ALBERT R.. MANN LIBRARY CORNELL UNIVERSITY Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http :/Awww.archive.org/details/cu31924089416881 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS The Rural Manuals & Manuva or GARDENING — Bailey Manuva or Farm Animats — Harper Farm anp Garpen Rute-Boox — Bailey Manuva or Home-Maxine — Jn preparation Manuva or Cu.tivatep Prants — In prepara- tion Jersey head of quality, illustrating what has been accomplished by improved methods of breeding and feeding, together with proper care and manage- ment. MANUAL or FARM ANIMALS A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE CHOOSING, BREEDING, AND KEEP OF HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, AND SWINE BY MERRITT W. HARPER ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY New Work THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1911 All rights reserved Mann SPEC. CPL bs < 65 H3 191) Copyrient, 1911, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published September, rgrz. Nortoood Press J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE In America, raising farm animals does not receive the recogni- tion that is accorded it in Europe. Because of this relative neg- lect, when in search of animals with which to improve our studs, herds and flocks, we still look largely to foreign lands. Conti- nental Europe provides us with blood to improve our draft horses, dairy cattle, and fine-wool sheep, while the British Isles furnish improved blood for our beef cattle, mutton sheep, bacon swine, as well as for horses, both light and heavy, and for dairy cattle. A comparison of European methods with those employed in America reveals the fact that our methods are lacking and en- tirely inadequate to produce the greatest improvement. The live-stock farmers of Europe exercise much careful judgment in choosing their animals, in feeding, in breeding, and in the care and management. It has been with a view of aiding to promote such interest in the daily work with farm animals that this volume is written. This has been done with the thought that increased interest will lead to improved care, which in time, it is hoped, will produce a better and more useful class of farm live-stock. It is well recognized that a good animal husbandry lies at the bottom of a good agriculture. From the above, it will be seen that the author’s purpose is to discuss the general care and management of farm animals rather than the breeds. However, a knowledge of the breeds is necessary. ‘To economize space and the reader’s time, the writer has adopted the method of freely inserting pictures of good animals of many breeds, with liberal legends, letting them run as a minor motive throughout the book. By this plan it is hoped that some of the main characteristics of the breeds may be taken away by the reader with little effort on his part. v vi PREFACE In a book of this range, many kinds of advice must be given. This advice may not all be of equal value, even though it be the product of actual experience. The author gives it for what it is worth, and it is the responsibility of the reader to apply it and to work it out as best he can. In the discussion of diseases, par- ticularly, it is very. difficult to give formal advice that will apply to all cases; and the statements are meant to be used as guides and suggestions and not as “doctor book” prescriptions or as substitutes for the help of a trained veterinarian. It is hoped that by calling attention to the diseases and ailments, the reader will see the importance of securing reliable aid when the subject is beyond his knowledge or skill. The book is a manual, and therefore it considers the common practical matters in much detail. No doubt much information which we now accept in the breeding and feeding of animals is very imperfect; but the writer has tried to discuss the daily handling of farm live-stock in the light of such knowledge as is at present best accepted and most capable of application. Recognizing the importance of such a work, the writer will be glad to correspond with those into whose hands the book may fall, concerning difficulties in the management of animals, and also to receive suggestions that will make future editions of the Manual— if such should be called for— more useful as a practical guide in raising farm animals. es M. W. HARPER. Iruaca, N.Y., June 7, 1911. CONTENTS PART I—-HORSES CHAPTER I PAGES Cuoosing a Horsze —JuDGING ‘i ‘i ; 5 ‘ e ‘ . 3-36 General Examination of the Horse , ‘ : F z , 5 Examination in the stable. i s . : 5 Examination in action . - é ‘ : « , ; 6 How to estimate the Age of a Horse . : a F i . : 7 General considerations . a 3 7 Examination of the teeth & Colt—- Three years old — Four years ela Five vein oldie Six years old —Seven years old— Eight years old — Nine years old — Ten years old — Eleven years old — Aged horses. Irregularities in the teeth. : ‘ : 7 ; ‘ » 13 Detecting Unsoundness . 2 ‘i ‘ - 3 z 2 . +14 Ablemish . 2. 2. WO An unsoundness . = . 44 Decayed and broken one Dikoharge ots the nostrils — Impaired vision — Defective hearing — Poll-evil —Sweenied shoulders — Fistule — Capped elbow — Unsound knees — Splints — Ring-bone — Side-bone — Scratches — Unsound hoofs — Thoroughpin — Spavin — Stringhalt — Curb — Forging and overreaching — Interfering — Locating lame- ness — Unsound in wind. Types of Horses : - ‘ 5 : $ : : . . 19 The light type. ‘ F , . : i . . . 20 Heavy type . 3 . : ‘i Z . @ 5 . 20 Choosing a Light Horse. : ‘5 . ‘ ‘ é . 20 General appearance in light aise . : : : . 21 Form — Action — Quality — cTeraperaunent: Detail characters of a light horse . i 25 Head — Neck — Chest — Shoulders — Acme—Hipows — Hace: vii viii CONTENTS PAGES. arms — Knees — Cannons — Fetlock — Pasterns — Feet — Ribs — Body — Loin — Croup — Thigh — Hind legs — Hocks — Hind cannons — Hind pasterns — Hind feet. Choosing a Heavy Horse . fi 3 , - 5 ‘ - 29 General appearance in heavy — : * 5 . 29 The form — The weight — The action — Quality Detail characters of heavy horses . - . 383 Head — Neck — Chest — Shoulders — Aen _ Forearm _ Knees —- Cannon — Pasterns — Feet — Body — Croup — Thighs — Hock. ; CHAPTER II Tue FEEpine of ANIMALS— GENERAL CONSIDERATION is : 37-55 Food . ‘ ‘ ‘ , : : . ‘ s P 3 . 387 Use of food . P 3 ‘ 5 2 4 s 3 : . 87 Composition of food . 2 é 3 . 38 Water — Ash — Protein — Carbohydrates — Fat. Function of various food materials . F c » 41 Water — Ash — Protein — Carbohydrates — Fat. Digestibility of Food . ‘ : . F . e E A . 44 Digestion . . . ; . . é . * . 44 Size of digestive otgans i . - : e : : . 45 Digestible nutrients . : ‘ : 7 . F : . 46 Conditions Influencing Digestion . . . . - oo. 648 Palatability . : 48 Time of nuspaatine = Grinding the food — Cuking toeics Various processes. Maintenance Rations and Productive Rations . ‘a é a . 60 Maintenance rations . : F ‘ Fi 5 : : . 60 Productive rations 3 5 $ ‘ , . 5 . 60 Feeding standards for farm auinmli ‘ 7 : : » 61 Balanced Ration $ _ 3 . é ‘ . ‘ ‘ . 61 Nutritive ratio. : i oe 5 : - ‘ i » 62 Method of calculating . . - i 7 . : ‘ . 62 Other methods of computing rations . F ‘ - 5 . 64 Using balanced rations. ; : ‘ : 3 - . . 65 CHAPTER III Tue Feepine or Horses. ‘ . . é : 7 ‘ 56-69 Food Requirements for Work . . r . . . . . 66 CONTENTS ix PAGES Regularity in feeding . e 3 < c . 2 . 67 Order of supplying food * . . F . ‘ : . 87 Watering the horse. . . G : s i : . 69 Feeding the Work Horse . F ae . a cs 5 - 60 Feeding the Driving Horse F F ‘i . ; 7 : - 68 Wintering the Idle Horse . P : ‘ : 5 ‘ - 64 Feeding the Brood Mare . : 7 Eesha: = . . . 65 Feeding Mules . . i é . : : . F - 67 Sample Rations for the Horas ‘ i ‘ - ; ° , 68 CHAPTER IV Tae BREEDING OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL . . 3 2 . 70-95 Like produces like 5 F ‘ é 2 " 71 Variation is the Basis of inapeoxenient ‘ 3 : 5 ‘ 72 Variation universal among farm animals. . : , 72 Kinds of variation as 73 Proximate Causes of Variation . is 75 Environment — Climate — Food supply — Cure _ “Grossing: Selection . : ‘< . : is 17 Individual merit — _ Pedigree - _ Mating. Heredity . 5 F : : 83 Inheritance, of disease Peopslenie— ” Prolificacy or Kecundles — Sterility — Relative influence of a Systems of Breeding . 89 Grading — Crossing — Line treading — Jn“breeding— Breeding from the best. CHAPTER V Tue Breepine or Horses anp MULES s F é . 96-126 Plan of Breeding : i 7 5 F < r . 5 96 Codperative breeding . . . ee 98 Securing stallions . F é 7 P < 5 . 7 98 Selecting Breeding Stock . : A 7 : : 99 _ The breed and type —Uniformity — Sertiindss The Stallion . é : ‘ . . ‘ . 5 102 The Mare . . ‘ ° . . F 103 Season of the — to breed . 5 i A . 104 When mares should be tried ‘ é ° 107 Barrenness in mares. . . F 109 Abortion in mares : . - 7 : 110 Parturition time . ‘ . : Fi F . . 7 110 x CONTENTS PAGES. The mare and the young foal ‘ : 7 . : ‘ 112 The Foal . . ; 2 : . 7 . i 3 . 113 Ills of the young foal ‘ , 115 . Constipation — Diarrhea or scours — Nava tnteation, Feeding the young foal é ; : 7 . : ‘ . 118 Weaning the young foal ; : p . : : . 119 Breeding Jacks, Jennets, and Mules . ‘ : 3 : » 121 Jacks and jennets. : A . . ‘ 5 . F - 121 Mules and hinnies ; ‘ ; - . . . S . 124 CHAPTER VI Carre AND MANAGEMENT OF Horses. 5 ‘ é : . 127-150 Grooming . : : : < ‘ . 3 7 - 127 Care of the Horse’s Teeth . A . 4 Fi 2 . . . 128 Clipping . . : : : d ‘ . - s a - 128 Bedding the Horse. a ; : ‘ . . . : . 129 Blankets. . E ‘ s . 130 Stable blanket — Gutdaax biankoes, Care of the Feet : ‘ F : 3 . - . 181 Shoeing. Training the Colt ‘ ‘ . 182 Training to the halter—— Pekiniae to the uses of the bits Im- portance of a good mouth — Bitting the colt — Harnessing the colt — Hitching double — Hitching single — Training to mount. Harness and Harnessing . 141 The bit and the bridle — The bit— Head stall — Blinds - Geuten. pieces, ear-bobs, and tassels — The check-rein - — Fitting the collar — Adjusting the hame-tug — Breast harness — Fitting the back-band and crupper — Fly-nets — Caring for harness — Harness room. CHAPTER VII Diseases oF THE Horse ‘ ‘i . : 2 : . . 151-181 Treating Sick Horses . 3 r - 3 : : ‘ . 1 Administering Medicine . : 164 Drenching — Hypodermic Medication _— intone medingtion _— Enemas or injections into the rectum — Counter-irritants — Blisters — Firing. Lameness ; its Cause and Treatment - F . 5 " . 158 CONTENTS xi PAGES Lameness due to ailments of the bones a ‘ 158 Splints, ring-bones, side-bones, bone stain, and bony en- largements — Fracture. Lameness due to ailments of the joints 160 Wind-galls, blood-spavin, bog-spavin, and iievoupipia. Lameness due to ailments of muscles and tendons 161 Sprains — Shoulder lameness — Sweeny shoulder — Bos shoulder and neck, and galls— Curb. Lameness due to capped-elbows or shoe-boils 164 Capped-elbows — Capped-knee — Capped-hock — Shoe-boil. Lameness due to ailments of the foot 165 Interfering — Overreaching — Calk wands — Cora— Pate. tured wounds of the foot — Cracked hoofs. Diseases of the Legs . : , 3 168 Scratches — Mud fever — Revenue: Diseases of the Digestive Organs 169 Ailments of the Mouth . : 169 Sore mouth — Abnormal and disnespil tect — Eanes, Ailments of the throat and gullet . 170 Choking. © Ailments of the stomach and intestines 171 Indigestion — Colic — Diarrhea or scouring — Cotiatlpation. Diseases of the Respiratory Organs . 174 Catarrh — Heaves, broken wind, asthma — Restos, whistling, thick wind. Miscellaneous Diseases ‘ . U7 Wounds — Distemper — favaetiag —_ Pedbaiia —_— “Foul sheath _ Diseases of the eye. PART IlI—CATTLE CHAPTER VIII Cuoosing CATTLE — JUDGING , - : : 7 - 185-202 Types of Cattle . 5 . ‘ ‘ F ‘ 7 F 185 The dairy type . i ‘ . F 186 The beef type ‘i Z ‘ 186. How to estimate the Age of a Caw 187 General examination . : ss ‘ ‘ ‘ é 187 Examination of the teeth . , é é 7 "i ; 187 xii CONTENTS PAGES Examination of the horns . P : i ‘ ‘ . 189 Choosing a Dairy Cow : . . : F > ‘ . 189 General consideration in dairy cows . . : . 3 - 190 Form — Quality — Constitution — Temperament. Detail characters of a dairy cow . “ . 194 Head — Neck — Fore-quarters — Badly _ Hisd-quatiers _ Udder — Milk-veins — Milk signs. Choosing Beef Cattle ‘ : : j 5 : F . 198 General characteristics of beef cattle : : 199 Form of the feeder — Quality of the feeder — Condition of the feeder — Uniformity among feeders. Detail characters of beef cattle. P 200 Head — Neck — Fore-quarters — Body — Hind-quarters — Fat steer. CHAPTER IX Ferpine Dairy Cattle . . ¢ - ‘ . 5 . 203-226 Food Requirements for Milk . ‘ é : j ‘ P . 203 Haecker Feeding-standard — Mature Cow. ¢ = : ‘ . 206 Haecker Feeding-standard— Heifers. . 2 OS . . 209 Feeding-standards mere guides. . 2 . . . . 210 Effect of Food on Composition of Milk. Fi a 210 Effect of food on total solids— Effect of food on the percentage of fat — Food and flavor of milk— Order of supplying food — Effect of food on quantity of milk. Watering the Milking Cow : : . . 7 5 : . 2138 Feeding the Milking Cow . 214 Summer feeding of dairy cattle — Protecting cows from itp Winter feeding of dairy cattle— Grain or concentrated feeds — Dry forage —Succulent feeds —Silage— Roots and tubers —Soiling. Feeding for High Production . . ‘ ° ‘ i ‘ . 222 Feeding the Heifer . . . . . A 5 : 223 Sample Rations for the Dairy Cow F ° . : ‘ . 224 CHAPTER X Breepine Dairy CarTLe . ¢ és . ‘i ‘ ‘ . 227-256 Milk-records . é . . 229 Method of imeepiie eerie) ‘Malus of miliexeoonda: CONTENTS xiii PAGES Testing Milk for Butter Fat. ‘ is . 232 Sampling the milk — Using the seit Whitling ihe bottles — Reading the percentage of fat. Testing Associations . ‘ : . : . z : : . 2385 General plan ij ‘ 5 7 . ‘ 3 . 235 Records of Preformance ead of Breede. ‘3 . A 3 . 236 The individual animal the unit of improvement . i a . 287 Plan of Breeding : z . 237 Raise the heifer calves front he est cows — Catipenatine breerling: Forming the Dairy Herd . ‘ 3 j A A : . . 238 Grading-up the Herd. . : 239: The first generation — Select heifer calves iret the higmepredacs ing dams — The second generation — Continued judicious selec- tion the means of improvement. The Dairy Bull . . P 244 Choosing a dairy bull Uniformity of gob Nuciber of cows to the bull. The Dairy Cow . ‘ : é ‘ ‘ ‘ . . 246 Productive period in duiey cattle . q a 2 $ . 246 Season of the year to breed . ‘ : ‘ . . 247 Parturition time . : : . . . : c . 248 The Calf . ‘ . ‘ . : : ‘ 3 . 250 Feeding the dairy alt. By nets . . 3 : A . 251 Removing horns from young calves’. 4 5 . : . 255 Castrating the male calf F ‘i F . . 7 . . 255 CHAPTER XT Care aND ManaGeMeENnT OF Dairy CATTLE . F . 257-274 Sanitary Milk Production . : : . 257 The cow — The stables Mavi house —_ ee Milking. Milking Machines. . : : 5 . - : 3 . 260 Management of the Bull . é . . z : ‘ e . 263 Ringing the bull . é i . 5 ‘ : ‘ . 264 The Dairy Barn. Fi 264 Light in abundance should guter the diay een = Weniilation essential to health — Floors are best made of cement— Water- ing device. The Silo. A ® i ‘ : : - . 270 The size of the ip Filling the silo. . ‘ é = » (271 xiv CONTENTS CHAPTER XII PAGES FrEepinc BEEF CatTTLE é Z a ; . A . 275-304 Essentials of Feeding Cattle . : ‘ . - . 3 . 275 Age at which to feed cattle . 3 . E ‘ ‘ 5 276 Form for feeding cattle . < : . : 2iT Condition of feeding cattle . : 4 . ‘ a . 278 Quality of feeding cattle 3 7 é ‘ > a ‘ . 279 Uniformity in feeding cattle CG . zs : : . 280 Food Requirements for Beef. ‘ ‘ ‘ si 3 . 281 Wintering Stockers and Feeders 4 : 5 : : : . 282 Roughage increases feeding hace ‘ : ' : . 284 Summer Feeding on Pasture. . 284 How to turn to grass — Feeding grain 1 enue on n Pato — The pastures. Winter Feeding in Dry-lot 7 : F é 5 < . 2891 Feeding grain to cattle in dry-lot. Baby-beef . ‘ ‘ ‘i . 291 Cattle used in abet nication —Heedine for baby-beef production — Advantages of baby-beef production — Disadvan- tages of baby-beef production. Feeding Cattle for the Local Market z F : : é 293 Hogs following Grain-fed Cattle i F : . 295 Getting Cattle ‘*On Feed” F , 5 . 296 Length of Feeding Period . : : : ; . 297 ‘Marketable Condition ‘ ; a : ‘ : , 297 When to market cattle. Shipping Cattle . , ‘ 299 Preparing cattle for Aapihont Lprituing mate for che etal market. Sample Rations for Fattening Cattle . : : F . : 300 CHAPTER XIII BREEDING Brrr CaTTLe ‘ A . é ‘ : ; 305-319 Plan of Breeding . ‘ . : é ‘ . 3807 Cooperative erating : P : ‘ as . 807 Raise heifer calves from best cows ‘ ‘ : z . 807 Selection of Breeding Stock : i « 808 The breed — Crossing — The dugi-porpess caw — thi formiey. The Beef Bull. 2 7 . ‘ 5 : . 7 . 311 The cost of a bull. CONTENTS xv The Beef Cow . ‘ 5 r : ‘ . . 313 Production-period in cattle — Season of the eae ‘io breed — The : pregnant cow—Cow with calf at foot — Weaning — Feeding the beef calf. CHAPTER XIV CaRE AND ManaGemMeEnT or Beer CartTLe . . 3 : . 820-330 Farms for Fattening Cattle : : A % i ‘ . . 822 Equipment for Summer Feeding 3 322 Pasture — Feed-bunk — The self- faader _ Shiniia — Water— Salt. Equipment for Winter Feeding . : 326 Shelter for winter feeding — The feed ist Bintiorm for iibeia bunks — Dry-forage-rack — Water-tanks. ‘CHAPTER XV Diseases oF CATTLE. ‘i . 831-855 Diseases of the Generative ‘Camas: andl Difficulties of Parturition . 331 Barrenness in cows 3 ‘ . 7 ‘ . P F . 3882 Abortion in cows . 7 - = 3 5 . s - . 38382 Difficult parturition ‘ aim 2 oats a : ‘ z J . 3884 Retained afterbirth ‘ . : ‘i 3 . = : . 3836 Eversion of the womb . ‘ 3 . ‘ : : j . 338 Milk-fever . ‘ - : S : 3 - . . 838 Garget . . 7 . . 7 2 . F . . 840 Ills of the Young Calf 7 é . . - 3 ; . 840 Constipation . - ‘5 ‘ : : ‘ : 3 . 841 Diarrhea or scours % ‘ P a ‘ < ‘ . 341 Tuberculosis 4 ‘ ei P ‘ ‘ : - ‘i . 343 Methods of intéotion ‘ 7 - ‘ . e . . 3843 The tuberculin test F , ‘ ‘ 3 soos ‘ . 346 The testing outfit . : F , . 7 ‘ - . . B45 Directions for making the test . 3 ‘ 5 - : . 3846 Retesting . F 2 > : > é . 849 Tuberculin not infallible f ‘ : ‘ ‘ ‘a 2 . 849 Prevention of tuberculosis . . si 5 . ci : . 849 Eradication of tuberculosis . ‘ . 3 is ‘ . 850 Bloating in Cattle. : : a: - . a . . 851 Impaction of the Rumen . . . . 3 . é : . 353 Cattle off feed. Dehorning . ‘ ‘ 3 ‘ ‘ 5 F 3 . 854 Vices of Dairy eattia Z : : 2 3 “ a . 3854 Kicking cows — Sucking cow. Xvi CONTENTS PART ITI— SHEEP - CHAPTER XVI Cuoosine AND JUDGING SHEEP. 7 ‘ . ; . « 359-37 Catching and Holding Sheep . . . . «. . . . 8C How to estimate Age of Sheep . 7 . . r . : . 3€: Examination of the teeth. ‘ . . : - . . 3h Types of Sheep . ; , ‘ . F - ‘ é F . 24 The fine-wool type : . F . is ‘ F . . 34 The mutton type . ‘ , 5 5 . 3 ‘ . 86. Choosing Sheep . ‘ 5 7 ‘ ‘ * s ‘ é . 386 General appearance . é 36 Form — Condition and weieitic _ Gusltiy— —_— Gonstfiuttonal vigor — Uniformity. Detail characters of sheep. r 36 Head — Neck — Shoulders — Chest. _ Body — op — — of mutton. Examining the fleece . e . 37 Quantity of fleece— Density — a “Quality of Aestee Softness — Crimp — Soundness — Condition of fleece — Purity — Luster — Brightness — Yolk — Summary. ' CHAPTER XVII Frepine SHEEP. ; ri ‘ r . : - 877-AC Food Requirement of ishieon ‘ 3 ' r fs - . . 3 Feeding the Flock . i 2 i ‘ F : ‘ F . 3 The flock in summer . 3& Pastyre for sheep— Arming mm Peer ae ee the ieee — Change in pasture — Providing shade — The use of sown pasture. The flock in winter. , . 88 The winter ration — Hrerelea— — Care of feet _— Bedi: Fattening Sheep z 2 . : . : . 88 Growing winter lambs . . 381 Foundation stock — Winter ania for wintacdamt prodas- tion — Feeding the lambs — Dressing winter-lambs. Growing spring lambs . ‘ c - 2 ‘ a . 39 Feeding lambs for fall . ; s 7 $ Fs é - - 39° Getting the lambs on full feed. CONTENTS Xvii PAGES Fattening lambs in winter . : 5 F 398 Feeding in the semiarid West— Feeding in the corn-belt — Feeding in the East. Sample Rations for Fattening Sheep . c j - , é . 401 CHAPTER XVIII Tue Breepine or Sueer. . . : . : - 408-421 Plan of Breeding : : : : E A ‘ : : . 404 Choosing Breeding Stock . F é . : ‘ . 404 Type — Uniformity. The ram : F ‘ 2 : : ij ‘ e ‘ . 406 The ewe flock : é ; . : A : 3 . 406 The Breeding of the Ewes . ; . a : . 407 Productive period — Season to peed — Method of. mating — Managing the ram —The pregnant ewe —Lambing time — Difficult parturition. ; The Lambs ‘ . F . 413 The first meal — A onilled iaant ae disosmned lamb, Lambills . : . : . 416 Constipation — Diarrhea tt Pinwine a = Sars soetle — Sore eyes. General care of lambs . F : . 417 Feeding the lambs — Weaning the lambs _ Castrating male lambs — Docking the lambs — Marking lambs. CHAPTER XIX CarE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP x é . . ‘ . 422-438 Dipping Sheep . ; » 423 Importance of dippine'— The Sopike vat ‘How ates are sed = Frequency of dipping. Shearing Sheep . , . 427 Washing sheep— When je: diay Hand! siesta ‘Machine shearing — Tying the wool. Practical Sheep Barns : ‘i . 483 The feed-racks — Quantity of pearing —'The dieae tot, CHAPTER XX Diseases or SHEEP . 7 2 ‘ . é e ¢ . 489-450 Treating Sick Sheep ‘ a . . ‘ , a . 4389 Xvili CONTENTS PAGES External Parasites. - . . . . 5 F - . 440 Internal Parasites. 5 3 . . ‘ , . 440 The stomach-worm — The taper Digestive Disorders . a . 446 a a _ Disontiere ere by evetteadine: Other Diseases . 4 . . : . : i - . 448 Caked udder — Garget. PART IV—SWINE CHAPTER XXI CuHoosine AND JupGING SwINE . , = FI F é . 453-466 Types of Swine . a ‘ . c . c : . . 453 The lard type " a ‘ : : . . 5 i . 453 The bacon type . F ‘ : : 7 3 . i . 454 Age of Swine. : . - i ‘ : . : ‘4 . 454 Choosing Lard Hogs . F F A P . : : . 455 General appearance of lard fieige é : ‘ . 456 General form — Weight and eondition — Quality — Cénstitu- tion — Uniformity. Detail characters of lard hogs. 459 Head — Jowls — Neck — Shoulders. — Back and jets — ‘Sides — Belly — Hips — Rump — Hams — Legs. Choosing Bacon Hogs F ‘ ; - . 464 Condition — Form — Sioifldons —_ ‘Sides — Hinmwa, CHAPTER XXII Tue Frepinc or Swine 3 . : . . f F . 467-486 Food Requirements for Swine . fj 5 es : : . 468 Preparing Food . 5 3 . 469 Grinding feed — Soaking the teal — Cooking the foed, Making up a Ration . . . 470 Feeding capacity among swine — ‘Giving swine their feed — Salt — Fresh cool water. Feeding the Breeding Herd - . : ‘ ‘ : . 472 Feeding the herd in summer 7 ‘ . 472 Ringing to prevent rooting — "Pastare for swine — ees for swine — Pumpkins and squashes. CONTENTS xix PAGES Feeding the herd in winter . é a é < . ‘ . ATT Feeding the young and old herd. Fattening Swine - Fi é . a c 7 . 478 Feeding the lard hog. 5 . 7 7 . . ‘ . 479 Feeding the lard hog in summer . : ‘ . F . 479 Feeding the lard hog in winter 2 F . é s . 481 Feeding the bacon hog . . . : a. Hs é - 483 Summer feeding on pasture . F . : * F . 484 Winter feeding in dry-lot ‘ 7 . . - ~ |). 484 Sample Rations for Swine . x 6 ° . 3 P . 485 CHAPTER XXIII Tue BREEDING oF SWINE. 3 z . 2 7 5 - 487-502 Plan of Breeding é é a é 5 . ‘ - . . 487 Codperative breeding. Selecting Breeding Stock . 2 5 . . . 2 ‘ . 489 The type — ne The Boar . z FI : : * é : 2 -. « 490 The Sows . m Z . 491 Productive eri Season to breed — “Method of mating—‘The pregnant sow — Farrowing time — The brood sow eating her pigs — The sow after farrowing. The Pigs . . 498 The first tigate ii}s-—teadtine fis dies — Weanlve the wiles — Castrating pigs — Marking pigs — Pigs after weaning. CHAPTER XXIV Care AND MANAGEMENT js ‘ eS $ 5 . . 608-509 Dipping Swine . : . : . E : A 7 ‘ . 603 Shelter for Swine F 504 The large hog-house — The individaal hegehonses — The ACchaped individual hog-house — The shed-shaped individual hog-house — Disadvantages and advantages. The Hog Lot. . ‘ : ‘ : ‘ 4 . : . 609 Hog-wallows. CHAPTER XXV Diseases oF SwINE 3 ¥ ‘ ci r ‘ z : . 610-524 Quarantine lot . . . . . to oe F a . . 610 xXx CONTENTS PAGES Hog Choléra ‘ . il .Manner of gprending the dinaeePrenentidn of fhe disease — Prevention of hog cholera by immunization — Objections to the _ serum method. Swine Plague. 3 , 2 . i j : . 517 Tuberculosis. : é . 517 Manner of ails ie ilies _— on of a Habereitar tend. , Worms . * . ; . 619 Prevention of worms = Preasnent for worms. Lice 2 ‘ és 5 ‘ : é . : z . 620 Scours 3 : i ‘ é z . i : . 521 Constipation . i ‘ . ‘ F ‘ ‘i : ‘ . 52) Thumps z : : wh) eh e ‘ : . : . 52% Sore Mouth ‘i , 3 s . A : : : . 52% Garget ‘ F ‘ . . fi ' ‘ " js i . 52E Removing the Tusks . : : - : ‘ 2 1 . 52E Chicken-eating Swine ‘ : : ‘ ‘ é ‘ « 524 APPENDIX AVERAGE Weicuts’oF FEEDING Sturrs . f . P . . 528 Dicestiste Nurrients 1n Feepine StTurrs . : . . . 52¢ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS , PAGE Jersey Head... see ee Frontispiece Arab Stallion ** Shahwan a 5 P a : 6 Lower Front Teeth of Horse at Three ‘Peas of eas : : ‘i . 10 Lower Front Teeth of Horse at Four Years of Age ‘ F . . 10 Lower Front Teeth at Five Years of Age ‘ : . A A 10 Front View of Five-year-old Mouth : . . : 5 a . 10 Side View of Five-year-old Mouth . z ‘i ae 4d “ . . 10 Lower Front Teeth at Six Years of Age. . ‘ a : : . 10 Lower Front Teeth at Seven Years of Age . ‘ 5 : 10 Lower Front Teeth at Eight Years of Age. : : : : a wl Upper Front Teeth at Nine Years of Age . . . , és 12 Upper Front Teeth at Ten Years of Age ‘ A . Fi 14 Upper Front Teeth at Eleven Years of Age . ‘ : A F . 1a Upper Front Teeth at Fifteen Years of Age . A : ‘ « A2 Upper Front Teeth at Twenty-one Years of Age . . ‘ . > 42 Side View of Twenty-one-year-old Mouth . ‘ . a 3 . 18 Front View of Twenty-one-year-old Mouth . : é ‘ ¥ 13 Upper Front Teeth of Horse at Thirty Years of Age. a ‘ . 18 Imported Percheron Stallion ‘¢ Carnot’. F : : ‘ : » Le First Prize Percheron Stallions . : . : ; - . . 1 Percheron Stallion ‘‘Coco”’ . js : ‘ . . ‘ i . 1g Hackney Coach Team . 2 . - $ 3 . 2 ‘i x, 22 An American Trotter. ; : ‘ ‘ é : : ‘ . 24 Clydesdale Stallion ‘“‘ Calipt’’. fi : 2 ‘ . ? . 3 Clydesdale Mare. 7 ‘ - . 34 Champion English Shire Stallion es Dan Patch me) Oe ‘i ‘ . . 3a Champion English Shire Stallion ‘‘ Mazemore Harold” - » 4 ‘¢ Wrydelands Sunshine,’? Champion English Shire Mare. ‘ . 44 ‘‘ Wrydelands Starlight,’’ English Shire Mare 4 ‘ : = 7 E Belgian Stallion ‘‘ Robuste de Thiensies. 5 , 5 : : » bE Imported Belgian Stallion : . . . 7 . . 5 . 61 Farm Team of Grade Belgians ‘ . . ; . . : . 62 xxii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Driving Team of Spirit and Good Form . F F r ‘ a . 63 Black Percheron Gelding ae <2 . . , c . F . 66 Pair Well-bred Mules. i : . : 5 ‘a . . 67 Suffolk Stallion ‘‘ Rendleshau Sesreer ae : . . - 3 » 4 Suffolk Mare ‘‘Bawdsey Pearl” . “ P . . : . s UT Hackney Coach Stallion ‘‘ Foundation ” is 7 z . S . 79 Hackney Stallion ‘‘ Fandango M”’. i F ‘ . . : . 81 “ Decorateur,’’ French Coach Stallion . é : : . a . 8&7 French Coach Stallion, five years old. . . é : 7 . 91 Morgan Stallion ‘‘ General Gates’’. . . 7 ‘ 7 : . 94 ‘Carolina,’ American Saddler : : : . s . . . 97 Group of Percheron Mares . 2 . 3 ‘ - 101 Percheron Mare ‘‘ Princess’? and Four of i Colts - q . 105 Cross-bred Coach and American Trotter é . . 2 2 - 106 Arab Horse asa Polo Pony . ‘ ‘ ‘ - : 3 is . 109 Group of French Draft Horses F . ‘ : ‘ : : » i Hackney Coach Mare and Foal 5 j ‘ ‘ ° : . 114 Shetland Pony Team. : . : . . ‘ : . 17 Champion Jack ‘ General Wood 1 F : ‘ 7 s . . 122 Catalonian Jack. . r 7 . 5 : . ° . . 123 Pair Two-year-old Jacks s é A : 5 : F . . 124 Pair of Premium Mules . & 3 : : . 2 : . 125 Method of catching Young Foal. 3 : 7 “ : . . 134 Method of teaching Young Foal to Drive : . . A . . 136 Arrangement of ‘‘ Bitting Harness ”’ . . . : : . 137 Colt Hitched for First Time . . . . . . . « . WO Harness for controlling Vicious Horses . * 5 . . A . 141 Types of Collars. * ; 4 ; : ‘ é . . 146 Polo Pony of Good Form r ‘ ‘ - . P ‘ .» 153 Thoroughbred Running Horse é . : . . . - 159 Standard Bred Carriage Stallion ‘ etaon ee A . . c . 165 American Trotting Bred Carriage Horse 5 . - F ‘ . 172 Hackney Mare ‘ Kitty Grey’? in Action . - 7 . A . 179 Jersey Cow ‘‘ Tormentor’s Lass”? . 5 = as . F P - 186 Angus Steer . = . . . . . . ° s - 186 Cow’s Teeth arranged aecording to Age “ . . 3 - 188 Guernsey Cow “Dolly Dimple’’ . i . 2 A . 3 . 192 Guernsey Cow ‘“‘ Imported Hayes Rosie ”’ . 2 5 . js . 195 Guernsey Bull “Yeoman”. " ‘ % P * , « i167 Holstein-Friesian Bull ‘‘ King Segis? ‘ ‘ 2 : ‘ - 205 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxiii PAGE Holstein-Friesian Cow “ Dichter Calamity” . . . p . . 208 Interior View of Dairy Barn . . , ei ‘ : . 214 Holstein-Friesian Cow ‘+ Daisy Pauline Paul 2d ae : Fi ‘i . 216 Holstein-Friesian Cow ‘Betty Lyons Netherland ” 7 seat SS . 224 Ayrshire Cow. : F 2 : . 228 Apparatus for testing Milk aud iaaring Recorie : 2 j : . 284 Jersey Bull ‘‘ Hood Farm Torono”’ - . ‘ 3 , A . 246 Jersey Cow ‘' Jacoba Irene” . é , ‘ F C - . 250 Imported Brown Swiss Bull . { : 3 fi j : ‘ . 252 Brown Swiss Cow “ Vogel”’ . F és : i 3 - . . 268 Device for Cooling Milk. : F s F . a ‘ a . 269 Dutch Belted Bull ‘* Auten” - : ‘ . A : . - . 262 Dairy Barn. ‘ : p : - F . 265 Interior View of Dairy Hark ehiowiay Peed cartes F z . 267 Interior View of Dairy Barn showing Litter-carrier ‘i . . 269 Dutch Belted Cow *‘ Echo 2” : ‘ : . : . 271 Silo in Process of Construction by Fas Labor 5 é 7 : . 2738 Shorthorn Bull “ Avondale”’ . F : 5 ‘ ‘ . . . 277 Prize Winning Shorthorn Bull . R : ‘ . . . . 281 Fattening Steers on Pasture . : ci F 3 . . . . 288 Steer that made Large Gains . : : i z : é . . 204 Aberdeen Angus Bull. i : F 5 3 ‘ - es . 298 Hereford Cow. : ‘ ‘ ‘i . ‘ . 7 . 806 Champion Hereford Bull “Dale” - 2 - F ‘ - ; . 808 The Shorthorn Cow ‘‘ Rose of Glenside ”’ ‘ é ° 3 z 310 Galloway Bull. F 5 : ‘ : eh * - . . 312 Galloway Heifers . ‘ 3 3 c é : ‘ A . 313 Feeding Grain to Steers on Pasture @ . : c j 4 . 824 Red Polled Bull ‘*Cremo” . . 7 , . ‘ ‘ 3 . 829 Red Polled Herd . . ‘ . ‘ 5 ‘ Be A on ° i) wn Kd > > o Kd a 2] | > ie] zg 2\3 ° CFI Z IF ESI E/E lel Fle Fle SlElE LS] 2) FF) ee] F “use | PADI CD XH ID OD 00D uwnyjos aIqnop yous ws 7Ybts. 947 UO Busazno fo 9y0q" “Ifa OY} UO ddtaJaR fo ong shop ggg ‘smog “uonnysab fo poiad busnoys 190,, 250 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and discharges a stringy mucus; the belly droops and the muscles on each side of the root of the tail ‘fall in,’’ leaving deep hollows. Later the cow becomes uneasy, ceases eating, lies down and rises again, switches her tail, and may bel- low or moan. Soon the labor pains come on, the animal arches her back, lowers her croup, draws the belly up, and straining is more or less violent Pic. 79.— Jersey Cow “Jacona and continuous. Soon the clear tne Sh gave 17.250 pounds ater-bags protrude between The world’s record for the breed. the lips of the vulva, though ot by A. O. Auten, Jerseyville, blood may precede them. The water-bags come rapidly, hang- ing downward toward the hocks, pull at the fetus, and aid in dilating the womb. In this manner these bags aid materially and should not be ruptured until they do so naturally. The after-pains come on later and expel the afterbirth which should not be left longer than twenty-four hours. For difficult parturition and removal of afterbirth, see page 334. Directly after calving, give a warm gruel of oatmeal, wheat bran, or shorts. Increase the grain ration gradually until on full feed. THE CALF The young calf that makes its appearance normally and is bright and active needs only to be let alone as long as both cow and calf are doing well. Not all calves, however, are so fortu- nate. Occasionally one loses its life through want of atten- tion at time of birth. It sometimes happens that the new-born calf cannot breathe — does not establish the function of respi- ration. Steps must be taken quickly to establish respiration. BREEDING DAIRY CATTLE 251 If detached membranes cover the air passage, remove them. Wiping out the nose deeply with a feather, or even with the finger, excites sneezing and starts breathing. Blowing violently into the nose and mouth has a similar effect. Slapping the chest with the palm of the hand or with a towel dipped in cold water is good to start breathing. _As soon as the cow has recovered from the shock of giving birth, she should tend the calf, for it will be physically bene- fited thereby. If she refuses to lick and caress her calf, a little flour sprinkled over the back of the latter will often attract her to it. Should she still refuse, the calf must be dried with a cloth or wisp of straw, and if necessary, assisted to get its first meal. It is especially important for the calf that it get the first or colostrum milk of the dam. This milk is rich in mineral matter and ash, is a powerful laxative, and is effective in removing the fecal matter from the alimentary canal, and in addition serves as a tonic. The calf should be allowed to suck the dam a few times; some recommend until the milk is fit for human con- sumption, usually about the eighth or ninth milking, while others recommend separating them on the second day, providing the calf is strong and the cow’s udder in good shape, as the cow is more easily reconciled to the separation, and the calf can be taught to drink more easily than if it has sucked the cow for some time. If, however, the calf is weak, it is better to have it with the cow, as it will feed oftener and grow stronger; or if the cow’s udder is inflamed, the calf will help to bring it back to the proper condition. The calf may be placed in a near-by pen and in sight of the dam, as it is thought she will be less ex- cited and not attempt to “hold up” her milk. Feeding the dairy calf. — On account of the high price of milk it becomes necessary to feed the dairy calf by hand. This calls for extra labor and sometimes entails extra difficulties, but if proper precautions are taken, these may in a large measure be avoided. 252 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Teaching the calf to drink. — When the calf is taken from the cow, it may not drink at first, but after the omission of a feed it becomes hungry and as a rule can be taught to drink very easily. A calf is much more tractable when hungry. The calf will not learn to drink any younger by being forced to breathe Fic. 80.—Imrortep Brown Swiss Buuu. A first prize winner. Owned by Sedgley Farms, Hinsdale, Ill. The Brown Swiss cattle, natives of Switzerland, are classed as dual-purpose; that is, they yield a fair quantity of average quality milk and the steers when fattened make average beef. In size the bulls weigh from 1500 to 2000 pounds ; the cows 1200 to 1500 pounds. The color is usually light or dark brown, fading to gray along the backbone to the tail and about the belly. the milk into its lungs. It should be remembered that instinct teaches the calf to look up for its food, and the feeder must change this by teaching the calf to look down. There is great difference among breeds as well as among individuals in the ease with which the calves are taught to drink from the pail. Some are taught to drink at the first trial with little or no sucking of BREEDING DAIRY CATTLE 253 the fingers, whereas others require much more persistent effort and considerable patience as well as common sense. Danger of overfeeding. — When feeding by hand, there is much danger of overfeeding and gorging the calf’s stomach, thereby causing digestive disorder, scours, and death. When permitted to run with the cow, the calf sucks many times daily, — ten to twenty,— taking only a little milk at atime. When removed from the dam and lefi from eight to twelve hours, it gets exceedingly hungry, and when offered milk in large quan- tities, will gorge itself and bring digestive disorders that may prove fatal. If there are two or more calves in the same pen, it will be very necessary to fasten them, so that in case one gets through drinking before the others it cannot rob them of their supply, for if it should, it may prove fatal. The calf on whole milk. — For the first few weeks, the calf should be given the milk from its own dam rather than from an- other cow, as changing from one to another is likely to throw the digestive system out of balance, and result in digestive dis- orders such as scours, colic, and the like. When convenient, it is best to feed the calf three times a day for the first few days. The milk should be fed from a clean pail, directly after milking, while still at the body temperature. The amount of milk fed should be carefully regulated. A good plan with the average calf is to give four pounds — two quarts — of whole milk three times daily. If the cow’s milk tests high in butter-fat, it is ad- visable to feed that part of the milk which is first drawn from the udder, as it possesses a lower fat content, and is less likely to cause digestive disorders. In a state of nature, a calf gets milk containing about 3 per cent fat, whereas some of our improved breeds give almost twice that amount. The amount fed should be increased gradually, taking much care to avoid overfeeding. In case scours develop, the feed should be immediately reduced. The calf on skim-milk. — Whole milk, being rather expensive, should not be fed longer than is necessary. The time for begin- 254 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS ning to substitute skim-milk will vary according to conditions. In general the change should begin when the calf is four weeks of age. This change should be made gradually, so that the calf may adjust itself to the new feed without trouble. A good plan is to increase the skim-milk one pound each day and decrease the whole milk by the same amount, and thus requiring about one week to make the complete change. The skim-milk should always be sweet and as nearly the same from day to day as is possible. The amount fed may be gradually increased to 20 pounds daily, but it is not considered advisable to feed more than that amount. When two or three weeks old, the calf should be taught to eat alittle grain. This is best accomplished by placing a handful in the pail immediately after the calf has finished drinking the milk. It is not a good practice to put the grain in the milk, as the calf will swallow it with the milk and not learn to masticate it prop- erly. After the calf has learned to eat the grain, a box should be provided in which to feed the grain. If for some reason the calf fails to eat the grain,it must be removed and not left in the box to decay. The grain should be kept fresh and clean. At six weeks of age, the calf should be eating one pound daily of the following mixture: 3 parts corn meal, 3 parts ground oats, 3 parts wheat bran, and 1 part linseed meal. The young calf should be taught to eat hay along with the grain. If sweet nutritious hay is put within its reach, it will soon learn to eat it. Whole hay is preferred to chopped. Among the various hays, alfalfa holds first place, but if not avail- able, bright clover hay of fine quality is excellent for the calf. The hay should not be overripe, as such hay contains too much crude fiber and is coarse and woody. The calf may have all the hay it will consume, providing it gets grain and skim-milk in addition. It is doubtful whether it is advisable to feed silage or roots while the calf is getting skim-milk. Fall calves may be turned to grass the following spring, BREEDING DAIRY CATTLE 255 but grain feeding should also be practiced, as stronger and larger calves will result. Later in the summer, when the grass is short and dead, the flies bad, and weather very warm, some green feed, if available, would be a valuable addition. After the first or second month the calves should have access to cool, clear water, as the milk furnished will not be sufficient for them to drink, particularly if the weather is hot and thg flies troublesome. Milk substitutes for raising calves. — Whole milk is the nat- ural food for the calf. On it the average calf will thrive better than on any other food. Because of the high price of milk many substitutes for milk as a calf food have been put upon the market from time to time. From a careful perusal of the literature, both with respect to experiments and practice, it seems that skim-milk, grain, and hay make the best substitutes for whole milk in raising calves. Skim-milk, however, is seldom available, and this has led to trying the substitutes found upon the market. While skim-milk, grain, and hay are the best sub- stitutes for whole milk, it is true that healthy calves can be raised without milk of any kind after the first four weeks. In general calves so raised will be inferior in size, but they can be brought through strong and healthy. Removing horns from young calves. — When dairy cattle are desired without horns, the removal is very easily accomplished while the calf is very young. As soon as the horn can be located by examining the head with the hand, clip the hair away from the budding horn. Wrap a stick of caustic potash in paper to protect the hand, dip the end of the stick in water, and rub this upon the tip of the horn until the skin or scurf begins to loosen up and gets red, taking care all the time that none of the potash comes in contact with the skin surrounding the horn. In a few days the place will scale over. One application is sufficient. Castrating the male calf. — The age at which castration is per- missible varies, but usually is performed during the second or third month. If done in early life, there is less danger of 256 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS complications, as the organs are not fully mature; and if let go too long, the animal becomes ‘“‘staggy” in. appearance and will not make as good a feeding calf as otherwise. Castrat- ing a calf at so early an age is not a difficult task. The operation may be performed with the calf standing, if one is provided with “stocks” to hold him; or in the absence of stocks, by throwing the calf upon his side and holding him firm.+ When ready, hold the testicle in the left hand, and with a sharp instrument in the right make a good free incision, remembering that there are two thick coats that must be cut through. Now the testicle may be removed by simply cutting it off, though this may be followed by ahemorrhage. To avoid this, take the cord in the left hand, having the cord between the thumb and the index finger. Now twist the testicle several times with the right hand and push with the left hand towards the body of the animal. This will do away almost entirely with the bleeding. If, however, this seems too difficult, scrape the cord in two instead of cutting. Let the animal up, and in a few days he will be all right again. CHAPTER XI CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE THERE are many factors to be considered in the formation and management of a dairy herd, some of which are personal in their nature and do not lend themselves readily to discussion, while others are more general, of interest to all,and may be discussed intelligently. The two most important factors in a dairy herd are of course the owner and the cows. A discussion of the qualities of a good dairyman, further than that he should be in love with his work, have faith in it, be industrious, and pains- taking in selecting, breeding, and caring for his stock, is a difficult task, as all kinds of men on all kinds of farms are making a suc- cess with dairy cattle, whereas other men similarly placed are constantly failing of success. The cow, on the other hand, with her desirable and undesirable qualities more easily defined and more uniform in their nature, may be intelligently discussed. SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION By sanitary milk is meant a clean, wholesome product pro- duced under healthful conditions. The principal factors'to be considered in its production are the cows, the stable, the milk- house, the milking, and the cooling and storing of the milk. The cow. — In the production of clean milk, extra care must be given the cows. They must be curried daily to remove the loose hair and dirt. The udder and rear parts of the animal should be clipped, thus removing the long dirt-catching hair and rendering the parts much more easily cleaned. The udder 8 257 258 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS should be wiped with a damp cloth just before milking. Hay should not be fed previous to milking, as it fills the air with dust. Care should be taken to feed clean, nutritious foods and such as will not contribute an undesirable flavor to the milk. The drinking water for the cows should be clean, fresh, and the tanks protected from possible contamination. Furthermore, Fic. 81.— Brown Swiss Cow ‘Vo- the cows should be healthy. One aoe at Sedgley Farms, cannot produce sanitary milk and keep diseased cows. Each animal composing the herd should be tested for tuberculosis once each year and the diseased cases removed. The stables. —If one is to produce sanitary milk, the stable must be kept clean. This applies to dust, cobwebs, and the like, as well as to the manure and litter. Much light and good ven- tilation are essential. The floors should be of cement. The gutters and litter should be cleaned out twice daily, and the material hauled to the field, or placed in a protected water- tight pit outside the barnyard and of sufficient distance to pre- vent odors from reaching the stable. The covered shed, if one is used, and stable-yard, must be clean and well drained. It is a rather common practice to house other animals, such as horses or sheep and sometimes swine, in the same stable with cattle. If sanitary milk is to be the product, no other animals should be placed in the same stable with the cows. The cows should be bedded liberally, particularly if the floor is of cement. The bedding should not be permitted to become foul, as this not only lessens the comfort of the cattle, but makes it more difficult to keep them clean and it promotes disease. Old straw makes the best bedding material, but when high in price, it may be replaced by many other materials, such as shav- CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 259 ings from the planing mill, —— which make a clean and sweet bedding, — by tan-bark, by leaves, and the like. Milk-house. — Preferably the milk-house should be separate from the barn and located at a safe distance from all sources of Fic. 82.—A Devicz ror cootinc Minx. Milk cooled immediately after drawing will keep sweet much longer than otherwise. contamination, yet convenient to the cows. It should be divided into two rooms, one for heating water and cleaning the utensils, and the other for weighing, sampling, cooling, and storing the milk. The milk-house should be well lighted and well venti- lated, the floors should be constructed of cement, and the walls 260 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and ceiling made tight and smooth in order that they may be easily cleaned. The windows and doors should be screened to exclude the flies. The utensils, such as the milk-cooler, the pails, cans, strainers, and the like, should be thoroughly cleaned by first soaking in warm water, then washing in boiling water containing some cleaning material, rinsed in clean hot water, and then sterilized with steam. After thoroughly cleaning, they should be inverted in the pure air, preferably in the sunlight. Milking. — The milker should be cleanly in his habits, and should milk with dry hands. A small-top milk pail should be used to exclude the dirt as far as possible. As soon as each cow is milked, the milk should be taken directly to the milk- house and there weighed, a record made of the weight, a sample taken to test for the fat, then it should be strained, and im- mediately run over a cooler, reducing its temperature as low as possible (Fig. 82). The milk should then be kept at as low a tem- perature as possible. A good plan is to set the cans in a vat containing ice, and cover the vat with a lid. If thisis not con- venient, set the cans in running well or spring water. During transportation cover the cans with a blanket. In summer the blanket should be wet, in winter dry. MILKING MACHINES Perhaps the most important factor retarding the development of dairying is the difficulty of securing milkers who can be de- pended on to do their work satisfactorily. In general the size of the dairy is restricted. to the number of cows that the owner can attend to at such times as his help fails him. If the question of milking the cows, without being so dependent on hired help, could be satisfactorily solved, the number of animals kept on many dairy farms would increase up to the limit of the acreage to feed the animals. Any possibility, therefore, of milking cows by machinery is likely to appeal strongly to the dairy farmer. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 261 There are now machines on the market that will milk cows. There are, however, many questions relative to their use that cannot be answered with much positiveness; chief of which are the efficiency with which they milk, the effect on the cow, the effect on the milk, and their economy. It is well known that one milker may secure more milk than others from the same cow, and that after a cow has become accustomed to a milker, a change results in a decrease in the production. It may be expected, therefore, that the immediate effect of changing from hand to machine milking will be at- tended by the same results. The question as to the practicability of machine milking is, therefore, whether or not cows can be milked satisfactorily by this method for an extended period of time. Furthermore there comes the question of the effect upon succeeding generations, whether the machine milking will have a tendency to discourage the transmission of milking qualities. The milking machine is of so recent invention that there are not data enough at hand to answer these questions. The data available go to show that by taking the year through, the average cow yields approximately as much milk to the machine method as to the hand method of milking, particularly if she is stripped by hand after the machine milking. Mechanically, the machine seems to do its work efficiently. There are, however, certain difficulties encountered which hin- der the working of the machine and over which it can have no control. Chief among these are the shape, size, and other peculiarities of the cow’s udder and teats. The quality of the udder as regards fleshiness or flabbiness and unevenness of the quarters, teats abnormally small, warty,-those that milk down, and those that are very close together, are likely to give much difficulty. The effect of the machine on the milk, particularly the bacteria content, depends much on the manipulation of the apparatus while in operation as well as its care between the milk- 262 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS ings. If the teat-cups slip from the teats while the machine is working, many germs are likely to be drawn into the milk pail. The machines are provided with air filters, and the efficiency in keeping the germ content low depends much on the condition of these filters. The milk in its passage from the teats to the pail Fie. 83.—DurcH Bexrep Buuu ‘“Auren.’’ A first prize winner. Owned by R. F. Sanders, Bristol, N. H. The Dutch Belted breed of dairy cattle is a native of Holland. The cows are fair milkers, producing milk of average richness. The size is much smaller than the Holsteins, the bulls weighing 1400 to 1800 pounds and the cows 1200 to 1500 pounds. The color is black, with a white belt around the body. must pass through the teat-cups and a few feet of rubber tubing. These teat-cups and tubing are likely to crack, and these mi- nute cracks become laden with germs, which are hard to wash out, and if the rubber is steamed sufficiently to kill the germs, it soon wears out. To obviate this difficulty it is recommended to keep the teat-cups and rubber parts in a 10 per cent solu- CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 2638 tion of common salt. This treatment proves very effective. If, therefore, the workman is skilled in the manipulation of the machine and cares for it properly, the germ content of the milk can be kept low and a clean product secured. The avail- able data seem to indicate that the machine has no effect on the fat content of the milk, particularly if the cows are stripped by hand, as is usually advisable. MANAGEMENT OF THE BULL The bull calves must be removed from the heifers when four to six months old. In rearing a bull, accustom it to being handled from calfhood. .From the very beginning it should be gently but firmly managed and not fondled or permitted to frolic. Give .it kind, quiet, firm, and unvarying treat- ment. Always keep it under subjection, that it may never know its strength and power. Place a ring in its nose before it is a year old. This ring should be frequently renewed, in order that it be always strong. If this is neglected, the ring will come in two when most needed. Always lead and handle the bull with a staff. The bull should never run loose in the yard or pasture. It should be provided with abundant and regular exercise. At such times it should be under restraint and full control. For exercise, some recommend placing the bull in a tread-power and use the power thus generated to grind thegrain, run the fodder cutter or cream separator, and the like, but this does not seem practicable. A very good plan to provide exer- cise for the bull is to arrange a wire overhead and attach the bull’s halter strap to it. This will enable him to take exercise at will and still keep him under control. As age and strength increase, a second ring should be placed in the nose in which to attach a strap, chain, or rope to supplement the staff when the animal is let out for service. Let there always be a double hitch- ing device, so that the bu!l may never by accident find himself free when he should be tied. In the management of a bull, it is 264 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS well to remember that one physically tired may be depended on to be quiet and easily managed; hence the importance of much exercise. When possible, it is much better to keep the bull in the presence of the herd than stabled by himself, in a lonely place, as is so often the case. It is a common practice among dairymen to use immature bulls and to dispose of them before their merits as sires are known. This is because bulls of some age are likely to be vicious and dangerous. Many a good bull has been sold for beef only be- cause he was not easily managed and it was thought desirable to dispose of him before some one was injured. A bull that is known to get good offspring should be kept as long as he is useful as a sire. Ringing the bull. — Many neglect to ring the bull calf under the erroneous impression that it is a difficult task. On the other hand, itis very easy. All one needs to do is punch ahole through the membrane between the two nostrils, insert the ring, and screw it together. If one has a bull-ringing punch to make the hole, it is much easier, but in the absence of the punch the hole may be made with a knife, placing the ring in as the blade is drawn out. To restrain the calf it must be tied up securely by. the head. The ringing of an older bull is more difficult because of the difficulty of restraining him. THE DAIRY BARN The dairy cow is perhaps the most difficult of farm animals to stable properly. The purpose for which she is kept, that of supplying milk; the use to which the milk is put, that of human food; the condition in which it is used, being raw; the place from which it is drawn, being exposed to greatest filth; the manner in which it is drawn, by hand and often by unclean milkmen; and the condition of her dung or manure, as well as the fact that if maximum production is to be obtained, she CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 265 must be fairly warmly housed, yet provided with an abundance of light and much fresh air;—all serve to complicate the. problem of providing suitable quarters for the dairy cow. There are certain fundamentals that should be provided in every building in which the dairy cow is stabled. Chief among these are light, ventilation, sufficient room, smooth and light walls and ceilings, a good floor, a comfortable and convenient tie, and properly constructed mangers. Fig. 84.—Darry Barn, New York Strate Coutece or AGRICULTURE MILK-HOUSE IN THE FOREGROUND. Light in abundance should enter the dairy barn. — Sunlight is nature’s disinfectant. With sufficient light and proper ventila- tion, germ diseases are not likely to occur. It is said that direct sunlight will kill the growing tuberculosis germ in a very few minutes. Hence, cattle kept in well-lighted and well-ven- tilated quarters are not so likely to contract this much dreaded disease. Again, light shows dirt and makes it easy to keep the barn clean. Dark stables are likely to be dusty or dirty and damp, thus providing conditions for germ growth. In addition to freedom from germ disease, health, cleanliness, and the like, a barn in which the sun shines freely furnishes a cheerful place in which to work. 266 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Sunlight, the most efficient disinfectant as well as the most powerful of all medicines, is free, and provision for its admit- tance into any cow barn need cost but little. Window glass is inexpensive. Old barns that are dark and dismal may easily be provided with sufficient light by cutting holes in the walls and putting in windows. Best results are obtained by cutting the windows long from top to bottom and low, as more direct sunlight will fall on the floors. Ventilation essential to health. — The importance of pure air in a cow stable cannot be overestimated. It is essential to the well being of the herd; without it, disease will surely work destruction. While there are many methods of ventilating a dairy barn, the King system in some of its modified forms is admitted to be the most efficient. If in addition the windows are arranged as suggested on page 268, ample ven- tilation can be procured. , King’s system of ventilation. — While there are many meth- ods of arranging this system, it consists essentially of two parts: the inlets and the outlets, in the form of flues. This system will not work if the walls of the barn are full of cracks or the floor is made of loose boards. The floor, walls, ceilings, and windows must be so constructed as to prevent any large quantity of air from leaving or entering. The inlets must be so constructed as to meet two condi- tions; first, they must admit the fresh air near the ceiling, where the barn air is warm, in order that the fresh air may mingle with the warmest air of the stable and raise the tem- perature before descending to the floor, thus not allowing the animals to lie in cold air. In the second place, they must not permit the warm air to pass out instead of the cold fresh air to come in. This is accomplished by constructing the inlet flue so that it begins near the ground on the outside and ends near the ceiling on the inside. All that is necessary is to have the outer end of the flue several feet lower than the inner end. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 267 The inlets should be numerous, of small size, and constructed on all four sides of the stable in order to take advantage of the wind, regardless of the direction from which it blows. In this way a large quantity of air is admitted and evenly distributed throughout the stable. A convenient size for these inlets is 4 x 12 inches, as this permits the flue to be built between two Fic. 85.—IntTeR1IoR VIEW SHOWING FEED-CARRIER, FEED ALLEY, MANGERS, AND STANCHION OF THE Darry Barn, New York State COLLEGE oF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL University, Irwaca, N. Y. 4-inch studdings. There should be one such flue to each three cows. The flues should be lined with building paper, and this covered with matched lumber. All openings, and especially the outside ones, should be securely covered with heavy wire netting. The outlets must be so constructed as to meet three con- ditions. First, the ventilators should reach to near the stable 268 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS floor in order to remove the air from that point. This is desirable because the refuse gases from the animals being heavier than the other air of the stable remain near the floor. The animals not only lie down, but they breathe the impuri- ties from the floor when standing. The colder air is at the floor, and it is desirable to remove this, particularly in the winter, in order that the warmer air at the ceiling may move downward. In the second place, these ventilators should be provided with an opening near the ceiling for the removal of the warm air when the stable becomes too warm, particularly if the animals are to be kept in the stable most of the time. This opening must be provided with a door or slide to be closed or opened at will. In the third place, it is important that these ventilators be so con- structed as to afford as little inconvenience as possible, particu- larly when they extend through the hay loft, where they are sometimes in the way of the hay fork. The ventilating flue should be as large as convenient. The essentials of a good ventilating flue are similar to those of a good chimney. In addition to their being of air-tight construction and as straight as conditions will permit, it should rise above the highest part of the roof so as to get the full force of the wind. Window ventilation. — If it is not possible to install the King system in one of its many forms, the windows can be so ar- ranged as to form a fair system of ventilating the cow stable. To do this, hinge them at the bottom, allowing the top to open inward. Place a board edgewise along each side of the window, so that the air will not enter at the bottom and blow directly on the animals when the window is open. By leaving several of the windows open an inch or two at the top they will provide fair ventilation without producing serious drafts. When this plan is employed, it is best to open the windows on the side of the barn away from the wind and to regulate the size of the opening according to the severity of the weather. Floors are best made of cement. — While many objections have CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 269 been raised to the use of cement, such as its cost, its being cold and damp, injuring the cattle and the like, it is nevertheless the most desirable material from which to construct floors for the cow stable. The gutters. and mangers should likewise Fre. 86.—Internior View or Dairy BARN sHOWING LITTER-CARRIER, Gut- TER, AND ARRANGEMENT OF Winpows. NEw York Strath CoLuecr oF AGRICULTURE. be laid in cement. Cement has two very great advan- tages over all other materials: it is easily kept clean, and if properly put down, is durable. If desired, plank may be laid over the cement where the cows stand. This, however, is not necessary, as cement can be made dry and fairly warm by 270 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS placing a layer of some non-conducting material, such as build- ing paper, an inch or so beneath the surface. This may be done as follows: lay the cement as usual until within one and one-half inches of the desired thickness. Now lay down one thickness of heavy building paper, leave a strip at least six inches wide, along the edge next to the gutter. Paint this build- ing paper with asphaltum paint, then lay down another thick- ness of the paper. Spike this paper down, leaving the heads of the spikes sticking up about one-half inch above the paper. Put on the remainder of the cement and proceed as though the paper was not there. This paper need be put only where the cattle lie. Figs. 85 and 86 show good cement construction. ‘Watering device. — There are many devices on the market for keeping a constant supply of water before the animal. The question of their use depends largely on the ease of keeping them clean. In many cases they are provided with tops which the cow soon learns to raise and which fall down and cover the device when she is not drinking, but these do not keep the water clean. The cow with her mouth partially full of grain or hay often opens the lid and slobbers the grain into the water. This material soon decays and the device becomes a trap for foul-smelling water. Perhaps the safest and most convenient plan is to have a large tank located near by. This can be easily cleaned, the water kept fresh and cool in summer, and the chill easily driven off in winter. THE SILO The silo has passed the experimental stage, and the economy as well as the practicability of preserving fodder in it has been fully demonstrated. Silage is a valuable food, and is relished by all classes of farm animals, but is more particularly adapted to ruminating animals like the dairy cow. In fact, in order to secure maximum production, some kind of succulent food is necessary, and ordinarily silage will be found the most efficient CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 271 as well as the most economical form of succulence that can be provided. The fundamental principle in the preservation of green forage when placed in a silo is the exclusion of air. To pre- vent the air from reaching the silage, the silo must be constructed with air-tight walls. These walls must be rigid enough to pre- vent springing out of shape by the pressure of the silage, for in this case air will enter next to the wall. The pressure is greatest’ from the second to the sixth day after filling. The silage at this time begins to heat and settle, and if the walls are not sufficiently rigid to prevent any bulging, a considerable loss of silage is likely to result. The walls should be perpendicular, and the diameter the same from the bottom to the top. The size of the silo.— On being exposed to the air, silage spoils rapidly, and to avoid this must be fed off at the rate of one and one-half to two inches daily in the winter and three inches in the summer. A good plan is so to construct the silo that the horizontal feeding area for each cow will be approxi- mately six square feet daily. If we feed six square feet off the top and two inches down, this means one cubic foot to the cow. Fic. 87.—Dutcx Bretrep Cow xi jioht of a cu- “Eco 2.’’ A first prize winner. The BppIOmDalG We 8 hy Owned by R. F. Sanders, Bristol, bic foot of silage is forty pounds, N. H. though this varies much between the top and the bottom. As this is about the proper quantity to feed daily, it becomes evident that six square feet is the proper area for each cow. The table that follows gives the capacity of a silo of various widths and depths; also the area required to fill it, and the approximate quantity that should be fed daily to lower the 272 MANUAL OF. FARM ANIMALS surface two inches per day, based on an average weight of forty pounds to the cubic foot. By examining the table one can get an idea of the size desired ; also the economy of increas- ing the depth: Approximate capacity in tons of round silos of different diameters and depths and the area required to fill them as well as the amount that should be fed daily InsIpE Hsien Capaaey ACREAGE TO AMOUNT THAT DIAMETER FILL SHOULD BE Feet Feet Tons 10 Tons to Acre Fep DarLy 10 28 42 4.2 525 10 32 51 5.1 525 10 36 61 6.1 525 12 30 67 6.7 755 12 34 80 8.0: 755 12 38 , 94 9.4° 755 14 30 91 9.1 1030 14 34 109 10.9 1030 14 38 128 12.8 1030 16 30 119 11.9 1340 16 3 143 14.3 1340 16 38 167 16.7 1340 16 42 193 19.3 1340 18 36 196 19.6 1700 18 40 229 22.9 1700 18 46 282 28.2 1700 20 36 243 24.3 2100 20 42 300 30.0 2100 20 50 382 38.2 2100 22 36 292 29.2 2300 22 42 366 36.6 2300 22 50 469 46.9 2300 Filling the silo. — Occasionally the construction of a silo is criticized, whereas the fault may be found in the method of CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 273 filling. It is-essential to the preserving of silage that it be well packed, keeping it level and thoroughly tramped. This very important task is often intrusted to a lad who spends his Fic. 88.—Sito in THE Process OF CONSTRUCTION BY Farm Lazsor. ‘This silo, 16 feet in diameter and 30 feet high, was completed ata cost of one dollar for each ton capacity. time in standing in the breeze of the blower, with the result that the silage comes out of the silo somewhat molded the following winter. T 274 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS In filling with corn there is a tendency toward an uneven distribution of the ears; these, being heavier than the other parts of the plant, are blown to the opposite side of the silo. To obviaté this, many devices are employed, perhaps the most simple of which is a long bag open at both ends and fastened to the end of the carrier. By means of a small rope attached to this bag the corn may be deposited in any part of the silo desired. CHAPTER XII FEEDING BEEF CATTLE Frevine beef cattle differs considerably from feeding dairy cattle, as well as from feeding horses. In the case of horse feed- ing, the product sought is energy in the form of work; in the case of dairy cattle the product is milk; whereas in the case of beef cattle the product is flesh. This calls for special methods of feeding, special foods or food combinations, and special management. Much discussion was devoted (in Chap- ter IX, page 203) to the production of milk in which it was treated largely as an independent industry because of the fact that the successful dairymen have time for little if anything else; whereas beef production is not a special industry and does not require all of the feeder’s time, and on the average is conducted successfully only in connection with grain farm- ing. Among successful beef producers, beef-raising is regarded as a convenient way of marketing grain, as well as a means of conserving soil fertility, and hence the ability to grow more grain to feed more stock and also a profitable means of utiliz- ing much coarse forage which otherwise would be largely wasted. ESSENTIALS OF FEEDING CATTLE In feeding beef cattle one of the most important factors is the kind of cattle, for on the choice of them will turn in a large measure the possibility of success. In considering the cattle with a view of estimating their profit as beef producers, there are a number of essentials to be taken into account. 276 276 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Chief among these are the age, form, condition, quality, uni- formity, and the price. Age at which to feed cattle. — In recent years no question has been more discussed, or the object of more experimentation among cattle feeders, than the most profitable age at which to fatten cattle. This interest has been due in part at least to the fact that writers on agricultural topics strongly advised feeding young cattle, whereas the professional feeder, whose livelihood depends upon his success, has shown a decided preference for older cattle. To secure some idea of the age at which gains can be made most cheaply, let us examine the com- position of the body of an old and young steer. In Jordan’s “Feeding of Animals,’ we note the composition of the body of an aged fat steer and of a fat calf to be as follows: — WatTER ASH PROTEIN Fat Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Aged fat steer. . 49.5 4.4 15.6 30.5 Fat calf. . . 64.6 4.8 16.5 14.1 From this we observe that the body of the fat calf con- tains 15.1 per cent more water and 16.4 per cent less fat than that of the aged fat steer, the ash and protein being practically the same. This would seem to indicate that the aged steer in fattening required considerably more solid food, particu- larly those foods rich in fat, whereas the calf requires less fat, and less dry-matter to the pound of gain. As water is cheaper than fat we would expect the calf to make the cheaper gains, and such is the case. Not only does the age influence the cheapness of the gains, but it affects the rate of gain as well. Here, too, the younger animal has the advantage; that is to say, all things being equal, the younger animal will make more rapid gains for 1000 pounds FEEDING BEEF CATTLE Q27T live weight than the aged one. This is due in part no doubt to the fact that the younger animal’s digestive organs are likely to be in better condition, the teeth are sounder, the glands more active, so that the food is better masticated, more thoroughly digested and assimilated than in the aged steer. Fic. 89.—Tue Norep SHortHorn Buty “ AvonpaLe.”’ Owned by Carpen- ter & Ross, Mansfield, Ohio. The Shorthorn, a native of England, is the most popular beef breed all over the world. Though not so early maturing, they attain the largest size of any of the beef breeds, cows weighing around 1500 pounds, bulls 2200, and finished steers from 1200 to 1500 pounds. The bulls are noted for the excellency of their get when bred to native cows, while the finished steers are noted for their good quarters. In color they are red, white, and roan. Form for feeding cattle. —The form of the steers must be such as to meet two conditions: those demanded by the cattle feeder, and those demanded by the butcher. The cattle feeder wishes an animal that will make rapid and economical gains in the feed lot, while the butcher wishes one that will dress a rela- 278 , MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS tively high percentage of edible meat, particularly of the high- priced cuts, such as prime of rib, porterhouse, sirloin, rump, and round, which are taken from the back, loin, rump, and quarters. In general the form that best fills these conditions will be low set, deep, broad, and compact, rather than high up, gaunt, narrow, loosely made. The cattle should be low set, standing on short legs, as animals of this form are likely to prove good feeders capable of maturing early. The top and bottom lines should be straight and nearly parallel, the flanks should be low, thus giving much depth and great capacity. Cattle possessing such a form are likely to prove rapid and economic producers while in the feed lot, thus making a profit for the feeder, and when slaughtered to dress a relatively high percentage of edible meat, particularly of the high-priced cuts. Such an animal should dress out 55 to 60 per cent or better with approximately one-half of the edible meat in the region of the valuable cuts, and this will sell for about 75 per cent’ of the value of the entire carcass, leaving the other half from the region of low-priced meat to bring the other 25 per cent of the valuation. Condition of feeding cattle. — In considering steers to feed, their condition should be carefully scrutinized from two points of view: their thrift, and the amount of flesh they possess. Feeding cattle should be thrifty but not coarse. Thrift is indi- cated by a wide, deep chest, by fullness in the heart girth, by depth and breadth of body, and by good handling quality. While the cattle should not be coarse, too much refinement is likely to prove disappointing, as it often means delicacy or lack of thrift,and no animal lacking in thrift should find its way into the feed lot. To make rapid and economic feeders the cattle should not possess much flesh at the beginning of the feeding period.. All things being equal, the thinner the steer at the beginning of the feeding process the more rapid and economical gains it FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 279 will make, providing there is no lack of thrift. It is easily pos- sible, however, for a steer 60 be so low in flesh as to lack thrift. Such animals require time to get back into normal condition, and there is a possibility of their being stunted permanently. If we examine the bodies of the thin and fat steer, it may give us an insight as to why the animal gains in flesh more rapidly and on less feed when in a thin condition. In Jordan’s “ Feed- ing of Animals”? we note the composition of the bodies of such steers to be as follows: — WatTER AsH PROTEIN Fat Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Thin steer . . . 66.2 5.9 19.2 8.7 Fat steer. . . . 49.5 4.4 15.6 30.5 c It seems that the body of the thin steer contains a relatively high amount of water and low fat, whereas the fat steer’s body contains a relatively small amount of water and high fat con- tent. This may have a bearing on the fact that a thin steer gains more rapidly and on less feed than a fat one, and also on the fact that as the full feeding proceeds the gains are made less rapidly and require more feed. ‘Quality of feeding cattle. — Quality should be considered from two points of view: general quality, and handling quality. By general quality is meant that general refinement of external form found in the neat head, fine horn, dense bone, smooth outline, and compact body. This quality is affected by nothing so much as breeding. General quality and good breeding are closely associated, well-bred animals being likely to possess quality, whereas it is often wanting in the common-bred steers. The importance of general quality in feeding cattle cannot be over- estimated, as steers possessing it will give higher profit to both 280 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS the cattle feeder and the butcher, not because such animals will necessarily make more meat from a given amount of food, but because they will dress out better and bring a higher price on the market. Good handling quality indicates that the steer is a good feeder. By good handling quality is meant a fine silky hair and a loose mellow skin. These are associated with thrift and the ability to take on flesh rapidly and economically, whereas a heavy stiff hide is considered to indicate slower fattening. The previous care that the steers have received has a marked influence on the hair and skin, and hence on the handling quality. The importance of good handling quality is not to be over- looked if one is to succeed in feeding cattle. Uniformity in feeding cattle. — Feeding cattle should be uni- form in age, weight, color, type or form, condition, breeding, and quality. As we have observed, young steers gain more rapidly than aged ones, and, as we shall see, aged steers fatten more rapidly than young ones; hence it is not likely that a lot of steers of mixed ages would all be ready to market at the same time. If some of the animals are fat, while others are only half fat, they will not command as high a price on the market as though they were uniform in flesh. Not only must they be uniform in flesh, but they must be approximately uni- form in weight if the highest price is to be obtained. Butchers and packers desire cattle uniform in weight, so that the cuts of meat will run uniform, as their trade demands. While uni- formity of color does not add to the animal’s capacity to take on flesh economically or to his ability to dress out well, yet the butchers desire such similarity and are willing to pay for it. The cattle should be uniform in type or form. If they vary in type, the weight of the cuts of meat will likewise vary, and to this the butcher objects. The butcher also demands animals equal in condition and quality, to meet the demands of his trade calls. ' FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 281 FOOD REQUIREMENTS FOR BEEF The quantity of food required to fatten a beef animal depends on many factors, chief of which are the kind of food and the age, weight, and condition as well as the individuality of the animal. Some foods promote the formation of flesh and bone, and as a result the animal tends to grow, whereas certain other food en- courages fat formation and the animal tends to fleshen rather than to grow. The age, weight, and condition also have much influence on the amount of food required to fatten the animal. Fic. 90.-—A Prize WINNING SHORTHORN Butt. Owned by Carpenter & Ross, Mansfield, Ohio. The younger the animal the less food will be required to produce a given gain in flesh. The thinner the animal, providing it is thrifty, the less food will be required to produce a given weight. Perhaps most important of all is the individuality of the steer. Some steers will gain three pounds daily, while others receiving the same amount and kind of food will gain but one pound. The only method of distinguishing the animal that makes three 282 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS pounds from the animals that make but one is by external appearance. The external indication of a good feeder is a low-set form, being deep, broad, and compact, with low-down flanks, showing that the animal possesses great capacity for digestion and assimilation (p. 278-279). No definite quantities can be given that will apply to all animals, to all conditions, and to all foods. The Wolff-Lehman standards furnish us a guide to be modified by the judgment and experience of the feeder : — Wolff-Lehman standards, showing the amount of food required per 1000 pounds live weight for both the growing and fattening beef animal ConpDITION or ANIMAL DicestivE NUTRIENTS Dry- ss el a i Matrer : 2 ATIO CBo Breede Protein | pydratn | PA Age, Mo. Weight 2-3 160 23 4,2 13.0 2.0 1:4.2 3-6 330 24 3.5 12.8 1.5 1:4.7 6-12 550 25 2.5 13.2 0.7 1:6.0 12-18 750 24 2.0 12.5 0.5 1:68 18-24 950 24 1.8 12.0 0.4 1:7.2 Fattening Cattle 5 f First period . . 30 2.5 15.0 0.5 1:6.5 Second period . 30 3.0 14.5 0.7 1:5.4 Third period . . 26 2.7 15.0 0.7 1:62 WINTERING STOCKERS AND FEEDERS Large numbers of feeding cattle are purchased in fall and early winter for the special purpose of economically disposing of such roughage as corn stalks, straw stack, second-class clover hay, clover chaff after the seed has been removed, and the like. Wintering cattle with a view to fattening the following summer on pasture is a very convenient way of converting such feeds into cash. The cattle feeder is now confronted with the question FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 283 as to how well he shall winter these animals. That is to say, he is often at a loss to know whether to feed a small allowance of grain along with the roughage or to feed the roughage alone. If he feeds the roughage alone, it is doubtful whether the.steers can be wintered without loss in weight, unless the roughage is of good quality and a legume, such as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay. On the other hand, if he feeds grain, then comes the ques- tion as to how much shall be fed, for it is well known that if steers are grained too liberally through the winter, they will not do so well the following summer on pasture. While different systems of feeding should undoubtedly be recommended for cattle of various ages and quality, there are at least three conditions that should be kept clearly in mind: first, cattle wintered on roughage alone, providing they retain their thrift, will make more economical beef producers the following summer on pasture than when they receive grain along with the roughage; second, cattle wintered on a too liberal grain ration may fail to make a profit the following summer on pas- ture; and third, other things being equal, cattle wintered on a ration containing a liberal supply of protein, particularly if this protein is contained in the roughage, as clover, alfalfa, or cow- pea hay, will make greater and more economical gains during both winter and summer than if this nitrogenous roughage is wanting. Itis true that animals receiving this nitrogenous roughage will not finish or fatten so quickly, but they will make gains more economically, and the quality of the flesh will be better than otherwise. From practical experience, there- fore, it would seem best to provide considerable protein in the ration of the wintering stocker or feeder. If this protein is lacking in the roughage, in which it should be provided if possible, then supply the needed protein by feeding such grains as cotton-seed meal or linseed-oil meal in rather limited quantities in the grain ration. In case the grain is fed no suggestions can be given as to the exact 284 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS amount, but when one is simply wintering the steers without any attempt to fatten them, the maximum amount should not exceed six pounds daily, and perhaps better results can be obtained by feeding two to four pounds daily. Roughage increases feeding capacity. — It is conceded by ex- perienced cattle feeders that roughing steers preparatory to put- ting them on full feed requires much skill. The feeding of an abundance of roughage encourages the enlargement and develop- ment of the digestive organs, thus increasing the capacity for handling more concentrated feeds later on. This, of course, gives the thin animal a large paunch, which must certainly be reduced before the animal is ready for market. A large- paunched steer is not wanted on any fat-cattle market. From this it would seem that before beginning to feed, or in the early part of the feeding process, the enlarging of the paunch should be encouraged in order to increase the capacity, while the latter part of the feeding period should be devoted to reducing this paunch and smoothing up the steer. SUMMER FEEDING ON PASTURE Fattening cattle in the summer on pasture is usually more profitable than winter fattening. By such feeding the labor is reduced to a minimum, there is no handling of bulky foods, no bedding to provide, no lots to clean of manure, and no outlay for an extensive plant, such as sheds, lots, and the like. Approxi- mately the only labor in summer fattening is that of feeding the grain, when such is fed. There are two methods of fattening beef cattle on pasture: pasturing alone with no grain, which is called “grass fatten- ing”; and feeding grain, often all they will eat, in connection with the pasturage. Which of these methods should be em- ployed will depend on conditions. When land is cheap and there is an abundance of pasture, one may secure fairly good returns from pasturing without grain. On the other hand, if . FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 285 the pasture is limited, the land high in price, and one has the grain, no doubt it will be more profitable to feed grain in con- nection with the pasture. The previous treatment of the cattle may likewise have an influence. To get good results from fattening cattle on pasture alone, the cattle should be wintered very largely on roughage and should be rather thin in flesh though not lacking in thrift. Cattle that are accustomed to grain and in the habit of depending on it very largely for their nourishment will shrink heavily if the grain is refused them. While cheaper gains can usually be made from pasturing alone, the cattle cannot, as a rule, be made very fat, and hence will not command a high price on the market, which will often offset the advantage of cheap gains. There are, however, many ex- perienced cattle feeders who rely on grass fattening, particularly on the edge of the corn-belt. Cattle feeders in the corn-belt will, as a rule, secure greater returns from a liberal grain feed in connection with the pasture. How to turn to grass. — As cattle are very subject to bloating if turned to succulent grass, especially if wet with dew or rain, much care should be exercised. This is particularly true on clover or alfalfa. If it is convenient, one should turn the cattle out for an hour or so in the afternoon and then take them up for the day, turning them out the following day at noon and leaving a few hours longer, then taking them up again, when on the third day they may be allowed to remain. Feeding grain to cattle on pasture. — The amount and kind of grain that should be fed to fattening cattle on pasture will de- pend much on the previous treatment, age, condition, and quality of the cattle as well as the time of marketing them. Young stock, that are to be made thick fat, will need grain con- tinually throughout the summer. Older cattle, that are not in- tended for market until fall, may well have their grain withheld until the pasture begins to get short, say along in July. On the other hand, many cattle feeders prefer to “warm the cattle up”’ 286 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS in the feed lot before going to grass, and then to finish them on pasture, disposing of them by the middle of July before the hottest of the weather and just about the time the pasture begins to fail. Under this system it would be necessary to feed grain liberally from the beginning of the pasture season. While this method has much to commend it, there is the serious objec- tion of turning cattle to succulent pasture when they are receiv- ing a liberal supply of grain. On account of the very succulent grass so early in the spring such cattle “drift”? or shrink con- siderably, even though the grain is continued. This drift is so serious that if the cattle are intended for market by, say, the middle of June, it will be more profitable on the average to finish them in a dry-lot. In addition to the disadvantage of the heavy drift it is poor economy to turn cattle to pasture before the grass gets a good start; this is particularly true if the grass was closely cropped the preceding fall. There is difference of opinion as to the kind of grain that should be fed cattle of the various ages on pasture. In some cases perhaps corn alone cannot be improved on, particularly if there is some leguminous grass, as clover or alfalfa, in the pasture. Some contend that with young stock especially, it is advisable to supplement corn with a food rich in protein, as linseed or cotton-seed meal, whereas in the experience of others the addition of this extra protein food has caused the young stock to grow and not fatten so readily as if the extra food was withheld. Among this class of cattle feeders, when they supplement corn, it is more likely to be for the older cattle. The pastures. — There are two general plans for providing pasture land: permanent pastures; and pastures in rotation with other crops. Permanent pastures are rapidly disappear- ing from those sections of the country suitable for growing grain, because of the increased value of the land for grain raising, but there are vast areas unsuited for grain growing which can be very profitably utilized for permanent pasture. In fact much FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 287 of the land east of the Sciota, south of the Ohio, and west of the Missouri rivers is suitable for permanent pasture. This cheap land, much of it, could be laid to permanent pastures and yield a very creditable return as pasture for beef cattle. In fact, if conditions continue in the future as in the past, much of our beef must come from these cheap outlying lands. The grains grown on the grain farms are rapidly becoming too valu- able as food for human consumption to permit of their being fed to animals. No definite suggestions can be given as to the choice between permanent pastures and pastures in rotation further than to say that all depends on the location. If those farms or parts of farms that are unsuited for growing grains can be laid to permanent pasture, it will, on the average, be profitable to do so. Each of these systems has certain advantages. For example, permanent pasture simplifies the fencing, provides the water supply, the shade, and the feed racks or bunks, while pastures in rotation give a much better opportunity to distribute the manure to all parts of the farm. Permanent pastures even if seriously affected by drouth are not likely to be a failure, while pastures in rotation occasionally do fail. Properly managed permanent pastures will increase in value with age. The pasture crop is perhaps the most neglected of farm crops at the present time. Many pastures that are now supporting one animal to two or three acres can with proper care be made to support twice the number. First, secure a good stand. Many pastures do not now possess more than one-half a crop. Blue- grass should form the basis of all permanent pastures in the East, but should be reénforced by white clover, orchard-grass, and red-top. The pasture should be harrowed and reseeded each spring until a stand is secured. Second, keep down the weeds. Animals eat the grass and leave the weeds. To ob- viate this, pastures should be mown twice each year. This not only keeps the weeds down, but keeps the pasture in such 288 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS condition that the animals will feed more evenly over the entire’ field. Animals are likely to feed where the grass is rather short and tender, and leave the ranker growth. Third, drain pastures well. This is often entirely neglected, and the parts of the farm that are too wet to grow crops are left to pasture. Fourth, top-dress permanent pastures with manure when con- venient. Often corn stalks or straw scattered over the north Fig. 91.—Fatrenine Sreers on Pasture. Frrepina Cirover Hay To sup- PLEMENT THE PASTURE. slopes when the land is broken will materially improve the pasture. Another factor which often reduces the total yield of a pasture is the fact that the grass is pastured too early in the spring, which hinders the growth of the young plants before they get a good start, whereas if they were left a week longer, they would return a much greater total yield. Pastures thus treated will increase in value with age, as has been practically demon- strated, as far east as Central New York and as far west as FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 289 Western Missouri, where there are permanent pastures vary- ing in age from one-third to one-half of a century, and are now supporting one animal to each acre from four to six months each year without extra feed, and supporting two animals an equal length of time when grain is fed in addition. (Fig. 91.) WINTER FEEDING IN DRY-LOT While feeding steers in the summer time on pasture may be the most profitable for those cattle feeders possessing the pas- ture, there are many farms, especially in the corn-belt, lacking in pasture and yet possessing an abundance of grain and dry forage that the farmer desires to convert into beef. On such farms winter feeding in the dry-lot is the common practice. This system of feeding beef cattle is not without its advantages. For example, the feeding is done at a time of a year when there is little other work, and if the cattle are measurably protected from the wind and rain, they suffer less from the weather than from the heat of summer, and especially if the flies are trouble- some. When the steers are purchased in the fall and fattened during the winter, the cattle feeder has his money tied up a much shorter period, resulting in correspondingly quicker returns. Furthermore, such a system affords a very convenient method of converting the previous crop, grain and dry forage, into ready cash to finance the farm the coming season, as the steers are marketed and out of the way before farm work begins in the spring. Feeding grain to cattle in the dry-lot. — The amount and kind of grain that should be fed to fattening cattle in the dry-lot will depend much on the age, condition, and quality of the cattle as well as upon the kind of dry forage. Young stock will need a heavy grain ration from start to finish if they are to be made fat, whereas older cattle may be fed grain rather spar- ingly at first, gradually increasing to a full grain feed sixty days before marketing. With the older cattle already having their U 290 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS growth, they have but to fatten; whereas with younger cattle there is continued growth, and to fatten them requires an extra effort, as increasing the grain in the ration. With steers rather rough and coarse in quality that cannot be made prime in any event, there is not the necessity for the heavy grain ration re- quired by steers of finer quality that can be made prime and thus command a premium on the market. This heavy grain ration for the steers of finer quality is likely to increase the cost of gains, making them even more expensive than the lighter grain ration for the coarse steers, but the extra premium commanded on the market will make the finer bred steers the more profitable. The amount of grain that can be fed economically to fattening cattle depends much on the kind of dry forage. On the average animals receiving a leguminous forage, such as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay, will make economical use of a larger grain ration than when other forage, such as timothy, red-top, corn stalks, and the like, is fed. In fact, fattening farm animals will make more economical use of a larger grain ration if the grain also contains a high percentage of protein. The length of the fat- tening period will also have much to do with the amount of grain that should be fed. If it is intended to market the steers in 100 days or less, they will have to be full-fed grain from the beginning if they are to be made reasonably fat, whereas if the feeding period is to last 150 days or more, the cattle may be fed grain rather sparingly at first. As to the kind of grain to feed fattening cattle, this likewise depends largely on the cattle and the kind of dry roughage. When rather young steers are being fattened, it is the com- mon opinion that a more nitrogenous ration should be used; hence it is considered the better plan to provide much protein for the young animals, whereas in the case of older and more mature cattle the grain ration often contains less protein. While this plan is usually recommended, it is well to remember that a ration rich in nitrogenous material has a tendency to FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 291 keep the young cattle growing rather than to fatten them. While it is true that young stock thus fed will make gains more rapidly and more cheaply, the cattle will oftentimes lack in finish because they have been growing rather than fattening. The kind of roughage determines, in part, the kind of grain that should be fed. When the cattle are being fed a dry roughage containing much protein, as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay, the grain may contain a correspondingly less amount of protein. On the other hand, when the dry forage lacks the protein, the de- ficiency should be made up by feeding a grain rich in protein, as cotton-seed or linseed meal. In addition, the length of the fattening period will have an influence on the kind of grain to feed. If the period is short, it will be necessary to feed very fattening foods, such as corn and cotton-seed meal, from the beginning; whereas if the cattle are to be fed 150 days or more, they may be given foods containing less fat during the early stages of the feeding period. BABY-BEEF By baby-beef is meant fat cattle between one and two years of age and weighing from 800 to 1100 pounds. Of recent years much has been written concerning the advantages of producing this class of beef. A general perusal of the recent literature on beef production would lead one to think that it is far more profitable to produce beef from young animals than from ani- mals possessing some age, and yet the practical cattle feeder has continued to employ two-year-old cattle in his feeding opera- tions. The experiment literature has in a large measure fostered the idea that beef could be more profitably produced by feeding younger cattle. These recommendations are based largely: on the fact that the younger animal will make much more economical gains than older animals. There are, however, many factors besides economic gains entering into profitable beef production. 292 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Cattle used in baby-beef production. — First of all, the cattle must be young. They must be well bred and of fine quality, as such cattle can be finished for the market at a much younger age than the plainer kinds. The cattle to be used in the pro- duction of baby-beef should not be permitted to lose their calf fat. They must be kept fleshy from start to finish, for if once they get run down in flesh, it is very difficult to make them prime under eighteen months of age. Feeding for baby-beef production. — If young animals are to be made fat, they must be fed liberally on fat-producing feeds, particularly grain. Heavier grain feeding is required in the production of baby-beef than of older beef. Calves and yearlings have a tendency to grow rather than to fatten, and to overcome this they must be fed a heavy ration of grain, a fact not to be lost sight of in figuring the cost. In the beginning the calf should be fed considerable quantities of dry forage, such as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay, as such foods have a tendency to increase the digestive capacity of the calf, thereby enabling it to handle large quantities of grain later on. If heifer calves instead of steers are fed, they wil! finish more quickly and hence should be marketed earlier. The younger the prime heifers are at the time of the marketing, the less discrimination in price the butcher will make between them and steers. In feeding for baby-beef, the most common mistake is to market the animals before they are fat enough. There is little likeli- hood of getting them too fat to meet the demands of the market. Advantages of baby-beef production.— The production of baby- beef has two very distinct and outstanding advantages over that of older beef. First, young animals require less food for a given gain than older animals. Second, the same capital invested in young animals produces more meat than in older animals. During recent years these two advantages have been much heralded by experimenters, and while at first sight they may FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 293 seem to be the beginning and the end of beef production, they are nevertheless far from it. While, possibly, each advantage has been exaggerated, they are both certainly true, and since there is an abundance of experimental data. to prove them, we will let them stand as unimpeachable. Disadvantages of baby-beef production. —'The production of baby-beef is not without its disadvantages, most of which have been lost sight of because of the lack of practical knowledge on the part of its exponents. Chief among the disadvantages are: first, the difficulty of obtaining cattle possessing sufficient quality to make choice baby-beef. Second, the marked difficulty in making the younger animals fat, it requiring a heavy grain ration. Third, since much baby-beef finds its way to market lacking in finish, it fails to command a high price. Fourth, cattle possessing sufficient quality being scarce, the cost price of such animals is high and because they lack finish on the market the selling price is low; hence the margin between cost and selling price is small. Fifth, the initial weight of the calf is small; hence in the production of baby-beef the cattle feeder cannot depend for his profit on the advance in value to the hundredweight on the initial weight. From the foregoing it must be apparent that there are many questions involved in the production of baby-beef, and that the profit is not in proportion to the cheap- ness of the gains. FEEDING CATTLE FOR THE LOCAL MARKET Feeding cattle for the local meat market varies greatly from feeding for a large central market. The agricultural writers and practically all of the experiment literature give advice on feeding cattle by the car-load and for the large central market, yet according to the best figures obtainable nearly one-half the cattle slaughtered in this country are slaughtered by local butchers. The local butcher in small places cannot charge enough for 294 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS meat to warrant his paying a high price for the cattle he kills; hence he usually purchases plain butcher cattle. As a rule, the local slaughter houses are not equipped to handle heavy cattle; the cuts of meat are usually retailed in small amounts; therefore, the local butcher demands a rather small animal, weighing from 600 to 1000 pounds. The local butcher cannot pay for Fic, 92.— A Sreer tTHat Mave ex- high finish. Thick fat cattle peta s Soran eee 4 SIX carry too much waste. Grass- fat cattle can be made to carry sufficient flesh for the local butcher. While no con- sumer, rich or poor, wishes to pay for waste fat, yet highest quality of beef is impossible without considerable quantities of such waste. There is, however, no demand in the local market for beef carrying waste fat, no matter how excellent its quality. From the foregoing it is apparent that the cattle feeder who plans to feed cattle for the local market and make a profit should procure heifers, young cows, or low-grade steers as his feeding stock, since such cattle can be purchased at a low price. These cattle must be fattened as economically as possible, largely on dry forage or on pasture, and then sold before they become too fat to meet the demands of the local market. This class of butcher cattle can be very profitably produced on farms lying east, south, and west of the corn-belt. Perhaps the greatest handicap to profitable beef production in these regions is lack of suitable pasture land. That much of the land in these regions can be made to grow pastures suitable for the profitable production of this grade of beef no longer admits of doubt (page 286). FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 295 HOGS FOLLOWING GRAIN-FED CATTLE Among grain-fed cattle, hogs are considered indispensable to profitable beef production. Cattle receiving a rather heavy grain ration fail to digest the grain completely, and hogs, if given a chance, will pick up this grain and convert it into pork. So great is the saving thus effected that beef production is sel- dom profitable without the hog. The principal questions in connection with hogs following grain-fed cattle are: the kind of hogs to use, the number of hogs to a steer, the advisability of feeding the hogs grain in addition to what they get from the droppings, and the gains that the hogs may be expected to make. The most satisfactory hog to follow grain-fed cattle is one weighing approximately 100 pounds and thin in flesh. If the hogs are too heavy or too fat, they do not make good rustlers, and will fail to find all the droppings, especially in pasture. On the other hand, it is not good practice to use pigs too young because of the danger of injury from the cattle. Brood, sows are oftentimes used to follow cattle. They are not likely to be good rustlers, however, and will fail to find many of the droppings, especially if heavy with pig. The advisability of feeding grain in addition to that ob- tained from the droppings will depend much on the conditions. If the price of cattle is high and that of hogs low, one would prefer to allow the hogs only what they gather from the drop- pings; whereas if the price of hogs is high and cattle low, then it would no doubt be more profitable to feed the hogs in addition, especially since hogs are more economical feeders than cattle. The great majority of cattle feeders use grain in addition to that secured from the droppings. The number of hogs to follow each steer will depend on two conditions: the form in which the grain is fed, whole or ground; and whether extra grain is fed in addition to that obtained 296 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS from the droppings. When grain is fed extra, the number of hogs to each steer will depend on the amount of grain thus fed. The common practice is to put a 100-pound hog behind each steer and feed grain in addition. If, however, grain is not fed in addition, one hog to two steers will be sufficient to pick up the grain of the droppings when the grain is fed to the steer in the whole form, and one pig to four steers when the grain is fed in the form of meal. There is much less available material for the hogs when the grain is fed in the form of meal than when fed as shelled or ear corn. The gains that may be expected from hogs following steers will depend on the method. When meal is fed, the gains will be less than when the grain is fed whole; and when grain in addition is fed, the gains will depend entirely on the amount of grain that is fed to the hogs. When one 100-pound hog is placed behind each steer and grain fed in addition, as is the common practice, the cattle feeder expects to secure at least one pound gain on each hog daily for a period of 100 days. By this time the hogs are weighing over 200 pounds and are too heavy to make good rustlers, so they are withdrawn from the feed lots and another drove of 100-pound hogs placed with the cattle. The 200-pound hogs may be marketed at once or fed extra grain for two weeks, by which time they average better than 225 pounds each when they are put on the market. GETTING CATTLE ‘‘ON FEED” There is no more important question connected with cattle feeding than that of getting the cattle on a full feed of grain, meaning by full feed all the grain they will consume. Opin- ion differs widely as to the time that should be required, some very successful cattle feeders employing the so-called short method, that is, getting the cattle on full feed in one to two weeks, whereas others equally as successful employ the long method, taking one to two months. Which of these methods FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 297 one should choose will depend somewhat on the length of the feeding period and the amount of grain that the cattle feeder plans to feed. LENGTH OF FEEDING PERIOD The length of the cattle feeding period is extremely variable, ranging from ninety days to fifteen months. Either of these ex- tremes or any intervening time may be profitable under certain conditions. There are several factors affecting the length of the feeding period, chief of which are the kinds of foods, the quality and condition of the cattle, and | the age of the cattle. If the cattle feeder wishes to feed a relatively large proportion of dry forage and a small amount of grain, the fattening process will be slow and the feeding period prolonged; whereas if he wishes to feed a maximum amount of grain and a eorrespondingly small amount of dry forage, the fattening process.will be acceler- ated and the period shortened. If the steers ane rough and of such poor quality that they cannot be made prime, the feeding period may be of shorter duration than if the steers are of finer breeding, and of good quality; the extra finish requires much time, but it is considered profitable because of the premium commanded in the market. Furthermore, the age of the cattle affects the length of the feeding period, as in common practice it requires from ninety to one hundred and fifty days to finish mature cattle and approximately fifteen months to finish calves, with intervening ages ranging between these extremes. MARKETABLE CONDITION The cattle feeder is often at a loss to know just when to mar- ket his cattle. The problem is complicated all the more by the fact that the finishing process is a very expensive one, and yet this extra finish is what commands the premium of the market. The butcher at the large central market demands excessive fat- ness, and for it he is willing to pay an extra price, whereas the 298 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS local butcher fails to appreciate such finish and may even ~ discriminate against it, saying that his patrons will object to the waste fat. Much depends on the market also; if there is a light demand and a heavy run of extra fat cattle, the butchers will Fic. 93.— ABprRDEEN ANGUS Butt. Owned by J. 8. Goodwin, Naperville, III. The Aberdeen Angus breed of beef cattle developed in northeastern Scotland. Like the Hereford, Angus mature early, but lack the size of the Shorthorn, cows weighing around 1400 pounds, bulls 2000, and finished steers 1000 to 1400 pounds. The steers are unexceled for fattening in the feed lot and are held in high esteem by the butchers, although if made too large they are likely to become coarse. They are all black and hornless. take advantage and bid down the price, whereas if there is a light run and a heavy demand for cattle showing much finish, the butchers will bid up the price accordingly. Therefore, the ques- tion as to when the cattle are ready for the market cannot be answered without a knowledge of, first, the age of the cattle; FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 299 second, the quality of the cattle; third, the relative cost of put- ting cattle in prime condition compared with the cost of merely ‘“‘warming them up”’; and fourth, a knowledge of the condition of the market. The more prominent indications of a finished steer are fullness at base of tongue, a roll of fat in front of the point of the shoulder, a full thick flank that stands out as the animal walks, a large mellow cod, a full twist, and fullness at the tail-head. When to market cattle. — As to where and when to buy feeders, no definite statement can bemade. The demand for extra prime beef, such as is used by the high-grade hotels and restaurants, is fairly good every month. There is an extra demand for such beef during the Christmas season, beginning about Novem- ber 20 when the Christmas order for export beef begins to come and continuing to about the middle of December. There is good demand for prime baby-beef the year round, with an extra call during the Christmas season. Export cattle are in greatest demand in the winter and spring months; Canada supplies the demand in the late summer and fall. Common cattle are in greatest demand in the spring months, as after the first of July they come into competition with the cheap western range cattle. SHIPPING CATTLE There are some precautions that should be taken in getting cattle ready for shipment. The object sought is to ship the cat- tle with as little “drift’”’ or loss in weight as possible. While there are those who manage the cattle in such a way as to induce them to drink an unusual amount of water when they reach the market, thus securing an abnormal fill, such practice is far from commendable. Cattle buyers are always on the lookout for such cattle and discriminate heavily against them. On the other hand, it is perfectly legitimate for the cattle feeder to take such precautions as will insure his animals against the likelihood of scouring and to prevent abnormal shrinking in weight. 300. MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Preparing cattle for shipment. — Since there are certain foods that have a tendency towards loosening the bowels, such should be withheld for at least 24 hours before shipment. Chief among the foods likely to scour cattle are shelled corn, corn meal, oil meal, clover, alfalfa, cowpea hay, and green grass. In fact,a full grain ration of any kind is likely to loosen the bowels. There- fore, for 24 hours before shipment the cattle should be shut up in a dry lot, fed grain sparingly, but may have all the timothy hay they like. Oats make a very good grain to feed at this time. Water should be withheld four hours before shipment. The car in which the cattle are to be shipped should be well bedded with straw. If in addition to these precautions it is not overloaded, the cattle should arrive at the market fresh and clean. Cattle thus treated will make a normal fill. Several car loads of cattle thus treated have been shipped a 36 to 40 hour journey without unloading on only a 3 per cent drift or loss. Drifting cattle for the local market. — When the fat cattle are sold on the local market instead of shipping, it is customary in some localities to sell them on a 3 per cent drift, taking the weight at the farm. From the fact that cattle can be shipped 40 hours on a 3 per cent drift, this would seem to be the maxi- mum that should be allowed the local buyer, and this should be on weights taken at the farm where the animals are fed. SAMPLE RATIONS FOR FATTENING CATTLE The following rations are collected from various sources and furnish a guide in determining the kind and quantity of feed that should be allowed fattening cattle. They apply to 1000 pounds live weight : — FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 30. Foop per Pounp AGE AND Ration Gam Weicut or CaTTLE Grain Dry Forage Grain ieee Calves 22 Ib. shelled corn | 12 Ib. clover hay 5.9 2.9 457 lb. 3 Ib. cotton-seed meal Calves 18 Ib. shelled corn | 5 Ib. clover hay 5.8 1.41 534 Ib. 2.5 lb. cotton-seed | 18 Ib. corn silage 5.3? meal Calves 18 Ib. shelled corn | 4.5 Ib. clover hay 5.3 1.1! 508 lb. 3 Ib. cotton-seed | 19 lb. corn silage 4.82 meal Yearlings | 21 1b. shelled corn | 11 Ib. clover hay 7.3 3.2 685 lb. 3.5 Ib. cotton-seed meal Yearlings | 19Ib. shelled corn | 4.5 Ib. clover hay 7.9 1.73 854 Ib. 2.5 Ib. cotton-seed | 18 Ib. corn silage 6.82 meal Yearlings /17.51b. shelled corn | 11 lb. prairie hay 8.1 4.6 799 Ib. 2.5 lb. linseed-oil meal Yearlings .| 191b. shelled corn | 11 Ib. alfalfa hay 7.7 4.7 808 Ib. Yearlings | 17.5 Ib. shelled corn 15 Jb. cornstalks 8.0 5.7 777 Ib. 2.5 Ib. linseed-oil meal Yearlings {17.5 1b. shelled corn /15 1b. sorghum 8.7 6.4 788 Ib. 2.5 Ib. linseed-oil meal 1 Clover hay. 2 Corn silage. 802 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS AGE AND RaTIon ous ait ‘ WEIGHT OF LG CaTTLE Grain Dry Forage Grain ge i a Two-year-olds| 18 Ib. shelled corn | 9.5 lb. clover hay 8.9 4.1 966 lb. 3.2 lb. cotton-seed meal Two-year-olds| 16 Ib. shelled corn | 4 Ib. clover hay 7.6 1.51 1010 Ib. 3 lb. cotton-seed | 15 Ib. corn silage 5.82 meal Two-year-olds| 10 Ib. snapped corn} 18 lb. prairie hay 7A 15.2 975 lb. Two-year-olds| 10 lb. snapped corn| 12 lb. prairie hay 4.7 10.5 979 lb. 10 Ib. alfalfa hay Two-year-olds| 10 Ib. snapped corn] 22 Ib. alfalfa hay 4.6 10.7 977 lb. : Two-year-olds] 20 lb. ear corn 10 Ib. clover hay 9.5 4.0 893 Ib. Two-year-olds| 21 lb. ear corn 5 Ib. shredded 10.5 3.9 896 Ib. stalks 2b. linseed meal | 3 1b. oat straw Two-year-olds| 18 lb. shelled corn | 7 lb. timothy hay 9.3 3.4 1017 tb. Two-year-olds| 16 Ib. shelled corn | 8.8 1b. timothy hay | 10.0 3.9 1054 Ib. 5.4 Ib. cotton-seed meal 1 Clover hay. 2 Corn silage. FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 30 AGE AND Hates Beta Cun WEIGHT OF CatTLe Grain Dry Forage Grain eee ‘ Yearlings | 141b. shelled corn | Pasture 7.9 774 Ib. 3.1 lb. gluten feed Yearlings | 141b. shelled corn | Pasture 7.0 723 Ib. 3.5 lb. linseed meal Yearlings | 141b. shelled corn | Pasture 7.5 73884 Ib. 3.5 lb. cotton-seed meal Yearlings | 16 lb. shelled corn | Pasture 7.2 730 lb. Two-year-olds| 11 lb. shelled corn 859 Ib. 2.8 lb. cotton-seed | Pasture 7.8 meal 2.8 lb. wheat bran Two-year-olds| 16 1b. shelled corn | Pasture 8.7 940 Ib. 2.5 Ib. gluten feed Two-year-olds| 16 1b. shelled corn | Pasture 8.3 933 Ib. 2.5 Ib. linseed meal Three-year- | 12 1b. shelled corn | Pasture 9.6 olds 1269 Ib. 2 Ib. cotton-seed meal Three-year- | 141b. shelled corn | Pasture 10.1 olds 1251 Ib. 304 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Sample rations for wintering catile with no attempt to fatten them Ration For Eaco ST£ER WEIGHT OF GAIN PER CatTTLE Day Grain Dry Forage Ib. 736 lb. none 16 lb. timothy hay 0.4 707 |b. none 20 lb. whole cornstalks 0.2 667 lb. none 15 lb. shredded corn- | — 0.1 stalks 743 |b. none 44 lb. corn silage 1.0 771 Ib. none 10 lb. cornstalks 0.7 10 lb. clover hay 788 Ib. none 20 lb. cowpea hay 0.5 765 Ib. 4 lb. shelled corn 16 lb. timothy hay 0.6 767 lb. 4 lb. shelled corn 9 Ib. cornstalks 0.9 9 Ib. clover hay 783 Ib. 41b. shelled corn 19 lb. cowpea hay 1.5 A 6 Ib. shelled corn 17 lb. timothy hay 1.4 6 lb. shelled corn 19 lb. clover hay 1.9 6 lb. shelled corn 17 lb. alfalfa hay 1.6 6 lb. shelled corn 17 lb. cowpea hay 1.3 6 lb. shelled corn 9 lb. cornstalks 1.6 9 lb. clover hay 6 Ib. shelled corn 8 lb. wheat straw 1.3 8 lb. clover hay 1 Weight approximately as above. CHAPTER XIII BREEDING BEEF CATTLE Tue breeding of cattle for the production of beef should re- ceive more attention from the general farmer than is being ac- corded it at the present time. During the past decade the breed- ing of beef cattle on the common farms has been on the decline, especially in the north and central part of the country. For- merly, in traveling over this section, it was not an uncommon sight to see large herds of well-bred beef cattle grazing, often on permanent pasture, while at present such a herd is so un- common as to elicit much comment. As has been pointed out in the discussion on purchasing feeding cattle, the reasons for this decline in beef breeding are many, the chief one being that there is more money to be made in other branches of farming. Along with this decline in breeding there has been an increase in consumption, until the problem of supplying the demand for beef has taken on a serious aspect. The remedy for this is only to breed more and better beef-producing animals. No doubt other branches of farming are more profitable for that section of the country lying west of the Sciota, north of the Ohio, and east of the Missouri rivers, yet such may not be true of the immediate surrounding territory. In this outlying ter- ritory there is land not well suited to growing grain that with proper management can be turned to the profitable production of beef cattle (pages 276, 290). The chief defect of the common cattle is their lack of quality and uniformity. This is due both to the lack of good blood and x 305 306 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS to the indiscriminate admixture of the blood of the several breeds of both beef and dairy types. Proof of this is not wanting. In traveling about the country one notes a great variation in the type, form, and especially the color of the animals in each herd. In many small herds one often sees red, white, black, brindle, and all conceivable combinations of these colors, as well as in- Fic. 94.—Hererorp Cow. First prize winner, International Live Stock Show. The Hereford beef cattle originated in the county from which they take their name in England. In size this breed is a close second to the Shorthorn. Herefords are noted for their early maturing qualities and for their good grazing qualities; on the ranges they are often preferred to the Shorthorn. This breed lacks the full quarters of the Shorthorn. The color is red, with white markings. Herefords are often called ‘‘ White Faces.”’ dividual animals that conform in a measure to the strictly beef form, others of the dairy form, with all gradations between the two. There is lack of uniformity in all respects. Before any community can improve its cattle, it must decide upon a plan, and each person must. proceed largely along the lines of this well developed idea. BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 307 % PLAN OF BREEDING Before deciding upon a plan of breeding beef cattle one should make a careful study of his conditions; ‘he should visit farms where beef cattle are successfully bred, noting conditions and comparing with hisown. Such improvement as he may be able to bring about must be upon the common native cattle of the community. To dispose of the native cattle and purchase well- bred uniform cattle would be very expensive and in most cases very unprofitable. The task is then to adopt some plan of breeding that will result in an improvement of the native stock. In most cases this can be most profitably accomplished by the grading-up process; that is, by the use ‘of pure-bred bulls on the native common females. Coéperative grading-up. — A very successful plan to improve the beef-producing qualities of the cattle of a locality is by the codperative grading-up method. The formation of beef-breed- ing associations throughout a given locality would do much to advance the progress of the industry. Each association should have for its object the production and improvement of high- grade and pure-bred beef cattle, and should be formed of breed- ers who possess the same class or breed of cattle. It would be the duty of such an association to protect the interest of its mem- bers, provide suitable bulls each year for use on the cows owned by the members, advertise stock, attract buyers, hold sales, call meetings for thediscussion of beef breeding and feeding matters, and to educate the farmers of the locality to better methods of caring for live-stock. Raise heifer calves from best cows. — Because of the excellency of the heifer calves from the good cows, the cattle feeder is tempted to fatten them for beef. This should not be done. They should be reserved for breeding purposes. Many cattle breeders are actually reducing the quality of their beef-produc- ing herd by fattening the best calves and reserving the poorer ones for breeding because they will-not make good feeders. 308 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS SELECTION OF BREEDING STOCK The best cattle should be retained and propagated and the poorer animals discarded. In a very few generations, by em- ploying such a method, the common cattle of the country could be greatly improved. It is the application of haphazard methods that has resulted in the lack of character that exists among our common native cattle. The breed. — Choose the breed that best suits the conditions, the markets, and the fancy of the breeders. There is no best breed of beef cattle for all conditions. There is much variation in the temperament, size, and quality of product among the leading beef breeds. Whether Shorthorns, Herefords, Angus, or Galloways should be chosen de- pends on the attendant condi- tions and the personal preference among the breeders and feeders. The Shorthorns have excellent Fic. 95.— CHampion HEREFORD hind-quarters and nick well with sue “ Daze.” Photograph from the common cattle as well as National Stockman and Farmer. other beef breeds. The Here- fords mature early and are excellent grazers. The Angus ma- ture fairly early, produce a high quality of beef, and are much sought on the markets. They are hornless though rather nervous. The Galloways produce high quality beef, are hornless, and often possess good coats of hair; the hides are much sought for tanning, and are used in manufacturing coats, robes, and the like. The breed itself is never so important as is the individuality and the uniformity. Crossing. — For the propagation of animals intended solely for beef many experienced cattle breeders and feeders prefer a Short- horn-Hereford cross, contending that the cross-bred steer in- BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 309 herits the good grazing and early maturing qualities of the Here- ford and the desirable hind-quarters of the Shorthorn. But it must be understood that this cross-bred offspring should not be used for breeding, no matter how excellent an individual, for the second generation is very likely to inherit the poor qualities or other qualities of both ancestors. The dual-purpose cow. — By dual-purpose cow is meant one capable of yielding a good flow of milk, and in which the offspring will make a fair quality of beef as .will the cow when dried off. This is the so-called ‘“farmer’s cow,” concerning the profitable- ness of which there is much discussion. Because of the high price of land over much of the grain belt, it is no longer profit- able to keep a cow merely for the calf she raises. This has led to the opinion that it is possible to develop a strain of dual- or double-purpose cattle, one that while raising a calf that would make a fair quality of beef would also yield milk sufficient to pay for her keep. The demand for such double-purpose animals has led a few of the breeders, of at least three of the established breeds, Short- horn, Red Polled, and Devon, to endeavor to breed such animals. In the breeding of such cattle there are two very pertinent ques- tions to be considered: First, the amount of milk or butter-fat that should be expected; and second, the degree of excellency in beef production that should be sought among the offspring. These questions assume much importance, for, aswe havealready seen, the type suited to the production of milk is ill adapted to the production of beef, and the type that takes on beef economi- cally is not likely to make good milkers. Dual-purpose cattle breeders vary widely in their opinion as to the amount of milk and fat that should be expected as well as the excellency sought in the calves. While the flow and fat required to make a profit will vary according to conditions, yet if one can secure 5000 to 7000 pounds, yielding 200 to 250 pounds of butter-fat yearly, and a calf of sufficient quality to reach a weight of 350 pounds 310 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS by the time it is 6 months of age, there should be no difficulty in realizing a handsome profit, providing, of course. that the prod- ucts are marketed to advantage (Fig. 96). Instead of procuring dual-purpose strains of cattle, some persons suggest breeding the dairy cows to a beef bull, thus producing a half-blood beef animal. They recommend the following plan: Since a good cow, properly cared for, may be _ profitably milked for a period of six to eight years, during which time she is likely to produce three or four heifer calves, only one-third to one-fourth of the cows need be bred to a dairy , bull; or the breeding of the Beh ae oo Bee oe emure Nerd Lon nett bull once “Rose or GLensipe.” The dairy in three or four years is suffi- em evn fe awe ae cient to maintain the dairy herd. pounds of milk containing 625 All other calves are available for pounds of fat. Owned by May & beef production and should be Otis, Granville Center, Pa. Ex- . ainiple ofa: dual-purpose cow, sired by a beef bull. Such a plan is likely to encounter practical difficulties that would render its serviceability doubtful. It would no doubt result in the production of calves of little value to maintain a dairy herd and with doubtful value as feeding cattle. It would also be extremely hazardous to attempt to maintain a dairy herd with only one-fourth to one-third of the calves to select from. Uniformity. —Lack of uniformity is one of the greatest faults connected with breeding common cattle. As it is now, each locality is producing cattle of a number of types and breeds. Such cattle are not desirable feeding animals, as they will not finish or fatten evenly and must be sent to market lacking in uniformity in type, color, weight, quality, and con- BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 311 ditions. Mixed droves of cattle of this kind are not desired on any market, and hence are discriminated against and must sell for an exceedingly low price. On the other hand, if each farmer in the locality would conform with the majority of his neighbors and coéperate in propagating the same breed, even though this breed may not be the one that suits his fancy best or even the one that is best suited to the district, until the community became noted for the production of such a breed, then a cattle feeder in search of any particular type should be able to go to the district noted for the production of the breed required and there find cattle in sufficient numbers to meet all needs. THE BEEF BULL To the bull we must look for the improvement of the common cattle. To secure the improvement in a herd of cattle through the females would require the use of forty or more superior cows to accomplish the same results as might be secured by the use of a single bull, and even then there would be less uniformity in the offspring. This is be- cause the bull controls one-half the characters of the entire crop of calves. This has led to the assertion that “the bull is half the herd.”’ This assertion is misleading in a way, for when it comes to herd improvement, he is even more than one-half the herd. The cost of a bull. — Among dairymen who keep a record of the production of their cows, there is a fair knowledge of the value of a good bull, while those who breed feeding cattle seem to lack such information, or at least ignore it entirely. From this it must not be inferred that one should pay a fancy price for a beef bull. Many general farmers are depending on practically worthless grade and scrub bulls to head the herds of grade cows. Properly cared for, a bull should sire forty calves in a season. Suppose the bull is of sufficient quality 312 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS to increase the value of each calf $5, a very conservative estimate, then he makes $200 with his first crop of calves. One-half of this sum will bring a very desirable bull of any of the leading beef breeds into any locality. Such a bull in- troduced into a locality can be made to pay for himself the Fia. 97. —Gatitoway Buu. First prize, llinois State Fair. Owned by C. S§. Hechtner, Clariton, Ia. The Galloway breed of beef cattle originated in southwestern Scotland, adjacent to the sea, where the breed developed much hardiness. Though neither so early maturing nor so large as the Angus, the flesh is of good quality. This breed is particularly noted for its fine coat of hair, which seems to be com- posed of two parts, a very fine, short under growth and a long, wavy outer growth. The hides are often used to manufacture coats, robes, and the like. All animals are black and hornless. first year. When once a desirable bull is procured, he should be retained as long as he remains a true breeder. Bulls possessing some age are likely to be difficult to control, and many an excellent sire has been sold for beef simply because the owner was afraid he would injure some one. BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 313 THE BEEF COW While all common cows must be bred in order that they may freshen, yet the cows to which we look to replenish the herd should be carefully selected. The heifer calves from the best cows should be retained for breeding. By using a good pure-bred sire and retaining the best heifers to replenish the herd, in a few generations one can have a herd of cows equal to any pure-bred herd for the production of feeding cattle. The production-period in cattle. — As in the dairy cow, the most fertile period is two to eight years of age. In exceptional cases this period may be extended both ways (see page 246). Season of the year to breed.— While it seems desirable to have dairy calves dropped in the fall, it is equally desirable to have beef calves dropped in the spring. With dairy cattle, a some- what larger flow can be ob- tained when calves come in the fall. With beef cattle the milk flow is not so important. Cows may be wintered more cheaply when not in milk, requiring less room, less careful attention, and less food. Calves dropped in the spring get a good start on pasture. They need be car- ried over but one winter, as they can be fattened or finished the following fall when approximately eighteen months of age, if it is so desired; or if desired to fatten them during the winter, they can be finished the second winter and put on the market at two years of age. Fall-dropped calves are more trouble to care for during the winter, although the advo- cates of fall-dropped beef calves say that better steers can be produced and developed by fall calving, as the cow in the fall Fic. 98.—Gattoway Herrérs. True to type. Owned by C. 8. Hechtner. 314 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS is in better condition; they also say that the increased flow of milk caused by turning the cow to pasture in the spring is a good thing for the calf, and that the fall-dropped calf is better able to endure the heat and flies the following summer. After a careful consideration of both practices, the writer thinks it desirable to have the beef calves dropped in spring. A very important factor in the breeding of calves for feeding is to breed the cows in such a way that the calves: will be as nearly uniform in age as possible. This applies to both fall and spring bred calves that are intended for feeding. Farmers who possess only afew cows have them freshen at intervals throughout the year in order that they may be well supplied with milk the year round. This, of course, makes the calves of unequal age, and they are not so desirable as feeding cattle. The pregnant cow. — The pregnant cow should receive some attention, particularly when she is to drop her calf in the spring. Cows are often carried through the winter on a ration of dry forage, such as corn stalks with no grain in addition, with the result that they are in very poor condition at calving time. This often leads to trouble at parturition time, the cow being so weak she cannot bear the calf, which is likely to be very small, thin, and weakly. The cow may not have milk for it at first, or if she does, it will be thin and scant. Such a condition must be avoided if profitable feeding calves are to be propagated. If the pregnant cow may have suceulence in the shape of corn silage, with clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay in addition, no grain need be fed. These feeds should be free from mold. On the other hand, if non-nitrogenous dry forage is to be fed, she should have grain in addition. Corn and wheat bran with a small amount of linseed meal as a conditioner cannot be improved upon. This may be fed at the rate of six pounds daily per 1000 pounds live weight. Shelter from the storms and rain should be provided; for this a common shed open to BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 815 the south is sufficient except in very cold climates. Pregnant cows thus cared for will come through the winter in good con- dition and give birth to a strong thrifty calf that, if bred right, will make a profitable feeder. Cow with calf at foot. — The cow that is to suckle her young need not receive the extra care that must be accorded the dairy cow. When the calves are dropped in the spring and the pasture is of good quality and abundant, the cows and ealves will require very little attention during the pasture season. If, however, the pasture becomes short in late sum- mer and fall, extra feed, such as clover, alfalfa, green forage, or grain of some kind, should be given. Cows and calves at pasture should have free access to fresh water. Salt should be supplied at regular intervals or kept before them at all times. Shade of some kind should be provided in the absence of trees. As soon as convenient the calves should be taught to eat grain. This may be done by arranging a small pen with small gates or passages through which the calyes may enter but the cows cannot. The pen may be placed near the water tank. By all means calves should be taught to eat grain before being weaned, as this will prevent shrinking at weaning time. For suckling and weanling calves, the following grain mixture proves satisfactory: 3 parts of corn meal, 3 parts ground oats, 3 parts of wheat bran, and 1 part of linseed meal. When the calves are dropped in the fall, the cow and calf will require more careful attention; this, however, comes during the winter when there is little urgent work on farms where cows are thus kept. The object sought is so to feed and manage both cow and calf that they may be brought through the win- ter in a healthy and thrifty condition; the cow in order that she may properly nourish the suckling and be in condition to breed again when so desired, the calf in order that it may make a profitable feeding animal, as its future development depends 316 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS much upon its growth during the first six months of its life. If possible, the cow should have some succulent food, as corn silage, as such food improves her physical condition and encourages the milk flow, thereby giving the calf a more liberal supply. Clover, alfalfa, cowpea, or mixed hay should con- stitute at least a part of the dry forage, with.some grain fed in addition. For the grain, a mixture of corn and bran with a little linseed meal added cannot be improved upon, and if a leguminous dry forage with silage is fed, a small amount of this grain, say four pounds daily, will prove ample to keep the cow and calf in thriving condition. If the dry forage consists of non-leguminous plants only, such as prairie or timothy hay or corn stalks, then a somewhat larger grain ration should be fed and the proportion of linseed meal may be increased. Pro- tection from the storms and rain must be provided. While a common shed open to the south will serve where the mercury seldom goes below zero, it is not sufficient in colder climates, particularly if very moist. On the other hand, the quarters must not be dark, damp, and poorly ventilated, as such is the ideal place for the propagation of all kinds of calf ills. The quarters should be measurably protected, well lighted, well ventilated, and dry. Cows and calves thus cared for will come through the winter in a thrifty and healthy condition. As on pasture, the calves should be taught to eat grain as soon as convenient and by all means at least one month before weaning. The calf that is permitted to suckle its dam can be raised with little extra care. It should have attention at birth to see that the function of respiration is started, and that it gets some of the first or colostrum milk of the dam. If the calf scours badly, some of the dam’s milk should be drawn off, remembering that the last milk is richer in fat, and is the part likely to cause the trouble. After the calf gets a start by proper BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 317 feeding of the dam, both cow and calf can be kept in healthy condition. Male calves should be castrated before they have reached the age of three months, and this may be done any time after the calf is one week old. If hornless animals are desired, the horns should be removed with caustic potash as soon as they begin to appear (page 255). Calves should be weaned at five to eight months of age. Weaning is rather a question of preparation than of the absolute removal of the calf from the cow, and the simplicity of the weaning process depends on the thoroughness of the preparation. If the calf has been accustomed to the grain as suggested, if it has been permitted to take increasingly more as it grows, the process will not be difficult, for as the ration increases in the amount of grain it will decrease in the amount of milk. With such precaution, there will be very little if any set-back or disturbance to calf or dam. On the other hand, if the calf must learn to eat after being deprived of its accus- .tomed source of food supply, it will require time to get used to the new condition, and the cow will demand special care, be- cause of the removal of the calf before her milk supply has been diminished.to any extent. Weanlings should be well cared for during their first winter if they are to make profitable feeding cattle. They sbould have snug quarters, with opportunity for exercise, and be well fed. Weanling calves are often let run with the stock cattle and compelled to subsist entirely on dry forage, with the result that they run down in condition and sometimes are stunted, from which they never fully recover. A calf that is once stunted will not make a good feeding animai. On the other hand, if these weanlings are fed a liberal allowance, say four pounds daily per head, of the grain mixture suggested for the sucking calf, with clover, alfalfa, cowpea, or mixed hays in addition, they will come through the winter strong and thrifty 318 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and will give a good account of themselves when fattened the following summer. Calves cared for as suggested should reach a weight of 375 to 450 pounds by the time they are six months of age. While such calves make very excellent beef when well fed, they are nevertheless very expensive, for the breeder must keep the cow one year for the production of this 400-pound calf. No exact figures can be given as to the cost, for much will depend on the conditions. , It is true that formerly many calves were thus raised in the grain belt, whereas at the present time prac- tically none are so raised. It would seem then to be no longer profitable on land suited for grain growing. In view of recent developments it seems unlikely that the price of beef will go high enough to make it a profitable industry. That producing such calves can be made a profitable industry in the outlying territory of cheap pasture lands, however, admits of no doubt. Feeding the beef calf. —If the cow’s milk is desired, the calf should be weaned on or before the ninth milking, when the milk becomes fit for human consumption. As a rule the earlier the calf is weaned the more easily it can be taught to drink from the pail. On the other hand, it is better for both cow and calf to have the calf suckle as long as possible. The beef calf can be taught to drink and changed from whole to skim milk much as suggested for the dairy calf (pages 251 to 255). There has been much discussion from time to time, among beef producers, as to the possibilities of the skim-milk-fed calf as a beef-producing animal. In fact, the skim-milk calf as a beef producer is not likely to be considered seriously by the experienced beef producers of the middle West. To these men the skim-milk calf means a stunted, pot-bellied animal with papery skin, lacking in quality and thrift, a fit subject for ridi- cule, but hardly worth while in the feed lot. That these ex- perienced men are justified in their opinion there can be no doubt, for the average skim-milk calf has not much to recom- BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 319 mend him as a beef-producing animal. On the other hand, conditions are rapidly becoming such that we are obliged to rely, in part at least, on these skim-milk calves for the coun- try’s beef supply. Furthermore, it has been proved that by giving the skim-milk calf proper care a fair kind of beef-produc- ing animal may result. Such a calf should have extra care and be encouraged from the beginning, for it must be remem- bered to attempt to make beef from a stunted calf will prove an unprofitable venture. They must be kept strong and thrifty. CHAPTER XIV CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE Tue ability to fatten cattle rapidly and quickly is to be increased and strengthened by careful study and experience. All that may be spoken or written will not make one suc- cessful, nor cover his defects, if he does not take kindly to the work. Study, observation, and especially practice add to the ability of the cattle feeder. The ability to carry a steer through a one-hundred-and-eighty-day fattening period without once getting him ‘‘ off feed” is the end to be attained. The importance of regularity in everything that pertains to the management of feeding cattle cannot easily be overesti- mated. This applies particularly to administering feed and water. Cattle anticipate the hour of feeding and become nervous if it is long delayed; they bellow, coax, and become much excited, all of which operates against the economical pro- duction of beef. Sudden changes in the food are to be avoided, as the digestive system is unable to accommodate itself at once to such changes, and digestive disorders are likely to follow. Such shifts sometimes result in scours, other times in colic, and in fact may result in various kinds of indigestion. When necessary to change from one food to another, the transfer should be made slowly and gradually, replacing the old with the new. Scouring is very disastrous and should be carefully avoided, as a single day’s laxness may offset a week’s gain. The inexperienced feeder is likely to overfeed because of the 320 CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE 321 desire to push the cattle to better gains, which not only often induces scours, but has a tendency to throw the cattle off feed. Cattle of about the same size and strength should be fed in the same lot or pasture, while weak animals and those unable to push their way to the feed-rack and get their share should be placed where they can be supplied in quiet. Strong animals often push the weak away from the feed-troughs, which not only prevents the weaker from feeding, but enables the stronger to get an overfeed, resulting in scours or other digestive disorders. Unwholesome food, or a fault in the feeding mixture, may result in scours. At a glance, the successful and experienced cattle feeder recognizes the shortcomings among his fattening cattle. By going through the feed lots, noting the condition of the manure or droppings, their general appearance and odor, by noting the feed-boxes and the general conduct of the cattle, he is able to discern their needs, and governs himself accordingly. The droppings of the steers are an excellent index to the prog- ress of fattening cattle. While these droppings should never be hard, they should, however, be thick enough to pile up and have that greasy or bland appearance that indicates a healthy action of the liver. The droppings from steers that are not fattening well, or suffering from indigestion, have a disagreeable odor. Sour-smelling odors, and thin watery droppings indicate something wrong with the feeding cattle. The behavior of the cattle is a further index to their general thrift and progress in fattening. Their quiet pose while rumi- nating; their peculiar loud breathing when lying down, due no doubt to the cramped position of the internal organs be- cause of a well-filled paunch; the quiet and prominent eyes; their manner of approaching the feed-box; the way in which they feed; their mellow skin and oily coat; and in fact each movement, gives the experienced cattle feeder a clew as to their general condition. Y¥ 322 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS FARMS FOR FATTENING CATTLE While cattle feeding may be conducted on any farm, there are two general types of farms on which it is likely to prove the more profitable. First, grain farms that grow large quan- tities of dry forage incidental to the grain and which would be otherwise largely wasted; second, pasture farms, where for some reason grain cannot be successfully grown and where the land is suitable for pasture. EQUIPMENT FOR SUMMER FEEDING In considering the profits likely to result from steer feeding, among the first items to be taken into account is the equip- ment. While the equipment for beef production is not nearly as extensive as for milk production, there are, nevertheless, a few necessities to be provided. Since the equipment for sum- mer feeding on pasture differs from that of winter feeding in the dry-lot, each will be considered separately. The necessary equipment for summer feeding on pasture consists of the pasture, the feeding-boxes or bunks, water, shade, and salt. Pasture. — The importance of properly managed pastures cannot be overestimated. The general management, such as the importance of a good stand of grass; of keeping down the weeds; of providing suitable drainage; of top dressing with barnyard manure when convenient; and of not turning to pasture too early in the spring, was discussed on pages 284 to 289. It was there shown that many pastures that are now supporting one animal to three or four acres could, with very little extra care, be made to support an animal to the acre with- out feed in addition, or two animals to one acre by the use of additional feed, such as is commonly practiced in the beef- producing localities of the central West. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE 323 Feed-bunk.— While any kind of durable box or trough, slightly elevated, may be used in feeding grain, a feed-bunk similar to those illustrated in Fig. 99 will prove the most efficient. These feed-bunks are three feet wide, fifteen feet long, inside di- mension, and two and one-half feet high. They are constructed as follows: From a 4” X 4’ scantling cut six posts two and one-half feet long, bevel off the top of each so as to shed water and prevent the sharp corners from injuring the cattle. Cut three 2’ X12” plank sixteen feet long and six 2” X4’”s four feet long. Place two of the 2” X 4’”s, edges up, on a level place, in such a position that when the sixteen foot plank are placed upon them, the plank will project over one inch on either end, thus leaving the 2” X 4’”s fifteen and one-half feet apart, inside dimensions. Spike or, better still, bolt the three 2’’ X 12” plank to these 2’” X 4’”s, leaving six inches clear on either end of the 2” X 4'"s. Place a third 2” X 4” under the three planks two inches to one side of the middle, and spike or bolt fast, leaving six inches on either end of the 2’ X 4” projecting as before. Cut two 2” X 8” plank sixteen feet long and place one, edge up, either side of the platform, thus making a box; spike fast to the 2” X 12’”s and to the 2” X 4’”s. Elevate the box thus con- structed, and with six 8” bolts, bolt fast to the 4’” X 4” posts, thus making a bunk as illustrated.in Fig. 99. Cut two 2” X 6'"s approximately three feet long for the ends. This should be accurately measured in order to fit tightly. Place the remaining three 2” X 4’”’s under the box on the opposite side of the 4” X 4” posts, bolt and spike all together. Invert the bunk and batten the cracks with 1” x 3’”’s, otherwise the timber in the bunk will dry out, leaving cracks ‘through which the grain will leak. This bunk can be materially strengthened by plac- ing three 4’ rods across, one at either end and one in the center. One bunk of the dimensions given will be sufficient to accommodate fifteen to twenty cattle, depending on their size. Any kind of lumber may be used, but oak is the more durable MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS 324 s “yUunq-pooj 04} 9JON “HHAISVY NO SUaALg ‘ou NIVEL) SNIGAA YT —"§6 “OTT CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE 325 and will make a stronger bunk. Such a bunk can be moved from place to place. The self-feeder is a feed box or bin holding a large amount of grain and so arranged that part of the grain is accessible to the cattle at all times. The great advantage stated for self- feeders is that they save labor. They have been used with vary- ing success, some cattle feeders using them continuously, others using them one or two years and then abandoning them. In some localities the self-feeder is common, in others not known. Shade. — When there are trees in the pastures, the matter of shade need receive no attention, but in the absence of natural shade, some -provision should be made for it especially during the hot, dry weather when the flies are troublesome. Droves of fattening cattle occasionally become so excited, due to the excessive heat and flies, that they bunch up or stampede and sometimes injure each other, or whoever comes in their way. Water. — Fattening cattle must be supplied with an abun- dance of fresh water at all times. Many pastures through- out the country are not thus supplied. As a rule beef cannot be produced economically on such farms. The hotter and dryer the weather, the more the cattle need, and this is just the time there is likely to be a shortage. In the absence of running water, perhaps the most efficient source is a good well, equipped with a wind pump. When the water is pumped by hand and the drove of cattle large, the water supply is likely to be deficient. It is also important that the water be fresh and clean. Hot, stale, and muddy water, laden with mosquito larve and other impurities, is not fit for cattle to drink. Something better than mud-holes should be supplied. Salt should either be kept before the feeding cattle at all times or supplied them regularly twice each week. A very good plan is to cut a2 common salt barrel in two at the middle and place one-half where the cattle can have free access to it. This should be under a shed, as rain dissolves the salt. 326 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS EQUIPMENT FOR WINTER FEEDING The, equipment for feeding cattle in the winter deserves special attention; not that it is difficult or expensive but that the proper kind of equipment is often neglected and much money expended for items that are not only unnecessary but positively objectionable. The most particular item is that of efficient shelter. Other items are the feed-lot and its location, the racks from which to feed dry forage, and the like. . Shelter for winter feeding. — While it is essential to provide warm winter quarters for the dairy cow, because she is thin in flesh and because of the nature of her product, such warm quarters are not necessary for the fattening steer. The fat- tening steer possesses a coat of fat or flesh which serves to protect him from the cold, and when on full feed the heat gen- erated in the body by masticating, digesting, and assimilating the food is sufficient to maintain the body temperature. No doubt the needs of the fattening animal are such as to make a reasonable amount of cold air beneficial rather than detrimental. But it is very desirable that the fattening steer be kept dry and provided with a comfortable dry bed. Dry quarters are far more important than warm quarters. A structure which protects the animals from the rain and snow and provides them with a dry comfortable bed is sufficient. Waters, who has thoroughly investigated the shelter prob- lem} concludes his work as follows: ‘‘ Apparently then the only shelter required for cattle of this class is that which will protect them from rain and snow and break the northwest winds and furnish a dry place in which the animals may lie down. It is more important that the fattening animal lie down regularly and during a large portion of the time than that he be pro- tected from the cold. An abundance of sunshine and fresh air, a comfortable place in which to lie, and freedom from external CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE 327 disturbances furnish ideal conditions for rapid and economic gains.” The feed-lot.— Relatively too little attention is given the feed- lot. In choosing the location of the lot, consideration should be given to drainage and the natural protection. A south slope is the most desirable, as the water will drain off quickly after a rain, and the full benefit of the sun’s rays will be received. A muddy lot is one of the greatest objections to winter feeding. Over much of the grain belt the soil is rather impervious to water, which is held at the surface. The cattle in .walking mix the water with the soil, which is often clay, thus making a most disagreeable mud. The only known corrective for such lots is to pave them, 6r at least in part, particularly where the animals must lie and where the feed-bunks and racks are placed. For this purpose various materials are used, chief of which are cobble stones, bricks, cement, and plank. Before laying the pavement a grade should be established slightly higher than the sur- rounding surface, to eliminate the surface water. The grade should have a slope of at least one inch to six feet. The surface should then be covered with six inches of gravel rolled and tamped down solid; over this place a one-inch covering of fine sand on which the brick or cobble stone may be laid. Roll, or better still, tamp down solid. Over this should be placed a cement mortar of the consistency of cream made by thoroughly mixing one part clean sharp sand and one part of Portland cement. This mixture should be thoroughly swept into the joints and cracks. A second coat of the cement mortar may be laid in ten days to insure the complete filling of the cracks and joints. A feed-lot thus paved will be free from mud, can be cleaned with team and scraper, and makes a very desirable place on which to feed cattle. Platform for feed-bunks. — On soils that are porous and from which the water drains off rapidly, the mud gives little incon- 328 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS venience except about the feed-bunks, dry-forage-racks, and water-tank. About these and extending back six feet, may be placed a few loads of coarse gravel or, better still, a pave- ment similar to that described above, or a plank platform. Whatever the material used in construction, it should be so arranged that the farmer may drive alongside the bunk or rack with a load of feed. Such platforms will save feed bills enough each year to pay for their construction, to say nothing of the extra annoyance caused by the mud in case they are not used. The same feed-bunks suggested for feeding on pasture may be moved to the lot and used for winter feeding as well. As a rule, it is not desirable to place the feed-bunk under the shed except when the winters are extra severe. Dry-forage-rack. — It is not advisable to have the feed-bunks and the dry-forage-racks combined, since the litter from the dry forage falling upon the grain renders it distasteful to cattle, particularly when on a full grain ration. Neither is it advis- able to construct such racks under the shed except where the climate is very disagreeable, though they should be placed to the south of the shed or barn to protect them measurably from the winds and driving storms. The form and shape of the dry- forage-racks will depend on the condition in which dry forage is fed, corn stalks calling for one form, hay for another, and chopped hay or shredded fodder for still another. As these racks are likely to be permanent, they should be constructed to meet the particular conditions under which they are to be used. Water-tanks. — A liberal supply of fresh water is as essential for winter feeding as for summer feeding. While water is likely to be more plentiful in winter than in summer, it is often allowed to freeze for days at a time, so that the cattle are wholly deprived of a supply and often compelled to eat snow or lick the ice to get the water needed for their bodies. In very severe weather cattle are not likely to drink much ice water; this ob- servation has led the rather careless cattle feeder to think the CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE 329 cattle do not need much water at such times. This is a mis- taken idea, as fattening cattle need a liberal supply of fresh water at all times, even though they will not consume as much as in the hot, dry weather of mid-summer. Fic. 100.— Rep Poutitep Buty ‘‘Cremo.”’ A very noted prize winner, owned by Frank Davis & Son, Holbrook, Neb. The Red Polled cattle, natives of Norfolk and Suffolk counties, England, are classed as dual purpose. They give good returns in both beef and milk, but do not equal the beef cattle for beef or the milk cattle for milk. In size the bulls range from 1500 to 2000 pounds, the cows 1200 to 1400 pounds. The color is always red, and the horns wanting. When the water-tanks are not too large, a very good way to prevent freezing, except in very severe weather, is to encase the tank in a box or frame and fill this frame with litter from the horse stable. The frame should be so constructed as to permit the use of a layer of this manure at least one foot thick all around the tank. By covering all, both frame and tank, with a large lid which is to be shut down at night, and 330 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS during a part of the day when the weather is severe, there is not much likelihood of the water freezing. A little labor spent in constructing such a frame will save many times its cost in food, as it requires considerable heat to warm up the ice water that cattle drink. CHAPTER XV DISEASES OF CATTLE CaTTLE are very subject to certain diseases which render their usage for domestic purposes questionable. Milk from diseased cows, or meat from diseased carcasses, may endanger the lives of those who consume it. While these diseases are properly classed as incurable, it should be remembered that they are communicable germ diseases and are therefore pre- ventable. Therefore, some space will be devoted to their pre- vention. In addition to these diseases, cattle are subject to a number of ailments, some of which are simple and easily cared for, but more of which are somewhat complicated, requiring skilled treatment. The sick cow should receive much care, as in many cases good care is to be preferred to the use of medicine (see page 151). This chapter is intended merely to serve as a guide and to make suggestions; it is not designed to take the place of a good veterinarian, who should always be called in case of serious difficulty or doubt. The dosages here advised, except when otherwise noted, are for mature animals. DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS, AND DIFFICULTIES OF PARTURITION There are few diseases to which cattle are subject that are of wider interest than those of the generative organs. This is particularly true of those herds that are being kept for breed- ing purposes and when the principal product is the offspring. 331 3382 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Cattle are particularly subject to a contagious form of abortion which destroys many young before they can live out of the womb. ‘The principal diseases or difficulties are barrenness ; abortion, both contagious and non-contagious; difficult parturition; re- tention of the afterbirth; milk-fever; garget. Barrenness in cows. — It often happens that cows are served normally, yet fail to conceive. Some of the causes of this diffi- culty are readily understood and easily prevented, while others are not well understood and are beyond control of the breeder. An excess of rich and stimulating foods is a common cause of non-breeding, especially if the animals are denied exercise. The dangers attending parturition are often more than tre- bled in the case of fat animals. This excessive fat, however, may be of much advantage once these dangers are past. On the other hand, barrenness may be due to poor feeding, the system being weakened by the lack of sufficient nutrition. Undue sexual excitement at the most active stage of heat is often responsible for the cow not conceiving. Cows that for some reason have missed a season are often difficult to impregnate. Animals that are too closely inbred are also likely to be barren. In addition to these, there is a long line of causes of barrenness in cows over which the breeder has little or no con- trol, such as derangement of the sex organs, diseased ovaries, tumors, and the like. Abortion in cows. — Abortion in cows is either contagious or non-contagious. Because of the great differences as to cause and subsequent treatment, we consider them separately. Non-contagious abortion. — This is produced by any cause operating to disconnect the union of the fetal membrane from the uterus. A cow may abort by reason of almost any cause that very generally disturbs her system, as from the influence of a too stimulating diet or the reverse, as when the nourishment is so deficient that the fetus dies in the womb; damp, unhealthy stables; worms in the bowels, lungs, or liver; indigestion of all DISEASES OF CATTLE 833 kinds; the drinking of putrid, stagnant water; of ice water; the eating of iced grass; of ergot, of smuts on corn or other grains; and severe illness. The more direct mechanical causes are falls, strains, violent exertion, and blows; also traveling on icy ground, muddy roads, or jumping over fences, ditches, and the like. The prevention of non-contagious abortion is the avoidance of all causes that are likely to produce it. All causes of excite- ment, of constipation, of diarrhea, of indigestion, and the like must be avoided. With cattle, non-contagious abortion may often be prevented, although the first signs have appeared. So long as the fetus has not perished, the waters not discharged, nor the water-bags presented, attempts should be made to check the progress. Place the cow alone in a quiet stall and check the labor pains if possible. To do this, laudanum given in one ounce doses for small cows and two ounce doses for large ones is good. Repeat the dose in three or four hours should the labor pains recur. When all measures fail and miscarriage results, all that can be done is to assist in the removal of the fetus and its mem- branes, as in ordinary parturition. Contagious abortion in cows. —Though not well understood, contagious abortion is known to be due to an organism. The germ producing the disease is conveyed by infected bulls, by the tongue or tail of infected animals, or by the external genital organs coming in contact with the wall, fence, rubbing post, litter, or floor which has been previously soiled by an infected animal. Cows should be kept in fair flesh and in vigorous condition. The method of preventing contagious abortion differs from non- contagious only in the separation of the infected animals and in free use of disinfectants. When a cow shows signs of aborting, or when she has aborted, she should be separated from the other cows and the stable or stall she occupied thoroughly disinfected. For this purpose, use a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid or a 334 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS 1 to 1000 solution of corrosive sublimate. All litter and the dead fetus should be burned. After the cow has aborted, she must be kept thoroughly clean by use of a disinfectant. Dissolve 1 dram of corrosive sublimate, 1 ounce each of alcohol and glycer- ine, shake this up in a gallon of water, and use as an injection into the vagina and wash the parts about the vulva and root of the tail. Disinfect the animal each day as long as the discharge continues. Do not breed aborting cows for two or three months. For two days before breeding, the vagina should be washed out with the sublimate-alcohol-glycerine-solution, but on the day of breeding warm water only should be used as the corrosive sublimate will destroy the semen. The disease seems to run out and disappear from the herd after a time. The best methods of combating contagious abortion are cleanliness, the free use of disinfectants, isolation of infected cows, and precautions against using infected bulls. Many pre- ventive remedies have been suggested, of which the following is as good as any: Mix one pound of pulverized hyposulfite of soda, one pound of sulfur, and ten pounds of common salt. Give a small handful to each pregnant cow two or three times a week. Difficult parturition. — There are a number of causes of diffi- cult parturition among cattle. Cows, however, have an ad- vantage over mares, in that the fetus and fetal membranes are more strongly attached and not so likely to be disconnected and may, therefore, be left alone longer with practically no danger to the young. Among cows the maxim may be: Do not inter- fere too soon. Bruising, tearing of the passages, and bleeding from the uncontracted womb may follow the too rapid extrac- tion of the calf. If there is no obstruction, let the calf be ex- pelled slowly by the unaided efforts of the cow. If, however, after the cow has labored some time, there seems to be some mechanical obstruction, she should be ex- amined. As this is likely to be much of a task, the operator DISEASES OF CATTLE 335 should prepare himself for it by dressing in a shirt from which the sleeves have been cut off at the shoulder. This avoids danger of soiling the clothing or of exposure, as is the case when the shirt is removed, and yet leaves the whole arm free for the work. The hand and arm should be smeared with oil, lard, or vaseline. This grease should be fresh, neither salted nor rancid, and should be purified by boiling or rendered antiseptic by the addition of a tablespoonful of carbolic acid to the pound of grease. This should always be done, as it protects both the cow and the operator from infection. After the labor pains have lasted some time without any signs of the fetus, the hand should be introduced to examine; if the water-bags have burst and neither feet nor head appear for some time, if one fore foot only and the head appears, or both fore feet without the head, or the head without the fore feet, and if one hind foot appears without the other, make very careful examination. In normal presentation the fore feet, hoofs down, should first appear, then the nose. In any of these abnormal presentations, secure the presented limb or head by a rope with arunning noose, so that in case it should slip back into the womb it will not get lost during the examination, but may be retained in the vagina or easily brought up again. This examination can be made much easier if one turns the cow with head down hill, as the internal organs gravitate forward into the belly of the cow thus making more room in which to bring up the missing limb or head and to manipulate the fetus. In case the cow is lying down, turn her on the side opposite to that on which the limb is missing, so that there may be more room to arrange the fetus or to bring up the missing member. De not attempt to arrange the fetus, limb, or head, during the labor pains, but wait until the pain has ceased and then straighten out the part before the next pain comes on. One must be patient and painstaking, remembering that the fetus 336 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS will not come until properly arranged, and when so arranged, it is likely to come fairly easy. , The task is all the more difficult because it is very trying on the arm of the operator, as the arm of the strongest man is likely to become numb working in such positions. If the passages have lost their natural lubricating liquid and become dry, smear the interior of the passages, the womb, and the surface of the calf as far as can be reached with fresh lard or sweet oil. In pulling on the fetus, draw only while the cow is straining. When pulling, draw downward toward the hocks as well as backward, as the natural curvature of both fetus and passages are thus followed and the extraction of the fetus rendered easy. Hf the pains of the cow are violent and long continued, they may ke checked by pinching the back or by placing a tight surcingle around the body in front of the udder. If the pains continue, one to one-and-one-half ounces of chloral hydrate in a quart of water may be given to check them. Retained afterbirth. — The cow of all farm animals is especially subject to this difficulty. When the afterbirth is retained it decomposes and is discharged as a yellow or reddish fluid, having an extremely offensive odor. This discharge is most apparent when the cow is lying down and while she ruminates. The rear parts of the cow, rump, tail, and vulva are soiled by the discharge, which often contains lumps of decomposing material. To avoid this, the afterbirth should be removed within twenty- four or thirty-six hours after calving. To do this, a simple method which is often effective is to hang a small weight, not to exceed one or two pounds, to the hanging portion of the after- birth and allow this by its constant dragging and by its jerking effect as the cow moves along to pull the membranes from their attachments and to stimulate the womb to expulsive contrac- tions. In neglected cases when the hanging mass is already badly decomposed this cannot be done, as the membrane is liable to tear under the added weight, leaving a part of the material in the womb. If the bowels are constipated, a physic DISEASES OF CATTLE 337 consisting of one ounce of ginger given with a quart of sweet oil will prove advantageous. If the afterbirth remains, it is neces- sary to remove the membrane by hand. This should be done within twenty-four hours after calving, since the mouth of the womb may be so closed that it becomes difficult to introduce the hand. The operator had better dress as suggested for diffi- cult parturition (p. 334). The arm should also be greased as suggested for that operation, as otherwise the operator may become infected from the decaying membrane. It is a good Fic. 101.— Rep Pouttep Herp. Owned by Frank Hartlin, Strasburg, Ohio. plan to wind the free portion of the hanging membrane around a small stick and roll up until it reaches the vulva. An assistant should hold the tail and membrane to one side while the operator introduces the greased arm which he passes along until the places of attachment are reached. These places of attachment will be found to resemble mushroom-shaped bodies and are detached one by one by pushing the hand between the membrane and the womb and slipping the membrane from the heads of these bodies, taking care not to rupture the womb. As the membrane is released, the assistant should keep rolling it up on the stick. Z * 888 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS After the whole membrane is removed, it may be well to disin- fect the womb with a two per cent solution of carbolic acid. Eversion of the womb.— This ailment is commonly called “casting the wethers,”’ and is rather common among cattle. It often follows difficult parturition, the cow continuing to strain until the womb is forced out and hangs in a large mass from the vulva. The womb can be instantly recognized from the other membranes by the presence of the mushroom-shaped bodies, each two to three inches in diameter and attached by a narrow neck. There are a large number of these bodies, fifty to one hundred. . The displaced womb should be carefully washed with cold water containing a one per cent solution of carbolic acid. The cold is useful to drive out the blood and reduce the bulk. Now with the closed fist planted in the rounded end of the largest horn of the womb, push back so as to reinvert the womb into place. This must be done gradually. The cow will strain while this is being done, but the womb is to be firmly held until the straining is over. This straining may be overcome in part by pinching on the back. The holding of the womb in place is the next point. This is perhaps best accomplished by the use of a rope truss. This truss can be made from a long one inch rope. Double the long rope at its middle and place over the neck of the cow; bring the ends, one on either side of the neck, down between the fore legs, twist them together to make firm, carry back between the hind legs and up to the vulva, here cross them and tie firmly with a string, then, just before the tail is reached, cross back and tie firmly, thus making a ring which when drawn tight will press the vulva; then carry the ropes forward along the back and tie into the middle of the rope at the top of the neck. The rope should be drawn so tight that the rope ring is made to press firmly all around the vulva. Milk-fever.— This disease is also known as parturition DISEASES OF CATTLE 339 apoplexy and parturition fever. There is, however, very little if any fever connected with the disease, as temperature is usually below normal. High-producing, fleshy, aged cows that have been closely confined are likely to be attacked. In fact, the best and heaviest milkers are most subject to the disease. It is more likely to occur when the birth has been comparatively easy and quick, and from one to ten days after calving. There is a sudden dullness, hanging back in the stall, drooping of the head, uneasy movement of the hind limbs, unsteady steps; and the cow staggers, lies, or falls down and is unable to rise. At this time there may be some temperature. At first the cow lies with her head turned around with nose resting on the right flank; later she may stretch full on her side. She soon becomes unconscious, the eyes are glazed, their pupils widely dilated and their lids not movable when the ball of the eye is touched with the finger. Treatment must follow quickly or she will soon expire. While this disease was formerly considered very fatal, with the air-treatment it is seldom so. This air-treatment consists simply of injecting air into the udder and carefully kneading the udder at the same time. Care must be taken that the air be sterile. There are Schmidt-Kolding sterile-air milk-fever outfits on the market with which to force the air into the udder, yet if one of these is not near at hand,a very convenient ap- paratus can be made from a common bicycle air-pump and a milk-tube. In fact, this simple apparatus will prove as efficient as any. Attach the milk-tube to the pump, insert the tube into the teat and as the air is pumped in, knead the udder well. In two hours milk the air out, rest a few minutes, and pump up again. This may be repeated every two hours until the animal is relieved. If the animal is badly bloated, puncture the paunch in the left loin with a canula and trocar as suggested for bloating (page 351). This treatment should be pursued while there is life, irrespective of how low the cow may seem. Do not let the 340 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS cow die. In case the milk-tube is not at hand, use a medicine dropper to get the air into the udder. If the canula and trocar are not at hand, stick a knife into the paunch. This is recom- mended only in the absence of something better. Many a cow has been saved by these crude methods. Garget is perhaps one of the principal forms of mammitis, of which caked-udder is a second. The udder often becomes highly ‘inflamed soon after the young is born, and occasionally before when the glands are active, congested with blood, and the udder over-distended with milk. In addition to this, inflammation of the udder is often due to mechanical injuries such as blows, kicks, scratches, and being horned by other cows; and especially by germs entering the udder. The treatment is to relieve the congestion by drawing the milk frequently. This should be done before calving if the udder is distended. After the milk is drawn gently but thoroughly, rub the udder. Bathe the parts with hot water for fifteen min- utes at a time, rub dry, and apply an ointment made as follows: Dissolve two tablespoonfuls of gum camphor in a teacupful of melted fresh lard. This can be greatly improved by the addition of one ounce of the fluid extract of belladonna. The udder should be bathed three times daily and the ointment well rubbed in. It is often advantageous to support the udder by the use of a wide piece of cloth with holes cut for the teats and this held in place by arranging a band over the back. When the trouble is due to germs entering the udder, a two per cent solution of carbolic acid should be injected into the udder; leave this in ten to fifteen minutes; milk out and bathe as before. This solution may be injected by fastening a milk-tube on a syringe with a small rubber tube. ILLS OF THE YOUNG CALF The young calf, even though it establishes the function of respiration and gets its first meal without difficulty, is still DISEASES OF CATTLE 84) subject to many ills, chief of which are digestive disorders of some kind. These digestive defects are likely to be more numerous among dairy calves or those that are weaned while young and fed from the pail. This is often due to the difficulty in keeping the conditions just right: the milk may get cold, the pails may be unclean, the calf may drink too fast, and many other irregularities. Constipation. — Notwithstanding the purgative effects of the colostrum or first milk, the young calf occasionally suffers from constipation, especially if the cow has not been in good thrift, or has been fed on dry innutritious foods during the latter periods of pregnancy. Whatever the cause, if the calf is costive, straining violently without passing dung, lying down and rising at once as in colic, and failing in appetite, no time should be lost in giving relief. First remove the cause, if it can be located. The bowels will ordinarily be stimulated to action by administering one to two ounces of olive or castor oil. An injection of warm water into the bowels will prove helpful. The water should be at blood heat and have added to it a little glycerine, — a teaspoonful of glycerine and two or three ounces of water. It is not advisable to inject too much, or to use soap suds as is often done. Inject gently into the rectum with a common hard rubber syringe, taking extra care not to rupture the tender membrane. This will induce the calf to try to pass the fecal matter and in addition will lubricate the passage. The injection may be repeated every hour. Diarrhea or scours. — This disease is prevalent among calves and occurs in two forms: simple; and contagious or ‘white scour.” The causes of simple diarrhea are many and varied; bad food, over-feeding, and too rapid feeding are the most common. The surroundings of the calf often bring on the dis- ease. Calves kept indoors are more liable to attacks than those in the open air and having exercise, pure air, and sunshine. Closely crowded, filthy, foul smelling buildings are likely to 3842 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS bring on an attack. Whatever the cause, it should be removed and the case treated at once, as the calf is not likely to live long if the diarrhea continues. Perhaps the first thing to do is to reduce the feed from one-half to two-thirds. In treating, one must keep in mind the nature of the disease, that it is caused by an irritant in the stomach or bowels which must be removed before a cure can be effected. For this reason one should be cautious about giving an astringent with a view to cutting off the discharge. The best policy in all such diseases is to expel the disturber with a laxative, such as one to two ounces of castor oil. Later when the irritant has been removed by the oil, check the discharge by a weak solution of gum arabic, or by adding a little lime water, not to exceed one-third to the milk each meal, or by adding parched flour to boiled milk, or by the essence of Jamaica ginger well diluted with hot water, and in persistent cases by the use of such astringent as oak bark tea, which is made by stripping the inner bark of white oak. White scour is a violent and deadly form of diarrhea, frequently attacking young calves. This may appear immediately after birth and is likely to show itself within the first or second day. It often occurs as a contagious disease, attacking all the calves that are dropped in the stable for some time. For this reason it is often called ‘‘ contagious scours.’’ The disease is caused by a germ that enters in most cases through the navel. The calf appears dull and weak, the eyes are sunken, the belly retracted, the breathing is short and rapid, the temperature very low, and the calf soon becomes unconscious. The dis- charge from the bowels is rather profuse, of a yellowish white color and very offensive odor. As a rule the calf dies within twenty-four to thirty-six hours. As there seems to be no treatment, we must rely on pre- vention. A week before calving the pregnant cow should be placed in comfortable quarters where no sick calves have been confined. This seems to be the only safe course, for after the DISEASES OF CATTLE 843 disease breaks out in a stable, often the most thorough disinfect- ing fails to stop future calves from infection. As soon as the calf is dropped, the cord should be tied close to the navel and the parts thoroughly wet with a twenty per cent solution of carbolic acid, or better still, with a solution of the tincture of iodine. Fresh milk, diluted with lime water, not to exceed one- third, in which a teaspoonful of dried blood has been dissolved, should be given the calf in small quantities and at frequent in- tervals. The stable in which the first attack occurred should be thoroughly disinfected, and to do this perhaps nothing is better than corrosive sublimate; however, if this seems undesirable and ordinarily disinfectants are used, they should be used strong and flushed into every nook and corner of the stable. TUBERCULOSIS Perhaps no disease to which cattle are subject is more dis- cussed than tuberculosis. This is due in a large measure to the use of cattle to provide food for the human race. There are perhaps few diseases so common among cattle as tuberculosis, particularly among those animals that are kept closely confined. Tuberculosis is a communicable germ disease, and is, therefore, preventable. The disease is caused by a small germ or bac- terium known as Bacillus tuberculosis. This germ is, of course, invisible to the naked eye. Methods of infection. — As tuberculosis is a communicable germ disease, the methods of infection should receive much at- tention. This can be made clear by considering from two points of view: first, how the small germs escape from diseased ani- mals; and second, how sound animals become infected. All diseased animals possess the germ. This germ escapes when the tissues it has destroyed are being discharged from the body. Thus, if the lungs are affected, the animal on coughing dislodges the germs, which may be forced directly out of the body or lodged in the mouth, when they leave the body with the saliva. 344 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS In the cases in which the germs are found in the saliva they are left in the watering troughs, on the bottom of the mangers, on the grass, on other animals when licked by diseased ones, and in fact spread wherever the diseased animal goes. If the dis- ease happens to be in the glands of the intestinal walls, the germ Fic. 102. — Devon Butt ''Darxs Magsesty.’’ Owned by Stockwell and Gifford, Sutton, Mass. The Devon cattle originated in the counties of Devon and Somerset, England. They are variously classified, sometimes as beef cattle, at other times as dual- purpose animals. They tend more toward beef than milk. The animals are symmetrical and trim. In size the bulls weigh from 1500 to 2000 pounds, the cows from 1300 to 1500 pounds. The color is red, although the shade is often light. escapes with the dung. If the glands of the udder are diseased, the germ passes out with the milk. If the disease is located in the glands of the skin, the germs may escape through the openings of the skin. When the germs have escaped into the watering troughs, mangers, on the grass, and the like, they are readily taken up by DISEASES OF CATTLE 845 healthy cattle. In case the germs escape in the milk, whatever feeds upon it is liable to infection. The length of time that will pass after infection and before the disease visibly appears varies widely, even to months or years. The length of time the animal may possess the disease varies equally as much. With some it may prove fatal in a few months; others may carry it for years. The tuberculin test. — Often it is not possiblé to tell by a phys- ical examination which animals are infected with tuberculosis and which are not. The most accurate means of detecting the disease in cattle is by noting the temperature of the animal following the injection of a small. amount of tuberculin be- neath the skin. The tuberculin is prepared by sterilizing, filtering, and concentrating the liquids in which the tubercle bacillus has been allowed to grow. It contains the cooked products of the growth of these germs, but not the germs them- selves. Hence when this liquid is injected under the skin of cattle, it is absolutely unable to produce the disease, but it sets up a characteristic reaction or symptoms. Any intelligent owner of cattle, who will make a little effort to familiarize himself with the test and its limitations, can use it on his own cattle with safe results. It does not require the trained veterinarian. The operator must, however, be familiar with the method, be very careful, painstaking, and patient. The testing outfit. — The testing outfit consists of five things: (1) tuberculin, (2) syringe, (3) thermometer, (4) disinfectant, (5) vaseline. 1. Tuberculin. — Tuberculin can be procured from the ex- periment stations in the various states. If the Experiment Station fails to provide it, the Bureau of Animal Industry, Wash- ington, D.C., can tell where to secure it. 2. Syringe. — A hypodermic syringe of 6 c.c. to 10 c.c. capacity, such as is commonly used to inject liquid vaccine, is 846. MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS necessary. This syringe should be provided with short, stout needles, well reénforced at the base. Any druggist will procure the syringe and needles and show how to use them. 3. Thermometer. — A guaranteed clinical thermometer is necessary. If a large number of animals is to be tested, it will facilitate matters to provide two or three thermometers. Any druggist will provide a thermometer and show how to adjust or shake down and how to read it. A string should be tied around the thermometer, at the other end of which should be fastened a wire hook, or asmall bull-dog clamp. After inserting the thermometer in the rectum, the clamp or wire hook is fastened to the long hairs at the base of the tail, or the wire wound around the tail so that if the thermometer is thrown out, it will not be broken by dropping to the ground. Cows are likely to void dung soon after the insertion of the thermometer, and unless this precaution is taken, the thermometer is very likely to drop to the floor before many temperatures are taken. 4, Disinfectant. — A small bottle of strong carbolic acid (95 per cent), to be used in disinfecting the syringe before begin- ning the test and to disinfect the needle-point before injecting each animal, is essential. This can be procured at any drug store. 5. Vaseline. — A small can of vaseline or lard should be pro- vided to grease the thermometer before insertion. A vaseline jar also affords a safe and convenient place to keep the ther- mometer between times of taking temperature. Directions for making the tuberculin test. — While making the test is not difficult (in fact easier done that told), one should be exceedingly careful, going about the work methodically and keeping everything neat and clean. The test may be divided for convenience into five essential parts: (1) keep- ing records, (2) taking the normal temperature; one day, (3) injecting the tuberculin same day, (4) taking temperature DISEASES OF CATTLE 347 after injection, second day, (5) interpretation of the tempera~- ture records. It is very essential that the animals be well known or num- bered, for in no case should they get mixed. It is not advisable for the beginner to attempt to test more than twenty animals at one time. Cattle suffering from such diseases as garget, retained afterbirth, and the like, or those that are in heat or far along in pregnancy, should not be tested. 1. Keeping records. — An accurate record of each tempera- ture must be kept. To do this procure a large sheet of paper, writing the names or number of each animal down the left side, and the hour at which the temperature is taken across the top. As each temperature is taken, record it under the hour and op- posite the name. 2. Taking. the normal temperature. —On account of the variation in temperature it is essential to take the temperature of each animal at intervals of two hours until at least four temperatures are taken, before the tuberculin is injected. These temperatures must be carefully recorded to compare with the temperatures of the same cow after injection. After becoming familiar with the method of reading the thermometer, shake it down, smear it with vaseline and insert full length into the rec- tum. Attach the thermometer to the base of the tail by means of the clamp of wire, and allow to remain in the rectum for three minutes. Withdraw the thermometer, read the temperature, record on the sheet at once, shake the thermometer down, and proceed as before. Because of the ease with which variations in temperature are caused, it is important to keep the animals that are being tested under normal conditions. They should be fed, watered, and milked as usual. 3. Injecting the tuberculin. — This is preferably done in the evening, say eight hours before the time of milking in the morn- 848 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS ing. For example, if the cows are milked at 6 a.m., inject. the tuberculin at 10 p.m. The syringe should be disinfected by drawing it full of carbolic acid, emptying it, and then rinsing in boiling water before beginning the injection. In addition to this, just before injecting each animal, dip the needle in strong carbolic acid to disinfect it. Carefully fill the syringe through the needle from the bottle of tuberculin. Set the burr on the pis- ton-rod of the syringe so that not more than the dose intended can be injected. The druggist will show how this is done when the syringe is purchased. ‘The size of the dose will be stated on the tuberculin bottle. With the cow restrained in a stanchion, or tied short in a stall, take hold of the skin with the left hand along the side of the neck where it is thin and loose and with the syringe in the right hand quickly insert the point in the pocket thus formed and inject the dose. Occasionally some force is needed to insert the needle into the skin. Before in- jecting another cow, see that the syringe is working properly and the needle is in good shape. 4. Taking temperature after injection. — Begin taking tem- peratures eight hours after the injection of the tuberculin and continue every two hours until six temperatures are taken, and continue those cases showing a rise in temperature. For ex- ample, if the tuberculin was injected at 10 p.m., begin taking temperatures at 6 a.m., then at 8 am., 10 am, 12 M., 2 pm. and 4 p.m., and make a careful record of each temperature as taken. When an animal shows a rise above 103, it is well to take the temperatures at more frequent intervals. 5. Interpretation of the temperature records. — The tem- peratures after injecting the tuberculin must be carefully studied and compared with those taken the day before. In typical cases of tuberculosis, an elevation of temperature usually comes on gradually, although in the more pronounced reactions, when the temperature goes above 105.5 degrees, the rise is often rapid. This elevation usually occurs between the eighth and sixteenth DISEASES OF CATTLE 849 -hours after injection. It should remain practically at a maxi- mum for two hours or more and gradually subside. When it reaches 104 degrees or more and is maintained for some hours, the animal is regarded as tubercular, if no fever was shown before the injection. Sudden rises for a short time only do not indicate a reaction. The rises of less than 1.5 degrees do not indicate a reaction. In all cases of doubt, the animal should be separated from the herd and retested not sooner than four to six weeks (the test will not give reaction under this time). Retesting. — A single test of a diseased herd cannot be relied upon to detect every tuberculous animal. If animals are found by the first test to be affected, they should be tested again in four to six weeks. Even in those herds in which no reacting animals are found, it is a good plan to test once each year. Tuberculin not infallible. — While tuberculin is the best method known for detecting tuberculosis, it is not infallible. On the average if properly handled, it will detect 97 per cent of the cases. In some cases, especially when the animals are badly diseased, it fails to react, and in a very few cases it seems to cause a rise of temperature in healthy animals. Prevention of tuberculosis. —In the beginning of this discussion. it was stated that tuberculosis is a communicable germ dis- ease, and therefore preventable. In order to prevent, infected animals must not be brought into healthy herds, for as we have observed diseased animals spread the infection wherever they go. Much space has been given to methods of locating the disease in order that those herds already free may not be infected by the addition of an infected animal. Ifa herd is known to be healthy, never bring a new animal into the herd until it has been tested, and if there is the slightest doubt about its being tubercular, it should be excluded. If in addition to the tuberculin test and the exclusion of all diseased animals, the quarters where the cattle are kept are well ventilated, and well lighted, admitting the direct rays of the sun, 850 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS the chance of the herd’s being infected is very slight. Since the trouble and expense of making the test are so slight, it is well worth while to make it in order to have the assurance that the herd is entirely free and there is absolutely no danger in the con- sumption of their products, either milk or meat. Eradication of tuberculosis. — The eradication of tuberculosis, once it gets a foothold, is not so easy or at least not so inexpen- sive. There is of course no curefor the disease, so other methods of eradication must be sought. It has been suggested that all diseased animals be slaughtered, but this would mean untold waste and were it enforced, might lead to a national calamity, for it is doubtful if the nation could spare all of its tubercular cattle at one time. There is one plan, however, which, if it could be employed, would seem to bridge the difficulty and in a few generations would result in bovine tuberculosis being practically swept from the land. This plan, however, requires extra labor, as -well as the expense of extra equipment, and its em- ployment is purely economical; but since, from the nature of the disease and the importance of the animals concerned, it seems to be the only avenue of hope, the plan is here given. The Bang method of eradicating bovine tuberculosis. — This method, recommended by Dr. Bang of the Copenhagen Veteri- nary College, is being successfully employed in Denmark. The object of the method is to replenish a tuberculous herd with as little loss as possible. The original method has been modified from time to time and at present stands thus: Immediately after testing the herd divide it into two parts, placing the sound animals in one and the diseased animals in the other, thus mak- ing two herds, one diseased, the othersound. At once remove the sound herd to new and uninfected quarters, and keep it away from the infection. The difficulty of this is that it means two sets of equipment, barn, lots, pastures, and the like; for if the plan is to succeed, the sound herd must be kept entirely away from the infected barn, lots, and pastures. They must even have DISEASES OF CATTLE 851 different care takers. Since calves at birth are free from tubercu- losis, those from the diseased herd may be put with those from the sound herd. No animals should be admitted to the sound herd without first being tested and the sound. herd itself should be tested once each year, and if any animals react, they are to be put with the diseased. herd and the stable thoroughly disin- fected with corrosive sublimate. If dairy cattle, the milk from the tuberculous herd must be handled in entirely separate utensils and pasteurized at.185° F., after which it is considered harmless both for stock and human food. This method, though it involves much expense, seems to be the only feasible one for the eradication of bovine tuberculosis. It is being successfully conducted on several farms in this coun- try at the present time. The painstaking and careful cattle owner can eradicate tuberculosis from his herd in a very few years by the Bang method, or some modification, if he so desires. BLOATING IN CATTLE Bloating, or “hoven,” is the distention of the paunch or rumen with gas. It is liable to occur when cattle are first turned to young clover or alfalfa, especially if the growth is rank, as they eat it so greedily that gas formation results. Turnips, potatoes, and cabbage may likewise set up fermenta- tion, which proceeds rapidly; the gas does not escape, and soon the rumen becomes distended to a large size. Bloating is easily recognized by the distension- of the rumen, particu- larly on the left side, that part bulging outward and upward very noticeably, and when struck with the tips of the fingers, giving a drum-like sound. Breathing is very difficult, the animal reels, and soon may lie down or fall. The treatment varies according to the severity of the case. In mild attacks, driving the animal at a walk often gives relief, or dashing cold water by the bucketful against the sides may suffice. 852 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Ifthe animal is bad, it may be necessary to put a gag in the mouth as follows: Take a piece of inch rope, smear it with pine tar, wagon grease, or other unsavory substance, place it in the animal’s mouth as a bit, and fasten by tying around the horns; or, take a stick the size of afork handle and eight or ten inches long, place this in the mouth as a bit and secure with a string by tying around the head. It will try to dislodge these objects by ‘movements of the tongue, jaws, and throat, thus stimulating the secretion of saliva and swallowing, which opens the esophagus and permits the gas to escape. At this time alittle salt thrown Fie. 103. — Devon Herp; ‘‘Satty” IN THE CENTER, HER TWO-YEAR-OLD Buit CaF To THE RIGHT, AND HER YEARLING CALF TO THE LEFT. Owned by L. P. Sisson. into the mouthoften proves advantageous. In severe cases, how- ever, the gas must be allowed to escape without delay, and this is best accomplished by the use of a trocar and canula. On the left side, about halfway between the last rib and the hip, make an in- cision through the skin about three-quarters of an inch long with a sharp knife; through this incision insert the trocar and canula, directing downward, inward, and slightly forward, and thrust the point into the paunch. If this happens to be a fat animal, it will be some distance through, but thrust it home. Remove the trocar, leaving the canula in place, through which the gas DISEASES OF CATTLE 8538 may escape. This should be left in place as long as the gas is generating. In the absence of a trocar, a sharp knife may be thrust through to let the gas escape. Do not let the animal die of bloating. Give internally two ounces of aromatic spirits of ammonia in a quart of cold water. Repeat every half our. Turpentine in two-ounce doses is also good, but it must be well diluted with milk to prevent injuring the animal. After bloat- ing has subsided give physic; one pound of Glauber’s salt is good. Since there is danger of bloating in turning cattle to luxuriant pasture, especially if wet with dew, they should always be well fed and turned to pasture in the afternoon when the grass is dry. Some advise taking them up the first night, feeding them well the next morning, and not turning in pasture again till after- noon. A little dry hay put in the pasture is excellent to prevent bloating, as the cattle seem to crave it. IMPACTION OF THE RUMEN This difficulty often occurs among cattle and is due to the fill- ing of the third stomach with indigestible material, such as frozen grass, weeds, or foreign materials. The animal refuses to eat, stands with back slightly arched, breathes rapidly, and may bloat, though not always. Often the mass of undigested food can be felt on the left side. The animal on lying down usually lies on the right side. For treatment give a mild purgative, three-fourths to one pound of Epsom salts and two ounces of ginger dissolved in warm water, and administer in the form of a drench. Feed gruels and bran mashes if the animal will eat, and allow plenty of water. To aid the bowels in moving one may give an injection of warm water. Cattle off feed.—Often cattle are thrown “off their feed” by overfeeding, by irregular feeding, or by consuming indigestible things such as frozen grass, weeds, and perhaps by eating foreign 2a 854 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS matter, particularly if it be salty. Such animals are simply in- disposed, do not eat, and stand around with a dejected look. If no attention is given them, they may remain in this condition for some time. This is to be avoided if possible, as animals that are not doing well are sure to prove unprofitable. The treat- ment is to give pound doses of Epsom salts dissolved in warm water to which a little ginger has been added. If they will eat, give gruels or mashes, and allow all the fresh water they will drink. - DEHORNING Tn case the horns were not removed when the calf was small, as suggested on page 255, and it is desired to remove them later, it will be necessary to remove them with either a saw or a pair of dehorning clippers. The animal must be confined in a chute or stocks made for such purposes, a rope placed around the head, which should be pulled to one side and held firmly while the horn is removed. Whether sawed or clipped, remove the horn so close to the head as to take a ring of hair off at the base of the horn, otherwise the horn will grow out asastub. If in fly time, apply tar to keep the flies away. The bleeding will stop of its own accord. The pain of the operation is slight, and whenever animals are disposed to be vicious the horns should be removed. It is not a good plan to dehorn when the flies are bad, nor should dehorned animals have access to straw or hay stacks where they can get the chaff into the wounds. VICES OF DAIRY CATTLE There are afew bad habits or vices to which dairy cattle are subject. They are often serious and lessen the usefulness of the animal. Most of them, however, can be remedied with a little patient effort, or by the arrangement of inexpensive apparatus. Kicking cow. — To prevent a cow from kicking, procure a half-inch rope long enough to reach around the cow’s body and DISEASES OF CATTLE 855 tie ; place the rope, with slip noose on one end, around the body of the cow, just in front of the udder and back of the hip bones. Draw tight and tie. Repeat each milking, always treating the cow gently. After a time one need only lay the rope over the cow’s back. Finally the rope may be discarded. Another method recommended by some is to take a hame strap and buckle the two hind legs together, but this is not efficient as she is likely to get one leg loose or throw herself endeavoring to do so. When the cow is tied by the stanchion, the experienced milker will be able to milk almost any cow by crowding her over as far as the stanchion will let her go, then by placing his knee in front of her hock and his head in her flank she is not likely to try to kick; in fact she cannot, if the milker understands holding her in the proper position. Sucking cow. — Occasionally a cow develops the habit of either sucking herself or another cow. While there are many ways of preventing this, perhaps as efficient way as any is to procure a stiff piece of old leather, say one and one-half inches wide and eight inches long, drive through this several eight- penny wire nails with the ends filed down to a point and fasten to the nose-band of a common halter and place this halter on the sucking cow. With this she cannot reach her own teats or those of any other cow without injuring the flanks, and she not likely to try more than once. PART THREE — SHEEP CHAPTER XVI CHOOSING AND JUDGING SHEEP FAMILIARITY With what is wanted, powers of observation, and good judgment are equally as important in choosing sheep as in choosing cows or horses. These can be gained only by careful study, and more especially by practice, as sheep are often de- ceptive. The importance of these faculties cannot be overesti- mated in the choice of any class of farm animals. The wool-covering of the body of the sheep makes an examina- tion of the form rather difficult. The wool is often so trimmed as to deceive. An expert trimmer, possessing much skill with the shears, can give a rather inferior sheep the appearance of a plump full form; thus animals with sway backs, narrow, flat ribs, narrow, peaked rumps are often so trimmed as to conceal such defects. To facilitate the inspection and hasten the work, to avoid being deceived and to enable the examiner to discover all defects, the following method of examining sheep is suggested : — After noting the general appearance, the age, the teeth, the eyes, and the like, then, with the open hand, as shown in the illustrations (page 369), proceed to a detailed examina- tion. Do not depend on the eye alone, but fortify it with the touch, carefully noting each character as described under detail examination (page 368). During this examination keep the fingers and thumb together and the hand flat. Never stick the fingers into the wool. When it is desired to examine the wool, open up the wool with the hand flat (Fig. 121). 359 360 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Catching and holding sheep. — There are two places to catch sheep: First, the hind leg above the gambel joint ; second, by Fic. 104.— Devains Merino Ram ‘‘Bracon.’’ |]9 |e |J9 |e jo |e jo9}eiot2ejotle |o}2e {ote i}9}]¢ jo] *% ¢ |¢ l@ |e le |¢ lp le [pile |b te br le |. tle | tle [a ote | & is] 8 2 | | fo |b | & |e lqea| | cuer 20 “AON 70 “ydag ‘any € |% | @ tT je | t {e]t le |] te |e | te |% | of | | te |e | og Je | te |e | te |e | se fe ft Av sady re oe |e | o¢ |e | 62 |e | of Je | 62 |e | og |e | of |e | T | z@ jeune oe |}z | te |z | se jz | 62 |z} 6 |e | gs jz | 62 jz} ese jz | 6 |2 | 6s je | Aime 1€ 6z |r | of |t | ze |t | se jt |] sa ]t | ze tt | seit} zeit | se jt | salt | og |t | oe > lol 2] als /ol es |e] og} el ales! ol]! B > lp] o & js] 2 S/F ES Ele) FE Pe) FZ) 2 |e) 2 Fle |e) EFL Ee] E 408 BUUINIOO o]qNop oy} Ul FYSU oy} UO Zurquarey Jo ajeCf*3Ja] OY} UO soTAIOS Jo oF eC shop QGT ang — u010}89B fo porsad Burmoys 2190], var | A OMIDON DRS THE BREEDING OF SHEEP 409 bringing them to him each morning while it is cool. The ewes should be placed in a small pen and the ram turned in, when he will single out those ready to be mated. As soon as mated, the ewe should be marked and placed in a quiet pen, where she should remain for about two days before returning to the flock. Fic. 134.—CHampion Oxrorp Ram. Photograph from National Stockman and Farmer. The Oxford Down breed of mutton sheep originated in Oxford County, Eng- land. This breed is similar to the Hampshire except in size, when it occupies first rank, rams weighing 275 pounds and the ewes 200 pounds. When large mutton is desired, this breed is unexceled. In wool production it excels the Hampshires, shearing from 5 to 10 pounds of combing wool. One service is sufficient. The ram will search out another, and she should be treated likewise. The ram should not be per- mitted to serve more than four in asingle morning; if more are ready, return them to him in the evening. All ewes that are 410 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS served in the same week should receive a similar mark. Those served one week may be marked on the back, or top of head, with red paint, the second with black, those served during the third week with green, and so on, using a different color each week. By this method one can tell the week the ewe was served, when the lamb may be expected, and when the entire flock of ewes has been mated. Managing the ram. — During the day the ram should be kept in a quiet cool place, and out of sight of the ewe flock. He should be fed liberally on stimulating food, such as oats, bran, and clover or alfalfa hay. In the closed season, when not in use, he should have the run of a paddock. In summer this should contain sufficient grass for much of his feed, although he should be fed grain in addition. In winter he should be treated much as the flock, but kept in a quiet place and away from all un- necessary noise and excitement. The pregnant ewe. — The proper care of the ewe flock during pregnancy will do much to lessen the difficulties at parturition time and subsequently. The ewes must be kept in fair flesh, neither too fat nor too thin. The wool deceives, and one is likely to think the ewes in good condition when in reality they may be thin. Being thin, the ewe has no milk, and will not own the lamb, which must be raised by hand,—a very difficult task, and entirely impracticable when there are many lambs. On the other hand, if the ewes are fed abundantly on oats, wheat bran, and clover or alfalfa hay, the lambs get so large that there is much trouble in giving birth. In such cases, ewes are likely to perish at lambing time, although such as do survive will raise thrifty, vigorous lambs. Better results will follow taking a middle course. The pregnant ewe flock should be liberally fed such foods as will develop bone and muscle, but not to excess. If the dry forage is cornstalks, then feed wheat bran and oats for the grain part of the ration; and if the dry fodder is clover or alfalfa hay, THE BREEDING OF SHEEP 411 then cracked corn may constitute the grain. If at all possible, succulent food, either roots or silage, should be provided, as such food serves to keep them in good physical condition, and to encourage the flow of milk. Fic. 135.—SurrotK Ewer. A prize winner. Photograph trom National Stock- man and Farmer. The Suffolk Down mutton sheep originated in Suffolk County, England. They are similar in many respects to the Hampshires, though perhaps a little under them in weight. They are inferior to the Hampshire as wool producers, shearing only 5 to 7 pounds of fair-quality wool. Lambing time. — The period of gestation in the ewe is popu- larly placed at five months, more accurately 150 days (page 408). Previous to the lambing time the sheep owner should make ready for this eventful season. The ewes should be neatly tagged, all wool being removed from the udder, as otherwise a 412 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS lamb might nurse a tag instead of a teat. A number of small panels three feet high and four feet long, made from light wood, should be provided. Two of these panels should be hinged together like the letter L, so that when placed in the corner of the barn they make a pen four feet square. Enough of these should be provided so that a row of four-foot pens may be placed along the side of the barn or shed. When not in use, these panels may be folded up and laid away. As soon as a ewe has lambed, she and her lamb should be placed in one of these small pens, thus preventing the lamb from straying away, as it is very likely to do if not restrained. Ewes that have been well cared for during pregnancy are likely to have a good supply of milk. They should be separated from the flock at once, and given extra care. For a time they should be sparingly fed on grain, as it is not considered best to force the milk flow until the lambs are able to take care of it without danger of digestive disorders, such as scouring. The grain ration may consist of 50 parts chopped corn, 50 parts wheat bran, and 10 parts linseed meal. For dry forage, clover or alfalfa hay'is preferred, and if possible a small amount of silage or roots should be fed, as in the case of the pregnant ewe. Difficult parturition. — Ewes that are not properly fed during pregnancy, and are thin and weak, often have difficulty in deliv- ering the lamb. Young ewes, even though well kept, often have trouble in dropping their first lamb. Whenever there is difficult parturition, an attendant of experience should be near by to render assistance. When the ewe shows signs of lambing, such as teats filling out to end, the vulva swelling and becoming deeply colored, and in some cases the ewe looking for her lamb before it is born, she should be placed in a pen away from the flock, and closely watched. In natural parturition the lamb comes with front feet first and nose just between. Non-interference is recommended until it is evident the ewe needs aid. The head and shoulders are the hardest part to deliver, and after these are THE BREEDING OF SHEEP 413 ‘through, there is not likely to be further trouble. In wrong presentation it is usually necessary to place the parts in the right position before the lamb can be delivered. The method is much thesame as that suggested for difficult parturition in cattle (see page 334). In such cases the attendant is fortunate if he possesses a small hand, which should always be annointed or greased before attempting to manipulate the parts. Forceps are sometimes used, because of the small size of the opening, but their manipulation requires some experience, though their use is to be recommended in preference to permitting both ewe and lamb to die unaided. In all manipulations extra care should be taken, drawing gently, during labor pains only. The traction should be downward as well as backward. After delivery, if the ewe is weak, there is nothing better for her than a drink of warm oatmeal gruel. If she will not drink without aid, the gruel may be given from a long-necked bottle, similar to drenching. This may be fed three or four times daily until she gains strength. THE LAMBS Young lambs are yery delicate things, and their treatment the first few hours after birth will go a long way toward deter- mining the kind of sheep they are to make. If they make their appearance naturally, and get their first meal unaided, they are not likely to give much trouble. Not all lambs are so fortunate. Occasionally one is born without difficulty, but fails to establish respiration, — does not breathe. In such cases assistance must be given at once, or the young lamb perishes. Respiration may be established by blowing into the mouth and nostrils, by rubbing the lamb, or by gently slapping the sides with the open hand. Other lambs may establish respiration, but be so weak they cannot find the maternal teat, and perish in a few hours if not assisted to the first meal. The first meal. — It is very essential that the lamb get the first 414 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS milk of the ewe. When the lamb is too weak to move, it must be assisted. To do this, gently set the ewe on her rump, as though you were going to shear her. Place the lamb on its side under her hind limbs, with one hand open the lamb’s mouth, and with the other milk a small quantity of the dam’s milk on the lamh’s tongue, at the same time placing the teat into the lamb’s mouth, when it will usually begin to suck at once. The ewe and lamb should be watched closely to see that the lamb gets its second meal, for it may be nec-' essary to aid it a second time and even a third (Fig. 136). If the ewe perishes during the parturition, and there is no other ewe the lamb can be put with, it will be necessary to give the lamb its food from a bottle with rubber nipple. Modified cow’s milk should be given. Feed the milk at about body tempera- ture, 103° F., giving a very small amount, but often, every two hours at first. A chilled lamb. — Occasionally lambs get separated from their dams and become chilled. This is very likely to happen unless ewe and lamb are confined to a small space. A hot bath is the ~ best thing for a chilled lamb. Immerse the lamb in water as hot as one can bear the hand. Keep the water hot by adding more of it, taking care not to scald the lamb. When warmed, Fig. 186.— METHOD OF TEACHING HELPLESS Youne Lams To Suck. ‘THE BREEDING OF SHEEP 415 wipe dry with flannel cloth and restore to the dam. Aid the lamb to get its first meal, and watch closely. Sometimes a few drops of whisky in warm water is given chilled lambs. It is surprising how much a hot bath will revive cold wet lambs, and the method is worth trial, no matter how limp the lamb. It is a good plan to make some provision in advance, to care for twin lambs; for often one will chill while the dam is nursing the other. To do this provide a box, say two feet square and eighteen inches deep, placing five inches of bran in it. While the ewe is nursing one lamb, the other may be placed in the warm bran, and all covered but the nose; this will keep the lamb warm and help to dry it. After a time return to the ewe. In licking off the bran she will own it. In the absence of the bran, a jug of hot water may be placed in the box with the lamb, and a blanket thrown over the top of the box. _ A disowned lamb. — Occasionally a young ewe, or an old one very thin in flesh, will neglect or disown her lamb, and refuse to care for it. Usually the ewe will take to the lamb if she is held while the lamb nurses. To hold the ewe, a small stanchion should be constructed. The stanchion may consist simply of two green stakes, one and one-half inches in diameter, driven into the ground and held at the top with a piece of rope or strap. Sometimes a little’meal placed on the lamb will induce the ewe to nurse it and to claim it. Occasionally a ewe will lose her lamb, and have her udder filled with milk. At the same time, there may be other ewes in the flock with twins, and it is a good plan togive one of the twins to a ewe that has lost her lamb. Sometimes difficulty is experi- enced in getting her to own it. The ewe may be placed in a stanchion; if she still refuses, the lamb may be washed to re- move its odor, then some of the ewe’s milk placed on its head and back, at the same time placing some of the ewe’s milk on her own nose, when she will often own the lamb. 416 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Lamb ills Having made its appearance into the world, with or without difficulty, the lamb is still subject to many troubles, chief of which are diarrhea, constipation, sore mouth, and. contagious sore eyes. The extent of these troubles will depend largely on the care given the ewe while she is nursing the lamb. By proper management these troubles may be materially reduced, and in many cases entirely avoided. The ewes should be kept in dry, well ventilated, well lighted quarters, permitted to take exercise in a dry or well bedded lot, and fed healthy, nutritious foods. Constipation may be caused by the lamb getting too much milk, or to difficult teething, in which latter case the gums should be rubbed until the teeth are through. When constipa- tion prevails, reduce the ewe’s grain ration. It may be necessary partly to milk the ewe. If this does not afford relief, inject in the rectum a small amount, not to exceed two ounces, of warm water, to which a little glycerine has been added. Do not inject too much, and do not use soap suds. Diarrhea is often caused by overfeeding. When the lamb is troubled with diarrhea or scouring, the treatment is to milk the ewe, in part, remembering that the last milk is the richer in fat, the element causing the disturbance. The ewe’s grain ration should be reduced. If the ewes are running on pasture, feed some timothy hay scattered on the grass or placed in racks conven- iently located. If the scours persist, or if the discharge is white, then a mild, healing laxative and tonic should be given. Mix one-fourth ounce of common cooking soda, one ounce of sulfate of magnesia, and as much ground ginger ascan be taken up on a penny, with one-half pint of gruel, and give as a drench. In four hours follow with a dose of one ounce of linseed oil. “Pinning” is due to an accumulation. of excrement at the vent and tail in such a manner that the proper function of the bowels cannot be performed. The treatment is to remove the filth from the parts, and dust with powdered chalk. THE BREEDING OF SHEEP 417 Sore mouth.—Often lambs are troubled with a kind of conta- gious sore mouth, which affects the teats of the ewes as well. These sores form scabs along the edges of the mouth, and small sores on the teats of the ewe. This often becomes so serious as to interfere with the thrift of the lamb. The treatment is to rub off the scabs and apply’ undiluted coal-tar dip, of which there are many kinds on the market, such as are mentioned on page 426. This will effect a complete cure. Sore eyes. — Like sore mouth, this is a contagious disease; and, while often interfering seriously with the thrift of the lambs, is very easily cured. One of the coal-tar dips diluted with forty parts water used as a wash will work a rapid cure. It is well to see that a little of the diluted dip gets into the eyes; this may start the tears, but it has the desired effect. , General care of lambs Feeding the lambs. — Lambs early begin to nibble at hay and grain, and advantage should be taken of this to encourage them to eat solid food. During lambhood the digestion is more thorough, and lambs make larger gains from a given quantity of food, than at any other time. Encourage the lamb to eat food in addition to that furnished by the dam. Furthermore, this extra feeding renders weaning a very easy task. At the age of ten days to two weeks lambs will begin to eat grain, and special provision should be made for them. For this construct a creep (page 392). Grain should be put down twice daily, and no more than the lambs will consume, as it will become stale if left in the boxes. Lambs that have been well fed in every way always mature to be much larger and stronger with heavier fleeces than the others. Weaning the lambs. — Weaning is more a matter of prepara- tion than of actual separation. When lambs have been accus- tomed to grain as suggested and when they can have access to the creeps after the ewes are removed, there will be very little 25 418 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS shrinkage. When practicable, the ewes should be removed, leav- ing the lambs in their accustomed place. All things considered, it is better that the separation be complete. The ewes should be carefully watched to see that none suffer from caked udder. The age at which lambs should be weaned will depend on the Fic. 137. —Hornep Dorset Ram. First prize and champion ram at four State Fairs, 1909. Owned at Heart’s Delight Farm, Chazy, N. Y. The Horned Dorset, a native of Dorset County, England, while noted for the production of both mutton and wool, is more especially noted for prolificacy and the production of lambs at any season of the year. No breed excels the Dorsets in the production of winter lambs. As a breed the animals are hardy and good grazers. The rams average 200 pounds and the ewes 160 pounds. They shear from 5 to 10 pounds of wool. This breed is popular in the United States. object sought. When spring lambs are sought, the lambs may run with the ewes until sold, but for other lambs it is better to wean at three or four months of age. In such cases the lambs should be weaned and removed from the old pastures before THE BREEDING OF SHEEP 419 there is danger of parasite infection. As soon as weaned, the lambs should be placed on sown pastures as suggested in the discussion on feeding the flock in summer (page 381). While this is often neglected, it is very important, for after the young lambs once become infected with germs, they are not likely to thrive, and will prove a failure. Some forethought is required in arranging and sowing the pastures, but if sheep farming is to prove profitable, it is very essential, especially throughout the corn-belt and those regions subject to parasites. Castrating male lambs. — The male lambs should be castrated at ten days to two weeks old, as they will suffer less if operated at this time. Lambs intended for hot-house trade should not be castrated, as the exposed testicles add to the appearance of the carcass when on the market. The operation is not difficult, and there is practically no danger of injuring the lamb. An assistant should hold the lamb in such a position as to expose the scrotum. Sever the end of the scrotum, pinch the testicle out, and remove with the adhering cords. The scrotum may be rubbed with a mixture of tallow and turpentine, half and half, and the lamb returned to the dam. Docking the lambs. — Unless the lambs are to be sent to market under three months of age, they should have the tail removed. The tail is of no use to the sheep and is likely to become foul. Docked lambs thrive better than undocked, and they present a fuller and squarer appearance. The lambs should be docked at ten days to two weeks of age, or even younger if strong. This may be done by severing the tail with a sharp knife, cut- ting from the under side, by the use of a mallet and sharp chisel; or, better still, by the use of docking pincers. These pincers resemble the ordinary shoeing pincers and may be made by any blacksmith. The edges should be rather thin, with the back heavy in order to hold heat, for by heating them to redness and then severing the tail the stump will bleed but little, whereas if the tails of lambs in very good condition are severed with a 420 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS sharp instrument, such as a knife or chisel, a few of the lambs may bleed to death. Bore a hole of sufficient size to admit the lamb’s tail in a board, and when ready for use, heat the pincers to redness, pull the tail through. the hole to protect the lamb’s rump, and sever the tail quickly. Wing suggests to make the pincers large enough to admit a grown ram’s scrotum, and when it is desired to castrate such a ram, protect the body with a board as before and hold up the scrotum and slowly sever with the pincers heated to redness. eA iW 200 { eds %, or Fig. 138. — Mrrsop oF MARKING LamBs FOR Furure IDENTIFICATION, OR UNTIL PERMANENT TaGS CAN BE INSBRTED INTO THE Ear. Marking lambs. — To avoid errors and mistaken identity the young lambs should be marked as soon as possible after birth. Identifying unmarked lambs is a difficult task and one which experienced flock-masters are often unable to do, hence the importance of marking the young lamb. The young lamb’s ear is very tender and will not carry a label until well grown, so a temporary marking must be used. There are two THE BREEDING OF SHEEP A421 successful methods of marking sheep,— by the use of water- proof ink, and by notching the ear. Procure a small brush and some waterproof ink, or regular sheep-marking fluid, and place on the lamb the number on the ear tag of the ewe. If this method is used, it will be necessary to renew the number, as it will fade as the lamb grows. Some persons prefer to notch the ear of the lamb, as it is likely to be more permanent. The ordinary ear punch is used to mark the ear, and the following method is as good as any :— The first lamb would have one notch in the top of the left ear next to the head; the second, one notch in the middle; the third, one notch in the end; the fifth, one notch on the lower side, and so on, up to 400. Then when permanent ear markings are desired, they may be inserted when convenient and the record inserted in the flock book. (See Fig. 138.) CHAPTER XIX CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP Tue ability to care for sheep successfully is a faculty to be increased and strengthened by careful study and experience. All that may be written is of no consequence without practice. The timidity of sheep, dainty appetites, inability to endure dampness, draughts, mud lots, as well as their liability to para- site infection, must be well understood by those who expect to make sheep growing profitable. The knowledge is very easy to obtain, and methods of combating are not difficult, but they demand persistent effort on the part of the sheep owner. Sheep may be successfully grown on any general farm or where there is an opportunity for changes in grazing. When the farm has the equipment and is conveniently located to a, rail- road leading to one of our larger cities, winter-lamb production may be most profitable, whereas if the farm lacks equipment and has much cheap grazing land, some other form of sheep production would doubtless yield the greater profit. Hach farmer must make a careful study of his conditions, such as location, facilities for shipping, demands of his market, condi- tion of the soil, and the like, then lay his plans accordingly. Wherever the farm, whatever the conditions, whenever sheep growing is to be practiced, ample provision must be made for change in pasture. Sheep may live, or at least the older ones may, without change, but if put into a pasture in the spring, and compelled to remain there until fall, they will never attain the size they would have attained had there been a frequent change of pasture. Where sheep are thus pastured, the lambs 422 . CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 423 often perish as a result of parasites. Sheep profit by a change of pasture even if, so far as the pasture is concerned, the change is from a good to a poor one. DIPPING SHEEP Dipping the sheep is an essential part of sheep growing. No farmer should attempt to raise sheep without planning to dip the sheep, not only upon their arrival at the farm, but twice annually thereafter. Fortunately the process is very simple as well as inexpensive. Importance of dipping. — There are two essential reasons why all sheep should be dipped: first, to free them of ticks; and second, to free them of scab germs. It is absolutely impossi- ble for lambs infected with ticks or other parasites to thrive. A good dip cleanses the skin, in- creases the quantity and im- proves the quality of the wool. From this it is apparent that all sheep, whether foundation stock or lambs intended for fattening, should be dipped immediately Nia their arrival on the farm. Fic. 139.— Hornep Dorsrer Ewe. Sheep ticks can be entirely Owned by Heart’s Delight Farm. overcome by dipping. Sheep ticks inhabit no other farm animals, and once eradicated, there is no possible chance of their reappearing unless brought to the flock on infested sheep, or carried in some manner, as in the clothing of shearers, from an infested flock. Sheep scab can likewise be prevented by dipping. This scab is caused by a minute parasite, too small to be seen by the naked eye, which irritates the skin, causing a watery exudate. This exudate forms a crust beneath which the scab mite burrows, 424 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS greatly irritating the animal, causing loss of flesh, intense itch- ing, loss of wool, and frequently results in death to the sheep. Sheep affected with scab are uneasy, pawing with the foot and biting at the affected parts, which are usually along the neck and shoulders. If such an animal be carefully examined, the wool and skin will appear abnormal at the affected parts. A slight exu- date is noticed which later forms a scab, which rapidly spreads. The mite is transferred from one sheep to another and soon the entire flock is affected. Common places for sheep to become infected with the scab mite are in the stock-yards, railroad stock-pens, and in stock- cars, unless well disinfected. As they multiply very rapidly, a few parasites gathered up in this way will soon run through an entire flock. When once the sheep become affected and scabs formed, the disease is hard to eradicate. If taken in time, prevention is very easy. Hence the importance of dip- ping all newly purchased sheep before they infect the farm or the flock. The dipping vat. — The nature of the dipping vat or tank will be determined largely by the size of the flock. For a small flock such as is kept on the average farm, a simple trough of wood, metal, or concrete, 16 inches wide at the top and 6 inches at the bottom, 4 feet deep, and 8 to 12 feet long, will prove ample. The vat must be narrow so the sheep cannot turn around; must be deep so they can be plunged clear under and no spot escape the dip; and the longer the vat, the quicker the dipping can be per- formed, as each animal should remain in the dip at least one minute. The end of the vat at which the sheep enter should be perpendicular, so that they may be made to jump in the dip and thus be completely submerged. At the other end, there should be a gradual incline up which the sheep can walk. Here an in- cline platform should be constructed, so that the drippings of the dipped sheep may be returned to the vat, otherwise much of the dip will be wasted, particularly if the wool is long. On farms CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 425 where sheep are to be kept continuously the vat should be con- structed in the ground. This will facilitate getting the sheep in and out, and in many clay soils will last a lifetime. In the ab- sence of such a vat, do not neglect to dip the sheep upon their arrival at the farm, for trouble will surely follow. In the ab- sence of anything better, use an ordinary water-trough, one man holding the sheep by the forelegs, another by the hind legs, and Fic. 140.—Cueviots. True to type. Owned by G. W. Parnell. The Cheviot breed of sheep originated in Scotland. The breed is noted for the production of wooland mutton. The sheep are comparatively small, but very hardy and excellent grazers. In appearance the animals are neat and trim. Mature rams average about 175 pounds and the ewes 150 pounds. They will shear from 6 to 11 pounds of medium-length wool. dip backs first. See that the head is immersed. The dip will run down the legs when the sheep are permitted to stand. This is crude but to be preferred to no dipping and the farm becoming infested with ticks and scab, which it surely will if dipping new arrivals is neglected. How dips are used. — The dip must be hot. The best tem- perature is that which a man can endure with the bare arm. 426 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS If the dip is too hot, it will scald; if too cold, it will be less effective. The water may be heated in a large kettle and kept hot by throwing red-hot irons or heated stones into the tank. This is a very convenient way to heat the dip if any remains in the tank. The water should be softened by the addition of enough concentrated lye to give it an oily feeling like soap suds, or by the addition of wood ashes. The best dip to use is some one of the coal-tar preparations, as Zenoleum, Naptholeum, Daytholeum, Milk Oil, and the like. These are fairly cheap, very effective, cleansing to the skin, heal- ing to diseased eyes and mouth, pleasant to use, and sure death to all forms of parasite life. The direction given on the cans in which the coal-tar comes is to use at a strength of one part of dip to 100 parts water. While this is strong enough to kill ticks, it is not sufficient to remove scab germs. When the sheep have first arrived or when dipping for scab, use one part dip to 40 parts water. When dipping for ticks, one minute is sufficient length of time for the sheep to remain in the solution. When dipping new ar- rivals or for scab, the sheep should remain in the dip two minutes and the head should be immersed twice. With the dip hot, the water softened, the dip used at a strength of 1 to 40, and the sheep left in for two minutes, all external parasitic life will be destroyed. If scab is suspected, the dipping should be repeated in eight to ten days, as the dip will not kill the eggs, and a second dipping is essential completely to eradicate the scab mites. Frequency of dipping. — All sheep arriving at the farm should be dipped before they infect the lots. In addition to this the entire flock should be dipped at least once a year, and it will be the better for it if dipped twice annually. One dipping should take place soon after shearing, as less dip will be required. It should not, however, follow too closely after shearing. A pleasant day should be selected, and the sheep should be well protected until dry. It will take them several hours to dry CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 427 out. At this time it should not take more than one quart of the mixture to a sheep, whereas if the sheep is not shorn, it will take approximately one gallon. The second dipping should be in the fall, some fair day just before the sheep are placed in their winter quarters. This second dipping will pay be- cause of its invigorating influence, even though the sheep are free from ticks. By all means, the sheep should be dipped at once on the outbreak of scab unless in the very severest of winter weather. SHEARING SHEEP Formerly it was the custom to wash the sheep before shearing and shear later in the season than at present. This was in the days of the spinning wheel and hand loom. The practice of washing the wool was continued somewhat later, for it was thought that it prepared the wool for the manufacture. This it did not do, but it did render the wool lighter by removing the natural oil and hence was a distinct disadvantage to the farmer. Washing sheep. — At the present time comparatively few sheep are washed before shearing, though in some localities it is still profitable, as buyers discriminate against unwashed wool. The washing is usually done in a brook. The water should be about waist deep, the bottom of the brook sandy, gravelly, or rocky, and free from mud, and the shore firm, clean, and grassy. There should be sufficient current to carry the dirt away when pressed out of the wool. A small inclosure near the shore re- strains the sheep; one man catches the sheep, a second tags them and removes the filth from the hind-quarters, while the third man washes. The washer leads the sheep into the water beyond its depth. The sheep is easily handled. Attention should be given all parts of the fleece. The wool is pressed between the open hands, which removes the dirt and discolors the water. When no further discoloration can be produced, the sheep is removed to the shore. The animal should be held 428 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS until slightly drained to prevent it from falling as a result of the weight of the water in the fleece. The flock should then be kept in a clean place for at least one week to permit the yolk or oil to be replaced. When to shear. — The time for shearing will depend somewhat on the conditions. If winter lambs are sought, the shearing should be done in March or before, whereas if there is no hurry about the lambs and the sheep are not well protected, the wool may be left on until warm weather. With the coming of warm weather the wool must be removed or the sheep will not thrive. When at all practicable, early shearing is to be recommended, as the sheep will do much better. If troubled with ticks, they will leave as soon as the sheep are shorn, though in this case it is well to see that the ticks do not go to the lambs. The amount of wool taken off will be greater if the sheep are shorn regularly in March or April than if shorn in June. Where washing the wool is practiced, the sheep cannot be shorn until warm weather as it is unsafe to wash the animals in the late winter or early “spring. Hand shearing. — Hand shearing requires much skill and con- siderable practice. A good man will shear from 40 to 100 sheep in a day, using common hand shears. Many experts shear upon the floor, though some prefer a platform. The work should be done in a light, airy place. While each shearer has his own method, it is some modification of the following: The sheep is placed on its rump with its back to the shearer supported by the left arm, with the shears in the right hand. The wool is then removed from the brisket and neck down to the shoulders. The fleece is then opened down the abdomen and first clipped on the left side as far around as the back bone and then on the right side in a similar manner, all the time exercising much care in keeping the fleece together. Care must be exercised not to cut too deep at one stroke or the sheep will not be smooth. The points of the shears must be kept close to the hide, otherwise a CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 429 second stroke will be necessary, which injures the wool and takes much time. In some regions it is customary to tie the fore and hind legs of the sheep to a board in such a manner that the animal cannot kick, placing it on a low platform, and in this position reliev- ing it of its wool. Such practice is condemned by all experi- enced sheep owners. For the beginner to shear a sheep by hand is really a very difficult task, and if the sheep be a fine-wool, the task is still greater. Machinery shearing. Shearing sheep with a machine is a very much more easy task than shearing by hand, and the beginner can do very much better work with it. On the market there are both hand and power machines, but on the average farm the hand machine is, of course, the one to use. To operate the machine requires two men or a man and boy, — one to turn the ‘machine, the other to shear the sheep. If available, the be- ginner should take a coarse-wooled sheep, as the fine-wools are more difficult to shear. With a rather coarse-wooled sheep one can follow the directions and shear the sheep, even though he has never seen the operation. Most sheep are now shorn by a machine. With the sheep before you and facing to the left, grasp it by the right hind leg with the left hand and gently but firmly place it on its rump, in an upright position, the shoulders resting against the shearers knees, with the machine to the right. It is impor- tant to remember that the sheep should always be turned to the right. With a little experience this can be done with the feet, leaving the hands free for the real work. Another essential always to be borne in mind is to hold the sheep in such a way that the skin is stretched tight on the part of the body that is being sheared. Never place the left hand in front of the shears, as you will surely cut the sheep (if you are right-handed): With the sheep held firmly between the knees, part the wool at 430 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Be | Tic. 141.—SuHearinc SHEEP By MAacHINERY, SHOWING POSITION OF THE SHEEP, SHEARER, AND THE MACHINE. Fic. 142. — PosivT1oON WHILE Tic. 143.—Posirlon WHILE SHEARING LEFT SHEARING ABDOMEN. Hinp Lec. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 431 the forward end of the brisket and run the shears down as far as the pit of the stomach. Clip the wool from the floor of chest, as in illustration (Fig. 141). Place the front legs behind the left arm and run four swaths down the right side from the fore legs to the flank. Next run the shears across the belly from right to- left, clipping the wool from the belly and flank, as in illustra- tions (Figs. 142 and 143). Straighten up the sheep, resting the head against the knee as at first, take hold of the sheep as in aaa — eae ee illustration (Fig. 144), and clip "sw. Nucx. the wool along the under side of the neck, starting the shears at the brisket, and run upwards, coming out just below the ear. Clip the wool from the neck. as in illustration (Fig. 145), With the feet turn the sheep slightly to the right, the sheep’s feet pointing towards the ma- chine, and clip the wool from the side and the back, as in illustrations (Figs. 146, 147). Turn the sheep to the right so that its back rests next to the machine and clip the other side, as in illustrations (Figs. 148, 149, and 150). Take ex- Fic. 145.— PosiTIoN WHILE SHEARING ‘ Tae daG Loa tra care all the time to keep the hide stretched tightly where the shears are working, otherwise the sheep will not be smooth, and in addition there is danger of cutting the skin. Fig. 147.— Positron WHILE SHEARING : Romp. Fic. 146.— PosirioN WHILE SHEARING LEFT SIDE. may Sd i SNe vi goth ) ME) SE Fic. 149.— PosiTloN WHILE SHEARING Fic. 148.— PosiTi1oN WHILE Ricut SIpe. SHEARING RIGHT SHOULDER. Fic. 151.— Position or Woon Fic. 150.— PosiriIon WHILE FINISHING WHEN FINISHED. Cut ends SHEEP. out and loose pieces within. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 433 Gather up the wool, as in illustration (Fig. 151). With a little practice the task of shearing with a good machine will be more easily accomplished than it is to explain. Tying the wool. — The fleece is rolled with the belly and loose ends inside, the cut ends out. All very dirty pieces should be removed and never tied up in the wool. Special wool twine should be used to tie the fleece, as binder twine greatly injures the wool, for small bits of the fiber often get into the fleece and, not taking the dyes, must be picked out by hand. There is no need of a wool-box for tying a compact bundle, as buyers prefer the fleece loosely tied. For those who prefer the wool-box, a very convenient one is made as follows: Secure five pieces of boards; three, each one foot square, the other two each three feet long and one foot wide. Of the three pieces one is to serve as the bottom of the box, the other two as the ends, and they should be hinged together ac- cordingly. The other two boards are likewise hinged to the bottom piece, so that when all are raised, they form a neat wool- box. . Later the wool is packed in large sacks for shipment. In filling the large bags care should be exercised to see that the wool is well packed and the corners all well filled. After being packed full the bags are sewed at the top. If stored,the wool should be put in a dry place where there is no danger of mice cutting the bags and building nests of the wool. PRACTICAL SHEEP BARNS Proper shelter for the flock adds greatly to its comfort and thrift. It need not, however, be either elaborate or costly. In the sheep barn there are several factors that must be provided for, but extra warmth not being one of the factors, the rest is comparatively simple and inexpensive. Chief among the factors for which provision must be made are ventilation with- out draughts, sunshine, drainage, convenience for feeding, ar- 2F 434 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS rangements for separating the ewes at lambing time, storage for grain and hay, and, if possible, a root cellar. The ventilation of the sheep barn should receive careful consideration. This must be so arranged that there are no draughts, as such will result in colds, running at the nose, ca- tarrh, and like troubles. Many experienced sheep owners pre- fer to ventilate the sheep quarters by placing doors across one side of the barn. These doors are divided in halves horizontally, the lower part of the door swinging as an ordinary gate swings, while the upper half is hinged at the upper edge. The top half is opened by lifting to a horizontal position and held by props or pendant chains. By raising the upper halves and closing the lower, the ventilation can be made so thorough that the inside air is as pure as that on the outside, and since the doors are all on one side of the barn, there is freedom from draughts. If the sheep have the run of these quarters in summer, it is well to open both top and bottom doors, arranging a slat door on the inside to re- strain the sheep. During the heat of summer, a blind is fastened over the windows and doors to keep out the sun’s rays and slightly to darken the quarters, as sheep prefer this to the daylight. An abundance of sunshine is essential to the well being of the breeding flock in winter. Sunshine is nature’s greatest disinfec- tant, and keeps the quarters light and cheery. If the row of doors arranged for ventilation is on the south side of the quar- ters, as it should be, it will admit sufficient sunshine on days when thedoors can be keptopen. It is oftennecessary to closethemon account of the severity of the weather, just after shearing, or just after dipping, and in such cases extra windows are very conven- ient. These may preferably be placed along the south side be- tween the doors, as then they will serve their maximum efficiency. In selecting a site for the sheep barn, due consideration should be given to drainage. Sheep cannot survive damp and muddy footing. Wet floors and muddy lots are to be avoided. If CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 435 possible, select: ground from which there is a little slope in all directions, facing the barn to the south and arranging the lots on the south slope. It would be of much advantage to have the place protected on the north and west by a grove or bluff. In arranging the sheep quarters, convenience of feeding must be kept in mind. This factor is often complicated by the desir- ability of having provision for separating the ewes at lambing time. As a rule, it is more difficult to feed the sheep in two lots than in one. This difficulty can often be overcome, in large Fig. 152.—Sueer Barn; INTERIOR VIEW, SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF FEED- RACK AND METHOD OF DIVIDING THE PENS. part at least, by using the feed-rack as 4 partition for the two pens. Such an arrangement also saves the material otherwise necessary for the partition. To facilitate labor in feeding, ample provision should be made for storage of all feed, hay, and straw in the loft, grain in a bin on the ground floor, and if possible, a cellar for the storage of roots. Where convenient, water should be placed in the barn. The size of the sheep barn will depend entirely on the number of sheep in the flock. Experienced sheep owners do not agree as 436 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS to the amount of space required, some stating that ten square feet is sufficient, others that they desire eighteen square feet for each animal. In practice, twelve square feet of floor space will be ample for each breeding ewe. The feed-racks. — Movable feed-racks are to be preferred. They should be comparatively long and narrow and, as suggested, may be used as partitions between the pens, thus economizing on material, and the racks may be used in different places if desired. A very good combination hay-rack and grain-trough is made as follows: With 1” 8” boards for the bottoms and 1’’X 4” boards for the sides and ends, construct two grain- troughs. Place these side by side and fasten together. Or make one shallow trough 16 inches wide and put a partition in it longways, thus making two shallow grain-boxes. With 2” X 4” scantling and 1” X10” boards construct a frame 2 feet wide at the top and as long as the grain-troughs, to serve as the top of the hay-rack. Now on the center partition of the grain- boxes nail 1’’ X 2” slats 30 inches long, placing them V-shaped and nail to the frame above, thus making a hay-rack. These slats may be placed 7 inches apart in order that the sheep may thrust their heads clear into the rack to feed. If the slats are placed closer together, say 3 inches apart, as is often the case, the sheep pull the hay through the cracks and drop much of it under their feet. We now have a combination grain- and hay- rack which, when properly braced, makes a very efficient feed- rack for the breeding flock.’ When it comes to forced feeding, as in fattening lambs, such a rack has the objection that more or less dirt filters down into the grain-troughs, and the sheep with their dainty appetites do not feed as well as when the grain- troughs and the hay-rack are separated. Quantity of bedding. — Bedding should be used very liberally in both the sheep barn and at least a part of the lot. A fresh supply should be put down every few days. There is much dis- agreement among experienced sheep owners as to the frequency CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 4387 of cleaning the sheep barn. Some state that they would rather keep adding fresh bedding and not remove the litter from the time the sheep go into the winter quarters in the fall until turned to pasture in the spring. Their chief objection to remov- Fic. 153.— Leicester YEARLING Ewe. The Leicester breed of sheep developed in Leicester county, England. The breed is noted for the production of mutton and wool. In weight, the rams average 225 pounds and the ewes 175 pounds. This breed produces a fine grade of long wool, the wool averaging 6 to 10 inches in length and the fleece 5 to 10 pounds in weight. ing the litter is the foul odor and the annoyance occasioned the sheep at the time the litter is removed. There are others, how- ever, who insist that the sheep barn should be cleaned out just 438 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS previous to lambing time. The work should be done rapidly so . . as to annoy the sheep as little as possible. After the manure has been removed it is a good plan to scatter some air-slaked lime over the floor. This serves as disinfectant and deodorizer. Fresh bedding may then be put down, and the barn will be clean and pure for the advent of the lamb-crop. The sheep lot. —If possible, the sheep should at all times, except in the very severest of winter weather, have free access to a small lot. If this is dry and.a part well bedded, the sheep will spend much of their time outside and will be much benefited thereby. Above all things the lot should not be muddy. Where sheep are allowed to wallow in the mud, trouble from foot-scald is likely to result;--particularly is this true if there is much sheep manure mixed in"the mud. Foot-scald is usually known as foot-rot. This disease is hard to eradicate. The sheep lot is very much easier kept free from mud than the fat steer lot, and it will pay the sheep owner well to take ample precautions. A straw stack in the sheep Jot has many advantages, such as keeping the sheep out of the wind, providing them a clean place to lie; and they will eat of the straw to seme extent. It has the disadvantage, however, that the chaff gets in the wool, and for this reason is objected to by many good sheep owners. Yet ewes and lambs delight in lying alongside such a stack, and they will be found there more often than in the barn, except in very severe weather. CHAPTER XX DISEASES OF SHEEP THE common diseases of sheep are not numerous, but they are mostly incurable. This is particularly true of the ravages of internal parasites. Prevention is better than cure. There seems to be no good reason why nearly every contagious and infectious disease to which sheep are subject cannot be eradi- cated in two or three years with proper precautions, yet these diseases result in nine-tenths of the failures in this country. It seems that farmers cannot realize that diseases so easy to prevent will work such destruction once they break out in the flock. In this Manual much has been made of the importance of dipping all sheep immediately upon their arrival at the farm and thus preventing an outbreak of any kind of external parasites; also of the absolute importance of frequent changes in pastures, es- pecially with the lambs, in order to prevent internal parasites. In addition, there are the hygienic conditions, such as proper shelter and dry lots, that must receive careful attention. TREATING SICK SHEEP Sick sheep should be removed from the flock at once, not only that they may receive extra care and attention, but to prevent a spread of the ailment in case the disease should prove contagious. The sick animal should be removed to comfortable quarters and given the benefit of good care, for in many cases good care is to be preferred to medicine. The food should be given careful consideration. The general management, the food, and the methods of administrating medicine should be much the same 439 440 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS as suggested on page 161, modified to meet the attendant con; ; ; ; ditions. For convenience in discussing the common diseases of sheep, .. . we may divide them into four classes: those due to external parasites, as scab, foot-rot, sore eyes, sore teats, tick, lice, and the like; second, those due to internal parasites, as stomach- worms, tape-worms, and the like; third, derangement of di- gestion, due to improper’ feeding; and fourth, other diseases, as caked udder, garget, catarrh, and the like. EXTERNAL PARASITES The cure for external parasites is dipping. When done as sug- gested in pages 423 to 427, it will completely eradicate such parasites as ticks and lice as well as the pests that cause scab, foot-rot, sore eyes, and sore teats. The prevention of any of these parasites is a very simple matter. INTERNAL PARASITES Treating internal parasites is much more difficult. In many cases the parasites are located where medicine cannot reach them, as in the brain or liver; and even when located where medicine can reach them, as in the stomach, the medicine is of very little value as it is so diluted with digestive juices by the time it reaches the worms. The only practical treatment is prevention. This involves some trouble, and in order to make the necessity for such clear, we will consider a case in detail. Of course, dipping is of no avail for the internal parasites. The stomach-worm. — This worm (Strongylus contortus) is a small, thread-like worm about three-fourths of an inch in length. It lives in the fourth stomach, and especially afflicts lambs, at- tacking them at any age after they begin to nibble grass until cold weather in the fall. This stomach-worm is by far the most destructive of parasites, doing more damage than all others combined. When the fourth stomach of the lamb becomes filled DISEASES OF SHEEP 441 with these small worms, digestion is greatly interfered with, the lamb looks dejected, the skin loses its pink color, the wool appears Fie. 154. Cotswotp Ram. Owned by F. W. Harding, Waukesha, Wis. The Cotswold, a native of England, is noted for the production of both mutton and wool. The animals are rather large, rams averaging 250 pounds and the ewes over 200 pounds. The breed is noted for the production of very long wool of fine quality. The wool averages 10 to 14 inches in length and 6 to 10 pounds in weight. This breed is extremely popular in the United States. 442 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS dead, and the animal takes on a starved appearance. Scour- : - ing is more or less frequent. The best evidence, however, that. . . the lamb is afflicted with stomach-worms is the presence of the small worms in the droppings. Older sheep also become affected, but seem to withstand the ravages of the worms better than lambs, due no doubt, in the lambs, to the more tender condition of the stomach wall and to the milk diet. The life history of these small worms seems to be simple and to furnish a clew to the means of prevention in lambs. The worms become mature in the body of the older sheep and, laden with eggs about to hatch, pass out with the excreta.. Just what the worms do outside the sheep’s body is not known. When it is moist and warm, in some way the worms find their way into the lamb’s stomach. Perhaps the small worm is taken in while eating, perhaps by drinking surface water. We know that warmth and moisture are necessary for the transfer, hence there is little danger in the North, on mountain uplands, and but little danger in the dry regions of the West. The method of prevention is to remove the lambs and place them on fresh or preferably sown pastures before there is danger of infection. Lambs receiving no other food than grass and the dam’s milk are much more likely to be attacked than those fed grain in addition, particularly if the grain contains linseed-oil meal. The only safe way, however, is to remove the lambs to new pastures before infection. In case lambs become infected, treatment should be resorted to, though many practical sheep owners state that the treatment at best is not satisfactory. Circular No. 35, the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, reports that satisfactory results were obtained from the use of coal-tar, creosote, thymol, and gasolene. The following is taken from the circular, as it gives a general idea of the treatment for other worms as well :— Coal-tar Creosote. — Excellent success in treating sheep, DISEASES OF SHEEP 443 goats, and cattle for the twisted wireworm (Strongylus contortus) has been obtained with a 1 per cent solution of coal-tar creo- sote. The medicine is easily prepared and inexpensive. It may be purchased of a druggist in small quantities of 1 ounce, or in pound bottles. One ounce is sufficient for about 20 adult sheep, and the cost of the treatment is less than one-half acent per head. If creosote is called for at the drug store, beechwood creosote will be usually dispensed. This is more expensive than the coal- tar creosote and not so satisfactory in expelling worms. A 1 per cent solution of coal-tar creosote is made as follows : — Coal-tar creosote. . ‘ . Ll ounce Water. . 99 ounces 99 ounces = 6 pints and 3 ounces Twisted wireworms taken directly from the stomach of sheep or cattle die in one-half to one and a half minutes when immersed in this solution. If, in drenching, this liquid enters the lungs, the animal may succumb in a few minutes. If the dosing is performed carefully, as much as 62 ounces may be given to a full-grown sheep with- out fatal results. In some cases, however, the animal shows ill effects, from which it usually recovers within half an hour. Six ounces were given to a number of sheep without the slightest ill effects. The following table gives the doses of the 1 per cent mixture which were used in about 400 cases without ill effects : — Lambs 4 to 12 months old . . . 2to4 ounces (about 60 to 120 e.c.) Yearling sheep and above . . . 3 to5 ounces (about 90 to 150 c.c.) Calves 3 to 8 months old . . . 5tolQounces (about 150 to300c.c.) Yearling steers . . . . 1 pint (about 480 e.c.) Two-year-old cattle and over. . 1 quart (about 960 e.e.) Sheep, goats, and calges which received this treatment showed a marked improvement a few days after receiving a single dose. If an overdose is given by mistake, and if the sheep appears severely affected by it, the animal should be placed in the shade. Even in some cases of very severe overdoses, where the animal is 444 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS given up for dead practically, it may entirely recover in an hour Or-sO. Coal-tar Creosote and Thymol.—TIf, in addition to the stomach-worms, the animals are suffering from a severe infection of bowel worms, such as the hook worms, better results are ob- tained in the treatment when powdered thymol is added to the creosote. In cases of this kind, the creosote solution is prepared, as already directed, and 30 to 80 or even 100 grains of thymol added to each dose after it has been measured, giving 30 grains to lambs, 50 to yearlings, and 70 to 100 grains to older sheep, according: to size. The tape-worms. — The digestive tract of sheep is occasionally infested with tape-worms. There are several kinds of tape- worms, but only two infesting sheep in this country. The common one (Tenia expansa) varies in length from ten to twenty feet and in breadth from one twenty-fifth of an inch at the head to one-half an inch at the tail. The life history is somewhat similar to that of the stomach-worm. Sheep become infested in the same way, the most common source being old infested sheep pastures and the most susceptible animals being those rather run down in flesh. The best method of combating tape-worms is prevention by changing from one pasture to another and by the use of sown pastures, as suggested in the discussion on summer care of the flock (page 382). Wing recommends liberal feeding of pumpkins in the fall. Pumpkin seeds are well-known vermifuges. By the frequent use of sown pastures and the feeding of pump- kins almost every fall he reports entire freedom from this disease. Tape-worms are easily prevented but very difficult of eradication. In case the sheep are affected with tape-worm, esate should be given, though the results will depend in a large meas- ure upon the degree of infection. From Bulletin No. 19 and Circular No. 35, Bureau of Animal Industry, we take the fol- DISEASES OF SHEEP 445 lowing: Dissolve one ounce of copper sulfate in two quarts of boiling water. Use only copper sulfate of a uniform blue color. Avoid that which is in conglomerate lumps with white patches and covered with a white crust. The owner is cautioned against guessing at the weights and measures, for this is likely to result in too strong a solution, which will kill the animal, or in too weak a solution, which will fail to be effective. Prepare the animals for treatment by fasting from twenty to twenty-four hours. The dose is as follows : — Ace or ANIMALS ee nee Lambs 3 months old 1 ‘20 Lambs 6 months old 2 40 Sheep 12 months old . 3 60 Sheep 18 months old 4 80 Sheep 24 months old 4} 90 The medicine is given in the form of a drench as suggested for stomach-worms. If, after dosing, any of the sheep seem to be suffering from an overdose, indi- cated by lying apart from the flock, not feeding, manifesting a painful, excited look, and a spasmodic movement in run- ning, walking with a stiff gait, or purging with a dirty brown discharge, take the affected ani- mal from the flock to a shady place and dose with laudanum and milk. For a lamb four to Six fy, 155.—CHampion CorswaLp months old, give a tablespoonful oe Ee is a of laudanum in a tumbler of milk. Repeat half the dose in two or three hours if necessary. 446 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS After treating, the sheep should not be allowed water for several hours. Each animal in the flock should be treated at the same time. While some sheep may be able to withstand the presence of the parasite, they serve as a source of infection. While the tape- worms are being voided, the flock should be confined to one place, and the droppings with the segments of worms destroyed. DIGESTIVE DISORDERS Among sheep, digestive disorders arising from overfeeding, from irregular feeding, and the feeding of food too dry and woody, are of rather common occurrence. First of all, however, we will consider bloating, as it may be of frequent occurrence, unless extra care is taken, when turning to clover, alfalfa, and rape pasture. Bloating. — When bloat occurs among sheep, treatment to be of any avail must be prompt, as the gas generated often causes death from suffocation in a very few minutes. If the animal is in much distress when found, the paunch should be punctured where the distension is greatest, in order that the gas may escape. For this a trocar and canula is best, but in the absence a long- bladed pen knife will serve. After relief has been had, disin- fect the wound. If there was not sufficient time to remove the wool from the spot before the puncture, it should be removed now and a little pine tar applied to repel the flies. (See page 351.) ) If the bloating is not so severe, relief may be obtained by tying a stick or corn cob in the mouth similar to a bit, thus holding the mouth open, and the sheep, in rubbing the cob or stick with the tongue, often struggles in such a way as to prevent further bloat- ing. If the sheep are noticed when first distressed, give them three tablespoonfuls of raw linseed oil to which has been added a teaspoonful of turpentine. Slowly pouring cold water over the DISEASES OF SHEEP 44T distended paunch often gives relief by stopping the accumulation of gas. Constipation. — In winter when the ration is composed largely of dry woody food, sheep often suffer from impaction, which often leads to constipation and in some instances to inflamma- tion of the bowels. This condition of the digestive tract ma- terially weakens the animal, and it becomes susceptible to various ailments. All tendencies to impaction, constipation, inflammation, and the like should be avoided by feeding daily some laxative food, such as roots, silage, oil meal “pea size,” along with the dry food. If sheep growing is to prove profit- able, some such foods must be used. When impaction occurs, it may be relieved by giving Epsom salts. The size of the dose should vary somewhat according to the size of the animal ; a 150-pound animal may be given from 4 to 6 ounces dissolved in a pint of hot water. If not relieved within 10 hours, repeat the dose. Disorders caused by overfeeding. — As indicated in the discus- sion on feeding lambs in winter (page 399), digestive disorders due to overfeeding are likely to prove fatal. Occasionally fatalities will occur from this cause on the best regulated farms. Many remedies have been suggested to relieve such disorders, but they fail. Death is almost sure to follow, no matter what may be done. In fact, among sheep suffering from apoplexy, the result of overfeeding, little time will be given to do anything. The lambs die in a few minutes. This sometimes can be impressed only by experience. The lambs will seemingly be in the best of condition, when, for some reason, one gets an overfeed, and fatal results rapidly follow. It is usually the largest and strongest. lambs that are attacked, as they are the ones likely to crowd the smaller ones away and consume too much feed. The ration, particularly the grain, should be increased very slowly. While it is very important that the sheep be fed all they will consume, it is even more important that they be not fed more than they will 448 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS clean up from meal to meal, as this is likely to result in one or more of them overeating. While water, salt, and succulent food of some kind are neces- sary to the well being of sheep, care must be exercised in feeding them, as otherwise they are likely to produce kidney and bladder troubles. Drinking too much hard water, the result of eating large quantities of salt, causes the deposit of limy substance in the bladder, which becomes washed into the urethra, where it lodges, causing stoppage of the urine, inflammation, followed by distention of the bladder, which after a time results in death. The long-continued feeding of too many mangels, rich in lime, is likely to give similar results. OTHER DISEASES Caked udder. — This trouble often occurs among heavy milk- ers. In most cases it is due to neglect at lambing time. The udder becomes greatly distended, inflamed, and swollen. The treatment is to relieve the congestion by drawing the milk, fre- quently. Bathe the parts with hot water and apply camphor ointment, as in caked udder among dairy cattle. Some prefer an ointment made of lard and turpentine, equal parts. The ointment should be well rubbed in and applied threé times daily. Garget often proves serious in certain localities. It is said to be due to mechanical injuries, such as a blow, a scratch, or the udder being horned ; to the udder becoming distended with milk; and to germs entering the udder. The udder becomes hard, distended, and the milk is often watery and may contain blood. The treatment usually recommended is the hot water bathing and the camphor-belladonna ointment treatment, as suggested for cows (page 340). Among sheep, however, garget seems to be due to other causes as well, and when such is the case, the above treatment often fails of pelief. A typical case is somewhat as follows: A strong ewe DISEASES OF SHEEP 449 lambs without difficulty, the first milk comes, and the lamb as well as the ewe is doing nicely. The owner, in order that the ewe may give an abundance of milk, places the ewe on a full Fic. 156. — Lincotn Ram CHAMPION AT INTERNATIONAL LivE Stock SHow, 1906. Photograph from National Stockman and Farmer. The native home of the Lincoln breed of sheep is in the county of Lincoln, in England. This breed is particularly noted for its large size and great length of fleece. In weight the rams average about 300 pounds and the ewes 275 pounds. The wool often attains a length of 18 to 20 inches, and at shearing time gives a fleece weighing 10 to 12 pounds, for the ewes, and 12 to 20 pounds, for the rams. grain feed at once, perhaps feeding corn alone, as the grain; in a few days milk secretion stops, the sheep has fever, the flesh of the udder is red, and on pressure is dented with the hand. The sheep seems in great distress and may soon die. If she lives, the udder 2a 450 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS never regains its consistency and after a time sloughs off, leaving . a slow healing sore. In such cases, physicking the animal and treating the udder are of no avail. There seems to be a relation between the disease and the food supply. The grain part of the ration seems to have been increased too rapidly immediately after lambing. When the grain ration was increased more slowly and when it contained oats and linseed meal, no such diffi- culty was experienced. From this it would seem that the treat- ment should be prevention by increasing the grain ration slowly after lambing. PART FOUR—SWINE CHAPTER XXI CHOOSING AND JUDGING SWINE SWINE are grown for a single purpose, that: of pork pro- duction; yet the successful swine breeder will give the selection of his animals much serious consideration. In choosing swine, as in all classes of meat animals, the butcher’s preference must be the leading guide. The butcher’s preference is determined by the demands of the market. Uniformity in size and quality is the most urgent demand. TYPES OF SWINE There are two distinct types of swine: the lard type, noted for the production of thick fat; and the bacon type, known for the production of bacon. The lard type far outnumbers the bacon type in America. As a type, the lard-hog has reached its highest development in the corn-belt of the United States. This is often called the American type of hog, and is not looked upon with favor by people of other countries because of its extreme fat development. The lard-hog should be compact, with the body very wide and deep. The shoulders should be full although not coarse, with the hind-quarters or hams carried out straight to the tail- head and well fleshed down to the hock. Since the valuable cuts lie along the back, rump and quarters, the general conformation of the lard-hog should be similar to that of the fat steer. The flesh covering should be thick and evenly distributed throughout the body, particularly over the shoulders and quarters. The size 453 454 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and weight are determined largely by the market conditions. Formerly very heavy hogs were in demand, but at the present time pigs weighing from 225 to 250 pounds will command the highest price, all other conditions being equal. The true bacon type of hog is little grown in the United States. Denmark, Great Britain, and Canada furnish most of this class of pork. In recent years the American breeders, particularly those east of the corn-belt, have given this class of swine some active consideration, but its production is not likely to make much headway in America. We prefer the rapid-fattening, heavily fleshed, and early-maturing lard type. In contrasting the general appearance of the bacon type with the lard type, we note that the body of the former lacks the width of the latter, the shoulders and hams are lighter and longer, the body is some- what longer, and the animal stands on somewhat longer legs. The weight of the bacon hog is not so great as of the lard type, American markets preferring 155 to 195 pounds and the Danish markets 160 to 220 pounds. Because of the extreme difference in type we will consider the desirable features of the lard- or fat-hog first and then con- trast with it the bacon type, first pausing to discuss the age. AGE OF SWINE In choosing other classes of farm animals age enters largely into the choice, but in market hogs it is seldom considered except in the case of old sows and stags. The weight and condition of the animal determine the value. As in other farm animals, the age is indicated to acertain extent by the teeth, but the difficulty of catching, holding, and examining is so great that the teeth are ‘seldom, if ever, used to determine the age of swine. Among breeding stock the matter of age is of considerable importance, but even here it is estimated more by a general examination than by any specific character. The older the boar the coarser and heavier the “shields” — outside of shoulder — and the longer CHOOSING AND JUDGING SWINE _ 455 or larger the tusks as well as the larger and more wrinkled the body throughout. The older the sow the more pendulent the belly, the coarser and more wrinkled she becomes. CHOOSING LARD-HOGS The lard- or fat-hog is desired for full shoulders and heavy hams. These points must be kept clearly in mind. The Fie. 157.— Potanp Cuina YEARLING Boar. First prize, Wisconsin State Fair, 1908. The Poland China breed of swine originated in Warren and Butler counties in southwestern Ohio. The breed is noted particularly for its early maturing qualities and for the ability to take on fat economically. This breed repre- sents the extreme development in lard production, and because of this it lacks in fecundity and prolificacy. In size the breed is classed as a middle-weight. The color is black with white markings, the ears drooping, and face straight. The breed is very popular in America. sides and especially the belly produce a cheap grade of meat, and there should be a minimum of these parts with maxi- mum loin, rump, and quarters. In choosing lard-hogs, or any other for that matter, the most convenient and simplest method 456 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS is to note the general appearance first, then pass to a more detailed examination. General appearance of lard-hogs By carefully noting the general appearance of a hog one can gain a fair knowledge of its value. Carefully view the hog or the drove of hogs from a distance before moving up closely to the animals. This gives one a good knowledge of their uniform- ity, temperament, and their general form. The butcher will base his estimate of their value largely on the uniformity and form, and the feeder will base his estimate mostly on their tem- perament, as a mild-tempered pig is likely to be a good feeder. Such an examination will give one a good idea of the weight, quality, and constitution, all very important factors in swine growing. 2s The general form of the fat-hog is of primary importance. It should be compact, with the body deep, broad, smooth, and symmetrical. The length should be medium, as a too long back is likely to result in weakness just back of the shoulders. As with the steer, the hog should have the larger part of its weight in the region of the most valuable cuts; that is, along the back, loin, and hams. While the fore-quarters, neck, and head are parts of lesser value, they must show much develop- ment in order to insure constitutional vigor and vitality, which is largely controlled by chest capacity. The chest, therefore, should be broad, deep, and carried well forward. This develop- ment gives the hog a parallelogram development similar to that desired for beef cattle. The weight and condition. — The weight will depend largely on the condition, and as these determine the market value they will be considered together. Formerly heavy hogs, those weighing from 400 to 500 pounds, commanded the highest price, but at the present time the market demands a much lighter hog. While market demands are exceedingly variable, in CHOOSING AND JUDGING SWINE 457 general the most desirable weight is from 180 to 275 pounds, though heavier hogs sometimes command a premium on the market. Very heavy hogs are often spoken of as “fat backs”’ because of their broad, heavily fleshed backs. A lard pig in good condition should weigh from 175 to 200 pounds when six months old, and 350 to 400 pounds when one year old. Some hogs under the best of conditions may weigh much more, many others will weigh much less, but those are the weights one can reasonably hope to attain. Quality. — The indications of quality are fine hair, freedom from bristles, and a comparatively light, dense, and clean bone. Fineness of the parts in general is an evidence of quality. This is often overdrawn, as too much fineness leads to delicacy, which is sometimes observed in the hogs being too small, facial features too fine or small, and the bone fine to the point of weakness. On the other hand, : : hogs with coarse bone, coarse Fic. 158.— Potanp Caina Boar. hair, and coarse hide are likely Solditor $0000: to be poor feeders, and the butcher objects to them because of the large percentage of offal which they dress. The qual- ity of bone, hide, and hair should lie between these two extremes. In addition to being rather fine and free from bristles, the. hair should lie close to the body and the skin be free from wrinkles and undue roughness caused by scurf. Constitution. — The indications of a good constitution and much vigor are a deep, broad, and well-advanced chest, thus giving capacious chest capacity and good heart girth. The chest should be deep from the top of the shoulder to the brisket, which should be placed low down; it should be wide, as indi- cated by much width between the front legs, and the brisket should be well advanced between the front legs. The real 458 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS width of the chest is often difficult to estimate, as the external width depends much on the thickness and the way the shoulders . . . are attached; thus an animal wide from shoulder to shoulder ''— might have a small chest capacity, which would not leave suffi- cient room for the organs to do their work as they should. The flank, both front and rear, should be full and well let down, as this also indicates good constitution. Uniformity. — One of the most important general considera- tions in choosing a herd of swine, either for breeding or feeding, is the uniformity. While this adds nothing to their ability to make economic gains, it does add materially to their selling value. This is one of the most neglected factors in American pork pro- duction. ‘The first thing the commission merchant does on re- ceiving a mixed drove of hogs is to separate them into bunches uniform in all important characters, as age, weight, and con- dition. The butcher will very often pass by a mixed drove of hogs, even though they are of good quality and in good flesh, refusing to place a bid on them merely because he lacks the facilities for handling such mixed lots. Separate them into uni- form droves, and he is attracted to them at once and will pay an extra premium for the same stuff he refused to bid on before. Uniformity in color is perhaps not so essential as age, weight, and quality, although a drove alike in color will command a better price than mixed droves. White is not considered well adapted to southern conditions, as it is likely to sun-scald or blister, and this introduces skin diseases of various forms. For- merly, by far the larger part of the hogs sent to the market were black, but recently blacks have been decreasing and reds increasing, with the whites remaining practically stationary. From information gathered from the ten largest packing houses in the United States, the color ran as follows: black, 55 per cent; red, 35 per cent; white, 10 per cent; all others, 5 per cent. CHOOSING AND JUDGING SWINE 459 Detail characters of the lard-hog Since the individuals are small and the drove often composed of a large number, the beginner is likely to neglect the detail examination, with the result that many poor individuals find their way into the beginner’s herd. Individuality among swine is just as great as among fat cattle. The breeder or feeder in choosing his swine should carefully observe each character, and in order that none go unnoticed they may be considered in the following order : — The head should be short and broad. No facial character among any class of farm animals is more variable than the hog’s snout. In some breeds, notably the Tamworths and Hamp- shires, the snout is very long and straight from the ears to the tip of the nose; in other breeds, as the Yorkshires, it is long and dished ; while in others it is short and straight, as in the Poland China; and in still others it is short and very much dished, as in the Berkshires. The eyes should be wide apart, clear, and prominent. Folds of fat about the eyes, while rather common, are very objectionable. In heavy fat-hogs these patches of fat are often so prominent as entirely to close the eye. The ears should be of medium size for the breed and fine in texture. The way the ear is carried depends on the breed, being erect in the Berkshire and Yorkshire; half drooping in others, as the Poland China and Duroc Jerseys; and wholly pendent in still others, as the Chester White breed. Whatever the carriage, ears should be neatly attached to the head. Large and coarse ears are usually associated with heavy coarse bone and are, therefore, objectionable on any breed. The jowls should be firm, smooth, of medium size, and not pendulous. Jowls that are flabby, owing to the excessive amount of fat, are very objectionable. They should be firm, indicating an intermixture of lean meat. The size of the jowls is rather a breed characteristic, being rather large in the Poland China 460 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and Berkshire, and rather small in the Tamworths and Hamp- shires. The statement is often made that large jowls indicate great feeding capacity. This is not true, as Tamworths and Hampshires feed as well as Poland Chinas or Berkshires. The medium-sized jowls for the breed are to be preferred. They should be free from heavy folds and not pendulous and loose. Fic. 159. — Prize Berxsurre Sow. Owned at Hood Farm, Lowell, Mass. The native home of the Berkshire breed of swine is in England. Like Poland China, this breed is noted for its early maturity and for its ability quickly to attain marketable condition. This breed lacks the extreme fat development of the Poland China, and for this reason the quality of the meat excels the Poland China. In prolificacy and fecundity the breed ranks fair. In weight the animals are classed with the middle-weight breeds. The color is black, with white markings, ears erect, and the face dished. The breed is very popu- lar in America. The neck should be of medium length and possess sufficient width and depth to swell smoothly into the shoulder-vein and pass back without any noticeable depression. It should narrow toward the nape and join smoothly with the cheeks. It should join the head and shoulders smoothly without undue thickness, as a neck too thick and too heavy is objectionable because it CHOOSING AND JUDGING SWINE 461 indicates general coarseness and increases the relative percent- age of cheap meat. The shoulders should be long, full, and level on top. They should be long, extending down even with the underline of the body. While long shoulders are not necessarily correlated with a deep chest or constitutional vigor, they give the hog a more symmetrical appearance. They should be full, especially at the lower end, which is often a weak point, and just forward of the shoulders in the region known as the shoulder-vein. The shoulders should not be too heavy, as it is a comparatively cheap cut, nor should the skin be too thick and heavy, as such indicates reversion to ancestral types, because these parts were abnormally developed in the wild hog as a protection in fighting. The back and loin should be of moderate length, straight, broad, and evenly fleshed throughout. They should be very carefully considered, as the back and loin furnish some of the most valuable cuts. Here pork chop and pork roasts are se- cured. The back should be strong, and this can best be ob- tained by moderate length, as a too long back is likely to be weak, particularly just back of the shoulders. It should be straight or, better still, slightly arched, gradually rising from the neck to the center of the back, and from there sloping very gradually to the tail. There certainly should be no depression or sway in the back from the shoulder to the tail. The back should be broad, and this breadth should be evenly maintained from the shoulder to the tail. It should be as broad on the rear as it is in front. Tapering towards the rear — that is, narrower across the loin and rump than across the shoulders — is objectionable. The flesh covering should be even and firm, giving a smooth carcass when slaughtered. The sides should be as long as possible and yet maintain suf- ficient strength of back, which is best accomplished by medium length. They should be deep and thick. The ribs should be well arched and continue low down, giving great feeding 462 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS capacity. The underline should run straight from front flank . to rear flank, giving the side an even width throughout its | entire length. Sides should be firm and smooth, and free from wrinkles and flabbiness. Wrinkles and creases, particularly just back of the shoulders, are of common occurrence and are usually objectionable, as they indicate uneven fattening and poor quality of flesh. While the development of the shoulders and hams is usually much greater than the sides, thus leaving . a marked depression just back of the shoulder and in front of the hams, this should not be; the sides should be even with the hams and shoulders and carry the fullness well down, giving the animal a symmetrical and well-balanced appearance. The belly should be low, giving the side good depth and in- dicating great feeding capacity; it should be straight from fore to rear, giving an even cut to the sides, and it should be firm and smooth, as wrinkles indicate lack of lean and general flab- biness. The width of the belly should be in proportion to the hog in general. A very narrow belly is objectionable. The hips should be as wide as the body in general and smoothly covered with flesh. Narrow hips are very objectionable, as this is the region of valuable meat. The hips should be so smoothly covered that their location is not apparent to the eye. It is commonly held that the hips should be rather low, as a very high hip is not likely to be well covered. The rump should be long, wide, and fairly level. It should be long so as to increase the length of the ham. The width should be carried back proportionately with the back, as a peaked rump is very objectionable. Narrow, peaked rumps mean thin hams, which do not sell well on the market. As a rule hogs droop considerably from the hips to the tail; never- theless the nearer the rump approaches the level, the better the cuts of meat will be; for this reason extremely drooping trumps are to be avoided. The rump should be evenly and smoothly fleshed from hips to tail. CHOOSING AND JUDGING SWINE 463 The hams should be wide, deep, and plump. Viewing the pig from behind, the hams should be wide from between the legs to the outside; viewing from bas the side, they sient be deep, that is, long from the tail down- ward and fleshed well down to the hock. Such a conformation — will give a long, wide, and plump ham when slaughtered. Often the hams lack fleshing above the hocks, the region be- Fic. 160.—Cuampion Berxsurre Pra. ing bare and thin, which results in a poor ham when slaughtered. The flesh should be firm, indicating that there is not too much fat, as very fat hams are not desired on the market. Extra fat hams sell at low prices. The legs should be straight, strong, tapering, and well placed. Knees that are considerably bent, or “bucked knees,” and hocks that are very much cramped, are common defects among swine. Crooked knees, those which come too close together, and hocks too close, are all too common. Another very serious objection, particularly among fat-hogs, is the tendency of their pasterns to break down, leaving the animal to walk on the dew- claws. Although common, and often among the very best bred hogs, this is very serious and always to be guarded against. Sometimes the underline slants upward from the front to the hind flank, due to the hind legs being longer than the fore legs. - This should not be. The legs should be short, strong, and placed wide apart, and when the hog walks, the hind and fore legs should pass forward in a straight line. Although inward and outward movements of the legs are common, they are objectionable and account for the awkward gait of many hogs. This is a common defect _ among well-bred swine. 464 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS CHOOSING BACON-HOGS The bacon-hog differs materially from the fat- or lard-hog, particularly in type and flesh covering. The bacon type originated to meet the demand for lean meat. Excessive fat- ness is objectionable in this type and does not bring as high price as when the lean and fat are well interspersed, giving the meat a marbled appearance. The bacon-hog is extensively grown in the Old World and Canada, but has never become popular in the United States, although considerable bacon is produced in the Eastern States. In general appearance, the bacon type differs from the lard type in the animals being more upstanding, much longer of limb, the bodies considerably longer and not so wide, and the hams and shoulders much lighter. The animals lack the heavy flesh covering of the lard type. Condition. — The flesh is not so thick as on the lard type of hog, rarely exceeding one and one-half inches, but it must be firm, smooth, and even over all parts. It should be firm, as this indicates the presence of lean meat; it should be smooth and free from wrinkles and seams, as smoothness indicates even fleshing and good quality; and the flesh covering should be even over all parts of the body in order that the cuts of bacon may be uniform. The form should be long, level, and deep. It should be long in order to give length to the side cuts; it should be level and free from sway back; and it should be deep in order to increase the percentage of side meat. The shoulders and hams should be light and the animal of uniform width from the shoulders to the hams. Width is not sought, but both length and depth are of prime importance. The form should appear trim and neat, and the animal be free from all coarseness in hair, hide, and bone. The shoulders should be smoothly laid-in before, behind, and. CHOOSING AND JUDGING SWINE 465 on top; compact, indicating quality and firmness; and they should be light, lacking the bulge of the lard-hog. The shoul- der should fit closely to the body and not show more width on the back; it should be free from coarseness; and the fleshing should Fic. 161.— Larce YorxKsuHirE, oR Larce Wuirtr, Sow. Photograph from Farmers’ Advocate. The Large Yorkshire or Large White breed of swine developed in England. This breed is noted particularly for its bacon qualities. The quality of the meat is unexcelled, being well marbled ; that is, the fat and lean are well mixed, although the animals are rather late maturing. In size the breed is classed as large. The breeding qualities are excellent. The color is white, the ears in- clined to droop forward, and the face dished. extend well down the legs, indicating muscular development and giving a long shoulder cut. Sides. — Among bacon-hogs the sides are of prime impor- tance, as the choicest bacon comes from this region. It is, therefore, essential to have as much as possible of the desired weight in this region. The sides should be long, smooth, and level. From shoulder to ham should be as long as possible without increasing weakness, thus giving long side cuts; they 248 466 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS should be smooth and free from wrinkles and seams; and they should be level from shoulders to hips. A swaying back or a too pendulous belly are very objectionable. Hams. — The rump should be long, and the fleshing should be carried well downward toward the hock. Fullness and plumpness are not essential, while good length, with smooth muscular development, is of prime importance. The fleshing should be firm and tapering towards the hock, thus giving a neat and trim ‘“gammon,” which is a cut very similar to the ham. CHAPTER XXII THE FEEDING OF SWINE UNLIKE cattle feeding, in which it is the common practice for the animals to be bred on cheap land and later shipped to the corn-belt to be fattened, swine are largely bred and fed on the same farm. The swine feeder must breed and grow his own stock. The dangers from hog cholera and other swine plagues are too great to make the buying of feeding swine in the open market practicable. The breeding herd does not re- quire much space, and in addition the sows are very prolific, thus making it possible for a comparatively small number of sows, maintained on a small area, to produce many stock hogs. Swine feeding, therefore, is inseparable from swine breed- ing. No farm animal equals the hog in turning food quickly into marketable meat; and none has [| si yielded more profit to the aver- Fic. 162.—Larce Yorxsuie, on age American farmer. In health g eeg unl: Gow: . PRotogrsph . rom Farmers’ Advocate. no farm animal is more easily cared for than the hog; it requires little shelter and will eat almost any article of food placed at its disposal. From this it would seem that the hog is the most economical meat pro- ducing animal. This is true during health. The effort should be, then, so to feed and manage the herd as to keep it in good thrift at all times. 467 468 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS FOOD REQUIREMENTS FOR SWINE The food required for a given gain among swine varies with the kind of food and the age and weight of animals. Foods vary largely in the energy they contain. The older and the larger the animal the more food required for a given gain. Wolff and Lehman, after much experimentation along this line, have given us the following standards : — Wolff-Lehman standard, showing the amount of food required per 1000 pounds live weight for both growing and fattening swine ConpITION or ANIMAL DiGcEsTisLE NUTRIENTS Growing Swine Dry- NvtRITIVE Breeding MATTER Ratio , Age, Mo. Weight Protein pe aa Fat 2-3 50 44 7.6— 28.0 1.0 4.0 3-5 100 35 5.0 23.1 0.8 5.0 5-6 120 32 3.7 21.3 - 0.4 6.0 6-8 200 28 2.8 18.7 0.3 7.0 8-12 250 25 2.1 15.3 0.2 7.5 Growing Swine Fattening 2-3 50. 44 7.6 28.0 1.0 4.0 3-5 100 35 5.0 23.1 0.8 5.0 5-6 150 33 4.3 22.3 0.6 5.5 6-8 200 30 3.6 20.5 0.4 6.0 8-12 300 26 3.0 18.3 0.3 6.4 As with the standards for horses, cattle, and sheep, these are arranged to meet the need of the average farm hogs under normal conditions. They are not intended to be abso- lute. THE FEEDING OF SWINE 469 PREPARING FOOD Foods for swine are often prepared by grinding, soaking, or cooking. There have been many experiments to deter- mine the efficiency of each of these methods. These tests give more or less contradictory results, and it is difficult to determine from a perusal of the literature to what extent the food is rendered more efficient by such preparation. There can be little doubt, however, but that each of these methods increases the efficiency of certain foods under given conditions. Grinding feed. — The advisability of grinding feed for swine depends much on the kind of food and to some extent on the age of the animals. Most of the experiments have been with the grinding of corn, and the results have been varying. With smaller and harder seeds and grains, such as peas, beans, millet, and the like, there is a much better showing in favor of grind- ing. The Canadian Central Experimental Farm conducted ex- periments which show a saving of 17 per cent in favor of grinding these smaller and harder seeds. The same may be true of corn when the grain is very hard and dry. Grinding some foods increases the palatability and thus favors larger consumption. Swine fed ground food in the form of mash are not likely to masticate it, but simply swallow it, and in case the grain is not ground fine, the coarse particles are not so readily or thoroughly digested. In masticating their own grain swine will usually reduce it to rather fine particles, par- ticularly if fed in the natural state. Thus it would seem that if the grain is to be ground, it should be ground fine. Soaking the feed. —It is a rather common practice to soak whole grains and to wet meals before feeding. Soaking is a less expensive process and in many instances may be as good as grinding. One rather strong objection to feeding soaked grains, especially when the animals are used to eating the grains whole, is that they are likely to swallow the grains entire without mas- 470 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS tication. Soaking or wetting is, however, a very cheap method of preparing hard grains for swine, by rendering them more palatable and adding succulence. Grains should be soaked long enough to make them soft. They should not be permitted to sour. While sour food, as such, is not injurious to swine, there is risk of feeding it one time sour and the next time sweet, as digestive disorders will surely follow a changing from one to the other. Cooking the feed. — As a general practice, cooking food for swine is no longer regarded as profitable. In fact, cooking certain foods renders some of the nutrients less digestible. Cooking feeds for swine, however, has many advantages, chief of which are that it softens small and hard seeds; increases the succulence and to some extent the palatability of certain dry grains, such as peas and beans; reduces the water content of certain other feeds, such as roots and tubers, which contain more water than swine can economically use; and renders foods more uniformly mixed. Furthermore, cooked foods do not sour so readily, and the hard grains or particles of feed become thoroughly softened. It is considered best to put a variety of foods into the cooker. This serves a double purpose: since the small grains usually contain more protein, they form a more nearly balanced ration; and they add variety to the ration, and thus increase the palatability. MAKING UP A RATION The ration is ordinarily not given much consideration in swine feeding, but at the same time it is of great importance. The several factors considered in determining the desirability of a ration for other farm animals are of equal importance in swine feeding. The dry matter, digestible nutrients, protein, palatability, variety, suitability, and cost of foods should be carefully considered. Feeding capacity among swine.— As with steers, it is desirable: THE FEEDING OF SWINE 471 to develop capacity while the animals are young. A rather bulky ration fed during the early part of the pig’s life will in- crease the feeding capacity so that Jater in life he can consume more than would be possible if he received only a concentrated ration at first. Furthermore, there is great danger of overfeed- ing a pig; and if concentrated foods are used, this danger is greatly increased. If once a pig is overfed, he will never con- sume as much feed thereafter as he otherwise would. Young animals grow much more rapidly than older ones. The young pig should be encouraged to consume as much as he can use to the best advantage. If the animal is fed too small an amount at this time, he not only fails to develop capacity, but does not make the most of that period of his life when he is the most economical producer. Later, as the time approaches for fattening and after the ca- pacity has been developed, the animals should be put on a full feed of rather concentrated food. This change should be made gradually, as swine cannot endure a sudden change without dis- orders following. 2 Giving swine their feed. — When foods are fed in the form of mash, there is always much crowding about the trough, which makes it very difficult for the feeder. To avoid this crowding, place the trough alongside the fence and parallel to it, so that the feeder may approach the trough from the outside and the animals from the inside. A very good plan is to hang a panel immediately above the trough, suspended from either end of the upper side. By placing a latch in the center of the lower side of the panel, it may be swung in and fastened to the side of the trough in the lot, thus shutting the swine out of the trough and giving the feeder an opportunity to put in the feed. The panel may now be swung back and fastened to the out- side of the trough, giving the swine access to the entire meal at once. If there is more than one trough in the lot, the feed should be placed in all before any of the panels are swung back. 472 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Salt in limited quantities should be kept before the swine at all times. A very good plan is to provide a shallow strong box, with slats nailed across the top, so the pigs cannot lie in the box, then place charcoal and salt in the box. The box should be placed under a shed and in a clean place. It is best not to plave too much before them at a time, but to keep renewing the supply often, as this keeps the food clean and sweet. Fresh, cool water should be available at all times, even though the animals are being fed mash or slops. The trough should be so arranged that the hogs cannot lie in the water and thus litter up the trough. During the winter, hogs often fail to drink a sufficient amount of water and fail to do well simply for this reason. To obviate this difficulty, the chill should be driven off the water and the supply should be fresh. FEEDING THE BREEDING HERD Feeding the breeding herd differs so essentially from the fat- tening of swine that it is desirable to treat each separately. In feeding the herd the object is to keep the animals in a healthy and thrifty condition. Flesh formation is to be encouraged and fattening discouraged. If the breeding herd is permitted to be- come too fat, the animals fail to breed regularly, the litters are small, and the dangers from difficult parturition are increased. Feeding the breeding herd naturally divides itself into two parts, summer and winter’feeding. Each of these divisions calls for widely different practices. Furthermore, the common practice of breeding swine so young makes it necessary to consider feed- ing the younger animals separately from the older ones, as the young and growing breeding animal calls for very different foods from the older and mature ones. Feeding the herd in summer It is the common practice to confine the breeding herd in too crowded quarters. This close confinement and a too exclu- THE FEEDING OF SWINE 473 sive grain feeding account for much of the shy breeding among many of the more prominent breeds. Hogs will live and breed under such confinement, but greatest success cannot be attained under these systems of management. Another serious mistake is the too liberal use of corn. While no food equals corn for fattening swine, it is not a good grain for the breeding ani- mals, and its too exclusive use is a common cause of barren- ness or of small litters. Fic. 163.— Duroc Jersey Boar. First prize, Wisconsin State Fair, 1908. The Duroc Jersey breed of swine is a native of the United States. This breed, like the Poland China, is noted for its fat production and early maturing qualities. The breeding qualities of the breed are considered good, as the sows are fairly prolific. In size the breed is classed as medium. The color is red, the ears drooping, and face straight. The breed is increasing in popularity in America. Ample room should be provided. Nothing is better than pasturing or soiling. Soiling is likely to involve too much labor on the average American farm, but in such cases there is usually an abundance of pasture. Sometimes hogs are denied the run of a pasture because they require a rather tight fence, and if 474 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS not properly ringed are likely to root up the sod. While hog- tight fencing is expensive, it must be remembered that greatest success cannot be attained without pasture. In most local-— ities, woven wire will prove the most effective in restraining the herd. It need not be high, although all things considered, the four-foot fence with a barb-wire on top will be found the most practicable. With an abundance of pasturage, the breeding herd need receive no grain until a short time before farrowing, when grain should be fed sparingly in addition to the pasture. The well- fed sow will be more quiet at farrowing time and be less likely to injure her pigs than will the lean gaunt one lacking in milk. When grain is fed, the kind will depend somewhat on the kind of pasture; but as a general rule nothing is better than wheat bran or middlings, as it is rich in protein and mineral matter, two elements much needed by the developing pigs. Further- more, bran stimulates the flow of milk, which is very essential for the sow with a large litter. Ringing to prevent rooting. — Nothing is more natural than for swine to root, and if the pastures and meadows are to remain uninjured, the animals must be restrained by placing rings in their noses. This applies par- ticularly on permanent pastures. On clover or alfalfa pastures, there is not so much danger of the sod being injured, as swine Fie. 164.—First Prize Duroc Jer- seem to get a more nearly bal- sEY Boar. Wisconsin State Fair, " 1908. anced ration and do not have the desire to root up the sod as on blue-grass, red-top, timothy, or any non-leguminous pasture plant. The object should be to ring whenever the swine begin to injure the pastures. The operation of placing the rings in the nose is not difficult, a hog ringer, some rings, and a short THE FEEDING OF SWINE A4T5 rope being all the apparatus that is necessary. Tie a small loop in one end of the rope, slip the loop into the animal’s mouth and draw the head up. With the ringer pincers, firmly insert the rings into the nose, but not too deep, for if set so deep as to bind or pinch the muscle inside the ring, they will always be an annoyance to the animal. One or, in the case of old brood sows, at most two rings are all that are needed for each animal. Pasture for swine. — Swine may be turned to any pasture land that is available,—permanent or sown pasture. When properly ringed, they are no more injurious to pastures than any other farm animal. Swine thrive much better when they have access to green forage plants. Since the common pasture plants are not available before warm weather, it is often of advantage to provide an earlier forage. Rye sown somewhat early in the fall makes an excellent substitute for pasture grass, early the following spring. Among the permanent pasture grasses, blue- grass comes on very early and provides much succulence through- out the season. Clover, alfalfa, and cowpeas are unexcelled as swine pasture in the regions where they thrive. For a quick growing crop, rape is probably to be accorded first place. Roots for swine. — Roots are valuable as a food for swine during the late fall and winter months. They are mainly desired because of their stored succulence and to serve as a sub- stitute for pasture. In the United States, roots have not been so commonly used as in Canada or the Old Country, though of late years they have increased in favor, and their usefulness, especially in the corn-belt, is being recognized. Sugar-beets, mangels, rutabagas, turnips, and carrots are grown as food for swine. Of these, many prefer mangels largely because of their high yield per acre, although they will not give as good results as sugar-beets. The Jerusalem artichoke, a tuber belonging to the sunflower family, is often grown as a succulent for swine. This tuber is highly esteemed for fall, winter, and spring use. It is planted 476 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS in much the same way as the potato and grows from the eye of the tuber, which may be planted whole, or cut, usually whole if planted in the fall and cut if planted in the spring. By re- moving the hogs before all the tubers are secured, this crop may be grown successively for many years without replanting. Fic. 165.—Cuester Wurtre Boar. Photograph by C. 8. Plumb. The Chester White breed of swine first became prominent in Chester County, Pennsylvania. This breed is noted for its fat production. The breeding qualities rank high. It may be regarded asone of the most prolific of the fat- producing hogs. In size the breed is classed as the largest of the middle weights. The color is white, the ears drooping, and the face straight. Many swine breeders and feeders do not grow artichokes because of the opinion that when once established they are difficult to destroy. This is not true. To destroy the crop, let the hogs root out every tuber, then plow and plant to corn or some other cultivated crop. Pumpkins and squashes are much relished by swine in the late THE FEEDING OF SWINE ATT fall and early winter. The custom of planting the pumpkins in the corn results in being able to grow them at almost no ex- pense; and their keeping qualities add to their value as a suc- culent food for winter feeding. In addition to their succulence the seed is very rich in protein; thus they make a very good supplement for corn. Pumpkin seeds are a natural vermifuge. When many pumpkins are fed, the animals should be watched closely to see that they do not get an overfeed of seed and di- gestive disorders follow. Feeding the herd in winter More care must be given the feeding of the herd in winter than in summer; although if roots or other succulent food has been provided, the matter will be less difficult than if the feeder is obliged to rely entirely on dry feeds. The cheapness and the great abundance of corn really adds to the difficulty of wintering the herd. The great temptation all through the corn-belt is to feed a too exclusive corn ration. This difficulty is increased by the fact that no food equals corn in the fatten- ing of swine; and the majority of swine feeders let the herd run with the fattening swine, with the result that the breeding herd gets so fat that its breeding powers are materially lessened, the sows often become barren, and those that do breed farrow small litters of pigs lacking thrift and vigor. To avoid such difficulties, the herd must be separated from the fattening swine and fed a growing ration rather than a fattening ration. The object should be to keep the herd thrifty, but not fat. This can best be done by feeding such grains as wheat bran, middlings, and the like, also roots, pumpkins, and skim-milk for succulence. Alfalfa, clover, or cowpea hay in small quantities may be fed with profit. Hayshould be fed from a rack and not thrown upon the ground, as the animals will tramp it under their feet. When the hay is clean and sweet, and slightly salty, the swine will eat it and be much benefited thereby. 478 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS When the grain is fed in the form of meal, better results will be secured by mixing with water, or better still skim-milk, and fedasa mash. If skim-milk is used, much care should be taken not to feed the animals too much, as they will take on flesh rapidly and may become too fat. A very good mixture is made by ‘using one part meal to five parts of water or skim-milk. Another common mistake is confining the herd too closely in the winter season. The quarters become very muddy. While it is not possible to keep swine from rooting when the ground is soft or from wallowing when the weather is warm, they should be given sufficient room for exercise, and provided with quarters free from mud where they may eat and sleep, although the platform on which they feed should be separated from the one on which they sleep. Feeding the young and old herd. — Since the young animals are building bone and flesh for their own bodies, they need a more nitrogenous ration than the older animals that have attained their growth and need only enough protein to supply the waste. While the feeding of the young herd will depend much on the age at which the animals are bred, it may be said in a general way that the young herd needs a narrower ration than the old herd. Thus if the feeder has only sufficient skim-milk for a part of the herd, it would prove more profitable to feed the young herd the milk in connection with the grain and give the old ones water with their other food. In this way the younger animals will get the necessary mineral matter. The importance of well-chosen nourishment for the young herd cannot be overestimated. FATTENING SWINE Feeding swine for fattening differs essentially from feeding the breeding herd. In fattening, the sole object is the economic production of pork. As a rule the animals are forced to the limit of their ability as feeders, fattened and marketed under one - THE FEEDING OF SWINE 479 year of age. In this respect pork production is somewhat similar to beef production. The same general factors apply in both cases. Pork production is as much of a business as beef pro- duction and should be conducted accordingly. Feeding the lard-hog If light hogs are to be the product, the fattening process will begin much earlier in the life of the animal than if heavy hogs are to be produced. If lard-hogs are to be produced, the feeds will be much different from those required if bacon is to be the product. In the lard-hog, thick fat is desired, while in Fic. 166.—-CHEestTeR WuitTe Pics. Prize winners at Wisconsin State Fair in 1908. the bacon-hog the flesh covering is rather thin and well inter- spread; that is, the lean and fat are placed in layers, giving the meat a marbled appearance, when cut crossways. In the lard- hog, fattening foods are to be fed, while in the baoan hag flesh- ing foods should be used. Feeding the lard-hog in summer.— As a rule, swine should be fed in comparatively small droves. It is very important that the drove be made up of individuals of the same age as well as the same size. If a few of the individuals are larger and stronger, they will crowd the smaller and weaker ones back and get more than their allotment of the food. 480 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Whatever food-stuffs are used, the swine should be put on full feed slowly. Much care should be exercised not to throw them off their feed in the beginning, as it will take some time for : :: animals to recover. For best results swine should never be fed more than they will clean up at each meal. Fattening swine make better returns for the food consumed when their appetites are kept keen; they wait eagerly for their food and relish it much better than when overfed. If convenient, they should be fed both mash and dry grain. Nothing makes a better food for swine in the fore part of the fattening period than meal and skim-milk mixed in the proportion of one part of meal to five of milk. As the period progresses the portion of meal should be gradually increased until towards the close the proportion may be one part to three parts of skim-milk. If the skim-milk is not available, water may be used to make the mash. If water is used, the mash should be fed much thicker, using only enough water to mix the meal, as it is useless to fill the fattening animal up on water and thus prevent the consumption of nutritious foods. When such is the case, some linseed meal should be used, say 10 per cent of the meal. In either case, dry grain should be fed in addition. Swine will make much better returns for the food consumed if they have access to green forage. Where fattening hogs are turned to pasture, it must be so arranged that they need not graze over too large an area. If at all convenient, it will be more profitable to cut the green forage and feed to the hogs. In this way a smaller area will support a larger number of hogs, and the swine need not rustle to get the much needed succulence. The number of hogs that may be pastured on an acre will de- pend on the age and size of the animals, the quality and kind of crop, and other conditions. For an average it may be said that an acre of blue-grass will support eight to ten hogs for two months or more in the spring, and for two months in the fall; red clover should support six to ten hogs for three or four THE FEEDING OF SWINE 481 months ; alfalfa from ten to fifteen for five months; cowpeas six to eight for two or three months; and artichokes should support from six to ten hogs to the acre for a considerable length of time in the late fall. Clover, alfalfa or cowpea pasture is to be preferred. Alfalfa in those sections where it will thrive is regarded as the leading pasture plant for swine. It should not be grazed so closely as to make mowing unnecessary. To keep alfalfa in the best condition it should be mowed from one to three times in a season. These estimates are to be modified according to conditions. It is very important that fattening swine be provided with shade and an abundance of cool, fresh water. The sebacious glands of the hog are very rudimentary, and the animal can- not perspire and therefore must keep cool by radiation. This is one reason why hogs desire mud wallows, and for best results these must be provided, particularly for thick, fat animals, which suffer greatly with the heat during the warm summer months. To avoid the extreme heat of summer, many swine feeders plan to have the animals fat by the first of July, when they are sold. Feeding the lard-hog in winter. — When roots or other succu- lence is available for winter use, much better results can be obtained than if dry feed alone must be depended on. Sugar- beets, roots, turnips, potatoes, artichokes, and pumpkins are often used. No succulence exceeds skim-milk for winter feed- ing. In the absence of any other succulent food, mashes should be made, as suggested for summer feeding. For best results, mash or succulent food, grain, and a small amount of dry forage should be fed. Sweet, clean clover or alfalfa hay should constitute the dry forage. It should be fed from a rack. Care should be exercised in providing dry quarters and lots as free from mud as possible. The warmth of the quarters best suited for fattening swine may depend somewhat on the feeds used. When corn, in one of its many forms, as ear corn, shelled corn, corn meal, and the like, constitutes the major part of the 21 482 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS ration, the quarters need not be so warm as when an abundance of more succulent food is fed, such as skim-milk. It has been proved that for best results, when skim-milk or other very suc- culent food is freely employed, the quarters should be rather warm yet very well ventilated and well lighted. Fattening swine are not likely to spend much time in poorly ventilated, dark, and foul-smelling quarters. They prefer the cold to Fic. 167.—Vicroria Sow. First prize, Ohio State Fair. Photograph by C. 8. Plumb. The native home of the Victoria is in the United States. It is somewhat similar to the Cheshire, perhaps tending more towards the lard type. The breeding qualities are fair, the sows producing medium-sized litters. In size the breed is classed as small. The color is white, the ears erect, and the face dished. such places, and for this reason swine are often known to build a nest or bed out in the open lot, illustrating that they prefer exposure to foul quarters. When sweet, well lighted, and well ventilated quarters are provided, swine will be found to occupy them except when feeding and taking exercise. Hogs are not dirty animals by nature, except as they like to wallow in warm weather. THE FEEDING OF SWINE 483 During the cold winter season, swine often fail to drink suffi- cient water to meet their needs. This often seriously in- terferes with their fattening. To avoid this difficulty, they should be encouraged to drink water. ‘That contained in skim-milk, slop, or other succulence is not sufficient. When it is at all possible, the chill should be taken off before the water is offered the animals. Swine compelled to eat snow or lick ice to get water will surely fail to fatten profitably. The importance of this cannot be overestimated, for in addition to not gaining rapidly the system becomes weakened and the animals contract diseases more readily. Feeding the bacon-hog In the production of bacon, the foods must differ from those used in feeding the fat-hog. In some cases the same food stuffs may be used in part, but the mixture must be varied. Corn, the mainstay in the production of the fat-hog, can- not be used with success in larger proportions than one-third of the grain ration. A larger proportion is likely to produce an undesirable quality of bacon. The foods very largely used are shorts, oats, peas, barley, and skim-milk. Barley is perhaps the food most used, especially in Canada, where bacon production finds much favor. It is often fed ground or soaked. Usually it is fed in connection with small amounts of other food, as peas, oil meal, finely ground oats, tankage, and the like. Peas are used to a considerable extent in the production of bacon in Canada. “Canada pea-fed bacon” has good market repu- tation. Among some large bacon feeders, however, peas are not held in high estimation, the statement being made that they give dry, rather hard, and flavorless bacon. Oats are often objected to because of their hulls, which contain little nutrition and much crude fiber; yet when the price is low, they are extensively used. Crushing the oats is considered the best method of preparation. 484 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Skim-milk is held in high esteem by the bacon feeder ; therefore localities devoted to dairying other than market milk are admirably adapted for the production of bacon. It may be fed in the same proportion as to the fat-hog, — that is, three to five parts milk to one of meal. Summer feeding on pasture. — Clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, or rape are excellent pastures for bacon production. Less protein- rich grain or less skim-milk is required when the swine have access to such ranges. No cheaper or more economical gains can be obtained than from a light grain ration when the animals have these pastures. Winter feeding in dry-lot.— Bacon production during the winter season is approximately 25 per cent more costly than feeding on pasture. For best results, some succulent food should be supplied. This may be furnished by growing roots, such as sugar-beets, mangels, turnips, and the like, and storing them for winter use. When the animals are confined to a dry- lot, more protein-rich food is required, which calls for larger amounts of oil meal, shorts, tankage, or skim-milk, most of which must be purchased. This balancing is very essential in the production of bacon, as quality is what commands the extra price. The lean and fat must be well interspersed, and this can be secured only by properly balancing the ration. ; SAMPLE RATIONS FOR SWINE To give sample rations for horses, cattle, and sheep is a com- paratively simple matter, but such is not the case with swine. The composition and amount of the ration are influenced by the age and weight of the animal. For 100 pounds live weight, the younger the animal the more food required, and in addition it should contain more protein than for the older animal. To illustrate the ration for fattening swine of increasing size the . following data is made up from Bulletin 106 of the Iowa Ex- . periment Station : — # THE FEEDING OF SWINE 485 Amount of Food consumed per Hog Kinp or GRaIn AVERAGE Daity Frep per Hoa, Pounps. Periops or Four Wreexs Eacu Wuo.e TIME 1 2 3 4 5 Hogs weighing 40 Pounds at Start and 140 at Close Dry ear corn! Soaked shelled corn Dry corn meal Soaked corn meal Dry. ear corn ! Soaked: shelled corn Dry corn meal Soaked corn meal 3.0 3.4 3.8 4.5 3.7 3.1 3.9 4.1 4.8 4.0 3.0 3.6 3.9 4.6 3.8 3.2 4.2 4.5 5.2 4.3 Dry ear corn! . Soaked shelled corn Dry corn meal Soaked corn meal Hogs weighing 200 Pounds at Start and 365 at Close Dry ear corn! . Soaked shelled corn Dry corn meal Soaked corn meal 7.5 9.3 7.7 7.6 9.7 8.6 7.3 9.9 9.9 8.1 9.6 9.9 To give an idea of the ration for fattening swine when a supplement is used in connection with corn, the following data 1 The weight of the cob has been deducted from the figures for shelled corn, 486 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS are taken from Bulletin 65 of the Missouri Experiment Sta- tion : — Feed and Gains in Weight, 90 days Datty Datty Ramo Wan: | Wares | Pen | Paw Heap Heap Corn meal 5 parts, linseed-oil meal 1 part ... 116 260 5.6 1.5 Corn meal 10 parts, iinssed-oil weal 1 part! . . 131 209 7.6 1.5 Corn meal 10 nae, Miasesd-oil Heal 1 part .. 118 209 5.3 1.5 Corn meal 2 nants, wea middlines 1 part .... 114 226 5.3 1.2 Corn meal 4 parts, whent middlings 1 part . a3 117 213 5.0 11 Corn meal 2 parts, eround oats 1 part 120 173 3.7 0.6 Corn meal 4 parts, ground oats1 part | 111 166 3.8 0.6 Corn meal 4 parts, wheat bran 1 part | 111 188 4.4 0.9 Corn and cobmeal . . . . . .| 112 135 3.0 0.3 Corn meal . . oe ie ee | LTS 183 4.2 0.8 Soaked shelled corn. . . . . .} 115 172 3.6 0.6 Shelled corn, bone meal? . . . .| 114 153 3.0 0.5 Shelled corn . ...... «| 115 152 3.0 0.4 1 Sixty days. 26.2 pounds bone meal per head in ninety days. CHAPTER XXIII THE BREEDING OF SWINE As previously stated, pork production differs from beef pro- duction in the fact that swine are bred and fed on the same farm, whereas feeding cattle are frequently bred on the cheap lands and shipped to the corn-belt to be fed. Since swine are reared and finished in one place, if success is to be attained, the feeder must be a breeder as well. Many good swine feeders often fail to exercise proper judgment in breeding. Breeding swine is as much a business as feeding swine, and should be conducted with that understanding. When the price of hogs is high, the tendency is to rush into swine raising, forgetting the advantages of good quality, with the result that in a few months the hog market is glutted with animals of inferior quality which, of course, command only a low price. This is discouraging, and the enthusiast of a few months quits the hog business. With proper management, no line of farming will prove more profitable than pork production, especially if continued over a long series of years. PLAN OF BREEDING Before beginning to breed swine, one should decide on a plan. Before formulating the plan one will have to decide upon the kind of hog he is going to breed. Some will wish to breed market hogs only, others breeding hogs only, while still others may wish to produce both market and breeding hogs. When market hogs only are to be produced, grades may prove as profitable as 487 488 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS pure-bred animals, especially if much care is taken in the pro- duction of the grades and a pure-bred boar is used. On the other hand, if breeding hogs are to be produced, pure-bred ani- mals only can be grown with profit. This calls for much knowl- edge of the principles of breeding, such as selection, mating, and the like. Another question that will also modify the plan is the amount of capital available for the establishment of the business. When the capital is small and the experience want- ing, the grade herd is to be preferred. The beginner may well Fic. 168. — Cuamrion HampsHtreE Swine. Bred and owned by John Good- win, Potomac, Iowa. The Hampshire breed of swine was developed in the United States. Like the Poland China, this breed is noted for its early maturing and economic fattening qualities. As breeders the sows rank high. In size the breed is classed with the middle weights. The color is black, with u white belt about the body. The breed is increasing in popularity, and animals of the breed are in much demand by the packers. start with not more than two or three sows, in pig when pur- chased, as he can acquire much valuable experience with even so small a number, while his risk will not be great. The second year he may add to the number of sows, secure a suitable and pure- bred boar, and each succeeding year carefully increase the number of sows bred. In this way, one should soon find himself in possession of a large herd, and of sufficient knowl- edge to put it to profitable use. THE BREEDING OF SWINE 489 Coéperative breeding. — Pure-bred boars are likely to be costly, and to get the most out of them should be kept in con- stant use. Since the average farmer does not possess sows enough to get the maximum use of the boar, it is often a good plan for a number of farmers to codperate in the purchase of a boar. Such codperation not only reduces the cost of service, but aids in increasing the uniformity of the animals in a locality. Furthermore, when a number of farmers codperate in the pur- chase of a hog, a much better animal can be secured than if each purchases in his own account. SELECTING BREEDING STOCK Many practical questions enter into the selection of swine for breeding purposes. As a general rule, the animals chosen should be rather large for the breed to which they belong. In the past few years there has been a tendency to reduce the size of mar- ket hogs, and this has extended to the brood sows, with the re- sult that many of the sows now used for breeding are decidedly too small for the farrowing and raising of two large and strong litters of pigs each year. Probably the greatest fault of im- proved swine breeding is the striving for too great refinement. If large litters of strong pigs are to result, the sows must possess much size and length and a good constitution, as shown in suffi- cient width and depth of the chest region. The type. — A consideration of prime importance in the selec- -tion of a breed or type is the likes and the dislikes of the breeder. One is much more likely to succeed with the animals he likes and to fail with other animals of equal merit that he dislikes. Other than this there is little to choose, as each breed has its weak and strong points. In some sections, however, certain breeds will remain the most popular because of their adaptability to the climate. Thus in certain parts of the United States, especially the West and South, white hogs are not looked on with favor because they are more liable to be sun-scalded, to have scurvy 490 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and often mangy skins. Again, in the corn-belt, bacon types doubtless will never be most popular because the available food is not such as to produce bacon. Uniformity. — In selecting animals for the breeding herd it is very important that they be similar in age, size, color, condi- tion, and quality. The importance of this similarity among market swine cannot be overestimated. To get animals that will remain uniform, it isessential to know something of the herd from which they come. A herd noted for its uniformity is likely to produce animals that are uniform. In addition to the uniformity, the herd should be prolific. The sows should farrow and raise two litters of six or more pigs each year. Prolificacy is hereditary. A prolific herd is likely to produce prolific animals. THE BOAR The boar is sire of the pigs from many dams, and his general influence, therefore, is much greater than that of any sow can possibly be. Therefore, for general improvement the boar should be largely relied on, as he can effect change either for good or bad much more rapidly than the sows. The boar should be the best that the number and quality of the sows or the circum- stances of the breeder will permit. The ordinary breeder can- not afford an extremely high-priced boar and is compelled to do the best he can with the money at his command. This may be a blessing in disguise, for it should be the work of the ordinary breeder to grow market hogs, and when the boar is used to sire market hogs, there is a limit beyond which one cannot go and realize a profit from swine breeding. Only the man who is breeding show animals can afford to pay a large sum for a boar and make a profit on his investment. In any event, however, the animal that is chosen should be a pure-bred, for if not pure-bred he cannot be depended on to stamp his own qualities on his offspring. If the boar should be put to service . THE BREEDING OF SWINE 491 too immature, he cannot be expected to get vigorous pigs. He should not be used before eight months of age, and it will be more profitable in the long run to defer using him until one year of age. When once a satisfactory boar is found, he should be kept in service as long as he gives satisfaction. When of no use as a boar, he should be castrated, and fattened for the market. THE SOWS As suggested for the boar, when at all possible the sows that are to form the foundation herd should be chosen on the farm where raised. This personal inspection may call for an extra outlay in expense, but it will be well worth while, as it enables one to know the herd from which they sprang and in this way gain an idea as to the kind of offspring that may be expected. Furthermore, if the sows are purchased from a successful breeder, the beginner can get much information as to the care and management of swine. The age at which to purchase foundation animals is a much- discussed question, many preferring to buy as soon as the pigs are weaned, since usually they can be purchased more cheaply, others preferring to wait until the animals are bred and to purchase sows in pig. Purchasing sows already in pig will save to the beginner a considerable outlay at the start, and, all things considered, it is perhaps the most desirable time to acquire them. A good brood sow is a roomy animal, with rather long deep body and well-developed pelvic region. The back should be strong and well supported, as a weak or sagging back is very objectionable in breeding or market swine. There should be evidence of thrift and constitutional vigor, as these indicate prepotency. A good brood sow will have many of the char- acteristics of a good milk cow. She should be motherly, with a gentle quiet disposition; she should be a good milker, thus ’ 492 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS providing much nutrition for her offspring; and she should be prolific in farrowing healthy, quick-growing pigs. She should have six or more functional teats on either side. When inspect- ing the teats, one should see that there are no blind teats either in the front or in the rear. Productive period. — On the average farm, sow pigs are bred too young. Well-kept sows will often breed as young as three months of age. They should not, however, under any con- sideration, be bred under six months, eight months being as young as it is proper to breed them. Sows bred too young will remain not only underdeveloped, but small litters of weak pigs will result. There is a rather widespread and growing practice of breeding, sows at six to eight: months of age, rais- ing one litter of pigs and then fattening the sows for market. This is not good practice, for once a good brood sow is found she should be kept as long as she continues to breed true and do well. Some sows will remain productive until five or six years of age, while others will become clumsy or vicious before that time. Season to breed. — Throughout the United States the main crop of pigs should come in the warm days of March to May, and the second crop in September to November. Since the period of gestation in sows is approximately 112 days, this means that they should be mated in December, January, and February for the first crop and in June, July, and August for the second crop. As a general rule in the northern states, a sow should not be bred so as to farrow her pigs in the spring before March, nor later in the fall than October. Both early spring litters and those of early fall will pay the best on the average, as the care of the pigs in the mild season is not so difficult, and such pigs are likely to make larger and more economic gain than litters farrowed in the hot days of summer or the cold days of winter. Method of mating. —As a rule sows come around every three |. * THE BREEDING OF SWINE 493 weeks ; hence if the sow has been mated and for some reason has failed to conceive, she should make the fact known in 20 to 21 days after coupling. A careful record should be kept of the date of mating so that the probable time of farrowing may be known. Often one wishes to mate a large heavy boar to a small sow or a small short-legged boar to a large sow, and to facilitate this Fic. 169.—CueEsHIRE Pic or Goop Typz ownep aT New York STaTE CoLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIvERsITY, IrHaca, N. Y. The Cheshire breed of swine originated in New York. The breed is noted for occupying a position between the true lard and the true bacon types. It is rather slow maturing, but the quality of flesh is unexcelled. The breeding qualities are excellent. In size the breed is classed as small. The color is white, the ears erect,and the face slightly dished. the construction of a breeding-crate will be found extremely useful, if not a necessity to insure a successful service. This crate is simple, resembling a strong shipping-crate with one end out. A very convenient size is 6 feet in length, 2 feet 4 inches inside width, and 3 feet high. The frame should be constructed of 2” X 4” scantling, closed in front and open 494 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS behind. Through the scantling, on either side of the crate, should be bored 1%” holes, so that an inch iron bar may be slipped behind the sow above the hocks to prevent her from backing out of the crate. On the inside, on either side of the crate, 2” X 4’’ strips should be fastened, placing the front end about where the sow’s head comes, and then extending to the rear and bottom. These strips are for the boar’s front feet to rest upon, thus holding his weight from the sow. When mat- ing a small boar to a large sow, a small platform may be con- structed and placed in the crate for the boar’s hind feet to rest upon; or the sow may be placed in a pit. The pregnant sow. — The pregnant sow may be permitted to run with the herd to within two weeks of farrowing time, when she should be separated and given special attention. In the case of ill-natured sows, they should receive extra care during the entire period in order to familiarize them with the herdsman. Brood sows should be trained much as dairy cows. During the last two weeks of pregnancy, the sow will need less exercise than formerly, but should have the best possible attention as to feeding. She should be well nourished up to a few days before farrowing, when the feed may be slightly reduced. Sows that are well fed before and after farrowing are less likely to injure the pigs, as they will usuallylie quiet. This does not mean to overfeed, as this will bring troubles at pigging time; but it does mean that the sow should not be compelled to go far afield to find her food. If at all possible, succulence of some kind should be provided; in summer nothing is better than clover or alfalfa pasture, and in winter roots may be fed with good results. If the sow is due to farrow in winter, the quarters should be warm, comfortable, well ventilated, protected from dampness, and so arranged that they may have plenty of sunlight. The floor may be of earth, but should be dry and hard and free from dust. 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Sometimes pigs are lost when the nests are too deep. If convenient, the nest should be so situated that the sun can warm it during a portion of the day. Straw, chaff, leaves, or hay make good nests. When at pasture the sow will build her own nest, in which case she gathers grass and leaves and provides a very shallow place. When the sow is to farrow in the hog-cot or pen, the little pigs may be kept from danger of being crushed by the mother by a fender made of a pole or scantling securely fastened, say eight inches from the floor and the same distance from the wall. The young pigs soon learn the protection furnished by this device when the mother lies down. Farrowing time. — For several hours before farrowing, the sow will be very restless and spend much of her time in collect- ing material and making it into a nest. At this time the feed should be reduced. The signs that indicate the near approach of parturition are a distended udder, an enlarged vulva, and a relaxation of the muscles on either side of the tail. During the summer season the pigs will of their own accord usually find their way to the teats and begin nursing; but in the winter season the young pigs often need assistance in finding the teats, other- wise they may become chilled and perish. If for any reason the pigs become chilled, they should be treated similarly to that sug- gested for chilled lambs (see page 414). Occasionally a sow will be found that is very nervous and unquiet at farrowing time, and it will be necessary to keep the pigs from the teats to prevent the youngsters from being crushed. When such is the case the pigs should be kept warm, as suggested for lambs. When permitted to nurse, care should be taken to see that the Fic. 170.— Prize CHESHIRE Boar. THE BREEDING OF SWINE 497 young ones do not overfeed and that each pig receives its share. Extra attention should be given the pigs at the time they make their choice of teats, to see that the weaker pigs get their share, as they usually continue to use the teats first chosen. The stronger pigs, however, are very likely to take a few pulls at the teats of their less robust mates. To reduce this difficulty, each sow and litter should be placed in a lot by themselves. Brood sows, like all other farm animals, often need assistance at farrowing time. Difficult parturition among sows should be handled much as suggested for difficult parturition among sheep (see page 412). Feeding a heavy corn ration to the pregnant sow is likely to increase the troubles at farrowing time. A better plan is to use food containing more protein and mineral matter, as such foods strengthen the sow, while corn has a tendency to produce fat and thus to weaken her. The brood sow eating her pigs. — The causes that induce a sow to eat her own young are perhaps numerous, though not well understood. This abnormal appetite may be due to the failure to remove the afterbirth promptly. If left in the farrowing pen, the sow scents it and is likely to devour it; and since the scent of the young pigs is similar, they too may be eaten. If the sow has not been properly fed during pregnancy, if the ration lacks flesh-producing and bone-making material, she may have an appetite for blood. Sows that have access to clover or alfalfa pasture in summer, or those that are provided with roots in winter, seldom eat their pigs, especially if a box of charcoal and salt is kept before them at all times. When the sow possesses the abnormal appetite, it has been recommended to feed her pork, preferably salt pork. The salt pork causes her to drink water, which allays the fever. The assertion is made that when the appetite is satisfied she will leave the pigs alone. ; The sow after farrowing. — The sow is in a feverish condition after farrowing and should be provided with an abundance of 2k 498 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS lukewarm water. Never give her ice-cold water. In a few hours she will show signs of wanting to eat, when she should be given a little thin mash or gruel made from shorts, bran, or oat- meal. This should be given warm, in cold weather. For the first week the feed should be light, consisting mainly of mashes, but no corn should be given at this time. Milk-producing foods, such as skim-milk, shorts, bran, oat meal, and a little clover or alfalfa hay, should be given, while fattening foods, such as corn, are to be avoided. Occasionally the sow’s udder is injured on account of an unusual development of the pig’s teeth. This condition causes the sow to withhold her milk, produces a bad temper, and often excites her to injure the pigs. When such is the case, take the pigs under the arm and hold the mouth open with one hand while the sharp teeth are broken off with small pincers. To do this remove the pigs out of hearing distance from the sow, as she is likely to object and create a disturbance. THE PIGS The pig that is safely born and within a few minutes gets a firm hold of a teat full of milk, has made a good start in life. Not all pigs are so fortunate, and many perish for want of care at farrowing time. When at all convenient, one should be near by to give assistance if need should arise. Often pigs must be assisted to find the teat, especially in cold weather. Sometimes the sow is nervous, and the pigs should be removed as farrowed, otherwise she may crush them; and sometimes it is necessary to help dry the pigs to keep them from chilling. The first meal. — It is important that the young pig get his stomach full of the first milk of the sow. This should be accom- plished within a few minutes after farrowing, otherwise the pig’s strength will rapidly decrease. If for any reason the sow has no milk for the pigs and it is desired to raise them by hand, they should be given a very small quantity of cow’s milk warmed to THE BREEDING OF SWINE 499 body temperature. This may be given from a bottle and nipple. Great care should be taken not to feed the little fellows too much at a time, but they should be fed often, every two hours for a while, then every three hours, then every four hours, and later they should be fed four times daily. This involves much work, but is essential if the pigs are to be raised, as hand-fed pigs often die from overfeeding following a long period during which they received no food whatever. Pig ills. — The young pig is very subject to digestive dis- orders, the result of overfeeding, underfeeding, or otherwise Fic. 171.— Group or ENGLIsH SMALL YORKSHIRE OR SMALL WHITES. The Small Yorkshire, or Small White, was developed in England. This breed is noted for its fattening qualities, not particularly early maturing. The breed- ing qualities are only fair, the sows medium in fecundity. In size the breed is classed as small. The color is white, ears erect, and face greatly dished. improperly feeding its dam. The brood sow should be fed in such a way as to encourage a good flow of only medium rich milk. If her food is too rich, consisting of skim-milk, linseed-oil meal, corn, and the like, the pigs are likely to be attacked with thumps, diarrhea, or constipation. On the other hand, if the sow is underfed, the pigs are likely to suffer. A better plan is to feed the brood sow regularly on a ration consisting of moderately rich food, such asmashes made from ground oats, shorts, and bran, 500 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS When the pigs are troubled with thumps or scours, cut down on the ration of the sow; and if the pigs are valuable, it may be well to milk the sow at least in part by hand, remembering that the last milk drawn is the richer in fat. Feeding the pigs. — At about three weeks of age, the pigs are likely to begin to nibble at their mother’s food, to bite at the grass, and perhaps try to root. This indicates that they are acquiring an appetite, and they should be encouraged to take food other than that supplied by the mother. Place a small trough in one corner of the lot or pen, and arrange a fence across the corner so the old sows cannot have access to it, but the young pigs can. Into this trough a little sweet milk may be poured three times daily. Do not provide more than the pigs will drink at once, and never leave the milk to sour in the trough, as digestive disorders and death are sure to follow. In.a few days replace the milk with a small amount of bran and shorts, scalded and made into a gruel. Later corn soaked for 24 hours may be placed in the trough. For best results the young pigs should be fedavariety. Whatever food-stuffsare used, care must be taken not to feed more than they will clean up. Pigs fed in this way will make a much more rapid growth than if the extra trough had not been provided. Weaning the pigs. — With pigs fed as suggested above, the weaning process is easy and simple. As the pigs learn to rely more on the extra food, the mother’s milk-producing food should be cut down so that she will not be in the height of her flow when the pigs are taken away. The age to wean pigs varies: with the youngsters that have made a rapid growth they should be weaned at about eight weeks of age; or in case the pigs and mother are not doing well, it may be wise to wean at a much younger age even though the pigs are small. As a general rule, it is safer to say the best age for weaning is between seven and ten weeks. Some advise turning out the most thrifty pigs first, leaving the weaker ones to nurse a few days longer, the states THE BREEDING OF SWINE 501 ment being made that in this way there is no danger of the sow’s udder spoiling, as the weaker ones will take the milk. This practice is of doubtful merit ; it is perhaps best to take the sows entirely away from the pigs, thus leaving the youngsters in their own pen. If the sows have previously had their food reduced as suggested and the pigs are fed extra, this will surely give best results. Castrating the pigs. — The boar pigs not desired for breed- ing purposes should be castrated. This should be done rather early in order that the pigs may recover from the resulting sore- ness before weaning, say from three to six weeks of age. At this age, the operation is very simple. Have an assist- ant hold the pig by the hind legs, placing the pig’s back against the assistant’s breast, and holding the hind legs apart in such a way as to expose the scrotum. Simply slit the end of the scro- tum and remove the testicles by pulling them out; smear a mix- ture of fresh lard and turpentine half and half on the scrotum, and let the pig go. With ridglings and hernia there is more dan- ger and more care should be used. A ridgling is an animal in which one or both testicles have not descended into the scrotum. Marking pigs. — When one is breeding pure-bred animals, some system of identification is: necessary, as even an expert cannot identify pigs when they are reared in large droves. The method suggested in Fig. 172 is very good. Pigs after weaning. — Many pigs are stunted for want of proper care the first month after weaning. If in summer, they are frequently turned out to hot dry pasture to forage for them- selves; or if in winter, they are placed in close, dark, cold and muddy quarters, and they are likely to fail to develop. An- imals thus treated, of course do not make satisfactory gain. For best results, if in summer, the pigs just weaned should be provided with shade, a clean mud wallow, and receive grain in addition to the pasture; if in winter, dry, well lighted, well ventilated, and protected quarters should be provided, and if at 502 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS all possible the animals should receive succulent food in the shape of roots in addition to the grain, which grain should not consist entirely of corn. The breeding hogs and the fat hogs may run together until _three months of age, when the breeding ani- mals should be taken out. At this age the sows will begin to show up, so ‘that those likely to make the best an- imals may be chosen for breeding. If later on some of the sows not chosen should show good form, they too may be taken out of the fat herd. Those animals Fic. 172.—Mersop or marxine Pros ror chosen for breeding Future IDENTIFICATION, OR UNTIL PERMA- should be fed a nitrog- NENT TaGS CAN BE INSERTED INTO THE Ear. enous ration. In addi- tion, they should be permitted to take abundance of exercise. If they are confined too closely and fed a fattening ration, their breeding powers are likely to be weakened. CHAPTER XXIV CARE AND MANAGEMENT AsrprE from the various practical points on care and manage- ment discussed in the chapters on feeding and breeding, special attention is now given to sanitation and equipment. Many of the common diseases that often prove so very fatal to swine are due entirely or in a large measure to carelessness or indifference in management. It is well known to swine breeders that few hogs are free from lice. These vermin are blood suckers, and in a very short time they produce a weakened condition of the animal, thereby rendering it far more susceptible to other dis- eases; even cholera is more virulent and more deadly when the herd is infested with lice. DIPPING SWINE To free the hogs from lice or other vermin, all newly ac- quired hogs should be dipped immediately upon arriving at the farm in much the same way as suggested for sheep (see page 423). The hogs should not be permitted to infect the quarters or lots before dipping. The same dipping-vat as that suggested for sheep may be used, as well as the same coal-tar preparation, although the solutions may be used somewhat weaker for swine. All stock hogs should be dipped at least twice each year, or whenever they become infested with lice (Fig. 173). Good results are reported from the use of a self-dipping device. This device consists of a shallow vat about ten inches deep and eight to ten feet square. It is built of two-inch plank and placed 603 504 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS near by or convenient to the well or large water-tank. The vat is filled about three-fourths full of water and one quart of dip added. The dip is renewed about once in two weeks and the water supplied as needed. During the muddy season the tank should be cleaned and a fresh start made. The liquid may be removed in a few minutes with a scoop shovel. The: hogs Fie. 173.— Hoc-pippinc Equipment. Dipping-vat set in ground. wallow in this at will, and they do not seem to mind the dip; when the water is fresh they often drink small quantities of the liquid. This keeps the hogs free from lice and skin diseases and helps to keep down worms, cholera, and other swine plagues. SHELTER FOR SWINE Some one has fittingly said, ‘The hog does not need a palace or an upholstered cage, nor does he prosper in a dungeon.” Occasionally much money is uselessly expended in the construc- tion of a large and expensive building which is in use only a part of the year; more often, however, swine are housed in a hole in the straw stack or in a shed constructed from fence rails or poles and covered with straw or fodder. Such places are dun- CARE AND MANAGEMENT 505 geons. There is no ventilation, they are dark and damp in wet weather, and soon become filthy dens of infection. As with the barn for other farm animals, the hog barn should be well ventilated, well lighted, well drained, and dry, serviceable, and sanitary. Any structure that answers these conditions will prove fairly satisfactory. Convenience and adaptability should be considered in constructing the hog-house. In general, hog-houses are of two types: large houses, or those accommo- dating a considerable number of hogs; and small individual houses or cots. The large hog-house. — There are almost as many types of large hog-houses as there are swine breeders or feeders who have built them, each having its advantages and disadvantages. When properly constructed, the large hog-house is serviceable, sanitary, and convenient; but, if properly constructed, they are expensive, especially since they are only used a part of the year. It is difficult to locate them accessibly to the pastures, particularly in case sown pastures are used, as they are likely to be on various parts of the farm. Furthermore, when many sows are housed in close proximity to each other, if one is disturbed or molested in any way, all the others are likely to become fretful; and when feeding is begun in one part of the house the other animals become uneasy and often injure their litters. The individual hog-house. — Of late years the small individual hog-house has become very common. These small houses are constructed on runners so they can be moved from one field or lot to another. They are well adapted to accommodate a sow and her litter, and a few of these ‘‘cots,” as they are often called, set side by side afford excellent shelter for a drove of hogs. The Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station has issued a bulletin devoted chiefly to the construction of these small houses, and from which we quote: ‘The portable hog-house is easily and economically constructed; it can be easily moved and located wherever desired ; it is useful to the general farmer 506 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and to the breeder of pure-bred stock; and of all systems of housing swine it is the most natural and sanitary. Only the simplest workmanship is necessary to build the portable house, and much old lumber can be worked into it. “The portable house is peculiarly advantageous, since it can be readily moved. The renter who finds it impossible to pro- vide expensive quarters for his hogs can well afford to construct portable houses, which can be retained as personal property. It is useful on any sized farm as the number can be regulated to the size of the herd. With separate paddocks to accommodate swine of different ages and sexes the portable house is practically a necessity. Swine will never pile up in a damp, poorly venti- lated quarter and come out steaming in the cold morning air, unless compelled to do so. Where a large number of animals are continually housed in one hog-house, the surroundings are sure to become more or less filthy and unsanitary. If feeding is done on the inside, it keeps a portion of the floor wet, and gives the entire building an offensive disagreeable appearance. On the other hand, by using the portable house, moving it occa- sionally to a fresh piece of ground, and feeding the hogs at dif- ferent places, one avoids those unsanitary conditions. These portable houses can be built to accommodate from four to six mature animals or ten to twenty shotes. This method of housing keeps them much cleaner and more thrifty than when allowed to congregate in large numbers, and individuals of a herd showing evidence of a contagious disease can be readily isolated.” The A-shaped individual hog-house. — These portable houses are usually constructed of two types, the A-shaped and the shed- roof-shaped. A convenient size for the A-shaped house is eight feet square and seven feet high. It may be constructed with or without a wood floor, as desired. If one has paved or very dry lots where the cots are to remain in winter, perhaps they will give better satisfaction without the wood floor. On the other hand, CARE AND MANAGEMENT 507 if the lots where they are kept for winter use are muddy, a wood floor should be provided. A ventilator should be provided, which may be made by ; sawing off the ends of two roof boards and cov- ering the hole thus formed with a V-shaped hood (Fig. 174). In order to provide light a window- glass ought to be placedin the front above the door and a second in the rear. A door two feet wide and two feet and six inches © high should be provided Fic. 174.— A-Suarep Inprvipvau Hog-novussz. at one end. The door itself may be suspended by a rope and arranged to slide up and down as it will need to be used only in very cold weather. For summer use a gunny sack may be hung over the door, as this will serve to brush the flies off as the hog enters and to keep the cot cool. To facilitate moving from lot to lot, the structures should be placed on runners. If brood sows are due to farrow in very cold weather, these cots can be made very comfortable by standing fodder or placing straw about them. The shed-shaped individual hog-house. —In Fig. 175 isshown the front elevation of a shed-roof hog-house eight feet wide, twelve | feet long, and seven feet high in front and three behind, which is sometimes preferred to the A-shaped house.. It is provided with doors in the rear, the same size as the lower front doors, — and placed diagonally opposite, so that by opening all the doors it makes a cool house in summer. On the other hand, by closing the lower doors and opening the upper doors, for ventilation, it makes a warm house for cold winter weather. The upper front doors are arranged with wooden ratchets on the back side, 508 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS which holds them in any desired position. By having the hinges on the top, the storm and hot sun cannot enter and yet by ad- justing the opening, air may circulate freely without causing a draft on the animals. These top doors are very important. It is a serious mistake to build these houses with but one opening, as is sometimes done. There is no ventilation whatever, and the house in warm weather becomes a suffocating quarter. Fic. 175.— SHED-SHAPED Inprvipuat Hog-HousE, WITH SHADE ATTACHED. The illustration of the shed-roof portable hog-house shows a shade at the rear under which the pigs can lie in comfort. This shade is five feet wide, made of inch boards placed upon remov- able supports which rest on cleats nailed to the ends of the house (Fig. 175). Disadvantages and advantages. — The individual hog-house has the disadvantage of requiring more labor to feed and care for the herd. With each sow and litter in a pen or cot by them- selves it takes considerable time to make the rounds, and this must often be done in the storm. Furthermore, vicious sows are more difficult to attend, and the feeder is often obliged to enter CARE AND MANAGEMENT 509 the cot to arrange the bedding and clean the quarters. These small houses, however, are very inexpensive and very efficient, and all things considered, answer the general farmer’s conditions much better than the large and expensive hog-house. THE HOG LOT The lot in which hogs are quartered should be such as can be kept clean. A filthy and carelessly kept lot encourages disease by providing lodgment for the germs; and constant cleanliness is the most effective means of preventing germ dissemination. Where disease germs have once been established, an absolutely thorough disinfection is essential toeradicate them. To facilitate cleanliness and disinfection, at least a part of the lot should be paved with brick, stone, or concrete. On this pavement the cots may be placed during the winter season and on it the feeding may be done. Hog-wallows. — Some very successful breeders heartily favor hog-wallows, while others equally as successful are much opposed to their use. Those who are outspoken in opposi- tion to the wallow have perhaps been influenced from infections due to a filthy wallow, or from infections at the time of an outbreak of cholera. There can be no doubt that filthy wallows areoften a sourceof danger, nor can there be any doubt that once a cholera hog wallows in the water, however clean, all other hogs wallowing in or drinking this contaminated water are likely to contract the dreaded disease. On the other hand, with the healthy herd there can be no ob- jections to a clean mud wallow, and there are many advantages to be derived from it. During the heat of summer the hog cools mainly by radiation, and a cool mud bath is very soothing ; it cleans the scurf from the skin and enables the hog to find protection from the flies. This wallow or mud bath should be so arranged that fresh water may be added as needed, and to insure absolute freedom from all germ life a quart of coal-tar dip may be poured in the wallow occasionally (see also page 504). CHAPTER XXV DISEASES OF SWINE WHILE swine are not ordinarily considered as being subject to so great a variety of diseases as horses, cattle, or sheep, they are very often attacked by ailments far more serious than afflict any other class of our farm animals. Chief of these diseases are cholera, swine plague, and tuberculosis. Throughout the corn- belt of the United States, the loss caused by these diseases among swine is not equaled by any other class of diseases to which farm animals are subject. These very deadly diseases are all contagious or infectious and therefore, with proper sanitary methods, can be prevented, although when the animal once becomes afflicted, there is no cure. It is the ravages caused by these diseases that makes pork production such a hazardous business. Sometimes the swine breeder or feeder will have a drove of swine ready for the market when they will contract one of these diseases and the entire herd be taken in a few weeks. Quarantine lot. — On every farm where hogs are kept in con- siderable numbers, a small quarantine lot should be provided. This lot should be located at some distance from the other lots,it should be tightly fenced and at least a part of it should be paved. When a new animal arrives, it may be dipped as suggested (page 503) and then placed in this quarantine pen for at least three weeks. Cholera or any other diseases will be apparent before this. If all is well, it may then be turned with the herd. Such a pen could be used by any of the animals of the herd that may become sick, as all ailing hogs should at once be 510 DISEASES OF SWINE 611 separated until the nature of the disease is determined. Such a lot set apart for this purpose may prevent outbreaks of very serious diseases. HOG CHOLERA Hog cholera is an infectious disease of swine. It exists in all sections of the United States, but is particularly prevalent in the corn-belt. In that section it is the most dreaded disease to which swine are subject. Not so many animals are condemned at the large packing houses because of this disease, as of tuberculosis, but this is due to the nature of the dis- ease. With cholera the hogs die or recover quickly, while with tuberculosis they may linger for months. Cholera varies in its virulence; sometimes comparatively few hogs that have it will die, while at other times nearly every animal in the entire herd will succumb to the disease. When the disease once appears, it spreads very rapidly, not only among the animals of a herd, but across the country from one farm to another. Manner of spreading the disease. — Cholera is a germ disease and may be spread in many ways. These germs are very hardy and vigorous. They are able to live for a long time in the water of ponds and streams; they may live in the soil for at least three months and in accumulations of straw and litter for a much longer time. The hog, taking in these germs either by in- haling with the breath or by ingestion with the food, is likely to contract the disease. Only the very smallest particle is necessary to convey the germ. Thus, an attendant passing from a lot of infected hogs to a lot of healthy ones may carry the infection on his shoes; dogs, chickens, pigeons, and even birds are known to have carried the germs. The wind blowing particles of dust from place to place will also carry with it sufficient of these germs to produce the disease. A cholera hog having access to a stream may contaminate the water sufficiently to infect animals miles below. 512 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Prevention of the disease. — Up to the present time, there has not been discovered any means by which hog cholera can be cured, the only safeguard being prevention. All that is necessary to prevent the disease is to keep the germs of the disease away from the herd. In the vast majority of cases the germ is transported mechanically, in the bodies of sick hogs and on the feet of men or animals, including birds. It follows, therefore, that the chances of an outbreak of hog cholera will be greatly lessened, if not completely avoided, if the herd is pro- tected from these sources of infection. To do this the herd should be placed on a part of the farm that will be least accessible to men or animals from other farms. The hogs should be con- fined to a dry lot free from running water or wallows, unless one is constructed as suggested on page 509, and the disinfectant added every two weeks. Careful attention should be given the feed and water. The hogs should be provided with shade and clean dry sleeping places. If at any time any of the animals show signs of sickness, they should be separated from the healthy ones. Air-slaked lime should bescattered about the lot, and the feed troughs thoroughly disinfected or replaced by new ones. For a condition powder prepare the following : — Wood charcoal Sulfur ic ee 8 Sodium chloride . Sodium bicarbonate Sodium hyposulfate . Sodium sulfate Antimony sulfite . ReNNNReE SSSESSS Completely pulverize and thoroughly mix. This powder is mixed with the feed in the proportion of a large tablespoonful to each 200 pounds weight of hogs, and given onceaday. When hogs are suspected to be affected with cholera, they should not be fed on corn alone, but have, at least once a day, soft feed made by mixing bran and middlings, or middlings and corn meal, or DISEASES OF SWINE 513 ground oats and corn, or crushed wheat, and then stirring into this the proper quantity of the medicine. After an outbreak of cholera the yardsand pens should be thor- oughly cleaned, all dead hogs should be burned, the litter should be collected and burned, and quicklime scattered freely over the ground. The houses should be washed thoroughly with a coal- tar preparation before new stock is brought in. The troughs should be burned, or if this is not practicable, they should be thoroughly soaked in coal-tar preparation and then washed out. The lots and houses should not be used again for some time. Prevention of cholera by immunization. — The Bureau of Ani- mal Industry, Department of Agriculture, has developed a serum which by means of vaccination will render hogs immune to chol- era. While its preparation and use are attended with difficul- ties, the method is briefly given here because of the feeling that if it is to prove practicable, it, must be so simplified as to be used by any careful workman. Furthermore, a drove of cholera hogs affords a very good opportunity to practice, as their value is not likely to be great, especially if the attack is virulent. In order to make the method clear it will be divided into two main parts: the preparation of the serum, and the use of the serum. Preparation of the serum. — To prepare the serum one must first procure an immune hog with a long heavy tail, since it is at this point that the serum is drawn, and it may be necessary to clip the end two or three times in drawing the serum. This may be a hog that has recovered from an attack of cholera, as such animals are immune to further attacks, or it may be one rendered immune by the method herein described. This hog we will call the supply animal. This animal must now be hyper-immunized. This consists of inoculating him, in the mus- cles of the thigh, with about 10 ¢.c. (cubic centimeters) of virulent hog cholera blood, from which the clot has been re- moved by stirring or whipping with a clean stick, to the pound 2L 514 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS liveweight of hog. Thus a 100-pound hog should receive 1000 c.c. of virulent blood taken from a hog sick with cholera. This virulent blood may be obtained by allowing the cholera hog to bleed to death, taking care to collect the blood free from particles of dirt; or it may be obtained by clipping the end of the tail and allowing it to flow slowly into a jar well protected from dirt. If the tail stops bleeding, thump it or cut the end again. After collecting the blood, gently stir it with a clean stick, or better still a glass rod to remove the clot. The clot will collect on the rod while stirring. This diseased blood from which the clot has been removed is now ready to inject into the muscles of the supply hog. This is done with a hypodermic syringe and inoculated into the inner side of the thigh after placing the pig on his back. There are two methods of inoculating, — the slow method, and the quick method. By the slow method, in- creasing amounts of virulent blood are injected at regular inter- vals, which requires so much time that it isseldom used. By the quick method, the virulent blood is all injected at one time. After the injection of this blood, the supply animal is said to be hyper-immunized. One week after the injection of the virulent blood into the supply animal, the hog is ready to have his blood drawn for the purpose of protecting hogs from cholera. This blood may be drawn in two ways: the supply animal may be killed and the entire supply of blood taken at once, or he may be bled at the tail. The tail should be thoroughly cleaned, disinfected, and then the end is cut off and the blood caught in a clean jar. Much care should be used to keep everything clean and free from germ-laden dirt. In this way, 500 c.c. of blood may be drawn at one time. This may be repeated three times at intervals of one week, after which the blood gradually loses its protective properties and should not be used. The blood thus collected is allowed to clot, after which it is filtered through sterilized gauze in order to get the serum or the DISEASES OF SWINE 615 liquid part of the blood separated from the clot. Then add suffi- cient carbolic acid to make a one-half per cent solution; that is, if there is 500 c.c. of the serum, add 214 c.c. of carbolic acid. Use of the serum. — There are two methods of using the serum for the prevention of hog cholera: the serum-alone method, in which the serum only is used; and the serum- Fic. 176.— First Prize TamwortH Sow ar Ivuinois Fair. The Tamworth breed of swine is a native of England. This breed is similar to the Large Yorkshire and is noted for bacon production. The quality of pork is unexceled, although the animals are rather late maturing. The breeding qualities are excellent, the sows being very prolific. The breed is classed as large. The color is red or sandy, the ears almost erect and the face long and straight. simultaneous method, in which the serum and virulent blood from a hog infected with cholera are used. Serum-alone method. — With the hypodermic syringe, inject into the arm and thigh pits 20 c.c. of serum for each 100 pounds weight of pig. That is, if the pig weighs 50 pounds, inject 10 c.c. 516 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS of the serum, whereas if the pig weighs 150 pounds, inject 30 c.c. of serum. This method gives immediate but tempo- rary immunity lasting perhaps four or five weeks, possibly longer. It is recommended for use in herds where cholera already exists, but:to be used on seemingly healthy pigs only. Pigs already sick will probably not benefit by its use, although if the animals should be infected with the disease germ immediately after the serum is injected, the immunity will last much longer than otherwise. There is no danger attending this method. Serum-simultaneous method. — With the hypodermic syringe, inject simultaneously into the arm and thigh pits 20 c.c. of serum and 1 c.c. of virulent hog cholera blood for each 100 pounds weight of pig. The virulent blood must be obtained from a hog sick with cholera and the clot removed. Pigs treated by this method are immune for six months to one‘year. This is the method usually employed, but is attended with greater danger than the serum-alone method; however, the resulting immunity is much longer. Objections to the serum method. —There are two objections to this method of vaccinating hogs to protect them against cholera: it is expensive and somewhat dangerous. It is expensive because a 125-pound hog will furnish a comparatively small amount of blood, perhaps 500 c¢.c. at each four bleedings and 1000 c.c. more at death, making a total of only 3000 c.c., from which the clot must be taken. Furthermore, this animal must be ren- dered hyper-immune, which involves much labor and expense. The process of immunization is dangerous because it requires the use of the virulent hog cholera blood containing the living hog cholera germ. When this is used without the protective serum, an outbreak of hog cholera is immediately started. With proper precautions, an attendant that takes an interest in the method can prevent serious outbreaks of hog cholera and thus reduce the risk in pork production. DISEASES OF SWINE 517 SWINE PLAGUE Swine plague is an infectious germ disease of swine. It is frequently associated with hog cholera, which it resembles. In fact, the two diseases resemble each other so very closely that it often requires a post mortem examination by an expert to dis- tinguish between them. From this it follows that the manner of spreading the disease as well as its prevention are practically the same as in the case of hog cholera. While these two diseases cause untold loss among swine, it must be remembered that by proper sanitary methods they can be practically prevented. This calls for better treatment than is ordinarily given swine. Well-lighted, comfortable quarters; clean, dry lots free from filthy wallows, but provided with a self-dipping device; a liberal use of disinfectants in the houses and of air-slaked lime in the lots, will go a long way towards reducing the ravages of these two diseases to a minimum. TUBERCULOSIS Tuberculosis is most prevalent among swine in those sections where cattle are most affected. Great numbers of hogs are condemned by the large packing-houses because of this disease, more than from all other diseases combined, and the percentage is increasing year by year until at present it is thought that about three per cent are being thrown out. Manvner of spreading the disease. — The tubercular germ gains entrance to the bodies of various animals in different ways. Thus in the case of man and also cattle, the germ may be either inhaled or taken in with the food, while in the case of swine the germ gains entrance by the food alone. It is very seldom that the disease starts by the germs being inhaled. This being true, the disease should be very easily controlled in swine. The chief sources of infection among swine are the skim-milk from a tuber- cular cow, the grain in the droppings of a cow or steer infected 518 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS with the disease, hogs eating carcasses of animals that have died with the disease, foods containing sputum of the human affected with tuberculosis, and like causes. Prevention consists in the avoidance of all foods containing the tubercular germs and in providing quarters similar to those suggested for hog cholera, for poorly ventilated, dark, damp, and filthy quarters furnish ideal quarters for the breeding of tuberculosis germs. The direct rays of the sun and cleanliness provide conditions impossible for the lodgment of these germs. Care of a tubercular herd. —Tuberculosis in swine is considered as not curable. Furthermore, its detection is often difficult. A hog may be affected with the disease and not show the marks of it until after he is slaughtered. As arule, pigs are more subject to the disease than older animals, and weak animals more liable to attack than strong and vigorous ones. The difficulty of de- tecting the disease renders the care of the tuberculous animal haz- ardous. The general signs are coughing, losing in weight rather than gaining, and a swelling of the glands about the neck. When the disease is discovered, all animals showing external indications should be immediately destroyed and the carcasses burned. The remainder of the herd should be put upon the market.at once and passed upon by a government inspector. Any animals that are so diseased as to render their carcasses unfit for food will be con- demned. Not all hogs affected with tuberculosis are condemned. When the disease is present only in the first stages and only a few of the organs of the body are affected, these parts only are con~ demned; whereas if the disease is general throughout the car- cass, the entire animal is condemned. After an outbreak of tuberculosis and the animals have been disposed of, the quarters should be thoroughly disinfected. To do this, use a five per cent carbolic acid solution, or a 1 to 1000 corrosive sublimate solution, and then whitewash with fresh lime. The pastures and lots which are exposed to the sun are not soseri- ous a source of infection as the buildings. When at.all possible, DISEASES OF SWINE 519 neither the house nor the lots should be used for a time, thus giving the sun sufficient time to destroy all the germs. WORMS Internal worms are of frequent occurrence in swine. They in- habit both the stomach and intestines. These worms interfere with digestion; in consequence the pigs fail to thrive and become pot-bellied, rickety, profitless runts, or quickly succumb to the effects of the worms. Swine infested with worms become an easy prey to more deadly diseases because of their weakened condi- tion. Prevention of worms. — Well-fed swine, in general, are not sub- ject to worms. The strong thrifty pig is usually able to resist the parasites. Hogs having free access to wood ashes, charcoal, air-slaked lime, and coal cinders are not likely to be troubled. The alkali in the wood ashes, together with the grit in the cinders, have a tendency to destroy the worms. Pumpkins, fed seed and all, in the fall also help to keep swine free from worms. Stagnant surface water, in which hogs wallow, are ideal places for the incubation and development of worms. For : Li this reason old pens and pas- Fic. 177.—Tamworta Pic owNnEp tures, if wet, should not be used Be UNIVERSE OF IeeINoR. for hogs. The pens and pastures should be well drained and all stagnant water fenced out or the ponds filled in. The drink- ing water should come from a deep well, and it should be kept pure by using clean troughs so constructed or protected that the hogs cannot wallow in them and fill them with filth. Treatment for worms. — The average herd of pigs is kept under such conditions that it is desirable to dose them at least once during the year with some remedy that will destroy the 520 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS worms or drive them out of the intestines. Turpentine is the most popular remedy and perhaps the least dangerous. It is given in the mash for three successive mornings at the rate of one teaspoonful for each 80 pounds live weight of pig. With- holding all food should be practiced for a short time before giving the remedy. Sulfate of iron or copperas is a more effective remedy, and is given as follows: Dissolve half a dram of cop- peras in warm water and mix in the mash for each pig for five consecutive mornings, the food being withheld for a short time before giving remedy. In very bad cases and when immediate action is desired, the affected pigs may be given 5 grains of calomel and 8 grains of santonin for every 100 pounds of live weight. The food should be withheld for at least 12 hours before administering the medicine, which is best given in a little mash. Santonin is somewhat dangerous and should be given in the proportion mentioned. LICE The hog louse is a common cause of lack of thrift in young pigs, and when numerous, it tends to retard fattening. It is advisable and profitable to keep swine free from lice at all ages. To this end the houses and pens should be frequently cleaned and disinfected, the woodwork whitewashed, the bedding material kept fresh, clean, and dry, and the yards free from accumulations of litter and filth. The hogs should be dipped twice each year in a coal-tar dip, 1 part of dip to 50 of warm water, and the treatment repeated in 10 days to 2 weeks. To destroy lice, when dipping is not possible, mix equal parts of kerosene and machine oil, or one part of turpentine and two parts of machine oil, and apply to every part of the hog by means of a rag, or swab of cotton waste. It may be applied along the back, from ears to tail, with a common ma- - DISEASES OF SWINE 521 chine-oil can and allowed to run down the sides of the hog. Repeat the application in ten days. SCOURS Scours in pigs results from two causes, —improper feeding and contagious infection. Often the trouble comes from overfeeding on corn, or other rich food just after farrowing. Sudden changes in the food or feeding sour decomposing slops, or food from dirty troughs, sour swill barrels, and the like, tend to cause diarrhea. The best treatment for scouring pigs is to feed properly the sows. The food should consist largely of rather thin mash made from bran, middlings, crushed oats, and the like, which should be fed regularly. In ordinary cases, treatment consists in giving the nursing sow parched corn or scalded milk in her food night and morning. After the trouble has been checked, a little limewater placed in the mash often proves advantageous. The best cure for the contagious form of scours is a physic: one tablespoonful of castor oil in the form of a drench, after which the pens should be cleaned and thoroughly disinfected. CONSTIPATION Constipation frequently occurs among pregnant sows and other hogs when given too little exercise and too much food. Brood sows troubled with constipation are likely to farrow weak, puny pigs. This trouble seldom occurs when hogs are fed laxative foods, such as bran, linseed-oil meal, or roots, and in addition are made to take exercise. When it becomes neces- sary to treat the animals, a very simple method is to mix two to four ounces of raw linseed oil once daily in the food;-or if more active treatment seems necessary, give four ounces of Epsom salts at one dose in the same way. Swine that will not eat the food thus medicated should be drenched. Great care should be exercised in drenching hogs or they will suffocate. 522 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Drive the animals into a small pen where they have little room to move about. To hold the animal, secure a quarter-inch rope, place a noose about the upper jaw well back towards the angle of the lips, and elevate the head. Wait until the animal stops struggling. Pull the cheek away from the teeth so as to form a pouch into which the medicine may be slowly poured. It will flow from the cheek into the mouth, and when the hog finds out what it is, he will stop squealing and will swallow. A very easy method is to cut off the toe of an old shoe, insert the cut end into the hog’s mouth, and pour the medicine into the shoe. THUMPS Thumps is the term applied to that ailment of young pigs which is indicated by a jerking motion of the flanks. In thumps there is usually a derangement of the digestive organs, due to overfeeding or lack of exercise. The tendency towards the disease seems to be hereditary. When once the trouble occurs, the treatment is prevention by decreasing the sow’s milk-producing food until the pigs are older. Compel the pigs to take exercise by driving them from their nests. A very good method when one has the time is to place the little pigs in a lot near the mother and let them worry about getting back. They must be separated but a very short time, for they may nurse too much when turned back. SORE MOUTH Pigs are often troubled with sore mouth. Large white blisters occur about the mouth and snout, and later thick brown scabs appear, which open into deep cracks. These scabs extend over the face and later to all parts of the body if not treated. These sores are due to a germ, and are likely to attack pigs kept in filthy quarters. Prevention consists in providing comfortable quarters for the youngsters. Treatment is not DISEASES OF SWINE 523 difficult, but should be prompt and thorough. Prepare a solu- tion of permanganate of potash, using one and one-half ounces of the crystals dissolved in one gallon of warm water. Dip the young pig, head foremost, into this solution and hold it there afew seconds. Repeat three times, giving the pig time to catch his breath in the intermission. The treatment should be re- peated for four days, after which the quarters should be dis- infected. GARGET Inflammation of the udder is rather common among heavy- milking brood sows, and is usually caused by the milk not being removed. The udder thus becomes congested, sore, and later cakes. The treatment is to relieve the congestion by drawing off the milk. This should be done before farrowing, if the udder is distended. After the milk is drawn, gently but thoroughly rub the udder. Bathe the parts with hot water fifteen minutes at a time and rub dry and apply an ointment made as follows: Dissolve two tablespoonfuls of gum camphor in a teacupful of melted fresh lard, to which add one ounce of the fluid extract of belladonna. The udder should be bathed three times daily and then the ointment well rubbed in. REMOVING THE TUSKS After one year old, all boars should have their tusks removed twice a year. To hold the hog, place a noose around the upper jaw (as suggested in drenching, p. 522) and tie to apost. Then with strong nippers or sharp blacksmith’s pincers remove the tusk. In older boars, when the tusks are hard and will not cut, they should be filed and then broken off as follows: after tying the boar to the post, an assistant stands astride the animal and places a stick in his mouth, takes hold of either end, and pulls back as far as he can and holds steady. With a three-cornered file notch each corner of the tusk, then put the 524 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS point of an iron wedge in one of the notches, and tap the tusk with a hammer, and it will break squarely off. The tusk may then be filed off rounding. CHICKEN-EATING SWINE While not a disease, chicken-eating is a vicious habit often contracted by swine kept near chicken yards. The habit once acquired is often difficult to overcome. A very good device to prevent the hogs from catching the fowls is a common four- inch ring hung before the hog’s snout. This may be held in place with the ordinary hog-ring placed around the four-inch ring and into the nose, as when ringing to prevent rooting. Thus the large ring hangs in front of the hog’s snout and pushes the chicken away as the hog reaches for it. APPENDIX AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF FEEDING STUFFS As a rule under average farm conditions, it is not practicable to weigh each mess of food, nor is it necessary, as measuring is sufficiently accurate. The food from the measure should be weighed a few times at the beginning. To aid in approxi- mating the weight of the various foods, the following table of weights and measures is quoted from Farmers’ Bulletin No. 222 : — Tape I Average Weights of Different Feeding Stuffs Onze Quart Onn Potnp Feepine Storr Wriaus MeasuRes ' Pounds Quarts S ror) Corn, whole Corn, meal Corn, bran. Corn and cob meal . Gluten meal Gluten feed Germ meal oe Hominy meal . ae Distillers’ grains, dried Wheat, whole < la Sas! Sap! Wheat, ground . oh 9 ties a ee ah ho Oe Wheat, bran . Wheat middlings (standard) _ Wheat middlings (flour) . . Oats, whole . ... . Oats, ground . Rye, whole Rye, meal . Rye, bran . Barley, whole Barley, meal . F Brewers’ dried grains : aoocee Sa). cas Malt sprouts . wi te ge te Linseed meal, old process oo Linseed meal, new process Cotton-seed meal é POP SOME OPHORHOOP NOE EERO COR AWHADAINNONWUINOOH PWAROON SHOMHOSHOOPH OH NSSHOSOSONO NE ONNONDNODPOWDWOMNONONWANO) 625 526 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FEEDING STUFFS In calculating a ration for any class of farm animals, the digestible nutrients of the foods must be known, as it is the digestible part only that is of use to the animal. The following table, adopted from Bailey’s Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. III, gives a very complete list of American feeding stuffs and their digestible nutrients : — Tasie II Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents DicestistE NUTRIENTS FERTILIzINe ConstTiTU- Dry Mar in 100 Pounps ENTS In 1000 Pounps Name or Freep Te sah é Carbo Ether | Nitro- Os Protein| hy- Extract aii phorie Potash Pounps drates 7 Acid Concentrates Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Corn, all analyses 89.1] 7.9 | 66.7 | 4.3 | 18.2} 7.0] 4.0 Dent corn . 89.4 | 7.8 | 66.7 | 43 | 16.5 : Flint corn . 88.7 | 8.0 | 66.2 | 4.3 | 16.8 Sweet corn 91.2) 88 | 63.7] 7.0 | 18.6) ... er Corn cob f 89.3 | 0.4] 52.5] 0.3 5.0} 0.6] 6.0 Corn and cob gal ‘ 84.9} 4.4] 60.0] 2.9 | 14.1] 5.7 | 4.7 Corn bran . 90.9} 7.4 | 59.8 | 46 | 16.3] 12.1 6.8 Gluten meal 91.8 | 25.8 | 43.3 | 11.0 | 50.3/ 3.3} 0.5 Gluten feed 92.2 | 20.4 | 48.4 | 88 | 38.4] 41] 03 Germ meal 89.6 | 9.0 | 61.2 6.2 | 26.5) 8.0] 5.0 Starch refuse . 91.8 | 11.4 | 58.4 6.5 | 22.4] 7.0 5.2 Grano-gluten . 94.3 | 26.7 | 38.8 | 12.4 | 49.8] 5.1 1.5 Hominy chops 89.9 | 7.5 | 55.2 | 68 | 16.3) 9.8} 49 Glucose meal . 91.9 ; 30.3 | 35.3 | 14.5 | 57.7| ... dss Sugar meal . F 93.2 | 18.7 | 51.7 | 8.7 | 36.3] 4.1 0.3 Distillery grains (dried) principally corn . .| 93.0 | 21.9 | 38.1 | 10.8 Atlas gluten feed (dis- tillery by-products) . | 92.6 | 23.3 | 35.6 | 11.9 APPENDIX 527 TaBLe II — Continued Dry | Dicestiste Nurrients | Ferrinizina Consrirv: Mat tN 100 Pounps ENTS In 1000 Pounps Name or Freep — Caci : 100 | Protein aaa Ether | Nitro= Ears Potash Pounps diates Extract | gen ‘Acid Lb. | Lb, Lb. Lb. | Lb. | Lb. Lb. Wheat . . 89.5 | 10.2 | 69.2 | 1.7 | 23.6| 7.9] 5.0 Wheat bran ‘ 88.1 | 12.2 | 39.2 | 2.7 | 26.7] 28.9 | 16.1 Wheat bran, spring . 88.5 | 12.9 | 40.1 3.4 Wheat bran, winter . 87.7 | 12.3 | 37.1] 2.6]... ] ... |... Wheat shorts . 88.2 | 12.2 | 50.0 | 3.8 | 28.2} 13.5] 5.9 Wheat middlings 87.9 | 12.8 | 53.0] 3.4 | 263] 9.5] 63 Wheat screenings 88.4 | 9.8 | 51.0] 2.2 | 24.4] 11.7 | 8.4 Dark feeding flour . 90.3 | 13.5 | 61.3 | 2.0 | 31.8] 21.4 | 10.9 High grade flour 87.6 | 8.9 | 62.4) 0.9 |18.9]) 2.2] 1.5 Low grade flour . 87.6 | 8.2 | 62.7] 0.9 | 28.9] 5.6] 3.5 Rye . 88.4 | 9.9 | 67.6) 1.1 |17.6| 82] 5.4 Rye bran 3 88.4 | 11.5 | 50.3 | 2.0 | 23.2) 22.8 | 14.0 Rye shorts . . . .| 90.7} 11.9 | 45.1 16 | 18.4) 12.6] 8.1 Distillery grains (dried) principally rye 93.2 | 10.4 | 42.5) 64 7... | ... |... Barley ; 89.1 | 8.7 | 65.6] 16 | 15.1] 7.9] 48 Malt sprouts . 89.8 | 18.6 | 37.1 | 1.7 | 35.5] 14.3 | 16.3 Brewers’ grains, wet 24.3) 39 | 93] 1.4 8.9} 3.1] 0.5 Brewers’ grains, dried .| 91.8 | 15.7 | 36.3 | 5.1 | 36.2] 10.3] 0.9 Oats . 89.0 | 9.2 | 47.3] 4.2 | 20.6] 82] 62 Oatmeal . . . 92.1] 11.5 | 52.1 | 5.9 | 23.5] ... a Oat feed or shorts 92.3 | 12.5 | 46.9] 2.8 | 17.2] 9.1] 5.3 Oat hulls 90.6} 1.3 | 40.1 | 0.6 5.2} 2.4] 5.2 Oat dust 93.5 | 8.9 | 38.4) 5.1 | 21.6 Rice . ‘ 87.6 | 4.8 | 72.2] 0.3 | 10.8] 18); 09 Rice hulls . 91.8} 1.6 | 44.5] 0.6 5.8) 1.7 | 1.4 Rice bran . 90.3 | 5.3 | 45.1] 7.3 7.1) 2.9 | 2.4 Rice polish 90.0 | 9.0 | 56.4] 6.5 | 19.7] 26.7 | 7.1 528 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Tase II — Continued Dry | Dieestrate N uTRIeNtTSs |FeRTILIzING ConsTITU Mar- in 100 Pounps ENTS IN 1000 Pounps TER pasate mae IN Carbo- Eth Nit Phos- 100 | Protein! hy- er | 2°"! phorie | Potash Pounps drates Extract on Acid Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. | Lb. Lb. Buckwheat . . .| 87.4) 7.7 |] 492] 1.8 |144) 44] 21 Buckwheat middlings . | 87.3 | 22.0 | 33.4 | 5.4 | 42.8] 21.9 | 11.4 Buckwheat bran 89.5 | 7.4 | 30.4] 1.9 | 36.4] 17.8 | 12.8 Buckwheat shorts 88.9 | 21.1 | 33.5] 5.5 |... 4... er Buckwheat hulls 86.8 | 2.1 | 27.9 | 0.6 4.9) 0.7) 5.2 Sorghum seed 87.2} 7.0) 521] 3.1 |148}/ 81] 42 Broom corn seed 85.9} 7.4] 483] 2.9 | 16.3 Kafir corn . 84.8 | 7.8 | 57.1 DEP At scales AM cesses oer Millet 86.0] 8.9 | 45.0] 3.2 | 20.4) 85! 3.6 Flaxseed - « «| 90.8 | 20.6 | 17.1 | 29.0 | 36.1] 13.9 | 10.3 Linseed meal, old process} 90.8 | 29.3 | 32.7 | 7.0 | 54.3] 16.6 | 13.7 Linseed meal, new pro- cess - .| 89.9 | 28.2] 40.1 | 28 | 57.8] 18.3 | 13.9 Cotton-seed 89.7 | 12.5 | 30.0 | 17.3 | 31.3] 12.7 | 11.7 Cotton-seed meal 91.8 | 37.2 | 16.9 | 12.2 | 67.9] 28.8 | 8.7 Cotton-seed hulls 88.9 | 0.3 | 33.1 1.7 6.9} 2.5 | 10.2 Peas. . 89.5 | 16.8 | 518] 0.7 | 308) 82] 9.9 Cowpea 85.2 | 18.3 | 54.2} 1.1 | 33.8) ... | 2. Soybean 89.2 | 29.6 | 22.3 | 14.4 | 53.0] 18.7 | 19.0 Horse bean 85.7 | 22.4 | 49.3 | 1.2 | 40.7) 12.0 | 12.9 Coconut meal 89.7 | 15.6 | 38.3] 10.5 | 32.8 16.0 | 24.0 Palm-nut meal 89.6 | 16.0 | 52.6 | 9.0 | 26.9] 11.0 | 5.0 Sunflower seed 92.5 | 12.1 | 20.8 | 29.0 | 22.8} 122] 5.6 Sunflower seedeakes 91.8 | 31.2 | 19.6 | 12.8 | 55.5] 21.5 |. 11.7 Peanut meal . 89.3 | 42.9 | 22.8 | 6.9 | 75.6] 13.1 | 15.0 Rapeseed meal 90.0 | 25.2 | 23.7 | 7.5 | 49.6] 20.0 | 13.0 APPENDIX Taste II — Continued 524 Dry | Diasstrste Nprrients | Fertitizina Constiru Mart- in 100 Pounps ENTS IN 1000 Pounps Name OF FEEp ee ‘, 100 | Protein — Ether. | Nitto: ee Potash. Pounps datas Extract | gen ‘Acid Roughage Lb. | Lb. | Lb. | np, | ub. | xp. | x. Fodder corn — Fodder corn, green .| 20.7| 1.0} 11.6] 0.4 4.1); 15] 3.3 Fodder corn, field- cured - . .| 67.8] 2.5 | 346] 12 | 17.6) 5.41] 8.9 Corn stover, field- cured . -| 59.5 | 1.7 | 32.4] 0.7 | 10.4) 2.9 | 140 Kafir corn stover, field-cured . 86.5 | 2.3 | 44.8) 0.8 Sorghum (cane) 94.2 | 2.5 | 44.3 0.9 Fresh grass — Pasture grasses (mixed) . . . .| 200{ 2.5 | 10.2] 0.5 9.1} 2.3 | 7.5 Kentucky blue grass. | 34.9] 3.0] 198] 0.8 Timothy, different , stages . .| 384} 1.2 /19.1 | 0.6 4.8) 2.6) 7.6 Orchard-grass, in bloom - .{ 27.0} 15/114] 0.5 4.3; 16] 7.6 Redtop, in bloom 34.7 | 2.1 | 212] 0.6 |... ] ... Bee Oat fodder . 37.8 | 2.6 | 18.9 1.0 4.9} 13] 3.8 Rye fodder. 23.4 | 2.1/141 1} 0.4 3.3} 15] 7.3 Sorghum . .| 20.6} 0.6 | 12.2 | 0.4 2.3]; 0.9 | 2.3 Meadow fescue, in : bloom .-.| 380.1] 15 )168) 04 ]...] ... a Hungarian grass . 28.9 | 2.0 | 16.0} 0.4 3.9} 16] 5.5 Green barley 21.0 | 1.9] 10.2] 0.4 Peas and oats . 16.0; 18] 7.1 | 0.2 Peas and barley . 16.0) 1.7] 7.2] 0.2 Kafir fodder 27.0 | 0.9 | 13.8] 04 2M 530 Taste Il— Continued MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Dry | Dicesripte NUTRIENTS FERTILIZING ConstITv- Mar in 100 Pounps ENTS IN 1000 Pounns Name or FEeEep cer Carb Phos 100 | Protein ie Either, | Nitro: phoric | Potash Pounps| dentas Extract | gen ‘Acid Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Fresh legumes — Red clover, different stages . .| 29.2) 2.9 | 148] 0.7 5.3, 1.3 | 4.6 Crimson clover 19.1 | 2.4) 9.1) 0.5 4.3|/ 13] 49 Alsike, in bloom . 25.2) 2.7 | 138.1) 06 44) 11] 2.0 Alfalfa 28.2 | 3.9 | 12.7 | 0.5 7.2); 13 | 5.6 Cowpea . 16.4}; 18) 87} 0.2 2.7; 1.0) 3.1 Soybean 24.9) 3.2 )11.0] 0.5 2.9} 15] 53 Hay —- Timothy 86.8 | 2.8 | 43.4 14 |126) 531] 9.0 Orchard grass . 90.1 | 4.9 | 42.3 14 | 13.1) 4.1 | 18.8 Redtop . 91.1! 48 | 46.9 | 1.0 | 11.5] 3.6 | 10.2 Kentucky blue ne 78.8 | 4.8 | 37.3 | 2.0 | 11.9] 4.0 | 15.7 Hungarian grass . 92.3 | 4.5 | 51.7 1.3 | 12.0! 3.5 | 13.0 Mixed grasses . 87.1 | 5.9 | 40.9 1.2 |14.1) 2.7 | 15.5 Rowen (mixed) 83.4 | 7.9 | 40.1 1.5 | 16.1] 4.3 | 14.9 Meadow fescue 80.0 | 4.2 | 43.3 1.7 9.9| 4.0 | 21.0 Mixed grasses and clover 87.1 | 6.2 | 42.7 ) es |e te Soybean hay 88.7 | 10.8 | 38.7 1.5 | 23.2] 6.7 | 10.8 Oat hay . 91.1) 43 | 46.4 1.5 Marsh or swamp hay 88.4 | 2.4 | 29.9 | 0.9 White daisy 85.0 | 3.8 | 40.7 1.2 Barley 89.4 | 5.1 | 35.9 1.6 Prairie (native) 94.4 | 3.7 | 48.6} 0.9 Legume hay — Red clover, medium . | 84.7 | 6.8 | 35.8 1.7 | 20.7| 3.8 | 22.0 Red clover, mammoth] 78.8 | 5.7 | 32.0 1.9 | 22.38} 5.5 | 12.2 Alsike clover . 90.3 | 8.4 | 42.5 |] 1.5 | 23.4] 6.7 | 22.3 APPENDIX TasLe II — Continued 531 Dry | Dicestiste Nutrients | Fertinizina Constirv- Mar- in 100 Pounps ENTS In 1000 Pounps Name oF Faep pe Gath Ph _ | “27! Ether | Nitro-| “°°” ios Protein ow Extradt | @ea sein Potash Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. White clover . 90.3 | 11.5 | 42.2 | 1.5 | 27.5| 5.2 | 18.1 Crimson clover 90.4 | 10.5 | 34.9 | 1.2 | 20.5) 4.0 | 13.1 Alfalfa . . 91.6 | 11.0 | 39.6 | 1.2 | 21.9] 5.1 | 16.8 Cowpea . 89.3 | 10.8 | 38.6 | 1.1 | 19.5] 5.2 | 14.7 Soybean-straw 89.9} 2.3 | 40.0} 1.0 | 17.5} 4.0 | 13.2 Peavine-straw . 86.4) 4.3 | 32.38 | 0.8 | 14.3) 3.5 | 10.2 Straw — Wheat 90.4} 0.4 | 36.3 | 0.4 5.9] 1.2) 5.1 Rye 92.9} 0.6 | 40.6] 0.4 | 46] 28); 7.9 Oat 90.8 | 1.2 | 38.6 | 08 6.2) 2.0 | 12.4 Barley 85.8] 0.7 | 41.2 | 0.6 | 13.1] 3.0 | 20.9 Oat chaff 85.7 | 15 .| 33.0 | OF Jace | wee | one Wheat chaff 85.7 | 0.3 | 23.3 | 0.5 7.9| 7.0 | 4.2 Silage — . Corn . 20.9} 0.9} 11.3 | 0.7 2.8) 1.1] 3.7 Clover 28.0 | 2.0 | 18.5 | 1.0 Sorghum 23.9) 0.6 | 14.9] 0.2 Alfalfa 27.5) 3.0] 85] 1.9 Grass 32.0 | 1.9 | 18.4] 1.6 Cowpea vine - 20.7} 1.5] 86] 0.9 Soybean . . . .| 25.8] 2.7] 87) 1.3 Barnyard millet and : soybean . 21.0| 16] 9.2] 0.7 Corn and soybean 24.0} 161! 13.0! 0.7 Roots and tubers — Beet, mangel . 9.1) 11] 54] O1 19} 0.9) 38 Beet, sugar 13.5 | 1.1 | 10.2] O.1 2.2) 10) 48 Beet, common 13.0; 1,2 | 88] 0.1 2.4| 0.9 | 4.4 632 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Tasie II — Continued Dry | DicEstispe Nourrients | Fervitizine Constirv: Mat- in 100 Pounps ENTS IN 1000 Pounps _ een = Carbo. Phos- : Ether | Nitro- : Meee! Protein Fe Extract | gen si Potash Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Rutabaga . . . .| 114] 1.0] 8.1 0.2 1.9) 1.2 4.9 Carrot . . . . .| 114] 08 7.8 0.2 1.5] 0.9 5.1 Flat turnip e = wi] 98 1.0] 7.2 0.2 1.8) 10] 3.9 Artichoke . . . ./ 20.0) 2.0 | 16.8 0.2 2.6| 14) 47 Potato . . . . .{ 21.1 0.9 | 16.3 0.1 3.2}; 1.2 4.6 Parsnip. . . . .{ 11.7] 16/112] 02 1.8) 2.00) 44 Miscellaneous — Rape. . .. . .| 140 1.5 8.1 0.2 4.5) 1.5 3.6 Cabbage .. . .| 153 1.8 8.2 | 0.4 3.8} 1.1 4.3 Pumpkin, fied . .| 9.1 1.0 5.8 0.3 |... aoe nas Pumpkin, garden. | 19.2 14] 83 0.8 1.1; 16] 09 Sugar beet leaves .| 12.0] 1.7] 46] 02 | 4.1] 15] 6.2 Spurry .. . «| 20.0 1.5 9.8 0.3 3.8] 2.5 5.9 Prickly cambiar - -(116] 14) 46] 0.2 4.2) 11] 7.5 Acorns, fresh . . .| 44.7] 2.1 | 344 Li? eas ae cea Beet molasses. . .| 79.2} 9.1 | 59.5 | 0.0 | 14.6] 0.5 | 56.3 Beet pulp . . . ./ 10.2] 0.6 7.3 | 0.0 1.41 0.2 0.4 Dried blood . . 91.5 | 52.3 0.0 | 2.5 {135.0} 13.5 | 7.7 Meat scrap . . .| 89.3 | 66.2 0.3 | 18.7 |113.9| 7.0 1.0: Tankage . . |. .| 93.0 | 31.7 | 15.3 | 13.6 |... nee nee Dried fish” . . . .| 892 | 44.1 0.0 | 10.3 | 77.5 {120.0 | 2.0 Cow’s milk : a as 12.8 | 3.6 4.9 3.7 5.3| 1.9 1.8 Cow’s milk, sélowiran 25.4 | 17.6 | 2.7] 3.6 | 28.2] 6.6 1.1 Skim-milk, gravity .| 9.6) 3.1 4.7) 0.8 5.6| 2.0 1.9 Skim-milk, centrifugal 9.4] 2.9] 5.2] 03 | 5.6] 2.0] 1.9 Buttermilk. . . .| 99] 3.9 4.0 11 4.8] 1.7 1.6 Whey .... .| 66] 08 4.7 | 0.3 1.5| 1.4 1.8 INDEX Aberdeen Angus cattle, 298. Abortion, in cows, 332; contagious, 333 ; non-contagious, 332; in mares, 110. Acid, sulfuric, 253. Action in horses, 21, 22. Afterbirth, 336. Age, of cow, how to estimate, 187; to feed cattle, 276; of horse, how to estimate, 7; of sheep, how to esti- mate, 361; of swine, 454. Aged horses, 11. Allerton, 87. American Merino, 364, 375. American saddle horse, 97. American trotter, 24. Ames, F. L., 192, 197. Angus cattle, 73. Animals, breeding, 70; feeding, 37. Apoplexy parturition, 339. Arab horse, 6. Arfman, John, 208. Arms, in horses, 25, 34. Artichoke, 475. A-shaped hog house, 507. Associations, testing, 235. Asthma, 176. Atavism, 82. Auten, A. O., 250. Average production for cow, 229. Ayreshire cattle, 228. Azoturia, 179. Baby-beef, 291; advantages, 292; eattle used, 292; disadvantages, 293; feeds used, 292. Back-band, 147. Back, in swine, 461. Bacon, Canada, 483; 488; type, 454. Bacon-hog, choosing, 464; condition, 464; feeding, 483; form, 464; feed-. skim-milk for, ing in summer, 484; feeding in winter, 484. Bakewell, Robert, 70. Balanced ration, 51; use, 55. Bandage, 152. Bang, Dr., 350. Barn, dairy, 264; floors, 268; hog, 505; sheep, 433; ventilation, 266; watering device, 270. Barrenness in mares, 109; 332. Barrier, 10. Bathing, 156. Bedding for horses, 129; corn stalks, leaves, shavings, straw, 129; the cow, 258; sheep, 388, 436. Beef, baby, 291; food requirements for, 281. Beef cattle, Aberdeen Angus, 298; abortion, 332; age to feed, 276; barrenness, 332; bloating, 351; breeds, 308; breeding, 305; breed- ing stock, 308; bull, 311; butchers’ demands, 277; care and manage- ment, 320; calves from best cows, 807; care of calf, 315-317; choos- ing, 198; condition of feeder, 200; condition for feeding, 278; compo- sition of carcass, 276; codperative grading-up, 307; cost of bull, 311; cow, 313; cow with calf at foot, 315; crossing, 308 ; dehorning, 354; detail characters, 200; difficult parturi- tion, 334; diseases, 331; drifting, 300; dual purpose cow, 309; equip- ment for summer feeding, 322; equipment for winter feeding, 326; essentials of feeding cattle, 275; eversion of the womb, 338; farms, 322; fat steer, 198; fat steer indi- cations, 202; feed-bunk, 323, 327; feed lot, 327; feeding, 275, 318; in cows, 533 584 INDEX Bony enlargements, 158. Bot-flies, 148. Bottles, whirling test, 233. Bowen & Quick, 214. Breast harness, 147. Breeching, 147. feeding for local market, 293; feed- ing grain or pasture, 285; feeding- standards, 282; feeding shed, 326; feeder, 198; forage racks, 328; form of feeder, 199; form for feeding, 277; Galloway bull, 312; garget, 340; general examination, 199; food | Breeding animals, 70; atavism, 82; requirements, 281; Hereford cow, beef cattle, 305; beef bull, 311; 306; hogs following, 295; increasing calves from best cows, 237; co- feeding capacity, 284; indications operative, 238; crate for swine, 493 ; of doing well, 320; impaction, 353; crossing beef breeds, 308; dairy length of feeding period, 297; milk cattle, 227; ewe flock, 406; ewes, fever, 338; ‘on feed,” 296; pasture, 407; grading-up beef cattle, 307; 322; percentage dress, 278; plan of breeding, 307; preparing for ship- ment, 300; pregnant cow, 314; pro- duction period, 313; quality for feeding, 279; quality of feeder, 199; retained afterbirth, 336; salt, 325; sample rations, 300-304; season to breed, 313; self-feeder, 325; shade, 325; shipping, 299; store steer, 198; summer feeding on pasture, 284; turning to grass, 285; tuberculosis, 343; type, 186; uniformity, 200, 310; value of uniformity, 280; water, 325; weaning the calf, 316; when to market, 299; white face, heredity, 83; horses and mules, 96; inheritance of disease, 83; like pro- duces like, 71; mare, 103; mating, 81; mating sheep, 407; plan of, 237; plan beef cattle, 307; plan for sheep, 404; plan for swine, 487; prepotency, 84; purity of, 85; ram, 406; reversion, 82; season of year to breed horses, 104; selection, 77; selection and improvement, 242; sheep, 403; soundness, 102; stal- lion, 102; sterility, 88; swine, 487; systems of, 89, breeding from best, 95, crossing, 90, grading, 89, line- breeding, 90, in-breeding, 91. Bridle, 142; blinds, 143; center-pieces, 144; check-rein, 144; ear-bobs, 144; head-stall, 143; tassels, 144; throat latch, 144. Broken wind, 176. Brown Swiss bull, 252. Brown Swiss cow ‘ Vogel,’’ 258. Bull, 244; beef (see beef cattle); dairy (see dairy cattle); ringing, 264. Bunions, 17. Butter, 227. 306; wintering, 282; winter feeding in dry lot, 289. Belgian horse, 58. Belly in lard hogs, 462. Berkshire swine, 463; sow, 460. Bit, 142; curb, 143; its use, 136; snaffle, 142; straight, 142; tongue- lolling, 143. Bitting, 137. Bitting-harness, 137. Black Top Merino, 360. Blankets, fly, 148; for horses, 130; outdoor, 131; stable, 130. Blemish, 14. Blinds, 143. Blisters, 156. Bloat in cattle, 351; in sheep, 446. Blood-spavin, 18, 161. Boar, 490. Body, in beef cattle, 201; dairy cattle, 194; horses, 27, 36; sheep, 370. Bog-spavin, 18, 161. Bone-spavin, 158. Cabbage, 386. Calf, 250; and cow, 315; castrating male calf, 255; constipation, 341; dairy, 250; danger of over-feeding, 253; diarrhea, 341; feeding beef, 318; from best cows, 237; grain mixture for, 226; ills, 340, consti- pation, 341; scours, contagious or “white scours” and simple, 341; milk substitutes for feeding, 255; on skim-milk, 253; on whole milk, INDEX 253; removing horns, 255; scours, 341; teaching to drink, 252. Calk-wound, 132, 166. Cannon in light horses, 26, 28; heavy horses, 34. Cans, milk, 260. Canula and trocar, 352. Capped-elbows, 164. Capped-hock, 164. Capped-knee, 164. Care, beef cattle, 320; dairy cattle, 257; horse, 127; sheep, 422; swine, 503. Carpenter & Ross, 277. Cart-horse, 70. Cart training, 139. Caryle, 221. Caryle’s soiling system, 221. Castleman, J. B., 97. Castrating calf, 255; swine, 501. Catalonian jack, 123. Catarrh, 174. Cattle (for beef cattle see beef cattle) ; (for dairy cattle see dairy cattle) ; age by horns, 189; estimating age, 178; teeth, 187; types, 185; beef and dairy, 186. Champlin Bros., 91. Chatillon’s Spring Balance, 230. Check-rein, 144. Cheese, 227. Cheshire, swine, 496; pig, 493. Chest, in light horses, 24; in heavy horses, 34. Chester White, swine, 479; - boar, 476. Cheviot, sheep, 425. Chicken-eating swine, 524. Chief perfection, 85. Choking, 170. Cholera, in swine, 511; immunization, 513; preventing, 511; spreading disease, 511; serum, 513; use of se- rum, 515. Choosing cattle, 185; horses, 3; sheep, 359; swine, 453. Clipping cow’s udder, 258 ; horses, 128. Clover, 386. Clydesdale horse, 30. Colantha 4th’s Johanna, 229. Collar, 145; kinds: common leather, in lambs, 419; 5385 -half sweeney, and steel, 146. Colic, 172. Colt, age, 8; age to bit, 136; bitting, 137; harnessing, 138; ill, 115; con- stipation, 115; scours, 115; navel disease, 116; method of catching, 134; training, 133; training to mount, 140; training uses of the bit, 136. Company plan of buying horses, 99. Composition beef cattle carcass, 276. Condition of beef cattle, 200; market- able, 297; of dairy cattle, 193; of swine, 464. Constipation, 174; calf, 341; foal, 115; lamb, 416; sheep, 447; swine, 521. Constitution in swine, 457. Cook, C. F., 122. Cook & Son, W. N., 365. Cooking feed, 470. Cooler for milk, 259. Coéperative breeding, 238; cattle, 238; horses 98; sheep, 404; swine, 489, Corns, 167. Corsa, W. 8., 15. Cots hog, 505. Cotswold ram, 441. f Cow, barn, 264; beef, 313; dairy, 246; testing associations, 235; with calf at foot, 315. Creep for sheep, 392. Cribbing, 13 (see horse). Crossing, 77, 90. Crouch & Son, J., 58. Croup in horses, 27, 36. Crupper, 147. Curb, 18, 163. Curb-bit, 143. humane, pneumatic Dairy-barn ventilation, 265. Dairy cattle, abortion, 332; Ayreshire, 228; baby-beef, 291; barn, 264; barrenness, 332 ; bloating, 351 ; breed- ing, 227; bull, 244; calves from best cows, 237; care and management, 257; care of bull, 263; choosing, 185; choosing dairy bull, 244; con- stitution, 193; codperative breeding, 238; dehorning, 354; detail char- 586 acter, 194; difficult parturition, 334; diseases, 331; dry forage for, 217; Dutch Belted, 262; eversion of the womb, 338; feeding, 203; feeding calf, 251; feeding in lot, 289 ; feeding-standard, 204; food-effect on composition of milk, 210; food requirements for milk, 203; form, 190; forming the herd, 238; garget, 340; general examination, 190; grading-up, 239; grading, first gen- eration, 240; grading, second gen- eration, 241; Guernsey cow, 192; Haecker’s feeding-standard, 206; heifer calves from high-producing dams, 240; high production, 222; Holstein-Friesian, 205; kicking, 354 ; impaction, 353; milk fever, 338; milking, 260; milk-recerds, 229; milk signs, 197; milk veins, 197; order of supplying food, 212; par- turition time, 248; plan of breeding, 237; productive period, 246; pro- tecting from flies, 215; quality, 193; retained afterbirth, 336; ringing the bull, 264; sample rations, 224; season to breed, 247; selection and improvement, 242; silage, 218; succulent feeds, 217; sucking cow, 355; summer feeding, 215; tem- perament, 193; testing associations, 235; tuberculosis, 343; udder, 195; uniformity, 245; watering, 213; winter feeding, 216. Dairy cow (see dairy cattle). Dairy herd, 238; (see dairy cattle). Dairy type, 186. Davis & Son, Frank, 329. Davison, Dr. G. H., 390. Daytholeum, 426. Dehorning, 354. De Kol 2d, 85. ‘ Delane Merino, 360, 364. , Denmark, 85. Devon bull, 344. Diarrhea, 173; in calves, 341; in foal, 115; in lamb, 416. Dickinson Merino, 360. Difficult parturition, 334. Digestion, 44; conditions influencing, 48. INDEX Digestive organs, 45. Dip, how used, 425. Dipping, frequency, 426; importance, 423; self, 503; sheep, 423; swine, 503. Dipping-vat, 424. F Diseases of cattle, 331; of the horse, 151; of sheep, 439; of swine, 510; prevention, 265. Distemper, 177. Docking lambs, 419. Dogs and goats, 377. Double safety, 141. Drenching, 154. Dressing winter lambs, 393. Driving horsé, feeding, 63. Drove (see swine). Dry forage, 217. Dry-lot, 289. Dry matter in food, 526. Dual-purpose cow, 309. Dumb jockey, 137. Duroc Jersey, swine, 474. Dutch Belted cattle, 262. Ear marking sheep, 420; swine, 502. Eczema, 169. Elbows, 25; capped, 164; 25. Enemas, 156. English shire horse, 35. Jénvironment, 75. Erotas, 85. Escutcheon, 198. Eversion of the womb, 338. Ewe, 406; lambing time,-411; lamb- ing pens, 412; method of mating, 407; parturition, 412; pregnant, 410; productive period, 407; season to breed, 407. Exercise for sheep, 387. Exile of St. Lambert, 86. External medication, 155. Eye, diseases of, 180; moon-blindness, 181; sore, 417, 440. “tied in,” Fall lambs, 396; feeding, 396. Farmer’s cow, 309. Farms for fattening cattle, 322. Farrowing swine, 496. Fat, reading, 233. Fattening, cattle, 284; INDEX sheep, 388; swine, 478. Fecundity (see prolificacy). Feed-alley, 267. Feed-bunk, 323; platform, 327. Feed-carrier, 267. Feed cooking, 470 ; digestible nutrients, 526; ‘‘full,” 296; grinding, 469; list, 526; measures, 525; mixture for lambs, 392; racks, sheep, 436; soaking, 467 ; succulent, 217 ; weights, 525. Feeders, wintering, 282. Feeding animals; 37; baby-beef, 291; beef cattle, 275; beef cattle on pasture, 284; breeding herd, 472; cattle for local market, 293; capacity among swine, 470; capacity in- creased, 284; dairy calf, 251; dairy eattle, 203; dairy cattle in summer, 215; dairy cattle in winter, 216; dry forage, 217; equipment for sum- mer, 322; equipment for winter, 326; feed-bunk, 323; the flock, 380; flock in summer, 381; flock in winter, 386; for high production, 222; the heifer, 223; horses, 56; grain to beef cattle on pasture, 285; grain to cattle in lot, 289; lambs, 891, 417; large hog, 479; mare at parturition, 112; milking cow, 214; mules, 67; ‘‘off feed,’’ 353; on pasture, 324; pigs, 500; sheep, 377; sheep in corn belt, 399; sheep in East, 399; sheep in West, 398; silage," 218; steers in winter, 289; succulent feeds, 217; swine, 467; young foal, 117. Feeding-standard, 51; for beef cattle, 282;. for dairy cattle, 204; for the horse, 57; mere guides, 210; for sheep, 380; for swine, 468. Feet, 27, 29, 35; care of, 131; sheep’s, 388; shoeing, 132. Fetlocks in horses, 26. Fever, bilious, 178; shipping, 178. Filly, breeding, 103. Firing, 157. Fleece, 372; brightness, 376; condi- tion, 375; crimp, 374; density, 373; length, 373; luster, 376; kemp, 375; 5387 purity, 375; quality, 373, 374; softness, 374; soundness, 374; yolk, 376. Flies, protecting cows from, 215. Flock, feeding, 380; (see sheep). Floors, 268. Flushing, 407. Fly-blankets, 148. Fly-blister, 156. Fly-killer, 148. Fly-nets, 148. Foal, 112, 118; care of, 113; feeding, 117; grain for, 119; ills, 115; con- stipation, diarrhea, navel infection, 116; jack, 121; skim-milk fot, 120; weaning, 119. Food, 37; composition, 38, 526, ash, 39, carbohydrates, 40, fat, 41, protein, 39, water, 39; and composition of milk, 210; cooking for horses, 49; curing, 49; digestibility, 44, 526; dry matter to 100 pounds, 526; effects on flavor in milk, 212; effect on percentage of fat, 211; effect on quantity of milk, 212; effect of total solids in milk, 211; fermenting, for . horses, 49; fertilizing constituents, in 1000 pounds, 526; functions, 41, ash, 42, carbohydrates, 43, fat, 43, pro- tein, 42, water, 41; grinding, 48; list, 526; nutrients, 46; order of supply- ing, 57, 212; preparation for swine, 469; requirements for beef, 281; requirements for milk, 203; require- ments for sheep, 379; requirements for swine, 468; required for work, 569 .steaming, 44; use, 387; used for baby-beef, 292; wetting, 49. Foot, corns, 167; cracked hoofs, 168; lameness, 165; rot in sheep, 440; wounds, 167. Forage racks, 328. Fore-arms in horses, 25, 34. Fore-quarters, in beef cattle, 201; in dairy cattle, 194; in sheep, 370. Foul sheath, 180. Founder, 17. Fracture, 160. Fraser, 221. Fraser’s soiling system, 221. French coach horse, 87. 538 French draft horse, 111. Fruit-growing, 100. Full feed, 296. Galbraith, Alex., 30. Galloway bull, 312. Galls, 163. Galton’s Law, 80. Gambetta Wilks, 87. Gammon, 466. Garget, in cattle, 340; sheep, 448; swine, 523. Generative organs, 331. Gestation table, cattle, 249; 108; sheep, 408; swine, 495. Gifford & Stockwell, 344. Gillis, A. R., 81. Glista, 243. Glista family, 243. Goats and dogs, 377. Goodwin, John, 488. Goodwin, J. S., 298. Goubaux, 10. Grade dairy herd, 239. Grading, 89. Grading-up table, 243. Grain-farming, 100. Grass, fattening, 285. Gravel, 17. Grinding feed, 469; food, 48. Grippe, 178. Grooming the horse, 127. Gruels for foal, 118. Guenon, 198. Guernsey cow, 192. Gutter, 269. horse, 284; turning to, Hackney coach horse, 22, 79; pony, 79. Haecker, 206. Halter training, 134. Hambletonian, 10, 84. Hame-tug, 146. Hampshire sheep, 400, 488. Hams, 463, 466. Harness, caring for, 149; room, 149. Harnessing, 141; adjusting hame-tug, 146; bit, 142; breast harness, 147; bridle, 142; colt (see colt); fitting cob, 148; cleaning, INDEX back-band, 147; fitting the collar, 145; fitting crupper, 147. Hartline, Frank, 337. Harvesting time, 48. Head, beef cattle, 200; dairy cattle, 194; horse, 23; sheep, 368; swine, 459. Hearing, 16. Heart’s Delight Farm, 418. Heaves, 176. Hechtner, C. 8., 312. Heifer feeding, 223. Hengerveld De Kol, 86. Herd, dairy, 238; grading-up, 239; (see cattle). Heredity, 83. Hereford cow, 306. Hind-quarters in dairy cattle, 195. Hinny, 125; breeding, 124. Hitching, double, 139; single, 139. Hips in swine, 462. Hip-straps, 147. Hocks, 28, 36; capped, 164. Hog-dipping equipment, 504, 509. Hogs following beef cattle, 295; swine). Holstein-Friesian cattle, 205. Hood Farm, 245. Hoof, care of, 131; cracked, 168; oil, 131; quarter crack, 168; rate of growth, 132; sand crack, 168; toe erack, 168; (see horse). Horned Dorset. ram, 418. Horns, in estimating age, moving, 255, 354. Horse, abortion, 110; action, 21, 32; American saddler, 97; Arab, 6; asthma, 176; azoturia, 179; bad mouth, 137; barrenness, 109; bed- ding, 129; Belgian, 58; bitting, 137; blankets, 130; blemish, 14; bred each year, 96; breeding, 96; breeding two-year filly, 103; breed- ing stock, 99; broken wind, 176; capped elbows, 16; care, 127; care of teeth, 128; catarrh, 174; choos- ing, 3; choosing heavy, 29; choos- ing light, 20; clipping, 128; clipped hair on legs, 128; Clydesdale, 30; constipation, 174; colic, 172; co- operative breeding, 98; cribbing, 15; (see 189; re- INDEX curb, 18; defective hearing, 16; detail character of heavy horses, 33, of light horses, 23; diarrhea, 172; discharge of nostrils, 15; diseases, 151; distemper, 177; English shire, 35; estimating age, 7; examination in action, 6; examination in stable, 5; feeding, 56; feeding brood mare, 65; feeding for driving, 63; feeding for work, 60; feeding when idle, 64; feet, 131; fistule, 16; foal, 112; forging, 18; for police, 106; French coach, 87; French draft, 111; general appearance in heavy, 29, in light, 21; general examination, 5; gestation table, period, 108; good mouth, 136; hackney coach, 79; harnessing, 141; heaves, 19, 176; “horse company,” 99; impaired vision, 16; indigestion, 171; in- fluenza, 178; interfering, 19; judg- ing, 3; lameness, 158; locating lameness, 19; management, 127; mare, 103; Morgan, 94; number, 96; order of supplying food, 57; overreaching, 18; parturition time, 110; Percheron, 15; plan of breed- ing, 96; poll-evil, 16; quality, 22; regularity in feeding, 57; ring-bone, 17; roaring, 19,176; sample rations, 68, artillery, cavalry, colt, draft, farm, hunter and race horse, 69; scouring, 173; scratches, 17; season of year to breed, 104; Shetland pony, 117; shoeing, 132; sick, 151; side-bone, 17; sound, 14; sound- ness in breeding, 102; spavin, 18; splints, 16; stallion, 102; stringhalt, 18; Suffolk, 74; sweenied, 16; tem- perament, 23; thick-wind, 176; thoroughpin, 18; training, 133; training vicious, 141; types, 19, heavy and light, 20; type to breed, 100; uniformity in breeding, 101; unsound, 14; unsound hoofs, 17; unsound knees, 16; value of care, 128; watering, 59; weight of heavy horses, 31; when mares should be 539 Idle horse, feeding, 64. Impaction in cattle, 353. Improvement, the basis of, 72; unit of, 237. In-breeding, 92. Indigestion, 171. Individual merit, 78. Influenza, 178. Inheritance, 83; of disease, 83. Ink marking, 421. Interfering, 166. Irritants, 156. Jack, 125; breeding, 121; care of, 124: Catalonian, 123; foals, 121. Jennet, 125; breeding, 121; parturi- tion, 121. Jersey bull, 245. Jersey cow, ‘‘Jacoba Irene,” 250. Jersey Red hog, 474. | Jerusalem artichoke, 475. Johanna, 85. Jordan, Dr., 276. Jowls, 459. Judging, cattle, 185; beef cattle, 198, dairy cow, 189; faculties, 3; horse, 3; lard-hogs, 455; sheep, 359, swine, 453. Kale, 386. Kansas Agricultural College, 105. Kemp, 375. Kicking cow, 354. Kick-strap, 140. Knee, 26, 34; bucked, 463; capped, 164. Lambing time, 411. Lambs, 413; care, 417; castrating, 419; chilled, 414; constipation, 416; diarrhea, 416; disowned, 415; dock- ing, 419; dressing, 393; fall, 396; feeding, 391, 417; first meal, 413; full feed, 397; ills 416, constipation 416, diarrhea 416, pinning 416, sore eyes 417, sore mouth 417; mark- ing, 420; spring, 396; teaching to drink, 414; weaning, 417; winter, 388, 398. tried, 107; whistling, 176. Hot-house lamb, 389. Hypodermic medication, 154. Lameness, 158; blood-spavin, 161; bog-spavin, 161; bone-spavin, 158; bony enlargements, 158; curb, 163; 540 fractures, 160; foot, 165; interfer- ing, 166; overreaching, 166; ring- bones, 158; shoulder, 162; side- bones, 158; splints, 158; sprains, 161; sweeny — shoulder, 162; thoroughpin, 161; wind-galls, 161. Laminitis, 17. Lampas, 170. Lard-hog, winter feeding, 481. Lard type, 453. Large Yorkshire swine, 465. “Lean to,” 153. Leet, Chas. & Jas., 384. . Leg of horse, 28; of mutton, 370; in swine, 463. Leg of mutton, 370. Lehman & Wolff, 57. Leicester ewe, 437. Lice, 440; swine, 520. Lincoln sheep, 449. Line-breeding, 90. Liniments, 155. Litter-carrier, 269. Loin in beef cattle, 278; in horses, 27. Long-horn cattle, 70. Lord Netherland De Kol, 86. Lot, 327; dry, 289; feeding, 289; hog, 509; paving, 327; quarantine, 510; sheep, 438. Machines, milking, 260. Maintenance rations, 50. Management, beef cattle, 320; dairy cattle, 257; horses, 127; sheep, 422; swine, 503. Mangels for sheep, 387. Mangers, 267. ‘ Maplewood, 79. Mare, 103; abortion, 110; barren- ness, 109; brood, 65; colostrum milk for foals, 113; feeding, 65; parturition time, 110; at weaning time, 120; when to try to breed, 107. Marketable condition, 297. Market condition of steers, 299; local, 293. Market-gardening, 100. Marshall, C., 360. Mating, 81; sheep, 407. May & Otis, 310. Mayes’ ‘‘ Diseases of Animals,’’ 151. INDEX Measure of feed, 525. Medication, 154; bathing, 156; blis- ters, fly and red, 156; drenching, 154; enemas, 156; external, 155; firing line and point, 157; hypodermic, 154; liniments, 155; lotions, 155; ointments, 155; plasters, 157; poul- tices, 155. Medicine, administering, 154. Merino, American, 375; A type, 364; B type, 365; C type, 365; Delaine, 360; ram, 364. Milk, colostrum, 113; cooling, 259; effect of food on composition, 210; effect of food on fat, 211; effect of food on quantity, 212; effect of total solids, 211; for calf, 253; for foal, 118; food and flavor, 212; food requirements for, 203; reading per- centage fat, 233; sampling, 232; sanitary, 257; signs of milking ca- pacity, 197; skim-milk for calves, 253; substitutes for calves, 255; testing for fat, 232; using acid, 233; whirling bottles, 233: Milk-cooler, 260. Milk-fever, dairy cattle, 338; mare, 111; sheep, 448; swine, 523. Milk-house, 259. Milking, 260. Milking-machines, 260. Milk-mirror, 198. Milk-oil, 426. Milk-records, 229; keeping, record-sheet, 231; value, 232. Milk-signs, 197. Milk-veins, 197. Moon-blindness, 181. Morgan horse, 94. Mouth, ailments of, 164; importance of a good one, 136; lampas, 170; sore, 417; sore, swine, 522. Moyer, H. A., 205. Mud fever, 169. Mules, 67, 124, 125; feeding, 67. Mustard plaster, 157. Mutton, leg of, 370. 230; breeding, 124; Naptholeum, 426. National Merino, 360. INDEX National Stockman and Farmer, 67. Navel infection, 116. Navicular disease, 17. Neck sore, 163. Nets, fly, 148. Nutrients, 46. Nutritive-ratio, 52. Oats, 386. Oil, neatsfoot, 149. Ointments, 155. Old Fanny Cook, 86. Oli Granny, 86. Onward, 87. Otis & May, 310. Outdoor blanket, 131. Over-check rein, use of, 144. Overreaching, 166. Oxford sheep, 409. Pails, milk, 260. Palatability, 48. Parasites, external, 441. Parents, relative influence, 88. Parnell,.G. W., 425. Parturition, 334; apoplexy, 339; diffi- cult in cattle, 334; difficult in horse, 112; difficult in sheep, 412; in jen- nets, 121; time in cows, 248; time in mares, 110; time in sheep, 411; time in swine, 496. Parturition fever, 339; sheep, 448; swine, 523. Pasterns in light horses, 26, 28; heavy horses, 34. Pastures, 286, 322, 382: caring for, 287; change for sheep, 383; for swine, 475; sown for sheep, 385; steers at, 288; turning sheep, 382; turning to, 285. Paul Beets De Kol, 86. Paving feed lot, 327. Pedigree, 78. Pens, lambing, 412. Percheron horse, 15; why large, 71. Permanent pastures, 286. Pigs, 498; after weaning, 501; care of, 496; castrating, 501; feeding, 500; first meal, 498; marking, 501; ills, 499, digestive disorders, 499, 440; internal, eattle, 339; in 541 scours 500, thumps 500; sow eating, 497; weaning, 500. Pink-eye, 181. Pinning in sheep, 416. Platform for feed-bunks, 327. Plumb, C. 8., 476. Pocahontas, 86. Poland China swine, 455, 457. Pork chop, 461; roast, 461. Porterhouse steak, 278. Poultices, 155; bran, bread and milk, flaxseed meal, mashed boiled turnips, 156. Prepotency, 84; breed, 84; race, 84. Prime of rib, 278. Productive rations, 50. Prolificacy, 86. Pumpkins, for sheep, 386; for swine, 476. Quality, in light horses, 22, 23; in heavy horses, 33; in beef cattle, 199; in dairy cattle, 193; in sheep, 367; in swine, 457. Quarantine lot, 510. Quarter-cracks, 17, 132, 168. Quick & Bowen, 214. Quitter, 17. Racks, 328, 398. Ram, 406; managing, 410. Rambouillet, 364; ram, 381.° Ramsdell, J. A. P., 6. Ratio, method of calculating, nutritive, 52. Ration, balanced, 51; for sheep, 386; for swine, 484; sample, for horse, 68. Rations, maintenance, 50; productive, 50; sample, 68; sample, beef cattle, 300-304; sample for dairy cattle, 224; sample for sheep, 401; sample for swine, 484. Records, 229; keeping, 230; of per- formance, 236. Red-blister, 156. Red polled bull, 329. Rein, 144; over-check, side, 144. Retained afterbirth, 336. Reversion, 82. Ribs in horses, 27. Ring-bones, 158. 52; 542 Ringing swine, 474. Roaring, 176. Roots, 218; for dairy cattle, 218; for sheep, 387; for swine, 475. Ross & Carpenter, 277. Rotation pastures, 286. Rump, in sheep, 370; in swine, 462. Rye, 386. Saddle horse, 97; five-gaited, three- gaited, 97. Salt, 60, 379; for beef cattle, 325; for horses, 60; for swine, 472. Sand cracks, 17, 168. : Sanitary milk, 257; cow stable, 258; milking, 260; utensils, 260. Scab, 423, 440. Schmit-Kolding sterile-air outfit, 339. Score card, value, 5. Scouring, 173. Scours in calves, 341; sheep, 416; swine, 521. Scratches, 168. Season of the year to breed beef cattle, 313; dairy cattle, 247; horses, 104; sheep, 407; swine, 492. Sedgley Farms, 252. Seedy toe, 17. Selection, 77. Self-feeder, 325. Shade, for beef cattle, 325; for sheep, 384; for swine, 508. Shearing sheep by hand, 428; by ma- chinery, 429. Shearing, sheep, 427; tying wool, 433; when to shear, 428; wool-box, 433. Sheath, foul, 180. Shed, covered, 258; cattle feeding, 326. Shed-shaped hog house, 508. Sheep, 359; barns, 433; bedding, 388, 436; bloating, 446; breeding, 403; breeding ewes, 407; caked udder, 448; care, 422; care of feet, 388; castrating lambs, 419; catching and holding, 360; change of pasture, 383; Cheviot, 425; chilled lamb, 414; choosing breeding stock, 404; condition and weight, 367; consti- pation, 447; constitutional vigor, 367; Cotswold ram, 441; Delaine colts, 115; INDEX Merino, 360; detail characters, 368 ; difficult parturition, 412; dipping, 423; diseases, 439; disowned lamb, 415; docking lambs, 419; dogs, 377; dressing winter lambs, 393; exer- cise, 387; estimating age, 361; ewe flock, 406; fall lambs, 396; fatten- ing, 388; feeding, 377; feeding the flock, 380; feeding flock in summer, 381; feeding flock in winter, 386; feeding lambs, 391; feeding in corn belt, 399; feeding in East, 399; feeding in West, 398; feed racks, 436; fine-wool, 363; fleece, 372; flock in winter, 386; flushing, 407; food requirements, 379; foot rot, 440; form, 366; general appearance, 366; garget, 448; gestation, table, 408; Hampshire, 400; holding and catching, 360; hot-house lamb, 388; judging, 359; lambs, 413; lamb ills, 416; lambs on full feed, 397; lambing pens, 412; lambing time, 411; Leicester ewe, 437; lice, 440; Lincoln, 449; lot, 438 ; management, 422; managing the ram, 410; marking, 421; mating, 407; method of examination, 359; mutton type, 365; Oxford, 409; overfeeding, 447; pasture, 382; plan of breeding, 404; productive period, 407; quality, 367; feeding rack, 398; ram, 406; ration, 386; roots, 387; sample rations, 401; scab, 423, 440; season to breed, 407; shade, 384, 385; shearing, 427; Shropshire, 342; sick, 439; silage, 387; sore eyes, 440; sore teats, 440; South- down, 384; spring lambs, 396; stomach-worm, 446; tagging, 383; tape-worms, 444; tick, 426; turning to pasture, 382; types, 363, 405; uniformity, 368, 405; washing, 427; weaning lambs, 417; winter lambs, 398; Wolff-Lehman standards, 380. Shetland pony, 117; why small, 71. Shields on swine, 454. Shipping beef cattle, 299. Shoe-boil, 165. Shoe, fitting, 133. Shoeing, 132. INDEX Shorthorn bull, 277. Shoulders, in horses, 25, 34; sores, 163; in sheep, 368; in bacon-hogs, 464; in lard-hogs, 461. Shoulder-lameness, 162. Shropshire sheep, 392; ram, 390. Side-bones, 158. Side-crack, 132. Side-rein, use of, 144. Sides in bacon-hogs, 465; in lard-hogs, 461. Sight impaired, 16, 180. Silage, 218; for cattle, 218; for sheep, 387. Silo, 270; construction, 273; filling, 272; size, 271; table showing ca- pacity, 272. Sirloin steak, 278. Sisson, L. P., 352. Skim-milk for beef calf, 318; for dairy ealf, 253; for foal, 120; for sheep, ‘414; for swine, 484. Sling, to support sick animals, 152. Small Yorkshires, 499. Snyder & Sons, H. D., 66. Soaking feed, 469. Soap, castile, 149. Soiling, 218; examples 220, cattle 220, sheep 386, swine 481. Soundness, in breeding, 102; in horses, 14, Southdown sheep, 384. Sows, 491; after farrowing, 497; eat- ing pigs, 497; feeding summer, 472, winter, 477; pregnant, 494; pro- ductive period, 492; season to breed, 492. Spavin, 18; bog, bone and occult, 18. Speedy cuts, 166. Splints, 158. Sprains, 161. Spring lambs, 396; feeding, 396; foundation stock, 396; marketing, 396. Stable-blankets, 130. Stable-cow, 258. Stable-yard, 258. Staley, W. M., 375. Stallion, 102; securing, 98. Stanchion, 267. . Standard-feeding, 51. 548 Standard Merino, 360. Steer, fat, 202; indications when fat, 299. Steers at pasture, 288. Sterility, 88. St. Lambert, 85. Stockers, wintering, 282. Stockwell & Gifford, 344. Stoke Pogis, 85. Stomach, 45; honeycomb, many-plies, paunch, rennet, 45. Stomach-worm, 440. Strainers, milk, 260. Strangles, 177. Stringhalt, 18. Strongylus contortus, 440. Stud (see horses). Succulent feeds, 217 ; cattle, 217 ; sheep, 386; swine, 480. Sucking cow, 355. Suffolk ewe, 411. Suffolk horse, 74. Sulfuric acid, 233. Sweeny shoulder, 162. Swine, after weaning, 501; age, 454; bacon type, 454; Berkshire, 463; boar, 440; breeding, 487; breeding crate, 493; care, 503; care of pigs, 496; care of tubercular herd, 518; castrating pigs, 501; Cheshire, 496; Chester White, 479; chicken eating, 524; cholera, 511; condition, 456; constipation, 521; constitution, 457 ; choosing lard-hog, 455; cooking feed, 470; detail characters, 459 ; dipping, 503; diseases, 510; Duroc Jersey, 474; fattening, 478: farrowing time, 496; feeding, 467; feeding breeding herd, 472; feeding capacity, 470; feeding for lard, 479, 481; feeding old sow, 478; feeding pigs, 500; feeding standards, 468; feed- ing in summer, 472, 479; feeding in winter, 477; feeding young. sow, 478; food requirements, 468; form, 456; garget, 523; giving feed, 471; general appearance of lard-hog, 456; grinding feed, 469; Hampshire, 488; house, A-shaped, 506; house, shed- shaped, 507; individual hog house, 505; lard type, 453; lice, 520; 544 judging, 453; lot, 509; manage- ment, 503; marking, 501; method of mating, 492; pasture, 475; plague, 517; plan of breeding, 487; pig ills 499, constipation 521, scours 521, thumps 522; Poland China, 457 ; pregnant sow, 494; pro- ductive period, 492; pumpkins, 476; quality, 457; quarantine lot, 510; shelter, 504; removing tusks, 523; ringing, 474; rooting, 474; roots, 475; salt, 472; sample rations, 484; scours, 521; season to breed, 492; selecting breeding stock, 489; self- dipping vat, 503; skim-milk for, 480; soaking feed, 467; sore mouth, 522; soiling for, 473; sows, 491; sow after farrowing, 497; sow eating pigs, 497; Tamworth, 519; thumps, 522: types, 453, 489; tuberculosis, 517; uniformity, 458, 490; wallows, 509, self-dipping, 504; water for, 472; weaning pigs, 500; weight, 456; worms, 519. Syringe, 345. Teenia expansa, 444. Tagging sheep, 383. Tamworth swine, 519; sow, 515. Tanks, water, 328. Tape-worms, 444. Teaching the colt, 133. Teams, matching, 4. Teats, sore, 440. Teeth, abnormal, 170; bishoping, 14; broken, 170; of cattle, 187; care of, 128; decayed, 14, 170; diseased, 170; of horse, 8; irregularities, 13; sheep, 362; split, 170; ulcered, 170. Temperament, in dairy cattle, 193; in horses, 23. Testing milk, 232. Thermometer, 346. Thick wind, 176. Thigh in horses, 27, 36. Thigh-ovals in cows, 198. Thoroughpin, 18, 161. Throat latch, 144. Thrush, 17. Thumps, 522. Tick, sheep, 426. INDEX Toe-crack, 132, 168. Tom Corwin 2d, 85. Tongue-lolling bit, 143. Training the horse, 133. Training, cart, 139; to harness, 137; hitching double, 139; hitching single, 139; kick strap, 140; to lead, 134; to mount, 140; vicious horses, 141, Trees, shade, 325; cattle, 325; sheep, 384. Trocar and canula, 352. Tuberculosis, 343, 345; Bang method of eradicating, 350; eradication, 350; directions for making tuber- culin test, 346; methods of infection, 343; prevention, 349; retesting, 349; spread, 517; in swine, 517; testing outfit, 345; tuberculin, test, 345. Tubers, 218; sheep, 387; swine, 475. Turnips, 386. Tusks, removing, 523. Udder, 195; caked, in cattle, 339; caked, in sheep, 448; garget in cattle, 340; garget in sheep, 448; garget in swine, 523; milk-fever, 338. Uniformity, beef cattle, 310; dairy cattle, 345; horse, 101: sheep, 405; swine, 490. Unsoundness, 14. Variation, 72: causes of 75, crossing 77, environment 75, climate, 75, care, 76, food, 76; kinds of, 73, func- tional, qualitative and quantitative, 73; importance, 72. Vaseline, 346. Vat, dipping, 424; dipping swine, 503; self-dipping swine, 503. Ventilation, 265, 266; King’s system, 266; sheep barns, 434; window, 268. Vicious horses, 141. Victoria sow, 482. Vision impaired, 16. Wallace, 188. Wallows, swine, 504, 509. Water-device, 270. INDEX Watering beef cattle, 325; the horse, 59; the milking cow, 2138; sheep, 427; swine, 472. Waters, 326. Water-tanks, 328. Weaning, the calf, beef, 317; dairy, 252; the foal, 119; the lamb, 417; the pig, 500. Weight, of feed, 525; of horses, 31; of sheep, 367; of swine, 456. Whistling, 176. Wind, thick, 176; unsound, 19. Wind-galls, 161. Windows, 269. Wing, 220. ; Wing’s soiling system, 220. Wintering feeders, 282; stockers, 282. Winter lambs, 398; crating, 395; 545 dressing, 393; foundation stock, 389; packing, 395; shipping, 395; winter quarters, 391. Wolff & Lehman, 57. Womb eversion, 338. Wool-box, 433. Wool, sacks, 433; tying, 433. Work, food required for, 56. Work horse, feeding, 60; grooming, 127; watering, 59. Worms, prevention, 519; in sheep, 440; in swine, 519; treatment, sheep, 442; swine, 519. Wounds, 177. Yard, stable, 258. Zenoleum, 426. “ae following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects RURAL SCIENCE SERIES EpITeD By L. H. BAILEY On f£election of Land, ete. Isaac P. Roberts’ The Farmstead . 3 . - . . On Tillage, etc. F. H. King’s The Soil . 7 é ‘ . . . . Isaac:P. Roberts’ The Fertility of the ‘Lal 5 7 . ; . F. H. King’s Irrigation and Drainage . . . . s Edward B, Voorhees’ Fertilizers . - . . . . . Edward B. Voorhees’ Forage Crops, . : . ie ‘ 4 J. A. Widtsoe’s Diy Farming 7 : é . : . L. H. Bailey’s Principles of Apcultaie, 7 é < . . On Plant Diseases, etc. E. C. Lodeman’s The Spraying of Plants. 7 . . ° On Garden-Making L. H. Bailey’s Garden Making . : - : . ‘i - L. H. Bailey’s Vegetable-Gardening . - @ . . : L. H. Bailey’s Forcing Book : 3 c . : . - On Fruit-Growing, etc. L. H. Bailey’s Nursery Book Fr ° . . . . . L. H. Bailey’s Fruit-Growing ‘ 3 . . 7 . L. H. Bailey’s The Pruning-Book , 3 s . Hi = F. W. Card’s Bush Fruits. a 3 . - . . F On the Care of Live-stock Nelson S. Mayo’s The Diseases of Animals . : . . ‘ W. H. Jordan’s The Feeding of Animals. 7 : . : I. P. Roberts’ The Horse + . ‘ . . George C. Watson’s Farm Poultry . ‘i 5 . . 7 On Dairy Work, Farm Chemistry, etc. Henry H. Wing’s Milk and Its Products. . . . z J. G. Lipman’s Bacteria and Country Life. a . ‘ . On Economics and Organization I. P. Roberts’ The Farmer’s Business Handbook . F George T. Fairchild’s Rural Wealth and Welfare ‘ . THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York eo ee oo oe - 25 1 25 THE RURAL TEXT-BOOK SERIES EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY A series of books primarily intended for the students in agricultural colleges, but exceedingly useful to any one who is willing to give the subject serious study. NOW READY OR IN PRESS The Principles of Soil Management By T. L. LYON anv E. O. 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Bailey's The Evolution of Our Native Fruits . . . . . 2 oonet W.S. Harwood's New Creations in Plant Life . . . .« .« « I7s5net On Economics and Organization J. McLennan’s Manual of Practical Farming . . «. « «+ «». ‘Jgonet.. L. H. Bailey's The State and the Farmer . € ‘ ‘ I 25 net Henry C. Taylor's Agricultural Economics : si qi x 4 I 25 net I. P. Roberts's The Farmer’s Business Handbook I 25 net George T. Fairchild’s Rural Wealth and Welfare I 25 net S. E. Sparling’s Business Organization I 25 net In the Citizen’s Library. Includes a chapter on Farming Kate V. St. Maur’s A Self-supporting Home I 75 net Kate V. St. Maur’s The Earth’s Bounty é I 75 net G. F. Warren and K. C. Livermore’s Exercises i in en Minacemeni § 80 net . H.N. Ogden’s Rural Hygiene . . . : . . wt ‘ T 50 net On Everything Agricultural L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture: Vol. I. Farms, Climates, and Soils. Vol. III. Farm Animals. : Vol. II. Farm Crops. Vol. IV. The Farm and the Community. Complete i in four royal 8vo volumes, with over 2000 illustrations, Price of sets : cloth, $20 net ; half-morocco, $32 net. For further information as to any of the above, address the publisher. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York How to Keep Hens for Profit By C. 8, VALENTINE Cloth, Illustrated, 12mo, $1.50 net The wealth that is sure to come from chickens has long been a delusion to the credu- lous and a subject for cynical jesting to those who have learned that figures can lie. But although much real harm has been done by the calculators who insisted on dem- onstrating the inevitableness of riches if one only started to keep hens, there is an enormous amount of sound information which is certain to be of the greatest assist~ ance to all who have the opportunity to raise poultry. Mr. Valentine is a well-known authority upon the subject. 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BAILEY Cloth, Illustrated, 12mo, $2.00 net This new work is a combination and revision of the main parts of two other books by the same author, “ Garden Making" and “ Practical Garden Book,” together with much new material and the result of the experience of ten added years. Among the persons who collaborated in the preparation of the other two books, and whose contributions have been freely used in this one, are C. E. Hunn, a gardener of long experience; Professor Ernest Walker, reared as a commercial florist; Professor L. R. Taft, and Professor F, A. Waugh, well known for their studies and writings on horticultural subjects. How to Grow Vegetables By ALLEN FRENCH New edition. 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