seems that an oral contract in which a laborer
was hired for the year, to begin the next day, is valid.
ENTICING A LABORER Away FROM His EMPLOYER.—W hen a person
is employed to labor on the farm or do any other work and the person
entices, hires or persuades the laborer to leave the services during the
time of employment, the person who employs the help has the right of
action for recovery of damages against the person who so enticed the
laborer away, and for all inconvenience and losses thereby suffered by
the employer. But attempting to entice a laborer away, unless damage
is sustained, is not actionable; nor can an action be sustained for
inducing a laborer to leave his employer’s service at the end of the
time for which he was hired, even though the laborer had no intention
of leaving.
ABANDONING SERVICE WITHOUT CausE.—When a laborer is hired
for a definite time, and before that time has expired he leaves without
cause, or the consent of the employer, the laborer cannot recover any
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 599
part of his wages, because the contract is entire and performance is a
condition precedent to a right of recovery. If a man agrees to work
a year for another for a specified price per month, and by the terms
of the agreement he is to be paid each month's wages at the end of
each month, he may sue for and recover his wages at the end of the
month.
ABANDONING SERVICE FOR Cause.—While a laborer has the right to
abandon service for cause, if the cause is sufficient to render the con-
tract voidable, he can collect his pay, yet he should not leave for trivial
causes.
If the employer is to furnish board and lodging to the laborer asa
part of his contract, and he is not furnished with sufficient or whole-
some food or suitable or comfortable lodgings, and the employer treats
him improperly by assaulting him, the laborer is justified in leaving.
If he is compelled to work on Sunday, other than to do the necessary
farm work, such as care of live animals, or the domestic servant in the
house to prepare the meals, and properly care for the milk, or any act
of the employer that is contrary to good morals, preventing reasonable
comfort, safety and health, or that would injure the reputation of the
laborer, would justify the employed to abandon the service. Harsh
language to the laborer and a difficulty with a co-laborer would not
justify the laborer in leaving. It is a question for the jury to decide
whether the laborer had a reasonable excuse for leaving the service,
and the burden of proof lays upon the laborer, who must establish the
fact. There are a great many instances in which the laborer is justi-
fied in leaving the employer, but they could not all be enumerated
here. In every case where there is a good cause the laborer may leave
and compel the farmer to pay for the time that he has actually worked.
FARMER LIABLE ON LABORER’S CONTRACT.—Any contract made by
the laborer in the course of his employment, about the farmer’s busi-
ness, is binding upon the farmer, provided it is within the scope of the
authority conferred or implied from the employer’s conduct. Thus: a
house-maid is engaged to work about the house, she is in the habit of
purchasing the family’s supplies, and she buvs such supplies in the
name of the farmer, the farmer is compelled to pay for them, and if the
laborer had no order to buy, or was in so buying defrauding her prin-
cipal, and obtaining goods for herself, provided this was or had been
the custom about the employer’s place. But if a man is employed in
farm work, and is not connected with the household work and has
600 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
never been permitted by the farmer to make any purchases, he could
not bind the farmer by going to the store and buying goods simply
because he was a laborer and pretending to have authority, or if he
only had the authority and has purchased goods at a certain place, the
employer will be bound by his acts, unless he notifies the parties from
whom he had formerly purchased that he will be no longer responsible,
yet the laborer who so purchased without the consent or directions of
his employer is criminally liable.
LIABILITY OF EMPLOYER FOR INJURY COMMITTED BY His EMPLOYEE.—
Where the employee is working within the scope of his employment,
even though the farmer does not authorize or even know a laborer’s
act, he will be held responsible for any injury accruing through the
negligence, fraud, deceit, or even willful misconduct of the laborer.
DISCHARGING FOR CausE.—Before the employer can discharge his la-
borer, there must be a sufficient cause to discharge the employer from
liability: for future wages, or justify the dismissal; there must be on the
part of the laborer either willful disobedience of the lawful orders, or im-
moral conduct or habitual negligence. To illustrate —an instance of the
first: If where a farmer ordered the laborer to go with his team a long
distance just as dinner was ready and he refused to go until after he had
had his dinner. But in most cases where the misconduct is slight and is
the first offense there is a strong tendency to excuse the laborer. Still,
willful disobedience of the lawful command, as well as insulting lan-
guage used by the laborer is usually considered good ground for dis-
charge. If the laborer is immoral or habitually drunk or embezzles or
commits fraudulent acts towards his employer, his dismissal would be
justifiable. Unwarranted absence or neglect in discharging his duties,
thereby causing injury or loss to his employer, would justify the same
course, even though the laborer did not intend to cause damage.
DisMIssING LaBorERs.—In this country it has been repeatedly held
that the employer must pay whatever the services were reasonably
worth up to the time of discharge.
LIABILITY OF THE LABORER TO THE FARMER FOR MisconpucT.—If
the laborer by negligence, carelessness or misconduct in doing the work,
or executing orders, causes loss to the employer, he must reimburse
the employer, or if a third person has recovered damages from the
employer because of the acts of the employee, he must also pay for
property willfully broken or damaged.
TERMINATION OF SERVICES.—The service that is dissolved at the
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 601
expiration of the term for which the person is hired, either by mutual
consent, by the death of either party, or by the employed being unable
to perform his duty on account of sickness or some permanent dis-
ability, the farmer must pay for the services rendered up to the time of
the termination of the services, and in case of death, personal represen-
tatives of the laborer are entitled to recover from the employer what
the services were reasonably worth.
BOUNDARIES AND FENCES.
Under the laws of all the States, every conveyance of land must be
in writing, and this conveyance should accurately describe the land
intended to be conveyed, so that its boundaries from the deed may be
correctly determined, and so clear and comprehensive that the parcel
conveyed may be distinguished and separated from all other land. If
the description is hopelessly uncertain, the conveyance will be void and
no title will pass. The boundaries are usually determined by monu-
ments, courses, distances and quantity of land conveyed. The monu-
ments will control courses and distances, and courses and distances
will control the quantity of land. This, however, is not the invariable
rule; natural monuments, naturally permanent, are the most reliable,
such as trees, streams, ponds, and lakes, beaches and shores, and also
walls, fences, streets and highways are regarded as reliable monuments.
Frequently an adjoining lot or farm is referred to as a monument in
the description of the land conveyed, and monuments consisting of
stakes and stones, when placed, will control courses and distances.
The general rule is where land is described as bounded by a stream
which is non-navigable the center of the stream is the line, and when
described and bounded on the bank or shore of the stream, then the
bank or shore is the boundary. If the stream is navigable, in which
the tide ebbs and flows, the boundary is high-water mark on the shore.
In those States in which there are large navigable rivers in which the
tide does not ebb and flow, the boundary line is held to be low water
mark; in either case the upland proprietor has a right as appurtenant
to his land to erect wharves and piers extending to low-water mark, or
into the channel of the stream, subject to the supervision of the gov-
ernment for the benefit of the public, and as an appurtenance to said
lands, the owner has the right to a passageway to and from the main
channel of the river. Lands bounded by arms of the sea run only to
602 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
high-water mark. Where land is bounded by a highway or street,
where the State or municipality does not own the bed of the road and
the description in the deed is ‘‘ bounded on,” ‘‘running along,”’
‘“‘ bounded by the highway,’’ and the like, the boundary line is the center
of the highway. If the land is described as bounded by the side of the
street, or if there are other words in the description indicating an
intent to exclude the soil of the street, then the near edge of the road-
way will be the boundary. Ifa highway is referred toas the boundary,
the actual line, as the road is laid out, will be taken as the true line of
the street.
Where the boundary lines are made certain, they control the distance,
directions and contents of the piece of land, unless there are discrepan-
cies in the deed so great as to show fraud on one part or the other, or
mistake. Parol evidence cannot be given to contradict a deed.
At the close of the description it is usual to add ‘‘ be the same more
or less,’’ which is intended to protect the grantor in case the land con-
veyed should be less than the quantity specified, but this will be no
protection where fraud or mistake can be shown with reference to the
quantity of land intended to be conveyed.
In the State of New York it is provided by statute that where two or
more persons have land adjoining, each of them shall make and main-
tain an equal proportion of the division fence between them. In ail
cases where such adjoining land shall be cleared or improved, or where
each of the said adjoining lands shall border upon any of the navigable
lakes, streams or rivers within this State, it is made the duty of the
owners thereof to maintain the division fence down to the line of the
low-water mark in such lakes, streams and rivers. And whenever such
adjoining lands, one-half or more of which is improved, shall be bounded
by or upon either bank of a stream of water, not navigable, the fence-
viewers of the town in which the same are situated, shall direct, when
required to do so by a party interested, upon which bank of such
stream, and where upon such bank, the div:sion fence shall be located,
and the portion thereof to be kept and maintained by each of such
adjoining owners.
If any person who is liable to contribute to the erection or repara-
tion of a division fence shall neglect or refuse to make and maintain his
proportion of such fence, or shall permit the same to be out of repair,
he will be liable to pay to the party injured all damages caused thereby,
and it is declared that he shall not be allowed to have and maintain any
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 603
action for damages resulting to his own lands, crops, fruit trees and
shrubbery thereon, caused by the cattle of the adjoining owners pass-
ing over or through such defective fence.
The law authorizes the electors of a town to declare by resolution
what shall be regarded as a lawful division fence. It is also provided
by the statutes of the State of New York that railroad corporations
and lessees of railroad corporations shall maintain fences on the sides
of the road of the height and strength of the division fences as
required by law, with openings and gates or bars therein, at the farm
crossings of such railroad for the use of the proprietors of the lands
adjoining such railroad, and shall also construct, where the same has
not already been done, and shall hereafter maintain cattle guards at all
crossings suitable and sufficient to prevent horses, cattle, sheep, and
hogs, from getting on to such railroad. So long as such fences are not
made or are not in good repair, the corporation or the lessees, or the
persons in the possession of the road, shall be liable for all damages
done by their agents or engines or cars to any domestic animal escaping
thereon because of such failure. When made and in good repair, they
shall not be liable for any such damages unless negligently or willfully
done.
A sufficient post and wire fence of requisite height shall be deemed
a lawful fence within the provisions of this section, but barbed wire
shall not be used in its construction.
Every adjoining land owner who, or whose grantor has received
compensation for fencing the land of land taken for a railroad, and has
agreed to build and maintain a lawful fence along such line, shall build
and maintain such fence. (Sec. 32, Chap. 565, Laws of 1890.)
OVERHANGING TREES.
A person owning a tree growing near a boundary line, though the
roots extend into the land of an adjoining owner and derive nourish-
ment therefrom, is the property of the owner of the land upon which
the trunk stands, and such owner is entitled to the fruit produced upon
the branches overhanging the adjoining lands. If force should be used
by the adjoining owner to prevent the owner of the tree from reaching
over and picking the fruit from the overhanging branches, he would have
aright of action against the party so interfering with him. Hoffman
y. Armstrong, 48 N. Y. 201, is a case where a lady whose father owned
604 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
some fruit trees stood upon the division fence and undertook to pick
some cherries from the limb of a tree which hung over a neighbor’s
land. The neighbor forbade her taking the cherries, but she con-
tinued picking them and he attempted to prevent her by force, and did
her a personal injury, for which she recovered a judgment of $1,000.
If it falls from the overhanging tree on to a neighbor’s land, it still
belongs to the owner of the tree, though he might be liable for trespass
in going upon a neighbor’s land to gather it. In such action the
recovery cannot include anything more than the actual injury to the
premises upon which the owner of the fruit entered without permission.
Branches overhanging the boundary line may be cut off up to the
line, but belong to the party who owns the tree, and the person cutting
them off, if he use them, will be obliged to pay such owner for them.
A tree standing upon a boundary line, so that part of its trunk is
upon each side of the line, belongs to the adjoining owners in common,
neither is at liberty to cut the tree without the consent of the other,
nor to cut away a part which extends into his land if by so doing he
injures the common property. (Dubois v. Beaver, 25 N. Y. 123.) The
ownership of land includes everything beneath and above the surface,
with the right to the enjoyment in such a manner as he may see fit so
long as such use does not interfere with a similar right which belongs
to his neighbor of enjoyment of his lands. An adjoining owner has
not the right to maintain upon his lands a nuisance which would pre-
vent an adjoining owner from the enjoyment of rights which belong
to him. ;
One owner may be restrained from keeping swarms of bees so near
the division line as to interfere with and prevent the proper use and
enjoyment of the lands of the adjoining owner.
A person may plant shade trees upon his own lands, cover them with
a thick forest if he desire, and the owner of adjoining lands, though he
may have a house near the boundary line, has no right of action against
the owner of the trees if the house of the adjoining owner is made
damp and unhealthy thereby.
TREES Porsonous TO ANIMALS.— The owner of a farm is liable for
damage caused by a tree that is poisonous to animals, where the
branches hang over the division line and poison cattle or sheep upon
the adjoining land; but if cattle break through the fence, which belongs
to the owner of the cattle to build and maintain, and escapes to poison-
ous trees which are distant from the boundary line, and are injured
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 605
thereby, the owner of the land is not liable because the cattle are
wrongfully upon the premises.
In New York it is provided by statute, Chap. 501, Laws of 1892,
that it shall be unlawful for any person knowing or willfully to keep
any plum, cherry or other trees infected with the contagious disease
or fungus known as the ‘‘ Black Knot.’’ And every tree so infected is
declared to be a public nuisance and may be destroyed by order of the
commissioner appointed under the act, and whenever any person own-
ing or in possession of any such trees shall neglect or refuse to comply
with the order of the commissioner directing him to destroy the same
within the time specified in the notice, he may be deemed guilty of a
misdemeanor and punished by a fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars,
or by imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding ten days, or both,
in the discretion of the court, and any justice of the peace in a town
or city in which said offense shall be committed shall have jurisdiction
thereof.
THe Law in REGARD TO ManureE.—As between grantor and grantee,
lessor and lessee of farm lands, manure made upon the premises from the
produce raised thereon goes with the land asa part of the realty, and is
not personal property. This is upon the theory that it is necessary that it
should so remain in order to maintain the productiveness of the soil.
Judge Eastman, in Plummer v. Plummer, 30 N. H. 558, states the law
in that State as follows: ‘‘It must be regarded as settled in this
State, that between the grantor and the grantee, all manure made in
the ordinary course of carrying on the farm, and which is upon the
place at the time of sale and conveyance, would pass to the purchaser,
unless there be a reservation in the deed; and that it makes no differ-
ence whether it is in the field, in the yard, or in heaps around the
house, or under cover, it belongs to the land and passes with it like
fallen timber and trees, and loose stones lying upon the surface of the
earth, and like the wooden fences erected upon the land and the
material of such fences when placed upon the ground for use or
accidentally fallen down.’’ This is the law in the State of New York.
In New Jersey, it was held in Ruckman v. Outwater, 4 Dutch. 581, to
be personal property and not to pass with the real estate.
The rule is different where manure is made in a livery stable, village
lot, or in any manner not connected with agriculture, or made from
products not produced upon a farm, nor made in connection with its
cultivation or occupancy as a farm. In such case the manure belongs
606 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
to the person producing it, and he has a right to dispose of it as he
pleases, the same as any other personal property.
Escapep CATTLE Upon ADJOINING PREMISES WHEN DRIVEN ALONG
THE Hicghway.—While the owner is driving cattle along the highway
and they escape to the adjacent lands, and the owner of the cattle pursues
them and drives them off as soon as possible, such an entry upon. the
premises is but an involuntary trespass for which the owner of the
cattle should not be liable. (Rightmire v. Shepard, 36 N. Y. St.
Reporter, 768; The Tonawanda R. R. Co. v. Munger, 5 Denio, 255;
z Waterman on Trespass, sec. 872.
BARBED-WIRE FENCE.
The statutes of the State of New York provide, Chap. 755, Laws of
1894, that ‘‘ Barbed wire cannot be used in the construction of any
division fence constructed or built aftcr September 1st, 1895, unless
the person, association or corporation desiring to use such material,
shall first obtain the written consent of the owner of the adjoining
property that it may be used.”’
Any person, association or corporation who shall construct or build
a division fence contrary to the provisions of this act, or who shall
maintain such fence after so constructing or building the same, shall
forfeit and pay to such adjoining owner or other person occupying such
adjoining property treble damages for all injuries occasioned to him
thereby.
In the case of Rowland v. Baird, 18 Abb. N. C. 256, it was held that
a barbed-wire fence erected upon or near the division line is calculated
to cause serious injury and damage to the animals of the adjoining
owner, and is a nuisance rendering the owner liable for such injury.
In the case of Rooney v. Aldrich, 44 Hun, 320, It was held: The
owner of a farm is liable for injury to animals upon an adjoining farm
by reason of his agent’s negligence in the construction of a wire fence,
which he, according to agreement, was bound to maintain. ‘‘ A person
is not liable in damages for building a high fence on his own land which
darkens his neighbor’s windows, and this without regard to his motive.”
(Pickard v. Collins, 23 Barb. 444.)
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 607
Legal Facts of Importance to All
Citizens of the Dominion of Canada.
CONTRACTS.
What is a Contract ? An agreement enforceable at law between two
or more parties to do or not to do some specified thing is called a con-
tract. It may be verbal (by word of mouth) or written.
This subject is a limitless one, for scarcely a day passes without one
making a contract. The simplest agreement one with another is a con-
tract ; and limitless as they are in number, and varied in their require-
ments, they are all governed by very general rules.
Contract Not Valid. An agreement to doa thing contrary to law,
or a thing forbidden by law, cannot be enforced. As for example: the
law in the Province of Ontario regulates the quantity of intoxicating
liquor a dealer may sell at any one time, and the hours during which it
may be sold. Any agreement contrary to the above law cannot be
enforced.
Things Necessary. There are certain things necessary without which
there can beno contract. First, there must be parties to the contract, and
they must be legally qualified ; second, there must be a reasonable con-
sideration ; third, there must be the thing to be done or not to be done,
(subject matter) ; fourth, there must be the consent of all parties to the
agreement ; fifth, there must be a time when the contract is to be com-
pleted. Thus every contract must have five essentials, PARTIES, CON-
SIDERATION, SUBJECT MATTER, MUTUAL CONSENT, and TIME.
Parties. Those who make a contract must be considered competent
to do so in the eyes of the law. The law says that the parties must be
of legal age and of sound mind. In Ontario the law regards all persons
as infants who are under twenty-one years of age, though in some
countries females are made of age at eighteen. A contract made with
608 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
a drunken person is not binding upon him unless he ratifies it when
sober.
A contract made with a minor or an idiot is not binding upon him
except for necessaries. Another condition of incompetency is insanity.
A contract made with a minor, while not binding upon him, is binding
upon the other party, provided the minor chooses to enforce the agree-
ment by action for damages.
Every one should be extremely careful in making contracts with people
who are deemed incompetent by the law, for what might be ordinarily
considered a necessity, may by reason of the circumstances of such per-
son be declared by the court as not a ‘‘ necessity.’
The reason for considering infants incompetent to make a binding con-
tract is that they are considered unable, on account of lack of experience,
to guard against fraud and artful designing.
Infants are liable, just the same as adults, for fraud, assault, or any
criminal act. While the law protects the infant from deceit and fraud, it
will not, however, allow him to do unlawful acts.
A contract made under compulsion induced by threats of personal vio-
lence or injury is invalid, but the fact of the threat being made must be
proved.
A contract made by two or more persons with intent to injure others is
illegal.
A contract in which there are misrepresentations or concealments of a
material fact is invalid.
If a person signs a contract through fraud or misrepresentation, being
led to believe that the contract means what it does not, or that the prop-
erty purchased is different from what it really is, that contract is illegal.
The burden of proof is in this case always on the person deceived. It
requires good and abundant proof, because a written agreement goes far-
ther in law than a single oath against it.
An agreement with a thief not to prosecute, provided goods are re-
turned, is illegal.
Incompetency. ‘‘ Persons of unsound mind and memory cannot make
a binding contract, because they cannot give clear and intelligent consent
to its terms.’’ A noted writer has said: ‘‘ Want of reason must, of
course, invalidate a contract, the very essence of which is consent.’
Insanity and idiocy are not the same. An insane person is one
whose mind is diseased or deranged ; an idiot is one who has no mind;
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 609
and with the above the law classifies the man who by drunkenness
renders himself incapable of discharging the ordinary duties of life.
By coverture is meant marriage ; the rule of the common law is that a
married woman cannot, during her marriage, make a binding contract,
but this has been changed in Ontario, giving her almost absolute control
over her own property.
Consideration. This is the price or promise, or the cause, which
moves the parties to enter into a contract. It may be EXPRESSED or IM-
PLIED. A consideration that is distinctly stated in the contract, whether
oral or written, is said to be expressed. In all sealed instruments and
salable paper, the consideration is implied ; as in promissory notes or
drafts, the words ‘‘ value received’’ imply, but do not state, the consider-
ation.
Consideration is commonly called VALUABLE, GOOD, SUFFICIENT,
LEGAL, INSUFFICIENT, etc.
The money value of a consideration does not determine whether it is
SUFFICIENT or not ; a very slight consideration will support a contract
if it is what the law recognizes as valuable.
A valuable consideration may be illustrated by the payment of money,
the delivery of property, the performance of work, making a promise for
a promise, etc.
A good consideration is one founded upon affection, relationship,
friendship, or gratitude. This does not constitute a sufficient cause or
consideration for the fulfillment by the coercion of law of an undertaking
or promise not under seal. ‘‘Good consideration’’ is almost on an
equality with ‘‘no consideration.”’
An insufficient consideration may be defined as one that is gratuitous,
illegal, immoral, or impossible. There are exceptions to this gratuitous
consideration ; for instance, in case of labor performed for a party with
his knowledge, but not his expressed consent. Anson in his work,
“The Law of Contracts,’ says: If A allows X to work for him under
such circumstances that no reasonable man would suppose that X meant
to do the work for nothing, A will be liable to pay for it. As intimated
above, contracts under seal or formal contracts depend upon their form
for their validity. Where form is present, courts of law ask for no
further evidence as to intention.
Subject Matter. The subject matter ofa contract is the thing to be
done or omitted by one or both parties. There are certain contracts,
610 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
however, which the law will not enforce. That is, if the thing to be done
is illegal, against the law, immoral, that is, contrary to good morals (in-
jurious to, or interfering with, the public welfare), in general restraint of
trade, such as an agreement not to conduct a certain lawful business any-
where, either for a limited or unlimited time, in general restraint of mar-
riage, such as a condition that a child may not marry any person living
in the same Province or following some particular profession or trade, if
the subject matter operates as a fraud on third persons, obstructs public
justice, that is, suppresses evidence, bribes witnesses or officers, or if
already compelled by law, because an agreement to do what is already
required of one will not increase the obligation, or if it has in it in any way,
the element of fraud, we cannot expect the law to enforce the contract.
Mutual Assent. This is defined to be a meeting of minds. There
can be no binding contract without the assent of both parties ; and they
must assent at the same time and to the same thing. Mutual assent con-
sists of an offer by one party and its acceptance by the other ; when the
offer is verbal, and the time allowed for acceptance is not mentioned, it
must be accepted within a reasonable time to make a contract. But in
case the offer and acceptance are written and passed through the mails,
the contract is complete when the acceptance is mailed, providing the
person accepting has received no notice of the withdrawal of the offer
before mailing his letter. When the offer calls for an answer by return
mail, any acceptance later than by return mail will not be binding on the
party making the offer.
Time. When the time in which a contract is to be performed is not
expressed, the execution of the contract must be within a reasonable
time, and this is to be determined by the thing to be done.
Construction of Contracts. Inthe construction of contracts no par-
ticular form of words is necessary, but the intention of the parties
should be clearly and definitely stated.
Ignorance of Law. This is no reason for an omission or breach of
contract ; every one is supposed to know the law.
Simple Contracts are Expressed, Implied, Verbal, Written, Joint, and
Several.
Verbal Contract. A contract made by mere words spoken by the
parties is called a verbal contract.
Written Contract. A contract in which the agreement is in writing
is called a written contract. It is no stronger than a verbal one when the
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 611
law allows it to be verbal, but the method of proof is different ; the
written contract generally proves itself.
Expressed Contract. An expressed contract is either verbal or in
writing, in which the terms of the agreement are openly, fully, and clearly
stated.
Implied Contract. A contract in which the law presumes what must
have been the agreement intended by the parties is called an implied
contract.
Joint Contract. A contract in which the parties are jointly (that is
together) bound to perform the contract or agreement is called a joint
contract.
Several Contract. A contract in which two or more persons promise,
each for himself, that he will do the whole thing promised, is called asev-
eral contract.
Contracts in Writing. While there are certain contracts that are
not required to be in writing, yet it is safest and best to put them in black
and white, because it may prevent frequent misunderstandings. Trouble
more often comes from misunderstandings of verbal contracts than
because the parties to the contract are dishonest. Often the party
who wishes to deceive has a considerable bargaining before the agree-
ment is concluded, and when the final agreement is made, only a few words
are exchanged, and these before an ‘‘accidental’’ witness. The pre-
vious remarks and guarantees given without witness are not in evidence
in case of dispute. The facts sworn to by the ‘‘ accidental ’’ witness that
no conversation like that which had previously been stated took place at
the closing of bargain, and the case will be decided on the evidence of
the ‘‘ accidental ’’’ witness supported by the evidence of his ‘‘ friend.”’
Contracts that Must be Written. Contracts for the conveyance of
real estate ; contracts for the lease of land for more than three years, or
for less than two thirds of the full rent ; contracts made upon the con-
sideration of marriage ; contracts to answer for the debt, default, or
wrongful act of another ; contracts that are not to be performed within
one year, and contracts for the sale of personal property of a specified
value (usually $40.00), unless the sale is by auction, or the buyer pays
part of the purchase price, or the seller delivers part of the goods.
Guarantee. The seller of goods is not liable for the quality of the
goods sold, unless he has represented or concealed something fraudv-
lently, or has warranted them good and sound.
612 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
The rule is: ‘‘If there is no expressed warranty by the seller, nor fraud
on his part, and if the article is equally open for inspection of both parties,
the buyer who examines the article for himself must abide by all losses
arising from its not being what he wanted or expected.”’
When goods are found to be unsound, or are not such as were ordered,
the purchaser should return them, as soon as the fact is discovered, to
the seller, or give him notice to take them back ; otherwise it will be
presumed the quality is satisfactory.
Sale of Stolen Articles. When the buyer purchases goods he re-
ceives his title in them from the seller ; but if the goods prove to have
been stolen, the true owner can reclaim them at any time. They might
have been bought in good faith, in the regular order of business and for
a valuable consideration, but if the one from whom the buyer derives
his title had none, it transpires that the buyer will have no title.
Sale of Personal Property. A sale is a contract by which the own-
ership is transferred from one person to another for a consideration in
money paid or to be paid. To make it a sale there must be money paid
or agreed to be paid in exchange for the goods. An exchange of goods
for goods is ‘‘ barter’’ or a “‘ trade.”’
The party who purchases the property is called the purchaser or ven-
dee ; the one who sells it is called the seller or vendor.
The growing or expected products may be bought and sold, viz.: the
grain or grass expected to grow upon a field; the fruit that may grow
in an orchard ; or the future increase in cattle or other stock.
Delivery. It is not usually necessary that the goods be actually
delivered. When the terms of the contract are agreed to and accepted,
the sale is complete. The title of the property then les in the buyer,
and he is entitled to it upon payment. The buyer cannot take the goods
until he pays for them. Here comes a nice distinction between the right
of property and the right of possession.
If the goods are sold to a party who ‘‘fails’’ or becomes insolvent be-
fore they are delivered, the seller may not deliver them. Even if shipped
they may be stopped in transit, by notice to the carrier not to deliver the
goods.
Bill of Sale. As a protection against the goods purchased and named
in a bill of sale being seized for debts or judgments, it is necessary to
record the same in the office of the Clerk of the County Court in the
County in which the goods are.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 613
THis INDENTURE made the Sixteenth day of February in the year of
our Lord eighteen hundred and ninety-nine, between John Jones, of the
town of Woodstock in the County of Oxford in the Province of Ontario,
merchant, vendor of the first part, and James Brown of the City of To-
ronto, County of York, and Province of Ontario, gentleman, vendee of
the second part.
AND WHEREAS the said party is possessed of the stock of dry goods
and groceries and store and office fixtures hereinafter set forth, and hath
contracted and agreed with the said party of the second part for the abso-
lute sale to him of the same for the sum of five hundred dollars.
Now Tuts INDENTURE WITNESSETH that in pursuance of the said
agreement, and in consideration of the sum of five hundred dollars of
lawful money of Canada, paid by the said party of the second part at or
before the sealing and delivery of these presents (the receipt whereof is
hereby acknowledged), he, the said party of the first part, hath bargained,
sold, assigned, transferred, and set over and by these presents doth bar-
gain, sell, assign, transfer and set over, unto the said party of the second
part, his executors, administrators, and assigns, ALL THOSE the said dry
goods and groceries and store and office fixtures as per inventory here-
unto attached and marked ‘‘ A.”’
AND all the right, title, interest, property, claim, and demand whatso-
ever both in law and equity, or otherwise howsoever of him the said party
of the first part, of, in, to, and out of the same and every part thereof.
To Have AND To Ho tp the said hereinbefore assigned dry goods, gro-
ceries, and store and office fixtures and every of them and every part
thereof with the appurtenances and all the right, title, and interest of the
said party of the first part thereto and therein as aforesaid unto and to the
use of the said party of the second part, his administrators, executors,
and assigns, to and for his sole and only use forever.
Anp the said party of the first part doth hereby for himself, his heirs,
executors, and administrators, covenant, promise, and agree with the said
party of the second part, his executors, administrators, in the manner fol-
lowing, that is to say:
Tuar he, the said party of the first part, is now rightfully and absolutely
possessed of and entitled to the said hereby assigned dry goods, gro-
ceries and store and office fixtures and every part thereof, and that the
said party of the first part now hath in his good right to assign the same
unto the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, and
614 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
assigns, in manner aforesaid, and according to the true intent and mean-
ing of these presents ; and that the said party of the second part, his
executors, administrators, and assigns, shall and may from time to time
and at all times hereafter peaceably and quietly have, hold, possess, and
enjoy the said hereby assigned goods and fixtures and every of them,
and every part thereto, to and for his own use and benefit, without any
manner of hindrance, interruption, molestation, claim, or demand whatso-
ever, from or by him the said party of the first part or any person or per-
sons whomsoever, and that free and clear and freely and absolutely released
and discharged or otherwise at the cost of the said party of the first part
effectually indemnified from and against all former and other bargains,
sales, gifts, grants, titles, charges, and incumbrances whatsoever.
Anpv Moreover that he, the said party of the first part and all persons
rightfully claiming or to claim any estate, right, title, or interest of, in,
or to the said hereby assigned goods and fixtures, and every of them,
and every part thereof, shall and will from time to time and that all times
hereafter upon every reasonable request of the said party of the second
part, his executors, administrators, or assigns, but at the cost and charge
of the said party of the second part, make, do, and execute, or cause or
procure to be made, done, and executed all such further acts, deeds, and
assurances for the more effectual assigning and assuring the said hereby
assigned goods and fixtures unto the said party of the second part, as
executors, administrators, and assigns in manner aforesaid, and according
to the true intent and meaning of these presents, as by the said party of
the second part, his executors, administrators, or assigns or his counsel
shall be reasonably advised or required.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the said parties to these presents have here-
unto set their hands and seals the day and year first above written.
Signed, sealed, and delivered in
the presence of
CHARLES SUMMERS.
JOHN JONES. [Seal. ]
JAMES BROWN. | [Seal.]
Affidavit of Bona Fides to Accompany Bill of Sale.
County of York.
To Wir: I, James Brown of the city of Toronto in the County of
York, the vendee in the foregoing Bill of Sale named, make oath and say :
THAT the sale therein made is bona fide and for good consideration,
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 615
viz.: five hundred dollars ($560.00), and not for the purpose of holding
or enabling this deponent to hold the goods mentioned therein against
the creditors of the said bargainor.
Sworn before me at Toronto in the
County of York this sixteenth day of
February A. D. eighteen hundred and
ninety-nine.
FRANK SMITH,
A commissioner for taxing affidavits in the H. C. J
JAMES BROWN.
Affidavit of Witness Proving the Execution of the Bill of Sale.
County of York.
To Wit: I, Charles Summers of the city of Toronto in the County
of York, clerk, make oath and say :
THAT I was personally present, and did see the within bill of sale duly
signed, sealed, and executed by John Jones and James Brown, the parties
thereto, and that I, this deponent, am a subscribing witness to the same,
and that the name Charles Summers, set and subscribed as a witness to
the execution thereto, is of the proper handwriting of me, this deponent,
and that the same was executed at the city of Toronto aforesaid.
Sworn before me this sixteenth day of ) CHARLES SUMMERS
February, eighteen hundred and ninety-nine. i ;
JAMES BROWN,
A commissioner for taking affi-
davits in the H. C. J.
RECEIPTS.
It is always best to take a receipt for moneys paid or goods delivered,
and while a receipt is not always evidence of payment, yet it throws the
burden of proof upon the one who tries to deny its truth.
Receipt for Money Paid on Account,
$50.00. ToRONTO, ONT., Feb. 16, 1899.
Received of George W. Witbeck, Fifty Dollars ($50.00) on account.
GARDNER MOREY.
616 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Receipt in Full.
$300. 00. TORONTO, ONT., Feb. 16, 1899.
Received of Charles Hart, Three Hundred Dollars, in full, for all
demands to date.
HENRY MURPHY.
Law Concerning Notes.
1. A signature written with a lead pencil is valid.
2. A note lost or destroyed can be collected upon sufficient proof.
3. If no time of payment is mentioned in a note, the note is payable
on demand.
4. A note is not transferable if the words ‘‘ or order’’ or ‘‘ or bearer’?
do not appear on the face, or unless it is payable ‘‘to the order of’’ the
payee.
HOW TO DO BANKING BUSINESS.
Deposit Your Money. It is unsafe to keep money about the person
or house, on account of the liability of losing it from the pocket. The
house might take fire and destroy the money before it could be removed
or the money may be stolen by thieves or robbers. It is therefore best
to deposit it in some safe bank that is near by. The money can then be
drawn out by cheques made payable to the order of the person to whom
the money is to be paid, and, as that person has to put his name on the
back of the cheque, it is good evidence that the money has been re-
ceived.
Pay Bills by Cheques. It is a good practice to pay bills by cheques
because : —
1. The amount paid is always specified in the cheque.
2. The party receiving the cheque cannot claim that the money has
not been paid.
3. The cheque coming back through the bank, indorsed, is evidence
that the money has been received by the person to whose order the
cheque was drawn.
It is always best to deposit your money in the bank and cheque against
it. This will show the amount of money handled during the year, and
oftentimes be a check upon expenditures.
Never make a cheque payable to bearer, for in that case it is not neces-
sary for the party receiving it to put his name on the back, and if lost it
can be collected by anyone into whose hands it falls.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 617
A cheque is a very convenient way of sending money in letters. If
made payable to the order of the person to whom the money is sent, it
cannot be collected by anyone else, even though stolen from the letter.
If dealing with a firm with which you have no acquaintance, it is often
well to have the cashier of the bank certify the cheque before it is sent.
This is done by the cashier writing across the face the word ‘‘ accepted ”’
and signing his name as cashier of the bank.
How to Indorse Cheques. Indorsing cheques is done by writing
your name on the back. This is properly done by signing the name
across the top about one and one-half inches from the end. This is the
left end as the cheque lies with its face toward you.
Promissory Note. Occasionally it is necessary or convenient to ask
for time for the payment of a bill, and there is given a Promissory Note
(promise to pay at some specified time). It is generally written in the
following form :—
$100. Toronto, Ont., Feb. 16, 1899.
Three months after date Ipromise to pay to Peter J. Murphy, or
order, One Hundred Dollars, at the Canadian Bank of Commerce, for
value received.
THOMAS A. BURNS.
NATURALIZATION PAPERS.
Declaration of Intention. An alien must make a declaration under
oath, of intention of becoming a citizen of Canada, before a Judge of the
Court of Record in Canada, a Justice of the Peace, a Police Magistrate or
a Notary Public, or a Commissioner for taking affidavits.
This Declaration of Intention may be taken at any time after three
years’ residence in Canada. The person before whom the oath is taken
issues to the alien a certificate, and this certificate is presented in Ontario,
to the Court of General Sessions of the Peace of the county within the
jurisdiction of which the alien resides or to the Court of Assize or Nisi
Prius during its sittings in such county. If during the sittings of such
court, the facts mentioned in such certificate are not controverted or any
other valid objection made to the naturalization of the alien, the court, on
the last day of such sittings, shall direct that such certificate be filed of
record in the court.
The alien to whom a certificate of naturalization has been granted is
618 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
entitled to all the rights and privileges, and subject to all the obligations,
of a natural born British subject.
Exception. There is this distinction, however ; an alien who has ob-
tained a certificate of naturalization in Canada, but who has by the law
of a foreign state not ceased to be a subject of that state, is not deemed a
British subject when he is in that foreign state.
A married woman shall, within Canada, be deemed to be a subject of
the state of which her husband is for the time being a subject.
If she becomes an alien through marriage, she is deemed a statutory
alien, and may obtain at any time during widowhood, a certificate of
re-admission to British nationality.
Every child of a father or mother who has received a naturalization
certificate is a British subject.
PRINCIPAL AND AGENT.
Definition. An agent is one who acts for, in the name, and by the
authority of another, who is called the principal.
Theory. The theory of the law is whatever business a man may do
for himself, he may employ another to do for him, and whatever is done
for him by his authority, is to be held as though he did it himself.
Extent. When we consider the fact that every clerk, laborer, or
employee is the agent of the one who employs him, we see how im-
possible it would be to conduct business without the medium of agency.
There are in the employ of the C. P. Railway some thousands of persons,
each one of whom is an agent (to a greater or less extent) of the
company.
How long could one man run this great railroad if he himself were com-
pelled to drive the engine or handle the brake? Thus we see how every
business and every enterprise needs its controlling, its guiding mind,
which works through others.
How Established. An agency may be established by a person per-
mitting another to hold himself out to the world as his agent, by a verbal
agreement or written contract ; as little form is necessary to employ an
agent, as to hire a common day laborer. But when the agent is to have
authority to execute a sealed instrument, as for the conveyance of real estate,
his authority must be given under seal. An agency is also often implied
from the course of business ; as, for instance, a son who sells goods in his
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 619
father’s store, or receives payment of bills due him with his knowledge
and without objection, is the agent of the father, and may bind him in
subsequent transactions of the same nature if no notice is given to the
contrary.
Principal. The principal is the person for whom the business is to be
transacted. Generally every person of legal age and competent to con-
tract may act as principal. The principal and not the AGRNT is bound
by the agent’s acts, so long as the agent does not EXCEED the authority
given him.
Liability of Principal to Third Parties. When an Agent acts within
the limit of his authority, the principal is liable to third persons, to the
same extent as though he transacted the business himself. If the agent
violates the instructions given by the principal, the person with whom he
is dealing being ignorant of the fact and his act being apparently within
the limit of his authority, or if the agent makes a fraudulent representa-
tion, the principal will be held liable. The principle of the law is that
‘“when one of two innocent persons must suffer, the one should sustain
the loss, who has put it in the power of the wrongdoer to commit the
wrong,’’ but in cases of special agency the agent could not bind his prin-
cipal to exceed his special authority.
If an agent is pursuing the business of his agency, and by his negli-
gence or unskillfulness injures another, the principal is liable ; for
instance, suppose you are riding on an express train from Toronto to
Montreal, you are rushing along with speed that rivals the wind, a care-
less engineer has his engine standing upon the track of your train, when
it ought to have been somewhere clsc, you go crashing into it, there is a
wreck, and you are pulled from the débris only to find yourself a cripple
for life. What do you do? Bring an action for damages against the
engineer, who is the agent cf the railroad company, or do you say to the
company itself, I have been injured through the carelessness of your
agent, and to you I look for damages ?
Should the act of the agent be willful and not in the conduct of the
principal’s business the agent and not the principal is liable ; to illustrate,
I am passing along the strect in my carriage and your servant willfully
drives against me, the servant alone is liable. But had the act been
one of carelessness, you, the principal, would be liable.
The Principal is Liable to the Agent for damages sustained by the
agent without his own default, in following the directions of his principal.
620 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Duties of Agent to Principal. The first duty of every agent is to
obey instructions. In cases of extreme necessity the agent may be ex-
cused for disobedience of orders ; neither is he bound to obey when told
to do an illegal or immoral act.
An agent must transact all business in the name of his principal or he
will be personally liable.
An agent*must not mix his property with that of his principal, so as to
make it impossible to distinguish one from the other.
Commission Merchants. A commission merchant is one who sells
goods for another, receiving as compensation a certain percentage of the
sales, called commission. The commission merchant very seldom dis-
closes the name of his principal. He has actual possession of the goods
to be sold, and is bound to take good and proper care of them, such as
he would take of his own property of a similar nature.
In the sale of goods the commission merchant should observe the in-
structions of the person sending the goods to be sold, but, when he
receives no instructions, must use his utmost skill and knowledge, and
sell for the best prices.
It is a common practice for commission merchants to advance money
upon goods consigned to them. In such cases they have a lien upon
them for all cash advanced, and for expenses and commissions. ‘‘ A lien
on personal property is a right to hold it against the owner ;’’ that is
the owner cannot take away his goods until he has paid the charges
against them. The commission merchant may sell the goods in his pos-
session in order to satisfy his claim, but must pay over the surplus to the
owner
Notr.—1. A seller of goods who accepts, at the time of sale, the
note of a third party, not indorsed by the buyer, in payment, cannot, in
case thé note is not paid, hold the buyer responsible for the value of the
goods.
2. An agreement by the holder of the note to give the principal
debtor time for payment, without the consent of the surety, discharges
the surety.
SPECIAL LAWS
BY
T. A. HUNT, B. A.,
Ex-President Osgoode Legal and Literary Society.
LAWS RELATING TO RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS ARISING FROM OWN-
ERSHIP, CONTROL AND CUSTODY OF DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANI-
MALS, AND OTHER LAWS OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO LAND AND
ANIMAL OWNERS.
MAN may have an absolute property in domestic animals, which
is not lost by accident or the interference of others.
As to wild animals, they belong to anyone, so long as they
remain in their wild state, but when captured and brought under the con-
trol of the captor, so that they cannot escape, they become the property
of the one who captured them.
The most obvious distinction which the law regards is that between
such animals as are generally seen tame and seldom, if ever, found wan-
dering at large, and such as are usually found wild, and at liberty. Deer
in a private park, doves in a dove house, and fish in a private pond or
tank are property while they continue in actual possession. If a deer or
any other wild animal which is reclaimed, has a collar or other mark
upon it, and goes and returns at its pleasure, the owner’s property still
continues. (Amory v. Flynn, ro Johns. 102.)
The true point of inquiry in such cases is whether the reclaimed animal
has lost all intention or disposition to return, and if it has, it may then be
said to have regained its natural liberty.
A qualified property may also exist with relation to wild animals by
reason of their inability to remove from the land where they are, as in the
case of young birds which are hatched in nests in a man’s trees.
‘A qualified property in wild animals may be obtained by a,person so
confining them that they cannot escape and regain their ‘natural liberty.”
(2 Blackstone’s Commentaries, 391. )
Property in this class of animals is acquired only by possession. Mere
622 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
pursuit is not sufficient to constitute such possession, though the animal
be kept in sight, the pursuer must, by wounding or securing the animal,
or otherwise, have deprived it of its natural liberty, and brought it within
his control.
Thus where N wounded a deer and followed the track until night and
resumed the pursuit in the morning, but the deer, after running six miles
with N’s dog in chase, was killed by B. Held, that it had not been de-
prived of its natural liberty, so as to give N any property in it.
So, wild fowl which have been tamed, are subjects of property, not-
withstanding they are temporarily astray, if they have not regained
their natural liberty as wild.
So, bees are regarded as animals fere nature, but, when hived and
reclaimed, a qualified property may be acquired in them. Bees living
in a state of freedom shall be the property of the person discovering
them, whether he is or is not the proprietor of the land on which they
have established themselves. If aswarm of bees leave a hive an owner
can retake possession of them, even if they settle on the land of another,
but he must first notify the owner of the land where they have settled,
and compensate him for damages. If the owner of a swarm does not
follow them, any other person may, and such person may take posses-
sion of them unless the owner of the land objects. (R.S. O. 1897,
Cap. 117.)
In case of domestic animals and reclaimed wild animals the owner has
the right to use any of the remedies which the law provides for the re-
covery of personal property illegally taken or detained from the owner.
So, the owner of such an animal has a right of action for damages if one
should, either intentionally or negligently, injure, maim, or kill such an
animal.
Not only the owner, but one who is in possession of an animal under
an arrangement that renders him accountable for it, or for injury to it,
may sue to recover for any loss or injury done the property while it is
in his possession. In such a case the person in possession is treated as
the owner, and is entitled to all the rights of an owner.
So, the owner may recover for accidental or intentional injuries, as
where a dog, followed by his master, was pursuing a fox, and was acci-
dentally shot by another party who claimed to have shot at the fox. but
accidentally killed the dog, the owner was entitled to damages.
Where a horse trespassed on the premises of a neighbor of the owner
LEGAL DEPARTMENT, 623
and injured his crops, and was pursued by the neighbor and his dog, and
injured, the owner of the horse was held to be entitled to damages for
such injuring. (Bigelow on Torts, 6th Ed. 230. )
Where animals when trespassing are killed in a wanton, malicious, and
deliberate way, exemplary damages may be recovered.
Injuries inflicted upon animals by negligence entitles the owner to an
action for damages against the one causing the injury, as where the
owner of a horse allowed it to stray (through negligence in not repairing
a gate) into a neighbor's field and it kicked the neighbor's horse, the
owner of the injured horse was held entitled to damages. In another
case a man planted on his own ground, a yew tree, which in time grew
and spread its branches over the plaintiff's ground. A horse ate it, and
was poisoned. The owner of the tree was held liable for the loss.
Nor has a party the right to entice by food, voice, or other means any
domestic or reclaimed animal away from the possession of the owner and
bring it under his control. For such conduct the owner has an action
for the value of the animal so obtained, and the party committing the
wrong may be prosecuted criminally for larceny.
In the Northwest Territories the registered cattle brand is prima_facte
proof of ownership, and, therefore, any wrongful marking or branding
of cattle with intent to defraud is a conversion of the cattle, and indict-
able. Any person branding the stock of another without his consent
shall pay three times the value of the animal.
It is the duty of every person who sells stock to another party to
brand such a stock witha vent brand, which vent brand shall not, in any
case, be placed in such a position as to obliterate or efface the original
brand, and where any such vent brand shall have been printed as above, it
shall be prima_facie evidence of sale or transfer. Every person recording
a brand shall also at the same time record and register his vent brand.
The owner of any recorded brand may, by writing, transfer the same to
any person who may record the transfer, and the transferee shall have there-
after all the rights of the person wiio first recorded it.
Hiring a horse to travel a certain distance, and driving the horse a
greater distance, or to another place than the one agreed upon, is such a
conversion of the horse that an action will le by the owner.
Where a horse is driven a gyeater distance than that for which it was
hired, the owner may ratify the wrongful act by accepting compensation
for the extra distance traveled.
624 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
In relation to injuries of persons or property by domestic animals, the
following propositions are sustained by the courts of Ontario :—
The owners of domestic animals are generally not liable for the inju-
ries they may do to property or persons of others, so long as they are
rightfully in the place where it is alleged that the injury or mischief was
done, unless it be shown that the particular animal doing the injury was
vicious and was accustomed to do, or had an inclination to do, the mis-
chief complained of, and that these facts were known to the owner
- of the animal before the injury occurred. It is not absolutely necessary to
prove actual or positive knowledge on the part of the owner in order to
establish liability, but if the owner has seen or heard facts relating to the
viciousness of the animal which would ordinarily satisfy a man of pru-
dence and caution, that the animal was liable to do mischief of the char-
acter complained of, it would place him under obligation to secure the
animal in such a manner as to prevent the injury, and he would be lia-
ble if he did not so secure it.
The rule is different with reference to vicious wild animals which
have been tamed, such as lions, tigers, and the like, for he who keeps
them is liable without notice, on the ground that such animals are fierce
and dangerous by nature.
The owner or keeper of animals viciously disposed or of mischievous
habits, of which the owner had previous actual or implied notice, is bound
at his peril to keep them at all times, and in all cases, properly secured,
and is responsible to any one who, without fault on his part, is injured
by them.
At common law the rule is that every man is bound to keep his ani-
mals within his inclosure at his peril, and that he is liable in damages if
he fails to do so, and they escape to the property of others and do in-
jury, whether such property be fenced or not ; unless the trespass is com-
mitted upon property through defects in fences which the owner of such
property is bound to maintain.
Every unauthorized entry by animals upon the land of another is a
trespass, whether the land be inclosed or not.
If domestic animals are wrongfully in the place where they do mischief,
the owner is liable, though he had no notice that they were accustomed
to do so before. As where oxen break, the plaintiff's close and kill his
cow, the owner of the oxen will be liable to damages, without proof that
he knew they were accustomed to gore.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 625
Adjoining owners and occupants of lands are each required to main-
tain their portion of the division fence, and where injuries are occasioned
by domestic animals escaping through defects in that portion of the fence
that the complaining party was under obligation to maintain, he cannot
recover for such injury. Indeed, he may be liable for injuries which may
have resulted to the animals thus escaping, if shown to be the proximate
result of his negligence.
Where there is no division fence, each owner or occupant must keep
his animals upon his own side of the line. Where there is a division
fence, and it is divided, each adjoining owner must see to it that his part
of the fence is suitably maintained. Where there is no division of the
line fence, and either party refuses to make a division, then the law of
Ontario provides a summary method for a compulsory division of the
fence, and, when thus divided, the parties may be compelled to build and
maintain it.
THE KEEPING OF DOGS
Perhaps there is no species of domestic animals in relation to which
controversies more frequently arise than in relation to dogs. The fol-
lowing propositions may be regarded as settled by the courts : —
An owner of lands may drive off trespassing animals with dogs, and
will not be liable unless they are vicious and unnecessarily bite and lacer-
ate animals.
One keeping a vicious dog with knowledge of its propensities is re-
sponsible for injuries done by it. Negligence, in the ordinary sense, is
not an element of the cause of action. Nor is contributory negligence a
defense. To constitute a defense it must be established that the injured
person brought the injury on himself.
A person who keeps upon his premises ferocious dogs, and is aware of
their dangerous and vicious propensities, is liable for injuries to a
licensee even though they had never before bitten anyone. And a tres-
passer is not without rights. (Stiles v. Cardiff, 33 L. J. 310, 4 Bing.
628. )
A servant may maintain an action against the master for injuries re-
ceived from his employer’s dogs, though informed of the dog’s vicious
disposition, where it had been the custom to tell the servant when the
dog was loose, for the servant assumes, on entering such employment,
only the risk consequent upon keeping such a dog, which is fastened except
626 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
when the servant is otherwise notified. He does not take the risk of being
bitten when the dog is negligently left unfastened. (Mansfield v. Bad-
deley, 34 L. T. 696.)
The doctrine of the non-liability of the master to the servant for i inju-
ries of a co-servant cannot be invoked to shield the owner of a ferocious
animal from liabilities for injuries to the servant occasioned by negligence
of a fellow servant in not properly fastening the animal, or of not giving
notice of the animal being loose.
The owner of a ferocious animal is not relieved from liability for in-
juries inflicted by it through slight negligence or want of ordinary care
on the part of the person injured. To constitute such a defense acts
must be proved, with notice of the character of the animal, establishing
that the person injured voluntarily brought the injury on himself. (Cur-
tis v. Mills, 5 C. & P. 489.)
No action lies for an injury arising from the defendant letting loose a
dog in his premises for their protection at night. (Brock v. Copeland,
1 Esp. 203. )
The owner of a dog known by him to be ferocious, is liable, unless the
person injured voluntarily incurred the danger with a full knowledge of
its consequences. (Sarch v. Blackburn, M. and M. 505.)
The owner of a vicious dog which is kept properly chained and under
restraint is not liable for injuries sustained by a person voluntarily com-
ing within its reach for the purpose of becoming familiar with it by
feeding.
Merely showing that the dog was of a savage disposition and usually
tied up, and that the owner promised to make pecuniary satisfaction to
the plaintiff, is not sufficient proof of the owner’s knowledge of the vicious
disposition of the dog to make him liable. (Beck v. Dyson, 4 Camp.
198. )
If the owner of a dog appoints a servant to keep it, proof of the serv-
ant’s knowledge of the dog’s ferocity is sufficient proof of the knowl-
edge of the master to make him liable. (Baldwin v. Casella, L. R. 7 Ex.
325- )
A man can only keep a fierce watch dog for protection of his grounds
and house at his peril, and an innocent person coming there, bitten by
such a dog, may recover. (Stiles v. Cardiff, 33 L. J. 310.)
It is not necessary to show an actual previous bite to enable a plaintiff
to recover. It is enough that the dog, to the owner’s knowledge, has
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 627
evinced a savage disposition and straining at his chain. (Worth v. Gill-
ing, L. R. 2C. P. 1.)
At common law, the dog is considered a tame, harmless, and docile
animal, and its owner not responsible for any vicious or mischievous act
he may do, unless he had a previous knowledge of mischievous or vicious
propensities of the dog.
_ By statute in Ontario, municipalities have power to pass by-laws as
follows :—
1. For restraining and regulating the running at large of dogs, and
for seizing and impounding dogs running at large contrary to the by-law,
and for selling the dogs so impounded or any of them at such time or
times and in such manner as may be directed in that behalf,
2. For killing dogs running at large contrary to the by-laws.
3. For imposing a tax on the owners, possessors, or harborers of dogs.
It is also provided that in every municipality in Ontario an annual tax
may be levied upon the owner, possessor, or harborer of each dog. Spe-
cial provision, however, is made for an owner of a kennel of pure bred
dogs which are registered in the Canada Kennel Register. A ten dollar
($10.00) tax is all that shall be levied.
The owner, possessor, or harborer of any dog shall, when required by
the assessor, furnish a statement in writing of the number of dogs owned
or kept by him. Ii he neglects or refuses to do so, or gives a false state-
ment, he shall be liable to incur a penalty of fave dollars.
The money received as taxes on dogs, by the municipality, consti-
tutes a fund for satisfying any damages arising in any year from
dogs killing sheep or lambs within the municipality ; the residue forms
part of the general assets of the municipality.
It is further enacted that any person may kill :—
1. Any dog which he sees pursuing, worrying, or wounding any
sheep or lamb.
2. Any dog without lawful permission in any inclosed field on any
farm, which the owner or occupant finds giving tongue, or terrifying any
sheep or lamb on such farm.
3. And (with certain restrictions) any dog which any person finds
straying between sunset and sunrise on any farm whereon any sheep or
lambs are kept.
With reference to acts of other vicious animals, the following proposi-
tions may be regarded as settled by the courts :—
628 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
One letting a vicious horse to hire is bound to inform the hirer of its
vices,
In the absence of proof that the animal alleged to be vicious had done
mischief similar to that complained of, or was by habit or nature of an
ungovernable temper, or that the defendants had knowledge or notice
that the animal was unruly, or had done similar acts, the owner is not
liable, unless the vicious act occurred while the animal was trespassing.
The defendants’ horse having injured the plaintiff's mare by biting
and kicking her through the fence separating the plaintiff's land from
the defendants’. Held that there was a trespass by the act of the de-
fendants’ horse for which the defendants were lable, apart from any
question of negligence on their part. (Ellis v. Loftus Iron Co., 44 L. J.
C. P. 24.)
And if a horse, through the neglect of the owner in not keeping the
fence properly repaired, strays out and injures a horse on an adjoining
farm, the owner is liable. (Lee v. Riley, 18 C. B. N. S. 722.)
But where a horse straying on a highway, without apparent reason,
kicked a child, it was held, independently of any question of negligence
on the owner’s part, that in the absence of any proof of knowledge of a
vicious disposition, the latter was not liable. (Cox v. Burbidge, 13 C.
B. N. S. 430. )
The liability for injuries occasioned by a vicious animal extends to the
case of a married woman who permits her husband to harbor such an
animal upon the premises owned and occupied by her, she having knowl-
edge that it was being kept there. (Shaw v. McCreary, 19 O. R. 39.)
The owner of a vicious horse is not held liable to a servant employed
to drive it with notice of its vice who is injured by a kick from the horse.
(Yamouth v. Frame, 19 Q. B. D. 647.)
INCREASE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Of all tame and domestic animals, the brood belongs to the owner
of the dam or mother. (Broom’s Commentaries on the laws of England.
Vol. 2, p. 587. Lewis’ Edition of Blackstone, 391. )
An interesting case is given in the New Brunswick law reports which
decides that a mortgagee under a mortgage upon live stock is entitled
to the increase of stock, and a purchaser of the increase takes it sub-
ject to the mortgage.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 629
The facts of the case were as follows : —
The plaintifis were the grantees, and one H the grantor in a bill
of sale which specified certain property conveyed, and contained the fol-
lowing clause: ‘And all property owned or to be owned by me, and
including all renewal stock or stock to be purchased by me.’? H—
subsequently acquired possession of a horse and colt. The colt was
the progeny of a mare conveyed by the bill ofsale. The horse was bought
in for H at a sale had at his direction to satisfy a lien which he
claimed for keep. H made a formal delivery of the horse and colt
to the plaintifis, stating that he delivered them to be held on the terms of
the bill of sale, but H always retained the actual possession. The
defendant (the sheriff) seized and sold the horse and colt under the
execution against H and the plaintiff claiming that the property
was not his brought action to recover same.
Held that the colt, being the progeny of a mare conveyed by the bill
of sale, passed to the plaintiffs. (Nicholson v. Temple, 4 New Bruns-
wick, R. 248.)
CRUELTY TO ANIMALS.
By the Municipal Act (R. S. O. 1897, c. 223, 8. 540) it was enacted
that municipalities shall have power to pass by-laws for the prevention of
cruelty to animals as follows : —
For preventing cruelty to animals, and for preventing the destruction
of birds, the by-laws for these purposes not being inconsistent with any
statute in that behalf.
By Chapter 172, Revised Statutes of Canada, it is enacted that every
one who wantonly, cruelly, or unnecessarily beats, pounds, illtreats,
abuses, overdrives or tortures any cattle, poultry, dog, domestic animal
or bird,—or who while driving any cattle or other animal is, by negli-
gence or ill usage in the driving thereof, the means whereby any mischief,
damage, or injury is done by any such cattle or other animal — or who
in any manner encourages, aids, or assists at the fighting or baiting of
any bull, bear, badger, dog, cock, or other kind of animal whether of
domestic or any other nature, shall, on summary conviction before two
Justices of the Peace, be liable to a penalty not exceeding fifty dollars, or
to imprisonment for any term not exceeding three months with or with-
out hard labor or to both. .
Anyone building, making, maintaining, or keeping a cock pit on
630 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
premises occupied or belonging to him, shall, on a similar conviction, be
liable to the same penalty.
Railway companies are forbidden to carry cattle, etc., for a longer pe-
riod than twenty-eight consecutive hours without unloading them for
rest, food, and water for five consecutive hours unless prevented by storm
or other unavoidable cause,
The foregoing does not apply, however, when cattle are carried in
any car or vessel in which they have proper space and opportunity for
rest and proper food and water.
The Canadian Criminal Code also makes the maliciously poisoning,
maiming, etc., of animals, a criminal offense.
DISEASED ANIMALS.
By chapter 273, Revised Statutes of Ontario, it is enacted : —
Where it appears to any person that any horse or other animal is
diseased, such person may notify any Justice having jurisdiction in the
municipality, and the Justice, if in his opinion there is reasonable cause
therefor, shall forthwith by writing, under his hand direct a competent
veterinarian to inspect the animal alleged to be diseased. The vet-
erinarian on receiving such instruction, shall, with all practicable speed,
make an inspection and report his opinion in writing to the Justice.
_Where it appears to a veterinarian that any horse or other animal is
diseased, he shall forthwith notify the owner or other person in charge of
the animal, and shall also give notice to the Justice having jurisdiction as
aforesaid.
After the owner or other person in charge has received notice from a
veterinarian that an animal is diseased, it shall be unlawful to turn out,
drive, or lead, or to cause such animal to be turned out, driven, or led
through any place where it may be brought into contact with or to be
in any danger of transmitting disease to other animals, until it has been
determined by the court of summary jurisdiction as hereafter provided,
that the animal to which the notice relates is free from disease.
The Justice, upon receiving the report of a veterinarian that an animal
is diseased, may at once issue his order to a constable, directing him to
seize and detain such animal, and cause the same to be kept in some
place where it will.not be brought in contact with or be in danger of
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 631
transmitting the disease to other animals, until the case has been deter-
mined by the courts.
The Justice, on receiving from any veterinarian a notice that an animal
is, or appears to be, diseased, shall forthwith issue a summons directed
to the owner, or other person in charge of the animal, requiring him to
appear before a court of summary jurisdiction, at a time and place to be
specified in such summons, te show cause why the said animal should not
be destroyed.
In case it appears to the court of summary jurisdiction, by the evidence
of one or more competent veterinarians, that the animal is diseased, the
court shall make an order for the killing and burying or burning of such
animal within twenty-four hours, and, in default thereof, may impose a
fine not exceeding one hundred dollars, and a further sum of fifty dollars
for every twelve hours thereafter until the same is killed or burned, and
all the penalties so imposed shall be applied to the use of the municipality.
The council of any municipality may indemnify the owner of any
animal killed or destroyed under the provisions of this act for the loss
sustained by such owner.
Every person having in his possession or under his charge an animal
which is, or appears to be, diseased, respecting which no notice has been
given as aforesaid, shall, as far as practicable, keep such animal separate
from other animals not so diseased, and shall, with all practicable speed,
give notice to a veterinarian of the existence, or supposed existence, of
the disease. Upon receipt of such notice, the veterinarian shall proceed
as in the other cases.
No owner or other person in charge thereof shall turn out, lead, or
drive any horse or other animal, knowing such horse to have been kept
in the same stable with any diseased animal, or otherwise expose to con-
tagion or infection, in, upon, or through, any place without a license
from a veterinarian first had and obtained, or without other order from
the court in that behalf.
Any person obstructing a veterinarian or constable acting in execution
of this act, may be seized and detained until he can be taken before a
Justice, to be dealt with according to law. Any person violating any of
the provisions of this act, respecting which no express penalty is pro-
vided, shall, on conviction, be liable to a penalty not exceeding one
hundred dollars.
The Dominion Parliament has also passed an act known as ‘‘ The
632 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Animal Contagious Disease Act.’’ The provisions of this act apply, of
course, to the whole Dominion. It enacts as follows :—
Every cattle or farm stock owner, and every breeder of or dealer in
cattle or other animals in Canada, shall, on perceiving the appearance of
infection or contagious diseases among the cattle or other animals owned
by him, or under his special care, give immediate notice to the Minister
of Agriculture at Ottawa of the facts discovered by him as aforesaid.
Every person who neglects to comply with the provisions of the pre-
ceding section shall forfeit his claim to compensation for any cattle or other
animals slaughtered in accordance with the provisions of this act, and
every person maliciously or fraudulently concealing the existence of
infectious or contagious diseases among cattle or other animals shall
incur a penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars.
Every person who turns out, keeps, or grazes, any animal, knowing
such animal to be infected with or laboring under any infectious or con-
tagious diseases, or to have been exposed to infection or contagion in or
upon any forest, wood, moor, beach, marsh, common, open field, waste
land, roadside, or other undivided or uninclosed land, shall, for every
such offense, incur a penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars.
Every person who brings.or attempts to bring into any market,
fair, or other place any animal known by him to be infected with any
infectious or contagious disease shall incur a penalty not exceeding two
hundred dollars.
Every person who sells, disposes, or passes off or offers or attempts
to sell any animal known by him to be diseased as aforesaid, or the meat,
skin, hide, horns, hoofs, or other parts of such an animal, shall incura
penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars, whether such person selling
or offering for sale as aforesaid is the owner or not.
Every person throwing or suffering to be thrown into any river,
stream, canal, navigable or other water, or in the sea, within ten miles
of the shore, the carcass of an animal which has died with disease or
which has been slaughtered as diseased, shall for every such offense incur
a penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars.
The Governor in Council may from time to time cause such animals
as aforesaid to be slaughtered in accordance with the provisions of this
act, the value of the animal to be determined by the Minister of Agri-
culture or by some person appointed by him. Compensation may be
withheld in whole or in part whenever, in the opinion of the Minister of
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 633
Agriculture, the owner or person in charge of the diseased animal has
been guilty of an offense against this act. The Governor in Council may
from time to time prohibit the importation of horses, cattle, or other ani-
mals, or of flesh, hides, hoofs, horns, or of hay, straw, fodder, or other
articles from any place or places for such period as he deems to be neces-
sary for the purpose of preventing the introduction of any infectious
or contagious diseases among animals in Canada.
Every company and every person carrying, for hire, animals to or in
Canada shall thoroughly cleanse and disinfect in such manner as the Gov-
ernor in Council may direct, all steamships, steamers, vessels, boats,
pens, carriages, trucks, and vehicles used by such company or persons
for the carrying of animals, and the Governor in Council may cause such
steamer to be detained in such place as to him seems meet until it is so
cleansed and disinfected.
Provision is also made for subjecting animals to quarantine, the sepa-
ration of diseased animals, the purification of infected places, the prohibit-
ing or regulating the holding of markets, fairs, exhibitions, or sales of ani-
mals, the declaring a market, yard, steamship, etc., to be infected, the
slaughtering of the animals as provided by the act, and for the requiring
of proof that the horse or other animals being imported have not been
brought from any place or locality where any contagious or infectious
disease is existing.
WARRANTY OF THE SOUNDNESS OF ANIMALS.
WHAT CONSTITUTES SOUNDNESS.
Local custom and usage, as well as circumstances of each case, deter-
mine the meaning of the word sound, when it is applied to the sale and
warranty of horses, sheep, and cattle.
The general rule implies the absence of any disease in the animal at
the time which actually decreases its value or its natural usefulness.
There was a great difference, formerly, among judges, as to what consti-
tuted a breach of warranty of soundness, whether the disease must be
temporary or permanent in its nature.
The law in Ontario follows the English rule, which seems logical and
reasonable, and that is :—
Any infirmity which renders an animal unfit in any degree for present
use, is unsoundness. In the case of Elton v. Brogden, 4 Camp. 281, it
634 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
was proved that the horse was lame at the time of sale, but the defend-
ant undertook to prove that the lameness was of a temporary nature,
and that the animal had become sound. The presiding justice said : ‘‘I
have always held, and hold now, that a warranty of soundness is broken
if the animal, at the time of sale, had any infirmity upon him which ren-
dered him unfit for present service. It is not necessary that the dis-
order should be permanent or incurable. While a horse has a cough he
is unsound, whether that proves temporary or mortal. The horse in
question having been lame at the time of sale, when he was warranted
sound, his condition subsequently is no defense to the action.”’
This doctrine has long been followed in Ontario and some of the other
provinces. Oliphant in his work on horses says: ‘‘ We may define a
horse to be sound when he is free from hereditary disease, and in the
possession of his natural and constitutional health, and has as much bod-
ily perfection as is consistent with his natural formation.”’
The rule as to unsoundness is, that if, at the time of sale, the horse
has any disease which actually does diminish the natural usefulness of
the animal so as to make him less capable of work of any description,
or which in its ordinary progress will diminish the natural usefulness
of the animal, or if the horse has, either from disease or from accident,
undergone any alteration of structure that either actually does at the
time or in its ordinary effects will diminish the natural usefulness of the
horse, such a horse is unsound. This rule applies to cases of disease and
accident which from their nature are only temporary, it not being nec-
essary that the disorder should be permanent and incurable.
The horse suffering from acute disease such as fever, inflammation, etc.,
would be beyond dispute unsound during the time he is affected by
them.
A vice is a bad habit, and a bad habit to constitute a vice must either
be shown in the temper of the horse so as to make him dangerous or
diminish his natural usefulness, or it must be a habit decidedly injurious
to his health. (Scholfield v. Robb, 2 M. & R. 210.)
Whether a certain thing renders a horse unsound depends on circum-
stances. For instance: ifa horse had a slight pimple on the skin, it
would not amount to an unsoundness, but even if such a thing as a pimple
were on some part of the body where it might have the effect of impair-
ing its natural usefulness, as, for instance, on the part which would pre-
vent the putting a saddle or bridle on the animal it would be different.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 635
The question of vice or soundness is purely a jury question, and in
judging of it the jury must consider whether a horse warranted sound was
at the time of delivery unfit for immediate use to an ordinary person.
Lameness, temporary or permanent, constitutes unsoundness. The
law in regard to temporary disease is laid down in the following case :
On the trial of an action on the warranty of a horse, where evidence was
very contradictory, but a witness of the defendant’s admitted that he had
bandaged one of the fore legs of the horse, but not the other, because
the one was weaker than the other. Lord Ellenborough used practically
the same words as in the case of Elton v. Brogden cited above. ‘‘To
constitute unsoundness, it is not essential that the infirmity should be
of a permanent nature.’’ In a previous case it was said to have been
held that a warranty that a horse is sound is not false because a horse
labors under a temporary injury from an accident at the time the defend-
ant warranted it sound. But the warranty there appears to have been a
qualified one, because, when bargaining, the plaintiff observed that the
mare went rather lame on one leg. The defendant replied that it had
been occasioned by her taking up a nail at the farrier’s and, except as to
that lameness, she was perfectly sound.
WHAT CONSTITUTES A WARRANTY.
It is not necessary that any particular form of words should be used to
create a warranty. The word ‘‘warrant’’ may not be used at all, nor
the word ‘‘soundness.’’ Thus: The seller of the horse who says he is
all right in every respect, or similar words, indicates and expresses a war-
ranty. A statement at the time of sale of the horse that the animal
is of specified age is a warranty that he is no older, but any statement
that he is sound and right, or sound and perfect, will include a warranty.
The statement that a horse is well broken might or might not include a
warranty of gentleness, and the statement that the horse is sound every
way, perfectly gentle, would not be a guaranty that the horse is well
broken or suitable to plow or do any other particular work. The war-
ranty should not be construed beyond its reasonable signification, thus :
A bill of sale of one gray horse five years old, which I warrant sound and
kind, is a warranty of soundness and kindness only, and the first expres-
sion is a matter of description. It is much better, both for the buyer and
seller, that the latter states whether he prefers to warrant or not ; because,
636 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
when nothing has been said on that point, a considerable degree of doubt
must frequently rest upon the case, and then it is only by interpreting
the expressions used at the time of sale that even an opinion can be
formed as to whether a warranty were ever intended. The general
rule is that whatever the vendor represents at the time of sale is a war-
ranty. Words, however, of expectation and estimate only do not amount
to a warranty.
The statement by the seller of a horse that ‘‘I never warrant, but he is
sound as far as I know,”’ is a qualified warranty, and an action for breach
of warranty. may be maintained upon it by the purchaser, if it can be
proved that the seller knew of the unsoundness. (Wood v. Smith, 4 c.
and p. 45.) Ifa person at the time of sale says: ‘‘ You may depend
upon it, the horse is perfectly quiet and free from vice,’’ it is a warranty.
If the horse is purchased for a particular purpose, and the seller knows
of that particular purpose, and declares that the horse is all right, such
a statement would amount to a warranty.
Representations antecedent to the contract as an inducement to buy
are not warranties unless included in the contract.
All affirmations made to a buyer as a ground of reliance are warranties.
(Stewart v. Jamieson, 1 M. 525. )
There was at one time a general opinion that a ‘‘sound price’’ given
for a horse was tantamount to a warranty of soundness, but Lord Mans-
field considered the doctrine to be so loose and unsatisfactory that he
rejected it and laid down the following rule: ‘‘ There must either be an
expressed warranty of soundness or fraud in the seller to maintain an
action.’’ (Parkinson v. Lee, 2 East 322. )
DEFECTS COVERED BY GENERAL WARRANTY.
A general warranty is an unconditional undertaking that a horse or
any other article really is what the warrantor professes it to be.
A general warranty of soundness, however, does not cover patent
defects — 7. ¢., defects which are so obvious that the buyer cannot help
observing them, but a buyer who knows of the defect cannot sue the
seller on the warranty. On the other hand, a buyer who relies on the
warranty, and omits to make a minute examination, is protected against
defects, which, though not apparent, may have been detected. In other
words : the patent defects which the warranty does not cover, and to
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 637
which the doctrine of caveat emptor (let the buyer beware) applies, must
be so manifest and palpable as to be necessarily within the knowledge of
the purchaser, and also such defects as at the time of sale either are or will
produce unsoundness. Whether a defect is patent or not is a question
for the consideration of the jury. Thus: in the case of a horse which
was warranted sound, and was shortsighted from a peculiarity of the
cornea that induces the habit of shying. Lord Campbell observed that
this was not a defect which the purchaser was bound to have observed.
Again where an action was brought on the purchase of a race horse, war-
ranted ‘‘sound in wind and limb at this time,’’ two defects, viz., crib-
biting and a splint, were both discussed before purchase. The horse
broke down, and on the case being tried the buyer obtained a verdict.
Tindal, C. J., in granting a new trial, said: ‘‘In this case no fraud or
deceit can be attributed to the defendant as the horse's defect was mani-
fest, the splint not only being apparent, but made the subject of discus-
sion before the bargain was made * * * and the learned judge left
it to the jury to say whether the horse was fit for ordinary purposes. His
direction would have been less subject to misapprehension if he had left
it to them, in the terms of the warranty, to say whether the horse was at
the time of the bargain sound in wind and limb, saving those manifest
and visible defects which were known to the parties.’’ (Margetson v.
Wright, 7 Bing. 603. )
Although the loss of an eye is a breach of warranty of soundness
which has been laid down, that, ‘‘ Where one buys a horse upon war-
ranting him to have both his eyes, and he have but one eye, he is remedi-
less, for it is a thing which lies in his own cognizance, and such a war-
ranty or affirmation is not material nor to be regarded.’’ But this seems
to assume that the eye has entirely disappeared, or has been so obviously
damaged that it must lie in the cognizance of the buyer, and nothing is
said with regard to loss of sight where there is little apparent injury to
the eye, for a horse may appear to the majority of people perfect in his
eyes, and yet have lost sight of one or both.
If a person purchases a horse, knowing it to be blind, he cannot sue the
seller on a general warranty of soundness, although he warranted the ani-
mal to be sound in every respect. (Margetson v. Wright, 5 M. & P.
610. )
Where a buyer suspects some defect and wishes to examine and try
the horse for it, but the seller objects and says, ‘‘I will warrant him,”’
638 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
he is liable for the defect. For where an action on the case was brought
when a horse warranted sound had turned out ‘‘shoulder-tied’’ it was
contended that an action would not lie because the defect was visible.
But Sir Henry Montague, C. J., said: ‘ This was the ground, that the
plaintiff wished to have ridden the horse,’’ but the defendant said, ‘‘I
will warrant him sound,’’ and Noy, J., said, ‘‘ That is the distinction,
where the defect is visible.’’ (Dorrington v. Edwards, 2 Rol. 188.)
In the United States a general warranty was held to extend to patent
defects, where access to the horse was prevented by the seller by
means of a trick, the buyer being unaware of the defect. This is un-
doubtedly correct, as the maxim, caveat empior, would not apply to such
acase. (Margetson v. Wright, 5 M. & P. 610.)
But to warrant a thing that may be perceived by sight is not good.
(Bailey v. Merrell, 3 Bulst. 95. )
DEFECTS WHICH CONSTITUTE UNSOUNDNESS OF HORSES.
Glanders, corns, bone-spavins, blindness, or any organic defect, back-
ing when a confirmed habit, biting when dangerous, crib-biting, affecting
the health, have been held by various courts to constitute unsoundness.
Bad formation which does not produce disease or lameness at the time of
sale is not usually considered unsoundness.
WATER RIGHTS.
Every owner of land upon a natural stream of water has a right to use
the water for any reasonable purpose, if it does not interfere with similar
rights that are vested in the owners of the land above, below, or beside
him. He may take water to supply his dwelling or water his land, or
for the use of his cattle, may use it for manufacturing purposes, such as
running water wheels or supplying steam boilers, so long as the amount
taken does not injuriously affect the volume, but it is the mere privilege
that goes with the land and not of the water itself. If the stream is very
small and does not supply water more than enough to answer the natural
wants of the different owners living on the stream, no one of them can
use the water for free irrigation or manufacturing, thereby depriving the
other owners of its use. But for domestic purposes or watering the
stock he would be justified in consuming all the water. Chief Justice
Shaw states the general doctrine as follows: ‘‘ Every person through
whose land a flowage of water courses, such person has a right to the
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 639
benefit of it, as it passes through his land, to all useful purposes to which
it may be applied, and no proprietor of land on the same water-course has a
right to prevent it from flowing through his premises, or obstructing it in
passing them, or to curb or destroy it.”’
DIVERSION OF WATER.
Every person who owns land situated upon a stream has the following
rights: First, to the natural flow of the stream; second, that the stream
should continue to run in its natural channel; third, that it should flow
upon his land in its usual quantity, and in its natural place; fourth, that
it should flow off his land upon the land of his neighbor in its accustomed
place, and at its usual level. These rights he has, and cannot be
deprived of them, so the owner of property should not make a change in
the flow of the stream that would materially injure any other owner
situated upon it, or interfere with the stream flowing as it is its wont to
flow, or he will be responsible for the damage it will occasion. Of
course these rights are subject to the privilege of each owner to make
reasonable use of the water while it is passing through his land. A
diversion of the stream may be made by the owner of the land if it is
returned to its natural channel before it leaves his premises.
Diversion of Water Beneath the Surface. If the owner of land
without any intention of injuring his neighbor, and while making use of
his land for any lawful purpose, cuts off hidden currents, though he de-
stroys altogether the use of water which has no visible course, but has
been accustomed to flow into the land of his neighbor, an action cannot
be maintained against him for the diversion or stoppage of such water.
He may, therefore, drain the land, dig a well, open and work a mine, al-
though by so doing he may cut off the supply of water of the springs and
wells in his vicinity. But where the course of a stream is well known,
and it leaves the surface at some point and flows for a distance beneath
the surface, then emerges again, the owner of the land lower down upon
the stream has the same right as he would have if the stream remained en-
tirely above the ground.
MILL PRIVILEGES.
A person who has a natural stream of water flowing through his land,
has a right to use the water for mills, provided he does not cut off the
water from those living down the stream, and he is not liable for an ac-
640 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
tion for using and obstructing the water for his mill ; for which it appears
that the dam is of the size that is adapted to the capacity of the stream
and quantity of water usually flowing therein, and that his mode of using
the water is not unusual or unreasonable, and is in accordance with the
general custom of the country in the case of dams upon similar streams.
In Ontario laws have been passed for the erection of mills by authorizing
the owners and occupants through summary proceedings, to take land
of other persons, by paying such damages as may be legally assessed.
POLLUTION OF WATER.
Every owner of land through which a stream of water flows has a
right to the use of the water in its natural state, and is liable if he renders
the water unwholesome, or unfit for purposes for which it is used, unless
he has acquired, by grant or otherwise, an adverse right against the lower
or adjoining owner.
Erecting cess-pool or depositing manure or obnoxious substance near
the stream would be such a wrong.
An action for damages is not the only remedy for the unlawful pollu-
tion ofa stream. The party thus wrongfully interfering may be restrained
by an order of any court having jurisdiction.
EASEMENT.
When a land owner places a house on the line of his lot, and eaves
project upon his neighbor’s land, as to throw the water from the roof
thereon, it is an encroachment upon the neighbor's lot to the extent, at
least, of the projection. One adjoining owner cannot legally subject
the lands of the other adjoining owner to the drip from the eaves of his
building.
LAND BOUNDED ON NAVIGABLE AND UNNAVIGABLE
WATERS.
By the common law of England, the proprietor of each bank of an
unnavigable stream is considered as, Arima _facée, the proprietor also of
half the land covered by the water. In the case of a navigable river, the
bed of it, so far at least as the tide of the sea flows, prima facie, belongs
to the crown,
The owner of the land abutting on a tidal navigable river has, jure
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 641
nature, a right of access toand from the stream wholly distinct from the
right of navigation, which he enjoys in common with the rest of the pub-
lic. There is no distinction in particular between riparian rights on the
banks of navigable, or tidal, and those of non-navigable rivers. In the
former case, however, there must be no interference with the public right
of navigation. (Lyon v. Fishmongers’ Co., 1 App. Cas. 662. )
SURFACE WATER AND DRAINAGE.
The water which flows upon the surface of the land, not gathered
in ponds or streams of running water, is usually designated ‘‘ surface
water.’’ It is somewhat difficult to distinguish between surface water, as
such, and running water, and perhaps the best way to distinguish it is to
ascertain what a running stream is. Where there is a channel or canal
which is made by a general contour of the surrounding land from which
the water is collected into one channel, it may be natural or artificial, it
flows, however, in a definite channel, having a bed and sides, and usually
discharges itself into some other stream. The water need not flow con-
tinuously therein, as there are many large rivers which are sometimes
dry, but they have a well-defined channel. The owner of the land has a
right to the surface water which runs in no definite channel, and he may
prevent its flow into a neighboring stream, thus: If there are two fields
adjoining each other, one lower than the other, the owner of the upper
field has a right to the water that flows on his land ; he need not let it
flow off from the same on the land below. The owner of the lower field
has the right to erect an embankment to stop the water from the upper
field from flowing upon it. But the owner of the upper field has not the
right to divert the flow of water from its natural channel and cause it to
make a new channel on the lower ground, nor can he collect into one
large stream waters usually flowing off into his neighbor’s fields by several
streams, and thus increasing the rush upon the lower field. The law has
always recognized a distinction between the right of the owner to control
the surface water which falls or collects on his lands, and his right to con-
trol water of a natural water course ; the owner of the land is admitted
to have an absolute property in the surface water before it leaves his land
and becomes a part of a definite water course, and he may appropriate it
to his own use or get rid of it in any way possible, provided he does not
collect it and cast it in a body upon the proprietor below him to his
injury. (Ostrom v. Sills, 24 A. R. 526.)
642 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
EMPLOYER AND LABORER.
There is a difference in some respects between a person employed to
work upon a farm, or as a domestic servant, and a person employed to
work inafactory. The laws of the country have regulated the number of
hours per day for many kinds of labor, but between the former laborer
and the farmer the hours of labor rest wholly upon contract, express or
implied. The laborer is bound to render the services and the farmer to
pay the price agreed upon, or the value thereof, if no arrangement is
made as to the price. It is essential that the parties have the legal
capacity to make a contract, otherwise the contract could not be enforced,
thus: If a boy under age hires for a specified time at a fixed price, he is
not bound by his contract, but may abandon it at any time, although he
cannot recover on his contract, yet he can recover what his services are
actually worth, and that without any deduction for damages for his breach
of contract. If there is no fixed period of employment agreed upon, the
period of notice or warning is to be governed by the wages or custom of
the trade, profession, or business. If there is no special agreement as to
price, the employer must pay a reasonable value for the services, depend-
ing on the current rate of wages for similar service at the same time and
place.
Contracts for More than a Year. Contracts for services which could
not be performed within a year, must, by the statute of frauds, be in
writing in order to belegally binding. In Britton v. Rossiter, 11 Q. B. D.,
it was held that a contract to serve for one year, the service to commence
on the second day after that on which the contract was made, was a con-
tract not to be performed within a year, and was within the fourth sec-
tion of the statute of frauds.
The agreement need not be in one writing ; it may be contained in
several documents which refer to each other, and which do not require
verbal evidence to show that they in fact refer to each other. (Cawthorne
v. Cordrey, 13 C. B. N. S. 406.)
If an oral contract is made to employ a laborer for a year, and the
contract may not be completed within the year, it is binding. But if the
performance of such contract is to commence at some future day it can-
not be enforced, yet it seems that an oral contract in which a laborer was
hired for a year, to begin the next day, is valid.
Enticing a Laborer Away from His Employer. When a person is
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 643
employed to labor on a farm or do any work, and the person entices,
hires, or persuades the laborer to leave the services during the time of
employment, the person who employs the help has the right of action for
recovery of damages against the person who enticed the laborer away,
and for all inconvenience and losses thereby suffered by the employer.
But attempting to entice a laborer away, unless damage is sustained, is
not actionable, nor can an action be sustained for inducing a laborer to
leave the employer’s services at the end of the time for which he was
hired, even though the laborer had no intention of leaving. .
Abandoning Service without Cause. When a laborer is hired for
a definite time, and before that time expires he leaves without cause, or
the consent of the employer, the laborer cannot recover any part of his
wages, because the contract is entire and performance is a condition prec-
edent toa right of recovery. Ifa man agrees to work a year for another
for a specified price per month, and by the terms of the agreement he is
to be paid each menth’s wages at the end of each month, he may sue for
and recover his wages at the end of the month. .
Abandoning Service for Cause. While the laborer has the right to
abandon service for cause, if the cause is sufficient to render the contract
voidable, he can collect his pay, yet he should not leave for trivial causes.
If the employer is to furnish board and lodging to the laborer asa part
of his contract, and he is not furnished with wholesome or sufficient food,
or suitable or comfortable lodgings, and the employer treats him improp-
erly by assaulting him, the laborer is justified in leaving. Being com-
pelled to work on Sunday, other than do the necessary farm work, such as
care of live animals, or the domestic servant in the house to prepare the
meals, and properly care for the milk, or any act of the employer that is
contrary to good morals, preventing reasonable comfort, safety, and
health, or that would injure the reputation of the laborer, would justify
the employed to abandon the service. Harsh language to the laborer,
and a difficulty with a co-laborer, would not justify the laborer in leaving.
It is a question for the jury to decide whether the laborer had a reason-
able excuse for leaving the service, and the burden of proof lies upon the
laborer, who must establish the fact. There are a great many instances
in which the laborer is justified in leaving the employer, but they could
not all be enumerated here. In every case where there is good cause the
laborer may leave and compel the farmer to pay for the time that he has
actually worked.
Farmer Liable on Laborer’s Contract. Any contract made by the
laborer in the course of his employment, about the farmer’s business, is
binding upon the farmer, provided it is within the scope of the authority
conferred or implied from the employer’s conduct. Thus: A house-
maid is engaged to work about the house, she is in the habit of purchas-
ing the family’s supplies, and she buys such supplies in the name of the
farmer, the farmer is compelled to pay for them, even if she has no order
644 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
to buy, and was in so buying defrauding her principal, and obtaining
goods for herself, provided this was or had been the custom about the
employer's place. But if a man is employed in farm work, and is not
connected with the household work, and never been permitted by the
farmer to make any purchases, he could not bind the farmer by going to
the store and buying goods simply because he was a laborer and pretend-
ing to have authority. If he has the authority and has purchased goods
at a certain place, the employer will be bound by his acts, unless he
notifies the parties from whom he had formerly purchased that he will be
no longer responsible. But the laborer who so purchased without the
consent or directions of his employer is criminally liable.
Liability of Employer for Injury Committed by his Employee.
Where the employee is working within the scope of his employment, even
though the farmer does not authorize, or even know, a laborer’s act, he
will be held responsible for any injury accruing through the negligence,
fraud, deceit, or even willful misconduct of the laborer.
Discharging for Cause. Before the employer can discharge his
laborer, there must be a sufficient cause to discharge the employer from
hability for future wages, or justify the dismissal ; there must be, on the
part of the laborer, either willful disobedience of the lawful orders, or
immoral conduct, or habitual negligence. To illustrate an instance of
the first: If, where the farmer ordered the laborer to go with his team
a long distance just as dinner was ready, and he refused to go until after
he had had his dinner. But in most cases, where the misconduct is
slight and is the first offense, there is a strong tendency to excuse the
laborer. Still, willful disobedience of the lawful command, as well as
insulting language used by the laborer, is generally considered good
ground for discharge. If the laborer is immoral, or habitually drunk, or
embezzles, or commits fraudulent acts toward his employer, his dismissal
would be justifiable. Unwarranted absence, or neglect in discharging his
duties, thereby causing loss or injury to his employer, would justify the
same course, even though the laborer did not intend to cause damage.
Dismissing Laborers. If the master should, without just cause, turn
a servant under a monthly contract away without notice, the latter would
be able to recover a month’s wages beyond the arrears.
Liability of the Laborer to the Farmer for Misconduct. If the
laborer by negligence, carelessness, or misconduct in doing the work, or
executing orders, causes loss to the employer, or if a third person has re-
covered damages from the employer because of the acts of the employee,
the employee will be liable to the farmer and he must also pay for prop-
erty willfully broken or damaged.
Termination of Services. If the service is dissolved at the expira-
tion of the term for which the person is hired, either by mutual consent,
by the death of either party, or by the employed being unable to per-
form his duty on aecount of some permanent disability, the farmer must
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 645
pay for the services rendered up to the time of the termination of the
services, and, in case of death, personal representatives of the laborer are
entitled to recover from the employer what the services were reasonably
worth,
BOUNDARIES AND FENCES,
Under the laws of Ontario, every conveyance of land must be in writ-
ing, and this conveyance should accurately describe the land intended to
be conveyed, so that its boundaries from the deed may be correctly de-
termined, and so clear and comprehensive that the parcel conveyed may
be distinguished and separated from all other land. UH the description is
hopelessly uncertain, the conveyance will be void, and no title will pass.
The boundaries are usually determined by monuments, courses, distance,
and quantity of land conveyed. The monuments will control courses
and distances, and courses and distances will control the quantity of land.
This, however, is not the invariable rule ; natural monuments, naturally
permanent, are the most reliable, such as trees, streams, ponds and
lakes, beaches and shores, and also walls, fences, streets, and highways
are regarded as reliable monuments. Frequently an adjoining farm is
referred to as a monument in the description of the land conveyed, and
monuments consisting of stakes and stones, when placed, will control
courses and distances.
The general rule is where land is described as bounded by a stream
which is non-navigable, the center of the stream is the line, and when
described and bounded on the bank or the shore of the stream, then the
bank or shore is the boundary. If the stream is navigable, in which the
tide ebbs and flows, the boundary is high-water mark on the shore. In
those places in which there are large navigable rivers in which the tide
does not ebb and flow, the boundary line is held to be low-water mark ;
in either case the upland proprietor has a right as appurtenant to his land
to erect wharves and piers extending to low-water mark, or into the
channel of the stream, subject to the supervision of the government for
the benefit of the public, and as an appurtenance to said lands, the owner
has a right toa passageway to and from the main channel of the river.
Lands bounded by arms of thesea run only to high-water mark. Where
land is bounded by a highway or street, where the crown or municipality
does not own the bed of the road and the description in the deed is
“bounded on,’”’ ‘running along,’’ ‘‘bounded by the highway,’’ and
the like, the boundary line is the center of the highway. If the land is
described as bounded by the side of the street, or if there are words in
the description indicating an intent to exclude the soil of the street,
then the near edge of the roadway will be the boundary. Ifa highway
is referred to as the boundary, the actual line, as the road is laid out, will
be taken as the true line of the street. In Ontario highways are vested
in the crown or municipality.
.
646 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Where the boundary lines are made certain they control the distance,
directions, and contents of the piece of land, unless there are discrepancies
in the deed so great as to show fraud on one part or the other, or mistake.
Parol evidence cannot be given to contradict a deed.
At the close of the description it is usual to add, ‘‘ be the same more
or less,’’ which is intended to protect the grantor in case the land con-
veyed should be less than the quantity specified, but this will be no pro-
tection where fraud or mistake can be shown with reference to the
quantity of land intended to be conveyed.
In the Province of Ontario it.is provided by statute that where two or
more persons have land adjoining, each of them shall make and maintain
a just proportion of the fence which marks the boundary between them.
In case of dispute between owners respecting such proportion the follow-
ing proceedings shall be adopted: —
Either owner may notify the other owner or the occupant of the land
of the owner so to be notified that he will in not less than one week from
the service of such notice cause three fence viewers of the locality to
arbitrate in the premises. The owners so notified shall also notify the
fence viewers not less than one week before their services are required.
The notices in both cases shall be in writing, signed by the person
notifying, and shall specify the time and place of meeting for the arbi-
tration, and may be served by leaving the same at the place of abode of
such owner or occupant, with some grown up person residing thereon, or,
in case of the lands being untenanted, by leaving the notice with any
agent of such owner. An occupant who is not the owner so notified,
shall immediately notify the owner, and, if he neglects so to do, shall be
liable for all damage caused to the owner by such neglect. The owners
notified may within a week object to any or all of the fence viewers noti-
fied, and in case of disagreement the County judge shall name the fence
viewers who are to arbitrate.
The fence viewers shall examine the premises, and, if required by
either party, shall hear evidence, and may examine under oath the
parties and their witnesses, and shall make an award signed by any two
of them, which award shall specify the locality, quantity, description, and
the lowest price of the fence it orders to be made, and the time in which
the work shall be done, and shall state by which of the said parties the
cost of said proceedings shall be paid, or in what proportion the same
shall be paid. In making the award the fence viewers shall regard the
nature of the fences in use in the locality, the pecuniary circumstances of
the persons between whom they arbitrate, and generally the suitableness
of the fence ordered to the wants of each party. Where, from the forma-
tion of the ground by reason of streams or other cause, it is found im-
possible to locate the fence upon the line between the parties, it shall be
lawful for the fence viewers to locate the said fence either wholly or par-
tially on the land of either of the said parties where to them it seems to be
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 647
most convenient, but such location shall not in any way affect the title of
the land.
The award may be enforced by a person so desiring by serving a notice
upon the other to obey the award, and, if it be not obeyed within one
month, he may do the work which the award directs, and may recover
judgment in the Division Courts for its value and the costs.
Instead of issuing execution upon such judgment, however, he may
obtain a certificate from the clerk of the Division Court of the amount
due for debt and costs. Upon filing such certificate with the clerk
of the municipality, the amount so certified shall be placed on the col-
lector’s roll, and the same may be collected in the same manner as taxes.
OVERHANGING TREES.
A tree growing near a boundary line, though the roots extend into the
land of an adjoining owner and derive nourishment therefrom, is the prop-
erty of the owner of the land upon which the trunk stands, and such
owner is entitled to such fruit produced upon its branches overhanging
the adjoining lands. If force should be used by the adjoining owner to
prevent the owner of the tree from reaching over and picking the fruit
from the overhanging branches, he would have a right of action against
the party so interfering with him.
In the case of Millen v. Fawdry, Latch 119, the defendant entered the
plaintiff's land to get apples which the wind had shaken off the defend-
ant’s trees into the plaintiff's close. The latter brought an action for tres-
pass, but it was held that the defendant was not liable, but it appears that
it would have been otherwise if the defendant had shaken the trees
and had thereby caused the apples to have fallen into the plaintiffs
close.
Where branches of a tree growing upon the land of one owner over-
hang that of another, the owner of the land encroached upon may, with-
out notice to his neighbor, cut so much of the branches as overhang
his land, provided he can do so without going on his neighbor’s land.
It is a question whether the law would be the same in case of young
trees or shrubs which might be transplanted. The owner of a tree cannot
acquire the right for it to overhang his neighbor’s land either by prescrip-
tion or the Statute of Limitation. (Lemon v. Wedd, 1895 A. C. 1.)
Trees Poisonous to Animals. The owner of a farm is liable for
damage caused by a tree that is poisonous to animals, where the branches
hang over the division line and poison cattle or sheep upon the adjoining
land: but if cattle break through the fence which belongs to the owner of
the cattle to build and maintain, and escape to poisonous trees which
are distant from the boundary line, and are injured thereby, the owner
of the land is not liable, because the cattle are wrongfully upon the
premises.
648 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
In Ontario it is provided by statute that if any tree is thrown down or
otherwise across a line or division fence, or in any way in or upon the
property adjoining that upon which such tree stood, thereby causing
damage to the crop upon such property or to such fence, it shall be the
duty of the proprietor or occupant of the premises on which such tree
theretofore stood to remove the same forthwith, and also forthwith to
repair the fence and otherwise to make good any damage caused by the
falling of such tree.
By the Ontario Tree Planting Act it is also enacted that: —
A person owning land adjacent to any highway, public street, lane,
alley, place, or square, in this Province, may plant trees on the portion
thereof contiguous to his land, but no tree shall be planted so that the
same is or may become a nuisance in the highway or other public
thoroughfare, and obstruct the fair and reasonable use of the same. Any
owner of a farm or lot may, with the consent of the owner or owners of
adjoining lands, plant trees on the boundaries of the adjoining lot. Every
tree so planted on such highway shall be deemed to be the property of
the owners of the land adjoining to such highway, and every such tree
planted on a boundary line as aforesaid shall be deemed to be the common
property of the owners of the adjoining farms or lots.
The Council of every municipality may pass by-laws to regulate the
planting of trees upon the public highways, to prohibit planting on such
highways, of any species of trees which they may deem unsuited for that
purpose ; to provide for the removal of trees which may be planted on
the public highway contrary to the provisions of any such by-law. And
to provide for the payment out of the municipal funds a bonus or pre-
mium not exceeding 25 cents for each Ash, Basswood, Beech, Birch,
Butternut, Cedar, Cherry, Chestnut, Elm, Hickory, Maple, Pine, Sassa-
fras, Spruce, Walnut, or Whitewood tree, planted under the provisions
of this act, within such municipality on any highway or on any boundary
line of farms aforesaid, or within six feet of such boundary.
A penalty not exceeding $25.00 is also imposed on any one tying any
animal to any tree planted as aforesaid.
The Law in Regard to Manure. As between lessor and lessee the
implied obligation on the part of the lessee to use the premises in a hus-
bandlike manner will be broken, if it be shown that manure has been car-
ried off the premises without any agreement to that effect having been
entered into. (Powley v. Walker, 5 T. R. 373.)
A lessee covenanted to use upon the demised premises all the straw
and manure which should be made thereupon, and it was held that the
lessor was entitled to recover for manure removed from the premises at
the expiry of the term, but not for the manure made thereafter, while
the lessee, a married woman, was overholding. (Elliott v. Elliott, 20
O. R. 134, and Shire v. Shire 22 C. P. 147.)
In New Brunswick it is not contrary to the course of good husbandry
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 649
to remove manure from the farm, and, in the absence of any custom or
established agreement to the contrary, the outgoing tenant has a right
to the manure lying in heaps in the barnyard, and may take it away as
a personal chattel after the end of the term. (Foshay v. Barnes, 12
N. B. R. 450.)
A covenant not to remove produce, like hay, straw, and manure, from
the demised premises is one that, APART FROM CUSTOM, will not —at
least as respects hay and straw — be implied, as against the tenant. An
undertaking not to remove manure from a farm means manure produced
on the farm, and applies to all such manure, though the provender fed
to the animals comes from elsewhere. An undertaking not to remove
hay, straw, or other dry fodder of the growth of the premises is not
restricted to produce which can properly be spoken of as fodder, but
applies even to hay unfit as food for cattle.
A covenant not to sell or remove from a farm during the last year of
the term, any hay, straw, or fodder which should arise and grow thereon
prevents the tenant from removing during the last year, hay, etc., which
has arisen and grown at any time during the term, and not merely dur-
ing the last year.
BARBED WIRE FENCE.
By the Municipal Act R. S. O., 1897 c. 223, it is enacted, that: by-
laws may be passed by the Councils of the municipalities :—
For settling the height and description of lawful fences, and for regu-
lating and settling the height, description, and manner of maintaining,
keeping up, and laying down fences along highways or any part or parts
thereof.
For regulating the height, extent, and description of lawful division
fences. But until such by-laws are made ‘‘The Line Fences Act’’ (here-
tofore mentioned) shall continue applicable to the municipality.
For providing proper and sufficient protection against injury to per-
sons or animals by fences constructed wholly or in part of barbed wire or
any other material ; and in towns and cities for wholly prohibiting the
construction or erection along streets and public places, or fences made
wholly or in part of barbed wire or any other barbed material.
It will then be seen that a farmer’s right to construct barbed wire
fences depends upon the by-laws of the municipality in which he lives.
It seems that in this country the removal of a fence on a farm from one
place to another is not, in itself, as a matter of law, a breach of a covenant
to repair and keep fences in repair, and, whether it is so or not, would be
a question of fact under the circumstances of each case. When the lessor
accepted rent after such a removal, with knowledge of it : Held, a waiver
of the forfeiture, if any, and that he could not afterwards claim to reénter
for the continuance of the fence in its altered position as a breach of the
covenant. (Leighton v. Medley, 1 O. R. 207.)
GLOSSARY.
AB-LAC-TA-TION. A weaning cr cessation from suckling.
AB-DO-MEN. The part of the body below the diaphragm, which cor:-
tains the stomach, liver, and intestines.
AB-LU-TION. Washing or cleansing the external part of the body.
AB-NOR-MAL. That which is not natural nor regular. Contrary to
nature.
A-BOR-TION. The casting of young before the proper time. If the
young is cast at a time previous to full feetal development, yet is
capable of living, it is called a premature birth.
A-BRA-SION. A wearing away by contact or rubbing, as rubbing off
the surface of the skin, often producing galls.
AB-RUPT. Quick, sudden; an abrupt turn or twist in the intestines
may cause strangulation of the parts.
As-scess. A swelling and its cavity containing pusor matter. 172
Hoof, How to soften the Horn........- 26
Hornet, Bee, or Wasp Stings....+.-++ 234
Horny Sloughs or Sitfasts......+++++- 230
Horse lying flat om his side...... supe AOL
Hot Water Bath. Its temperature.... 27
How to give Medicine.......-.++++++5 32
Hydrophobia or Rabies... ..- ... 105, ee
Hypertrophy of the Heart.... .--.---
673
Icterus, Jaundice or the Yellows...... 68
Itch or Mange Insect .............4- . 235
Impaction of Large Intestines........ 62
Indigestion, How caused........ .... 59
Inflammation from Galls and Bruises.. 125
Inflammation of Lining of Mouth...... 53
Inflammation with Pustules.......... 144
Influenza, Pink-eye or Epizooty 13)
Ingestion of Food..............0.005- 207
Injections, by Gravity ...........006- 32
Injection, per Rectum... ........... 56
Injection, Quality ata time ......... 61
Inosite or Muscle Sugar....... ...... 117
Inosuria or Saccharine Diabetes ..... 116
Interfering ..... .. 176
Interfering taint: soutertatien) asteeted 204
Intercostal Rheumatism or Pleurodynia 91
Internal Medicines....... eda aeeeres 44, 48
Intestinal Worms........-...eeee-0 69
Intestinal Digestion.............5-.. 37
Intestines, Diseases of.... .......5-+ 60
Intussusception or Invagination ...... 64
Invagination or Intussusception... .. 64
Irregular Teeth........... Eee. ce oes 51
Jaundice, the Yellows or Icterus...... 68
Jigger or Chigoe...........2 02 eee 236
Joints.........06 BES auc ec aheemiers 170, 173
Kidneys, Inflammation of ....... 121, 123
Kidneys, Shape and location of....... 113
Killing by Kindness .. ...... wesesarendis 56
Kinds of Food .........6 cee ceeeceee 37
Knee, Fetlock, Ankle and Foot....... 169
Knuckling or Cocked Ankles..... ...
Lacerated and Contused Wounds.... 129
Laminitis or Founder..... toes weenie 200
Lameness, How to detect ........... 225
Lampas, How to cure..........+. veee 52
.| Large Intestines, Impaction of....... 62
Larynx, Description of.............. 74
Laryngitis, or Sore Throat........... 77
Lateral Cartilages .........0.eeeeeee 173
Lead Poisoning. ........eeeeeeeeeeee 57
Lice or Pediculi .........-..46. eoee. 234
Linseed as a Food... ...csceseeeee .. 40
Linseed Mash, How to Make........- 25
074
Liquids, How to give..........eeseee 34
Liver, Diseases of.......-...200+ ee 68
Liver, Inflammation of ....... ve 68
Lock-jaw or Tetanus... ........e08- 110
Loss of Oats Fed....... 2.0. cereeee 37
Lumbricoid, Large Worm of the Horse. 69
Lungs, Apoplexy 0f..........020e0ee 85
Lungs, Congestion Of.........65 sees 84
Lung Fever or Pneumonia....... oe. 85
Lungs, What they consist of ....... 74
Lymphatic Circulation.............. 93
Lymphatic System, Diseases of ...... 99
Mad Staggers or Meningitis.......... 104
Making a Horse Lie Down..........- 28
Mallendérsis<2s.oc0ce2%- « saupaele: geen es 165
Maltose, How turned to sugar........ 49
Management and Care..........+..-- 23
Mange or Ascariasis........- aauesinattes 232
Mash, Bran.... ....... aa ge payee: (25
Mashes, How to make and feed... 25
Matting of Mane and Tail.......-... 237
Meatsflys zi acoes se dardania sok 46% . 233
Medicine, According to Age....... .. 41
Medicines, Table of, with doses.... 44—48
Medulla Oblongata, Functions of.... 103
Meningitis, Spinal............. veeee 108
Meningitis or Mad Staggers.......... 104
Metastasis: 62. eeee sce esnrenis caw boos 207
Molars........ .. qaneies Sele gece wa 255
Mouth, Its diseases............ 0... 52
Mouth, Swelling of .........-... 6. 53
Muco-Enteritis or Apoplexy of Bowels. 66
Muscles, Outside Layer, (Plate IV).
Myocarditim .<2 cise sscceawg cates 95
Myocarditis, or Heart Inflammation.. 95
Nails used in Shoeing............... 250
Nasal Chambers... 1... 022s. e ee eee 63
Nasal Gleet or Chronic Catarrh.... .. 79
Navicular Bone ........... siNeieimans . 174
Navicular Disease....... Se era 217
Nephritis, Acute..............0. 00e 123
Nervous System, Diseases of ......... 101
Nettlerash, Surfeit or Urticaria....... 230
Never feed Wheat or Rye Chaff....... 38
Noise causing Convulsions.... ...... 104
INDEX.
Nose, Frothy food through..... sees 58
Nosttils: sacs s syncs saree seawe te ese 73
Oat Chaff with Cut Hay............. 39
Oats, New and kiln-dried indigestible 39
Occult Spavin..............0- --- 198
Oil or Sebaceous Glands. ...... .... 228
Old-writers Mad Staggers... ........ I01
Organic Constituents of Urine... .... 116
Our Domestic Animals.... ....... .- 23
Over-exertioD..........0eeeee $6). ace 206
Over-reaching........... Be re Mee SRE 179
Paralysis of the Throat....... raietentind 53
Parasites of the Skin ....... etbawerts 232
Parasitic Pityriasis........... srk ete 237
Parrot-mouth, a deformity.... ...... 52
Pastern Bones, Large and small ..... 170
Pastern Joint .....cccseeceeeeee wee 171
Pediculi or Lice............eeseeeeee 234
Red iS si :c05swsetidebee: Gaeenes Sade 214
Percussion, Description of application... 82
Pericarditis, Inflammation of Heart Sac 96
EritOOIISss x3, s.c2 4s acids Gidea ile xaos 67
Permanent Teeth......... aajetbie-preie ees 255
Perspiration, Use of...... wean is' ee. 118
Pharyngitis: soe. viies sear eeneaawew es 53
Pharyngeal Choking ........ bi arsiene ee 54
Pharynx, Location of ......... tae, TA
Pharynx, Inflammation of ........... 53
Phlebitis, Inflammation of the Veins.. 98
Piles or Hemorrhoidal Viins........- 99
Pimples or Papules........... seeewew 231
Pink-eye, Epizooty or Influenza... ... 131
Pin Worms....... Bitches Sebasn Peececaas 69
Plantar Cushion ..... Bsns age an vanes eee 172
Pleura, Membrane around the Lungs... 74
PIGUTISVivwstauaie Geiwnink vee: cae 86
Pleurodynia or Intercostal Rheumatism 91
| Pleuro-Pneumonia...... tii sia eis Oats 89
Pneumonia or Lung Fever .......... . 85
Points of the Horse (Plate V).
Poisoning by Arsenic................ 57
Poisoned by Lead ....... 0.0. cece ee 57
Polar Bearing cass utes endid seks. ins dae apo 2. 23
PON EVA caine tecaidewe ree wanna 238
Polyuria or Diabetes Insipidus ...... 118
INDEX.
675
Pons Varolii, Functions of........... 102|Sand-crack.......cceeeccvecsesseeee 215
Potatoes, Feeding them raw...... ..-. 40|Sarcoptes Ascariasis........ ........ 232
Poultices, Different kinds .. ........ 26]Sarcoptes Equi........ .eceeeeseess 232
Poultices, How to make..... seeeeee. 26] Sarifying for Lampas.... ........... 52
Poultices, How applied........ ssaee. 26] Scratches or Cracked Heels....... 163-228
Poultices, With irritants on surface... 26] Screw-worm Fly..........2.0008 ee 233
Poultry, Ascariasis on Horse....... . 235] Sebaceous Glands......... is tad Sige . 228
Poultry Lousiness of Horse.... ...... 235 | Sensitive Lamingz.... ......... eevee, WZ
Powdered Alum in Water............ 25] Sesamoid Bones...........--0eeeeere 170
Probang, and how to use t........... 55]Shock from Electricity.............. 112
Ptyalin, its effect on starch .......... 49) Shoe and Nails too Large............ 249
Ptyalism or Salivation...........+. os 63) Shoelng cd os cie as cccauees we ween 243
Pulex or Flea.... ..... ee or 234 | Shoeing for a Specific Purpose........ 253
Pulmonary Apoplexy...... seeeeeses. 85) Shoe of Proper Shape....... piesa ome 249
Pulse Beats per Minute ...... «seeee- 79]Shoe Properly Adjusted ... ........ 248
Pulse, How and where totake...... .. 79|Shoes to be Removed ... ........06. 24
Pulse, Peculiarities of............ ..- 80] Side bones, Where found............ 195
Pulse, Very fast, hard and wiry...... 67 | Stifle-joint Dislocation... ...... - ee. 107
Purifying Water..............ee0e ace DO BINUSES 5a xd ered calbieecaieianeele: 6% fo dsaseere ED
Purgatives causing Founder.......... 207 | Sitfasts or Horny Sloughs ...... sieee 230
Purgatives, Every forty-eight hours... 43) Size of Box-Stall...... 6 -dstiieee yeas 24
Pustules, Inflammation with ... ..... 144| Skin, Its Diseases and Remedies..... 227
Quantity of Water required ..... ... 36 pings Tok: Hise Bose TOAD eine a
Quittor..... wea else Bion Sa aewhies pag, | PRRRE EOF She Ta lestine es 2.1 es aie a Bs
Smooth and Glossy Coat.... ....... - 40
Rabies or Hydrophobia.........- 105—111 | Softening the Horn of the Foot....... 26
Rarey’s System of Throwing a Horse.. 28] Solid Lumps in Liquid Discharges.... 65
Rasping the Teeth..........++++++++- 51| Sore Throat or Laryngitis........... 77
Rectum Injection for Staggers....... 56] Sound, Detecting Disease by...... see BL
Rheumatism ...........5+ Segue ey ase 163 | Spasm of the Diaphragm or Thumps.. 91
‘Respiration, Kinds of....... iheswessisae 81] Spasm of the Thigh .....--.......45 107
Respiratory Organs....... ese Ska LR a 74 | Spasmodic or Cramp Colic..........4- 60
Respiratory Organs, Causes for Disease 74] Spavin, Cause and Treatmhent........ 198
Respirations per Minute...... senna 80| Spinal Cord, Description of........ .. 103
Roaring, Canses and Remedies..... .. 78] Spinal Ganglia......... Higetsauacces 102
Ringbone, Causes and Treatment..... 196 | Spinal Meningitis...............000 108
Ring-worm or Tinea Tonsurans...... 236 | Spinal Nerves.........0ee05 si Gate eees 102
Rubber Hose as a Probang ......---- 55] Spinal Nerves, Classification of....... 103
Rupture of Diaphragm ....... ceeeee OL Splint (See EY se aeWaw esas eueey's
Rupture of the Soma ewesnen 56 Sean ciihe Mele sa8
Saccharine Diabetes or Glycosuria... 116 Springhalt (See Stringhalt)
Saddle or Collar Galls... .......--+- 129 | Steaming, How it is done............
Saliva, Excessive amount of........- 53] Sem DO sw ofien to repeats... 43
Saliva, Its important duty ....-.. vo 49 Stings of Bees, Wasps, or Hornets.... 234
Salivation or Ptyalism......++.++-+- 53 | Stomach Digestion.............0.00-05 37
BSallenders .....-.ececereeeeeetseert 166
676 INDEX.
Stomach, Inflammation of lining...... 57
Stomach of Horse, Very small........ 38
Stomach, Rupture of. .........- eoveee 56
Stomach Staggers ..........-- pe taroiensuove 55
Stomach, Stimulant for walls of...... 56
Stomatitis, How caused.......... wana OB
Stones in the Stomach............... 57
Strangles, Abscess in...........+..-- 125
Strangles, Distemper or Catarrhal fever 138
Straw as a Food for Horses........... 38
Stringhalt....... are Ya sve speieieiigrs: “ere 203
Study the Symptoms........+...-.2-. 35
Suffocating by use of Slings.......... 28
Suffraginis or Large Pastern.......... 170
Sunstroke or Heat Exhaustion........ 106
Superpurgation or Flux........... eee 65
Surfeit, Nettlerash or Urticaria....... 230
Suspensory Ligament Rupture........ 185
Suspensory Ligamenv............ .- - 171
Swelling Back of the Upper Teeth... 52
SWECDY:.i'scosaaamnwemeGes ease eas 100
System of Circulation (Plate III).
Systole...... Wales, eee ¥ eee eae ws 94
Tape-worm........ Sumas eMac seeee 69
Teeth as an Indication of Age........ 255
Teeth, the process of cutting..... oeee 50
Temperature of Healthy Horse........ 80
Temperature of Stable............. .. 24
Temporary Teeth...........0.0005 oo. 256
Tendons......... Ye trash apne avaceews eee 171
Ten Pounds of Hay aDay............ 38
Tetanus or Lock-jaw.......e..e..+-. 110
Thick Wind ...-cee....scceeeeeeeee 78
Thigh, Spasm or Cramp............. 107
Thoracic Choke............ eseseecee 55
Throat, Paralysi® of........... ees 53
Thoroughpins and Blood Spavin... .. x2
Throwing a Horse.... ...... siscyeanei: 28
Thrush, Description of............... 182
Thumps or Spasm of the Diaphragm.. 91
Time Required for Physic to Operate... 63
Timothy Hay for Horses..... aie Sire oevs 38
Tinea Tonsurans or Ring-worm....... 236
Tongue, Inflammation of...... a eae 53
Tongue, Laceration or Abscess....... » 58
Tonics, How often to give .. ........ 43
Toothache, How determined..........
Trachea or Windpipe.........+......
True-skin or Dermis.......-.... eRe
Trying to Drink by the Hour.........
Tumors on the Gums........ i eisgerwieee
Turning Horses to Grass each Year...
Twisting of the Bowels or Gut-tie.....
Twitching for Giving Medicine. ......
Tympanitis of the Stomach...........
Urea, The composition of ...... wie
Uretha, Duct leading out of bladder..
Ureter, Tube from kidney to bladder. .
Urine, Examination of...............
Urine, Excessive secretion of ........
Urinary Organs, Diseases of..........
Urticaria, Nettlerash or surfeit.......
Varicose Veins or Varix...... Bred ses
Varix or Varicose Veins.............
Vegetable Parasites of the Horse.....
Veins, How different fvom Arteries...
Villa, Their functions....... bowie eee
Volvulus or Gut-tie.... ....eeeeeees
Warts) sisi cascnas Se 2 a alae
Wasp, Hornet, or Bee Stings .. .....
Watering after Feeding Condemned...
Watering Horses When Warm.......
Wet Sponges on Head... ... .....:.
Wheat and Rye as Food for Horses...
Whistling ...... ....... ta seees eae
Wind Colic or Bloat.......... Be eveteeie
Wind-galls, Symptoms and Treatment.
Winter Shoeing.......... FR Rene aslo
Worms, Description of ... ......... .
Worms, How to Expel............ eee
Worms, Intestinal........ Rh ovine avec
Wounds of the Chest...... eres ielatera chats
Wounds of the Skin...... a erase recente
CATTLE.
Abdomen, Dropsy OF ciesdisac eaireteie discs
Aberdeen-Angus Black Heifer.......
Aberdeen-Angus Bull, ‘‘ Lindolph’’.
Abortion, Causes of Contagions.......
Abortion, Can be Cured. .. .........
Actinomycosis..............0e.0c00. :
Aeration of Milk..... ees advises
51
74
113
American Herd Book..............0+
AMED TARE e232 ets a der sun sdea aoe
Ascites or Dropsy of Abdomen........
Ayrshires
Bloating, Tympanitis, or Hoven......
Blood Letting. . 2.0.0.0... 2... eee e caer
Bloody Urine................ccee eens
Bowels, Inflammation of.............
Bronchitis..... aa
Casting of the Withers..............
Calves, White scour of..............
Care of Milk.............. ae
Characteristics of Various Breeds.....
Chemicals in Dehorning......... sees
Chigres or Fleas......
ChOEIN Bis wie aac ae aenied asus
Climate Adapted to Short Horns..... .
Colic from Cold Water........... oes
Color of Short Horns...........0ee0e
Constipation ............ a ahekhere faye a
Contagious Abortion...... ieee ewes
Corn for Silos. sissies ee one .
Cud, Loss of
Danes Introducing Cattle
Dehorning Cattle..........
Devons
Devon Heifer ‘‘Jenny”’ ..
Devon ‘‘Prize Bull’... ... cece eee es
Diarrhea...........006 - sauiiewewes ss
Digestive Organs.......
Disease of Cattle......
Dropsy of Abdomen....... eet ee eens
Duration of Pregnancy.......eeeeeees
Dysentery....... ..-es- Biiereleeta ns ss
ey
Egyptians Worshipping... ........ .
English Agriculture and Cattle.......
English Herd Book.... ......-- esters
English Short Horn.........eeeeeeee
Ensilage and Silos.......... eee
Enteritis, or Bowel Inflammation......
Ergot in Hay... cc cee sees cece ee eees
Feeding Value of Mature Corn.......
Five Year Old Shorthorn............
Fleas or Chigres......... ihe ste a giaes aie
Flesh of Shorthorns... .......-.46 ‘is
INDEX.
Flies and Mosquitoes. ................
Foul in Cattle
Guernsey Cattle
Heaviest Beef Cattle.................
Hepatitis or Liver luflammation......
Herefords: sss syse2 eed ves seas oternis or
Hereford as a Dairy Cow......... sia ee
Hereford as a Working Ox...........
Herefords in America....... diswrene Saves
Hereford Prize Cow ‘‘ Royal’
Horn Distemper ...... sbaidewng ees
Holstein Cattle................ sioas cei
Hoven, Tympanitis or Bloating.......
How to Judge a Good Cow...........
Inflammation or Hemaglobinuria....
Indigestion from Cold Water.........
Indigestion of Third Stomach........
Inflammation of Bowels..
Jaundice or the Yellows.....seeeee->
Jersey Bull...... preiGiiiis sae syareiere ares
Jersey Cow. ....seacsoceees
Jersey Cattle........ aibiocdctuavsvoraceee ious
Judging a Good Cow...-....seeeeee.
Laryngitis or Sore Throat...
Liver, Congestion of...... eee ee eeee
Liver, Inflammation of............++
Loss of Cud....... efard ate
Lousiness
Mange or Itch... ...cceeeeecereeeees
Milk, Aeration of........ccecsceeeee
Milk, How to care for........
Milk Feverinwcscve cease sueiseaiiiee yon
ee ee eee
Mouth, Inflammation of Lining.......
Moor-ill or Bloody Urine.............
Moors of Spain.......... ese eeeeeeee
Mosquitoes and FlieS....ececeeseeeee
Neat Cattle
Parasites on Skin.
678
Paris Exposition.... .. 2... cs. eee
POriLONILIS 6.64 ccs haste amngte tae oes
Pharnygitis or Sore Throat....... ..
Pharyngeal Choke......5 eeereeeeee
Pleurisy .......46 ea ee eer eeereee rece
Pneumonia..........6- Len eeeeneees
Polled-Cattle of Aberdeen... ....-.
Pregnancy, Duration of... .......---
Prostration from Heat ..... oagisee als
Red Po Sgeicinae: wae vee wees caress
Red Water or Bloody Urine........+6-
Ring-worm ............e005 Sisfeies Swe
Separator in the Dairy......se.eese.
Short-horns..... .. .. os eececcceees
Short-horn Bull........... sa Gaerne,
Short-horns Described...,..ceeeseeee
Silos and Ensilage.......eereeeceeees
Skin Diseases .. .....scccecvececces
Smut on Corn ..........66- s-wiele: asses
Sore Throat or Pharyngitis ..........
Sore Throat or Laryngitis ...... 20746.
Stings, Venomous.... . .-y) cos coe
Stomatitis .. ......ee0. Svenedes oe haces
Suffolk ‘“Duns” .. . Se hah =, AG tichs
Sunstroke or Prostration from Heat
Third Stomach, Indigestion of ......
Ticks or Ixodes......... sce eee eee ee
Trocar and Canular. ..... arenes:
Tympanitis or Hoven...... siiahduedassaers
Venomous Stings. ......-. eee ee eee
Worms, Intestinal... .... eee wee Oe x
White Scour in Calves .......... ssh
Yellows or Liver Congestion ........
SHEEP.
Advantages of Sheep Raising.......
Age of Sheep, How to tell...... eKieiie
A Group of Algerians......... siecaisieacy
American Merino......... Seer an
Black Faced Scotch... .....0..-.05-
Bladder, Inflammation of............
Bowels, Inflammation of...... eee ae be
Brain, Water on... .... cece ee ee ees
Bronchitis...............08...379, 892, 624
INDEX.
282 | Castration ...... eee gieieed eh Galena’ target O00
315 | Characteristic of Breeds............. 351
299 | Cheviot.........0000. i203 seenecsicn BOL
801] Clover Silage........... Nees ees OOS
818] Cold or Catarrh......... cc cece ee eee 378
319 | Congestion of the Liver.............. 380
281 | Constipation in Lambs...........- -- 391
328 | Constipation or Costiveness. ........ 375
333| Corn Silage..... .....eee cee sees. 358
991 | Costiveness or Constipation...... geese OLD
321 | Cotswold Sheep .. ......ss.seereeee 372
333 | Cross bred Sheep..... -.... ss mearnates, OTS
337 | Diarrhea or Scours.........++.. 375—376
279 Diving Bladder-worm........... .--- 388.
974 | Docking .... ....-. feivesoiweres ven SET
275 Dog-proof Sheep ..........e.06 wees. 368
348 | Dogs, Associated with sheep ....-. 389
329 | Dorsets ...... whadu We Scwe ts arg O08
99g| Dry Fodder........06..e+ + eeces+- 857
299 Dysentery ...... LPRe Ces: Gmina OTS
317 | Buglish Dorset Horn Ram...... eeeee. 369
332| English Southdown... ... ceaneesses 360
299 | Feeding and Quartering .. ......... 355
291 | Feet, Diseases of... .....ecece0 sees 382
. 333) Foot-rot, Contagious...... MOORS aS 383
304] Foot-rot, Common..... Ria Navecoimpanscne .. 384
331] French Merino ......e.eeceeeeeenees 360
303 | Gad Fly of Sheep... ... ..ssseeeee. 384
302 | Gravel, or Common Foot-rot.......... 384
332| Grub in the Head............ Saieucieets BOF
311 | Hair Worms in Intestines............ 389
309 | Hampshire-Downs....... ices make BOT
319. | Hoven. .. ceececee cecceeeeeseeeess B77
How to Feed a Lamb .. ... ....2... 387
Inflammation of Bowels...... eis pc acters 377
363 | Influenza....... .. ese sees eee seesee OD
374| Kind of Sheep to Winter.... ........ 354
358 | Lambs and their Diseases............ 390
363 | Lamb, Raising by hand ........ eo SBT
366 | Laurel Poisoning... 1... .... eee eee eee 381
381 | Leicester “Prize Winning’ Ewe... . 372
377| Leicester Sheep .. ..seeeeseeeeeeees 371
382 | Lincoln Sheep .......... 2 eGo CNS WSS 370
Liver, Congestion of........... ybeeies 380
Liver, Inflammation of.............. 330
Louse of the Sheep .. .... wtewere ees O80
Lungs, Inflammation of ....... Ss 379
Many Headed Bladder-worm...... .. 388
Merino Rams siwccvssssag cueedee bas 363
MOMs ewe eeddonenene seins Sidwageion $2 352
Oxford-Downs......... 0.520485 Selo Mawes 367
Scab Insect: wae esas sss eee 385
Scotch Cheviot Ram ............06-- 362
Scours or Diarrhea ... 2. we eee eee 375
Selection of the Breed... cee. cece eee 353
Sheep Laurel Poisoning ...........-. 381
Sheep Raising, Advantage of ........ 353
Shropshire Sheep. .......00 .essee eee 365
SOGthdOw Ho. oc ccs eer niece B igracerS: sea lect 359
Spasmodie Colic.........+ a emtelacainonn se 391
Stageers. ceqwe vies vars Meeeaes vee Oe
Suffolk Ram ........ce ce cceeeeeeeee 371
Sugar BeetSsi sc cisesca's cid sedate 358
Tape Worms........... eiacedadedec doo
Ticks on Lambs and Sheep.........-. 374
Timothy Hay........ setesene cee. « 358
Weaning Lambs ....... sdemaevaaes SUL
Weight of Carcass ......eeee0 eeeees S04
White Scours...... Heth 's o'e's tiaisance: STG
Wool..........eeeee saevenine Faas 30
SWINE.
Berkshires. ..........c0+eeee soesees OOF
Blind Staggers.......... eelearedeecdiee AEE
Brain, Inflammation of.........++.-- 411
Breeding and Feeding.......e.+e+++- 415
Chester Whites. ........ sens venwace AQT
Cheshire......... a enibeieeiats = teisrarnets, ANS
Choleraascccc. casceetiens sas eeeees 413
Constipation .......-.e+e6 saxevaces 412
Curing and Preserving .....2+..-++- 408
Diarrhea... 6. secre ee sei Sas eeeyon 412)
Durocks ... cece eee e cece eee tee 404
Bssex Hogs .....-.-.-08- Maibee eases tee 399
Feeeding and Breeding...........-+- 415
Hog Cholera .....- sepals saseanaen alo
Itch or Mange .....-0.+eeeeee we +» 410
INDEX.
679
Jefferson County Swine... .. esrakider dear 405
Jersey ROGS cas iicescecaiay seoswn’ 406
Large White ‘‘Holywell Queen’’,.... 406
MiG aut ecu Gs cement ess 412
Mange or Itch ....050e....., Sie ele yee 410
Mange Oiutment.......... cc cece eee. 411
Middle-white Pigs... ........ Sires oH 397
Ointment for Mange .........e0e-ee. 411
Pigs Losing Their Tails, .........+.6. All
Pigs, Sows eating ... .. ec cece eee 410
PolandChina. 22 sisccsawatcnn ares sa 400
Preserving Pork and Ham... ....+.. 408
Prize Litter.......... sstorebveld areata eee te's 402
Small Yorkshires ......-.2eeeeeeee 405
Sows Eating Pigs........seeeeeeeeee+ 410
Staggers, Blind...... Sadek ee ion an SEL
Suffolk Pigs...... etaiaeiaahie ovia'e aus aves 395
Tails, Pigs Losing........ .. «--++. 411
Victorias ......... a htate- oa lereveseieiee “ate 403
Warren County Hog..........0+6.-- 401,
Yorkahire: : scjaeeroossewaere eee ase 407
POULTRY.
Andalusians... ..ccsceseeesecseeenee. 421
Apoplexy....... iuipieis se eatarsusesn Loe
Best Table-fowls.....sscsceccerseess 432
Black Minorcas..... so beet santmeoeens 428
Black Spanish ... .eseseeescssesees 429
Brahmas ......... Sidhe aisloasberes, steer 421
Bronchitis........ 3.8 Ni 49 Baeedo we etess 436
Brown Leghorns. ....secseeseesereee 425
Bumble-foot ...... dieiketsa dt tecnores 437
Cholera ...... RRR ee ree oy
Cochin-China .....s0. casveeeseesees 421
Cold or Catarrh......20 cescceereree 436
Consumption......sscecesceceeeeeees 437
Cramps. aatwireuw a's ae e'ees iidieesesase 4Ok
Crop bound... ..secseessecceeeeeees 433
Diarrhea........ a aha wcelererseawtiee tee 435
Diphtheria .......+6 cecceceseeeeees 437
Dominique.,..... devas seetiesseye 762400
Dorkings....sseeseeeseeeeceereces .. 431
Bgg Organs, Disorders of............ 436
INDEX.
680
Feather Eating.........0.-.0.e000+++ 434
SA a cd sara sar te earns dbo 5 leo slaps . 427
Gapes ere ahaaeiatelw Siw swher sees eens 433
Good Layers ...... ...-..05 eee 432
Good Mothers..........0-.45 ates ary aen
Hamburghs.......... sibie kg bee wae 429
Indian Game.........-..002 sees 427
Drangeliansys. .csc00 jsicteedea eee se 43%
De BHOMNS iosaisie as aku aehecre enue deg 425
Minoreas'..ciccicasiie sr gvcas gees exes 428
Non-sitting Breeds................ 432
Old English Game......... ...... 426
Poultry Keeping for Farmers....... 438
Red Faced Spanish ............... 428
Roup...... HONG ROS ess 'nks eerears 436
Sitting Breeds.................66- 432
White Faced Black Spanish....... 429
White Leghorn.............. send vee 425
White Minorcas.......< ea 85 28 N OES 428
White Plymouth Rocks............ 430
Wyandotte........... cece eee eee 423
POTATO.
Ammoniacal Copper.....0......00- 446
Bacterial Blight ..........-....... 444
Bordeaux Mixture..... nike Geae totais 446
Carbonate of Copper, to make...... 446
Colorado Beetle ............ aides es 444
Diseases of Potato........... eae x 443
Downy Mildew...... siete Baws owes 443
Barly Blighty.csecc6. c4 auaccunwwac wis 444
Fungi Affecting Potato............. 443
Fungous Enemies of Potato......... 443
Late Blight... cee. cca ygeeeea eee 443
Leaf-Spot Disease............ 0... . 444
London Purple.................0.. 445
Paris Green......... PAMaTAAMa alee 445
Potato Soadsaic vac eeevscaewarsieacne s 445
Prevention of Potato Disease....... 444
RECEIPTS.
Antiseptics ... ............ veceeeee 461
Apples, To keep... ... Seeavars eet 493
Bacon, To cure........ iiss koe Saag 492
Basement Floors.... ...... adv iasronauens 522
Bed-bugs, To get ril of ...... gh corel oe 482,
Beefs. Corned: ce « sciis.aceredinw o's ss wseiere 491
Beel, Dried.............. eageeas sa . 491
Bitter HSSen Ce) cc0.0 scssecaenesais eis Se gceece 460
Black-boards, To Make ........ weeee 509
Black heads ..............- Resse e e586 509
Blacking, Brilliant liquid ........... 477
Blacking, Waterproof .. ........... 477
Blacking, Oil-paste.... ..... mieases 478
Bleaching Compound...........-..0. 475
Blister, Spanish Fly....... .. sewage 452
Brick Colored Wash for Walls ...... 473
Butter, To keep sweet..........-. ioe 492
Cabbage, To keep.... 2.2.0... . eee 493
Camphor, Tincture of...........006 -. 460
Camphor Spirits....... widsigh ticle aide -a¥s 448
Carbonic Gas in Wells............ oe. 523
Castor Olicscey arises cleats ahaGhina 523
Celery TO Keep csi xcadcadsace ge es 494
Cellar Floor, To make waterproof..... 522
Cellars, To keep from freezing ....... 512
Cement, How to mix................ 502
Cement, How to use.......... sean 503
Cesspool Disinfection............. ... 464
Chafing, Remedy for.......... wives « O13
Chapped Hands....... .........4.- 508
Chimney on Fire .......... ..0 ee. 510
Chimneys, To prevent leaking... ... 514
China Cement..............0ecceeee 510
Cider, How to make and keep........ 503
Cider Wine... saaeec cx cee aerate ee 505
Clothing Catching Fire.............. 466
Cockroaches, To Destroy............. 485
Contagious Diseases... ....+ee0 2.00. 462
Cordial, Blackberry and Strawberry... 526
Cordial, Gingersccxseyecesse cea viens 526
Corn: Curex ss: ce ace eave Whiten Ivory.......... sisgdiewe wale acAED,
Putty, To soften........ .-+00+ +++» 515| Tooth Powder and Wash......2..-+-+ 508
Rats, To kill or drive away ........ 488) Typhoid Fever........ Pedant veces 463
Had Ants, To get id Of ess) vay s dna B88 Varnish for Tools..... bcs Sha tive nei esa vecns 524
Roach Exterminator .........+..++++ 483 Varnish, To soften ..... Biotuave eee na aany lO
Roofs, Fireproof wash... ..... cecees 514 enecariacs aa anh aia ccseeucess BOT
Roofs, Moss On ... cee eeeeeeeeeeeeee 515 : :
Rubber, To Mend...... satoaicancteies 509 | Wagon Tires Kept Tight........... +» 481
Rusty Plows, to clean...... ise DLT Wagons, TG gr6aBes 6 s0 oa seee 524
Benin Bumuass, geet: 466 Weeds in Garden Walks............- 509
Bahia ie ask pd vee aad 463 Whitewash, Gloss........ sseneswecee 473
Shingles, To nieces EL gee * wa Ae Whitewash, Out door ....... siaawe ss 472
Shadgies, To make fiveproet : ; is 7 i. §13 a ees iaccappiaia 5 mania ian =
Sick Room, How to cool......esseeees 521 ce — Rice aos ee
Sinks and Drains.,...........-0e eee 464 Wine. Giape sta Hel ea aT CE 507
Soap Grease, To preserve and purify.. 497 KEN phan Caine Spied yy 0 ee
Seip Hibag- to habe ote wakes cessaaiee 496 Wintergreen ......... seagiecdveess, “AOD
Worms, Stomach......... hiersmuste tine 3 AOD
Soaps Solty. ecrvcaie wansaunaaysoa erence oes 497 Wie: Bie eonns 455
Soap, Various kinds of hard...... 497, 501 ; Pon phe Se
Sprained Ankle...............0. eee 530 FRUIT CULTURE.
Squeaking Boots and Shoes........... §21 E :
Sigidd Oil, saxeaaapemoneanakeoassys dd | SOD Ec oapbeenenedneee DER
Stains, Coffee... ccscscsssesceesowces 475 emilee oiane ions RBIONENG rca tata o
Stains; Peviticascavenacns sosiedaaies 474 Aupplo Bpiay Ines « sax 2we mate ten sak o2x B42
Stale, Mnbiciacss faaeeaaw Senses he A474 pple Tren BORE Fs > eetcwamnase et eee B38
Bilin, DIRE awicas sui swowonseeuradiis A eee a ae oe a
Stains, Walnut.......... eae . 469| Bean Blight... .seseeeeeeeeee eres 542
Sticky Fly-paper....... sideinedeeem ee 487| Blackberry Spraying .......+.. ... 544
Sticky Painted Surfaces ............. 468 | Bordeaux Mixture. ........... seeeee. 540
Stove-pipe Varnish..... BE ES deste PAN 524| Budding .......-..ee0ee sereerwsesss 532
Stumps, To reMove.......eeseeeeeees 520] Cabbage Worms.........0+6....539—542
Sweating Drops.......... sends otise 454 | Canker Worms......ecceccecsceeeees 038
Sweaty Feet ........cccccceseeeneees 508 | Copper Sulphate ......eseseeee esses SA
Syrup, Simple...... oe wnat seeeseess 457 | Currant Apisy .sicssecccaveecscessss 546
Syruy, Rhubarb .............. « seee 458) Currant Mildew....ccccccecesccceees 542
Syrup, Rhubarb and Senna .......... 458 | Currant Worms........ssee-eeeesee- 539
INDEX. 683
Cucumber Beetle..............00% .. 541] Driving Cattle along Highway...... 606
Gooseberry Enemies ...... Hat. eee 542 | Dogs Frightening Horses........... 583
Grape Enemies ............08 sanees 542 | Employer and Laborer.............. 597
Grape Vine Beetle.............00005 537 | Enticing a Laborer Away....... ... 598
Hop Louse ............. ghinmieees ... 546] How Service is Terminated.......... 600
poses Pest......4. teeter ee er ees 546 | Increase of Domestic Animals....... 585
Tow to Spray.. ssnbheniuen at ereee 546 Keeping of Doge......: era AL 599
Kerosene Emulsion ............. -+. 541) Killing Trespassing Animals..... 580-587
London Purple...............+5 -»+- 540|Tand Bounded by Streams.......... 596
Paris Green...... 6:6 aah aianada eyeseNere .... 041] Law in Regard to Manure.......... 605
Peach: Borers. s.sccessugehiasas vesas . 538 | Liability for Vicious Animals,...... 581
Plum Curculio...... senha ee seeeee. 598 Liability of Servant for Misconduct.. 600
y
Plum Diseases......... eta .... 544] Liable for Servants’ Contracts....... 599
Potato Scab...........0 000005. 445-544 | Liability for Injury ................ 600
Rose Beetle........cccceee vecececes 534{ Line Trees ...... pants a lactam ar asnvetniaas 604
Spraying, How and When.......... 546 Loaning Horses.............0eeeeee 588
Spraying, Table of.............. 542-545 | Mill Privileges...............000. .. 595
Sulphate of Copper .............06- 541 | Naturalization Papers.............- 574
Tent Caterpillar............. «eeeee- 080 | Overhbanging Trees ..............-. 603
When to Spray .......0005 ee 546 | Ownership in Lost Animals.......... 578
White Hellebore............. ....-. 541] Principal and Agent....... Sialgrrsigneytie 575
Yellow Wooley Bear....... weeee--. 046] Surface Water and Drainage...... .. 596
Trees Poisonous to Animals......... 604
LEGAL DEPARTMENT
g For United States. Unsoundness of Horses............- 594
Abandoning Service with Cause..... 599 Vicious Domestic Animals.......... 585
Abandoning Service without Cause.. 598 Warranty of Soundness..... soeeeeee 589
Barbed-wire Fence..........-.+- ... 506 Aer Rights Rosy eat CE eee art pea : 94
Rendilasies and Fences. ... 601 What Constitutes a Warranty....... 591
Ba ges eal ot, re .,| What Constitutes Soundness........ 589
Commission Merchants............. 577 What Constitutes Unsonndness...... 594
Contracts... ...ccee cece cee eeeceecces O04 Wrong Use of Hired Horse......... 580
Contract for over a Year........... 598
Corruption of Water .............+- 596
Cruelty to Animals............+...- 586 LEGAL, DEPARTMENT
For Canada.
d by W EY navies esis 592
te re as ene pais 00 [Abandoning Service with Cause....... 643
ti fae ees Peete 597 [Abandoning Service without Cause.... 643
Dismissing Laborers.........--+-+-- 600 Barbed-wire Fence.............+..++- 649
Diversion of Water...........-..+- 594 | Boundaries and Fences............... 645
Division Fences.......eeceeeeeeeees 603 |/Commission Merchants............... 620
684 INDEX.
CONTACTS. cx .cccaee rid edee eouyeEndiyis 607 | Surface Water and Drainage.......... 641
Contract for over a Year............. 642 | Trees Poisonous to Animals.......... 647
Hike gn taaiag besten ee oe Unsoundness of Horses............... 638
Pe A al anecl oat seeaigmaieenadaa a. Vicious Domestic Animals........ 625-628
Defects Covered by Warranty........ 636 :
; : : Warranty of Soundness.............. 633
Discharging for Cause..../.........-- 644 J
Diseased Cattle ssa iccsccscicrain card aoereasese 630 Hansa peas WW Pa Hae ia
Dismissing Laborers...............+. 644 sh onsulutes A GRIAONT feseaice te 5
Diversion: OF WAtehe sce asuenasccs 639 | What Constitutes Soundness.......... 633
ons What Constitutes Unsoundness....... 688
Division Fences.........0.0000 eee ees 645 ;
Wrong Use of Hired Horse........... 623
Employer and Laborer............... 642
Enticing a Laborer Away...........-- 642
How Service is Terminated........... 644 SPECIAL ARTICLES,
Increase of Domestic Animals......... 628 | Births and After-births in Cattle...... 294
Keeping of Dogs............-...0000: 625 | Bookkeeping for Farmers............. 562
Killing Trespassing Animals...... 625-628 | Bovine Tuberculosis................. 547
Land Bounded by Streams........... 640) Grain Smuts.................. oeccaned 552
law in Regard to Manure............ 648 | Glossary 2.2.2.0... cece eee ence ee eees 650
Liability for Vicious Animals Rees 625-628 | tow to Retain Calf-bed.............. 294
Liability of Servant for Misconduct... 644 M BBT
Liability for Injury..............0.066 acing cs a a a a ts eG
Liable for Servants’ Contracts........ g49| Nail. in. Foot..: ccsscccsesassacnckeoncs 226
Line Treesi scscasesaeareeaandagsecues 647 | Obstructed Teats.................000.. 294
Mill) Privileges. «+ sys serauseed oy eas saes 639 | Retained After-births................ 294
Naturalization Papers................ 617 | Shoe Boil, also Capped Hock, Capped
Overhanging Trees................005 647 Knee... . 2... cece e ee eee eee 226
Ownership in Lost Animals........... G21 | PWS sae ccecece-aid sjoahenisioonccoamarabioriann se 294
Principal and Agent.............. .-.. 618 | Quarter Crack........ 0... cece eee 215
The King-Richardson Company
Of Springfield, Massachusetts.
Established 1878. $200,000 Capital. Full Paid.
ve « BRANCHES: ~ ~
San Jose Chicago Indianapolis
Standard Publications.
ffundreds of Salesmen are employed by the above company Working by
the Year on Guaranteed Salary Contracts.
A Position with the King-Richardson Co. is desirable:
Because, All members of the firm began as salesmen themselves and handle
their men accordingly;
Because, cnly experienced salesmen of proven ability are employed to engage
and train new men;
Because, before a salesman enters his field he is thoroughly taught his
business;
Because, they attempt to market none but meritorious and popular goods of
practical value;
Because, the public have known this for twenty years, and the reputation of
the house insures their men a favorable hearing;
Because, acontract with this house is supported by such financial strength
and well known integrity as to give every man confidence in their
‘bility and willingness to take good care of his interests.
OUR REPRESENTATIVES : :
Are selected by us from the very best class of young men—school teachers,
students, clerks, mechanics’ and farmers’ sons. We employ only persons who
are well recommended.
If your standing at home is such that you can give us good references, write
us a letter at once, stating your age, your occupation and what wages you
can now command, and we will arrange for a personal interview. If we think we
can make you a good business man, we will offer you a fixed salary guaranteed.
It may mean more to you than you now realize to apply to us for a position.
Address the office nearest you as stated above.
Yours for business,
The King-Richardson Company.
BRAHAM LINCOLN, the “rail-split-
A ter,’’ by a log cabin fire-place, learned >a
lees arithmetic and mastered surveying. 9
Later he conquered the study of law,
never having been graduated from school or
college.
Hiome Study
made
Lincoln
Great
THE HOME
CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL
of Springfield, Mass.
Furnishes the best books and all stationery free ot cost, and conducts Home
Srupy Coursss in English, Business, Shorthand, Typewriting, Bookkeeping,
Penmanship, Law, Agriculture.
Your Chance is Better than Lincoln’s
Fit yourself for. Business, for successful Agriculture, for Law. Be ready
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TO LEARN MORE
IS TO EARN MORE
Write for our free booklet, 4 ROMANCE IN REAL LIFE. Mention
the subject in which you are most interested. Address «*Registrar,”’
THE HOME CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL,
368 Main Street, Springfield, Mass.
i
rite
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