Cf moved [arr reeseu) witee Jun Rew Pork State College of Agriculture At Cornell Anibversitp Ithaca, RN. B. ———an Library Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924085750333 THE GRASSES OF THNNEHSSEE; INOLUDING CEREALS AND FORAGE PLANTS. BY J. B. KILLEBREW, A.M., Ph. D., Commissioner of Agriculture, Statistics and Mines. NASHVILLE: THE AMERICAN ©O., PRINTERS TO THE STATE. it Q - QK495 C14 KSS CO AER YO Entered according to Act of Congress by J. B. Killebrew, Commissionér, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. G. PREFACE, In the preparation of this work all available sources of information to be had in Europe or America have been consulted. Free use has been made of the standard works of Gray, Flint, Gould and Howard, and also of the reports of the Agricultural Department at Washington, as well as the numerous State reports. The admirable works.of Prof. S. W. Johnson, of Yale College, have supplied me with valuable in- formation. I have had access to the various publications of Baron Liebig, the pioneer in agricultural science, and have also derived much aid from the painstaking researches of Wolff and Knop of Germany; of Johnson, Way, Sinclair, Mechi, Voelcker, Lawes and Gilbert, of England, and from the reports of the Highland Society of Scotland. The little work of Edmund Murphy, of Ireland, has been suggestive. Ihave relied mainly, however, upon the experience, observation and success of the best farmers of our own State. Reference is made elsewhere to the great assistance received from Dr. W. M. Clarke, Dr. Gattinger and Prof. Hunter Nicholson. The work is the result of much labor, and J indulge the hope that it may be instrumental in directing the minds of our farmers to the importance of the grasses in the solu- lution of the problem of agricultural thrift and prosperity. It is due to Mrs. Clare Snively, of Nashville, to say that the cuts which appear in the work were executed by her, many of them from original drawings. Several verbal errors escaped the proof reader, many of which were detected and corrected before the full edition of the book was worked off. On page 14, fifteenth line from the top, there is an error in the statement made. There are in fact about eighty species of sedges and rushes found growing in the State, very few of which are eaten by cattle. The ‘‘broomsedge,” so called, is not a sedge, but a true grass, belonging to the genus andropogon, and forms the chief summer graz- ing of the Cumberland Mountains. It should be called broom grass. J. B. KILLEBREW. July 27, 1878, To His Excellency, Governor James D. Porter: Herewith is submitted a treatise on the Grasses and Forage plants of * Tennessee. The geographical position of Tennessee eminently fits it to be- come a great grain and stock-growing State. In 1840, Tennessee was the largest corn-producing State in the Union, Difficult and tedious trans- portation made it necessary to feed this corn ut home, and so in 1850, it took the foremost rank in the productiop of hogs. The Northwest, with its virgin soil, was able to supply meat and bread cheaper than Tennessee, and it became necessary for her people to turn their attention in another direction, The demand for mules by the cotton-growing States opened a new avenue to agricultural industry, so that in 1860, she became the largest mule-producing State in the Union. The shock given to all her industries by the war, and especially to her agricu:tural interests, by the destruction of her labor system, ‘so disabled her that she bore off no prize in the census returns of 1870. The destruc- tion of her labor system, however, has tended to direct the minds of her farmers to a system of agriculture in which less labor will be required. The sowing of more grass, an@ the raising of beef-cattle and improved hogs and sheep, will probably show the direction of her growth in the future. The estimates by the Agricultural Department at Washington show a gradual increase in the acreage of Jane devoted to hay, as indi- cated by the following table: The amount, acreage and value of hay produced in Tennessee each year, since 1870, are as follows: YEAR, te, TONS. ACRES, VALUE. 155,000 108,391 | $2,579,200 124,000 83,783 | 2,055,920 117,000 96,694 | 1'808,820: 134,500 107,600 2,084,750 114,300 103,909 | 2 180,844 145,000 106,617 | 2/354,800 165,000 121,323 2,237,400 The United States census shows the production of hay in Tennessee : “ The total production of hay in the United States for 1870, was 27 ,316,- 048, or about 1,400 pounds per head for each inhabitant, while in Tonnes: s lV see there were not quite 200 pounds per head, showing that, per capita, the people of Tennessee produced only one-seventh as much hay as the aver- erage production of the people throughout the United States. This is to be regretted, for the world over, agricultural prosperity may be measured by the amount of land set in permanent meadows and pastures. Believing that the tendency of the farmers of our State is to decrease the amount of land devoted to cultivated crops, and to increase the acre- age in grass, I have felt that some practical treatise on the management of the grasses would have a great,tendency to stimulate the movement in this direction. To meet this want, this work was prepared. In its prepa- ration I have had the aid of Prof. Nicholson, of the East Tennessee Uni- versity; of Dr. Gattinger, of Nashville, one of the most accomplished botanists in the South, who has devoted the leisure of many years to the study of the floraof Tennessee; and of Dr. W. M. Clarke, who has kindly assisted me in preparing the work for the press. The substantial and ready assistance which these gentlemen have rendered, fully entitles them to share With me in the authorship of the work. I am also indebied to many other gentlemen in various parts of the Siate, whose contributions will be found scattered throughout the work. I trust you will pardon me, Governor, {of adding, that to no one am [| more indebted than to yourself. In discharging the long line of duties de- volving upon me by my office, I have been constantly sustained by your gentle encouragement and assisted by your judicious advice. I am sure I utter a truth when I say that no one now takes, or heretofore has ever taken, a deeper or more lively interest in the agricultural prosperity, men- tal progress and mineral development of the State than yourself. Thave the honor to be, Your obedient servant, J. B. KILLEBREW. March 12, 1878. GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. INCLUDING ° FORAGE PLANTS. PART TI. GRASSES IN GENERAL. In this part, besides giving a general statement as to the importance of srasses in a national point of view, and setting forth the best method of preparing, sowing and treating meadows and pastures, a good deal of scientific matter has been introduced. This has been done because there is springing up all over the State a class of young farmers who, recognizing tke value of scientific acquirements in connection with practical skill, earnestly desire to increase their knowledge in scientifie agriculture. Just science enough has been incorporated to arouse the ambition of this class to excel in their vocation and to become familiar with the :cientific terms, without some knowledge of which it is im- possible to make any permanent progress. The description of the grasses is impossible without employing some technical terms, and these terms should be familiar to the ambitious farmer. A table has also been prepared by which any one of studious habits and an enquiring mind may soon learn to: ame the grasses with which he is brought into daily contact. The strictly scientific chapters have been designated by a star, so that the practical farmer who desires only practical information may pass over them. In the other parts of the work the technical or scientitfie descriptions will be put in small type. 6 THE GRASSES CHAPTER I. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE GRASSES—PLAN OF THE WORK— FUNCTIONS OF THE GRASSES—EXTENT OF THEIR DIFFU— SION AND HOW DIFFUSED—-SEDGE GRASS AND OTHER WORTHLESS VARIETIES OMITTED—HOW TO TELL THE GRASSES FROM SEDGES AND RUSHES. The value of grass in agriculture is aptly stated in the old English proverb: ‘No grass no cattle, No cattle no manure, No manure no grass.”’ Each line embodies a truth, and the three form an epi-. tome of successful farming. No surer test of the degree of agricultural advancement of a country can be found than the relative acreage of land laid down to grass and devoted to tillage. Wherever the grass is most abundant there is the highest farming. This statement is most strikingly es- tablished by comparing the agricultural systems of France and England. . In France 53 per cent. of the tillable land is annually sown in some kind of grain, while in England the grain-bearing per cent. of land is only 25. On the other hand, while France has but 22 per cent. in grass, England has 50. Notwithstanding this difference in the amount of land devoted to grain, the yield of wheat to each inhabitant is almost identical in the two countries. Every acre of grain land in England receives, on an average, the manure from the animals fed off three acres of grass. In France, on the contrary, the manure made from each acre of grass has to be spread over 24 acres of grain. In other words, each acre of grain in England gets nine loads of manure to one load given to the acre in France. OF TENNESSEE. 7 A farther comparison would show that the acknowledged superiority of English cattle, sheep and other domestic animals, over those of France, or any other country for that matter, is due more to the superiority in quality and quantity of the meadows and pastures of that wonderful island than to anything else. If we turn our attention to other countries we shall find that the amount and character of grasses grown may always be taken as a measure of the degree of advancement to which their agriculture has reached. It must be borne in ‘mind that this statement holds good only of the cultivated grasses, but of these it is perhaps universally true. Under this test the agricultural system of Tennessee falls very low. It is a notable fact, often observed and com- mented upon, that the great leading, dominating error in the farming of Tennessee has been, and is, the putting too much land in corn and oats, and too little in grass. Under this system a very large breadth of the land has been well-nigh ruined. Indeed the damage is so serious that » some change has come to be absolutely necessary. Judging from the experience of other countries, the one and only thing capable of redeeming this almost ruined land and saving the farmers from absolute bankruptcy, is grass. Fortunately, the climate, soil and geographical locality of Tennessee all combine to render it by nature a grass region. In all the essentials to success in this great branch of agriculture, but few sections of the United States surpass East and Middle Tennessee, while the northern part of West Tennessee is well suited to many grasses. It is not unreasonable to anticipate at no distant day, under'an im- proved system of farming, these natural capabilities will be thoroughly and judiciously developed, and where now are only vast wastes and forest wilds, trackless and unculti- vated, rich pastures will bloom and countless cattle roam.* But no such result can come without a radical change in 8 THE GRASSES the farming system ; and the farmers themselves must make the change. “ Providence helps those who help themselves.” So, also: “ Providence neglects those who neglect themselves.” It is not to be expected that this most desirable change will be made in one year, pr in any small number of years ; it is not even assumed that the change could be made ina short time. All that can be reasonably hoped for is that some of the more enterprising farmers may take the initiative and make a beginning. By examining the list of grasses given elsewhere, it will be seen that Tennessee bears an abundant harvest, and that a large selection is offered the farmer. But it will not be in attempting experiments, in new or untried grasses that such enterprising farmers will find their interest. For years to come it will be wise and prudent for the great majority of ae to confine themselves to the improved grasses. Fortunately among the grasses that have been tested are kinds adapted to each, even of the widely various soils of Tennessee. From the circumstance of the peculiar position of Ten- uessee as a border State to the cotton belt, she has lost much time in agricultural progress. The large returns of the cot- ton planters South, and the wonderful ease with which they achieved great wealth, induced those living near to attempt the same role that succeded so well further south. With how much success this plan met, can be seen in the dilapidated farms, the huge gullies yawning with their ugly yellow faces on every hill-slope. This condition of our State is the more reprehensible when, by our side, are seen the lovely meadows and the sloping, grassy hill-sides of Kentucky, with the inevitable accompaniment of fat cattle and browsing sheep. Tennessee possesses in her bosom all the elements of a grazing country. Scarcely a foot of land exists in all her — borders that will not in an eminent degree meet the wants OF TENNESSEE. 9 of some one or other of the graminew. Living streams of water, fed by perennial springs, as sweet as those of Cas- talia, hasten down the mountain slopes and lazily meander through the beautiful valleys. Being midway between the lakes and the gulf, we live just where the warm, moist southern winds encountcr the condensing blasts of the north, so that we are rarely the sufferers from droughts. In fact nature intended this State as a grazing region, while man in his thirst for riches has made it what it is. But circumstances are driving us with an irresistable impulse into our proper channel. Blessings on even a large scale are seldom recognized when given, but the roll of years will * soon make them visible to all. Had our slaves continued with us, we should probably not have assumed our proper | sphere for many decades to come. But, at last, we find ourselves with a large breadth of land that, though greatly worn, is still full of fertility, and without due labor to cultivate it in the old style. What is more, the only way / in which these lands can be restored to their pristine condi- tion is the very way to. redound to the permanent wealth of the State. This is by removing Tennesssee from her geographical position. Not changing her longitude or altering her latitude, but by simply converting her from a fourth-rate cotton State into a first-class grazing country. Grass is wealth. As lowly and humble as it appears, it comprises about one-sixth of all the vegetation of the world. It nourishes more animals than all other food combined, and furnishes all the elements for the growth of man. It is true man cannot, like Nebuchadnezzer, feed as a beast of the field, but he can and does appropriate this food after it has been assimilated to his requirements by the ruminants. Not only this, but through its wonderful chemical and vital properties it exiracts from the great laboratory of nature—the atmosphere—certain gases and fluids hostile to man’s respiratory organs, thus purifying 10 THE GRASSES the air for his use, and deposits these elements in the soil, thereby enriching the earth. Hence the adage with which we set out, “no grass no cattle, no cattle no manure, no manure no grass.” This explains it all. Grass enriches the land and fattens cattle, cattle feeds man and makes manure, manure enlivens the soil and makes crops. There is an eternal revolution in this. Nothing is lost in this circle. Nature repeats here her great law of the indestructibility of matter. But all soils are not good producers of any one kind of grass. Nature, in her benificence, has provided for this, for be- sides the lezumens that are classed as artificials, we have about one hundred and thirty different varieties of the true grasses, including cereals. Thus the marsh and the sandy, thirsty hill-sides, the loamy valleys and the rock-ribbed mountains, the shrubby barrens and the alluvial bottoms, are all alike provided with a congenial growth. The love of the pastoral has ever existed since man took possession of this rich heritage. It has ever held a first place in the songs and poetry of the world. While the grand epics of Homer have stirred the hearts of the warlike, and made them clash the spear against the sounding shield, the gentle idyls of Virgil have recalled man to the sweets of domestic hap- piness. The piping reed of the peaceful shepherd has no less charm for humanity than the spirit-stirring drum and fife, or the joyous vibrations of the passionate violin. Art has also emulated poesy in portraying its loveliness, and the landscape is never perfect on the canvass, unless gamboling lambs or grazing herds occupy some prominent place in the picture. A traveler passing through such a scene has his eye constantly delighted with the ever chang- ing panorama. The hay wagon, with its fragrant loads, passing to the teeming barns ; the beautiful hill-sides, car- peted with its cloth of green; the grain field, with its bil- lowy waves, swayed back and forth by the gentlest kisses of OF TENNESSEE. 11 the breeze, while the tail plumes of the maize keep watch and ward over the plains, all contribute to the joy and /hap- piness around. Fat cattle and bunchy sheep fitly adorn the deep green of the meadows, and is one of the highest evidences of a high civilization. There are many kinds of grasses, and they seem to be so far apart in appearance, habits, etc., that they would scarcely be considered as being allied; yet the necessary classification, depending upon the flowers, leaves, stems and | routs botanically connects them. They are divided into two general classes, natural and artificial. The former includes those grasses with long, simple, narrow leaves, with a prominent mid-rib or vein in the center, and smaller ones running parallel to it, and at the base, the leaf divides and clasps the stem in such a way that the stem seems to pass through it. Asa rule the stem is hollow and closed at the joints, though a few are solid stemmed. Theclassification of grasses would be impossible were their general appearance only considered. So great are the changes produced by modes of culture, by soil and climate, botanists, to arrive at the precise plant, therefore, have adopted characteristics that undergo no change, such as flowers, etc. From the rule of botanists in giving all plants technical names, it would be a difficult matter to recognize an old familiar friend under the new guise of a generic term, but we will endeavor, by giving also the name in common use, to remove this difficulty and bring them within the comprehension of any one who will take pains to properly read the descriptions. Artificial grass includes all leguminous plants, such as clover, peas, beans, etc., while cereals, such as maize, wheat, oats, barley, rye, rice, sorghum, dhouro, chocolate, corn and broom-corn, though really true grasses, are gen- erally classed with the artificials. 12 THE GRASSES In the limits of this work it would be impossible to give a full discription of all known graminez, so those will be considered only that are indigenous or acclimated to the soils of Tennessee, and -especial attention will be given to the proper application of the grasses as adapted to the differing soils of the State. For our botanic descriptions we will, for sufficient reasons, follow those laid down by Dr. Gray in his standard work on botany. But it is not our intention to descrike them under the scientific arrangement adopted by all writers on the subject into orders, genera and species, for this book is not intended as a purely scientific work, but rather as a practical hand- book for farmers. Hence, although the botanical names will in each species be given, they will be treated under a practical head. Therefore, all grasses will be classified as: 1st. Meadow, or hay grasses. 2nd. Pasture, or grazing grasses, 3rd. Wild, or grasses of no known agricultural value. 4th. Cereals. The term wild is,not to be taken in a literal sense, for many of them will grow on spots too rocky, sandy or barren to produce other kinds, and they serve a useful purpose in many ways. Sheep and goats will eat many of the wild grasses rejected by horses or cattle, and all furnish seeds to feed the feathered denizens of the air; besides, they assist in pulverizing the soil, disintegrating rocks, promoting mois- ture, beautifying the earth with a carpet of living green and in their death leave a rich legacy of fertility to the soil. There is an innate love of the beautiful in man, and many who turn in disgust from the most fragrant exotics will contemplate with great satisfaction the little spot of verdure at their door-stoop. These grasses perform important functions in nature ; extracting salipe matters from the rocks, nitrogen and car- bon from the soil, ammonia, oxygen and hydrogen from the OF TENNESSEE. 13 moisture, and by their vital forces, they assimilate these elements into the necessary nutriment for man’s use. As has been already stated, one-sixth of the vegetation of the world is composed of grasses. There are not less than 3,000 distinct species known to botanists, and in the following pages we have a list of 130 for Tennessee, in- cluding the cereals. A botanist of eminence took up a square foot of sward in a rich pasture, and was able to iden- tify on that one square foot, 1,000 plants, composed of 20 distinct species. Nor are grasses confined to any particular part of the earth. They thrust their tiny leaves out of the snows of the arctic regions, and rear their majestic heads, in the form of canes, in the jungles of the tropics, rivalling in height the forests around. They push their green tufts from the crevices of the tallest Alps, tempting the chamois to marvellous leaps, and on the sandy, arid deserts of Ara- bia they quicken the pace of the camel of the caravan. No marsh so brackish but has its fringe of luxuriant grass, no spot so bleak but has its cloak, of verdure. Nor are they confined entirely to the surface of the earth, for who, has not admired the beautiful winter bouquets filling the vase with feathery loveliness, or the tussocks of the gardener adorning the pit or the green-house ? To one acquainted with the subject, the facility with which grass scatters and diffuses itself is very surpris- ing. But it seems that so important a vegetation should not be subject to the fancies or caprices of man. Therefore, the seeds are prepared in such a way, that they aré& self- sowers. It is this remarkable facility of transportation that has given rise to the surmise of many, that it grows by spontaneous generation. Some of the seeds have hooks, and by these they fasten to any passing animal and are carried for miles. Others lie undigested in the crops of birds, or maws of animals, and are scattered with “the dejecte. Snows gather them on the hill-sides and bear them far away on the 14 THE GRASSES melting torrents, and scatter them, mayhap, along some for- eign shore. The air also assists in this, and lifts them on its wings and they fly in all directions. When grass once stands, . even if a passing beast cuts off its annual supply of seed, its rhizomes or creeping roots thrust their tender spongioles through the yielding soil, and thus, many a field is clothed with verdure. And besides, many of the grasses are peren- nials, and though torn and tramped by stock, they gather new strength for another year, and push on their foothold. There is a large class of so-called grasses, purposely omitted, from the fact they are but little known and of no agricultural value, with only one or two exceptions. These are the rushes and sedges. There are about 500 varieties of those plants growing in the United States, principally on the borders of salt marshes on the coast, but with the ex- ception of the broom-sedge Carex scoparia, the species are almost unknown in Tennessee. However, on the sea-coast, these plants form an important part in feeding the stock; their stems when young and ten- der, are eaten by cattle, when nothing better presents itself, The rushes enter also, considerably into manufactures, the reeds being used for many purposes, such as chair bottoms, baskets and hats. Some farmers also annually cut these marsh grasses, and feed to stock during the long, severe winter. It'is commonly known as swale hay. j Many of the large, coarse grasses that border our ponds and mat in our swamps, and are looked upon as sour grasses, belong to these species. They serve their purpose in elimi- nating the miasmatic gases that are continually being gen- erated in the ponds, from the atmosphere, thus protecting man from their deleterious influences. Besides, they fringe with their green, wavy heads, these collections of water, giving a beauty to the otherwise repulsive swamps. Their roots are perennial, and with but few exceptions, creeping. ‘Hence the folly of assaying their destruction by digging them up. A tuft of broom-sedge may be easily OF TENNESSEE. 15 dug up, but its rhizomes, or creeping roots, are in the ground ' for yards around, and a piece left an inch long, is sufficient ° to give it another start. The only way to destroy it is by cultivation and seeding to a more vigorous grass. Japan clover is said to have the quality of rooting out and destroy- ing broom-sedge effectually, but has not received sufficient trial to give it full credence. There is a simple method of separating the grasses from these rushes and sedges, which will be briefly stated. The sheath of sedges is a hollow tube, through which the stems pass, and it cannot be’ removed without tearing it open. This is not the case with grass, as the sheath can be stripped down, it being open to the joint. Besides, the leaves of all grasses are two-ranked, that is, the stem has leaves on each side, some opposite, others alternate, but always only on two sides. The leaves of sedges are three- ranked, or come out on thrée sides of the circle of a stem. In other words, the stem forms a circle of 360 degrees. The grass leaves are 180 degrees from each other, and the sedge leaves are 120 degrees apart. In the grass-like rush the flowers are divided into six points, within which are six stamens and a triangular ovary containing three seeds. A grass has never but one seed to the ovary. The object of this nk’ is not merely to talk of the many varieties of grasses and their wonderful beauty, but to add to the intrinsic value of the farming lands of the State. The ignorance of the difference between the many species of grasses is vast and general. It pervades all classes and oc- cupations. The farmer, himself, who depends so greatly on this provision of nature, is not ‘exempt from this want of knowledge. Ask him the name of a grass of unusual char- acter, and he will refer you, probably, to a son or daughter who, he will tell you, has been studying botany. As for him, he has no time to fool with such stuff. And yet this want of knowledge has given a firm foothold to some of the 16 THE GRASSES greatest pests the farmer ever experienced. A gentleman in New Orleans, importing some exotics from Cuba, found a delicate sprig of grass in a pot, and thinking it might possibly be some rare plant, set it out in his garden, and thus was introduced the terrible scourge of the South, the Cocoa grass, and from this small start, it has spread and diffused itself over half the country. The same want of knowledge brought from Enrope the seeds of the cheat, and it will ever remain as a curse to the wheat grower. Our lands are everywhere covered with grasses of various kinds, but few are the farmers who can tell the kinds most sought by stock in grazing. Buta careful perusal of the following pages will disclose the fact, that, of the many varieties. in- digenous to the State, but few have a sufficiently nutrient character to make them valuable or desirable. Farmers should be able to make important discrimina- tions, and when they find a fertile soil covered with noxious weeds or useless grasses, they ought to be able to eradicate them, and substitute such as will improve the value of the land and also add to its beauty. A case has been brought to my notice, in which the value of such knowledge proved quite profitable. A gentleman of Davidson county, some 25 or 30 years ago, owned a large and fertile tract of land. He became impressed with the value of blue-grass, and bought at one time fifty bushels of blue-grass seed, and scattered it over a woods lot containing 75 or 80 acres of rich, black limestone land. That woods lot became the pride not only of the farm, but of the neigh- borhood. It proved a blessing, for many years, to his horses, cattle and sheep, and when, by the exigencies of the hard times, he was compelled to sell his land, it was divided into small tracts and put up to the highest bidder. That blue-— grass lot was sought by all the bidders, and at last was knocked down at more than double the price per acre of any of the other lots, though it was, aside from the grass, of no more value than the remainder. ° OF TENNESSEE. : 17 Thus, if we wish to make our farms not only a beauty and a pleasure, but also to make them profitable, we ought to sow them down with good grasses. Look over the list, examine the land desired to be sown, and select the one most suitable to its requirements. There is no fear but what one can be found. If it is such as will not grow blue-grass, there is the fescue, or vernal, or clover, or timothy, or herds grass, and many others equally good. We have them for limestone or sandstone soils, for rocky or gravelly, for up- lands or lowlands. Let no one be afraid to try, if one kind fails, ihrough any mistake, try another. If the frosts or sunshine destroy the first stand, sow for another. The seeds are, or should be, but a small obstacle to the general results. If one should ever want to sell, it will be less difficult to make the sale, and at a higher figure. Should a farmer never wish to sell, it will repay him an hundred fold with its cheering aspect, with fat cattle, fat sheep and sleek horses. 18 THE GRASSES CHAPTER II. ENGLISH PRODUCTIONS COMPARED WITH THOSE OF TEN- NESSEE—COMPARATIVE VALUE OF OTHER CROPS WITH GRASS—CAUSE OF LOW PRICE OF LANDS. Cotton has been for so many generations recognized as the king of all agricultural products, that the people of Tennessee were long disposed to accept his prerogative without questioning, but when the subject is fully investi- gated, grass takes precedence. The cotton crop of the Uni- ted States as a general thing reaches about 4,000,000 bags, worth about on an average $250,000,000, while the aggre- gate of the hay receipts annually reach the enormous sum of $300,000,000, and the value of pasture will fully equal this amount, though its results are not so immediately apparent, as its sales are combined with those of cattle, sheep and hogs. Before the war, the lands of Tennessee had a certain fixed or rising value. A great depreciation of prices has taken place. But this falling in price does not apply to those well arranged stock-farms, scattered here and there, at long intervals through the State. They are still in demand at prices far in advance of those lands that have been, and are still being devoted to cotton and other exhaustive crops. The English farmer is able to take long leases of farms from the rich landholder, at from $20 to $50 per an- nual rent. How does he pay this extravagant rent and support his family? He could not do it in any other manner than by improving, manuring and increasing the meadows with which they are constantly set. A Tennesseean will manure his garden, and sometimes his corn land, but whoever thinks of spreading manure on his meadows. Yet the Englishman will spend large sums of money, and de- OF TENNESSEE. ‘ 19 vote labor through the whole winter, in accumulating a large compost heap to apply to his meadows!, The result may be imagined. While the Tennessee meadows will average from 800 to 1,500 pounds of hay to the acre, Eng- lish meadows will make from two to five tons on land that, has no other advantage than the care bestowed on it by the owner, Besides this, the grass grown in a damp cold climate is never’so sweet and nutritious as that raised under a warm sun and with a quick growth. In this State there is an occasional drought that begins in June or July, interfering seriously with the development of the later crops. But such a condition of climate is scarcely known in the earlier months during the growth of the grass crops. “Yet there is with the spring rains a degree of temperature unknown to the Englishman, a degree sufficiently high to give grass all the necessary heat to enable it to attain its fulllsupply of sugar and nitrogen from the soil. The beautiful lands of Kentucky and Missouri, to say nothing of the Northern States, still retain a great value, and are in great demand at high prices. It is because these States have more land in meadows, while broad stretches of valuable pastures and prairies dot the landscape in every direction. Pvor land will not make much grass, and, without a great outlay of capital land cannot be placed in first-class order at once. But it only requires a start, and then the persevering, provident farmer will soon see his farm blossoming as the rosé Land in Europe not in- frequently reaches the sum of $1,000 per acre for purely agricultural purposes, while here it is a difficult matter to extract, with our best farming, $50 per acre, and then the expenses are to be drawn from that meager sum. Let us draw a comparison , between our leading staples. Cotton here will make on average land 800 pounds seed cotton peracre. This at the usual price makes $20 per acre. Corn. will produce on good land eight barrels per acre, and at 20 THE GRASSES $2.00, the laborer will get $16. Tobacco, our most remu- nerative crop, on good land will make 800 pounds of leaf, which is about $50 to $60 per acre. Wheat will make, on good land, fifteen bushels per acre, and at $1 will yield abuut $15. Taking the cost of production from these amounts, the average farmer will not have left, at the best, more than twelve dollars per acre. A good meadow, in full bearing, with ordinary care, will yield, with two cuttings, at least two tons per acre. The cost is altogether in har- vesting, while the trouble of sending to market is no greater than either of the other crops. This, at the price for which it has been selling for several years, will be $20 per ton. Here, then, is a difference in actual receipts of almost double that obtained from other crops, nothing paid out for production, and besides the land can be enriched year by year, until it attains an almost fabulous fertility. Nor is this all. The amount of hay produced from a single acre can be increased almost to any extent by the applica- tion of stimulating manures. If then, land in Europe can produce five tons of hay per acre, and sell'for $1,000 per acre, why cannot Tennessee lands, far better naturally, and in amore genial climate, be made to rival these results? One thing only prevents, and that is the fatal apathy and want of enterprise on the part of the land owners. It is the thirst for immediate returns. To create this state of tillage, it will be necessary to proceed slowly, and look for no ‘re- turns of consequence for one or two years. Pressing neces- sities weigh upon the farmer, and he thoughtlessly drives on in the same interminable furrow, regardless of the loss of time and fertility. * The Northern husbandman bales his hay, and is able to ship it to all parts of the South in search of a market, and after paying heavy railroad charges, is still able to sell his producee at a remunerative price. The Southern man has no freight charges to tax his hay, and yet he is content to let his Northern rival enjoy, without competition, this great market. When will our eyes be OF TENNESSEE. 21 opened to our interests, is a question often asked, but diffi- cult to answer. A capitalist invests his money in United States bonds, and without risk or labor .contentedly cuts off his coupqns and enjoys his ease, while the merchant, with the same cap- ital, is harrassed to death meeting bills, collecting accounts, and watching with unceasing vigilance the turn of the markets. So it is with farmers. A prudent farmer will invest his farm-capital in grass, and he contentedly watches the growth of the grass and the browsing of his cattle, while his neighbor raising corn and cotton, is busy all the year in cultivating his crops, watching his laborers, buying mules, bacon and hay from his more prudent-friend, and when he counts his receipts at the end of the struggle, he will find his neighbor has absorbed the greater part of them. Not only this, but a stranger appears in the coun- try desirous of investing inJdand, and while he would turn from the cotton plantation at ten or twelve dollars per acre, he would gladly invest in the grass farm at forty or fifty dollars per acre. ' Land that will yield ten or fifteen dollars per acre clear of the expense of cultivation, cannot be supposed, and is not entitled, to the same value with land that will produce thirty to forty dollars on the same breadth. And yet the farmers of Tennessee hesitate to pursue this course. Dr. Gulliver, in the midst of his extravaganzas, uttered a truism that will,go down to all ages when he said “ the man who makes two blades of grass grow where one grew before, is a great public benefactor;” and when the citizens of Tennessee look at their own interest in a proper light, they will realize this truth, and then by acting on it, double or even quadruple the intrinsic value of the lands of the State. Grasses mean less labor, less worry, fewer hands, more enjoyment, finer stock and® more charming homes, and as a consequence, happier families, more education, more taste 22 THE GRARSES and refinement, and a higher elevation of the moral char- acter. Let grasses be sown and our homes beautified and there will be more contentment, more satisfaction, less gloom and despondency, less carping and discontent. It is almost impossible for us to realize the splendid fu- ture that would await us in such an event. We are groan- ing under the burdens of a heavy debt incurred by our State in a more prosperous time. Now it is with diffi- culty the interest can be paid, and our creditors are alarmed at the possible loss of the debt Should more mea- dows and pastures be established, and the lands prove themselves to be, as we know they are, a tide of im- migration, of a character to be desired, would pour into our borders, the lands would be quickly cut up into smaller farms, and the returns would so increase their value, we could pay the whole debt as easily as we can now meet the interest. But, some will say, how can this be done? On the gen- eral principle that what has. been done by one man can, under the same or similar circumstances, be done by all. The amount of hay, on a given amount of land, can be raised from 800 pounds to the acre, to five tons or 10,000 pounds, simply because it has been done. Were we confined to any one species of grass, with the great diversity in the character of our soils, we might well exclaim against. the chances of success, but fortunately such is not the case. There are a great many to select from, and he who has a farm with several kinds of soil, can make such selections as suit the different requirements, or he can mix the seeds of various kinds, if he labors under any un- certainty in regard to its capability. The cultivation of the grasses in Tennessee is yet in its infancy. It is true some have been engaged in it for years with eminent success, but to the masses it is a sealed book. Many have attempted it, and fram a want of knowledge of judiciously selecting seeds and the proper time and manner OF TENNESSEE. 23 of sowing, have failed, and, discouraged, abandoned it. Many, and a majority, are content to secure such precarious .spots as are self-sown, or where seeds have been distributed by nature, and still exhaust their lands by cultivation. C. W. Howard, of Georgia, who devoted years to the investigation of the influence of the grasses upon civiliza- tion and material progress thus presents the subject ina strong light: A planter owning one thousand acres of fair average land in the healthy portion of the cotton States isa poor man. He could not sell , his land probably for more than $5,000. He looks to the North, and finds lands ranging from $50 to $200 per acre. He looks to England,: Holland and Belgium, and finds the price averaging from $300 to $500 per acre. Why this difference? Is the land in these countries better then ours? Not by nature—if it be better it is by the difference of treatment. Is their climate better than ours? The acknowledged superiority is on our side. Are the prices of their products any better than ours? On an average not so good. Are the taxes lighter than ours? If we were compelled to pay their tax either at the North or in England our lands would at once be sold for taxes. Have they val- uable crops which they can raise and we cannot raise? There is not a farm product in either Old England or New England which we cannot raise in equal perfection at the South. Is the labor cheaper than ours? The cost of labor at the North nearly doubles the cost of labor South. In England labor is cheaper than with us. But the difference is per- haps compensated by the poor and church rates and excessive taxes paid by the English farmers. If our climate is as good as that of the countries referred to, if our lands are as good as theirs, if our products bring as good prices, if we can grow all they can grow, if labor is cheaper with us than at the North, and if difference in taxes compensate for the cheapness of labor in England, why is it that their lands are so valuable and ours so value- legs ? We shall find the map of use to us in answering this question. If we take the map of the United States, and put our finger upon the States or parts of States in which lands sell at the highest price, we shall find that in those States, or parts of those States, the greatest attention is paid to the cultivation of the grasses and forage plant:. If we open the map of Europe we shall find that the same rule holds good. The cheapest lands in Europe are those of Spain. where little attention is paid to the grasses. The value of land rises exactly in proportion to the attention which 24 THE GRASSES is given to them, in England and Holland, reaching, for farming pur- poses, $1,000 per acre. Holland is almost a continuous meadow. This land value culminates in Lombardy, where irrigated meadow lands rent for $60 to $100 per acre. Without exception, in Europe and America, where a large portion of land is in grass or forage crops, the price of the land is high, reaching the figure as above men- tioned. On the other hand, without exception, wherever in either con- tinent the grasses do not receive this attention, landed estate is compar- ative of low value. These remarks are more applicable to Tennessee than to Georgia, for the latter State is strictly within the cotton belt, while Tennessee belongs strictly to the great grain and grass-growing region of America. Her natural destiny is to feed the population of the Cotton States, and supply them with domestic animals, and she will never realize the full wealth of her real estate and climate until grass and stock take the place of cotton and corn. OF TENNESSEE. 25 CHAPTER III. HOW AND BY WHOM GRASSES HAVE BEEN IMPROVED— WOBURN EXPERIMENTS—EXPERIMENTS OF LEWIS AND GILBERT—WAY’S EXPERIMENTS-——ANALYSIS OF GRASSES —TABLES BY WOLF AND OTHERS. Although, since the time of the oldest records, a large proportion of mankind have been “keepers of flocks and herds.” it is only within the last century that any systematic and successful efforts are known to have been made toward selecting and improving the grasses of the meadow and pasture. And even to this day the value of a large major- ity of the grasses known remains to be tested by any ex- haustive and trustworthy experiments. The . knowledge which botanists have of the grasses would be of but little value to the farmers if they possessed it, since it is confined almost entirely to the mode of blooming, shape and flower and leaf, and other minor details, quite important and essential to classification, but almost useless for any prac- tical purpose on the farm. What the farmer needs to know about a grass is its nutritive value, its time of bloom- ing, its habit of growth, and favorite locality. He is inter- ested. in knowing how much food it will furnish, at what time of the year, in what form, and from what character of soil. These are questions with which botanists have not, heretofore, concerned themselves, but which must be an- swered, now that farmers’ sons are beginning to learn bot- any and chemistry. The first impulse was given to grass cultivation in Eng- land by the London Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, which, in 1766, offered prizes for “gathering by hand the seeds of Meadow Foxtail, Meadow Fescue and Sweet Vernal Grass.” The success of 26 THE GRASSES this offer was such as to induce the same society to offer, in 1769, a gold medal to the person who should give the best account of the properties and comparative values of any two,or more; natural grasses. Previous to this sufficient attention had been given to. the grasses to establish the terms natural and artificial grasses—the latter being ap- plied to the plants selected fer cultivation in meadows and pastures, but-which are not really grasses. As yet, however, no systematic efforts had been made to test, by experiment or analysis, the relative values of the several grasses. In 1822 this attempt was made by the Duke of Bedford, wh« set his gardener, George Sinclair, to work to collect all the natural grasses of England into a grass garden, the first of the kind ever attempted in England. In this garden, and another, subsequently established for himself by Sinclair, a long series of experiments were, tried with the various grasses, testing with admirable patience and skill their properties and qualities. While it is true that the chemical tests applied by Sinclair were too meager and simple to command our implicit confidence, more valuable lessons con- cerning the grasses have never been taught than are con- tained in Sinclair’s accounts of the “ Woburn Experiments,” in his book called “Graminea Woburnensis.” Many of these lessons have come to be accepted as fundamental truths. He first taught, that from early spring to late in winter there is no time when there is not one or more of the grasses in prime condition, some containing most nutri- ment before flowering, some while in flower, others while in seed, and others still, owing their chief excellence to their aftermath. He taught also what grasses flourished best in dry weather, and what in wet. In short he laid the foundation for the scientific study of the grasses, and all subsequent investigations have but enlarged upon his work. In 1845, Prof. Way, Consulting Chemist of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, undertook the analysis of the principal grasses with a view of ascertaining their rela- OF TENNESSEE. 27 tive values as flesh, fat and heat producers. These analyses were conducted with that consumate skill and patience which characterized all of Prof. Way’s work, and their re- sult stands to-day as the best authority of the laboratory on the values of the different grasses. Between the writings. of Sinclair and Way a revolution had taken place in chemistry. Organic or physiological chemistry had developed relations between the mineral, vegetable and animal kingdoms, not even suspected in the time of the earlier writer, and, far from being fully under- stood even at the present time. It was this chemical pro- gress that induced Prof. Way to undertake his work. He was fully aware, and was careful to state, that his analyses were only so many facts, to be taken along with many other known and unknown facts in physiology, before a true estimate could be formed and a final conclusion’ ar- rived at. * Next in order came the experiments of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, of Rothamsted, England, which were designed to ascertain “The Effects of different Manures on the Mixed Herbage of Grass-land.” The experiments extended over | a period of seven years, and were conducted with every conceivable caution and care, and with a minuteness un- equaled in any other experiments. The results of these experiments, while they’ modify in many points, and in some overturn, the conclusions of both Sinclair and Way, on the whole add value to their works by furnishing a bet- ter interpretation of their facts. To the farmer the experi- ments of Lawes and Gilbert are invaluable. In England, in the meanwhile, quite a number of books and pamphlets had been printed on the grasses by botanists, agriculturists and seedsmen, ‘all of more or less value, but none of material importance to the American farmer. In America, too, books have been written on grasses, one entitled “Grasses AND Forage Puants”—“A prac- tical treatise, comprising their natural history; comparative 28 THE GRASSES nutritivé value; methods of cultivating, cutting and curing, and the management of grass lands in the United States and British Provinces,” by Charles L. Flint, Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. The other entitled “The Grasses and their Culture,” by John Stanton, Gould, of the New York State Board of Agriculture. Mr. Flint’s book was published in 1859, and at once took rank as a hand-book of the subject. It was based upon the pre- ceding works of Sinclair and Way, and is the best applica- cation of their several experiments made up to the year 1859. The work is profusely illustrated, and will be found exceedingly useful by every intelligent farmer. The essay of Mr. Gould was prepared for the transactions of the New York Agricultural Society, and has not been published in a separate book, that we know of. It is, however, well worthy of such publication. So far as to the literature of the grasses in book form. In the agricultural journals, and in the transactions of the various State and County Agricultural Societies, there have appeared from time to time many excellent essays upon the grasses. The late Dr. Wm. Gordon contributed many ex- cellent:papers to various journals in Middle Tennessee on the grasses of that section, but so far no attempt has been made to form a complete list of the grasses of the State. The following are the natural grasses examined by Prof. Way: 29 OF TENNESSEE. *UIBOT e[qrear 48010, *ureoy A[qqna snooredye)| * *UIBOT snOaIBaTeo AT] ° ‘uIBO[ snoareofea AIq]|* ~ “MIBOl SNoarBo[eo AIT ‘PARIS PUB OLBOT SnOereO[eO , "[2ABId PUS UABOT sNOateo[eO - * * "UBOT a[qreur 4s910,7 ‘ *ULBOL, B[GIVU 489.10, - “UBOT SHOITeOTeD _, “reo, FNS)" “UIBOT SnOareoyeo AIC |’ “MIBOT O[QIeUI 4s9I10,T “WIBOT [qIeMt 4ysa1OWT ‘Tlosqns Ayjaaeis ‘creo, snoareo[eg ‘a[QqNa snosieo[8o pues WIEO'T wees ooo ay OUP veeeeeeng oune ott Sap "*eT sane “otter Aine vein a OEE eee cane in nae atm me +59 un vee sien Aqng reese essere gone aaah @ Ane SRE ESOT emne js Ruste: 8's Sse AB ETE IG &eyq| ween see see ***gsuiad oX1 UBITC}] srrecees se* romrep Jo seid ayy ee srreesses Kopreq MOpBay see awee senses esgeI8 anosaz prey “++ -s3uI8 PIBYIIQ 10 JOOF 8,409 “++ *s9@13 PIBIIIO 10 OOF $7909 se rseesss sagpid [18] 8,d0p Pa1saiQ tresses ss sgserd saryenb mOUUIOD pane een see egg sg auLO.1q qusidy titeeeeeeesssgops9 guromg Fog tree's: gerd oyt[-780 10 ATMOg teen eee egan Tg OAL-¥BO MOTTA sr recessssseei9 aMI[-180 TOULUIOD stresss* geeId paliey-xXof Aopuayl ster sss eseBId MOPBAUL JOG] * Sr aos “**TUNoTey] wWanI[oryT tee eee cer eee ranggi9d wnioT_t oe * -osmaye.id munapi0o xy * snyeuel sno[oyy “*°*@Tnosniinp Bon}se,q “+9 +paas adr ‘eyeromoys s1pAyoeq i erry “eyB10NO[S sITAyouq, oeereee sess esnagagrra sninsomdy rete ee sce ee scene ee epinguL BZLIG, soeeeeesssnyoala SAUMOIG see os “sl[[out snuiorg: “smaosaqnd susaAy ‘ress *sg0saABy BUOAY iccret* umovues?® UNeqyeueqIy seescresssssgisroqeid snimosdopy bere s gong [eUIoA poymeds-joamg|*****"* *“uan}e10po TWNUBXoq Wy “TI0S 1° HAOLYN SNINOOTS 10 TLVa ‘aNVN NONWOO “SHAVN TVOINVLOG® THE GRASSES 30 ” “ST oun 80'S 8E°G |FT'S (68°. jose |Tk6L [ot "rss *-(asoya aya) suadar umnpoyiqy, ‘wold U]*Z aune Zg'T 9L'& GE's 169° UR (Od [ot 28 a8 Sa Sige (aaA079) vesuiayerd WNTOFILL, ” ‘ot Atmpiggs {ze It jase log't jose |r1e‘z¢ Trereseeerss es ss -gsuaqesd cay 9 "ST OUNLITS"S (S8'h [IL'FT JOS" [aps |t97Gy [ote “WanoI[ey] wANTTOT a3 ‘3 sun ICl’s 90'0T 80°SL 16° Lg°s SP IL . Ttrr sets *-gumered UNIfory ” “ST eUNL0s'S |ILOL Fe OT |46° ‘Igc°s |o9-e, nrttese esse: SBTAL BOg ” “TT OUNL|Cg"T |6F'SI |ST'FT 98° lTe'e |FT 219 trrtss cesses sgrstraqzid 80g 3 9g Lew 6g" 0g'9 62°01 |TL" LPS PU 6), SER EGR ayip risa Se ied oy enuue vod ” "It AmMe7g°s [gost co'os [p6° lege lease foot ttt “+s -osuayerd umaprloyy ” “63 OUNL|g6°L FEIT |Z6IT |zo'L jer's |02"69 sactichen 7" sngvuel snO[ORT ” “ST OUNL'99"L IB LT j9F'SI |ZO'T joz°e |ge769 ****-glosntinp Bon4sa,T ” “6 AIMLiI9°s 14°08 |T9'Sr IFL° |ge'or Iag-se “edit spoas ‘sipAqouq ” “ET OUNL|6a°T |TL“OT jog’st [46° |90°h 00°OL | rcs eqerouropé sided ” “IT eungigg's |08°6 |F9°6T |oe"T let'e |es°29 et cami: snyejsLI0 sninsoudsg 5 8 Ae 98°T 9F'8 70°6 LPT G0'F CNR Oa ee L sional Go oye) 6 s[four snwo1g ” "ef OUNLIIT"S |9F'S |PO'S [GBT |ey°e jug‘eg "tress sss sgngogra SnULOIg, “WOOTA UI|"6Z 9UNL|AT*F O0O'LT loose |SF°L |e6e°s |es-TE Terese ss sess -gIpeUl BZ vad paeg) It Ajar}io's [Fest jot‘er j26° zoe |og-T9 “Tov tt ss -gusoseqnd sieay ” 6B SUNL|ZL'S |S FL j99'st [POT |96's lor'09 "ert sss suDOseABy BUIAW ” 41 Aqogigg’s |£8°6 |tstr |“8° pee |eg-as “WUNOBUOAR THNIOqwUOTITY » T ouneicg’T j0L°9 |69°S |Zo° IPRS [OB OS | "+++ s1suoyuid sammoadory “mool UT)"Gs Lewis [StL ipe'gs 149° eos lee'os ** TAnyVIOpo uINGTex OY WY $ me 5 = 2s 5 to e a ge | #h 8 |@asleg [$2 3 : = SS [Pelee Pea, |ERE) & SHNVN TVOINVLOG 3 7S RE eS gig B je ee) . i =a : 9 B u D (Any) ‘sessnu younyoar podrowrg oy fo sshpoup ay MOYs 99RD], sry], OF TENNESSEE. 31 This table exhibits the theoretical value of these grasses as they are gathered from the field, and may stand for their pasture value. It must be borne in mind, however, that pasture grasses are rarely allowed to come into bloom be- fore cattle are turned in on them, so that these estimates will not hold absolutely true. Grasses differ widely in the amount and character of their foliage, which is an import- ant element in any estimate of their value for pasturage. Again, some of the most esteemed grasses owe their value chiefly to the fact that they appear at a time when they are much needed, that is, in early spring, rather than to their absolute richness. We give below another table of the same grasses dried at 212° Fahrenheit : e 3 3 {3 3 zie |#8| 8] | NAMES. a legless 5 Br a) 3} - 2/3 ma] a < & 3 |= < Anthoxanthum................ 10.43) 3.41] 42.48' 36.36) 6.32 Alopecurus pratensis............ 12.32} 2.92] 43.12! 33.83) 7.81 Arrhenatherum avenacum...' ..} 12.95; 38.19] 38.03) 84.24) 11.59 Avena flavescens............... 7.48) 2.61] 47.08 85.95} 6.88 Avena pubescens...... ........ 7.97) 2.389, 49.78 384.64) 5.22 Briza media..........00. cee ees 6.08] 38.01] 46.95, 35.30) 8.66 Bromus erectus......... ta wes 9.44) 8.83) 41.71; 36.12) 5.21 Bromus mollis..............06- 17.29| -2.11] 38.66) 36.12) 5.82 Cynosuris cristatus............. 11.08} 3.54] 52.64) 26.36; 6.38 Dactylis glomerata............. 18.53} 8.14] 44.32' 83.70) 5.31 Dactylis, seeds ripe............ 23.08) 1.56) 26.53) 48.382) 5.51 Festuca duriuscula....... E Sadaviaen 12.10} 3.34) 40.43) 38.71) 5.42 Holcus lanatus............. -.- 11.52] 8.56] 39.25) 39.30| 6.37 Hordeum pratense...........40. 11.17] 2.380] 46.68) 31.67) 6.18 Lolium perenne.... ........6+- 11.85, 3.17) 42.24) 85.20! 7.54 Lolium Italicum.. ............ 10.10) 8.27| 57.82! 19.76) 9.05 Phleum pratense..............- 11.86} 8.55) 53.85) 26.45) 5.28 PO@) GNUUA oie es siciedaeeteaeauneae we 11.83) 8.42) 51.70) 30.22) 2.838 Poa pratensis. ........ .eeeeee 10.85} 2.63) 43.06) 38.02; 5.94 Poa trivialis......... eee eee 9 80} 38.67) 40.17) 38.031 8.33 This table may be used as.a basis for estimating the hay value of the several grasses, it being understood that hay, however dry, is never absolutely free from water, as these specimens were. The usual amount of water in well made 32 THE GRASSES hay is about 16 per cent. A comparison of the relative values of these grasses in the hay and pasture state cannot but be interesting, and may be instructive. It must never be forgotten, however, that the presence or absence of a large amount of water in a grass is not always to be ac- cepted as conclusive proof of its value, since the same spe- cies of grass grown on an upland meadow, and under irri- gation, will differ in the amount of water which it contains quite as widely as any two species grown under the same conditions. Again, the amount of water found in the same grass will vary widely at different stages of growth, from the first shooting up of the leaves to the ripening of the seeds. This fact is strikingly illustrated in the common old field broom sedge, which, when young, is eaten quite greedily by some cattle, but when the stem begins to shoot, nothing will eat it. This table, therefore, like all the oth- ers, is to be used, not as a standard of absolute values, but as an approximation and guide in forming estimates. The following table will be found useful, being a report to the Higland Society by Mr. Stirling, of Glenbervie: Column I. contains the scientific names. Column IT. contains the common name. Column ITT contains the average weight of the seed per bushel in pounds. Column IV. contains the’ average number of seeds in one ounce. Column VY. shows, in inches, the depth of cover at, which the greatest number of seeds sprouted. Column VI. shows, in inches, the depth of cover at which only about half the number of seeds sprouted. Column VII. shows, in inches, the least depth of cover at which none of the seeds sprouted. OF TENNESSEE. T@AOTO OFT AA nee ““gueded UIMITOJILL, % 07 HK | FOF O | 000%E 69 1 04 HL | $03 0 | 0009T a) sateteeenene tae eneean ese ons s eneeaeneeanaasareesenesess assess ensenas os ooeeeessenee QuTTQ Zod Bee on Fee | $£.04 | OOUIOE | Fo [rrttttettrttttteteeeeseteeseeeseeceecneenseeneentnnneens 16K019) , tod ogueyEtd Se 04 | “104 % O86. 9% ie Ssusie sesinaésdentenonisssscscousesecslavauseaseesensiadeors eatyes sqqoLiqouo wet canenensae | eeeetersesesees | Qa ef 705: |PSRESRER Reimann rates sie pets rb iets: EATEN OSUOIDOTL Par | LO 7% | EOF 0. | O00 9E 89 a Leb a esanon aac aie eaS “-eugmndny oBeorpen : o00‘19 79 fe sgtnerenneseTe + ss vaveeneerenssensenseees enenaeeseestee OP EUT BIOL How). saa at 0. . one @ ot wees axigas WORESSCUBOESE 6 syeTNOTAL0D snjoy eH see. [erties PEt gins Seta sate ‘Goo IS MEO) ooo'stt | 9 ” - ; ee nae FELTEUE "BTTTELOW oot | st | scsocenseesoeseeeess MopGOUE ALBIS USNOY |* B TAL GO 000 8F% st SSULED OMT [oer sete ee cs cnsnece a abasaae eens teas seesuascaisisis sey wae A erent 20a ooo'sLE | aT Sere siete sees nee OR ROUE DOOM: ie STTBIOUIOU BOS 000{F " ses eteeteseneseetee RTQOUTUT | Teeevvnerneeneeeeseennne ss soeneeegerraqead UIST. ooo'os | 9% iasnsessacsnsesngsecconssaes Ms ee erat ooo*st =| 08 09 BE *tourep 10 sevI3 OLY rod mee 000‘L8 Ole Psi rates een *asuad ofa WerTEyT|"* uMoTeIT wANTO'T 000‘S8 9 Snened Gaenns PeCEOSEODIcccseesTTESD CaLenD yAsconETeODOSeeR ss bs O90: erry STTOUr sno[o 000°96 h Renee saneeeaeavossuerststec s9ax8 Mopsour 430g : : sto do's aT pie cpaeR ORNS “se818 euUeM TOUTIOD suEIING waa ts) pated a i et : i wevere vas terecese weve: 1 be AED aaeee 3 . sasads vse “"BOOBTTOT SF ad iL 000‘08 Gt secece Aeeeeeteenes, 0: mH id 000‘F9 cas “**-enosey ,sdooyg Relics a wares Soule HE 0090 71 saseeeeeggea ONOSOF [BL [mers Stet Tet seeee eee amteecottaneneneseneeee Ong BONIS bas 000%68 OL sevid onosez PIvA e{hosnnp wonqseT we 000‘0F ta stn ene caecan neces enseanececentensenasecee sonore sev paeyorg| eyeroul0]S ersjou tS cassl ss 00°82 9% seea8 [rey sop peysery : snins0uk) ae 000°TZ i sersenenesennan senses ees seeeeggeaS 480 MODBOUE [[@L | tts gig ee) ooorsey | ET SSSI as PTO ARDEA CLA eure ‘sreS[nA srys0r3y I 000‘009 st : "°° TEIOLT BLO FFUOTOS SySOISY “ITA ‘IA “A “AI “TIT m1 pt TI ‘“NOLLVNV1dXa@ WOK FOV PNIGHOeAd TAS 34 THE GRASSES Composition of the ash of agricultural plants and products, giving the average of all trustworthy analyses published up to August, 1865, by Prof. Emile Wolff,of the Royal Academy of Agriculture, at Hohem- heim, Wirtemberg: I—MEADOW HAY AND GRASSES. of |e als dle SUBSTANCE. Shisal a | ‘ asl 4 . 24/& a 1/Meadow ay......sesosssne sesseaecnees: 13 |7.78|25.6 2/Young grass. 1 |9.32]56.2 3) Dead ripe hay........ sisbeviaubvons »} 1 17.73) 7.6 4/Rye grass in flower. 4 |7.10}94.9 5) Timothy ......... oie .| 3 {7.01/28,.8 6| Other sweet grasses. 39 |7,27|/33,0 7| Oats, heading out. 6 19,.46141.7 8/Oats in flower.,.,,... 7 |'7.23139.0 9) Barley, heading out. 5 |8.93138,5 10) Barley in flower..,. 5 |7,04/26,2 11] Winter wheat, hea 2 |9,73/34.7 12) Winter wheat in flower. 3 |6.99/25.7 13) Winter rye, heading out.. } 5,42138.6 14/Green cereals, light. 7,20)29.6 a8 are tae tie ia 5 |9,21)/35,.6 ‘ungarian millet,gree: 7 a met 2 |7,23187.4 TI—CLOVER AND FODDER 17/Red_ clover... .ss.ssseeaees 66 |6,72)34,.5 oe Bree percentagp potash 15 |6,01|20,8 c. 35-50“ oy 18) White clover... -19| Lucern............ 90 | Esp ; 21| Swedish clover....... 22) Anthyllis vulneraria..... 23|Green Vetch 24|Green pea, in flower.... -25|Green rape, young....... | Soda, | Magnesia. & Tron we tn to A oie o~T bo OS £8 CORO Go BO Go go DO bo SROSH OPO RE p RIE A MOR NOH ONOIA TWH POD & oH oli caro SOON PREP EAR RHE DW OAMN IH OR AOD Boe TW ORmwWMnowoarndtb = ROOK Sar os | Lime. era S ODAAWRPAARNIMONNOM OD WARE DOOCNHOAURUONA BVRISVVESReSe BSS MD SOARS HAWBDONONWANIS Phospho- ric Acid. an ar = RANCSMOASNRSO ary SEN ost ¢ § He PR A100 ROO Rt 09 0 OO MOTH Be ee Pada SsnhoSo@ ANWORPRTR HAR; ulphuric Acid, \§ ® DH AODOOIRROMIOH & £0 99 ER 99 & God 99 69 69 WOANAOWHON CMS pan is | Silica, oo bo C8 09 GO Oo et DO BRSSAaSsss RPOMDONNOARSMHWaA ESSes tS em uo NWawoboona~ww!-~a CNP DPA RD NED | Chlorine. SINm QAROPRHFORACSO PON GTR RTT OW! o& re 5. 6 Ie OPM Ht eo LD HE ADMENOACONNOM=7 35 OF TENNESSEE... Composition of fresh or air-dry agricultural products, giving the aver- age quantity of water, sulphur, ash and ash-ingredients, in 1,000 parts of substance, by Prof. Wolff : myding[ Sh, le heq Symenawenaa ; n9e :@ 1m 10 4p MANN id ide sodddosdsdd i isd id i isis ‘eurr10[q9 SQM Ar weg PWAGROR AQIS nage weyaqe aqg 2 wweNnAAnAA APOnNMNOCOCHOHS *HOSDOSCS Son “Rom RO SIVIs = AaAAgQreqnigqantenweagaa TIT 3 See BRMAAN YSN WMA WO Wig Woy : sq R sddroWdirsaddscSScsssdds, "PPV BSSBSBeNh AQQeoeernawagtatwatnNosa opInyd[ng MOMMNABDMAG HISSSCHSSSSSSSOcHSoHSOCCA “POV Tee SeS «BSH Ahan oummSoMAGoNA ol1oydsoug SHOnCosOHae dda sna sHdd ean nnoaer *oumr'y PRONLROR PNQOAAR ONIN AG OWAQR Gna SYISsOUse QABATPRLAD AQ HYVO SHEN AHgQRQOWSOR Ons i W MAOOMGMIA ps HOSSSSS SSSS OHHH ANS SHHS ‘epog | RASHHE SIS A Sxoeweeqnyad Tananaeg 6 MIMOMSSOAN A HOSSSSSSOSSSS itsSridsodd id — Z : a “qseq0g o FS genaaean? eB EQTAAT IIE SO QO YO O Hig HOO OH : Wsy [ PONS INS PHO HI COM NSHOOMOWRAWONoOog nh + OGSooS Hod Hots sadtadssasor 315 09 04 H SSSSSSSEE RR RARARS AS SeeS0en5e SSOSS9Secown“nmnoowo . i=) QrAd cam wy | SISSSSSSS TS BSESSSSaeS2SReg 3 3 2 ig: ‘ S Ba ie i 8 i os PS) as iii 4 ae ee : % | Fup ? Fo bi ¢ a e “2 3 a iia: i @ pe EES go: 8 ae: i:b iiss B P Ba 8eiise ge i: BS ig IBS : 88 a Moh Ss i838 ast : ead ayes ishg eHeSa cg" o BBEBE HS Boea oS a i SeeSessse geese We gs Gogg Faas § sug 298,0 SS 09g 8. u- 8s oFeaoSss G.. OOP Eagan Popes: & E PaSEE RES eS: Saekassss anghsé & Bae ade so 36 THE GRASSES Proximate composition of agricultural plants and products, giving the average quantities water, organic matter, ash, albuminoids, carbohy- drates, etc., crude fibre, fat, etc., by Professors Wolff and Knop,* 3 e + 0 C3 ed gi ie Paes SUBSTANCE, 8 |aSs s(Oe/ga| e = |&3\ 4 j2slasle"| 7 E68] 4 |s"|S815 | & HAY. Meadow hay, medium quality ,. wees! 14.3, 79,5} 6.2) 8,2/41.3) 30,01 2.0 yaa ai nd "'14'3}/79-3| 615] 9.5/45.7| 24.0] 214 Red clover, full blossom 6.2) 13,4|29.9] 35.8] 3.2 eid we ripe. i dx 5.6] 9,.4!20,3) 48.0} 2.0 8.5] 14.9/34.3] 25.6] 3.5 5 8.3] 15.3/29.2} 30.5] 3.3 = 3} 5,0} 10,2]23.1) 45.0} 2.2 Lucern, young....... fast 16.7/74.6} 8.7) 19.7/32.9] 22.0] 33 Ke ID DICKSON sossessssevencceveseveis Ss oaeetl feseancte -|16.7)76.9) 6.4] 14.4/22.5] 40.0, 2.5 Sand lucern, early blossom (Medicago intermedia) 16.7|77.2 6.1] 15.2/26.9] 35.1] 3:0 Esparsette, in blossom...... wdimiaeleavertsitios Saves 16.7;77.1| 6.2] 13.3)36.7) 27.1} 2.5 Incarnate clover ‘‘ (Trifollum incarnatum) .(16.7 76.1] 7.2, 12.2/30.1] 33.8) 3.0 low ss “ (Medicago lupulina) 16.7 77.3) 6.0} 14,6|36.5] 26.2] 3,3 Vetches, in blossom... 16.7|75.0| 8.3) 14.2)35,.3) 25.5, 2.5 Peas ae 8 i 16.7}76.3} 7.0] 14.3/36,8} 25.2] 2.6 Field spurry, in blossom (Spergula arvensis) 16,7|73.8| 9.5] 12.0/39.8) 22.0] 3.2 ss after blossom,, 16.7|75.5| 7.8) 7.8]41.7] 26,0] 2.5 Serradella = ae 16.7|77.7| 5.6} 14,6/29.2) 33.9) 1.5 ne before Ce 16,7] 75.8] 7.5) 15.3/87.2] 26,1] 1.9 Italian rye grass (Loliwm Italicum).. 14,3 77.9) 7.8] 8,7/51.4) 16.9) 2.8 Timothy (Phlewm pratense)........ 14.3 81.2; 4.5; 9,7)48.8) 22,7) 3.0 Early meadow grass (Poa annua)... .. 14.3, 83.3 2.4 10,1]47.2) 25.9] 2.9 Crested dog’s tail (Cynosuras cristatus 14. ‘80,2! 5.5} 9.5/48.0] 22.6] 2.8 Soft brome grass (Bromus mollis 14,3 80,7) 5.0) 14.8/35 0} 31.0) 1.8 Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata, 14.3 81.1! 4.6, 11.6}40.7] 28.9] 2.7 Barley grass (Hordeum pratense),. FI 14.3 80.4) 5.3) 9.6/42,0) 27.2) 2.0 Meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis). w. { § {14.3 79.9) 6.7] 10.6/39,5, 29,0] 2.5 Oat grass, French rye grass (Arrhenatherum avena- | .2 | COUN) csc scsssucessuerenscsetst sisisate we be TAS (75.8; 9.9} 11,1/85,3) 29,4] 2.7 English rye grass (Lolium perenne). © /14.3'79.2! 6.5] 10.2/38.9| 30.2] 27 Harter Schwingel (Festuca?)........ 14,3: 81.0] 4.7] 10.4/87,5| 33,2] 2.9 Sweet-cented vernal grass (Antho: 4]. | LUM)... eevee © |14.3:80,3, 5.4) 8.9/40,.2! 31.2] 2.9 ‘Velvet grass (Ho. os 14 3)80.2) 5.5) 9,936.7] 33.6) 3.1 Spear grass, Kentucky blue grass 14,3/80.6] 5.1} 8,9/39,1] 32.6] 2.3, Rough meadow grass (Poa trivialis).., 14.3|78.6| 7.1] 8.4/37.6| 32.6} 3.2 Yellow oat grass (Avena flavescens), 14.3:79,8, 5.9] 6.4]42 6] 30,8] 2.2 Quaking grass (Brixa media) ae 7.4] 5.2]42,8] 30 3] 2.6 Average of all the grasses,,, eee /14,8]79.9] 5,8] 9.5/4.7] 28.7] 2.6 «This table is, as regards water and ash, a repetition of last table, but includes the newer analyses of 1865-7. Therefore the averages of water and ash do not in all cases agree with those of the former tables. It gives besides, the proportions of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds, i. e., albuminoids and carbohydrates, etc. It alse states the averages of crude fibre and of fat, etc. The discussion of the data of this table belongs to the subjects of Food and Cattle-Feeding, t Organic matter heye signifies the combustible part of the plant. + Carbohydrates, etc., includes fat, starch, sugar, pectin, except albuminoids and crude fiber, § Crude fiber is impure cellulous. , etc., all in fact of Org. matter I Fat, etc., is the ether-extract, and contains besides fat, wax, eklonophyll, and im some cases resins—Professor Samuel W. Johnson, in ‘How Orops Grow." OF TEN NESSEE. 37 Proximate composition of agricultural plants and products: «| 9 ‘ a| 8; & ek) jaelee) a |g SUBSTANCE. 8 ae x Slee o | s = |BAl dig. (BB/ 2/2 : E\l6 |4 [2 [Ss\s |e GREEN FODDER. : Grass, before blossom... 15.0| 229) 2.1] 3,0/12.9] 7.0] 0.8 “after i ce 29,0] 2,0] 2.5/15.0)11.5] 0.7 Red clover before blossom 15.5] 1.5] 3.3] 7.7) 4.5) 0.7 ae full ae E: 20.3) 1.7| 3.7) 8.6} 8.0] 0.8 White “ ‘ $6 a 17,5} 2.0! 3.5} 8.0) 6,0) 0.8 Swedish clover, early blossom 13.5] 1.5} 3.3) 5.7) 4.5} 0.6 ne me full a 16.2] 1.8| 3.3) 6.3] 6.6] 0.6 Lucern, very young. 17,3) 1.7] 4.5] 7.8} 5.0) 0.6 ‘in blossom . 24.0} 2.0) 4.5) 7.0)12.5| 0,7, Sand lucern, early blossom.. 20.1) 1.9] 4.0) 6.6] 9.5] 0.8 Esparsette in ee 3 ii 18.5} 1.5} 3.2] 8.8] -6.5) 0°6 Incarnate clover in ‘‘ (Trifotium incarnatum).. 16,9) 1.6{ 2.7] 6.7] 7.5) 0.6 Yellow clover in be (Medicago ar bl 18.5] 1.5) 3.5] 9.0| 6.0] 0.8 Seradella sf a (Ornithopus sativus 18.7| 1.3) 3.6) 7.0; 8.1) 0.4 Vetches ff e . 16 2) 1.8] 3.1) 7.6} 5.5) 0.6 Pcas “ “ . 17.0] 1.5} 3.2] 8.2] 5,6] 0.6 Oats, early blossom... 17.6| 1.4| 2.3} 8.8; 6.5; 0.5 Bye eons 25.5] 1.6] 3.3]14.9, 7.3] 0.9 Maize, late end August. 14,6} 1.1) 0.9) 8.7) 5,0) 0.5 «earl, ee ane 16.7} 1.1] 1.1]10.9] 4.7] 0.5 Hungarian millet, in blossom, (Panicum germanicum) 32.0) 2.4) 5.9/15,0/11.5) 1.5 Sorghum saccharatum at 25.1] 0.9] 2.5|15.3} 7.3] 1.4 Sorghum vulgare....... 21.6; 11) 2.9)11.9] 6.7) 2 Field spurry in blossom... 18.0} 2.0) 2.3]10.4| 5.3] 0.7 38 THE \GRASSES CHAPTER IV. DESIRABLE QUALITY OF GRASSES—HOW TO ESTABLISH PASTURES AND MEADOWS— MAINTENANCE AND IM— PROVEMENT OF MEADOWS — WHAT KIND OF MANURES TO USE. Grasses, as they'are to be cut for hay or fed off by stock, are called meadow grasses or pasture grasses. By their structure some grasses are fitted only for the meadow, while’ others are fitted only for the pasture; a few are suited to both uses. Grasses with tuberous roots are purely meadow grasses. It is the nature of such plants to store up in their bulbs one year the material of growth for the next. It re- quires therefore a certain time for maturing the bulbs, and they must not be interfered with when formed. Manifestly cattlé cropping over a field would prevent the formation of bulbs, or, if already formed, would soon destroy them, either by tramping or biting off their crowns. Timothy is a type of this grass. For the meadow it is almost without a rival—for permanent pasture it is scarcely worth sowing. Again, among meadow grasses some are valued on account of the amount of nutritious seed they yield, as is the case with timothy, while others, as redtop or herds grass are principally valued for their forage. A pasture grass needs the property of springing up rap- idly after being bitten down and resisting the tramping of cattle. Blue grass is the best known type of the pasture grass. A few grasses, if left to themselves, grow rank, form thick bunches or tussocks, and get hard and tough, but if sown along with other grasses that crowd them remain slender and tender. Such is orchard grass, which also submits to frequent and close cropping, and is therefore an excellent pasture, as well as good meadow grass. OF TENNESSEE, 89 Again, grasses are esteemed for the time when they begin to grow in spring and ripen their seed in summer. The grass that comes forward in spring when other green food is wanting is especially valuable in the pasture; nor is the grass that yields an early crop of hay less valuable for the meadow. The amount and quality of the aftermath, or second crop of hay, is also an important item in estimating the eco- nomic value of any grass. \ Furthermore, the value of any given grass to any par- ticular farmer will depend upon its adaptability to his land. Some grasses thrive on low lands but will scarcely live on uplands, while others confine themselves to uplands entirely. Soils, and exposure too, have much to do with the success and value of different grasses. So that the farmer who comes to consider the subject of grasses, will find it no easy matter to select the best grasses for his farm. It will re- quire no small degree of study and reflection. As an aid to farmers desiring to lay down land to grass, a selected list of long-tried pasture and meadow grasses is given: PASTURE GRASSES. Kentucky blue grass.......... 0. cee eee ete erent eee Poa pratensis WATE NET ABS fea cresertuasar esate. ase astrainvaieg rAsGri snuaaacnansaie Sydnee P. compressa Spear Casini cdweseews soe err eeeeweaer een cer es P. annua Rough stalked meadow...........cceceeseeneee reer ecees P. trivialis Orchard (grassicawss sewaes saci nee eee dines dered Dactylis glomerata Meadow fescue..........-..- Ms, she edie acdc ogee og in eeaeioh ees Holcus lanatus Meadow foxtail............... eee eee eee een ees Alopecurus pratensis Sweet-scented vernal..............0 ec eeeeee Anthoxanthum odoratum WLS CLOVER a.oce Soecsiacaco.atens ncnndiateneibinterbssea buona prareienesa 8 408% Trifolium repens Orchard grass........-..ceeeeee eee vole tulGrSeunared ate Dactylis glomerata FRE CLO VET a esc aces uw wicesabcopectnara ear a ana dave mack nesba Bese Trifolium pratense Timothy........ a naities a aiatrclanGareiys peseveeceeeeeeesPhleum pratense Hungarian grass... ... ccc cece eee ee ee eee veces Panicum Germanicum 40 i THE GRASSES There are many other grasses included in most of the lists to be found in all the books from the time of,Sinclair, and it may be that a better pasture or meadow can be made by adding them, but it will be quite enough gain for one generation if the farmers of Tennessee will put in the few” given. A caution is needed in sowing meadows, not to sow clover or orchard grass with timothy, because they do not ripen with it. Clover and orchard grass, however, do ad- mirably together, and if a small proportion of sweet vernal grass be mixed with them, they make a hay of the very finest quality. As a rule, however, red clover should not be sown in a permanent meadow, because by so doing one of its most valuable properties, viz., preparing the ground for other crops, is lost, and because, being a biennial, it is likely to run out on ground not already rich. It is doubt- ful if red clover should ever be introduced into a permanent pasture. White clover, however, may be so used in many localities, especially where milk cows are kept. Though not exactly to the point of this paper, it may not be amiss to state that land too poor to carry a stand of red clover may be brought up by sowing it down in white clover and turning under the white clover after it has been well pastured. Peas are also a good crop for the same purpose. Rye is an excellent pioneer crop for red clover, when sown in August, whether pastured or turned under in March. One of the chief values of red clover itself is as a preparation for wheat. A good clover sod is better than a heavy coating of manure for the wheat crop. In like manner, land that is to be put down in permanent grass can be better manured at less cost by turning under a good clover sod than in any other way. Where this course has been followed, however, care should be taken not to apply mineral fertilizers to the grass, else the clover seeds that have been shattered into the soil may be brought forward so much as to take the grass. On any but the richest soils the establishment of a first- OF TENNESSEE. 41 class pasture or meadow. is the work of many years, and of much care and attention. On the best limestone soils, where the blue grass is indigenous, it is a comparatively easy matter to get a good turf, but, unfortunately, a large portion of Tennessee is not blessed with such soil, and for these regions preparation and care are needed. It is es- pecially for such sections that these pages are written, though it cannot be denied that the pastures and meadows on the very richest of Tennessee lands would be all the better if the advice here given were followed. It would perhaps be most convenient for the majority of farmers to begin rightly with pasture lands. A large deal of the woodland of the farmers of Tennessee may, with comparative ease, be converted into very good pas-, tures, simply by clearing out the undergrowth, sowing down in good pasture grasses, and depasturing closely with cattle. In many woodlands all that is needed for 4 fair pas- ture is clearing up and putting on the cattle. The indige- nous grass, if allowed a chance to grow, will make a passa- ble pasture. But even the best of such land will be much benefitted by a generous seeding of improved grasses and a good top dressing of manure. In addition to clearing out the undergrowth, the leaves should be raked off, and if a heavy harrow be passed over the ground it will be all the better. The seeds may be sown just after the harrow and followed by a light brush harrow; or, they may be sown on the first snow which, in melting, will carry them into the ground evenly and to about the proper depth. Once the grass is set it needs only to be fed properly to improve. It may be slightly grazed, by young cattle, the first summer; but on no account should sheep be allowed run on young grass. It is a generally accepted notion, and doubtless a true one, that on old pastures sheep are a help, but they are certainly very destructive to young grass. . In addition to the woodland pastures, every farm needs other pastures that have been cultivated. The preparation 42 THE GRASSES of these is similar in every way to the preparation for mea-~ dows. It should be borne in mind, however, that bottom lands that are at all inclined to be wet are unfitted for pastures. Wet or even moist land will pack under cattle. Since land once laid down in grass can never take the plow while the grass lives, all the necessary cultivation or plowing must be given it beforehand, and, since it is to be once for all, this preparation should be as thorough as pos- sible. Thoroughly prepared land should be entirely free from standing water. The soil should be so loose and friable that the heaviest rain will not render it soggy,’ nor .the longest drought make it crack. An easy and simple test of the presence of too much tightness in land is to dig a few holes, say two feet deep, and notice after a rain how long the water stands inthem. If it stands for twelve hours after the rain has ceased, unless the rain has been of long continuance, say several days, then the land needs loosening. It is too tight—holds too much water. For this the best known remedy is under-draining. This is not only the most effectual but also the most profitable remedy, and will pay wherever properly applied. The next best thing, and the thing that should always be done, whether the land is undefdrained or not, is subsoiling. This can be done as thoroughly with a properly made bull-tongue plow as with the best. subsoiler ever patented. ‘The bull-tongue only needs to be made long and narrow, and sent down as deep as it can be made to go in the track of the best turning plow to be had. After it has been thoroughly plowed, a good top dressing of air-slacked lime should be given, say 250 bushels to the acre. Then the ground should be well harrowed. It will pay to cross-harrow, to be followed by a generous top dressing of manure, then the seed put in. This last operation should be thoroughly well done. The common error among American farmers in sowing grass seed is the putting on too few seed, and of too small a variety. There are undoubtedly pastures in Kentucky OF TENNESSEE. 43 where one kind of grass, blue grass, is made to answer a most excellent purpose, but the favoring circumstances which render this course practicable do not occur in many other sections, and nowhere outside of the blue grass regions. Even on this favored soil there is good reason for believing that the addition of several other kindred grasses would add much to the best pastures. Be this as it may, there can be no doubt as to the very great advantage to be derived from a variety of grasses in other localities. One of the first things observed by Sinclair in his experiments was. the fact that there is naturally a constant succession in the time of blooming of different grasses. As a result of this condition of things, it is practicable to make a turf which shall continue in good heart from early spring to late winter. By reference to the table on another page, the time of blooming of the various grasses may be learned. Another most important point to be determined in seed- ing down land to pasture is the adaptability of the grass to the location and soil. It is‘by no means to be supposed that a-grass that is rich and luxuriant in one place will be equally so in every place. The very reverse is more likely to be the case. Again, it is by no means the rankest grass that makes the finest pasture—on the contrary, the finest beef and the finest mutton are both grown on grass com- paratively short though rich and nutritious. Indeed it is the experience of the best grass farmers that great fineness of grass is incompatible with great luxuriance. The notion too commonly prevails that when once a farmer has put his grass in the ground his work is done— that for the future he must trust to Providence, or, more commonly, to luck. Nothing could be further from the truth. His work is by no means done. It is only begun. In the case of meadows and pastures, faith without works | is ot no avail. Providence never asks to be trusted, but demands to be pbeyed. Luck is a myth—there is no such thing. Results good or bad flow naturally and inevitably 44 THE GRASSES from wise attention to, or unwise neglect of the laws of nature. In the matter in hand these laws are few, simple -and easily ascertained. Perhaps they may be embraced in two short sentences, viz: To preserve a good stand of grass it needs to be abundantly fed. Different grasses require different foods. If we may judge from the practice that prevails almost universally in Tennessee, farmers do not seem to be aware that pastures or meadows ever need to be manured. If there is a farmer in the State who habitually spreads ma- nure over his pastures or his meadows, he is a rare excep- tion to his class. It cannot be that this neglect comes from ignorance of the fact that every hay crop and every season’s grazing extracts from the land an enormous bulk of plant material. It is difficult to conceive how any one can fail to see so large a‘fact. It must be, therefore, that the notion prevails because land Jaid down in grass does not wash away or run out so rapidly as land under the plow, that therefore it need not to be kept in heart. Such a notion is entirely erroneous. The roots of the natural grasses are almost entirely fibrous. They descend only a few inches below the surface. Of necessity their food must be obtained in a thin layer of top soil. There is no chance for the air with its warmth, or the rain with its moisture to penetrate it, and the ammonia of both air and water is almost entirely out off from the soil. There is, therefore, no source left open to the soil whence it can renew the supply of plant food taken off annually, either as hay or depastured by stock. In the latter case some return is made in the droppings. This, however, is never entirely equal either in kind or quality to the materials removed from the soil. But the every-day experience of the farmer is of itself the best proof that can be made, if only he would think of it. Why do farmers say that their meadows have “run out,” or that OF TENNESSEE. 45 their pastures are “run out?” Simply because they have failed to feed them. Because year after year they have taken off ton after ton of hay without returning a single pound of plant food. The preparation of land for a meadow is so nearly the same as that given for a pasture that it need not be re- peated. The grasses specially adapted to the meadow are, however, quite different from those given for the ‘pasture. Timothy, which stands at the head of the meadow grasses, is altogether unfit for the pasture; because it will neither bear tramping nor close cropping. There are, however, many most excellent grasses to be se- lected for the meadow. In making this selection it is of exceeding importance to note the time of flowering, and care should be taken not to have in the meadow, grasses that ripen at different timeés, for if this is_ allowed really good hay cannot be made. Part of the hay is obliged to be cut either too green or too ripe. It is always desirable to have more than one meadow, and so arranged that they shall ripen in succession. This point is readily gained by selecting for the different meadows, grasses that ripen in succession. For convenience and as a help we give a list of the grasses that experience has proved to be well adapted to the pasture. These lists are given more as suggestions than as guides or recipes. After all, each farmer must exercise his own judgment as to what grasses are best suited to his pur- poses, and best adapted to his soils. The labors of Professor Way and other chemists were chiefly of value in explaining certain facts long noted by observing farmers concerning the relations of. the grasses und soils. Long before any attempt at chemical analysis of the soil or the grasses had been made, it was well known to the best farmers that certain grasses were admirably 46 THE GRASSES suited to certain soils, but wholy unsuited to others. It was also well known, though by no means so generally, that certain manures stimulated the growth of certain grasses and seemed to retard the growth of others. Chemi- cal analysis disclosed that the soils that were suited to dif- ferent grasses were composed of different ingredients, or if containing the same ingredients, they were present in different proportions. Also analysis showed that the grasses that flourished on a given soil were composed largely of the plant food that characterized that soil, and on the other hand that a grass that ran out quickly on a given soil con- tained a large amount of some ingredient in which the soil was deficient. From these facts it seems but an easy step to infer that certain manures might be relied on to stimulate the growth of certain grasses; yet simple and easy as the step seems it was not taken with anything like assurance until those dis- tinguished experimenters, Lawes and Gilbert, of Rotham- sted, England, demonstrated by a series of field experiments continued through several years, that the character of the herbage in different parts of any given pasture or meadow may be entirely changed by the continued and abundant use of different manures. The reports of these experiments were made to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and are to be found in the journals of that society from 1858 to 1865. The general results of these experiments may be briefly summarized as follows: I, Mineral Manures, (super-phosphate of lime, sulphate of soda, sulphate of magnesia), stimulated the growth of the leguminous plants, (clovers), but scarcely affected the natural grasses. II. Nitrogenous manures, (guano and ammonical salts), stimulated the natural grasses and discouraged the legumi- nous herbage. OF TENNESSEE. 47 III. A judicious mixture of mineral and nitrogenous manures increascd the growth of grasses far beyond the sum of increase attained by the two used separately. IV. Farm-yard manure stimulated the growth of both the grasses and leguminous herbage, but chiefly the former. V. A mixture of mineral manures, (consisting of 200 pounds of bone ash, 150 pounds sulphuric acid, 300 pounds sulphate of potash, 200 pounds sulphate of soda, 100 pounds sulphate of magnesia, and 400 pounds each of muriate and sulphate ammonia, exceeded in increase by more than a ton per acre the increase produced by 14 tons of farm-yard 1 ma- nure of good quality. Tt may perhaps be useful to relate how these experiments were tried. A piece each of meadow and pasture of uniform quality and condition was laid off and a careful examination and record made of the kinds of herbage and their propor- tions. The lands were then laid off in plats and the several manures applied year after year. At the close of every growing season each plat was carefully examined and a record made of the proportions of the different plants pres- ent. Two of the plats were kept unmanured as standards of comparison. The hay cut from the meadow plats was carefully weighed and analyzed, so that the experiments not only show how much increase each manure gives in bulk, but also what plants it increases and how it influences’ he quality of the hay. “These results render the experiments by far the most valuable yet made in grass culture. With -the exception of the chemical analyses these experiments made be repeated by any intelligent farmer. It is only through such experiments that new facts may be learned or old notions put to the test. This is the kind of work waiting the educated farmers. As a practical conclusions from their experiments, Messrs, Laws and Gilbert advise the farmers to apply a largy # A8 THE GRASSES amount of barn-yard manure, in a well rotted state, every four or five years, and a small quantity of commercial ma- nure every year, say in January or February. Under the most favorable circumstances, however, and with the best of treatment, the establishment of a really good turf is the work of years. But when once established it is a thorough- ly safe and exceedingly profitable investment. ' OF TENNESSEE, 49 CHAPTER V.* SHORT REVIEW OF THE LIFE-HISTORY OF PLANTS, AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO GRASSES AND FORAGE HERBS-—-CONTRIBUTED BY DR. GATTINGER. Plants are living organic beings, deriving their origin unconditionally from other like beings (parentage), as de- tached particles of the same by fission, budding, or seed production, which, under the influence of light, heat and moisture, possess the faculty of growing and developing into bodies exactly like those from which they have been first detached. This growth they accomplish by attracting and taking within themselves simple elements or inorganie compounds from their surroundings, which, by their power of assimilation they convert into organic compounds or tis- sues like their own. At a certain period of their growth and development they become able to reproduce themselves, which is called their state of maturity, after which their cycles of life are either closed, and the parental plant decays—annual plants, or they repeat indefinitely that pro- cess of reproduction and individual growth—perennials. This simple sketch of vegetable life is within the univer- sal assemblage of individual plants, which we call the vege- table kingdom, carried out under a wonderful variety of forms and methods. The human intellect, in its endeavor to understand the meaning of this untold number of forms, has, since the dawn of civilization, attempted to group the like and the unlike until it in recent days succeeded in establishing a rational system of classification. For this purpose it has been agreed upon, that the aggre-. , 4 50 THE GRASSES gate of individuals, descending from one another and from common ancestors, and those which resemble them as strongly as they resemble one another, should be called Species. Groups of similar or related species are called Genera.- Groups of genera similarly related as the above constitute Families. The highest generalizations are denominated Classes and Divisions. All these divisions have received special denominations, and the identity of an individual is recognized by the ex- pression of the name of its generic and specific name, €. 9. viola odorata, scented violet ; lilicum candidum, white lily. All plants, from the saint to the gigantic, simplest or wonderfully complex, whether aquatic, terrestrial or parisitic, in considering their method of propagation, can be grouped into two series : Series I. Pheenogamous, or flowering plants, which pro- duce flowers and seeds, the latter containing a ready-formed embryo. Series II. Cryptogamous, or flowerless plants, whose organs of reproduction are not flowers, but some more or less analagous apparatus, and which are propagated by spores or specialized cells. Omitting the cryptogamous series, stitial has no repre- sentatives amongst our meadow and forage plants, except as occasional intruders and fearful enemies to their life and development, in which respect they will be hereafter shortly mentioned, and scrutinizing the structure of the Phenoga- mous series, we shall find that their growth or increase takes place either by an annual addition upon the periphery— exogens, “outside growers”—or the newly formed woody matter is intermingled with the old, or deposited towards the center, which becomes more and more occupied with the woody threads as the stem grows older, and the increase in diameter takes place by gradual distension of the whole; such. plants are called endogens, or “ inside growers,” OF TENNESSEE, 51 The two great classes of Phenagamous plants, indicated by this difference of the stem, possess also a marked differ- ence in the structure of their seeds. The embryo of all endogenous plants sprouts with only one cotyledon or seed leaf. Hence they are called Monocotyledonous plants. The - embryo of the exogens bears a pair of cotyledons, hence exogens are also called Dicotyledonous plants, The Monocotyledons, with a stately assembly of fami- lies, furnish us with the families of the Grasses (graminee) and the Sedge family (Cyperacew), while the Dicotyledons embrace several families, which constitute more or less val- uable pasturage herbs, but the Leguminous or Pulse family is the most important one, and deserves especial attention. It has been stated that Phzenogamous plants possess vis- ible organs of reproduction. When these organs are en- closed within envelopes for their protection, this envelope is called flower. The flower is called complete when the envelope consists of two circles of flowering leaves, the outer and lower one called the calyx, the interior and gen- erally delicately colored one, the corolla. The parts or leaves forming the calyx are termed the sepals, the parts of the corolla—petals. ‘The petals, however, are frequently absent when thé flower is said to be apetalous, or petals and sepals both wanting, when the flower is called incomplete. The essential organs of flowers are likewise of two kinds, and disposed in two circles, one including the other. The outer ones are called stamens. A stamen consists of a cok umn or stalk called the filament, to the apex of which is attached a rounded case, called the anther, filled with a powdery substance called the pollen, which it at length dis- charges through one or more slits. The remaining seed- bearing organs which occupy the summit of the flower are termed the pistils, A pistil is distinguished into three parts, the ovary, the hollow portions at the base which contains the ovules or bodies destined to become seeds; the style or columnar prolongation of the apex of the ovary, and the 52 THE GRASSES stigma, a portion of the surface of the style denuded of epidermis, often assuming a great diversity of appearance. " Flowers possessing both these essential organs are perfect (hermaphrodite or bi-sexual), although from absence of the floral envelopes they may be incomplete. Whenever either of these essential organs is wanting or abortive in one flower of the same individual of species, and present on another, the flower is said to be diclinous or unisexual. The flower which has the stamen only is called the male or sterile flower, and the one with pistils only female or fertile flower. In separated flowers the two kinds of blossoms may be borne either on different parts of the same individual, or upon entirely different individuals, the flowers in the first instance, like these of Indian corn or oak, are called monc- cious (living in one house), or they are borne upon entirely different individuals, like hemp or sassafras, and then they are called dicecious (living in two houses), One is called the male plant, the other the female. Sometimes both these conditions occur upon the same spe- cies, and plants with such flowers are called polygamous. In some flowers the floral envelopes are developed, while the pistils and stamens remain undeveloped, and are there- fore said to be neutral. In some grasses and other plants all parts of a flower are sometimes reduced to a mere rudiment. The supremacy in the vegetable world, in regard to struc- ture, is by no means so undisputed as in the animal, and several families are contesting for the prize. The power of voluntary motion is one of the essential qualities of superiority of animal over vegetable life, and wherever an approach to such power of self-motion is ob- served, we concede such species of plants a higher rank in relation to their less gifted brethren. The Leguminous family, which concerns us so much for agricultural reasons, and as a large-shareholder in our mea- a OF TENNESSEE. 53 dows and pastures, embraces within its ranks many a mem- ber capable of putting into motion certain parts of their bodies either as a response or reaction to external mechani- eal or chemical irritation, executing them with considerable dispatch and regularity. Or again, some others possess the faculty of giving gradual direction to some of their organs by which unmistakeable advantages are gained for the posi- tion, the growth or seed production of the individual. In selecting one type of this family, and explaining its parts and functions, the characteristics of the Leguminous tamily, and along with it the process of fructification and , seed production in all Phenogamous plants will be ex- plained. Take the bean plant. The principal member of it is the axis, which rises into the air; erect, with one part, while the other is imbedded in the earth and forms the root. The appendages of the stem are leaves, developed from the opposite sides of successive nodes, the parts between these nodes are called inter-nodes, which become shorter and shorter towards the summit of the stem, which ends in a terminal bud. Budsare also developed in the axils of the leaves, and some of them grow into branches which repeat the characters of the stem, but others, when the plant at- tains its full development, grow into stalks which support flowers, each of which consists of a calyx, a corolla, a stam- inal tube and a central pistil; the latter is terminated by a style, the free end of which is the stigma. The staminal tube ends in ten filaments, four of which are rather shorter than the rest, nine of them are grown together into a tube, one is free to its point of insertion. Such an arrangement has in botanical terminology been called “ diadelphous,” (dis—two aldephus—brother). The pistil is hollow, and within, along the ventral side, (the side turned towards the axis), is attached, by short stalks, a longitudinal series of minute bodies, the ovules. Each ovule consists of a central conical nucleus, invested by two coats, an outer and an inner. Opposite the summit of the nucleus these coats are 54 THE GRASSES perforated by a canal, the micropyle, which leads down to the nucleus. The nucleus contains a sac—the embryo sac— in which certain cells, one of which is the embryo cell, and the rest the endosperm cells, are developed. A pollen grain deposited on the stigma sends out a thread-like prolonga- tion, the pollen tube, which elongates, passes down the style, and eventually reaches the micropyle of an ovule. Tra- versing the micropyle, the end of the pollen tube penetrates the nucleus, and comes into close contact with the embryo sac. This is the process of impregnation, and the result of it is that the embryo cell divides, and gives rise to a cellu- lar embryo. This becomes a minute bean plant, consisting of a radicle or primary root; of two relatively large: pri- mary leaves, the cotyledons ; anda short stem, the plumule, on which rudimentary leaves soon appear, The cotyledons now increase in size, out of all proportion to the rest of the embryonic plant; and the cells of which they are composed become filled with starch and other nutritious matter, legumin). The nucleus and coats of the ovule grow to accommodate the enlarging embryo, but, at the same time, become merged into an envelope which constitutes the coat of the seed. The pistil enlarges and becomes the pod ; this when it has attained its full size, dries and readily bursts along its edges, or decays, setting the seeds tree. Each seed, when placed in proper conditions of warmth and moisture, then germinates. The cotyledons of the contained embryo swell, burst the seed coat, and becoming green, emerge as the fleshy seed leaves. The nutritious matters which they contain are absorbed by the plumule and radicle, the latter of which descends into the earth and becomes the root, while the former ascends and becomes the stem of the young bean plant. The tissues which compose the body of the bean plant are bounded at the surface by a layer of epidermic cells, within which, rounded or polygonal cells make up the ground substance or parenchyma of the plant, extending to its very OF TENNESSEE. ; 55 centre in the younger parts of the stem and in the roots; while in the older parts of thestem the centre is occupied by a more or less considerable cavity, full of air. This cavity results from the central parenchyma becoming torn asunder after it has ceased to grow, by the enlargement of the peri- pheral parts of the stem. Nearer to the circumference than to the centre, lies a ring of woody and’ vascular tissue, which, in transverse sections, is seen to be broken up into wedge-shaped bundles, by narrow bands of parenchymatous - tissue, which extend from the parenchyma within the circle of woody and vascular tissue (medulla or pith) to that which lies outside of it. Moreover, each bundle of woody and vascular tissue is divided into two parts, an outer and an inner, by a thin layer of small and very thin cells, termed the cambium layer. What lies outside this layer belongs to the bark; what lies inside it, to the wood and pith. The cells composing the cambium retain their power of multiplication, and divide by septa parallel with the length of the stem, or root, as well as transverse to it. Thus new cells are continually being added, on the inner side of the cambium layer, to the thickness of the wood, and on the outer side of it, to the thickness of the bark; and the axis of the plant continually increases in diameter, so long as this process goes on. This is the developement of exogens. The soft parts of plants as far as they are exposed to the light, and as far as their epidermis is transparent, are green colored. This green color results from the presence, im- mediately below the epidermic tissue, and imbedded in the parenchyma, of minute, soft granules, called chlorophyll or leaf green. These corpuscles, through the agency of light, have taken their origin in the “protoplasma,” a complex chemical compound essentially produced by the union of a few chemical elements, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,, which the plant absorbes by its roots and leaves, together with some mineral substances from the surrounding earth 56 ; THE GRASSES and atmosphere. These elements dissolved in water begin their circulation in the roots and leaves ot the plant, and under the influence of light, air and heat, and by the con- tact with preformed protoplasm, they are gradually brought over into one or the other form of this won- derful substance. The instability of the juxtaposition of its molecules endow it with an internal and external mobility not possessed by any other body. It possesses the power to arrange and re-arrange the above elements and some others, when they come into contact with it, into organic compounds. Protoplasm is the basis of all life upon earth. ; The chlorophyll once formed, induces the respiration of plants. The epidermis especially, or the leaves, which are the organs of this function, possess innumerable openings, stomata, through which the air passes, to be absorbed by the fluids in the tissues, and to give up to the chlorophyll its carbonic acid. Now the most important chemical pro- cess in the economy of the plant is effected, the carbonic acid is decomposed and carbon and oxygen are mutually set free. The carbon passing over into a new combination with hydrogen and oxygen to form cellulose—the general material of vegetable fabric of cell formation, The greatest part of the inhaled oxygen is returned again into the at- mosphere. All the woody fibre now forming upon earth, and all the coal and coal oils are derived that way. It is evident, that the nitrogenous and mineral constitu- ents of plant food, absorbed by the roots from the soil have to pass from them through the stem to the leaves. That some sort of circulation of fluids must take place in the body of a plant, therefore, appears to be certain, but the details of the process are by no means clear. There is evidence to show that the ascent of fluid from the root to the leaves takes place to a great extent through the elongated ducts and spiral vessels that make up, together with parenchymatous cellular tissue, the body of the plant, OF TENNESSEE. 57 and which not unfrequently open into one another by their applied ends, and by that way form very fine capillary tubes of considerable length. The mechanism by which this ascent is effected is of two kinds; there is a pull from above and a push from below. The pull from above is the evaporation which takes place at the surface of the plant, and especially in the air-passa- ges of the leaves, where the thin-walled cells of the paren- chyma are surrounded on almost all sides with air, which communicates directly with the atmosphere through the stomates., The push from below is the absorptive action which takes place at the extremities of the rootlets, and which, for example, in a vine, before its leaves have grown in the spring, causes a rapid ascent of the fluid (sap) absorbed from the soil. A certain portion of the fluid thus pumped up from the roots to the surface of the plant doubtless exudes, laterally, through the walls of the vessels, and, passing from cell to cell, eventually reaches those which contain chlorophyll. he distribution of the compound containing nitrogen and carbon, whatever it may be, which is formed in the chlorophyll bearing cells, probably takes place by slow diffusion from cell to cell. It also can hardly be doubted that all the living proto- plasm of the plant undergoes slow oxydation, with evolu- tion of carbonie acid, and that this process, alone, takes place in the deeper seated cells. The supply of oxygen needful for this purpose is sufficiently provided for, on the one hand, by the minute air-passages which are to be found between the cells in all parenchymatous tissues, and on the other, by the spiral vessels, which appear always to contain air under normal circumstances in the woody vascular bundles. The replacement of the oxygen of the air thus absorbed, and the removal of the carbonic acid formed, will be suffi-- ciently provided for by gaseous diffusion. From what has been said, it results that, in an ordinary 58 THE GRASSES plant, growing in damp earth and exposed to the sunshine, a current of fluid is setting from the root toward the sur- face exposed to the air, where its watery part is for the most part evaporated, while gaseous diffusion takes place in the contrary direction from the surface exposed to the air, through the air-passages and spiral vessels which ex- tend from the stomates to the radicles; the balance. of ex- change being in favor of oxygen, in al] the chlorophyll bearing parts of the plant, which are reached by the sun- light, and in favor of carbonic acid in its colorless and hidden regions. At night, the evaporation diminishing with the lowering of the temperature, the ascent of the liquid becomes very slow, or stops, and the balance of the exchange in the air-passages is entirely in favor of carbonic acid ; even the chlorophyll bearing parts oxydizing, while no carbonic acid is decomposed. In the foregoing has been given in plain and untechnical language approved facts, which, under proper guidance, every person of ordinary intelligence may be thought to study and to observe for himself. The general principle of respiration, nutrition and reproduction of plants are, after a century’s scientific work, pretty well understood, although a great deal of detail is yet to be investigated. Often, from impure motives, is science denounced as “speculation.” The growth of the pollen tube, and its entrance into the ovule can be as clearly seen with the aid of a medium power of a microscope as the stomata and air-passages. That kind of speculation which is really to be feared lies within the boundaries of ignorance. For in- stance, one can often hear assserted that the rust in the wheat is caused by the iron present in the soil of the field. The Agricultural Department in one of its recent volumes has given to the farmers a very exact analysis of this distressing phenomenon. In this, like in ever so many instances, it is again proven that the greatest evils and plagues that affect man and his operations, take their roots in the dispersion OF TENNESSEE, 59 and endless multiplication of exceedingly minute agencies, that often bring the wealth of nations on the verge of ruin, like the phylloxera of the grape vine, the pebrine on the silk worm, and scarlet fever and diptheria amongst our children. And, one need not expect to success- fully combat those enemies before the great mass of the people is able to partake and to assist in a scientific inves- tigation. To determine the differences between the various grasses requires careful study from even an advanced botanical student. The graminee spread over the whole globe, are a very numerous family, forming, in fact, one twenty-second part of all phaenogamous plants, and containing about 300 genera and 4000 species. Of these, 74 genera with 287 species belong to the flora of the United States east of the Mississippi, and as they unmber amongst them all cereals, they are unquestionably the most important part of the. vegetable kingdom for the interest of mankind. The fol- lowing description of the family characters is given accord- ing to Gray’s Manual: Grasses, with usually hollow stems (culms) closed at the joints, alter- nate two-ranked leaves, their sheaths split or open on the side opposite the blade ; the hypogynous flowers imbricated with two-ranked glumes or bracts; the outer pair (glumes proper) subtending the spikelet of one or several flowers; the inner pair (pales or palets). enclosing each par- ticular flower, which is usually furnished with two or three minute hy- pogynous scales (squamule.) Stamens one to six, commonly three ; anthers versatile, two-celled, the cells distinct. Styles mostly two or two- parted; stigmas hairy or feathery. Ovary one-celled, one-ovuled,form- ing a seed-like grain (caryopsis) in fruit. Embryo small, on the outside and at the base of the floury albumen. Roots fibrous, Sheath of the leaves usually more or less extended above the base of the blade into a scarious appendage (ligule.) Spikelets panicled or spiked. Inner (upper) palet usually two-nerved or two-keeled, enclosed or partly covered by the outer (lower) palet. Grain sometimes free, sometimes permanently adherent to the palets. For an easier understanding of the structure of the grass- flower and seed, and the technical terms used in describing 60 THE GRASSES them, a few species are selected and analyzed, such as are known to everybody. 1. Timothy. First described properly by the Swedish botanist, Carolus Linnaeus. A type of grass inhabiting North and Middle Europe, and made up by fourteen different forms, resembling’ one another so closely that they suggest to the observer a close relationship. To theaggregate Lin- naeus applied the name Phleum. To one particular phleum that shows a predilection for pasture lands, he gave the spe- cific name “pratense.” Meadow Cats-tail or Timothy grass. It is a botanical practice to put after the name of the plant also the name of the botanist who first discovered it. There- fore, Phleum pratense, L. Select a flowering specimen from the meadows, but one from the haystack may do as well. It is tall; (not branch- ing laterally.) The flowering or top end is called “ inflo- rescence.” The spike is cylindrical and tolerably long, therefore an elongated spike ; itis also dense and harsh. It is terminal and solitary, sometimes spikes are terminal, spreading and numerous, like in the Crab grass, digitate like in the Bermuda or barn-yard grass. They are lateral some- times, sessile or peduncled. If arranged shortening toward the apex like the tassel of the Indian corn, this is called a pyramidal raceme. If instead of shortening toward the apex they are of about equal length, arranged around their rachis like in that delicate reddish grass by some called “old man’s beard,” that abounds late in the season in gar- den plots and corn fields, (Leptochloa mucronata) then we say the spikes are racemed. The manner in which the single flowers, spikelets, are ar- ranged along the spike is also very different. In this species the spikelets are closely clustered in glom- erules of 3-4 nearly sessile, densely joining one another at- tached tothe rachis or main axis of inflorescence. In the mea- dow Fox-tail (Alopecurus pratensis) which greatly resembles OF TENNESSEE 61 the Timothy, 3~4 spikeletsare similarly arranged to a consert- ed cylindrical spike. - But if these single clusters are more or less distant from another, like in the Sweet Vernal grass (Anthoxantum odoratum) it is said to be panicled-spiked. The barley bears a bilateral spike, spikelets in threes on each side. Hordeum hexastichum. In the Crab grass (Digi- taria or Panicum sanguinale) the spikelets are arranged to one side of the rachis; the rachis may also be feathered on the back like in the related genus Paspalum. In the barn-yard grass the spikelets are imbricated (like the shin- gles on a roof) on a one-sided spike. To analyze so small an object as the spikelet of the Tim- othy, or other yet more minute and delicate species, some care and patience are required. The spikelet should be moistened first with @ little water, after being placed upon a slip of glass, then the parts spread in a manner to expose the interior structure. The moisten- ing prevents the flying away of the tiny membranes when they are dissected or distended with a fine knife or a pair of sewing needles. A lens to magnify the object is indis- pensable. First two pairs of membranaceous leaflets are conspicu- ous. The lowest pair is called “ glumes.” They are oppo- site one another, but not exactly upon one and the same level. There is always an upper glume and a lower glume, and the observance of their mutual relations is of great import- ance. Sometimes they are nearly of one size, like in this instance, but generally one is larger, often out of all propor- tion, or either is minute, abortive or wanting, awned or va- riously shaped, or represented by a bristle-like organ called an awn. (Beard.) They are boat-shaped (carinate), ciliate on the back (beset with short, bristly hairs), pointed and tipped with a short bristle. Glumes serve as the common involucre for the upper and interior part or parts of the spikelet. 62 THE GRASSES The upper or inner pair of leaflets or palets, (pales) is here only half the size of the former, truncate (the apex cut off) and include the ovary with two distinct styles termi- nated by feathery stigmas. From the base of the ovary ascend three stamens with thread-like filaments, versatile bilocular and comparatively large anthers. 2. Blue grass—Poa pratensis. L. Inflorescence a pani- cle. It will be remembered that above the tassel of Indian corn has been designated a pyramidal raceme ; 7.¢. from the rachis or flower-bearing prolongation of the culm radiate secondary axis, pyramidally decreasing toward the apex. Those lateral axes again and often redivided constitute the panicle. This panicle is short pyramidal. In Poa com- pressa (wire grass) dense and narrow, in Orchard grass clus- tered and dense ; Oat (avena sativa) is also panicled. Pani- cle at the time of fructification open and spreading at length drooping. Widely and loosely is termed diffuse, erect if ’ the branches point upward, contracted if the branches are drawn close to the rachis, which often is the case after the flowering period. The spikelets are ovate lanceolate ovate, crowded, and most of them almost sessile on the branches. Each spike- let consists of a pair of glumes shorter than the flowers, of which there are three to five; the uppermost flower remains small and undeveloped. (Timothy we have seen to contain in each spikelet only one flower.) Lower palet stouter in structure than the npper one, mem- branaceo-herbaceous, with a delicate scarious margin, com- pressed-keeled, pointless, five-nerved, (the intermediate nerves more obscure or obsolete) hairy at the margin and keel ; upper palet very delicate, two-toothed at the apex. Sta- mens two to three, stigmas plumose. The presence or absence, number and condition of the nerves (vascular bundles) in the glumes and palee are of the greatest importance in the analysis of grasses, for not only . OF TENNESSEE, 63 the distinction of species, but even of genera is often de- termined thereby. A nerve often extends over the lamina of the glume or palet, either at the apex, or underneath, from the dorsal or keel-nerve. If this extension is small and delicate, it is named a bristle or bristly apex, if stout and lengthy, an awn or beard. 3. The common Oat. Avena sativa. L. Panicle large, simple, lax (spikelets remote). Spikelets two-flowered on capillary peduncles. Peduncles and branches rough down- ward. (Roughness felt by motion of the fingers down- ward. Glumes larger than the flowers, mapy-nerved, (eight to ten) thin membranaceous, awnless, persistent. (The glumes holding fast to their pedicels after the grain has fallen off.) Lower palet herbaceous, rounded and awned on the back, above the base, at the point almost bicuspidate ; the upper one bicarinate, awnless, Bicarinate means presenting the form of a Greek omega or transverse section. Awn twisted, geniculate (bent with an angle) one, to one and a half inches long. Stamina three, stigma, two plumose, palets investing the long, slightly tufted caryopsis, which is internally marked by a longitudinal furrow, hairy at the point. The seed of grasses (coryopsis) is either free, dropping out from the palets like in Sporobolus and Diarrhena, or may be easily detached from the same: like in the Wheat. At other times it is invested (firmly wrapped up in) one or both pales, like in Oat, or firmly connected with adhesions, like in the Barley. A significant feature in the comparison of grasses affords also the Ligule (see above) whether it be truncate, acute, smooth, hairy, bearded, papillary, ete. Characters are also derived from the root, from the nodes, mode of ramifica- tion by the branching of the culms. ¢ 64 THF GRASSES The root is annual, perennial, creeping, stoloniferous, fibrous. Culms solitary, in tufts, recumbent, ascending, smooth or rough, the nodes are sometimes bearded, in Herds grass (Agrostis vulgaris) from the lowest nodes, bulb-like intumescences, A creeping root is in fact a subteraneous stem. See fig. OF TENNESSEE. 65 CHAPTER VI.* HOW TO TELL A GRASS--TABLE OF GRASSES. As before stated, it is deemed necessary to speak only of those grasses indigenous to or growing in Tennessee. It will be endeavored to make the reader well acquainted with each species, and this will not be difficult if ordinary attention is paid to the directions. In speaking of each grass, both the common name and the botanic will be given. The bo- tanic names will he enclosed in brackets, and the first will denote the genus and the second the species to which the grass belongs ; for instance, blue-grass (Poa-pratensis), here Poa is the genus, and pratensis the ‘species to which it be- longs. If farmers would make it their,business to inspect and classify all strange grasses that may fall under their observation, a state of intelligent inquiry would be aroused that would greatly redound to the, interest of agriculture. For the benefit of such, a table is hereby appended, so that any one may analyze grasses and locate them. But little practice will be necessary to familiarize the student with the rules. Let the flowers of the grass be first examined. If but one is found in each spikelet, refer to No. 2, the left hand column, and then examine and see if they are arranged in panicles or spikes ; if the former, then refer to No. 3 of the left hand column, and see whether or not they are awned. If awned, refer to No. 4, if without awns, to No. 12 of the left hand column. If unawned, and having two glumes, refer to 13, and soon. If without glumes and aquatic, it isa Zizania or wild rice. If in the first examination the spikelets are found to have two or more flowers, refer to 26 of the left hand colnmn, and see whether the inflorescence 5 66 THE GRASSES is in panicles or spikes. If the former, refer to 27 of the left hand column. If the latter, in spikes, refer to 39, and then see whether the spikelets are two-rowed, or one- sided. If the latter, refer to 45, and see whether the spikes are digitate and the spikelets in two rows. ' If they are, refer it to the genus Eleusine. For convenience of reference a glossary is attached to this work, ANALYTICAL TABLE, 1 Spikelet with but one flower........... cece eee ee eee cece eae 2 1 Spikelet with two or more flowers.......-..ce seen cee este eens 26 2 Flowers arranged in panicles........-..... cc cece cece sneer ees 3 2 Wlowers in Spikes secs. «sqces esis cts wie yes HERR EH SEE a Rew oo ave 16 8 With: @wns OF Deards ised es sicidis oo eters de Siecdis Hae ea The 4 B40 % 4 3 Without awns or beards........ ccc cece cece eee ween newness 12 4Glnumes. large), sss esc neem is saves eas yaad (ok ws Oot eka ees om) 4 Glumes minute, unequal, one hardly seen..... fa hiaieeuniaeeg Ataace as j1 4 Glumes none, grass aquatic... ........ cece cee eee eee eee 2 Zizania 5 Without abortive rudiments............ eee eee ee eee ene 6 5 With an abortive rudiment of a second flower........... 52 Holcus 6 Pale CWO ea: psuod sa ional: Catiedl Pa amde ead eee kee a cee ee 7 6 Pale three, upper awned, flowers polygamus........ 66 Sorghum TY Palew,, with one Q“WHs wea osc cewna sch ead been eee ve needs bane 8 7 Lower pales with three twisted awns...............5. 15 Aristida 8 Palee cartilaginous or gristly....... ... ee eer eer 9 8 Pales: herbaceous: : sssne sone ves cawe es saa es ee dees tee eel 10 8 Pale membranaceous, panicle open................- ..7 Agrostis 8 Palez membranaceous, panicle contracted............ 8 Polypogon 9 Flowers sessile or joined to stem at base.............. 18 Oryzopsis 9 Flowers stipitate, fruit black...............0cccseeeeess 14 Stipa 10 Flowers naked, with one stamen...........s.ceecceeeeee 9 Cinna 10 Flowers hairy, stamens three...............00- 12 Calamagrostis 1d Stamens threes’ icise ccs cosine aes uly s olneeew vase 10 Muhlenbergia 11 Stamens twO.......eeececece cect cree neceenes 11 Brachyelytrum TR GUMS: HW Oprcieievns acerca ao abies oreeaiieie grag seen See ose OE 18 12 Glumes none, leaves rough from the end backwards....... 1 Leersia 13 Palesee membranaceous......... ec eee cece cece eee e ee ceeseeee 14 13 Palez leathery, spikelets all cauline...... Lvishieies sauder 3 56 Millium 13 Palee leathery, fertile spikelet radical........ ....57 Amphicarpon 14 Fruit coated or covered with a husk............cceceeaeeeuees 15 14 Fruit naked............,.... Hie a Ae ale wlehey eawerenes 6 Sporobolus OF TENNESSEE. 67 t 15 Flowers stalked............. 0.00. eeeee Roleiaiald posiockes Nal 7 Agrostis AB Flowers ‘sessile 2sicc cic sce cd acw ss seweoes oeeant ayer eeanns 5 Vilfa 16 Flowers awned............... Siers mas Bea Tone site wee sepeunises aun erinpeabunsdser oes 17 16 Flowers without awns..........0 cccccceceeceeccuceccauceaes 22 Te Spikes seta aso ky ndy seageeu vacuo Teele a cela aeaes 18 17 Spikes many, awnless, unilateral, palee cartilaginous. ..59 Panicum 17 Spikelets two, fertile......... 0... ccc cece eee eee 63 Erianthus 17 Spikes two, polygamous, sterile, flowers bearded... .64 Andropogon 18 Spikes simple or nearly s0...............2.0005- See ree 19 18 Spikes paniculate, or lobed............ Rc? Aaah uh onal nel a ieee 21 19 Involucre none............... eyater i aera tel ta Seales Les 20 19 Involucre of two or more bristles............. 0.220005 60 Setaria 19 Involucre burr-like.... 0.0... .c cc cee cee eee e eee enas 61 Cenchrus 20 Palese with awns one to three times their length...... 3 Alopecurus 20 Palece with awns five times their length. Dated ta slates 44 Hordeum 21 Both glumes and pales awned.....0....0..... 00. 10 Muhlenbergia 21 Glumcs awnless, single pale awned..... ...... 54 Anthoxanthum 21 Palese two, lateral flowers staminate,............... 58 Hierochloa 22 Flowers perfect or polygamous.............. 2000 c eee cee eeeee 23 22 Spikes moneecious........0. 0.0 c ee cee eee een eens aeinnees 25 23 Spikes one-sided........ cee cece ence eee ceeecees rsa pinta 23 Spikes cylindrical, solitary terminal..................-. 4 Phleum 24 Spikes two or more, spikelets suborbicular........... 58 Paspalum 24 Spikes digitate or verticillate, linear.... ............. 59 Panicum 24 Spikes pedunculate, in a two-sided panicle............. 16 Spartina 24 Spikes sessile, in a one-sided panicle................. 41 Lepturus 25 Spikes all terminal, sterile above, fertile at base...... 62 Tripsacum 25 Fertile spikes lateral, sterile ones terminal panicled......... 66 Zea 26 Inflorescence in panicles.... ........ 0. ese e ee ee rene Phe 4B ee 8 27 26 Inflorescence in spikes ................-. BAMiee era hale eaioens 39 Q7 Flowers awned............ 0002. cee scence Kaede e eae ets Glues 28 27 Flowers without awns........... ccc sees eee cece eee tee e eee 83 28 Lower pales awned on the back..........0. 0. cece cece c eee eee 29 28 Lower palese awned on the apex ..... a AAeSON GES wins e Nota Sel Rare 32 29 Awn near the base of the pale ........ ccc cece ee eee 30 29 Awn near the apex of the palew............-0eec cence eeeees 31 30 Apex bifid, awn bent......... 0. ce eect cence ees 50 Avena 30 Apex bifid, awn bent, lower flower sterile Leroawes 51 Arrhenatherum 80 Apex multifid........... cece ease eee ee oops aa welts 4 47 Aira 31 Paleze with two bristly teeth..............0 cece eee 49 Trisetum 21, Pale DUAG ces whe se aldeios. Wiese eed Gane ances ae 37 Bromus 82 Lower palge rounded, obtuse.......... sce e eee eee eee ees 35 Briza 82 Lower palew entire, pointed, fruit coated..... ........ 86 Festuca 82 Awn between two teeth, twisted...............0een 48 Danthonia 68 THE GRASSES 88 Terminal flower perfect..........--.c0-ececeeeceeceeneneneee 34 83 Terminal flower abo tive, or a mere pedical.......... .....e05: 36 84 Pale entire, outer one mucronate.... 2.2... . eee cee eee eee 35 84 Glumes unequal, like the lower abortive palew......... 59 Panicum 34 Glumes equal, longer than the palew.................. 55 Phalaris 84 Lower pales truncate, mucronate, inner bifid............ 38 Uniola- 84 Flowers silky-bearded on the rachis................ 39 Phragniites 84 Spikelets terete, pales: seven-nerved................0.. 31 Glyceria 84 Spikelets two to six, five nerved........ 0.0.0.2 cece eee 33 Poa 84 Spikelets two to twenty, three nerved............. . 84 Eragrostis 84 Spikelets flat, lower palez laterally compressed..... 32 Bryzopyrum 85 Scales two, styles two..............-..02.. peas ..36 Festuca 35 Scales and styles three............ 0... 2. cece eee 40 Arundinaria 86 Panicle contracted. .........0.60 fee cee eee eee ee eee pes isigeeneiasth 37 86 Panicle large, diffuse............. cece ce cece cee evens 80 Melice 87 Lower palea one-pointed or mucronate............202 0 veeeeeee 38 37 Lower palea pointless...............--.ceeeeceee cee 29 Eatonia 87 Lower palea three-cleft...........6. cc ecee cee eeee 24 Tricuspis 87 Lower palea awnless................5.. Sh dadewines 25 Dafithonia 88 Stamens three............ ee ec ee eee eee ee vee 28 Koehleria §8i Staniens TWOs.cn invaawncavargeacebeg sdeueeeaners 26 Diarrhena 89 Spikelets two ranked........ 0... cece e cece cee eee e eee ees 37 89 Spikelets unilateral........ 0... 00.0 ce cee ce eee cer sees 43 40) Glames Proad ccc. jac aiune savers vowenioaweciighunene gelbmnenale tees 41 40 Glumessubulate......... eee ce cece eee eee pee tard 42 40 Glumes none................0.4. nui gpa fata iaganeds 46 Gymnostichum 41 Glumes two, in the upper spikelet only.... ............ 42 Lolium 41 Glumes two, in each spikelet........ 0... cceavecceees 43 Triticum 42 Glumes collateral, spikelets in twos or more............ 46 Elymus 42 Glumes opposite, spikelets solitary................. 02 45 Secale 43 One perfect among several neutral ones............... 17 Ctenium 43 One perfect flower below several neutral ones...........00eee05 44 48 Spikelets conglomerate or paniculate................. 27 Dactylis 43 Spikelets with more than one perfect flower.................-.- 45 44 Spikelets dense .............. cece cee scala nehes 18 Bouteloua 44 Spikes filiform, racemed.....................00. 19 Gymnopogon 44 Spikes slender, digitate............ lnatersnauh eearebie ieee qm’ 20 Cynodon 45 Spikes digitate, glumes and palea awnless, blunt...... 22 Eleusine 45 Spikes racemed, slender The grasses which we purpose to describe in the follow- ing pages, are named in the following list. It if intended te OF TENNESSEE, 69 make the article on each grass final, as to that species, and then a few observations will be given on the adaptability of the different soils to each genus of grasses. The list is far more numerous than here given. The others are confined either to the sea coast, salt marshes, or to points of altitude far higher than is attained by any lands within our State boundaries : ‘s]los qqsrT ‘stios Apueg ‘Tos FHS ‘sppeg Apusg ‘starieq oud Apusg|: ‘spoom Lpues £1q]* ‘spoom Ax037 ‘sjios Apurg ‘spoom pue sig Aig ‘spoom £y003F “spunois MO'T “++ ++yaqmeydag pue Amp > aquieydag “* gun eee eee ee coo cagnsny ++ aquieydeg pus ysnsny |. stress eponpards BISrequeTqny| ° * BUBOIXOTL BISIoqueTyN]K| ° ‘‘zaqueydeg pue ysnsny “-qsnsnVy +s AMP] rrerees aenSny . +++ Jaquiaydag| * * AToLI* s+s+-+++-qopfyoep uopouso “'* umoziaerq tosodoumsy “++ emptiadryimo snopaynog Bao ReSs Pa) sTowls Vpysiry sihag wae Oe BUIOOTOIP epysUY ohh ggovToAR TANG sores umypeyste tansy dpasqovig * sLepides vrsiequelqny, REE 118110) eIsraqualquy, ‘++ seed epnureg Pe Rae seed prveg paavol-110qg recteeeseees ees caryen gt Aweyy events ssVIS pauMv-sa1q} Iapua[g Pe ssvis AyIaA0g teen eee es gopTF 480-381 q ‘> unipsjasqovig pouay wees “sevid ey “TEM 8[auatNy ‘+++ sraBrequerqny weatség ‘++ q9BIOquoTyNy Weorxeyy ee sees sdmvmg| tts tt ttt seseasnsny] ott “BywraTO[S BISiaquerynyg| **** ** re8requalyny_ Sur1ysntQ % ‘duems Apeyg|****° "7 " aensny pue Aja] set eeovupunse BUUID)“*"" sttess- ggBid poer-pooM n “‘sMOpRo stop] "st te see mpl aes “BIOFTUO|OIS sTIso1sV ees Gh vio eeeKodhl Bae erste Sua 4 eS UIT _ *saingsed pue sprog) ***** oe en enee Ang ry wees “g1redna srisolsy re ee ee eee ‘doy poy i ‘spjeg. Arp PIO| ttt ‘Ane pue unr} ***** terseeses sprigs syysois y teeeee teeters tts seid aDPLL *soinqsed pue sppeLt syne pue aunp|-* ss sess -BuTOBO srsolsy oe “quag WMOIg a ‘spues yoaa| occ sequiaydeg wwe wees snutyjo1os sntnqorodg Fie 8 CE mE Fee Q|OG dozp ayey B “s[los Aig sees toeeee ess casngny] ct! +++ -snaount snqnqorodg betes eres es ss spgag’ doiq Ys] ‘suretd Ayjaavis pus Apueg|***'*°** ++" * requiaydag|***" 7 ** ‘so BIOPRUISVA BIILA|**** “'BYTLA pataMopg-Tepply ‘sainysed pue spa teeeeeese skp pue aun seeeeeceeeessogtgqead umetg| ttt “+++ LOU, “soyoup ‘sMopeaul yaM| 7 ***** samme pue Ley! °° ** + snyetnoyuad snimoedopy|*"* °° °°" RL XO Buryvopy ‘sornysed pue spprg) occ ance - SOW tresses ogmayeid sninoedoly pesereeess sg T xO MOPBOTT ‘spoom dmeq| st ttt te “qonSny| ott +++ -gormISirA BIsIeaT| ** * + +> ggB13 OTM *sooe,d yom MOT] ttt os -qsnSny te reeses sess ggptoz£I0 eis1a07] | ° steer tere eeeeess sggpiF aon ‘HLMOXN JO FOVId “ONINOOTA 10 WIL ‘HRVN OINVLOd ‘SHNVN NOWNMOO —) ; : < = sasspugy andy fo wsYT—T ATI 71 OF TENNESSEE. “SaINyseq ‘surefd Apueg ‘sured Apueg “surerd eT110319 ‘surerd 911019 ‘soonld ATjaavis Apueg ‘sprog Apueg ‘spjeg Apueg “syueq.19ATr Apueg ‘sornqsed ‘sapispeor AIq. ‘sornqsed pue sppelq ‘sammysed pue spel ‘somnjsed pue splat ‘sommjsed pue sppalg “soyoyp Appuyq| * “TOYVM MOTLBYG *930Q 30M “SPLAT "SPOOAA STOW ‘samnysed. pus splolLa ‘sopeys JSIOW! “spfog. 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JaATIG trsesereessgoei pooay ofdang ete were eens ayidg poyoly soc tee ss SNyVUBIy presq-ioyg sreeseesss gepIg prveg AJOOM ee cette seid BUIBH “To SsBI [BSTOg treseeeserees Tey XO weerH ay SSB1S 91190 oR ces BNE ROUT AYsig preteens eece eres es -geRTd TICE teseeerees ess seer aBlesunyL “ONINOOTA JO AWIL . ‘SWYN OINVLO& “ANYN NOWWOO panuyuog—sassnigy aniy, fo BYT—T ATIVL TIMOTHY, 75 MEADOW GRASSES. PART II, In Part II, we shall treat of the Meadow Grasses, in the order named below : Timothy—Red-T9p or Herds Grass—Tall Red-Top grass—Orchard grass—Wood Meadow grass—Rough-stalk Meadow grass—Willard’s Brome or Chess—English Rye grass—lItalian Rye grass—Many-flow- ered Darnell—Crab or Crop grass—Millet—Hungarian grass—Barn grass—Bengal grass—Gama grass—Egyptian grass—Meadow Oat grass — Means, Johnson or Egyptian grass—Red Clover—Alsike or Swedish Clover—Sapling Clover--Crimson Clover—Alfalfa or Lucerne—-Japan ‘Clover—Esparsette or Sainfoin—Vetch. : CHAPTER VII. Timotay—Herps Grass oR RED-rop. TIMOTHY—(Phleum Pratense). Spikes cylindrica} or elongated, glumes hairy on the back, tipped with a bristle less than half their length; leaves long, flat, rough, with long sheaths; root perennial, on moist soils fibrous, on dry ones bul- bous, mostly bulbous. This grass is known in New England as Herds grass, | from a Mr. Herd, who found it growing wild in New Hamp- shire, and introduced it into cultivation. Further south, 76 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. however, this name is only applied to Red-top, or Agrostis vulgaris. Mr. Timothy Hanson carried it from New York to Caro- lina, and from him it is known as timothy grass. There is much dispute as to its parent- age, some claiming it as indigenous to the United States, while many others, among them Dr. Gray, give itan Euro- pean origin. It is of little consequence where it sprang from, it stands confes- sedly at the head of all meadow grasses, not only in the amount of its yield, but in its superiority as a nutritious food for stock. It is eaten with more avidity f\ than any other perennial grass, although Mi) it has a very coarse, rough stem, and less fodder than many others. Its leaves are abundant near the ground, but those on the stalk are com- paratively few. Like most other mea- dow grasses it attains its greatest value as a food before the seeds are ripe. The latter are very abundant and highly nu- tritious. From ten to thirty bushels are made on good land. It ripens late, and consequently favors the farmer very much, as he is able to save his wheat before cutting and curing his hay. It was a common custom at one time to sow it with clover, as it added to the valug of the hay, and from the strength of its tall stems, it prevented the clover from lodging, but the fact of ripening so much later than clover, causing a great loss from shrinkage, has done away with this practice, especially as orchard grass is so much superior in that respect. Timothy is not suitable for pasturing, having scarcely any aftermath. Besides, the TIMOTHY. 77 roots are easily destroyed if the stems are taken off be- low the first joint, this much being required for their vital- ity. For this reason, also it is necessary to be careful to set the blade of the mower sufficiently high to leave the first joint intact. As has been stated, the roots are both fibrous and bulbous. These bulbs have but few rootlets starting out from them, the plant depending for its support princi- pally on the store of nourishment laid up within the bulbs. If, therefore, the stem is shaved off entirely, the bulbs, being deprived of all nourishment, throw out tubers all around, and these send up shoots, seeking food in the air, but they are feeble, and if spared by the frosts of win- ter are so crippled they fall an easy prey to the scorch- ing suns of summer. For the same reason pasturing will effectually destroy a timothy meadow if persisted in. The stock: will bite off all vegetation, leaving the roots to perish, or if hogs are allowed to run on it they quickly discover and destroy the succulent bulbs. When about half the blossoms turn brown, and at least the upper part of the spike or head is still purple, a yellowish spot will make its appearance at or near the first joint, and this is the true indication for the harvest to begin, for this spot will soon extend if allowed to remain, to the spike, and the whole plant will be a stem of wood. The appearance of this spot also tells 0f the maturity of the bulbs, and they are not so liable to injury from cutting as before. If this joint is left, the tubers will remain green and fresh during the entire winter; but their destruction is inevitable if it is taken away at any time during the year. These remarks do not apply with equal force to timothy when it has a fi- brous root, but the two kinds are so intimately mingled there is no practical difference. . Timothy stands at the head of all grasses in its nutritive qualities. A specimen taken from the field according to the above directions, yielded on analysis, water 57.21, flesh- forming principle 4.86, fat-forming principles 1.50, heat- 78 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. producing principles 22.85, woody fibre 11.82, and mineral matters 2.26, in one hundred parts. (Way.) A compari- son of its relative value as a food will be made further on. But the above nutritious specimen will never be pro- duced, if the plant is allowed to stand too long. On the con- trary, as a food it would become woody and worthless, all its starch, sugar, albuminoids, and other nutritive princi- ples having been deposited in the seeds, and the stalk is nothing more than a woody support. Cattle fed on this kind, or on hay that has been allowed to get wet and ferment, will quickly lose their flesh and the hair become rough. Timothy is exhaustive to the soil, and being a heavy feeder, requires attention. No crop can be raised on ground, that will not, extract a certain amount of its vitality, but unless something is taken the farmer would receive nothing. Therefore, it isthe duty of the farmer to supply by ma- nures, the deficiency that occurs. And this is made the more apparent from the fact, that, the man who applies the most manure will invariably get the best returns for his labor. On good, rich land, bottom is best, timothy will make two tons per acre. By a heavy application of compost or manure from the barn-yard, it can be raised to five tons, and the straw lengthened from two feet, its usual height, to five and even six feet, and from the same cause, the heads from two inches to twelve inches in length. It is a great and sure bearer of seeds, but the seeds are easily destroyed by heat in the mow, unless precautions are used in caring for them. In fact, so many adulterations, and non-germinating seeds are thrown upon the market, it would be well for each farmer to save his own seed, by de- voting a certain amoant of ground to it. Let the timothy get fully ripe, and, by adjusting the mower, saveas little stalk with the seeds as possible. This should be carefully spread and beat out as soon as convenient, and it is easily done. The time of sowing is various. If sown in the spring it TIMOTHY. 79 is liable to be killed by summer heat, and if sown late in autumn, it runs the same risk with frost. It is, therefore, bad policy to run the risk of not only losing the cost of seed but also the labor of preparing the ground. Much must be left to the judgment of the farmer in selecting a suitable day, but it is safe to say that it should always be sown in the fall, early enough to get a root strong enough to resist winter killing. If sown in a very dry soil it will incur the further danger of germinating from dews, and of being killed by the sun. Select the time when the ground is moist and the days not excessively hot. The quantity of seed per acre is various, but the sower who spares his seed will reap in proportion. Not less than 12 pounds if mixed, and if alone at least three gallons of clean seed will be required to se- cure a good stand. But it will be better to test the seeds beforehand, for a failure from bad seeds will cause a year’s delay. Timothy does best on rich, alluvial, moist land. But any rich land, whether upland or lowland, will produce it, if proper attention is given. Wherever cadegreous loam cies it can be profitably put to timothy. It will not grow to any extent at a greater elevation than 4,000 feet above the sea, but on any less height there is no grass capable of greater diffusion. In order to secure astand of timothy, the follow- ing simple rules may be adopted: 1. Be sure of your seed by testing them before sowing. 2. Put plenty of seed on the ground ; if too thin, it will require time to turf over, if too thick, it will quickly ad- just itself. 3. Sow early enough to enable the seed to get a foothold before winter setsin. Late fall and winter sowings are always precarious. September i is best if there is no drought, other- wise wait for a “ season.’ 4, Unlike other grasses, timothy will not admit of pas- turage. The nipping of stock will destroy the tubers. 80 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. 5. NEVER CUT THE SWARD BELOW THE FIRST JOINT. 6. Be sure to have the ground well pulverized. It is necessary to impress one idea that has already been stated. Do not allow the timothy to stand longer than the time that the yellow spot appears near the first joint, as it will from that time ripen very rapidly, and be worth- less. General Harding, before the Farmers’ Club, called attention to the fact, that, the greatest enemy of tim- othy is blue-grass. If stock is allowed to pass from u blue-grass pasture, at will, to a meadow of timothy, they will quickly sow the meadow in blue-grass, and the latter will, in a short time, supersede the former. In the meet- ing above alluded to, timothy being the subject of discus- sion, Gen. Harding being called on. for his views, said “he had had considerable experience with timothy. He regarded timothy the most valuable of all the grasses for hay, and more especially for hay that must be handled or shipped or baled. He had tried several varieties. Many years ago timothy was a grass of which it was a very easy thing to secure a stand, and also a considerable amount of grass, and the meadow lasted for many years. He used to have meadows twenty, and even thirty years of age, but were, even at that age, good, productive meadows. Timo- thy was introduced into this country before blue-grass.” The General remarked, he considered blue-grass a great enemy of timothy saeantlo se Before the introduction of blue- grass, our timothy meadows lasted almost without limit, and prodnced year after year, for twenty or thirty years. “But since we have been growing blue-grass more extensively, it gets into our timothy meadows in a few years and will root out the timothy ; so now, in buying my timothy seed, I look more carefully for blue-grass seed than for the seed of any noxious weeds. I would rather sow dock—I would rather sow anything in my timothy than blue- grass. Still I value blue-grass in its place, as the first of grasses, yet it causes more trouble in our mea- TIMOTHY. , 81 dows than anything else. Again, our seasons have be- come dryer, and there is much greater difficulty in getting a stand of timothy than formerly. When I commenced sow- ing meadows, I had no trouble in getting a stand of tim- othy, whether I sowed the seed. in the fall or in the spring, whether I sowed in the fall with wheat or barley, or in the spring with my oats. For many years I never failed. Now I sow in the fall, and the timothy is frequently winter- killed ; I sow in the spring, and it is killed by the long droughts of summer, but these difficulties should not deter us. We should continue to sow, and persevere until we get a stand. Hence, if I sow in the fall and my timothy is killed, I sow in the spring, if it is then killed, I sow again and again, until I succeed. I have never given up, and have never entirely failed, after repeated efforts. My sow- ing last spring was very fortunate; I have a very fine and promising young meadow now, of one hundred acres, that I sowed last spring a year ago. I am satisfied, however, that under the changed state of our climate, we must sow more seed than we have been in the habit of sowing. I gota good stand of timothy many yearsago with a gallon of seed to the acre, now I would recommend not less than one and a half gallons, or even a peck of seed to the acre. Again, the better the stand you get, the thicker your grass comes up the more will it keep out the weeds. The white blossom, like the blue-grass, has also increased largely, and seems to be yet increasing. That is a troublesome weed for our mea- dows. Still that is not as pernicious as it seems to the inex- perienced. True, you cannot sell white blossom in the mar- ket, but if you expect to consume the hay at home, and’ make your timothy with a large amount of white blossom in it, you will find you will have good hay. Stock will eat it, and readily; mules and cattle conor to do almost as well upon it as upon the timothy alone.” “T know that some differ from me in considering the white blossom as troublesome as any other plant, and throw it 6 ‘ 82 THE GRASSES OF ‘TENNESSEE. away. Ihave some hands to run along the windrow and pick out the white blossoms, and make hay of the white blossoms alone ; it pays very well for the labor of separat- ing it. I would rather not have to do it, for all the labor is needed at that season of the year; but I will not throw the white blossoms away, for it is valuable. I stack it in my pastures, and let the cattle go to it at will during the winter. I also stack my straw, and that helps the cattle.” “ Sometimes there is also a fine growth of crab grass, and some fox-tail and rag weed. I rake this up; you cannot sellit in the market, but it largely pays for the labor of saving it. I have this winter kepta large number of steers , that I expect to bring into the market next spring, and they have had nothing else but straw, and this kind of weed. I sprinkle a little salt on the stack, and the stock eat it and do well on it. Ihave no doubt but they would do better on the better hay, but I cannot afford to feed beef-cattle on first-class hay, worth one dollar per hundred pounds in the market, while I can save that which is not worth one cent inthe market and feed it to them.” “It is valuable in another respect. It comes on at the con- clusion of your harvest, and after corn is laid by. The clover comes on at the busiest season of the year, and hence I prefer the timothy.” “Now, what is the proper time to cut timothy? Some would say as soon as it blooms; others would say, after it has bloomed and the bloom has fallen. If I could cut it allon the day I thought it would make the best hay, I would cut it just about the time it has lost the largest por- tion of its bloom. If you cut it too green—like green fod- der—the stalk will shrivel, and after being cured, the stalk will break short, but if allowed to get a little riper the stalk will bend.” “How much sun shouldit have? That isa question that can only be determined by experience. ‘The proper time to put it up is when it has had as little sun as possible, so you : TIMOTHY. 83 are assured it will not monld. If there is too much moisture in it, it will mould, and thereby injure the hay. If the weather is settled, it will cure better in cocks, but all these things must be governed by circumstances.” , “The best time to cut hay is just after the bloom stops. I think timothy pays best sowed alone. It can be cured bet-. ter in cocks, but sometimes in bad weather it will not do to risk it in cocks. I pasture my timothy meadows, but it assists in introducing blue-grass. I would prefer to sow in the fall, as early in September as possible. I have tried plaster on timothy, but do not know that I have derived any benefit from it. The best blue-grass land is the best for timothy, and I would prefer it to be rich limestone loam.” It is highly probable one cause of the General’s meadows failing in six or seven years, is the fact, he admits, of pas- turing them. It is a well ascertained fact, that timothy will not bear pasturing, and attention to this and leaving the first joint uncut will most probably make our meadows again live twenty or thirty years. At the meeting of the Stock Breeders’ Association, in February, 1878, Gen. W. H. Jackson, who is farming with Gen. Harding, said that they found the best forerunner of timothy to ‘be Hungarian grass. If this is sown in the summer and harvested in August or September, and timothy sown upon the stubble and harrowed in, the very best stand could be obtained. The Hungarian grass destroys all noxious weeds, and gives a certain degree of compactness to the soil necessary to secure a good stand of timothy. The porosity of the soils of the Central Basin makes this, or rolling of the land, essential conditions of success, On the clayey lands of the valley of East Tennessee or the Rimlands, there is no more difficulty in securing a stand of timothy than of herds grass or clover. I have seen as much as three tons of timothy hay cut froma bottom field on Red river in Montgomery county, nine months after seeding, 84 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. RED-TOP—HERDS GRASS—(Agrostis vulgaris.) Erect stems, slender, smooth, polished, round; roots creeping, pan- icle oblong, leaves linear, ligule very short, lower pales mostly awnless, and stem nerved. Flowers in July. It was introduced from England, where it was known as Bent grass. When first cultivated it went by the name of English grass. There are many species now raised in England, which are still known as Fine Bent. It is scattered over the whole State and but few old pastures are free from it, but there it is so dwarfed by close grazing and treading that it shows to but little advantage. It is commonly called in these situations fine-top. Next in importance to timothy as a meadow grass stands Herds grass. Unlike the former, it also makes a good grazing grass—in fact grazing is necessary to its preserva- tion, as, if allowed to go to seed a few years, it dies out. It loves a moist soil, and on swampy places that will grow scarcely anything else, herds grass will thrive wonderfully. It is the most permanent grass we have, and by means of its long, creeping roots, will even, if sown too thin, quickly “take possession of the ground. It is greedily eaten, while young and tender, in the spring by all kinds of stock, and affords a fine nourishing hay, though in less quantity per acre than timothy. It grows from two to three feet high, and with its purplish panicles, when in full bloom, presents a most charming sight in its soft feathery un- dulations. — It is oftener mixed with other grasses than sown alone, especially with timothy and clover. But it fails to come into harvest as early as clover, and the same objections may be urged against it that are 1o timothy. It yields, on moist bottom land, from one and a half to two tons per acre, but on uplands it is not a good producer. On thin lands it will i RED-TOP. 85 not gain a sufficient height to justify harvesting at‘all. It withstands the effeets of drought much better than timothy. In England it is supposed to grow best on sandy soils, Such soils suit it in West Tennessee. Its effects when fed to milk cows are to greatly enrich and yellow the butter, and European dairymen think they cannot do without it in their pastures. By the Woburn experiments at the time of flowering, it yielded 10,209 pounds of grass, which lost in drying 5,615 pounds, and furnished 532 pounds of nutritive matter. Cut when the seeds were ripe, it yielded 9528 lbs. of grass, which lost exactly half its weight in drying and aftorded only 251 lbs. of nutritious matter. From this it would appear that this grass is doubly as valuable for feeding pur- poses when cut at the time of flowering. A writer in the Rural Sun, under date of February 18, 1878, institutes a comparison between the value of ‘this grass and timothy. “The experienceof Mr. Smith, that timothy lasts but a few years, while red-top remains permanently, corresponds with the general experience of the country, viz: that timothy lasts about three years and red-top until it is replowed. While the yield per acre on our best lands would not be so much-as timothy, yet our poorer soils which will not pro- duce timothy, will bring fair crops of red-top. Timothy, having bulbous roots, is subject to be killed by being closely cut in hot, dry weather, and is not fit for pasturage, because the bulbs where bitten or bruised by being trod upon, die, and it is also likely to form tussocks. Herds grass, on the contrary, has fibrous roots, occupies the entire surface, makes a sod and bears close pasturage. Sown with clover, it will occupy the soil by the time the clover dies out. Herds . grass seedsjare now very cheap, and half a bushel of Herds grass seed sown to theacre with the clover sown in the spring, would pay well for the small expenditure. There are 425,000 seeds in an ounce of Herds grass seed, and this small amount evenly distributed over an acre would give about nine and three-fourth seeds to each square foot, while 86 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. the amount recommended, say one-half bushel of six pounds, would give, say 936 seeds to the square foot, or six and a half seeds to the square inch.” For stopping gullies in old fields it is superior to blue grass, as it will throw its long, searching roots from the top down the sloping banks of the washes, and fasten to every patch of good soil at the bottom, and then from every joint starts up a stalk to get a fresh hold. It affords a very good aftermath from which, in wet falls, a fair crop may be cut. Unless well tramped in the late fall it is liable to form tufts that rise out of the soil from the effects of freezing, and are destroyed. Therefore, after cutting, let on the stock and their feet will insure a good turf, and besides, will destroy weeds. But the cattle should be taken off the pasture after rains have filled the earth with water, or it will become too rough for the proper use of the mower. The quantity of seed per acre, when sown alone, is about half a bushel. The seed is usually sold in the chaff, it being difficult to separate it. When badly cleaned a bushel per acre will not be too much. The time for harvesting is when it is in full flower, or as soon thereafter as possible, when all the elements that are necessary to form the seeds are still in the stalk and leaves. Left to ripen fully, it becomes woody and innutritious. Many pursue the plan of mixing the timothy and Herds grass together, as they ripen together, and the Herds grass being much lower than the former fills in well, and the two will make a more abundant yield than either separate. But one requires pasturage and that will destroy the other. It should be sown in September, unless sown on wheat, and then as early as practicable, to enable the roots to get sufficient depth to resist the cold of winter. If sown alone it will, like timothy, make about a half crop the ensu- ing year. But it is a difficult matter to induce our Ten- nessee farmers to forego a crop of something every year, consequently it is usually sown over a grain field, either ‘RED-TOP. 87 wheat, rye or barley. There are a great many marshy spots in Tennessee, especially on the Tennessee and Mississippi rivers, so full of water that nothing can be culti- vated on them, and on these fine crops of Herds grass could be secured every year, which would certainly be far preferable to allowing them to run to waste. These bot- toms are usually of surprising fertility, and would go far to supply the great deficiency of hay and obviate the necessity of importing from our more thrifty northern neighbors. It is a perennial and if properly tramped every autumn will keep good an indefinite length of time. This grass also finds a most congenial soil throughout West Tennessee, in many places in that division of the State attaining the height of five feet. Itis probably bet- ter adapted to all the soils of the State than any other grass. I have seen it growing in princely luxuriance 6000 feet above the sea on the bald places of the Unaka Mouu- tains. It flourishes upon the slopes and in the valleys of East Tennessee. It yields abundantly upon the sandstone soils of the Cumberland Table-land, and ‘beautifies the rolling surfaces of the Highland Rim. In the Central Basin it sparkles in the beauty of its verdure, and is second only to red clover and timothy as a meadow grass. No other grass is sown so much for hay upon the lands ‘lying at the western base of the Cumberland Table-land. In Warren county especially it is highly esteemed for its ‘longevity and fruitfulness. In reply to a communication addressed to him in regard to this grass, Mr. P. H. Mar- bury writes as follows: OaxHamM, WarREN County, TENN. January, 26, 1878. { J. B. Killebrew, Esq., Nashville, Tennessee: You ask what soils suit best for Herds grass and the best time for sowing. It grows well on clay soils, in the damp, marshy swamp lands, as “well as on the highest elevations; will grow in sandy lands, but the land should be well packed by rolling or treading of stock. 88 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. It should be sown the last of September or first of October-—any time after the equinoctial rains to the 15th of October. It is better to be sown alone, but will do very well sown with wheat. When sown in the spring it is usuall. overrun with weeds. As a meadow or grazing grass it is very valuable. It yields on good soil from a ton to one and one-half tons of superior hay, the stems and blades much fewer and somewhat softer than timothy. I prefer it to timothy—my stock prefer it. For grazing it is very valuable. Upon land where limestone is ab- sent it flourishes, has greater tenacity of life, makes a sod almost im- pervious to hoof and tooth—in fact it is the blue grass of the mountain district. We have but little lime in our soils and therefore blue grass does not grow well. For a meadow I prepare the soil well with plow and harrow and sow one bushel of clean seed per acre, one-half one way and then sow the other half across the first so as to avoid leaving spaces unoccupied. A light brush may be dragged over it or not, as is preferred. I prefer to leave it without brush or roller. The roller is the best; in fact for a meadow it prepares the surface well for the moweér or sythe. If sown by the first of October, alone, a crop of hay the next season may be cut. perhaps equal to any it will ever after- ward yield, and worth more than a crop of wheat or corn. The time to cut for hay is just before the seeds ripen, but if seeds are desired let them ripen, and if cut immediately will still make fine hay. For pastures I would advise a mixture of orchard grass with it. Orchard grass grows well in the same soil with Herds grass. Iam gratified that you are giving to the country so much general in- formation upon the subject of agriculture. It is yet possible to reno- vate our exhausted soils, and restore prosperity to our country again. Our soils and our mines are our wealth, but our people must be taught to understand the value of manures, the rotation of crops and the breed- ing and feeding of domestic animals. TALL RED-TOP—(Tricuspis seslerioides.) Spikelets, three to twelve flowers, glumes unequal, rachis ‘of the spike bearded below each flower, lower palea much longer than the upper, oonvex, hairy on the back, three nerved and three pointed by projection of the nerve, stamens three, stigmas dark purple. The Tricuspis, three pointed, is a meadow grass and thrives best on sandy soils or old fields. When in full bloom it makes a good show’ but does uot yield a sufficiently large crop to justify sowing in preference to several others. It is said to be harsh and wiry. ORCHARD GRASS. 89 CHAPTER VIII. ORCHARD GRASS—-WOOD MEADOW GRASS—ROUGH STALK MEADOW—CHESS OR CHEAT—ITALIAN RYE GRASS— MANY FLOWERED DARNEL—CRAB GRASS. ‘ ORCHARD GRASS—(Daetylis Glomerata.) With broadly linear, rather rough, pale and keeled leaves anda dense panicle of one-sided clusters, on which the spikelets are much crowded, each three to four flowered, both the glumes and the lat- erally compressed-keeled ‘lower palet tapering into a short awn, rough-ciliate on the keel. Flowers in early summer. (Gray). Whether a native of America or Europe, or indigenous to both coun- tries, it is well known that Orchard grass is diffused more extensively than almost any other grass, growing all | over Europe, the northwestern parts of Africa, and in Asia Minor. Known as Cock’s foot in England for many centuries, it was not appreciated as a N} forage plant until sent to that coun- J try from Virginia. It is a perennial, and grows upon congenial soils any where between 35 and 47 degrees north latitude. It likes a soil moderately ' dry, porous, fertile and inclined to be sandy. On stiff, clay soils, retentive of moisture, the roots do not acquire such a vigor as to give a luxuriant top growth. The feeble- ness of the roots upon such a soil makes them liable to be thrown up by the earth. It may be grown successfully ona lean, sterile sort, by a top dressing of stable manure, yielding during a moderately wet season from two to three crops. In its rapid growth in early spring lies one of its chief merits, furnishing a rich bite for cattle earlier than almost any other grass. It also grows later in the fall. It 90 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. is very hardy when well set, makes a great yield, grows rapidly and vigorously upon suitable soils, supplies a rich, nutritious hay,avhich, compared with timothy, is in value in the proportion of 7 to 10. It starts out early in spring, and comes into blossom about the time of red clover. It attains a height, upon good soils, of three feet, though upon soils of great fertilitv it sometimes reaches the height of five feet. After being cut, it springs up rapidly, sometimes in rainy weather growing three or four inches within a week, This quality of rapid growth unfits it for a ann grass unless cut every week. Nevertheless this very quality makes it stand unrivalled as a pasture grass. The Hon. John Stanton Gould says in his essay upon this grass: “The laceration produced by the teeth of cattle instead of injuring, actually stimulates it to’throw out additional leaves, yielding the tenderest and sweetest herbage.” The chicf objection to Orchard grass is that it grows too much in stools or tussocks. This can le remedied by sow- ing a larger quantity of seed per’acre. Never less than two bushels (14 pounds to the bushel) per acre should be sown, and two and a half bushels would even be preferable. Mr. Gould says that if the meadows are dragged over in spring with a fine toothed harrow, and then rolled, this disposition will be completely overcome. ‘The disposition to stool can also be checked by sowing with other grasses. A half gal- lon-of clover seed, one gallon of herds grass, and two bush- els of Orchard grass,per acre, sown about the 25th of March, in our latitude, will make an excellent pasture. By the middle of June, upon good soils, the amount of forage will equal the best fields of clover. It should not, however, be pastured the first season until August, however tempting it may be. In this many Tennessee farmers have made a mis- take. By pasturing before the roots are well established much of the grass is pulled up and destroyed. I have met with many farmers who condemned the Orchard grass for ORCHARD GRASS. 91 want of hardiness and endurance, but in every case the fault was with the farmer himself in pasturing too early. Orchard grass grows well in the shade, and hence its name. It withstands hot, dry weather better than any other valuable grass. Three good crops of leafy hay, if the weather is seasonable, may be counted on after the first year, but only one will blossom. The analysis Prof. Way of the green grass in blossom by - gives the following result : Per cent, WV UT sss sotaaelnicans ays i au) Seacpne datas seaveriie wraeara) lsmnotahs Sonate 70. Patty Mattei cca weasr wostalens: Eddouts seGhnate Rume w ames 0.94 Blesh formersscutscs gus se end ste een yet) GSae ce Fe 4.06 Heat producers.............-00eeeee ree scacus ened ak . 13.380 Wises PDTC eso iasesai ddarexateupere eral eevene MAUS vlna edt acweniia 10.11 iinies Seu ACe AY EU Ree ROY Se ees Hol awae ses 1.59 Analysis by Scheven and Hlifionsan gives Watery secuectganeaen cal eae a Geiee roiaeieeureaate 65.00 Pabecccsce xs saserianinesaeerewesmeee teases oe .80 Flesh formers..........000c000. cucccvececcucessenee 3.00 FLOR t PROGUCETB fone seca aera atccarshig areca wncray eleaterdtecegeers 12.60 eee ALT wcaey ccawdanneeot was wears HeMaEONS 16.10 Bde ae ay aserlccn as eta mneudgeege coins detauantea beads mucaanieedapatrnanananate 2.40 The Woburn experiments developed some interesting facts pertaining to this grass. Grown upon a rich, sandy loam, and cut the middle of April, the green grass weighed 10,209 pounds per acre, in which there were 1,190 pounds of nutritious matter. Cut, when in full bloom, the green produce weighed 27,9053 pounds. This lost in dessication 16,045 pounds, or a little more than half, and furnished 1,089 pounds of nutritious matter. After the seeds were fully ripe, the green produce weighed less by 1,361 pounds per acre, but there were 1,415 more pounds of dry hay, with an excess also of nutritive extract of 363 pounds. The aftermath, however, was not so good, and in the loss of this the advantage of an increased yield of hay was coun- terbalanced. The hay made of orchard grass, as analyzed be Wolff and Knop, gives: 92 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. Waters Sacccieanaeaailedease adnin . eawaliaane mms Sanne 14.3 Organic: matter:| Red Clover..........c0ceee cece 13.4 | 29.9 | 35.8 3.2 6.2 AYBIRE 5 saseecd os Hee aeewase hte 15.8 | 29.2 | 80.5 3.3 8.3 The great difference in the amount of crude fibre is no- ticeable, and shows decidedly in favor of Alsike clover. SAPLING RED CLOVER—( Trifolium erectum). This is precisely the same plant as the common red clover, and is used in the same manner, and for the same purposes. The only difference in it is, that the stems being stouter, it is not liable to lodge, but will stand erect, and so be in a better condition to mow, and admits the sun to its roots better. As to which may be preferable, is a mere matter of taste or prejudice. Hither is good, the sapling clover being about two weeks later. CRIMSON CLOVER— (Trifolium incarnatum). This is an annual presenting a beautiful crimson flower when in bloom. It is principally valuable as a green food, though the hay is thought to be equal or superior to that made of red clover, but being an annual it interferes more te CRIMSON CLOVER—ALFALFA. 145 with the operations of the farm, it being necessary to sow it as a separate crop. An analysis of the hay cut in bloom, as made by Wolff and Knop, show: PlOSH POMMEOVG sos esccae euwieenice a Gewkign Va edweiaaerree iene 12.2 Heating properties. o¢ cs-covewssmew ess seseeees nee vees 30.1 DS DUDE aaa eis ain cache se sna ceice a Bt ssnncevn seater eco noms + 83.8 Datiiesnc-omantinws weneyttienens os walniaaswnvelae wdtormrakietdene 3.0 PAS Disc ceas os scene sche ae sua seinyaceceed a So a cea sceuaearhce isi ahi seeeiuads 7.2 It is said to be earlier than lucerne or the common red clover. It may be sown upon wheat or grain stubble in the fall, the land being simply harrowed and the seed sown. Few things, it is said, in the vegetable world, presents a more beautiful sight than a field of crimson clover in full bloom. It is not grown to any extent in this State, a few bunches appearing sometimes in fields with other clover. Its chief value is in its quick return. Sown in autumn it may be mown early the succeeding spring, and so meet any scarcity of provender. ALFALFA: LUCERNE—(Medicago Sativa). Cultivated for green fodder; belongs to the luguminous family; stems erect, one to two feet high, from a long, deep root; leaflet obo- vate-oblong ; racemes oblong; pod several seeded, linear, coiled about twoturns. (Gray.) This is, beyond doubt, the oldest cultivated grass known, having been introduced into Greece from Media 500 B. C., and the Romans, finding its qualities good, cultivated it extensively, and by them it was carried into France when: Cesar reduced Gaul. It is emphatically a child of the sun, and revels in a heat that would destroy any other species of clover. But cold and moisture are hurtful to it. On the rich, sandy lands of the South it is invaluable, and will grow luxuriantly, making enormous yields of hay. 'Tts. nutritive constituents are almost identical with red clover, but it has one property not possessed by the latter, and that is, it isa perennial. It does not stool as freely as 146 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. red clover, and therefore must be sown rather thicker. It will continue to furnish green pasturage later than red clover. : It does not grow well on any soil that has a hard pan, nor on thin soils. To secure a stand, the ground must be in a thorough state of tilth, well pulverized and mellow. A want of attention to this requisite has caused many to be disappointed in the result. But in well prepared, rich, gravelly or sandy loam, it succeeds remarkably, sending down its long tap roots many feet into the subsoil, pumping up moisture from below, and thus will thrive when all other plants are drooping. In this respect it is far superior to clover. For the latter, a suitable surface soil is of equal importance with the subsoil, but for Lucerne a suitable sub- soil is absolutely necessary, as the roots are not fibrous, only rootlets shooting off from the main tap root. This tap root grows to be as large as a carrot. This enormous quantity of roots permeating the ground to the depth of several feet, necessarily prepares the land for increased production, the leguminous plants deriving the larger part of their suste- nance from the atmosphere, and storing it in the roots. So that, as a fertilizer, it stands: deggrvedly high. The soil is not only fertilized to the amount of several tons per acre, but it is mellowed from the mechanical displacement of the soil and the admixture of decayed vegetable matter. Asa preparation for wheat it is equal to clover, and for corn better. Besides, a large amount of the leaves is neces- sarily strewn on the ground, and it shades it effectually. The seed of Lucerne is yellow, and heavy, when good. If brown, it has received too much heat in the mow, and if light colored, it indicates that it was saved too green. And the same precautions are necessary to be observed in regard to red clover. The time of sowing is the same with the either species of clover, that is Spring time. It should be sown in drills, and cultivated the first year, so as to keep down the weeds. It is easily smothered. ALFALFA—LUCERNE. 147 Ii derives its name, Alfalfa, from the Chilians. It grows spontaneously all over Chili, among the Andes, as wellas on the pampas of that country, and of Buenos Ayres. The French and Spanish settlements of the Southern States adhere to it, and cultivate it in preference to all other forage plants. It would be a good addition to the farms of West Tennes- nessee, especially in the sandy bottoms. It would also thrive upon the alluvial bottoms of any part of the State where the sun has fair play on the ground. When properly managed, the number of cattle which can be kept in good condition on an acre of Lucerne, during the whole season, exceeds belief. It is no sooner mown than it pushes out fresh shoots, and wonderful as the growth of clover sometimes is, in a field that has been lately mown, that of Lucerne is far more rapid. Lucerne will last for many years, shooting its roots—tough and fibrous almost as those of liquorice—downwards for nourishment, till they are altogether out of reach of drought. In the dryest and most sultry weather, when every blade of grass droops for want of moisture, Lucerne holds out its stem fresh and green as in the genial spring. Although so luxuriant in France, it will not flourish in England for the want of sun. It has generally failed in the Northern States for the same reason, superadded to the cold, while in the South it is a fine, thrifty plant. It has been fully tested in Georgia and Alabama, and has given universal satisfaction. Horses there, it is said, require no other food when not constantly engaged in work. Five tons of good hay have been made to the acre. It is esti- mated that five horses may be supported during the entire year from one acre of it. It is ready for the mower a month before red clover, and springs up long before the usual pasture grasses. In saving it for hay, care must be exercised, as in red clover, not to expose the plant too long to the sun, as it will shrivel and dry up the leaves, and they will be lost. The time for cutting is when it is in full. bloom, as in red clover. , 148 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. Occasionally it is attacked by an insect, when it begins to turn yellow, then it should at once be cut, as it will quickly dry up otherwise. Owing to the scarcity of seed, and the small amount cultivated, it is quite expensive, but the farmer can test it on a small quantity of land, and at the same time secure seed for future sowing. The first year it is apt to be troubled by the presence of weeds, but these can be easily exterminated if the precaution is observed to run the mower over it before the weeds go to seed. After- wards no fears need be entertained on that subject. This plant is well adapted to the use of persons living in small towns or villages, who have a small lot they wish to devote to hay for a single horse or cow. No other kind of clover or grass will equal it in quantity, while the quality is as good as the best. On the whole, the farmers cannot do better than adopt the cultivation of this grass. It has proved, with all who have tested it, worthy of all the extravagant encomiums bestowed upon it. An analysis shows the hay to contain : Flesh formerss ciscvss sees vi cavesc sarees sas Gee view es 14.4 Heating properties............ eis. oie dine wancues arama 22.5 Crude fibre .............0000- desiaso leraheeae neeneNeusrelssoreuaace 40.0 Wabiec s ccaremie vi sioea es waew sos skews oh ee deewew ka vee 2.5 PSD asia eis eceraresa, os aiavaiconse wesuane's SUuteis Aoiaiele «iva eo meas 6.4 It will be seen that in flesh-forming constituents it sur- passes red clover by one per cent. SAINFOIN OR ESPARSETT E—(Onobrychis sativa). From two French words, meaning sacred grass, It is a perennial, leguminous plant, partaking more the character and appearance of the pea than clover. It has stems from two to three feet long, straggling, tapering, smooth; leaves in pairs of pointed, oblong leaflets, slightly hairy on the under side; flower stalks higher than the leaves, ending in a spike of crimson or variegated flowers, succeeded by flat, hard pods, toothed on the edges, and prickly on the sides; roots perennial, hard and woody. Flowers in July. VETCH, TARES. 149 Experiments have been made with this grass, and though so valuable in France as to be called sacred, it has not proved a success here. It requires two or three years to arrive at maturity, and during that time has to be watched closely, or it will be choked up with weeds or grasses. It does not yield as much hay as either red clover or lucerne, but is of a very superior kind, and is much vaunted as a good butter making hay. It does not give cows the hoven, however much they may eat of it. Its seeds are also said ‘ to be superior to oats, and more nutritious, and are very fine for fowls, inciting them to lay. It does best on lime- stone soils, though succeeding well on gravelly or sandy land, and will stand a large amount of heat, though not much cold. It would probably suit the country further south better than Tennessee, though I have seen it growing in Stewart county, having been brought there by a Swiss family. It would probably grow on allour calcareous soils. VETOCH, TARES—(Vicia Americana). Flowers, several or many on a slender peduncle; pods several seeded; - with ten to fourteen oblong, and very blunt, veiny leaflets, and purplish flowers over one-half inch long. This legumen is common throughout the whole United States, though sparingly raised in Tenrlessee, from the fact that the ordinary cow or stock pea answers our purpose equally well for all kinds of stock, and is a savory food for man, and on this account the latter will be treated further on under the head of Cereals, both of man and beast. This closes the chapter on meadow grasses, cultivated or experimented with in Tennessee. There are many others which may be worthy of a trial. THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. 151 PASTURE GRASSES. PART CLO, While there are over 200 varieties of grasses cultivated in England for the use of domestic animals, in the occupied territory embraced within the United States there are not more than twenty-five, although there is a much greater diversity of soils, surface configuration, climate and latitude. The grasses constituting our meadows are nearly all derived from the eastern continent, where the abundance of the rich pasture lands teem with a great variety of nutritious herbage. All the cereals—oats, rye, wheat and barley, are indigenous to the old world. Indian corn is the greatest and almost the only valuable cereal contrib- uted by the new world to the old. The great prairies east and west of the Mississippi abound in a charming and luxuriant vegetation, but the supply of food which they afford for the herds grazing upon them in comparison to the overwhelming quantity of worthless herbage, is very scanty. Exactly the reverse is the condition of the pastures of the eastern hemisphere, where almost every plant that springs from the surface of the earth is rich in nutritive elements. The extensive plains along the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, extending to the western borders of Kansas, are the only natural pastures where the growth of an indigenous grass of suitable texture and highly nutritive qualities prevails to the exclusion of almost all other vegetation. The Buffalo grass, Buchle dactyloides delicate and low growing species, but very nutritious and exceedingly tenacious of life, possesses dominion n 152 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. over the entire surface. It survives equally well the severest droughts and the tramping of the buffalo. The range of this grass is said to be identical with that of the buffalo. The western slopé of the Sierra Nevada, from the upper Sacramento to San Diego, has hundreds of square miles covered with the wild oats of California. This is also excellent natural pasture grounds. I do not pretend to say that the poa pratensis or blue grass, our most valuable pasture grass, is a true indigenous species. It is found over such an extensive range and often in such wild and inaccessible places, far from settlements, that it is impossible to believe that the seeds could have been disseminated by the settlers or their stock. Besides, we know of numerous other plants which belong unquestionably to both conti- tinents. It is also evident that the spread of this grass has been favored by the expanse of cultivation and the increase of stock. It is still an open question whether, among the few indigenous grasses, there may not still be some which would submit to artificial treatment and become useful and profitable meadow, or, at least, pasture grasses. Here is a field well worthy the attention of the Agricultural Depart- ment at Washington. The numerous geological and geographical sur- veys now persecuted with such vigor by the General Government, should be charged with the duty of collecting seeds of the wild grasses that promise to be valuable, and skillfully conducted experiments made at the botanical gardens at Washington. There are many other wild grasses that might be domesticated, many of which are common in Tennessee. The following furnished by Dr. Gattinger, are not rare, but very generally distributed, and good for grazing. Experiments should be tried with these under culture: Sporobulus Indicus Bromus Kalmii. Bouteloua curtipendula. Elymus Virginicus, Poa compressa. —Canadensis. —serotina. Paspalum distichum, —flexuosa. —leve. —brevifolia. —racemulocum, Festuca elatior. —undulatum. —nutans, —ciliatifolium. Some of these, under cultivation, might become important pasture grasses, especially the Poas. THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. 153 In this part I shall treat the Pasture Grasses in the following order: Meadow Foxtail, Mexican Muhlenbergia, Nimble Will, Hair grass, Black Oat or Prairie grass, Bermuda grass, Hairy Muskit, Pointed Slender grass, Annual Spear or Guose grass, Wood Meadow grass, Wire grass, Blue grass, Rough Meadow grass, Creeping Meadow grass, Strong- scented Meadow grass, Slender Meadow grass, Meadow Comb grass, Quaking grass, Small Fescue, Sheep’s Fescue, Meadow Fescue, Com- mon Reed grass, Cane, Couch grass, Velvet or Lawn grass, Barley grass, Tall Meadow Oat grass, Wood Hair grass, Crab or Finger grass, Sweet-Scented Vernal grass, Prolific Panic grass, Pampas grass, Ramie, Fiorin, White Clover, Japan Clover, Herds grass and Orchard grass. ° 154 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. CHAPTER XIII. MEADOW FOXTAIL—MEXICAN MUHLENBERGIA—NIMBLE WILL—HAIR GRASS—BLACK OAT OR PRAIRIE GRASS— BERMUDA GRASS—HAIRY MUSKIT—POINTED SLENDER GRASS—ANNUAL SPEAR GRAS8—WOOD MEADOW GRASS MEADOW FOXTAIL,—(Alopecurus pratensis.) This grass has an erect, smooth stem, one to two feet high, with swelling amma spikes cylindrical, obtuse, equalling the sharp, cone- like glumes; awns twisted and twice the length of the blossom. It flowersin May andJune. The spikes are not so long or large as timothy, but, except as to size, it very closely resembles it. It has only one palea, and the head is soft, while timothy is rough. What the blue grass is to Tennessee the Foxtail is to the Northern States, Thereit is regularly sown, and the seeds command a high price. When young, and, in fact, up to blos- soming, it is eaten with relish by stock, es- pecially sheep, but after it forms seed it is of but little service in the support of anything. It is never sown here; in fact it is rather re- garded in the light of a pest by most farmers, as it forms one of the grasses to be specially contended against in the cultivation of field crops. It grows without care, almost every- where, especially on abandoned fields, and generally, with broom-grass, roots out other vegetation. In the fall, after it has seeded, it makes a very luxuriant aftermath. The nu- tritive value of this grass will surprise many m» farmers who have always looked upon it with nS disfavor. According to Way’s analysis, it has. MEADOW FOXTAIL-—-MEXICAN MUHLENBERGIA. 155 in 100 parts, when green, of flesh formers, 2.44; fatty mat- ter, .52; heaters, 8.59. When dried the same grass yielded of flesh-formers, 12.32; fatty matter, 2.92; heaters, 43,12 in 100 parts. Wolff’s and Knop’s analysis of this grass may be seen on page 36. MEXICAN MUHLENBERGIA.—(Muhlenbergia Mevicana.) This grass has an erect stem, two to three feet high, with a great many branches; panicles lateral and contracted, branches closely spiked, in clusters, green and purplish; glumes pointed, awnless and unequal. It flowers in July and is perennial. This grass thrives best in bottoms, where it grows freely. Ii is slower in maturing than most grasses, and hence, fills a vacuum caused by the seeding and dying out of the earlier grasses. It is eaten with avidity by cattle, and is a good grass in its place. From its wonderful strength, and its rapidly spreading roots, it is not advisable to allow it to be sown or planted in gardens or fields. NIMBLE WILL.--(Muhlenbergia diffusa.) A species of the preceding; has stems diffusely branched, from eigh to eighteen inches high; panicles slender and contracted; glumes min ute; awns nearly twice as long as the palea. It flowers in August and September, and is a perennial, 3 eZ It is hardly necessary to do more than mention this grass, which forms, in many sections the bulk of the pas- tures of the woods. It does not grow in fields, but in woods, where, in the fall, after rains have set it, it carpets the earth with living green. Various opinions are enter- tained as to its nutritive qualities, Some farmers contend that their stock are fond of it, and, on a sufficient range, cattle, horses and sheep will go into the winter sleek and fat from this vigorous grass. Others regard it as well- nigh worthless. It freely propagates itself in all woods where the cover- ing of leaves is not so great as to exclude the rays of the sun from the soil. Like other grasses, it does best on good 156 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. lands, and the rich, black, loamy woods in many parts of the State are set with it. It is said to be an excellent butter-making grass, and givesa particularly fine flavor to this article of food. It has never, to the knowledge of the writer, been sown, though, as it produces seed in a limited quantity, there is no reason why it should not be if it is really a valuable grass. HAIR GRASS.—(Muhlenbergia capillaris.) Another species of the same. Has spikelets, one-flowered in con- tracted, slender panicles. Glumes minute; palea hairy or bearded at the base, herbaceous, the lower three nerved, pointed or nerved at the tip; stamens, three These grasses, together with several not growing in the State, were named from Dr. Muhlenberg, a distinguished botanist, who gave them a name and description. The hair grass is a beautiful, graceful grass, and is often sold by florists as an ornamental grass, and forms a feathery addition to bouquets. It has no great agricultural value. BLACK OAT GRASS--PRAIRIE GRASS..--(Stipa avenacea.) Spikelets one-flowered; flowers stipitate, or borne on slender stalks; glumes equal, membranaceous; pales longer than the glumes, thick and leathery, the lower tipped with a very long awn; bent above and twisted at the base; seed scale rounded or cylindrical, infloresence in spreading panicles, Perennial. This grass is found in the fence corners of most of our fields, and, to some extent, in the woods in sandy places. It resembles very much the black oat, and hence its name. Cattle and sheep will eat it after it has seeded, but it is not of much value. It grows on almost all of the prairies of the Western States, It is often seen in vases as an orna- mental plant. ; BERMUDA GRASS.--SCUTCH GRASS.--(Cynodon dactylon.) Glumes nearly equal; spikes, four to five; palessmooth; stems smooth, hollow, prostrate at the base, with four or five leaves flat or folded, BERMUDA GRASS. 157 acute, rigid, bairy, rough at the edges; lower joints covered by the sheath; infloresence digitate, purplish; stamens three; stigmas feathery; perennial. Bermuda grass is a native of the West Indies, and is the principal grass of that torrid country. It has only lately been brought into notice asa valuable pasture grass for this State. In Louisiana, Texas and the South generally, it is, and has been, the chief reliance for pasture for a long time, and the immense herds of cattle on the southern prairies subsist principally on this food. It revels on sandy soils, and has been grown extensively on the sandy hills of Virginia and North and South Carolina. From the extreme vitality of its long, rhizome roots, it is very difficult to eradicate when once it gets a good foothold. Occasionally the traveler meets with patches of Bermuda grass in the cotton fields of the South, and it is carefully avoided by the planter, any disturbance giving a new start to its vigorous roots. Some: ditch around it, and others enclose it and let shrubbery do the work of destruction, It is used extensively on the southern rivers to hold the levees and the embankments of the roads. It is the only yard grass in that section. It forms a sward so tough it is almost impossible for a plow to pass through it. There is a saying in the South, “that it would take a team of six bull elephants to draw a thumb- lancet through it.” It will throw its runners over a rock six feet across, and soon hide it from view; or, it will run down the sides of the deepest gully and stop its washing. The parks of the South, set with it, present a very beau- tiful appearance if kept mown, and its pale green color acts as a great relief to the landscape when burning with the summer suns of the South. Hogs thrive upon its succulent roots, and horses and cattle upon its foliage. It has no seed, but can be easily propagated by dropping cuttings in a furrow two or three feet apart. It, however, does not 158 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. endure a shade, and the weeds must be mown from it the first year. " In some of the worn and gullied fields of Tennessee, on her mountain sides and on the sandy hills of many parts of the State, the cultivation of this grass would be a grand im- provement, making the waste places to bloom, where now only sterility reigns. During the winter it, unlike blue grass, disappears from view, but with the warming influ- ences of the sun it springs up and affords a constant graz- ing through the spring, summer and autumn months. The farmers of the South, before the war, looked upon it as a curse rather than a blessing, and used every endeavor to destroy it. But a change of opinion has taken place in this respect, and it is encouraged in its growth. It would be a good grass to mix with blue grass, as, when it disappears in the winter, the blue grass and white clover would spring up to keep the ground in a constant state of verdure. It grows luxuriantly on the top of Lookout Mountain, having been set there many years ago. This mountain is 2,200 feet high, and has, as a matter of course, excessively cold winters; so, if it thrives there, no fear need be entertained as to its capacity to endure our climate. Cattle are very fond of it, and will leave clover to feed upon Bermuda. It also has the capacity to withstand any amount of heat and drought, and months that are so dry as to check the growth of blue grass will only make the Ber- muda greener and more thrifty. The experiment of mix- ing the two grasses, spoken of above, has been tried with eminent success. It is also used in the South as a meadow grass, but Ten- nessee has so many other grasses of more value, that it would not be profitable to employ this, other than as a pas- ture grass. Where it is indigenous, it has a great reputation as a fertilizer, and many fields so worn out as to be worthless, have been reclaimed by it. The labor of plowing it up is BERMUDA GRASS. 159 considerable, but the many improved plows of the present day would be easily dragged through it. There is a sacred grass in India called the Daub, and it is venerated by the inhabitants on account of its wonderful usefulness. This is said to be precisely the same as the Bermuda, except the changes made by the differences of climate and soil. Mr. Affleck, in a letter to H. 8. Randall, says of the Bermuda grass : “ We are fully aware of all the objections made to the spreading of this grass, and have a practical knowledge of all the trouble it occasions; and having also had several years’ experience of its great, its incalculable value, we have no hesitation in stating that the latter is many-fold greater than the former. The time is not far distant when all the rough feed consumed on plantations will be made from this grass; and when the planter will consider his hay crop as of much more importance than his sugar or cotton. The excellence of this plant for pasturage is evinced by two circumstances. It is preferred by stock of every descrip- tion to all other grass, and it grows luxuriantly in every kind of soil. It possesses an additional advantage, that of binding the loosest and most barren sandy tracts. But when it has once taken possession of close, rich soil, its ex- tirpation is so difficult as almost to defy all the skill, indus- try and perseverance of farmers. It is used to bind the levees on the banks of the Mississippi, and of railroads. We saw it at Macon, Ga., Charleston, 8. C., and so on, as far north as City Point, Va., where it partially covers the wharf. One hundred pounds of grass afford upward of fifty of hay;.and we do cut, as a regular crop, five tons of hay per acre each season. Were we to state how much more has been cut, we might strain the belief of our readers. No other grass will yield such an amount of valuable hay; sur- pass it in nutritive qualities; support on an acre of pasture such an amount of stock; will improve the soil more quickly; or so effectually stop and fill up.a wash or gully. 160 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. But, on the other hand, its extirpation, when once well es- tablished, is almost impossible, though to check and weaken it, so far as to grow a grain or cotton crop, is easy enough. To do this, pursue the course of the best farmers of Ken- tucky in their management of blue grass sod—with a good breaking plow, having a wheel and coulter, and a stout team, turn over evenly and nicely a sod four inches thick © and as wide as the plow and horses are capable of, following in the same furrow with another plow which casts the dirt well, and throw out as much of the fresh earth on top of the sod as possible, or the depth of the soil will admit ot. The crop that follows can easily be tended without disturb- turbing the sod, and its gradual decay will greatly increase whatever crop may be planted on it—and that should be a shading one, corn and peas or pumpkins, or winter oats followed by peas. Good farmers will understand that heavy crops of hay cannot be removed, for many successive years, from any land without some return in the shape of manure. To the careful, judicious farmer, who wishes to improve his land and his stock,, and who does not expect to grow any crop without trouble, and who uses good plows and keeps a stout team, and that in prime order, we earnestly recom- med to try an acre or two of this grass, in a situation where it cannot readily spread. To the careless farmer we say touch it not. “Bermuda grass well set, which affords the finest and most nutritious pasturage I have ever seen, will keep almost any number of sheep to the acre—three or four times as many as blue grass.” HAIRY MUSKIT--MEZQUITE---MESQUIT..--(Bouteloua cur- tipendula.) Spikes short, solitary, racemed; spikelets alternate, two or three flowered, the terminal flower imperfect; glumes two; keeled, the upper layer shorter than the flowers; stamens three; anthers orange or red; rachis extending beyond the spikelets. Perennial. Muskit grass has come into very general use in some HAIRY MUSKIT——POINTED SLENDER GRASS. 161 parts of Virginia, North Carolina, and, to some extent, in Tennessee, and where used, has given much satisfaction. It is the, grass of the northern and western prairigs, and is very nutritious. In the absence of grasses better suited to this climate, the Muskit might become a very popular grass, but such is not the case. Great quantities of it are annually cut and sold as prairie hay. It would be well for some enterprising farmer to experiment with it. POINTED SLENDER GRASS.--(Leptochloa mucronata.) This is an annual, growing from two to three feet high, and flowers in August. Sheaths hairy; spikes from twenty or more, two or three inches long, in a long panicle-like raceme; glumes pointed, about equal- ing the three or four awnless flowers. It grows in fields and pastures and affords a small amount of grazing during the hot months; while the regular pasture grasses are parched up with heat. But it is not of much agricultural value in the presence of so many others that are successfully grown. ANNUAL SPEAR GRASS--GOOSE GRASS--(Poa annua.) Spikelets ovate, ‘crowded, three to seven flowered; panicle one-sided often; stems spreading, flattened, tufted; lower palea more or less hairy on the nerves below; leaves of a bright green, sword-shaped, flat, often crumpled on the margin, smooth on both surfaces, rough at the edges; seeds oblong, free; glumes shorter than the flowers. This is one of the species of the valuable genus Poa to which blue grass belongs, and is a very common grass on all our swards, and known as Goose Grass. It is so very like blue grass that, to a casual observer, it would be taken for it. But the florets are not webbed, and in blue grass the roots are creeping, while this is tufted. It isa valuable grazing grass and sows itself. It is acommon pas- ture grass of the Northern States, and is highly prized. It flowers through the whole summer, unless dried up by a drought, to which it easily yields. It forms the principle _grazing of the Unaka Mountains, in Tennessee. 162 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. According to Prof. Way, this grass is less nutritious than blue grass, when green, and more nutritious when dry. A comparison of the two when green and cut in bloom and dried is as follows: Flesh j Water. | formers | Fat. | Heaters. POs NNUG: os ¥ sesess-as Geese arcnse 79.14 2.47 “71 10.79 67.14 8.41 86 14.15 When dry, the comparison shows as follows: ~ Flesh formers. | Fat. Heaters, POa ANDRUS esi. os eda wie este tee 22a devia aoe seve 11.83 | 3.42 51.70 _ . Poa pratensis .. 1.0.60. cee cece nee necen 10.85 | 2.63] 48.06 The analysis of Wolff and Knop, on page 36, show a sim- ilar difference. WOOD MEADOW GRASS.--(Poa nemoralis.) This grass grows in moist, shady woods, is rank and luxuriant, and is, like the other Poas, greatly relished by stock. It will thrive well in thickets and barrens, and is an early grass. It has been treated of under the head of Meadow Grasses. WIRE GRASS—BLUE GRASS. 163 CHAPTER XIV. WIRE GRASS OR BLUE GRASS OF THE NORTH—KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. WIRE GRASS, BLUE GRASS OF THE NORTH—(Poa com- ‘press. ) Stems ascending, flattened, the uppermost joint near the middle; leaves short, green; panicle dense and contracted, expanding more at flowering; short branches often in pairs, covered with from four to f nine flowered flat spikelets; flowers rather obtuse, , linear, hairy below the keel, ligule short and blunt; hight about a foot to eighteen inches. This is the Blue Grass of the North, and g it thrives on poor sandy knolls, and » though the foliage is not so luxuriant asin other grasses, itisvery valuable. It is found principally in the mountainous portions of East Tennessee, though it is seen everywhere over the State. It is very hardy and, even in paths that are trodden, it does well. Its color has given it the name of “blue grass” all through the North, but it must not be confounded with Kentucky blue grass, to which it is closely allied, differing principally in having a flat stalk and a darker green color. BLUE GRASS —(Poa pratensis.) Lower florets connected at the base by a web of long, silky filaments, holding the calyx; outer palea five ribbed, marginal ribs hairy; upper sheath longer than its leaf; hight from twelve inches to two feet; root perennial, creeping; stem erect, smooth, round; leaves linear, flat, acute, roughish on the edges and inner surface; panicle diffuse, spreading, a 164 THE GRASSES OF 'TENNESSER, erect. ‘The plant is of alight-green color, the spikelets often varie- gated with a purplish brown color. Flowers in June and July. In addition to the name of Blue Grass it also in certain localities takes the names of June Grass, Common Spear Grass Green Meadow Grass, Kentucky Blue Grass. This is the king of pasture grasseg in the Central Basin of Tennessee, and on soils suited to its growth it ) is useless to attempt the cultivation of MF any other kinds, except as auxiliary” to this. Itis valuable, both for sum- mer and winter pasturage, and no farmer occupying soils suited to its _ growth is justifiable in being without Nit. It is easily started, and the seeds are readily procured, and once start- ed, it is perennial. No amount of pasturing is sufficient to destroy it utterly, and, though eaten until no appearance of it is seen on the ground, with rest for a few days, the earth is again carpeted with its soft green foliage as luxuriantly as ever. ‘“Who- ever has blue grass has the basis for all agricultural prosperity; and that man, if he has not the finest horses, cattle and eae has no one to blame but himself. Others in other circumstances may do well, he can hardly help doing well if he will try.” Its parentage is claimed by many States, and it is proba- bly indigenous to some of them, though some authors say it was introduced from Europe. Let that be as it may, it grows readily in all parts of the United States north of lati- tude 40°, and lower down on suitable soils. It flowers in earliest summer, and gives a rich pasturage, except in the dryest months, @l the year. It varies in size in dif- BLUE GRASS, 165 ferent localities according to soil and climate. From the unexampled success its cultivation has met with in Ken- . tucky, it has acquired the name of Kentucky Blue Grass, though in the New England States it is known by the name of “June Grass.” In all the middle poriion of the United States, it forms the principal constituent of the turf, though its excellence is rather depreciated in the Eastern States, the farmers there prefering the Meadow Foxtail, and in England it is almost driven from the country, the moist condition of the land there not being favorable to its development. In some sections it has been used as a hay, and from the analysis hereunto appended, it is full of all the constituents of nutrition. But it is not a success as a meadow grass, ~ its chief excellence being exhibited as a pasture grass. It endures the frosts of winters better than any other grass we have, and ifallowed to grow rank during the fall months, it will turn over and hide beneath its covering the most luxuriant of winter croppings. Many farmers pass their. stock through the entire winter on it alone, feeding only when the ground is covered with snow. As a lawn grass, it stands pre-eminent among all others, its rich Puaris-green foliage, its uniform growth and its con- stant verdure making it beautiful both summer and win- ter. It would seem a work of supererogation to try to argue as to the advantages of cultivating this grass. All know its benefits, and all see around them the great increase in the value of the land covered with it. It requires but little expense to secure a stand, and little time and then the re- ward comes. A farm well set in blue grass will yield at least $10 per acre in grazing, and yet men who have farms with all the constituents necessary to produce the best of grass will persistently wear it out in cultivation from year to year, with less net receipts by far than the yield of a pasture. ‘ 166 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. In the work on Wheat Culture, issued from this office, it has been shown that a large proportion of Middle and East Tennessee abounds in limestone rocks, in fact, it underlies the basin of Middle Tennessee and forms most of the founda- tions of the Eastern mountains. The Blue Grass of Ken- tucky is made from soil produced by precisely the ‘same strata of rocks here seen. Any farmer having land show- ing an outcrop of limestone, may be assured he has the nec- essary soil. These rocks are looked upon as a curse; yet, without their preseuce, we could not have the magnificent parks of blue grass seen around Never was a time more propitious than the present for securing a fine blue grass farm. The depreciation of the price of land is unequalled in our time. Its intrinsic value isas great as ever, and farms, favorably located, can now be bought for from ten to twenty-five dollars per acre, that would, after being stocked with this grass, bring from forty to fifty dollars per acre. Our hillsides are the best for it, as the crumbling debris from the degradation of the rocks, carried down by rains, will be a perpetual top-dressing to the pastures. Besides, a dry, rich soil is better suited to its production. No level country could produce so continually good blue grass, from the simple fact, it could not receive regular supplies of lime as a stimulant to the soil. These lands do not exist everywhere in the United States, and that should increase their value. They will be in de- mand, andthat soon. The tide of immigration is already set towards us, and the thrifty sons of the North will readily see the great advantage of these limestone soils and secure them. The wild grasses that now are such an attraction to immigrants, on the table-lands of Tennessee, will ultimate- ly be exhausted by the increase in population, while the de- mand for food and every variety of domestic animals will be proportionably augmented according to the great increase of the population. Then every acre of land that will pro- duce Blue Grass, will be in active demand and will be de- BLUE GRASS. 167 voted to stock raising, for which it is so well adapted, and sheep and cattle will then truly fleck every hillside. The fame of Kentucky Blue Grass is so great, that the majority of people suppose Tennessee cannot produce as good, and they demand practical evidence of the fact. We have that very evidence here spread out before our eyes in the magnificent pastures of those, who have adopted the proper management. Kentucky has famous pastures, be- cause in the outset of her cultivation of the Blue Grass, a system of management was adopted that proved a success, and others seeing it, also adopt it, and all who will now follow this plan will meet with the same remunerative re- turn. That system has been thoroughly tested both in Kentucky and in some counties in Tennessee, and no one has made a failure that has attempted it. Those who have put themselves to the trouble of learning that system, and putting it in practice, have made as good grass as can be made in Kentucky or elsewhere. As in other crops, the quantity and quality of grass are in exact proportion to the care and management bestowed upon it, and the sod is as good, the blades as wide and long as can be seen anywhere; but this all depends on the skill and attention of the farmer. Some will sow a lot and then put in cattle, horses, sheep and hogs to keep it eaten to the ground throughout the year. Under such treatment the grass disappears, and such farmers conclude their soils are not adapted to grass. Let the grass get a vigorous start. Protect it from stock for \ the first year, and fertilize it with stable manure, or some of the superphosphates, and be sure not to over-crowd the pas- ture with stock. This is the true secret of having good pastures. The question may pertinently be asked, if our State can bring as good Blue Grass as Kentucky, why is there not "good pastures here as well as there? Why is not every acre in Tennessee capable of producing it, set down with this magnificent bounty of nature’s hand? Most farmers believe 168 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. it will grow here. “They cannot but know it, for in almost every neighberhood there is one or more lyxuriant pastures; and further, they know they are very profitable to their owners, and lend a charming fascination to the landscape. Every farmer knows what a convenience it is to havea Blue Grass pasture, and when its value is considered, it is difficult to account for the fact why there are so few. Many a farmer has land suited for it, possibly so rocky, it is not worth anything for cultivation, and thinks every year that he will set that rocky lot down in Blue Grass, and yet he waits and waits, vear after year, and is still found mak- ing the same resolution after the time of sowing has passed. There is no excuse for this delay. When the sowing time arrives one has a job he wants to finish, and when he is through that he imagines it is too late. Another has not the money to spare for the seed, yet all are going to sow, and thus procrastination keeps in sight the rocky, fruitless slopes instead of having them with a green sod of Blue Grass to contrast with the lichen ofthe rocks, and crowd its green spires in every crevice, to supply nutriment to hun- gry sheep and cattle. It may seem that it is so costly, many will not make the effort. One man has a large farm, and to get a stand over the whole, it would really cost a considerable sum, and so he cannot make up his mind to spend that much at once, but rather than sow one lot one year, and another lot an- other year, he waits until he can sow all at once, and that time never comes. But if the farmers will watch the system of managing Blue Grass and learn it from those who have succeeded, they will soon become so enthusiastic that every acre, capable of producing it in Tennessee, will be seeded, and we shall have a country as beautiful as the world-wide famous Blue Grass- region of Kentucky. It may be interesting to know how and when that region began the cultivation of it. Dr. F, H. Gordon, of Smith county, early became impressed with BLUE GRASS. 169 its importance and visited the neighborhood in which its culture began, for the express purpose of investigation, and here is the result of his visit: “Some seventy years ago,says Dr. Gordon, writing in 1871, two young men, named Cunningham, came from the south branch of the Potomac, in Virginia, to Strode’s creek, in Bourbon county, Kentucky. They had studied and prac- ticed the Blue Grass system onthe Potomtac. They jointly purchased two hundred acres of land on Strode’s creek, and sowed the whole tract in timothy and Blue Grass. In a few years their whole tract was covered with a luxuriant coat of grass. They had brought with them the seed, on a pack -horse, all the way from Virginia. Their farm soon attracted the attention of their neighbors, who began to visit and learn how to manage grass. In 1835, I too, went to see the Cunninghams and many other farmers in the Blue Grass re- gion, in order to learn the system. I devoted many weeks to the study of the system—going with the best farmers over their farms and seeing their management; asking many questions and writing down their answers. Then the Cun- ninghams, like many others, had grown to be wealthy on the profits of the Blue Grass. One of them, Robert, then had two thousand acres in Blue Grass and Isaac had three thou- sand. Nearly all the farmers I visited, owed the luxury of their Blue Grass to the direct instruction of the Cunning- hams. To me it was a feast to travel over and view the fine sod of grass on the first two hundred acres which had caused the whole Blue Grass region to become so beautiful, prosperous and wealthy. While learning the Blue Grass system, I saw in every , neighborhood that those who had studied the system closest, had the best pastures invariably. You can see in all that region of Blue Grass, some farms where all the lots look like some of ours in Tennessee, which are gnawed all the year round by calves, sheep and geese. This is because the owner does not think enough about its management. 170 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. He does all the work and incurs all the expense necessary to make the richest pastures and then wastes it all by bad and thoughtless management. But there are some farmers in almost every county in Tennessee, who well understand the Kentucky system. Those who intend.to sow grass may learn the system from them. What a scene of comfort, beauty, luxury and wealth, will this whole Middle Tennes- see present, when it shall be covered with the richest Blue Grass! Such will be the future of this fine country.” “Much has been published lately about immigation. But in justice to our own Tennesseeans, who uwn this valuable soil, I will say that we can ourselves sow all our valuable hills with Blue Grass, without the aid of labor from abroad. We do not need many laborers to make grass. It will al- ways pay a good profit. Every acre will pay its taxes and a good profit besides. We now till too much land. We ought to till less and make more grass. Let not an acre be idle. There is our true interest. We need grass more than voters or laborers. Cotton, tobacco, rice, hemp and sugar need laborers, but grass does not. If we sow our lands in grass we can do without so much labor. The in- disposition of farmers to take advantage of experience, is shown in the following case, which is in point” “T know a rocky lot of about six acres which I myself sowed in 1835. During last year (1870), it afforded a profit to the present owner of full ten dollars per acre. The owner has no grass on the balance of his land, and does not intend to have any. He has lived, during his whole life, in sight of rich pastures of Blue Grass, and knows that his whole tract will produce as good grass as those pastures. Yet he will not sow grass. The reader will say that this farmer, with his six rocky acres of Blue Grass, is a singular man. But he is not very singular. Because hundreds of farmers here know just as well the value of Blue Grass as he does, and yet they do not sow it. Doubtless many readers know it as well, and yet do not sow. They know, BLUE GRASS. 171 too, that it is very profitable, still they do not make the pastures. Why? Why? Why? Will every reader who has no Blue Grass answer? Yes, many of them have answered me hundreds of times. One is not ready just now. An- other cannot spare the money to buy seed. They are all going to sow when they get ready. I know some farmers who have been, for thirty years, going to sow grass before long, and the time has not yet come for them to begin.” “Again comes up the seemingly meddlesome question, why? I will give the true answer. Our farmers have as much intelligence as farmers anywhere; but they do not sow grass, because they do not understand well the system of man- agement. They have not, studied itin good earnest. There- . fore, they do not know how little labor and expense are necessary to get a stand of grass. Their own reasoning teaches them wrongly, that the making of grass is a big and costly process; therefore, they slowly undertake it. If they knew how little labor and expense will set a large tract in grass, they would not delay one instant. If they will decide in their own minds that they do not understand how to make grass, and will apply to those who understand it, then they will'all learn, that they are able, and have time enough to set their lands in grass. Then they will do it speedily.” iy “They must first learn how to get a stand. Then they must learn how to manage, so asto make a dense and profit- able sod. It requires much more thinking than expense and labor to make good grass. ‘Those farmers who have well studied the Blue Grass system, and have themselves covered their lands with rich pastures, can, and will freely instruct all who may apply to them to learn the system. If our farmers here will do as the Kentuckians did, they will all soon have plenty of good grass.” We cannot but commend the above sensible extract from this eminent writer on agriculture, to the attention of all readers. Andif the traveler will notice, as he passes through 172 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. Smith county, from Lebanon to Carthage, he will see, on every side, the result of his teachings and example. In order to give point to the foregoing remarks, we will now proceed to treat on the best plan to secure a good stand of Blue Grass, and in doing so, will not be governed only by our own experience, but also by our observation of the sue- cess of others. BLUE GRASS LANDS. It is generally conceded that the lands most productive of Blue Grass are the calcareous soils. Lime is a natural stimulant to it, and it flourishes best where natural supplies of this salt are found+ Go into a pasture that has an occa- sional out-cropping of limestone and the sprigs of grass, surrounding the rock will be found more luxuriant than anywhere else. Our lower silurian formation then, where- ever found, may be safely sown in this grass. The Basin ot Middle Tennessee, the mountains and valleys of East Tenneseee, and the black alluvial deposits of the rivers of West Tennessee being supplied with lime from the sources whence the streams flow, are all well suited for this grass, It also grows upon many places amongst the hills of the river, though not so luxuriantly as in the black loams of the silurian and devonian formations. Lime, though a great stimulant to its growth, is not an essential ingredient in the soil. It grows on the sandy hills of Alabama and Georgia, but not so rank as on limestone soils. Blue Grass will always grow well under walnut trees. We have in Middle and East Tennessee the same charac- ter of soil that exists in the Blue Grass country of Kentucky, and, owing to our milder climate, can produce a better win- ter pasturage than can be produced in the colder climate of Kentucky. Little land exists in Tennessee but what will produce this grass profitably. Select the lot to be sown, and clean off all. brush, leaves and briars. Ifit cannot be done with a stalk- rake, use hand rakes, as the seed must come in contact with the soil. Seed BLUE GRASS 173 sown on a bed of leaves will soon germinate, but the root- ‘lets, being unable to burrow in the soil, will quickly parch up and die. If the land is thickly covered with trees, it will not thrive well, therefore, it is necessary the timber should be thinned out. Leave the tallest trees that are really the more valuable, taking off the low, bushy kinds that make too much shade. It is an admitted fact, that Blue Grass does better_in partial shade than when there is none. It does not endure a drought as well as some other grasses, and consequently some degree ot shade is essential to protect it from the scorching rays of midsummer. TIME AND MANNER OF SOWING. So many seasons have been recommended as the proper time of sowing, that it may be said each one, under fa- vorable circumstances, is a good time. One Kentucky far- mer says: “Any time in the winter, when snow is on the ground, sow broadcast from three to four quarts of clean seed to the acre. With the spring the seeds germinate and are very fine and delicate in the spouts. No stock should be allowed for the first year, nor until the grass seeds in June for the first time, the second year. The best plan is turn on your stock when the seeds ripen in June. Graze off your grass, then allow the fall growth, and graze all winter, taking care never to feed the grass closely at any . time.” Another authority says: “Follow nature and obey ber dictates. The seeds ripen in June, and are scattered by the winds and rains as soon as ripe, and therefore, sow your seeds as soon as they can be gathered.” This plan might be a proper one in a colder or moister climate than ours, but here it would result in the grass being often dried up by the drought that are almost invariable in the latter part of summer. Many sow, as stated in the above quotation, on winter snows, and that is a very good plan, but care should be 174 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. observed to have the ground free from leaves before the snow falls. There are others who sow in the latter part of February or first of March, and this sometimes does as well as any provided time is given for the grass to get sufficient hold to resist the withering effects of the summer’s drought. The main care to be taken, is to get the grass large enough to live through freezing or dry yesilian. It will resist the effects_of frost better than heat however, and taking this into consideration, the most approved time of sowing is in the latter part of August or first of September. If sown at this time the autumnal rains will germinate the seed, and besides, at this season there is comparatively little trash on the ground, the leaves having not yet fallen. The ground being prepared, the seeds are sown broadcast, at the rate of one bushel per acre, and the sower should be fol- lowed with a harrow, or if the ground is very loose, with a stiff brush. This will give them a sufficient covering. It is a fact, demonstrated by actual experiment, as shown in one of the tables herein contained, that grass seeds will veg- etate best at a depth of one-quarter of an inch. It may be sup- posed that, with no more covering than will be given by a harrow or brush, a great many seeds will be uncovered. This is very true, but in one pound of Blue Grass seeds, (clean seed) there are 3,888,000 seeds. By a computation every square inch of surface contains from ten to twelve seeds. With this amount on the surface, one scarcely need fear a stand, when, if one or two take root, there will be in a year an excessively close turf. There can be but little difference $f opinion in regard to the treading of stock after sowing. All writers and farmers agree, that for one year, at least, it should be kept from all stock. After that, there is some difference. Dr. Gordon, who, as before stated, paid more attention to it than any one else in the State, adopted a plan of man- agement that has been repeatedly tested, with uniform suc- cess. It was this: BLUE GRASS. i 175 He sowed, either in the autumn or spring months indis- | criminately, as suited his convenience. He usually sowed with rye, wheat, or barley, if sowed in an open field, but if in a woods lot, he sowed with rye, or after a crop of millet. At any rate, the soil must be well cleaned off and broken up, as well as the nature ot the land permits, then after the grain is sawn the land is harrowed, and if possible, rolled. After this, the grass seeds were sown and brushed lightly. Immediately afterwards all the cattle, horses and sheep were turned in that could be secured. Imfthere was not enough on his place he borrowed his neighbors’ stock, and let them run on it until the ground was well packed all over the surface, and then, and not until then, were they removed. If after millet, (and thatis greatly recommended, as it de- stroys more effectively than anything else all weeds,) harrow about the first of September thoroughly, sow the seed, brush as before, and then turn on the stock. If it is desired to sow in the spring, in the latter part of February or early in March, if not practicable sooner, harrow the grain field, the ground having been well prepared in the fall sowing, sow the seed and then turn stock on the wheat, rye, or barley, as the case may be, Oat land may be'sown in the same way. The treading of the stock packs in the ‘seeds and prevents the grass from drying up in the summer heats, or freezing out in frosts. Dr. Gordon considered an open, loose porous surface, to be unfavorable to the safety. of the young grass, but if packed as directed, the grass will quickly spring up, get a firm hold, and the loose condition of the subsoil will favor the transmission of the roots to a good depth. The after treatment is simple, and that is to allow no stock on during the first year, but as soon as the seed stalks begin to shoot up the next year, pasture it so closely that it can not go to seed. Dr. Gordon differs in this respect from other authors, who allow it to seed one time for purposes stated below. He « 176 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. would not let it seed atall. His great success in this branch of agriculture will, in every country where he is known, give weight to his authority. Others say no stock should go on it for at least two years, or at least until after the first seeding, which will take place in June of the second year. Some of the best Blue Grass lots in Middle Tenuessee have been started by following either of the above plans. Of one thing, there cannot be a ) doubt, and that is the ground should not be well broken up. On the surface it should be as firmly packed as possible to secure a perfect stand and form a perfect turf. When the surface is too loose, the grass easily dries up, and is much easier frozen out, the seeds not going into a germinating depth. Under favorable weather, seed sown in the spring on a crop of oats, will do as well as fall sowing. What is meant by favorable weather, is that no unusual dry weather super- venes. But there is always the risk of meeting with unfa- vorable weather in spring sowing, and on that account we would recommend sowing in autumn. But it is better the sowing should take place as early in the fall as the weather will permit, or, indeed, the latter part of summer, if there is a proper degree of moisture in the soil. Some farmers sow a limited amount of seed daily and over the same sur- face sprinkle shelled corn, then turn on their hogs. They root in search of thecorn and thus plant the seed, doing the work of plow and harrow. This, to say the least, is a slov- enly plan, and though possibly securing a good stand the ground is so roughened, it can never make a beautiful pas- ture. If the land is loose as some soils are, it will answer a very good purpose to scratch up the surface well witha sharp toothed harrow, and this is especially the case where the roots of undergrowth exist to a great extent. AFTER TREATMENT. Of one fact, there cannot be a doubt, and in this lies the | whole secret of having remunerative pastures of Blue Grass, BLUE GRASS. 177 and that is, do not pasture it to death. It is true, it will stand almost unlimited grazing, but there is a point beyond which it will cease to be profitable, and that limit should never be passed. The better plan, is to have the lots divided, and allow the stock on one until it is cropped down, and then, when no longer any pickings can be taken from it, do not allow the stock to continue to tread it, simply to have them on a grass lot. It will not only do the stock no good, but, by — constant tramping, the grass is unable to throw up any fo- liage, and in time it will die, for the roots must draw some nourishment from the atmosphere, or they will perish. Allow the grass to recuperate, by changing the stock from one pasture to another, and never over-stock if. Grass that will keep ten oxen in growing order, will fatten five oxen quickly. Stock of all kinds are constant feeders, and there should always be forage enough to enable them to get plenty to eat without the labor of hunting for it. There is much variety of opinion on the amount of stock that ought to be put on an acre. This arises from the dif- ference in the capacity of the land, some soils being rich, dry and porous will stand men heavier grazing than others, It is safer to err on the safe side, and it is better to put in too few than too many. If stock are fattened quickly, they are more remunerative than when fattened slowly. ‘Then, when one lot is sold out, they can be re- placed by others. Ordinarily two acres af. good grass arere- | . quisite for one three-year old ox, a1 and what will fatten one ox will fatten ten head of sheep. Blue Grass should be allowed to go to seed once or twice, or until the ground is well set or turfed over, and then never more. Itisa grass that propagates itself by its creeping roots or rhizomes, and it is the disposition of all plants and animals to lose vitality in the process of reproduction. Though perennial, this habit is upon it, and though it does not actually die, its vitality is so lowered by the effort, that it lies dormant for some time afterwards, before start- 12 178 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. ing again its vigorous growth. Stock should be kept out at seeding time, or before, in fact, so as not to eat down the seed stalks, as they will do. It sometimes happens that dry weather sets in during the summer months, and the grass becomes so dry it will burn. Still stock will greedily eat it. The grass having dried full of nourishing juices, it is equal to the best of hay, and stock will still fatten upon it unless the dried grass has ‘been drenched with rains. The fall growth of some lots should be kept untouched by stock, and in this way, a fine winter pasturage will be secured. The grass will get high enough to fall over and protect the surface foliage, and stock will keep up their flesh on it during the winter without feed. When snows fall, cattle will require to be fed, but horses, mules and sheep will paw off the snow, unless it is too deep, and get at the grass. It is the first deciduous plant that puts forth its leaves in the spring. Good fat lambs can be sent into the market earlier than from any other grass. It makes milk rich in butter, and gives the latter a fine golden color, without changing its taste, or, like clover, imparting its peculiar flavor to it. The following is an analysis of this grass as compared with some other well known grasses: (Way.) 1lsT. DRIED AT A TEMPERATURE OF 212°, S & ¢| 28 ,. qe on! | 5 100 parts oF aZs Bas Bee 8B a Reg) BS g2/ ee | < ey oR Blue Grass give..............06- 10.35] 2.68) 43 06] 38 02] 5.94 ol 10) 11 ee ee 11.36; 3.55] 53 85) 26.46] 5.28 Orchard Grasi.......ccceeerveee 18.53) 3.14) 44.82] 33.70]° 5.81 Clover gis cinessaesoeds es own 4% 22.55} 3.67| 44.47] 19.75] 9.56 White Clover.........c0.ceeeaee 18.76] 4.38] 40.04] 26.53] 10.20 Sweet Scented Vernal............ 10.48] 3.41] 48.48] 86.36] 6.36 BLUE GRASS. 179 QND. AS TAKEN FROM THE FIELD IN BLOSSOM. { eB] og Z 4 a lmaad| he le Ra) Re WITHOUT DRYING 100 PaRTs OF 5 B E BH} BE |B Ri 88 a Pa a 68 E Ie S 4) pq |B 3 5 E aie ee Blue Grass give..........--eeees 67.14 341! 0.86] 14.15) 12.49 Orchard Grass..........ceee eens 7000) 4.06] 0.94) 18.30)10 11 Timothy s siss s siew ce sates eee ens 57.21} 486) 1.50) 22.85) 11.32 Red Clover..........ceceeeee-c-| 81.01} 4.27] 0.69! 8.45] 3.76 White Clover............0-ee0ee 79.71) $8.80} 0.89] 8.14] 5.38 Sweet Scented Vernal............ 80.85] 2.05} 0.67| 8.54] 7.15 Wolff and Knop’s analyses differ some from these, as will be seen by referring to page 36. It will be seen from these tables that Blue Grass ranks close up to the ‘best and most popular hay grasses culti- vated in Tennessee, and is about equal to sweet scented vernal grass, which stands at the head of the pasture. grasses in the Eastern States, but is not really so productive as the former. There is, in all pastures, a number of bare spots that seem to resist the efforts of Blue Grass to sod. By mixing other seeds with the Blue Grass, these spots can be made to produce as well as other places. Ina natural meadow, by careful counting, several species are often found growing intimately on every inch of earth. A table found elsewhere details the result of an actual count, and it is there seen that on a good natural pasture in one square foot of sod, there were 1,000 plants, consisting of twenty distinct species. This is nature’s own arrangement, and may safely be copied. In such a pasture not an inch of surface is unoccupied. It may be thought an inch or two here and there, makes but lit- - tle difference in the space occupied. But every blade of grass is of some importance, and it is astonishing the aggregate of these barren places. Below is a table of seeds that is respectfully reoommended to those wishing to start a good pasture. 180 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. MIXTURE FOR PERMANENT PASTURE. Orchard Grass flowers in May and June..........ceeees 4 lbs. Sweet Scented Vernal flowers in April and May..... 2 6 Sheep Fescue flowers in May and June.............060 4 « Herds Grass flowers in June and July..............0008 qo Blue Grass flowers in May and June.......ccseseevees 8 « Ttalian Rye Grass flowers in June.....cccseccssceseeeees 4 * Red Clover flowers in May and June..........seeeeeeee eve 32 This mixture is enough for one acre of ground and none too much. Remember the old adage: “He that sows spar- ingly shall reap sparingly.” It is better to sow too much seed than too little. If too much the weaker sprigs will die and the grass will soon accommodate itself to the capacity of the soil, but if too little is sown, it will-require years for the | pasture to be sodded, and the owner will be lying out of the use of so much soil during all that time. The wisdom of this mixture is seen at a glance by examining its several constituents. The blue grass, orchard grass, fescue, vernal and rye grass will be permanent. The clover takes posses- sion first and affords for two years an immediate pasture or meadow, as may be desired. By the time the clover gives out, the grasses have a fine foothold. In the Northern States farmers invariably mix white clover with their seeds, but iu Tennessee this is unneceesary, as that valuable forage plant comes up as it were spontaneously every where. And, though many farmers are prejudiced against white clover, no more valuable native forage plant exists in Tennessee. Now, once more, let it be urged on the farmers of Ten- _nessee to look into this matter of pastures, and provide themselves with this highly important adjunct to every farm. No home is complete without pastures, and yet there are many who will depend either upon the fortuitous wild grasses for grazing, or feed from the crib, their stock all through the year. With a rich Blue Grass lot, no stock need be fed, except while gt work, and, indeed, it is sometimes the case ROUGH MEADOW GRASS. 181 that in dry, scarce years, crops have been made with horses and mules, that had no other provender than a Blue Grass lot. ROUGH MEADOW GRASS—(Poa Trivialis.) Culms roughish backwards, leaves rough edge, the lower elongated; ligules long, pointed; panicles dense lance shaped spikelets subsessile, two to three flowered oblong acute, five veined, flowers in May and June in the latitude of Tennessee. This is a perennial, and to the common observer, very much resembles blue grass. In the North it is a common meadow and pasture grass, mixing well with orchard grass, making twice as much when mixed with other grasses as when sown by itself. It delights in shady places, and is admirably adapted to wood pastures and the banks of streams. It stands tramping as well as herds grass, but will not bear cutting, as the exposure of the roots to the sunshine soon kills it. The seed weighs fifteen pounds to the bushel, and two-thirds of a bushel is amply sufficient for an acre. Cattle are very fond of it, preferring it to almost any other grass. Way’s analysis of it cut in flower, shows the following result: Water, 73.60; flesh-formers, 2.58; fat, 0.97; heat-producers, 10.54; woody fibré, 10.11; ash, 2.20- Messrs. Scheven & Ritthausen’s analysis shows: Water , 78; flesh-formers, 2.3; fat, 0.8; heat producers, 8.4, woody fibre, 8.8; ash, 1.6, Wolff and Knops’ analysis may be seen on page 86. Woburn experiments by Sinclair gave 7,486 pounds per acre cut in flower; loss in drying, 5,246 pounds; nutritive matter, 233 pounds. Cut in seed produce of one acre, was 7,829 pounds; loss in drying, 4,304 pounds; nutritive matter, 336 pounds. ~The produce of the aftermath was 4,764 pounds and 223 pounds of nutritive matter. The chief destinction between this and the blue grass is, that the blue grass has a wooly web which en- tangles the seeds, making it difficult to sow them. In the Poa Trivialis the seeds are comparatively free. We have spoken of it under the head of Meadow grasses, though it is far better for the pasture. 182 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. CHAPTER XV. CREEPING MEADOW GRASS—STRONG-SCENTED MEADOW GRASS —SLENDER MEADOW GRASS—-MEADOW COMB GRASS—QUAKING GRASS—SMALL FESCUE—SHEEP FES- CUE—MEADOW FESCUE, AND OTHER FESCUE GRASSES— COMMON REED GRASS. CREEPING MEADOW GRASS.--(Eragrostis reptans) This is an annual grass; flowers in July, and grows eight to eighteen inches high. It has short, nearly awl-shaped leaves, smooth, long spikelets, loose sheaths, slightly hairy on the margin; panicles from one to two inches long. It has long, creeping roots.—/Vint. It is very common in open pastures and fence corners, and is relished by stock; but, being an annual is not worthy of being sown. STRONG-SCENTED MEADOW GRASS.-- (Eragrostis ’ Poo:- oides. Another species of the same genus is this grass, with flat and smooth leaves; lower sheaths hairy, spikelets containing from ten to twenty florets, of a lead color, and flowers in August. Found mostly on road- sides and in old gravelly fields. It has a strong, disagreeable smell but handsome in appearnce. SLENDER MEADOW GRASS.--( Eragrostis pilosa.) Large, loose, pyramidal panicle; spikelets from five to twelve flow- ered, of a purplish lead color; glumes and lower palea obtuse; grows from six to twelve inches high.—FTViné. This, like the former, is found in old fields or sandy barrens. It is one of the grasses occupying the “barrens,” and serves a good purpose in sustaining cattle in these un- occupied places. It is also cultivated in gardens, like the preceding, as an ornament for bouquets. Annual. MEADOW COMB GRASS—QUAKING GRASS 183 MEADOW COMB GRASS.--(Eragrostis pectinacea.) Panicles widely diffuse; spikelets flat, five to fifteen flowered, purple; ’, glumes and flowers acute; lower pale three nerved ; leaves rigid, long and hairy. Perennial. —Flint. This is also a species of the same with last two, and, like the others, forms a large constituent of the barren and mountain grasses. When dry it is the sport of the winds. The importance of these great natural pastures has never hitherto been appreciated in-Tennessee, but it has been the constant effort of this bureau to call the attention of stock- raisers, and especially sheep husbandmen, to the importance of these highway pastures for the economical rearing of sheep. QUAKING GRASS.--(Briza Media and Maxima.) Glumes roundish, unequal, of a purplish color; spikelets many-flowered, heart- shaped; lower pale roundish, entire, upper pale smaller, egg-shaped, flat; leaves flat; stamens three.— Flint, As seen in the name, there are two sizes of this grass, one larger than the other. It grows wild in the mountanious parts of the State, but is chiefly seen in gardens, where it is cultivated for its beau- ty, making, with its heart-shaped spikelets,a fine addition to bouquets, for winter vases. The slight- est movement causes it to shake, making a noise like the rattles of arattlesnake. The Briza Media is perennial, but the Briza Maxima isan annual. Cattle eat it with relish, but it is a poor pasture grass, and is only suited to very sterile soils. Mr. Sinclair ascer- 184 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. tained that an acre of the Briza media cut in flower, weighed 9,528 pounds, which lost, in drying, 6,431 pounds. The amount of nutritive matter was only 409 pounds. Cut when the seeds were ripe, the produce weighed 9,528 pounds and furnished 483 pounds of nutritive matter. The after- math weighed 8,167 pounds, with only 255 pounds of nutri- tive matter. A thin, sandy soil gave 10,890 pounds, with 453 pounds of nutritive matter. A moist, clayey soil gave 8,167 pounds and of nutritive matter 293 pounds. A rich, black, loamy soil furnished 9,689 pounds, and 462 pounds of nutritive matter. Sandy soils,as is shown by these ex- periments, are better suited to it than rich clayey or cal- careous soils. It would suit the soils of the Cumberland Table-land, and many parts of West Tennessee. The seeds weigh from ten to twelve pounds per bushel. Analysis shows the dried grass to contain, of flesh-formers, 5.2; heat producers, 42.8; fat, 2.6. It rank among the poorest of the grasses, but is hardy and better than none at all. SMALL FESCUE.--(Festuca tenella.) The small fescue has a spike-like panicle, somewhat one-sided, from seven to nine flowered; awn awl-shaped, palea slender; leaves bristle- formed; stem slender, six to twelve inches high; leaves slender; flowers harsh, often purplish, panicle nearly erect; has a grayish green color.— Flint. Flourishes on dry thin soils. Not of much value. SHEEP’S FESCUE.--( Festuca ovina.) Has a narrow panicle, short, tufted, bristle-shaped leaves, of a grayish green color, somewhat tinged with red; spikelets two to six flowered; awn often nearly wanting. Perennial.—/int. The Fescue grasses are very popular in New England and grow well in Tennessee, having been introduced in some localities. They are perrennial and grow in tufts, and from their profuse foliage they form excellent pasturage for cattle and especially for sheep, hence the name of one variety. Mixed with other grasses the Sheep’s Fescue would be a good addition to our native grasses, It would be especially use- « SHEEP’S FESOUE. 185 ful on dry hillsides, or sandy, old fields, where blue grass will not thrive well. It has long leaves, and they are much sought for by cattle. It has been grown extensively & in East Tennessee, and is grown in some localities in Davidson county, without much success. The Hon. Staunton Gould says this grass forms the great bulk of the sheep pastures of the Highlands of Scot- land, where it is the favorite food of the sheep, and where the shepherds believe it to be more nutritious for flocks than any other. Gmelin says the Tarturs choose to encamp during the summer where this grass is most abundant, because they be- lieve it to be the most wholesome for all cattle, but especially for sheep. Linneus asserts that sheep have no relish for hills //,and heaths without it. It grows in dry ‘sandy soils where all other vegetation parches up. The roots are long, turf short and dense, making it well suited for lawns. 7 It retains its verdure during the most ex- tended droughts. It will not bear ma- nuring, for then it is dispossessed by other grasses. Its great value is for pasturage upon sandy soils. It will suit the Cumberland Table-land. The Woburn experiments showed that, cut at the time of flowering, the product of one acre was 5,445 pounds, which gave 212 pounds of nutritive matter. The same number of pounds was obtained, cut when the seeds were ripe, but there were only 127 pounds of nutritive matter. The after- math yielded 3,403 pounds of hay, having 66 pounds of nutritive matter. From this it appears that there is a dif- ference between the results obtained by chemists and prac- tical feeders as to its nutritive properties. 186 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. ‘MEADOW FESCUE--RANDALL GRASS--EVERGREEN GRASS.,--(Festuca pratensis.) Its panicle is nearly erect, branched close, inclined to one side; spikelets linear; from five to ten cylindrical flowers; leaves linear, of a glassy green, pointed, striated, rough on the edges; stem round, smooth, from two to six feet high; roots creeping. Perennial, —fVind. This grass has received some attention in different parts of the State, and has met with a warm reception from those testing it. It es a its seed long before any other grass, and, consequently, affords a very early nip to cattle. It has been raised under various names, in Virginia, as “Randall Grass,” in North Carolina as “Evergreen Grass.” In the mountain lands of Vir- ginia, a writer says: “The variety of for- age best adapted to sheep-grazing on the mountain lands is the “Randall,” a tall, coarse grass, growing freely on the rocky soil to a hight of six feet, remaining green and affording fine herbage all the win- ter.” My. James Taylor, writing to the Ag- ricultural Bureau from North Carolina, says: “The Evergreen Grass is very good for pasturing through the fall and winter. I , have no knowledge of its origin. It will \ do best when sown on dry land, and is well adapted to sheep. It grows well on rocky soil, to the hight of four or five feet when ripe, continuing green in the spring, and affording fine herbage through- out the winter. It is best to sow in the spring with oats. A peck of well-cleaned seed is enough for an acre, or a bushel in the chaff. It ripens about the first of June, or a little before rye harvest, and is cut with scythe and cradle as wecutrye If sown in the spring this grass will not \ MEADOW FESCUE. 187 go to seed before the next year, but if sown in the fall it will bring seed the next spring. I do not know its yield of hay to the acre, but believe it to be equal to any other grass we have.” From the limited cultivation it has met with in Ten- nessee, it seems rather to be better adapted to moist, low lands, though I have seen it growing on some of the high ridges of East Tennessee, at least 1 ,500 feet above the sea. There it thrives luxuriantly, and makes a very superior pasture. Some of this grass was sown in Davidson county as early as 1850, upon the farm now owned by Col. D. H. Mc- Gavock. The place selected for sowing was low, wet and almost marshy. The same spot is yet green with it, still flourishing in unrivaled luxuriance, furnishing more grazing, according to Col. McGavock, than any other grass. The roots penetrate much deeper than the roots of blue grass, descending, indeed, as deep as red clover. In consequence of this it bears droughts remarkably well. Nor do overflows affect it, but rather seem to add to its vigorous vitality. A small plat of upland was also sown, but it disappeared in about five years, but its disappearance was hastened by the presence of the army worm. The same rules are to be observed in propagating it as in blue grass. In Europe this grass is one of the standard meadow grasses, and might be found by further experiment to form a fine addition to the list here. Its name of Evergreen originated from its habit of remaining green under the - snow and when it was clear of it, affording fine croppings for cattle. It will grow on a greater elevation than the blue grass. The seeds weigh about fourteeen pounds to the bushel. An analysis by Messrs. Scheven and Ritthausen found it to contain, when green, water, 74.8; flesh-formers, 2.4; fat, 188 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. 0.8; heat-formers, 10.2. The Woburn experiments gave at the rate of 13,612 pounds to the acre, cut when flowering, which lost 7,046 in drying, and furnished 957 pounds of nutritive extract. It is a good hay grass. TALL FESCUE GRASS.--(Festuca elatior.) This is a variety of the same, naturalized from Europe, and suited to a rich loam, such as is found in the Central Basin. The Woburn experiments show it to yield more nutritious matter per acre, when cut in flower, than any other grass, cut either in flower or seed. The number of pounds obtained was 51,046, which weighed, when dry, 17,866 pounds, loss in’ drying, 33,180 pounds and furnished 3,988 pounds of nutritive extract. _ There are several other fescue grasses, as the Spiked Fescue, (F. loleacea), Hard Fescue, (F’. duriuscula), and the Nodding Fescue, (F. utans), all indigenous to this country. The last two are good hay grasses, as well as the Meadow Fescue. The Hard Fescue was analyzed by Way and found to contain water, 69.33; flesh-formers, 3.70; fat, 1.02; heat- producers, 12.46; woody fibre, 11.83; ash, 1.66. The Wo- burn experiments gave as the produce of one acre, 18,376 pounds, cut in flower; loss in drying, 10,116 pounds; nutri- tive matter, 1,004 pounds. Cut in seed, the produce weighed 19,075 pounds, loss in drying, 10,481 pounds, leav- ing nutritive extract, 446 pounds. It grows well on a sandy loam. The seeds weigh ten pounds to the bushel. COMMON REED GRASS,--(Phragmites communis.) Glumes shorter than the flowers, keeled, sliarp-pointed. and very un- equal; rachis silky-bearded; palea slender, the lower thrice the length of the upper; stiles long, grain free.-~Fint. It grows in swamps and on the borders of ponds. It is found in the Mississippi bottoms from six to twelve feet high, and serves as a fringe to nearly.all the swamps of that that river. At a distance it very much resembles sugar COMMON REED GRASS. 189 cane. Its large seeds serve as food for the swarms of wild ducks and geese of that region. When young and tender cattle browse on its succulent foliage, but when it gets large it becomes tough and woody. In England it is used in thatching houses and farm buildings. A roof made of this is said to be better than a slate roof, because it keeps the cold out in winter and heat in summer. Such a roof, it is said, will last eighty years if care is taken to keep the moss cleared away. It is universally diffused, both in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. 190 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. CHAPTER XVI. CANE—COUCH GRASS—VELVET-——-LAWN GRASS OR MEADOW GRASS—BARLEY—TALL MEADOW OAT GRASS—WOOD HAIR GRASS. CANE—(Arundinaria macrosperma.) Glumes concave, awnless, small, lower smaller than the upper; scales three, longer than the ovary; stamens three, stems woody. Flowers in March and April, leaves linear, green on both sides, smooth, spikelets from seven to ten flowered, purple, smooth. When the first settlers came to Tennessee, the whole face of the country was covered with Cane, and while it existed, afforded abundant pasturage to stock of all kinds, both winter and summer. The shoots of young cane are both succulent and nutritious. Not only are they eaten by beasts, but, when young and tender, they are boiled and eaten by man. In 1812 and again in 1864 a famine was averted in India by the opportune seeding of the Cane, the people gathering the seeds and boiling and eating them like rice. The Cane requires about thirty years to mature and form the seed, then the plant dies, and it again springs up from the roots, It is propagated by suckers from the roots, and it is several years before it is strong enough to serve the purpose of fishing-poles. Its stem has a coating of almost pure silex, and was used by the Aborigines for knives, cups, fans, pipe-stems, fishing-poles, spear-handles, fishing-spears, chairs, tables, bedding, wigwams, ete., etc... Like all other grasses, it grows from the centre, and though it has ‘gra- minaceous affinities in all itsinternal structure, it partakes of the nature of a tree in size, as it often attains a height of of forty, and even of fifty feet. It belongs to the same family with the bamboo of the ) CANE, 191 Asiatic and African jungles. There, it is applied to more purposes than any other species of vegetation, and is regu- larly cultivated. It is there planted in spring or autumn, and is considered ready for cutting at the end of four or five years. Some of the most delicious sweetmeats we have, are made from the young and tender shoots of the Cane by the Chinese. The family of Cane comprises twenty gen- era and one hundred and seventy species. The switch cane is the seedling, and as the roots becomes older, they thow up from year to year larger stems, provided it is not too much trodden, in which case, it dwarfs and remains switch cane, until it flowers, seeds and dies. Ti varies in diameter from 4 of an inch, to three inches, andin Asia eight inches. The distance between nodes is from four to eight inches, and in some highly prized Chinese varieties, it is from four to five feet. In Asia it is used for an endless variety of purposes, for making houses, boats, masts, furniture, water-pipes, floats for children to learn swimming, life-preservers, and by softening the sections in boiling water and flattening them out, they are used for planks, boards, umbrellas, and in fact, for almost every do- mestic purpose. The only uses to which it is applied here, are for pipe- stems, fishing-poles, and for making baskets. It forms most excellent winter pasturage, besides sheltering stock from the inclemency of the weather. Several large farmers in Middle Tennessee still have their pastures of Cane. Al- most any portion of Middle Tennessee, if enclosed and un- used, will soon send up small Cane, and if unmolested until it attains some size, it will stand very constant grazing. In the bottoms of West Tennessee, in some of the valleys of East Tennessee and on some isolated spots in Middle Ten- nessee, it yet existe in pristine beauty. But it is fast dis- appearing, with wild game, before the encroachments of the plow. One of the grandest and most sublime sights to be seen, is the burning of acane-brake. Sounds as if a terrific 192 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE, battle raged are heard and a blaze goes up that effectually destroys all vegetation within its fiery circle. It grows best on the richest land, but if the poorest soil is once set with it, it acts asa fertilizer. This is to be at- tributed to its wonderful net-work of roots, the immense foliage it deposits on the soil, and to its dense shade. It is avery difficult matter to break up cane land, but once broken, it quickly rots and adds to the fertility of the soil. The roots run toa surprising length and depth, and serve as pumps to raise dormant fertilizing principles from below the reach of any plow. The farmers living near the Mississippi bottoms find the immense cane-brakes in that region exceedingly beneficial, as they are in the habit of driving their stock to them, and the most luxuriant pasturage is obtained, both summer and win- ter. It will not grow in standing water, as the presence of water destroys its roots. Therefore, it is only found on parts of ground elevated above the swamps. Botanists reckon another species called Arwndinacea tecta, small cane, which is believed by many close observers-to be the switch canespoken of. The A. tecta has a peculiar mode of inflorescence. From the creeping root are thrown up simple leafless culms from six to twelve inches high with a few spikelets ina simple raceme. These spring up in April, and are highly relished by every kind of stock. COUCH GRASS, Twitch Grass, Chandler Grass, Dog Grass, Witch Grass, Quack Grass, Quake Grass, Squitch and Wheat Grass—( Triticum repens.) Has creeping roots; stem erect, round, smooth, about two feet high striated, having five or six flat leaves, with smooth, striated sheaths; the joints are smooth, the two uppermost very remote, leaves dark green, acute, upper one broader than the lower ones, ‘roughish, sometimes hairy on the inner surface; smooth on the lower half, Inflore.cence in spikes. Flowers in June and July.— Flint. This grass, though more a troublesome weed than an agri- cultural acquisition, was brought from Europe by some one, COUCH GRASS. 193 er od under the supposition it was a good grazing grass. It creeps ' with its vigorous roots rapidly, and though having an abund- ance of foliage, it is too coarse and rough for fodder. Each_, joint will produce a new plant, which, in turn, sends out in every direction new scraggy roots, that reproduce other plants. When young and tender it is eaten by stock, and it A is a favorite grass with dogs, who eat it to excite vomiting. It is apt to take possession of wheat lands, and is exceedingly trouble- some to get clear of, a single root in the ground serving as anucleus fora plantatation of them. The only way to get rid of this trouble- some’ pest, is to gather, dig and burn; or, if while the land is dry and the weather hot, it is plowed frequently, it may be killed. But to interfere with it during wet weather, by either digging or plowing, is only to assist in its propagation. Its principal growth takes place in autumn, when its roots spread horizontally and obliquely in every direction, and continue to grow rapidly until arrested by cold weather. The roots are succulent, and i are industriously hunted for by hogs, who eat them with avidity. In some of the poverty-stricken countries of Northern Europe, the | roots are dug, dried and ground into meal, which is made into bread by the poorer classes, who are thus enabled to sell their wheat tothe rich They are _also fed, in some locality, to cattleand horses. It belongs to 13 S 194 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. the family of wheat, and it has been argued by some, that it hybridrizes with wheat, and by others, that it is the pa- rent of wheat. From the large amount of salts in its com- position, land that has been infested with it, produces won- derfully large turnips. It is said, however, to impoverish land, as to other crops. It exists principally in the North- ern States, but has acquired a foot-hold in some sections, being brought in with seed wheat, the seeds resembling wheat exactly, except they are smaller. The heads are also very much like the wheat heads. VELVET LAWN GRASS--MEADOW SOFT GRASS—(Hol- cus lanatus.) Spikelets two flowered, jointed with the pedicels; glumes boat shaped, membranaceous, enclosing, and exceeding the flowers; lower flower perfect; its lower palea awnless and pointless; upper flower staminate only, bearing a stout bent awn below the apex. Stamens three, grain free, slightly grooved. It grows from one to two feet high; stem erect, round; root fibrous, perennial; leaves four or five, with soft, downy sheaths; upper sheath much longer than its leaf, inflated, ligule obtuse; joints usually four, generally covered with soft, downy hairs, the points of which are turned downwards; leaves pale greeen, flat, broad, acute, soft on both sides, covered with delicate hairs. Inflorescence compound, panicled, of a greenish, reddish or pinkish tinge; hairy glumes, oblong, tipped with a minute bristle. Floretsof two palets. Flowers in June. This is one of the most beautiful grasses we have, and grows wild on swampy moist lands. It abounds on the marshy flats of the Cumberland Mountains, but it is not of such tempting relish that stock will not eat it ravenously. It grows well in West Tennessee. As a grass for lawns, however, or yards, unless it is de- sired to use them as pastures, it is unequalled, and is easily propagated. It needs but to be sown slightly, and after- wards will quickly sow itself. A yard turfed over with this grass presents a most lovely appearance, and looks as it spread with a velvet carpet. But, Mr. Gregory, of North Carolina, says: “It was on my place 35 or 40 years ago when first bought, and is VELVET LAWN GRASS—-MEADOW SOFT GRASS. 195 found in several other places in this county (Oxford). It . would seem from this it is indigenous to our clay lands. I gathered the seed on my land, and have now some two acres sown, and have just cut (June 29th,) the prettiest lot of hay Lever saw. Orchard grass in the same field will not compare with it.” Several analysis of this grass have been made, which are given below: n é . , & u > S | gla| es | ss 3 s/o5 | 8s | 4 Analyzed by EB ge | | AS | ee | < fe, Ay 69.70] 3.49|1.02| 11.92] 11.9411.93 Way. 75.1| 2.3] 0.5; 9.5}. 10.9] 2.4] Scheven & Ritthausen. The hay, as analyzed by Wolff and Knop, shows water, 14.3; flesh formers, 9.9; fat, 3.1; heat producers, 36.7; fibre, 33.6; and, ash, 5.5. From the experiments of Sinclair, at the Woburn farm, we learn that the produce from an acre cut in flower, was 19,057 pounds; loss in drying, 12,395 pounds, retaining nutritive elements, 1,191 pounds. The grass weighed the same cut when in seed, and lost 15,246 pounds in drying, and yielded 818 pounds of nutritive matter. The after- math yielded 6,806 pounds of grass and 373 pounds of nutritive matter. The chief merits of this grass are its soft peauty, its pro- ductiveness, and its tenacity of life. When once well set, it bids defiance to all other species. Enriching the soil is the only way to get rid of it. It grows well upon thin sandy places, and will therefore suit the sandstone soil of the Cumberland Mountains. The seeds weigh about seven pounds to the bushel, and as many as eighty bushels have been grown to the acre. 196 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. BARLEY GRASS.--( Hordeum pussillum.) Spikelets one flowered, with an awl-shaped rudiment on the inner side, three at each joint of the rachis, the lateral ones usually abortive or imperfect, short stalked;: glumes side by side in front of the spike- lets, slender and bristle-form; lower pale convex, long awned; stamens, three; grain long, adhering to the pales.—/Vint. Barley Grass is found usually in brackish marshes, and grows from 6 to 12 inches high. It looks very much like barley, and is much relished by cattle, and when full of seeds, it is very nourishing. It could be sown on places that would scarcely produce anything else, as in swampy localities. It is not of much value in an agricultural point of view, though stock will eat it. TALL MEADOW OAT GRASS--(Arrhenatherum avenaceum.) Spikelets two flowered, and the rudi- ments of a third, open; lowest flower staminate or sterile, with a long bent awn below the middle of the back; leaves flat, acute. roughish on both sides, most on the inner; panicle leaning slightly to one side; glumes very unequal; stems from two to three feet high; root perennial, fi- brous, sometimes ‘bulbous. It has two florets, the lower one having a long awn rising from a little above the base of the outer palea, and this peculiarity distin- guishes it from all other grasses It Flowers from May to July.—Flint. This grass is very popular in France, from whence it was in- troduced, and is there known by the name of “Ray Grass.” It will grow well on any land that produces clover. Its limit is about 1,500 feet above the sea. It grows quickly and forms a very excellent grass for early pas- turage, probably earlier than any »y other. It is mown down for hay, WOOD HAIR GRASS. 197 and, after cutting, it throws up a perfect mat of aftermath, that will yield an extremely rich pasture. It was only in- troduced into Tennessee a few years ago, and it has received extravagant praises, as is usual with new introductions. It succeeds well in West Tennessee, and will proba- bly suit that Jocality better than any other grass, except Herds grass. It would form a good grass to mix with others, such as timothy, Herds grass, clover or blue grass. The analysis of the hay: by Way, is as follows: Flesh formers, 12.95; fatty. matters, 3.19; heat-producing princi- ples, 38.03; woody fibre, 34.24; mineral matters, 11.59. y Other analyses may be found on 4 pages 30 and 36. ’ A This shows it to rank as anu- 2 tritious grass, among the best of the meadow grasses, and al- most equal to any of the pas-’ ture grasses, though it is said cattle and sheep do not like to be confined to it alone. The produce from an acre from ® Mr. Sinclair’s experiments . at Woburn, was 17,015 pounds; loss in drying, 11,635 pounds; nutri- tive matter, 664 pounds. Cut when the seeds were ripe the weight was 16,335 pounds; loss in drying, 10,617 pounds; nutritive’ matter 255 pounds. Weight of af- termath, 18,612 pounds; nutritive matter of which was 265 pounds, WOOD HAIR GRASS--(Aira fles- uosa.) Re Stems slender, one or two feet LN high, nearly naked; leaves dark green, often curved, pristle-formed; branches of the panicle hairy, 198 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. spreading, mostly in pairs; lower palea slightly toothed; awn starting near the base bent in the middle, longer than the glumes, which are purplish. Perennial. Flowers in June.—/lint. This grass grows on all the rocky hills, and extends to the tops of ordinary mountains, flourishing in sandy soils. It is ‘readily eaten by cattle and sheep. It is often transplanted to gardens for ornament, its delicate stem and spreading panicle, making a charming addition to bouquets. On soils suited to it, it yields more forage than sheep fescue. The Woburn experiments show at the time of flowering the pro- duct of the grass was 10,209 pounds per acre, which lost 6,891 pounds in drying, and yielded 319 pounds of nutri- tive matter. Cut when the seeds were ripe, the grass weighed 9,528 pounds; Joss in drying, 5,955 pounds; nutritive mat- ter, 297 pounds. It will not thrive on a clayey soil. COMMON CRAB—SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL. 199 CHAPTER XVII. COMMON CRAB GRASS—-PROLIFIC PANIC GRASS—SWEET-— SCENTED VERNAL GRASS—PAMPAS GRASS— RAMIE— RIBBON GRASS — CANARY GRASS — FIORIN — WHITE CLOVER—JAPAN CLOVER-—-~HERDS GRASS — ORCHARD GRASS. COMMON CRAB GRASS.--(Panicwn Sanguinale.) The history and uses of this native grass have been fully given with the Meadow grasses, on page 101, to which the reader is referred. PROLIFIC PANIC GRASS.--(Panicum proliferum.) Another species of above, differing only in having the culms thickened, succulent branched and bent, ascending from a procumbent base, and spikelets appressed, lance—oval, of a pale green color.— Flint. It inhabits, as a general thing, river bottoms, though sometimes appearing on dry hills. In its value as a graz- ing-grass it is almost identical with the preceding. Cattle. are fond of it, and it grows spontaneously. SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL GRASS.--(Anthozanthum ode- ratum.) Spikelets spreading, three flowered; lateral flowers neutral, with one palea, hairy on the outside, and awned on the back; glumes thin acute, keeled, the upper twice as long as the lower; seed ovate, adhering to the palea enclosing it; root perennial. Flowers in May and June. Stems from one and a half to two feet high —Fint. This grass was introduced from Europe, and possesses rather poor qualities as a pasture grass, as neither sheep nor cattle relish it. It is early, however, and hardy. Itis one’ of the first as well as one of the last grasses that appear. ‘Its nutritive qualities are said to exist to a much larger extent in the fall than in the spring, and greater when cut 200 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. at maturity than in bloom. It has a mixture of benzoic acid among its constituents, which imparts to it a highly aromatic character, and this is so strong that other grasses with which it may be mixed are affected by it. It is not in bably add to the value of pastures if sown with other grasses. Cows running on it are, by some, said to give a rich milk and highly flavored butter, but Mr. Gould thinks this is anerror. It may be known by rubbing its green leaves in the fingers, to which it yields its scent. On certain soils favorable to its growth, it will root out almost every other kind and take complete possession. Its seeds have a spiral awn, and when taken in the hand, affected by its moisture, the ,, awns will uncoil, and the seeds will ap- pear to move as insects. There are six or seven pounds in a bushel, and nine hun- dred and twenty-three thousand two hundred in a pound. Its analysis, ac- cording to Way, ranks it, when dry, a little higher than: blue grass, as follows ; Flesh-formers, 10.43; fatty matters, 3.41, and hevepmiading principles, 43.48. Blue grass gives, flesh-formers, 10.35; fat, 2.63; heat producers, 43.06. _ The same chemist gives the following as its composition when green: Water, 80.35; flesh-formers, 2.05; fat, 0.67; heat-producers, 8.54; woody fibre, 7.15; ash, 1.24. Scheven and Ritthausen’s analysis, grass green, gives the following result: Water, 72; flesh-formers, 2.1; fat, 0.8, heat-pro- ducers, 11.2; woody fibre, 12.3; ash, 1.6. Still another analysis may be found on page 36. Sinclair showed that when grown upon a sandy loam well manured, the produce of an acre, cut in flowering time, general use in Tennessee, but would pro- - SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL GRASS.—PAMPAS GRASS. 201 was 7,827 pounds, which lost 5,723 pounds in drying, and yielded only 122 pounds of nutritive matter. But when the seeds were ripe the produce per acre was 6,125 pounds, which lost, in drying, 4,287 pounds, and yielded 311 pounds of nutritive matter. The produce of the aftermath was 6,806 pounds per acre, which yielded, of nutritive matter, 239 pounds. The experiments of Sinclair and the analysis - given by Way show very different results. The reader should constantly bear in mind that these analyses and ex- periments are not conclusive, and they should be repeated ‘many times to command implicit confidence. The best test of all grasses is their effects upon animals. If animals thrive and fatten upon any grass, and that grass is peren- nial, hardy and durable, it is a good pasture grass; other- wise not, whatever individual experiments in the laboratory may indicate. We know that stock ofall kinds eat blue grass voraciously and thrive upon it; we know, also, that they do not like the anthoxanthum. Both are alike hardy and durable. Therefore the blue grass, upon suitable soils, is to be preferred, whatever chemical research may determine. PAMPAS GRASS.--(Gynerium argentewm.) Tall, reed-like grass, with large tuft of rigid linear and tapering, re- curved, spreading leaves, several feet in length; the flowering stem 6 to 12 feet high, flowers in antumz, silky, downy, silvery panicle. —Gray. This is the grass of the historic plains or pampas of South America, and is only cultivated for ornament here. Its beautiful, feathery panicles make a fine ornament for vases. It must be protected to survive our winters, by brush or gtraw thrown over its roots. It is not included in the list of grasses given on page 70, and is really to us only a curiosity, and not of any value in a commercial point of view. 202 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. RAMIE GRASS, CLOTH PLANT.--(Behmeria nivea.) Flowers dicecious, or intermixed, clustered in spikes; tough, fibrous bark, the fertile flowers with a tubular or urn-shaped calyx, barely toothed at the apex, inclosing the ovary, and closely investing the oblong flat akene; leaves ovate, white, downy beneath; three to four feet high. This, though called the China cloth plant, really is not a grass or allied to the grasses, but belongs to the Nettle - genus and is akin to the Hemp. It has been lately introduced and cultivated for its fibre, of which. goods, cloth, and paper are made... It has only been known within a few years to possess nutritive qualities, but from the appended letter from Col. Sam’). D. Morgan, of Nashville, it will be seen it has no mean virtues asa forage plant. The yield per acre is said to be enormous, as much as 1,200 pounds of the dried bark hav- ing been taken fromoneacre. It has never, to the knowledge _of the writer, been raised in Tennessee, nor is it certain that it would grow in this glimate, it being a native of India, but it can be easily tested, and if its virtues here are equal to the test given by Col. Morgan, it would be a most ex- cellent green soiling crop, and would take a stand by the side of corn fodder or clover. It is not included in the list of Tennessee grasses given. elsewhere. Nasuvitiz, Nov. 23, 1877. J. B. Killebrew, Commissioner of Agriculture, ete. Dear Sir:—I have a letter from Commissioner W. G. LeDuc, asking to be informed by me of the result of experiments made in the cultiva- tion of ‘“‘Ramie, or China grass plant.” Some ten or more years since I obtained a package of the seed, but having no convevience for growing the plant, I sent them to my son-in- law, Dr. J A. Duncan, of Barnwell Court House, South Carolina, who planted them in his garden, where they grew and flourished vigorously. Some two or three years later his wife prepared a small quantity of the fibre and sent it to me to be exhibited at our State Fair, which I did, and where it was greatly admired for its perfect lustre and exceeding great strength, and though there was no premium for such fibre offered by the society, she was awarded a handsome one for her exhibit. Ina a bad ' RAMIE GRASS. 208 word, I consider it a plant well adapted to the climate of South Caro- lina, if not further North, But whether it be desirable to cultivate it for its fibre or not, it proved in Dr, Duncan’s hands an admirable forage plant, ‘‘none like it,” as he says. He informed me that “his cow and horses devoured it with great gusto,” passing through good pastures to get to his garden, even breaking down his fences to get at it. He further informs me that it is quite succulent, and wonderfully nutritious, not only fatten ing, but giving to the hair of the animals using it a very smooth-and Aatin-like appearance. This is certainly a plant worthy of exertions being made to introduce into the South. Respectfully. 8. D. Moraan. It is a plant very susceptible of cultivation by both seeds and suckers. Its growth is rapid, vieing with tropical weeds in luxuriance. It thrives best in a moist climate, but is not very particular as to soils. In Jamaica it grew six and a half feet in fourteen days, according to the au- thority of Mr. Simmonds, of the “Technologist.” It was brought into Calcutta from Bencoolen in 1803, and there cultivated in the Botanic Gardens for some years until he disseminated it. The seeds are sown on a light sandy soil, it being thoroughly pulverised first, and not covered at all except by the soil with which they are mixed be- fore sowing. The beds must be watered until ger- mination takes place. When the plants are four inches high, they must be transplanted into rows three feet wide and six inches apart. The soil may be any rich, stiff kind of land. This plan is for getting a start when the seeds are scarce. The roots will soon throw up numerous suckers. that may be drawn and set like sweet potato slips. How- ever, after the seeds are secured by the farmer, he can sow in rows very lightly, and chop across with a hoe to give the plants room to spread. The proper time to sow is as early as the land can be prepared. It will be ready to cut in June, and, if desired, can be again and again cut until frost begins. In the last cutting the soil should be thrown over the stubble to pro- 204 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. 4 tect the roots during wimer, and no more planting will be necessary for several years, as the roots are perennial. They are fleshy tubers and will be quickly eaten up by hogs if they are allowed to get to them. The plant is a very promising one for green soiling, and a citizen of a village or town having a small lot may be able to supply a horse or cow with green forage through the whole summer. It has never before been recommended as a forage plant, and should any one interested in this account wish to test it,* y seed doubtless can be procured from 1 the Agricultural Bureau at Washington, Wee 2Ss«éOw WV RIBBON GRASS.--(Phalaris arundinacea.) SS oer Panicle very slightly clustered, somewhat spread- : , \ NA : ing when old; glumes wingless, rudimentary florets, Nas hairy; stem round, smooth, erect, from two to 2 YZ N yy, co seven feet high; leaves five or six in number, broad, lightish green, acute, harsh, flat-ribbed, central ‘rib most prominent on highlands, with white stripe , down centre, solid green on wet lands, roughish on both surfaces, edges minutely toothed; smooth, striated sheaths. This grass is exceedingly hardy and showy, but is of but little value as a hay or pasture grass. It is raised in almost every garden, on account of its beautiful foliage. It is called also Fortune grass. Hon. John Stanton Gould says of this grass: ‘Its roots interlace very closely, and after a few years swamps are 80 com- plely covered with them as to bear a wagon and horses without breaking through. It is also very useful in pro- tecting river banks, but in narrow brooks it is apt to fill up the channel and thus “@h RIBBON GRASS. 205 convert a large area into swamps. Its flowers vary greatly in their hue according to position. Their general color is whitish or pale green, but they are met with when they exhibit rich shades of purple and yellow, and with red in- stead of yellow anthers. The rudimentary flowers on either side of the fertile paleze are not invariably to be met with. We have seen flowers that have had only one of these, and sometimes neither is present. Its seeds weigh from forty- eight to fifty pounds to the bushel, and’ the birds are very fond of them. Half a bushel to the acre is quite enough to sow under any circumstances, but it is most commonly propagated from cuttings of the root, one piece being de- posited to every square foot, in the early spring, in ground that has been well prepared and pulverized by frost. Linnezus says that it is extensively used for fodder in ‘Sweden and is liked by the cattle. In the province of Scania it is mown twice a year. The peasantry there use it as a thatch for their cottages and hay stacks, and find it more durable than straw, It is very certain that cattle in our own country do not relish it, either as pasture or hay, and they will not touch it so long as they can get anything better. It might, however, be utilized even here by the proprietors of marsh lands. When cut very young, say when about one foot high, and used for soiling, cattle eat it better than in any other way. When it becomes older it is very rigid and becomes distasteful, and should never be used as fodder. The creeping roots are probably nutritious; they have a sweetish flavor, and pigs will devour them with avidity. Its composition, as stated by Messrs. Scheven and Ritthausen, is: Water, 68.9; protein, 1.9; fat, 0.4; heat-pro- ducing principles, 12.6: woody fibre, 13.5; ashes, 2.6. Ac- cording to the Woburn experiments, a black sandy loam in- cumbent on clay at the time of flowering yielded from an acre 27,225 pounds of grass, which lost 14,973 pounds in drying, and afforded 1,701 pounds of nutritive matter. From a strong, tenacious clay the produce was 34,031 206 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. pounds of grass, which lost 17,015 in drying, and afforded 2,126 pounds of nutritive matter. If these experiments are trustworthy, it seems that a clay soil produces 4,764 pounds more of dry hay to the acre than a black sandy loam, and that 100 pounds of grass from it affords 6.3 pounds more of nutritive matter. If it is chemically true that this grass yields so much more nutriment than timothy, redtop, fescue and other favorite grasses, it is equally true that the stomachs of cattle are not so organized that they can extract it, and that it will not lay on anything like as much flesh nor give as liberal a flow of milk.” CANARY GRASS.--(Phalaris canariensis.) Spikelets from five-sixteenths to six-sixteenths of an inch long, oval, compressed closely, imbricated and beautifully variegated with green and white, as shown in the illustration, where the dark part represents the green shades. Glumes flattened, ovate, unequally distributed Mh, about the central rib, about twice as long as the palea, clothed mucey with short appressed hairs, nerves with greenish margins, Ru- i7 dimentary flowers half the length of the perfect one, smooth below, slightly hairy at the apex. Palez of the perfect flower of the length of the spikelets, oval, compact. Culm eight to eighteen inches high, bearing three or four leaves, Sheaths inflated, somewhat roughish. Ligule acute, the upper one pointed. Leaves from one-fourth to three-eighths wide, one to three inches long, pale green, glaucous. Seed ovate, in- vested with the hardened palea. Flowers in July.— Gould. Canary grass is a native of the Canary Islands, and may often be seen in waste places. It has flowers very similar to the preceding, and belongs to the same species. Cattle devour it when young, but being an annual, and not a very luxuriant grower, it is not of much value asa forage crop. It yields from thirty to forty bushels of Seeds per acre, which are ex- tensively used in feeding canary birds. ovate lanceolate, hairy; the lower one obscurely five nerved. _ Panicle spike-like, with very short branches about one-seventh — FIORIN—WHITE CLOVER. 207 FIORIN, BENT GRASS.-- (Agrostis alba.) t ' Stem hollow or soon becoming so, spikelets in panicles, sometimes id crowded, but never so as to form FI a spike, flowers one and perfect in y each spikelet, with or without ru- diments of others, stamens three, rarely fewer, stems with procum- bent or creeping ‘base, ligule long and conspicuous, panicle more dense, greenish or slightly purplish. Perennial. Fiorin is quite popular in England as a meadow grass, and is known as ‘Bent grass’ or White Bent. It belongs to the same family as the herds grass, and is very like it. It is nourishing, and makes a good grass for pas- tures. In Tennessee it can- not hold rank with many others as a meadow grass, but it is of sufficient value to de- _ serve mention. WHITE CLOVER.--( Trifolium repens.) Its stems are spreading, slender, creeping; leaves inversely heart- shaped; flower heads small, white; pods four-seeded, roots perennial; flowers from May to September. White Clover has been lauded to the skies by some, and by others depreciated as a vile weed. It is beyond question next to blue grass, one of our most valuable grazing plants. Its analysis shows it to be’equal to red clover in most re- spects, and superior as a fat producing plant 208 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. It is to the pasture what red clover is to the meadow, and is a suitable food not only for cattle and horses, but for hogs. They thrive amazingly on it. After the first flowering it salivates horses, but it has no such effect on cattle or sheep. As a honey-producing flower, the White Clover is not surpassed by any plant, the florets, some years, being almost full of syrup. It varies very much in different years, sometimes almost disappearing, ¥@ then again, another year, being thick in every pasture. Somuch is this the > =. case, that we have what are called “White Clover years.” This is due to the presence or ab- sence of rain. When there is a wet spring White Clover appears in great luxuriance everywhere, and in dry weather it only shows itself in abundance on moist lands. It is indigenous to both Europe and the United States, and, though growing everywhere here, it has to be sown on the Northern pastures. Here it comes spontaneously, almost taking every other grass, and sometimes destroying other grasses. It is an invaluable accompaniment of blue grass, especially triumphant where the blue grass is pastured too heavily. The comparative value of White and red clover, cut in bloom, may be seen by the following analyses by Prof. Way: . H af | g | bE | Pet oO Lol 2 | 38 | é fate | 3 e | BS m E Red Clover ....! 81.01 | 4.27 | .69 | 845 | 3.76 | 1.82. White Clover... | 79.71 | 3.80 .89 8.14 | 6.388 | 2.08 Other analyses may be found on pages 34, and 37, JAPAN CLOVER OR KING GRASS 209 JAPAN CLOVER OR KING GRASS--(Lespedeza striata.) Leaves pinnately three folio, late; stipules small and free or falling early. Flowers purple rose color or white; stamens diadelphous; an- thers uniform; pod flat and thin, ovate or arbicular, reticulated. It has been but a few years since this plant has been brought to notice in this country, though its existence was mentioned as early as 1784 by Thunberg, a German chemist, who saw it growing in Japan. About the year 1849 it was noticed in the vicinity of Charleston, 8. C., the seeds having” been brought probably from Japan or China in tea boxes. A short while afterwards it was discovered at a distance of forty miles from Charleston, and still later near Macon, Ga. Within the last six years it has developed itself in many of the counties of this State, especially in Henderson and Warren, where it is covering all old fields, and in many instances rooting out broom grass and other grasses, show- ing itself well worthy of the name given it by Mr. Pendle- ton, of King Grass. It seems especially adapted to the Southern States, not flourishing akove 36°, growing with great luxuriance on the poorest soils and retaining vitality in its roots in the sever- est droughts. It is said to be a fine plant for grazing, and being perennial in warm climates, needs no re-sowing and but little attention. On soils unfit for anything else it furnishes good pasture and supplies a heavy green crop for turning under and improving the land. It cannot stand severe cold, and in high latitudes cannot be depended on as a good pasture grass, although it comes up and supplies an abundant forage tor a few months. It should be sown in January or February in the Southern States, and about one bushel of seed to ten acres is required to secure a good stand the first year. It is said to be an excellent renovater of old fields, aud to bring them up to a high degree of fertility in an incredibly short space of time. Mr. E. M. Pendleton, of Georgia, speaking of it, says: “J am willing to concede to it several things that do not 14 210 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. apply to any other.plant we have ever grown in this lati- tude, 1. It grows on poor land with more luxuriance than any other grass or weed I have ever seen; and as it has a small leaf, rather contravenes the general idea of vegetable physi- ologists, that large leaved plants feed mostly on the atmos- phere.’ I suppose, however, that this deficiency is counter- acted to a large extent by the number of leaves, for they are legion. 2. It has great powers of endurance, so far as the roots are concerned ; but the branches and leaves will parch and die out under a burning sun very soon,.especially where it grows sparsely. During a wet summer it luxuriates where- ever propagated on poor hill-sides as well as meadow lands. It loves, however, rainy seasons on thirsty lands, and I fear will not prove to be all we desire in such localities. It, however, reminds us of an anecdote of Mr. Dickson, when he was showing some gentlemen his farm during the pre- valence of a severe drought. As they passed through a cornfield in which some of the stalks were actually dying for lack of moisture, one of them called his attention to several in that condition. “Yes,” said he, “I perceive the fact—but tt dies game.” And so of the Japan Clover, it dies from severe drought, but rallies again as soon as the rain sets in. 3. Itis good pasturage for stock, and I think would make good hay, if cut and cured. This I intend to test the pres- ent season. But I do not believe that our stock like it as well as the native grasses, and I doubt whether it is as nu- tritious as the Bermuda. As cattle love variety, however, this may subserve a good purpose in that way. My opinion, however, is, from not a very close observation in the matter, that they would soon tire out on it exclusively. 4. It furnishes a large supply of vegetable matter to the soil, and I believe will prove to be the best humus making plant we have at the South, where so much is needed from JAPAN CLOVER OR KING GRASS 211 our clean cotton culture. As it is said to be difficult to gather the seed in large quantities, I intend to plow up the surface where it has seeded, and rake up the grass and top soil, and sow this dirt over my oat and wheat fields, and especially on the poor places. My opinion is that a most luxuriant growth of this clover will follow, which can be turned under in the fall while green, and thus furnish not only humus but nitrogen to the soil. 5. Another rare quality of this plant is indicated in the name I have given it—King Grass—in the fact that it abso- lutely roots out and destroys every living plant in its wide- spread path. Not even old Bermuda, which has so long held undisputed sway over his circumscribed fields, can resist its encroaches. I have a bottom long since given up to the Bermuda. Recently I passed through it and found that the Lespedeza had almost completely throttled it, though like Mr. Dickson’s corn, it died game, as here and there, peering above its enemy, could be seen an isolated sprig of Bermuda, which, as it cannot stand shade, will have to yield entirely before the close of another season. I have but little doubt that any pest like Coco or Bermuda could be rooted out by this King Grass in a few years in any locality, and would recommend it to be sown on such fields if for no other purpose. I intend to give it a fair trial myself on one or two similar localities.” In like manner the Hon. H. W. Ravenel, of South Caro- lina, regards it with great favor, and thinks its timely ap- pearance will be ultimately a source of great wealth to the people of the Southern States. Many places that were re- garded as worthless before its appearance, are now made profitable as a pasture, with the aid of this grass. Mr. Samuel McRamsey, of Warren county, says this clover made its appearance in that locality in 1870. It is fast covering the whole country. It supplies much grazing from the first of August until frost. It is short, but very hardy. Sheep are very fond of it, and cattle will eat it. It 212 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. is killing out the broomsedge wherever it appears. It grows exceedingly well on red clay, and with a little care covers red hillsides that are much too common all over the State. If it will do this and destroy the broom grass, it should be cultivated. It is not good for meadow and is only valuable for pasture. The Hon. M. T. Polk considers it almost worthless for grazing, having made many experiments with it. His opinion is entitled to great weight. i HERDS GRASS AND ORCHARD GRASS. These grasses have been treated at length under the head of Meadow Grasses. Both are favorite pasture grasses, in- deed, preferred for the pasture to the meadow. In my ex- perience and observation I knew of no grass which will give more general satisfaction upon every soil as a pasture grass, than HerdsGrass. It is nutritious, hardy, tenacious of life, a luxuriant grower upon wet or dry soils, and is highly relished by stock. In low places where water is ' likely to stand after heavy rains, it will flourish and retain ‘its vitality. Many swampy places can be made profitable by being sown in this grass, as its interlacing roots consoli- date the ground, making a tight surface over which cattle can feed without miring. It has never been valued at its actual worth. Orchard Grass is not so hardy as Herds Grass, though probably it is more nutritious, or at least, more palatable to stock. I have observed on two pastures, side by side, the one sown with Orchard Grass and the other with Herds Grass, that stock will prefer the Orchard Grass to the Herds Grass. This may be owing to the fact, that Orchard Grass has a more rapid growth, andis therefore tenderer and more succulent. Both are good, but the Herds Grass will stand more tramping and grazing than the Orchard Grass, and will thicken into a sward while the Orchard Grass will be- come thinner year after year. The first season after sowing, ny HERDS GRASS AND ORCHARD GRASS. 213 Orchard Grass will make the better pasture, but every suc- ceeding year will show the Herds Grass to advantage. This closes the list of valuable pasture grasses for this ‘State. Others now regarded as of no importance, may prove valuable by culture. One fact is certain, we have more useful grasses than we cullivate. Any three or four of the best varieties sown and properly cared for will prove a boon to the farmers of the State, 214 NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS IN TENNESSEE PART IV. CONTRIBUTED BY DR. A. GATTINGER, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE. 1 The object of this contribution is to impart some specific knowledge about those plants which constitute the natural food supply of the grazing animals. I had never expected that my casual and accidental observations in this particular direction would ever come into pub- licity, and, besides the request for this met me unprepared. Yet I have considered it my duty to accept Mr. Killebrew’s friendly and polite re- quest, as an opportunity to conduce some to the public welfare and to general information. During a thirty years’ residence in this State, for many of them with the ample opportunities of a country physician, I have devoted the time unoccupied by professional duties, to the study and collection of the flora of this State, whichI have traversed on botanical explorations from the summit of the Blue Ridge to the sandy banks of the mighty Mississippi. The grasses and leguminous plants enumerated I know, from their aspect in nature, their mode of growth, time of inflorescence, the IN TENNESSEE. 215 soil to which they are addicted, and their uses where such are known. They are, furthermore, in my private collection, and I intend to con- tinue my labors. The description of the plants are given according to the excellent works of Prof. A. Gray, A. W. Chapman’s Flora of the Southern United States, Torrey’s Botany of the State of New York. The wood-cuts illustrative of a few genera of grasses are from Gray’s Manual Some information I have also derived from the Agricultural Reports Two families of plants, the Gramines (grasses and cereals) and Leguminose (wild vines, peas, etc.), contribute in such a degree to the . support of the herbivores, that all the rest is, for this purpose, almost insignificant. What plants are suitable or not can only be learned from observing stock in pastures, what they eat or reject, when they are in a well-fed condition. From a list of grasses given in a former chapter I have selected the most frequent and valuable for the subjoined special descriptions. In that portion of the United States lying east of the Mississippi and extending to the Atlantic, there are at present known to exist 257 species of the graminez indigenous to the soil. In the territory west of the Mississippi, and extending to the Rocky Mountains, there are 143 species, of which only 52 species belong to this region exclusively, ninety-one of them belonging also to the eastern region. So it appears that we have 339 species over this wide domain. About one-half of these are found within the limit of the State of Tennessee. Many of them are valuable for forage, but many are worthless or noxious to the agriculturalist. 216 NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS CHAPTER XVIII. ANDROPOGON—TRIPSACUM —SETARIA — PANICUM — PAS- PALUM —GYMNOSTICHUM — ELYMUS — AIRA — DAN- THONIA—TRITICUM. ANDROPOGON, L.---( Andropogon.) ANDROPOGON SCOPARIUS, L. Commonly called broomsedge, a great eye-sore if it takes possession of meadows, but a good pasture grass before it shoots up its culms, after which time stock will touch it no more. It disfigures, with its straw-bundle-like tussocks, the pleasant verdure of a spring landscape, and the half decayed stalks, if mixed with new hay, incline to make it mouldy. Another such compatriot is ANDROPOGON FURCATUS, Muhl.--( Also called Broom Grass) Taller and stouter than the former, the culm terminated with 2-4 digitate flower spikes, in the manner of crab grass. It is not so much at home in open meadows and old fields but prefers open woods, fence corners and out-of- the-way nooks. A third associate is the ANDROPOGON VIRGINICUS, L.-- Closely resembles the first, but the flower spikes are near- ly wholly wrapt up in leaf-like grass blades or sheaths, and the spikelets are very much silky bearded. It is found in all sorts of localities, dry and wet, but rather dispersed over widely distant localities, and consequently not so common as the first two. ' IN TENNESSEE. 217 ANDROPOGON MACROURUS, Michx.--(Cluster-flowered Beard Grass.) This has stems two or three feet high, branched, with many spikes, bushy, forming thick clusters; rough, hairy sheaths. It differs from the preceding species of same genus in growing in swampy lands Like the others, it is worthless. ANDROPOGON ARGENTEUS, L.--(Silver Broom Grass). Spikelets in pairs, on peduncles exceeding the sheaths, dense and silky. Flowers in September. Not frequent. East Tennessee along the mountains. It is useless to the agriculturist. . Another interesting «pecies of the division of the Andro- pogoneae isthe Sorghum nutans, Gray, a tall and elegant grass, 3-6 feet high, with a narrowly oblong panicle at length drooping, of russet brown and shining color. It grows either single or but few culms from one root and passes under the name of Wood Grass or Indian Grass, and is one of the most conspicuous objects in open barrens and waste places during the late fall season. The farmers in the Western countries, in default of meadows cut: this and A. Scoparius and Furcatus before heavy frost, and store it as hay. Two other species related to the above are found in the State, viz: Erianthus alopecuroides and Erianthus strictus, both growing on siliceous soil, (Tullahoma, White-bluff, etc. etc). The first deserves to be cultivated as a garden orna- ment for its large and plume-like spike which is exceeding- ly graceful. ; TRIPSACUM DACTYLOIDES, L.--(The Gama Grass). Perennial This species is frequently overlooked for it resembles ‘greatly a depauperate form of Indian corn from the outline of the flowerspike and the broad leaves, which look exactly like those of corn. But the tassel which is only male in corn, bears here both female and male flowers, and the lateral spike of the corn is absent. Where it is abundant and better supplies not on hand, it is cut and dried for fodder. 218 NATIVE FORAEE PLANTS SETARIA VERTICILLATA, Beauv.--(Bristly Foxtail.) Spikelets awnless, with short peduncles, cylindrical spikes two or three inches long, pale green, somewhat interrupted with whorted, short clusters, bristles single or in pairs, roughened, or barbed downwards, short. This is one of the foxtail grasses, some of which are very good grazing when young. They are found on all old fields, about vards—in fact wherever man is there are thé foxtails. They areall annuals and take good care to sow themselves. SETARIA GLAUCA, Beauv--(Blue Foxtail). Stem from one to two feet high, leaves broad and hairy at the base, sheaths smooth, ligule bearded, spike two or three inches~long, dense, cylindrical, bristles six to eleven in a cluster, rough upwards; perfect flower transversely wrinkled. Flowers in July and inhabits the territory appropriated everywhere by the foxtail family, that is cultivated lands. SETARIA VIRIDIS, Beauv.--( Green Foxtail). Has a cylindrical compouned green spike, bristles longer than the spikelets, few in cluster, perfect flower stirate lengthwise and dotted. Annual, and flowers in June. PANICUM, L. Isa genus rich in indigenous species. The Subdivis- ion Setaria is well known through the German and Italian Millet, Panicum Italicum, etc. P. sanguinale is a common grass, abounding in cornfields at the end of summer, fur- nishes the principal picking to stock after corn-gathering, but its value at that time is but small, the saccharine matter being then converted into cellulose, and the seeds drop- ping out as they ripen, the spike is mostly empty. PANICUM GLABRUM, Gaudin. Abounds in orchards and pastures, and resembles the former very much, but the whole plant is glabrous, while the former is mostly very hairy. IN TENNESSEE. 219 PANICUM PAUCIFLORUM, Elliot.---Sparsely - flowered Panic Grassy Stems upright, from o:e to two feethigh, rough, open panicle. Flow- ers in June and July. It is peculiar to swampy, boggy soils, and is of no value. PANICUM FILIFORME, L.--(Slender Orab Grass). Loves silicious soil; the plant is very smooth and delicate, the spikes 2-6, erect and filiform like the culm. spikelets in two or threes, all pedi- .cellate. Leaves 1-2 inches long, smooth underneath, sometimes a little hairy above, upper sheathe smooth, the lower ones sparsely clothed with fine spreading hairs. It is annual, like the preceding ones, but more succulent, ; The above species of Panicum all bear their spikelets crowded 2-3 together in simple and mostly one-sided clustered spikes or spike-like racemes, wholly awnless and pointless; lower flower neutral, of a single palet, lower glume minute, sometimes obsolete or wanting. They are also known under the name Digitaria, (Gray). The next division, Panicum proper, bears spikelets scattered in pani- cles, awnless. PANICUM AGROSTOIDES, Sprengl.--- (Agrostis-like Panic Grass). Perennial, growing July and August in wet places. and very common. Culms 2-3 feet high, leaves forming a tuft at the base of the culm 2-4 lines wide; ligule very short, obliquely terminate. Panicles usually several, the terminal one longest; branches mostly in pairs or somewhat fasciculate, a little flexuous, finally horizantal. Spikelets three-fourths of aline long, mostly purplish, somewhat crowded and one-sided, smooth. Lower glume about half the length of the ‘upper, very acute. Palea of the perfect flower slightly bearded at the tip. Cattle eat it. PANICUM AUTUMNALE--( Autumnal Panie Grass). This is similar to the last, but has branching slender stems, and only growsabout one foot high. Itis found on sandy hillsides, and old fields. Of no value as a grazing grass, though eaten when nothing better presents itself Similar to this is the PANICUM AMARUM, Ell.--(Bitter Panic Grass). It is very like the preceding, and grows almost every- 220 NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS where in the United States. It affects, however, the banks of: streams especially. From its bitter taste itis not eaten by stock. PANICUM ANCEPS, Michx.--( Variable Panic Grass). Stems flat, from two to three feet high; spikelets panicled or recom- ed sometimes spiked; glumes two, the lower one short, and sometimes wanting. Worthless. PANIUM PROLIFERUM, L..--(Proliferous Panie Grass). Annual, growing in wet meadows, river banks. Cattle are very fond of this grass. Culm 1-3 feet long. succulent. Leaves 8-12 inches or more in length, and half an inch wide. Sheathsa little hairy at the © throat. Panicles large and pyramidal; the’ branches much divided, straight and capillary. Lower glume very broad, rather obtuse; upper one acute, about 7-nerved. Perfect flower shorter than the glumes, acute, smooth, anthers orange. PANICUM CAP LLARH, L--(Old Witch Grass). Exceedingly common around Nashville. Annual. Culm 1-2 feet high, branching at the base and forming a tuft. Leaves flat 2-5 lines wide, hairy with long fine spreading hairs; panicle large, pyramidal made up from very fine, brittle branches, getting easily diffracted when they become old. Spikelets very small. Old fields when covered with it look like a smoke or haze were spreading over them, Cattle will not touch it. PANICUM LATIFOLIUM--(Broad-leaved Panic Grass). Perennial. Common in barrens, especially in moist thick- ets around Nashville. It stands in full vigor in May. A very good pasture grass, bearing the closest grazing, and constantly reviving. Unfortunately it prefers to live scat- tered intermixed with other plants, not socially. Culm 1-2 feet high, simple or somewhat branching. Leaves 3-4 inches long, and an inch or more in breadth, cordate and clasping at the base, commonly smooth, but often hairy, spreading horizontally, sheaths about half the length of the internodes, ciliate at the throat, or on the entire margin. Panicle about 2 inches long, bearing usually but ten spike- lets, which are about a line and a half long. Lower glume ovate, loose, upper one strongly nerved, PANICUM CLANDESTINUM, L--(Hidden-flowered Panie Grass). Perennial. Similar, and growing intermixed with the above, but a month later. Culm withshort axillary branches, 1-3 feet high, very IN TENNESSEE. “9291 leafy. The leaves broadly lanceolate, somewhat cordate, but not clasping at the base, 8-6 inches long, and aninch or more in breadth, spreading, stronglynerved. .Panicles few flowered, terminal or lateral, ‘the former either wholly concealed or only partly exserted. Glumes acute. Lower flower with inferior palea resembling the glumes, upper palea membranaceous, oblong, obtuse, about two-thirds the length of the lower one Perfect flower triandrous, anthers and stigma purple. Val- uable. PANICUM DICHOTOMUM L..--(Polymorphus Panie Grass) Perennial, growing in copses and woods, flowering and growing all summer and fall. During its growth it assumes a very variable habit. Culm 8-24 inches high, at first simple, mostly erect, but sometimes procumbent, especially when growing in tufts in open places; smooth or pubesent. Radical leaves, short and very broad, often purplish and usually smooth. Primary panicle more or less exserted, and usually rather compound, the branches mostly flexuous. Late in the season this panicle breaks off, and the culms produce branches which are usual- ly fastigiate and crowded with small simple panicles either exserted or partly concealed among the clustered leaves. Spikelets very small, about one-half line long, obtuse. In shady thickets it grows sometimes 2-8 feet upwards in crawling and scrambling beiween bushes. Medium quality. PANICUM VIRGATUM, L.--(Tall smooth Panic Grass). This species grows in wet and sandy soil, one of the largest of the indigenous Panicums. Sometimes it attains a hight of seven feet, leaves very long, flat, of a yellowish tinge when old; spikelets about two lines long; branches of the compound, loose and very large panicle, (9 inches to 2 feet) drooping. Not valuable. Flowers in August. PANICUM CRUS GALLI, L.--(Barn-yard Grass). Likes manured soil, occurs everywhere in yards, ditches and miry places. Annual; Culm 2-3 feet high, stout, erect or somewhat procum- bent ; leaves + inch or more in breadth. Panicle dense, pyramidal, the spikelets crowdediu dense, spike-form racemes. Glumes acute, awn- ed, or awns wanting. Glumes and lower palea hispid, rhachis bristly ; sheaths smooth. Medium quality—rough food. Eaten by cattle. PASPALUM, L.--(Paspalum). The various species which represent this genus within the border of the State of Tennessee, rank, in my opinion, fore- 222 NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS - most by the number of individuals, nutritious qualities and tenacity of life, amongst the whole of the grazing herbage. They are perennials, with thick, strong, running roots, often making adense matting. Wherever they take hold other plants disappear. The blue grass is specifically known to the farmer, and he recognizes it amongst other wild- growing species. The manifold other species waving their culms in the breeze or creeping along the ground, he is ac- customed to speak of as wild grasses, and to pass over them without any especial care or notice. Should he once beable to discriminate those superficially. resembling forms, he would certainly pass a very different judgment about the relative importance of the blue grass and the other na- tive species. Blue grass and Paspalum are frequently intermixed, but the latter succeeds the former by four to five weeks, and comes in »full force after the former has long perished away. Of the twelve species known to exist in the Southern States, seven have been found in this State. jj) They are vigorous growing, succulent Yr», grasses, with heavy culms, large and smooth seed grains, with a smooth and thin epidermis. They must surely be very “\ 3 === tion ought to be studied. Inflc: cscence Paspalum laeve (1); a closed spikelet magnified (2); the same with'the parts displayed (3). PASPALUM FLUITANS, Poir.--( Floating Paspalum). Annual; growing in swampy places along Cumberland river. Itsappearance differs from the rest of the genus, from the arrangement of the spikesin a simple raceme. It is rare, and for that reason of no importance. PASPALUM LAEVE, Michx.--(Smooth Paspalum). Perennial; flowers in August. Inhabiting open, grassy, moist places. Culms upright, 1-3 feet high; the pretty large and long leaves, with IN TEENNESSEE. 223 their flattened sheaths, smooth or somewhat hairy ; spikes 2-6, the later- al ones somewhat approximated near the summit of an elongate naked peduncle, spreading; 2-4 inches long, smooth, except a bearded tuft at their base; spikelets broadly two-awned, over one line wide. PASPALUM CILIATIFOLIUM, Michx.--(Hairy Slender Paspa- lum). Perennial. With the former, flowers in August and September. Culm mostly prostrate, 1-2 feet long, smoothish. Leaves about two lines wide, commonly very hairy and ciliate onthe margin. Peduncle of the terminal spike 2-6 inches long, arising from the uppermost sheath. From the same sheath usually proceeds another spike, on a much shorter peduncle, but sometimes it is only partially or not at all exserted. Rha- chis very narrow, convex on the back, hairy at the base. Spikelets two on a short forked pedicel, which is closely appressed to the rhachis, less than a line in length. Perfect flower as long as the glume, very smooth and shining. PASPALUM DIGITARIA, Poir--(Finger-shaped Paspalum). Culms ascending 1-2} feet high, spikes slender, rather sparsely flowered, 1-4 inches long, both sessile at the apex of the slender peduncle; spikelets ovate—lanceolate, 2 lines long; common in the barrens. PASPALUM DISTICHUM, L,--(Joint Grass. Perennial.) In wet places sometimes partly submerged. Nearly glab- rous, nearly glaucous; culms ascending, about one foot high from along, creeping base; leaves linear—lanceolate, spikes short, 1-2 inches long, closely flowered, one shortly pedun- cled, the other sessile; rhachis flat on the back; spikelets ovate, slightly pointed, about 1 line long. Frequent around Nashville. Excellent forage; cattle very fond of it. Paspalum Racemulosum and Undulatum are two species resembling the former very much; the one is a perennial, the other an annual, and are good pasture grasses. GYMNOSTICHUM HYSTRIX, Schreb.--- (Bottle-brush Grass.) Belongs to the tribe of Hordeacez, of which our wheat and barley are also members. It bears a general resemb- 224 NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS lance to them. Spike loose, the spreading spikelets tipped, with an awn about one inch long. Root perennial. The foliage of the tufts is very tender before appearance of the culm. Flowers in July, and is very common in the State. Good forage. ELYMUS VIRGINICUS, L,--( Virginian Lyme Grass. Wild Rye. Ferennial.) The two spikelets of one joint of the spike of E. Virginicus, about the natural size (1); the glumes and the flowers of one spikelet, enlarged and displayed (2); and an open flower more mag- nified (8). Spise erect, dense and rigid, spikelets in pairs, 2-3 flowered, the flowers nearly smooth, glumes lanceolate, strongly nerved, as long as the spike- let. Culm 2-4 feet high. Forms large tufts of broadly liner bright green, rough leaves, which commence putting out in March, and afford a good early pasturage. Itis very valuable, and ought to be tried in cultivation. ELYMUS STRIATUS, Willd.--(Smali Lyme Grass). Pubescent or villous; spike dense and thickish, upright or slightly nodding; spikelets in pairs, 1-2 flowered, bristly hairy; glumes awl-shaped, bristle—awned, 1-3 nerved, about twice the length of the flowers, exclusive of the ca- pillary awn, which is about 7 inches long. Very common in dry, sandy places. Poor grass. ELYMUS CANADENSIS.--(Canadian Lyme Grass. Wild Rye). Perennial, common, flowering in July. Spike loose, nodding at the extremity; glumes lanceolate, subulate, awned, prominently nerved. Culms 8-4 feet high, spike 6-8 inches long. Glume strictly one line wide. As good as E. Virginicus, IN TENNESSEE. 225 AIRA CAESPITOSA L.--(Tufted Hair Grass.) Stems erect, round, rough, and in tufts; leaves flat, linear, acute, sheaths striated, rough- ish, the upper one longer than its leaf, pyramidal, oblong; panicle large and drooping, but becomes erect as it ripens, and its branches spread in every direction. Short awns. It is like the “ Wood hair grass,” only in the latter the awn of the lower floret does not protrude beyond the glumes. It is peculiar to marshy lands especially where water stands, and may often be seen in meadows or pastures, form- ing large unsightly tussocks over the field. Cattle will not eat it at all. DANTHONIA SPICATA, Beauv.--( Wild Oat Grass). Is a perennial grass, with short leaves, narrow sheaths, bearded; stem one foot high, slender, panicle simple; spike- lets seven flowered; lower palet broadly ovate, hairy on the back, longer than its awl-shaped teeth. Dry sterile soil, one of the earliest grasses. April. x HORDEUM PRATENSR, Huds.--(Squirrel-Tail Grass). Alow, 6-18 incheshigh grass, looking much like barley. It is an annual. Not particularly valuable. 15 226 NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS ARUNDINARIA MARCOSPERMA, Michx--(Large Cane,) and ARUNDINARIA TECTA, Michx.--(Small Cane). Are very generally known, and have already been mentioned. UNIOLA LATIFOLIA Michx--(Broad-leaved Spike Grass). This is a very graceful grass, well-known to ladies for making winter bouquets. Flowers in July on cliffs and river banks. Leaves nearly one inch wide, spikelets large, 2 inches long andi broad, very flat, looking like compressed, ovoid, drooping from long capillary pedicels, Of little valu Jor forage. UNIOLA GRACILIS Michx.-- Another very different looking species, deserves no discription. TRITICUM REPENS, L.--( Couch Grass.) Spikelets, 4-8, flowered, glabrous or nearly so, glumes, 5-7-nerved, rhachis glabrous, but rough on the edges. Occurs here and there in fields and gardens. Very troublesome. TRITICUM CANINUM, Linn--(Fibrous-rooted Wheat Grass). Spikelets four to five flowered; glumes 3-5 nerved; rhachis rough and bristly on the edges; awn twice the length of palet, leaves flat and roughish. It resembles very much the “Couch” grass, only it has no creeping roots like the latter. It is perennial, and is. usually found in cultivated fields. It grows from two to three feet high, and flowers in August. It is greedily eaten by stock, but its habit of spreading in grain fields renders it rather a pest than useful. Its occurrence here is doubt- ful. IN TENNESSEE, 227 | CHAPTER XIX. Bromus—FEsruca—Poa—ERAGROSTIS—EATONIA— D1- ARRHENA—ELEUSINE—MELICA—-GLY CERIA—GyY MNO- POGON—A RISTIDA—St1paA—CyNnopon—BovuTELOUA — MUHLENBERGIA — SPOROBULUS — VILFA — CINNA—- AGROSTIS—Bromus—ZIZANIA—LEERSIA. ; é BROMUS L.--(Brome Grass.) A spikelet of Bromus Secalimus, (1); a separate flower enlarged, (2). Spikelets 5, many flowered, panicled, glumes unequal, membranaccous, the lower 1-5, the upper 8-9 nerved, lower palet either convex on Ly the back or compressed, keeled, 5-9 nerved, awned or bristle- pointed from below; mostly two cleft tip. upper palet at length Bromus. 2 adhering to the groove of the oblong or linear grain. Stamens three. \ BROMUS SECALINUS, L--(Cheat or Chess). Common in wheat fields, but too well knowa. BROMUS RACEMOSUS, L--( Upright (ess). Occurs with the above. The panicle of the first is always spreading, the one of the second narrowly contracted in fruit. BROMUS MOLLIS, L--(Soft Chess.) Also in wheat fields; the whole plant soft, downy. They are all three annuals, adventitious from Europe. Troublesome weeds as they are in wheat fields, if sown for themselves, they will make very heavy crops of hay, and will be eaten by cattle. BROMUS KALMII, Gray,-- Is the only indigenous kind. Perennial. Culms 2-3 feet high. Panicle 3 inches long, the branches short and nearly simple, spikelets drooping on capillary peduncles, closely of 7-12 flowered, densely silky 228 NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS all over; awn only one-third the length of the lance—oblong flower. Dry ground, scattered in the woods. Ought to be tried how it does under cultivation. BROMUS CILIATUS, L--(Ciliated Broom Grass). a Has a compound panicle, loose, nodding, spikelets seven to twelve flowered, flowers tipped with awns less than their length, leaves large. Culms three to four feet high. Grows in old fields Worthless. FESTUCA, Linn--(Fescue Grass). A spikelet of F.elatior enlarged (1); ase @ :° flower (2); lower part of a lower palet outspread, (3). Spikelets 3; many flowered, panicled or race- |\ mose; the flowers not webby at the base. Glumes k\W/j unequal, mostly keeled. Palets chartaceous. or Wi almost coriaceous roundish on the back, more or AW less 3-5 nerved, acute pointed, or often bristle- 4 yy awned from the tip, rarely blunt; the upper most- ly adhering at maturity at the enclosed grain. Stamens 1-3, flowers and leaves often dry and harsh FESTUCA MYURUS,L, and FUSTUCA TENELLA, Willd. Are both annuals, growing single, flowers awned, panicle cont: acted. - They appear early and make good sheep pasture. FESTUCA ELATIOR, L--( Tall Fescue Grass). Perennial, growing in wet grass lands; panicle narrow, contracted before and after flowering, erect, with short branches; spikelets crowd- ed 5-10 flowered ; flowers rather remote, oblong, lanceolate. FESTUCA NUTANS, Willd--(Nodding Fescue Grass.). _ Perennial; 2-4 feet high, growing in copses. Panicle of several long and slender, spreading branches, mostly in pairs, drooping when old, rough. naked below the spikelets, on pretty long pedicels. It is a strong looking grass It never grows gregarious. Both these species are eat- en by cattle and are of medium quality. FESTUCA OVINA, L--(Hard Fescue Grass.) Isa low growing perennial, with a contracted one-sided panicle, grows gregarious, often covering extensive patches. Excellent for sheep; flowersin May The Fescues have been described in ‘‘pasture grasses.” IN TENNESSEE. 229 POA, L..--( Meadow Grass). Panicle of oa compressa, reduced in size (1); a magnified spikelets (2); a sepa- , Yate flower more magnified (3); a lower palet cut across and somewhat outspread (4), vate or lanceolate, laterally compressed, several; 2-10 flowered in an open panicle. Glumes mostly shorter than the flowers; the lower smaller. Low- er palet membranaceous; herbaceous, with a delicate scarious, margin; compressed, keeled, pointless, 5 nerved, (the inter- mediate nerves more obscure or obsolete), the principal nerves commonly clothed at and towa ds the base with soft hairs; upper palet membranaccous, 2, toothed ; base of the flower often cobwebby. Stamens 2-3. Stigmas simply plumose. Grain oblong, free. Culms tufted from perennial roots, except Poaannua. Leaves smooth, usually flat and soft. The softness and greater roundness of the spikelets, the absence of bristle awned tips, the open pyramidal panicle give this genus a habit which distinguishes it readily from the allied genus Festuca. Besides the species formerly described with the cultivated grasses, there remain to mention: POA ALSODES, Gray--(Leafy Meadow Grass.) The uppermost leaves often sheathing the capillary branches of the loose panicle, which generally stands in threes or fours. Lower palet very obscurely nerved, villose on the keel below. Woods. Flowers in April and May. It is a scattered growing grass. POA SYLVESTRIS, Gray--(Sylvan Meadow Grass.) Spikelets very small, loosely 2-4 flowered. Culms flatish, erect; branches of the oblong pyramidal panicle short, numerous, in fives or more. He BR RO CO Op HE OU > bo BO oo DD DO ae a 260 MANAGEMENT::OF MBADOWS. Srxta—For Trnyesszz Bottom Lanps. PE ME OUD Gace Raye asin ee bay aneilaied 4 Sc eihede ly henna ce. d.atey Neus aoe beetles Herds Gir asgy:s: scaia ox -a-aica ards revs ee aceseial, oso ietintncse © anseahg eerer mio ane Red Cloveriaciccaccscaiars tae ees goed as eees ke Gee ae ree Ttalian Rye Grass.......- cece eens tee renee nterecsenes Tall Oat Grass..... 20... ... eee ee eee Sk peay dean ae peas afdeede i oe lence Orchard Grass. ..........000 eee Page alec Rrasrectasn as heey eral ned Rough Stalk Meadow............0 0200 c cece ee cece eee eees Meadow Fescue .......02.00cccc ccc ence reenter een ee tee cneee >|For hayZone year iv) se | BE cb oor © Bland pasture after. Szvenra—Swampy Lanps Susszot ro OVERFLOW. For hay one year English Bent...............4, enauae cae Rae (eel dads Glenn Ges Tall Westues< BOE WAY] SsRi8 BUOT pooH ve or Aine|Fz eung aPPS “pees UT furs gp Esssee “""“"gs@18 enosey s,deeqyg—eurao vonjzseg po NB Se SRR ABN: [ebiees| sears [oti ghey ‘zomoy uy] 3FT : | is enb0s “THN TV ere BSBID Zuo, poop § 079 !ur AML/OZ oung OOGF (0G80T “pees I asd ar [oct ssea8 onosez opdang—,e1qua vonyse,g Loe ‘gugat | “aemog up} IFFT ae ' aeaneee z i : ae t @ 08 log “Suy} gz Armplac Ole! We oos aE [ros g | sser8 yueq WBHdQ—,-cyorays stys0r3 F | OFF 1% TIGLLF or, | “NOR UI] Bog feet get lo ele pong ee qetouryorzuo poop TE OF 8 JOT Ameist eungiose je clpach faze | 1282 “peas ar] — UstT 0% [77 "SSBIF MopReut TRTYSNOY—s STTCIATT} BO g i : i €8 10 Z/OFZS joRZs | LBP ‘reMog UT pacumepy | | zz lo % “RB TY | “UROT a amet nae? 099] 8 Angler oungizi¢ lo & Tot [9089 *poos uy} puvs =| gt BAUER 7HO LUMO CT “ —AOKR. Wat J jcsemarseanes sag state oss per comida Gg * 20 4 Woody fibre—waste.....cccsscrssssessenees el SO BT Gum—waste. ........006 aii sien au tuiwata ded ee BG Mineral matter—phosphates.............. arch 5% 2a Another comparative analysis of Northern and Sotthern corn with wheat gives the following result: g 7 » oa Oo 2/2 |)8 1] 8 4 EI 8 A s) a = Northern Corm,.... 02.0.0 cc cee eee eens 14.0 | 78.9 1.2 | 5.9 Southern COM.......0sceeeee es eeeee 89.5 | 46.5 | 47 | 9.8 Wi Catan. dwBiede s. suaulene ew eisseaeaetee te 16.9 | 77.2 1.9 | 4.0 358 CEREALS, It will be seen that Southern corn abounds 'in food for the muscle and brain, being much richer in the nitrates than wheat, but not having so many elements productive of heat. Considered as a food, corn is probably the cheapest in the world, except such as grows spontaneously. It is possible for an adult to subsist on a bushel of meal a month at a cost of fifty cents or even less, or say twelve bushels a year, costing six dollars. The amount of corn necessary to make this amount of meal can be grown on a fourth of an acre of land, or to put it in another way an average acre of tilla- ble land will grow corn enough to subsist four persons for twelve months, and they would feed as luxuriously as the rice-eating people of India. The capacity of the corn- growing belt of America to sustain a dense population, viewed in this light, is almost unlimited. A comparison of yellow and white corn shows: a ; é pie] S| 3 or z g oy - hy & “ P| e |e 1 6 Yellow corn contained..........cesceeeseeee, 9.66 | 76.93 | 13.41 White corn contained..............0. eee veee 9.89 | 78.42 | 11.69 It: may be observed that these specimens are both “gourd seed.” the yellow color being from the epidermis, so there isnot the same difference as exists in the yellow corns, ~ whose color originates from the oil. The cobs of these two varieties were also analyzed, giving remarkable results as to their nutritive properties. A cob of the yellow corn weighing 560 grains when burned, left 7.6 grains of ashes or mineral substances, the rest being or- ganic and principally convertible into living tissues; and a INDIAN CORN. 259 cob of the white weighing 290 grains when burned left 4 grains. Of this residue there are just such minerals as are contained in the animal tissues. Thus, it may be seen, that the cobs, as well as the grains, take up substances from the soil according to the capability of each variety. Much judgment must be exercised by persons selecting seed corn. Those living on bottom land, rich in humus, will select any of the large kinds, assured of a crop of good corn, while those living on high elevations, with cool winds and short summers, will select, naturally, those varieties of flints that mature in a short time, and are ac- climatized to the cold. Should it be for fattening purposes the oily corns or “yellows” are taken. But at last the’ farmer can be the best judge of what has done well on his soil, and will, therefore be governed by his experience. CULTIVATION. - There is scarcely a farmer in the State of Tennessee but has some favorite metbod of cultivating. corn, which he learned by his own, or the experience of his ancestors, and because he has always succeeded well he is satisfied to con- tinue in the beaten path. But as the country thickens in population, land becomes more valuable, and labor cheaper, so if he should keep pace with. the times, it should be his endeavor to produce the same surplus as formerly, with less land. This can bedone by studying the plant food required, and supplying it in sufficient quantity. Vegetation is very adaptive, and corn planted on poor land, will make corn, though the ears are meagre and the yield sparse. But sup- ply a sufficiency of food to that corn through the same medium of soil and its gluttony becomes amazing, and in- stead of the diminutive stalks scattered sparsely on the land, behold the great proud plant, spreading its large, green leaves to the breeze, waving its tall, yellow plume on high, and thrusting out its huge aldermanic fruit in the middle. The outlay of manure, quickly returns manifold in the 360 CEREALS. shape of large, remunerative crops. Thus, it should be the emulation of every farmer to excel. No one is injured by his success, but he is the recepient of all the bounty result- ing from his labors. Any soil in our climate will produce corn, but not all in paying quantities unless specially prepared. The best corn land is the rich, black limestone upland, or the alluvial bottoms. If the land is wet it will be sour and the corn will “french” and no result accrue to the farmer. If possible the land should not be tilled in corn more than oue year without rotation, as this is necessary to keep up its fertility. By rotation, the ingredients necessary to produce any crop, will be renewed in the soil by the decomposition of its elements. This matter is treated of more fully under the chapter on manures. When the field to be planted is determined on it should, in all cases, where practicable, be broken up in the previous fall. By so doing, the weeds will be, toa great extent, de- stroyed, and the soil will be so mellow and ameliorated, that it will work kindly all the next year, and there will be little trouble in cultivation. Besides the broods of cut worms, those pestilent insects of the farmer, being exposed to the freezes of winter, will be greatly reduced, so that the farmer can plant as early in the spring as the weather will admit, whereas, if it is stubble land, or especially clover sod, the worms will often so effectually thwart the labor of the farmer, that corn need not be planted until the latter part of April. Every farmer in Tennessee knows the good effects of the frosts of winter upon freshly broken earth. Should it unfortunately be out of the power of the planter to break in the fall, the nearer he can come to it the better, as, if even one frost touches it, good effects will arise. The soil just before planting should receive all the atten- tion requisite to put it in a thorough state of tilth, Work done at this time is amply repaid in the subsequent culti- INDIAN CORN. 361 vation. Among other things it should receive harrowing or rolling sufficient to pulverize every clod-in the field. Much difference exists as to the time of planting, some planting early, others late. It will generally be seen that late planting, except in exceptional cases, makes light corn, It is true, it requires less work by probably one plowing, but the difference is more than compensated in lessened yield. All other things being equal, the ground will be ready to plant so soon as nature gives the word, which she unerringly does, by throwing out the flag of dogwood blos- soms and redbuds. These signs have been acted on since the Indians taught their observance, and the man who fol- lows this signal will, as a rule, succeed. Some plant with the blossoming of the apple tree, but that is getting late, and he who plants late will, if there is a drought, strike it at the silking time of his corn. The corn well planted, is half the battle in the crop, in- deed the cr: p may be said to be half made, Let the planter stir the surface every ten days, thinning out to two, and in thin lands to one stalk to the hill. It was once thought best to stir deeply with every plow- ing, but experience has proved that the deep culture should — be done before planting. The surface roots of corn are the ones that sustain it and make the thrifty plant, and it were better they should not be disturbed at all. But this is in- evitable, on account of the germination of weed and grass seeds, and the necessity for a circulation of air through the soil. Three things are requisite for the rapid growth of plants, viz: light, air and moisture, and to afford a con- stant supply of these necessities a gentle stirring of the sur- faceis necessary. But, at the same time, the fact of the ex- istence of rootlets all over the ground will deter the prudent farmer from going too deep. By keeping the crust broken, air can pass in, giving stimulus to the disintegration of the nutrient elements, the chemical effect of light passes direct_ ly to the roots, and a large amount of moisture is absorbed 362 CEREALS. from the atmosphere by the loose dirt, it acting asa sponge. The corn. should be planted as to distance, in accordance with the capacity of the soil. On good ground four feet each way, with two stalks to the hill, will bea good distance, or if drilled, let the drills be four and a half feet apart, and one stalk every eighteen inches in the drill. It is much easier to thin out corn than to replant it. Put plenty of grains in each hill, four or five will not’ be too many, for should a heavy, beating rain supervene the planting, and the soil is afterward baked by a hot sun, it will require the cumulative force of all the plumules to break through to the surface. With a perfect stand there will be on land checked four feet each way and two stalks left in a hill, 5,444 stalks. Allowing one ear to each stalk and 100 ears to the bushel, fifty-four and a half bushels ought to be the result. - Yet, but few farmers even in practise realize on their whole crop this amount. Drilled corn, with a good stand, will not grow so many stalks; but there being only one stalk at a place, the ears will be larger, and the stock will more frequently bear two ears. The method of planting, is undergoing a change with the acquisition of agricultural implements. “Though the usual plan is'to plant by hand and cover with a plough, hoe, or drag, still there are many who, have adopted one of the many corn-planters. The seed is distributed far more regu- larly, and uniformity of stands is secured. There are many patented machines, each good in the field, and many better than none. Besides, the labor saved is great, as there are no rows to be laid off and no covering to be done save that effected by the machine. But the farm should be level to use such implements profitably. As to the subsequent cul- tivation the method of level culture has, of late years, proved so beneficial, that it commends itself to the favora- ble consideration of every farmer. With a great heap on each side of the corn-rows the plant is deprived, to a great extent, of two of the necessities of healthy growth, light and air. With level culture, this is obviated. Besides, with INDIAN CORN. 363 level culture, the rootlets are not torn at every plowing, thus arresting for several days the growth of the plant. Corn should be plowed every ten days at least, and no one should over-crop himself in such a way as to fail to be able to do it. Many implements are used for plowing corn, the bull-tongue, shovel, mold-board, double-shovel, cultiva- tors of various patterns, and last, but not by any means least, the walking cultivator. Any one who has seen the operation of the last-named, will not hesitate to buy one. The corn can be plowed several days sooner than with any other implement, simply because, with a careful plowman, it is impossible to cover it up. Then it sifts just soil enough around the plant to smother any sprouting weeds, and the amount can be regulated at every hill, at the discretion of the plowman. This cultivator can be used until the corn is three feet or more in height, and, if corn is in good con- dition at that height, it can be “laid by.” One man and two horses, with a walking cultivator, will do the work of four men and four horses, and do it better. It-is a difficult matter for one man to attend twenty acres of corn by the old plan; with a walking cultivator, one man, after the corn comes up, will easily cultivate forty or fifty acres. But this does not refer to rocky, grubby, or stumpy land, as in such lands the cultivator will be worthless. Lands of that character will have to be cultivated as best they may. Four or five plowings, under ordinary circumstances, are all that are necessary to produce a crop, and it is then turned over to the kindly influences of the heavens. With- out seasons man can do nothing, but he can, ‘by deep and thorough tilth, counteract many unfavorable circumstances. If the land is deeply broken up at the beginning, it will pass the moisture from the surface below to the roots of the corn, and so save it from drowning out. By. the same method, much water will be retained in the soil, so, in case of drought, it will rise up as the necessities of the plant may requite. 364 CEREALS. To recapitulate, first, break up well and deeply, subsoil- ing if necessary, then pulverize thoroughly, and plant in rows four feet apart, or in drills four and a half feet apart, eighteen inches in the drill. Before it comes up, say in five or six days, run over it all with a heavy harrow, and as soon as it is well out of the ground begin with the walking cultivator, or at least with the double-shovel, and run over it every ten days. By this method the young grass and weeds will never get a start, and will never be required to be wrapped up with dirt, as many seem to think is indispen- nable. To show the difference between shallow breaking and deep, a list of experiments is here appended, made by Prof. Daniells, of the Wisconsin State Farm. The lots were of the same character and adjoining; but they were clayey with a clay subsoil and rather too wet. The experi- ments were continued for four years, but the last year the whole land was well drained, which at once changed: the result, as shallow plowing had the advantage, until drained. Besides, the shallow-plowed was the highest point, and the deeply-plowed got all its water as well as its own, and so the corn was drowned. METHOD OF OULTIVATION. 1871 1872 18738 1874 Bushels. |Bushels. |Bushels. |Bushels. Plowed five inches deep....... 55.4 43.5 53.4 53.0 Plowed twelveinches deep.....| ‘50.6 50.38 52.8 58.1 Plowed eighteen inches deep...| 44.9 54.7 51.3 65.3 Plowed and subsoiled 18inches.| 52.2 56.8. 51.1 | 60.8 It will be seen from these experiments, that draining the soil, worked a wonderful effect in the production. The Superintendent of the Kansas Farm reports an ex- periment on 2.95 acres on the prairie which had been en- closed in pasture for a few years, and from which he had cut less than a third of a ton of hay the previous year. The field was divided into six plats, varying in size from one- INDIAN CORN. 365 third to two-thirds of an acre. Plats 4, 5 and 6 received a dressing of fresh stable manure, applied in winter and spring, before planting. Plats 1 and 6 were broken up in the usual way, two to three inches deep. Plats 2 and 5 were trench- plowed in addition to this breaking, that is to say, a com. mon turning plow followed the breaker and threw about four inches of soil over the inverted sod. Plats 3 and 4 in addition to the plowing received by plats 2 and 5, were also subsoiled, the subsoiler following the trenching plow and loosing the soil to the depth of ten to fifteen inches. The land was harrowed and planted immediately with yellow corn. Cultivators were run through the rows during the season to keep the surface open. The season was an unu- sually unfavorable one. Corn stood the drought well, and was cut and shocked in September and husked in October, both grain and stalks being very dry. The following table gives the result in shelled corn: rs * HR a 5 ig o 8. 3 PREPARATION OF SOIL. 5 9 ng a (5) % Sm Oe Ay Bilie| = |8a8 a |S | 5 |88 Tin) & ju 1'Common breaking alone....... eee 5.68,1.6| 7.54; 1,000 2|Common breaking and trenching ....... 6.94/2.73} 9.67) 1,405 3|Same as plat 2 and subsoiled...... .... 12.24)1.14; 13.388) 1,658 4|/Same as 38, with manure................ 16.48) .76) 17.24! 1,224 5|Same as 2, with manure............... 14,84; .48) 15.28) 1,816 6'Same as 1, with manure............... 9.11; .81! 9.92] 1,026 One well marked difference is, the soft corn is reduced and the amount of stalks increased on the manured. Mr. John W. Murray, of Carroll county, Maryland, re- ports in the Agricultural Report of U. S., that in 1873 he raised thirty and a half barrels (1523 bushels) of shelled corn per acre. The lot was below the road and the barn- yard, and received the washings from both, and had been in grass for fifteen years. In 1872, he broke and put it in corn, 366 CEREALS. and got 26% barrels per acre that year. The next year he broke it very deeply, harrowed and rolled it. He scattered 300 pounds bone-dust and harrowed it in. He then laid it off in drills thirty-two itiches apart and scattered 200 pounds superphosphate in the rows and planted the corn on it, one and two grains, ten inches apart. The corn was “yellow.” This was on May 17, and on the 4th of June he found the corn did not come up well, so he dragged and replanted, and on the 10th, still with many missing hills, he plowed it. ' On 17th, plowed, hoed and plastered weak spots. On 30th, dragged, plowed and thinned. On 4th July, hilled with a potatoe plow, and occasionally thinned where corn showed weak until it began to silk. These experiments are copied simply to show what can ‘be effected by scientific attention to the production, and we leave it to the intelligent reader, especially that class who are in the habit of renting, if it is not better to rent five acres and put on it the expense usually given to twenty, if the returns will be the same or more? Land at $5 peracre would give a sum at least of the difference rented, making seventy-five dollars; this sum, or a portion, ex- pended on manures and applied would, with a little extra work, make the five acres more than equal to the twenty. And then the proud satisfaction of having the best corn in the country would bea laudable ambition dear to any man’s heart. Before leaving this subject let the necessity of close, heavy and inexorable thinning be impressed on every one. No one can be a judge of the necessity like the farmer. After he has once thinned his corn, if he sees any of the stalks showing signs of distress go into it again and again. If not thinned there will be a certain failure, as many men will find to their cost who wanted to make large yields and did not use judgment in thinning out, Corn should not be gathered until several frosts have INDIAN CORN. 3867 fallen on it to check all flow of moisture. If put up at all damp it will injure by heating and moulding. Much corn is lost every year by garnering too early. Many cut it and leave it in the fields to dry, and of course it will dry sufficiently here if left long enough. By pursuing the latter plan, much valuable fodder is saved for stock; for after it is shocked it is husked in the field, leaving the stalks, shucks, and fodder for the cattle. This fed in the rough, or passed through a cutter will amply repay the labor of saving it. : Taken at the right time there is no part of the corn but what is nutritious. The stalks are full of pith that are rich in sugar, the shucks and fodder, while not being quite equal to the best English hay, are better than any other of the rough feeds, and the quantity from an acre is enormous. Below is an analysis of the stalk, shucks and fodder, in short just as it is usually cut and shocked, and to show its rela- tive value, I have added the analysis of pea vines and the best thoroughly dried English hay and wheat bran. Stalks, | Average ComPosirIon. Fodder,| of Wheat | Pea Shucks.| Hay.. | Bran. | Vines. Flesh forming principles .......... 8.200 | 10.34 | 18.00 ! 16.38 Heat and fat producing matters ....| 55.275 | 43.80 | 69.00 | 38.86 Woody fibre ................ ee | 50.251 | 87.18 |....... 25.84 Mineral matters ...... 00... eee [eee eens 8.68 |....... 9.45 Water s.cesssdanesua siesta Guaguaat’ Wis 6.276 |... 6... 13.00 | 14.47 This table shows, not only the valuable character of the substances that are usually wasted and burned on the field, but it also shows that pea vines, that are rarely saved by any one, are for fattening purposes superior to the best hay. Many fail to cut corn on account of the trouble, but in uo other way can as much feed be saved in the same length 368 CEREALS, of time. Nor is the corn in the least injured if cut when the grain is soft. There is always enough sap in the stalk: to bring the corn to a healthy maturity. The stalks and fodder supply the best provender for cattle during winter, and they can be kept in our climate on this, without other food. It is a bad plan for a farmer to lose the results of any part of his labor, and by close, rigid economy alone can he succeed. Should the farmer determine to cut, the time is just as the shuck begins to dry, and yet before the fodder is dead. By taking advantage of this precise time he will save every- thing, and the corn will extract juice enough from the stalk to fill out every grain, even if it is not yet full. The usual plan is, to cut so as to leave four hills in every tenth row standing, and by bending these together at the top and tying them into an arch, the shock has a foundation to rest against. Many plans are adopted in tying which will suggest themselves to the practical farmer. The stalks should have slope enough to the centre to prevent the shocks from blowing down. When the work of the year is over, the corn is gathered, leaving the shuck on or not. The stalks can then be shocked again. They are now ready for cattle, that may be fed on them in that or any other place, by either cutting them in stalk cutter or throwing them in racks, made temporarily on some poor spot to catch the manure. If cut up and fed at the barn’ there will be such a manure heap as will gladden the heart of every good farmer. It is often difficult to decide whether a sale at the time of gathering is better than later, the small price early being, in the estimation of some, counter-balanced by the shrink- age. We are able to lay before the reader two well authenticated experiments on this subject that may bea guide to any one debating it. One was made by Prof. Daniells, of Wisconsin; and the other by Mr. Shel- INDIAN CORN. 369 mire, of Pennsylvannia. The latter measured ten bushels, and it weighed 401 pounds, on the 30th of October, 1870, giving an average of 40.1 pounds. The same corn, Decem- ber 12th, measured ten bushels but only weighed 35.5 Ibs. to the bushel showing a loss of weight, by shrinkage, of 11.5 per cent. The corn was shelled at the last mentioned date and showed the weight of the cobs to be 19.7 per cent. of the entire weight of the corn. Weight of one measured bushel of grain, 51.3 Ibs, after fanning, 52 lbs; showing a loss by fanning of 1.24 per cent. in weight. Another test was made by the same gentleman the next year. November 10, 1871, ten measured bushels of ears weighed 399.5 lbs., an average of 39.95 lbs. per bushel. January 2, 1872, the same corn measured ten bushels but only averaged 34.45 lbs. per bushel. Loss of weight 13.8 per cent. On shelling the grain weighed before fanning, there were 260.25 lbs., showing the weight of the cobs to have been 24.4 per cent of the entire corn. After fanning there was a loss of 2.9 per cent. in weight. PROF. DANIELLS’ TEST. Weighed Oct. 11th one hundred Early | White pounds each, and on Dec. 30,) Yellow | Yellow |Cherokee; Austra- . these varieties weighed, Dent. | Dent. | White. lian, Weight of ears, pounds ...... 97.75 96.50 | 98.25 98.50 Loss of weight in drying, pr. ct.) 2.25 38.50 6.75 6.50 Weight of shelled corn, pounds.| 83.50 | 8000 | 74.50 | 76.25 Weight of cobs, per cent. ....| 14.58 17.09 20.11 18.45 24 370 CEREALS. By this experiment the whole field lost in one acre as follows : Loss of : weight in Bushels No. of | pounds | Pounds of Pounds} ofan | of cobs | Shelled ina acre of | in an corn in Acre. corn. acre, (aa acre. Yellow Dent ................ 3702 | 88 527 552 Early Yellow Dent .......... 4396 154 726 62.8 Cherokee ...........see0000: 3958 267 741 52.6 White Australian ............ 4745 308 818 64.6 = Another farmer in Pennsylvania, by accurate weight and measurement, demonstrated that corn in one year would lose in shrinkage, by weight, 19 per cent.; by measurement, 17 per cent., and shelled corn would lose by weight, 17 per cent. : The cost of raising corn is so arbitrary it would be un- profitable to treat of it, were it not for the purpose of show- ing how the cost of one acre of corn can be very great, and yet give a handsome profit to the planter. This we will do by giving actual verified results. A New Jersey farmer gives the cost of 22 acres: Prod wet per Are, cinsesiasceirsumnsws win ssancceweas see 36.45 bushels. Value of corn stalks per acre,....... ...+..e00 $4 55 Sold corn at 70 cents per bushel, .. .........0 25 51 Total value per acre of crop,........... $30 06 The expense account is for plowing, furrowing, dropping and covering, cultivating, hoeing, cutting, husking, and drawing corn to crib, drawing and stacking, shelling, win- nowing, bagging corn and taking to market, wear of imple- ments, and on land, all giving an expense of 39.65 cents per bushel, or $14 42 per acre, leaving a clear profit of $15 54 INDIAN CORN, 3871 e acre, besides receiving nearly all the expenses himself, e having done the work. From a large number of estimates, the average cost of production without manure is $5 50 per acre. Of course this estimate is for ordinary culture without manures. We have added—to show what can be spent in manures with -profit—a list of profits and expensés. They are compiled from various agricultural essays and purport to be trust- _worthy. It will be seen by these reports that the man who uses manure unsparingly, receives ample returns. J. J. Flint, 32 acres, 600 bushels, value $450 ; fodder and and stalks $124. Total, $574. Expenses, $329 50, in- cluding $192 for manure. Net profit, $244 50, or $65 20 per acre. . Joseph Goodrich, one acre, 111% bushels corn and two tons roughness. Cost of production, $70 75, including $39 25 for manure. Stable manure, compost, plaster and superphosphate applied. James Carter, one acre, 1114 bushels corn and three tons roughness. Cost, $49 50 including $27 00 for manure, 18 loads compost, and a small handful of superphosphate in each hill. William Morris, one acre, 90 5-7 biietrdla: corn expense $93 58, of which $58 50 is for manure. Plowed half of. the land in November, and the other half in April. Re- sults from both pieces just the same. These results from the efiects of manure on corn might be multiplied indefi- nately, but enough are given to establish the good effect of manures. Stilla farmer should not go manure- mad and spend the product of the whole place in manure. Rather let him try to recuperate his land by proper rotation and frequent seeding down to clover. This is, at last, the cheap- est, most convenient, and most universal manure in the reach of farmers. Any man who will establish a system of regularity in making a manure heap, will be astonished at the result of a few minutes regular labor each day in build-. 372 ‘CEREALS. ing a large compost heap. Only have a barrow at the barn ¢ and let it be the business of one hand, while the others are feeding and currying, to gather with his shovel all the droppings of the stock, both in the stables and barn yard, and roll it to a central point and place it in a covered pen provided for the purpose. In the fall he can add forest leaves, weeds from the fence corners, and occasionally throw over the whole a layer of earth, and by spring he will have ‘a compost heap that will, as far asit can be put on his land, double his crop. And he cannot do better in the spring than to start early enough to draw every corn stalk, left standing, into the barn yard to make manure for the next year. It is only by close attention to these details of farm- ing that a man can derive any benefit or pleasure from country life, for surely, without profit there will be letcle enjoyment. The depth of soil over a grain of corn shuuld not be more than one and a half to two inches. If planted very early still less. Corn planted six inches deep will rarely come up, at five inches it will come very sparingly. At one inch corn will come up in seven or eight days with suit- able weather, at one anda half inches in nine days, and at twoto four inches it will require twelve or eighteen days, in early spring: A great stimulus was given to the cultivation of corn by the failure of 1874, the average that year per acre being only 20.7 all over the United States. The cultivation of cotton the next year dropped down amazingly, and corn arose. The average per acre the next year was 29.4 bush- els, but then the price went from 64.7 cents per bushel, in 1874 to 42 cts.in 1875. So that the increase in breadth being about ten per cent. brought no corresponding increase in value of the entirecrop. Tennesse, from having former- ly been a large cotton producer, has become a grain State. The proportion of corn to all the crops in the State is 45 per cent., cotton 15 per cent. and other crops 40 per cent. ' INDIAN CORN. 373 In 1876 there were 181,842 bales of cotton raised in Ten- nessee, and four counties, Shelby, Fayette, Hay wood and Tipton, raised 73,127 of these, or four-tenths of the whole amount, It may naturally be expected that corn will, if long con- tinued cultivation takes place, exhaust the land on which it is raised. But it reduces the fertiiity of the soil far less than may be supposed. Many fields are in cultivation in Tennessee that have been put to corn continuously for three quarters of a century, and yet make handsome yields. Corn is the largest production, not only of Tennessee, but of the United States, of any one crop. But, unlike wheat, | much of itis returned to the soil. In fact, according to the prevailing method of culture, the land is not put to its full capacity, and much of its growing power is, therefore, in re- serve. Besides, the corn is, as a general thing, fed to stock on the place, and therefore is, in some measure, returned to the soil. Wheat, on the contrary, is almost wholly taken from the land, and as a result the cultivation of this céreal is continually tending westward in search of new fields. Should the plan laid down in this work be followed, that is, should the stalks be cut and fed on the farm, and the corn used to fatten the stock of the place there would be no loss whatever, except the actual weight of the stock sold, _ which would be a small drain on a fertile field, The sta- tistics of the cereal growths of the United States bear out the assertion of the improved value of land put to corn over that put to any other product that is taken entirely off the land. And this increased value is seen in the improvements made on the farms of the corn growing connties. Itis said, if aman has a crib full of corn he has all that makes the farmer independent. He has bread, meat and many other luxuries his taste may require, and so well established is this fact it has given rise to the axiom “he isas independent as if he had corn to sell.” 374 CEREALS. IMPLEMENTS FOR CORN RAISING. The principal implements for cultivating have been inci- dentally mentioned, and it will only require a recapitulation of them, together with the mention of some economic machines for the preparation of the grain for market or consumption. The planter about to engage in corn culture, will require good plows, and it will be a great economy in him to pro- vide himself with the best the market affords. There are many good plows put on the market, each possessing intrin- sic value, and all far in advance of the plows of twenty- five years ago. A good steel mould-board, three-horse, or large two-horse plow, capable of throwing up the soil to a depth of 10 or 12 inches, is indispensable, and this should be accompanied with a subsoiler. Harrows, rollers, and cultivators come, as a matter of course, for without them the soil could not be put in a good state of tilth. This process is greatly aided by a drag, cheaply made, by attach- ing three poles eight feet long by two chains, about: three feet apart. This drag,on rough or stalky Jand, will pass over inequalities of the soil, and pulverise the surface better than a brush or harrow. A corn-planter, if the ground is level, should be in every man’s possession who intends plant- ing largely. Some of them make the rows, drop the corn, and is so regulated that by pressure of the foot the amount of seed, and the depth of planting is under the control of the driver. Thebest of them will plant either in drills or checks. A good seat is provided for the driver, and with two good horses he can plant ten or twelve acres in a day. A walking cultivator is now being used, far in advance in efficency to the sulky cultivator. It has four hoes, all un- der control of the driver, and adjustible by the will of the laborer. With it four furrows are plowed at once, anda man can plow as many acres in a day as he can lay off rows for in ordinary planting. This implement can also INDIAN CORN. 375 ‘be used to advantage in plowing in oats, wheat and other small grains, as it can be set to go in any depth desired. A husker has been invented, but from all reports at our command, it does not fulfil its promise. A husker in con- nection with a sheller has been used to some extent, but one _ great disadvantage is that it does not separate the sound and rotten corn, though it is represented to do so by means of a fan attached. A good corn-sheller, and a strong straw- cutter will about complete the equipments of the planter. It is surprising how small the quantity of stalks that is re- jected by stock when run through the straw-cutter. So much sugar is retained in‘the pith that only those portions near the butt are left uneaten. When the stalks are cut up the shucks and fodder are all devoured greedily. No man who has attended horses or mules to any extent but has observed the amount of cobs eaten by them. It is ne- cessary for the stomach to be distended to favor digestion, and when stalks are freely supplied they serve this purpose, besides contributing no mean supply of nutrition. A stalk-cutter has been used to a limited extent, to be driven through the standing stalks, and cut them in short pieces for the benefit of future plowing. I saw one of these in operation in Lake county among the rank stalks doing effective service. Should the planter wish to cook the food for his animals he will require a furnace, with kettles, or a sheet iron box to boil it in, also a mill to grind it into meal. Below we give a series of experiments to determine the re- lative value of raw and cooked food, and if the farmer after examining this subject, shall determine to adopt the latter method, then he can select the best means of accomplishing that object. Among the implements above named, the - double shovel deserves especial mention. To those notable ‘to supply themselves with the walking cultivator, it is in- valuable, and lessous the work of the farmer at least one- half. Mr. Thos. H. Bond, of Williamson county, planted a large crop of corn in 1877, and no other plow ever enter- 376 CEREALS. ed the fields, and he made an average of 60 bushels per acre, over his whole farm. But a man must not expect to culti- vate with this, or the cultivator, in the usual slovenly man- ner of some farmers, that is, wait until driven into the field by the growth of weeds. To get the full benefit of them, he must keep ahead of the weeds and grass. So soon as he sees the ground broning with the minute points of vege- tation, then is the time. If he lets them alone until they are one or two inches high, nothing then will do but to “wrap them up” with a turning plow. It must not be said these plows will not do on hillsides. They may be more troublesome to hold there, but so is a bull tongue or a turi- ing plow, but still they are used, and so can the others be made available there. In fact they may be used any where except on very rocky, grubby, or stumpy fields. USES. It has been said of the palm that it is the universal plant of the tropics, furnishing every thing required for the com- fort of the outer and inner man. While we do not make clothes of maize, I believe we use it for almost every other purpose. In its young and tender age, it makes one of the best forage crops for our horses and cattle, and so soon as the grain gets into the milky state it furnishes our tables with the greatest vegetable luxury of any country. In all its after existence it serves man and animals as food. Good sugar has been made of its tender pith, and the stalks make excellent shingling for out houses, or for houses if so desired. The grainis used'in making starch. The plant gives to many all the hay they ever use. There are made from some portion horse collars, foot mats, hats, bonnets, slippers, pipes, potash, stable bedding. ‘And the shucks go into the paper mills and furnish the paper or a portion of it on which the news of the world is sent to the breakfast table; it has lessened the agony of ducks and geese, in taking the place of their feathers in making our beds; in neighbor- INDIAN CORN. 377 hoods remote from railroads it furnishes a cheap and ex- cellent article of fuel; oil is distilled from it to light up the houses; whiskey to sicken the well and to cure the sick; alco- hol, without which the druggist would be disarmed, comes from this precious grain. Beer, malt,and various other cool- ing and medicinal preparations, take the place of milk, and the foreign adulterated poisons under the names of wine and ales. Even the cobs are of important use in the manufac- ture of vinegar and in the making of pipes. The tassels give a fine addition to the vases that adorn our rooms. It is cooked in more ways than any other food. It is parched and in this way is extensively used by travelers in India and other Eastern countries. It is cooked, when green, on the cob by boiling, or baking, or roasting, or is cut of and fried or made into the most delicious puddings. Cracked and deprived of its siliceous coating when dry, it makes the hominy of commerce. Deprived of its coating by lye, and left in whole grain, it makes lye hominy. Crushed into angular particles, resembling in size and shape gun- powder, it becomes grits. Ground up finer it makes the meal that is used by the people of half the continent of North America, making the corn cakes, batter cakes, hoe cake, johnny cake, ash cake and mush of the Southern States; the tortilla of the Mexican, the stirabout of Ireland and the Polenta of the Italians. The Kaffirs have recently substituted maize in the place of millet as food, and its consumption in Great Britian and on the continent is increasing every year. The large pro- portion of carbonaceous substances which it contain makes it more stimulating than wheat. As a food it is not so pala- table as wheat, but its possibilities are far in excess, and for cheapness there is much in favor of maize. We all remember when, in 1846, the famine devastated Ireland by the potatoe rot, maize rushed to the rescue and saved millions of people from starvation. Even now, some philanthropists are trying to introduce it into general use 378 ‘CEREALS, in Europe, to prevent, as it will, those periodical famines that, with their awful lieutenant pestilence, stalk so regularly over the older continents. Where maize grows there can never be a famine, as it supplies within itself all that is requisite to make man or animal. By its use we are able to sell meats at five or six cents, that a poor man in Europe never sees, and can only be bought at from fifteen to twenty cents per pound. Hog and hominy was the entire dish of the pioneer, the source of hospitality of the backwoodsman. It gave life to the wilds of America. Its delicious morsels are yet the pride of the palate. Nor does corn keep its sweetness to itself, but through the aid of bees it stores for man’s use tons of honey. And -when stung by the aphides its very tears are honey dew, thus, in its destruction, holding out a dying gift to man. Without corn, the discovery of Columbus would have been long in benefitting mankind. The settlers could searcely live with the meagre assistance afforded from Europe, and many of them starved as it was. ‘Tennessee certainly could not so soon have had the population it did, for our forefathers, profiting by the example set by the Indians, would parch a bag of corn, and with this bar to hunger fearlessly cross the mountains into an uninhabited region, where they could not by any means, except by the slaughter of wild animals, have subsisted otherwise. A war party of Indians will not hesitate. to undertake a long and dangerous journey into an enemy’s country, and endure hardships unknown to us, swimming rivers, climbing mountains, making journeys of wondrous distances, and yet their whole subsistance is a small bag of parched corn, crushed between two stones. : Corn is undoubtedly fed too lavishly to horses. It is very rich in carbonaceous substances, its heat producing eompounds being about 70 per cent. of its composition, and consequently creating great heat in the animal. INDIAN CORN. : 379 ‘The subject of cooked or uncooked food has engaged the attention of agriculturists time out of mind, and it is yet an unsettled question. Those who have tried cooked food invariably testify to its worth, yet the trouble of carrying it out deters, and will deter, the many from its attempt. Its advantages are so marked that it is to be hoped it will become the general practice of the country. 8. H. Clay, of Bourbon City, Kentucky, fed hogs with corn in the ear, -boiled corn and boiled meal. After fully testing it he calculated that, . Ibs. 02. One bushel corn in the ear made of pork...........005 5 10 e boiled corn 33 OOo ak wines ies g 14 7 f boiled meal “ OD sea Pamuunies 16 7 “another case of meal “ | ME “redone seiwead 18 0 Prof. Mapes, of New Jersey, after numerous experiments, decided that thirteen pounds of cooked meal was equivalent to thirty pounds corn raw. But then the question comes up as to whether the fuel and other expense attending the cooking will not over- balance the surplus pork. That is a question to be decided only by investigation. In 1854, the corn crop of Middle Tennessee was almost a total failure. A gentleman in Davidson County, on the 1st of September cut off a piece of corn and planted turnips. The yield was enormous, and he put up a furnace and boiled a large amount of turnips daily, stirring in about a quart of meal for each hog. He fattened and killed thirty- five hogs as fine as he ever had when corn was plentiful, and that with only about two bushels of meal to the .og. In feeding one hundred hogs, the superintendent of the Iowa State farm reports that he has saved two-fifths of the grain by grinding it into meal, and feeding it dry, and finds still better results by souring it before feeding, and by steaming it, saved at least one half or over. ® 380 CEREALS. Examples, well authenticated, of this kind might be multiplied indefinitely. But enough has been said to show that, all other things being equal, the ground corn, or if possible cooked, will go much further than in its natural state. For this reason still slops, though deprived of much of their nourishing qualities, will fatten hogs or cattle faster than if fed on corn with all its ingredients intact. Sir Humphry Davy, after numerous experiments, came to the conclusion that wheat contained 95 per cent. of. _nutritive matter, and corn 77 per cent. Therefore if a bushel of corn is worth 77 cents, a bushel .of wheat is worth 95 cents, so far as nutrition is concerned. But when it is remembered that the 23 per cent, of innutritious mat- ter, which constitutes a portion of the maize, is desirable in man for food as “necessary not only to satisfy the craving of hunger, but to promote digestion by the stimulus of dis- tention, which bulk alone can give,” it will be understood that the’ comparative value of corn is even greater than would appear from these analyses. But the prices of these two grains have never been con- trolled by their proportions of nutrition. Corn in 1877 could be bought in abundance at 40 to 45 cents per bushel, while wheat brought $1.10 to $1.40, thus showing that however cheap, and however nutritious, the taste of the people impels them largely in favor ef flour. Before closing this part of the subject it will not be irrele- vant to say a few words on the subject of preparation of corn for human food. In the first place, corn should never be ground too fine. It will never make as good bread when the cells are all broken, as it then has nothing to re- tain the gas or steam induced by heat, and so it is heavy. When intended to be made into plain bread, put nothing in it but cold water, and make it up with a large amount, and then put it in an extremely hot oven and let it remain only long enough to brown on thesurface. This will make bread to suit the most fastidious taste. Every housewife has ways INDIAN CORN. 381 of her own for making breads, and properly made, they are all good, but good, plain bread can never be made out of dry dough or with a slow heat. It is barely necessary to allude to the efficiency of meal as a butter-maker. Fed to cows, one-half gallon twice daily, dry, it will, with hay, bring down the milk in showers, and the butter will be yellow and rich. Many dairymen in. the North have fed it alone for weeks without detriment to the milk or condition of the cow, but she should never have more than two quarts ata feed, and it shouldalways be dry, as if wet it will pass at once into the second stomach and_ not be properly assimilated. Judge Owen, of New York, a large dairyman, testifies to the value of this as a dairy food in extravagant terms in the Agricultural Report of 1868. AS A HAY AND FORAGE CROP. It would appear that corn, as a hay and forage crop, be- longs more especially to a work devoted to the grasses, and in this respect the people of Tennessee do not appreciate its importance. The dairymen of the North have for years been using it as a green food for their cows in that pecu- liarly dry time of July and August, after the first pastures have dried out, and before the fall pastures have become green from the latter rains. We have seen already the vast amount of forage in the form of fodder, tops and stalks, that can be saved from one acre of corn. No one can imagine the amount of waste in this respect every year in our State. Mr. Mechi, the most eminent farmer in England, or the world, estimates every ton of corn fodder, which includes stalks, husks and leaves to be worth ten dollars per ton. He also estimates one ton of fodder to every forty bushels of grain. The total crop of Tennessee in 1876, our last published report, was 54,500,- 000 bushels, which would make 1,365,500 tons of good fodder, this, at one-halt of Mr. Mechi’s estimated value would be $6,812,500! How much of this is lost by sheer 382 CEREALS. waste, we leave to every farmer in the State to tell, com- paring the amount, he himself has lost. There is a numerous class of small farmers and tenants in the State, comprising a majority of the citizen, who do not have the land on which to raise hay. From the pecu- liar circumstances of their annual lease they cannot sow clover or set a meadow, and yet these men have their horses, cows, and possibly sheep that must be fed as regularly as the animals of the landlord. Nothing is easier than for these men, instead of belling their stock and letting them browse on a precarious range, to provide an abundance of the very best hay for them This is done by sowing one, two or more acres in corn, ac- cording to their necessities. Should they desire to do so, they can raise two crops in the year, provided they will sow as soon as the frost is out of the ground. It only re- quires about ninety days for corn fodder to mature, and it can be cut some sooner. There are several ways of seeding down, and either one must be adapted to the ground to be sown. After the ground is prepared by breaking, harrow- ing and rolling, the seed may, on very rich ground, be sown broad-cast, one bushel of seed to the acre. Another plan is to lay off the ground one way and drill in the rows, they being not more than eighteen inches or two feet apart. It should be plowed about twice, and then cut, when the grain that will form on some of the stalks gets in the roast- ing ear state. Another plan, if the farmer owns a corn’ drill, is to drill the corn on freshly prepared land about six inches apart. It will soon come up, and prevent, by its shade, the growth of weeds or grass. Cut when in the tassel. A crop of 40 or 50 tons of green forage is not uncommon on an acre of land, and one farmer writes that he, by a fair calculation, in a drilled piece got 72 tons. Of course from its exceedingly succulent character, both of leaves and stems, it loses greatly, but en fair ground not less than INDIAN CORN. 383 three or four tons of dry forage is easily obtained. Land sown in corn will not only furnish a large amount of hay, but the fodder, if cut and fed to stock as required, will keep three or four times as many as if the land was turned over to the stock themselves. This plan applies with peculiar force to those owning small parcels of -land, to renters, or to persons owning a large town lot. Food of a good character may be grown in sufficient quantity, on a mere town lot to feed a cow or a horse during the entire winter. There is some difficulty in curing corn fodder properly, as it contains so much water. It should be cut and spread in good weather, or, if possible, let it be put in shocks, stand until cured, and then it must have shelter. This shelter may be provided in various ways, either barns, sheds or stacks. And immense saving will be made by cutting the whole up in a straw cutter. A farmer who once uses a good straw cutter, not. only on stalks, but on hay and all roughness, will never feed without it afterward if he has the industry to do that which his judgment approves. It has been a desideratum with all far farmers to secure green food for cattle all through the year. In the colder climates this is iripossible, from the presence of snow through the long winter. But in the milder climates of ‘the South, and generally in Tennessee, this can pe done by sowing rye, barley and wheat, and also by having a winter pasture of blue grass and other grasses. But within the last few years, a plan has been invented in France, by which any man can have the best of green food, almost identical with that cut out of a field, all through the year. It was long known that the pulp of sugar beets left after extract- ing the sugar, was a very superior food, both for cattle and hogs. Various experiments were instituted by which a plan for its preservation might be devised, and at last it was discovered that if preserved from contact with the atmos. phere it would remain a fermented food, and the process of 384 CEREALS. putrifaction would not set in. In this condition it was as good for food as when first compressed. This beet pulp partakes of the same nature of the still slops of our distil- lery, only not so rich in nitrogenous qualities. An enter- prising farmer conceived the idea that green fodder could be saved in the same manner, and after various experi- ments, conducted through several years, he evolved the plan called “eusilage.” This practice has now become an established plan, not only in France, but in nearly all Eu- ropean countries, and has received a long notice and recom- mendation from the Commissioner of Agriculture in Wash- ingtun. We will give the details so that any man can test it to his own satisfaction, and we know no reason why our horses and cows should not be regaled with green food through winter, as well as man with preserved vegetables and fruits, and the principle is the same. Eusilage embraces principally corn fodder, but is not con- fined to it, as it has been applied to hay, peas, oats rye, bar- ley and clover. But here is the plan: A pit is dug from five to seven and a half feet deep, th® length of corn fodder say six feet wide and twelve feet long. * at the top, but only ten feet long at the bottom. The fod- der is allowed to lay on the ground after cutting until it wilts, and is then packed evenly and closely in the pit until the pile rises as high above as the pit is deep. During the packing, it must be trodden as firmly down as possible. All the earth that comes from the pit is then thrown on the heap, it having previously been covered with straw. The sidés and ends must be sloped so as to carry off all rains and there must be at least three feet of earth on top. This is necessary for the benefit of the pressure, as it will not keep well unless well packed. In the course of a few days the pile will have shrunk to half its original bulk, and it will, in settling, dislocate the surface forming fissures in the soil. This must be noticed closely and the cracks stopped at once, and packed over, as if air gets to the mass, the fer- INDIAN CORN. 385 mentation that is going on will become putrefaction, and the fodder will be lost. The success depends entirely on the extent of the exclusion of air. Sometimes when the crevices in the soil are not at once stopped the fumes of the alochol may be distinctly detected, showing that fermenta- tion is rapidly going to its next process, putrafaction. One case is noticed where an entire failure took place because the pit was covered with sand, its porosity admitting the air. In the beginning of this process simple pits were made, the sides being nothing more than earth, and they were lined with straw or boards, but since its success has been assured, these pits are lined with brick and hydraulic cement to exclude moisture, as it was found that the fodder coming in contact with the earth was generally mouldy and worthless. For the same reason shelters are erected over them, though if the sides are properly sloped and ditched around, this will be unnecessary. Not only are the various kindsof forage preserved in this way, butall kinds of roots, such as beets, turnips, potatoes, carrots, etc., and apples may be kept. It appears from analyses carefully made that a slight degree of fermentation takes place in the fodder, re- ducing its water and increasing its azotized and fatty princi- ples. It is greedily devoured by all kinds of stock, and in every respect is equal to the green food as it stood in the fields. The fodder of corn does not change its color or ap- perance in the least, nor does clover, but other hays take on a slightly brownish tinge. When desired for use it can be ° taken up and placed in the barn, being careful to take out not more than a weeks supply ata time, unless the weather is freezing cold ; and the residue must-be carefully covered as before. For this reason some farmers have their’ pits divided by partitions so that one compartment may be taken up at a time. The reason for sloping the ends of the pit is that equal pressure may be brought to bear on the entire pile, it being ascertained that unless pressure is made dn all it will not keep well. Some French writers advocate the 26 386 CERFALS. mingling of straw with the fodder, and contend it improve the keeping qualities of the fodder, while the latter imparts a freshness to the straw, making it more palatable. The following is an analysis of. the maize before and after eusilage : s | x a A. . oO 3 [3s g bo ae 3 qq oo go =a | Se] 8a dr ‘ 8/85/83) & 6/8 | a Woaletces sock cicce es see aalees 81.21) 81.28} 60.71) 14.50 PU BAP yic.osc: aca axaceinig ain daeie ie «Seas castdeeamanenons 0.58) 0.15} 1.68]...... Azotized matters.......... 02.02. ee eee 1,22; 1.24) 8.74) 4.88 Non-azotized matters............-..45. 10.40) 9.58] 14.59) 34.52 Fatty matters........ 0.0... cece eee 0.25) 0.386) 1.50) 1.50 Crude cullulose.... 0 6. ec see eee cee eee 4.98} 4.91] 8.70] 35.50 ASHOGBiy 5 i y00-444 bas Les aee cea waee nes tes 1.29; 2.25) 8.43) 9.10 BONG 6 eactezcare wkd cease 8-3 Geico 28d shaasien Bexorene |W ES 0.23) 0.44)...... 100.00/100.00/100.001100.00 In this case the maize had undergone a good deal of dry- ing in the sun and winds before it had been put in the pit. Therefore there was less difference, or rather no difference, inthe moisture. Theadvantage this form of hay has over the dried hay is the facility of digestion, and its peculiar pow- er in promoting a flow of milk, in fact just the same differ- ence there is between the dry food of winter, and the juicy succulent grassesof summer. It has never to our know- ledge been tested in Tennessee, but that it would succeed here as well as in Europe seems probable. It certainly would be an easy way to provide a large supply of green forage. The pits will contain about ten tons each. I am indebted to Dr. Edward Young, of the Bureau of statistics, for the necessary data to exhibit the exports of INDIAN CORN. 387 STATISTIOCTS OF CORN, this great cereal from the early history of the country to the present time. In an article on the early exportation of dried stuffs, contributed by Dr. Young to the American Ex- porter, he says: “The first settlers of Virginia in the early years of the 17th century, and of Massachusetts a few years later, as well as those of New York, Pennsylvinia, Maryland anc other States, were anxious to raise’ sufficient wheat, maize and other cereals to feed their families, so as to be indepen- dent of the mother. country as regards food. Many years elapsed before the area of grain crops was sufficiently large, and the richer soils were brought under cultivation to enable producers to raisea surplus sufficient to supply the demand of tropical or semi-tropical countries. The first recorded export of grain from the United States occurred in 1646, when-a vessel of 100 tons burden, built at New Haven and probably bound for the Canary Islands, was ‘lost with 70 persons and a cargo of wheat. In 1678 there was considerable export of fionr and bread from New York, chiefly to the West Indies. In 1682 there was a grist mill at Hoboken, which was owned in New York. Flour and grain were that year mentioned as articles of exports from the eastern section of. New Jersey. The total exports of bread stuffs from all the colonies in 1770, was of bread, flour and meal 458,868 barrels, valued _at about $2,862,190; of wheat, 851,240 bushels, and of In- dian corn, 578,349 bushels. This amount Lord Sheffield, after the war doubted the capacity of this country to exceed. Up to that time England had usually exported grain, yet had at different times been forced to depend on supplies from the colonies; and her West India possessions were mainly fed from this country. Hence in the traffic with the islands this branch of colonial industry was an exceedingly important 388 CEREALS. ‘For some time past the Old World hasbeen fed from the New. The scarcity you have felt would have been a deso- lating famine, if this child of your old age, with a true fil- ial piety, with a Roman charity, had not put the full breast of its youthful exuberance to the mouth of its exhausted parent.’ ” Dr. Young furnishes me with the following statement, showing the exportation of corn and meal from the United States from 1790 to 1799, and to what countries they were sent: FISCAL YEARS, Great Pe t = | T t i real ‘ and Wes ‘otal to all Britain. France, | Spain. Portuguese | Indies.| Countries. Islands. INDIAN CORN, 468,537) 687,481 2,102,137 876,905, 540,761|- 1,718,241 467,001} 928,756] 1,964,973 386,243) 669,414 1,226,972 494,272) 508,303 1,472,700 310,901) 683,553 1,935,345 64,814} 793,466 1,173,552 59,450) 576,692 804,922 336,503] 693,468) 1,218,231 350,192] 580,368 1,200,492 Total in ten years........ | 633,204] 643,178|1,866,311] 3,814,818|6,662,262| 14,812,565 INDIAN CORN. 389 Statement showing the quantity of Indian corn, and corn meal, exported from the United States during the 21 fiscal years ending September 30, 1820: FisoaL YEARS. et ey Bushels. Bushels, TS0G). a xisGe seautnedes) oat aaa eae ate 1,694, 327 , 838,108 TB OD cnian tne scarcanecctinisiepined -cteahentiel cl Gen ees ais 1,768,162 919,355 1802 sa inais beam aenes Seay salem Ba Beare aes aes 1,683,288 266 816 Barrels. TBO Bi toda et ates areresaia cm cavetiaianiane son oaigte 2,079. 608 133, 606 TB OAs ni 212s caine dn hie Gee apa ea ateesine , wards, so that a length of y YY, toe small ovary at its ex- Wy - y/ tremity is i into the ground. When this happens, the ovary begins to enlarge and ripens into a pale, yellowish, wrinkled, slightly curved pod, often contracted in the middle and containing two seeds. Should the ovary, by some accident, not be enabled to thrust its pods into the ground, it withers and does not attain perfection. \ iN The Peanut is supposed to be indigenous to Africa, and within the last few years has: become of great commercial importance. Large quantities are grown on the western oast of Africa and inSouth America. It is also cultivated PEANUTS. 431 in Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Ten- nessee, Virginia taking the lead in its production. The principal peanut growing counties in Tennessee are Perry, Hickman, Humphreys, Dickson and Lewis. Two varieties are known in Tennessee, the red and the white. The red grows with an erect stem and is more easily culti- vated, the largest portion of the work being done with the plow. The white peanut grows flat on the ground, spread- ing-out and forming: the rigid, deflexed stalk to which the forming pod is attached in the ground. The white is the most prolific, is later in coming to maturity than the red, but brings usually a better price in market. The red ma- tures better because earlier, and yields fewer imperfect ones called “ puffs” or “pops.” An argillaceous soil, filled with light pebbles, so as to make it loose and prevent baking, is the best for peanuts. The brighter the pebbles and clay the better the peanuts, the color of the soil affecting the color of the peanut and their markst value. Uplands, with an original growth of hickory and white oak, with a light clay, are greatly prefer- red for this reason to the black soils of the bottoms. While the latter may yield a greater quantity of nuts per acre, they are not so marketable, and are classed among the lower grades. . The land is usually preparred in April, after the danger of frost is past. It is seldom subsoiled, but well harrowed, so as to pulverize it thoroughly. For white peanuts it is then checked off in rows two and a half or three feet apart, and two kernels, after being carefully hulled by hand, are dropped, like corn, at the intersection of the furrows, and covered with a hoe an inch and a half or two inches deep. It is often difficult to obtain a good stand. Should the land become compacted, after planting, by ahard rain, a har- row should be run over it, when sufficiently dry, to break the obstructing crust so that the plumule, which is very deli- cate and tender, can push its way to the surface. The brown 432 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. millipede, cut-worms and moles are all great enemies to the peanut when first planted. Should the plumule’ fail to make its appearance after ten days of favorable weather, re-planting should begin. Red peanuts are usually planted in ridges like cotton. The seeds are dropped along in the furrow which is opened on top the ridge, from eight to twelve inches apart, and covered by a board, like cotton seed, some two inches deep. About two and a half bushels in the hull are re- quired to plant an acre. Very fertile lands are not suited to this crop, for the reason that too much vine is objection- able, as the peanuts continue to form without maturing. For this reason very few fertilizers are used in making the crop. The after culture of the peannt is very simple. Keep down the weeds and stir the ground often with a harrow, and finally with double shovels, so as to leave a loose sur- face. The soil is usually thrown up to the red peanuts, but level culture is demanded for the white. The crop is usu- ally “laid by” about the first of August, the bunches of * grass escaping the plow being carefully cut out and. the the ground left light and loose. A dry spring is very much to be desired in the cultivation of this crop. After the spikelets begin to push down into the soil, seeteny showers are indispensable to a large yield. The crop of white peanuts is harvested by running a fur- row on each side of the row with a bull-tongue plow or a pea-digger, so as to dislocate the roots. Care must be taken not to detach the nuts from the vine in running the side furrow. After the plow has been run on eaeh side of the row, (and it is sometimes necessary to run twice ona side), then lift the vines gently with the hand, carefully shaking the dirt off, and lay them on the ground. Let them remain in this way, if the sun is shining, from six to eight hours. The vines will wilt like clover, when they may be brought together and stacked. PEANUTS, 433 The stacks are made around a pole planted in the ground and rising some eight feet above the surface. A platform made of old rails is laid down upon logs around the pole, so as to protect the nuts and vines from the mould . and dampness of the ground. In stacking. the nuts should be put on the inside next to the stack-pole,.but not so close but that air can circulate freely from the bottom to the top of the stack. To make the stack entirely secure, it should have a capping of hay or corn fodder. Put up in this manner the nuts will keep securely all the winter should it be desired. The red nuts are more easily harvested than the white, .as they have but few root and the nuts adhere closely about the stem. In loose land they may be pulled up without running a furrow on each side of the row, though to do this will make the work much easier. Usually the nuts are allowed to stand in the stacks about four weeks, and are then picked off by hand, the white al- ways, the red sometimes being threshed off by taking up bundles and beating against a rail or the side of a box. This latter plan greatly injures the peanuts. Five te six bushels of red peanuts can be picked off the vines in a day bya nimble fingered hand, but the picking of three to four bushels of the white is considered a good days work. Women and children are said to be much more expert in picking off the peanuts thanmen. The price paid for pick- ing is about ten cents per bushel. After this they ought to be screened in a cylinder so as to separate them from the dust and leaves, and also for the purpose of brightening the hulls by abrasion against one other. After sunning they are put in sacks containing four to five bushels, The weight of a bushel of peanuts in Tennessee, is 28 pounds; in Georgia 28; in North Carolina and Virginia 22 pounds. The Tennessee peanuts are larger than those of Georgia; and smaller than those of North Carolina and Virginia. Of those raised in Tennessee fully three-fourths 28 - 434 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. areot the red variety. The usual yield per acre is from thirty to fifty bushels, though as high as 100 bushels are sometimes made. The white peanuts will make from ten totwenty bushels per acre’'more than the red, but not being so easily cultivated or gathered, they are considered less valuable. The analysis of the peanut, according to Antisell, husk and nut, shows it to contain in 100 parts: Wolter). cciessscsaeieawersvgensns scvomaveec settee neciterentia tastes 2.60 Albuminoids, fibre and stavalh i ivabddacnneseiaaee davteews 79.26 Oi pisssoxsuvenwsseramsvesusatusedinesveace aaiesies vexsvanictes 16.00 Ash, itouiansgessearouasnes Uuasenaaedssnagas denon ssuavsieseacetan 2.00 Loss, scisesssoersens apeeue sKawes Koeee ste vay eassaiedevesasostes sees 14 The seed alone contains in 100 parts: MOiSture, ...scesceceserecsvcencececcscscscecescneceeneseseevans 2.51 Albuminoids and farina, daha ti sae Uaewaree vawealletdvaceeuedees 79.71 (AD, awa sinwenteanne prndsamrnciatess sabiatsece seinweis bwicnean cnawenayiy 1.77 | RRM eee ee ena Ten ReneS RENN ce, 16.00 The husk contains about one-sixteenth of the whole weight of the peanut. The ash consists of soluble phos- phates of soda and ammonia with a small amount of com- mon salt. Super-phosphate of lime ought to be a good manure for them. The seeds of some varieties are said to contain from 40 to 50 per cent of oil resembling olive oil and used for simi- lar purposes. A large amount of the oil is used in the manufacture of soap. Peanuts arealso used in making con- fectioneries, and are eaten like almonde and other nuts. The haulm or vine, when carefully harvested before it has been injured by frost, is considered an excellent food for cattle and sheep. Horses are also exceedingly fond of it, but the large amount of dirt which necessarily adheres to it is apt to produce a disagreeable cough in horses. The red peanut makes better hay because it grows erect, and is PEANUTS. 435 1 therefore freer from dirt. About one ton is usually saved per acre, though upon strong land, where the vines grow very luxuriantly, two tons or more have been saved from a single acre. Many practical farmers prefer it to clover hay. Like clover hay it must be handled carefully, or the leaves fall off, leaving nothing but the stems, which are nearly worth- less. When fed to milch cows it is said to produce a copious flow of rich, creamy milk. Ewes in lambing time can have no better feed given them than‘well cured peanut vines. Their flow of milk is increased and its quality en- riched. . The best of farmers, however, scatter the hay over the land intended to be planted in peanuts, and it proves to be an excellent fertilizer. The peanut, like all oily products ef the soil, is a very exhaustive crop, and if the hay is not returned td the soil the land will not yield more than two good crops in succession. The beet plan is to rotate the peanut crop with the wheat crop, and use some of the super- phosphates. They are good fertilizers for both crops. The estimated production of this crop in Tennessee, 4s made by Gennett & Co., the largest dealers in the State, for the five years ending 1877, is as follows: L873 coccscecniesev eave sea ictavenvecenee so hsenasd .... 600,000 bushels TBST, wvainaesrcidues waaesidonaers geaaanees Ryeweaeis 150.000 a 1875 joiciea des orins sawinckorrsaasarniietieasseennes . 200,000 ty TB G pasiuisa siguidubionion indepen aaeavedenn evakamntcinnes . 450, 000 Ke BT T jaceens visdsaauvassmnnonsise sunensanvn nnnecesises 200,000 ee It is a singular fact that, notwithstanding the importance and value of this crop, no report of it has ever been made in the United States census. _ The best markets are Nashville, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh and New Orleans, which usually take the whole Tennessee crop. About 105,000 bushels were handled in Nashville in 1877. The quality of the Tennessee peanuts is considered not equal to those of Virginia, but better than those of 436 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. Georgia and other States. Carelessness in handling only makes them. inferior to the Virginia crop. ° Marketable peanuts are free from puffs, dirt and trash, and havea bright hull, and should be put in four bushel bur- laps, well filled, but without crushing the hulls. I am indebted mainly to W. O. Britt, Britt’s Landing, and to W. K. Jackson, Box Station, for the facts embraced in this paper on peanuts. Both gentlemen have had ex- tensive experience in their growth and sale. PEAS. 437 CHAPTER XXVIL PEA--(Pisum Sativum ). \ Smooth and glancous, with large leafy stipules, commonly two pairs of leaflets, branching tendrils, and peduncles bearing two or more large flowers ; corolla white, bluish, purple or partly-colored; pods rather fleshy.— Gray. The pea is a native of southern Europe, and its cultiva- tion extends into every State. The varieties are very great, and while some are cultivated extensively for table use other kinds are raised for stock and for manurial purposes. Our garden pea was cultivated by the Greeks and Romans. Peas were found in the ancient Swiss lake dwelling. They were introduced into England in the time of Henry VIII, and is there still a standard crop. They are sown or drilled in and are sometimes even sown with oats, the two being har- vested and fed together. Sheep and hogs are very fond of them, and especially are the vines prized as a sheep fodder. Analysis shows that peas contain: Ash, 2.5; albuminoids or flesh formers, 22.4; carbo-hydrates or heaters, 52.3, crude fibre, 9.2; fat, 2.5; water, 14.3. The composition shows them to be very nutritivus, and animals fatten rapidly when fed with them liberally. The pea haulm when dry gives by analysis: Water, 14.3; ash, 4.; albuminoids, 6.5; carbo- hydrates, 35.2; crude fibre, 40; ‘fat, 2, This shows the haulm to be three times as valuable for feeding purposes as wheat straw, and a little more valuable as a feed than bar- ley straw mixed with clover, and one third better than com- mon fodder. The cow or field pea of the Southern States is more like 438 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. t a bean than a pea, and is supposed to be a species of dolichos belonging to the pulse family whose species is undetermin- ed. Be this as it may, its value as a farm crop has long been kmown. The ease with which it is cultivated and its great value as a forage plant and as a fertilizer have given it a prominent place in southern agriculture. It belongs to the leguminous or pulse family, and is known as a pea, and for that reason it will be treated of under that head. The letter below, from the Hon. H. M. Polk, of Harde- man county, is so thorough and exhaustive that nothing more need be said on the sybject, only remarking that no soil in this State is so poor that it will not grow peas. Borivar, Harpeman County, Tunn., July 2, 1878. Commissioner J. B. Killebrew: I will not stop to demonstate what is manifest. to all that the South, from her sparse population, her wide-spread plantations, her adaptation to, and her predilection for the cultivation of certain of our great Southern staples, is not at this time and may never be in a condition to keep up her arable lands by animal manures alone, and that her only alternative is in green crops turned under for renovating and increasing the productive capacity of her soil. In estimating the relative manurial values of green crops to bring up the. productive capacity of our soils, we measure by the amount of crop produced in the shortest time, the.elements upon which these crops feed, their capacity for returning plant food to the earth, and especially by their leaving more or less of those elements in the soil which are ne- cessary to the production of the succeeding crop Nor do we omit to estimate their several capacities for sending their roots deeply into the soil, thereby bringing up and depositing near the surface the aliment for plants which would otherwise remain below the reach of the roots of many of our most valuable cereals. For the accomplishment of these purposes no vegetable equals the southern field pea and red clover. In them we find the answer to that momentous question, how, and through what means can we, in the shortest space of time, bring our lands up to their highest productive capacities to meet our own and the varied wants ot society. When we reflect that all progress, civilization, refinement, culture, prosperity and happiness of society hang suspended upon the scale which measures out the feeding capacity of the earth, we begin to appreciate those vegetable productions promotive of this desired end. The trefoils and legumes then begin to loom up in their grand possibili- ties; and the clover and the field pea assume an importance not dream- PBAS. 439 ed of before. Without them, on the one hand we must descend to meager harvests, perishing stock, fast approaching sterility, hard times and general discontent. On the other, by their powerful aid we ascend up to plentiful harvests, fat stock with the multiplied advantages result- ing therefrom, good living, money in the purse, prosperity and content- ment. Can the pea and clover accomplish all this? Worked in proper rotation with other crops they most assuredly can. In the heathen, but appreciative past, when gratitude was manifested by the erection of temples, and by solemn worship to those deities from whom temporal blessings were thought to flow, the pea and clover of the present day have been entwined with the wheat and fruit—crowning the brow of beneficent Ceres, Now, these mainsprings of successful agriculture in our favored land are but half appreciated, and are thrust aside by the impatient tiller of the soil for some other crop supposed to bring in more immediate money profits; but which in its continued drafts upon the fertility of the soil, must end in the bankruptcy, as well as the ruin of its possessor. ‘ In a previous letter to you I stated some of the advantages which the field pea possessed even over its great fellow laborer, red clover, as a fertilizer. 1st. The pea will thrive upon land too poor to grow clover. 2d. That it will produce a heavy and rich crop to be returned to the soil in a shorter period than any vegetable fertilizer known. 8d. That two crops can be produced on the same ground in one year; whereas it requires two years for clover to give a hay crop, and good aftermath for turning under. In this time four crops of peas can be made. 4th. That the pea feeds but lightly upon, and hence leaves largely in the soil, those particular elements necessary to a succeeding grain crop, and the pea lay, in its decay, puts back largely into the soil those very elements required for a vigorous growth of the cereals. 5th. There is no crop which is its equal for leaving the soil in the very best condition for a succeeding wheat crop. 6th. Itis the only crop raised in the South so rapid in its growth and perfection as to be made an intervening manurial crop between grain cut in the spring, and grain sowed in the fall, upon the same ground. And this alone makes the pea invaluable to Southern agriculture. "th. In our particular latitude it flourishes equally with clover: and with two such renovators of the soil (aside from their value as food crops), no portion of the earth is equally blessed. North of us the pea does not succeed; south, the clover fails. Sth. Its adaptability to other crops, producing in the space between 440 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. our corn rows both a provision and a fertilizing crop, with positive benefit to the growing corn. *; 9th. The aid it gives in prodneing cheap beef, pork, milk and butter. Without the pea pork could not be produced cheaply, where it costs so much to make corn. 10th. A doubled capacity for wintering stock, and with this, a doubly enlarged manure heap. lith. The large plantations of the South can only be restored by green cropsturned under, united to a judicious system of rotation looking to feeding the soil. This must be aided by all the manure manufactured | on the plantation. 12th. The large addition made to humus, upon which the tilth, as well as capacity of the soil for retaining moisture so greatly depends. As for the cultivation of the pea, one can scarcely go amiss. When: two crops are intended for renovating, break the land, sow broadcast . and harrow in. Or drill in rows three feet apart, and plow out when a few inches high. When pods begin to ripen, if the crop is intended for manurial purposes, plow under with large two horse plow, with a well sharpened rolling coulter attached, or with chain passing from double tree to beam of the plow to hold the vines down for facilitating cover- ing. A roller passed over the vines before plowing under will assist the operation’ Caustic lime should be sown upon the vines before plowing under to promote decay, and neutralize the large amount of vegetable acid covered into the soil. Select the pea whichruns least. The vines are easiest covered into the soil. They are the black bunch pea, and the speckle or whippoorwill pea. When planted in corn as a food crop, the bunch pea ripens soonest; lbut the Carolina cow pea, the clay pea, or the black stock pea are preferable as they do not readily rot from wet weather, and will re- main sound most of the winter. For early feeding. of stock, plant . whipporwill pea by itself in separate enclosure from corn, where stock can be turned upon whenever desired. ‘ Peas are often sowed upon the stuble after small grain is harvested. Flush up the ground, and sow either broadcast, or drill in furrow open- ed with shovel plow, covering with scooter furrow on each side. Block off or run over lightly with harrow and board attached. Again they are drilled in every fourth furrow, when turning over the stubble, the succeeding furrow covering the peas, When either of these last: modes of planting is adopted, the peas should receive one good plowing out when they are from four to six inches high. When planted in corn (the corn should have been drilled in rows five feet apart), they should be stepdropped in a furrow equally distant from each corn row, and covered with scooter, with harrow or with block. PEAS. 441 N This should be last of May or in the first ten days of June. The only work they receive when planted in corn, is a shovel or sweep furrow run around them when the corn is being “‘laid by,” unless there is much grass, when it becomes necessary to give them a light hoeing. The crop might be said to be made almost without work when planted with corn ; in fact it is often so made by those planters who sow peas broad- cast in their corn, and cover them with the last plowing given the corn There is much diversity of opinion as to the proper treatment of the vines in curing them for winter hay. And as much has been written upon the subject, the writer feels some diffidence in giving his own views. Suffice it to say, the great end to be attained is to cure the vines to the extent only of getting rid of a part of the succulent moisture in the vine, without burning up the leaves. When exposed to too much heat, the leaves fall very readily from the stems, and are lost. When put up too green and too compactly, they heat, and when fer- mentation of the juices in the vine and unripe pods occurs, the hay is seriously damaged, if not completely spoiled. Mildewed hay of any kind is but poor food for stock, and when eaten is only taken from necessity to ward off starvation. ‘ Some planters house their pea hay in open sheds, or loosely in barns, with rails so fixed as to prevent com- pacting. Others stack in the open air around poles, having limbs from two to four feet long, to keep the mass of vines open to the air, and cover the top with grass. There is diversity of opinion as to the ‘proper manner of curing and, preserving this hay, but there is none as to the value of this rich food for all stock, and especially for the milch cow in increasing the quantity and quality of her milk. in attempting to renovate our soils by the aid of vegetable fertilizers, we should not confine ourselves to one, but should utilize all which are suitable to our soil and climate. The writer has some sixty or seventy acres in clover, and in much of this grasses are sown. Orchard grass and herds grass thrive well with us, whilst blue grass and timothy finds a congenial home in the lime lands of Middle Tennessee. In no part of the State does clover grow better, if so well as in West Tennessee. In considering the great advantages of the field pea to the agricultu- ral interests of our people, I do not wish to be understood as disparag- ing other vegetable renovators of the soil. The field pea certainly possesses many advantages, such as its adaptability to almost any soil, and to many crops grown with it at the same time, and with positive benefit to the crop grown with it on the same ground. Each row of corn should be flanked by a row of peas. Every spot of ground in the field too poor for corn can and will produce peas. There is nothing 442 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. better to be sowed in old plowed up broomsedge fields, and there, whilst the land is being fertilized, one of the best provision crops for stock, and the best of hay for milk cows in winter, is produced. And a still further advantage possessed by this valuable legume is its un- equaled capacity for, and its unapproachable merit. as an intervening crop, (being both a renovating and’a food crop), between small grain or root crop in the spring and a grain crop in the fall. Do you ask more of any vegetable renovator? It is more valuable than the English turnip crop, and this crop, by those enlightened and eminently practical farmers, is estimated annually at millions of pounds sterling. It is doubtful if England could tide it over the next two years if de- prived of her turnip crop. It is the foundation of her stock and ma- nure production, In contrasting the Southern field pea with the Eng- lish turuip crop we begin to preceive its immense value to southern agriculture, and realize that too often, in reaching after the so-called money crops, we have neglected the best fertilizers, (as well as food crop), ever given to the agricultural world. In considering the present impoverished condition of the lands of the South, we are forced to confess it is the work of tillage — of injudicious, ruinous tillage. Where husbandry predominates over tillage there is but little leaking out of the elements of fertility in a soil, and there is no estimating how long they will remain to supply the food necessary to vigorous plant growth. The grasses, including clover and peas, are the grand elements for preserving and augmenting these elements in the soil. Hence we see all countries where husbandry prevails grow rich in soil, particularly if the tilled portion of the land is under a judicious system of rotation. Now, tillage, or the simple cultivation of land, puts nothing of any value in it, but is, of itself, a necessary evil; evil because of exposing the soil to a scorching sun, often reducing it to a mass of lifeless clods, and exposing it to an exhausting leaching process, which takes out its very life blood. The cleaner and longer%ontinued the culture, the more the injury to the land from the destruction of its humus, and from the greatest of all destructives, leaching. The injury is augmented as the land is rolling and broken. Hence cotton and tobacco (the first of which is not an exhauster of land, per se) have brought ruin to the best acres of the South, whilst small grain and the grasses have husbanded and increased the natural fertility of the lands of our Northern neighbors. Lands in which these two great staples are grown should be Jevel lands, and in the case of tobacco should receive, (outside the aid of rotation), a generous manuring. But if I have given the true reason for the rapid decline of the productive capacity of the soil of the South as contrasted with that of the Northern States, let me take you one step further and show you that in the rich region of country lying northwest of the Ohio river, we find a very great difference in the material prosperity of the farmers there. A PEAS. » 443° portion of them are prosperous, whilst others are experiencing all the evils resulting from the comprehensive term hard times. It is not diffia cult to learn the cause. The grain maker, whose whole energies have been devoted to extracting the fertility of his soil for mamy consecutive years, in magnificent harvests, finds his crops growing less and less each year, while the stock-raiser is prosperous, having grown rich while making his land rich, Time has here demonstrated « great truth which agriculturists should not ignore, Let our southern farmers profit by its inevitable teaching. Let us determine to improve our destructive farming; give our lands a chance to grow better instead of depreciating yearly; build up the waste places; infuse new life into our southern land, beautiful still in her decline, and endeared the more as we see her slowly sinking under the drain mercilessly kept open by her own children, in the veins through which her priceless life-blood flows. : Since writing the above, I have accidentally found an old document upon “Southern Agricultural Exhaustion, and its Remedy,” from the able pen of the late Judge Ruffin, of Virginia. Although this article was not written specially upon the merits of the field pea as a renovator of worn Jands, yet it shows its great value to the agriculture of the South so much more forcibly than anything I can say in advocating its claims that I take the liberty of quoting the following paragraphs se and with them will close my letter, already too long: “At the risk of uttering what may be deemed trite or eos to many, I beg leave to state concisely the fundamental laws, as I conceive them to‘be, of supply and exhaustion of fertilizing matters to soils and aliment to plants. All vegetable growth is supported, for a small part, by the alimentary principles in the soil, (or by what we understand as its fertility,) and partly, and for much the larger portion, by matters supplied, either directly or indirectly, from the atmosphere. More than nine-tenths, usually, of the substance of every plant is composed of the same four elements, three of which—oxygen, nitrogen and carbon—com- pose the whole atmosphere; the fourth---hydrogen---is one of the constitu- ent parts of water; and, also, as a part of the dissolved water, hydrogen i is always present in the aitage phere: and in a great quantity. Thus, all these principal elements of plants are superabundant, and always sur- rounding every growing plant; and from the atmosphere (or through the water in the soil) very much the larger portion of these joint supplies is furnished to plants; and so it is of each particular element, except ni- trogen, much the smallest ingredient, and yet the richest and most im- portant of all organic manuring substances, and of all plants. This, for the greater part, if not for all of its small share in plants, it seems, is not generally derived, even partially, from the air, though so abundant therein, but from the soil, or from organic manures given to the soil. 444 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.. But, though bountiful nature has offered these chief alimentary princi- ples and ingredients of vegetable growth in as inexhaustible profusion as the atmosphere itself which they compose, still, their availability and beneficial use for plants are limited in some measure to man’s labors and care to secure their benefits. Thus, for illustration, suppose the natural supplies of food for plants furnished by the atmosphere to be three-fourths of all received, and that one-fourth only of the growth of any crop is de- rived from the soil and its fertility, still, a strict proportion between the amount of supplies from these two different sources does not the less exist, If the cultivator’s land at one time, from its natural or aequired fertility, affords to the growing crop alimentary principles of value to be designated as five, there will be added thereto other alimentary parts, equal to fifteen in value, from the atmosphere. The crop will be made up of, and will contain, the whole twenty parts, of which five only were derived from and served to reduce by so much, the fertility of the soil. These propor- tions are stated merely for illustration, and, of course, are inaccurate; but the theory or principle is correct, and the law of fertilization and exhaus- tion thence deduced is as certainly sound. Then, upon these premises, there is taken from the land, for the support of the crop, but one-fourth of the aliment derived from all sources for that purpose. And, if no other causes of destruction of fertility were in operation, one green or manuring crop (wholly given to the land, and wholly used as. manure) would supply to the field as much of alimentary or fertilizing matte: as would be drawn thence by three other crops removed for consumption or sale. But in practice there are usually at work important agencies for destruction of fertility, besides the mere supply of aliment to growing crops. Such agencies are the washing off of soluble parts, and even the soil itself, by heavy rains; the hastening of the decomposition and waste of organic matter, by frequent tillage processes and changes of exposure; and ploughing or other working of land when too wet, either from rain or want of drainage. Also, a cover of weeds left to rot on the surface, or any crop ploughed under, green or dry, as manure, is subject to more or less waste of its alimentary principles in the course of the ensuing decom- position. Therefore, it is nearer the facts that two years’ crops or cu!- ture, for market or removal, would require one year’s growth of some manuring crop to replace, and to maintain undiminished or increasing the productive power of the field. The poorest, and also the cheapest, of such manuring crops will be the natural or “volunteer” growth of weeds on lands left cultivated, and not grazed; and the best of all will be furnished in the whole product of a broadcast sown and entite crop of your own most fertilizing and valuable field peas. Thus, of each manuring crop, (as of all others,) or of the fertilizing matter thus given to the land, the cultivator has contributed but five parts from the land, or its previons manuring, and the atmosphere has supplied fifteen parts. If, then, the cultivator, by still more increasing his own PEAS. 445 contributions, will give ten parts of alimentary matter to the land and crop, there will'be added thereto from the atmosphere in the same three- fold proportion, or thirty parts, and the whole new productive power will be equal to forty. And if the soil is fitted by its natural constitution, or the artificial change induced by calcareous or other applications, to fix and retain this double supply of organic matter, the Jand will not only be * made, but will remain of as much increased:fertility, under the subsequent like course of receiving one year’s product for manure for every two other crops removed. But, on the other hand, if more exhausting culture had been allowed, instead of either increased or maintained production, or if the crops take away. more organic matter than nature’s three-fold contri- ‘butions will replace, then a downward progress must begin, and will pro- ceed, whether slowly or quickly, to extreme poverty of the land, its profit- less cultivation, and final abandonment. In this, the more usual case, the cultivator’s contributions of aliment (obtained from the soil) are reduced from the former-value, designated as five, first to four, and next succes- sively to three, two, and finally less than one; and nature keeps equal pace in reducing her proportional supplies from fifteen first to twelve, and so on to nine and six, and less than three parts. So the strongest induce- ment is offered to enrich, rather than exhaust the soil; for whatever amount of fertility the cultivator shall bestow, or whatever abstraction from a previous rate of supply he shall make, either the gain or the ‘loss will be tripled in the account of supplies from ‘the atmosphere furnished or with- + held by nature. In another and more practical point of view, the loss incurred by ex- hausting may be plainly exhibited. According to my views, soils supposed to be properly constituted as to mineral ingredients do not demand, for the maintainig and increasing of their rate of production, more than the rest-- ing, or the growth of two years in every five, mainly to be left on the land as manure. ; These are the proportions of the five-field rotation, now extensively used on the most improving parts of Virginia. And one'of these two years the field is grazed, so that parts of its growth of grass are consumed, instead of all remaining on the field for manure. To meet the same demands, | the more Southern planter might leave his field to be covered by its growth of weeds (or natural grasses) one year, (and also to he grazed,) and a broadcast crop of pea-vines to be ploughed under in another, for every three crops of grdin and cotton. But the ready answer to this, (and I have heard it many times,) is, “What! lose two crops in every five years? I cannot afford to lose even one.” It may be that the planter is so.diligent and careful in collecting materials for prepared manure that he can extend a thin and poor application, and in the drills only, over nearly half his cotton field; and perhaps he persuades himself that this application will obviate the necessity for rest and manuring crops to the Jand. 446 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS, The result will not fulfill his expectation. But even if it could, the manuring thus given directly by the labor of the planter is more costly than if he would.allow time and opportunity for nature to help to manure for him; whether alone, or still better if aided by preparing for and sow- ing the native pea, to the production of which your climate is so emi- nently favorable.. All the accumulations of leaves raked from the poor pine forest, with the slight additional value which may be derived from the otherwise ,rofitless maintenance of poor cattle, will supply less of food to plants, and at greater cost, than would be furnished by an un- mixed growth of peas, all left to serve as manure. - The native or Southern pea, (as it ought to be called,) of ‘such general and extensive culture in this and other Southern States, is the most valu- able for manuring crops, and also offers peculiar and great advantages as a rotation crop. The seeds (in common with other peas and beans) are more nutritious,.as food for man and beast, than any of the cereal grains, The other parts of the plant furnish the best and most palatable provender for beasts. They may be so well made in your climate, as a secondary growth under corn, that it is never allowed to be a primary crop, or te have entire possession of the land. It will grow well broadcast, and either in that way, or still better if tilled; and is of an admirable and cleansing growth. Itis even better than clover as a preparing and ma- nuring crop for wheat. In one or other of the various modes in which the pea-crop may be produced, it may be made to suit well in a rotation with any other crops. Though for a long time I had believed in some of the great advantages of the pea-crop, and had even commenced its eul- ture as a manuring crop, and on a large scale, it was not until I after- wards saw the culture, growth, and uses in South Carolina, that I learned to estimate its value properly, and perhaps more fully than is done by any who, in this State, avail themselves so largely of some of its benefits. Since, I have made this crop « most important member of my rota- tion, its culture, as « manuring crop, has now become general in my neighborhood, and is rapidly extending to more distant places. If all the advantages offered by this crop were fully appreciated and availed of, the possession of this plant in your climate would be one of the greatest agri- cultural blessings of this and the more Southern States. For my individ- ual share of this benefit, stinted as it is by our colder climate, I estimate it as adding, at least, one thousand bushels of wheat annually to my crop.” I can add nothing to what is said above. ' Tam, Colonel, very respectfully yours, etc., H. M. POLK. Boliver, Hardeman county, Tennessee. APPENDIX. APPENDIX. ® SCHEDULE OF QUESTIONS SENT OUT AND ANSWERS RECEIVED. See eee A TR WOH ODODIATA WH | O on as 19 Names of Correspondents. Post Offices. Counties. Geo. T. Allman......... . Cornersville ........ Marshall WA IROTT cote marae _ White Bluff ........ Dickson A. W. Hawkins......... * Huntingdon ..... +++| Carroll Tyree Rodes ....... »»..| Wales Station....... Giles E. D. Hicks............ Nashville........... Davidson J. A. Campbell ......... Murfreesboro .......| Rutherford E. O. Nathurst.......... Tracy City ......... Grundy Col. H. L Douglass..... Woodstock ......... Shelby W. T. Garrett ......... .| Manchester......... Coffee O. P. Butler............ | Fountain Head...... Sumner T. O. Harris............ Saundersville ....... Sumner W. H. Caldwell........ Rives Station ....... Obion J. A. Turley........... Cog Hill ........... McMinn Tom Crutchfield ........ Chattanooga........| Hamilton W. P, Gant ............ Columbia. .......... Maury G. W. Boyd...........- Wayne Furnace.....) Wayne R. P. Fickle............ Blountsville ........ Sullivan J. Nat Lyle............ Dandridge.......... Jefferson W. G. Shields .......... Clinchdale.......... Grainger R.F. C. Smith......... NewjMiddleton Dae Smith L. P. McMurry ......... Trenton............ Gibson W. F. Lenoir .......... Philadelphia........ Loudon Jno. M Meek .......... Strawberry, Plains...| Jefferson Ephraim Link ........ .) Greeneville......... Greene. HE. Y. Salmon .......... Lynchburg’ a areane sé Moore J. T. Allman.......... TIN anise ce ehaeasceee a Houston Thos. W. Jones......... Friendship ......... Dyer W. H. Killebrew........ St. Bethlehem ......| Montgomery P. A. Mitchell.......... DP ASPET oo Save Hossa caren Marion Jno. T. McClellan....... Montrose..... 2.2... Smith C. A. Hunt............- Hunts Station....... Franklin Jno. F, Hauser ......... Gruetli .....0.. 6. Grundy 29 APPENDIX. Names of Correspondents. . Post Office. Counties. Jno. F. Baxter ......... Lynchburg ......... Moore T. E, Abernathy ........ Buford). sei ces acoavecs.s Giles Mark 8. Cockrill........ Nashville........... Davidson L. F. Leiper,........... _Witts Foundry...... Hamblen Sa ul. McRamsey........ “Vervilla......ee.00. Warren Thos. G. Moseley ........ Bell Buckle ........ Bedford J.C. Marley............ Ripley ............. Lauderdale H. C. Anderson......... Carolina ........... Haywood KE. FB. Sharp. sss cccacces Ten Mile Stand ..... Meigs Jno. T. Brown.......... Obion Station....... Obiow H. B. Clay....... hin salad Rotherwood........ Hawkins J. K. P. Wallace........ Andersonville........ Anderson Cc. W. L. Mole,.... v....| Liberty ............ DeKalb J. F. Young............ Double Bridges...... Lauderdale E. G. Seawell,.......... Lebanon ........... Wilson J. B. Richmond, M.D.. Baird’s Mills........ ‘Wilson Michael Hoover een aus Viola. 2% vce ees Coffee H. H. Norman.......... Murfreesboro ....... Rutherford Robt. P. Rhea.......... Bluntville .......... Sullivan Saml. Smith............ Whitesbury......... Hamblen R. B. Hurt............- Jackson...:.......- Madison Campbell Brown........ Spring Hill......... Maury BK. vo’. Tillman.......... | Henderson ......... Madison James T. Pope ......... Stephens’ Chapel....| Bledsoe A. G. McDougal........ Savannah ..-........ Hardin H. Skeeggs........2.06- Maynardville ....... Union A. B. Cummings........ Jonesborough......- Washington Ino. P. Jopling........- Purdy ......-.-----} McNairy Daniel Haynes......... Haynes ...........+ Union Robt. C. Nall .......... Tiptonville er eres Lake W. H. Nelson .........- White Haven....... Shelby J. Alley .....-.---eeees Walnut Valley ...... Sequatehie W. P. Smallwood....... Paris cajanes cnenes Henry J. M. Noblett........... Boonville .......... Lincoln T. J. Gregory ......--.- La Fayette ......... Macon B. F. Cockrill .......-.- Nashville........... Davidson D. R. Hankins ......... Lebanon ..........- Wilson J.M. Graham .......... Pine-wood ......... Hickman Cc. A. McDaniel......... Fayetteville ....| Lincoln J.T. Trapp ..--..-+s00+ Smithville.......... - DeKalb Thos, S. Myers ........ McMinnville ........ Warren David M. Scott ......... Decaturville ........ Decatur J. A. Green .....--45 + Ooltewah..........- James Wm. Owen.....-..0.-6- Jasper .........0+65 Marion Jos. R. Mosby.....-.--- Somerville.......... Fayette R. F. McDonald ........ Smith’s X Roads ....| Rhea M. G. Gholston .......-+. Clarksville.......... Montgomery Richard Hughes ........ Johnson City ....... Carter James M. Head........- Gallatin...........5 Sumner L. Howard Bell......... Howard Springs ....| Cumberland H. B. Greenwood ....... Sweetwater...... .+«| Monroe APPENDIX. 451 No. | Names of Correspondents. Post Offices. Counties. 84 | J. B. Fancher .......... Fancher’s Mills .....| White 85 | Joshua Good ........... Black Wolf......... Scott. 86 | Hamilton Hord......... New Canton........ Hawkins 87 | I. M. Stublefield ........ Shady Hill ......... Henderson 88) We Gt Dries cs < secre sek Henderson Station. ..| Henderson 89 | Erby Boyd. ........... Benton ............ Polk 90 | Joshua Davis........... Sneedville .......... Hancock 91 | Louis Williams ......... Newbern........... yer 92 | John J. Boon........... dJackson............ Madison 93 | J. E. Washington ....... Cedar Hill.......... apie bersaces 94 | L. Cooper.............. Coal Field.......... organ 95 | J. 8. Lindsay........... Jacksboro .......... Campbell 96 | H. H. Matlock ......... Riceville ........... McMinn 97 | Thos. W. Roane........ Covington.......... Tipton 98 | H. H. Ingersoll......... Greeneville ......... Greene 99 | Elijah Dority........... Baker’s Gap ........ Johnson 100 | H. M. Polk............ Bolivar: sso esac Hardeman 101 | Wm. Williams ......... Hdgefield.......... Davidson 102 | David McCroskey....... Cleveland .......... Bradley © 103 | James Lamon........... Harrison .........., James 104 | W. G. Ewin............ Hurricane Mills..... Humpbreys 105 | T. W. Edwards......... Linden............. Perry 106 | R A. Salsbury.......... Stewart ............ Houston . 107 | J. C. Murphy........... Sevierville....>..... Sevier 452 APPENDIX. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. What grasses are found most abundant in your ranges or highway pastures? If a variety, give the month in which each flourishes? (Sedge grass, broom sedge and old field sedge are only names for the andropogons—a true grass, \ not a sedge). 1 Nimble will, crab grass, broom grass, and a sprinkle of blue grass. 2 The natural grasses; crab grass makes a good hay; wild pea vine. 8 Great variety; cannot answer definitely. 4 Blue grass in fall, winter and spring; fox tail and crab grass in summer. i 5 Can't name any except nimble will a late grass. 6 Blue grass is found everywhere it has a chance to grow. 7 Peas and some varieties of blue grass. 8 Nimble will and sedge grass, spring, wire grass and many wild grasser. n 9 Sedge grass burnt off early, abundant in June. 10 Swamp grass in winter, the rye barren grass are the most prevalent. 11 Blue grass and white clover all the year. ; 12 Blue grass on high and nimble will on low; some cane and pea vine. 18 Sedge grass and blue grass are taking hold in some places. 14 Sedge grass and white clover, as also a small yellow clover plant. 15 We have no ranges or highway pastures. 16 The range here is excellent, with a great deal of wild grasses the year round. APPENDIX. 453 17 Blue grass and sedge the most common; grows early and late; sedge too common and ought to be killed out. 18 Not much of any; blue grass is inclined to grow spontaneously. . 19 Blue grass flourishes best in early spring, summer and autumn. 20 Nimble will, summer, blue grass and white spring clover. 21 Nimble will most abundant and most nutritious in the fall when the seed ripens. 22 Sedge. 23 A variety of wild grasses, some blue grass.. 24 Blue grass, crab grass, sedge grass. 25 None of any value. 26 The out growing grasses are most flourishing in May, Juve and July. 27 Nimble will is the best, puts up in the spring and lasts through the summer. 28 Along highways blue grass is common, nimble will in creek bottoms 29 Mountain grass, one variety, know no-name for it, 30 Blue grass most abundant, flourishes all the year except when the ground is frozen 31 Something like the sedge; there are two or three kinds. 32 Cannot tell the names. 33 Nimble will in May. 34 Blue grass grows both along the highways and creek- bottom: white clover next. 35 White clover and blue grass, white clover, first July; blue grass all the year except July and August. 36 Very little grass grows outside of enclosures. 37 Sedge grass has been, but is rather giving way to red clover, which lasts from May to October. 38 Blue grass, almost universally. 39 Nimble will, pea vine and swamp grass, that puts up early. 40 Nimble will and other coarse, useless grasses only good when young and tender. 41 Our wild grasses grow from April to October. 49 Nimble will, a very fine grass, nutrititious till frost. 48 Our ranges have a tough wire grass and pea vine, also broom sedge. 44 Our ranges are principally under brush, huckleberry an wild grasses. 45 Blue grass in spring, and nimble will in summer 46 What is known here as yard or goose grass, nimble will on rich land. 47 Blue grass spring and fall. 48 Blue grass, white clover, nimble will and arte grass that grows finely in the cedar:. 49 Barren grass, which affords an akundance grass from April to 15th of July. 454 APPENDIX. 50 Blue grass is becoming thick on our highways. 51 Sedge grass in April and May, if burnt early; blue grass. 52 Crab grass in June and July, sedge grass July and August. 53 Nimble will is a fine summer and early fall, grows on rich bottom lands. 54 Much the same as above. 55 Sedge grass, and what is called here, Japanese clover. 56 We have a variety of grasses on our mountains which flourish well all summer. 57 Nimble will, sedge grass and barren grass. 58 No grasses unless cultivated. 59 But little range on our highways, 90 per cent. of the land enclosed. 60 All kinds there being good grasses on the ranges throughout the year. 61 Grasses abundant on the mountains in May and June. 62 Quite a variety, blue grass in April and May, nimble will in August and September. 63 No grasses of any value are found unenclosed except in limited areas. 64 Sedge grass flourishes all summer. 65 Nimble will grows along the creeks in summer and fall; do not know the names of the other. 66 Blue grass. 67 Sedge grass. 68 Blue grass; all enclosed, orchard in early spring, blue grass in the fall. 69 Blue grass; this grass has taken the place of all others. 70 Am not acquainted with the names; barren grasses in summer; beg- gar lice fall. : ' 71 Nimble will, crab grass on lime soils, sedge on the ridge or barrens. 72, Crab grass, nimble will; blue grass flourishes in May. 73 Broom sedge, mountain sedge, rowine, nimble will in the coves of the mountains. ‘74 There are various wild grasses, but know no particular names. 75 Sedge grass, beggar lice; sedge fine from April to July. 76 Broom sedge from April till frost. i 77 We have a variety of grasses which I cannot name; blue grass and white clover are among them. 8 I do not know any name except mountain grass which is most abun- dant from April 15, to frost. 79 Blue grass in some parts of the county, in other sections a grass re- sembling prairie grass. 80 Sedge grass 31 Blue grass has possession of the most of our highways; white clover in the spring and summer. APPENDIX. 455 82 About a dozen different kinds; cannot give their botanical »ames. 88 Old field sedge; no native grass; cattle on the highways feed upon leaves and buds. 84 Different kinds of sedge, principally broom sedge, flourishes in June. 85 Pea vine in September and October. 86 Chiefly blue grass, 87 Sedge grass, barren grass and a few other wiki grasses. 88 Sedge, and what we call nimble will; sedge best in early spring. 89 Sedge grass from April to October. 90 Blue grass from April to June; red top the same. 91 A coarse grass known as barren grass, 92 It is very difficult io answer this, as the wild grasses have no estab- lished names. 93 Broom sedge, June and July. 94 A grass much resembling sedge, witha Binder blade, flourishes all the season. 95 Sedge grass best in spring and early summer; we have a kind of Savannah grass, that is very early. 96 Sedge. 97 Goose or yard grass from March to July, nimble will, a superior grass, very much like blue grass, lasts from April to frost. 98 Sedge grass, March to June; wild blue grass; perennial. 99 The mountains bordering our counties adjoining N. C. & Va. af- ford fine grazing; the bald places producing blue grass and white clover, and many kinds of valuable wild grasses, exceedingly nu- tritious, and flourishing all summer. 100 Crab grass from May to November, broom sedge and a variety un- known to me. Within the last few years blue grass has begun to make its appearance, and lespedeza stritata (worthless, ) is cov- ering the unworked commons, 101 White clover and blue grass in early spring; crab grass and nimble will in summer. 102 Sedge grass, both in enclosed and timbered land is the prevailing grass. . - 108 Wire grass and sedge, these are invincible and answer for general use. : 104 A weed grass, the name of which I do not know. 105 I am not familiar with the names of grasses, depends much on the seasons. 106 Sedge grass, blue grass, white clover are coming up through the timber. 107 Clover and herds grage, or brown sedge burnt off in early spring. ‘ 456 APPENDIX. What grasses are sown for pastures, and which do you consider the best for that purpose? 1 Blue, orchard, and other grasses. Blue grass first, orchard second. 2 Very few pastures sowed. Those that are, generally mixed grasses. 8 Red-top, clover and orchard grass. White clover grows sponta- neously. 4 Orchard grass, blue grass, herds grass and clover. Blue grass best, 5 Blue grass, orchard and herds grass. Blue grass best. 6 Blue grass, orchard and herds. Timothy and clover best. 7 Clover and herds grass. 8 Orchard for timbered land. Herds on marshy lands. Timothy on rich up lands. 9 Blue and orchard grass. Blue in the western part of the country, 10 Blue grass and red-top, orchard gyass. 11 Clover, blue and orchard. Blue the best. All should be sown to- gether. 12 Clover is mostly used. I consider blue grass the best the season round, 13 Red-top, orchard and blue grass. The last two the best. 14 Clover, orchard, timothy, herds. Clover and orchard best, 15 Orchard, blue and clover. Orchard for open fields and wood land. 16 Clover. Clover the best. , 17 Clover and blue grass. Cock’s foot on uplands, Randall and red-top on wet lands. 18 For high land, timothy and clover, mixed. For bottoms, herds and clover. 19 Blue grass and orchard. The latter the best. Also red-top and clover. 5 20 Blue grass, orchard, red-top and clover. 21 Clover, red-top and orchard. Each good in its season. 22 Clover, herds, blue and timothy. Orchard is coming into use, and as far as tried, is thought best of all. 23 Orchard, clover and timothy. For permanent pasture, orchard the best. 24 Clover most. Lately, orchard grass is receiving much attention, it and late meadow oat grass mixed are superior to any others. 25 Blue grass and orchard grass. 26 Timothy and herds grass considered the best. 27 Timothy, herds grass, clover, millets, corn fodder, sheaf oats and and corn. I prefer timothy for roughness. 28 Clover, herds and orchard grasses Clover and orchard best for grazing. t APPENDIX. 457 29 Orchard, herds grass and clover. Orchard grass best. 30 Blue, herds and orchard grasses, clover. Blue grass much the best, though orchard does well on lands partly timbered. 31 Red-top, clover, orchard. Clover mostly sown for orchards. 32 Red clover, orchard and red-top. Nos. 2 and 8 best. 33 Blue grass and orchard. 84 Clover, blue grasa, herds grass and orchard. The best in the order named. 35 Blue grass, clover and orchard. Blue grass for winter, clover and orchard for summer 36 Red clover, orchard and timothy mixed. 37 Clover, red-top and millet. Clover best for three months. Red- top preferable for the whole season. 38 Blue grass, orchard. Herds grass for permanent pastures. 39 Herds grass, clover, timothy. Herds grass and clover best. 40 Clover, herds and orchard grass. 41 Herds grass, orchard and timothy. All good. 42 Red clover, timothy, herds, blue grass. Clover and orchard best. 48 Orchard, Randall, blue grass, timothy, clover, herds grass. The first three the best. 44 Clover. 45 Clover, blue, orchard Think clover and orchard the best. 46 Orchard. herds, timothy and clover. I like a mixture of all the above. Alone, clover makes more feed while it lasts. 47 Blue and orchard grass and clover. 48 Blue and orchard the best. Herds makes a fine clover. 49 Clover and herds grass. I consider clover the best. 50 Clover, blue grass and some orchard. A liberal quantity of each, best for pastures. 51 Timothy, clover, orchard, Randall, blue and red-top perhaps the best. , 52 We have three grasses that we use for pasture, clover, timothy and blue grass. Orchard is being introduced. 58 Orchard and red-top combined, is generally preferred. I prefer’ clover and timothy. 54 Clover, blue, orchard and red-top. Could not do without either. Blue grass probably the best. 55 Clover, orchard, blue grass and red-top. A mixture of all these I think best for pastures. 56 Clover, timothy, red-top, blue grass, orchard. Clover makes the best. 57 Clover and orchard grass. 58 Red-top, clover, orchard, and ever-green grasses. 458 APPENDIX. 59 Orchard grass and dog foot are preferable for grazing purposes. 60 Herds and orchard grasses and red-top. 61 Clover, timothy, orchard and blue grass. All good for pasture. 62 Clover, orchard and blue grass. Three or more mixed 63 Orchard, red-top for winter. Rye, oats, crab-grass grazed in sum- mer. 64 Clover and orchard grass thought to be best. 65 Red clover, orchard and herds grasses. 66 Blue and orchard. 67 In the southern portion of the county blue grass, and upon the thinner soil, herds grass and sedge grass. 68 Orchard. blue and red-top grasses, on low lands, especially where damp. 69 Blue grass, orchard, clover and red-top. Best, blue grass; second, orchard; third, clover. 70 Red clover, white clover, orchard and blue grass. I prefer a mix- ture of all. \ 71 Blue grass and orchard for permanent pastures, and clover for summer. 72 Blue, herds and orchard grasses. Blue the best for pasture. 73 Herds grass and clover, also blue and orchard, The first two best for use. 74 Herds grass. 75 Clover, herds. Blue and orchard grasses are very good. 76 Orchard, clover and red-top. Orchard has no equal for pasture. 77 None except to a limited extent. Clover and red-top mixed does well, orchard better. 78 Timothy, herds grass, clover, orchard and blue grass. The best is a mixture of the three first. 79 Clover, red-top and orchard. Orchard grass the best. 80 Timothy and herds grass. The former is regarded best. 81 Blue grass, orchard and clover. Blue grass best. 82 Same as above, (red-top, timothy, clover) 83 Clover, red-top and orchard. 84 Clover, herds grass. Occasionally orchard. 85 All kinds of grass, except millet, Hungarian and clover. 86 Timothy, orchard, Randall and herds grass, mixture of all. 87 Herds grass, orchard and clover. Clover and orchard best. 88 Herds grass, orchard and timothy. Best, herds grass; second, or- chard. 89 Red-top, clover, orchard grass. Orchard the best. 90 Blue grass or orchard and clover. 91 Red clover, herds grass, orchard, blue grass. Best, clover, mixed with red-top or orchard, 92 93 94 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 APPENDIX. 459 Orchard and blue grass. Blue grass, orchard, clover and red-top. Orchard the best pasture. Clover and red-top are all that is used in this county. Clover the best. if it would last.« All the common grasses are used joe grazing. Clover and orchard best. Clover, red-top, orchard grass. Orchard best. Herds grass, clover, timothy. The last two mixed with orchard. For permanence, herds, timothy, orchard. 1 Blue grass, orchard and herds grass. Blue grass, red-top and red clover. All considered good. Blue grass best. I consider the only way to have a good and permanent meadow or pasture, is to sow a mixture of grasses the more the better, and a good sod will scarcely be formed under 10 or 15 years. Blue and orchard grass and clover. Orchard and herds grass. Blue grass. Orchard, timothy and herds. Orchard makes the best pasture. Herds grass and orchard. The latter preferable. Millet and Hungarian, blue grass and red-top. Clover. Have just commenced with orchard, but believe it to be good. Please mention what character of soils these grasses flour- ish 1 2 3 4. 5 6 7 8 9 best upon ? Blue grass on lime-stone soil, orchard on all our lands. On creek alluvial bottoms, and red clay subsoil, uplands. Loamy uplands or bottoms. All the above grasses flourish best on creek bottom lands. Herds on wet land. Blue grass requires lime-stone soil. Orchard shade. Herds any- where. Millet and herds grass do well on best of mountain land. ys Herds grass, elay soil. Orchard does well on the same. 10 Red-topon swampy land. Blue grass on rich loamy land. 11 Lime-stone land for blue grass; clover and orchard grass adapted 12 for all soils. On high lands Poplar and hickory growth tor clover oat blue grass; low lands for red-top and timothy. 460 APPENDIX. ‘ 13 Orchard and blue grass for shaded lands. Red-top for damp, cold lands. 14 The above grasses grow well on both bottom and uplands. 15 Clover on any of our soils. Millet and herds require a better soil than clover. 16 Red-top and Randall, wet or damp land. Clover, blue grass, dog- foot and timothy uplands and well drained land. 17 Black slate or lime-stone. Almost all the land of this county will do. 18 Limestone and the best character of clay soils. 19 Red-top on wet lands. Blue grass, clover and timothy on lime- stone. 20 21 Clay loam. . 22 Timothy and herds grass on flat, wet lands; other kinds, clay and alluvial soils ; 23 Bottom for timothy and red-top. Limestone land for orchard and clover. 24 On compact clay soil. Mulatto, if not too low and porous. 25 Blue grass on limestone, Orchard on poplar land. 26 Good upland, but I think bottom land is better. 27 Timothy does best on rich uplands. Herds on bottom or flat land.- 28 On any having red clay subsoil. 29 Orchard and clover on dry alluvial soil. Herds on low tight soil. 30 They do well on any soil not worn out though best on hill side. 31 Red-top does best on low swamp land. The others require better soil. 32 A porous sandy soil mixed with lime and underlaid with clay. 33 Limestone and poplar land. 34 Clover, blue grass and orchard on all lime soils, Herds on most bottom lands. 35 Limestone soil with red clay subsoil. 36 Rich clay soils. Timothy and herds grass do best on level land along water courses. : , 37 Clover does well on any goodsoil. Red-top does best on bottom land. 38 On any of our limestone soils not too much worn out. ‘39 Low lands are best for herds grass and timothy; uplands for millét and corn. ‘ 40 Rich bottom loam, but clover succeeds well on high land with good soil. 41 Herds grass on low, clover on high, timothy on both. 42 Clover and orchard best on biack loam. Herds on bottom lands. 43 The limit of this space will not admit. APPENDIX. 461 44 Any kind not too much exhausted. 45 Blue grass is best on north land, and orchard on south land. 46 We have no soil in our county that they do not do well upon, unless too poor or too wet. 47 Blue grass and clover do best on rich limestone soil. Orchard grass will flourish on any soil. : 48 Clover, orchard, blue and herds grasses on upland; timothy on flat or creek land. : 49 A low wet soil suits herds grass, but it will flourish on any kindof soil. 50 A good upland with clay subsoil. Blue grass loves plexity of lime in the soil. 51 Randall and red-top on wet moist land. 52 Tight clay soil. The land that gets the muddiest in the winter is the best. 53 Our best uplands. Red-top will do well on lands subject to over- flow. 54 Our rolling limestone lands seem best. : 55 What we term second bottoms, just above the overflow, best for herds grass. 56 Clay land and black stiff limestone. Red-top does well on low sandy soil. 57 For clover, good upland, well manured. For orchard, rich light soil, well cleaned. 58 Low or wet lands. If high lands, clay or limestone lands, best. 59 What we call dark mulatto uplands and creek bottoms. 60 Damp clay soil for herds; clover grows well on any except sandy soil. 61 Clover on black limeland. Timothy on gray alluvial soil. 62 Clover and blue grasson clay. Orchard on a mixed loam. 63 Orchard on our uplands, partially shaded. Marshy land for red. top. 64 Clay soil impregnated with lime. 65 Clay or stiff land. 66 Black land. 67 Blue grass and herds are best upon rich soil. . Large grass best up- on poor soil. 68 Limestone with clay understrata for the three named above. 69 Bottom lands with the greatest quantity of lime in it, 70 Rich uplands or second bottoms. 71 Blue grass does best. on stiff lime soils, Orchard on loose shaded soil. 72 Black low lands, but grows well. on most lands in the county. 73 Limestone land for timothy and blue grass. Herds grows anywhere, Ld 462 APPENDIX. 74 Herds grass grows well on rather wet lands, but will grow on up- lands 75 Yellow dark uplands and bottom lands; grows fine on our uplands. 76 On all limestone soils of the valley. 77 Most of the soil of this county is alluvial, 1esting on a good clay subsoil, and is well adapted to all the grasses. 78 Upon limestone land that is very close and gets hard. 79 Timothy does best on rich creek and river bottoms, intermixed with but little sand. . 80 They grow well on all uplands. 81 Limestone with a good clay foundation. 82 Sandy loam. Clay loam. The first for clover only. 83 Red-top on low marshy; clover on tight clay subsoil, mulatto loam. 84 Herds grass on sand; clover on red clay lands; orchard on corn land. 85 Low river bottom for millet, Hungarian and clover. 86 All alluvials not too sandy, and limestone clays. 87 Clay Jands that are not much worn. 88 Herds grass onlow damp. Orchard on tight loam. 89 Well drained rich clay lands. 90 On limestone or low land, when the soil is good 91 All of our soils are clay loam on which all the above grasses do well. 92 Dark soils with yellow clay subsoils, and rather moist. 93 The three first flourish on our lands generally, but red-top is the best for thin or worn land. 94 Clover on clay and mulatto land. Red-top on black sandy land 95 Limestone soil is best for timothy and clover. Herds grass does well on lighter soil and sandstone. : 96 Red-top will grow anywhere. Orchard best on rich soil Clover almost anywhere by using plaster. ' 97 Alluvial and moist.. Herds does wellon old, worn, clay hill sides, if started by fertilizers’ 98 Tight close soils; especially clay bottoms. 99 Limestone soils and all clay soils that are rich. None of our sand- stone ridges or soils are good for grasses. 100 In West Tennessee they flourish on lands with good clay founda- tions ; do badly on porous sandy soils, 101 Rich loam with clay underneath. 102 Orchard grass best on mulatto land. Herds on low damp land. 108 They do very well on limestone, but better on alluvial soils. 104 Timothy and herds grass do best on low wet lands. Orchard does well anywhere. 105 Our best upland soils for orchard, and good bottom lands for herds.. APPENDIX. 463 . 106 Seem to grow well upon most any soil. 107 A whitish clay, thin knob lands, that is, rough and slaty or close mulatto. What kinds of hay or feed, other than grasses, are used during the ploughing season, and which do you consider the best ? 1 Mostly corn blades. Some feed oats. No better feed tor horses. 2 Fodder and corn, with clover and timothy for a change. Hay and oats best fodder. 3 Corn fodder, corn, red-top and millet hay. 4 Corn fodder, clover, herds grass and timothy. Corn fodder best. 5 Corn fodder and timothy, or herds grass. Timothy and herds grass hay. 6 Grain and hay. A change of oats, wheat-bran best with plenty of hay. 7 Timothy hay. 8 Corn fodder and oats, timothy and red-top hay. Hay and oats preferable. 9 I consider well-cured fodder the best food for horses in warm weather. 10 Oats and corn fodder. Clover hay is the best food for all purposes. 11 Such hay as may be on hand. Nothing better than corn and clover hay. 12 Corn shucks and oat straw cut up and mixed with meal, is good. Oats the best. , 13 All the different kinds of hay, corn and oats. None better than clover and orchard grass mixed. 14 Millet and other hay with fodder and oats. Red-top and timothy with fodder, best. 15 Oats and fodder are both used, but oats are the best. 16 Fodder. I prefer good clover and herds grass hay. ‘17 Mixed feed. Cut oats, hay and millet with some corn. Food not too much varied, best for health. 18 Corn fodder, wheat straw. 19 Corn, oats, blade fodder. Consider oats chopped, best. 20 Corn fodder, oats, Hungarian and German millet. 21 Corn blade fodder is principally used, and generally considered best. 22 All ordinary kinds of hay, corn and oats. Oats and clover hay best. 464 APPENDIX. 23 Clover and timothy is best. Corn fodder, shucks, straw and sheaf oats. 24 Corn fodder, millet, sheaf oats and meal together, too often corn alone. ‘ 25 Clover, oats and fodder. 26 Corn and corn fodder mostly used in the ploughing season. 27 Timothy, herds grass, clover, millet, corn fodder, sheaf oats. 28 Oats and fodder, millet, oats, best. Fodder from corn next in value. 29 Clover, herds grass, timothy, orchard. Clover and timothy. 30 Corn, clover, oats and ship-stuff. Corn and oats best. 81 Clover and millet, some red-top. Corn fodder. $2 Timothy, red-top and millet. Nos. 1 and 2 best 88 Oats and fodder. 34 Soiling with red clover and rye. Clover best. 35 Clover, timothy and millet and corn fodder while on hard work. 36 Chopped feed, mixed with rye or corn meal, with plenty of hay. 37 Corn fodder. 38 Very rare to find any one using anything but hay except a little fodder. 39 Fodder and oats. Consider oats best. 40 Clover hay, millet and Hungarian, herds grass. The first and last best. 41 Hay made of all the grasses, with corn fodder. Timothy best. 42 Timothy, clover, millet. Timothy considered best. 43 Timothy, herds grass and clover hay and fodder. Timothy and clover aré the best. 44 Corn fodder. 45 Corn fodder and oats. I think timothy the best for anything. 46 Corn, oats, and occasionally bran and corn mixed 47 Oats and corn fodder, with corn. Fodder considered best. 48 Fodder, oats, German millet and Hungarian grass. Oats and Hungarian decidedly best. , 49 Corn fodder and oats. I consider corn and oats best. 50 Clover hay, German millet, some timothy and herds grass and Hungarian. ; 51 Cut oats with wheat bran, corn, mixed feed best. 52 Chopped feed, straw or oats cut up with meal or bran. 58 Principally fodder. 54 Timothy, clover, German millet, Hungarian, red-top. I think clover best. 55 Corn fodder. I think that hay made from timothy and herds grass decidedly preferable. APPENDIX. 465 56 Oats and fodder are used aside from the grasses, and are, by some, considered the best feed. 57 Corn and fodder. Fodder regarded better than hay. 58 Millet, Hungarian and clover. 59 Oats, corn and millet. Principally oats and corn, with hay. 60 Sheaf oats, maize fodder. Hither of which is good. 61 Timothy and clover I consider best. Oats, rye and wheat chop. 62 Corn fodder and sheaf. oats—cut oats. 63 Oats in sheaf, pulled fodder, cut corn fodder and stalks. 64 Corn fodder. German millet is used considerably. 65 Corn fodder. 66 Hungarian and timothy. 67 Oats, fodder and corn. Corn and oats considered best. 68 Oats first cutin straw, fodder, Hungarian. Oats best by all means. 69 Oats and corn fodder. Also, timothy, orchard grass, clover, red- top. Oats best, second, clover. 70 Leaving out clover, we prefer corn, oats and corn fodder. 71 Millet and Hungarian and clover. Clover best, Hungarian second. 72 Corn fodder and clover hay. 73 Corn fodder is the equal of any feed, and much used in ploughing time. 74 Fodder and oats. 75 Clover, millet, oats. We use ‘various other kinds. 76 Clover, orchard grass, red-top, timothy, millet. The four first are _ all very good. 47 Corn fodder is our chief reliance. Rye in its green state, is con- venient and profitable. : 78 Timothy, herds grass and clover, fodder and millet. Timothy best. 79 Corn fodder and shucks. 80 Clover, oats and millet. Oats regarded as best. 81 Corn, oats, fodder, pea-vine. Corn with fodder, or oats alone. 82 Red-top hay, natural meadow hay, straw, millet, sheaf oats. I like red-top hay with corn. ; 83 Timothy, clover hay, some fodder. Timothy does not slobber or heat. 84 Herds grass, and other hays and corn fodder best. Herds at night, fodder, morning. 85 Corn, oats, fodder and rye. 86 Millet, fodder, sometimes shucks or straw. 87 Herds grass, fodder and millet. : 88 Herds grass, millet, clover and fodder. Herds grass and clover. 89 Fodder, shucks, straw and hay. Timothy hay the best. 90 Clover hay. Some are using millet. 91 Oats and corn fodder. Oats preferred. 30 ‘ - 466 : APPENDIX. 92 Oats and corn fodder, commonly used. Oats cut up with the straw is best. . . 98 Oats and corn fodder. Oats is the best food next to hay. 94 Clover and blade fodder. ' Clover is reckoned the best, but red- top is as good. 95 Corn fodder and sheaf oats, Oats best. 96 Corn fodder. Nothing better than good hay. 97 Corn fodder, almost universally, shucks, oats, corn fodder. 98 Clover, millet, corn and oats. Clover the best forage. 99 Timothy, clover and red-top are considered best. Some grain is necessary to keep stock in good order. 100 Corn blades or fodder are almost universally used. Clover hay and herds grass are also used. 101 Fodder, oats in the sheaf, rye in sheaf and cut. 102 Herds grass, cut corn, corn fodder, wheat straw cut and mixed with rye and ground corn. 103 Clover principally. 104 Clover hay, herds grass hay, pea-nut vine hay for cows and sheep. 105 Fodder and corn husks. The former, when properly cured, the best. 106 Mostly blades from the corn. 107 Corn fodder and shucks. What kind of hay are sheep and cattle fed upon in winter ? 1 Clover, Hungarian and millet. Many, -but little or none, of either. 2 Generally a little millet, but mostly on shucks and. nubbins of corn. 8 Red top, millet and clover. 4 Herds grass, timothy, clover and millet. 5 Sheep fed but little—clover, timothy, herds grass, millet and hay. 6 Some feed clover (the best), others wheat straw, shucks and fod- der, the next thing to nothing. Herds grass and clover. 8 Cotton seed and shucks, and rarely that. 9 German millet for cattle, herds grass for sheep, 10 Clover and red-top. 11 Cattle on straw and corn stalks, sometimes hay and corn. Sheep rarely fed at all. 12 Clover, timothy and millet. Millet considered by good farmers poor feed. 18 Wheat straw and all kinds of hay. APPENDIX. 467 14 Red top and timothy, Sheep relish the rag-weed well saved and stacked. 15 Timothy and red-top and clover hay, stalk fodder. 16 Clover and millet. 17 Sheep mostly fed on fodder. Sometimes on hay. Many run in the woods and on the commons. 18 Corn fodder, generally. 19 Clover and timothy, and largely on fodder. 20 Promiscuously. 21 All the different kinds of hay grasses. 22 Mostly wheat straw for cattle. Sheep make their living where they can. 23 Fodder stalks, straw, clover and timothy. 24 When not given corn fodder, clover preferred for cattle. Sheep: other hay or sheaf oats. 25 All kinds, especially timothy. 26 Clover and timothy in winter. 27 Shucks and cotton seed. 28 Clover and timothy. 29 Cattle fed mostly on shucks. Sheep, herds grass and fodder. 30 Millet and clover, shucks, fodder, wheat and rye straw. 81 Allkinds. Wheat straw and chaff fed largely to sheep. 82 Clover, red-top and millet. : : 383 Clover and timothy and some pea hay for sheep, shucks and cotton seed for cattle. 84 Clover hay and corn fodder. Corn fodder cheapest. 35 Corn fodder and clover. 36 Clover and other hays, straw and shucks. 87 Corn fodder, red top. 38 Little hay fed to cattle, sheep eat no hay except there is some snow on the ground. 39 Shucks, cotton seed and wheat straw. 40 Clover hay, herds grass and German millet. 41 All the different kinds of hay, fodder and straw. 42 Timothy, clover, herds grass, fodder and straw of different kinds. 44 Wheat straw and corn husks. ; 45 Sheep are mostly fed on corn blades, cattle on shucks. 46 Hungarien and German millet and occasionally clover 47 Cattle mostly on cut corn stalks, beef cattle and milch cows on. millet and timothy. 48 Clover, timothy and cornshucks, which are feed to cattle. 49 Herds grass and clover and German millet, which yields quite a large crop ~ 468 APPENDIX. 50 Clover hay, German millet and wheat straw. 51 Timothy, clover, fodder, straw; sheep do well on blue grass pasture 52 Cattle are fed on cut corn and shucks, timothy hay. Sheep, fodder mostly. 58 Clover and timothy, recently the German millet is being sown, but _ Ido not like it. 54 All mentioned, timothy, clover, millet, red top. 55 Principally corn fodder and shucks, as hay is not grown extensively enough to fed all stock.. 56 Millet, clover and herds grass. 57 The above (millet, Hungarian and clover) are principally sown for’ winter feed and are the best. 58 Clover and corn fodder are considered the best. 59 Almost every kind, pea vines, wild grasses, corn husks, etc. 60 Timothy, clover. The most of them are grazed when there is no snow. 61 Very little of any kind. 62 Clover, pea vines, cut corn stalks, but most persons do not feed them anything. 63 Mostly on red top and millet. 64 Clover, herds grass, shucks and wheat straw. 65 Those mentioned above (Hungarian and timothy). 66 Clover and millet. 67 Any of the kind mentioned, clover preferable for sheep and cattle, timothy for horses. 68 Clover, but a great many feed on corn stalks and fodder. 69 Not fed much at all, shucks, millet, wheat and rye straw, some- times clover and oats. 70 Cattle are fed on wheat straw, millet and clover, hay and blue grass. Sheep are kept on blue grass. In cold weather corn or oats. 71 Clover, German millet, Hungarian and herds grass. 72 Corn fodder is the equal of any feed, and much used in plow time. 73 Herds grass, clover and millet, but quite a number feed straw of wheat and corn shucks to cattle, oats to sheep. 74 Clover and herds grass. 75 Principally upon clover, herds grass and timothy. 76 Shucks and straw, generally 77 IL regret to saynone. We give them cotton seed ad libitum, and the run of corn stalk fields, some graze on wheat. 78 Cattle are fed on corn shucks, straw and cut cora stalks, sheep graze on the grasses, wheat and oats. 79 Corn fodder, shucks and millet. APPENDIX. 469 80 Herds, clover and timothy. 81 Clover is used more than any other, cut fodder. 82 Common meadow hay, red top. 83 Cattle mostly on shucks and straw. Sheep, fodder and fine hay, such as red top. 84 As a general rule nothing, but perhaps a little corn to the poorest. 85 All kinds generally. 86 Clover, timothy, herds grass, fodder, chopped straw with corn meal 87 Herds grass, clover and fodder, corn shucks for cattle. 88 Clover and millet. 89 Wheat straw and chaff. 90 Red top mostly, sometimes timothy. : 91 Clover, wheat straw, and meadow hay generally. 92 Corn fodder and shucks generally. Other hay to some extent. 93 Not much of any. kind. 94 Millet, red top, clover and blade fodder. 95 All kinds of grass above mentioned. 96 Clover and red top, but mostly on wheat straw. 97 Herds grass, timothy, corn fodder, clean hay and shucks, but little of either fed to sheep. , 98 All kinds. 99 Timothy, clover and red top are the kinds generally used. 100 Clover, herds grass, pea fodder, corn fodder, crab grass. They are fortunate to get any of these more trequently they live on wind and moonshine and die in March. 101 Clover, timothy, Hungarian and millet. 102 Cattle mostly on wheat straw and shucks. Sheep on fodder and i hay. 103 Clover generally. 104 Generally on pea nut and clover hay. 105 On whatever kind we have on hand. 106 Very little of any kind. Corn and shucks and corn fodder. 107 I think fodder the best of anything. Are highway or enclosed pastures most used in sum- mer? 1 Enclosed pastures by best farmers. 2 Entirely highway or wood pastures. No enclosed pastures. There _ is sufficient forage in the woods. 3 Highways mostly, though many have enclosed pastures. 4 Enclosed pastures. 5 Mostly enclosed. 6 Highway generally. Some farmers have enclosed pastures. 470 APPENDIX. 7 On the mountain, the “highway,” 100 miles wide. 8 Highway almost exclusively. 9 Highway to a great extent. 10 Highway mostly used in the central part of the county; enclosed in the West. 11 Enclosed pastures. 12 A few years since highways were used, now enclosed are con- sidered most profitable and best. 13 Highways, but our best farmers use enclosed pastures most. 14 By the masses, the highways. « - 15 Enclosed pastures; in my county all the lands are under fence. 16 Highways. 17 Much woods and commons. Not many fenced pastures. ‘18 Enclosed at present. This is a very thickly settled county. 19 By good farmers enclosed pastures, but many cattle run at large. 20 Enclosed pastures. 21 Formerly the highway was most used, but latterly enclosed pas- tures are coming into use. 22 Enclosed pastures, excepting in the most broken sections. 23 Both are used. The greater number turn on the highways. 24 Enclosed, but much stock range out, especially along the moun- tains. 25 Enclosed. 26 Both. Highways most. 27 Highway. But few farmers keep up all their stock. 28 Enclosed pastures prevail. 29 Highway. 30 Highways mostly, though some farmers have fine pastures. 31 Enclosed mostly used here. Stock get along very well in some parts. 32 Highway or wild pastures through the timber. 33 Enclosed. 34 Enclosed except on the table-lands bordering on Lawrence county. 35 Stock farmers invariably enclose. General farmers use the high- ways 36 Bepleedd pastures in the more fertile sections. In the hilly coun- try they use the woods. 37 Enclosed. ; 388 Enclosed pastures entirely, except a few renters. 39 Highway or woodland. 40 Those who pay no attention to the grasses depend entirely upon the highways, but I consider them worthless for profit only in June and July. APPENDIX. 471 41 Enclosed 42 Enclosed pastures for summer. Forests too dense to grow grasses. 43 Enclosed pastures, 44 Enclosed. 45 Enclosed pasture 46 Highway in the proportion of about seven to three. 47 Enclosed pastures. ‘ 48 Enclosed, though there are fine highway pastures in this county. 49 Highway. 50 Enclosed. Highway only used by tenants. 51 Enclosed. 52 Enclosed. 53 Highway. 54 Enclosed. This is a grazing county. 55 Highway, at least five to one. 56 Highway mostly used, some enclosed pastures 57 Highway. 58 Enclosed are entirely used. 59 Enclosed pastures, 60 Stock run upon ranges or pastures at all times. 61 Enclosed in my neighborhood. 62 Highway. 63 Highway. 64 Enclosed, though considerable stock run at large. 65 Enclosed pastures most used. 66 Enclosed. 67 Highway, except in the blue grass portion of the county. 68 Enclosed. Highways are relics, of half civilization and indicate decay. 69 Enclosed pastures. 70 Highways. 71 Enclosed principally, except on the ridge. 72 Enclosed mostly, but highway pastures in some portions of the county. 73 Enclosed by good stock raisers, but many use the commons only. 74. Highways. 75 Highways. 76 Our mountain ranges are principally used. 77 Highways for the most part. 78 Highway or monutain region for cattle and sheep. 79 On south highway, north enclosed 80 Enclosed pastures generally. 81 Enclosed. But little highway pastures in this neighborhood. 472 APPENDIX. 82 Highways. 83 Enclosed. Our poor people let their stock run at large. 84 I suppose equally divided. The interest in enclosed pastures is growing. ; 85 Both are very generally used. 86 Enclosed. No good farmer would think of turning his stock out. &7 Highways mostly. Enclosed by our best farmers. 88 Both. Cattle and sheep run on highways. 89 Highway. ; 90 Clover and blue grass. 91 Enclosed, principally. 92 Comparatively few persons confine their stock in summer. 93 Highways, except when a good chance offers to run stock on other people’s enclosures. 94 Highways nearly altogether. 95 Highway. 96 Highway. 97 Highways almost entirely. 98 Enclosed pastures. 99 Enclosed pastures are generally used. 100 When you speak of {highway pastures I suppose you mean tHe bledk hills worn out by cotton. I am sorry to say here is where our cows get the wrinkles on their horns—marks of years of suf- fering. 101 Enclosed. F 102 Highway or timbered land south of Cleveland. 103 Mostly highways. 104 Usually highways, or the range, as it is called here. 105 Mostly highways. 106 Highways 107 Small herds on enclosed pastures. Large herds are summered on ‘the mountains. ; 4 Please mention the kinds of grasses, or forage plants, grown for hay in your county, and which are regarded as best. 1 Timothy, clover, herds grass. Preference given in the order named. 2 Clover and timothy with corn blades and goober pea hay, but mostly German millet. 3 Clover and red top, German millet; red top best. 4 Timothy, herds grass, clover, millet; clover the best. 5 Red clover, herds grass, timothy. APPENDIX. 473 a Clover, timothy, herds grass. German millet best. Timothy for horses. ~I - Millet and herds grass. . Timothy, herds grass, clover, millet. Timothy and clover liked best. 9 Clover, herds grass, timothy, German millet, Hungarian grass. 10 Clover, herds grass, red top. 11 Timothy, clover, millet, Hungarian; clover and timothy best. 12 Clover, timothy, red top. 3 Red top, timothy and orchard grass.) Red top for wet lands, timo- thy for dry. 14 Clover, timothy, herds grass, millet; clover and timothy preferred by some; herds grass by others. ; « ive) 15 Timothy and red top; clover for meadows; timothy considered best. 16 Millet, herds grass and clover; herds grass preferred. 17 Clover, timothy and dog foot and Randall grass and the different millets, blue grass. _ 18 Timothy, herds grass and clover. 19 Timothy and red clover are considered the best; red top is also grown 20 Clover, red top, timothy. . 21 Red clover timothy, herds grass and millet; clover and timothy best. 22 Clover, herds grass, orchard grass, German millet, timothy; in the order named. 23 Red clover, timothy, red top, orchard grass; red top and timothy. 24 Timothy, clover often mixed; herds grass on low land; timothy and clover mixed, the best hay. 25 Best in the order mentioned; clover. timothy, herds grass, German millet. 26 Clover and timothy hay is the best used in our county. 27 Red clover, timothy, herds grass, Hungarian and German millet. 28 Clover, timothy, oats, millet; clover, timothy and orchard grass the best hay. 29 Clover, herds grass, orchard grass and millet: clover for home use, herds grass for shipment. 30 Millet, timothy, red top and red clover, the best ones, clover and red top. 31 Clover, red top, timothy, orchard, millet and peas make good hay; clover best. 32 Blue grass, red top, orchard, clover, timothy and millet. Nos. 3, 4 ' and 5 best. 33 Clover, timothy, herds grass, Hungarian and millet. A474 APPENDIX. 34 Clover, herds grass, timothy and the millets, Missouri and German. 35 Clover, timothy, red top and millets, orchard; clover, red top and timothy mixed the best 386 Timothy herds grass, clover, orchard grass; timothy and herds grass the best. 87 Clover, red top, millet. 88 Clover, herds grass, timothy, orchard grass, millet; in the order named. ; 39 Herds grass, timothy, clover, peas, millet; herds grass considered best. 40 Herds grass, clover, timothy, millet, Hungarian ; herds grass and clover last. ; 41 Fimothy, herds grass, clover, millet; the first three the best. 42 Red clover, timothy, herds grassand millet; timothy and clover best. 43 Timothy, clover, herds grass; ciover the best; timothy next. 44 Red top, timothy and clover; the latter makes the best hay. 45 Timothy, red top, clover and the different millets; timothy and clover the. best. 46 German and Hungarian millets, herds grass, timothy and clover. 47 Clover, timothy, herds grass, German and Hungarian millets; timo thy and clover the best. 48 Clover, red top, orchard and timothy; the first and last the best. 49 Clover, herds grass and timothy. I regard clover as being the best. 50 German millet and Hungarian grass, herds grass, timothy and clover. The last two combined the best. 51 Timothy best; clover next. 52 Clover, timothy and blue grass. 53 Clover, timothy and herds grass; orchard grass is becoming quite a favorite, especially for pasture. Clover and timothy combined the best. 54 Clover, timothy, herds grass, and to a small extent orchard grass. 55 German millet, clover, timothy, red top; timothy and red top mix- ed are the best. 56 Clover, timothy, red top and the millets; timothy best for hay; all do well. 57 Timothy, herds grass, clover and German millet. 58 Red clover, timothy and herds grass. 59 Timothy, clover, red top, millet; ist, 2nd and 4th preferred. 60 Herds grass, timothy, clover, millet; Herds grass best. 61 Blue grass, timothy, clover, orchard grass; the three latter best for hay. 62 Clover, timothy, Hungarian and German millet, red top; clover and timothy best. APPENDIX, 475 63 Timothy, clover, pea vines, crab grass large, coarse swamp grass called wild millet; best in the order written. 64 Clover, red top, timothy, orchard grass; red top and-clover best. 65 Red clover, herds grass, timothy. 66 Hungarian, timothy, herds grass, millet. , 67 Hungarian, timothy, German millet, Missouri millet and clover ; clover best. 68 Timothy, red top, clover; regard clover and timothy the best. . 69 Best, Ist, timothy; 2nd, clover; 8d, orchard grass; 4th, an top; last and least, Tennessee and Missouri millet. 70 Clover, red top, Missouri and German millet and corn fodder. 71 German and Missouri millet, Hungarian and clover; clover best, Hungarian next. 72 Herds grass, timothy, clover, German millet, Hungarian. 78 Herds, clover, timothy, orchard, blue grass and the various millets. 74 Herds grass and clover. 75 Herds grass and timothy. * 76 Clover, red top, timothy, orchard and millet. Best in order named- 77 Clover, red top, German millet, crab grass and the pea. Clover and red top considered best. 78 Timothy, herds grass, clover; orchard and blue grass the best. 79 Mostly the millet family; timothy and herds grass to a limited extent. 80 Timothy and herds grass. The first regarded the best. 81 Timothy red top, orchard and clover. Blue grass best for perma- nent pastures. : : 82 Red top, timothy, clover; value in the order written. 83 Clover and timothy; timothy hay is best; clover yields most. 84 Herds grass, millet, timothy, clover. 85 Millet, Hungarian, red top, timothy and clover. 86 Clover, timothy, herds grass, millet, corn fodder. 87 Clover, herds grass, millet; clover the best. 88 German millet, herds grass, timothy; clover and fodder best. 89 Millet, herds grass, timothy, clover; timothy best for hay. 90 Red top and timothy best for hay. 91 Timothy, clover, red top, millet, crab grass, Indian corn, Best, timothy, clover, corn fodder. 92 Red top, blue grass, orchard, two or three kinds of millet, Hunga- rian; red top most reliable. 93 Timothy, clover, red top, German millet, Hungarian grass. 94 Clover, millet, red top; clover wont last on our land; millet kills the land; red top very nearly a natural growth. 95 Timothy, orchard grass, red clover, herds grass; ‘millet, timothy and clover best. 476 APPENDIX. 96 Clover, timothy, red top, timothy best where it can be grown. 97 Clover, herds grass; timothy, German millet preferred to Tennessee and Hungarian. 98 Clover, timothy, herds grass, orchard and blue grasses, millet. 99 Clover, timothy, red top and some millet; timothy considered best. 100 Clover, herds, orchard grasses, timothy, each grown and cut with clover; clover best; timothy dies out second year. 101 Timothy, herds and orchard grass, Hungarian and millet. 102 Herds grass, cut corn and corn fodder, some German millet. 103 Timothy and herds grass; blue grass is preferable to either. 104 Timothy, herds, orchard and clover German. millet. 105 German millet and herds grass. The latter much the best. _ 106 Some clover, blue grass and red top. 107 Herds grass and clover. Am experimenting with timothy. THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. AN ESSAY BY B. F, COCKRILL, READ BEFORE THE TEN- NESSEE STOCK BREEDERS’ CONVENTION AT ITS THIRD ANNUAL SESSION, FEBRUARY 19, 1878. The vast field of study which this heading indicates is by far too exten- sive to be treated of in a paper like this, except in a cursory manner. I, therefore, shall not attempt to go into detail only to the extent of enu- merating some of the more generally known varieties, and instituting a comparison of their relative merits as adapted to and intimately con- nected with the successful development of tht great industry to which our present organization relates. The Belgian proverb, ‘‘No grass no cattle, no cattle no manure, no ma- nure no crops,” is not quite complete;. it should continue, no crops no money, no money no intelligence, no intelligence no people—for all peo- ple, of whatever nation or clime, possessing no intelligence, that occupy soil where the grasses will flourish, must eventually give way before that resistless march of high civilization that marks its path with the beautiful verdure of blooming fields. APPENDIX. 477 Upon the adoption or rejection of this proverb depends the prosperity and success or downfall and decay of the important interests of our beau- tiful State, : The fact that so small a portion of the arable lands of our State are de- voted to the cultivation of the grasses, is a lamentable one; especially so, as grass is the most important factor in the production of all flesh, which constitutes about thirty per cent. of the human food of the entire world. Again, the importance of grass becomes a more potent factor in solving the great problem that is now awakening the best minds in existence, viz., the preservation of the soil, the foundation of all prosperity, either indi- vidual, State or national. The estimated value of ihe grass crop cf the United States, for pasturage and hay together, is about $1,000,000,000, at the present time. Of this amount Tennessee is entitled to at least one-thirtieth, or thirty-three millions. Deprive us of this amount of property, and issue the decree - that there should never be another acre within the limits of our State devoted to the cultivation of grass, and where would we be in ten years from to-day?—occupying a howling wilderness of burned, scarred, gullied, worthless soil; living in huts in squallid ignorance and puverty, the des- pised of all this great sisterhood of States. When we realize the great importance that the cultivation of the grasses bears to the successful prosecution of all the branches of rural husbandry, it becomes a cause of sincere regret that the intelligence of our agricultu- ral classes has so seriously nevlected to place this important element where it properly belonxs, and enable it to stand first in value in all future re- ports of the statistics of our State. I will now proceed to name some of the grasses, together with their characteristics, that are the most extensively adapted to and grown in Tennessee : First on the list, in consequence of its being more extensively cultivated and generally known, is blue grass, (poa pratensis.) This grass was intro- duced into this country by the early settlers of Virginia and the Carolinas, and has since been so extensively propagated from the lakes to the gulf as to deserve the title of the grass of America. To describe its specific char- acters is not pertinent to this occasion, and could only interest the student of botany. This is an early grass that will flourish almost anywhere when properly’treated and cared for. It, of course, varies in size and somewhat in appearance, according to soil and latitude of the locativn. Many persons regard it as the most valuable of all our grasses. This title to first honor depends, in my opinion, upon the character of soil and cli- mate where grown, being a grass that spreads mainly by its creeping roots, and flourishes most luxuriantly upon a porous lime-stone soil where the underlying strata is a tenacious-clay. It requires moisture to be always within reach of the roots to keep it green, this being the characcer of most of the soil in Kentucky, where it constitutes twenty-five per cent. of the 478 APPENDIX. entire wealth of many of the richest counties in that State. It is a grass relished by all cattle. I mean by this term all our domestic animals. It has, in that State and elsewhere, been used as hay, by cutting when in bloom, but I cannot recommend it as a hay grass, being too short and too light after being dried. In our climate it will endure the frosts of winter perhaps better than any other grass. It will not withstand our severe droughts, and consequently should not be grazed closely after June, in order that it may accumulate sufficient growth to shade the roots during the hot months of July and August, during which time, if dry, it makes comparatively little growth unless an unusual amount of. moisture is inthe soil. To realize the full value of this grass as a pasture grass, it should never have its roots exposed to a broiling sun during summer, letting the fall growth remain untouched until about the first of Novem- ber, and then it may be grazed until the following June without injury. Upon a good sward, thus treated, all kinds of stock may be wintered with comparatively little cost. The preparation of the soil for seeding to blue grass is quite simple, If cleared land, plow well in fall and winter, in order that the freezes may comminute the soil thoroughly; harrow in February, sow one and a half bushels clean seed per acre, and follow the harrow with a light brush, as the seed will not germinate if covered deep—by experience not over one | ‘inch deep. If woodland, clean the soil of leaves or trash, either by raking or burning, then sow and brush in. The first. year the young grass should not be grazed at all, as it requires two or even three years to become well set and does not arrive at perfection until the sward is older than that. The soil should not be allowed to become too loose, which may be pre- vented by the tramping of stock in dry weather; nor should too much growth be allowed year after year, as it will become greatly injured by self-mulching. The proper time to pasture, after seeding, is after the seed ripens in Jyne, the second year; care should be taken never to graze this too closely at any one time. The nutritive value of blue grass, according to some eminent chemists, is not equal to that of timothy, clover or orchard grass, either in flesh-forming principles or fatty matter. Among the eminent names whose analysis asserts this fact, I would mention Professor Horsford, formerly of Cambridge, Professors Way and Bous- ingault. Yet these gentlemen may not have had specimens of this grass in its greatest luxuriance; for all have acknowledged it here superior to that in its native country: Notwithstanding these experiments, its many good qualities recommend its general adoption, and whoever has lime-- stone land has blue grass land; whoever has blue grass land has the basis- of agricultural prosperity; and that man, if he has not the highest type of domestic animals, has no one to blame but himself. I will next name orchard grass, (dactylis glomerata.) This plant is also a perennial, and in my estimation second to none. It is so'well described by that eminent botanist and secretary to the Massachusetts.Agricultural APPENDIX. 479 Society, Chas. L. Flint, in his treaties on grasses and forage plants, that I adopt his text in giving a description and its characteristics, He says: “This is one of the most valuable and widely known of all the pasture grasses. It is common to every country in Europe, to the north of Africa, and to Asia as well as to America.” It was introduced into England from America, and forms one of the most common grasses of English natural pastures, on rich, deep, moist soils. Its rapidity of growth, the luxuriance of its aftermath, and its power of enduring the cropping of cattle, commend it highly to the far- mers’ care, especially as a pasture grass. As it blossoms earlier than timothy, and about the time of red clover, it makes an admirable mixture with that plant to cut in blossom and cure for hay. As a pasture grass it’ will bear feeding closer than blue grass, as it grows much more rapidly; and close grazing has much influence in preventing it from forming into tussocks. All kinds of stock eat it greedily when green. It is one of the most abiding grasses we have; it will grow well in either sunshine or shade; five or six days of growth will furnish a good bite for cattle; it will resist drouth when blue grass or timothy will parch and dry up; it will produce more pasturage than any other grass with which I am acquainted. Indeed, if I had my preference of all pastures for grazing stock, especially for preparing sheep or cattle for market, I would by all odds prefer an equal mixture of orchard grass and red clover. The preparation for seed- ing is about the same as blue grass, and may be sown any time during early spring, or even winter, many preferring to sow during snow, as it enables any one to make a more regular distribution of the seed; by all means avoid a windy day, as the seed are very light and will blow into bunches under the lightest breeze. This grass, like blue grass, should not be pastured the first year, but any time after a year old it may be pas. tured longer and closer than blue grass; but to derive its full value should not be pastured very close during the hot months. Orchard grass does not stand frost quite so well as blue grass, but has so many superior quali- ties as to deserve general commendation, and especially that of flourishing upon a greater varieties of soils and in more different climates than almost any other variety of grass. I would recommend it to the cotton States with the full assurance that it, when fully introduced, will prove one of their greatest boons. Next in importance to Tennessee is red clover, (trifolium pratense.) In- deed it is hard to separate or distinguish between the relative values of the three above named grasses, Although red clover is not, properly speaking, a natural grass, it is so closely allied in value and general adoption, wherever successful agriculture prevails, to the natural grasses, that it deserves a place among them in general cultivation. Indeed I can scarcely imagine how successful agriculture can be conducted without it. The renovation of the older States and worn-out lands can scarcely be ac- complished without its agency. The successful rotation of crops depends 480 APPENDIX. almost wholly upon this useful forage plant. It is said by agricultural writers that the introduction of clover into England created an entire revolution in her agriculture, and when we consider the important part it plays in our own country, we can with difficulty imagine how our an- cestors could farm without it. It is very properly regarded as one of our greatest fertilizers, and certainly by far the cheapest. It loosens the soil _and admits the air, sends. down its long roats to a great depth, thereby fixing the gasses necessary to enrich the earth, and when these roots decay they form humus, that most important element in the production of food, to the growing plants. Its luxuriant foliage and rapid growth also aid greatly in smothering out weeds and other noxious plants. As a hay plant it is unexce|led when properly cured and housed, its nutritive qualities exceeding that of most other plants, especially in its nitrogenous or flesh- forming principle, and therefore is the best hay for young and growing stock. Asa grazing plant for rapid fattening, it is superior to either blue grass or orchard grass, if caution is exercised as to the time and manner of grazing. Nothing is more conducive to the rapid growth and thrift of young animals than a rich and luxuriant growth of clover when in bloom in the spring of the year. The risk of over-feeding by, cattle is easily avoided if turned on after the dew is off, and not fed entirely upon it dur- ing rainy weather. : So great a factor do I regard this valuable forage plant in producing a general improvement in the agriculture of our State that, were I a king, I would issue an edict that no man should be allowed to cultivate the soil who would not, at least once in every five years, sow clover upon the land he cultivates. The manner of seeding is simple and sure. Plow. thoroughly and deep in the fall, in order that the frosts of winter may pulverize well. If your land is seeded to wheat, nothing else is necessary ia February or March following, but to carefully distribute about one gallon of seed per acre over the ground. If you wish to seed after oats in spring, or with other grasses, be careful to work the ground to a fine tilth before sowing,’ which should be done early enough to give the young plants a start before the sun gets too hot in summer. Clover may be pas- tured lightly in the fall, after sowing, without injury, but is not very nu- tritious until at least a year old or older. I would here give my mode of | curing, which has proved with me quite successful, were it not seemingly invidious, as any man worthy to be called a farmer can, by a little experi- ence, quickly learn to make good, sweet clover; yet there is quite a diver- sity of opinion upon this subject. I will simply add that the very large per centum of water renders it quite liable to heat, and from which,cause it easily becomes damaged. No clover hay can be kept sweet and fra- grant until the juices are sufficiently dried at least to become candied. The next upon the list in relation to its value and importance is timo- thy, (phleum pratense.) I shall not class this grass among the grazing grasses, as I regard its merits in this respect so very far inferior to any APPENDIX. 481 one of the before mentioned three. Its very high rank as a meadow grass, alone, entitles it to a position among the most commendable grasses for Tennessee production. According to Boussingault, Liebig, Way and others, when cut in full bloom, or a litile later, and properly cured, it possesses more flesh-forming, fat-forming, heat-producing properties than almost any other grass. Its yield per acre, when well set and properly treated, is a great point in its favor, also the ease of curing and the slight loss from handling are strong points in its favor. This, added to its gen- eral popularity, makes it a desirabla grass for general introduction where- ever the soil is adapted to its growth. It delights in a peaty, loamy soil . of medium tenacity, and is not suited to light, sandy or gravelly soils. The generally adopted mode of seeding has materially changed within the last decade, when the generally adopted plan was to sow upon small grain, wheat, oats, rye or barley, in the spring of the year. The failure of late years 1o get a catch in this way, has introduced the now most gener- ally adopted plan to thoroughly prepare the land in summer and seed in early fall, by sowing about one-fourth bushel seed alone, and following with harrow, roller or brush. I prefer harrowing in, after harrowing the ground over thoroughly after plowing, and then rolling the young grass in spring after freezes, to press back the crown into the ground. I think a young timothy. meadow should never be cut the first year, unless from an exceedingly wet spring and summer there is a luxuriant growth, and then the mower should be run sufficiently high to leave quite an aftermath be- hind the machine. Timothy, being of slow growth, if cut too closely the hot sun of July and August certainly injures the roots unless protected | especially the first year. The only pasturage that can be derived from a timothy meadow is in the late fall, and then only at the risk of lessening the succeeding crop. I think the yield of hay per acre of a timothy meadow can always be increased by combining it with clover, herds grass or orchard grass, but they will lessen the market value of the hay. The lands of Tennessee well adapted to the growth of timothy are not very ex- tensive. MMAAL py i ae oy (sf- Cit- Red-top or herds grass, (dgrostis vulgaris), until late years, numbered among the meadow grasses only, and limited in its cultivation to such localities as were too wet for the successful growth of any of the foregoing. It was supposed by most persons to succeed only on low, marshy, flat lands. Recently, however, it. is becoming a great favorite and more generally adopted. It is now being sown upon quite a variety of soils in - different parts of the State, and I have recently ascertained that it is be- coming a spontaneous growth along many of the mountain ranges of East Tennessee. My experience with it is comparatively limited, and I will not venture to give.any very decided opinions about it either asa pasture grass or hay plant. It is highly recommended by such authori- ties as Flint, and other prominent agricultural writers of the country. .My own opinion, from a limited experience, is that it is a very valuable ad- Pel bh gt y netics or ott Sadle. pp th, 2: 8, cy “ew 8 ers aan 5 3 Led 482, APPENDIX. junct to our meadows in thoroughly covering the ground and thus shad- ing the ground, thereby enriching the soil by preserving its humidity dur- ing the summer. ‘ I have thus enumerated the more generally known and important grasses grown in Tennessee, and will now close with a short notice of a few others generally known as forage plants, that have played an impor- tant part in the production of animal food, and which hardly belong to the grass family. The millet family, (milium,) although they have here- tofore been useful as a hay-producer in the rotation of crops, being annu- als, and producing large yields:per acre, a more general enlightenment and familiarity with agricultural science has numbered their days, and now only grown in cases where dire necessity compels a complete covering of the ground in order to kill out some noxious pest, or where the land is owned by a man that is “non compos mentis.” This family comprise Hungarian grass, German or Misaouri millet, the old Southern or Egypt- ian millet, Dhouracorn, broom corn orserghum sacharatum and Chinese sugar cane, all of which are great exhausters of soil, by far greater than the profits, possess but little merit as forage plants, and the cultivation of which should be universally condemned by all good agriculturists from the mountains in the east to the waters in the west. : B. F. COCKRILL. Richland stock farm, Feb. 19, 1878. GRASSES IN BEDFORD COUNTY. et * wow . > Sueptvitiz, Tennussez, Beprorp County, January'15, 1878. J. B. Killebrew, Commissioner. Dear Str—I have thought that a description of the grasses grown in this county (Bedford), and the large number of acres that are peculiarly adapted to their growth, would interest you. Soon after this became a county, blue grass was sown on one of the knolls of this county, and about that time it was found growing on a hill called Bald Knob (because it has no timber on it), near Wartrace depot, and on another near Bellbuckle depot. On a farm then owned by Thos. A. Peacock, Esq., and now by the estate of the late Chancellor Steele, and a little later on the place occupied by our Agricultural Society, as a fair ground, blue grass was sown. From these points blue grass has spread very rapidly, and much has been, sown in different parts of the county. an \ , ‘ ‘ ‘ goon i ; , . 8 ® i i ) = @ 7 @ iegctingse ee ; ' ‘i @ mM ¢ “ oe i ie, sr Ie i, FR a Koti — . APPENDIX. 5 483 At this time our pasture lands are green and bright, with a large number of stock grazing contentedly on them, in many instances fat and sleek as if it were May. Our farmers prize this grass very much, and I feel contident when it has been kept for a winter pasture that it (with ‘the aid of some straw, corn husks, or hay for their stock when the snow lies deep on the ground), can graze about as many cattle or sheep in the winter as in the summer time; this has been done by Robert L. Rankin on his farm. near Bellbuckle depot and by several others. There is scarcely an acre of our land that is not ‘‘glady’”” that will not produce blue grass, and fully one half’ of our land will produce this grass equal to any lands on this continent when it is properly cared for. In addition:to blue grass for pasturage we have learned that herds grass (red:top), makes a most excellent pasture, in fact it stands the hot sun and drought of our summers better than either blue grass or orchard grass; it affords abundant grazing late in the fall and early winter and very early in the: spring, and all kinds of stock love to graze it. In addition to these two, many have been trying orchard grass for grazing purposes; all like it and say that it is a very early grass and stands our mild winters well, and having a much larger and longer leaf than blue grass yields a very large amount of grazing. Some say it is earlier than blue grass, and many persons who have tried both grasses give it the preference, for in addition to its excellent grazing qualities it makes a first class hay, and when red clover is sown with it many persons regard it as the best meadow a farmer could have. The writer once owned a pasture of 15 acres on slightly undulating land, well set with blue grass, orchard. grass.and herds grass, that for fifteen years was one of the best pastures he ever saw, and there was no season of the year that.cattle and ‘sheep could not find good grazing there, and in the spring, summer and fall months it appeared to be almost inexhaustable. This county is one of the very bést in the State for meadows mixed with timothy and herds grass. We have frequently seen in our mea- dows, timothy 4} and 5 ft. high, growing by the side of herds grass at least 3 ft. high and sometimes higher, standing very thick upon the ground and producing at least two tons of excellent hay to the acre, and: this on land, never top-dressed with any fertilizer, the only manure ever placed upon them was done by the stock. as they grazed in fall and winter. A large amount of the acreage of this county makes the very best meadows, and there are lands where blue grass grows most luxuriantly ; but we have from 75,000 to 100,000 acres of land that is very level, known as the “Flat Woods,” on which meadows of the first quality abound. i : 484 ; APPENDIX. Our farmers are turning their attention each year more and more to grazing and meadows, and find that hay is the most remunerative crop that can be grown by them for the labor and expense required to pro- duce it. The grazing after the hay is removed from the meadows com- pensates the owner for the expense in harvesting his crop. Tn addition to these grasses, red clover is grown more or less by almost every farmer in the country, the most of which is kept for grazing; but many of our farmers save it for hay, which is easily cured and the yield per acre is very large. Those who grow clover for hay, as a rule prefer it for cattle, sheep, horses and mules, to any other. White clover is aspontaneous growth in this county, and shows itself in fields not cultivated and in pasture land. It is good grazing for cattle and sheep at any time, and for horsesand mules until the seed ripens. Long before the. war we found that grasses and clover paid a better per cent than cotton, and its cultivation was almost entirely abandoned. The result was a large increase was seen in the number of cattle, sheep, horses, mules and hogs on our farms, and instead of our lands being ex- hausted by the cultivation ofZcotton, their productiveness has been pre- served, and to a large extent it has been increased;‘and will continue to do so as long as our present system of rotation in crops is preserved. This is one of the largest hog raising counties in the State, and this is attributable to the abundance of red clover grown, for from the 10th of April until late in the fall it affords excellent pasture for hogs, and many sell their hogs from these pastures for early fall shipping, after being fed but short time with corn. Our most successful hog raisers rely* upon their clover for grazing their hogs, and corn, which they grow in great abundance, to fatten them. It is a matter of constant surprise to those who do not understand the capacity of this county to produce grasses, clover and corn when they see, as we have done constantly through the past year, carload after carload of hogs driven to our town for shipment, where our packers, Barrett & Landis, could have found the fourteen or fifteen thousand hogs~which they have packed during the past season, averaging over 260 Ibs., and at the same time that the county should be more than supplied with pork for this year’s consump- tion. These facts are to be attributed to the great care our farmers give to their clover fields, and the corn producing capacity ‘of our lands, and we find that clover grows more luxuriantly as we increase the fer- tility of our soil by the growth of clover and other grasses. Saplin clover does well here, and we have seen it grow over 6 feet long, but the red clover is preferred for all purposes except to turn under as green sod. Two gentlemen this winter have informed me that they have each a field of clover upon which there is an excellent stand and growing APPENDIX. 485 finely, which were sown over ten years ago and that one crop of corn and two of wheat have been grown on these fields since they were sown. I might multiply instances of this kind, but I’deem it unnecessary to you who have seen in the past so much of this county and know its adaptability to the growth of grasses and all the cereals. Cuupled with these advantages, we have a large amount of pure running water upon the surface of our lands, so it is not a matter of surprise that we should ship such large numbers of stock of every kind, and that we should claim this as one of the best stock-growing counties in the State. Our people are freer from debt than those of any county of our acquaintance, and the fact that lands where blue and orchard grasses grow have, in more than one instance, sold from $50 to $55 per acre, in payments, almost equal to cash, without scarcely a dwelling on them above a cabin, but having good barns, speaks well for our prosperity. As farmers, we have learned to feel that grass is our sheet anchor and with it we will continue to sail on to greater prosperity each year. I have already made this letter too long, and will cease to write more for the present, hoping to see you with us soon, I remain your friend, THOMAS H. COLDWELL. GRASSES IN ROBERTSON COUNTY. Cupar Hitt, Tennessux, June 21st, 1878. J. B. Killebrew, Commissioner of Agriculture: Dear Srr—Your letter was received some time since asking me to give you a few items on the grasses and their adaptability to the soil of Rob- ertson county, and, although I entertain your doubts about the value of _what I can say on the subject, still will try to give you the result of my observation and short experience. Owing to the nature of our soil, blue grass is not so spontaneous or lux- uriant in its growth asin the counties lying in the Central Limestone Basin of Tennessee, rievertheless, it fourishes in this county, and wherever the timber has been removed and the seed sown on the virgin soil, this grass grows with great vigor. The leaves of our white oak timber are so abundant and decay so slowly that they will smother out all the grasse 486 APPENDIX. unless the trees are nearly all cut down; but under the black walnut blue grass is invariably found, and always so luxuriant as to lead to the convic- tion that there is some strong affinity between them. . Owing to the red clay and the layers of chert underlying our soil which enables it to withstand dry, hot weather without parching, blue grass is more reliable in # season of drought, and much less frequently killed dur- ing summer in Robertson than in Davidson and the contiguous counties: Tt is also a noticeable fact that in our old fields, which from one cause or another, have been abandoned and suffered to go for several years without cultivation, blue grass springs up spontaneously, and if the black berry briers and the broom{sedge, our greatest pests, are burned off afew times to give the grass a fair opportunity to take root and to spread, it soon forms a fine, rich pasture, fresh and green all the year round. Our red clay sub-soil is a great element of resuscitation, and when exposed to the disintegrating effects of thawing and freezing it soon begins to form a new soil on the galded spots so common on the hill sides of the country, and if alittle brush—cedar is the best—or straw or litter which will catch and hold the particles of loose clagpbe thrown on these thin spots, and then blue grass seed be freely sown among the brush, we can soon transform our red- fluted old fields and -reproachful looking worn out spots into excellent pasture land. I have seen this so fully and sufficiently tried as to thor- oughly establish its success. Herds grass or red top will accomplish the same purpose, and will perhaps grow even more rapidly, though it will not afford so much grazing. The blue grass seems to flourish equally well on hills and bottom Jands, but as, unfortunately corn and tobacce almost exclusively occupy the attention of our farmers, we have in the county but a limited number of acres, which, beautiful in their perennial green coat of this king of grasses, delight the eye wearied with the sight of endless cultivation. Orchard grass grows well, and is especially fine for pasture, ranking in this particular both for winter and summer grazing, next to blue grass, and in many places is pronounced superior to it. It thrives on either high or low lands, but, of course, grows best on the richest soil, and if mix- ed about half and half with clover, will make excellent hay. If sown by itself, the heads being large, one, by using a hand stripper, can easily save his own seed and multiply his pastures indefinitely. It grows in tussocks, and if not sown thick enough at first, as is very apt to be the case, by al- lowing it to go to seed and to fall down, it very rapidly thickens itself to almost a perfect sward. It may be sown either in the early fall or early spring. March I regard the best month, and the ground should be thor- oughly prepared. Herds grass is more extensively cultivated in Robertson than any other grass, and this fact would naturally lead to the belief that on our soil it is best suited for general purposes, both of pasture and of meadow. While it does not afford the grazing of blue grass it makes a fair fall and winter APPENDIX. 487 pasture, and will yield a satisfactory crop of hay. It grows well on all the varieties of land and soil, and where the soil is thin and mixed with - that whitish clay found in the poorer parts of the county, I think it is the only grass which will give a paying crop of hay. I have no hesitancy in pronouncing it pre-eminently the grass for thin, wet or clayey lands. Timothy, with many of our farmers, is the crop most relied upon for hay, and on good Jand it is a highly remunerative crop. As but little hay is sold, and that never weighed, I cannot estimate the yield of this grass per acre. A meadow under ordinary circumstances will not last longer than four years, by that time it is generally ruined by broom sedge. Our timothy meadows ‘make good sheep pastures from November till April Without sustaining any estimable damage. A smooth soil, loam and clay, and high lands are better suited for timothy than the siliceous and gravel- ly soils, and the stronger the land the better the meadow will be. Timothy should be sown here, unless the fall is very dry, in September, so as to al- low it to become well rooted before the freezes come, and it should be coy- ered with a roller. It is best to.sow it by itself, in which case it will yield a fair crop of hay the next summer. It is more frequently, however, sown with wheat. This practice is unwise as only a small crop of wheat can be made, and that at the expense and injury of the meadow, which is expected to last several years. Timothy sown in the spring does not do well, as it cannot get sufficient root to stand the heat of summer. Clover is more generally used for pasture than any other grass. Its popularity is due to the fact that it can be seeded at a small cost per acre, and that it affords good summer grazing, and if not used in this way, is a most valuable crop to turn under. Though, like blue grass, it does not flourish here as in the Limestone Basin, still clover grows luxuriantly in Robertson county. On fresh land which has been cultivated for a few years in tobacco and then sown in wheat and clover, I have seen clover that could not be surpassed any where. It is frequently cut for hay, and for hogs is the best pasture we can have, putting them in fine condition to fatten. It grows on allof our lands; is fine to renovate tired and worn soil. But for hay should be sown on rich land whether hill or bottom.: It is sown in the spring on the small grains, but it is best to sow it with oats, for thereby it gets the advantage of a good, loose seed bed, thoroughly prepared at the time of sowing. When agood stand of clover is once ob- tained, and the seeds have been allowed to ripen and to fall on the ground, itrarely becomes necessary to sow again. I know personally of hundreds of acres on which there is a splendid stand of, clover, where there has not been a seed sown for over twenty years. During this time the fields allud- ed to have been cultivated every second or third year in corn or tobacco followed by the cereals, and as regularly as these crops have been taken off so they have been followed by a fine growth tof clover. The theory prevails here that by cultivation the root of the clover is killed, but that quantities of seed which lie deep in the ground for years without sprout- 488 APPENDIX. ing or rotting are brought to the surface by that same cultivation, and they germinate and grow with the crop of wheat or oats. Owing to this fact clover possesses a value and property peculiar to itself, and at once become the cheapest grass we have. : T have now given you as concisely as I could the perennial grasses. grown in this country, the uses and adaptability of each to the various kinds of soil, and nothing remains but to add that fortunately the raising ef annuals, such as millet and Hungarian grass for hay has been almost entirely abandoned, both on account of their inferiority as feed and the eost and labor of saving the crop. For the latter reason coupled with the fact that it has suffered terrible ravages from rust during the past few years, the oat crop has also greatly diminished. I hail with delight as foreshadowing greater prosperity and better cultivation with less labor, the seeding of meadows and the sowing of the perennial instead of the annual grasses. In this respect this county is far behind many others, and while I readily concede that for quickness and spontaneity of: of growth many lands in the State are better suited for the pasture and meadow grasses than ours; still when we consider our eminent superiority in a season of drought, or even in the ordinary heat of summer, I feel that old Robertson can fairly hold her own in the sisterhood of counties With great respect I am your obedient servant, JOSEPH E. WASHINGTON. CORN AND ITS CULTURE. The grass family (Graminace) is extensive, and by far the most ¥alu- able to man. Indian corn or maize (zea mays) is the largest of all grasses. It stands foremost in value as food for man and beast, and if properly cultivated, is the surest crop the farmer can raise. No cereal is grown with less difficulty, nor is there one that pays sowell. An ex- amination of the structure of the stalk in ear shows that it is composed of ten divisions, roots, stalk, sheathes, husks, stalks of ears, leaves, silk, tassel, cob and grain. The roots are divided into three classes, the main or primary, the secondary and the brace or aerial, The first of these disappear very soon after the secondary roots begin to perform their office, and the brace roots show themselves soon after the stalk APPENDIX. 489 begins to joint. Like many other plants, corn is an inside grower, (en- dogenous,) consisting at first, of whorls or circles of leaves one within the other, over lapping each other on either hand until the entire stalk is grown. It. is interesting to notice right here the difference between the grasses, Some are hollow while others have a pith. The leaves are the lungs of the plant. Their very important office is to take on or absorb carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere. Having received this the plant appropriates the carbon to its own use and at the samé time throws off oxygen. This operation goes on only in the day time, the sun’s light and heat being the great resolving agent. The sheathes do the same thing, and also serve as 4 protection and band to the tender shoot. The husk at first envelopes the cob and silks, afterwards the grain. It feeds both cob and corn with elements obtained from the at- mosphere. The cob is the axis on which the kernels are regularly set. It is the direct feeder after the embryo grain is formed and fecundated by the pollen through the silk. The tassel (staminate) contains the male, and the silk (pistillate) the female part of the plant. The pollen from the tassel falls upon and fertilizes the silk and the silk the grain. If from weakness or other causes the silk fails to come out of the husk to be impregnated -by the pollen the corn fails to appear or develop on the cob; hence the vacant rows so frequently seen on the cob. A further examination of the stalk shows an ear, or the commence- ment of an ear on every joint that haga groove. Generally about two- thirds have it, and in every one is seen an embryo ear undeveloped. The question arises right here, why this incomplete development? I have contended for several years that every such organization would de- velop on every grooved joint were proper attention given to selecting and sowing seed, to proper culture and proper plant-food. Like all other cereals, corn has so deteriorated by bad treatment that it has not health enough to mature even one good ear to the stalk. With ordinary treatment all other grasses develop their heads or ears to some extent, and why should not corn do the same? For several years I have been giving corn and wheat some attention. I find corn suscepti- ble of much greater improvement than most farmers are willing to admit. It is not in the province of this article to give the results of experi- ments. I will, however, give one to prove that there is much room for improvement of corn. Several years ago I commenced selecting my seed corn in the field, taking.only those stalks that ripened earliest and that had not less than two good ears. These were cut up as soon as the husk was brown and the ear well glazed,’ and shocked in the fleld to cure. After standing a month or more the fop ears only were saved jor seed. f 490 APPENDIX. Great care should be taken in selecting not only those stalks that have the greatest number of ears, but those that look most like corn— nice, trim, uniform, vigorous and healthy. Large over-grown stalks are too gross and too sterile—they cannot be made prolific. The result of this method of saving seed, together with proper culture, has in- creased my yiela on the same six acres, in six years, from 20 to 75 bushels per acre. Before treating of the soil, I will give an account of the actual loss most farmers sustain in ‘‘pulling fodder,” ‘‘cutting tops,” and letting their corn dry up in the field before it is gathered. Fodder-pulling in- jures the grain nearly 13 per eent., cutting tops 9 per cent., and by letting the whole crop dry up in the field, it loses 20 per cent. of its own weight. So you see by this slip-shod way of treating the best and surest crop we have we lose nearly 50 per cent. of it all, How shall we save it then? you ask. In a very ‘simple way. When fodder- pulling time comes and the ears are well glazed, instead of taking the blades off, cut the stalks up close to the ground, and shock immedi- ately in bunches the wind cannot twist or blow down. In this way the fodder is all saved, and the stalk too. The husk is much better and the corn loses nothing, but makes much better food, much better feed, much better seed and much more money. ‘‘But,” you say, ‘dt will shrivel and become loose on thecob.” Not a bit of it! All the sub- stance of the stalk at the time of cutting is absorbed by the ear, and it is matured in the same' way that wheat is when cut in the dough state. This method insures the full weight, and saves the 20. per cent. lost by the old plan. Another item. The stalk. fodder and husk cured in this way are worth at least $3 per ton to any farmer; whereas, if left to die in the field, they will not amount from a hundred acres to a day’s wages. Any soil can be made to produce corn, provided it is not too wet. Soils differ so materially even on the same farm, that the farmer, to produce good crops, has to make them a real study. Once knowing them, and what they need and demand, he very easily increases the yield. For corn, land should be plowed, turning the sod only as deep as the grass roots extend, at the same time subsoiled with a heavy subsoiler and a strong team. ‘The best fertilizer a farmer of limited means can use for his corn crop, can be made behind his cows. Straw, chaff, leaves, muck, surface soil, barnyard scrapings, refuse of every description, well tempered with the droppings and manure water of the cow stalls make as good compost as the farmer needs. His compost heap must be kept under cover, and should be turned over at least. once amonth. The straw, chaff and leaves should never be thrown upon the heap until the cattle have well wet them. APPENDIX. 491 Tn conclusion, I must urge upon my brother farmers the importance of putting in less land and preparing it better. With good seed, one acre well cultivated will yield 50 bushels, which gives infinitely more satis- faction and is done with much less labor and expense than the skim- ming over of ten acres with the same result. Almost any of our up- land soils can be made to produce 50 bushels by a little scientific culture and saving of seed. A. E. BLUNT. Agricultural Station, Mouse Creek, Hast Tennessee. 492 SORGHUM. The following article on Sorghum was, by accident, left out of its proper place, which should have been under cereals. . SORGHO SUCRE. CHINESE SUGAR CORN—(Sorghum nigrum.) Has an erect stem, six to twelve feet high, smooth; leaves linear, flexons, curving, bending at the ends. Flowers in a panicle at the top, turning as it ripens from a green to a purplish color. In 1854, some insignifi- cant packages of seeds were sent from the, then, patent office, bearing this inscrip- tion : “SUGAR MILLET. ( Sorgho Sucre.) (Good for fodder, green or dry, and for making sugar.”’) Who could have foreseen, from these few characters, that a plant was then being added to this country more important than any since the discovery of America and the discovery, to Europeans, of Indian corn? In the midst of the great success of the New World in agricultural products, the s SORGHUM. 493 Old World sent this boon to her offspring as a token of good will; and, in introducing it into notice, the agent, Dr. J. Browne, has done tore real, solid good, than all the great conquerors of the nations. If the Agricultural Bureau of the United States had never done aught else, this one thing would more than have compensated for all the expense it has been to the Government. It has added the one thing needful to the farmer, it has made him independent and enabled him to raise his own supply of syrup, if not of sugar. But see how modest, ‘‘Good for fodder, green or dry, and for making sugar.” And thus this humble package went to the country, seeking some one to make it famous. Many, very many, threw it aside altogether. Some planted it, and gave it untried to their stock. The stock soon told its value as a forage, and some few squeezed a tumblerful of its juice and tested it with the saccharometer. They found about 16 or 17 per cent. of sugar. Some tasted it, and it tasted sweet. Two made a gill or two of syrup, and, not knowing how, did not report much success, but promised to try it next year. All concurred in one thing, it was a great accession to the forage crop of America. And yet this plant was destined at a very early day to supply the poor of the South with the great and almost the only luxury of a long, tedious and bloody war. But the reports, meagre as they were, satisfied the De- partment: it was all that it had been represented. So the successful experiments were published and more secd was procured and broadly distributed over the land. The second year, a furor began. It jumped at once into popular favor and established itself, not only as a magnificent forage crop, but also as,asyrup cane. Withina year or two sugar has been made from it of good quality, and during a recent visit to the Agricultural Department at Washington, I saw specimens of sugar manutactured from a new variety as excellent in flavor and color as the best New Orlcans 494 SORGHUM. sugar. I distributed some of the seeds of this new variety, and I confidently predict that Tennessee will, in ten years, make sugar enough for her own consumption at a cost less than five cents per pound. HISTORY. In the fall of 1853, Dr. Jay Browne was sent by the Department of Agriculture to Europe, to gather seeds for distribution from the office. He saw a small patch of sor- ghum at Verrieres, near Paris, and being struck with its resemblance to corn thought it would be an accession to our forage crops, and possibly, might be used as a sugar plant. Four years before, M. de Montigny had sent the seed trom the North of China to the Geographical Society of Paris, in a package of many different kinds of seeds. They were plantec, and but one single sorghum seed germ- inated. The product of this plant was distributed, and the next year, 80 great was the demand, a gardener of Paris sold his entire crop to Vilmoriu, Audrieux & Co., of Paris, for a franc a seed. Through them it was sent over the whole of Europe and America, for it was on their farm Mr. Browne saw it growing. In 1850, Mr. Leonard Wray, of the East Indies, a practical sugar planter, on a visit to Kaffir-land, found the imphee, another species of sugar cane, growing around the huts of the natives, which they cultivated for its chewing qualities. On examination, he discovered its rich saccha- rine character, and was satisfied of its value. He there- fore brought it with him to England and had it planted there, as well as in France and Belgium. He memorialized the French minister of war, and also Mr. Buchanan, who was minister in England at that time He afterwards cultivated it in the West Indies, Brazil, the Mauritius, Australia, Turkey, Egypt and in this country. The Kaffirs cultivated sixteen varieties, that differed in the amount of saccharine principle, as well as in the time SORGHUM. 495 required to mature. In 1856, Mr. Wray exhibited sugar, molasses, alcohol, plants and seeds of the imphee at the Paris Exposition, and not only obtained a silver medal, but a grant of twenty-five hundred acres of land in Algiers was made him by the French government, that he might prosecute his researches. During this same year, Orange Judd, of New York, distributed 25,000 packages of seed to his subscribers, snesdliip them throughout the country. In 1857, Mr. Wray brought to the United States the seeds of several varieties of Imphee. So then, when Mr. Browne obtained the seeds it was really in its initial state of cultiva- tion in France. It had been grown in China from time immemorial. But with the exclusiveness of that people, its very existence had been jealously guarded from the world. The same, or a similar plant, had been cultivated in Europe at different periods during the dark ages, but the want of intercourse, and the oppressive feudal system of that day had repressed any advancement in science and arts, as well as in agriculture. The elder Pliny, in the first century, describes a plant . under the name of milium quod ex India in Italiwm invectum nigro colore, (a millet of dark color brought from India to Italy). Millium means thousands, and refers to the number of seeds on a plant. Fuchius describes, in 1542, a plant cultivated in Belgium, called Sorghi. In 1552, Fragus says, in a work on botany, a Panicum Plinti was cultivated in Germany, and accurately describes this plant. In 1591, Gosner names this same" plant Sorghum. In Italy, in 1595, in his commentaries on Dioscorides, Matthioli calls it, Indicum Milium, or Indian millet. Gerard, an English writer, in 1597, describes this and other varieties of Sor- ghum, as Dhouro corn, Broom corn and Chocolate corn. Thus it is seen, that this plant, however new to us, was cultivated in England, Belgium and Italy, in the 16th century, and that it was known to Pliny in the Ist century. 496 SORGHUM. Its uses were described as so various, that it is supposed all the varieties of Sorghum were confounded by these differ- ent authors. It was recommended as fodder for stock, food for poultry and hogs, and for a syrup; while the Italians called it melica from its resemblance to, honey. It was described as having seeds, various in color, from rufous to black, from white to yellow and red, and they were said to make an excellent bread. The bread had a pinkish tinge, being colored by the husks, which could not be entirely separated from the seed. Through the caravans of the Syrian desert, Sorghum was carried from Asia to Africa, and there, under the changes of climate, soil and moisture, new varieties originated, and we have the Imphee canes. Linneus calls it Holceus Saccharatum, and the Dhouro corn he calls Holcus Sorghum. But Persoon, and others since, have separated the two, and applied to the sugar cane the general name Sorghum, and its specific name Nigrum, from the color of its seeds. These. plants are all called Sorghum in the East Indies. VARIETIES. There are many varieties of cane, and, while the descrip- tion at the head of the article will give the generic charac- ters, it will not the specific differences of the various kinds. But it is not necessary to give the botanic description of each variety. 1st Race—Evsorcuum. True Chinese Sugar Cane, (already described). 2nd Race—IMPHEE. 1. Preecocia, (early Sorgo). 2. Ooui-se-a-na, (Otahei- tan). 38. White Imphee, (Nee-a-ga-na). 4. Black Imphee, Nigerrima). 5. Red Imphee, (Cerasina, cherry red) Shla- goo-va. 6. Liberia, (Liberjan). SORGHUM. 497 In Te ‘the nomanclature i is shortened by all being ealled. “ red,” or “ black,” and “Chinese,” or “African.” Seegitim: submitted to a pressure of ten tons, will yield about 60 per cent, of juice, leaving 40 per cent. of woody ‘fibre, gum, juices, ete. Of this 60 per cent., about 10 per cent. is sugar, both cane and ‘grape, or, if not reduced to’ sugar, it will make about 25 per cenf. of syrup, or 15 per cent. of the expressed juice. © However, in fact, this amount varies very much, accord- ing to the soil on which it is raised. On rich bottom land, where the cane grows to be very tall and large, there is more water and less sugar in the juice, while on poor, sandy, dry land the proportion is much greater. In some specimens of syrup, when boiled down thick and allowed to stand, crystals of sugar will form all through-it. These | crystals are in the form of a modified rhombic prism. . But in the generality of specimens, from the presence of an acid, the cane sugar is converted into glucose and no oentpulae tion is sufficient to cause it to crystallize. A few years ago,. at one of the expositions held in the city of Nashville, a jar of this sugar was on exhibition, and there is a fair specimen now in'the cabinet of this Bureau, and, as before stated, some excellent specimens at Washington. Should an early and cheap means he devised to secure rapid crystallization the result will be to bring down the price of sugar. Mo- lasses, which sold at one dollar per gallon, was brought, by the introduction of sorghum syrup, down to twenty-five and | thirty cents. There is so little difterence between this grape and cane sugar, that it is to be hdped some process may yet be invented by which the syrup can be crystalized at will. The constituents are the same, only having one equivalent more of hydrogen and oxygen than carbon. It is undoubt- edly due to the presence of some acid, as cane sugar can be converted into glucose, by the addition of acids, or by pass- ing a stream of air through the boiling syrup. In this in- ventive age the mind of man has only to. be turned to this subject and it will be done. seo gO. / 498 ; SORGHUM. The Imphee cane, as a rule, produces more crystals im the syrup than the Chinese, consequently the latter is more universally cultivated, being better suited to making Syrup. Besides, the African or Imphee cane grows much taller and is easily blown down by high winds, making a tangled mass in the field, very difficult to harvest. CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. Sorghum will grow and thrive, like Dhouro, on the poor- est soils, When the earth is parched up by drought it maintains its fresh, green color, and continues to grow. However, it will thrive better on rich land, and, though the juice may have more water, it will make far more syrup.. The roots of sorghum penetrate the soil farther than any other cereal, and consequently deep plowing is absolutely re- quisite for a full crop. Not only should the plow, but the subsoiler should also be applied. On good land it grows to a hight of 15 to 18 feet, on poor, badly *prepared land, it stops at five or six feet. Because it, will grow on poorer land than other plants is no evidence that poor land is bet- ter for it. Therefore let the land be in good heat and the increased quantity of syrup will well repay the labor., On gravelly or sandy subsoils, the roots will go four or five feet deep, and on this kind of land, if rich, it will make far more syrup and of a better quality. It should be planted in drills three feet apart, and in four or five days the young tender stalks will come up, looking very much like grass. But it will soon begin to grow rap- idly, and outstrip grass er weeds. When three or four inches high, it should be chopped and thinned out, and but little more work need be done io it. Two plowings are all it should receive, as the roots penetrate the ground so thick- ly the plant would receive more injury than benefit if plow- ed after it is three or four feet high. Besides, by that time. the ground is so shaded by lateral branches and suckers the weeds will effect no material injury. SORGHUM 499 Much difference ve opinion existed at first, and still ex- ists, as to the best time of cutting. Some assert when the seeds are in the milky state, others when they are fully ma- tured, is the most favorable time. A slight degree of frost does not injure it, and this opinion has caused the loss of - many a crop, for, with our usual procrastination, this belief is allowed to influence many to let it stand until a severe frost comes, when the cane is rendered worthless. ‘When- ever it freezes, fermentation ensues, and: it -will not make syrup at all, or if it does it is black and has a disagreeable odor. But repeated experiments have demonstrated the ‘fact that early cut cane makes the best and cleanest molagses. Still if the farmer has a large crop, he will have an oppor- tunity of testing it in all stages, for it will take a long time to express the juice of a large crop and boil it down. When the seeds are in the milky state, let the stripping and boiling begin. It is not our purpose to go into a lengthy detail of syrup making, it being rather our province - to treat of sorghum as a cattle food, than otherwise, and we will only give a general description. Besides, since the in- .vention of cane mills and -evaporators, there is hardly a man in the State who is not thoroughly conversant with the process. One thing every one should bear in mind and that is, do not be too particular to press every particle of juice from the stalk. The first pressure well applied will get, generally speaking, all the saccharine principles, the second pressure only sending out gums, cellulose and some color- ing matters, The syrup would be clearer and sweeter if the outer rind-of the stalk could be stripped off and only the _pith submitted to pressure. Let the juice be strained in a blanket, and boiled as rapidly as possible in a shallow pan.. This is all that is requisite. Some use the continuous, some the interrupted pans. The former are becoming more generally used, that is, pans that receive the raw juice at one side and discharge the molasses at the other. Some- times it happens that the syrap when boiled to a sufficient 500 SORGHUM, consistency does crystallize without any known cause. When -it is discovered to do so, the farmer might take advantage of this accident and very easily make his own sugar. And to test its capacity to form crystals a small quantity at va- rious times of evaporating might be boiled toa point lower and thicker than for syrup and set aside to stand two, three or four days. If erystals are thrown down in the vessel there is then reason to believe more of it will do so. He can, therefore, should he desire to make his own sugar, boil it to the proper consistency, or until the steam comes up through the syrup, with a burst, and set it off in tubs to granulate. Sometimes, however, this does nut take place for a few weeks, or even months. In order to expedite the process, it should be kept in a close, warm room, heated. up to, at least, 90 degrees. This can be easily done by having the tubs or barrels of syrup in a room made tight, and heat- ed'by a stove. With but little replenishing of wood the stove may be kept hot continuously. When the granula- ‘tion has taken place fully let the whole mass, molasses and all, be put into stout cloth bags and hung up to drain. Or it can be put into conical tin moulds, shaped like a.sugar loaf, with an opening at the bottom covered by a wire sieve such asis used for straining milk. The bags, however, are cheaper and equally as effective. Here let it remain for a sufficient number of. days, to allow all the molasses to pass off. It can then be taken down and mixed with a very small quantity of water and redrained, and this application of water can be repeated until the sugar becomes as white as desired. The water can then be reduced by evaporation, to to the desired consistency of molasses. There are many other processes, and machines for making sugar, that have been invented, for sale, but they all resolve themselves into the above at last, which process belongs to any one who wishes to use it. In the manufacture of the Southern Cane sugar, lime water, (white wash) is. used to clarify it. At first this was SORGHUM. df BOL used in sorghum, but it was soon fotind that it blackened the syrup so much that no after treatment would restore its clear color. Besides, it gave it a very disagreeable al- kaline taste. Afterwards the white of eggs was used, which did very well, but further manufacture brought out the discovery that it conlained so much gum it would coagulate and clarify itself better without the addition of anything with it, Skimming easily removes all impurities that arises upon the surface. The amount of syrup procured from an acre of prontd | is as various as are the methods of cultivation and characters of the soil. From forty to two hundred gallons may be considered the range, and when it is considered that.a cul-\ tivator can take his choice between the two quantities, it may seem that there is cause for emulation. “But it is rather as a forage crop that this plant properly belongs in this treatise. Its uses are almost as various‘as Indian corn itself. As has been already stated, it is greed- ily eaten in all stages by stock of every kind. The seeds are abundant, and one acre of good corn will make from forty to sixty bushels of seed. These can be cut from the corn and stored for use, taking care to spread the heads until they dry, when they make good food for cattle, horses, sheep, hogs and poultry. When ground into flour they make good bread. Both the seeds and:the expressed juice have been extensively used in distillation, large quantities of alcohol and sorghum brandy being an-. nually made from them. During the war it formed almost. the only resource of the South for whiskey, all grains being in too much demand for distillers to use them. But probably it possesses more good qualities as a green soiling plant than any other one. Let it be sown. either broadcast or thickly drilled with a seed drill very early in the spring, with about one bushel of seed to the acre, and -there is no end to its feeding capacity. It will yield from ; 20 to 80 tons of green fodder to the. acre, that, when dry, 4 502 SORGHUM. will make three or four tons of the sweetest and best of hay, and stock will eat up the last vestige of it. The proper time for cutting is when the heads begin to flower, when it can be cut and bundled as corn fodder, or left spread on the ground, if the weather is good, for several days, and it will dry enough to store but not in too large a bulk. Its stems are so succulent that it will not cure quickly, the juices in it, how- ever, will sugar directly, and then it will keep as well as timothy. It possesses fattening qualities in an eminent degree, and nothing like it was ever used for improving a drove of mules. But if the farmer has a drove of mules or herd of cattle or milch cows, it can be fed to them from the the time. it is two feet high, and they will eat it. with avidity. By the time a field is gone over, it will be ready to cut again, as the root freely throws up new suckers, and will continue to do so until stopped by the frost. Thus, as many as three crops can be cut betore it is destroyed by the eold. Or, if it is not wanted as green forage, it can be cut at blossoming, at least twice, without resowing. And the second crop will be as good as the first. A mule raiser in Williamson county has several large racks, and as soon as the hay is in condition to cut, he draws a load to each rack daily, and the mules are allowed to go to itad libitum, so - ‘the farmer has only to give them grain to complete the process of fattening. With the introduction of sorghum into Tennessee agri- culture, it does seem that the last desideratum of the farmer is supplied. With a climate the most salubrious and equa- ble, a soil the most various and comprehensive, it sends into the market, annually, grain and hay of every deserip- tion. Her cattle and sheep are sent in large numbers into Northern cities, while her mules and horses supply the teams of the South. Fruits and vegetables anticipate the gardens of the North, and now she is able to draw a plant from Africa or Asia to supply her people with an ample quantity of home-made syrups and sugars. SORGHUM. 5038 In 1870 the total production of: sorgum molasses in the United States was 16,050,089 gallons against 6,749,123 gallons in 1860. te Gallons. Indiana produced in 1870.......... ahaa iaeeass ieee ane 2,026,212 Ohio “ MO deaabiaiecay eee eilistelieagibitaaates 2,023,427 Illinois =“ Eee Near ecb pact inseuiie erat ene sate als 1,960,478 Kentucky ‘ CES _onhnnd ites taemariaa eile ha Rise 1,740,458 - Missouri“ SO aaeetileeeewhewew dnentiee veeE 1,730,171 ‘Tennessee ‘ ee SSA Re MEMORE A Aeon pies SLpROS OL Iowa fe HE « UauatiidSuapueiatscgetine steal senteatuiee hats 1,218, 635 INDEX. AGE. Agricultural system of England 6 France. 6 « . & — Tennessee deprecated ......ccueeee cere 7 Alfalfa .. é - 145 American “Senna. » 428 A Ppen diss cso cveccessinee vu ctecensee 449 Acacia Julibrissim.... Achilia millifolium .. 33 Agrostis Alba: cc eseincinsces . 207 like Panic ian 219 “ canina.. 236 perennis.. 237 “ scabra ....... 237 “ stolonifera............ 33, 70 “vulgaris... 33, 70, 84 Aira flexuosa..... itahenaamereie 24 Aira ceaspitosa... “flexuosa ........ afi Algarobia glandulosa ............ 413 Alopecurus....eccceue 29, 39, 70, 154 Amorpha Fruticosa....... Spaueiielics 421 Amphicarpxa Monoica........... 426 Analysis of AnthyllisVulneraria. 34 ef Anthyllis Culneraria 35 ae Aftermath ...........0 36 iv Average of all the g ava of blue grass .. Barley heading o out at 34 35 «Barley... Se ae Barley grass... a nn Buckwheat...........666 334 ef Beans o Beers “ Clover, red 34, 35, 36, 37, 127, 129, "208 “Clover leaves, stalks and flowers........0+ 130 « Glover and grass hay . compared ........... 1 = Clover Alsike....... 36, 144 “ ‘Clover, white...35, 36, 37, 70, 208 £7 ’ c PAGE. Analysis of Clover, yellow....... 36 Clover, incarnate .. 36, 37 75, "145 ts Clover, ‘red, before blossom...... 00.06.46 37 Clover, red, full blos- BOM veocssvceveceanecsass 37 “Clover, white, full blossom.........0004. 37 Clover, Swedish 34, 35, 86 Clover, Swedish, ear-’. ly blossom «.....++++ 37 Crested dogs tail...... . 36 Cereals, green, light.. 34 Cereals, green, heavy 34 Cereals.......02:006 314, 335 Corn, yellow Penn ... 356 Corn, Northern and Southern ........ sae B57 Corn stalks, shucks and fodder........... 367 Corn. before and after eusilage .....cceee 386 Corn, green fodder and Clover... seeeeeeee 339 Corn, white gourd © geed Md... ...seee eee 356. Cow manure............ 299 Dead ripe hay......34, 35 English rye grass..... 36 Esparsette ........06 34, 37 Field spurry........36, 87 Green vetches...... 34, 35 Green pea in flower... 34 Green rape, young... 34 Grass before blossom ' 37 Grass after blossom... 37 Harter Schwingel... ae Hay, dead ripe ........ 34 Hungarian millet. 35, 37 Hungarian millet, gr’n. 34 Haceter i millet in blossom.....sevee 87 506 INDEY. PAGE. PAGE Analysis of Italian rye grass.... 36 B Lucerne 34, 35, 36, 37, 148 . “Meadow grass... 35, 36 | Bambarra eround nut.. 412 “Meadow oat grass, Baptisia... waved tall. 197) Barleywsceescscess.. ave. ‘ Meadow rout stalk ss Meadow fox tail .. Meadow, rough........ 36 i Meadow fox tail....... 36 th “ yough......... 36 Meadow hay.. 34, 35, 36 n Maize, late ... 2 Maize, early. “ Oats 34, 35, 36, 37,405, 406 se Oat grass, yellow a 36 Orchard grass other sweet grasses 34, 35 bi Peas...35, 36, 37, 835, eae Rape....... e Serradella ..... ee Spear’ eres or "blue grass .. 36 ie Sorghum “ sacchara- HUM sscaveeerareewtin 37 “ - Sorghum vulgare...... 37 f Soft broom grass...... 36 He Sweet scented vernal 36, 200 & ‘Timothy ...34, 35, 86, 76 « Wheat, winter... 34 us Winter By Cisevsecseezs 34 i Wild spear grass..36, 162 e Wood ashes............ 298 “Velvet grass....... . 86 ff Velvet lawn grass..... 195 ie Vetches.....34, 35, 36, 37 «Young grass... 34, 35, 37 ANdrOpOgon....cseee ceoeee 74, 216. 217 Anthoxanthum ordoratum 29, 30, Apios Tubuosa ...... 00... cece Arachis hy pogeea ATISCIDE2 ca cvcs ier issaeseeee Arundinaria,...........006 72, 190, 226 Arrhenatherum avenaceum. 29, ne Astragalus ......1.sescssses soseeeees 422 Autumnal Panic........ 219 Avena... «29, ‘63, 72, 109 Barley grass .......... Barn yard lai : Bean, setegy delsg.cnsatevnis Beans... saedesaniny Beard grass. we wanes Bedford County, grasses in... os Duke of, experiments ys semis ee Bengal grass .. Bermuda grass... on gbaidsts Bitter Panic....... Blue False Indigo .. Blue-grass......sceceesses serene Blue Foxtail : Boehmeria nivea.. Bottle Brush grass .. Bouteloua Curtipendula 70, aie 160 i Lagasea ........ . 233 Brachyelytum aristatu 70 Bristly Foxtail ... . 218 Briza...csceseesee eee Broom QTas8...seccccee seeeeeseeaveoes Bromus ciliatus .. erectus... “© Kalmii..sses “mollis... f° pratensis... ce ceceeeceeeee 72 © PACEMOSUS «0... .sseeeee 72, 227 “ secalinus........... 72, 95, 227 Broom corn.. ssoucsaneeen DLS Bruckner, analysis by. Satie 302, 303 Buckwheat... :. Buffalo clover.. “grass... Bush clover........6.ssceee Butterfly pea.s..c.c. seecessseeseyes Cc Canada milk vetch... 422 Cane... nee ssa Cane grass. Nspbasiagsh eresammssnerareln Carobs or Caret......++ Carolina vetch... Canary grass... Canadian Lyine oe vine 224 Cassia .....ccstecesereee .. 428 Coreals.......csseeee . 810 INDEX. 507 a! PAGE. PAGE, Centrosema ....... 426 | Elymus ‘Virginicus......72, 152, 224 Ceratonia Beaute Re re 411 | Elymus Canadensis...... 72, 152, 224 Cercis.. 427 | Elymus striatus .............008 72, 224 Cheat or Chess........ 227 | Elymus mollis.......... 0.00. ce 72 Chinese sugar corn. iagunan “402 Eragostis reptans. ase 71, 182 Chick pea.........sese sec cecere senerees 411 pozoides ....... 71, 182 Cicer aristinUM.. cee see vee 411 “ megastachya........ 71, 230 Cichoreum intybus. . 33 Pil OSA sscessenaweses Cinna arundinacea .. ..70, 236 4 PUrchilsssesscis sasiesiens Cinosurus cristatus... 29, "30, 31, 33 . tenuis, .......e. cece Ciliated Broom grass . 228 “ capillaris.. Cladrastis tinctoria. Clitoria Mariana .. . 426 Clover... 115, 143, ‘144, "207, 422 Cluster spiked, Mublenberger.. 264 ‘Coaco grass.. 16 Cockrill, B By » Essay by... Coffee tree .. Coldwell, J. 'H. on grains... Common Manna grass..... Common Reed grass... Correspondents, names. Cotton vs. Hay, i Jasicouccsey adv casevoates 18 Couch grass .. 192, 226 Crab grass... vunouelUly 281, 199 Creeping Meadow grass... . 182 wa 422 - 255 144 227 Creeping Bush clover .. Crested dogtail .......... - Crimson Clover .....c5- sce seseseeeeeseee Cut grass D Dactylis glomerata.....30, 31, i es Dactyloctemium Agypticum... - 108 Danthonia spicata ..............78, 225 Danthonia compressa.? 74 Darnell... Desmanthus Brachylobus... Desmodium... Delicate spear gr BBS wccavesesanesen ' Dhoura corn... aac sedasieass Diarrhena ‘Atericana... 71, 231 Dogtail grass.......e s+ 255 E M Egyptian grass... 108 Eaypiie farmer, long Teases by. 18 English productions cane ie English rye grass... Evergreen grass .. Everlasting bent erase. Elusine Indica .. pectinacea ... ee Pennsylvanica........71, 230 F Faber Vulgaris.......... ee ree Faise Indigo... sa | ‘Festuca duriuscula... “ elatior 33, 72, 152, 188, 227 ° Hh: TOV UNS, csiess onssasiasacnans 228 “ NULANS wo ...ecceee cece 152, 228 © "OVEN. eee 38, 72, 184, 228 “pratensis loliacea: daweeties pratensis........ cece cece “tenella... sieneabiesae Fibrous rooted wheat. shepaen nese Finger shaped. paspalum......... Flint, Chas. L. on grasses France and England, agricult- ural systems compared......... 6 Floating paspalum grass......... 223 Fly catch grass.......ccscesseeseseee 208 Fiorin bent grass .... w. 207 Functions of grass.........000 se 6 G Gattinger, contribution by... Gamma PAB... ee Gleditschia...... ccsssescssseees sees Gly ceria... sree Grasses, artificial... ll by whom improved... 25 “ analysis of.. 34, 35, 36, 37 . desirable qualities of.. 38 i life history of... vw 49 Hist Of......cccceee 70 “how to tell... 65 * indigenous ... 151 mead OW verses ceeeereeeee 75 “nutritive value of...... 288 508 Grasses pasture “ wild a cultivated in England 151 “ seeds, weight of... soils adapted to each... it Green fox tail .......0. ceseeeeeceees Ground nut wc eeeeees or Gymnocladus Canadensis......... | 428 Gymnopogon brevifolium....70, 232 Gymnostichum hystrix.. Gynerium argenteum... Halpense Harding, Gen.. Hansom, Timothy... Honey locust. Hay, total production in United States, 1870.00.06. cccseeeeee evens Hay, BWC i cissinctsennssves sovsesss 1 herds grass or red tap 78, 212 hhajy grass... +++. - 156 haiiy musqiit... . 160 hidden flowered panic..: 220 hairy, slender paspalum 223 “hard fescue..,.....:....228, 255 horse shoe grass... ......0 hairy bush clover hog pea nut........ Hordium, zeocriton «hexastichum a pratense....29, 80, 35, 225 ft pusillum............. 76. 196 ef distichum..........4. 72, 312 tf vulgare.. 72, 312 Holcus ie 29, 5, 80, 8 31, 33, 194 “ mollis.. cas 33 AMPH ssccsrsareciocdssveviinseseenes Importance of grasses Indian drop seed grass.. ase Indian reed.......seeeeeseseesee cee eee Italian rye grass..... Indian corn “ history of... varieties of... i pee taiaaa ~ with seeds... eteeslins O49) Indian corn, 'N. orthern aeons 356, «Southern... 356, . comparisons of ccd low and white.. wi Indian corn, cultivation of... waakeus INDEX. - ‘ sa ' PAGE. Indian corn, Pipt. Daniel’s ex- periments... - 869, 370 - Indian corn, cost of raising. 370, 471 Indian corn, ean for raising........... og . 874 Indian corn, uses of... 276 "experiments | "With by H. 8. Clay... viva O79 Indian corn, experiments with. by Prof. Moses... . 379 Indian corn, as @ hay “and for- ABC CLOP.. css seeeee aeeeseees ceeees Indian crop, analysis of, before and alter eusilage. .........0. 386 Indian corn, fae atistics of, ......... 387 le of export 388, 389 tables oft e values of exported......890, 361, 392, 392 Indian corn, tables of the values of,. raised in Tennessee....... a 4| Indian corn, tables of average prices of, in New York city... 395 Jd Jackson, Gen’l. W. Hu........4. 83 Japan clover or king grass....... 209 JOIN TASB. ......ceeee ceeeee ones pee 223 L + Lande dasidosseatinnieter oanemiays supe 18 “difference in 1 value of...... 21 “value of before the war... 18 “ value of in Europe... 19 ‘ yalue of in Kentucky ‘and Missouri. hasan a visnveasenesae wed TE GOTB1 Ai veascenstadianvanans 70, Leguminous, Tennessee 415, 416, 417 | eR Dn 411 Leptochloa mucronata........71, 161 Lespedeza........ cccseeee 209, 422, oe List of true grasses....... sc Locust oh INDEX. “Marbury, P. Hussein 7 Meadows, management of... "40, 239 ~ “time and manner of BOWING sac coneweasaseensinion sgoeci's 269 Meadows, cutting, curing and storing..........e 269, 274, 277, 288 Meadows, troublesome plants... 286 Medicago........... eaneatian 33, 145, i Militotts Alba.. Mesquite bean...... SS SOT ABB se ty ccnanletes Mexican Muhlenberygia.. Millet Milk Pea Melica mutica.. Millinm Morgan, Sam’! D., letter from.... 202 Muhlenbergia,. 70, 74, 155, 156, 233 Nimble Will.....c... ces 155, 234 Nodding Fescue grass..... . 228 Number of varieties of grass.... 10 , .@) Oats, description Of........e0eseee 396 “ “names of different varieties 397 MOS WANE eg: cis sane necsavesncatiane 40 “time of sowing...... ‘“: manner of cutting. Old Witch grass... Onobrychis sativa. Orchard grass.. Oryza sativa... Pale manna Qrass......ccccceeceees P Pampas Qrass.....sce0 ceeeeeees ceeees Panicum .......60 seeee cenees “ — Germanicum be crusgalli........ sanguinale ...71, 73, 101 199 filiforme.........seeee 73, 219 © -glabrum....... eee 73, 218 ee agrostoides ........... 73, 219 ‘6 ANCEPS «sees eee 73 “ projiferum .. antumnale ne Bf amarum . ae virgatum.... se capillare waiian ie latifoliim ! Poa nemoralis. Panicum clandestinum........... miliaceum... pauciflorum.. dichotomum... * virgatum wees ceecee ee Thali@tivsiencttiwccuscocacwes Paspalum laeve.....eceees distichuum......... 13, digitaria, ww... racemuldcum .. pete undutalum............ - ciliatifolium. fluitans ..... Petalostemon foliosus .. decumbeus... “s candidus ..... . corymbosus... Perennial Rye grass....... fe clover ....... | Pencil flower...... hs Pendleton, E. Mu........ see dudiea POANU UB wicsisvescinsyeseaicwses 412, 420, 435 Pennsylvania Eatonia ............ 230 Medics seosess 437 Pea, m ~ 426 Phalaris can 206: Phaseolus perennis...........0000 425 - di ersifolius .. . 425 ae helvotus Phalaris arundinacea Phleam pratense..30, 33, 39, 80, POS saseacenpicoeste vaseceawne “ annua.........30, 31, 39, 71, e pratensis 30, 31, 33, 39, 62, ‘compressa......:. $ UladOGeSissvne, sean vnnncananees a “ sylvestris © debilis.eccse sees i seslestunnoae 229 © BEYOND ssssseos scoemnescivesine 152 “ flexMOSa .......0. see 152 “ brevifolia . . 152 Pommede prairie 413 . Poverty eeu haee ‘ . 282 Prairie grass... ee 156 Prolific panic..........66 . 199 Purple bunch clover... 423 | Pungent eragrostis...... . 230 Pisum sativum...... ...... . 487° Polygonum fagopyrum ivexeanins 880 Proralea esculenta..........00 sce 413 a subaculis . 413, 420 a melilotoides ........660 240 510 INDEX. % PAGE. Pungent eragrostis,... T Polymorphous panic. ; . Profiferous panic ......... sesso Tables, Prof, Way..A..........26, 29 Polk, Hon. M. T., remarks ae 209| “ Prof. Wolff....c0.cce0 34, 35. Polk, H.M,, letter from........ 438| “ Wolff and ‘Knop......36, 37 ots of grasses ......... 66, 67, 68 Q fs list of true grasses........ 70, x Tables, of seeds for pasture... . 190 Quaking graces... cseescerreeeeee 183); aot of number of planta to 25t Questions and Answers........... 452 Tables, of depth thataee ds is wil germinate........... + 255 R Tables of seeds to be sown : to- gether......257, 158, 259, 260, 261 Ravenel, Fee Wrisiscsreesisecsens 2LE| og _stntrreeeedicenwenss 262, 263 Rice, description of ........ ; ; | Tables of sand dgvetni value of “ “method of culture. BT ASBER voersesse voee .-288, 289 Robinia pseudo acacia Tables of composition "of wood Si ty ee tn BOR scotia ccsinaiiicicosieva vente varie’ 298 He Hispidia ...ccscsceosotesenee Table of ingredients of ma- oo Robertson County, grasses in... 485} mures.. Rye, decane aise vivslexeusniens 408 | Table of elements of plant food., 309 time of BOWING oo... cesses: 4o9| ‘of value of buckwheat “ produet in United States... 410) DAY eee ceeeserserene ses dueeseveners 335 « "egy Tennessee ....+.0.- 410 Table of nutriment in corn...... 357 “of yellow and white corn - compared... . 358 s |. Table of the method of cultiva- ting corn., a 364 ‘Becale ceréale.........66 Table of preparation of soil...,. 365 Schrankia uncinata .. “of plant food removed... .” 309, sf angustata “ of export of corn...... 388, 389 Selecting of seeds for meadows.. 247| “ of value of corn export- Setaria verticillata.............74, 218] ed... a Thana 390, 391, 392, 393 glauca 7 Table of value of ep in Ten- “« viridis... NESBEE......0006 .. 894 “« ~ Italica Table of average price of grain “ ~~ Germanica in New York......c.. ecco ese 395 _ Sinclair, Geo. experiments by Tennessee, position of as a bor- 26, 195| der State....c.cscccesscseseet coset Sinclair and “Way, what, ‘they Tennessee, as a grazing Sti ate. 8 accomplished .......45 0:0 csc 27 | Tennessee, conversion from a Sorghum, nigrum... sececee 492| cotton to a grazing State...... 9 Sorghum nutans .... 74| Tennessee, a grass region......... 7 VUIGAIC......6.ceree veers: 74 i wilk vetch..... 422, +e ag ee at 4, 822 | Tick foil......... cece . 424 Sporobulus junceus....0. se LOH) 2 WRCTOUL. oie ca cactus cvaceisoraenees 424 tf serotinus Trifolium a .30, 33, 39, 115 “ indicus ‘ 42 Stipa avenacea.... Trifulium repens . Strombocarpus pubescens........ 413} sau Stylosanthes elatior......... 0.4... Trifolium arvense.........0....se06 Eales Prof. Levi.. « reflexum Sour grasses.. Spee Trifolium carolinianum ... BOM... csctvsostevnatacise: sxreektdvnes Trifolium hybridum........ Ree : s CQECHUM ....ecseeceseceanes INDEX, 511 Trifolium incarnatam............ Trifolium’ pratense perenne...... 3 Tricuspis seslerioides: dondesecs 1, 88 Trisetum flavescens .:............. “33 Triticum repens., 72, 292, 226 ee CaMiNUM srssveeesssees 72, 226 Tripsacum dactyloides...74, 107, oa Tricuspis sesleroides............++5 Tephrosia Virginiana ....... eo spicata vw... Thermopsis Mollis............ ue U a latifolia .. Upright chess .. V Uniola gracilis.........s000+ 74, 226 omy Value of lands before the war. 18 Value of grass in agriculture... 6 Variable panic grass Vetch tares...... eseeseee cose Velvet lawn grass.. ee analysis ‘of Vilfa vagina flora .. 144 Vicia Americana “ Micrantha... “Americana Virginia Lyme grass ......... cee 224 Voandeza subterrania.... ........ 412 Voelcker, Prof., article on clo- VOU s+ sispedsiscccesetas. cgeaiiace Seana 1388 WwW Wallace, J. K. P., letter from.. 135 Washington, J. i, on Se 485 Wolff and Knop ... : Wolff, Prof., tables by... Woburn, experiments .. Vaard Brags cccccoses tavccvses coveenses 2 Yellow oat grass ins Yellow wood ....cccesscesssseeseeees Zizania aquatica “ — milliacea ......... ee ZA WAYS.c0.cessneeressces cesses eeeres