Lists vit tat : ith 4 UF TRL 4 ae he ht pteteeeit far si PR EB ES SO i mr hed i kia 4 Weak g Vedas} eh SOEs RHI E ond 3 by we ay ” inh} dcrehte fetal Abs Maoh sey Me WPMD) ages? Nib echt ae te EVE. ih Hey Ce av SA HAYS ReMi Pn tran MA dey EAS NAM Vyshr0 shad Aa ue, Trinh eh Medes tar paar eh Fy ng eA Nate 9s ta vty sees Da fi eh bod ‘y aw ; cy ici Iy'y apn stp ite Peat eet iy ae sdprind) atasita fee CU obH fe chet he Mk Are (roy tt ia iret ; mah edur Ay i we sb Ws rhe hg sua a Sav ven AS Wale. ~ bane iN hiya yor iste mica hitiass ‘ et ihshs nt Ache Mh Tehen betn oy pare ew ione . Trae YD inter sebiter Ufa ttiel att CU EER Pilaipyay Meecha, eae abt apenas ea oi vauizie ne i si ah iti Mines ir seatath ebay waren wie ada! hess ten, NA a ent Cae et Ob Vehiae sit’ fags oa ave Darrehs ; SS tae eh : < Lory ene te feel Actus Page. Poca, re sie pe ge a rhe hors seit dy sah Teng A aca Po gti pa eet! Haibcle Wibese eho jobalag im bamaSe Salgetoa singe ousipieieee ie Ss ‘ meaitasens = cue ated YB sgh ty) he sath wots an thtete ela ce = ante Stoo a9) i : *! ar glee Y ~ ore: bl barge ee sedis he een i Fae es Ser i bee Be ns tee tee toga” soap cea ve ‘wvatly e ve: Cae Pr ote seein ts | + ates es’, itis ras Saks a Rte: match CORNEEL WON TVA RES Tal fie LIBRARY LABORATORY OF ORNITHOLOGY LIBRARY KRY TO NABIRDS, | 7 pasa WALKER KEY TO NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS. PRINTED AT THE SALEM PRESS, Corner of Liberty and Derby Streets, Salem, Mass., F. W. PurNAM & CO., PROPRIETORS. October, 1872. Kee NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS CONTAINING A CONCISE ACCOUNT OF EVERY SPECIES OF LIVING AND FOSSIL BIRD AT PRESENT KNOWN FROM THE CONTINENT NORTH OF THE MEXICAN AND UNITED STATES BOUNDARY. ILLUSTRATED BY 6 STEEL PLATES, AND UPWARDS OF 250 WOODCUTS. f , : ee BY Ps = eR ELLIOTT COUES, A BS ASSISTANT SURGEON UNITED STATES ARMY. ee we <> eh ) ao” / & Oo Oe oy 20 4928 pe SALEM: NATURALISTS’ AGENCY. NEW YORK: DODD AND MEAD. BOSTON: ESTES AND LAURIAT. 1872. 258 NS) yh Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by F. W. PUTNAM AND ELLIOTT COUES, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. PREFACE. A PREFACE is indispensable in this instance, simply because I have no other opportunity of properly acknowledging the assistance I have received in preparing this work. JI am particularly indebted to Mr. J. A. Auten, of Cambridge, Mass., who has diligently revised nearly all the proofsheets, and whose critical suggestions have proved invaluable. Mr. Rozerr Ripeway, of Illinois, has given me the benefit of his still unpublished studies of the Raptores and some other groups, besides rendering, as Mr. ALLEN also has, various essential services. Prof. Barrp kindly offered me the use of all the illustrations of his late Review, while Prof. Acassiz generously placed at my disposal the plates accompanying Mr. Atten’s Memoir on the Birds of Florida. Several of the woodcuts have been taken from Prof. Tenney’s Manual of Zoology, with the author’s permission; and a few others have been contributed by Messrs. Lre and Sureparp. With a few exceptions, the rest of the illustrations have been drawn from nature by the author, and engraved by Mr. C. A. WaLxer. I have spoken elsewhere of Prof. Marsu’s almost indispensable coéperation in one part of the work. While material for the greater part of the descriptions has been furnished by the author’s private cabinet, the Synopsis could hardly have been prepared without that free access to the collection of the Smithsonian Institution, of which I have been permitted to avail myself. The only word of explanation that seems to be required is with regard to the large number of genera I have admitted. I have been led into this—unnecessarily, perhaps, and certainly against my judgment—partly by my desire to disturb a current nomenclature as little as possible, and partly because it is still uncertain what value should be attached to a generic name. Among wading and swimming birds —the groups of which are, on the whole, more precisely limited than those of Insessores—I have, however, indicated what I consider to be a reasonable reduc- tion; and on another occasion I should probably extend a like practice, if not one even more ‘conservative,’ to the remaining groups. I will only add, that I consider that several of the admitted families of Oscines will require to be merged in one. These are the Turdide, Saaicolide and Sylviide, if not also the Troglo- dytide and Motacillide.; while the same may prove true of the current Sylvicoline, Tanagrine and Fringilline groups. E. C. Wasnineton, D. C., September 9th, 1872. — 7 CONTENTS. PAGE. INTRODUCTION. 1 Sec. I. OrniruoLogy Drringep — Birps Deriyrp — Brinr DESCRIPTION OF THEIR PECULIAR COVERING. 1 Sec. II. AN ALLUSION TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF Birps — Taxonomy — Srruc- TURE — CHARACTERS — Groups OF DIFFERENT GRADES — TYPES AND ABER- RATIONS — EQUIVALENCY — ANALOGY AND AFFINITY — EXAMPLE. if Src. III. DeErrmirion AND BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE EXTERIOR OF A Birp. — Parts AND OrRGANS—I. Tur Bopy: HEAD, NECK AND BODY PROPER.—II. Tux MEMBERS: BILL, WINGS, TAIL, FEET. 13 Src. IV. Directions — How To Usr tue Key. — How ro Maasure a Sprctr- MEN, ETC. 53 ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE GENERA. Bo ee ts 61 SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS. 69 SYNOPSIS OF THE FOSSIL FORMS. 347 ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 351 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. INTRODUCTION. SECT. I. Ornrrgotocy Drerinrp— Birps DerinrepD— Brier DESCRIPTION OF THEIR PrcuLiarR COVERING. § 1. Scrence (Lat. scire, to know) is knowledge set in order ; knowledge disposed after the rational method that best shows, or tends to show, the mu- tual relations of observed facts. Such orderly knowledge of any particular class of facts — such methodical disposition of observations upon any par- ticular set of objects — constitutes a Special Science. Thus, ORNITHOLOGY (Gr. ornithos, of a bird, logos, a discourse) is the Science of Birds. Or- nithology consists in the rational arrangement and exposition of all that is known of birds. Ornithology treats of the physical structure, physiological processes, and mental attributes of birds; of their habits and manners; of their geographical distribution ; of their relations to each other and to other animals. The first business of Ornithology is to define its ground; to answer the question § 2. War 1s 4 Birp? A Bird is an air-breathing, egg-laying, warm- blooded, feathered vertebrate, with two limbs (legs) for walking or swim- ming, two limbs (wings) for flying or swimming, fixed lungs in a cavity communicating with other air-cavities, and one outlet of genito-urinary and digestive organs; with (negative characters) no teats, no teeth, no fleshy lips, no external fleshy ears, no (perfect) epiglottis nor diaphragm ; no bladder, no scrotum, no corpus callosum ; and with the following collateral characters, mostly shared by more or fewer other animals: — Under jaw hinged with the rest of the skull by means of an interposed movable bone, that is also movably jointed with two bones of the upper jaw; head jointed with neck by only one hinge; shoulder-joints connected with each other by a curved bone, the clavicle (with rare exceptions), and with breast-bone by a straight stout bone, the coracoid; ribs all bony, most of them jointed in the middle as well as with back-bone and breast-bone, and having bony offsets; less than three separate wrist and hand-bones ; two fingers, of one or two bones ; head of thigh-bone hinged in a ring, not in a cup; one of the two leg-bones not forming the ankle-joint ; no separate ankle-bones; less than three sep- arate foot-bones; two to four toes, of two to five bones, always ending in claws; both jaws horny-sheathed and nostrils in the upper one; feet and toes (when not feathered) horny-sheathed ; three eyelids; eyeball with hard KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 1. : (1) 2 STRUCTURE OF FEATHERS. plates in it, eight muscles on it, and a peculiar vascular organ inside; two larynges, or “ Adam’s-apples”; two bronchi; two lungs, perforated to send air into various airsacs and even the inside of bones; four-chambered heart, with perfect double blood-circulation; tongue with several bones; two or three stomachs; one liver, forked to receive the heart in its cleft; gall- bladder or none; more or less diffuse pancreas, or “sweetbread”; a spleen ; intestines of much the same size throughout; ceca, or none; two lobulated, fixed kidneys ; two testicles fixed in the small of the back, and subject to periodical enlargement and decrease; one functional ovary and oviduct; outlets of these last three organs in an enlargement at end of intestine, and their products, with refuse of digestion, all discharged through a common orifice. But of all these, and other characters, that come under the head of description rather than of definition, one is peculiarly characteristic of birds; for every bird has FEATHERS, and no other animal has feathers. Naturally, then, we look with special interest upon FEATHERS: § 3. a. Terr Structure. A perfect feather consists of a main stem, or scape (scapus; pl. 1, fig. 7, ad), and a supplementary stem or after- shaft (hyporhachis; pl. 1, fig. 7, 6), each bearing two webs or vanes (vex- illum, pl. vexilla; pl. 1, fig. 7,¢), one on either side. The scape is divided into two parts; one, the tube or barrel, or “quill” proper (calamus; pl. i fig. 7, d) is hard, horny, hollow, cylindrical and semitransparent ; one end tapers to be inserted into the skin; the other ends, at a point marked by a little pit (wmbilicus), in the shaft (rhachis), or second part of the stem; the rhachis is squarish, and tapers to a point; is less horny, is opaque, and filled with white pith; it alone bears the vexilla. The after-shaft has the same structure, and likewise bears vexilla; it springs from the stem, at junc- tion of calamus and rhachis, close by the umbilicus. It is generally very small compared with the rest of the feather; but in a few birds is quite as large; it is wanting in many; and is never developed on the principal wing and tail feathers. The vane consists of a series of appressed, flat, narrowly lance-shaped or linear lamine, set obliquely on the rhachis, and divarica- ting outward from it at a varying angle; each lamina is called a barb (barba; pl. 1, fig. 6, a, a). Now just as the rhachis bears barbs, so does each barb bear its vanes (darbules; pl. 1, fig. 6, 6, 6, c); it is these last that make a vane truly a wed, that is, they connect the barbs together, so that some force is required to pull them apart. They are to the «barbs ex- actly what the barbs are to the shaft, and are similarly given off on both sides of the barbs, from the upper edge of the latter. They are variously shaped, but generally flat sideways, with upper and lower border at base, rapidly tapering to a slender thread-like end; and are long enough to reach over several barbules of the next barb, crossing the latter obliquely. All the foregoing structures are seen with the eye or a simple pocket lens, but the next two require a microscope; they are barbicels (or cilia; pl. 1, fig. TYPES OF FEATHERS. 3 8), and hooklets (Aamuli; pl. 1, fig. 8). These are simply a sort of fringe to the barbules, just as if the lower edge of the barbule were frayed out, and only differ from each other in one being plain, J) hair-like processes, and the other being hooked at the ji end. Barbicels do occur on both anterior and pos- Y terior rows of barbules; but rarely on the latter; , hooklets are confined to barbules of the anterior series, which, as we have seen, overlie the posterior rows of barbules, diagonally forming a meshwork. Vf, The beautiful design of this structure is evident; by | it, the barbules are znterlocked, and the vane of the 7 feather made a web; for each hooklet of one barbule I) catches hold of a barbule from the next barb in front, “ __any barbule thus holding on to as many of the bar- Myivid feather of tie tyres Dules of the next barb as it bird. Natural size; a, from terminal curve; 6, z ‘aeqlits - LR ata en ca has hooklets. To facilitate “~_ a haa this interlocking, the bar- > | bules have a thickened upper edge of such size that the hooklets can just grasp it. This is clear- - ‘ ly illustrated in pl. 1. fig. 2, where a, a, a, @are , four barbs in transverse section, viewed from the cut surfaces; with their anterior (0, 0, 6, 6), and = posterior (c, c, ¢, ¢) barbules, the former bearing the hooklets which catch over the edge of the aes > Fia.1. Section from loosely barbed lattex 0 feather of Lyre-bird. Natural size. 2 6. But all feathers do not answer the above description. First, the after-shaft may be wanting, as we have seen; then, as frequently happens, hooklets may not be developed, and barbicels may be few or wanting ; barbules may be few or wanting, or so trans- formed as to be only recognized by position, and even barbs themselves may be wanting on one side of the shaft, as in some tail feathers of the famous Lyre-bird, or on both sides, as in certain bristly feathers about the , mouth and eyelids of various birds. (Certain unusual styles of feathers are shown in figs. 1, 2, 3.) Con- sideration of these and other modifications has led to the recognition of three § 4. Types or Srrucrurr. 1. The feathery (pen- nacea), characterized as above. 2. The downy (plum- \ & ulacea), when the stem is short and weak, with soft Fe ae i Sect oes iaus; YVhachis and barbs, with long, extremely slender, mostly from one ore eaten feathers rre-bird; 6, ; : : , 4 : 5 einglesbarbhaeen ie thread-like barbules, with little knotty dilatations in place of barbicels, and no hooklets. 38. The hairy (jiloplumacea) with a thin, stiff calamus, usually no pith in the rhachis, fine cylindrical stiff barbs 4 KINDS OF FEATHERS. and barbules, the latter wanting barbicels, knots and hooklets. The first two types may be found in different parts of the same feather, as in pl. 1, fig. 7, which is partly pennaceous, partly plumulaceous. All feathers are built upon one of these three plans; and, though seemingly endless in di- versity, may be reduced to four §5. Dirrerenr Kinps or Fraruers. 1. Contour-feathers (penne) have a perfect stem composed of barrel or shaft, and vanes of pennaceous structure at least in part, usually with downy structure toward the base. They form the great bulk of the plumage, that is upon the surface of a bird, exposed to light; their tints give the bird’s colors; they are the most vari- ously modified of all, from the fishlike scales of the penguin, to the glit- tering plates of the humming-bird, and all the endless array of tufts, crests, ruffs and other ornaments of the feathered tribe; even the imperfect bristle- like feathers above-mentioned belong here. Another feature is, that they are usually individually moved by cutaneous muscles, of which there may be several to each feather, passing to be inserted into the sheath of the tube, inside the skin, in which the stem is inserted; it is estimated that some birds have twelve thousand of these little feather muscles. Every one has seen their operation when a hen shakes herself after a sand-bath; and any one may see them plainly under the skin of a goose. 2. Down-feath- ers (plumule), characterized by the plumulaceous structure throughout. These form a more or less complete investment of the body ; they are almost always hidden from view beneath the contour-feathers, like padding about the bases of the latter; occasionally they come to light, as in the ruff about a condor’s neck, and then usually occur where there are no other feathers ; they have an after-shaft or none, and sometimes no rhachis at all, when the barbs are sessile in a tuft on the end of the barrel. They often, but not always, stand in a regular quincunx between four contour-feathers. 3. The semiplumes (semipluimce), which may be said to unite the characters of the last-two, possessing the pennaceous stem of one and the plumulaceous vanes of the other. They stand among penne, like the plumule, about the edges of patches of the former, or in parcels by themselves, but are always coy- ered over by contour-feathers. They are with or without an after-shaft. 4. Filoplumes (jfiloplumc), or thread-feathers ; these have an extremely slen- der, almost invisible, stem, not well distinguished into barrel and shaft, and no vanes (with rare exceptions), unless a few barbs near the end of the rhachis may be held for such. Long as they are, they are usually hidden by the contour-feathers, close to which they stand as accessories, one or more seeming to issue out of the very sac in which the larger feathers are implanted. They are the nearest approach to hairs that birds have. § 6. Precunian Fratuers. Certain down-feathers are remarkable for continuing to grow indefinitely, and with this growth there is constant break- ing off of the ends of the barbs. These feathers, from being always dusted over with the dry, scurfy exudation or exfoliation from the follicle in which they grow, are called powder down-feathers. They occur in the hawk, par- PLUMAGE: TRACTS AND SPACES. 5 rot, and gallinaceous tribes, but especially in the heron family, where they are always present, and readily seen as two large patches of greasy or dusty, whitish, matted feathers over the hips and in front of the breast. Their use is not known. § 7. Fearner Orn-cuanp. With comparatively few and irregular ex- ceptions, birds have a singular apparatus for secreting oil with which to lu- bricate and polish their feathers. It is a two-lobed, or rather heart-shaped, gland, saddled upon the root of the tail; consisting essentially of numerous slender secreting tubes or follicles, the ducts of which successively unite in larger tubes, and finally perforate the skin at one or more little nipple- like eminences. Birds press out a drop of oil with their beak, and then dress the feathers with it. The gland is largest in water-birds, which have most need of an impervious coating of feathers, and always present among them ; very large in the fish-hawk; smaller in other land-birds, and want- ing (it is said), among the ostriches, bustards, parrots and some others. (In pl. 1, fig. 4, the line 6 points to the oil-gland.) § 8. DevELopmMent or Frarnuers. In a manner analogous to that of hair, a feather grows in a little pit or pouch formed by inversion of the der- mal layer, and is formed in a closed oval follicle consisting of an inner and outer coat separated by a layer of fine granular substance. The outer layer, or “outer follicle ” is composed of several thin strata of nucleated epithelial cells; the inner is thicker, spongy and filled with gelatinous fluid; a little artery and vein furnish the blood-circulation. The imner is the true matrix of the feather, evolving from the blood-supply the gelatinous matter, and resoly- ing this into cell nuclei; the granular layer is the formative material. The outer grows a little beyond the cutaneous sac that holds it, and opens at the end; from this orifice the future feather protrudes as a little, fine-rayed pencil point. During subsequent growth the follicular layers undergo little further change ; it is the granular that becomes the feather. § 9. Alla bird’s feathers, of whatever kind and structure, taken together, constitute its péilosis or PLUMAGE. (a.) FeaTHERED TRAcTs AND UNFEATHERED Spaces. With the exception of certain birds that have obviously naked spaces, as about the head, ete., all would be taken to be fully feathered. So they are fully covered with feath- ers; but it does not follow from this, that feathers are implanted everywhere upon the skin. On the contrary, this is the rarest of all kinds of feather- ing, though it occurs, almost or quite perfectly, among the penguins and toucans. Let us compare a bird’s skin to a well-kept park, part woodland, part lawn; then where the feathers grow is the woodland; where they do not grow, the lawn; the former places are called ¢racts (pteryle) ; the latter spaces (apteria) ; they mutually distinguish each other into certain definite areas. Not only are the tracts and spaces thus definite, but their size, form and arrangement mark whole families or orders of birds, and so are impor- 6 CHANGES OF PLUMAGE. tant for purposes of classification. They have been specially studied, named and classified by the celebrated Nitzsch, who has laid down the following as the general plan obtaining in the vast majority of birds : — (6.) 1. The spinal or dorsal tract (pteryla spinalis, pl. 1, fig. 4,1), running along the middle of the bird above from nape of the neck to the tail; subject to great variation in width, to dilation and contraction, to forking, to sending out branches, to interruption, etc. 2. The humeral tracts (pt. humerales, pl. 1, fig. 4,2), always present, one on each wing; narrow bands running from the shoulder obliquely backward upon the upper arm- bone, parallel with the shoulder-blade. 3. The femoral tracts (pt. femo- rales, pl. 1, fig. 4,3), a similar oblique band upon the outside of each thigh, but, unlike the last, subject to great variation. 4. The ventral tract ( pt. gastro’, pl. 1, fig. 3,8), which forms most of the plumage on the under part of a bird; commencing at or near the throat, and continued to the anus; it is very variable like the dorsal tract, is usually bifurcate, or divided into right and left halves with a central apterium, is broad or nar- row, branched, etc.; thus, Nitzsch enumerates seventeen distinct modifica- tions! The foregoing are mostly isolated tracts, that is, bands nearly surrounded by apteria that are complementary to them; the following are continuously, uniformly feathered, and therefore, in general, equivalent to the part of the body they represent. Thus, 5, the head tract (pt. capitis, pl. I, figs. 8,4; 4,4), clothes the head and generally runs into the beginning of both dorsal and ventral tracts. 6. The wing tract, (pt. alaris, pl. 1, figs. 3, 5; 4,5), represents all the feathers that grow upon the wing, except those of the humeral tract. 7. The tail tract (pt. caudalis, pl. 1, figs. 3,6; 4,6), includes the tail feathers and their coverts, those surrounding the oil-gland, and usu- ally receives the termination of the dorsal, ventral, and femoral tracts. 8. The leg tract (pt. cruralis, pl. 1, figs. 8, 7; 4, 7), clothes the legs as far as these are feathered, which is sometimes to the toes, generally only to the heel. I need not give the spaces, as these are merely the complements of the tracts ; and the highly important special feathering of the wings and tail will be examined in describing those members for purposes of classification. § 10. Procress AnD Cuaner. Newly hatched birds are covered with a kind of down, entirely different from the feathers they ultimately acquire. It is scanty, leaving much of the body naked, in Altrices, or those birds that ave reared by the parent in the nest ; but thick and puffy in a few of these, and in all Prevcoces, that run about at birth. But true feathers are soon gained, in some days or weeks, those of wings and tail being the first to sprout. The first plumage is usually only worn for a short time —then another is gained, and frequently several more changes ensue before the bird attains its mature covering. Feathers are of such rapid growth, that we can easily understand how exhaustive of vital energies the growth must be, and how critical a pe- riod the change is. The renewal of plumage isa process familiar to all under the term “ moult” (ecdysts). It commonly occurs at least once a year, and generally twice, in spring and fall; when old, faded and worn out feathers CLASSIFICATION. a are shed, and fresh ones take their place, either over a part or the whole of the body. The change frequently or generally results in considerable differ- ences of color, constituting the “seasonal plumages” of so many birds, which, in the same bird, may change from black to white even, from plain to variegated, from dull to brilliant. But birds also change colors, by actual alteration in the tints of the feathers themselves, and by gaining new ones without losing any old ones. The generalization may be made, that when the sexes are strikingly different in color, the young at first resemble the female; but when the old birds are alike, the young are different from either. When the seasonal changes are great, the young resemble the fall plumage of the old. When the old birds of two different species of the same genus are strikingly alike, the young of both are usually intermediate between them, and different from either. Besides being the most highly developed, most complex, wonderfully per- fect and beautiful kind of tegumentary outgrowth; besides fulfilling the obvious design of covering and protecting the body, the plumage has its § 11. Pecuniar Orrice: that of accomplishing the act of flying. For all vertebrates, except birds, that progress through the air—the flying-fish with its enlarged pectoral fins; the flying reptile (Draco volans) with its skinny parachute ; the flying mammal (bat) with its great webbed fingers — accomplish aérial locomotion by means of tegumentary expansions. Birds, alone, fly with tegumentary outgrowths, or appendages. SECT. II. AN ALLUSION TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF Birps— Taxon- OMY — STRUCTURE — CHARACTERS — Groups OF DIFFERENT GRADES — Types AND ABERRATIONS— EQUIVALENCY — ANALOGY AND AFFINITY — EXAMPLE. SrEInG what a bird is, and how distinguished from other animals, our next business is to find out how birds are distinguished from each other ; when we shall have the material for § 12. CuasstricaTion, a prime object of ornithology, without which, birds, however pleasing they are to the senses, do not satisfy the mind, which always strives to make orderly disposition of things, and so discover their mutual relations and dependencies. Classification presupposes that there are such relations, as results of the operation of fixed inevitable law; it is, therefore, § 13. Taxonomy (Gr. taxis, arrangement, and nomos, law), or the ra- tional, awful disposition of observed facts. Just as taxidermy is the art of fixing a bird’s skin in a natural manner, so taxonomy is the science of arranging birds themselves in a natural manner, according to the rules that, to the best of our knowledge and belief, are deducible from examination of their § 14. Srrucrurr: ‘The physical constitution of a bird; all the material constituents of a bird, and the way its parts or organs are put together. 8 CLASSIFICATION. Internal structure, or anatomical structure (ana, and temnein, to cut), so called because we have to cut into a bird to see it, comprehends all the parts of a bird that are ordinarily hidden from view; external structure, those that lie exposed to view upon the surface. Much time has been wasted in arguing the superiority of one or the other of these for purposes of classifi- cation; as if a natural classification must not be based upon ail points of structure! as if internal and external points of structure were not reciprocal and the mutual exponents of each other! External points of structure stand to internal somewhat in the relation of interest and capital; it is legit- imate and wise enough to use interest only unless we need to draw upon capital. In our greater taxonomic enterprises —in the founding of our higher groups—we require all the capital we can get; in our lesser under- takings the interest alone is sufficient. Moreover, birds are so much alike in their anatomical structure, that this answers taxonomic purpose only for higher groups; and practically, at any rate, we make our lesser divisions so readily from external structure, that this may be said to furnish most of our § 15. ZootocicaL CHaracters. A “character” is any point of struct- ure whatsoever that is susceptible of being perceived and described for the purpose of distinguishing birds from each other. Characters are of all grades, or values, from the trivial ones that separate two species, to the fundamental ones that mark off primary divisions. ‘The more characters, of whatever grade, that birds have in common, the more closely they are allied to each other, and conversely. The possession of more or fewer characters in common, results in § 16. Drarrers or Lixeness. Were all birds alike, or did all birds differ by the same characters to the same degree, no classification would be possible. But we find that they vary within wide limits—from the almost imperceptible difference between two hatched in the same nest, to the extreme unlikeness between a thrush and a penguin. ‘This is the arena of classification; this gives us both the room and the material to divide birds into groups, and subdivide these into other groups, of greater or lesser “value,” or grade, according to the more or fewer characters shared in common. We saw that (in addition to other characters), all birds have feathers, which no other animals possess ; birds can be separated from other animals, but not from each other, by this feature; it is therefore a cLAss character. Even the § 17. Prorary Division of birds must be made from a character of less value than this. A broad generalization upon the sum total of all the ex- hibitions that (recent—geologically) birds make in their modes of life, shows that these are of three sorts. Hither birds habitually live above the earth, in the air or on trees; or they habitually live on the ground; or they habitually live on the water; and in each case, their structure was designed and fitted for such particular end. We have, therefore, at the outset three types of structure correspondent with, and equivalent to, three plans of life; and, if our observations are correct, and our reasoning not fallacious, these ORDERS, FAMILIES, 9 types or plans, seemingly an abstract induction of ours, are as real as the birds themselves. It is natural then to divide birds into three primary groups: Aérial Birds (Aves Aérew), Terrestrial Birds (Aves Terrestres) and Aquatic Birds (Aves Aquaticw). An illustration will make this clear. Men build machines to transport themselves and their goods; the only known media of transportation are the air, the earth and the water; and we do not imagine any sort of vehicles more unlike than a balloon, a buggy, and a brig; these, therefore, exemplify the most fundamental division of machines for transportation. § 18. Orprrs. Taking any one of these types of structure, we find that it may be unfolded, or carried out, in different ways. Studying all known aquatic birds, for example, we sce that their pian of life is fulfilled in four different ways; it is exhibited under four aspects, or modes of execution, each distinguished by some particular combination of aquatic characters with certain other characters that we did not take into account in framing our Aves Aquatice. Thus a goose, a gannet, a gull and a guillemot, all agree in aquatic characters, but differ from each other by each having certain characters that the other three lack. Characters marking such modes of ex- hibition are called ordinal; and the groups so organized, Orders. In our illustration, there are likewise four plans of aquatic machines; diving bells, sailing vessels, steamships and rowboats, clearly distinguished by the way in which motion (the prime function of all vehicles) is effected; in this case it is by weight, by wind, by steam, by muscle; therefore the machinery by which these forces are applied, furnishes ordinal characters of aquatic vehicles. 3 §19. Faminies. But all the birds of an order are not alike; some re- semble each other more than they do the rest;-so another set of groups must be made. These groups are called Families; they consist in a certain combination of all ordinal characters with special sets of characters of the next lower grade or value. Let « represent the sum total of strictly ordi- nal characters, and suppose we find these variously combined with a certain number of the next lower grade of characters, as a, b,f for instance; then the particular combination « (abc) is one family; x (bef) another; x (cde) another, etc., and we shall have as many families under an order as there actually are such combinations. Sometimes an order may be represented by « (a. ..f); then there is but one family, as, for example, in the aquatic order Lamellirostres where the Anatide alone furnish every one of the ordi- nal features, and are equivalent to the order; that is to say (a... f) =a, because no character from a to f is wanting in any member of the order. In our order sailing vessels, of aquatic machines, masts and sails are ordi- nal characters, because they are essential apparatus to catch the wind. But these may be of a varying number, etc., upon which we might found families of sailing-vessels, as the ship family, represented by x (three masts + square sails) ; the schooner family « (two masts + fore-and-aft sails) ; the sloop family x (one mast + fore-and-aft sails), etc. Diving bells, I sup- KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 2 10 GENERA, SPECIES, VARIETIES. pose, are so much alike, that they might be called an order of aquatic machines of but one family. § 20. Genera. After family manifestations of ordinal characters, we come to the modifications of families themselves,.enquiring how many kinds of difference (genus, a kind, pl. genera) there are in the birds composing a family. The mode of determining genera in a family is precisely like that of determining families in an order; it is # again (this time representing fam- ily characters) into a varying number or combination of characters of the next lower grade, a—f. A genus is the last definite grouping of birds that is usually recognized; it may be defined as the ultimate essential modifica- tion of structure (ultimate, because there is none lower; essential, because trivial features do not constitute a genus; of structure, because mere size, color, etc., are only specific characters). In the ship family, the three- masted vessel, full-rigeed, with square sails, is a genus (ship-proper) ; one with square sails on two masts only, and fore-and-aft sails on the mizzen, is another genus (bark), and so on. Genera are composed of one or more § 21. Species. The definition of a species has become difficult of late years, but for present purposes we may assume that it is any one of the constant exponents of a genus, comprehending all the birds that bear to each other the relation of parent and offspring; the latter capable of repro- ducing ‘each after its kind’ and maintaining certain characters to an evident degree peculiar to itself. Resting, then, upon this, we have little else to consider before we reach that most unquestionable fact, an individual bird. Species, however, are not absolutely constant; they vary in size, color, etc., within certain limits, under influences not always comprehended as yet, but which seem a part of that universal tendency in nature toward the produc- tion of essential unity in diversity; the operation of which, if completely effective, would level distinctions and abolish difference in sameness. § 22. A Vanipty is a step in this direction; for, although it may seem an opposite step, yet departure from any given point or standard must be approach toward some other. A variety is (generally) distinguished from a species by its tendency to revert to its original stock, or, diverging fur- ther from that, to approach some other type. The former case is constantly being demonstrated, and the latter is probably susceptible of being proven ; but in either case, ¢nconstancy is a marked feature of varieties. Varieties apparently produced by difference in food, climate, etc., are called local races, when restricted to a small area in or around the general distribution of the parent stock; geographical races, when more widely separated over large areas. A hybrid is a cross between two species, almost always of the same natural genus. Hybrids are generally infertile, while crosses between mere varieties are capable of reproduction, so that hybridism becomes in some measure a test ; nevertheless, exceptions are not wanting. § 23. Inrermepiarr Groves. Having arrived at the individual bird, we will retrace our steps for a moment, for the student must sooner or later learn, that, easy as it seems to theoretically determine the foregoing groups, INTERMEDIATE AND ABERRANT GROUPS. a there are many difficulties in the way of their practical definition. This is partly because all birds are singularly inter-related, preseuting few broad, unequivocal, unexceptional characters in the midst of numberless minor modifications, and partly because the higher groups, no less than species and varieties, shade into each other. In our illustration, for example, we find exactly intermediate aquatic machines; thus, it would be difficult for a landsman to say whether an hermaphrodite brig belonged to the ship family, or the schooner family ; he would have to decide according as he considered number of masts, or shape of sails, the more essential family character. But the intermediate groups which remain to be examined are not of this ambiguous nature ; they are unequivocally referable to some particular group of the next higher grade, and, being subordinate divisions, they are distin- guished by the prefix sub, as sub-order, sub-family. Though somewhat difficult to define, they are, I think, susceptible of intelligible, if not always precise, definition. A sub-group of any grade is framed, without taking into consideration any new or additional characters, upon the varying prom- inence of one or more of the characters just used to form the group next above. In our formula above « (abc) for a certain family of the order «, suppose the family character a@ to be emphasized, as it were, and to pre- dominate over 6 and ¢, to the partial suppression of these last: then a sub- family of x (abc) might be expressed thus:—wa# (Adc); and it is further evident, that there will be as many sub-families as there are groups of birds in the family representing varying emphasis of a, or 6, orc; asx (a Bo),% (A 6C), etc. While we take account of new characters of another grade, in forming our successive main groups, in our sub-groups, then, we recog- nize only more or less of the same characters. But the distinction is not always evident; nor is it observed so often as, perhaps, it should be. § 24. TypicaL anp ABERRANT Groups. Waiving what might be rea- sonably argued against considering any group specially “typical” of the next higher, we may define a convenient and frequent term: —The typical genus of a family, or family of an order, is that one which develops most strongly, or displays most clearly, the more essential characters of the next higher group, of which it is one member. And in proportion as it fails to express these in the most marked manner, either by bearing their stamp more lightly, or by having it obscured or defaced by admixture of the characters of a neighboring group, does it become less and less typical (“ subtypical ”’) and finally aberrant. Suppose the ordinal symbol x, as before, to represent the sum of various ordinal characters, more or less essential to the integrity of the order; then obviously, the family characters abc, or def may be com- bined with a varying value of «; thus, #' (abc) or « (def) and the formula of the typical family would be # (a—/f). Thus, it is characteristic of most thrushes (Zurdid@) to have the tarsus booted, but all do not have it so; therefore, in subdividing the family, we properly make a division into thrushes with booted tarsi, and thrushes with scutellated tarsi; the former are typical of the family, the latter sub-typical or even aberrant. ite AFFINITY AND ANALOGY. § 25. Equivatencr or Groups. It may sound like a truism to say, that groups of the same grade, bearing the same name, whatever that may be, from sub-class to sub-genus, must be of the same value; must be distin- guished by characters of equal or equivalent importance. Hquivalence of ‘groups is necessary to the stability and harmony of any classificatory sys- tem. It will not do to frame an order upon one set of characters here, and a family upon a similar set of characters there ; but order must differ from order, and family from family, by an equal or corresponding amount of dif- ference. Let a group called a family differ as much from the other families in its own order as it does from some other order, and it is by this very fact not afamily, but an order itself. Let the orders of birds stand apart a yard, say ; if, then, any families, so-called, stand as far apart, they are not families. It seems a simple proposition, yet it is too often ignored, and always with ill result. Two points should be remembered here: first, that the absolute size or bulk of a group has nothing to do with its grade; one order might contain a thousand species, and another only one, without having its ordinal value disturbed. Secondly, any given character may be of different value in its application to different groups. Thus, number of primaries, whether nine or ten, is a family character almost throughout Oscines; but in one Oscine family, Vireonide, it is scarcely a generic feature. It is difficult, however, to determine such a point as this last without faithful training in ornithology. § 26. Arrinity anp Anatocy. Birds are allied, or apfined, according to the number of like characters they employ for like purposes; they are ana- logically related according to the number of unlike characters that they use for similar purposes. A loon and a cormorant, for instance, are closely affined, because they are both fitted in the same way for the pursuit of their prey under water. A dipper (family Cinclide), and a loon (family Colymbide), are analogous, because they both pursue their prey under water; but they stand almost at the extremes of the ornithological system ; they have almost no affinity beyond their common birdhood ; totally different structure is only modified for the same ends, that are thus brought about by totally different means. So the wings of a butterfly, a bat, and a bird are analogical, be- cause they subserve the same purpose in each case; needless to add, these creatures have no affinity. § 27. With this cursory glance* at some taxonomic principles I pass to a brief explanation of modifications of external characters alone ; some know]- edge of which is necessary to the slightest appreciation of ornithological definitions and descriptions. I shall confine myself mainly to consideration of those that the student will need to understand in order to use the present *As the present occasion obviously affords no opportunity for an adequate discussion of the classification of birds, it is hardly necessary to say to ornithologists, that here I simply assume a class Aves composed of recent birds, as an initial step, without considering the broader generalizations deducible from extinct forms; and that I speak of species and varieties, in the sense in which these terms are commonly used, waiving the biological questions involved. EXTERIOR OF A BIRD. 13 volume easily and successfully. Here, however, I will insert a tabular illus- tration of the foregoing remarks :— Class AVES : — Birds. (Sub-class * Jnsessores : — Perching Birds. ) Order Passrres : — Passerine Perchers. (Sub-order Oscines : — Singing Passerines. ) Family ¢ Turprpx : — Thrushes. (Sub-family + Mimince : — Mocking Thrushes. ) Genus t Mrurus :— Mockers. . (Sub-genus ¢ Wimus: — Typical Mockers. ) Species t potyeLorrus : — Many-tongued. (Variety caudatus : — Long-tailed.) SECT. III. Derrinirion anp BRieF DeEscRIPTION OF THE EXTERIOR OF A Birrp. — Parts AND OrGans —I. THE BODY: HEAD, NECK AND BODY PROPER. —IJ. THE MEMBERS: BILL, WINGS, TAIL, FEET. § 28. THe Contour of a bird with the feathers on, is spindle-shaped, or Susiform, tapering at both ends; it represents two cones, joined base to base at the middle, or greatest girth of body, tapering in front to the tip of the bill, behind to the end of the tail. Obvious design: easiest cleavage of air in front, and lessening of drag or wash behind. But this shape is largely produced by the lay of the plumage; a § 29. Naxep Birp presents several prominences and depressions ; this ir- regular contour is reducible, in general terms, to two double cones. The head tapers to a point in front, at the tip of the bill; and nearly to a point behind, towards the middle of the neck, in consequence of the swelling mus- cles by which it is slung on the neck; from the middle of the somewhat contracted or hour-glass shaped neck, this last enlarges toward the body, by the swelling of the muscles by which it is slung to the body; the body then tupers to the tail. The § 30. Exrrrior oF A Birp is divided into seven parts: 1, head (caput), 2, neck (collum), 3, body (truncus), 4, bill (rostrum), 5, wings (ale), 6, tail (cauda), 7, feet (pedes) : 1, 2, 3, are collectively called “ body,” in dis- tinction to 4, 5, 6, 7, which are members. The * Intermediate groups are in italics and parentheses. { Families now always end in -idw, and sub-families in -inw, a very convenient distinction, since we thus always know the rank designated by words so ending. t A bird’s scientific name now INVARIABLY consists of two words —the genus and the species, the former first, the latter last: thus, Mimus polyglottus ; but we may, if we wish, interpolate the sub-genus in parenthe- ses, and affix the variety with sign var.: thus, Mimus (Mimus) polyglottus, var. caudatus. Generic names are always written with a capital; specific names, according to the rules of the British Association, now gen- erally followed, should never be, though it is customary to so write those that are derived from the names of persons and places, as well as all substantive appellations. 14 HEAD, NECK, BODY. § 31. Heap has the general shape of a 4-sided pyramid; of which the base is applied to the end of the neck, and does not appear from the exte- rior; the uppermost side is more or less convex or vaulted, sloping in every direction, and tapering in front; the sides proper are flatter, more or less perpendicular, and taper in front; the bottom is likewise flattish and simi- larly tapering. The departures from this typical shape are endless in degree, and variable in kind; they give rise to numerous general descriptive terms, as “head flattened,” “head globular,” etc., but these are not susceptible of precise definition. The sides present each two openings, eyes and ears; their position is variable, both absolutely and in respect to each other. But in the vast majority of birds, the eyes are strictly /a¢eral, and near the mid- dle of the side of the head, while the ears are behind and a little below. Exceptions :—owls have eyes “anterior ;” woodcock and snipe have ears be- low and not behind the eyes. The mouth is always a horizontal fissure in the apex of the cone; there are no other openings in the head proper, for the nostrils are always in the bill. The § 32. Neck, in effect, is a simple cylinder: rendered somewhat hour- glass shaped as above stated. Its length is variable, as is the number of bones it has. Bearing the head with the bill, which is a bird’s true hand, it is unusually flexible, to permit the necessarily varied motions of this impor- tant organ. Its least length may be said to be that which allows the point of the bird’s beak to touch the oil-gland on the rump; its length is usually in direct proportion to length of legs, in obvious design of allowing the beak to touch the ground easily to pick up food. Its habitual shape is a double curve like the letter 5; the lower belly of the curve fits in the space between the legs of the merry-thought (fwrcula) ; the upper limb of the curve holds the head horizontal. This sigmoid flexure (sigma, Greek S) is produced by the shape of the jointing surfaces of the several bones: it may be increased, so that the upper end touches the lower belly; may be de- creased to a straight line, but is scarcely carried beyond this in the opposite direction. As a generalization, the neck may be called longest in wading birds; shortest in perching birds ; intermediate in swimming birds; but some waders, as plovers, have short necks; and some swimmers, as swans, extremely long ones; a very long neck, however, among perching birds is rare, and confined mainly to a crane-like African hawk, and certain of the lowest perchers that stand on the confines of the waders. The shape of the § 83. Bopy propEr or trunk (L. ¢runcus), is obviously referable to that of the egg; it is ovate, (LL. ovum, an egy). The swelling breast muscles represent the but of the egg, which tapers backwards. But this shape is never perfectly expressed, and its variations are unnumbered. In general, perching birds have a body the nearest to an oval; among waders, the oval is usually compressed, or flattened perpendicularly, as is well seen in the heron family, and still better in the rail family, where the narrowing is at an extreme ; among swimmers, the body is always more or less depressed, or flattened horizontally, and especially underneath, to enable these birds to. TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BODY. 15 rest with stability on the water; a duck or a diver shows this well. Speak- ing of shape of body, I must allude to the § 34. Crntre or Gravity of a bird, and show the admirable provision by which this is kept beneath the centre of the body. The enormous breast- muscles of a bird are its heaviest parts; sometimes they weigh, to speak roundly, as much as one-sixth of the whole bird. Now these are they that effect all the movements of the wings at the shoulder-joint, lifting as well as lowering the wings; did they all pull straight, the lifters would have to be above the shoulder; but they al] lie below, and the lifters accomplish their office by running through a pulley, which changes their line of traction ; they work, in short, like men hoisting sails from the deck of a vessel; and thus, like a ship’s cargo, a bird’s chief weight is kept below the centre of motion. Topheaviness is further obviated by the fact that birds with a long, heavy neck and head draw this in upon the breast, and extend the legs behind, as is well shown in a heron flying. The nice adjustment of balance by the vari- able extension of the head and legs is exactly like that produced by shifting the weight along the bar of a steel-yard ; this, with the slinging of the chief weight under the wings instead of over or even between them, enables a bird to keep right side up in flight, without exertion. Sub-sect. 1. Of the Body; its Topography, etc. § 85. Brsipes being divided as above into body and members, the exte- rior of a bird is further subdivided; the body being mapped out, mainly for purposes of description, into regions, and the members being similarly re- solved into their component parts or organs. We have first to notice, as the most general, the § 36. Upper anp Unprr Parrs. Draw a line from the corner of the mouth along the side of the neck to and through the shoulder-joint and thence along the side of the body to the root of the tail; all above this line, including upper surface of wings and tail, are upper parts; all below, includ- ing under surfaces of wings and tail, are wader parts; called respectively, “above” and “below.” The distinction is purely arbitrary, but so conven- ient that it is practically indispensable ; for it will be seen in a moment, how an otherwise lengthy description can be compressed into, for example, four words: “above, green; below, yellow:” and these terms are often used because many birds’ colors have some such simple general character. The “upper parts” of the body proper (§ 83) have, also, received the gen- eral name of notewm (Gr. notos, back; fig. 4, 12) : the “under parts,” simi- larly restricted, that of gastreum (Gr. gaster, belly; fig. 4, 20). These two are § 37. Never Nakep, while both head and neck may be variously bare of feathers. The only exception is the transient condition of certain birds dur- ing incubation: when, either, like the eider duck, they pull feathers off the belly to cover the eggs or even to build the nest, or, like several other birds, the plumage below is worn off in setting. The gastreeum is rarely pecu- 16 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BODY. liarly ornamented with feathers of different texture or structure from those of the general plumage; but an instance of this is seen in our Lewis’ wood- pecker. The noteum, on the contrary, is often the seat of extraordinary development of feathers, either in size, shape or texture; as the singularly elegant plumes of the herons. Individual feathers of the notwum are generally pennaceous (§ 4), in greatest part straight and lanceolate ; and a= or i 1 1 ' i 1 Fic. 4. — Topography of a Bird. 1, forehead (frons). 2, lore. 3, cireumocular region. remiges. 28, primary coverts. 29, alula, or bastard wing. 4, crown (verter). 5, eye. 6, hind head (occiput). 7, 30, greater coverts. 31, median coverts. 32, lesser coverts. nape (nucha). 8, hind neck (cervix), 9, side of neck. 33, the *‘ throat,” including 34, 37, 38. 34, jugulum or lower 10. interscapular region. 11, dorswm, or back proper, in- throat. 35,auriculars, 36, malar region. 37, gula, or mid- cluding 10. 12, notwuwm, or upper part of body proper, dle throat. 35, meniwm, or chin. 39, angle of commis- including 10, 11, and 13, 13, rump (wropygium). 14. upper sure, or corner of mouth. 40, ramus of under mandible. tail coverts. 15, tail. 16, under tail coverts. 17, tarsus. 41, side of under mandible. 42, gonys. 43, apex, or tip of 18, abdomen, 19, hind toe (ha/lur). 20, gastreum, includ- bill. 44, tomia, or cutting edges ot the bill. 45, culmen, ing 18 and 24. 21, outer or fourth toe. 22, middle or third or ridge of upper mandible, corresponding to gonys. 46, toe, 23, side of the body. 24, breast (pectws). 25, prima- side of upper mandible. 47, nostril. 48 passes across the ries. 26, secondaries. 27, tertiaries; nos, 25, 26, 27 are all bill a little in front of its base. as a whole they le smoothly imbricated (like shingles on a roof). The gastreeal feathers are more largely plumulaceous (§ 4 ), less flat and imbri- cated, but even more compact, that is, thicker, than those of the upper parts ; especially among water birds, where they are all more or less curly, and very thickset. ‘There are subdivisions of the § 38. Normum. Beginning where the neck ends, and ending where the tail coverts begin, this part of the bird is divided into back (Lat. dorsum; fig. 4,11) and rump (L. uwropygium fig. 4,13). These are direct continuations of each other, and their limits are not precisely defined. The feathers of both are on the pteryla dorsalis (§ 8,6). In general, we may say that the anterior two-thirds or three-quarters of noteum is back, and the rest rump. With the former are generally included the scapular feathers, or scapulars: these are they that grow on the plerylae humerales (§ 8, b): the region of TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BODY. 17 noteum that they form is called scapulare (L. scapula, shoulder-blade) ; that part of notseum strictly between them is called interscapulare (fig. 4, 19) 5 it is often marked, as in the chipping sparrow, with streaks or some other distinguishing coloration. A part of dorsum, lying between interscapulare and uropygium, is sometimes recognized as the “lower back” (L. tergum), but the distinction is not practically useful. To uropygium probably also belong the feathers of the pterylw femorales (§ 8, 6), and at any rate they are practically included there in descriptions; but these properly represent the flanks (Li. hypochondria), that is, the sides of the rump. They are sometimes the seat of peculiarly developed or otherwise modified feathers. The whole of noteum, taken with the upper surfaces of the folded wings, is called the “mantle” (Li. séragulwm), and is often a convenient term, espec- ially in describing gulls. In like manner, the § 39. Gastrwum is subdivided into regions, called, in general terms, “breast” (pectus; fig. 4, 24), “belly” (abdomen; fig. 4, 18) and “sides of the body” (fig. 4,23). The latter belong really as much to back, of course, as to belly ; but in consequence of the underneath freighted shape of a bird’s body, the line we drew (§ 36) passes so high up along the sides, that these last are almost entirely given to gastreum. The breast begins over the merry- thought, where jugulwm (§ 40) ends; on either hand it slopes up into “sides :” behind, its extension is indefinite. Properly, it should reach as far as the breast-bone (sternwm) does; but this would leave, in many birds, almost nothing for abdomen, and the limit would, moreover, fluctuate with almost every family of birds, the sternum is so variable in length and shape. Practically, therefore, we restrict pectus to the swelling anterior part of gastreum, which we call abdomen as soon as it begins to straighten out and flatten. Abdomen, like breast, rounds up on either hand into sides; behind, it ends in a transverse line that passes across the anus. It has been un- necessarily divided into epigastrium, or “pit of the stomach,” and venter, or “lower belly ;’ but these terms are rarely used. (“Crisswm” is a word constantly employed for a region immediately about the anus; but it is loosely used, sometimes including the hypochondria, and oftener meaning simply the under tail coverts; I refer to it again in speaking of these last. ) Although these various boundaries seem fluctuating and not perfectly defin- ite, yet a little practice will enable the student to appreciate their proper use in descriptions, and then use them himself with sufficient accuracy. The anterior continuation of body in general, or the § 40. Neck, is likewise subdivided into regions. Its lateral aspects (ex- cept in a few birds that have lateral neck tracts of feathers) are formed by the meeting over its sides of the feathers that grow on the dorsal and ventral pteryle ; the skin is really not planted with feathers; and partly on this account, perhaps, a distinctively named region is not often expressed ; we say simply “sides of the neck” (parauchenia, fig. 4,9). Behind, it is divided into two portions: a lower, the “hind neck,” or “scruff of the neck,” cervix (fig. 4, °), adjoining the back; and an upper, the “nape of the 2 KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. o. ? 18 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BODY. neck” (nucha ; fig. 4, 7), adjoining the hind head; these are otherwise known as the cervical region, and the nuchal region, respectively, and both together as “the neck behind.” The front of the neck has been, perhaps, unnecessa- rily subdivided, and the divisions vary with almost every writer. It will be sufficient for us in the present connection to call it throat (Lat. gula, fig. 4, 37), and jugulum (fig. 4, at), remembering that the jugular portion is lower, vanishing in breast, and the gular higher, running into chin along the under surface of the head. Gluétur is a term used to signify gula and jugulum together; it is simply equivalent to “throat” as just defined. Though generally fully covered with feathers, the neck, unlike the body proper, is frequently in part naked. When naked behind, it is almost in- variably cervix that is bare, from interruption of the upward extension of the pteryla dorsalis ; as exemplified in many herons. Wucha is rarely, if ever, naked except in continuation of general nakedness of the head. Similarly, gula is naked from above downwards, as is especially illustrated in nearly all the order Steganopodes, as pelicans, cormorants, etc., that have a naked throat-pouch; or some vultures, whose nakedness of head extends over nucha, and along gula, as if the feathers were killed by over-manuring with the fillhy substances these birds eat. The condor has a singular ruffle all around the neck, of close, downy feathers, as if to defend the roots of the other feathers from such consequence. Jugulum becomes naked in a few birds, where a distended crop or craw protrudes, pushing apart the feathers of two branches of the pteryla ventralis as these ascend the throat. The neck is not ordinarily the place of remarkably modified feathers ; they might restrict freedom of motion in the neck; to this rule, however, there are signal exceptions. Among these may be mentioned here, the grouse family, among our representatives of which, the “ruffed” has singular tufts on the sides of the neck; the “pinnated” little wing-like feathers there, covering bare, distensible skin, and the “cock of the plains” has curious, stiff, scaly feathers ; unless these rather belong to pectus. Cervix proper almost never has modified feathers, but often a transverse coloration different from that of the rest of the upper parts ; when conspicuous, this is called “cervical collar,” to distinguish it from the guttural or jugular “collars” or rings of color. Nucha is frequently similarly marked with a “nuchal band ;” often, special developments there take the form of lengthening of the feathers, and we have a “nuchal crest.” More particularly in birds of largely variegated colors, guttur and jugulum are marked lengthwise with stripes and streaks, of which those on the sides are apt to be different from those along the middle line in front. Jugulum occasionally has lengthened feathers, as in many herons. Higher up, the neck in front may have variously length- ened or otherwise modified feathers. Conspicuous among these are the rugs, ov tippets, of some birds, especially of the grebe family, and, above all our other birds, of the male ruff (Machetes pugnax). But these, and a few other modifications of the feathers of the upper neck, are more con- veniently considered with those of the TOPOGRAPHY OF THE HEAD. 19 § 41. Heap. Though smaller than either of the parts already considered, the head has been more minutely mapped out, and such detail is necessary from the number of recognizable parts or regions it includes. Without pro- fessing to give all that have been named, I describe what will be needed for our present purposes. (a). “Top of the head” is a collective expression for all the superior sur- face, from base of the bill to nucha, and on the sides nearly or quite to the level of the upper border of the eyes. This is pileuwm (fig. 4,1, 4,6) 5 ib is divided into three portions. Morehead, or frontal region, or, simply, “the front” (Li. frons; fig. 4,1) includes all that slopes upward from the bill — generally to about opposite the anterior border of the eyes. Middle head or crown (L. corona), ov vertex (L. vertex; fig. 4,4), includes the top of the head proper, extending from forehead to the downward slope towards nucha. This last slope is hind head, or occiput (fig. 4,6). The lateral border of all three together constitutes the “superciliary line,” that is, line over the eye (Lat. super, over, cilia, hairs [of the brows in particular] ). (b). “Side of the head” is a general term defining itself. It presents for consideration the following regions: orbital, or circumorbital (L. orbis, an orb, properly, here, the circular hole in the skull itself that contains the eye- ball; fig. 4,3) is the small space forming a ring around the eyes; it em- braces these organs, with the upper and under lids (i. palpebre) ; where these meet in front and behind respectively, is the anterior canthus and poste- rior canthus. ‘The region is also subdivided into supra-orbital, infra-orbital, ante-orbital and post-orbital, according as its upper, under, front or back por- tion is specially meant. The position of the circumorbital varies in differ- ent families; generally, it is midway, as stated, but may be higher or lower, crowded forward toward the base of the bill, or removed to the back upper corner of the side of the head, as strikingly shown in the woodcock. The aural or auricular (fig. 4, 35) region is the part lying over the external ear- opening; its position varies in heads of different shape; but in the vast majority of cases it is situated a little behind and below the eye. Wherever located it may be known at a glance, by the texture of the auricular feathers (shortly, the auriculars) covering the opening. Doubtless to offer least ob- stacle to passage of sound, these are .a tuft of feathers with loose vexilla (§ 3) from greater or less disconnection of the barbs (§ 3); and they may collectively be raised and turned forward, exposing the ear-opening ; they are extremely large and conspicuous in most owls. “Temporal region,” or the temples (L. ¢empora, times, or age, because an elderly man’s hair whitens there first) is a term not often used; it designates the part between eyes and ears, not well distinguished from the post-orbital space. At the lowermost posterior corner of the head a protuberance is seen, or may be felt; it is where the lower jaw is hinged to the skull, and is called the “angle of the jaw ;” it is generally just below and behind the ear. The lore (L. lorwm, strap or thong; hence, reins or bridle; hence, place where the main strap of a bridle passes; fig. 4, 2) is an important region. It is generally pretty 20 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE HEAD. much all the space betwixt the eye and the sides of the base of the upper mandible (§ 44). Thus, we say of a hawk, “lores bristly ;” and examina- tion of a bird of that kind will show how large a space is covered by the term. Lore, however, should properly be restricted to a narrow line between the eye and Dill in the direction of the nostrils. It is excellently shown in the heron and grebe families, where “naked lores” is a distinctive family character. The lore is an important place, not only from being thus marked in many birds, but from being frequently the seat of specially modified or specially colored feathers. The rest of the side of the head, including the space between angle of jaw and bill, has the name of cheek (L. gena, firstly eyelid, then, and generally, the prominence under the eye formed by the cheek-bones; fig. 4, 36). It is bounded above by lore, infra- orbital, and auricular; below, by a more or less straight line, representing the lower edge of the bony prong of the under mandible (§ 44). It is cleft in front for a varying distance by the backward extension of the gape of the mouth; above this gape is more properly gena, or malar region in strictness; below it is jaw (maxilla), or rather “side of the jaw.” The lower edge of the jaw definitely separates the side of the head from the (c). “Under surface” of the head; properly bounded behind by an imag- inary line drawn straight across from one angle of the jaw to the other, and running forward to a point between the forks of the under mandible (§ 44). As already hinted, “throat” (gula; fig. 4, 37) extends upward and forward into this space without obvious dividing line; it runs into chin (L. mentui ; fio. 4, 38) of which it is only to be said, that it is the (varying in extent) anterior part of the under surface of the head. Anteriorly, it may be con- veniently marked off, opposite the point where the feathers end on the side of the lower jaw, from the feathery space (when any) between the branches of the under mandible itself; this latter space is called the inéerramal (LL. inter, between, ramus, fork). (d). The head is so often marked lengthwise with different colors, apt to take such definite position, that these lines have received special names. Median vertical line is one along the middle of pileum, from base of culmen (§ 50) to nucha; lateral vertical lines bound it on either side. Superciliary line has just been noticed; below it runs the lateral stripe; that part of it before the eye, is loral or ante-orbital; behind the eye, post-orbital; when these are continuous through the eye, they form a transocular line; helow this is malar line, cheek-stripe, or frenwm; below this, on the under jaw, maxillary line; in the middle below, mental or gular lines. The lines are stripes (i. plage) when narrow and distinct, like the welt of a whip-lash ; streaks (série) when narrow and somewhat erratic ; and vite or fascie when quite broad, as is particularly likely to be the case with the eye-line.* *[ had thought of a section on patterns of coloration (picture), but the attempt to reduce birds’ infinitely varied colors to generalized formulas would take too much space. I may add, however, conveniently in this connection, the following: Considerable areas of color take name from the parts they occupy, down to what may be called variegations. These are preduced in two ways: (1) by insensible change of colors, either in fading into lighter, or shading into darker tints of the same; as an indefinite brown into black, gray or PTILOSIS OF THE HEAD. (e). No part of the body has so variable a ptilosis (§ 9 ¥ he ues the vast majority of birds, it is wholly and densely ee ‘aie from this to wholly naked; but nakedness, it should be obsag Sd means only absence of perfect feathers, for most birds with lenge ends have a hair-like growth on the skin. Our samples of naked mitted birds, are the turkey, the vultures, the cranes, and some few byt Associated with more or less complete “baldness,” is frequently the presence of various fleshy outgrowths, as combs, wattles, caruncles (warty excres- cences), lobes and flaps of all sorts, even to enumerate which would exceed our limits. The parts of the barn-yard cock exemplify the whole; among North American birds they are very rare, being confined, in evident devel- opment at any rate, to the wild turkey. Sometimes horny plates take the place of feathers on part of the head; as in the coots and gallinules. A very common form of head nakedness marks one whole order of birds, the Steganopodes, which have mentum and more or less of gula naked, and transformed into a sort of pouch, extremely developed in the pelicans, and well seen in the cormorants. The next commonest is definite bareness of the lores, as in all herons and grebes. A little orbital space is bare in many birds, as the vulturine hawks, and some pigeons. Among water birds particularly more or less of the interramal space is almost always unfeath- ered; the nakedness always proceeds from before backwards. With the sare exceptions of a narrow frontal line, and a little space about the angle of the mouth, no other special parts of the head than those above given are naked in any North American bird, unless associated with general baldness. (f). The opposite condition, that of redundant feathering, gives rise to all the various crests (L., pl. criste) that form such striking ornaments of many birds. Crests proper belong to the top of the head, but may he also held to include those growths on its side; these together being called crests in distinction to the ruffs, ruftles, beard, ete., of gula or mentum. Crests may be divided into two kinds:—1, where the feathers are simply lengthened or otherwise enlarged, and 2, where the texture, and sometimes even the structure (§ 4) is altered. Nearly all birds possess the power of moving and elevating the feathers on the head, simulating a slight crest in moments of excitement. The general form of a crest is a full soft elongation of the coronal feathers collectively; when perfect such a crest is globular, as in the Pyrocephalus (genus 111) ; generally, however, the feathers lengthen on white; or by unmarked change of a secondary color, as green into blue or yellow. (2) by obvious markings. Markings are all reducible to two kinds, streaking and spotting. Streaking, as a generic term, is sharply divisible into lengthwise and crosswise. Lengthwise streaking comprehends all kinds of streaks, stripes, vitts, fasciw, with the distinctions above given in the text. Crosswise streaking is called barring, and always runs transverse to the axis of a bird; if the lines are straight, it is banding; if undulating, it is waving; if very fine and irregular, it is vermiculation (L. vermiculus, a little worm). Spotting is graded according to size of the markings, from dotting or pointing, to blotching or splashing; and spots are also designated accord- ing to their shape, as round, square, U-shaped, V-shaped, hastate, sagittate, etc. Very fine spotting mixed with streaking, is called marbling; when indistinct, nebulation or clouding ; intermediate special marks have particular names, as crescents. Distinct round spots are ocelli (“little eyes”). Indistinet variegations of any sort are called obsolete. Washes of color over a definite color, are called tinges or tints. Color is glossy when it shines; metallic, when it glitters; iridescent when it changes with different lights. Colors are also bright dull, dead (said of white), opaque, or velvety (said of deep colors, chiefly black), etc. en >of the heron tribes % = Avr Dp « j ‘Bip 22 PTILOSIS OF THE HEAD. the occiput more than on the vertex or front, and this gives us the simplest and commonest form. Suchcrests, when more particularly occipital, are usu- ally connected with lengthening of nuchal feathers, and are likely to be of a thin, pointed shape, as well shown in the kingfisher. Coronal or vertical crests proper, are apt to be rather different in coloration than in specially marked elongation of the feathers; they are perfectly illustrated in the king- bird, and other species of that genus. Frontal crests are the most elegant of all; they generally rise as a pyramid from the forehead, as excellently shown in the blue jay, cardinal bird, tufted titmouse and others. All the foregoing crests are generally single, but sometimes double ; as shown in the two lat- eral occipital tufts of the “horned” lark, in all the tufted or “horned” owls, and in a few cormorants. Lateral crests are, of course, always double, one on each side of the head; they are of various shapes, but need not be particularized here, especially since they mostly belong to the second class of crests — those consisting of texturally modified feathers. It is a general —though not exclusive — character of these last, that they are temporary ; while the other kind is only changed with the general moult, these are as- sumed for a short season only — the breeding season ; and furthermore, they are often distinctive of sex. Occurring on the top of the head they furnish the most remarkable ornaments of birds. I need only instance the elegant helmet-like plumes of the partridges of the genus Lophortyz (186); the graceful flowing train of the Oreortyx (gen. 185); the somewhat similar plumes of the night and other herons. The majority of the cormorants, and many of the auks, possess lateral plumes of similar description; these, and those of the herons are probably —in most cases certainly — deciduous ; while those of the partridges above mentioned last as long as the general plumage. These lateral plumes, in many birds, especially among grebes, are associated with, and, in fact, coalesce with, the ruffs, which are singular lengthening and modifying in different ways of feathers of auriculars, gene and gula; and are almost always temporary. eards, or special lengthening of the mental feathers alone, are comparatively rare; we have no good example among our birds, but a European vulture, Giypaétos barbatus, is one. The feathers sometimes become scaly (squamous) forming, for instance, the exquisite gorglets or frontlets of humming-birds. They are often bristly (setaceous), as about the lores of nearly all hawks, the forehead of the dabchick, meadow- lark, etc. While usually all the unlengthened head feathers point backward, they are sometimes erect, forming a velvety pile, or they may radiate in a cir- cle from a given point, as from the eye in most owls, where they form a dish. In the foregoing, I only mention a few types, chiefly needed to be known in the study of our birds; but should add that there are many others, with endless modifications, among exotic birds; to these, however, I cannot even allude by name. Peculiarities of nasal feathers, and others around the base of the bill, are noticed below. Forms of crests are illustrated in figs. 21, 22, 23, 24, 382, 56, 95, 96, 107, 109, 114, 447, 125, 127, 135, 136, 152, 153; Hpi, 47, 191, 202, fmm igs) jeg ae ah) ? : lnG ¢ > .° t 5 1o7 Lae = se DAD OF THE BILL. a Sub-sect. 2. Of the Members; their parts and organs. 1. Tue Britt. § 42. Tue Brix is hand and mouth in one: the instrument of prehension. As hand, it takes, holds and carries food or other substances, and in many instances, feels; as mouth, it tears, cuts, or crushes, according to the nature of the substances taken; assuming the functions of both lips and teeth, neither of which birds possess. An organ thus essential to the prime func- tions of birds, one directly related to their various modes of life is of the utmost consequence in a taxonomic point of view; yet, its structural modi- fications are so various and so variously interrelated, that it is more impor- tant in framing families and genera than orders; more constant characters must be employed for the higher groups. The general § 43. Swarr of the bill is referable to the cone; it is the anterior part of the general cone that we have seen to reach from its point to the base of the skull. This shape confers the greatest strength combined with the greatest delicacy ; the end is fine to apprehend the smallest objects, while the base is stout to manipulate the largest. But in no bird is the cone expressed with entire precision ; and in most, the departure from this figure is great. The bill aLways consists of two, the upper and the lower § 44. Manpipues (fig. 5), which lie, as their names indicate, above and below, and are separated by a horizontal fissure — the mouth. Each mandi- ble aLways consists of certain projecting skull-bones, , , oa. ¢ i sheathed with more or less horny integument in lieu of true skin. The frame-work of the Upper mandible is (chiefly) a bone called the intermaxillary, or better, in this case, the premaaillary. In general, this is ¢ three-pronged or tripodal bone running to a point in front, with one, the uppermost prong, or foot, im- Hs planted upon the forehead, and the other two, lower ae i ae danke ea and horizontal, running into the sides of the front of a,siae orupper mandible; b, enl- men; ¢, nasal fossa; d, nostril; e, the skull. The scaffold of the Under mandible is a Gce below); & gape, or whole com: missural line; g, rictus; 2, commis- compound bone called inferior maxillary; it is U-, or Stal pointor angle of the mouth; i, ramus of under jaw; j, tomia of : . : . under mandibles (the refere V-shaped, with the point or convexity in front, and tinese should have been drawn to indicate the corresponding tomia the prongs running to either side of the base of the of upper mandible); 4, angle ot skull behind, to be there movably hinged. These two M™u?les ™ Ups of mandibles, bones, with certain accessory bones of the upper mandible, as the palate bones, etc., together with the horny investment, constitute the Jaws. Both jaws, in birds, are movable; the under, by the joint just mentioned; the upper, either by a joint at, or by the elasticity of the bones of, the forehead ; it is moved by a singular muscular and bony apparatus in the palate, further notice of which would involve anatomical details. When closed, the jaws meet and fit along their opposed edges or surfaces, in the same manner, and for the same purposes, as the lips and teeth of man or other 24 DIFFERENT KINDS. OF BILLS. vertebrate animals. All bills, thus similarly constituted, have been divided * into § 45. Four Cuasses, representing as many ways in which the two man- dibles close upon each other at the end. 1. The epignathous (Gr. ept, upon, gnathos, jaw) way, plan, or type, in which the upper mandible is longer than the under, and its tip is evidently bent down over the tip of the lower. 2. The hypognathous (Gr. hypo, under), in which the lower mandible is longer than the other. 3. The paragnathous (Gr. para, at or by), in which both are of about equal length, and neither is evidently bent over the other. 4. The metagnathous (Gr. meta, with, beside, ete.), in which the points of the mandibles cross each other. The second and fourth of these are ex- tremely rare; they are exemplified, respectively, by the skimmer and the cross-bill (genera 295 and 60). The first is common, occurring through- out the birds of prey, the parrots, and among the petrels, gulls, etc., ete. The great majority of birds exhibit the third; and among them, there is such evident gradation into epignathism, that it is necessary to restrict the latter to its complete development, exhibited in the intermaxillary bone di- vested of its horny sheath, which often, as among flycatchers, ete., forms a little overhanging point, but does not constitute epignathism. These classes, it should be added, though always applicable, and very convenient in de- scriptions, are purely arbitrary, that is, they by no means correspond to any four primary groups of birds, but on the contrary, usually only mark families and the subdivisions of families; and the four types may be seen in contiguous genera. The general shape of the bill has also furnished § 46. Orner Crasses, for many years used as a large basis for ornitho- logical classification ; but which the progress of the science has shown to be merely as convenient as, and only less arbitrary than, the foregoing. The principal of these are represented by the following types: — A, among land birds. 1. The jfésstrostral, or cleft, in which the bill is small, short, and with a very large gap running down the side of the head, as in the swallow, chimney-swift, whippoorwill. 2. The ¢enwirostral, or slender, in which the bill is small, Zong, and with a short cleft; as in the humming-bird, creeper, nuthatch. 38. The dentirostral, or toothed, in which, with a various gen- eral shape, there is present a nick, tooth, or evident lobe in the opposed “edges of one or both mandibles near the end; as in the shrike, vireo, and some wrens, thrushes and warblers. 4. The condrostral, or conical, suffi- ciently defined by its name, and illustrated by the great finch family and some allied ones. B, among water birds. 5. The longirostral, or long, an aquatic style of the tenuirostral, best exhibited in the great snipe family. 6. The pressirostral, or the compact, illustrated by the plovers, etc., and quite likely analogous to the conirostral. 7. The cultrtrostral, cutting, perhaps analogous to the dentirostral, exemplified in the heron group. None of these are now used to express natural groups, in strict definitions; all are * By the writer: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Dec. 1869, p. 2138. VARIOUS FORMS OF BILLS. 25 convenieut incidental terms in general descriptions. Various other lesser terms, expressing special modifications, as lamellirostral, acutirostral, etc., are employed; but all are best used, now, as common, not as proper names, simply descriptive of § 47. Orner Forms. A bill is called Jong, when notably longer than the head proper; short, when notably shorter; medium, in neither of these con- ditions. It is compressed, when higher than wide, at the base at least, and. generally for some portion of its length; depressed, when wider than high; terete, under neither of these conditions. It is recurved, when curved up- ward; decurved, when curved downward ; bent, when the variation in either direction is at an angle; straight, when not out of line with axis of the head. A bill is obtuse (said chiefly of the paragnathous sort) when it rapidly comes to an end that therefore is not fine; or when the end is knobby; it is acute when it runs to a sharp point; acuminate, when equally sharp and slen- derer; attenuate, when still slenderer; subwlate (awl-shaped), when slen- derer still; acicular (needle-shaped), when slenderest possible, as in some humming-birds. A bill is arched, vaulted, turgid, tumid, inflated, etc., when its outlines, both crosswise and lengthwise, are notably more or less convex; and contracted, when some, or the principal, outlines are concave (said chiefly of depressions about the base of the upper mandible, or of con- cavity along the sides of both mandibles). A bill is hamulate (hooked) or unguiculate (clawed), when strongly epignathous, as in rapacious birds, where the upper mandible is like the talon of a carnivorous beast; it is den- tate, when toothed (§ 46), as in a falcon; if there are a number of sim- ilar “teeth,” it is serrate (like a saw); it is cultrate (knife-like) when ex- tremely compressed and sharp-edged, as in the auk, skimmer; if much curved as well as cultrate, it is falcate (scythe-shaped) ; and each mandible may be oppositely falecate, as in the cross-bill. A bill much flattened and widened at the end (rare) is spatulate; examples: spoonbill, shoveller duck. One is called /amellate, when it has a series of plates or processes just inside the edges of the mandibles; as in all the duck order, and in a few petrels; the design is to furnish a sifter or strainer of water, just what is effected in the whale, by the “bone” in its mouth. Finally, the far end of the bill, of what- ever shape, is called the tip or apex (fig. 5, n); the near end, joined to the rest of the skull, the base; the rest is the continuity. Some other features of the bill as a whole are best treated under separate head of § 48. THE COVERING OF THE BILL. (a.) In the great majority of birds, including nearly all perchers, many walkers and some swimmers, the sheath- ing of the mandibles is wholly hard, horny or corneous; it is integument modified much as in the case of the nails or claws of beasts. In nearly all waders and most swimmers, the sheath becomes, wholly or partly, softer, and is of a dense, leathery texture. But some swimmers, as among the auks, furnish bills as hard-covered as any, while some perchers have it partly quite soft, so that no unexceptional rule can be laid down; and, moreover, the gradations from one extreme to the other are insensible. Probably, KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 4 26 COVERING OF THE BILL. the softest bill is found among the snipes, where it is skinny throughout, and in typical snipes vascular and nervous at the tip, becoming a true organ of touch, used to feel for worms out of sight in the mud. In all the duck order, the bill is likewise soft; but there it is always terminated by a hard, horny “nail,” more or less distinct ; and such horny claw also occurs in other water birds with softish bills, as the pelican. An interesting modification occurs in all, or nearly all, of the pigeon order; these birds have the bill hard or hardish at tip and through most of continuity, but towards and at the base of the upper mandible the sheath changes to a soft, tumid, skinny texture, overarching the nostrils; it is much the same with most plovers. But the most important feature in this connection is afforded by the parrots and all the birds of prey; one so remarkable that_it has received a distinct name:— Cure. The cere (L. cera, wax; because it looks waxy) is a dense membrane saddled on the upper mandible at base, so different from the rest of the bill, that it might be questioned rather it does not more properly belong to the head than to the bill, were it not for the fact that the nostrils open init. Moreover, the cere is often densely feathered, as in the Carolina parroquet, in the bill proper of which no nostrils are seen, these being hidden in the feathered cere, which, therefore, might be easily mistaken, at first sight, for the bird’s forehead. A sort of false cere occurs in some water birds, as the jaegers, or skua-gulls (genera 280 and 279). The tumid nasal skin of pigeons is sometimes so called; but the term had better be restricted to the birds first above named. The under mandible probably never presents softening except as a part of general skinniness of the bill. (6.) The covering is either entire or pieced. In most birds it is entire ; that is, the sheath of either mandible may be pulled off whole, like the finger of a glove. It is, however, in many birds divided into parts, by various lines of slight connection, and then comes off in pieces; as is the case with some water birds, particularly petrels, where the divisions are regular, and the pieces have received distinctive names. ‘The entire cover- ing of both jaws together, is called rhamphotheca; of the upper alone, rhin- otheca; of the under, gnathotheca. (c.) The covering is otherwise variously marked; sometimes so strongly, that similar features are impressed upon the bones themselves beneath. The most frequent marks are various ridges (Li. pl. curine, keels) of all lengths and degrees of expression, straight or curved, vertical, oblique, hor- izontal, lengthwise or transverse; a bill so marked is said to be striate or carinate; when numerous and irregular, they are called rugew (L. ruga, a wrinkle) and the bill is said to be corrugated or rugose. When the eleva- tions are in points or spots instead of lines, they are called puncte; a bill so furnished is punctate, but the last word is oftener employed to designate the presence of little pits or depressions, as in the dried bill of a snipe, towards the end. Larger, softish, irregular knobs or elevations pass under the general name of warts or papille, and the bill so marked is papillose; when the processes are very large and soft, the bill is said to be carwnculate SPECIAL PARTS OF THE UNDER MANDIBLE. 27 (L. caro, flesh, diminutive carwnculus, little bit of flesh). Various linear depressions, often but not always associated with carine, are grooves or sulci (L. sulcus, a furrow) and the bill is then sulcate. Sulci, like carinz, are of all shapes, sizes and positions ; when very large and definite, they are some- times called canaliculi, or channels. The various knobs, “horns,” and large special features of the bill cannot be here particularized. Any of the fore- going features may occur on both mandibles, and they are exclusive of that special mark of the upper, in which the nostrils open, and which is consid- ered below (§ 51). We have still to notice the special parts of either mandible ; and will begin with the simplest, the § 49. Unprer Manpiste. In the majority of birds it is a little shorter and a little narrower and not nearly so deep as the upper; but sometimes quite as large, or even larger. The upper edge, double (7. e. there is an edge on both sides), is called the mandibular tomiwm (Gr. temnein, to cut ; fig. 5, 7), as far as it is hard; this is received against, and usually a little within, the corresponding edge of the upper mandible. The prongs already mentioned (§ 44) are the mandibular rami (pl. of L. ramus, a branch; fig. 5, 7); these meet at some point in front, either at a short angle (like >) or with a rounded joining (like > ). At their point of union there is a promi- nence, more or less marked (fig. 5, &); this is the Gonys (corrupted from the Gr. gonu, a knee; hence, any similar protuberance). That is to say, this point is gonys proper; but the term is extended to apply to the whole line of union of the rami, from gonys proper to the tip of the under mandible; and in descriptions it means, then, the wnder outline of the bill for a corres- ponding distance (fig. 5,7). This important term must be constantly held in mind. The gonys is to the under mandible what the keel is to a boat. It varies greatly in length. Ordinarily, it forms, say, one-half to three- fourths of the under outline. Sometimes, as in conirostral birds, a sparrow for example, it represents nearly all this outline; while in a few birds it makes the whole, and in some, as the puffin, is actually longer than the lower mandible proper, because it extends backwards in a point. Other birds have almost no gonys at all: as a pelican, where the rami only meet at the extreme tip, or in the whole duck family, where there is hardly more. As the student must see, the length of the gonys is simply a matter of the early or late fusion of the rami, and that similarly, their mode of fusion, as in a sharp ridge, a flat surface, a straight line, a curve, etc., results in corresponding modifications of its special shape. The interramal space (§ 41, c) is complementary to length of gonys: some- times it runs to the tip of the bill, as in a pelican, sometimes there is next to none, as in a puffin; while its width depends upon the degree of diver- gence, and the straightness or curvature of the rami. The surface between the tomium and the lower edge of rami and gonys together is the side of the under mandible (fig. 5, m). The most important feature of the § 50. Upper MAanp1sxe is the culmen (Lat. for top of anything; fig. 5, b). The culmen is to the upper mandible what the ridge is to the roof of a 28 SPECIAL PARTS OF THE UPPER MANDIBLE. house ; it is the upper profile of the bill—the highest middle lengthwise line of the bill; it begins where the feathers end on the forehead, and extends to the tip of the upper mandible. According to the shape of the bill it may be straight or convex, or concave, or even somewhat w-shaped ; or double- convex, as in the tufted puffin: but in the vast majority of cases it is con- vex, with increasing convexity towards the tip. Sometimes it rises up into a thin elevated crest, as well shown in Crotophaga (gen. 126) and in the puffins, when the upper mandible is said to be heeled, and the culmen it- self to be cultrate; sometimes it is really a furrow instead of a ridge, as toward the end of a snipe’s bill; but generally it is simply the uppermost line of union of the gently convex and sloping sides of the upper mandible (fig. 5, a). Ina great many birds, especially those with depressed bill, as all the ducks, there is really no culmen; but then the median lengthwise line of the surface of the upper mandible, takes the place and name of culmen. The culmen generally stops short about opposite the proper base of the bill; then the feathers sweep across its end, and downwards across the base of the sides of the upper mandible, usually also obliquely backwards. Variations in both directions from this standard are frequent; the feathers may run out in a point on the culmen, shortening the latter, or the culmen may run a way up the forehead parting the feathers; thus either in a point, as in the rails and gallinaceous birds, or as a broad plate of horn, as in the coots and gallinules. The lower edge (double) of the upper mandible is the maxillary tomium, as far backward as it is hard and horny. The most con- spicuous feature of the upper mandible in most birds is the § 51. Nasan Fossa (L. fossa, a ditch), or nasal groove (fig. 5, ¢), in which the nostrils open. The upper prong of the intermaxillary bone (§ 44) is usually separated some ways from the two lateral ones; the skinny or horny sheath that stretches betwixt them is usually sunken below the general level of the bill, especially in those birds where the prongs are long or widely separated ; this “ditch” is what we are about. It is called fossa when short and wide, with varying depth; sulcus or groove when long and narrow; the former is well illustrated in the gallinaceous birds; the latter in nearly all wading birds and many swimmers. When the prongs are soldered throughout, or are very short and close together, there is no (or no evident) nasal depression, and the nostrils open flush with the level of the bill. The § 52. Nosrrits (fig. 5, d) vary in position as follows : — they are lateral when on the sides of the upper mandible (almost always) ; culminal when together on the ridge (rare) ; superior or inferior when evidently above or below midway betwixt culmen and tomia; they are basal, when at the base of the upper mandible ; swb-basal when near it (usual) ; median when at or near the middle of the upper mandible (frequent, as in cranes, geese, etc.) ; terminal when beyond this (very rare; and probably there are now no birds with nostrils at the end of the bill, except the Apteryx). The nostrils are pervious, when open, as in nearly all birds; impervious, when not visibly open, as among cormorants and other birds of the same order; they are THE NOSTRILS AND NASAL FOSSA!—THE GAPE. 29 perforate when there is no septum (partition) between them, so that you can see through them from one side of the bill to the other, as in the turkey- buzzard, crane, etc. ; imperforate when partitioned off from each other, as in most birds; but different ornithologists use these terms interchangeably. The principal shapes of the nostrils may be thus exhibited : —a line, linear nostrils; a line variously enlarged at either end, clavate, club-shaped, ob- long, ovate nostrils; a line, enlarged in the middle, oval or elliptic, nostvrils ; this passing insensibly into the circle, rownd or circular nostrils; and the various kinds of more or less linear nostrils may be either longitudinal, as in most birds, or oblique, as in a few; almost never directly transverse (up and down). Rounded nostrils may have a raised border or rim; when this is prolonged they are called ¢ubular, as in some of the goatsucker family, and in all the petrels. Usually, the nostrils are formed entirely by the substance surrounding them, thus, of cere, in a hawk, of softish skin, in a pigeon, plover or snipe, or of horn, in most birds; but often their contour is partly formed by a special development somewhat distinct either in form or texture, and this is called the nasal scale. Generally, it forms a sort of overhanging arch or portico, as well shown in all the gallinaceous birds, among the wrens, ete. A very curious case of this is seen in the European wryneck (Jynx torquilla), where the scale forms the floor instead of the roof of the nostrils. The nostrils also vary in being feathered or naked; the nasal fossa being a place where the frontal feathers are apt to run out in points (called antiw) embracing the root of the culmen. This extension may completely fill and hide the fossa, as in many grouse and ptarmigan ; but it oftener runs for a varying distance toward, or above and beyond the nostrils; sometimes, similarly below them, as in a chimney- swift; and the nostrils may be densely feathered when there is no evident fossa, as in an auk. When thus truly feathered in varying degree, they are still open to view ; another condition is, their being covered over and hidden by modified feathers. These are usually bristle-like (setaceous), and form two tufts, close-pressed, and directed forwards, as is perfectly shown in a crow; or the feathers may be less modified in texture, and form either two tufts, one over each nostril, or a single rug’, embracing the whole base of the upper mandible; as in nuthatches, titmice, redpoll linnets, snow buntings and other northern Fringillide. Bristles or feathers thus growing forwards are called retrorse (L. retrorsum, backward; here used in the sense of in an opposite direction from the lay of the general plumage; but they should properly be called antrorse, 7. e., forward). The nostrils, whether culminal or lateral, are, like the eyes and ears, always two in number, though they may be united in one tube, as in the petrels. § 53. THe Gare. It only remains to consider what results from the re- lations of the two mandibles to each other. When the bill is opened, there is a cleft, or fissure between them; this is the gape or rictus (L. rictus, mouth in the act of grinning); but, while thus really meaning the open space between the mandibles, it is generally used to signify the line of their 30 THE WINGS—THEIR BONY FRAMEWORK. closure. Commissure (Li. committere, to put or join together) means the point where the gape ends behind, that is, the angle of the mouth, where the opposed edges of the mandibles join each other; but as in the last case, it is loosely applied to the whole line of closure, from true commissure to tip of the bill. So we say, “commissure straight,” or “ commissure curved ;” also “commissural edge” of either mandible (equivalent to “tomial edge”) in distinction from culmen or gonys. But it would be well to have more precision in this matter. Let, then, domia (fig. 5, 7) be the true cutting edges of either mandible from tip to opposite base of bill proper, rictus (fig. 5, 9) be their edges thence to the POINT commissure (fig. 5, 2) where they join when the bill is open; the LINE commissure (fig. 5, f) to include both when the bill is closed. The gape is straight, when rictus and tomia are both straight and lie in the same line; curved, sinwate, when they lie in the same curved or waved line; angulated, when they are straight, or nearly so, but do not lie in the same line, and therefore meet at an angle. (An important distinction. Sec under family /ringillide in the Synopsis. ) Tue WunGs. § 54. Derinition. Pair of anterior or pectoral limbs organized for flight by means of dermal outgrowths. Used for this purpose by birds in general; but by ostriches and their allies only as outriggers to aid running ; by penguins as fins for swimming under water; used also in the latter capacity by some birds that fly too, as divers. Wanting in no recent birds, but imperfect in a few. To understand their structure we must notice § 55. Tarr Bony Frameworrn. (Fig. 6.) This ordinarily consists of nine actually separate bones; but there are several more that fuse together. The arm-bone, humerus, a single bone, reaches from shoulder to elbow; it is succeeded by two parallel bones, wina and radius, of about equal lengths, reaching from elbow to wrist, forming the forearm, cubit or antibrachium. The wrist (carpus) has two little knobby carpal bones, called scapholunar and cuneiform; very early in life there is another, the mag- num, that soon fuses with the hand-bone, or metacarpal. At first, this last is of three bones, corresponding to those of our hand that support our fore, middle and ring finger respectively ; afterwards they all run together. The one corresponding to the middle finger is much the largest of the three, and it supports two finger-bones (phalanges) placed end to end, just as our three similar finger-bones are placed one after the other at the end of their own hand-bone. The forefinger hand-bone sticks out a little from the side of the principal one, and bears on its end one finger-bone (sometimes two), which is commonly, but wrongly, called the bird’s “thumb.” For although on the extreme border of the hand, it is homological with the forefinger ; birds have no thumb (exe. Archwopteryx, Struthio, Rhea); and no little finger. ‘The third hand-bone is joined to the second, and bears no finger- bone. STRUCTURE OF THE WING. 31 § 56. THe Mecuanism of these bones is admirable. The shoulder- joint is loose, much like ours, and allows the humerus to swing all about, though chiefly up and down. The elbow-joint is tight, permitting only bending and unbending in a horizontal line. The finger bones have scarcely any motion. But it is in the wrist that the singular mechanism exists. In the first place, the two forearm bones are fixed with relation to each other so that they cannot roll over each other, like ours. Stretch your arm out on the table; without moving the elbow, you can turn the hand over so that either its palm or its back lies flat on the table. It is a motion (rotation) of the bones of the forearm, resulting in what is called pronation and su- pination. This is absent from the bird’s arm, necessarily ; for if the hand could thus roll over, the air striking the pinion-feathers, when the bird is flying, would throw them up, and render flight difficult or impossible. Next, the hinging of the hand upon the wrist is such, that the hand does not move up and down, like ours, in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the elbow-bend, but back and forwards, in a plane horizontal to the elbow ; it is as if we could bring our little finger and its side of the hand around to touch the corresponding border of the forearm. Thus, evidently, extension of the hand upon the wrist-joint increases and completes the unfolding of the wing that commenced by straightening out the forearm at the elbow. There is another essential feature in a bird’s wing. In the figure, 6, aBc represents a deep angle formed by the bones, but none such is seen upon the outside of the wing. This is because this triangular space is filled up by a fold of skin stretched over a cord that passes straight from near a to c. But a and o approach or recede as the wing is folded or unfolded, and a simple cord long enough to reach the full distance a—c would be slack in the folded wing; so the cord is made elastic, like an india rubber band ; it stretches when the wing is unfolded, and contracts when the wing is shut ; it is thus always hauled taut. The cord makes the always straightish and smooth anterior border of the wing. The carpus c, or the always promi- nent point of the anterior border, is a highly important landmark in de- scriptions, and should be thoroughly understood ; it is also called the “bend of the wing.” (See under Directions for Measurement; see also explana- tion of fig. 6.) Fig. 6, taken from a young chicken (right wing, upper surface), shows the composition and mechanism of a bird’s wing. A, shoulder; B, elbow; ©, wrist or carpus; D, tip of prin- 32 MECHANISM OF THE WING. cipal (the third) finger; aB, arm; BC, forearm; CD, pinion, or hand, composed of Cc, carpus, thence to E, metacarpus or hand proper, except the bone 7, this, and ED, being digits or fin- gers. a, shaft of humerus; 0, ulna; c, radius; d, scapholunar bone; e, cuneiform bone; these last two composing wrist or carpus proper. Now the figure (1) marks two lines that run to the two ends of the humerus, designating a sort of cap on either end of that bone; this cap is an Eprpnysis;* both ends of ulna and radius show similar epiphyses, connected in the figure, as in case of the humerus, with the shaft by waved lines. Then, of the meta- carpus, g and f are the epiphyses of, respectively, the two principal metacarpal bones k, the third, and 7, the fourth; % and / have not yet coalesced together, but lie simply opposed to each other, whereas their epiphyses themselves, g and jf, are seen nearly fused together. h, which seems to be the epiphysis of i, is not; it is a metacarpal itself (the second), bearing the digit, 7; it is nearly soldered with g, in which its epiphysis is already ab- sorbed. Later in life, k sends a plate-like process towards J; J and k grow together; h grows into & and g; f and g grow into /x, with the compound result fghik, forming a single bone, THE METACARPAL, bearing the ‘“‘thumb” phalanx 7 and the two finger phalanges m, n, all three of which remain permanently separate. (Observe, that x is called the THmD meta- carpal, because it represents that bone in the hand of man and beasts; that in actual position it is second, h being first and / third; that ordinary birds have no first and no fifth metacarpals; and that the bone 7, though called ‘“‘thumb,” corresponds to the first joint of our forefinger,) dd’, first finger, or thumb, the seat of the bastard wing-feathers (alula, § 58) ; d'', actually the second finger, but morphologically the third finger, composed of two movable bones m,n. a’, seat of primaries (upon whole pinion); b/, seat of secondaries (upon fore- arm); c’, seat of tertiaries (about and above elbow); @!’, seat of scapularies (upon pteryla humeralis). This wing is shown half-spread; in closing or folding, c approaches a, and D approaches B; all nearly in the plane of the paper; and in unfolding, the elbow-joint B is such a perfect hinge that c cannot sink down below the level of the paper, and ¢ is similarly so hinged that p cannot fly up from the same level, as the air, pressing upon the quill feathers a! and b’, would tend to make it do. Observe also; b and ¢ are two rods connecting B and c, and the construction of their jointing at B and c, and of their jointings with each other at their ends, is such, that they can slide along each other a little way. Now when the point c, revolving about B, approaches a in the arc of a circle, the rod c pushes on towards d, f, g, etc., while the rod b pulls back e, 1, etc.; so that the point D is brought nearer B. Conversely, in opening the wing, when c recedes from a, c pulls back, and 6 pushes on, effecting recedence of p from B. So the angle aBc cannot be in- creased or diminished without similarly increasing or diminishing the angle scp. In other words, you cannot open or shut one part of the wing, without opening or shutting the other; it is like killing two birds with one stone, this wonderful bony mechanism for economizing muscular power.t We are now ready to examine the § 57. Wine-Fratuers. These all grow upon the pteryla alaris (§ 9, 0, and Pl. 1, fig. 4,5). They are of two main sorts; the remiges (Li. remex, a rower) or long quills collectively, and the coverts, tectrices (Li. tectria, arbitrary feminine corruption of ¢ector, a coverer) ; to which may be added as a third distinct group the bastard quills (alula, or ala spuria). The § 58. Auta (L. diminutive of ala, a wing, Pl. 1, fig. 1, al), or little wing, is simply the bunch of feathers that grow upon the “thumb.” Highly *Epiphysis (Gr. epi, upon, phusis, growth). Young bones are wholly cartilaginous, or gristly; they harden at length by deposition in the cartilage of bone-earth. This deposit begins at certain points called ossijic cen- tres. Nowin what are called “‘long” bones, that is, bones like a humerus, etc., there may be one such centre for the shaft and one upon each end of the bone. The shaft ossifies first; the ends later; and before the bone has completed its growth these ends remain distinct from the shaft with which they afterwards solder. These cartilaginous or gristly caps on the ends are called epiphyses. tSee BERGMANN, Arch. f. Anat., 1839, 296; Couns, Amer. Nat. v, 1870, 513. WING-COVERTS AND REMIGES. 33 important as it is in a morphological point of view, it is taken into little account in practical ornithology, unless when largely modified in form, con- spicuous in color, or bearing special organs, as claws, spurs, etc. It strengthens, and defends, and adds to the symmetry of the anterior outer border of the wing. (The student must carefully distinguish the use of the word spurious in this connection from its application to a certain state of the first primary —see § 62.) § 59. Tae Wrvc-coverts are conveniently divided into the upper (tec- trices superiores) and under (tect. inferiores); they include all the small feathers that clothe the wings, extending a varying distance along the bases of the remiges (§60). The ordinary disposition and division of the upper coverts is as follows :— There is one set, rather long and stiflish, close-pressed over the bases of the outer nine or ten remiges, covering these, in general, about as far as their structure is plumulaceous. These spring from the hand or pinion (§ 55) and are the upper primary coverts (Pl. 1. fig. 1, pe) : they are ordinarily the least conspicuous of any. All the rest of the upper coverts are SECONDARY, and spring mostly from the forearm; they are considered in three groups, or rows. The greater coverts (Pl. 1, fig. 1, gsc) are the first, outermost, longest row, covering the bases of most of the remiges except the first nine or ten; the median coverts (Pl. 1, fig. 1, msc), are a next row, shorter, but still almost always forming a conspicuous series. All the rest of the secondary coverts pass under the general name of lesser coverts (Pl. x, fig. 1,dc). The greater coverts have furnished a very important zo00- logical character: for in all Passeres they are not more than half as long as the remiges they cover, while the reverse is believed to be the case in nearly all other birds. The under coverts have the same general disposition as the upper: but they are all like each other, have less distinction into rows or series, and for practical purposes generally pass under the common name of under wing-coverts; and since, when the wing is strikingly colored under-: neath, it is these feathers, and not the remiges, that are highly or variously tinted, the expression “ wing below,” or “under surface of the wing” gener- ally refers to them more particularly. We should distinguish, however, from the under wing-coverts in general, the axillary feathers, or axillars (L. axilla, arm-pit). These are the innermost of the under wing-coverts ; al- most always longer, stiffer, and otherwise distinguishable from the rest; in ducks, for example, and many waders, they take on remarkable development. § 60. (a.) THe Remicrs (PI. 1, fig. 1, 6, s, and ¢) mainly give the size, shape, and general character to the wing, and are its most important fea- tures; they represent the whole of its posterior outline, most of its surface, and most of its outer and inner borders. Taken collectively, they form a flattened surface for striking the air; this surface may be quite flat, as in birds with long pointed wings that cut the air like oar-bladés; generally it is a little concave underneath, and correspondingly convex above; this con- cavo-convexity varying insensibly within certain limits. It is usually great- est in birds with a short rounded wing, as in the gallinaceous order. Two KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 5 3 NUMBER AND SHAPE OF REMIGES. extremes of the mode of flight result. The short, round wing confers a heavy, powerful, cutting flight, for short distances, with a whirring noise, produced by quick vibrations of the wing: birds that fly thus are almost always thickset and heavy. The long, pointed wing gives a light, airy, skimming flight, indefinitely prolonged, with little or no noise, as the wing beats are more deliberate: birds of this style of wing are generally trim and elegant. These, of course, are merely generalizations, mixed and ob- scured in every degree in actual bird-life. Thus the humming-bird, with long pointed wings, whirs them fastest of all birds; so fast that the eye can- not follow the strokes, and merely perceives a mist on each side of the bird. The combination of a pointed with a somewhat concave shape of wing is a remarkably strong one; it results in a rapid, vigorous, whistling flight, as in a pigeon or duck. An ample wing, as it is called, that is, one long as well as broad, without being pointed, is seen in the herons ; it confers 2 slow and somewhat lumbering, but still strong, flight. The longest winged birds are found among the swimmers, as albatrosses ; but here the extreme length is largely produced by the length of the humerus ; some land birds, as swallows, swifts, humming-birds, and other fissirostral birds, would have a still longer wing, were not the humerus extraordinarily short. The shortest wings (among birds with perfect remiges), occur in the lowest swimmers, as among the auks and divers, and in the gallinaceous birds. The various special shapes of wings are too numerous and too insensibly gradated to be men- tioned here. The mechanics of ordinary flying are probably now under- stood,* though the “way of an eagle in the air” was an enigma to the wise man of old. But the sailing of some birds for an indefinite period through the air, up as well as down, without visible motion of the wings, remains a stumbling-block ; the flight of the turkey vulture is yet unexplained, I ven- ture to afiirm. (b.) The number of remiges ranges from sixteen, in the humming-bird, to upwards of fifty, in the albatross. This statement is exclusive of the penguins, in which there are no true remiges. The remiges subserve flight in nearly all existing birds except these last, the ostriches and their allies, and the great auk, Alea dmpennis—if indeed this bird still lives. (c.) Of the shape of reimiges there is little to be said, they are, with few exceptions, so uniform. They are the stiffest, strongest, most truly penna- ceous (§ 4) of a bird’s feathers; they have no evident hyporhachis (§ 3, a) ; they are generally lanceolate, that is, taper regularly and gradually to a rounded point. Sometimes one or both webs are incised or attenuate towards the end, that is, they narrow abruptly ; this is also called emargina- tion. (See fig.110.) The tips of the remiges may be squarely or obliquely cut off, as it were, or nicked in various ways. Except in the case of a few of the innermost remiges, their outer vexillum (§ 3, a) is always narrower *The student should not fail to consult, in this connection, M. Marey’s “Lectures on the Phenomena of Flight,” Smithsonian Report for 1869, p, 225. (Translated from Revwe des Cours Scientisiques.) PRIMARIES. 3D than the inner, and its barbs stand out less from the rhachis (§3, a2). Rem- iges are divided into three classes, according to their seat; and in this is in- volved one of the most important considerations in practical ornithology, of which the student must make himself master. The three classes are 1, the primaries; 2, the secondaries: 8, the tertiaries. § 61. Tre Primartes (PI. 1, fig. 1, 0) are those remiges which grow upon the pinion, or hand- and finger-bones (fig. 6, cp). Whatever the total num- ber of remiges may be, inall birds with remiges the primaries are either NINE or TEN in number, as far as is known. The albatross and the humming-bird (§ 60, b) both have ten. AIL birds, probably, below the highest, the oscine Passeres, have ten. Among Oscines, there are nine or ten indifferently ; and just this difference of one primary more or less forms one of the most marked distinctions between some families of that suborder. So the tenth feather in a bird’s wine, counting from the outside, is a sort of crucial test in many cases ; if it be first secondary, the bird is one thing; if it be last primary, the bird is another; the necessity, therefore, of determining which it is, becomes evident. It is, of course, always possible to settle the question by striking at the roots of the remiges and seeing how many are seated on the pinion ; > but this generally involves some defacing of a specimen, and ordinarily there is an easier way of determining. Hold the wing half spread ; then, in nearly all Oscines, the primaries come sloping down on one side, and the secondaries similarly on the other, to form, where they meet, a reéntrant angle in the general contour of the posterior border of the wing; the feather that occupies this notch is the one we are after, and unluckily is sometimes last primary, and sometimes first secondary. But primaries are, so to speak, emphatic, self-asserting, italicized remiges, stiff,. strong, obstinate; while seconda- ries are whispering, retiring remiges in brevier, limber, weak, and yielding. This difference in character is almost always shown by something in their general shape, impossible to describe, but which the student will soon learn to detect. Let the reader examine plate 1, fig. 1, where 6 marks the 9 pri- maries of a sparrow’s wing, and s indicates the secondaries ; he will see a dif- ference at once. The primaries express themselves, though with constantly diminishing force, to the last; then the secondaries immediately begin to tell a different tale. Among North American birds, the only ones with NINE primaries are the families Motacillidw, Alaudide, Sylvicolide, Hirun- dinide, Fringillide, Icteride, part of the Vireonide, and the genus Am- pelis.* The condition of the first primary, whether § 62. Spurious or not, is often of great help in this determination. The first primary is said to be spurious (compare § 58) when it is very short ; say a third, or less than a third, of the length of the second primary. A *This really has ten; but the first is so small and so ont of position that it is only theoretically accounted as such, and would not be so considered by the student. I should add, that recent researches of Prof. Baird’s tend to show that all supposed nine-primaried birds have really ten; but only an expert ornithologist could find the additional one in question; and it need not be taken into account for present purposes. (See expla- nation of Pl. 1. fig.1, qu.) Nitzsch says the grebes have 1] primaries; this may be continmed. 36 SECONDARIES AND TERTIARIES—THE TAIL. spurious first primary only occurs in certain ten-primaried Oscines. It is evident, therefore, that the finding of this short primary is equivalent to determining the presence of ten primaries; but, on the other hand, not finding it does not prove nine primaries; the count must be made in all cases where the first primary is more than one-third as long as the second. § 63. Tur Srconpanies (PI. 1, fig. 1, s) are those remiges that are seated on the forearm (fig. 6, Bc) ; they vary in number from six upward, the pre- cise greatest number probably not ascertained, unless it be the forty of the albatross. They have the peculiarity of being actually attached to one of the bones of the forearm (u/na) which the other remiges are not. If you examine an ulna, you will see a row of little points showing the attachment. The secondaries present no special features necessary to describe in the pres- ent connection. They are enormously developed in the argus pheasant. § 64. (a.) Tur Terrrianies (PI. 1, fig. 1, ¢) are, properly, the remiges that grow upon the upper arm (humerus) ; but they are not evident in most birds, and the two or three innermost secondaries, that grow upon the very elbow, and are commonly different from the rest, in form or color, or both, pass under the name of tertiaries. So also some of the scapular feathers (§ 38, and PI. 1, fig. 1, scp), when long or otherwise conspicuous, are called tertiaries. But there is an evident and proper distinction. Scapulars are feathers of the preryla humeralis (§ 9, 6); while tertiaries, whether seated on the elbow or higher up, are the innermost remiges of the pteryla alaris (§ 9, 6). They are oftener called “tertials,” for short, though the other name is more correct, besides being formed in analogy with the names of the other remiges. Tertiaries do not often afford conspicuous or important characters; but in many birds they are very long and flowing. This is particularly the case in most sharp-winged wading birds; and, in fact, is mainly confined to birds with such a wing. (b.) Occasionally, any of the wing feathers take on remarkable special developments, and such is particularly the case with the tertials and second- ary upper-coverts ; but it would be superfluous to particularize these here. The wing rarely produces anything but feathers ; sometimes, however, often- sive weapons are found, as in the horny spur-like process of the pinion of the spur-winged thrush, Yurdus dactylopterus, the spur-winged * goose (Plectropterus), spur-winged pigeon (Didunculus), several plovers (Ohet- tusia, etc.), the jacanas (Parra), etc., and the one or two claws of the ostriches and their allies, as well as of the extinct Archeopteryxz. But we have no illustration of these outgrowths among North American birds. Tue Tarn. § 65. Tre was when birds flew about with long bony and fleshy tails, with the feathers inserted in a row on either side (distichous) like the hairs of a squirrel’s. But we have changed all that. Now the bones are few generally about nine in number), and short, not projecting beyond the gen- TAIL-COVERTS AND RECTRICES. 3 eral plumage, and the last one, called coccyx or vomer (Li. vomer, a plough- share), is large and singularly shaped, and the feathers are stuck around this like the blades upon a lady’s fan. The whole bony and muscular apparatus is familiar to every one as the “pope’s nose” of the Christmas turkey; and in descriptive ornithology the word “tail” refers solely to the feathers, all of which grow upon the pteryla caudalis (§9, b). The tail feathers, like those of the wings, are of two sorts; coverts (tectrices) and rectrices (Li. rectrix, a female ruler or governess ; here in the sense of a steerer or rudder, because they guide the bird’s flight) ; these correspond precisely to the wing-coverts (§ 59) and the remiges (§ 60, a). The § 66. Tar-coverts are the numerous, generally rather small, in compar- ison with rectrices, feathers that overlie and underlie the rectrices, defending their bases, and contributing to the firmness and symmetry of the tail. An obvious division of them is into an upper (tect. superiores) and under (tect. inferiores) set. Neither set is EvER wholly wanting; but sometimes one or the other, and particularly the upper, is very short, and not distinguishable from the general plumage of notweum (§ 38), as in the ruddy duck (genus 270). The upper coverts are the most variable in size, shape and texture. While usually shorter than the under, and reaching only from a fourth to a half of the length of the rectrices, sometimes they take an extraordinary development, project far beyond the rectrices, and form the bird’s chiefest ornament. The gorgeous argus-eyed train of the peacock is upper tail coverts, not rectrices ; the elegant plumes of the paradise trogon (Pharo- macius mocinno), several times longer than the bird itself, are likewise coverts. The under tail coverts are more uniform in development, and very rarely, as in some of the storks, become plumes of any considerable pretensions. Ordinarily, they are about half as long as the tail, but fre- quently reach its whole length, and form a dense tuft, as in the ducks. JI do not now recall an instance of their projecting noticeably beyond the tail. It is to this bundle of under tail-coverts that the word crissum (§ 39) prop- erly applies. The - § 67. Recrrices or true tail feathers can almost never be confounded with the coverts: they are, like the remiges, stiff, well-pronounced feathers, pennaceous to the very base of the vexilla, wanting after-shafts (at least evident after-shafts, in the great majority of cases), and have one vexillum wider than the other, except, sometimes, the central pair. They are always in pairs: that is, there is the same number on each side of the middle line of the tail, and their number, consequently, is always an even one. The ex- ceptions to this rule are so few (and then only among birds with the higher numbers of tail feathers) that they are probably to be regarded as simple anomalies, from accidental arrest of a feather. They are imbricated over each other in this way :—The central pair are highest, and lie with both their webs over the next feather on either side (the inner wel of either of these middle two underlying or overlying the inner web of the other) ; and they all thus successively overlie each other, so that they would form a pyramid 8 SIIAPE AND NUMBER OF RECTRICES. (Se) were they thick, not flat. This disposition is perceived at once in the accom- panying diagram, where it will also be seen that spreading of the tail is | | ° simply the greater divergence of a from 0, while closing the tail is bringing @ and 6 to- — gether directly under c. The act is accom- eure = plished by certain muscles that pull on either aaa eats side at the bases of the quills collectively : a Th they are the same that pull the whole tail to one side or the other, just as tiller-ropes of a boat’s rudder work on that instrument. The general § 68. Suare of 2 rectrix, is shown in Pl. 1, fig. 5. The feather is some- what clubbed, or oblong, widening gradually and nearly regularly towards the tip, where it is gently rounded. But the obvious departures from this are various. A rectrix broad to the very tip, and there cut squarely off, is truncate; one such cut diagonally off is éncised, especially when, as usually happens, the outline of the cut portion is concave. A Tinear rectrix is very narrow, with parallel sides; a lanceolate one is broader at the base, and tapers regularly and gradually to a point. A noticeably pointed rectrix is acute; when the pointing is produced by abrupé contraction towards the tip it is called acuminate, as in woodpeckers generally. A very long, slender, more or less linear feather is said to be filamentous, as the lateral one of a barn-swallow or of most terns, the middle one of a tropic bird (gen. 278), ete. When such protrude suddenly and far beyond all the rest, I call them long-exserted, after an analogous term in botany. An unusually stiff feather is called rigid, as in woodpeckers and other birds that use the tail as a prop or support. When the rhachis projects beyond the vexilla, the feather is spinose, or better, mucronate (i. spina, a prickle, or mucro, a point; @. g., chimney-swift, fig. 123). The bob-o’-link (gen. 87) and sharp-tailed finch (fig. 84) both approximate towards this condition. When the vexilla are wavy-cedged, the feather is crenulate (tine example in Plotus, gen. 276). While the great majority of rectrices are straight, some ave curved, either outwards or inwards, in the horizontal plane; those curved in a perpen- dicular plane are arched or vaulted—the latter particularly when the vanes are concavo-convex in transverse section. ‘The typical § 69. NumpBer of rectrices is tTweLtveE. This holds in the vast majority of birds. It is so uniform throughout the great group Oscines, that the rare exceptions are, perfectly anomalous; in the other group of Passeres (Clamatores) it is usually twelve, but sometimes fen. Among Stérisores there are never more than fen rectrices. In Scansores, the number varies from eight to twelve; eight is rare, as in the genus Crolophaga (no. 126) ; other cuckoos have ten; the woodpeckers have appARENTLY ¢en, but, there are really ¢welve, of which the outer pair on each side are very small, almost rudimentary, hidden betwixt the bases of the second and third pair (sce Key, III). Birds of prey have about twelve. Pigeons (all ours at least) have twelve or fourteen. In birds below these the number begins to increase ; thus directly, among the grouse, we may find up to twenty, as in the great FORMS OF TAILS. 39 cock of the plains; but in a few singular types (Linamide) of the order Galline, there ave none, or only rudimentary ones. Among water birds the numbers vary so that they are usually of only generic, and sometimes only specific, importance. Those swimmers with long, well-formed tails, as the Longipennes, and particularly the gull family, and some of the ducks, have the fewest; here there are twelve, sometimes fourteen, rarely sixteen ; while those with short, soft tails have the most, as sixteen, eighteen, twenty ; and, as in the pelicans, twenty-two, or even twenty-four—the last being about the maximum, although in one genus of penguins (Aptenodyfesy there are thirty-two or more. Swimmers again, furnish birds with nolrectrices, the whole grebe family (Podicipide) hein thus distinguished. So rectrices run among birds from none to over thirty. The (ypzcal § 70. Smare or THe Tarn, as a whole, is the ran. The modifications, however, are as many as, and greater and more varied than, those of the wing, at the same time that they are susceptible of better definition, snd have received special names that must be learned. Taking the simplest case, where the rectrices are all of the same length, we have what is called the even, square or truncate tail, from which nearly all the others are simple departures in one way or another. A square, or nearly so, tail with the two central feathers long-exserted (§ 68) is common: we see it in all jaegers (gen. 280), in Momotus (gen. 112) and especially in Phaéthon (gen. 278). The most frequent departure from the even tail is by gradual successive shortening of the rectrices from the pair next the middle to the exterior ones; and this shortening is called gradation. Gradation is a generic tern, implying such shortening in any degree. Precisely, it should mean shorten- ing each successive pair of rectrices by the same amount; say, each pair being half an inch shorter than the next. But this exactness is not often preserved. When the feathers shorten by more and more, we have the true rounded tail, probably the commonest form among birds: thus, let the grada- tion between the middle and next pair be just appreciable, and then increase regularly, to half an inch between the next to the outermost and the lateral pair. The opposite gradation, by less and less shortening, gives the wedge- shaped or cuneate tail; it is well shown in the magpie, where, as in many other birds, the central feathers would be called long-exserted, were all the rest of the same length as the outer. A cuneate tail, especially with narrow acute feathers, is also called potnied, in contradistinction to rounded, as in the sprig-tailed duck (gen. 253). The generic opposite of the gradated tail is the forked; where the lateral feathers increase in length from the ceutral to the outer pair. “The least appreciable forking is called emargination, and such a tail is emarginate; when it is more marked, as for instance, say an inch of forking in a tail six inches long, the tail is truly forked. The de- grees of forking are so various and intimately connected, that they are usu- ally expressed by qualitied terms: as, “slightly forked,” “deeply forked,” etc. The deeper forkings are wswelly accompanied by a more or less Jila- mentous elongation of the outer pair of rectrices: as in the barn swallow, 40 FORMS OF TAILS—THE FEET. some flycatchers, most of the terns, etc., etc. It would be advisable to have a term to express such extreme condition, which I shall call forficate, when the depth of the fork is equal to, or greater than, the length of the shortest (middle) pair of feathers ; it occurs among our birds in the genera Milvulus (no. 104), Sterna (291), and elsewhere. Double-forked or double-rounded tails are not uncommon; they result from combination of both gradation and forking, in this way :— Let the middle feathers remain constant, and the next two or three pairs progressively increase in length, then the rest successively decrease ; evidently, the tail is forked centrally, gradated exter- nally : this is the double rounded form; it is shown in the genera Myiadestes (no. 52) and Anous (294). Now with middle feathers as before, let the next pair or two decrease in length, and the rest progressively increase to the outermost: then we have the double-forked, a common shape among sandpipers. In the latter case, the forking rarely amounts to more than simple emargination, and generally is really little more than simple protru- sion of the middle pair of rectrices in an otherwise slightly forked tail; and in neither case is the gradation either way often great. Various shapes of tails, which the student will readily name from the foregoing paragraph, are illustrated in figs. 17, 19, 29, 30, 32, 54, 57, 68, 13, 16, 84, 98, 106, 117, 120, 121) 126) 183,135, 137, 1445 1455 lab 28 177, 206, 214. Ishould also allude to the folded tail of the barn-yard fowl (Gallus bankivi, var.) a very familiar but rare form. One of the most beautiful and wonderful of all the shapes of the tail is illustrated by the male of the famous lyre-bird (Menura superba), shown in the figure at the end of this Introduction. A It should be remembered that to determine the shape, the tail should be viewed nearly closed ; for spreading will obviously make a square tail round, an emarginate one square, etc. I append a diagram of the principal forms. Fic. 7.— Diagram of shapes of tail. Fic. 7. ade, rounded; aec, gradate; aic, cuneate-gradate; alc? cuneate; abc, double- rounded; fey, square; fhy, emarginate; fneog, double-emarginate; kim, forked; kem, deeply forked; kbm, forficate. . THe Frer. § 71. In aun birps, the posterior extremities are organized for progres- sion; for walking, hopping, or running on land, in all; but a few of the BONES OF LEG AND FOOT. 41 lowest birds can scarcely walk; for perching on trees, etc., in the vast majority, most of which hop about there, and many of which climb or scramble in every imaginable way, with or without the aid of the tail; for swimming on the water, or diving, in a great many; for grasping and hold- ing detached objects in some, as the parrots, birds of prey, and a few others. The modifications of the leg and foot are more numerous, more diverse, and more important, in their bearing upon taxonomy, than those of either bill, wing or tail. § 72. (a.) THE BONY FRAMEWORK. (Fig. 8, somewhat diagrammatic il- lustration, taken from a loon’s right leg.) This ordinarily consists of twenty bones, of which fourteen are toe-bones, one is a little bone connecting the hind toe with the rest of the foot, one a little bone in front of the knee- joint, and four are the principal bones from the hip-joint down to the roots of the toes. The first is the femur or thigh-bone, a, reaching from hip a, to knee B; a large terete bone, corresponding to the humerus of the wing. Then come two bones, 0, the tibia, or principal (and inner) leg-bone, and c, the fibula, or lesser (and outer) leg-bone ; both these joint with the femur above, and in front of this, the knee-joint, there is in many or most birds a A LES 2t 4F Fig. 8. Bones of leg-and foot. little knee-pan, or knee-cap: the patella, p. The tibia runs to the heel, o, and there has an enlarged extremity to joint with the next bone: but the fibula is only a slender spicula not reaching the heel, but ending in a sharp point part way down the leg, and partly soldered with the tibia. It is only in a few of the lowest birds, that the tibia runs up to a point above the knee- joint, as shown in this figure: ordinarily, it ends at the knee itself. The portion of the leg represented by the femur, or from a to B, is the TuIcH; that represented by tibia and fibula is the LEG or crus; leg proper, there- fore, is from knee to heel, or B to c only. KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 6 42 BONES OF LEG AND FOOT. (b.) Now a bird’s legs are not like ours, separate from the body from the hip downward, but are for a variable distance inclosed within the general skin of the body. The freedom is greatest among the higher birds, and es- pecially rapacious birds, that use the feet for grasping, and least in the low- est swimming birds: the entire range of enclosure of the leg, is from part way up the thigh down almost to the very point c, as in the case of the loon and other diving swimmers. And in no birds, is the knee, B, seen outside the general contour of the plumage; it must be looked or felt for among the feathers, and in most prepared skins will not be found at all. Practically, it is a landmark of no consequence in determining genera and species, though of the utmost importance in primary classification; the student may for awhile ignore its existence if he chooses. ‘The first joint that sticks out from the plumage is the HEBEL, c; and this is what, in loose popular terms, is called “knee,” upon the same erroneous notion that the wrist of a horse’s foreleg is called “ knee.” Just so people call a bird’s crus the “thigh,” and disregard the thigh altogether. There is no need of this confusion; and even without the slightest anatomical knowledge, any one can tell knee from heel at a glance, whatever their position relative to the body; for knees auways bend forward, and heels aways bend backward. (c.) This point c corresponds to the point ¢ in fig. 6 of the wing. There we found two little carpal bones, or wrist-bones, intervening between fore- arm and hand, or metacarpus; but adult birds have no such actual bones in- tervening between tibia and the next bone, d, the Merararsus. So there is no tarsus proper; metatarsus hinges directly upon tibia, or foot upon leg, without true ankle-bones; that is, the foot-bone itself makes the ankle-joint, with the leg, at the point c, heel. (Theoretically, however, there are tarsal bones: for there is an epiphysis (§ 56*) at the lower end of the tibia, and an epiphysis at the upper end of the metatarsal bone; afterwards fused with these bones respectively. One or the other, or both of these are held by different anatomists to be tarsal bones; more particularly, the one that fuses with the metatarsus; which last, therefore, represents both tarsus and meta- tarsus, and is on this account called ¢arso-metatarsus.*) *This is as usually taught. But Gegenbaur has shown that these so-called epiphyses are true tarsal bones. He represents, in the chick at the ninth day of embryonic life, two bones, an upper and an under, the former afterward anchylosing with the tibia, the latter with the metatarsus, leaving the ankle-joint between them, as in reptiles. Morse, who has studied the embryos of several species, goes still further: he shows that the upper tarsal bone of Gegenbaur is really two bones, corresponding to the tibiale and fibulare, or astrag- alus and caleaneum; these subsequently co-ossify to form the upper one seen by Gegenbaur, and finally co-ossify with the tibia to form the bitrochlear condyle characteristic of this bone in Aves. The distal tarsal ossicle he believes to be the centrale of reptiles. Wyman discovers that the so-called process of the astraga- lus has a distinct ossification, and Morse interprets it as the intermedium. (Am. Nat. v, 1871, 524.) In the light of these late discoveries, the homologies of the bird’s carpus and metacarpus become clearer. We have seen (§ 55, 56, fig. 6) that birds retain throughout life two distinct proximal carpal bones (called scapholunar and cuneiform, but better named simply radiale and ulnare), and that in early life they have a distal bone, that was mentioned as the magnum, but appears to be centrale, corresponding to the distal tarsal ossicle, Just as the ulnare and radiale do to the proximal tarsal ossicles. Morse has eyen found in the carpus of birds, two more ossicles, the homology of which remains undetermined. But what we now know, renders it almost certain, that the so-called epiphyses upon the proximal ends of the metacarpals, are not epiphyses, any more than the so-called tarsal epiphyses; and that the metacarpus of birds is really carpo-metacarpus, just as the metatarsus is actually tarso-metatarsus. This view is strengthened by the fact that the metacarpal bones of higher vertebrates, except the first, ordinarily lack epiphyses. MECHANISM OF THE LEG AND FOOT. 43 (d.) The principal metatarsal bone, d, representing the distance c p, be- tween the lower end of the leg and the roots of the toes, really consists of three bones fused in one; these are partly distinct only in the penguins, anong recent birds; but in all birds except ostriches, the original distinction is indicated by three prongs or claws at the lower end of the bone: for joint- ing with the three principal toes. The other toe, almost always the hinder one, when it is present, is hinged on the metatarsus in an entirely different way ; by means of a separate little rudimentary bone, the accessory META- TARSAL, ™, in the figure, in dotted outline. It is of various shapes and sizes, and variable in position up and down the lower part of the metatarsus. Or- dinarily it is too small, or too flat, to be seen from the outside of the foot at all; it has no true jointing with the main metatarsal, but is simply pressed flat against it, and more‘or less soldered, much as the lower part of the fibula is with the tibia. It may be wanting in some birds with no hind toe; in others, without hind toe, it still persists. (e.) In spite of the anatomical propricties involved, this part of the leg, from heel to bases of toes,—from c to p—represented really by the meta- tarsal bone and its accessory, has gained a name now so firmly established, that it would be finical to attempt to change it in ordinary descriptive writ- ings. This is THE TARSUS; we shall soon see how important a thing it is. (f.) The toes or digits consist of a certain number of bones placed end to end, all jointed upon each other, and the first series upon the metatarsal or its accessory. ach of these individual bones is called a phalanzx (pl. phalanges) or internode (because intervening between the joints or nodes of the toes). The furthermost one of each toe almost invariably bears a claw. They are of various lengths relative to each other, and of variable number in the same or different toes; but these points, and others, are fully consid- ered farther on. We may here glance at the § 73. (a.) Mecuanism involved. The hip is a ball-and-socket joint, per- mitting roundabout as well as fore-and-aft movements of the thigh. The knee is usually a hinge-joint only, allowing back and forward motion of the leg; so constructed that the forward movement is never carried beyond a right line with the leg, while the backward is so free that the leg may be completely doubled under the thigh. In some birds there are also rotatory movements at the knee, very evident in certain swimmers. The ankle or heel-joint is a strict hinge, and sometimes a wonderful one, too, taken in connection with the action of certain muscles that move the tarsus. For in some birds the interior structure of the joint is such that it locks the tarsus, when straightened out upon the leg, in that position, so firmly that some voluntary muscular effort is needed to overcome the resistance; such birds can sleep standing up on one leg, and this is the design of the mechanism. The ankle permits just the opposite bendings to those of the knee; the tar- sus cannot pass backward out of a straight line with the leg; but can come forward until the toes nearly touch the knee. The jointing of the toes on the metatarsal bone is peculiar; for the hinge-surfaces of the metatarsal 44 PLUMAGE OF THE LEG. prongs have such mutual obliquity, that when the toes are brought forward, at right angles or thereabouts with the tarsus, they spread themselves in the action, and the open foot, with its diverging toes, are pressed on the ground or against the water; and when the toes are bent around in the other direction, they close together more or less parallel with each other, besides being bent or flexed, each one at its several nodes. The mechanism is best illustrated in the swimmers, which must present a broad surface to the water in giving the backward stroke, and bring the foot forward closed with only an edge opposed to the water. It is carried to such extreme in the loon, that the digit marked 2¢in the figure lies below and behind 3¢, as there shown; in most birds with the foot in much the same position relative to the tarsus, 2¢ would appear above 3¢ (compare other figures of feet). It is probably least marked in birds of prey, that clutch with all the toes spread. The individual toe joints are all simple hinges. (b.) In ordinary hopping, walking, perching, etc., only the toes rest upon or grasp the support, and’c is more or less perpendicularly above p. This resting of the toes is complete for all the anterior ones; for the hind toe it varies according to the position and length of the latter from complete resting like the others, to mere touching of the tip, and finally to not even this; the hind toe is then said to be functionless. But the lowest birds cannot stand upright on their toes at all; these rest with the tarsus horizontal, and the heel c touching the ground; moreover, in all these birds, the tail affords additional support, making a tripod with the legs, as in the kangaroo. These birds might be called plantigrade, in strict anatomical analogy with the beasts so called; the others are digitigrade, quite as analo- gously ; but there are no birds, that, like horses and cows, walk on the ends of their toes, or toe-nails. A bird’s ordinary walking or running, corres- ponds exactly with ours, as far as the mechanics of motion are concerned ; but its hopping, as it is called, is really leaping, both legs being brought forward at once. Nearly all birds down to Gallinw, leap when on the ground ; all others walk or run, advancing one leg after the other. Leaping is thus really distinctive of the Jnsessores; though many of them, as tit- larks, shore larks, meadow larks, many terrestrial sparrows, blackbirds, crows, turkey buzzards, and others, including all the pigeon family, walk instead of leaping. § 74. Tue Piumace of the legs varies within wide limits. In general, the leg is feathered to the heel, and the tarsus and toes are naked. The thigh is aLways feathered. The crus is feathered in all Jnsessores (with raré exceptions), and in all Matatores without exception; in the loon family the feathering extends on as well as to the heel-joint. It is among the Cur- sores, or walkers, and especially wading birds, that the crus is most naked ; here it may be denuded half way up. A few waders—among ours, chiefly in the snipe family—have the crus apparently clothed to the joint, but this is in most if not all cases due to the length of the feathers, for probably no one of them has the crural pteryla itself extended to the joint. The crural PROPORTIONS AND COVERING OF THE LEG. 45 feathers are almost always short and inconspicuous; sometimes long and flowing, as in nearly all the hawks, our tree-cuckoos, etc. The éarsus in the vast majority of birds is naked of feathers ; it is so in all the higher Jnses- sores, with very few exceptions (as in the swift family, for instance), in all waders, without exception, and in all swimmers with the single exception of the frigate bird (Zachypetes, gen. 277), and here the feathering is not com- plete. The Raptores and the Galline give us the most feathered tarsi. Thus featherjng is the rule, among the owls (Strigid@) ; frequent (either partial or complete) in hawks and eagles, as the genera Aguila (161) Archibu- teo (160) and Buteo (159). All our grouse, as distinguished from the turkeys and partridges of the same order, have the tarsus more or less feathered. The ¢oes are feathered in few birds; but we have fine examples of this, in the snowy owl, and all the ptarmigan. Partial feathering of the tarsus is often continued further down to or on the toes by sparse modi- fied bristly feathers; this is well illustrated in the barn owl. When incom- plete, the feathering is usually wanting behind and below; being almost invariably continuous above with the crural feathering. But, in that spirit of delight that birds show in proving every rule we make about them by furnishing exceptions to it, the tarsus is sometimes partly feathered without connection with the general plumage above. A curious example is afforded by the bank swallow, with its little tuft of feathers at the base of the hind toe ; and some varieties of the barnyard fowl sprout monstrous leggings of feathers from the side of the tarsus. § 75. Tar Lenetu or tHe Lec, compared with the size of the bird, is extremely variable. A thrush or a sparrow probably represents about an average in this respect. The shortest-legged known bird is probably the . frigate, just mentioned ; a yard long, more or less, it has a tibia not half as long as the skull, and a tarsus under an inch. The leg is very short in the order Strisores, as among humming-birds, swifts, goatsuckers, kingfishers, trogons, etc.; while the swallows, of Oscines, are like swifts in this respect. It is likewise pretty short among Scansores. The leg is also “short” in all swimmers; the femur especially being very short, and the tarsus likewise ; while the toes, bearing their broad webs, are longer. The leg lengthens in lower Jnsessores, as most hawks, and especially among some of the terrestrial pigeons. It is still longer among the walkers; and reaches its maximum among the waders, especially the larger kinds, as fla- mingoes, cranes, storks and herons, among all of which it is accompanied by corresponding increase in length of the neck. Probably the longest legged of all birds for its size is the stilt (imantopus, 197). It is seen from the above, that, taking the tarsus alone, as an index of the whole com- parative length of the leg, this is in the frigate bird under one thirty-sixth of the total length; a flamingo, four feet long, has a tarsus one foot; a stilt, fourteen inches long, a tarsus four inches; so the maximum and minimum of length of tarsus are represented by nearly thirty, and under three, per cent. of the bird’s whole length. 46 CONDITIONS OF THE PODOTHECA. § 76. Tar Naxep Parr of the leg is covered, like the bill, by a hard- ened, thickened, modified integument, which varies in texture between cor- neous and leathery. This is called the poporuEca (Gr. podos, of a foot, theke, sheath). Land birds have the most horny covering, and water ‘birds the most skinny; in general this is distinctive of these two great divisions of birds, and the exceptions are few. The perfectly. horny envelope is tight and immovably fixed, or nearly so, while the skinny is looser, and may usually be slipped round about a little. The covering may also differ on different parts of the same leg; in fact, such is usually the case to a degree. Unlike the covering of the bill, that of the legs is NEVER simple and contin- uous throughout; it is divided and subdivided in various ways. The lower part of the-crus, when naked, and the tarsus and toes, are variously cut up into scales, plates, tubercles, etc.; these have all received special names ; and moreover, the mode of this division becomes, especially among higher birds, a matter of the utmost consequence, for purposes of classification, since it is fixed and definite in the same groups. § 77. Scuretta (pl. of L. scutellum, a little shield; figs. 10, 11, 0) are scales, generally of large comparative size, arranged in definite up and down lines, and apt to be imbricated, or fixed shingle-wise, with the lower edge of one overlapping the upper edge of the next below. The great majority of birds have them. ‘They generally occur on the front of the tarsus (which is called acrotarsiwm, and corresponds to our “instep”), and almost inva~- riably on the top of the toes (called acropodiwm) ; frequently on the back of the tarsus; not so often on the tibia, sides of the tarsus, sides and under surfaces of the toes (if ever in the latter situation). A tarsus so furnished is said to be scutellate, before or behind, or both, as the case may be; the term is equally applicable to the acropodium, but the expression is rarely used because the scutella are so commonly there. § 78. Puates, or reticulations (Li. reticulum, a little net or web; fig. 11, a), result from the cutting up of the envelope by cross lines in various ways. Plates are of various shapes and sizes; but however they may be, in these respects, they are distinguished from scutella by not appearing imbr7- cated; their edges simply meet, but do not overlap. They are generally smaller than scutella. The commonest shape is the six-sided, or hexagonal ; a form best adapted to close packing, as strikingly shown, and long ago mathematically proven, in case of the cells of bees’ honey-comb. They are sometimes five-sided, or even four-sided; but are more likely to have more sides, becoming irregularly polygonal, or even circular; when crowded in one direction and loosened in another, this develops into the oval, or even somewhat linear. A leg so furnished is called reticulate; it may be wholly so, but is generally partly scutellate. A particular case of reticulation is ealled § 79. GranuLation (L. granum, a grain); when the plates become ele- vated into little tubercles, roughened or not. Such a leg is said to be gran- ulated or rugose; it is well seen in the parroquet and fish hawk. CONDITIONS OF THE PODOTHECA. 47 § 80. Wuen the harder sorts of either scutella or plates are roughened without obvious elevation, the leg is said to be scabrous or scarious. But scabrous is also said of the under surfaces of the toes, when these develop special pads, or wart-like bulbs (called tylarz) ; excellently shown in most hawks. ‘The softer sorts of legs, and especially the webs of swimming “birds, are often crosswise or otherwise marked by lines, without these being strong enough to produce plates; this is a condition analogous to the little raised lines and depressions seen on our own palms, and especially our finger-tips. Occasionally, the plates of a part of the leg become so devel- oped as to form actual serration; seen on the hinder edge of the tarsus of grebes. Fie. 9. “Booted” tarsus, of a robin. Fieg.10. Scutellate tarsus, Fig. 11. b. Scutellate tarsus, of a of a cat-bird. pigeon; a. reticulate tarsus, of a plover. § 81. WuxeEn an unfeathered tarsus shows on its front surface no divisions of the podotheca, or only two or three divisions close by the toes, it is said to be booted, and the podotheca is said to be fused. (Fig. 9.) This con- dition chiefly occurs in higher Oscines, and is supposed by many, particu- larly German ornithologists, to indicate the highest type of structure; but it is also found in some water birds, as Wilson’s stormy petrel. It is not a very common modification. Among North American birds it only occurs in the following cases: —Genera Turdus (1), Cinclus (5), Saxicola (6), Sialia (7), Regulus (9), Chamea? (11), Myiadestes (52) and Oceanites (307)% and even these birds, when young, show scutella, which disappear with age, by progressive fusion of the acrotarsial podotheca. § 82. Tur Crus, when bare below, may present scutellation either before ‘or behind, or both, as is seen in many waders where the crus is largely naked; often again, the crural podotheca may consist of loose, softish, movable skin, not obviously subdivided: sometimes it is truly reticulate, as in the genus [eteroscelus (221). § 83. Tue Tarsus, in general, may be called subcylindrical ; it is often quite circular in transverse section ; very rarely thicker across than fore-and- aft (as in penguins); but very often thicker in the reverse direction. When this transverse thinness becomes noticeable, the tarsus is said to be 4 fo ‘ i fae Anh otpress 8 Ce 48 NUMBER AND POSITION OF TOES. - compressed: the form is seen in its highest development in the loon, where the tarsus is almost like a knife-blade. Cylindrical tarsi occur chiefly when there are scutella before and behind; it occurs in our shore lark (Hremo- phila, gen. 26), but is a rare modification among land birds, though very common among waders. The tarsus of the vast majority of land birds is seen, on close inspection, to be sharp-ridged behind, and gently rounded in front. This generally results from the presence, in front, of a series of scutella, associated, on the sides and hinder edge of the tarsus, with fusion, or with a few large plates variously arranged. The meeting of these two kinds of envelope on the sides of the tarsus is generally in a more or less complete straight up and down line; either a mere flush trace of union, or a ridge, oftener a groove (well seen in the crows) that may or may not be filled in with a few small linear plates. But further consideration of special states of the tarsal envelope, however important and interesting, would be part of a systematic treatise, rather than of an outline sketch like this. § 84. Tue Tous (individually, digiti; collectively, podium). Their nor- mal number is FouR: there are never more. The ostrich alone has only two. There are ¢hree in all the auks (fam. Alcide) and albatrosses (subfam. Dio- medeine) ; in all struthious birds, except the ostrich and Apteryx; and in a large number of waders (Giralle). Three toes only occur as an anomaly among Insessores, as in the cases of the exotic genus Ceyx of kingfishers, and the genus Picoides of woodpeckers. North American three-toed birds are only these : —the woodpeckers just named ; auks and albatrosses ; plovers (except one, Sguatarola, 189) ; the oystercatchers (Hamatopus, 194) ; the sanderling (Calidris, 211); the stilt (Himantopus, 197). In the vast majority of cases, there are three toes in front, and one behind; occasionally, either the hind one, or the outermost front one, is versatile, that is, capable of being turned either way ; the outermost one is mostly so in the owls, the fish hawk (gen. 153), and a few other birds. We have no case of true versatility of the hind toe among North American birds, but several cases of its lateral stationary position (goatsuckers, some Western swifts, loons, and all the tot- ipalmate swimmers) ; nor have we any example of that rarest condition (seen in the European swifts, Cypselus, and in the Coliide@) where all four toes are turned forward. This only occurs in the order Strisores. The ar- rangement of toes ¢wo in front, and two behind, or in pairs, characterizes the whole order Scansores, or climbers; such birds are said to be zygodactylous (yoke-toed ; see fig. 128). Our examples are the parrot, woodpeckers and cuckoos, to which some add the trogons; in all these, except the last named, it is the outer anterior toe that is reversed. In nearly every three-toed bird, all three are anterior; our single exception is the genus Picoides (132), where the hind toe is wanting, the outer anterior reversed to take its place, and only two left in front. No bird has more toes behind than in front. All birds’ toes are § 85. Numperrep, in a certain definite order, as follows (see figs. 8, 9) :— hind toe (1t) = first toe; inner anterior toe (2t) = second toe; middle an- STRUCTURE AND POSITION OF THE TOES. 49 terior toe (3t) = third toe; outer anterior toe (4t) = fourth toe. In birds with the hind toe reversed, the same order is obvious: only, inner anterior toe = lt, ete. In zygodactyli (except Trogonide), inner hind toe =1t; inner front toe = 2t; outer front toe = 3t; outer hind toe = 4t. Now when the number of toes decreases, the toes are always reduced in the same order: thus, in all three-toed birds, 1t is wanting: in the two-toed birds 1t and 2t are wanting. This is proven by the § 86. Numper or Jornts, or number of phalanges (§ 72, f) of the toes. The constancy of the joints in birds’ toes is remarkable, one of the strong- est expressions we have of the highly monomorphic character of the class Aves. In all birds, It has two joints (not counting the accessory metatar- sal). Inall birds, 2t has three joints. In nearly all birds, 3t has four joints. In nearly all birds, 4t has five joints. The only exceptions to this, consist in the lessening of the joints of 3t by one, and the lessening of the joints of 4t by one or two. So in all cases, where the joints do not run 2, 3, 4, 5, for the toes from Ist to 4th, they run either 2, 3, 4, 4, or 2, 3, 3, 4, or 2, 3, 3, 3. This variability in number of the internodes is confined (wholly ?) to the order Sérisores. Our examples are in the sub-families Cypseline and Caprimulgince (which see; see also figs. 119 and 122). This admirable conservatism enables us to always determine what toes are missing, in birds with less than four; thus, in Picoides, the hind toe, though seemingly 1t, is evidently 4t, because 5-jointed; in the ostrich, with only two toes, 3t and 4t are seen to be preserved, because they are respectively 4- and 5- jointed. (In fig. 8, the dotted line 1 indicates the first series of phalanges of all the toes; dot-line 2, the second; the correspondence of the remaining phalanges is seen at a glance. ) § 87. Tue position of the toes, other than in respect of their direction, is important. In atu birds the front toes are on the same level, or so nearly so, that the difference is not notable. And the same may be said of the hind toes, when there are two, as in Scansores. But the hind toe, when present and single, varies remarkably in position, and must have special notice, as this character is important in taxonomy. ‘The insertion of this toe varies, from the very bottom of the tarsus, where it is on a level with the front toes, to some distance up the tarsus. When flush with the bases of the other toes, so that its whole under surface touches the ground, it is said to be incumbent. When just so much raised that its tip only touches the ground, it is called znsistent. When so high up that it does not reach the ground at all, it is termed remote (amotus). But as the precise position varies insensibly, so that the foregoing distinctions are not readily per- ceived, it is practically best to recognize only two of these three conditions, and say simply, “hind toe elevated,” when it is inserted appreciably above the rest, or “hind toe not elevated,” when its insertion is flush with that of the other toes. In round terms: it is characteristic of all Insessores to have the hind toe pown;; it is characteristic of all other birds to have the hind toe up (when present). The exceptions to the first statement are extremely KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. / 50 CONDITIONS OF THE HIND TOE. rare; they are confined, among our birds, in any marked degree, to the two genera of Oaprimulgide (gen. 114, 115) and the turkey buzzard (Cathartes, gen. 166); but among other Raptores besides Cathartes, such as certain owls, and in some pigeons (lowest of Jnsessores, it will be remembered), the toe is not gute down, or is even perceptibly uplifted. Technically, how- ever, I take all these but the three first named, as having the toe down. It is elevated in all our Pasores or Gallinw (gen. 177 to 188) ; elevated in all our waders except the herons, ibises, and spoonbill; the elevation is least marked in the rail family, but still plain enough there. It is elevated in ALL swimming birds, whether lobe-footed, or partly or wholly web-footed ; but in the Totipalmate order (Steganopodes, gen. 273 to 278) where it is lateral and webbed with the inner toe, the elevation is slight. Now since, curiously enough, the only three of our insessorial genera above mentioned (two of Caprimulgide, and Cathartes) that have the hind toe well up, have also little webs connecting the anterior toes; and since some J?aptores are our only other Insessores with any such true webs; and since herons, ibises and spoonbills are our only birds with such true webs, that have the hind toe down, the following rule is infallible for all our birds: Consider the hind toe up in every bird with any true webbing or lobing of the front toes, except herons and their allies and some birds of prey. The converse, also, holds nearly as well; for our only birds with fully-cleft anterior toes, and hind toe up, are the rails and gallinules, the black-bellied plover (our only 4-toed plover), the turnstone, the woodcock, Wilson’s snipe, and most of the true sandpipers. Besides its versatility of position the hind toe has § 88. OTHER NOTABLE CHARACTERS. It is free and simple, in the vast majority of birds; in all Insessores, nearly all Cursores, and most Nata- tores. In length, it may equal or surpass (with its claw included) the longest anterior toe, and generally surpasses at least one or two of them. It is never so long as when down on a level with the rest; here also, it attains its greatest mobility, and among Passeres is virtually provided with a special muscle for its apposition with the others in the act of grasping. In general, it grows shorter as it gets higher up; and probably in no bird where it is truly elevated, is it so long as the shortest anterior toe. It is short and barely touches the ground in most waders; shorter still in some swimmers, as the gulls, where probably it is functionless; rudimentary in one genus of gulls, Rissa (284), where it bears no perfect claw ; represented only by an immovable sessile claw, liable to be overlooked unless carefully sought for, in the petrels; it disappears in the birds above named (§ 84), and some others. It is never actually joined by direct soldering to either of the other toes, for any noticeable distance ; but is united to the base of the inner toe by a web in the loons, and to the whole length of the inner toe in all the Steganopodes (fig. 183). But it may be, as it were, independently webbed; that is, have a lobe or flap of membrane hanging from it; this con- dition is seen in all the sea-ducks (Puliginw, gen. 260 to 270), and in all THE THREE PLANS OF THE AVIAN FOOT. ol our truly lobe-footed birds. I may finally consider the modes of union of the anterior toes under the head of the § 89. TuHree MODIFICATIONS OF THE BIRD’s Foor. All birds’ feet are built upon one or the other of three plans, corresponding to the three sub- classes Insessores, Cursores and Natatores. These are the perching plan, the ~ walking or wading plan, and the swimming plan; and these are pretty sharply distinguished (independently of differences in the number and position of the toes) by the method of union. In the perching plan, the toes are only very exceptionally connected by true movable webbing; they are cleft to the base, or else joined, for a part, or the whole, of one joint, or a part also of the second joint, by actual cohesion. Our thrushes show about as complete cleavage as is ever seen; our wrens, titmice, creepers, etc., exhibit considerable basal cohesion. A remarkable exception is seen in the syngnesious foot; where the outer and middle toes fuse for nearly their whole length; the kingfisher (figs. 116, 117), illustrates this; and all such birds are called syndactylous (Gr. sun together, dactylon a finger). In the walking plan, the toes are never, probably, thus joined by fusion; and they are seldom cleft to the base; the union is generally by a movable basal web, of variable extent. This constitutes the semipalmate (4-webbed, that is,) foot. But the webs occasionally, in true wading birds, run out to the ends of the toes, as in the avocet (gen. 196), and in the flamingo (if indeed this bird really belongs among waders). Generally they run out to the end of the first, or along part of the second joint, constituting true semipalmation ; shown in the semipalmated sandpiper and willet. (Figs. 166,170.) Oftener the web is of about this size between the outer and middle toes, and slighter or wholly deficient between the middle and inner; this is shown in nearly all our larger waders, including herons. (It is also the usual state of webbing of those hawks that have semipalmation.) In the swimming plan, the foot is changed into a paddle by webbing or lobing; the former constitutes the palmate, and the latter the lobate, foot. In the palmate, the webbing is usually complete betwixt the three front toes; it is extended to the hind toe, likewise, in all Steganopodes, and partly in the loons. Sometimes the webbing is defective, from deep éncision, or cutting away of the free anterior border of the webs for some distance: this is seen partly in the genus Phi- lacte (249) and much more so in the short-tailed tern, Hydrochelidon (gen. 2925 fig. 208), where it simulates semipalmation. But in such a case, if the fresh foot be carefully examined, the webbing will be seen running as a narrow border, quite to the claws, as usual. Frequently, one web is larger than the other, as in all our terns (fig. 207, for example) where the inner web is somewhat defective. In the lobate foot, instead of con- necting webs, we have a series of broad lobes along each joint of the toes, as in the coot, and all the grebes: but it is almost always, if not always, associated with semipalmation.. It occurs, again, in some wad- ing birds, as the remarkable family of the phalaropes, which swim, in fact, better than they walk. Here the lobation may be either scolloped, 52 MARGINAL MEMBRANE—THE CLAWS. or cut out at the joints, as in the coot, or plain, that is, straight-edged. (Fig. 162.) True lobation, occurring, among North American birds, only in the grebes, coots, and phalaropes, must be carefully distinguished from various § 90. Marcinat Frinees, or processes, that birds of the lower orders often exhibit. Thus, if a gallinule be examined in a fresh state, it will be found to have a margin of membrane running along the sides of the toes, and the same is the case, if less evident, in a great many waders. Palmate birds also show it, on the free borders of 2¢ and 4¢; it is very conspicuous in the albatrosses, and plain enough in geese, &c. In the grouse family there is a remarkable development of horny substance, resembling a real fringe, being cut into a series of sharp teeth, or pectinations. § 91. Tur Curaws. With certain anomalous exceptions, as in case of a rudimentary hind toe, every toe bears a claw. The general shape of the claw is remarkably constant throughout birds: variations are in degree only, rather than in kind. A cat’s claw represents nearly the usual shape, viz: compressed, arched, acute. The great talons of a bird of prey are only the extreme of this typical shape. Besides this general shape, the claws are usually dug out underneath, so that the transverse section, as well as length- wise outline below, is concave, and the under surface is bounded on either side by a sharp edge. One of these edges, and particularly the inner edge of the middle claw, is somewhat dilated or expanded in a great many birds ; and in some it becomes changed into a perfect comb, by having a regular series of teeth. This pectination occurs only on the inner edge of the middle claw; it is beautifully shown by all the true herons (Ardeide) ; by the whippoorwills and nighthawks, by the frigate pelican, and, to a less degree, by the barn owl. It is supposed to be used for cleaning out lice from parts that cannot be reached by the bill; but this is open to question, seeing that outside the herons, it chiefly occurs among very short-legged birds, that cannot possibly reach many parts of the plumage with the toes. Besides faptores, most perching birds are very sharp- clawed; the claws are more obtuse among the pigeons and Galline (scratchers) and still more so among most swimming birds. Obtuseness is generally associated with flatness, or depression; this is seen in Wilson’s petrel, as distinguished from all our others, and carried to the extreme in the grebes, where the claws resemble human nails. The deviations from curvature occur principally in the hind claw; this is straight or nearly so, in the shore lark, and some terrestrial sparrows, as the genus Plectrophanes (63). All the claws are straight, and prodigiously long, in some exotic birds of the rail tribe—the jacanas (Parra); this enables the birds to run lightly over the floating leaves of aquatic plants, by so much increase of breadth of support that they do not slump in. Claws are also variously carinate, suleate, etc. They are always horny. They take name from and are reckoned by the digits they belong to: thus, lcl. = claw of 1¢: 2c. = claw of 2¢, etc. HOW TO USE THE KEY. 53 SECT. IV. Drirectrions.—How TO USE THE KEY.—HOW TO MEASURE A SPECIMEN, ETC. 1. HOW TO USE THE KEY. § 92. We have in hand a bird which we know nothing about, and desire to identify; that is, to discover its name and position in the system; and to learn whatever else the present volume may afford. Let us suppose it to be that little black and white spotted bird which we often see climbing about our fruit trees, boring holes in the bark. The Key opens with an arbitrary division of our birds, according to the number and position of their toes. Our specimen, we see, has four toes, arranged in pairs; that is, two before and two behind. It therefore comes under the third division (III). Turning to III, we read :— Bill with a cere, and strongly epignathous, etc., — not cered; inner hind toe with 3 joints, etc., —only 2 joints. (f) We see that the bill of the specimen is neither cered nor hooked, and that the inner hind toe is 2-jointed. Following, therefore, the reference- letter (f), we find three alternatives, viz., (f) Tail of 8 feathers, etc., — 10 soft feathers, etc., — 12 (apparently only 10) rigid acuminate feathers. (g) The tail feathers of the specimen are stiff and pointed, and we count ten perfect ones, besides a rudimentary pair concealed at the bases of the others. Evidently, then, we continue with the reference letter (g), as follows :— (g) Birds > 14 inches long, etc., (g) Birds <14 in.; ridges on upper mandible reaching tip, etec., . . . . . Picus, 131. The specimen is much less than fourteen inches long, and the sharp ridges on the sides of the upper mandible run quite to the end of the bill; and here, at last, instead of a reference-letter, we find a genus named; which is the one to which the specimen belongs. The bird is a Picus. § 93. Tuus the key conducts to a genus, by presenting in succession, certain alternatives, on meeting with each of which, the student has only to determine which one of the two or more sets of characters agrees with those afforded by his specimen. There will not, it is believed, be any trouble in determining whether a given character zs so, or is not so, since only the most tangible, definite, and obvious features have been selected in framing the key. After each determination, either the name of a genus is encoun- tered, or else a reference-letter leads on to some new alternative, until by a gradual process of elimination the proper genus is reached. After a few trials, with specimens representing different groups, the process will be shortened, for the main divisions will have been learned; still, the student 54 HOW TO USE THE KEY. must be careful how he strikes in any where except at the beginning, for a false start will soon set him hopelessly adrift. The Key has been tested * so thoroughly that there is little danger of his running off the track except through carelessness, or misconception of technical terms; but there is no excuse for the former, and the latter may be obviated by the Glossary and the Introduction, which should be consulted when any doubt arises. Time spent upon the Introduction will be time saved in the end. § 94. Now the genus Picus that we found has a number after it, which refers to the Systematic Synopsis, where the genera are numbered consecu- tively. The running numbers at the top of the pages catch the eye ina moment, and enable us to turn directly to Picus, 131. Here we find a few remarks, illustrative of the general character of all our species of the genus ; and these we see, are six in number. We have now to find out which one of the six ours is; and to this end they are analyzed, that is, mapped out in groups, in such way that’ we perceive their most striking features, or diagnostic characters, almost at a glance : — * Body not banded, streaked nor spotted. ** Spotted and crosswise banded, but not streaked. *** Spotted and lengthwise streaked, but not banded. t Usually 9-10 long; outer tail-feathers wholly white. tt Usually 6-7 long; outer tail-feathers barred with black and white. The specimen has no transverse bars of color on the body, but a long white streak down the back, and a profusion of white spots on the wings and their coverts; it is not over seven inches long, and has the outer tail feath- ers black and white; so that we know it comes under ***t}. As there is but one species given there, our bird is at last identified. It is the downy woodpecker, Picus pubescens. The term pubescens, at the end of the descriptive paragraph, is the specific name, which, joined with the gen- eric name, Picus, constitutes the scientific designation of the species, as ex- plained in the Introduction, p. 13. In this case of the downy woodpecker, no full description appears, merely because the bird ‘is exactly like P. villosus” (the preceding species) except in the diagnostic points of size and barred rectrices ; but in general, a concise specific description will be found. These descriptions are not always, or even usually, full and complete ; being designed simply to discriminate the several species of the same genus, or to certify that the student has discovered the right species, if there be but one under the genus. But since mere identification of a specimen is not all that we may desire, many other particulars are really given. Thus we discover that the downy woodpecker inhabits Eastern North America, and is replaced in the West by a variety closely resembling it. We discover its exact relations to its congener, P. villosus, and of both these to the other *Tn the cases of over nine-tenths of the genera, by actual comparison with the specimens themselves, and found to give accurate results. It is just possible, that an occasional immature specimen, or one offering un- usual] deviation from the normal standard, cannot be determined by the Key. DIRECTIONS FOR MEASUREMENT. 455) species of the genus. We have a reference to several standard authors, which may be consulted if desired. Turning back a few pages, we find that the genus Picus belongs to the sub-family Picinw, of the family Picida, of the order Scansores; and each of these groups is defined, illustrated, or otherwise noticed. In this way, it is believed, a single specimen may be made the means of imparting no inconsiderable amount of information. : 2. HOW TO MEASURE A SPECIMEN. § 95. For large birds, a tape line showing inches and fourths will do: for small ones, a foot rule, graduated for inches and eighths, or better, deci- mals to hundredths, must be used; and for all nice measurements the divid- ers are indispensable. § 96. In comparing measurements made with those given in the Synop- sis, absolute agreement must not be expected; individual specimens vary too much for this. It will generally be satisfactory enough, if the discrep- ancy is not beyond certain bounds. A variation of, say, five per cent., may be safely allowed on birds not larger than a robin: from this size up to that of a crow or hawk, ten per cent.; for larger birds even more. Some birds vary up to twenty or twenty-five per cent., in their total length at least. So if I say of a sparrow for instance, “length five inches,” and the speci- men is found to be anywhere between four and three-fourths and five and one-fourth, it will be quite near enough. ut:—the relative proportions of the different parts of a bird are much more constant, and here less dis- crepancy is allowable. Thus “tarsus longer than the middle toe,” or the re- verse, is often a matter of much less than a quarter of an inch: and as it is upon just such nice points as this that a great many of the generic analyses rest, the necessity of the utmost accuracy in measuring, for use of the key, becomes obvious. When I find it necessary to use the qualification “about” (as, “bill about=tarsus”) I probably never mean to indicate a difference of more than five per cent. of the length of the part in question. § 97. “Leneru.” Distance between the tip of the bill and the end of the longest tail feather. Lay the bird on its back on the ruler on a table, take hold of the bill with one hand, and of both legs with the other; pull with reasonable force, to get the curve all out of the neck; hold the bird thus with tip of the bill flush with the end of the rule, and see how much the end of the tail points to. Put the tape line-in place of the ruler, in the same way, for larger birds. § 98. “Exrenr.” Distance between the tips of the outspread wings. They must be fully outstretched. With the bird on its back, crosswise on the ruler, its bill pointing to your breast, take hold of right and left meta- carpus with thumb and forefinger of your right and left hand, respectively, stretch with reasonable force, getting one wing-tip flush with one end of the ruler, and see how much the other wing-tip points to. With large birds, pull away as hard as you please, and use the table, floor, or side of the room, as convenient; mark the points and apply tape line. 56 DIRECTIONS FOR MEASUREMENT. As this measurement cannot be got at all from dried skins, I do not often use it in this book. But it is highly important, and for the very reason that it cannot be got afterwards, always note 7¢ down from fresh specimens. The first measurement, likewise, can only be got at approximately in skins, and the following details are really our chief data in all cases :— § 99. “LeyerH oF wine.” Distance from the angle formed at the (carpus) bend of the wing, to the end of the longest primary. Get it with compasses for small birds. In birds with a convex wing, do not lay the tape line over the curve, but under the wing, stretching in a straight line from the carpal angle, to end of longest primary. This measurement is the one called, for short, “the wing ;” thus when I say, simply, “wg. 12,” I mean that this distance is twelve inches; so, also, “weg. = tl.,” means that this distance is half as great as the length of the tail. § 100. “Leners or ram.” Distance from the roots of the rectrices, to the end of the longest one, whichever one that may be. Feel for the pope’s nose; in either a fresh or dried specimen, there is more or less of a palpable lump into which the tail feathers stick. Guess as near as you can to the middle of this lump; place the end of the ruler opposite the point, and see how much the tip of the longest tail feather points to. “Depth of fork” and “amount of gradation,” in a tail, is the difference between the shortest and the longest tail feathers ; in the one case the outer, in the other the middle, pair of rectrices is the longest. § 101. “Lenern oF pitu.” Exactly what this is, depends upon the writer. Some take the curve of the upper mandible; others the side of the upper mandible from the feathers; others the gape, etc. I take the chord of the culmen. Place one foot of the dividers on the culmen just where the feathers end—no matter whether the culmen runs up on the forehead, or the frontal feathers run out on the culmen, and no matter whether the culmen is straight or curved. Then with me the length of the bill is the shortest distance from the point just indicated to the tip of the upper mandible. Measure it with the dividers. In a straight bill, of course it is the length of the culmen itself; in a curved bill, however, it is quite another thing. The “depth of bill” is determined opposite the same point; it is a perpendicular transverse dimension: the “ width of the bill” is determined at the same point; it is the horizontal transverse dimension. “The gape” is the shortest distance between the commissure proper (see § 58, and fig. 5, 2) and the tip of the upper mandible. § 102. “LenerH oF Tarsus.” This is the most important measurement for the purposes of this volume. Measure it always with dividers, and zn Sront of the leg. It is the distance between the joint of the tarsus with the leg above, and that with the first phalanx of the middle toe below. Place one foot of the dividers exactly upon the middle of the tibio-tarsal joint in front. The front of this joint is rounded on either side by two little semi- circular rims, or lateral elevations, more or less evident in different birds; you want to get just between them. In the softer-legged wading, or water DIRKCTIONS FOR MEASUREMENT. 57 birds, there is a slight elevated point right in the middle; this, or the posi- tion of it in other birds, is the precise place. Place the other foot of the dividers over the transverse line of jointing of the base of the middle toe. This latter point, in all birds, when the toes are bent backward, becomes : more or less salient angle easily determined. In hard-legged birds it is usually indicated by the termination of last tarsal scutellum ; in water birds, there will be seen a little crosswise nick, showing just where the skin has shrunk into the crack between the end of the metatarsus and the base of the toe. It will be evident that a measurement taken as here directed will not always be the same as one taker behind, up over the convexity of the heel, and down to the level of the sole; but there are behind no other tangible points of termination. (See fig. 9, ts.) What, now, is the mean- ing of the expression —“b. = $ ts.”? § 103. “Lenern or tors.” Distance in a straight line along the upper surface of a toe, from the point last indicated, to the root of the claw on top. Observe that, as the claws are inserted upon the ends of the toes, somewhat as the nails are on our fingers, this measurement is a different thing from one taken along the under surface of the toes. Always make it with the dividers. Length of toe is always taken without the claw unless otherwise specified. When no particular toe is specified, 38¢ is always meant. (See fig. 9, 3écl.) Define this expression : —“trs.> 3¢.” § 104. “Lenern oF THE CLAWS.” Distance in a straight line from the point last indicated to the tip of the claw. (See § 101.) When this measurement is meant to be included in the length of toe, I say ¢écl. Determine this : —“‘trs. < 3écl.” § 105. “Lrnery oF HEAD” is an often convenient dimension for compar- ison with the bill. Set one foot of the dividers on the base of culmen (determined as above), and allow the other to just slip snugly down over the arch of the occiput. This is the required measurement. What does this mean :—“hd. = 6.”? § 106. ALL MeasuREMENTS are in the English inch and vulgar fractions or decimals, unless otherwise specified. § 107. Frnatty, it may be well to call attention to the fact, that most persons unaccustomed to handling birds are liable to be deceived in attempt- ing to estimate a given dimension; they generally make it out Jess than measurement shows it to be. This seems to be an optical effect connected with the solidarity of the object, as is well illustrated in drawing plates of birds, which, when made exactly of life-size, always look larger than the original, on account of the flatness of the paper. The ruler or tape-line, therefore, should always be used, and are more particularly necessary in those cases where analyses in the Key rest upon dimensions. It is hardly necessary to add, that in taking, approximately, the total length from a prepared specimen, regard should be had for the “make-up” of theskin. A little practice will enable one to determine pretty accurately how much a skin is stretched or shrunken, and to make the due allowance in either case. KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 8 58 abd. Abdomen. ad. Adult. aut. Autumn. azill. Axillaries. b. Bill. bl. Blue. blk. Black. Br. Am. British America. brn. Brown. brst. Breast. cl. Claw, claws. col. Color. cold. Colored. comm. Commissure. culm. Culmen. Eur. Europe. fthr. Feather. Sthid. Feathered. Jfthrs. Feathers. hd. Head. gon. Gonys. gr. Gray. grn. Green. intersc. Interscapularies. ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS. ABBREVIATIONS USED. igth. Length. sum. Summer. mand. Mandible. superc. Superciliary. maz. Maxilla. > wg.wgs. Wing, wings. Mex. Mexico. win. Winter. _N.Am. North America (at large). W.JI. West Indies. nost. Nostrils. t. Toe, toes. obs. Observation. tcl. Toe and claw together. occip. Occiput. tert. Tertiary —ies. olv. Olive. 4 tib. Tibia. pimg. Plumage. thrt. Throat. prim. Primary—ies. wl. Tail. purp. Purple. trs. Tarsus. rect. Rectrices. wn. mand, Under mandible. rem. Remiges. un.-tl.-cov. Under tail coverts. retic. Reticulations. un.-wg.-cov. Under wing coverts. reticc. Reticulate. up. mand. Upper mandible. rmp. Rump. up.-tl.-cov. Upper tail coverts. scap. Scapularies. . up.-wg.-cov. Upper wing coverts. scut. Scutella. U.S. United States, except Alaska; scutt. Scutellate. usual abbreviations for names of sec. Secondary —ies. States and Territories. ’sh. Diminishing suffix; as blk’sh, wht. White. blackish. yell. Yellow. spr. Spring. yg. Young. A few contractions, not given above, are self-explanatory. do. Male. 9. Female. Odg,oryg. ¢. Young male. of,oryg. 9. Young female. SIGNS USED. ! Certainty, with personal responsibility (not ex- clamation or surprise). All other punctua- tion as usual. *, t,t, etc. Refer as usual to foot notes, when at = Sign of equality; generally, as long as. the end of a word: when before a word or > More; generally, longer than; also, greater than, paragraph, they are used to point off sections or more than. in a manner that will be evident. < Less; generally, shorter than; also, smaller than, *,* Interpolated sentences. or less than. § Complete paragraphs (in the introduction only). WORKS CITED. 59 WORKS REFERRED TO. I quote throughout the following standard American works when they notice the species in question : — “ Wils.” WILsoN, ALEXANDER. American Ornithology. 9 vols., 4to. 1808-14. (The original ed., and Ord’s continuation.) “Nutt... NurTALL, THOMAS. Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and of Canada. 2 vols. 12mo. (The first ed., of 1832-34, unless the 2d (of 1840) is specified.) “ Jud? AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES. Birds of America. 7 vols., 8vo. 1840-44. (Octavo reprint of the “ Ornithological Biography,” repaged and with systematic arrangement and renumbering of the plates of the folio edition.) “ Cass.” CASSIN, JOHN. Illustrations of the Birds of California, Texas, etc. 8v0,1 vol. 1853-55. “Bd” “Cass. in Bd.” “ Lawr. in Bd.” BARD, SPENCER F., with the coOperation of Joun CASSIN and GEORGE N. LAWRENCE. Birds of North America; constituting the ninth vol. of the Pacific Railroad Explorations and Surveys. 1858. (Also republished separately, with a few additions and a 2d vol. of 100 plates, by the Naturalists’ Agency, 1870.) “Fu EvLLioT, D.G. Birds of North America. 2 vols., folio. (Plates and descriptions of many species recently introduced to our fauna, or before unfigured.) “Coop.” Birds of California. From the MSS. notes of J. G. COOPER. Edited by S. F. Baird. 1 vol. 8vo, 1870. I also quote, in particular cases, papers from the proceedings of different societies, etc., by various writers. The references in these instances are sufliciently explicit. The Roman numerals immediately after the italicized author’s name, refer to the volume; the next figure, to the page; “pl.” with figures after it, to the number of the plate; “ fig.,” to the number of the figure. Ke a OF EH Gel IN RBEAS ODS &—=9 ixpiixora, i mmaiep, 4 o » 6 6 0 6 o 8 0 6 6 0 » Jebtofonmoyyis) 1M TOES 3,—3 In rront. (II.) TOES 4,—2 IN Front, 2 BeuINnD. (III.) TOES 4,—3 IN FRONT, 1 BEHIND. (IV.) II. [rors 3, —3 IN FRONT. ] Toes incompletely, or not webbed. (a) Toes completely webbed. (da) (a) Naked leg and foot together about wing. Billsubulate; one basalweb. . . . . . HIMANTOPUS —much tarsus, truncate at tip; trs. reticulate. Birds over 12incheslong, . . . H@MATOPUS —much<, or about=trs. Birds under 12 inches long. (¢) (c) Tarsus in front scutellate, about=bill,. .... . es 67 6 6 2 5 6 om 6 CMH —reticulate, > bill; plumage speckled, CHARADRIUS — not speckled; trs. nearly twice=3t., . . . . . . PODASOCYS 197 194 212 190 192 —notnearly twice=3t., . . . . AUGIALITIS 191 (d) Nostvrils tubular; sides of under mandible not sulcate, . Geo Nd Jo oo ab DIOMEDEA 296 —with along colored groove,. .. .. . . PH@BETRIA 297 —not tubular (linear, oval, etc.) (e) (e) Nostrils naked; eyelids horny; both mandibles suleate. Notcrested . .. . . . . FRATERCULA 318 —simple. Birds>12lung; up. mand. suleate. Crested, , . . . . . LUNDA 319 —not suleate. Crested, . . . CERATORHINA 320 —<12 long; un. mand. falcate, up.mand.oval, . . PHALERIS 321 —not faleate; up. mand. wrinkled, . PTYCHORHAMPHUS 323 —smooth,. . . SIMORHYNCHUS 322 (e) Nostrils incompletely feathered; tail nearly even; b. and trs. compressed, . SYNTHLIBORHAMPHUS 325 —gradated; bill and tarsus not compressed, . . . . MERGULUS 324 (e) Nostrils completely feathered; tarsus in front reticulate. Birds under 12long, . BRACHYRHAMPHUS 326 —12ormorelong, . . . URIA 327 —scutellate; b. not sulcate or cultrate,. . . . LOMVIA 328 —suleate. Bird<24, . . . UTAMANIA 317 Bird>24,.-. . . . ALOCA 316 III. [Tous 4, mn Pars, 2 IN FRONT, 2 BEHIND.] Bill with a cere, and strongly epignathous; tarsus granulated,. . ........ . . . CONURUS 138 —not cered; inner hind toe with 3 joints; plumage iridescent, . ....... . . . TROGON 125 —only 2 joints. (f) (f) Tail of 8 feathers; upper mandible sulcate; sides of head partlynaked, . . . . . . CROTOPHAGA 126 —10 soft feathers; tarsus>middle toe and claw; lores bristly; birds about 2 feet long, GEococcyx 127 —< middle toe and claw; lores soft; birds about1 foot long, . Coccyzus 128 —12 (apparently only 10) rigid acuminate feathers. (g) (g) Birds > 14 inches long, conspicuously crested; bill and nasal feathers not dark, . . . CAMPEPHILUS 129 ——(arky =) se HYLotTomus 130 (g) Birds <14in.; ridges on up. mand. reaching tip; tongue acute, barbed. Noyellow, . . . . Picus 131 —ridges running into tomium; tongue obtuse, brushy. Some yellow, . SPHYRAPICUS 133 —ridges wanting, or indistinct and not reaching tip or tomia. (g?) (g?) plumage of belly bristly, of back with metallic iridescence, . . . . ASYNDESMUS 136 —normal, with many round black spots, .... . . . COLAPTES 137 —not spotted; not white, . Q - CENTURUS 134 —white, .... . . . MELANERPES 135 (61) 62 KEY TO THE GENERA. IV. [Tors 4,—3 IN rront, 1 BEHIND. ] §. TIIND TOE INSERTED ABOVE THE LEVEL OF THE REST (AND ALWAYS SHORTER THAN THE SHORTEST ANTERIOR TOE). (A) §. HIND TOE NOT INSERTED ABOVE THE LEVEL OF THE REST (AND generally but not always NOT SHORTER THAN THE SHORTEST ANTERIOR TOE). (B) A. (The hind toe elevated.) 1. Feet TOTIPALMATE; (all 4 toes webbed ; hind toe semilateral and barely elevated.) (A) 2. Feet PALMATE; (3 front toes completely webbed, hind toe well up, simple or lobed, free or connected by slight webbing with base only of inner toe.) (B) 3. Feet LOBATE; (3 front toes (partly webbed, or not, and) CONSPICUOUSLY bordered with plain or scolloped membranes ; hind toe free, and simple or lobed.) (C) 4, Feet SEMIPALMATE; (2, or 3, front toes webbed at base only by small yet evident membrane; hind toe well up, simple.) (D) 5. eet SIMPLE; front toes with no evident membranes ; hind toe well up, simple. (E) (A) Tarsus feathered, partly; tail deeply forked; bill epignathous, . . . . . . TACHYPETES 277 —naked; bill>tail, hooked at tip, furnished with an enormous noma, + . . . PELECANUS 274 —< tail; throat feathered; middle tail feathers filamentous, . . . . . PHAETHON 278 —naked; tail pointed, soft; tomia subserrate, 6 6 6 6 6 o 6 fehuiee’ 2B) -—yrounded, stiff; bill paragnathous, . .. . . . PLOTUS 276 — epignathous, + + . » «. GRACULUS 275 (B) Hind toe somewhat lateral, and joined by slight web to bare only of inner toe, . . . . COLYMBUS 311 — directly posterior, free, and simple or lobed. (h) (h) Bill—recuryed, depressed at base, subulate, extremely acute, . . . .. . . . RECURVIROSTRA 196 — bent abruptly downward near its middle, and lamellate, . PHOENICOPTERUS 246 —neither recurved, nor abruptly bent. (i) (i) Bill—hypognathous, corneous, cultrate, suleate, . . . o . . RHYNCHOPS 295 — paragnathous, corneous, not lamellate; nostrils not fa ikaer ; tail nee even. “g) — epignathous (or paragn. and tl. even), corneous, not lamellate; nostrils not tubular. (1) —epignathous, corneous, not lamellate; nostrils tubular. (m) — paragnathous, mostly membranous, lamellate, nostrils not tubular. (n) (k) Tail graduated, and middle feathers shorter than next pair. Plumage sombre brown . . . ANOUS 294 —forked; toes almost semipalmate. Black, brown or ashy, and white, . . . . HyDROCHELIDON 292 —well webbed; feet not black; back pale; nocrest, ... . » . . STERNA 291 —bik.; wht. crescent on forehead (Sterna, 201, ins) HLALIPLANA 293 —no crescent; not crested; b. barely >trs., GELOCHELIDON 289 —crested; b.much>trs., . THALASSEUS 290 1) Bill with a sort of cere; middle tail feathers exserted; tarsus<3tcl., .. . . . . . . BUPHAGUS 279 —=tel., RCORARIUS 280 —not cered; hind toe rudimentary, not bearing a perfect claw, a ceceea ss RISSA 284 — perfect; tail wedge-shaped; a dark collar round nec coe - . RyHOoD ETHIA 286 — forked; bill black, tipped with yellow, . . . . . . . . XEMA 287 —reddish, not tipped with yellow, . . . CREAGRUS 288 —even; tarsus black, rough; webs incised, . . . . PAGOPHILA 285 —not black. Under plumage — (12) (1?) dark, head white, tail black, bill and feet reddish, . . . . BLASIPUS 282 (1?) white, head dark (if dark, head whitish), . . . CuraCOCEPHALUS 283 (1?) white, head white (if dark, head not whitish), . . . . . . Larus 281 (m) Tarsus not <3t.; claws depressed, obtuse; tarsal scutella fused; webs with yellow, . OCEANITES 307 —distinet; webs black, . . FREGETTA 868 —compressed; tail cuneate; no white anywhere, .... . HALOCYPTENA 303 —nearly even. Blk. or smoky brown, and white, PROCELLARIA 304 —forked. Blk. or smoky brown, and white, . CyMocHORBEA 305 —Not black and white, . . . . . OCEANODROMA 306 (m) Trs. <8tel.; tail of 12 feathers; nasal tube obliquely truncate, septum thick, » . ... PUFFINUS 310 — vertically truncate, septum a - .°. . PRIOFINUS 309 —>12 fthrs.; plmg. conspicuously spotted, . . . . + ows soe) DAPTTON Sul: —unspotted; tl. Gnueste, + + +. . . . AESTRELATA 362 —not cuneate; 16-fthr’d, OSSIFRAGA 298 —1-fthrd. b. 236, .... .. . . MERGUS 271 —simple; bill depressed toward end; lores naked. Adult entirely white, . . . . . CyG@Nus 247 — feathered; trs. in front—reticulate. (0) —scutellate. (p) (0) Trs. not> 3tel. Plumage partly lavender-colored, head white, throat black,. . . . . . PuiLacrn 249 —=tyrs., —> 3tcl.; bill and legs not black. White or gray, bluish, speckled, etc., . . . . . . ANSPR 248 —black; neck all black: nostrils median, . . . . . . . . BRANTA 250 —not all black; nostrils subbasal,. . . DENDROOYGNA 251 KEY TO THE GENERA. 63 (p) Hind toe simple; head crested, and narrow tip of bill formed wholly bythenail,. .... . ‘AIK 259 —not crested; bill much wider at end than at base, . . . a SPATULA 258 —not wider; tail cuneate, } or more of Gas wing, . . DAFILA 253 —not aie not 4 the wing. (p*) (p?) Billhd. speculum violet, black and white bordered, . . . . ANAS 252 — green; wing coverts sky blue, . QUERQUEDULA 257 —notblue, . . . NETTION 256 (p) Hind toe lobed; cheeks bristly. Colors black and white, . . . . . . . CAMPTOLZMUS 264 tail pointed; in the adulé=or>wing; bill black anal orange, . .. . . HARELDA 263 —rounded, the feathers stiff, lance-linear, exposed to their bases, , . ERISMATURA 270 — Ducks with none of the foregoing char: ars. (p8) (p*) Up. mand. gibbous at its unfeathered base. Black or brown,. . . . . GUDEMIA 269 —not gibbous where unfeathered; nail narrow, distinct. (p*) —broad, fused. (p*) (p!) Head black or gray, with white; nost. nearly median; b. about=t BUCEPHALA 262 —reddish or brownish, no white; nost. nearly median; b.>trs., . AYTHYA 261 —black or brown; nost. subbasal; b.>trs., . . G0 a ac IMopnse 7G) (p*) Feathers not extending on culmen; bill barely tapering fo ip! . . POLYSTICTA 266 —much tapering ‘to tip, . . TLISTRIONICUS 265 — extending on culm., and partly on sides of upper mand., . SOMATERIA 268 — entirely on sides of up.mand., . LAMPRONETTA 267 (C) Forehead naked, with a large horny plate formed by extension of culmen, . . .. . . . FULICA 245 — feathered; lores feathered; tail perfect; bill flattened, membranes scolloped, PHALAROPUS 200 —subulate, membranes scolloped, . . LOBIrEs 199 —subulate, membranes plain, . . STEGANOPUS 198 —naked; tail, none; forehead bristly; billepignathous, . . . PODILYMBUS 315 —soft; bill paragnathous. (q) (q) Tarsus =middle toe and claw. Birds 20inches, ormore,long,. . .. . . . . . ACHMOPHORUS 312 —< middle toe and claw. Birds from 12 to 19 inches long, Oo do 66 b @ & a Hook! Birds under 12incheslong, ... .. .. . . . SYLBEOCYCLUS 314 (D) Middle claw pectinate ; 4t. 4-jointed; 1t. lateral; tail rounded; long rictal bristles, .. ANTROSTOMUS 114 — forked; short rictal bristles, . . CHORDEILES 115 (D) Mid. claw not pectinate; head naked ; nostrils imperforate; naked leg and foot < tail, . MELEAGRIs 177 — perforate; naked leg and foot < tail, . . CATHARTES 166 — perforate; nakedleg andfoot> tail, . . . . GRUS 223 — feathered; nostrils feathered, or overhung by a scale, in deep fossa of stout, hard bill. (r) — not feathered nor scaled, in long groove of slender softish bill. (s) (r) Toes feathered; tarsi and nasal fosse feathered. Plumage pure white in winter, . . . . LAGopus 183 — naked;—tarsi feathered, part way down; tail of 18 soft broad feathers, . . . . . . BONASA 182 — to the toes; tail of — 20 stiff acuminate feathers, . . . CENTROCERCUS 179 — 20 or 16 soft broad feathers, . . . . . . TETRAO 178 — 18 fthrs; neck with lanceolate feathers, CUPIDONIA 181 — without such feathers, PEDIG:CETES 180 : —naked; tail nearly = wing; crest — slender, clubbed, recurved, . . LOPHORTYX 186 — full, soft, depressed, . . . . . CALLIPEPLA 187 — ito } the wing; crest — long, straight, filamentous, . . . OREORTYX 185 — full, soft, depressed, ... . . CYRTONYX 188 —rudimentary ornone, .... . . . ORTYX 184 (s) Trs. entirely reticulate; hind toe minute; bill straight, not>head, . . . . . . . . SQUATAROLA 189 — scutellate in front only; bill much > hd. very slender, decurved, . . . . + . . NUMENIUS 222 — barely > hd., comparatively stout, Beraiehes . . HETEROSCELUS 221 — and behind; tl. not barred; one minute web; primaries mottled, TRYNGITES 220 —2 plain webs; b.<, or about=hd., EREUNETES 206 —much>hd., MICROPALAMA 205 — tl. barred crosswise with light and dark colors. (8?) (s?) Gape not reaching beyond base of — furrowed culmen. Under a foot long, . MACRORHAMPHUS 204 —unfurrowed culmen. Overafootlong, . . . . . LIMOSA 213 (s2) Gape longer. Length <9 in.; 2t. unwebbed; bill grooved nearly to tip, . . . . . TRINGOIDES 217 — about half-way to tip, RHYACOPHILUS 216 —>9in.; b. not>hd., grooved j its length; tl. about = } the wg., ACTITURUS 219 —not=j; the wing, PHILOMACHUS 218 —> head; 2t. webbed: legs not green or yellow, SYMPHEMIA 214 —barely or not webbed; legs green or yell., GLOTTIS 215 64 KEY TO THE GENERA. (2) Forehead covered with a broad horny plate; nostrils linear, trs. < 2 in. long, . . » . GAWLINULA 243 — nearly circular; trs.2 in. long,. . PORPHYRULA 244 — feathered; first primary attenuate; bill straight, > hd., culm. ee + . » » SCOLOPAX 202 —8 outer primaries attenuate; bill same: tibia feathered; trs. << 3t. . PHILOHELA 201 —not attenuate; first primary much < Lee (t) —=, or>, second. (1) (t) Length 2 feet or more: bill much > head, decurved; tibia half bare; trs. not << 3tcl., . . . ARAMUS 239 — <2 feet; bill> head, decurved; tibia little bare; trs.<3tel., . . . - . . » « RALLUS 240 — < head, straight: feet as before. Length 10 Hinahee or sare 6 oo a 6 a 5 (Uhiope Baily —less than 10inches, . . . . PORZANA 241 (u) Trs. evidently < 3tcl.; tibiz naked below: bill about twice = head, culm. furrowed, . GALLINAGO 203 — feathered; b. little > head, culm, unfurrowed, . . . . ARQUATELLA 210 — about =, or >, 8tel.; trs.in front—reticulate, . . . Go 0 AesnrA/’ IG) scutellate, legs tevbheine pill exo: mead . STREPSILAS 195 legs dark. (v) (v) Bill slightly curved, much > hd.; tarsus Cea > middle toe and claw, . . . ANCYLOCHEILUS 209 = or barely > middle toe and claw, . . . . . . PELIDNA 208 — straight, much < head. Primaries mottled with black, . . . » . « » « « UTRYNGITES 220 — about =, or > hd; tarsus much > middle toe and ‘al ieee oe de eo oo) OMciac (eb oul — about = middle toe and claw, . . . . . ACTODROMAS 207 B. (The hind toe not elevated.) . TIBLA NAKED BELOW. (Ww) . NOSTRILS OPENING BENEATH. SOFT SWOLLEN MEMBRANE. (x)* 3. BILL WOOKED AND FURNISHED WITH A CERE. (y) 4. BIRDS WITHOUT THE ABOVE CHARACTERS. (z) (wW) Middle claw simple; tarsus reticulate; bill flat, spoonshaped atend, . . .. . . . . PLATALBA 227 . — not flat, very stout, tapering, decurved, . . TANTALUS 224 — scutellate; bill grooved, curved; claws — straightish, . FALCINELLUS 225 —cunved, 2 6 ws se UTS) 226 (w) Mid. claw pectinate; tail of 10 feathers; lower neck bare behind.—Length over 18 inches, BOTAURUS 237 —Length under 18 inches, ARDETTA 238 —12 feathers; lateral toes not more than § as long as tarsus, HYDRANASSA 233 — more than} the tarsus. (w?) (w?) Tibiee bare 1 inch or less ; tvs. > 3tcl.; bill over inch deep at base, . . NYCTHERODIUS 236 — < 3tcl.; b. not thrice aslongashigh, . . . . NYCTIARDBA 235 b. more than thrice as long as high, . . Burorrpnrs 234 —2in.or more. Lgth.2 feet or less. Blue (or white), legs blk. and blue, FLORIDA 230 White; legs black and yellow, GARZETTA 231 —3 feet or more. Bluish, ashy, brown, &c., . . . . ARDEA 228 White; trs.< 7in. b. <6, . . HERODIAS 232 White; trs.>7in.b.>6, . . AUDUBONIA 229 we (x) Tail-feathers —12. Greenish; bird over 18 inches long,. . . Bs a orn + . . « ORTALIDA 176 — 14, long, tapering, much graduated ; Sirona see space mace - . . ZENADURA 169 — 12; trs. fthr’d above; tail broad, rounded, much < wings, . . - . . . COLUMBA 167 — narrow, pointed, about = princes .» . . ECTOPISTES 168 trs. wholly naked, — reticulate, .. . oe ee ew 8 we ew 6 STARNGENAS 175 —scutellate in front; tail ayasinieal + + « « » SCARDAFELLA 173 —rounded. (x?) (x?) Trs. about=3t., without claw; wing rounded, lst primary <4th. . . . . . GROTRYGON 174 — evidently <3t.; wing pointed, and— under 4incheslong, . . . . . CHAMAEPELIA 172 —over4; lores—naked, . . . . . MBLOPELIA 171 —feathered, . . . . . ZwNADA 170 * This membrane (not scale), which distinguishes the pigeons, shrinks in drying, when it may be recognized by its closing up the nostrils, or at least making them irregular ; but if still In doubt, observe tarsi reticulate on sides and behind, and (generally) scuteliate in front. See fig. 11, 6. KEY TO THE GENERA. 65 (y) Nostrils at edge of the cere; eyes anterior, surrounded by radiating feathers, the anterior of which are bristly and hide the base of the bill; outer anterior toe shorter than inner anterior toe. (y1) y) Nostrils in the cere; eyes lateral, not surrounded by a disc; outer anterior toe (generally) not shorter than inner anterior toe. (y?) (y1) Trs. naked or scant-feathered. Facial dise perfect; 3cl. somewhat pectinate,. . . . . . . STRIX 139 —imperfect; 3cl. simple; trs.>3tcel, . . . . SPEOTYTO 150 —<8tel, . . . MICRATHENE 149 —full-feathered; head tufted; tail about 3 the wing. Over 18incheslong, ... .. . . BuBo 140 —ithe wing. Underl2incheslong, . . . « . Scops 141 — Over 12, under 18; tufts — of 8 to ot) fthrs. + » OTUS 142 —of 3to6fthrs., BRACHYOTUS 143 —not tufted; tail about } the wing. Length under 12inches, . . . NYCTALE 147 —?thewg. Lgth.18ormore. Pure wht., spotted, NYCTEA 145 —Not pure white, SYRNIUM 144 —% the wg. Length over 12, under 18 inches, . SURNTA 146 Length much underl2, . . . GLAUCIDIUM 148 (y?) Trs. feathered to the toes—all around; tail afoot or morelong, . . ye eAQUITANIE3 —except a narrow strip behind: tail not a foot ‘loss, . . . ARCHIBUTEO 160 —reticulate— upper mandible toothed, under mandible notched, nostrils circular, . . FALco 158 —Claws all of same length, rounded underneath; tibial feathers close, . . PANDION 162 — Tail emarginate, and outer feathers not longer than middle, . . . . . ELANUS 154 — forked, outer feather about twice as long as middle, . . . . . NAUCLERUS 155 —scutellate in front; no web at base of toes; tailafootormorelong, ... . . . HALLETUS 164 —a web; nostrils circular; tailnot?aslongas wing, . .. . . . ICTINIA 153 —oval; bill not 4as deep at base aslong, . . ROSTRHAMUS 162 — oval; tarsus feathered about § way down in on, ASTUR 157 —hardly } way down, . . ACCIPITER 156 —and behind — Tibial feathers not reaching below the joint, . . . . . ONYCHOTES 161 —Bill yellowish; nost. linear, oblique, near up. edge of cere, POLYBORUS 165 — Face with aruff; trs. twice 3t.; up. tail-coverts white, . . . Circus 151 — Hawks without these characters, ....... .. . . BUTEO 159 (Z) PRIMARIES, —10; the Ist (never spurious) always more than } as long as the longest. (a) (Z) PRIMARIES, —10; the 1st (spurious or) at most not 3 as long as the longest. (b) (Z) PRIMARIES,— 9; the Ist (never spurious) of Gaviable length. (e) (a) Feet syndactylous; bill serrate: middle tail feathers long-exserted, . . . .. . . . . . Momorus 112 —not serrate, middle tail feathers notexserted, ... . - « « « CERYLE 113 (a) Feet normal; tail of 10 feathers; more than 6 secondaries; trs. feathered; 4t. 3jointed, » PANYPTILA 116 —naked; tailnotspiny, . NEPHGCETES 117 —spiny, . . CH#TURA 118 —only 6 secondaries; bill subulate,=or>head. (a?) (a?) Trs. feathered. Grass-green, head striped with black and white, .... . . . HELIOP#DICA 119 —naked; b. serrate, twice=head. Black below, throatnot scaly, .... . . . . DLAMPORNIS 120 —not serrate; Ist primary rigid; tailtruncate. Green, . . + . . STELLULA 123 —uotrigid; attenuate; or—rufous on sides; or crown ecaly, SELASPHORUS 122 —not attenuate; norufous; throat green, . ARGYRTRIA 124 —not green, . . TROCHILUS 121 (a) Feet normal ; tail of 12 feathers: 1st primary — attenuate; tail> wings, forficate, . . . . MILyuLus 104 —not>wings: forked or not, TYRANNUS 105 —not attenuate; crown plain, or full-crested. (a%) (a3) Tail =or little < wing, not forked, edged with chestnut ; trs.=or>38tcl., . Myrarcuus 106 —slightly or not forked; not edged: trs.>3tcl.,. . . SAYORNIS 107 —much 3tcl. Length 6} in. or less. (a4) (a4) Colors greenish, olive, etc.; no buff, red or pure brown, . . EMPIDONAX 109 — brownish olive, etc.; buffy below. Subcrested, . MirrEerHorRus 110 — fiery (or rosy) red, and deep brown; ¢ full-crested, PYROCEPHALUS 111 (b) Tarsus “booted ;” wings < tail, both much rounded; plumage remarkably lax, ... . . CHAMM@A 11 wings > tail; nostrils linear; no rictal bristles; plumage close. Aquatic, CINcLUS 7 —not linear: tail double-rounded, ... . . . . MYIADESTES 52 —not double-rounded. Under5in.long, ReGutus 9 Over din. long. (b?) (b?) Tarsus not>mid. toe and claw. Blue the chief color, . . - . . SIALIA 6 —>mid. toc and claw. No blue. Tail only ? the sofia, . SAXICOLA —more than } the wing, TuRDUS 1 (b) Tarsus scutellate; nostrils covered with tufts of antrorse bristly feathers. (¢) —nostrils exposed; base of bill with few such feathers, or none. (d) KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 9 on 66 KEY TO THE GENERA. (c) Bill— strongly epignathous, toothed and notched near tip. Gray, wings and tail black, . COLLURIO —paragnathous. Not 7in. long; b. nearly =hd., wg. much>tl,, trs. not>3tcl, . . . . SITTA — barely or not} as long ashd.—Crested, . . LOPHOPHANES —Notcrested. (¢?) (c2) Head yellow; bend of wing chestnut, . . . . AURIPARUS —not yell.; crown and throat blk. or dark,. . . . PAarus — crown ashy or light brown, . PSALTREPARUS —Over7long. Crested. Blue, with black bars on wings and tail, . CYANURUS No crest. Iridescent blk. and wht.; wgs.muchtl., . . Corvus — Gray; bik. wgs.>blk. and wht. tail, PicIcoRvus — Gray; no blue; wgs.about=tail, . PERISOREUS — Blue, &c., no green or yellow, . . APHELOCOMA — Blue, black, green and yellow, . . . XANTHOURA (a) Length over 14 inches; color dark brown; rounded tailnot< wings, ... . . . . PSILORHINUS —10—12 inches; color all blue, square tail< wings, . .- . . . . » GYMNOKITTA —7—S inches; glossy black (2 brown) with large white w igs fearon Werected) . PH@®NOPEPLA —41—5l inches; brown, streaked, below white, tail feathers rigid, acuminate, . . . CERTHIA nches; blwish gray, unstreaked, below wht., tail soft, blk. and white, . . POLIOPTILA —4—5in.; olive-green, below yellowish, tail like back, bill not hooked, . . PHYLLOPNEUSTE —43—61; greenish or grayish olive, wht’sh or yell’sh below, bill distinctly hooked at tip, VIREO (d) Birds presenting no one of the foregoing combinations of characters. (d?) (a2) Rictus bristled; inner toe cleft to base; wg. nothd., HARPORHYNCHUS —unbristled; breast — with distinct round black spots; b. outer lateral toe and claw; Ist primary =or> 2d. (g) (f) Bill not nearly so wide as long, gape not twice as long as culmen; trs. > lateral toes. (h) (g) Outer web of 1st primary saw-like, with a series of minute recurved hooks,. . . STELGIDOPTERYX (g) A little feathery tuft at base of hind toe. Plain gray, below white, breast like back, . . . COTYLE (g) No hooks nor tuft. Tail deeply forked, outer feathers attenuate, or with white spots, . . HiIRUNDO — forked. Below, pure white; above, lustrous or velvety. . . TACHYCINETA — forked. Uniform lustrous blue-black, or partly white below, . . PROGNE — barely or not forked. Rump not colored like back, . . . PETROCHELIDON (h) Longest secondary nearly = primaries in closed wing; hind claw slightly sabes twice as long as middle claw.—Tail not < wing. No spots or streaks below, . . - . . . BUDYTES —< wing; trs.>hind toe andclaw. Breast eynattiedl ee) CAN IDEDUTS —not>Itcl. Back and breast spotted, . . . « NEOCORYS (h) Longest secondary much < primaries in closed wing; hind claw well curved, not nearly twice as long as middle claw. (h?) (h2) Rictus with many conspicuous bristles reaching decidedly beyond nostrils. (h*) (h2) Rictus with no evident bristles or a few short ones reaching little if any beyond nostrils. (h4) (h3) Bill barely or not twice as long as wide at base; tail blk. and orange, or brn. and yell., SETOPHAGA (h’) Bill fully twice as long as wide; tail unmarked, or with white blotches, . . . . MYIODIOCTES (h4) Trs. <, or about=3tcl.; hind toe much>its claw. Entirely blk. and wht., streaked, MNIOTILTA —little>its claw; breast andrump yellow, . . . CERTHIOLA (ht) Trs.>3tcl.; tl. not2kin.; crown plain or with black, . . . OPORORNIS —<2k in.; crown plain, or with bright spot, HELMINTHOPHAGA (h°) Rictal bristles not evident; b.at least } inch long; whole hd. and neck rich yellow, PROTONOTARIA bill< in. long; whole head and neck not yellow, HELMINTHOPHAGA (h°) Rictal bristles evident; hind toe much>its claw. Length underdinches, ... . . PARULA —little if any longer thanitsclaw,-. . .. . . . . DENDROECA (i) Length less than 5 in., wing and tail 2 in. or less, tail feathers acute, . . . . . . . . SPERMOPHILA (i) Hind claw slightly curved, twice as long as middle claw, . . . » . + « . PLECTROPHANES (i) Feathers of crown bristle-tipped. Streaked: below yellow, with rari renee patch, . . STURNELLA (i) Longest secondary nearly = primary in closed wgs. Black, with white wing patch, . CALAMOSPIZA (i) Conspicuously crested. Red the prevailing color. Bill reddish, face black, . . . . . CARDINALIS —not reddish, face not black, . PYRRHULOXIA (i) Tail-feathers acute. Black, nape buff, ¢; or streaked yell’sh-brn., 9; wg.>3 inches, . DOoLICHONYxX — Small streaked marsh-sparrows, wg. <3 inches, its edge yell., . AMMODROMUS (i) Colors greenish and white, with yell. on edge of wing; —rufous head-stripes, . . . . EMBERNAGRA —crown chestnut, breast ashy ) (i) Length about 8 in.; #.>wgs. Plain brown, &c., or black, white and chestnut, i 5G JETAOOLe) (i) Inner claw reaching at least } way to tip of 3cl. Black, white and chestnut, — Blk. (or brn.) hd. yellow; >8 long, XANTHOCEPHALUS — Spotted and streaked; <8long, . . . PASSERELLA (i) Birds with none of the foregoing combinations of chars.— Bill with a ruff of antrorse bristly feathers. — Bill without ruff; nostrils exposed. (1) (k) Length—8 or more. Zed, or gray with brownish yellow onheadandrump, .. . . . . PINICOLA —under 8. JVhite, with blk. onwgs. and tl.; or washed with clear brown, . PLECTROPHANES — Bluish-gray, below reddish-gray, crown, face, wgs. & tl., blk. . . PYRRHULA — Reddish-brown, blk.-streaked, crown ashy, throat blk. Imported, . PAssER — Unstreaked, chocolate-brown, rosy-tinted, hd. with blk. and ash, LEUCOSTICTE — Streaked: no yell., crown crimson, face and throat dusky, . . . AEGIOTHUS — Streaked: no yell.; no red; or else crown, and throat too, red, . CARPODACUS —Streaked or not: with some yellow, butnored, . . . . . . CHRYSOMITRIS (1) Species at least over 7 inches long. (m) (1) Species at most not over 7 inches long; plumage nowhere decidedly spotted or streaked. (n) 90 vil (k) — somewhere or everywhere spotted or streaked. (0) (with head and neck rich brown, . .. . . . . MOLOTHRUS (m) Bill jet-black ; plumage glossy blk., | with head, neck and breast yellow, . . . . XANTHOCEPHALUS 2 with head black, bend of wing red, . . . . . . . AGELXUS (URES CP OM Lena) | | with no red or yell.; tail rounded, wg., . . SCOLECOPHAGUS ~ graduated, =or>wg., + « . QUISCALUS (m) Bill dark horn-blue, very acute; plumage black, with orange, yellow, or white, ; . A s ICTERUS —plain olivaceous, yellowish below, ?, —obtuse; plumage blk., white and brown, tl. with wht. spots, . . GONIAPHEA (m) Bill greenish-yellow, as long as tarsus; wgs. black, many secondaries white, . . . HESPERIPHONA (m) Bill not bluish nor greenish; tail with white spots; under wg.-coverts rosy or yellow, . GONIAPHEA —notrosy or yell.; yg. of, . PIPILO tail plain; entire plumage streaked. Qof... . . . . AGELZUS (n) Black and chestnut, or orange, @, or olive yellowish below, @ ; b. acute, horn eines or brn., ICTERUS (n) Dusky grayish-brown, nearly uniform; bill blackish, obtuse. Q of ... .. . . . MOLoTHRUS (n) Blackish, or ashy, belly and 1 to 3 outer tail feathers white; billfleshcolor, ..... . . JUNCO (n) Throat and tail black, latter with white spots: head with 2 white stripe’, . . . + . POOSPIZA (n) Blue, with or without red, purplish, &c.; or greenish and yell.; or plain brown; ‘<6 long, CYANOSPIZA (n) Blue, with chestnut on wings, 3; or plain brown, 9; >6long, . . . . . GONIAPHEA (o) Wings> tail; breast more or less yellow; throat patch, or maxillary eee black, - . . EUSPIZA —not yell.; wg. <24 inches, its edge yellow; tail2in. orless,. . . COTURNICULUS > 2} in., — without yell.; lesser wg.-cov. chestnut, . . POOECETES with yell. or not; longest sec. nearly=prim..PASSERCULUS —without yell.; longest sec. a aaa CENTRONYX (0) Wings not> tail; tailforked. Lgth. 5 to6 in., wg. or tl. 2} to 3, trs.¢tof, .. . . . SPIZELLA — graduated, tipped with waite head striped with chestnut and w: ht., CHONDESTES —little rounded, black, outer feather paleedged, .... .» . . POOSPIZA —not black. Streaked below or crown chestnnt, . » MELOSPIZA Not streaked below. Lgth.6ormore, ZONOTRICHIA Length underGin., . PEucmA SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF NORTE AMERICAN BIRDS: Subclass I. AVES AEREA, or INSESSORES. E AERIAL BIRDS, or PERCHERS. Tue first and highest one of three primary divisions of the classt Aves, embrac- ing all existing birds down to the Gralline. The knee and part of the thigh are free from the body, and the leg is almost always feathered to or beyond the tibio-tarsal joint. With rare exceptions, the toes are all on the same level, and touch the support throughout; being thus fitted for grasping or perching. In other respects the members of this great group are too various to be defined by external characters, unless it be negatively, in the absence of the special features of the other two groups. They are Altrices. They are now usually divided into jive Orders, of which the first is the Order PASSERES. Perchers Proper. The feet are perfectly adapted for grasping by the length and low insertion of the hind toe, great power of opposing which to the front toes, and great mobility of which, are secured by separation of its principal muscle from that that bends the other toes collectively. The hind toe is always present, and never turned for- *North of the present Mexican Boundary; inclusive of Lower California; exclusive of Greenland. {As commonly received, without recognizing, however, the fossil Archeopteryx (see Introd. § p.12) a meso- zoic bird, which probably alone represents a primary group Saurure; admitting which, some high-authorities then divide all existing birds into two other primary groups, Ratitw (Ostriches), in which the sternum has no keel, and Carinatc, embracing all other birds. On this basis, our Aves aérew would represent a group of less value than a subclass; and I desire to be understood as using this term provisionally, in a conventional sense. (69) 70 OSCINES, SINGING BIRDS. wards or even sideways; its claw is as long as, or longer than, the claw of the middle toe. The feet are never zygodactyle, nor syndactyle, nor semipalmate, though the front toes are usually immovably joined to each other at base, for a part, or the whole, of the basal joints. Various as are the shapes of the wings, these members agree in having the great row of coverts not longer than half the secondaries; the primaries either nine or ten in number, and the secondaries more than six. The tail, extremely variable in shape, has twelve rectrices (with certain anomalous exceptions). The bill is too variable to furnish characters of groups higher than families; but it is always corneous, either wholly or in part, is never largely membranous, as in many wading and swimming birds, nor cered, as in birds of prey. No Passeres are known to have Fig. 12. Passerine foot. more than one common carotid artery ; and they all have the sternum cast in one particular mould, with slight minor modifications of shape. They are the typical Insessores, as such representing the highest grade of develop- ment, and the most complex organization, of the class. Their high physical irritability is coordinate with the rapidity, of their respiration and circulation; they consume the most oxygen, and live the fastest, of all birds. They habitually reside above the earth, in the air that surrounds it, among the plants that with them adorn it; not on the ground, nor on “‘ the waters under the earth.” Passeres, corresponding to the Insessores proper of most ornithologists, and comprising the great majority of birds, are divisible into two groups, commonly called suborders, mainly according to the structure of the lower larynx. In one, this organ is a complex muscular vocal apparatus; in the other the singing parts are less developed, rudimentary, or wanting. In the first, likewise, the tarsus is normally covered on either side with two entire horny plates, that meet behind in a sharp ridge; in the other, these plates are subdivided or otherwise differently arranged. This latter is about the only external feature that can be pointed out as of extensive applicability ; and even this does not always hold good. For example, among our birds, the larks (Alaudide), held to be Oscine, and certainly to be called songsters, have the tarsus perfectly scutellate behind. Suborder OSCINES. Singing Birds. The first and higher of the two suborders just indicated. All of the birds com- posing it have a more or less complex vocal apparatus, consisting of five pairs of muscles; but many of them do not sing. It is a question, which one of the numerous Oscine families should be placed at the head of the series. Largely, perhaps, through the influence of those orni- thologists who hold that fusion of the tarsal envelope into one continudus plate indicates the acmé of bird-structure, the place of honor has of late been usually TURDIDZ, THRUSHES.—GEN. 1. 71 assigned to the thrushes. But only a part of the thrushes themselves show this character ; on which account, probably, the rest were associated by Cabanis with the wrens. It seems to me most probable that this character, though unques- tionably of high import, should be taken as of less value than the reduction of the number of primaries from ten to nine; and I am at present inclined to believe that eventually some Oscine family with only nine primaries —as the finches or tanagers — will take the leading position. Here, however, I follow usage. Family TURDIDA. Thrushes. The oval nostrils are nearly or quite reached, but not covered, by feathers. There are bristles in all our genera about the rictus and base of upper mandible. The toes are deeply cleft, the inner one almost to its very base, the outer to the end of its basal joint. The bill is not conical, nor deeply fissured, and usually has a slight notch near the tip. There are 12 tail-feathers (in all our forms), and 10 primaries, of which the 1st is short or spurious, and the 2d is shorter than the 4th. Our two subfamilies are sharply defined by the character of the tarsus. Subfamily TURDIN.A. Typical Thrushes. With the tarsus, in the adult, enveloped in one continuous plate, or ‘‘ boot,” formed by fusion of all the scutella except two or three just above the toes. Thus easily distinguished; for our few other birds that show this feature are very differ- ent in other respects. The 1st quill is spurious or very short; the 2d is longer than the 6th; the 4th toe is longer than the 2d. Upwards of one hundred and fifty recorded species are now usually assigned to the Turdine proper, most of them being referable to the single genus Turdus with its subgenera. They are nearly cosmopolitan, and have a great development in the warmer parts of America, where the subfamily is, however, mainly represented by types closely allied to Turdus proper; more aberrant forms, constituting very distinct genera, occur in the old world. We have but one genus in the United States, of which the robin is the most familiar example, though several other species are common and well known birds. These are diffused over all the woodland parts of our country, and are all strictly migratory. They are insectivorous, but like many other insect- eating birds, feed much upon berries and other soft fruits. Although not truly gregarious, some, as the robin for instance, often collect in troops at favorite feed- ing places, or migrate in companies. They build rather rude nests, often plastered with mud, never pensile, but saddled on a bough, or fixed in a forked branch, or on the ground; and lay 4-6 greenish or bluish eggs, sometimes plain, sometimes spotted. They are all vocal, and some, like the woodthrush, are exquisitely melo- dious. 1. Genus TURDUS Linneus. * Not spotted nor banded below ; throat streaked. (Subgenus Planesticus.) Fic. 13. Robin; natural size. | o | Robin. Dark olive-gray, head and tail blackish; below reddish-brown, throat black and white, under tail coverts and crissum white with dark marks, 72 TURDIDA) THRUSHES.—GEN. l. eyelids and tips of outer tail-feathers with white spots, bill brown or yellow, feet dark. Very young birds are spotted above. 9-10 long, wing 5-54,, B tail 4-44. N. Am. Nest in trees and bushes; eggs plain. WHULS., 1, 355.0, pl. 2; Aup., iii, 14 pl., 142; Nurr., i, 388; Bp., 918. . MIGRATORIUS. Var. confinis, described from Cape St. Lucas, is paler, duller, &c. Bop., Rev. 29. *#* Banded crosswise, not spotted, below. (Subgenus Hesperocichia.) Varied Thrush. Slate-color, below orange-brown, with black pectoral band which runs up on sides of neck and head; crissum and under tail coverts whitish; eyelids, postocular stripe, 2 wing-bars and much edging of quills, . orange-brown ; bill dark, feet pale; ? and young, duller, browner, pectoral bar obscure, etc. Size of the last. Pacific slopes, N. Am.: accidental in Mass., N. J. and Long Island. Avp., iii, 22, pl. 148; Bo., 219. . . . N#VIUS. *** Spotted, not banded, below. (Sub- genus Hylocichia.) + Upper parts not uniform in color.* {Upper parts tawny, shading into olive on rump. Wood Thrush. Under parts white, barely or not buff-tinted, marked with large distinct dusky spots, middle of throat and belly only immaculate ; bill dusky and yellowish; legs flesh-color; 7-8 long; wing 4-44, tail 3-33. Eastern United States. Nest in bushes and low trees; eggs plain. WILS., i, 35, pl. 2; Nurv., i, 343; Avup., iii, 24, pl. 144; Bp., 212. MUSTELINUS. Fig. 14. Wood Thrush; natural size. +t Upper parts olive, shading into rufous on rump and tail. Hermit Thrush. Under parts white, with slight buffy tint anteriorly and olive shade on sides, breast and sides of throat thickly marked with large distinct dusky spots; bill dusky and yellowish; legs pale. About 7 long; wing 33, tail 2%. Eastern (and Arctic) North America. Nest in- bushes; eggs plain. Wits., v, 95, but noé his fig. 2 of pl. 45; Nurr., i, 34650 Ape, i295 ple 1465 Bps, 212 PAA Sie Var. auduboni, is entirely similar in color, but rather larger. South-west- ern United States into Mexico. Bp., Rev. 16. Var. nanus, is entirely similar in color, but rather smaller. Rocky Mountains to Pacific. Avp., iii, 32, pl. 147; Bp., 223; Rev. 16; Coor., 4. ++ Upper parts uniform in color.* —- Upper parts olive. Olive-backed Thrush. Under parts white, olive-shaded on sides, the fore parts and sides of head and eyelids strongly tinged with buff, the breast and throat thickly marked with large dusky-olive spots. 63-72 long; wing * Very young birds of all the species of Hylocichla are spotted above; but these spots disappear the first autumn, and then the ground color is always as stated. 27.) 6 TURDIDE, THRUSHES. —GEN. l. 73 34-4, tail 28-3. North America, except perhaps south-west U.S. Nest in bushes ; eges speckled. Wus., v, pl. 45, f. 2, but not his description on p. 5) 18ipy., PING. ee ey ete en a on) rs San ESWATNSONI: Var. aliciw. Alice’s Thrush. Similar; but without any buffy tint about head, nor yellowish ring around eye; averaging a trifle larger, with longer, slenderer bill. Much the same distribution, but breeds further north. Nest and eggs similar. Bp., 217, and Rey. 21. . Var. ustulatus. Similar; but with the upper parts slightly suffused with tawny, and the spots below smaller, fewer and paler; thus approximating to the following species. Nest and eggs, however, as in swainsoni. Pacific Coast, U. 8. Norr., 2d ed. i, 400; Bp., 215; Coopr., 5. —+—- Upper parts tawny. Wilson’s Thrush. Veery. Under parts white, with olive shade on sides, and strong fulvous (almost pinkish-brown) tint on breast; breast and sides of neck with very small, sparse, sometimes indistinct dusky spots. 7-73 long; wing 4-44, tail 34. Eastern N. Am. Nest built on the ground ; 3D? eggs plain. Wits., v, 98, pl. 43; Nurr., i, 349; Avup., ili, 27, pl. 145; Bie) eer epee, Ue see oes «sve ORUSCESCENS. Subfamily MIMIN A. Mocking Thrushes. Distinguished from the last by having the tarsus scutellate in front, the tail longer and rounder (usually longer than the wings, but not so in Oreoscoptes), the wings shorter and rounder, with 1st primary hardly to be called spurious. Birds very much like overgrown wrens (with which they used to be associated), but dis- tinguished therefrom by more deeply cleft toes, different nostrils, and bristly rictus (compare diagnoses of the two families). The bill is usually longer, or at least slenderer, and more curved than in the typical thrushes: in — some species of Harporhynchus it attains ex- traordinary length and curvature. As a group they are rather southern, hardly passing be- yond the United States; and attaining their maximum development in Central and South America. The Mimince may be properly re- stricted to these American birds, represented by the genera Mimus, Harporhynchus, and five or six other closely related forms. Upwards of forty species are recorded, about two-thirds of which are certainly genuine. About one-half of the current species fall in the genus Mimus alone; of Harporhynchus, all but one of the known species occur within our own limits. In their general habits they resemble the true thrushes; but they habitually reside nearer the ground, relying for self-preservation more upon the concealment of the shrubbery, than upon their own activity and vigilance. They are all melodious, and some, like the mockingbird, are celebrated songsters, famous for their powers of mimicry, and their brilliant vocal execution. In compensation, perhaps, for this great gift, they are plainly clad, grays and browns being the prevailing colors. The nest is generally placed in a bush; the eggs, four or five in number, are greenish- blue, plain or speckled. Fie.15. Bills of Harporhynchi; natural size. KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 10 74 TURDIDH, THRUSHES.—GEN. 2, 3. 2. Genus OREOSCOPTES Baird. Mountain Mockingbird. Brownish ash, below whitish, shaded behind, thickly spotted with dusky; 8; wing nearly 5; tail 4. Rocky Mountain region of United States. Aup., ii, 194, pl. 139; Bp., 847. . MonrTANUS. 3. Genus MIMUS Boie. Mochingbird. Ashy gray, below white, slightly shaded across breast and along sides, wings and tail blackish, former with two white bars, and much white at base of primaries, latter with 1-3 outer feathers partly or wholly white. The g is known by the much greater extent of white on the primaries, which is the mark of a “singer,” as he is called, the ? being songless, in captivity at any rate; young birds are spotted below the first autumn. 9-10 long; wing about 4; tail about 5 (nearly 6 in var. from California). Southern U.S. to Massachusetts, but not common north of 38°; thronging the groves of the South Atlantic and Gulf States. Two or three broods are generally reared each season. When taken from the nest, the mockingbird becomes a contented captive; and has been known to live many years in confinement. Naturally an accomplished songster, he proves an apt scholar, susceptible of improvement by education to an astonishing degree; but there is a great difference with individual birds in this respect. Wits., ii, 14, pl. 10, fig. 1; Avp., ii, 187, pl. 137; Bp., 344. poLyGLorrus. r) Tia. 16. Mockingbird; about j natural size. ‘ Q Catbird. Blackish-ash, or dark slate; crown and tail black; under tail a) coverts chestnut. 8-9 long; wing 33, tail4. Eastern United States; also Washington Territory, Mexico, Central America and Bermuda. An abund- ant and familiar inhabitant of our groves and briery tracts, remarkable for its harsh cry, like the mewing of a cat (whence its name), but also possessed Vy t \' Gn Cm | TURDID&, THRUSHES.—GEN. 4. 75 of no mean vocal powers. *,* The tarsal scutella are frequently obsolete. Wits., ii, 90, pl. 14, f. 3; Avup., ii, 195, pl.140; Bp., 346. cAROLINENSIS. 4. Genus HARPORHYNCHUS Cabanis. * Bill equal to or shorter than head, not, or not much, curved; tail moderately longer than wings. Breast spotted. dep L8 Brown Thrush. Thrasher. Sandy Mockingbird. Reddish-brown, hen JV’ below white, with more or less tawny tinge, and thickly spotted with dark brown, except on throat and middle of belly, the spots lengthening into streaks on the sides; wings with two white bars; tail feathers with pale tips; bill black, yellow below; feet pale; iris yellow; about 11 long; wing 4, tail 5 or 6; bill nearly straight, 1 inch long. Eastern United States; a delightful songster, abundant -in thickets, etc. WHxs., ii, 83, pl. AE SNUL Sloe Ohm AD LOO Minuet Ge 4 a. CRUBUSS Var. longirostris. Long-billed Thrush. Somewhat similar; darker brown above; the markings below blackish; bill longer and a little more curved. Mexico to the Rio Grande. Bp., 352, pl. 52; Rrv., 44. Curve-billed Thrush. Dull grayish-brown, below whitish, breast, etc., spotted with color of the back, wing coverts and lateral tail feathers tipped with white; size of the last; bill over an inch long, and decidedly curved. Valley of Rio Grande and Colorado. Bop. 351, pl. 51. =. ~curvirosrris. Cinereous Thrush. Brownish-ash, below whitish, shaded with fulvous, especially behind, and with brown spots ; two wing-bars and tips of lateral tail feathers obscurely white. Rather smaller than the foregoing. Cape St. Lucas. Bp., Pr. Acad. Phil. 1859, 303, and Rev. 46; Exuror, pl. 1; (COR 55 IOs 5 ee fe 8 a Bo Gre | Bln se Re ee ea Ona LORS spotted. Sickle-billed Thrush. Californian Mockingbird. Dark oily olive- ’. brown, paler below, deepening into rusty brown on belly and under tail coverts; throat rusty whitish ; auriculars streaked : bill black, at a maximum of curvature, about 1$ long, but very variable in length and degree of curve ; tarsus about 14; total length 11 or more; wing 4 or less, tail 5 or 6 inches long. Coast region of California. Cass., Ill. 260, pl. 43; Bop., GHG) 3 lieve, 3 Coon. IWG,y 6 so 60 6 4 © »o 6 0 o InoDAnATOS, Var. lecontet. Leconte’s Thrush. Pale ash, still paler below, shading into brownish-yellow on under tail coverts ; throat whitish, with slight maxillary streaks ; bill black; no decided markings anywhere. A bleached desert race. Colorado Valley; only two specimens known. (Ft. Yuma, Leconte; Ft. Mojave, Cowes.) Bp., 350, pl. 50; Rev. 47; Coor., 17. ,/ Crissal Thrush. Olive-brown, paler on throat and belly ; throat. whitish with blackish maxillary streaks ; under tail coverts chestnut in marked con- trast ; auriculars slightly streaked; bill black. Size of the last, or rather larger; tail 6 or more. Valley of Rio Grande and Colorado. Bop., 351, DSi pve vert (COOP Semen tiem Gwe ye nl) wt CRISSATIIS: hh _\° Stone-chat. Wheat-ear. Adult: 76 SAXICOLIDZ, BLUEBIRDS.—GEN. 5, 6. Family SAXICOLIDZ. Stone-chats and Bluebirds. Chiefly Old World ; represented in North America by one European straggler and the familiar bluebirds; authors assign different limits to it, and frequently trans- pose the genera; it might come under Turdide without violence. As usually constituted, it contains upwards of one hundred species, com- monly referred to about a dozen genera. Like most other groups of Passeres, it has never been defined with precision, the family being known, conventionally, by the birds ornithologists put in it. The following birds have booted tarsi; oval nostrils; bristled rictus; rather short, Fic. 17. Stone-chat; natural size. square or emarginate tail; long, pointed wings, with very short spurious Ist quill, and the tip formed by the 2d, 3d and 4th quills. / 5. Genus SAXICOLA Bechstein. ashy gray ; forehead, superciliary line and under parts white, latter often brownish-tinted; upper tail coverts white, wings and tail black, latter with most of the feathers white for half their length ; line from nostril to eye, and broad band on side of head, black ; bill and feet black ; young everywhere cinnamon-brown, paler below ; wing 34, tail 24, tarsus 1; middle toe and claw ?. Atlantic coast, astray from Europe vid Greenland; also, North Pacific Coast, from Asia. Cass., IIl., 203 spls34; Bp. 220, and Rey. Gl. 92 729. 2) 2 GNANTEE: 6. Genus SIALIA Swainson. * * More or less blue: bill and feet black; ? grayish or brownish, with blue . traces, especially on rump, wings and tail. Yowng like the 2, but curiously spotted. 6-7 long, wing 33-44, tail 22-3}, bill + or less, tarsus ? or less. Eastern Bluebird. 3 rich sky-blue, ee above; below reddish- brown, belly white. Eastern U. S. Wrus. i, 56, pl. 3; Nurr. i, 445; fi, 171, pl. 1345) Bp., 222. .E ents ot --, . SIALIS. Western Bluebird. gf above, and the Hirent: deen bine, with a dorsal patch of same color as breast and sides, which are rather darker than in the last species; belly dull bluish-gray. Rocky Mountains to Pacific. Nurr., i, 513; Aup., ii, 176, pl. 135; Bp., 228; Coop., 28... . . MEXICANA. Arctic Bluebird. § everywhere clear pale blue, with a faint green shade, paler below, fading into white on belly. Chiefly central region of N. A., from 65° into Mexico; also Pacific coast. Nurr., 514; Aup., ii, WH, le Mei Ii, APES Clyerhs Me 5 bo 8 AIOE. Family CINCLIDA:. Dippers. Aquatic! thrush-like birds (formerly included under Turdide), with thickset bodies, compact plumage to resist water, short, stiff, concave wings, with 10 prima- ,Y CINCLID, DIPPERS. SYLVIIDM, SYLVIAS.—GEN. 7, 8. 77 ries of which the 1st is spurious, still shorter, square tail, almost hidden by the coverts, linear nostrils, slender bill, almost a little turned up (gonys convex, cul- men slightly concave), with no trace of rictal bristles. There is only one genus, with about a dozen species, all inhabiting clear mountain streams of most parts of the world, easily progressing wnder water; feed on aquatic animal substances; moderately vocal; our species builds a remarkable and elegant dome-like nest of moss, with a hole in one side. 7. Genus CINCLUS Bechstein. Water Ouzel. Dipper. Jead-colored, nearly 1-18 Dipper; natural size. uniform, but apt to be brownish on head; 7; wing 34; tail 24. Rocky Mountain region of N. A. Nurv., ii, 569; Aun., ii, 182, pl. 137; Bo., 229; Coopr., 25. oe Oe ee ee ee ee or ae oh EME XICANLSS Family SYLVIIDA. Sylvias. A large family, chiefly Old World, sparingly represented in the New. Primaries 10, the 1st short or spurious, about half the 2d, which is shorter than the 6th; bill slender, about straight, shorter than the head, usually slightly notched and hooked at tip; rictus bristly; nostrils exposed, or slightly overhung, but never densely hidden: part have booted tarsi, and these are difficult to distinguish technically from Turdinw and Sawxicolide, but here size is a good criterion, none of our Sylviide being over five inches long; the rest, with scutellate tarsi, are of course distinguishable on sight from the last mentioned families; from the Certhiide, by not having stiff acuminate tail-feathers; from the Paride and Sittidee by not having densely feathered nostrils; from the Troglodytide, by the less cohesion of the toes at base; and from all the Sylvicolidcee by having more than nine primaries. Three subfamilies occur in North America; one of them, Polioptiline, peculiar to this country, used to be associated with the Puaride, with which, however, it has no special affinity; another, Regulinc, is simply warblers with booted tarsi; a third, Sylviine, with its several not well defined groups, con- stitutes an immense assemblage of upwards of five hundred recorded species, among them the famous nightingale of Europe. Subfamily SYLVIINA. Typical Old World Warblers. Represented in North America by a single waif from Asia. 8. Genus PHYLLOPNEUSTE Meyer. Kennicott’s Sylvia. Olive-green; below yellowish and white; super- ciliary line yellow; wings and tail dusky, olive-edged ; wing coverts yellow- ish-tipped. 4%; wing 24; tail 2. Alaska (Dall). Bop., Trans. Chicago Aerts MeG9, GIB, IL BO Ao 6 6 6 6 o @ 6 6 4 8. o WiOrMaVene. Subfamily REGULIN A. Singlets. Tarsus booted; wings longer than the emarginate tail. Elegant greenish-olive pigmies, with brilliant colors on the head when adult. ‘There are about ten species of the following genus, inhabiting Europe, Asia and America; two of them are ) ( v 78 REGULINE, KINGLETS. POLIOPTILINE, GNATCATCHERS.—GEN. 9, 10. very common in our woods, thickets and orchards. Migratory, insectivorous ; have a sweet song. : 9. Genus REGULUS Cuvier. *.* Greenish-olive, below whitish or yellowish; wings and tail dusky, edged with greenish or yellowish, wing coverts whitish-tipped. 4-4} long, wing 23-2}; tail 11-12. Ruby-crowned Kinglet. Crown witha rich scarlet patch (in both sexes, but wanting in both the first year) ; no black about head; bill and feet black. North America. Wus., i, 83, pl. 5, f. i; Nurr., i, 415; Avp., ii, 168, pl. 183; Bp., 227. . CALENDULUS.. 5, Golden-crowned Minglet. Crown .' bordered in front and on sides by black, inclosing a yellow and flame colored patch (in the g ; in the ¢, the scarlet wanting) ; extreme fore- head, and line over eye, whitish; young, if ever without traces of black and yellow on the head, may be told from the last species, by smaller size and presence of a tiny bristly feather overlying the nostrils; this is want- Shik) (cullsesenaaarl ace ing in calendulus. North America. Wus., i, 126, pl. 8, f. 2; Aup., ii, AGS Die IAG 15 Bo co Go a 6 wie 2 Be SSATRAPAG Oss. Cuvier’s Kinglet (R. cuvieri Aup., ii, 163, pl. 181; Nurv., i, 416, Schuyl- kill River, June, 1812), not now known, is said to have two black stripes on’ each side of head. W&. tricolor Nurt., i, 420, is R. satrapa; so is his R. cristatus, which is the name of the European species, not found in North America. Subfamily POLIOPTILINA. Gnatcatchers. Tarsus not booted, and wings not longer than the rounded tail; bill slender (too thick in the figs.), depressed and well bristled at base; tip evidently overhanging (not in the figs.) ; tarsus long, slender; toes very short. Delicate little woodland birds, peculiar to America; migratory, insectivorous, very active and sprightly, with sharp, squeaking notes. There are about a dozen, chiefly Central and South American, species of the single 10. Genus POLIOPTILA Sclater. *.* Bluish-ash, paler or white below; tail black and white; wings dusky, edged with hoary white; bill and feet black; only 4-44 long; wing scarcely 2, tail rather more. Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. Clear ashy blue, bluer on head; forehead, and line over eye, black (wanting in @): outer tail feather white. United States to Mass.; Arizona; Mexico. Wits., li, 164, pl. 18, f. 3; Nurv., i, 297; 2d ed., i, 327; Aun., i, 244, pl. 70; Bp., 880; Coor., 35. cmruLEa. PARIDE, TITMICE, OR CHICKADEES.—GEN. 11. 79 _u Black-headed Ginatcatcher. g bluish-ash, with whole crown black. @ » “ with crown like back; outer tail feather white-edged only. Southwest United States. Cass., Ill., 164, pl. 27; Bp., 382; Coor., 31. MELANURA. « Plumbeous Gnatcatcher. Duller ~ leaden gray; crown like back; a white, and also a black (latter not in @) superciliary line; whole outer web of outer tail feather, and its tip for some distance, white. Arizona. Bp., 382; Coop., 37. . PLUMBEA. Family CHAMAIDA, Wren- tits. Recently framed for a single species, “1 3 . = ? Fig. 20. Under fig., blue-gray gnatcatcher; upper much like a titmouse in general appear- fig., black-headed gnatcatcher; ¢, tail of the same; d, . 4 tail of plumbeous gnatcatcher; all of natural size. camera, [ovwits, White-bellied Swallow. Lustrous ) HIRUNDINIDE, SWALLOWS.—GEN. 44, 45. 113 Swallows are insectivorous, and therefore migratory in cold and temperate lati- tudes; unsurpassed in powers of flight, they are enabled to pass with ease and swiftness from one country to another, as the state of the weather may require. With us a few warm days in February and March often allure them northward, only to be driven back again by the cold, giving rise to the well-known adage. No birds are better known to all classes than these, and none so welcome to man’g abode— cherished witnesses of peace and plenty in the homestead, dashing ornaments of the busy thoroughfare. The habits of swallows best illustrate the modifying influences of civilization on indigenous birds. Formerly, they all bred on cliffs, in banks, in hollows of trees, and similar places, and many do so still. But most of our species have forsaken these primitive haunts to avail themselves of the convenient artificial nesting places that man, intentionally or otherwise, provides. Some are just now in a transition state; thus the purple martin, in settled parts of the country, chooses the boxes everywhere provided for its accommodation, while in the West it retains its old custom of breeding in hollow trees. 4\ \ 44, Genus HIRUNDO Linneus. Barn Swallow. Lustrous steel blue; below, rufous or pale chestnut of varying shade ; forehead, chin and throat deep chestnut; breast with an imperfect steel-blue collar; tail forficate, its outer feathers attenuate, all but the middle pair with white spots on the inner web; bill and feet black. Sexes alike; young less lustrous, much paler below, tail simply forked. Wing 43-43; tail 24 to 5 inches. North America, abundant in the United States in the summer, breeding in colonies in barns and out- houses ; eggs white, speckled. Wiuts., v, 34, pl. 88; Nurr., i, 601; Aup., i, 181, pl. 48; Bp., 308. . . . HOoRREORUM. J \ v= 45. Genus TACHYCINETA Cabanis. green, below pure white; tail simply § emarginate. Young similar, not so glossy. 6-64; wing 5; tail 24. North pS Dee oy alloy America, abundant in the United States in summer. Wuus., v, 49, pl. 38; Nutt., i, 605; Aup., 1, 175, pl. 46; Bp., 310. . . . . . prcozor. \° Violet-green Swallow. Opaque velvety green, purple and violet ; spot over the eye, sides of rump, and whole under parts pure white. Young similar, duller. 43-54; wing 44; tail 2, emarginate. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U. S.; an exquisite species, breeding in knotholes and woodpeckers’ holes, in pine woods and in weather-worn holes in cliffs. (ALLEN, Am. Nat. 1872, 274.) tail; crown ashy, chin and superc. line white, . . bellii. — olive, chin wht., superc. line yell., . mnovebor. —and under partsyell’sh, . huttonii. Oss. The Bartramian Vireo of Aup., Orn. Biog. v, 296, pl. 484, f. 4; B. Am. iv, 153, pl. 242, and of Nourr., i, 2d ed. 358, has not been identified by later ornithologists; but there is little chance of its being a good species. The descriptions indicate a bird much like V. olivaceus. The original Vireo bartramii of Swainson, Fauna Bor.-Am. ii, 235, is a Brazilian species of the olivaceus group, wrongly ascribed to North America. The name Vireo virescens that Barrp applied to the Bartramian Vireo, in B. N. A. p. 333, is doubtless an erroneous identification, as he has since shown, ViE1LLot’s virescens being based on a Pennsylvania speci- men, almost certainly olivacews.— For the discussion of these questions, and a masterly review of the whole genus, see Barrp, Review, pp. 322-370. Fie.59. Red-eyed Vireo. (This, and subsequent figs. of this family, of nat. size.) Red-eyed Vireo. Above, olive-green; crown ash, edged on each side with a blackish line, below this a white superciliary line, below this again a dusky stripe through eye; under parts. white, faintly shaded with olive along sides, and tinged with olive on under wing and tail-coverts ; wings and tail dusky, edged with olive outside, with whitish inside ; bill d usky, pale 120 VIREONID®, VIREOS.—GEN. 53. below; feet leaden-blue; eyes red; no dusky maxillary streaks ; no spuri- ous quill. Large; 53-64; wing 34-34; tail 24-23; bill about 3; tarsus 2. Eastern North America; in most places the most abundant species of the genus, in woodland; a voluble, tireless songster. WHULS., ii, 53, pl. 12, f. 3; Nurr.,i, 312; Aup., iv, 155, pl. 243: Bp., 331, and Rev. 333. OLIVACEUS. Black-whiskered Vireo. Whip-tom-kelly. Very similar to the last ; distin- guished by a narrow dusky maxillary line, or line of spots, on each side of the chin; bill longer, #-%; proportions of quills slightly different (see the figs.). Cuba, Bahamas, and casually in Florida. —V. longirostris, Nurv., , 2d ed., 359. = V. alttloquus, Gampet, Proc. Acad. Phila., 1848, 127; Cass., ibid., 1851, 152, and Ill. pp. 8, 221, pl. 37; Bpo., 354. V. barbatula, Bp., Rev. 331. . . . . =. +. +. +. °&£«.4ALTILOQUUS var. BARBATULUS. Fig. 60. Black-whiskered Vireo. Fic. 61. Vireo flavoviridis. Ozs. Another species or variety of this long-billed, 9-primaried group, V. fla- voviridis (Cass., Proc. Acad. Phila. 1851, 152: Bp., 332 and Rev. 336), occurs in Mexico and may be expected over our border, though no specimens appear to have been taken within our limits ; it has been admitted into late systematic works. It closely resembles olivaceus, but the under parts are yellow, brighter perhaps, at least on the axillars and crissum, than olivaceus ever becomes, even in the fall. Brotherly-love Vireo. Above dull olive-green, brightening on the rump, oe fading insensibly into ashy on the crown, Se SUE. which is not bordered with blackish; a dull white superciliary line; below, palest possible A yellowish, whitening on throat and belly, \ slightly olive-shaded on sides; sometimes a slight creamy or buffy shade throughout the PICS PEAT SNE under parts; no obvious wing-bars ; no spuri- ous quill. About 5 long; wing 23; tail 2435 bill hardly or about $; tarsus 3. Eastern North America; a small, plainly colored species, almost indistin- guishable from gilvus except by absence of spurious quill; not very common. Cass., Proc. Acad. Phila. 1851, 153; 4 ,Bp., 335; Rev. 340. PHILADELPHICUS. Warbling Vireo. Colors precisely as in the last species ; spurious quill present, 4-4 as long as the second primary. Fig. 63. Warbling Vireo. Eastern North America, an abundant little bird and an exquisite songster. Its voice is not strong, and many birds excel it in brillianey of execution ; ¥Y 9 VIREONIDH, VIREOS.—GEN. 53. 121 but not one of them all can rival the tenderness and softness of the liquid strains of this modest vocalist. Not born to “waste its sweetness on the desert air,” the warbling vireo forsakes the depths of the woodland for the park and orchard and shady street, where it glides through the foliage of the tallest trees, the unseen messenger of rest and peace to the busy, dusty haunts of men.— Wizs., v, 85, pl. 42, a f. 2; Nurr., i, 309; Avp., iv, 149, pl. = es 241; Bp., 335, and Rev. 342. GILvus. \ =A X : eas Var. swarnsonir. ‘Similar to V. gilvus, but | wk Ya aw smaller; colors paler; bill more depressed ; upper mandible almost black; 2d quill much shorter than 6th.” Barrp, Rey. 343; Coopr., 116; Ex.iot, pl. 7. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U. S. The Western form has been described as distinct, but I scarcely think the characters assigned will be found constant. In one of my Arizona skins the second quill is Jonger than it is in an Eastern specimen. Fic. 64. Western Warbling Vireo. 2 * — Yellow-throated Vireo. Above, rich olive-green, crown the same or even brighter, rump insensibly shading into bluish-ash; below, bright yellow, belly and crissum abruptly white, sides anteriorly shaded with olive, posteriorly with plumbeous; extreme forehead, su- perciliary line and ring round eye, yel- low; lores dusky; wings dusky, with the inner secondaries broadly white- edged, and two broad white bars across tips of greater and median coverts ; tail dusky, nearly all the feathers completely encircled with white edging; bill and feet dark leaden blue; no spurious quill; 52-6; wing about 3; tail only about 24. A large, stout, highly-colored species, common in the woods of the Eastern United States. Wuts., i, 117, pl. 7, f. 38; Nurr., i, 302; Aup., iv, 141, pl. 238; Bp., 341, and Rev. 346. . . . . . . FLAVIFRONS. . Blue-headed, or Solitary Vireo. Above, olive-green, crown and sides of | * ‘head bluish-ash in marked contrast, with a broad white line from nostrils to and around eye, and a dusky loral line; below, white, flanks washed with olivaceous, and axillars and crissum pale yellow; wings and tail dusky, most of the feathers edged with white or whitish, and two conspicuous bars of the same across tips of middle and greater coverts ; bill and feet blackish horn-color. 54 53 2 wing 22 3 ; tail Fia. 66. Blue-headed, or Solitary Vireo. 24-24; spurious quill 3-3 long, about one-fourth as long as 2d. United States from Atlantic to Pacific, except perhaps Southern Rocky Mountains, where replaced by the next species; not rare, but not so common as oliva- ceus, flavifrons and noveboracensis; inhabits woodland. Whu1s., ii, 143, pl. Fic. 65. Yellow-throated Vireo. KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 16 122 VIREONIDZ, VIREOS.—GEN. 53. 17, f. 6; Nurr., i, 8305; Aun., iv, 144, pl. 239; Bp., 340, and Rev. 347. (V. cassiniti Xantus, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1858,117; Bop., 340, pl. 78, f. 1, HSL INOMIIRI ND) a ea Gg en bh oc oo 6 of a a 5 o 5 SOMME, Plumbeous Vireo. Leaden-gray, rather brighter and more ashy on the crown, but without marked contrast, faintly glossed with olive on rump; a conspicuous white line from nostril to and around eye, and below this a dusky loral stripe ; below, pure white, sides of neck and breast shaded with color of the back, flanks, axillars und crissum with a mere trace of olivaceous, or none; wing and tail dusky, with conspicuous pure white edgings and cross-bars. Size of the last or rather larger ; bill nearly F1G. 67. Plumbeous Vireo. 4; tarsus 3; middle toe the same; spurious quill about 3, one-third as long as the second quill. Central Plains to the Pacific, U. S., and especially Southern Rocky Mountains, where it is abundant. A large stout species, a near ally of solitarius, but nearly all the olivaceous of that species replaced by plumbeous, and the yellowish by white, so that it is a very different looking bird. It may prove only a variety, but I have seen no intermediate specimens, and cannot reconcile the obvious discrepancies, upon this supposition. Cours, Pr. Ac. Phila., 1866, 74; Bp., Rev. 349; Coor., 119; Extior, pl. 7. . . PLUMBEUS. Gray Vireo. With the general appearance of a small faded specimen of plumbeus: leaden-gray, faintly olivaceous on the rump, below white, with hardly a trace of yellowish on the sides; wings and tail hardly edged with white ; no markings about head except a whitish eye-ring. 52; extent 83; wing and tail, each, 24; tarsus nearly 3; middle toe and claw hardly over 4; tip of inner claw falling short of base of middle claw; tail decidedly rounded; spurious quill #, half as long as the second primary, which latter is not longer than the eighth. Arizona. If these peculiar proportions of the single known specimen are constant, the species is distinct from any other. It is our plainest colored species, resembling plwmbeus, but apparently more closely allied to the smaller rounder-winged species like novebora- censis and especially pusdllus; the toes are almost abnormally short, and the tail as long as the wing. Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. Sci. 1866, p. 75; Bpo., Rev., 361; Coop. 125; Exutor, pl. 7. . vicrntor. ‘ 7 White-eyed Vireo. Above bright olive- green, including crown; a slight ashy gloss on the cervix, and the rump showing yellowish when the feathers are disturbed ; below white, the sides Fra. 68. White-eyed Vireo. “> ~e Least Vireo. Olivaceous-gray, VIREONID&, VIREOS.—GEN. 93. 123 of the breast and belly, the axillars and crissum, bright yellow; a bright yellow line from nostrils to and around eye; lores dusky; two broad yel- lowish wing-bars; inner secondaries widely edged with the same; bill and feet blackish-plumbeous; eyes white. About 5 inches long; wing 24-225 tail 24; spurious quill 3, half as long as the second, which about equals the eighth; tarsus about 2; middle toe and claw 4; bill nearly $. A small, compact, brightly-colored species, abundant in shrubbery and_ tangled undergrowth of the Eastern United States; noted for its sprightly manners and emphatic voice; eggs 4-5, white, _ speckled at large end. W£uxs., ii, 266, pl. = 18; Nurr., i, 306; Aup., iv, 146, pl. 240; Bp., 338, and Rev. 354. NOVEBORACENSIS. Huttors Vireo. A species or variety similar to the last, but differing much as F1G.69. Hutton’s Vireo. flavoviridis does from olivaceus, in having the under parts almost entirely yellowish; second quill about equal to the tenth. Lower California and southward. An accredited species, but one I have not tested, and cannot endorse. Cass., Proc. Acad. Phila. 1851, 150, 1852; pl. 1, f. 1; Bp., 339, pl. 78, f. 2; Rev. 357. . . HUTTONII. Bell’s Vireo. Olive-green, brighter on rump, ashier on head, but without decided contrast ; head-markings almost exactly as in gilvus; below, sul- phury yellowish, only whitish on chin and middle of belly; inner quills edged with whitish; two whitish wing-bands, but one more conspicuous than the other. Hardly or not 5 long ; wing little over 2; tail under 2; spurious quill about 2 the second, which equals or exceeds the seventh. A pretty little species, like a mini- ature gilvus, but readily distin- guished from that species by its small size, presence of decided wing-bars, more yellowish under parts, and different wing-formula. Middle region, U. S., west to the Rocky Moun- tains, east to Kansas (Cowes) and Illinois (fidgway) ; an abundant species, inhabiting copses and shrubbery in open country, with much the same sprightly ways and loud song of noveboracensis. AUD., vii, 333, pl. 485; Bp., 3837; Rev. 358. BELLII. Fic. 70. Bell’s V reo. below white, merely tinged with yellowish on the sides ; head-mark- ings obscure ; wing-bands and ede- BG antl SEDs Vil CO ings, though evident, narrow and whitish; no decided olive or yellow any- where. Size of belliz; wing and tail of equal lengths, little over 2 inches; bill $; tarsus 3; middle toe and claw 4; spurious quill about 3 as long as the second, which is intermediate between the seventh and eighth. A small 124 LANIIDZ, SHRIKES.—GEN. 53. obseure-looking species near belliz, which it replaces in Southwestern ie possibly a grayer, longer-tailed, geographical race, but more specimens al be required to prove this. Its habits are the same as those of Bell’s vireo. Cours, Proc. Acad. Phila., 1866, 76; Bp., Rev. 360; Coop. 124. (V. bellit Coor., Proc. Cala. Acad. 1861, 122.). ers 5 . . PUSILLUS. Black-headed Vireo. Olive-green, ite crown an ides of head black; below white, olive-shaded on sides; 43; wing 24; tail 2. Southwestern Texas, extremely rare; only three specimens known. WoopuHovuse, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1852, 60; Rep. Expl. Zuii River, 75, pl. 1; Cass, Ine los ples. Bp., 337, and Rey. 38538. . ATRICAPILLUS. Family LANIIDA. Shrikes. Essentially characterized by the combination of comparatively weak, strictly passerine feet with a notched, toothed and hooked bill, the size, shape and strength of which recalls that of a bird of prey. The family comprises about two hundred recorded species, refer- able to numerous genera, and divisible into three groups, of which the following is the only one occurring in America. Subfamily LANIINE. True Shrikes. The genus Collurio is the only representative of this group in North America. In this genus the wing has ten primaries and the tail twelve rectrices; both are much rounded and of nearly equal lengths. The rictus is furnished with strong bristles. The circular nostrils are more or less perfectly covered and con- cealed by dense tufts of antrorse bristly feathers. The tarsi are scutellate in front and on the outside — in the latter respect deviating from a usual Oscine character. Our shrikes will thus be easily distinguished ; additional features are, the point of the wing formed by the 3d, 4th and Sth quills, the 2d not longer than the 6th, the Ist about half the 3d; the tarsus equalling or slightly exceeding the middle toe and claw; the lateral toes of about equal lengths, their claws reaching the base of the middle claw. In coloration our species are much alike, and curiously similar to the mockingbird, being bluish-, grayish- or brownish-ash above, white more or less evidently vermiculated with black below; wings and tail black variegated with white, rump and scapulars more or less whitish, and a black bar through the eye. These shrikes are bold and spirited birds, quarrelsome among themselves, and tyrannical toward weaker species; in fact, their nature seems as highly rapacious as that of the true birds of prey. They are carnivorous, feeding on insects and such small birds and quadrupeds as they can capture and overpower; many in- stances have been noted of their dashing attacks upon cage-birds, and their reckless pursuit of other species under circumstances that cost them their own lives. But the most remarkable fact in the natural history of the shrikes is their singular and inexplicable habit of impaling their prey on thorns or sharp twigs, and leaving it sticking there. This has occasioned many ingenious surmises, none of which, however, are entirely satisfactory. They build a rather rude and bulky nest of twigs, and lay 4-6 speckled eggs. They are not strictly migratory, although our northernmost species usually retires southward in the fall. The sexes are alike, LANIID&, SHRIKES.—GEN. 54. , 125 and the young differ but little. There are only two well determined American species, of nine that compose the genus. 3) 54, Genus COLLURIO Vigors. e & \>° Great Northern Shrike, ov Butcherbird. Clear bluish-ash blanching on the rump and scapulars, below white always vermiculated with fine wavy blackish lines; a black bar along side of head not meeting its fellow across forchead, interrupted by a white crescent on under eyelid, and bordered above by hoary white that also occu- pies the extreme forehead; wings and tail black, the former with a large spot near base of the prima- ries, and the tips of most of the quills, white, the latter with nearly all the feathers broadly tipped with white, and with concealed white bases; bill and féet black; 9-10 long; wing 44; ‘tail rather more. The young is similar, but none of the colors are so pure or so intense; the entire plumage has a brownish suffu- sion, and the bill is flesh colored at base. North America, northerly ; breeds, however, in mountainous parts of the United States (Alleghanies, Turnbull) ; | in winter, usually extends southward about to 35° (Coues). Wius., i, 74, pl. 5, f. 1; Nurr., i, 258; Aup., iv, 130, pl. 236; Bo., 324, amind) Ways 22, 6 5 9 6 6 6 6 6 oe 6 mw ob oo wm 5 HOM IUBNCL Loggerhead Shrike. Slate-colored, slightly whitish on the rump and scapulars, below white, with a few obscure wavy black lines, or none; black bar on side of head meeting its fellow across the forehead, not interrupted by white on under eyelid, and scarcely or not bordered above by hoary white ; otherwise like borealis in color, but smaller; 8-83; wing about 4; tail rather Fic. 73. Butcherbird. more. Young birds differ much as described under borealis, and are decid- edly waved below as in that species; but the other characters readily distin- guish them. South Atlantic States. Wus., ili, 57, pl. 22, f.5; Nurr., i, 561; Aup., iv, 135, pl. 237; Bp., 325, and Rey. 443. . LupbovicraNnus. Var. EXCUBITOROIDES. White-rumped Shrike. With the size, and the essential characters of the head-stripe, of Judovicianus, and the under parts, as in that species not, or not obviously, waved, but with the clear light ash upper parts, and hoary whitish superciliary line, scapulars and rump of borealis. Middle and West- ern N. Am.; N. to the Saskatchewan, E. to Illinois, S. into Mexico. Bop., 327, 328, and Rev., 344, 345; Coopr., 138. Ozss. Extreme examples of ludovicianus and eacubitoroides look very different, but they are observed to melt into each other when many specimens are compared, so that no specific character can be assigned. ‘To this species I must also refer the C. elegans of Baird, considering that the single specimen upon which it was based, represents an individual peculiarity in the size of the bill. This specimen is sup- posed to be from California, but some of Dr. Gambel’s to which the same locality is assigned, were certainly procured elsewhere, and it may not be a North American 126 FRINGILLIDE, FINCHES, ETC. bird at all. The highest authority on this genus, Messrs. Dresser and Sharpe, have shown from examination of Swainson’s type specimen, that his elegans is the C. lahtora, a widely-spread Asiatic species probably erroneously attributed to North America. Family FRINGILLIDA:. Finches, etc. The largest North American family, comprising between one-seventh and one- eighth of all our birds, and the most extensive group of its grade in ornithology. As ordinarily constituted, it represents, in round numbers, five hundred current species and one hundred genera, of nearly all parts of the world, except Australia, but more particularly of the northern hemisphere and throughout America, where the vroup attains its maximum development. Any one United States locality of average attractiveness to birds, has a bird- fauna of over two hundred species; and if it be away from the sea-coast, and con- sequently uninhabited by marine birds, about one-fourth of its species are Sylvico- lidee and Fringillidw together —the latter somewhat in excess of the former. It is not easy, therefore, to give undue prominence to these two families. The Fringillide are more particularly what used to be called ‘‘ conirostral” birds, in distinction from “ fissirostres,” as the swallows, swifts and goatsuckers, ‘‘ten- uirostres,” as humming birds and creepers, and ‘‘ dentirostres,” as warblers, vireos and most of the preceding families. The bill approaches nearest the ideal cone, combining strength to crush seeds, with delicacy of touch to secure minute objects. The cone is sometimes nearly expressed, but is more frequently turgid or conoidal, convex in most directions, and sometimes so contracted that some of its outlines are concave. The nostrils are usually exposed, but in many, chiefly boreal, genera, the base of the bill is furnished with a ruff, or two tufts of antrorse feathers more or less completely covering the openings. The cutting edges may be slightly notched, but are usually plain; there are usually a few inconspicuous bristles about the rictuS, sometimes wanting, sometimes highly developed, as in our grosbeaks. The wings are endlessly varied in shape, but agree in possessing only nine developed primaries; the tail is equally variable in form, but always has twelve rectrices. The feet show a strictly Oscine podotheca, scutellate in front, covered on the side with an undivided plate, producing a sharp ridge behind. None of these members offer extreme phases of development or arrestation, in any of our species. But the most tangible characteristic of the family is angulation of the commis- sure. The commissure runs in a straight line, or with a slight carve, to or near to the base of the bill, and is then more or less abruptly bent down at a varying angle—the cutting edge of the upper mandible forming a reéntrance, that of the lower mandible a corresponding salience. In the great majority of cases the fea- ture is unmistakable, and in the grosbeaks, for example, it is very strongly marked indeed ; but in some of the smaller-billed forms, and especially those with slender bill, it is hardly perceptible. On the whole, however, it is a good character, and at any rate it is the most reliable external feature that can befound. It separates our fringilline birds pretty trenchantly from other Oscines except Jcteridw, and most of these may be distinguished by the characters given beyond. When we come, however, to consider this great, group of conirostral Oscines in its entirety, as compared with bordering families like the Old World Ploceide, or the Icteridw, and especially the Tunagride, of the New, the difficulty if not the impossibility of framing a perfect diagnosis becomes apparent, and I am not FRINGILLIDM, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 55, 56. 127 aware that a rigid definition has been successfully attempted. Ornithologists are nearly agreed what birds to call fringilline, without being very well prepared to say what ‘‘fringilline” means. The division of the family into minor groups, as might be expected, is a conventional matter at present—the subfamilies vary with every leading writer. Our species might be thrown into several groups, but the distinc- tions would be more or less arbitrary, not readily perceived, and doubtless negatived upon consideration of exotic material. It becomes necessary, therefore, to waive this matter, and simply collocate the genera in orderly sequence. The Fringillide are popularly known by several different names. Here belong all the sparrows, with the allied birds called finches, buntings, linnets, grosbeaks and crossbills. In the following pages I describe seventy-one species, well deter- mined, and ascertained to occur within our limits, referring them to thirty-four genera, as the custom is, although J think this number of genera altogether too large. Species occur throughout our country, in every situation, and many of them are among our most abundant and familiar birds. They are all granivorous—seed-eaters, but many feed extensively on buds, fruits and other soft vegetable substances, as well as on insects. They are not so perfectly migratory as the exclusively insectivorous birds, the nature of whose food requires prompt removal at the approach of cold weather ; but, with some exceptions, they withdraw from their breeding places in the fall to spend the winter further south, and to return in the spring. With a few signal exceptions they are not truly gregarious birds, though they often associate in large companies, assembled in community of interest. The modes of nesting are too various to be here summarized. Nearly all the finches sing, with varying ability and effect; some of them are among our most delightful vocalists. As a rule, they are plainly clad—even meanly, in comparison with some of our sylvan beauties ; but among them are birds of elegant and striking colors. Among the highly-colored ones, the sexes are more or less unlike, and other changes, with age and season, are strongly marked; the reverse is the case with the rest. 55. Genus HESPERIPHONA Bonaparte. Evening Grosbeak. Dusky olivaceous, brighter behind, forehead, line over eye and under tail coverts yellow; crown, wings, tail and tibixe black, the secondary quills mostly white; bill greenish-yellow, of immense size, about # of an inch long and nearly as deep; 73-84; wing 4-44; tail 24. The 9 and young differ somewhat, but cannot be mistaken. Plains to the Pacific, U. S., and somewhat northward; occasional eastward to Ohio and Illinois, and even straying to Canada (McIlwraith) and New York (Law- rence). AUD., iil, 217, pl. 207; Bp., 409; Coop., 174. . VESPERTINA. 56. Genus PINICOLA Vieillot. Pine Grosbeak. carmine red, paler or whitish on the belly, darker and streaked with dusky on the back; wings and tail dusky, much edged with white, former with two white bars; 9 ashy-gray, paler below, marked with brownish-yellow on the head andrump. 8-9 long; wing 44; tail 4, emarginate ; bill short, stout, convex in all directions. Northern North America, appearing in the United States in winter, generally in flocks, in pine woods; resident in the Sierra Nevada of California (Cooper). Wixs., i, 80, pl. 5; Aup., iii, 179, pl. 199; Bp., 410; Coor., 152. . mNucLEATOR. 128 FRINGILLIDA, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 57, 58. 57. Genus PYRRHULA Auctorum. Cassin’s Bullfinch. @ above clear ashy gray, below cinnamon gray, rump and under wing and tail coverts white ; wings and tail, crown, chin and face black; outer tail feathers with a white patch, greater wing coverts tipped and primaries edged with whitish: bill black, feet dusky ; 9 unknown. Length 63; wing 33; tail 34. Nulato, Alaska (Dall), only one specimen known, originally described as a va- riety of P. coccinea of Europe, but later determined to be distinct. Bop., Trans. Chicago Acad. 1869, 316, pl. 29, f. 1; Newton, Ibis, 1870, 251; Tristram, Ibis, 1871, 231. CaAssINi. 58. Genus CARPODACUS Kaup. * Adult g¢ with the red diffuse, belly unstreaked, and edging of wings reddish. Purple Finch. crimson, rosy, or purplish-red, most intense on the crown, fading to white on the belly, mixed with dusky streaks on the back ; wings and tail dusky, with reddish edgings, and the wing coverts tipped with the same; lores and feathers all around base of bill hoary. @ and young with no red—olivaceous-brown, brighter on the rump, the feathers above all with paler edges, producing a streaked appearance; below white, thickly spotted and streaked with olive-brown, except on middle of belly and under tail coverts; obscure whitish superciliary and maxillary lines. Young males show every gradation between these extremes, in gradually assuming the red plumage, and are frequently brownish-yellow or bronzy below. 52-63; wing 3-34; tail 24-24, forked; tarsus 3; middle toe and claw %3 bill under 4, turgid, with a little ruff of antrorse feathers. Not crested, but the coronal feathers erec- tile. The foregoing description should prevent con- founding young birds with any of the streaked and spotted sparrows. United States from Atlantic to Pacific, and somewhat northward in summer; an abundant species, particularly in spring and fall, in woods and orchards, generally found in flocks except when breeding; feeds on seeds, buds and blossoms; a delightful songster. Wuts., i, 119, pl. 7, f. 4; Aup., iii, 170, pl. 196; Bp., 412; also, C. californicus Bp., 413, Coor., 154, which I cannot distinguish at all. > . « « «i PURPUREUS. Cussin’s Purple Finch. Similar; the red paler, more streaked with dusky on the upper parts, crown rich crimson in marked contrast; larger ; 64-7; wing 34; tail 2%; bill about 4, comparatively less turgid; tarsus 3. Southern Rocky Mountain Region. Bop., 414; Cours, Pr. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila WiG6, 45s "Coor., 1555. see ye etn sone GAS STING Fic. 74. Cassin’s Bullfinch. Fic. 75. Billof Purple Finch. + [4 White-winged Crossbill. Wings FRINGILLIDM®, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 59. 129 ** Adult g with the red partly in definite areas, the belly streaked, the edging of the wings whitish. Crimson-fronted Finch. House Finch. Burion. 2 with the forehead and a line over the eye, the rump, and the chin, throat and breast, crimson ; other upper parts brown, streaked with darker, and marked with dull red, and other under parts white or whitish, streaked with dusky ; wings and tail dusky with slight whitish edgings and cross bars. The changes of plumage are parallel with those of C. purpwreus, but the species may easily be dis- tinguished in any plumage by its smaller size, with relatively longer wings and tail, these members being absolutely as long or nearly as long as in purpureus ; the tail barely or not forked; and especially by the much shorter and more inflated bill, which is almost exactly as represented in the fore- going figure of Pyrrhula cassinii. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U. S., avery abundant species in the towns and gardens of New Mexico, Arizona and California, where it is as familiar as the European Sparrow has become in many of our large eastern cities ; nests about the houses ; a pleasant song- ster. Avp., ili, 175, pl. 197; Bp., 415; Coor., 156. . . . FRONTALIS. 59. Genus CURVIROSTRA Scopoli. *,* Distinguished from all other birds by the falcate mandibles with crossed points. Nasal ruff conspicuous; wings long, pointed; tail short, forked; feet strong. Sexes dissimilar; ¢ some shade of red, nearly uniform, with dusky wings and tail; @ brownish or olivaceous, more or less streaked, head and rump frequently washed with brownish-yellow ; young like the @. Irregularly migratory, according to exigencies of the weath- er, eminently gregarious, and feed principally on pine seeds, which they skilfully husk out of the cones with their singular bill. Our two species inhabit the northern parts of Amer- ica, coming southward in flocks in the fall; but they are also resident in northern and mountainous pine-clad parts of the United States, where they sometimes breed in winter. in both sexes with two conspicu- ous white bars; ¢@ rosy red, 9 brownish-olive, streaked and speckled with dusky, the rump saffron; about 6; wing 34; tail 24. Wmuus. iv, 48, pl. 31, f. 3; Avp., iii, 190, pl. 201; Bp., 427. Fic. 76. White-winged Crossbill. oles - . LEUCOPTERA,. : a Red Crossbill. Common Crossbill. (Puate mt, figs. 13, 14, 15, 13a, at 14a, 15a.) Wings blackish, unmarked; ¢ bricky red; 9 as in leucoptera, but wings plain. Whuts., iv, 44, pl. 31, f. 1,2; Aun., iii, 186, pl. 200; Bp. 426; Coop., 148. . . . . . . AMERICANA. Var. mexicana. Similar to the last; bill large, about 2 of an inch long. Moun- KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 17 130 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 60, 61. tainous parts of New Mexico, and southward. Bp., 427 (in text), 924. My New Mexican specimens show a bill almost matching that of C. pytiopsittacus of Europe. 60. Genus LEUCOSTICTE Swainson. * ,* Sides of the under mandible with a small sharp oblique ridge; nasal tufts conspicuous. Gray-crowned Finch. Chocolate or liver-brown, the feathers posteriorly skirted with rosy or lavender, wings and tail dusky, rosy-edged, chin dusky with little or no ashy, crown alone clear ash, forehead alone black, bill and nasal feathers whitish, feet black; 9 not particularly different; about 7; wing 44; tail 22; a little forked. In midsummer, the black frontlet extends over the crown, the rosy heightens to crimson, and the bill blackens; the whole plumage is likewise darker. Rocky Mountain region, south to Colo- rado. AUD., iii, 176, pl. 198; Bp., 430; Coop., 164. . TEPHROCOTIS. Var. campEstrRis Bp., in Coor., 163. Colorado. In the specimen described, the ash of the head extends a little below the eyes but not on the auriculars, and forms a narrow border on the chin; thus approximating to the next. Var. GRISEINUCHA. Gray-eared Finch. The ash of the liead extending over the whole cheeks and ears and part of the chin; the black frontlet extending over most of the crown. Larger than average tephrocotis. Aleutian Islands. Bp., 430 (footnote); Trans. Chicago Acad. BEd Reyes cated Winch )-S 1869. pla 28, 1.12. Coor al ble Var. irrorauis Bp., Trans. Chicago Acad. 1869, p. 317, pl. 28, f. 1; Coor., 163. In the specimens described, from Sitka and British Columbia, the whole head including the chin, except the black frontlet, is ashy. The gradations noted in the foregoing paragraphs show that there is but a single species, although griseinucha and littoralis look quite different from tephrocotis and campestris. Siberian Finch. Dusky purplish; neck above pale yellowish; forehead and nasal feathers blackish; outer webs of quills and wing coverts, tail coverts, rump and crissum silvery gray, rosy-margined. Kurile and Aleu- tian Islands; Siberia. Bp., 430 (footnote); Coop., 165. . . arcroa. 61. Genus AEGIOTHUS Cabanis. *,* Small species (53-5? ; wing 23-3; tail 2}-21), with the bill extremely acute, overlaid at the base with nasal plumules, the wings long, pointed, the tail short, forked, the feet moderate. Conspicuously streaked, the crown with a crimson patch in both sexes, the face and chin dusky, wings and tail dusky with whitish edgings ; the males with the whole breast rosy and the rump tinged with the same. Boreal birds, occurring in the United States in winter, in large flocks. \S" Red-poll Linnet. (PuatE ut, figs. 1, la, 2, 2a, 4, 4a, 5, da.) Upper parts streaked with dusky and flaxen in about equal amounts, rump white or rosy, always streaked with dusky; below, streaked on the sides, the belly dull white; bill mostly yellow; feet blackish; middle toe and claw as long as the tarsus. Whuus., iv, pl. 42; Nurr.,i, 512; Aup., iii, 122; Bp., 428; Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1861, 378. . . . . . . . . ZINARTUS. jH FRINGILLIDA, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 61, 62. 131 Var. ruscescens. Dusky Redpoll. (Pate m1, figs. 8, 3a.) Upper parts nearly uniform dusky, rump scarcely lighter, sides heavily streaked; bill dusky. Avp., iii, pl. 179? Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad., 1861, 222, 390; 1869, 186; Exxror, pl. 10. I am not sure that this is anything more than a state of plumage of linarius, as the dusky appearance may be due to wearing away of the lighter edges of the feathers. Var. exitipes. American Mealy Redpoll. (Pare wy, figs. 6, 6a.) Colors pale, the flaxen of linarius bleaching to whitish ; rump white or rosy, entirely unstreaked in the adults; breast pale rosy, and streaks on the sides small and sparse; bill very small, with heavy plumules ; feet small, the middle toe and claw hardly or not equal-to the tarsus. Avup., iii, 120, pl. 178; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad., 1861, 385, 1869, 187; Extror, pl. 9. An Arctic race, not difficult to recognize, representing in America the true Mealy Redpoll, A. canescens, of Greenland. Ogzs. In addition to the foregoing, a large variety with a very large yellow bill, apparently corresponding to what is called holbelli in Europe, has been noted from Canada. Cours, Proc., Phila. Acad., 1862, 40; 1869, 184. 6lbis. Genus LINOTA Bonaparte. ‘! Brewster's Linnet. With the general appearance of an immature Aegio- thus, this bird will be recognized by absence of any crimson on the crown, a peculiar yellowish shade on the lower back, and somewhat different propor- tions. Massachusetts, one specimen (Lrewster). Aegiothus fluvirostris, var. brewsterii Ripeway, Am. Nat. vi, July, 1872. An interesting dis- covery, of which I learn as these pages go to press; may be same as the European. (Not in the Key.) . . . ‘JLAVIROSTRIS var. BREWSTERIL. 62. Genus CHRYSOMITRIS Boie. *Sexes alike. Bill extremely acute; nasal plumules sometimes deficient. Everywhere thickly streaked ; no definite black on head; no red anywhere. Pine Linnet. (Puate m1, figs. 11, lla, 12, 12a.) Continuously streaked above with dusky and olivaceous brown or flaxen, below with dusky and whitish, the whole plumage in the breeding season more or less suffused with yellowish, particularly bright on the rump; the bases of the quills and tail feathers extensively sulphury yellow, and all these feathers more or less edged externally with yellowish. 42; wing 23; tail 12; forked. The plumage is extremely variable; young birds frequently show a buffy or flaxen suffusion, and resemble a redpoll; but the yellowish coloration of the wings and tail is peculiar, and distinctive of the species. North Amer- ica, breeding northerly, ranging throughout most of the United States, in flocks, in the winter; abundant. W41s., ii, 133, pl. 17, f.1; Nurv., i, 511; Avwp., iii, 125, pl. 180; Bp., 425; Coop.,172. . . . . . . PINUS. * * Sexes unlike. Bill moderately acute. Not noticeably streaked. The adult males with definite black on the crown, wings and tail. = b= "1 American Goldfinch. Yellowbird. Thistlebird. (Puate m1, figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, 7a, 8a, 9a, 10a.) gf in summer, rich yellow, changing to whitish on the tail coverts; a black patch on the crown; wings black, more or less edged and barred with white; lesser wing coverts yellow; tail black, every feather with a white spot; bill and feet flesh-colored. In September, the O 132 FRINGILLIDH, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 62. black cap disappears, and the general plumage changes to a pale flaxen brown above, and whitey-brown below, with traces of the yellow, especially about the head: this continues until the following April or May. 9 olivaceous, including the crown; below soiled yellowish, wings and tail dusky, whitish-edged : young like theg. About 43 long; wing 23; tail 2, a little forked; 9 rather smaller than the ¢. North America, especially the Eastern United States; an abundant and familiar species, conspicuous by its bright colors, and plaintive lisping notes; in the fall, collects in large flocks, and so remains until the breeding season ; irregularly migratory; feeds especially on the seeds of the thistle and buttonwood ; flies in an undulating course. Nest small, compact, built of downy and very soft pliant substances, with stucco-work of lichens, placed in a crotch; e nue 4-5, white, speckled. Wits., i, 20, pl. 1, f. 2; Nurr., i, 507; Aup., iii, 129, Tolls TUS g: Iie All gh et a Os a ITS iss Lawrence's Coldfinch. 2 gray, FaNtenings on the belly and crissum: rump, 2 large breast patch, and often much of the back, rich yellow; crown, face and chin black; wings black, variegated with yellow, most of the coverts being of this color, and the same broadly edging the quills; tail black, most of the feathers with large square white spots on the inner web; bill and feet dark. The 9 resembles the male, but there is no black on the head, and the yellow places are not so bright. Size of Fic. 78. Luwrence’s Goldfinch. tristis, or rather less; an elegant species. California, Arizona, and probably New Mexico. Bop., 424; Exxior, pl. 8; (Coes; ile sk Bole Bop oes oe oe b & 6 Ff g 46 ATRDNCDIL Arkansas Goldfinch. § olive-green, below yellow; crown black, this not extending below eyes; wings black, most of the quills and the greater coverts white-tipped, and the primaries white at base; tail black, the outermost three pairs of feathers with a long rectangular white spot on the inner web. 9 and young similar, but not so bright, and no black on the head; sometimes, also, no decided white spots on the tail. 44-44; wing Fig. 79. Arkansas Goldfinch. 24; tail 2. Plains to the Pacific, (Arizona variety.) U.S., rather southerly. Avp., iii, 134, pl. 183; Nurr., i, 510; Bo., 422; COOP MOSs ats samen hoe ne ue Rt SEU tee, Da ee Se oa SATS Var. ARIZONE Cougs, Proc. Phila. oe 1866, p. 46; Coor., 170. The upper parts mixed olive and black in about equal amounts, thus leading directly into \ \ jo } FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 63. 133 Var. MEXICANA, With the upper parts continuously black, and the black of the crown extending below the eyes, enclosing the olive under eye-lid. Mexican border and southward. Bop., 423; Coop., 169. This bird looks quite unlike typical psaltria, but the gradation through var. arizone is perfect; and mexicana, more- over, leads directly into var. columbiana, a Central American form in which the tail- spots are very small or wanting. The females of these several varieties cannot be distinguished with certainty. Oss. Chrysomitris magellanica, a South American species with the whole head black, is said by Audubon to have been taken in Kentucky, where probably it will not be found again. Chrysomitris stanleyi and C. yarrellii, of Audubon, were apparently cage-birds, improperly attributed to North America. Fic. 80. Mexican Goldfinch. 63. Genus PLECTROPHANES Meyer. ~ * Bill small, truly conic, ruffed at base; hind claw decidedly curved. | Snow Bunting. Snowflake. In breeding plumage, pure white, the back, wings and tail variegated with black ; bill and feet black. As generally seen in the United States, the white is clouded with clear, warm brown, and the bill is brownish. Length about 7; wing 43; tail 2%. Arctic America, irregularly southward, in flocks, in the winter, to about 35°; but its move- ments depend much on the weather. WHLs., iii, 86, pl. 21; Nurr., i, 458; Aup., iii, 55, pl. 155; Bp., 432. pe ee on NEAT TS * * Bill moderate, unruffed, but with a little tuft of feathers at the base of the rictus; hind claw straight- ish, with its digit longer than the middle toe and claw. Sexes dissimilar; ¢ with a cervical collar, and oblique white area on the outer tail feathers; Q@ resembling some of the streaked sparrows. (Centrophanes.) Fic. 81. Foot in Centrophanes. a. ny 1) 4% Lapland Longspur. Adult g : whole head and throat jet black bordered with buffy or whitish which forms a postocular. line separating the black of the crown from that of the sides of the head; a broad chestnut cervical collar; upper parts in general blackish streaked with buffy or whitish that edges all the feathers; below, whitish, the breast and sides black-streaked ; wings dusky, the greater coverts and inner secondaries edged with dull bay ; tail dusky with white areas as above mentioned; bill yellowish tipped with black, legs and feet black. 6-64; wing 3-34; tail 24-23. Winter males show less black on the head, and the cervical chestnut duller; the 9 and young have no continuous black on the head, and the crown is streaked like the back; but there are traces of the cervical collar, whilst the generic char- acters will prevent confusion with any of the ordinary streaked sparrows. Arctic America, irregularly southward into the United States in winter, fre- 134 FRINGILLID®, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 63. s quently in company with nivalis, but not so common. NutTt., i, 463; Avopy, 11,505 pl: 152); Bp. 4335 9) ne ABRONTCUBE Painted Lark Bunting. Adult 3 : cervical collar and entire under parts rich buffy brown or dark fawn; crown and sides of head black, bounded below by a white line, and interrupted by white superciliary and auricular line and white occipital spot; upper parts streaked with black and brownish yellow; lesser and middle wing coverts black, tipped with white forming conspicuous patches; one or two outer tail feathers mostly white; no white on the rest; legs pale. Size of lapponicus: seasonal and sexual changes of plumage correspondent. British America into United States in the interior ; not common with us. Nurvt., ii, 589; Auvp., iii, 52, pl. 153; vii, 337, olen’ SCM (S77,22/220)) sil Dos. Oat m= ct Se Chestnut-collared Lark Bunting. Adult 3: a chestnut cervical collar, as in lapponicus, and upper parts streaked much as in that species, but erayer; nearly all the under parts continuously black, the throat yellowish ; lower belly and crissum only whitish; in high plumage the black of the under parts is more or less mixed with intense ferrugineous, and sometimes this rich sienna color becomes continuous; crown and sides of head black, interrupted with white auricular and postocular stripes, and in high plumage with a white occipital spot; lesser wing coverts black or brownish-black ; outer tail feathers mostly or entirely white, and all the rest largely white from the base —a character that distinguishes the species in any plumage from the two preceding; legs not black; @ with or without traces of the cervical collar; crown exactly like the back, generally no black on head or under parts ; below whitish, with slight dusky maxillary and pectoral streaks and sometimes the whole breast black, edged with grayish. Immature males have the lesser wing coverts like the back; but they show the black of the breast, veiled with gray tips of the feathers, long before any black appears on the head. Size less than in the foregoing. 53-6; wing 3-34; tail 2-24. Missouri Region, Kansas, and westward; S. to the Table-lands of Mexico. Aup., iil, 53, pl. 154; Nuvrr., 2d ed. 1, 539; Bp., 435. BP. melanomus Bp., 486, appears to be merely a high plumage, perhaps not always assumed love OUI IONISY 6 a 5 oo 6 5 6 6 5 0 w o © o (ORRINIMUS. ** * Bill large, turgid, unruffed ; hind claw as before, but shorter; sexes dissim- ilar; no cervical collar; outer tail feathers white, the rest, except the middle pair, white on the inner webs to near the tip, the line of demarcation running straight across. (Rhynchophanes.) Maccown’s Bunting. Adult g: crown anda broad pectoral crescent black; superciliary line and under parts white; bend of wing chestnut ; above, streaked with blackish and yellowish-brown. Size of the last, or rather larger ; 6-64; wing 3}; tail 24-23; bill nearly 4 inch long. The lacks the black and chestnut, but in any plumage the species may be known by the peculiar markings of the tail feathers, the white areas being cut squarely off, except in the outer pair, which are wholly white. Plains to the Rocky Mountains, U. S., rather northern; breeds abundantly about Chey- FRINGILLIDE, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 64, 65. 135 enne, Wyoming. (Allen.) Lawr., Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y., 1851, v, 122 3 (ASS. UN, PAS, jal le Ie, Zs 6 6 5 oe 5 og 6 MUNGON ear 64. Genus CENTRONYX Baird. Baird@s Bunting. Hind claw rather longer than its digit; hind toe and claw not shorter than the middle one. Wings pointed, but inner secondaries not lengthened as in Passerculus. Tail emarginate. Thickly streaked everywhere above, on the sides, and across the breast ; above, grayish streaked with dusky, below white, with blackish maxillary, pectoral and lateral streaks ; crown divided by a brownish-yellow line; a faint superciliary whit- ish line; no yellowish on bend of wing; outer tail feathers whitish. A curi- ous bird, apparently related to Plectrophanes in form, but with the general appearance of a savanna sparrow or bay-winged bunting. Only one speci- men known. Yellowstone, Aup., vii, 359, pl. 500; Bp., 441. ‘“ Massa- chusetts,” Maynarp, Am. Nat., 1869, 554, and Guide, 112, frontispiece ; Auten, Am. Nat. 1869, 631; Brewster, Am. Nat. 1872, 307. I have seen the later supposed specimens, the fresh measurements of one of which (6; wing 34; tail 22; bill .4; tarsus nearly an inch) are much larger than those recorded by Audubon, and there are many other discrepancies. The bird should be diligently sought for, as a full investigation will reveal some- thingsnotinow anticipatedss a.) 9 se os ss BAIR DIT 65. Genus PASSERCULUS Bonaparte. Savanna Sparrow. (Pirate mi, figs. 16,17, 18, 16a, 17a, 18a.) Thickly streaked everywhere above, on sides, and across breast; a superciliary line, and edge of the wing, yellowish; lesser wing coverts not chestnut; legs flesh-color; bill rather slender and acute; tail nearly even, its outer feathers not pure white; longest secondary nearly as long as the primaries in the closed wing. Above, brownish-gray, streaked with blackish, whitish-gray and pale bay, the streaks largest- on interscapulars, smallest on cervix, the crown divided by an obscure whitish line; sometimes an obscure yellowish suffusion about head besides the streak over the eye. Below, white, pure or with faint buffy shade, thickly streaked, as just stated, with dusky — the individual spots edged with brown, mostly arrow-shaped, running in chains along the sides, and often aggregated in an obscure blotch on the breast. Wings dusky, the coverts and inner secondaries black-edged and tipped with bright bay ; tail feathers rather narrow and pointed, dusky, not noticeably marked. 54-53; wing 23-23; tail 2-24; middle toe and claw together 14 ; bill under $. North America; a terrestrial species, abundant every where in fields, on plains, by waysides, and along the seashore; migratory, grega- rious. With a close general resemblance to several other species, it may be readily distinguished by the foregoing marks. It varies but little with sex Fic. 82. Savauna Sparrow. (Bill too slender.) ip) \ \ ah eal ” Q, 4 ~). bt oA : 6 136 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.- GEN. 66. and age, though the colors may be darker and sharper, or brighter and more diffuse, according to season and wear of the feathers. Wmuus., iii, 55, pl. 22, f. 1; Nurr., i, 489; Aup., iii, 68, pl. 160; Bp., 442. P. alaudinus Bo., 446; Coop., 181, is indistinguishable. . . . . . . . . SAVANNA. Var. anruinus Bp.,-445; Coop., 183; Etz., pl. 18, may be recognized. Bill longer, slenderer (as in fig. 82); spots below very numerous, close, sharp, dark. California coast, abundant in the salt marshes. Var. sANDVicENSIS Bp., 444; Coop., 180. A large northern race: 6 or more long; bill 4, stout; head more yellowish. Northwest coast. Sea-shore Sparrow. With the form of a savanna sparrow, but the bill elongated as in Ammodromus, yet very stout and turgid, with decidedly convex culmen, 3 an inch long. No evident yellowish over eye or on edge of wing; no evident median stripe on crown. Brown- ish-gray, back and crown streaked with dusky, below dull white, confluently streaked with brown everywhere except on belly and crissum. Wings and tail dusky gray, the rectrices with paler edges, the primaries with whitish edges, the wing coverts and secondaries broadly edged and tipped with erayish-bay ; an obscure whitish superciliary line; under mandible yellow- ish, legs pale; 543 wing 23; tail 2. Pacific coast, U. S.; a curious species, common, maritime, representing, with var. anthinus, the Ammodromi in the marshes of the seashore. Cass., Ill., 226, pl. 28; Bp., 446; Cousgs, Ibis, NOG. POSS Ooi IGS 6 oa 5 6 «6 6 6 6 6 56 « InORMaATOTS, St. Lucas Sparrow. Similar to rostratus; same size; bill not so heavy : “A stripe of pale yellow runs from the bill to the eye, a longer stripe of pale yellow extends from the under mandible down the side of the throat * * * differs from all its allies in the obscure grayish coloring of the upper parts, with no reddish-brown, and in having its under plumage more closely and fully spotted.” San José, L. California; a variety of the last? JLawr., Aun. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y. 1867, 473; Coorp., 185. . . . GurTATUS. Fic. 83. Sea-shore Sparrow. \ C 66. Genus POOECETES Baird. Bay-winged Bunting. Grass Finch. Thickly streaked everywhere above, on sides and across breast; no yellow anywhere; lesser wing coverts chest- nut and 1-38 pairs of outer tail feathers partly or wholly wizte. Above grayish-brown, the streaking dusky and brown, with grayish-white; below white, usually noticeably buffy-tinged, the streaks very numerous on the fore parts and sides; wing coverts and inner quills much edged and tipped with bay ; crown like back, without median stripe, line over, and ring round, eye, whitish; feet pale; 52-64; wing 2§-34, with inner secondaries lengthened ; tail 24-23. North America; a rather large, stout species, known on sight by combination of chestnut lesser wing coverts and white outer tail feathers; the sexes are alike, and the variations in color are only such as are indicated under P. savanna; western specimens average paler and grayer, representing var. confinis Bo., 448. A very abundant bird, hie ue — a. \} hus ] Pp Passer. 1, 16-18 us s é s FRINGILLID®, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 67, 68. 137 in fields, ete., terrestrial, migratory, gregarious in the fall. Wizus., iv, 51, pl. 31, f. 5; Nurr., i, 482; Aup., iii, 65, pl. 159; Bp., 447. GRAMINEUS. of 67. Genus COTURNICULUS Bonaparte. Yellow-winged Sparrow. Edge of wing conspicuously yellow; lesser wing coverts, and short line over eye, yellowish; below, not or not evidently streaked, but fore parts and sides, buff, fading to dull white on the belly. Above, singularly variegated with black, gray, yellowish-brown and a peculiar purplish-bay in short streaks and specks, the crown being nearly black with a sharp median brownish-yellow line, the middle of the back chiefly black with bay and brownish-yellow edgings of the feathers, the cer- vical region and rump chiefly gray mixed with bay; wing coverts and inner quills variegated like the back; feet pale. Small; only 4§-54 long; wing 24, much rounded ; tail 2 or less, with very narrow pointed feathers, the out- stretched feet reaching to or beyond its end; bill short, turgid. Sexes alike ; young similar, not so buffy below, and with pectoral and maxillary dusky spots; but in any plumage known from other sparrows (except the next species) by amount of yellow on wings, and peculiar proportions of parts. United States ; abundant in tall grass and weeds of plains and fields ; strictly terrestrial, migratory, with a peculiar chirring note, like a grasshoppev’s ; nests on the ground, eggs 4—5, white, speckled. Specimens from dry western regions are paler and grayer (var. perpallidus Ripaway, Mss.). Wits., iii, 76, pl. 26, f.5; Aup., iii, 73, pl. 162; Nurr.,i, 494; Bp., 450; COCR Soir mec uncues i iceie Gst is 2s sano ae se SPASSHRINUS: Fenslow’s Sparrow. Resembling the last; smaller; more yellowish above, and with sharp maxillary, pectoral and lateral black streaks below ; tail longer, reaching beyond feet; bill stout. Hastern U. S., not very com- mon. AUD., iii, 75, pl. 163; Nurv., i, 2d ed. 571; Bp., 451. HENsSLOwII. Leconte’s Sparrow. Like the last; bill much smaller; fore and under parts and sides of head buff, with black touches on sides; no yellow loral spot; median crown-stripe buff, white posteriorly; 44; wing 24; tail 1%. Missouri region; Texas. A long-lost species, rediscovered in No. 50, 222, Mus. 8. I. (Lincecum.) Auvn., vii, 338, pl. 488; Bp., 452. . LEcoNTEI. 68. Genus AMMODROMUS Swainson. *,* Small streaked sparrows, remarkable for the slender lengthened form of the bill, and the narrow, acute tail feathers. Wing short, much rounded, its edge yellow; tail short ; feet very large, reaching nearly to end of tail. Confined to salt- marshes of the Atlantic and Gulf States; abundant, migratory. Sea-side Finch. Olive-gray, obscurely streaked on the back and crown with darker and paler; below, whitish, often washed with brownish, and shaded on the sides with the color of the back, with ill-defined streaks on the breast and sides ; wings and tail plain dusky, with slight olivaceous edgings, wing coverts and inner quills somewhat margined with brown; a yellow spot over eye, and often some vague brownish and dusky markings on side of head; KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 18 \e | 138 FRINGILLIDH, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 69. bill plumbeous, feet dark; 53-64; wing 24-24; tail about 2. Wuns., iv, 63, pl. 24, f. 23 Nuvrs, 1, 2d ed. 592,593; -Aup. ii, Oa aLOG plies 173 (macgillivrayi); Bp.,454.. . . . . . . . - « MARITIMUS. Sharp-tailed Finch. Olive-gray, sharply streaked on the back with blackish and whitish; crown a darker than nape, with brown- ish-black streaks and obscure median line; no yellow loral spot, but long line over eye and sides of head rich buff or orange- brown enclosing olive-gray 4 AYN auriculars and a dark speck 4\" \ \ behind these; below, white, the *\ \\\\\ fore parts and sides tinged with Y\ yellowish brown or buff of vari- able intensity, the breast and sides sharply streaked with dusky. Rather smaller than the Fic. $4. Details of structure in Sharp-tailed Finch. last ; bill still slenderer, and tail feathers still narrower and more acute. WILS., iv, 70, pl. 34, f. 3; Nurr., i, 504; Avp., ili, 108, pl. 174; Bp., 453. . . . CAUDACUTUS. 69. Genus MELOSPIZA Baird. *Breast streaked, and with a transverse belt of brownish-yellow ;- tail nearly equal to wings. Lincoln’s Finch. Below, white, breast banded and sides often shaded with yellowish, everywhere except on the belly thickly and sharply streaked with dusky ; above grayish-brown, crown and back with blackish, brownish and paler streaks; tail grayish-brown, the feathers usually showing blackish shaft lines; wings the same, the coverts and inner quills blackish with bay and whitish edgings; no yellow on wings or head; 54; wing and tail about 24. North America; not common in the Eastern States. Aup., ili, 116, pl. 177; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 569; Bp., 482; Coor., 216. . . LINCOLNII. ** Breast ashy, unbelted, with few streaks, or none; tail about equal to wings. — Swamp Sparrow. Crown bright bay, or chestnut, blackening on the fore- head, often with obscure median ashy line, and usually streaked with black ; cervix, entire sides of bead and neck, and the breast, strongly ashy, with vague dark auricular and maxillary markings, the latter bounding the whitish cbin, the ashy of the breast obsoletely streaky ; belly whitish ; sides, flanks and crissum strongly shaded with brown, and faintly streaked; back and rump brown, rather darker than the sides, boldly streaked with black and pale brown or grayish. Wings so strongly edged with bright bay as to appear almost uniformly of this color when viewed closed, but inner secondaries showing black with whitish edging; tail likewise strongly edged with bay, D VY FRINGILLIDE, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 69. 139 and usually showing sharp black shaft lines. No yellowish anywhere; no tail feathers white ; further distinguished from its allies by the emphasis of its black, bay and ash; 54-6; wing and tail 24-24. Eastern North America ; a common inhabitant of low thickets, swamps and marshes. WI1S., ili, 49, pl. 22, f. 1; Aun., iii, 110, pl. 175; Nurr., i, 502; Bp., 483. PALUSTRIS. * * * Breast white, with numerous streaks aggregated into a central blotch; tail obviously longer than the wings, both rounded. Thickly streaked everywhere above, on sides and across breast. No yellowish anywhere. \, “Song Sparrow. Below, white, slightly shaded with brownish on the flanks and crissum, the numerous streaks just mentioned being dusky with brown edges, forming a pectoral blotch and algo usually coalescing into maxillary stripes bounding the white throat ; crown dull bay, with fine black streaks, divided and bounded on either side by ashy-whitish lines; vague brown or dusky and whitish markings on the sides of the head; the inter- scapular streaks black, with bay and ashy-white edgings; rump and cervix grayish-brown, with merely a few bay marks; wings with dull bay edgings, the coverts and inner quills marked like the interscapulars ; tail plain brown, with darker shaft lines, on the middle feathers at least, and often with obso- lete wavy markings. Very constant in plumage, the chief differences being in the sharpness and breadth of the markings, due in part to the wear of the feathers. 6-64; wing about 24; tail nearly or quite 3. Eastern United States; one of our most abundant birds everywhere, and a well known pleasing songster. Wits., ii, 125, pl. 16, f.4; Nurr., i, 486; AvD., iii, Nils Fol, WES, Mine Ale ob 6 6 6 6 6 16 8 6 9G 8 of | Rigobe(ounyit Oss. The Eastern song sparrow is simply one variety of a.bird distributed from Atlantic to Pacific, and which in the West is split into numerous geographical races, some of them looking so different from typical melodia that they have been con- sidered as distinct species, and even placed in other genera. This differentiation affects not only the color, but the size, relative proportion of parts, and particularly the shape of the bill; and it is sometimes so great, as in case of M. insignis, that less dissimilar looking birds are commonly assigned to different genera. Neverthe- less, the gradation is complete, and effected by imperceptible degrees. The follow- ing varieties have been described, and may usually be recognized. Var. FALLAX Bp., 481; Coop.,215. Extremely similar; wings and tail slightly longer; paler, grayer; the streaks not so obviously blackish in the centre. Whole of Rocky Mountains and Great Basin ; scarcely distinguishable. if Var. currata Nourt., i, 2d ed. 581; Fringilla cinerea, Avp., iii, 145, pl. 187. - Darker and more rufous, the colors more blended, from indistinctness of the streaks; below, quite brownish, except on middle of belly. Pacific coast, U. S., and British Columbia. * Var. nurina Bp., 480; Coor., 214. Similar, but larger; color more fuliginous. Sitka, Alaska. 3 Var. HeERMANNU Bp., 478; Coop., 212. Grayish, the streaks numerous, broad, distinct, mostly lacking pale edging. California. £ Var. coutpit Bpo., 479. Similar to the last, in distinctness of the black streaks, but very small, under 5; wing little over 2; tail 24. California. Ammodromus samuelis Bp., 455, pl. 71, f. 1; Coor., 191, is the same bird. 140 FRINGILLIDE, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 70, 71. Var. insianis Bp., Trans. Chicago Acad. 1869, 319, pl. 29, f. 1. Plumbeous brown, not rufous, the dorsal streaks fine; beneath, plumbeous white, with almost confluent ashy-brown streaks. Large; 7; wing and tail 34; bill slender and very long, .60. Kadiak, Alaska. 70. Genus PEUCAA Audubon. * Edge and bend of wing yellowish, as in Cotwrniculus, which the species much resembles in the color of the upper parts; but it has no obvious yellowish about the head; the wings are not longer than the tail, and the tail feathers, though very narrow and lanceolate, are not acute at tip. Bachman’s Finch. Upper parts, including crown, continuously streaked with blackish, dull chestnut and ashy-gray; wing coverts and inner second- aries marked like the back; below, dull brownish-ash, or brownish-gray, whitening on the belly, deepest on sides and across breast, nowhere obviously streaked in adult plumage; some obscure dusky maxillary streaks, some vague dusky markings on auriculars, a slight ashy superciliary line and very obscure median ashy line on crown; bill dark above, pale below ; legs very pale; lateral claws falling far short of base of middle claw; hind claw much shorter than its digit ; tarsus not longer than middle toe and claw ; tail much rounded, with obscure grayish-white area on the lateral feathers. Young have the breast and sides evidently streaked. 53-6; wing 2}; tail 24. Southern States. Nurr., i, 568; Avup., iii, 113, pl. 176. leis He) Behe cee ee A ee oe Be Bk ce SOS AONTCTY, Var. cassinu. Similar; paler and grayer; wings and tail rather longer. Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, and southward. Bp., 485; Coopr., 219. * * Edge and bend of wing without yellow. Rufous-crowned Finch. Similar; rather smaller; crown uniform chest- nut, and maxillary streaks sharp, distinct. California. Cass., Ill. 135, wl, AOS iid, Zuh9 Coors, 16 o 5 6 6 6 5 6 o o iIUNONGIIDS, 71. Genus POOSPIZA Cabanis. *,* Southwestern species, with rounded blackish tail not shorter than the wings, plumbeous-black bill and feet, and few decided streaks, or none. Black-throated Finch. Face, chin and throat sharply jet-black ; a strong pure white superciliary line, and another bounding the black of the throat ; under eyelid also pure white; auriculars dark slate ; no yellow anywhere. Below, pure white; the sides, flanks and crissum shaded with ashy or fulvous- brownish, but no streaks. Above, uniform grayish- brown; wings dusky, coverts and inner quills edged with the colors of the back; tail black, with narrow grayish edgings, the outer feather sharply edged and tipped with white and several others similarly tipped. Small, 5-53; wing abdut 24; tail 28. In the young the head-markings are obscure, there is little or no black on the throat, and a few pectoral Fiqg. 85. Black-throated Finch. FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 72. 141 streaks. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California. Cass., Ill. 150, pl. GAS 1BD_, ANOS Clore, 208, 5 4 «4 . . BILINEATA. 44 Bell’s Finch. No definite black aout Toa Fae Sale of wing slightly | yellowish. Forchead, line over eye and edges of eyelids, save nternerieles white. Below white, more or less tinged with pale brownish, the sides with slight sparse streaks that anteriorly become aggregated into rather vague maxillary stripes cutting off from the white throat a whitish line that runs from the corner of the bill; lores and circumocular region dusky. Above grayish-brown, ashier on head, the crown and back with small sparse sharp black streaks ; wing coverts and inner quills with much fulvous edging ; tail black with slight pale edgings, the outer web of the outer feather simply whitish. About 6 long; wing and tail 83. Utah, New Mexico, Arizona and California. Bp., 470; Exuior, pl. 14; Coor., 204. . . . . BELLI. 72. Genus JUNCO Wagler. * .* Unspotted, unstreaked, the colors in large definite areas; 2-3 outer tail feathers white ; bill flesh-colored. Length, 6-7; wing and tail about 3. Snowbird. Blackish-ash, below abruptly pure white from the breast. In the @, and in fact in most fall and winter specimens, the upper parts have a more grayish, or even a decidedly brownish cast, and the inner quills are edged with pale bay. One of our most abundant and familiar sparrows, in flocks, from October to April; retires to high latitudes and mountains, to breed. Chiefly Eastern; but also found in Alaska (Dall), Washington Territory (Suckley) and Arizona (Coues). A western variety has the mid- dle and greater wing coverts tipped with white, forming two conspicuous crossbars. Wiuts., il, 129, pl. 16, f. 6; Nurr., i, 491; Avp., iii, 88, Toll. USS Ii, A, 6 2 « 5 6 4 demaonloNans, rye Oregon Snowbird. Head and eae all eel ah ee biack; middle / of back dull reddish-brown, and wings much edged with the same; below from the breast abruptly white, tinged on the sides with pale reddish-brown. In the 2 and young the black is obscured by brownish, but the species may always be distinguished by an evident contrast in color between the inter- scapulars and head, and the fulvous wash on the sides. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific; as abundant there as hyemalis is with us. Auvp., iii. 91, oll, WG g IBD, O03 Clot, 198 ¢ 6 5 6 5 5 5 5 0 6 Olson. Cinereous Snowbird. Clear grayish-ash, fading rather gradually into white on belly; interscapulars abruptly, definitely, chestnut or rusty-brown ; lores blackish ; no fulvous wash on sides; no chestnut on wings. Rocky Mountains, U. §., and southward. Bop., 467, 468; Coopr., 201; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866,50. . . . . . +. CINEREUS var. CANICEPS. Ors. The true cinereus, a Mexican bird, has the wing coverts edged with rusty like the back, the bill black and yellow. Junco dorsalis Henry, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1858, 117, is caniceps approaching cinereus— perhaps a hybrid. J. annectens Bo., in Coor., 564, based on specimens I procured in Arizona, is intermediate between oregonus and caniceps—in all probability a hybrid. See Cours, Proc. Acad. 142 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 73. Phila. 1866, p. 50. Specimens intermediate between oregonus and hyemalis have been instanced (Ripeaway, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1869, 126), and all these forms of the genus, in fact, seem to be nascent species, still unstable in character; but the modification of the Junco stock has passed the merely varietal stage. 73. Genus SPIZELLA Bonaparte. *,* Small species, 5-6 inches long, with the long, broad-feathered, forked tail about equalling the rather pointed wings, with no yellowish anywhere, and no streaks on the under parts when adult. _«} * Species with the crown of the adult chestnut. Tree Sparrow. Bill black above, yellow below; legs brown, toes black ; no black on forehead; crown chestnut (in winter specimens the feathers usually skirted with gray), bordered by a grayish-white superciliary and loral line, and some vague chestnut marks on sides of head; below impurely whitish, tinged with ashy anteriorly, washed with pale brownish posteriorly, the middle of the breast with an obscure dusky blotch; middle of back boldly streaked with black, bay and flaxen; middle and lesser wing coverts black, edged with bay and tipped with white, forming two conspicuous cross-bars; inner secondaries similarly variegated, other quills and tail feathers dusky, with pale edges. A Nardone sparrow, the largest of the genus, at least 6 inches long; the wing and tail almost 3; abundant in the United States in winter, flocking in shrubbery; breeds in mountainous and boreal regions. Wuus., ii, 12, pl. 12, f.3; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 572; Avp., Thin, (i), Valle IGS io, CR Clorore,, PG, 5 4 « . . MONTICOLA. Chipping Sparrow. Chipbird or Chippy. Haibird: Adult: bill black ; feet pale; crown chestnut, extreme forehead black, a grayish-white super- ciliary line, below this a blackish stripe through eye and over auriculars. Below, a variable shade of pale ash, nearly uniform and entirely unmarked ; back streaked with black, dull bay and grayish- brown, inner secondaries and wing coverts similarly variegated, the tips of the greater and lesser coverts forming whitish bars; rump ashy, with slight blackish streaks; primaries and tail dusky with paler edges. Smaller; 5-53; wing about 23 ; tail rather less. Sexes alike, but very young birds are quite different, the crown being streaked like the back, the breast and sides thickly streaked with dusky, the bill pale brown and the head lacking definite black. In this stage, which, however, is of brief duration, it resembles some other species, but may be known by a certain ashiness the others lack, and from the small sparrows that are streaked below when adult, by its generic char- acters. North America, extremely abundant, and the most familiar species about houses, in gardens, and elsewhere, nesting in shrubbery; nest of fine dried grass, lined with hair; eggs 4-5, bluish, speckled. Wuts., ii, 127, pl. 16, f. 5; Nurr., i, 497; Aup., iii, 80, pl. 165; Bp., 473. . socrazis. Fic. 86. Chipping Sparrow. a FRINGILLIDM, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 73. 143 Var. Arizon&® Cours,n.v. Like an immature S. socialis. Paler than this species, the ashiness in great measure brown; crown grayish-brown streaked with dusky like the back, and showing evident traces of rich chestnut, but never becoming wholly chestnut ; black frontlet lacking, and no definite ashy superciliary line, the sides of the crown merely lighter brown; bill brown above, pale below. Arizona, and probably other portions of the same region. A curious form, as it were an arrested stage of socialis. Some specimens, with the least chestnut on the head, look remarkably like pallida var. brewerii, but this last is evidently smaller, without ; »chestnut on the head, and otherwise different. ye Field Sparrow. Bill pale reddish; feet very pale; crown dull chestnut ; no decided black or whitish about head. Below white, unmarked, but much washed with pale brown on breast and sides; sides of the head and neck with some vague brown markings; all the ashy parts of socialis replaced by pale brownish. Back bright bay, with black streaks and some pale flaxen edgings; inner secondaries similarly variegated ; tips of median and greater coverts forming decided whitish cross-bars. Size of socialis, but more nearly the colors of monticola; sexes alike; young for a short time streaked below, as in soctalés. Eastern United States, very abundant in fields, copses and hedges, in flocks when not breeding. Wus., ii, 121, pl. 16, f. 2; AupD., iii, 77, pl. 164; Nurr., i, 499; Bp., 473. . . . . . PUSILLA. ** Western species, with the crown not chestnut, and streaked like the back. Clay-colored Sparrow. Crown and back clay-colored or flaxen, distinctly streaked with black, without evident bay, the dorsal streaks noticeably separated from those of the crown, by an ashier, less streaked, cervical interval; rump brownish-gray. Crown divided by a pale median stripe; a distinct whitish superciliary line; loral and auricular regions decidedly brown; wing coverts and inner secondaries variegated like the back. Below, white, soiled with clay-color. Bill and feet pale. Small; 49-54; wing and tail, each, 24. Central region of the United States into British America. Hmberiza pallida, Swainson, Fauna Bor.-Am. it, 251; 2. shat- tuckit AupD., vii, 347, pl. 493. Bop., 474. Sica aoe) ae, Se eA DAG Var. BREWERII. Similar; paler and duller, all the markings indistinct; streaks of crown and back small, numerous, not separated by a cervical interval; no definite markings on sides of head. Size of the last, but tail relatively longer, rather exceeding the wings—about 22 long, thus equalling, if it does not some- what exceed, that of socialis, although the latter is a larger bird. It bears an extraordinary resemblance to the curious western variety of socialis, above des- cribed; but in this, as in typical socialis, the tail is appreciably shorter than the wings. Southwestern U. 8. Lmberiza pallida Aunp., iii, 71, pl. 161. S. breweri Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1856, 40; Bp., 475; Coopr., 209. *** Western species, with the crown of the adult dark ash. Black-chinned Sparrow. Dark ash, fading insensibly into whitish on the belly, deepening to black on the face and throat; interscapulars bright bay, streaked with black ; wing coverts and inner secondaries variegated with the same colors; tail blackish, with pale edgings; bill reddish, feet dark. A small species, but measuring full 6 long, on account of the great length of 52) 144 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 74. the tail (fully 3), which greatly exceeds the wings (24); the young lack the black on the face, and have the crown washed with ashy-brown, and the bill dusky above; but may be known by the length of the tail. Mexico, north to Colorado Valley; Cape St. Lucas. (AS. atri- mentalis Coucn. S. cana Bo. iS. evura Couns, Ibis, 1865, 118, 164.) Bp., 476; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad., 1866, 87; Coop., 210. . . . ATRIGULARIS. 74. Genus ZONOTRICHIA Swainson. ¥ 1G. 87. Black-chinned *,* Embracing our largest and handsomest sparrows, ere: 61 to 7} inches long, the rounded wings and tail each 3 or more; the under parts with very few streaks, or none, the middle of the back streaked, the rump plain, the wings with two white cross-bars, and the head of the adults with black. White-throated Sparrow. Peabody-bird. Adult g with the crown black, divided by a median white stripe, bounded by a white superciliary line and yellow spot from nostrils to eye ; below this a black stripe through the eye ; below this a maxillary black stripe bounding the definitely pure white throat, sharply contrasted with the dark ash of the breast and sides of the neck and head. Edge of wing yellow. Back continu- ously streaked with black, chestnut and fulvous- white; rump ashy, unmarked. Wings much edged with bay, the white tips of the median and greater coverts forming two conspicuous bars; quills and tail feathers dusky, with pale edges. Below, white, shaded with ashy-brown on sides, the ash deeper and purer on the breast; bill dark, feet pale. 9, and immature birds, with the black of the head replaced by brown, the white of the throat less conspicuously contrasted with the duller ash of surrounding parts, and frequently with obscure dusky streaks on the breast and sides; but the species may always be known by the yellow over the eye and on the edge of the wing (these never being imperceptible), coupled with the large size and the general characters above given. & 5 6 6 © ooo op 4 CLUDE. Oxss. Morton’s finch, £. mortonit Aup., iii, 151, is a South American species of this genus (Z. matutina), erroneously attributed to California. KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 19 4)\ 146 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 75, 76. 75. Genus CHONDESTES Swainson. Lark Finch. Wead curiously variegated with chestnut, black and white ; crown chestnut blackening on forehead, divided by a median stripe, and bounded by superciliary stripes, of white; a black line through eye, and another below eye, enclosing a white streak under the eye and the chestnut auriculars ; next, a sharp black maxillary stripe not quite reaching the bill, cutting off a white stripe from the white chin and throat. WB 5 6 6 6 6 96 96 MUON, Var. TOWNSENDH. With the same size and pattern of coloration, but darker ; above, continuous olive-brown, with a rusty shade; rump, tail and wings rather brighter; no whitish wing-bars; below, the markings of the color of the back, close, and illy defined. Pacific coast. Avp., iii, 143, pl. 187; Norr., i, 2d ed. 533; Bp., 489; Coop., 221. Var. scuisracrea. Similar to the last; above continuous slate-gray, with little “rufous on wings and tail, the spots below slate-colored, sparse, small, sharp. Rocky Mountain region, U.S. Bo., 490, 925, pl. 69, f. 3, 4 (megarhynchus — large- billed form from Cala.) ; Coop., 222. Oss. P. schistacea and townsendii are certainly not distinct specifically from each other, but it may be’a question whether they do not form two races of a species different from iliaca. In all three cases, however, the difference is solely in the relative intensity and predominance of certain common colors; and although the Western and Eastern forms may not have been shown to intergrade, they differ from each other less than some of the recognized varieties of Melospiza do from the East- ern song sparrow, and in a parallel manner. 78. Genus CALAMOSPIZA Bonaparte. Lark Bunting. White-winged Blackbird. @ entirely black, with a large white patch on the wings, and the quills and tail feathers frequently marked with white; bill dark horn above, paler below; feet brown; 6-64; wing 34; tail 2?. Sexes unlike: 9 resembling one of the sparrows, brown above, streaked, white below, somewhat streaked, but always known by the whitish wing-patch; g said to wear the black plumage only during the breeding season, like the bobolink (Allen). In the form of the bill, this interesting species is closely allied to the grosbeaks (Goniaphea) ; and this, with the singularly enlarged tertiaries, as long as the primaries in the closed wing, renders it unmistakable in any plumage. A prairie bird, abundant on 148 FRINGILLIDE, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 79, 80. the western plains, to the Rocky Mountains; Cape St. Lucas. Avup., iii, 195, pl. 201; Nurr., 2d ed. 1, 803; Bp., 492; Coop., 225. . BICOLOR. 79. Genus EUSPIZA Bonaparte. Black-throated Bunting. g above grayish-brown, the middle of the back ' streaked with black, the hind neck ashy, becoming on the crown yellowish- olive with black touches; a yellow superciliary line, and maxillary touch of the same; eyelid white; car coverts ashy like the cervix ; chin white; throat with a large jet-black patch; under parts in general white, shaded on the sides, extensively tinged with yellow on the breast and belly; edge of wing yellow; lesser and middle coverts rich chestnut, other coverts and inner secondaries edged with paler; bill dark horn blue, feet brown; 6$—7; wing 34, sharp-pointed ; tail 2%, emarginate. Q smaller; above, like the g, but head and neck plainer; below, less tinged with yellow, the black throat patch wanting and replaced by sparse sharp maxillary and pectoral streaks, wing coverts not chestnut. An elegant species, of trim form, tasteful colors and very smooth plumage, abundant in the fertile portions of the Eastern U.S.; N. to Connecticut Valley ; W. to Kansas and Nebraska. WHILs., iil, 86, pl. 8, f. 2; Nurr.,i, 461; Avup., iii, 58, pl. 156; Bp., 494. americana. Townsend’s Bunting. “Upper parts, head and neck all round, sides of body and forepart of breast, slate-blue; back and upper surface of wings tinged with yellowish-brown; interscapulars streaked with black; super- ciliary and maxillary line, chin and throat and central line of under parts from breast to crissum, white ; edge of wing, and gloss on breast and middle of belly, yellow; a black spotted line from lower corner of lower mandible down the side of the throat, connecting with a crescent of streaks in the the upper edge of the slate portion of the breast.” Bp., 495. Avup., iil, 62, pl. 157; Nurr., i, 2d. ed. 528. Pennsylvania; one specimen known, a standing puzzle to ornithologists, in the uncertainty whether it is a good species or merely an abnormal plumage of the last. . . . TOWNSENDII. 80. Genus GONIAPHEA Bowditch. Embracing large species, of beautiful and striking colors, the sexes dissimilar. Bill extremely heavy, with the lower mandible as deep as the upper or deeper, the commissural angle strong, far in advance of the feathered base of the bill, the rictus overhung with a few long stiff bristles. Brilliant songsters. tose-breasled Grosbeak. Adult g with the head and neck all round and most of the upper parts black, the rump, upper tail coverts and under parts white, the breast and under wing coverts exquisite carmine or rose-red ; wings and tail black, variegated with white; bill pale, feet dark. Q above, streaked with blackish and olive-brown or flaxen-brown, with median white coronal and superciliary line; below, white, more or less Via. 92. Rose-breasted Grosbeak. FRINGILLIDA, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 80, 81. 149 tinged with fulvous and streaked with dusky; wnder wing coverts saffron- yellow; upper coverts and inner quills with a white spot at end; bill brown. Young ¢ at first resembling the 9. 73-84; wing about 4; tail about 3%. Eastern United States, common. WHIzs., ii, 135, - IY, ih 23 INKwAtGS Ne HAC 8 ATs, this AOS), falls POG Tite, 25 a ok . . LUDOVICIANA. Black-headed Grosbeak. Adult ¢ with the crown and sides of head, back, wings and tail black; the two latter v variegated with white blotches ; neck all around and under parts rich orange-brown, changing to bright yellow on the belly and under wing coverts; bill and feet dark horn. Size of the last; the 9 and young differ much as in the last species, but may be recognized by the rich sulphur-yellow under wing coverts ; the bill is shorter and more tumid. Plains to the Pacific, United States; common. AUwD., iii, 214, pl. 206; Bo., 498; Coor., 228. . . . . MELANOCEPHALA. Blue Grosbeak. Adult g rich dark blue, uni- form; feathers around base of bill, wings and tail, black; middle and greater wing coverts tipped with chestnut; bill dark horn, feet black- ish; 64-7; wing 3$; tail 8. @ smaller, plain warm brown, paler and rather flaxen” below, Fic. 93. Blue Grosbeak. wings with whitey-brown cross-bars, bill and feet brown. Young ¢ at first like 9 ; when changing, shows confused brown and blue, afterward blue interrupted with white below. United States, ratherly southerly, but N. to Massachusetts, and even Maine (Loardman). Wins.) 1, 73, pl. 24, £6; Nurr., 1, 529; Aup., im, 204, pl: 204; Bp., AQOEECOOR- 200 ae ee cee eee ead CRC Ui e 81. Genus CYANOSPIZA Baird. Painted Finch. Nonpareil. Adult g with the head and neck rich blue, the rump, eyelids and under parts intense red, the lores, back and wings glossed with golden-green, the tail purplish-blue. @ above plain greenish, below yellow; young ¢ at first like the 9. 53; wing 27; tail 25. South Atlantic and Gulf States, common; an exquisite little creature of matchless hues. Whuts., ili, 68, a Malis ly 2G Aiwa, Ti, Soq ole WEB INiewn.. 1, eas 1BDog DGB 6 « : ee CLRISE Western Nonnanet Nant , with “ihe ovetends cervix, bend of wing and rump purplish-blue, throat and hind head dusky red, belly redaiehe purple, wings and. tail dusky glossed with blue; 9 “similar to that of C. amena, but distinguished ‘ the absence of the two white bands on wings, and by the legs being black.” Size of the last. Mexico; Cape St. bineas. Bids; HOB 2 Coors, BG 6 6 6 6 A 6 6 6 om IONIC OnE: Lazuli Finch. Adult g lazuli-blue, obscured on the back, the lores black, the breast definitely brown, the rest of the under parts, and the wing- bands, white; tibiz blue; bill and feet dark. Size of the first. Q plain brown above, whitish below, the breast browner, the wings with whitish l) ao ¢ j 150, FRINGILLID/H, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 82, 83. bars. Plains to the Pacific, replacing cyanea; common. Nurtr., i, 478; INGO, TH, MOO, fall, Wile lei, GOR (Clove, Ae 6 » o o » ANKGNA. Indigo bird. Adult g indigo-blue, intense and constant on the head, glancing greenish with different lights on other parts; wings and tail black- ish glossed with greenish-blue ; feathers around base of bill black: bill dark above, rather paler below, with a curious black stripe along the gonys. above plain warm brown, below whitey-brown, obsoletely streaky on the breast and sides, wing coverts and inner quills pale-edged, but not whitish ; upper mandible blackish, lower pale, with the black stripe just mentioned — this is a pretty constant feature, and will distinguish the species from any of our little brown birds. Young ¢ is like the @, but soon shows blue traces, and afterward is blue with white variegation below. Size of the foregoing. astern United States, abundant, in fields and open woodland, in summer ; a well meaning but rather weak vocalist. Wuus., i, 100, pl. 6, f. 5; Nurr., iy IDE ANGI G, iy BO, jail, WOR II, WOH. o «6 o 6 o = wn GIADA, 82. Genus SPERMOPHILA Swainson. Morele’s Finch. Top and sides of head, back of neck, broad band across upper part of breast, middle of back, wings and tail, black; chin, upper throat and neck all round, except behind, rump, and a are remaining under parts, white, the latter tinged with se brownish-yellow ; two wing-bands, and concealed bases of all the quills, also white. 9 olivaceous above, brownish- yellow below, wings and tail somewhat as in the @. Length about 4 inches; wing 2; tail less. Mexico to Texas. Bop., 507. 8. albigularts Lawr., Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist., v, 1851, 2 4R ee Gye he 8 Teen E Fe Gee ont ay COS URS fone STOR Ian TT rs Fig. 94. Morelet’s Finch. 82bis. Genus PHONIPARA Bonaparte. Black-faced Finch. @ dark olive green, paler below, grayish-white on the belly; head, throat and breast more or less blackish; wings and _ tail dusky, unmarked, with olivaceous gloss; upper mandible blackish, lower pale. The @ lacks the black of the g, but is otherwise similar. About 4 inches long; wing 2; tail 1?. A West Indian bird, the occurrence of which, in Florida, I learn from advance sheets of Mr. C. J. Maynard’s work on the Birds of Florida, now publishing. (Not in the Gye) 2 oe 6 6 6 go a 6 6 p aie DOOR, 83. Genus PYRRHULOXIA Bonaparte. Texas Cardinal. Conspicuously crested, and other- wise like the common cardinal in form, but the bill extremely short and swollen. @ ashy-brown, paler below; the crest, face, throat, breast and middle line of the belly, with the wings and tail, more or less per- Fic. 95, Texas Cardinal. fectly crimson or carmine red; bill whitish. 9 similar, rather brownish-yellow below, with traces of the red on the breast and belly. FRINGILLID/, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 84, 85. 151 Length about 84; wing 3%; tail 44. Mexico, Texas, Arizona, Cape St. Ieueas:, “Csss., Ul. 204, pl. 33; Bp:, 508; Coor., 236. . . . sINnuATA: fy 3 84. Genus CARDINALIS Bonaparte. DP Cardinal Ied-bird. Virginia Nightingale. Conspicuously crested ; tail longer than the wings, both rounded.- ¢ rich vermilion or rosy red, obscured with ashy on the back, face black, bill reddish, feet brown. 9 ashy-brown, paler below, with evident traces of the red on the crest, wings, tail and under parts. Length 8-9; wing about 82; tail 4; 9 ‘rather less than the ¢. Eastern United States, somewhat southern, seldom north to the Connecticut Valley; a bird of striking appearance and brilliant vocal powers, resi- dent in thickets and undergrowth, abundant. Its rolling notes recall those of the Carolina wren, but are stronger. WILS., ii, 38, pl. Craice sec ONUM LOCA UD ilineloc epi e203 sD. 00.) VARGINTAN US. Fic. 96. Cardinal Red-bird. Q Var. angus. Like the last, but paler, with the black frontlet interrupted at the ~~ base of the culmen, where the red comes down to the bill. Cape St. Lucas; Colo- rado Valley. Bv., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1859, 305; Exxior, pl. 16; Coor., 238. 85. Genus PIPILO Vieillot. * Colors of the male black, white and chestnut in definite areas. «it No white on the s sapulars or wing coverts. Sexes very unlike. D é ‘Towhee Bunting. Marsh Robin. Chewink. (ruate uy, figs. 17, 18, 17a, 18a.) Adult male black, belly white, sides chestnut, crissum fulvous brown; primaries and inner secondaries with white touches on the outer webs; outer tail feather with the outer web and nearly the terminal half of the inner web, white, the next two or three with white spots decreasing in size; bill blackish, feet pale brown, iris red in the adult, white or creamy in the young, and generally in winter specimens; @ rich warm brown where the g is black, otherwise similar. Very young birds are streaked brown and dusky above, below whitish tinged with brown and streaked with dusky ; but this plumage, corresponding to the very early speckled condi- tion of thrushes and warblers, is of brief duration; sexual distinctions may be noted in birds just from the nest, and they rapidly become much like the adults. g 8$; wing 33, much rounded; tail 4; 9 rather less. Eastern United States, an abundant and familiar inhabitant of thickets, undergrowth and briery tracts, spending much of its time on the ground, scratching among fallen leaves; migratory. Nest on the ground, bulky, of leaves, grasses and other fibrous material; eggs 4-5, white, thickly speckled with (edMsl- VAS Vi UO Ole eoo, NUIT, 1, oIb Awp., 11, 167, pl, 195; JED, DUBS son ee 6 oe o 8 oo 6 6 6 6 IOIMEIMGOOMMamUENENnUS 152 FRINGILLID@®, FINCIIES, ETC. —GmN. 85. Var. aLtentr Cours, Am. Nat. 1871, 366. Similar; smaller; less white on the wings and tail; claws longer; iris white. Florida. P. lewcopis Maynarp, Birds of Florida (in press). +7 Scapulars and wing coverts with white spots; sexes more alike. Spotted Towhee. A Mexican species. . . . . . . +. MACULATUS. Represented in the United States by the following varieties :— Var. oregonus. Oregon Towhee. Very similar to erythrophthalmus; wing coverts with small rounded, and scapulars with larger oval, white spots on the outer web of the feathers near the end; white marks on the quills very small or wanting ; white spots on tail feathers very small, the outer web of the outer rectrix not white except just at the end. Excepting these particulars, this variety looks more like erythrophthalmus, than like the typical macwatus, in which the body colors are olivaceous ; nevertheless, it shades into the latter. On the other hand, erythroph- thalmus, which might seem to be merely the extreme link in the chain, may be fairly considered a different bird; its sexes are very unlike, whereas in the western black Pipilos the @ is blackish-brown, more like the ¢ ; its note is entirely different, the words ‘‘towhee” and ‘‘chewink” being an attempt to imitate the sound, while the ery of the western varieties of maculatus is exactly like the scolding mew of a catbird.—Pacific coast. Pipilo oregonus Britt, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y.v, 1852, 6; Bp., 513; Coor., 241. P. arcticus Aun., ili, 164, pl. 194. Var. arcticus. Arctic Towhee. Similar to the foregoing; the white spots of the wing coverts larger, those of the scapulars still larger and lengthening into streaks, the interscapulars also spotted with white ; the white on the quills and tail feathers at a maximum, as in erythrophthalmus; there are usually, also, concealed white specks in the black of the throat. 9 comparatively dark. Central region of N. A. P. arcticus Swaryson, Fauna Bor.-Am. 1831, 11, 260. Norr., i, 589 ; 2d ed. i, 610; Bop., 514. Var. mMeGAaLonyx Bp., 515, pl. 73; Coop., 242, is the prevailing form in the Southern Rocky Mountain region, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. It is precisely like arcticus, but the feet are larger, with highly developed claws; the hind claw is decidedly longer than its digit, while the lateral claws reach to or beyond the middle of the middle claw. In this form at any rate, the @ is hardly distinguishable in color from the ¢, being blackish with an appreciable olivaceous shade, thus exhibiting an approach to the typical Mexican stock. (See Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 89; Atuen, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., iii.) * * Colors not definitely black, white and chestnut; no greenish; sexes alike. ,° Brown Towhee.. Canon Towhee. Above, uniform grayish-brown with a slight olivaceous shade, the crown brown in appreciable contrast ; wings and tail like the back, unmarked ; below, a paler shade of the color of the back, whitening on the belly, tinged with fulvous and streaked with dusky on the throat and breast, washed with rusty brown on the flanks and crissum. 84; wing 33; tail4$. New Mexico, Arizona, and southward. This is the P. mesoleucus Bo., 518; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 90; Coopr., 247, which is P. fuscus Swainson, Philos. Mag. 1827, 434, of Mexico. Fruscus. gq Var. arsraura. Exactly like the last, but the white of the under parts extending further up the breast, the gular spots more restricted, sparser, and better defined. Cape St. Lucas. Bop., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1859, 805; Exurov, pl. 4; Coop., 248. ICTERIDZ, AMERICAN STARLINGS. —GEN. 86. 153 Var. crissauis. Similar to the first; crown like the back; rather darker above, decidedly so below, the middle of the belly scarcely or not whitening, the gular fulvous strong and, with its dusky streaks, definitely restricted to the throat; the flanks and crissum chestnut or deep cinnamon brown. Upwards of 9 inches long ; wing 4; tail 5; 9 rather less. Coast region of California (and northward?), abundant. This is the dark coast form, bearing the same relation to fuscus (mesoleucus) that the coast Harporhynchus redivivus bears to the paler /T, lecontti of the interior. It is the P. fuscus of Cass., Ill. 124, pl. 17; Bp., 517; Coopr., 245, but not the true fuscus of Swainson; and its earliest name appears to be Pringilla crissalis Vicors, Zool. Voy. Blossom, 1839, 19. 4 | Abert’s Towhee. Somewhat similar to the foregoing species of this sec- ‘tion; no decided markings anywhere. Dull brown, paler and more fulvous below, the face dusky; otherwise nearly uniform. Very large, 9; wing 4 or less; tail 5 or more. New Mexico and Arizona; abundant in the Colorado Valley ; Cougs, Pr. Phila. Acad. 1866, 90. Bp., 516; Coop., 244. aperrit. *** Colors greenish ; sexes alike. » 6 Green-tailed, or Blanding’s Finch. Above dull olive-green, brighter on the wings and tail, crown chestnut, forehead blackish, edge of wing yellow ; chin and throat pure white, bounded by dusky maxillary stripes, and con- trasting with the dark ash of the breast and sides of head and neck (very much as in the white-throated sparrow); this ash fades to white on the belly; the flanks and crissum are washed with dull brownish; bill dark horn, feet brown; about 74 lone; wing 34; tail rather more. In the young the markings, especially of the head and throat, may be obscure, but the species is unmistakable. Rocky Mountain region, U. S. and southward, northeast to Kansas; abundant. Aup., Orn. Biog. v, 339; Cass., IIl., 70, le Ws Wein. MISS Corr, PRs 2 6 5 6 6 5 Go 0 o 06 Wlesiopunais, 86. Genus EMBERNAGRA Lesson. 764 Green Finch. “Above uniform olivaceous green; sides of the hood and a stripe behind eye, dull brownish rufous, not very conspicuous; an ashy superciliary stripe, rather yellowish anteriorly ; under parts brownish-white, tinged with yellowish anteriorly, and with olivaceous on the sides, white in the middle of the belly ; edge of wing, under coverts and axillaries, bright yellow. Length 53; wing 23; tail 23. Valley of the Rio Grande, and probably of the Gila, and southward.” Bp., 487. . . . RUFIVIRGATA. Family ICTERIDA:. American Starlings. A family of moderate extent, confined to America, where it represents the Sturnide, or Starlings, of the Old World. It is nominally composed of a hundred and fifty species, half of which may prove valid, distributed among fifty genera or subgenera, of which one-fourth may be considered worthy of retention. The relationships are very close with the Mringillide on the one hand; on the other, they grade toward the crows (Corvidw). They share with the fringilline birds the characters of angulated commissure and nine developed primaries, and this distin- KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 20 154 ICTERIDE, AMERICAN STARLINGS.— GEN. 87. guishes them from all our other families whatsoever; but the distinctions from the Fringillidee are not easily expressed. In fact, I know of no character that, for example, will relegate the bobolink and cowbird to the Jcteridcee rather than to the Fringillide, in the current acceptation of these terms. In general, however, the Icteridee are distinguished by the length, acuteness and not strictly conical shape of the unnotched, unbristled bill, that shows a peculiar extension of the culmen on the forehead, dividing the prominent antiz (p. 29, § 52) of close-set, velvety feathers that reach to or on the nasal scale. Among our comparatively few species are representatives of each of the three subfamilies into which the group is conveniently and probably naturally divisible. In most of them, black is predominant, either uniform and of intense metallic lustre, or contrasted with masses of red or yellow. In nearly all, the sexes are conspic- uously dissimilar, the female being smaller, and plain brownish or streaky in the iridescent black species, olivaceous or yellowish in the brilliantly colored ones. All are migratory in this country. Subfamily AGHLAINA. Marsh Blackbirds. Gregarious, granivorous species, more or less completely terrestrial, and chiefly palustrine, not ordinarily conspicuous vocalists, building rather rude, not pensile, nests, laying 4—6 spotted or curiously limned eggs. With the feet strong, fitted both for walking and for grasping swaying reeds, the wings more or less pointed, equalling or exceeding the tail in length, the bill conic-acute, shorter or little longer than the head, its cutting edges more or less inflected. *,* In gen. 87, 91, the tail feathers are acute; in 91, the wing is unusually rounded for this family ; in 87, 88, the bill has an ordinary fringilline character. 87. Genus DOLICHONYX Swainson. Bobolink; Northern States. Reedbird; Middle States. Ricebird; South- ern States. ¢%, in spring: black; cervix buff; scapulars, rump and upper tail coverts ashy white; interscapulars streaked with black, buff and ashy ; outer quills edged with yellowish; bill blackish horn; feet brown. in fall, 9 and young, entirely different in color ; yellowish-brown above, brownish-yellow below, crown and back conspicuously, nape, rump and sides less broadly, streaked with black ; crown with a median and lateral light stripe; wings and tail blackish, pale-edged; bill brown. The g changing shows confused characters of both sexes; y but in any plumage the species may be recognized by the stifish, extremely acute tail feathers, in connection with these dimensions; length 63-74; wing 34-4; tail 24-3; tarsus about 1; middle toe and claw about 14. Eastern United States, very abundant. In its black livery, only worn for a short time, the “bobolink” is dispersed over the meadows of the Northern States to breed, and is a voluble, spirited songster. After the midsummer change, the “reedbird” or “ricebird” throngs the marshes in immense flocks, with the blackbirds ; has simply a chirping note, feeds on the wild oats, becomes HG. 97. Bobolink. extremely fat and is accounted a great delicacy. The name “ortolan,” ICTERIDZ, AMERICAN STARLINGS. —GEN. 88, 89. 155 applied by some to this bird, by others to the Carolina rail, is a strange misnomer, the ortolan being a fringilline bird of Europe. In the West Indies, where the present species retires in winter, it is called “butterbird.” Wins: 4S: 12s tol os Nurr., 1,160; Aup., iv, 10; pls 215 Bp., O22 ame meme uee en fee ee Feehan eee ena rs =) 4,0 fe 8 es CORY ZIVORUSS A Cyd 88. Genus MOLOTHRUS Swainson. Cowbird. § iridescent black, head and neck purplish-brown; 74-8 ; wing over 4; tail over 3. 9 7-74; wing 32; tail 2%; an obscure looking bird, nearly uniform dusky grayish-brown, but rather paler below, and appearing somewhat streaky, owing to darker shaft lines on nearly all the feathers ; bill and feet black in both sexes. The young ¢ at first resembles the 9 , but is decidedly streaked below. North America, abundant; grega- rious, polygamous, parasitic. The singular habits of this bird, probably shared by others of the genus, form one of the most interesting chapters in ornithology. Like the European cuckoo, it builds no nest, laying its eggs by stealth in the nests of various other birds, especially warblers, vireos and sparrows ; and it appears to constitute, furthermore, a remarkable exception to the rule of conjugal affection and fidelity among birds. A wonderful provision for the perpetuation of the species is seen in its instinctive selec- tion of smaller birds as the foster-parents of its offspring; for the larger ege receives the greater share of warmth during incubation, and the lustier young cowbird asserts its precedence in the nest; while the foster-birds, however reluctant to incubate the strange egg (their devices to avoid the duty are sometimes astonishing) become assiduous in their care of the found- ling, even to the neglect of their own young. The cowbird’s egg is said to hatch sooner than that of most birds; this would obviously confer additional advantage. — WILS., ii, 145, pl. 18, f. 1, 2, 3; Nurr., i, 178; Aup., iv, IWGs {oll BUA Ss sion BH oe 8 ee eo ee ee HOO, Var. osscurus. Dwarf Cowbird. Similar; smaller; ¢ the size of 2 pecoris; @ under 7; wing 34; tail 24. The difference is very strongly marked, and appar- ently constant. Arizona, Lower California, and southward. Cass. Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 18; Covss, ibid., 90; Coor., 260. 89. Genus AGELAUS Vieillot. *,* The g uniform lustrous black, with the bend of the wing red; 8-9 long; wing 43-5; tail 3i-4. The 9 everywhere streaked; above blackish-brown with pale streaks, inclining on the head to form median and superciliary stripes; below whitish with very many sharp dusky streaks, the sides of the head, throat, and the bend of the wing, tinged with reddish or fulvous; under 8; wing about 4; tail 3}. The young ¢ at first like the 9, but larger, apt to have a general buffy or fulvous suffusion, and bright bay edgings of the feathers of the back, wings and tail, and soon showing black patches.— Upon investigation of the variations in the character of the wing-patch, upon which our three accredited species rested, I am satisfied of the propriety of treating them as varieties of one. The 9’s are indistinguishable. 156 ICTERIDH, AMERICAN STARLINGS.—GEN. 89, 90. Red-winged Blackbird. (PLatTE Iv, all the figs.) Lesser wing coverts scarlet, broadly bordered by brownish-yellow, or brownish-white, the middle row of coverts being entirely of this color; sometimes the greater row, likewise, are mostly similar, producing a patch on the wing nearly as large as the red one; occasionally, there are traces of red on the edge of the wing and below. In some Eastern specimens the bordering is almost pure white. United States from Atlantic to Pacific, very abundant. W4u1s., iv, 30, pl. 80; Nurr., i, 167; Avunp., iv, 31, 216; Bp., 526. . . PHGNICEUS. Var. GUBERNATOR., Lesser wing coverts scarlet, narrowly or not at all bordered, the next row having black tips for all or most of their exposed portion, so that the brownish-yellow of their bases does not show much, if any. Pacific Coast. Nurr., i, 2d ed., 187; Avp., iv, 29, pl. 215; Bp., 529; Coop., 263. Var. TRICOLOR. Lesser wing coverts dark red, bordered with pure white. California. Nuvrvt., i, 2d ed., 186; Aup., iv, 27, pl. 214; Bp., 530; Coop., 265. 90. Genus XANTHOCEPHALUS Baird. Yellow-headed Blackbird. & black, whole head (except lores), neck and upper breast yellow, and sometimes yellowish feathers on the belly and legs ; a large white patch on the wing, formed by the primary, and a few of the outer secondary, coverts ; 10-11; wing 54; tail 43. 9 and young brownish- Fic. 98. Yellow-headed Blackbird. black, with little or no white on the wing, the yellow restricted or obscured ; g much smaller than the ¢—94, etc. A handsome bird, abundant on the prairies and marshes from Illinois and Wisconsin, westward; N. to 58° and even Greenland (feinhardt). Nurr., i, 176; Aup., iv, 24, pl. 213; Bp., 531; Coor., 267; Couns, Am. Nat., 1870, 195. . 1crEROcEPIIALUS. 7, K (eeu Cae pr ( NK _Y a weg ini ~ ats ¢ yn" ® , of under mandible; black bars ° fluent along the shaft of the ICTERIDEZ, AMERICAN STARLINGS.—GEN. 91, 92. 157 91. Genus STURNELLA Vieillot. *,* Plumage highly variegated ; each feather of the back blackish, with a terminal reddish-brown area, and sharp brownish-yellow borders; neck similar, the pattern smaller; crown streaked with black and brown, and with a pale median and super- ciliary stripe; a blackish line behind eye; several lateral tail feathers white, the others, with the inner quills and wing coverts, barred or scalloped with black, and brown or gray. Edge of wing, spot over eye, and under parts generally, bright yellow, the sides and crissum flaxen-brown, with numerous sharp blackish streaks, the breast with a large black crescent (obscure in the young) ; bill horn color, of peculiar shape; feet light brown, very large and strong, reaching beyond the very short tail. Length 10-11; wing 5; tail 34; bill4; 9 smaller (91; wing 41; tail 3), similar in color; young not particularly different. Fieldlark. (PuatTe vi, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, la, 2a, 3a, 4a.) The colors, as above described, rich and pure, the prevailing aspect brown; yellow of chin usually confined between rami on wings and tail usually con- feathers, leaving the gray in scallops. Eastern United States, everywhere abundant in open country; imperfectly migratory; partially gregari- ous when not breeding; strictly terrestrial; an agreeable vocalist; nest of dried grass, on the ground, eggs 4-6, white, speckled with reddish. Whuts., iii, 20, pl. 19; Aup:, iv, 70, pl. 223; Nurr, 1,47; Bp., 535. ... . . . . MAGNA. Var. NecLecTA. The colors duller and paler, the prevailing aspect gray; yellow of chin usually mounting on sides of lower jaw; black on wings and tail usually resolved into distinct bars alternating with gray bars. Western U. S. Song said to be different. Avup., vii, 339, pl. 487; Bp., 537; Coopr., 270. Ozs. It does not appear that the Red-breasted Lark, Trupialis militaris, was ever taken in this country. It is a South American species resembling ours, but with red in place of the yellow. Bop., 533. Fic. 99. Fieldlark. Subfamily ICTERINE. Orioles. Non-gregarious, insectivorous and frugivorous species, strictly arboricole, of brilliant or strikingly contrasted colors, and pleasing song, distinguished as archi- tects, building elaborately woven pensile nests. With the bill relatively longer, slenderer and more acute than in most of the last subfamily, and the feet weaker, exclusively fitted for perching. Three of our species are abundant migratory birds in summer; the rest merely reach our southern border from tropical America. 92, Genus ICTERUS Brisson. * The g black and chestnut. Orchard Oriole. & black, lower back, rump, lesser wing coverts and 158 ICTERIDH, AMERICAN STARLINGS.—GEN. 92. all under parts from the throat, deep chestnut; a whitish bar across tips of greater wing coverts; bill and feet blue-black; about 7; wing 33; tail 3; ¢ smaller, plain yellowish-olive above, yellowish below; wings dusky ; tips of the coverts and edges of the inner quills, whitish; known from the 9 of the other species by its small size and very slender bill. Young ¢ at first like 9 , afterward showing confused characters of both sexes; in a particular stage, it has a black mask on the face and throat. Eastern U. S., very abundant in parks, orchards, and the skirts of woods. Whu1s., i, 64, pl. 4, f. 1, 2,3, 4; Aup., iv, 46, pl. 219; Nurr., i, 165; Bp., 547. . spurtus. ‘Var. arrinis. Much smaller; ¢61; wing under 3. Texas. Lawr. Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y. 1851, 113. ** The g black and orange. Baltimore Oriole. Golden Robin. Firebird. Hangnest. gf with the head and neck all round, and the back, black; rump, upper tail coverts, lesser wing coverts, most of the tail feathers, and all the under parts from the throat, fiery orange, but of varying intensity according to age and season; middle tail feathers black; wings black, the middle and greater coverts, and inner quills, more or less edged and tipped with white, but the white on the coverts not forming a continuous patch; bill and feet blue- black; 73-8; wing 32; tail 3. @ smaller, and much paler, the black obscured by olive, sometimes entirely wanting. Young ¢ entirely without black on throat and head, otherwise colored nearly like the 9. Eastern United States, west to the mountains of Colorado (Allen); abundant, in or- chards and streets, as well as in woodland, conspicuous by its brilliant colors and spirited song. WILS., i, 23, pl. 1, f. 3; vi, pl. 53; AuD., iv, 37, pla 2s Nirers yet 2ee Biss 048. . . . . BALTIMORE. Bullock’s Oriole. Similar ; the orange invading the sides of the head and neck and the = forehead, leaving only a EE UF DERI SCS narrow space on the throat, the lores, and a line through the eye, black; a large continuous white patch on the wing, formed by the middle and greater coverts. 9 olive-gray, below whitish, all the fore parts of the body and head tinged with yellow, the wings dusky, with two white bars, but the tail and its under coverts quite yellowish. Young ¢ at first like the @, soon however showing black and orange. Rather larger than the last. Western United States, in woodland, abundant, replacing the Baltimore. Aup., iv, 43, pl. 218; Bp., 549; Coor., 273; Couns, Am. Nat., v, 1870, 678. i ige! dae (yee eS ONG O Cen ICTERIDM, AMERICAN STARLINGS.—GEN. 92, 93. 159 Hooded Oriole. % orange; wings, tail, a narrow dorsal area and a large mask on the face and throat, black; tips of wing coverts, and edges of many quills, white; size of the foregoing, but wings shorter and tail longer. The 2 lacks the black mask; but the species may be distinguished in any plum- age from either of the foregoing by not having the wings evidently longer than the tail. Valley of the Rio Grande and Colorado, Lower California, and southward. Cass., Ill. 42, pl. 8; Bp., 546; Coop., 275. CUCULLATUS. *** The g black and clear yellow. .9 Scott’s Oriole. % black; below from the breast, rump and upper tail coverts, lesser, middle and under wing coverts, both above and below, and basal portions of all the tail feathers, except the central ones, clear yellow ; greater wing coverts tipped, inner quills edged, with white ; in the 9 or young the black is replaced by brownish, and the yellow is not pure; about 8; wing and tail about 4. Valley of the Rio Grande and Colorado, Lower California, and southward. Bop., 544; Coop., 276. . . .* PARISORUM. » Audubon’s Oriole. g yellow, somewhat olivaceous on the middle of the back ; head, neck, breast, wings and tail black; wings with a white cross bar and white edging ; about 9; wing 4; tail 44. Texas, and southward. Cass., Ill., p. 187, pl. 21? (apparently represents the Southern smaller true melan- ocephalus) ; Bp., 542. . . . . (MELANOCEPHALUS var?) AUDUBONIL. Ozs. Several additional orioles have been ascribed to this country, but the fore- going are all that appear to have been actually taken within our limits; others, however, may be confidently expected to occur on our Southern border. Subfamily QUISCALIN. Crow Blackbirds. Closely resembling the Agelceine both in structure and in habits, these birds are distinguished by the length and attenuation of the bill, with decidedly curved culmen, especially towards the end, and strongly inflected tomia. The typical Quiscali have a certain crow-like aspect, but they are readily distinguished by several features. The feet are large and strong, and the birds spend much of their time on the ground, where they walk or run instead of advancing by leaps. They generally build rude, bulky nests, lay spotted or streaked eggs, and their best vocal efforts are hardly to be called musical. The ¢ of most of the species is uniform lustrous black, the @ brown and much- smaller. There is only one genus (Cassidix) besides the two of this country; in 93, the tail is slightly rounded and sforter than the wings ; in 94, the tail is graduated, and about equals or exceeds the wings. 93. Genus SCOLECOPHAGUS Swainson. Lusty Grackle. gin summer lustrous black, the reflections greenish, and not noticeably different on the head; but not ordinarily found in this condi- tion in the U.S.; in general ‘simply glossy black, nearly all the feathers skirted with warm brown above, and brownish-yellow below, frequently continuous on the fore parts; the 2 of the first season, like the 9 , is entirely rusty brown above, the inner quills edged with the same; a pale superciliary stripe ; below, mixed rusty and grayish-black, the primaries and tail alone 160 ICTERIDE, AMERICAN STARLINGS.—GEN. 93, 94. black; bill and feet black at all times; gabout9; wing 44; tail 34; bill 2; very slender for the family, somewhat resembling a thrush’s; 9? smaller. Eastern North America, N.W. to Alaska (Dall), very common in the U.S. in the fall and winter, in flocks, in fields; breeds in Labrador and other Northern regions, laying speckled, not streaky, eggs. Wixs., ili, 41, pl. 21, f. 3; Nurr., i, 199; Aup., iv, 65, pl. 222; Bp., 551. . FERRUGINEUS. Blue-headed Grrackle. Brewers Blackbird. Similar; the general irides- cence green as before, changing abruptly on the head to purplish, violet or steel-blue, the difference obvious; larger; g 94-103; wing 5-53; tail 4-43; bill much stouter, more like that of Agelwus, and altogether it seems to be quite another bird. The 9 and young ¢ differ much as in the last species, but they are never sorusty. Plains to the Pacific, U.S. and southward, abundant. Aup., vii, 845, pl. 492; Bpo., 552; Coor., 278. . . . CYANOCEPHALUS. - 94. Genus QUISCALUS Vieillot. *.*The @ iridescent black throughout. 7» Great-tailed Grackle. g about 18 inches long; wing 74; tail 9, its lateral feathers about 34 inches shorter than the central ones; bill about 13. Texas, Fic. 101. Great-tailed Grackle. and southward. It may prove only an extreme form of the following species, but presents dimensions that the latter has not shown. Bp., 254. macrourus. Boat-tailed Grackle. Jackdaw. § 153-17 long; wing and tail 7-8 ; bill about 14; graduation of the tail under 3 inches; tarsus nearly 2, middle toe and claw about the same; the general iridescence green, purple or violet mainly on the head. Q astonishingly smaller than the g, lacking entirely the great development of the tail, and easily to be mistaken for 9 purpureus, but is rarely so glossy ; 12-134; wing 54-6; tail 42-54. @ and young apt to be quite brown, only blackish on the wings and tail, below grayish-brown, frequently whitening on the throat and breast. South Atlantic and Gulf States, on the coast; strictly maritime, abundant; N. regularly to the Caro- linas, frequently to the Middle districts, but not to New ee as currently reported. AvD., iv, 52, pl. 220; Bp., 555. . . . . MAJOR. Purple Grachle. (Puate v, figs. 1, 3, 4, 5, la, 3a, res ‘ba. ) 12-138; wing averaging 53; tail 54; but either from 5 to 6; bill about 14; tarsus 14; graduation of the tail 1$ or less; 9 11-12; wing about 5; tail about 44. Iridescence of the male variable with age, season and other circumstances, Ny i CORVIDE, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 94. 161 but in the adults always intense, inclining to bronzy, purplish or violet rather than the uniform green of the last species; 9 blackish-brown, sometimes quite lustrous. Eastern United States, abundant and generally distributed, migratory, gregarious. Wis., iii, 44, pl. 21, f.4; Nurr., i, 194; Avp., iv. 58, pl. 221; Bp., 555. . . . . . PURPUREUS. Var. AGL&uUS. (PLATE Vv, fiys. 2,6, 2a, 6a.) Similar; averaging smaller, but dimensions inosculating with those of the last; bill relatively larger, or at least longer, with more attenuated and decurved tip. Florida. Q. baritus Bo., 556; Q. agleus Bp., Am. Jour. Se. 1866, 84; Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad., 1866, 404; Rrpeway, ibid., 1869, 135. Ozs. The Quiscalus ceneus, lately described as a new species by Mr. Ridgway (J. c. 184), appears to be based upon a special plumage of Q. purpureus; and since it does not prove to be confined, as its describer believed, to any if particular region, I should judge it not entitled to rank "1% Bils of @uiseati. as a geographical variety. The brilliant coloration is that represented in Audu- bon’s plate, above cited. Family CORVIDA. Crows, Jays, ete. A rather large and important family, comprising such familiar birds as ravens, crows, rooks, magpies, jays, with their allies, and a few diverging forms not so well known; nearly related to the famous birds of paradise. There are 10 primaries, of which the 1st is short, generally about half as long as the 2d, and several outer ones are more or less sinuate-attenuate on the inner web toward the end. The tail has 12 rectrices, as usual among higher birds; it varies much in shape, but is generally rounded—sometimes extremely graduated, as in the magpie, and is not forked in any of our forms. The tarsus has scutella in front, separated on one or both sides from the rest of the tarsal envelope by a groove, sometimes naked, sometimes filled in by small scales. The bill is stout, about as long as the head or shorter, tapering, rather acute, generally notched, with convex culmen ; it lacks the commissural angulation of the Fringillidce and Icteridce, the deep cleavage of the Hirundinide, the slenderness of the Certhiide, Sittide, and most small insectiy- orous birds. The rictus usually has a few stiffish bristles, and there are others about the base of the bill. An essential character is seen in the dense covering of the nostrils with large long tufts of close-pressed antrorse bristly feathers (excepting, among our forms, in gen. 97,98). These last features distinguish the Corvide from all our other birds excepting Paride ; the mutual resemblance is here so close, that I cannot point out any obvious technical character of external form to distin- guish, for example, Cyanurus from Lophophanes, or Perisoreus from Parus. But as already remarked (p. 79), size is here perfectly distinctive, all the Corvide being much larger birds than the Paride. Owing to the uniformity of color in the leading groups of the family, and an apparent plasticity of organization in many forms, the number of species is diffi- cult to determine, and is very variously estimated by different writers. Mr. G. R. Gray admits upwards of two hundred species, which he distributes in fifty genera and subgenera ; but these figures are certainly excessive, probably requiring reduc- KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 21 162 CORVIDZ, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 95. tion by at least one-third, in both cases. They have been divided into five sub- families ; three of these are small and apparently specialized groups confined to the Old World, where they are represented most largely in the Australian and Indian regions; the other two, constituting the great bulk of the family, are more nearly cosmopolitan. These are the Corvinw and Garruline, readily distinguish- able, at least so far as our forms are concerned. Subfamily CORVINA. Crows. With the wings long and pointed, much exceeding the tail, the tip formed by the 3d, 4th and 5th quills; the legs stout, fitted for walking as well as perching. Asa rule, the plumage is sombre or at least unvariegated — blue, the characteristic color of the jays, being here rare. The sexes are alike, and the changes of plumage slight. Although technically oscine, these birds are highly unmusical ; the voice of the larger kinds is raucous, that of the smaller strident. They frequent all situa- tions, and walk firmly and easily on the ground. They are among the most nearly omnivorous of birds, and as a consequence, in connection with their hardy nature, they are rarely if ever truly migratory. Their nesting is various, according to circumstances, but the fabric is usually rude and bulky; the eggs, of the average oscine number, are commonly bluish or greenish, speckled. Although not prop- erly gregarious, as a rule, they often associate in large numbers, drawn together by community of interest. In illustration of this, may be instanced the extensive roosting-places in the Atlantic States, comparable to the rookeries of Europe, whither immense troops of crows resort nightly, often from great distances, recall- ing the fine line of the poet— “The blackening trains of Crows to their repose.” 95. Genus CORVUS Linneus. *,* The species throughout uniform lustrous black, including the bill and feet ; nasal bristles about half as long as the bill. * Ravens, with the throat-feathers acute, lengthened, disconnected. Raven. About 2 feet long; wing 16-18 inches; tail about 10. North America; but now rare in the United States, east of the Mississippi, and altogether wanting in most of the States; Labrador, ranging southward, rarely, along the coast to the Middle districts; very abundant in the west, there generally supplanting the crow. Wruts., ix, 136, pl. 75, f. 3; Nurv., i, 202; Aup., iv, 78, pl. 224; Bp. 560. C. cacolotl Bp., 563. corax (var?). White-necked Raven. Smaller; concealed bases of cervical feathers pure white. Southwestern U.S. Bn., 565; Coor., 284. cryProLEucus. ** Crows, with the throat-feathers oval and blended. ; Crow. Length 18-20; wing 13-14; tail about 8; bill 13-2, its height at base 3; tarsus about equal to the middle toe and claw. “ss Eastern North America, chiefly U. S., not Fie. 103. Bill of Crow. 6 . . O s ordinarily found westward in the interior, where the raven abounds. Wuts., iv, 79, pl. 25, f. 3; Nurr., i, 209 ; AUD., iv, 87, pl. 225; Bp., 566. . . . . . . . . ~~.) ~AMBRICANUS. \ 2 rm \ Metalat ¢ E NV\a. dX s \ Vom \ 6 00, 4 $9 CORVIDA, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 96, 97. 163 Var. rLoripanus Bp., 568, represents the greater relative size of the bill and feet shown by many birds of Florida and corresponding latitudes. Var. caurinus Bp., 569; Coor., 285, is a smaller race from the Pacific Coast ; maritime ; piscivorous ; voice said to be different. ) Fish Orow. Small; 14-16 inches long; wing 10-11; tail 6-7; tarsus about equal to middle toe alone; a bare space about the gape? South Atlantic and Gulf States, north to New England, common; maritime, piscivorous. Apparently a different bird, as it presents some tangible dis- tinctions, although constantly associated with the last. WHLS., v, 27, pl. 37, f. 2; Nurr., i, 216; Aup., iv, 94, pl. 226; Bp., 571. . OSsIFRAGUS. 96. Genus PICICORVUS Bonaparte. 0 Clarke's Crow. Gray, often bleaching on the head; wings glossy black, most of the secondaries broadly tipped with white; tail white, the central feathers black ; bill and feet black. About a foot long ; wing 73-8 inches ; tail 43-5 ; bill 13; nasal feathers very short for this family ; claws very large and much curved. Coniferous belt of the West, N. to Sitka, S. to Mexico, E. to Nebraska, W. to the Coast Range; the American representa- tive of the European nutcracker, Nucifraga caryocatactes ; abundant, imper- fectly gregarious. WILS., iii, 29, pl. 20; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 251; Avwp., iv, 127, pl. 235; Bp., 573; Coor., 289. . . . . . . . COLUMBIANUS. Fic. 104. Clarke’s Crow. 97. Genus GYMNOKITTA Maximilian. Blue Crow. Dull blue, very variable in intensity, nearly uniform, but brightest on the head, fading on the belly; the throat with whitish streaks ; wings dusky on the inner webs; bill and feet black; g 11-12; wing about 6; tail about 44; bill 13; @ smaller, duller. Rocky Mountain region ; much the same elevated distribution as the last, but apparently rather more southerly ; decidedly gregarious, and very abundant in Brgy ali lus) Crow. some places, though still rare in collections. A remarkable bird, combining the form of a crow with the color and rather the habits of a jay, and a peculiarly shaped, slender, lengthened and acute bill; the antize are prominent and somewhat antrorse, but do not hide the nostrils. - Cass., Ill. 165, pl. 28; Bp., 574; Coop., 292. CYANOCEPHALUS. Subfamily GARRULINA. Jays. With the wings much shorter than or about equalling the tail, both rounded, the tip of the wing formed by the 4th—-7th quills. The feet, as well as the bill, are usually weaker than in the true crows, and the birds are more strictly arboricole, usually advancing by leaps when on the ground, to which they do not habitually 164 CORVIDH, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 98, 99. resort. In striking contrast to most Corvine, the jays are usually birds of bright and striking colors, among which blue is the most prominent, and the head is frequently crested. The sexes are nearly alike, and the changes of plumage do not appear to be as great as is usual among highly colored birds, although some differ- ences are frequently observable. Our well known blue jay is a familiar illustration of the habits and traits of the species in general. They are found in most parts of the world, and reach their highest development in the warmer portions of America. With one boreal exception (Perisoreus), the genera of the Old and New World are entirely different. It is proper to observe, that, while the American Corvinw and Garruline, upon which the foregoing paragraphs are mainly drawn up, are readily distinguishable, the characters given may require modification in their application to the whole family, the different divisions of which appear to intergrade closely. 98. Genus PSILORHINUS Rueppel. Brown Jay. Smoky brown, darker on head, fading on belly ; wings and tail with bluish gloss; bill and feet black, sometimes yellow ; about 16 long ; wing 74; tail 83, much graduated; bill 14, very stout; nostrils naked ; head uncrested. Rio Grande Valley and southward. Bp., 592. . . . MoRIO. 99. Genus PICA Brisson. Magpie. Lustrous black, with green, purple and violet, and even golden iridescence, especially on the tail and wings; below from the breast, a scap- ular patch, and edging of the quills, white; some whitish touches on the throat; bill and feet black. Length 15 or 20 inches, according to the develop- ment of the tail, which is a foot or less long, extremely graduated ; wing about 8, the outer primary short, slender, and faleate. Arctic America, and U. S. from Plains to Pacific, except California ; common. Wits., iv, 75, pl. 35; TSRED HMB, Mejor Nouvt., 1, 219; Aup...1v,) 995, pleases te Bp., 576. Spin Aa atone MELANOLEUCA Var. HUDSONICA. Var. Nutrattu. Yellow-billed Magpie. Bill yellow ; otherwise precisely like the last, of which it is a perpetuated accident! The European Magpie sometimes shows the same thing, and in some other species, like P. morio, the bill is indiffer- ently black or yellow. California. Avp., iv, 104, pl. 228; Nurr., i, 2d ed., 236 ; Bp., 578; Coor., 295. Oss. The Columbian Magpie, Pica bullockti of Aup., iv, 105, pl. 229, and Nourr., i, 220, is the Calocitta colliei, a magnificent species of the West Coast of Mexico, erroneously attributed to California and Oregon. SS J CORVIDZ, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 100, 101. 165 100. Genus CYANURUS Swainson. * .* Conspicuously crested; wings and tail blue, black-barred; bill and feet black. Length 11-12; wing or tail 5-6. Blue Jay. Purplish-blue, below pale purplish-gray, whitening on the throat, belly and crissum; a black collar across the lower throat and up the sides of the neck and head behind the crest, and a black frontlet bordered with whitish ; wings and tail pure rich blue, with black bars, the greater coverts, secondaries and tail feathers, except the central, broadly tipped with pure white; tail much rounded, the graduation over an inch. Eastern North America, especially the United States, everywhere abundant. Wuks., i, 2, pl. 1, f. 1; Auvp., iv, 110, pl. 231; Nurr., i, 224; Bp., 580. crRisTarus. Steller’s Jay. Sooty brown, darker on the head, passing insensibly into rich blue on the rump and below from the breast; wings and tail deep prussian blue, with black bars (wanting in very young birds) ; crest faced with some blue touches, and throat with some whitish streaks ; no white on Fig. 107. Steller’s Jay; long-crested variety. the eyelids; tail moderately rounded ; crest about two inches long when full grown. Western North America; the typical bird rather northerly. Nurr., ii, 229; Aup., iv, 107, pl. 230; Bp., 581; Coop., 298. . . sfELLERI. Var. MAcRoLopHus. Long-crested Jay. Similar; head quite black; crest longer? the facing bluish-white, and some white touches on the eyelids. Southern Rocky Mountain region. Bp., 582; Ext., pl. 17; Coor., 300; Cours, Am. Nat. v. 1871, 770. 101. Genus APHELOCOMA Cabanis. *.* Not crested ; wings and tail blue, not barred. , Florida Jay. Blue; back with a large well-defined gray patch, belly and sides pale grayish, under tail coverts and tibiz blue in marked contrast ; much hoary whitish on forehead and sides of crown; chin, throat and middle of breast vague streaky whitish; ear-coverts dusky; the blue that seems to encircle the head and neck well defined against the gray of back and breast ; bill comparatively short, very stout at the base. About 12; wing 5 or less; 166 CORVIDE, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 102, 103. tail about 6, much rounded; bill about 1. Florida (and Gulf States?), abundant. Nurvr., i, 230; Aup., iv, 118, pl. 233; Bp., 586. FLORIDANA. Var. woopHouser. The dorsal patch dark, somewhat glossed with blue, shading into the blue of surrounding parts; under parts rather darker, somewhat bluish- gray; the tail coverts pale bluish but not contrasted; on the breast the blue and gray shading into each other, the gular and pectoral streaks whitish and well defined, the superciliary line definite white, but no hoary on forehead ; bill slenderer. Southern Rocky Mountain region. Bp., 585, pl. 59; Coopr., 304. Var. catirornioa. California Jay. The dorsal patch light and distinct as in true floridana, but the under parts, including tail coverts and tibia, nearly white; gular streaks very large, aggregated, and white, causing this part to be nearly uniform; a white super- ciliary line, but no hoary on forehead, as in woodhousei; bill slender. Thus it is seen that each of the three forms presents a varying emphasis of common char- acters. Pacific Coast, U.S. Aup., iv, 115, pl. 232; Bp., 584; Coop., 302. Sieber’s Jay. Bright blue, scarcely duller on the middle of the back, below white, the throat and breast tinged with blue. Length 13; wing 63 ; tail about the same, rounded, the graduation nearly an inch; tarsus 13; bill 1, its height at base nearly $. Bp., 587; Coor., 305. . . soRpmpA. Ozs. Not having seen this species, I take the name and deneripuions from the works cited, without raising the question of its relation- ships to its allies, especially C. wltramarinus. Fic. 108. Florida Jay. 102. Genus XANTHOURA Bonaparte. Rio Grande Jay. Green, below greenish-yellow, inside of the wings and all the tail feathers except the central pair, clear yellow; crown, nape and stripe from bill to eye, rich blue; forehead hoary white; rest of the head and whole throat velvety black ; central tail feathers greenish-blue ; bill black; — F761 Rie Grande Jay. feet dark. About 11 long; wing 44, rounded, with elongated inner quills ; tail 5, graduated an inch or more; bill very short and stout. Southern Texas and southward. Cass., Ill. i, pl. 1; Bp., 589. yncas var. LUXUOSA. 103. Genus PERISOREUS Bonaparte. Canada Jay. Whiskey Jack. Gray, whitening anteriorly, with a darker nuchal area; wings and tail plumbeous, the feathers obscurely tipped with whitish ; bill and feet black. Young much darker, sooty or smoky brown; the bleaching progresses indefinitely with age. 10-11 long; wing 5$-6; tail rather more, graduated ; tarsus 14; bill under 1, shaped like a titmouse’s Arctic America, into the N. States, S. along the Rocky Mountains to 40° and perhaps further; breeds in Maine in winter. Wits., iii, 33, pl. 21; Nurr., i, 232; Aup., iv, 121, pl. 234; Bp., 590; Coor., 807. . CANADENSIS. TYRANNIDZ, FLYCATCHERS. 167 Oxs. Several additional species of jays have been ascribed to our country, but apparently upon insufficient evidence or erroneous information. Suborder CLAMATORES. Non-melodious Passeres. As already intimated (p. 70), the essential character of this group, as distin- guished from Oscines, is an anatomical one, consisting in the non-development of a singing apparatus; the vocal muscles of the lower larynx (syrinz) being small and weak, or else forming simply a large fleshy mass, not separated into particular muscles. This character, however, appears subject to some uncertainty of deter- mination, and probably does not always correspond with the only external character assignable to the group, namely, a certain condition of the tarsal envelope rarely if ever seen in the higher Passeres. If the leg of a kinghird, for example, be closely examined, it will be seen covered with a row of scutella forming cylindrical plates continuously enveloping the tarsus like a segmented scroll, and showing on its postero-internal face a deep groove where the edges of the envelope come together ; this groove widening into a naked space above, partially filled in behind with a row of small plates. With some minor modifications, this condition marks the clamatorial birds, and is something tangibly different from the ordinary oscine character of the tarsus, which consists in the presence on the sides of entire corneous laminze meeting behind in a sharp ridge; and even when, as in the case of Lremophila and Ampelis, there is extensive subdivision of the laminz on the sides or behind, the arrangement does not exactly answer to the above description. The Clamatores represent the lowest Passeres, approaching the large order Picariw (see beyond) in the steps by which they recede from Oscines, yet well separated from the Picarian birds. The families composing the suborder, as commonly received, are few in number; only one of them is represented in North America, north of Mexico. Family TYRANNIDA. Flycatchers. While having a close general resemblance to some of the foregoing insectivorous Passeres, the North American representatives of this family will be instantly distin- guished by the above-described condition of the tarsus; and from the birds of the following order by the Passerine characters of twelve rectrices, greater wing coverts not more than half as long as the secondaries, and hind claw not smaller than the middle claw. This family is peculiar to America; it is one of the most extensive and character- istic groups of its grade in the New World, the. Tanagride and T'rochilidcee alone approaching it in these respects. There are over four hundred current species, distributed among about a hundred genera and subgenera. As well as I can judge at present, at least two-thirds of the species are valid, or very strongly marked geographical races, the remainder being about equally divided between slight varieties and mere synonyms. Only a small fragment of the family is repre- sented within our limits, giving but a vague idea of the numerous and singularly diversified forms abounding in tropical America. Some of these grade so closely toward other families, that a strict definition of the Tyrannide becomes extremely difficult ; and I am not prepared to offer a satisfactory diagnosis of the whole group. Our species, however, are closely related to each other, and may readily be defined in a manner answering the requirements of the present volume. With a possible exception, not necessary to insist upon in this connection, they belong to the 168 TYRANNID®H, FLYCATCHERS. Subfumily TYRANNINA, True Tyrants, presenting the following characters :—Wings of 10 primaries, the 1st never spurious - nor very short, one or more frequently emarginate or attenuate on the inner web a near the end. ‘Tail of 12 rectrices, usually nearly even, sometimes deeply forficate. Feet small, weak, exclu- sively fitted for perching ; the tarsus little if any longer than the middle toe and claw, the anterior toes, especially the outer, extensively coherent at base. Bill very broad and more or less depressed at the base, and tapering to a fine point, thus presenting a more or less perfectly triangular outline when viewed from above; the tip abruptly deflected and usually plainly notched just behind the bend; the culmen smooth and rounded transversely, straight or nearly so lengthwise, except towards the end; the commissure straight (or slightly curved) except at the end; the gonys long, flat, not keeled. Nostrils small, circular, strictly basal, overhung but not concealed by bristles. Mouth capa- cious, its roof somewhat excavated, the rictus ample and deeply cleft, the commissural point almost beneath the anterior border of the eye. Rictus beset with a number of long stiff bristles, sometimes reaching nearly to the end of the bill, but generally shorter, and flaring outward on each side; there are other bristles or bristle-tipped feathers about the base of the bill. The bill is very light, gives a resonant sound, in dried Fic. 110. Emargination of primaries Specimens, when tapped, and on being broken open, ee the upper mandible will be found extensively hollow. These several peculiarities of the bill are the more obvious and important features of the group; and will prevent our small olivaceous flycatchers from being con- founded with insectivorous Oscines, as the warblers and vireos. The structure of the bill is admirably adapted for the capture of winged insects ; the broad and deeply fissured mandibles form a capacious mouth, while the long bristles are of service in entangling the creatures in the trap and restraining their strugeles to escape. The shape of the wings and tail confers the power of rapid and varied aérial evolutions necessary for the successful pursuit of active flying insects. A little practice in field ornithology will enable one to recognize the flycatchers from their habit of perching in wait for their prey upon some prominent outpost, in a peculiar attitude, with the wings and tail drooped and vibrating in readiness for instant action; and of dashing into the air, seizing the passing insect with a quick movement and a click of the bill, and then returning to their stand. Although some Oscines have somewhat the same habits, these pursue insects from place to place, instead of perching in wait at a particular spot, and their forays are not made with such admirable élan. Dependent entirely upon insect food, the species are necessarily migratory in our latitudes ; they appear with great regularity in spring, and depart on the first approach of cold weather in the fall. They are distributed over temperate North America; many of them are common birds of the Eastern States. The voice, susceptible of little modulation, is usually harsh and TYRANNIDA, FLYCATCHERS. —GEN. 104, 105. 169 strident, though some species have a not unpleasant whistle or twitter. The sexes are not ordinarily distinguishable (remarkable exception in gen. 111), and the changes of plumage with age and season are not very great. The larger kinds are unmistakable, but several of the smaller species (of gen. 107, 108, 109) look very much alike, and their discrimination becomes a maiter of much tact and diligence. 104. Genus MILVULUS Swainson. *,* Adults with the tail much longer than the body, deeply forficate, one or more outer primaries strongly emarginate, and a brightly colored crown-patch. Fork-tailed Flycatcher. Three or four primaries emarginate; crown- patch yellow. Clear ash, below white ; top and sides of head, and tail, black ; the outer tail feather white on the outer web for about half its length; wings dusky, unmarked. Sexes alike; young similar, but primaries not emar-_ ginate, nor tail lengthened. Wing about 4; tail from 3 inches to a foot long. \ TYRANNIDZ, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 108. 173 5th quill; 1st shorter than 6th; 3d and 4th generally rather the longest. Eastern North America, very abundant, in open places, fields, along streams, etc.; one of the very earliest arrivals in spring, a late loiterer in the fall; winters in the Southern States. Voice short, abrupt, unlike the drawling note of the wood pewee. Wits., ii, 78, pl. 13; Nurr., i, 278; Avup., i, Beaiy We GHG 1s, I 6 5 p 6 8 6 6 ob 6 oo 8 Go POUIKOOE 108. Genus CONTOPUS Cabanis. *,* With the feet extremely small, the tarsus shorter than the middle toe and claw; the tarsus, middle toe and claw together, barely or not one-third as long as the wing; the bill flattened, very broad at base; the pointed wings nfuch longer than me emarginate tail. Medium sized and rather small species, brownish- olivaceous, without any bright colors, oy very decided markings; the coronal feathers lengthened and erectile, but hardly forming a true crest. Fig. 11dc. * Species 7-8 long, with a tuft of white fluffy feathers on the flank. 2 Olive-sided Flycatcher. Dusky olivateous-brown, usually darker on the crown, where the feathers have blackish centres, and paler on the sides ; chin, throat, belly, crissum and middle line of breast, white, more or less tinged with yellowish; wings and tail blackish, unmarked, excepting incon- spicuous grayish-brown tips of the wing coverts, and some whitish edging on the inner quills; feet and upper mandible black, lower mandible mostly yellowish. The olive-brown below has a peculiar streaky appearance hardly seen in other species, and extends almost entirely across the breast. Young may have the feathers, especially of the wings and tail, skirted with rufous. Wing 3g-43, remarkably pointed ; second quill longest, supported nearly to the end by the first and third, the fourth abruptly shorter; tail about 3; tarsus, middle toe and claw together only about 14; bill.2-3. North Amer- ica, apparently nowhere very abundant. Nurr., i, 282; 2d ed. 298; Aup., il, IA, jolla Bishs Veins, ists) p (Coie, Bs 5 6 6 6 ao 6 8 6 JOINS, Coues’ Flycatcher. Somewhat similar; colors more uniform and more clearly olive; below, fading insensibly on the throat and belly into yellowish white, and lacking the peculiar streaky appearance; cottony tufts on the flanks less conspicuous; wing-formula entirely different; second, third and and fourth quills nearly equal and longest, first abruptly shorter ; tail longer, about 32. Mexico; north to Arizona. Cas., Mus. Hein. ii, 72; Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 60; Exz., pl. 18; Coop., 824. . . PERTINAX. ** Species under 7 long, without an evident cottony white tuft on the flank. ’ Wood Pewee. Olivaceous-brown, rather darker on the head, below with the sides washed with a paler shade of the same reaching nearly or quite across the breast; the throat and belly whitish, more or less tinged with dull yellowish ; under tail coverts the same, usually streaked with dusky ; tail and wings blackish, the former unmarked, the inner quills edged, and the greater and middle coverts tipped, with whitish; feet and upper mandible black, under mandible usually yellow, sometimes dusky. Spring specimens are purer olivaceous; early fall birds are brighter yellow below; in 174 TYRANNIDE, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 108, 109. summer, before the now worn features are renewed, the plumage is quite brown, and dingy whitish; very young birds have the wing-bars and edging of quills tinged with rusty, the feathers of the upper parts skirted, and the lower plumage tinged, with the same; but in any plumage the species may be known from all the birds of the following genus, by these dimensions : Length 6-64; wing 34-34; tail 22-3; tarsus, middle toe and claw together hardly one inch, or evidently less; tarsus alone about $, not longer than the bill. North America, in woodland; extremely abundant in most United States localities, May—Sept. Muscicapa rapax W118., ii, 81, pl. 13, f. 5; M. virens Aup., i, 231, pl. 64; Nurr., i, 285; C. virens Bo., 190. virEns. Var. nicHARDsOoNI. Western Wood Pewee. Similar; darker, more fuscous olive above, the shading of the sides reaching almost uninterruptedly across the breast ; belly rather whitish than yellowish; outer primary usually not obviously white- edged; bill below oftener dusky than yellow, sometimes quite black. I fail to appreciate any reliable differences in size or shape. Note not exactly like that of virens; nesting said to be different (Audubon, Allen). Rocky Mountains to the Pacific; ‘‘ Labrador” (Audubon). Tyrannula Richardsonii Sw., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 146? Contopus richardsonti Bpo., 189; Coor., 325. Muscicapa phebe Auvn., i, 219, pl. 61; Norr., i, 2d ed. 319. "109. Genus EMPIDONAX Cabanis. *,* Species 5-6 (rarely 63) long; wing 34 or less; tail 22 or less; whole foot at least £ as long as wing; tarsus more or less obviously longer than middle toe and claw, much longer than bill; 2d, 8d and 4th quills entering into point of wing, 1st shorter or not obviously longer than 5th; tail not over $ an inch shorter than wings; breast not buffy. (Compare 107, 108,110.) As in allied genera, several outer primaries are slightly emarginate on the inner web, but this character is _ obscure, and often inappreciable. Fig. 113d. Small Green-crested or Acadian Flycatcher. Above, olive-green, clear, continuous and uniform (though the crown may show rather darker, owing to dusky centres of the slightly lengthened, erectile feathers); below, whitish, olive-shaded on sides and nearly across breast, yellowish-washed on belly, flanks, crissum and axillars; wings dusky, inner quills edged, and coverts tipped, with tawny yellow; all the quills whitish-edged internally ; tail dusky, olive-glossed, unmarked; a yellowish eye-ring; feet and upper mandible brown, under mandible pale. In midsummer, rather darker; in early fall, brighter and especially more yellowish below ; when very young, the wing-markings more fulvous, the general plumage slightly buffy-suffused. Largest ; 53-64; wing 23-3 (rarely 34) ; tail 24-23; bill nearly or quite 4, about 4 wide at nostrils; tarsus 3; middle toe and claw $; point of wing . reaching nearly an inch beyond the secondaries ; 2d, 3d and 4th quills nearly equal and much (4 inch or more) longer than Ist and 5th, which about equal each other; Ist much longer than 6th. Eastern United States, abundant, in woodland; readily diagnoscible by the points of size and shape, without regarding coloration. Muscicapa querula Wi1s., ii, 77, pl. 13, f. 3; DZ. acadica Nurr., i, 208; Aupb., i, 221) pl. G2; Bp, 19%, 9) 9) wcAnrous: TYRANNID©, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 109. 175 Traill’s Flycatcher. Above, olive-brown, lighter and duller brownish posteriorly, darker anteriorly, owing to obviously dusky ceutres of the coronal feathers; below, nearly as in acadicus, but darker, the olive-gray shading quite across the breast; wing-markings grayish-white with slight yellowish or tawny shade; under mandible pale; upper mandible and fect black. Averaging a little less than acadicus; 53-6; wing 23-23, more rounded, its tip only reaching about 3 of an inch beyond the secondaries, formed by 2d, 3d and 4th quills, as before, but 5th not so much shorter, (hardly or not $ of an inch), the Ist ranging between 5th and 6th; tail 24; tarsus 3, as before, but middle toe and claw 2, the feet thus differently pro- portioned, owing to length of toes. Eastern North America to the Plains, common; an entirely different bird from acadicus, but difficult to distinguish from the following species. Avp., i, 234, pl. 65; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 323; IBDb OBS WSS, si% « 6 6 © 6 » 6 &@ 4 © 6 6 & 6 WURVIDOIDE Var. pusittus of Bp., 194, which replaces true traillii from the Plains to the Pacific, may usually be recognized by its more fuscous coloration, the olivaceous and yellowish shades of traillii being subdued ; by its larger bill, and the feet nearly as in acadicus. The original Tyrannula pusilla of Swainson, Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 144; Aup., ii, 236, pl. 66, is uncertain, just as likely have been minimus as this bird. I therefore pass over the name, which, if belonging here, antedates ¢traillit, and adopt traillit for the eastern form (although Aupugson says ‘‘Arkansas to the Columbia”), taking pusillus of Barrp for the western variety. Least Flycatcher. Colors almost exactly as in ¢raillii; usually however olive-gray rather than olive-brown; the wing-markings, eye-ring and loral feathers plain grayish-white; the whole anterior parts often with a slight ashy cast; under mandible ordinarily dusky; feet perfectly black. It isa smaller bird than ¢ra7lliz, and not so stoutly built ; the wing-tip projects only about $.an inch beyond the secondaries; the 5th quill is but very little shorter than the 4th, the 1st apt to be nearer 6th than 5th; the feet are differently proportioned, being much as in acadicus; the bill is obviously under 4 an inch long. Length 5-54; wing 22 or less; tail about 24. Although it grades up to ¢razllzi in size, and has no obviously different color- ation, yet I am satisfied that it is a different bird. Eastern North America to the Plains, very abundant in the U. 8. during the migrations, in orchards, coppices, hedgerows and the skirts of woods rather than in heavy forests. AuD., vii, 343, pl. 491; Bp., 195. ies ty fe. 4 on MINIMUSS Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. Above, olive-green, clear, continuous and uniform as in acadicus, or even brighter; below, not merely yellow7sh, as in the foregoing, but emphatically yellow, bright and pure on the belly, shaded on the sides and anteriorly with a paler tint of the color of the back; eye- ring and wing-markings yellow; under mandible yellow; feet black. In respect of color, this species differs materially from all the rest; none of them, even at their autumnal yellowest, quite match it. Size of fraillii, or rather less; feet proportioned as in acadicus; bill nearly as in minimus, but rather larger; Ist quill usually equal to 6th. Eastern United States, 176 TYRANNIDAH, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 109, 110. common. Aup., vii, 341, pl. 490; Bp., 198. Var. DIFFICILIS Bp., 198 (in text), Coor., 328, is the paler western form. . . . FLAVIVENTRIS. Hammond’s Flycatcher. Above, olive-gray, decidedly grayer or even ashy on the fore parts, the whole throat and breast almost continuously olive- gray but little paler than the back, the belly alone more or less decidedly yellowish ; wing-markings and eye-ring dull soiled whitish ; bill very small, and extremely narrow, being hardly or not 1 wide at the nostrils; this distin- guishes the bird from all but ménémus and obscurus; under mandible usually blackish ; tail usually decidedly forked, more so than in other species, though in all of them it varies from slightly rounded to slightly emarginate; outer tail feather usually whitish-edged externally (a character often shown by traillii and minimus), but not decidedly white. About the size of trailliz, but not so stoutly built; wings and tail relatively longer; feet as in minimus. Western United States. Bp., 199; Coop., 330. . . . . HAMMONDII. Wrights Flycatcher. Colors not tangibly different from those of ¢razli or minimus, but outer web of outer tail feather abruptly white in decided contrast. General dimensions approaching those of acadicus, owing to length of wings and tail; wing 23 to nearly 3; tail 23-22; tarsi about #;_ bill about $, extremely narrow (much as in Sayornis fuscus), its width at the nostrils only about 4 its length. Southwestern U. 8. Bp., 200, 922; WOOP (a2 9U er Goo SS 6 ok Sp 0s eee en ee OBECUIRILISS Ozs. The foregoing account, carefully prepared after examination of a great amount of material from all parts of the country, will probably suffice to determine ninety out of a hundred specimens; but I confess it does not entirely satisfy me, and, as it does not fully answer all the requirements of the case, it must be regarded as provisional. At the same time I must say, that the only alternative seems to be, to consider all the foregoing (excepting acadicus and jlaviventris, perhaps) as varieties of one species; but for this I am not prepared. 110. Genus MITREPHORUS Sclater. Buff-breasted Flycatcher. Coronal feathers and rictal bristles longer than in Empidonax, and general cast of the plumage buffy. Above, dull grayish- brown tinged with olive, particularly on the back; below, pale fulvous, strongest across the breast, whitening on the belly; no fulvous on the fore- head ; sides of head light brownish-olive; wings and tail dusky, outer web of outer tail feathers, edges of inner primaries except at the base, and tips of wing coverts, whitish ; iris brown; bill yellow below, black above; fect black; 42 long; extent 74; wing 24; tail 2; tarsus .55; middle toe and claw .45; bill.40. Fort Whipple, Arizona. Zmpidonax pygmeus Cours, Ibis, 1865, 537; MZ. pallescens Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 63; Coopr., 334; Exxiot, pl. 19. My original specimens, affording the descriptions quoted, and the first known to have been taken in the United States, do not appear to be specifically distinct from fulvifrons of Giraup ( B. of Tex. pl. 2, f. 2), which may itself be the same as a Mexican species of prior name... . . . «. . . . » «+ FFULVIFRONS var. PALLESCENS. PICARIZ, PICARIAN BIRDS. —GEN. I11. 177 lll. Genus PYROCEPHALUS Gould. Vermilion Flycatcher. @ pure dark brown; wings and tail blackish with slight pale edgings; the full globular crest, and all the = under parts, scarlet; bill and feet black. 9 dull brown, including the little crested crown; below, white, tinged with red or reddish in some places, the breast with slight dusky streaks. Immature 3 shows gradation between the characters of both sexes; the red is some- times rather orange. 54-6; wing 34; tail 24. Valleys : Fig. 114. Vermilion Fly- of the Rio Grande and Colorado, and southward. Cass., catcher. Ill. 127, pl. 17; Bp., 201; Coor., 333. . . RUBINEUS var. MEXICANUS. Order PICARIA. Picarian Birds. This is a miscellaneous assortment (in scientific language, ‘‘a polymorphic group,”) of birds of highly diversified forms, grouped together more because they differ from other birds in one way or another, than on account of their resemblance to each other. As commonly received, this order includes all the non-passerine Insessores down to those with a cered bill (parrots and birds of prey). Excluding the parrots, which constitute a strongly marked natural group, of equal value with those called orders in this work, the Picarice correspond to the Strisores and Scansores of authors, including, however, some that are often referred to Clama- tores. This “order” Scansores, or -Zygodactyli, containing all the birds that have the toes arranged in pairs, two in front and two behind (and some that have not), is one of the most unmitigated inflictions that ornithology has suffered; it is as thoroughly unnatural as the divisions of my artificial key to our genera. As at present constituted, the Picaric are insusceptible of satisfactory definition ; but we may indicate some leading features, mostly of a negative character, that they possess in common. The sternum rarely if ever conforms to the particular Passerine model, its posterior border usually being either entire or else doubly notched. The vocal apparatus is not highly developed, having not more than three pairs of separate intrinsic muscles ; the birds, consequently, are never highly musical. There are some modifications of the cranial bones not observed in Passeres. Ac- cording to Sundevall, they, like lower birds, lack a certain specialization of the flexor muscles of the toes seen in Pusseres. The feet are very variously modified ; one or another of all the toes, except the middle one, is susceptible of being turned, in this or that case, in an opposite from the customary direction; the fourth one being frequently capable of turning either way; while in two genera the first, and in two others the second, toe is deficient; and, moreover, the tarsal envelope is never entire behind as in the higher Passeres. Another curious peculiarity of the feet is, that the claw of the hind toe is smaller, or at most not larger, than that of the third toe. The wings, endlessly varied in shape, agree in possessing ten developed primaries, of which the first is rarely spurious or very short. A notable exception to this occurs in the Pici. A very general and useful wing-character is, that the greater coverts are at least half as long as the secondary quills they cover, and they sometimes reach nearly to the ends of these quills. This is the common case among lower birds, but it distinguishes most of the Picariw from Passeres; it KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 23 178 PICARI, PICARIAN BIRDS. is not shown, however, in the Picide and some others. The tail is indefinitely varied in shape, but the number of its feathers is a good clue to the order. There are not ordinarily more than ten perfect rectrices, and occasionally there are only eight; the woodpeckers have twelve, but one pair is abortive; there are twelve, however, in the kingfishers, and some others. With this slight sketch of some leading features of the group (it will enable the student to recognize any Picarian bird of this country at least), I pass to the consideration of its subdivision, with the remark, that a precedent may be found for any conceivable grouping of the families that is not simply preposterous, and for some arrangements that are nearly so. As well as I can judge from the material at my command, and relying upon excellent authority for data that I lack, the Picarice fall naturally into rurex divisions. These I shall call suborders, not how- ever insisting in the least upon the question of taxonomic rank, but simply employ- ing the terms conformably with my usage in other cases. The three groups may be here tabulated, with remarks calculated to give an idea of their composition : — I. CYPSELI— including only the three families Cypselide, Caprimulgide, and Trochilide — the swifts, goatsuckers, and hummingbirds. They are birds of re- markable volitorial powers; the wing is pointed, and very long, in its feathers and terminal portions, though the upper arm is very short. The feet are extremely small and weak, and are scarcely if at all serviceable for progression. The hind toe is sometimes versatile (among the swifts) or somewhat elevated (in the goat- suckers and some swifts); the front toes are frequently connected at base by mov- able webbing (goatsuckers), and sometimes lack the normal number of phalanges (among swifts and goatsuckers). The variously shaped tail has ten rectrices. One family (hummingbirds) shows the tenuirostral type of bill; the other two, the fissirostral, on which account they used to be classed with the swallows. The sternum is broad, with a deep keel, entire or doubly notched (rarely singly notched) behind ; the syrinx has not more than one pair of intrinsic muscles. II. CUCULI— comprehending the great bulk of the order; in all, about fifteen families, rather more than less. They are only readily limited by exclusion of the characters of the preceding and following groups. The sternum is usually notched behind ; the syringeal muscles are two pairs at most. The feet are generally short ; the disposition of the toes varies remarkably. In the Coliide, or colies, of Africa, all the toes are turned forward. In the Trogonide, the second toe is turned back- ward, so that the birds are zygodactyle, but in a different way from all others. Families with the feet permanently zygodactyle in the ordinary way by reversion of the fourth, or partially so, the outer toe being versatile, are—the Cuculide, or cuckoos, with their near relatives the Indicatoride, or guide-birds of Africa; the Lhamphastide, or toucans, confined to tropical America and distinguished by their enormous vaulted bill; the Musophagide, plantain-eaters or touracos, of Africa; the Bucconide and Capitonide, or barbets of the New and Old World respectively ; and the Galbulide, or jacamars, of America. In the remaining groups, the toes have the ordinary position, but sometimes offer unusual characters in other respects. Thus in the Alcedinidw (kingfishers), and Momotide (motmots or sawbills), the middle and outer toes are perfectly coherent for a great distance, constituting the syndactyle or anisodactyle foot. The Bucerotide, or hornbills, of the Old World, characterized by an immense corneous process on the bill, are near relatives of the kingfishers ; so are the Todide, a group of small brightly colored birds of Mexico and the West Indies. Other forms, all Old World, are the Meropider or bee-eaters, CAPRIMULGIDH, GOATSUCKERS. 179 the Upupide or hoopoes, the Coraciide or rollers, with their allies the Leptoso- matide, of Madagascar. Ill. PICI—comprising only three families, the Iyngide, or wrynecks, with one genus and four species, of Europe, Asia and Africa; the Picumnide, with one or two genera and nearly thirty species, chiefly American; and the Picide or true woodpeckers. The digits are permanently paired by reversion of the fourth, except in two tridactyle genera; there is a modification of the lower end of the metatarsus, corresponding to the reverse position of the fourth toe, and the upper part of the same bone is perforated by canals for flexor tendons. The basal phalanges of the toes are short. The wing has ten primaries, with short coverts, contrary to the rule in this order; the tail ten rectrices, soft and rounded in Iyngide and Picumnide, rigid and acuminate in Picid@, where also a supplementary pair of spurious feathers is developed. The nostrils vary: they are large and of peculiar structure in [yn- gide, usually covered with antrorse plumules in the rest. The bill is straight or nearly so, hard and strong, acute or truncate, the mandibles equal; the tongue is lumbriciform, and very generally extensile to a remarkable degree, by a singular elongation of the bones and muscles. The salivary glands have an unusual devel- opment, in the typical species at any rate. The sternum is doubly notched behind. A very strongly marked group; in some respects it approaches the Passerine birds more nearly than other Picariw do. Suborder CY PSELI. Cypseliform Birds. See p. 178, where some leading characters of the group are indicated. Family CAPRIMULGIDA. Goatsuckers, So called from a traditional superstition. Fissirostral Picariw: head broad, flattened ; eyes and ears large; bill extremely small, depressed, triangular when viewed from above, with enormous gape reaching below the eye, and generally with bristles that frequently attain an extraordinary development; nostrils basal, exposed, roundish, with a raised border, sometimes prolonged into a tube. Wings more or less lengthened and pointed, of ten primaries and more than nine second- aries ; tail variable in shape, of ten rectrices. Feet extremely small; tarsus usually short, and partly feathered ; hind toe commonly elevated and turned sideways ; front toes connected at base by movable webbing, and frequently showing abnormal ratio of phalanges; middle toe lengthened beyond the short lateral ones, its claw fre- quently pectinate. A definitely circumscribed, easily recognized group of about fourteen genera and rather more than a hundred species, of temperate and tropical parts of both hemispheres. It is divisible, according to the structure of the feet, into two subfamilies, Podargine, chiefly Old World, with the normal ratio of phalanges, and Caprimulgine, as below. Considering, however, other points, particularly the shape of the sternum, a more elaborate division is into Podargine, phalanges normal, but tarsus naked and lengthened, and sternum doubly notched, with three genera of the Old World— Nyctibiine, phalanges normal, tarsus short, feathered, sternum doubly notched, upper mandible toothed, containing one genus of tropical America — Steatornithince, phalanges normal, sternum singly notched, with one genus of tropical America—and finally Caprimulgince, comprising the rest [Nore. An erroneous sequence of two genera having been discovered since the key was printed, and there- fore too late to rectify the numbering, Gen. 112 and Gen. 113, will be found next after Gen. 125.] 180 CAPRIMULGID, GOATSUCKERS.—GEN. 114. of the family. The eggs are colorless in the first and third of these, colored in the second and fourth. Subfamily CAPRIMULGIN AL. True Goatsuckers. Sternum singly notched on each side behind, its body not square. Outer toe 4-jointed; middle claw wectinate; hind toe very short, elevated, semi-lateral ; anterior toes movably webbed at base; tarsus very short, commonly much feathered. Besides the semipalmation of the feet, there is another curious analogy to wading birds; for the young are downy at birth, as in Precoces, instead of naked, as is the rule among Altrices. The plumage is soft and lax, much as in the owls; the birds have the same noiseless flight, as well as, in many cases, nocturnal or crepuscular habits ; and they sometimes bear an odd resemblance to owls in their general appearance. An evident design of the capacious mouth, is the capture of insects; the active birds quarter the air with wide | open mouth, and their minute prey is readily taken in. But they also secure larger insects in other ways; and to this end the rictus is frequently strongly bristled, as in the Tyrannidw. Our two genera EO AJ \ are readily discriminated by the enormous rictal bristles, rounded tail DP Ci} y) and comparatively short wings of Antrostomus, the slight bristles, a 1) forked tail and long pointed wings of Chordeiles; they each repre- j R sent one of the two sections of the subfamily. In both, the feet are so extremely short that the birds cannot perch in the usual way, but Le sit lengthwise on a large branch, or crouch on the ground. They Fic.115. Bones of lay two lengthened, dark colored, thickly. spotted eggs, on or near ©*P™mulsive foot. the ground, in stumps, etc.; the sexes are distinguishable but nearly alike; the colors are subdued, blended and variegated ; the voice is peculiar. Migratory. 114. Genus ANTROSTOMUS Gould. * The rictal bristles with lateral filaments. Chuck-will’s-widow. Singularly variegated with black, white, brown, tawny and rufous, the prevailing tone fulvous; a whitish throat-bar ; several lateral tail feathers tipped with white in the ¢, with rufous in the g. Large; a foot long; wing 8-9; tail 53-64, slightly rounded. South Atlantic and Gulf States, strictly; resident in Florida. Wus., vi, 95, oe plaoAy tf. 25 Nope ie) G2 i eeAcuD aes 151, pl. 41; Bp., 147. cAROLINENSIS. ** The rictal bristles simple. Whippoorwill. Night-jar. Upper parts variegated with gray, black, whitish and tawny; black streaks sharp on the head and back, the BG ALE SO PE Der: colors elsewhere delicately marbled, including the four median tail feathers; prevailing tone gray; wings and their coverts with bars of rufous spots; lateral tail feathers black, with tawny marbling in distant broken bars, and tipped with white (¢) or N q CAPRIMULGID®, GOATSUCKERS.—GEN. 115. 181 tawny (@ ) ; a bar across the throat white ( g¢) or tawny (¢ ) ; below mottled with dusky and whitish; 9-10 long; wing 5-6; tail 4-5, much rounded. Eastern United States, abundant; a nocturnal bird, rarely seen, but well known for its loud strange cry, whence its name is taken. Eggs 2, ellip- tical, 14 by %, white, speckled and blotched. Wiuts., v, 72, pl. 41, f. 1, 2, 3; Nurr.,i, 614; Aup., i, 155, pl. 42; Bp., 148. . . . . vVocrreRus. Nuttall’s Whippoorwill, Somewhat similar; small; about 8; tail under 4; much paler in tone; crown barred transversely ; throat patch very large ; tawny prevailing over black on the wings; terminal white tail spots short. Note different, the first syllable being omitted. Plains to the Pacific, U.S. AvwD., vii, 850, pl. 495; Cass., Ill. 237; Bp., 149; Coopr., 340. NuTTraLun. 115. Genus CHORDEILES Swainson. Night-hawk. Bull-bat. Above, mottled with black, brown, gray and tawny, the former in excess; below from the breast transversely barred with blackish and white or pale fulvous; throat with a large white ( g) or tawny (@) eross-bar; tail blackish, with distant pale marbled cross-bars and a large white spot (wanting in the ¢ ) on one or both webs of nearly all the feathers toward the end; quills dusky, unmarked except by one large white spot on jive outer primaries about midway between their base and tip; in the @ this area restricted or not pure white. Length about 9; wing about 8; tail 5. Temperate North America, abundant. This species flies abroad at all times, though it is perhaps most active towards evening and in dull weather ; and is gener- ally seen in companies, busily foraging for insects with rapid, easy and protracted flight; in the breeding season it performs curious evolutions, falling through the air with a loud booming ery. Eggs 2, elliptical, 14 by , finely variegated. Wits., v, 65, pl. 40; f. 1, 2; Nourr., i, 619; Aup., i, 159, pl. 43; Bp., 151. . . . virermnranus. Fie. 117. Night-hawk. Var. HENRYI is the lighter colored form prevailing in the dryer or unwooded portions of western United States; the gray and fulvous in excess of the darker hues, the white patches on the wing, tail and throat usually larger. Cass., Ill. 233; Bp., 153, 922, pl. 17; Coopr., 344. Texas Night-hawk. Similar to the first; smaller; wing 7; tail 4; fine gray mottling much predominant above; below rufous prevailing over the dark bars ; many broad fulvous bars on the tail, besides the white spots ( ¢ ) wanting in the 9 ; primaries all sprinkled toward the base with numerous fulvous spots; the large white ( g) or tawny ( @.) area nearer the tip than the bend of the wing, and on only four primaries. Southwestern U. S. and southward; unquestionably different from the common bird of this country, but in adopting the name ¢exensis, 1 must say that I have not inves- 182 CYPSELIDZ, SWIFTS. —GEN. 116. tigated its relationships to the South American form. Lawr., Ann. Lye. v. 1851, 114; Cass., Ill. 238; Bp., 154; Coor., 844. . . . . TEXENSIS. Family CYPSELIDA. Swifts. Fissirostral Picarice: bill very small, flattened, triangular when viewed from above, with great gape reaching below the eyes. Wings extremely long, thin and pointed (frequently as long as the whole bird) ; the secondaries extremely short (nine?). Tail of ten rectrices, variable in shape. Feet small, weak; tarsi naked or feathered ; hind toe frequently elevated, or versatile, or permanently turned side- ways or even forward ; anterior toes completely cleft, the basal phalanges extremely short, the penultimate very long, the number of phalanges frequently abnormal ; claws sharp, curved, never pectinate. Sternum deep-keeled, widening behind, its posterior margin entire. Eggs narrowly oval, white. For pterylosis see PLATE 1. “(One of the most remarkable points in the structure of the Cypselide is the great development of the salivary glands. In all the species of which the nidifi- cation is known, the secretion thus produced is used more or less in the construc- tion of the nest. In most cases it forms a glue by which the other materials are joined together, and the whole nest is affixed to a rock, wall, or other object against which it is placed. In some species of Collocalia, however, the whole nest is made up of inspissated saliva, and becomes the ‘edible bird’s-nest’ so well known in the East.” (Sciater.) A well defined family of six or eight genera and about fifty species, inhabiting temperate and warm parts of the globe. They are rather small birds of plain plumage, closely resembling swallows in superficial respects, but with no real aflinity to these Oscines. The family is divisible into two subfamilies, according to the structure of the feet. Subfamily CYPSELINA. Typical Swifts. 3 joints like the 2d; hind toe reversed (in Cypselus, where nearly all the species belong) or lateral (in Panyptila); tarsi feathered Fa. tbe ones (in Cypselus); toes also feathered (Gin Panyptila). Contains only foot. these two genera and nearly half the species of the family. Of Panyptila there are only three well determined species, all American ; while Cypselus has upward of twenty, mostly of the Old World; the three or four American ones are sometimes detached under the name of TYachornis. (7 Ratio of the phalanges abnormal, the 3d and 4th toes having each 116. Genus PANYPTILA Cabanis. White-throated Swift. Black or blackish; chin, throat, breast and middle line of belly, tips of secondaries, edge of outer primary, bases of tail feathers and a flank patch, white. Length 54-6; wing the same; tail about 22, forked, soft. Southwestern U. S. and southward, breeding in colonies on cliffs. Acanthylis saxatilis Woopnousn, Expl. Zui River, 1853, 64; Cypselus melanoleucus Bpo., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1854, 118. Couns, dbid. IG, Oe inns MGS Oli, Bi, 5 kk Gl ll RTE, CYPSELIDH, SWIFTS.—GEN. 117, 118. 183 Subfamily CHAITURINA. Spine-tailed Swifts. Toes with the normal number of phalanges; hind toe not reversed, but some- times versatile; our species have it obviously elevated, and should have come in the Key under A, like gen. 114, 115; but it has not been technically so considered (compare § 87, p. 49). Tarsi never feathered. In the principal genus, Chetura, containing about half the species of the subfamily, of various parts of the world, the tail feathers are stiffened and mucronate by the projecting rhachis. The other genera are Collocalia and Dendrochelidon of the Old World; Cypseloides, and the scarcely different Nephecetes, of the New. 117. Genus NEPHC:CETES Baird. Black Swift. Blackish, nearly uniform. Length nearly 7; wing as much ; tail about 3, forked, stiffish, but not mucronate. Western America. Bp., 142; Exuior, pl. 20; Coor., 349. . . . . . NIGER Var. BOREALIS. 118. Genus CHAITURA Stephens. Chimney Swift. Chimney “Swallow.” Sooty brown witha faint green- ish gloss above, below paler, becoming gray on the throat; wings black. Length about 5; wing the same; tail 2 or less, even or a little rounded, spiny. Eastern United States, migratory, very abundant in summer. Like the swallows, which this bird so curiously resembles, not only in its form, but in its mode of flight, its food, and twitter- ing notes, it has mostly forsaken the ways of its ancestors, who bred in hollow trees, and now places its curious open-work nest, of bits Fie. 119. Chimney Swift, with mucronate of twig glued together, inside disused reCUls chimneys. WILS., v, 48, pl. 39, f. 1; Nurr., i, 609; Aup., i, 164, pl. 44; Bp., 144. SoU wl CosmitieaniGd toe ae Sea, PELASGIA. Vaua’s Swift. Similar; paler; the throat whitish; smaller; length 44; wing the same. Pacific Coast, U.S. Seems to be different from pelasgia, but perhaps the same as a S. Am. species. Bp., 145; Coor., 351. vauxu. Family TROCHILIDA. Hummingbirds. Tenuirostral Picariw. These beautiful little creatures will be known on sight ; and as the limits of this work preclude any adequate presentation of *the subject, I prefer merely to touch upon it. The hummers are peculiar to America. Species occur from Alaska to Patagonia, but we have a mere sprinkling in this country ; the centre of abundance is in tropical South America, particularly New Granada. Nearly five hundred species are current; the number of positively specific forms may be estimated at about three hundred. The genera or subgenera vary with authors from fifty to a hundred and fifty; perhaps half the latter number of generic names may be eligible. The birds appear to fall naturally into two groups; one of these, Phethornithince, representing about one-tenth of the whole, is composed ~_ 184 TROCHILIDH, HUMMINGBIRDS. —GEN. 119, 120, 121, 122. of duller colored species especially inhabiting the dense forests of the Amazon ; the other is the Subfamily TROCHILIN A . 119. Genus HELIOPADICA Gould. NXantus Hummingbird. Tarsi feathered; tail nearly even; first primary not attenuate ; frontal feathers ending abruptly at base of bill; g¢ above, and the throat, metallic grass-green; below, cinnamon-rufous ; face blue-black ; a white stripe through the eye; wings purplish-dusky ; tail purplish-chest- nut, the central feathers glossed with golden green ; bill flesh-colored, black- tipped. shining green above, including central tail feathers; below, and the face, pale rufous, whitening about the vent, and the sides greenish ; head-stripes rufous, whitening on the auriculars; tail feathers, except the central, chestnut, with a dark terminal spot. 34; wing 24; tail 14; bill 2. Cape St. Lucas. Amazilia xantusii and Heliopeedica castaneicauda Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. 1860, pp. 105, 109; Etu., pl. 22; Coor., 365. xantTusit. 120. Genus LAMPORNIS Swainson. Black-throated Hummingbird. Tomia serrate near the end ; bill depressed, not quite straight; no metallic scales on throat; g golden-green above and on the sides; below, opaque black, with white flank-tufts; wings and tail dusky-purplish. 9 white below, with median black stripe. 45; wing 24; tail 13; bill nearly 1. Strageler to Florida. Bp., 130,922. . manao? 121. Genus TROCHILUS Linnzus. Ruby-throated Hummingbird. g with the tail forked, its feathers all narrow and pointed; no scales on crown; metallic gorget reflecting ruby- red, etc.; golden-green, below white, the sides green; wings and _ tail dusky-purplish. @ lacking the gorget; the throat white; the tail somewhat double-rounded, with black bars, and the outer feathers white-tipped. 34; wing 13; tail14; bill 3. Eastern North America, abundant in summer, generally seen hovering about flowers, sometimes in flocks. Feeds on insects, and the sweets of flowers. Nest a beautiful structure, of downy substances, stuccoed with lichens outside; eggs two, white. Wiuus., ii, 26, pl. 10; Nutt., i, 588; Avup., iv, 190, pl. 253; Bp., 131. . . . . conusnis. Black-chinned Hummingbird. Similar; tail merely emarginate; gorget opaque black, reflecting steel blue, ete., posteriorly. 9 with the tail simply rounded. California, Arizona and southward. Cass., Ill. 141, pl. 22; Bo., IB Ccorss owe As 6 See oo 9G See & oq AAIDIDOCANAIeM, 122. Genus SHELASPHORUS Swainson. * No metallic scales on crown; ¢ throat scales not much prolonged into a ruff; outer primary attenuate; tail graduated, the middle feathers broader than the lateral. TROCHILID®, HUMMINGBIRDS. —GEN. 122, 123. 185 Rufous-backed Hummingbird. 3 chiefly cinnamon-rufous above, below and on the tail; traces of green above, especially on crown; gorget red, etc.; a white collar behind it. 9 with a trace of the gorget; upper parts more or less green; tail barred with black and tipped with white. 33; wing 13; tail 14. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, from Mexico to Alaska ; abundant; the sole boreal cep es of the eee Aup., iv, 200, pl. 204; Bp., 184; Coop., 355. . . ; : i SRULUS. Bretuaicn Hummingbird. One: primaries atte venues, outer tail feather linear, very narrow; others broad; @ glittering green, with much white below, the gorget purplish-red, etc.; wings and tail dusky- purplish, most of the tail feathers with rufous edging basally. @ with no gorget; no green, but much rufous, below; 4; wing 2. Rocky Mts. to lat. 42°; W. to Sierra Nevada; S. into Mex. Bp., 135 ; Coor., 857. PLATYCERCUS. ** Crown of $ with metallic scales like the gorget, which is prolonged into a ruff; outer primary not attenuate; tail of g forked, the outer feather abruptly narrow and linear. (Calypte.) Anna Hummingbird. @ above, and the breast, green; crown and gor- get ruby-red, etc.; 9 lacking the scales; the tail slightly rounded, black- barred, white-tipped. Size of the last. California; resident, abundant. Nurr., i, 2d. ed. 712; Auvp., iv, 188, pl. 252; Bp., 1837; Coor., 358. . ANNA. Costa Hummingbird. 3 above, and on the sides, green; mostly white below; crown and gorget purplish, steel-blue, etc.; the latter much pro- longed into a ruff; tail lightly forked; 9 like that of anna; smaller; about 34; wing under 2; tail 14; bill 3. Valley of the Colorado; S. and Lower, (Ceibiiorave, Iio.qileteis (Clowes, Gt, 5 6 4 5 56 o 56 6 o 6 (Olof *** Crown of ¢ not metallic like the gorget, which is prolonged into aruff; outer primary of f attenuate ; tail graduated, the feathers rounded at the end, the lateral black-barred and white-tipped (in both sexes). (Atthis.) Fleloise Hummingbird. @ golden-green above, including crown; gorget lilac-red, bordered with white ; below white; sides with green and rufous ; tail feathers cinnamon-rufous at base, the central otherwise like the back, the others black-barred and white-tipped ; i similar, lacking the gorget ; outer primary not attenuate. Very small; 23; wing 14; tail1; billd. Texas and southward. Enuior, pl. 21; Coop., 361. . . . . . HELOIS&. 123. Genus STELLULA Gould. Calliope Hummingbird. golden-green; below white, with green and rufous on sides; gorget violet or lilaé, the bases of the scales, and sides of the neck, pure white ; tail feathers brown, including the central pair, with pale tips and slight rufous edgings ; under mandible light; 9 with dusky specks in place of the gorget; throat feathers not ruffed; no green on sides; tail feathers variegated with green, rufous, black and white. 23; wing 13; tail 1; bill $. Mountains of Washington, Oregon and California, to Mexico. Ettwtot, pl. 23; Coop., 3863. . . . . . . . . CALLIOPE. KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 24 186 TROGONIDE, TROGONS ; MOMOTIDA, SAWBILLS. —GEN. 124, 125. 124. Genus AGYRTRIA Cabanis. ,- Linné Hummingbird. § bronzy-green, including middle tail feathers ; throat and breast grass-green, paler on sides; middle of belly, and crissum, white ; wings purplish-brown; lateral tail feathers black with paler tips; ? duller, more white below, no green on throat; wing 2; tail 14; bill 3. South America; accidental in Massachusetts, one instance (Aug. 1865, Brewster) ; but I am advised that the occurrence is open to suspicion. ALLEN, Am. Nat. iii, 1869, p. 645; Maynarp, Guide, 128. . LINNazI. Suborder CUCULI. Cuculiform Birds. The nature of this large group has been indicated on a preceding page (178). Family TROGONIDA. Trogons. Feet zygodactyle by reversion of the second toe. The base of the short, broad, dentate bill is hidden by appressed antrorse feathers; the wings are short and rounded, with faleate quills; the tail is long, of twelve broad feathers; the feet are very small and weak. The general plumage is soft and lax, the skin tender, the eyelids lashed. A well-marked family of about fifty species and perhaps a dozen genera, chiefly inhabiting tropical America. They are of gorgeous colors, and among them are found the mdést magnificent birds of this continent. 125. Genus TROGON Auctorum. Mexican Trogon. Metallic golden-green; face and sides of head black; below from the breast carmine ; a white collar on the throat; middle tail feathers coppery-green, the outer white, barred with black; FIG. 120. Mexican Trogon. quills edged with white; about 11; wing 54; tail 63. Valley of the Rio Grande, southward. Bp., 69, pl. 40. . . mexicanus? Family MOMOTIDA. Sawbills. Feet syndactyle by cohesion of third and fourth toes; tomia serrate. A very small family of tropical American birds, comprising about fifteen species. Neither this nor the foregoing has really rightful place here, but they come on our border, and are in- cluded to illustrate the suborder. In the following species, the central tail feathers are long-exserted, and spatulate by absence of. webs along a part of the shaft—a mutilation effected, it is said, by the birds themselves; the bill is about as long as the head, gently curved; the nostrils are rounded, basal, exposed; the wings are short and rounded ; the tarsi are scutellate anteriorly. Fic. 121. Blue-headed Sawbill. ALCEDINIDA, KINGFISHERS. —GEN. 112. 187 112. Genus MOMOTUS Lesson. Blue-headed Sawbill. Greenish, rather paler below; purer on wings and tail; the crested crown blue, encircled with black; face mostly black. 15; wing 54. Mexico. Bp., 161, pl.46. . . . . . . . C@RULEICEPS. Family ALCEDINIDA. Kingfishers. Feet syndactyle by cohesion of third and fourth toes; tomia simple. Bill long, large, straight, acute (rarely hooked), ‘ fissirostral,” the gape being deep and wide ; tongue rudimentary or very small; nostrils basal, reached by the frontal feathers. Feet very small and weak, scarcely or not ambulatorial; tarsi extremely short, reticulate in front; hallux short, flattened underneath, its sole more or less continuous with the sole of the inner toe; soles of outer and middle toe in common for at least half their length; inner toe always short, in one genus rudimentary, in another wanting (an abnormal modifica- tion, overlooked in penning § 86, p. 49; but see § 84) ; wings long, of 10 primaries ; tail of 12 rectrices, variable in shape. ‘The kingfishers form a very natural family of the great Picarian order, and are alike remarkable for their brilliant coloration and for the variety of curious and aberrant forms which are included within their number. . . ‘Their characteristic habit is to sit motionless watching for their prey, to dart after it and seize it on the wing, and to return to their original position to swallow it. . . The Alced- inidee nest in holes and lay white eggs. It is, however, to be remarked that, in accordance with a modification of the habits of the various genera, a corresponding modification has taken place in the mode of nidification, the piscivorous section of the family nesting for the most part in holes in the banks of streams, while the insectivorous section of the family generally nest in the holes of trees, not neces- sarily in the vicinity of water.” (Suarre.) The nearest allies of the kingfishers are considered to be the hornbills and bee- eaters of the Old World, and the sawbills and todies of the New. One would gain an imperfect or erroneous idea of the family to judge of it by the American fragment, of one genus and six or eight species. According to the author of the splendid monograph just cited, there are in all 125 species, belonging to 19 genera; the latter appear to be very judiciously handled, but a moderate reduction of the former will be required. They are very unequally distributed; Ceryle alone is nearly cosmopolitan, absent only from the Australian region; the northern portion of the - Old World has only 2 peculiar species; 3 genera and 24 species are characteristic of the Ethiopian region, one genus and 25 species are confined to the Indian, while no less than 10 genera and 59 species are peculiar to the Australian. Mr. Sharpe recognizes two subfamilies; in the Dacelonine (with 14 genera, and 84 species) the bill is more or less depressed with smooth, rounded or sulcate, culmen. In the Fig. 122. Syndactyle foot. Subfamily ALCEDININ, the bill is compressed, with carinate culmen. The American species all belong here. It is the more particularly piscivorous section; the Daceloninw feed for the most part upon insects, reptiles, and land mollusks. 188 ALCEDINID/, KINGFISHERS.—GEN. 113. 113. Genus CERYLE Boie. ‘Belted Wingfisher. Upper parts, broad pectoral bar, and sides under the wings, dull blue with fine black shaft lines; lower eyelid, spot before eye, a cervical collar and under parts except as said, pure white; the @ with a chestnut belly-band, and the sides of the same color ; quills and tail feathers black, speckled, blotched or barred on the inner webs with white; outer webs of the secondaries and tail feathers like the back; wing coverts frequently sprinkled with white ; bill black, pale at base below; feet dark, tibia naked below; a long, thin, pointed occipital crest ; plumage compact and oily to resist water, into which the birds constantly plunge after their finny prey. Length a foot or more ; wing about 6; tail 34; whole foot 1}; culmen about 24. North America, com- mon everywhere, resident or only forced southward by freezing of the waters. | WWideog inv, GO), jol, 2a), te Ig Iwan. iy BEES YN, ih AO, Hale Zoe Ieions Wiis 5g 2 eALCMON: Cabanis’ Kingfisher. Glossy green; a cervical eatin and the under parts white; ¢ with arufous, 9 with an imperfect, greenish, pectoral bar; quills and tail feathers black, partly like the back, with numerous white spots, mostly paired. Small; about 8; wing 34; tail 23. Valleys of the Rio Grande and Colorado, and southward. Cass., Ill. 255; Bp., 159, and Mex. Bound. Surv. ii, pl. 7; COOP; T3389 Grey te es ete eee PANINI CAN AS ya heme AIR AINSI Fig. 123. Belted Kingfisher. 9. Family CUCULIDA. Cuckoos. Feet zygodactyle by reversion of the fourth toe. This character, in connection with those given below, will answer present purposes ; and in my ignorance of some of the exotic forms, I cannot attempt to give a full diagnosis. The family is a large and important one. It comprehends quite a number of leading forms showing pecuiee minor modifications; these correspond in great measure with certain geographical areas of faunal distribution, and are generally held to constitute subfamilies. Three or four such are confined to America; about twice as many belong exclusively to the Old World; among them are the Cuculince, or typical cuckoos allied to the Euro- pean C. canorus, famous, like our cowbird, for its parasitism. This section com- prehends the great majority of the Old World species; the Couwine are a peculiar Madagascan type; others rest upon a special condition of the claws or plumage. There are about two hundred current species of the family. Ue CUCULID&, CUCKOOS.— GEN. 126, 127. 189 Subfamily CROTOPHAGIN A. Anis. Tail of eight feathers, graduated, longer than the rounded wings. Bill exceed- ingly compressed, the upper mandible rising into a thin vertical crest, the sides usually suleate, the tip deflected. Plumage uniform (black), lustrous, the feathers of the head and neck lengthened, lanceolate, distinct, with scale-like margins ; face naked. Terrestrial. Nest in bushes. One genus, and two or three species, of the warmer parts of America. 126. Genus CROTOPHAGA ITinneseus. Ani. About a foot long; wing 6; tail 8. Florida (and Gulf?) coast, southward; accidental north to Philadelphia. C. ani and C. rugirostris ES ae (tLe) eae ee ere er ae Pca cine eentea SL. oy ose ANTS Subfamily SAUROTHERINE. Ground Cuckoos. Tail of ten feathers, graduated, longer than the short, rounded, concave wings. Bill about as long as the head, compressed, straight at base, tapering, with deflected tip, gently curved culmen, and ample rictus. Feet large and strong, in adaptation to terrestrial life; tarsus longer than the toes, scutellate before and behind. One West Indian genus, Saurophaga, with three or four species, and the following, with one or two :— 127. Genus GEOCOCCYX Wagler. Ground Cuckoo. Chaparral Cock. Road Runner. Snake Miller. Paisano. Most of the feathers of the head and neck bristle-tipped; a naked area around eye; crown crested; plumage coarse. Above, lustrous bronzy green, the crest dark blue, everywhere sharply streaked with whitish or tawny brown; sides and front of the neck tawny, with sharp black streaks ; other under parts dirty white; quills and tail feathers much edged with white; central rectrices like the back, others darker green, violet, etc., with broad white tips. Nearly 2 feet long; tail a foot or | more; wing 6-7 inches; tarsus 2; bill 13. Sexes nearly alike. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Cali- fornia and southward. A bird of remarkable aspect, noted for its swiftness of foot; aided by its wings held as outriggers, it taxes the horse in a race; feeds on reptiles, insects and land mollusks. Cass., Ill. 213, pl. 36; Bp., 73; Coor., 363. . . . . GALIFORNIANUS. Fig. 125. Ground Cuckoo. Subfamily COCCYZIN 4. American Cuckoos. Tail of ten soft feathers, much graduated, little longer than the wings, which are somewhat pointed, although the first and second quills are shortened. Bill > about equalling or rather shorter than the head, stout at base, then much compressed, curved throughout, tapering to a rather acute tip; nostrils basal, inferior, exposed, elliptical; feet comparatively small, the tarsus naked, not longer than the toes. ° 190 CUCULIDH, CUCKOOS.—GEN. 128. _Four or five genera, and perhaps twenty species; none parasitic. Ours are strictly arboricole birds of lithe form, blended plumage and subdued colors; the head is not crested; the tibial feathers are full, as in a hawk; the sexes are alike, and the young scarcely different. In the following, the upper parts are uniform satiny olive-gray, or ‘‘ quaker color,” with bronzy reflections. Migratory, insectivorous ; lay plain greenish eges, in a rude nest of twigs saddled on a branch or in a fork. They are well known inhabitants of our streets and parks as well as of woodland, noted for their loud jerky cries, which they are supposed to utter most frequently in falling weather, whence their popular name, “rain crow.” 128. Genus COCCYZUS Vieillot. Black-billed Cuckoo. Bill blackish except occasionally a trace of yellow- ish below. Below, pure white, sometimes with a faint tawny tinge on the fore parts. Wings with little or no rufous. Lateral tail feathers not con- trasting with the central, their tips for a short distance blackish, then obscurely white. Bare circumocular space red. Length 11-12; wing 5-54; tail 6-64 ; bill under an inch. Eastern U.S. and Canada. Wuts., iv, 16, pl. 28; Nurr., i, 556; Aup., iv, 300, pl. 276; Bp., 77. srRYTHROPHTHALMUS. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. Bill extensively yellow below and on the sides. Below, pure white. Wings extensively cinnamon-rufous on inner webs of the quills. Central tail feathers ul! like the back, the rest black with large white tips, the outermost usually also edged with white. Size of the last. United States, rather more southerly than the last species, and chiefly Eastern; also, Pacific Coast (Cooper, Nuttall). Wus., iv, 13, pl. 28; Nurr., i, 551; Aup., iv, 293, pl. 275; Bp., 76; ) Coop., 371. . . . AMERICANUS. avi) Y * ] n SRE ET ae eee Mangrove Cuckoo. Bill much as in the last. Below, pale orange- brown. Auriculars dark, in contrast. Tail as in the last, but outer feathers not white-edged. Size of the others, or rather less. West Indies and Florida. Nurr., i, 558; Aup., iv, 303; pl. 277; Bp., 78. . smnicunus. Suborder PIOL. Piciform Birds. See p. 179 for characters of this suborder. Family PICIDA!. Woodpeckers. These birds have been specially studied, with more or less gratifying success, by Malherbe, Sundevall and Cassin. There are nearly two hundred and fifty well determined species, of all parts of the world except Madagascar, Australia and Polynesia. Their separation into minor groups has not been agreed upon; our PICIDZ, WOODPECKERS. 191 species are commonly thrown into three divisions, which, however, I shall not present. The ivory-bill and the flicker stand nearly at extremes of the family, the little diversity of which is thereby evident. One of our genera, without very obvious external peculiarities, stands apart from the rest in the character of the tongue— a fact that seems to have escaped general attention. In ordinary Pici the “horns” of the tongue are extraordinarily produced backward, as slender jointed bony rods curling up over the skull behind, between the skin and the bone, to the ‘eyes or even further; these rods are enwrapped in highly developed, specialized muscles, by means of which the birds thrust out the tongue sometimes several inches beyond the bill. This is not the case in Sphyrapicus, where the hyoid cornua do not extend beyond the base of the skull, and the tongue, consequently, is but little more extensible than in ordinary birds. I have determined this by examination of all our species but one, in the flesh. The tongue of Sphyrapicus is beset at the end by numerous brushy filaments, instead of the few acute barbs commonly observed in the family. (See also under gen. 133.) In most of our species the bill is perfectly straight, wide and stout at the base, tapering regularly to a compressed and vertically truncate tip, chisel-like, and strengthened by sharp ridges on the side of the upper mandible — an admirable tool for cutting into trees ; and in all such, the nostrils are hidden by dense tufts of antrorse feathers. In others, like the flicker, the bill is smooth, barely curved, the tip acute and the nostrils exposed. The claws are always large, strong, sharp and much curved; the feet do not present striking modifications, except in the three-toed genus Picoides. The wings offer nothing specially noteworthy, unless it be the shortness of the coverts, in exception to the Picarian rule; and the shortness of the first primary, which may fairly be called spurious. The remarkable character of the tail has been already mentioned. This member offers indispensable assistance in climbing, when the stiff strong quills are pressed against the tree, and form a secure support To this end, the muscles are highly developed, and the last bone (vomer or pygostyle) is large and peculiar in shape. Woodpeckers rarely if ever hang head downward, like Nuthatches, nor are the tarsi applied to their support. Species are abundant in all the wooded portion of this country, and wherever found are nearly resident. For, although insectivorous, they feed principally upon dormant or at least stationary insects, and therefore need not migrate; they are, moreover, hardy birds. They dig insects and their larve out of trees, and are eminently beneficial to the agriculturist and fruit grower. Contrary to a prevalent impression, their boring does not seem to injure fruit trees, which may be riddled with holes without harmful result. The number of noxious insects these birds destroy is simply incalculable ; what little fruit some of them steal is not to be mentioned in the same connection, and they deserve the good will of all. The birds of the genus Sphy- rapicus are probably an exception to most of these statements. Woodpeckers nest in holes in trees, which they excavate for themselves, sometimes to a great depth, and lay numerous rounded pure white eggs, of which the shell has a crystalline texture, on the chips and dust at the bottom of the hole. The voice is loud and harsh, susceptible of little inflection. The plumage as a rule presents bright colors in large areas or in striking contrasts, and is sometimes highly lustrous. The sexes are ordinarily distinguishable by color-markings. Oxss. Campephilus imperialis, the largest and most magnificent bird of the family, inhabiting Central America, has been attributed to the United States, but upon unsatisfactory evidence. (Aup., iv, 213; Cass., 285, pl. 49; Bp., 82.) Dryocopus lineatus, likewise, was improperly introduced by Audubon (iv, 233). 192 PICIDM, WOODPECKERS. —GEN. 129, 130, 1381. 129. Genus CAMPEPHILUS Gray. LIvory-billed Woodpecker. Black; a stripe down the side of the neck, one at base of bill, the scapulars, under wing coverts, and ends of secondaries, ,» white; bill and nasal feathers white; g scarlet-crested ; / Q black-crested. A large, powerful bird of the South ’ Atlantic and Gulf States; about 21 long; wing 10-11; tail 7-8. Whuus., iv, 20, pl. 39, f. 6; Nurt., i, 564; } AuD., iv, 214, pl. 256; Bp., 81. . . . PRINCIPALIS. 130. Genus HYLOTOMUS Baird. Pileated Woodpecker. Black; the head, neck and Fi PT. Iyerenitea Wings much varied with white or pale yellowish ; bill dark ; ood sor & scarlet-crested, scarlet-moustached; @ with the crest half black, half scarlet, and no maxillary patches. Only yielding to the ivory-bill in size; length 15-19 ; wing 83-10; tail 6-7. North America, anywhere, in heavy tim- bere VVAS iv.) Zien ple 2 ore INTs Wy DOR BYTD., yy 2210, jal BIS IDs, WOK. . 46 — iBaLssVAuiuiS. 131. Genus PICUS Linneeus. All the following species are black-and-white, the ¢ with red on the head; and all but the first have numerous, small, round, white spots on the quills. * Body not banded, streaked, nor spotted. White-headed Woodpecker. Uniform black; whole head white, in the g with a scarlet nuchal band; a large patch of white on the wing, commonly resolved into a number of blotches; about 9; wing 5; tail 34. Mountains of California, Oregon and Washington. Cass., Journ. Phila. Acad. 1853, Zl Wl AAS lio, WHR Wicite, pil, Bele Coop., 382. . . . . ALBOLARVATUS. ** Spotted and crosswise banded, but not streaked. R—ed-cockaded Woodpecker. Head black on top, with a large silky white auricular patch embracing the eye and extending on the side of the neck, bordered above in the ¢ by a scarlet stripe not meeting its fellow on the nape; nasal feathers and those on the side of the under jaw white ; black of the crown connected across the lores with a black stripe running from the corner of the bill down the side of the throat and neck to be dissipated on the side of the breast in black Fig. 129. Red-cockaded Woodpecker. > PICIDEH, WOODPECKERS. —GEN. 131. 193 spots continued less thickly along the whole side and on the crissum; under parts otherwise soiled white; central tail feathers black, others white, black- barred ; back and wings barred with black and white, the larger quills and many coverts with the white bars resolved into paired spots; 8-84; extent 14-15; wing 44; tail 34. Pine swamps and barrens of the South Atlantic and Gulf States; North to Pennsylvania. Whuus., ii, 103, pl. 15; Nurr., 1, DU 3) AUD. Iv, 204, pl. 264; Bos, 96. 2. . . BOREALIS. Texan Woodpecker. Crown black, frequently ppeckied with white, in the g the hind head and nape extensively crimson; sides of the head white, with a long black stripe from the bill under the eye, widening behind, there joining a black postocular stripe and spreading over the side of the neck ; nasal feathers usually brown; under parts ranging from soiled white to smoky gray, with numerous black spots on the sides, flanks and crissum ; lateral tail feathers perfectly barred with black and white in equal amounts, the central ones black ; back and wings as in the last species. Small; about 7; wing 33-4; tail under 3; bill 3-§. Southwestern U. S. and southward. JBD., O43 Come, BI 8 2 6 o om © o 5 6 0 6 6 ow MONMNEE Var. NuTTALLU. Rather larger; more white, this rather prevailing on the back over the black bars, the hind neck chiefly white, the nasal tufts white, the lateral tail feathers, especially, sparsely or imperfectly barred. The Californian coast race; Bp., 93; Coop., 378. Picus lucasanus, from Cape St. Lucas, is a local form like nuttallii, with rather larger bill and feet; bill 1 inch. Xawnrus, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1859, 298, 302; Cass., ibid. 1863, 195; Coop., 3881. P. parvus Casor; P. bairdii Sciater; PP. vagatus and orizabe Cassin, all belong to scalaris. *** Spotted and lengthwise streaked, but not banded. + Usually 9-10 long; outer tail feathers wholly white. Hairy Woodpecker. Back black, with a long white stripe; quills and wing coverts with a profusion of white spots; four middle tail feathers black, next pair black and white, next two pair white, as stated; under parts white ; crown and sides of head black, with a white stripe over and behind the eye, another from the nasal feathers running below the eye to spread on the side of the neck, anda scarlet nuchal band in the $, wanting in the 9 ; young with the crown mostly red or bronzy, or even yellowish. Eastern North America, abundant. Wing nearly 5; tail 34; bill 14; whole foot 13. Varies greatly in size, mainly according to latitude. Large whiter northern birds are— P. leucomelas Bopp., Pl. Enlum. 345, f. 1; P. canadensis Gm., i. 437; P. phillipsii Aup., iv, 238, pl. 259 (young with crown yellowish) ; P. septentrionalis Nutv., i, 2d ed. 684 (same); var. major Bp., 84. Ordinary birds are— P. villosus Wis., i, 150, pl. 9; Nurr.,i, 575; Aup., iv, 244, pl. 262; P. martine Aup., iv, 240, pl. 260 (young with crown reddish) ; P. rubricapillus Nurr., i, 2d ed. 685 (same) ; var. medius Bo., 84. Small southern birds are—P. auduboni Swainson, Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 306; P. audubont Truprau, Journ. Phila. Acad. 1837, 404 (young with crown yellowish); Avup., iv, 259, pl. 265; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 684; var. HUUCO Nae De eC ae ie Oe Ee Ss, te Ge Rr, ee | VALLOSUSE KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 25 194 PICIDE, WOODPECKERS. — GEN. 132, 138. Var. uarRisu. Exactly like villosus, excepting fewer wing-spots ; generally none on the coverts and inner quills; with specimens enough we can see the spots disap- pear one by one. Generally white below, but in some regions smoky-gray (a thing not observed in Eastern birds, but apparently due, sometimes at least, to soiling with carbonaceous matter). Rocky Mountains to the Pacific. Avup., iv, 242, pl. 261 (dark- bellied) ; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 627; Bp., 87; Coor., 3875. P. hyloscopus CaBANIs. tt Usually 6-7 long ; outer tail feathers barred with black and white. Downy Woodpecker. Exactly like P. i “\ villosus, except in the above respects; wing Soe DORA CCSD ECKS.: under 4; tail under 3; bill about 3; whole foot 14. Eastern North America, abundant in orchards, and all wooded places. . Wits., i, 153, pl. 9; Nurr., i, 576; Aup., iv, 249, pl. 263; Bp., 89. P. meridionalis Swarys., F. B.-A. ii, 308 (small southern race) ; IZ, GpaonwS Wn, Waid, BO, 5 b 6 o 56 o o 3 5 o o WZSIBIDICINIS, Var. GAIRDNERI. Bearing the same relation to P. pubescens, that harristi does to P. villosus, and inhabiting the same regions; the wing spots few or wanting on the inner quills and the coverts, the belly smoky-gray in some localities. AvD., iv, 252; Bp., 91, pl. 85; Coor., 377. P. meridionalis Nurr., i, 2d ed. 690. 132. Genus PICOIDES Lacepede. *,* Three-toed; the hallux absent. Crown with a yellow patch in the @; sides of head striped, of body barred, with black and white; under parts otherwise white ; quills with white spots; tail feathers unbarred, the outer white, the central black. Length 8-9; wing 43-5; tail 31-4. Black-backed Woodpecker. Back uniform black. Arctic America to the Northern States. Auvp., iv, 266, pl. 268; Nurr., i, 578; Bp., 98; Coopr., 384. P. tridactylus Bonar., Am. Orn. ii, 14, pl. 14, f. 2. . arcoricus. Banded Woodpecker. Back with a white lengthwise stripe, banded with black tips of the feathers. Arctic America into Northern States. P. hir- sutus AUD., iv, 268, pl. 269; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 622; Bp., 98; P. tridactylus Swains., I’. B.-A. ii, 311, pl. 56; P. americanus Coor., 385. AMERICANUS. Var. porsaLis. Back with an uninterrupted white stripe; Bp., 100, pl. 85, f. 1. Rocky Mountain region. *,* All the species of this genus are unquestionably modified derivatives of one circumpolar stock; the American seem to have become completely differentiated from the Asiatic and European, and further divergence seems to have perfectly separated arcticus from americanus; but dorsalis and americanus are still linked together. 133. Genus SPHYRAPICUS Baird. *,.* Tongue not extensible; the tip brushy; hyoid bones short. Birds of this genus feed much upon fruits, as well as insects, and also, it would seem, upon soft inner bark (cambium) ; they injure fruit trees by stripping off the bark, sometimes in large areas, instead of simply boring holes. Of the several small species com- monly called ‘* sapsuckers,” they alone deserve the name. In declaring war against DOs PICIDA, WOODPECKERS. —GEN. 133. 195 woodpeckers, the agriculturist will do well to discriminate between the somewhat injurious and the highly beneticial species. “ellow-bellied Woodpecker. g with the crown crimson, bordered all around with black; chin, throat and breast black, enclosing a large crimson patch on the former (in the g ; in the? this patch white); sides of head with a white line starting from the nasal feathers and dividing the black of the throat from a trans- ocular black stripe, this separated from the black of the crown by a white postocular stripe; all these stripes frequently yellowish; under parts dingy yellow, brown- ish and with sagittate dusky marks on the sides; back variegated with black and yellowish-brown ; wings black with a large oblique white bar on the coverts, the quills with numerous paired white spots on the edge of both webs; tail black, most of the feathers white-edged, the inner webs of the middle pair, and the upper coverts, mostly white. Young birds lack the definite black areas of the head and breast, and the crimson throat-patch, these parts being mottled gray; but in any plumage the bird is recognized by its yellowness, different from what is seen in any other Eastern species, and the broad white wing-bar, to say nothing of the generic characters. About 84; wing 44-5; tail 34. Eastern North America, abundant. Whuts., i, 147, pl. 9, f. 2; Nurr., i, 574; Aup., iv, 263, pl. 26mm DD tee Sta eeeee neon eee ek Se. Os, cs ter Ge er MARIUS Var. NucHALIS. With an additional band of scarlet on the nape, and the throat- patch more extensive; it is often seen in the 9. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, but apparently not exclusively western; Iam informed that birds of this descrip- tion are found in New England. Bp., 103, 897; Coopr., 390. Red-breasted Woodpecker. Exactly like the last, but the whole head, neck and breast carmine red, in both sexes; gray in the young. Size of the last, with which it is said to intergrade, and of which it is apparently only a variety. Pacific Coast, U.S. Aup., iv, 261, pl. 266; Bp., 104; (COOP IO 2 ae ie er eo irs, lial aie 0 We RUBBERS Brown-headed Woodpecker. General plumage closely banded with black and grayish-white; rump white; middle of belly yellow, of breast black ; whole head nearly uniform brown; quills sprinkled with white alone the edges ; tail black with the middle feathers white-barred; 9-94; wing 5 or more; tail 4 or less. Wooded mountainous regions, Pacific slope. Cass., Ill. 200, pl. 82; Bo., 106; Exxtot, pl. 25; Coor., 393. . ‘wTHyYRormpEus. Williamson’s Woodpecker. Glossy black; sides and crissum mixed black and white; belly yellow; rump white; tail black, unmarked; wings black, Fic. 131. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker. 196 PICIDH, WOODPECKERS. —GEN. 134, 135. with a large oblique white bar on the coverts, aud a few white spots on the edges of the quills; throat with a narrow crimson patch (white in the ¢? ?) ; head with a white postocular stripe meeting its fellow on the nape, and another from the nasal feathers to below the auriculars; size of the last. Same habitat. A beautiful species; this, and ‘hyroideus, resemble no others. Tis, MOE Coy, BOBS 4 5 5 6 6 46 6 0 6 5 6 o \WOMUIDI Myon DOT 134, Genus CENTURUS Swainson. *,* Back and wings, except larger quills, closely banded with black and white ; primaries with large white blotches near the base, and usually a few smaller spots ; below, immaculate, except sagittate black marks on the flanks and crissum; the belly tinged with red or yellow; 9-10 long; wing about 5; tail about 33. Led-bellied Woodpecker. Whole crown and nape scarlet in the g, partly so in the 9 ; sides of head and under parts grayish-white, usually with a yellow shade, reddening on the belly; tail black, one or two outer feathers white-barred ; inner web of central feathers white with black spots, outer web of the same black with a white space next the shaft for most of its length; white predominating on the rump. Eastern United States, some- what southerly, rarely N. to New England; common. Wixts., i, 113, pl. 7, fe2 se NUM... sO 2p NUD iver (Os pl. 210k) 9 ie eC AROMINTS: Yellow-faced Woodpecker. Uxtreme forehead and a nuchal band yellow ; crown with a central square crimson patch, wanting in the @ ; rump and upper tail coverts entirely white; tail feathers entirely black, except white touches on the outer pair; lower parts sordid whitish, becoming yellow on the belly. Texas, southward. C. flaviventris Bp., 110, pl. 42; P. aurifrons, WaG Ler, Isis, 1829, 512; Coop., 399. . . oe es CAT RIBRONS: Gila Woodpecker. No yellow about the head; crown with a square crim- son patch, wanting in the @ ; rump and upper tail coverts barred with black ; tail feathers marked as in carolinus; head and under parts dull brown, becoming yellow on the see Valley of the Colorado and Gila. Bp., 111; Bees, BOON Maney tees ou eeaes) Qiu) Gb te he ee UR OPCS 135. Genus MELANERPES Swainson. —ed-headed Woodpecker. Glossy blue-black; rump, secondaries and under parts from the breast, pure white; primaries and tail feathers black ; whole head, neck and breast crimson, in both sexes, grayish-brown in the young; about 9; wing 53; tail 84. Eastern U.S. to the Rocky Mountains ; California? A very Amicon: and familiar bird, in orchards and gardens as well as in the woods, conspicuous by its gay tricolor plumage; migratory in northerly sections. Wus., i, 142, pl. 9,'f. 1; Nurr., i, p. —; Aup., iv, 274, pl. 271; Bp., 118; Coop., 402. . . . . . ERYTHROCEPHALUS. Californian Woodpecker. Glossy blue-black; rump, bases of all the quills, edge of the wing, and under parts from the breast, white, the sides with sparse black streaks ; forehead squarely white, continuous with a stripe down in front of the eyes and thence broadly encircling the throat, there 1-4,Stumella ludoviciana, 5-6, Colaptes auratus ZS '2- Golden-winged Woodpecker. Flicker.> ~ ‘swith black maxillary patches, wanting in the PICIDE, WOODPECKERS.—GEN. 136, 137. 197 becoming yellowish; this cuts off the black around base of bill and on the chin completely ; crown in the 2 crimson from the white front, in the ¢ separated from the white by a black interval; frequently a few red feathers in the black breast-patch, which is not sharply defined behind, but changes by streaks into the white of the belly. Bill black; eyes white, brown in the young, which are not particularly different, but have the head markings less defined. Size of the last. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U. 8., abund- ant; noted for its habit of sticking acorns in little holes that it digs in the bark for the purpose; whole branches are frequently studded in this manner. Cass., Ill. ii, pl. 2; Bp., 114; Coor., 403. . . . . . FORMICIVORUS. Var. aNGustirrons is said to have the white frontal bar narrower and the Dill somewhat differently shaped. Cape St. Lucas. Coor., 405. 136. Genus ASYNDESMUS Coues. Lewis’ Woodpecker. Black, with bronzy-green iridescence ; wings and tail the same, unmarked; face and sides of head dusky crimson; cervical collar and under parts hoary-ash, becoming crimson or bloody-red on the belly; the feathers of these parts of a peculiar loose bristly texture ; sexes alike; young plainer black above, with little or no crimson on face or below. About 11 long; wing 63; tail 4$. Wooded and especially mountainous parts of Western America; a remarkable looking bird. Wus., iii, 31, pl. 20; Nurr., i, 577; Avp., iv, 280, pl. 272; Bp., 115; Cours, Proc. HelilaseAtcade G6. 565 COOP. 406481 5 eo ee 2 ORQUATUS: 137. Genus COLAPTES Swainson. * .* Under parts with numerous circular black spots on a pale ground. A large black pectoral crescent. Rump snowy white. Back, wing coverts and innermost quills brown with an olive or lilac shade, and = thickly barred with black ; quills and tail black, excepting as below stated. About a foot long; wing about 6; tail 41. Wings and tail showing golden-yellow underneath, and the shafts of this color; a scarlet nuchal crescent in both sexes; ¢ @ ; crown and nape ash; chin, throat and breast lilac-brown; sides tinged with creamy brown, and belly with yellowish; shade of the back rather olivaceous. Eastern North America; Alaska (Dall). A very abundant and well known bird. Wits., i, 45, pl. 3, is Le IgM. 4 Hioil 3 AUD., iv, 282, pl. Fic. 132. Golden-winged Woodpecker. 273; Bo., 118. re ee ibe eh seh) aie ee ye a, SRIRAM Gilded Woodpecker. Wings and tail showing golden yellow underneath, ) Net tre WEEE (CC wre ( 198 PSITTACI, PARROTS. and the shafts of this color; no nuchal crescent in either sex; ¢ with scarlet maxillary patches, wanting in the ? ; crown lilac-brown; chin, throat and breast ash; sides tinged with creamy-brown, and belly with yellowish. Colorado Valley, Lower California, and southward. Bop., 125, and Proc. Phila. Acad. 1859, 302; Exutor, pl. 26; Coop., 410. . . CHRYSOIDES. Red-shafted or Mexican Woodpecker. Wings and tail showing orange-red underneath, and the shafts of this color; no nuchal crescent in either sex; g with scarlet maxillary patches, wanting in the 9 ; crown lilac-brown ; chin, throat and breast ash; under parts shaded with lilac-brown; no yellowish on the belly. Western North America, Sitka to Mexico. Avp., iv, 290, pl. 274; Nurt., ii, 603; Bp., 120; Coop., 408. . MEXICANUS. Oxs. It will be noted, how curiously these species are distinguished mainly by a different combination of common characters.— Colaptes ayresii of AuD., vii, 348, pl. 494; C. hybridus of Barrp, 122, is a form from the Missouri region in which the characters of meaicanus and wuwratus are blended in every conceivable degree in different specimens. Perhaps it is a hybrid, and perhaps it is a transitional form. According to Mr. Allen, Florida specimens of awratus sometimes show red touches in the black maxillary patch, as is frequently the case with Kansas examples. Order PSITTACI. Parrots, Feet permanently zygodactyle by reversion of the fourth toe; bill short, extremely stout, strongly epignathous, and furnished with a (frequently feathered) cere, as in the birds of prey; wings and tail variable. The parrots, including the macaws, cockatoos, lories, etc., form one of the most strongly marked groups of birds, as easily recognizable by their peculiar external appearance as defined by the technical points of structure. They were formerly included in an order Scansores on account of the paired toes, but this is a comparatively trivial circumstance ; they have no special affinity with other zygodactyle birds, and their peculiarities entitle them to rank with groups called orders in the present volume. They might not _inaptly be styled frugivorous Raptores; and in some respects they exhibit a vague analogy to the quadrumana (monkeys) among mammals. The upper mandible is much more freely movable than is usual in birds, being articulated instead of suturally joined with the forehead; and the bill is commonly used in climbing. The bony orbits of the eyes are frequently completed by union of the lachrymal bones with postorbital processes. The symphysis of the lower jaw is short and obtuse. The sternum is entire or simply fenestrated posteriorly ; the furculum is weak, sometimes defective, or wanting. The principal metatarsal bone is short and broad, and its lower extremity is modified to suit the position of the fourth toe. The lower larynx is peculiarly constructed, with three pairs of muscles. The plumage shows aftershafts ; the oil gland is often wanting. ‘* Parrots abound in all tropical countries, but, except in Australia and New Zealand, rarely extend into the temperate zone. The Indian and &thiopian regions are poor in parrots, while the Australian is the richest, containing many genera and even whole families peculiar to it” (Newron). The highest authority, Finscn, recognizes 354 species as well-determined, distributing them in 26 genera; 142 are American, 23 African, and 18 Asiatic ; ‘the Moluceas and New Guinea have 83, Australia 59, and Polynesia 29. Ornithologists are now nearly agreed to divide RAPTORES, BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 138. 199 them into 5 families. The curious flightless ground-parrot of New Zealand (Séri- gops habroptilus) forms one of these, Strigopide. ‘The most highly organized group is the Trichoglosside, in which the whole structure is adapted to flower- feeding habits” (WaLuace) ; it belongs to the Australian region. The cockatoos are familiar examples of a third family, Plictolophide, of Australia and the Kast Indies. The great bulk of the order, however, is made up of the other two less specialized and more generally distributed groups, the Psittacide proper, and the Family ARID, of which the macaws (Ara), and the following species, are characteristic examples. 138. Gen. CONURUS Kuhl. Carolina —- Parroquet. Green; head yellow; face red; bill white; feet flesh color ; wings more or less variegated with blue and yellow. Sexes alike. Young simply green. 13 wing 74; tail 6. Southern States; up the Mississippi Valley to the Missouri region; formerly strayed to Pennsylvania and New York, but of late has receded even from the Carolinas; still abundant in Florida. Gregarious, frugivorous and granivorous; not regularly migratory. WILS., ili. 89, pl. 26, f. 1; Nurt., i, 545; Auvp., iv, 306, pl. 278; Bp., 67. CAROLINENSIS. Fia. 133. Carolina Parroquet. Order RAPTORES. Birds of Prey. Bill epignathous, cered; and feet not zygodactyle. The rapacious birds form a perfectly natural assemblage, to which this expression furnishes a clue. The parrots, probably the only other birds with strongly hooked and truly cered bill, are yoke-toed. The Raptores present several osteological and other anatomical peculiarities. There are two carotids; the syrinx, when developed, has but one pair of intrinsic muscles. The alimentary canal varies with the families, but differs from that of vegetarian birds, in adaptation to an exclusively animal diet. In the higher types, the whole structure betokens strength, activity and ferocity, carnivorous propensities and predaceous nature. Most of the smaller, or weaker, species feed much upon insects; others more particularly upon reptiles, and fish ; others upon carrion; but the majority prey upon other birds, and small mammals, captured in open warfare. Representatives of the order are found in every part of the world. They are divisible into four families. One of these, Gypogeranide, consists of the single remarkable species Gypogeranus serpentarius, the secretary- bird or serpent-eater of Africa; this shows a curious grallatorial analogy, being 200 STRIGIDH, OWLS. mounted on long legs, like a crane, and has several other more important structural modifications. The other three families occur in this country; and the following accounts are sufliciently explicit to illustrate the order, without further remark in this connection. Family STRIGIDA. Owls. Head very large, and especially broad from side to side, but shortened length- wise, the ‘“‘face” thus formed further defined by a more or less complete ‘‘ruff,” or circlet of radiating feathers of peculiar texture, on each side. Eyes very large, looking more or less directly forward, set ina circlet of radiating bristly feathers, and overarched by a superciliary shield. External ears extremely large, often pro- vided with an operculum or movable flap, presenting the nearest approach, among birds, to the ear-conch of mammals. Bill shaped much as in other ordinary rapa- cious birds, but thickly beset at base with close-pressed antrorse bristly feathers. Nostrils large, commonly opening at the edge of the cere rather than entirely in its substance. Hallux of average length, not obviously elevated in any case; outer toe more or less perfectly versatile (but never permanently reversed), and shorter than the inner toe. Claws all very long, much curved and extremely sharp, that of the middle toe pectinate in some species. As arule, the tarsi are more or less completely feathered, and the whole foot is often thus covered. Among numerous osteological characters may be mentioned the wide separation of the inner and outer tablets of the brain case by intervention of light spongy diploe; the commonly 4-notched sternum, and a peculiar structure of the tarso-metatarsus. The gullet is capacious but not dilated into a special crop; the gizzard is only moderately muscular; the intestines are short and wide; the cceca are extremely long and club-shaped. The syrinx has one pair of intrinsic muscles. The feathers have no aftershaft, and the general plumage is very soft and blended. The Nocturnal Birds of Prey will be immediately recognized by their peculiar physiognomy, independently of the technical characters that mark them as a natural, sharply defined family. They are a highly monomorphic group, without extremes of aberrant form; but the ease with which they are collectively defined is a measure of the difficulty of their rigid subdivision, and the subfamilies are not yet satis- factorily determined. Too much stress appears to have been laid upon the trivial, although evident, circumstance of presence or absence of the peculiar ear-tufts that many species possess: more reliable characters may probably be drawn from the structure of the external ear, and facial disk, the modifications of which appear to bear directly upon mode of life, these parts being as a rule most highly developed in the more nocturnal species ; while some points of internal structure may yet be found correspondent. One group, of which the barn owl, Strix jlammea, is the type, seems very distinct in the angular contour and high development of the facial disk, pectination of the middle claw, and other characters; and probably the rest of the family fall in two other groups; but I do not deem it expedient to present subfamilies on this occasion. As is well known, owls are eminently nocturnal birds; but to this rule there are numerous striking exceptions. This general habit is correspondent to the modifi- cation of the eyes, the size and structure of which enable the birds to see by night, and cause them to suffer from the glare of the sunlight. Most species pass the daytime secreted in hollow trees, or dense foliage and other dusky retreats, resuming their wonted activity after nightfall. Owing to the peculiar texture of the plumage STRIGIDE, OWLS.—GEN. 139. 201 their flight is perfectly noiseless, like the mincing steps of a cat; and no entirely fanciful analogy has been drawn between these birds and the feline carnivora that chiefly prey stealthily in the dark. Owls feed entirely upon animal substances, and capture their prey alive —small quadrupeds and birds, reptiles and insects, and even fish. Like most other Raptores, they eject from the mouth, after a meal, the bones, hair, feathers and other indigestible substances, made up into a round pellet. They are noted for their loud outeries, so strange and often so lugubrious, that it is no wonder that traditional superstition places these dismal night birds in the category of things ill-omened. The nest is commonly a rude affair of sticks gathered in the various places of diurnal resort; the eggs are several (commonly 3-6), white, sub- spherical. The female, as a rule, is larger than the male, but the sexes are alike in color; the coloration is commonly blended and diffuse, difficult of concise description. Owls are among the most completely cosmopolitan of birds; with minor modifi- cations according to circumstances, their general habits are much the same the world over. A difficulty of correctly estimating the number of species arises from the fact that many, especially of the more generalized types, have a wide geograph- ical distribution, and, as in nearly all such cases, they split into more or less easily recognized races, the interpretation of which is at present a matter of opinion rather than a settled issue. About 200 species pass current ; this number must be reduced by one-third; out of about 50 generic names now in vogue, probably less than one-half represent some structural peculiarity. Notable exotic genera are the Japanese Phodilus (P. badius), an ally of Strix proper; the Asiatic Aetupa; and the extensively distributed Old World Athene, in its broad acceptation. Fic. 134. Foot of Barn Owl. 139. Genus STRIX Linnzeus. Barn Owl. Tawny, or fulvous-brown, delicately clouded or marbled with ashy and white, and speckled with brownish-black ; below, a varying shade from nearly pure white to fulvous, with sparse sharp blackish speckling ; face white to purplish-brown, darker or black about the eyes, the disk bordered with dark brown; wings and tail barred with brown, and finely mottled like the back; bill whitish; toes yellowish. Facial disk highly developed, not circular; no tufts; ears very large, operculate ; tarsi long, scant-feathered, below bristly, like the nearly naked toes; middle claw usually found serrate or at least jagged; plumage very downy. 9 17 long; wing 13; tail 54; g rather less. U.5S., Atlantic to Pacific, southerly ; rare in the interior, Ki ON, Av BIRDS. 126 202 STRIGIDZ, OWLS.—GEN. 140, 141. rarely N. to New England. Wits., vi, 57, pl. 50, f. 2; Nuar., i, 1389; Aun., i, 127, pl. 84; Cass. in Bp., 47; Coor., 415. FLAMMBA var. AMERICANA. 140. Genus BUBO Cuvier. Great Horned Owl. Distinguished by its large size, in connection with the conspicuous ear-tufts: the other species of similar dimensions are tuft- less. The plumage varies interminably, and no concise description will meet all its phases; it is a variegation of blackish, with dark and light brown, and fulvous. A white collar is the most constant color- mark. Var. arcticus is the northern bird, very light colored, and frequently nearly white, like the snowy owl, in arctic speci- mens. Var. pacificus is a littoral form, very dark colored, with little fulvous, “extending from Oregon northward, coastwise, to Labrador.” (idgway.) Facial disks complete; car non-opercu- late; feet entirely feathered. Length about 2 feet, rather less than more; wing 14-16 inches; tail 9-10. This powerful bird, only yielding to the great gray owl in size, and to none in spirit, is a common Se er inhabitant of North America at large; not migratory ; breeds in late winter and early spring months, building a large nest of sticks, on the branches or in the hollows of trees; eggs white, nearly spherical, 24 by 1%. Wues., vii, 52, pl. 50, f. 1; Nurr., i, 124; Auvp., i, 143, pl. 39; Cass. in Bp., 49; Coor., 418. . . VIRGINIANUS. 141. Genus SCOPS Savigny. * Toes bristly. Screech Owl. Red Owl. Mottled Owl. Like a miniature Bwbo in form ; 8 or 10 inches long; wing 6-7; tail 8-35. One plumage :— General aspect gray, paler or whitish below, above speckled with blackish, below patched with the same; wings and tail dark-barred ; usually a lightish scapular area. Another : — General aspect brownish-red, with sharp black streaks; below, rufous-white, variegated ; quills and tail with rufous and dark bars. These plumages shade insensibly into each other, and it has been determined that they bear no definite relations to age, sex, or season. Parallel varia- tions occur in some other species. North America at large; one of the most abundant species. WIts., ili, 16, pl. 19, f. 1; v, 83, pl. 42, f. 1; Nourt., i, 120; Aup., i, 147, pl. 40; Cass. in Bp., 51; Coor., 420. asro. A | cS. STRIGIDE, OWLS. —GEN. 142. 203 Var. KENNICOTTII. Large dark north-western form; general color sepia-brown, mottled and blotched with black; 11; wing 7}; tail 4. Alaska to Washington and Idaho; three specimens known. Ex.ior, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1867, 69; Ib., pl. 27; Bp., Trans. Chicago Acad. 1869, 311; Coop., 423. Var. maccatii. Small, pale, southern form; size at the minimum above given. Southwestern United States. Cass., Ill. 180, and in Bp., 52. Frc. 136. Screech Owl. ** Toes perfectly naked. ‘ ) Flammulated Owl. Above, grayish-brown, obscurely streaked with black, ‘and finely speckled with white; below, erayish-white with some rufous mottling, each feather with a shaft streak, and several cross-lines, of black ; face and ruff varied with rufous; edges of the scapulars the same, forming a noticeable oblique bar; wing coverts tipped, and outer webs of the quills squarely spotted, with white, or rufous-white, and tail feathers imperfectly barred with the same. 63-7; wing 54-53; tail 24. A small owl with the form and much the general aspect of an ungrown S. asio, but the feathering of the feet stops abruptly at the toes. Mexico; North to Fort Crook, California, whére found breeding (/eilne). Scu., Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858, 96; Scu. and Sanv., ibid. 1868, 57, and Exotic Ornithology, vii, 68, 99, DIO; MCOOP tele 2 meerese ett. os se Ge) se) FPRAMMEODA: 142. Genus OTUS Cuvier. Long-eared Owl. General plumage above, a variegation of dark brown, fulvous and whitish, in a small pattern; breast more fulvous, belly whiter, former sharply striped, and latter striped and elaborately barred, with black- ish; quills and tail mottled and closely barred with fulvous and dark brown ;_ face pale, with black touches and eye patches; bill and claws blackish. 204 STRIGIDA, OWLS. —GEN. 143, 144. Tufts long and conspicuous, of 8-12 feathers; ear parts immense, with a semicircular flap; facial disk complete; tarsi and toes feathered. 14-15 long; wing 11-12; tail 5-6. Temperate North America, common. WILs., vi, (3, pl. 51, f. 3; Nur, i, 180; Aun 1,136, loi OAssemim esi 53> Coop., 426. 2 2 2) 3 ee VULGARIS) Val WALSONDAN USE 143. Genus BRACHYOTUS Gould. Short-eared Owl. Fulvous or bufiy-brown, paler or whitey-brown below ; breast and upper parts broadly and thickly streaked with dark brown, belly usually sparsely streaked with the same, but not barred crosswise; quills and tail buff, with few dark bands, and mottling; facial area, legs and cris- sum pale, unmarked; eye patch blackish. With the size and form of the last species, but readily seen to be different; ear tufts small and inconspicuous, few-feathered. Temperate North America, abundant; not appreciably different from the European. Wits., iv, 64, pl. 33, f. 38; Nurr., i, 132; Auvp., i, 140, pl. 88; Cass. in Bp., 54; Coop., 427. . . . PALUSTRIS. 144. Genus SYRNIUM Savigny. *.* Large owls, without ear-tufts, the facial disks complete and of great extent, the eyes comparatively small, the ear parts moderate, operculate, the tarsi and toes fully feathered. Great Gray Owl. Aldove, cinereous-brown, mottled in waves with cine- reous-white ; below, these colors rather paler, disposed in streaks on the breast, in bars elsewhere; quills and tail with five or six darker and lighter bars; the great disk similarly marked in regular concentric rings. An immense owl, one of the largest of all, much exceeding any other of this country ; about 24 feet long, the wing 14, the tail a foot or more. Arctic Am., irregularly 5. into the northern U.S. in winter. Bonap., Am. Orn. pl. 23, f. 2; Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 77, pl. 31; Avun., 1, 130; pl. 35; Noutr., i, 128; Cass. in Bp., 56; Coor., 433. LAPPONICUM Var. CINEREUM. Barred Owl. Adove, cinereous-brown, barred with white, often tinged with fulvous; below, similar, paler, the markings in Ja7s on the breast, in streaks elsewhere; quills and tail feathers barred with brown and white with an ashy or fulvous tinge. Length about 18; wing 138-14; tail 9. Eastern North America, common. WILs., iv, 61, oils Gialy 1B WNiohiite, ty WSs Alioie).4 iy I, qpll, BG's Cass. in Bp., 56; Coor., 481. . . NEBULOSUM. Western Barred Ovwl. resembling the last, but easily distinguished: general color warm Fic. 137. Barred Owl. brown; the white bars above broken into spots particularly towards and on the head; below, the markings in bars every- where; wings and tail closely barred. Fort Tejon, Cala.; one specimen known. Xawnrus, Proce. Phila. Acad.-1859, 193; Bp., B. N. A. 1860, p. vy, pl. 66 (not in the Government edition) ; Coop., 430. . OccIDENTALE. HN ae) 4 “above, more or less thickly speckled STRIGIDH, OWLS.—GEN. 145, 146, 147. 205 145. Genus NYCTEA Stephens. Snowy Owl. Pure white, with more or fewer blackish markings. Nearly 2 feet long; wing 17 inches; tail 10. Head smooth; facial disks incomplete ; eyes and ear parts moder- ate; feet densely clothed. This remark- able owl, conspicuous both in size and color, inhabits the boreal regions of both continents, coming southward in winter ; it ordinarily enters the United States, and in extreme cases ranges ivregularly through most of the States. It is not by any means exclusively nocturnal. Witton IN OBL, jolls BA, i Ig INiwateG Ty 116; Aup., i, 113, pl. 28; Cass. in Bp., (om) 8 (Crore 5 Mn 5 5 Om NIOVNG 146. Genus SURNIA Dumeril. Hawk Owl. Day Owl. Dark brown with white; below, closely barred with brown and whitish, the throat alone streaked; quills and tail with numerous white bars; face ashy, margined with black. Length about 16 inches; wing 9; tail 7, graduated, the lateral feathers 2 inches shorter than the central. Except in the length of its tail, which produces linear measurements unusual for a bird of its bulk in this family, its general form is that of the snowy owl. Like that species, it is a bird of Arctic regions, coming southward in winter, but its range is more restricted, rarely extending to the Middle States. It is the most diurnal bird of the family, ranging abroad at all times, and approaches a hawk more nearly than any other. Wauts., vi, 64, pl. 50, f.6; Nurr., i, 115; Aup., i, 112, pl. 27; Cass. in Bp., 64; Coor., 448. ULULA var. HUDSONICA. Fig. 138. Snowy Owl. 147. Genus NYCTALE Brehm. * Small owls with the head untufted, the facial disks complete, the ears opercu- late, the tarsus longer than the middle toe, the tail nearly even, the 5d quill longest, the first 5 emarginate; color above chocolate-brown, spotted with white, the tail with transverse white bars; the acdwlé with the facial area and forehead variegated with white, the face and superciliary line grayish-white, the lower parts white with spots or streaks of the color of the back; the young with the facial area and fore- head dark brown, the face dusky, the eyebrows pure white, the lower parts brown, paler on the belly, unmarked. (See Ripaway, Am. Nat. vi, 284.) Tenginalm’s Owl. Large; wing 74; tail 44, thus more than half the wing. Bill yellow, the cere not tumid, the nostrils presenting laterally, and obliquely oval. Arctic America, south to the borders of the United States. raed GEN. 148. 206 STRIGIDA, OWLS. Strix tengmalmi Aup., Orn. Biog. iv, 559, pl. 380; B. Am. i, 122, pl. 32. Nyctale richardsoni Cass. in Bpo., 57. According to Mr. Ridgway, the American bird is a distinguishable variety, being darker, the dark areas larger, legs speckled instead of plain, etc. TENGMALMII var. RICHARDSONII. Acadian Owl. Saw-whet Owl. Small; wing 53; tail 23, thus not more than half the wing. Bill black, the cere tumid, the circular nostrils pre- senting anteriorly. United States and somewhat northward; Mexico. Common. Myctale albifrons Cass. in Bp., 57, and Ill. 187; Coop., 435; N. kirtlandti Hoy, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1852, 210; Cass., Ill. 63, pl. 11; Strix frontalis Licur.; these are the young. Strix passerina WILS., iv, 66, pl. 84, f. 1; Strix acadica Nurr., i, 187; Ulula acadica Aun., i, 123, pl. 83; WV. acadica Cass. in Bp., 58; Coop., 4386. . . . . ACADICA. 148. Genus GLAUCIDIUM Wagler. *.* Very small; head untufted ; facial disk nearly obsolete; ear parts moderate ; tarsus fully feathered, toes thickly bristled; wings short and much rounded, 4th quill longest, the 38 outer ones emarginate; tail rather long, even; claws strong, sharp, much curved. Pygmy Owl. Above, uniform brown, everywhere dotted with small round white spots, and with a collar of mixed white and blackish around the back of the neck; breast with a mottled brown band separating the white throat from the rest of the white under parts, which all have lengthwise reddish-brown streaks ; wings and tail dusky brown with round white spots on both webs, largest on the inner; under wing coverts white with black marks disposed in an oblique bar. ¢ 7, or a little less; extent 14$; wing 32; tail 8; 9 larger; 74, extent 153, ete. Iris and soles yellow; toes above, bill and cere, greenish-yellow. The shade of the upper parts ranges from pure deep brown to pale grayish-brown, sometimes with a slight oliva- ceous shade. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U. S., common; a crepus- cularand rather diurnal than strictly nocturnal species. Surnia passerinoides Aub., i, 117, pl. 80. G. infuscatum Cass., Ill. 189; G. gnoma Cass. in Bp., 62; Coop., 444. . . . . . +. PASSERINUM var. CALLFORNICUM. Ferrugineous Owl. With the size, shape, and somewhat the coloration of the foregoing, but readily distinguished: under parts and nuchal collar much the same, but the former usually with a rusty tinge; upper parts ranging from the color of gnoma to a rusty-red (the variation nearly as great us in the two plumages of Scops asio), not continuously speckled, the whitish or ochrey spots mostly confined to the wing coverts and scapulars, those of the crown lengthened into sharp streaks; spots on the quills enlarged into bars nearly confluent from one web to the other, rusty or ashy next the shafts, white or tawny on the edges of the feathers, especially the inner; tail in both plumages alike closely and continuously barred with brown and rusty-red (same as the color of the upper parts in the red plumage, conspicuously different in the gray plumage), the latter sometimes fading on the inner webs. South and Central America and Mexico to the STRIGIDH, OWLS.—GEN. 149, 150. 207 U.S. border; Arizona (Bendire). Covers, Am. Nat. vi, 370. (Described from extra-limital specimens, No. 58,229, Mazatlan, and 43,055, Costa Rica, transmitted by the Smithsonian for the purpose.) . . . FERRUGINEUM. 149. Genus MICRATHENE Coues. Whitney's Owl. Above light brown, thickly dotted with angular paler brown marks, the back also obsoletely marbled with darker; a concealed white cervical collar, forming a bar across the middle of the feathers, which are plumbeous at base and brown at tip; quills with 3-6 spots on each web, white on the inner webs of all and outer webs of several, brown on the rest ; coverts with two rows of white spots, brown spots intervening; outer secondaries with a few white spots, and scapulars showing a white stripe ; lower wing coverts tawny white, with a dark brown patch; other wing- feathers dark brown with pale ashy dots near the ends of the secondaries ; tail feathers with light spots forming five broken bars, and a narrow terminal bar; feathers over eyes white, with black-spotted shaft; under eyes light brown obsoletely barred with darker; bristles about the bill black on their terminal half; chin and throat white, becoming light brown below, the white forming a broad crescent; sides of neck narrowly barred with ashy and brown, and breast imperfectly barred and blotched with the same, towards the abdomen forming large patches, margined with gray and white ; tibie narrowly barred with light and dark brown; tarsal bristles whitish; Dill pale greenish; iris and soles yellow. Length 64; extent 154; wing 43; tail 24; gape of bill $; bill 4 high, 2 wide at base. Facial disk imperfect ; no ear tufts; wings very long, but rounded; 3d and 4th quills longest, 2d equal to 6th, Ist 3 the 3d; tail nearly even, with broad-tipped feathers ; tarsus nearly bare of feathers, sparsely bristly, like the toes; middle toe and claw about as long as the tarsus; claws remarkably small, weak, and little curved. Colorado Valley and southward (Fort Mojave, Cooper; Southern Arizona, Bendire; Mazatlan and Socorro, Grayson). A diminutive owl of remarkable characters, only lately discovered. Cooper, Proc. Cala. Acad. 1861, 118, and B. Cal. 442; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 51; Lawr., Proc. Bost. Soc. 1871, p.—; Enutor, pl. 29. . . . . . WHITNeyt. 150. Genus SPHEOTYTO Gloger. Burrowing Owl. Above, grayish-brown, with white, black-edged spots ; below, tawny-whitish, variegated with reddish-brown, chiefly disposed in bars; face and throat whitish; crissum and legs mostly unmarked; quills with numerous paired tawny-white spots, and tail feathers barred with the same; bill grayish-yellow; claws black. 9-10 long; wing 64-74; tail 34-4. No tufts; facial disk imperfect; tarsi very long, extensively denuded, bristly like the toes. Prairies and other open portions of the United States west of the Mississippi, abundant; lives in holes in the ground, in prairie- dog towns, and the settlements of other burrowing animals, using their deserted holes for its nesting place. There is certainly but one species in this 208 FALCONIDA, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. country ; it is merely a variety of the 8. American bird. Bonar., Am. Orn. pl. 7, f.2; Nurr., i, 118; Aup., i, 119, pl. 831; Athene hypogea and A. cunic- ularia Cass. in Bp., 59, 60; Coor., 437,440. CUNICULARIA var. HYPOGHA. Family FALCONIDA. Diurnal Birds of Prey. Comprising the great bulk of the order, this large family may be best defined by _exclusion of the special features marking the others. There is nothing of the erallatorial analogy exhibited by the singular Gypogerunide ; the nostrils are not completely pervious, nor the hind toe obviously elevated, as in Cathartide, and other peculiarities of the American vultures are not shown. Comparing with the owls, we miss their peculiar physiognomy, the eyes looking laterally as in ordinary birds, the disk wanting (except in the Circus group, where it is imperfect), the after- shaft present (except in Pundion), the outer toe not versatile (except in Pandion), and not shorter than the inner. The external ears are moderate and non-operculate. The eyes, as arule (but not always), are sunken beneath a projecting superciliary shelf, conferring a decided and threatening gaze. The bill shows the raptorial type in its perfection, and is always furnished with a cere in which the nostrils are pierced. The lores, with occasional exceptions owing to nakedness or dense soft feathering, are scantily clothed with radiating bristles, which however do not form, as in the owls, a dense appressed mass hiding the base of the bill. The feet are strong, with widely separable and highly contractile toes, and large sharp curved efficient instruments of prehension, offence and defence. The toes are generally scabrous underneath, with wart-like pads at the joints, to prevent slipping, and commonly show a basal web. The podotheca is very variable; the whole tarsus is frequently feathered, and usually partially so; the horny covering takes claws the form of scutella, or reticulations, or rugous granulations, and is occasionally fused. The capacious gullet dilates into a crop ; the gizzard is moderately muscular ; the intestines vary; the coca are extremely smnmall. The syrinx has one pair of intrinsic muscles. There are several good osteological characters. Birds of this family abound in all parts of the world, and hold the relation to the rest of their class that the carnivorous beasts do to other mammals. There are upwards of 300 good species or very strongly marked geographical races, justly referable to about 50 full genera. In round numbers, 1,000 specific and 200 generic names have been instituted for Fulconide. No unexceptionable sub- division of the family has yet been proposed; and as this point is still at issue, I deem it best not to present subfamilies. Instead of an attempt in this direction, which would necessarily be premature, I will endeavor to give the student a general idea of the composition of the family. 1. The Old World vultures form a group standing somewhat apart from the others in many points of external structure and habits, although correspondent in more essential characters. Until Prof. Tuxley’s successful exhibition of this fact, they were usually united in a family, Vultuwride, with the American vultures, from which, however, they differ decidedly, as stated beyond. It is a small group of six genera and about twelve species. The bearded griffin, Gypactus barbatus, is conspic- uous for its raptorial nature. The other genera, more or less decidedly “ vulturine,” are Vultur, Otogyps, Gyps, Neophron and Gypohierax; the characteristic species are —V. monachus, O. wuricularis, G. fulvus, N. percnopterus and G. angolensis. 2. The genus Polyborus (beyond), illustrates a small group of hawks partaking FALCONID@, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 209 somewhat of a vulturine nature; they feed much upon carrion, are rather sluggish in habit, and lack the spirit of the typical hawks. Details of form vary in the three genera Polyborus, Ibycter, and Milvago. There are less than twelve species, all confined to America. 3. The harriers are another small group, in which a ruff, forming an imperfect facial disk, as in the owls, is more or less developed. It consists of the genus Circus and its subdivisions (to which some add Polyboroides, of Africa), comprising about fifteen species of various parts of the world. Our species is a typical example. 4. The fish-hardks, of the single genus Pandion, with four or five species or races of various parts of the world, are remarkably distinguished from other birds of the family by the lack of aftershafts, a special tgact-formation, a peculiar conformation of the feet, and other characters as noticed further on. 5. The genus Pernis is distinguished from ordinary Falconide, in having the whole head softly and densely feathered. P. apivorus, the bee-eating hawk of Europe, is the type. It approaches the kites. 6. The kites form a rather extensive group of hawks averaging undersized and of no great strength, though very active, generally of lithe and graceful shape, with long pointed wings and often forked tail. They subsist on small game, especially insects, which they capture with great address. The eye is commonly unshielded. Besides the genera given beyond, there are several others: Milvus, near which our Nauclerus stands, of Europe and Asia; the Indian and East Indian Baza, the African Aviceda, and the remarkable Machaerhamphus of Africa and Malacca; with the American Cymindis, and Gampsonyx. There are some thirty species of the group as thus constituted; but some of the genera are questionably enumerated here. Milvus, Nauclerus, Hlanus and Ictinia are true kites. 7. The buzzards form a large group, not easily defined, however, unless it be by exclusion of the peculiarities of the others. They are hawks of medium and rather large size, heavy-bodied, of strong but rather measured flight, inferior in spirit to the true hawks and falcons, and as a rule feed upon humble game, which they rather snatch stealthily than capture in open piracy. The extensive genus Buteo with its subdivisions, and its companion Archibuteo, typify the buzzards ; they include, however, a variety of forms, shading into other groups. With them must be associated the eagles ; for the popular estimate of these famous’great birds as something remarkably different from ordinary hawks is not confirmed by exam- ination of their structure, which is essentially the same as that of the buzzards, into which they grade. Although usually of large size, and powerful physique, they are far below the smallest falcons in raptorial character, prey like the buzzards, and often stoop to carrion. The genus Aquila may stand as the type of an eagle; its several species are confined to the Old World, with one exception. Haliaétus rep- resents a decided modification in adaptation to maritime and piscivorous habits. A celebrated bird of this group is the harpy eagle of South America, Thrasiaetus harpyia, with immense bill and feet, and one of the most powerful birds of the whole family. There are several other genera in either hemisphere. 8. The hawks proper are another extensive group, of medium sized and small species, which, although less powerfully organized, are little, if any, inferior in spirit and relative strength to the true falcons. ‘Their flight is swift, they capture their prey in active chase like hounds, and always kill for themselves. The wings are rather short, as a rule, with the tip formed by the 3d—5th quills, the 2d and ist being shortened; the tail is generally lengthened. The eye is shaded by a bony brow. KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 27 210 FALCONIDZE, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 151. The genera Astur and Accipiter are perfect illustrations of this group; the several other genera usually adopted are not very different. There appear to be about seventy-five species, of most parts of the world. 9. Lastly, the true falcons are prominently distinguished by the presence of a tooth behind a notch of the upper mandible, in the foregoing birds the tomia being simply lobed or festooned, or merely arched. ‘The falcons are birds of medium and small size (one of them is not larger than some sparrows), but extremely compact and powerful organization, and bold ruthless disposition; they prey by sudden and violent assault, and exhibit the raptorial nature in its perfection. The wings are strong, long and pointed, the tip formed by the 2d and 3d quills supported nearly to the end by the 1st and 4th; the tail is generally short and stiff. The typical and principal genus is Falco, of which there are, however, several subdivisions corres- ponding to minor modifications. The Australian Jeracidea, the East Indian Jerax, and the Brazilian Harpagus, which is doubly-toothed, are the principal other forms. There are upwards of fifty species of true falcons. With many exceptions, in this family the sexes are alike in color, but the female is almost invariably larger than the male. The changes of plumage with age are great, and render the determination of the species perplexing —the more so since purely individual, and somewhat climatic, color-variations, and such special condi- tions as melanism, are very frequent. ‘The modes of nesting are various; the eggs as a rule are blotched, and not so nearly spherical as those of owls. The food is exclusively of an animal nature, though endlessly varied; the refuse of digestion is ejected in a ball by the mouth. The voice is loud and harsh. Asa rule, the birds of prey are not strictly migratory, though many of them change their abode with much regularity. Their mode of life necessarily renders them non-gregarious. In the following sequence of our genera, the student will observe an attempt to indicate affinities not only in the family itself, but with allied families, by the central position of the typical Falco, the series beginning with the most owl- like form, and ending with the vulturine buzzards. But it is hoped that he will detect the imperfection of the arrangement, and that his studies will soon convince him of the impossibility of expressing natural relationships in any linear series. With this hint, the inviting problem is left open to stimulate investigation. 151. Genus CIRCUS Lacepede. Marsh Harrier. Adult g pale bluish-ash, nearly unvaried, whitening below and on upper tail coverts; quills blackish toward the end; 16-18; wing 14-15; tail 8-9; 9 larger, above dark brown streaked with reddish-brown, below the reverse of this; tail banded with these colors ; the immature ¢ is like the @, though redder, but in any plumage the bird is known by its white upper tail coverts, and generic charac- ters: face with ruffs ; wings, tail and tarsi very Fig. 139. Marsh Harvier. long, the latter scutellate before and behind, and twice as long as the middle toe ; nostrils oval, ete. North America, abund- ant. Nests on the ground. Wits., vi, 67, pl. 51, f.2; Nurr.,i, 109; Aup., i, 105, pl. 26; Cass. in Bp, 88; Coop., 489. . CYANEUS var. HUDSONIUS. FALCONID/, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 152-156. 211 152. Genus ROSTRHAMUS Lesson. Everglade Hite. Adult g blackish; coverts and base of tail feathers white ; cere and feet yellow; bill and claws black; iris red; 16-18; wing 134-154; tail 64-74, emarginate; bill about 1, eatremely slender and with a long hook; tarsi scutellate in front, the bare part shorter than the middle toe; claws very long, gently curved. 9 and young brown, more or less variegated with fulvous and whitish. Florida, and southward. Cass. in Bp., 38; Maynarp, Birds of Florida, pls. i, v (in press; best account of the lowe! GEN). « 5» o o o 0 56 o a 6 5 o0 no 0 oo SOLU SCOTS 153. Genus ICTINIA Vieillot. Mississippi Hite. Plumbeous, paler on the head and under parts, black- ening on wings and tail; quills suffused with rich chestnut; sexes alike ; young varied with rusty and whitish; 14-15; wing 11-12, pointed; tail 6-64, nearly square. Bill very short and deep, the commissure with promi- nent festoon; nostrils small, circular; tarsus short, scutellate anteriorly ; outer and middle toe webbed; claws short, stout, flattened beneath. S. At- lantic and Gulf States, N. to Illinois (fidgway). W4uxs., iii, 80, pl. 25, f.1; Nurr.,i,92; Aup.,i, 73, pl. 17; Cass. in Bp., 37. MISSISSIPPIENSIS. 154. Genus ELANUS Savigny. White-tailed Hite. Black-shouldered Mite. Head, tail and under parts white ; back cinereous; most of the wing coverts black; bill black; legs yellow; young variegated with brown above, the head and tail ashy. Rather larger than the last ; nostrils nearly circular; tarsi reticulate, feathered above in front; outer toe scarcely webbed; claws rounded underneath; tail emar- ginate, but outer feather shorter than the next. South Atlantic and Gulf States, California, and southward, chiefly coastwise. Nurr., i, 93; Aup., i, 70, pl. 16; Cass. in Bp., 87; Coop., 488. . . . . . . LEUCURUS. 155. Genus NAUCLERUS Vigors. Swallow-tailed Hite. WHead, neck and under parts, white; back, wings and tail, lustrous black. ‘Tail a foot or more long, deeply forficate ; wing 15-18, pointed; feet small, greenish-blue; claws pale; tarsi reticulate and feathered half way down in front; toes hardly webbed ; nostrils broadly oval. A beautiful bird, common in the South Atlantic and. Gulf States, in its extensive wanderings sometimes reaching the Middle districts, and in the interior penetrating to Wisconsin (Hoy), Missouri (Cowes) and even Min- nesota (lat. 47°; Zrippe). Wus., vi, 70, pl. 51, f.3; Nurr., i, 95; Avp., Pei tpelomMCASs NED WO0aa ces a. 5 . oe en RURCATUS. 156. Genus ACCIPITER Brisson. *,* Tarsus feathered but little way down in front (in gen. 157 the feathering reaches half way to the toes) ; toes long, slender, much webbed at base and padded S- 212 FALCONID&, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 156, 157. underneath ; height of bill at base greater than chord of culmen; 4th quill longest, 2d shorter than 6th, 1st very short. The two following species are exactly alike in color; one is a miniature of the other. The ordinary plumage is dark brown above (deepest on the head, the occipital feathers showing white when disturbed) with an ashy or plumbeous shade which increases with age, till the general cast is quite bluish-ash ; below, white or whitish, variously streaked with dark brown and rusty, finally changing to brownish-red (palest behind and slightly ashy across the breast) with the white then only showing in narrow cross-bars; chin, throat and crissum mostly white with blackish pencilling ; wings and tail barred with ashy and brown or blackish, the quills white-barred basally, the tail whitish-tipped; bill dark; claws black; cere and feet yellow. Sharp-shinned Hawk. “ Pigeon Hawk.” Feet extremely slender; bare portion of tarsus longer than middle toe; scutella frequently fused; tail square. g 10-12; wing 6-7; tail5-6. 9 12-14; wing 7-8; tail 6-7. Whole foot 34 or less. x by North America, abund- f Ny ant. alco velox WILS., AW V, 116, pl. 45, f. 1; #. : \ pennsylvanicus WILS., Vi, <* 13, pl. 46, f.1; Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 74; SEF Non, 1h IS ANOS, Ty Fig. 140. Cooper’s Hawk. 100, pl. 25 ; Cass. in Bp., 18; Coop., 466. er Suny UUPer cinta) oc TS, dee FUSCUS. Cooper’s Hawk. Chicken Hawk. Feet moderately stout; bare portion of tarsus shorter than middle toe; scutella remaining distinct; tail a little rounded. g 16-18; wing 9-10; tail 7-8; 9 18-20; wing 10-11; tail 8-9. Whole foot 4 or more. N. Am., especially U. S.; common. Bownapr., Am, Orn. 1, 1, pl. 1, f 1; Avp., 1, 98; pl. 24; Cass. in Bo., 16; Coor., 464. Falco cooperi and F’. stanleti Nurr., i, 90,91. A. meuxicanus Cass. in Bp., 17: Coopr., 465, is the same bird. . . . . . . . COOPERII. 157. Genus ASTUR Lacepede. Goshawk. Adult dark bluish-slate blackening on the head, with a white superciliary stripe; tail with four broad dark bars; below, closely barred with white and pale slate, and sharply streaked with blackish. Young dark brown above, the feathers with pale edges, streaked with tawny-brown on the head and cervix; below fulvous-white with oblong brown markings. 9g 2 feet long; wing 14 inches; tail 11; g smaller. A large, powerful, and, in perfect plumage, a very handsome hawk, inhabiting northern North America; the northern half of the United States chiefly in winter, but also breeding in mountainous parts. Wiuus., vi, 80, pl. 52, f. 3; Nurr., i, 85; Avp., i, 95, pl. 23; Cass. in Bp., 15; Coor., 467. A variety of the European Astur palumbarius? . . . . . . . . . ATRICAPILLUS. 2 A FALCONID/, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 158. 213 158. Genus FALCO Linneus. * Tarsus more or less feathered above, elsewhere irregularly reticulate in small pattern ; 2d quill longest; 1st alone decidedly emarginate on inner web. Jerfalcon, or Gyrfalcon. Tarsus feathered fully half-way down in front, with only a narrow bare strip behind, and longer than middle toe; 1st quill shorter than 38d. Upward of 2 feet long; wing about 16 inches; tail 10. White, with dark markings much as in the snowy owl; or, ash-colored with numerous lighter bars; young striped longitudinally beneath. An arctic falcon, of circumpolar distribution, in this country reaching the northern states in winter. It is split into several varieties which, however, do not seem to be strictly geographical, and concerning which ornithologists are singularly agreed to disagree. In var. candicans, the white predominates over the dark markings, and the bill and claws are white; N. Greenland ; Iceland; Arct. Am. and Eur. Avp., i, 81, pl. 19; Extior, pl. 30; Cass. in Bp., 18. In var. éslandicus, dark markings predominate, and the bill and claws are dark; the crown is lighter than the back, and the dark maxillary patches are slight; S. Greenland; Iceland; N. Eur. and Am.; S. to U.S. in winter. Cass. in Bp., 13; Exuior, pl. 31. Var. gyrfalco is like the last, but with the crown darker than the back, and the moustaches heavy. Other strains are sometimes recognized by name. See Nerwron, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1871, 95; Rip@way, ¢b¢d. 1870, 140; Barrp, Trans. Chicago ANd My ls | ee asAceR (Horst li 2))r: Lanier Falcon. Tarsus Feathered. a nied way down in front, broadly bare behind, and longer than middle toe; 1st quill shorter than third. A foot and a half long; wing 13-14; tail 7-8. Above, plain brown, the feathers bordered with rusty, the nape, forehead and superciliary line white; below, white, with brown maxillary patches and other streaks on the breast and belly, the flanks barred; tail barred and tipped with whitish; adult with yellow iris and yellowish legs; young with brown iris and bluish legs. Western United States and southward; EK. to Illinois (Sargent, Ridgway). F. polyagrus Cass., Ill. 88, pl. 16; Bp., 12; Coop., 458. . Mpxrcanus. Peregrine Falcon. Duck Hawk. Tarsus feathered but a very little way above in front, and not longer than the middle toe; 1st quill not shorter than 3d. Size of the last, or rather less. Above, blackish-ash, with more or less evident paler waves ; below, and the forehead,)white with more or less fulvous tinge, and transverse bars of blackish; con- spicuous black cheek-patches. Young with the colors not so in- tense, tending rather to brown; the tawny shade below stronger, the lower parts longitudinally striped. North America; generally distributed, not abundant. /. peregrinus WIts., ix, Fic. 141. Peregrine Falcon. 214 FALCONID, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 158. 120, pl. 76; Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 23; Nurr., i, 53; Avup., i, 84, pl. 20. #. anatum and LF’. nigriceps Cass. in Bp., 7, 8. . . COMMUNIS. Ozs. F. rufigularis, a bird of this section of the genus, admitted to our fauna under the name of /. awrantius (Cass.in Bp., 10; Exxror, pl. 32), does not appear to have been taken within our limits. *#* Tarsus scarcely feathered above, with the plates in front enlarged, appearing like a double row of alternating scutella (and often with a few true scutella at base) ; Ist and 2nd quills emarginate on inner web. Pigeon Falcon. Pigeon Hawk. Adult g above ashy-blue, sometimes almost blackish, sometimes much paler; below pale fulvous, or ochraceous, whitish on the throat, the breast and sides with large oblong dark brown spots with black shaft lines; the tibize reddish, streaked with brown; inner webs of primaries with about 8 transverse white or whitish spots ; tail tipped with white, and with the outer feather whitening ; with a broad subterminal black zone and 3-4 black bands alternating with whitish; cere greenish- yellow, feet yellow. 9 with the upper parts ashy-brown; the tail with 4-5 indistinct whitish bands; about 18; wing 8; tail5; g smaller. N. Am., generally distributed, common. Observe that Accipiter fuscus is also called “pigeon hawk.” Wus., il, 107, pl. 15, f. 3; Sw. and Ricw., ii, 35; Nurr., i, 60; Aup., i, 88, pl. 21; Cass.in Bp.,9. . . . . COLUMBARIUS. Richardson's Falcon. Similar; sexes nearly alias, both lighter and more earthy-brown than the 9? of the last; head nearly white anteriorly ; streaks on the cheeks fine and sparse, those on the breast broad and sharp, light brown, with black shaft lines; tail with 6 ashy-white bands; @ above with pairs of ochraceous spots on the feathers, and secondaries with three ochra- ceous bands; wing 9; tail 6; tarsus nearly 14; g smaller. Interior N. Am., especially from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains. Very near the last; both are very closely related to /’. esalon of Europe, the fewer bars of the wings and tail being a principal character. Ripe@way, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1870, 145. #'. wsalon Ricu. and Sw., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 37, pl. 25; Nurr., ii, 558; Couns, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 42. RicHaRDSONII. Rusty-crowned Falcon. Sparrow Hawk. Crown ashy-blue, with a chest- nut patch, sometimes small or altogether wanting, sometimes occupying nearly all the crown; conspicuous black maxillary and auricular patches, which with three others around the nape make seven black places in all, but a part of them often obscure or wanting; back cinnamon brown, in the ¢ with a few black spots or none, in the 9 with numerous black bars; wing coverts in the g ashy-blue, with or without black spots, in the 9 like the back; quills in both sexes blackish with numerous pale or white bars on inner webs; tail chestnut, in the g with one broad black subterminal bar, white tip, and outer feather mostly white with several black bars; in the 9 the whole tail with numerous imperfect black bars; below white, variously tinged with buff, or tawny, in the ¢ with a few small black spots or none, in the @ with many brown streaks ; throat and vent nearly white and immac- ulate in both sexes; bill dark horn, cere and feet yellow to bright orange ; 2 L¢ FALCONIDEZ, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 159. 215 10-11; wing 7; tail 5, more or less. North America, everywhere, very abundant. This elegant little hawk will be immediately recognized by its small size, and entirely peculiar coloration, although the plumage varies almost interminably. However the case may be with the West Indian and other exotic forms, no races have been discovered in this country sufficiently marked to require designation by name. But we may, perhaps, with Mr. Ridgway (Proc. Phila. Acad. 1870, 149), recognize var. dsabellinus, as a Middle American coast form occurring in the Gulf States, although of course it shades directly into the ordinary plumage (no rufous on crown; several lateral tail feathers variegated, the black zone an inch wide; black spots on back and sides very sparse; breast ochraceous ; Q with the black bars above unusually broad, upon a ferrugineous ground). Wins ellis ple lo atl ty", pl 32) t..2); Num 1, 585) sup... 1, 90), se 22; Cass. in Bp., 18; Coor.,462. . . . . . . SPARVERIUS. ' Femoral Falcon. Ashy-brown or pale slate, aeeondine to age; forehead and superciliary line white, deepening to orange-brown on the auriculars ; two ashy stripes on side of head; wings and tail with numerous white bars ; under wing coverts buffy with numerous black spots; throat and breast white Fia. 142. Sparrow Howe or tawny ; belly with a broad black zone; tibize and crissum orange-brown. Length 15 or more; wing 103; tail 74. A widely distributed South and Central American species, reaching just over our Mexican border; it belongs to the same section of the genus as the sparrow hawk, but is not at all like this or any of the foregoing species. Cass. in Bp., 11, pl. 1; Dresser, Ibis, 1865, 333; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 42; Coorp., 461. FEMORALIS. 159. Genus BUTEO Cuvier. * Five outer primaries emarginate on inner web; bill high; nostrils oval, hori- zontal, with eccentric tubercle ; feet robust. (Subgenus Crawirex.) |S Harris’ Buzzard. Dark chocolate-brown, nearly uniform; wing coverts ‘and tibie brownish- red; upper tail coverts, base and tip of tail, white ; young duller brown, varied with fulvous; 9 nearly 24; wing 15; tail 10; g smaller. A South and Central American species, reaching our Gulf border. Very different from any of the following species; approaching the Polybort in habits. Aup., i, 25, pl. 5; Bpo., 46. uNIcINCTUS Var. HARRISII. ** Four outer primaries emarginate on inner web. Cooper’s Buzzard. Very pale; below, pure white, the tibise tawny, the throat, breast and flanks with a few dark streaks; a blackish patch on under wing coverts ; crown and hind neck with the feathers largely white at base, with dark tips and streaks; upper tail coverts white, rufous-tinged, dark- barred; tail mostly white, with ashy clouding, marked with rufous and darker in lengthwise pattern, and with dark subterminal zone; back dark brown with an ashy shade; 214; wing 15; tail 9. Santa Clara Co., Cala. ; 216 FALCONID®, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 159. one specimen known, which has not been referred to any described species, but which cannot be considered as establishing one. Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1856, 253, and in Bp., 31; Coop., 472. . . . . . COOPERII. Harlan’s Buzzard. General color blackish, nearly uniform, the tail nearly concolor with the rest of the plumage, or mottled lengthwise with ashy, rufous and white, and having a dark subterminal bar (in the young brown banded with black) ; inner webs of quills extensively white. Of nearly the size and form of the following species; tibial feathers remarkably long and flowing. “Louisiana ;” Aup., Orn. Biog. i, 441, v, 380, pl. 86, and B. Amer. i, 88, pl. 8; Nurz., i, 105. An obscure species, variously interpreted by different writers. See Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. v, 220; Cass., Ill. 101, and in Bp., 24; Bryant, Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H. viii, 109; Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 45; Ripeway, zbid. 1870, 142; Coor., 473. Different “black hawks” appear to have ‘received this name, but Mr, Ridgway informs me that he believes he has the true harlandi, and that it isa good species. HARLANII. Red-tailed Buzzard. Hen Hawk. Adult dark brown above, many feathers with pale or tawny margins, and upper tail coverts showing much whitish ; below white or reddish-white, with various spots and streaks of different shades of brown, generally forming an irregular zone ‘on the abdomen ; tail above bright chestnut red, with subterminal black zone and narrow whitish tip, below pearly gray; wing coverts dark; young with the tail grayish- brown barred with darker, the upper parts with tawny streaking.