c ''.^l>^^'' ®I?P i. H. Ml ICtbrarg # Jfortlj Oiarnlina g'tate litinfraiJg 33435 B3 S00591069 U THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUB- JECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION DESK. OCT 1 9 1983 FEB - 1 19W THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA. Ltb. TORONTO Plate I. A group of old lielil-jjines; lieiiilock spruce iu the distance at the right THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS A HANDBOOK OF THE CONIFEROUS AND MOST IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREENS PLANTED FOR ORNAMENT IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON : MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 1923 All rights reserved ^\y\ ??■ Copyright, 1923 By the MACMILLAN COMPANY Set up aod electrotyped Published October, 1923 Mount l^leaaant press J. He UBRARY N, C. State College EDITOR'S PREFACE TO MAKE a book of the cultivated evergreens requires that experts be consulted. The present volume is, therefore, a compilation of articles written by several persons, on a projected plan, brought together and edited in one office. Those familiar with these subjects will recognize the names and appreciate the value of their contributions: Ralph S. Hosmer, Professor of Forestry and head of the Department of Forestry, New York State College of Agri- culture, Cornell University; O. C. Simonds, landscape-gardener and author of the book, "Landscape-Gardening"; John Dunbar, Assistant Superintendent of Parks and Arboriculturist, Roch- ester, N. Y.; George P. Brett, president of The Macmillan Company, interested in the planting of evergreens on his estate in Connecticut; Henry Hicks, nurseryman on Long Island; Frederick Ahrens, propagator, Park Department, Roch- ester, N. Y., and long engaged in the same work with the old firm of Ellwanger & Barry; E. Bollinger, of the Robert Douglas' Evergreen Nurseries in Illinois; W. T. Macoun, Dominion Horticulturist, Ottawa, Canada; Ernest Braunton, horticulturist in southern California; C. R. Crosby, Professor of Extension Entomology, New York State College of Agri- culture, Cornell University; J. B. Palmer, Instructor in Entomology, New York State College of Agriculture, Cor- nell University; F. Dickson, Instructor in Plant Pathology, New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University; Alfred Rehder, of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard Univer- sity, author of many contributions on the botany of woody plants; Frederick V. Coville, Botanist, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, who has given special attention to the (v) 1^3 vi EDITOR'S PREFACE cultivation of certain ericaceous plants; Ralph W. Curtis, Professor of Ornamental Horticulture, New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University. The subject of evergreens possesses no close cohesion, although it is recognized as a department of knowledge and practice in horticultural usage. The subject suggests conifer- ous plants, and these are the ones here chiefly intended. The reader must understand that the phrase "coniferous plants," or Coniferse, as currently used, includes other species than those that bear true cones; some of them, as junipers and yews, yield soft berry-like fruits. These plants agree in certain essential floral or sexual characters, rather than merely in the fact of bearing cones, as also in anatomical structure and evolutionary history; they are properly known as gymnosperms. In the northern part of the country there are no evergreen trees aside from the gymnosperms, but there are a good number of broad-leaved non-deciduous species of the stature of shrubs and subshrubs. The more prominent of these plants are covered in the book. They are mostly "flowering evergreens," being attractive by their blossoms as well as by their foliage; these are various heaths, rhododendrons, laurels, and their kin, and honeysuckles. Others are typically "berry ever- greens," as hollies, cherry-laurels, viburnums, cotoneaster, and pyracantha. It is fi^fty-five years since "The Book of Evergreens," by Josiah Hoopes, nurseryman and "member of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia," was published in New York. It was long indispensable. A half century has brought us into a new atmosphere. The list of evergreens now has many names strange to that day. The knowledge of insects has vastly increased; and the science of plant pathology has come into being. In those days the best that could be said EDITOR'S PREFACE vii of one of the most "mysterious causes of death in the Coni- ferae," the bhght, was this sentence: "The most rational cause that we can assign for the appearance of bhght in the family of Conifers, is that due to a too luxuriant growth." If we complain of the difficulties in these days, we are also to remem- ber that our resources are great and our hope should be con- trolling. We should like to know what particular shortcoming is ours, as it will be adjudged in the years to come. We need a book on the horticultural evergreens, with results of careful experience. The Editor hopes that this volume will be useful. The interest in evergreens, particularly in the more durable conifers, is a subject particularly suited to the substantial amateur. The slowness and regularity of growth, the abiding quality in the round of the twelve months, the element of stability in these plants, appeal strongly to the person who has arrived at a settled purpose in life, who has an estate to develop, and whose sentiments are established. We easily reflect our human qualities into them. There is no haste in their nature, no radical change of purpose in their character. They have a strong juvenile habit and quality, and then they age gradually into a picturesque maturity, each one with outstanding individu- ality. They are not unduly elated over the advent of spring; they are patient in the adversity of midsummer; they with- stand the buffet of winter. They cover the margins of the landscapes and inclose the property securely, giving it a serene atmosphere. They typify the strength of strong men and women as they grow old with the advancing years. The love of the conifers is no passing fancy. It is not subject to change in fashions. What a man plants today will give him joy as long as he lives, and the trees will carry his memory to his children's children; "he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon," viii EDITOR'S PREFACE When you travel over roads in the wooded hills you come now and then to an opening margined with evergreens. You stop, and enter the place with reverence. You feel a mystery in it. Instinctively you expect strange bird-notes. You sit on a mound, in a quiet reflective mood. You note that some one has built a cooking-fire in the place; the stones still show the marks, and ends of old embers are left. You see evidences that others beside yourself have worshipped there; this gives the spot a human interest. You want to transport this quiet retreat to your own estate. . But perhaps you have no extensive premises to develop. / Yet you are interested in the trees you see here and there. You would plant two or three trees in your small area, hoping that they may attain something of the character you see in the wood. They will aid to give your enclosure seclusion. They will provide greenery in the winter. You will note how they respond to the changing seasons, being interested all the more, perhaps, because the response is not violent. The interest does not inhere in showy and transient bloom. The soft growth of the spring shoots is as good to you as flowers. Indeed, few flowers are more beautiful than the annual tender new growth of several of the firs and many of the sprucesJ Or perhaps you have only a small cit/^space unadapted to evergreens, or even no land at all. In that case, the range of the native evergreen landscape is yours to explore and enjoy as you will; and you will want to know the kinds, that your apprecia- tion may have direction. Although to the unpractised eye most evergreens look alike, yet there are clear distinctions in leaves, and the identification of them cultivates the discriminating faculties. The cones and berries are a never-failing source of interest. Specially so are the seed-bearing cones of pines and spruces and the other true EDITOR'S PREFACE ix conifers, unlike the fruits of other kinds of plants. In pines, the cones do not mature till the second or even the third year, and in some species they persist till the enlarging limb grows them into the solid wood. This deliberate and durable quality is quite in keeping with the character of the tree itself. These cones are of comely shape, so much so that from early times they have been used as suggestion in the forms of art, and the shape has become an inheritance in literature. The planter's interest in evergreens is of two kinds — to grow a collection of different genera and species, to incor- porate them as parts in a landscape picture. These two purposes are often in conflict, although either one is legitimate. The happiest result is no doubt a thoughtful combination of the two efforts, unless one desires to make only an arboretum; and yet the arboretum may itself have an artistic quality. L. H. BAILEY. Ithaca, N. Y.. May 1, 1923. CONTENTS PART I THE PLACE AND CARE OF CONIFEROUS (GYMNOSPERMOLS) EVERGREENS GROWN FOR ORNAMENT CHAPTER PAGES I. The Coniferous Evergreens in the Landscape . 1-25 The Background of the Forest .... Ralph S. Hosmer 2-6 The Christmas-Tree Problem .... Ralph S. Hosmer 6-11 The Natural Setting of Evergreens . . . 0. C. Simonds 11-13 Evergreens in the Planted Landscape . . S. F. Hamblin 13-25 11. Cultivation and Propagation of Conifers . . . 26-44 The General Care and Handling of Evergreens .... 26-37 Soils, manures, and mulches for conifers . John Dunbar 28-30 The pruning of coniferous evergreens . . John Dunbar 30-31 The transplanting of conifers . John Dunbar, Geo. P. Brett 31-33 The moving of large evergreens .... Henry Hicks 33-37 Propagation of Coniferous Evergreens Frederick Ahrens, with notes by E. Bollinger 37-44 III. Adaptation of Conifers 45-121 Coniferous Evergreens in the Northeastern States John Dunbar 45-77 Experiences with Conifers in Southern Connecticut Geo. P. Brett 78-82 Evergreen Conifers in Canada W. T. Macoun 83-102 Coniferous Evergreens for the Middle West . E. Bollinger 102-116 Conifers for the Pacific Slope Ernest Braunton 116-121 IV. The Insects, Diseases, and Injuries of Orna- mental Conifers 122-166 Insects of Coniferous Evergreens C. R. Crosby and J. B. Palmer 121-138 Diseases and Injuries of Ornamental Conifers . F. Dickson 138-166 Coniferous seedling diseases and injuries 140-144 Diseases and injuries of older coniferous trees .... 144-161 Tree surgery 161-165 Fungicides 165-166 (xi) xii CONTENTS PART II THE KINDS OF CULTIVATED CONIFERS (GYMNOSPERMS) IN NORTH AMERICA CHAPTEB PAGES V. A Systematic Enumeration of the Conifers Culti- vated IN North America. . . . Alfred Rehder 169-331 Nomenclature, Sequence and Keys 170-176 The Descriptions 177-331 PART III CERTAIN BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREENS VI. General Advice on Broad-Leaved Evergreens . 335-356 Acid Soils for Certain Broad-Leaved Evergreens F. V. Coville 336-341 Diseases and Injuries of Ornamental Broad-Leaved Evergreens F. Dickson 341-345 The Leading Broad-Leaved Evergreens and Their Adap- tation John Dunbar 345-353 Broad-Leaved Evergreen Shrubs for the Middle West E. Bollinger 354-356 VII. The Main Botanical Kinds of Broad-Leaved Evergreens Alfred Rehder 357-371 PART IV INVENTORY OF WOODY EVERGREENS GROWN IN NORTH AMERICA VIII. Check-List or Woody Evergreens. Ralph W. Curtis 375-412 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS HALF-TONE PLATES facing PAGE I. A group of old field-pines; hemlock spruce in the distance at the right Frontispiece n. A study in horizontality. — Group of piceas 1 5 m. A study in perpendicularity. — Red-cedar (Juniperus virginiand IV, Combination of yew and pine. — Japanese yew ( Taxus ctispidata as a border; white pine {Pinus Strobus) at the back V. Combination of kalmia and hemlock VI. A fancier's collection. — Specimen plantings of junipers and yews 29 VII. A roadside planting of firs 32 VIII. The moving of a big pine IX. Details in the moving of a big pine X. Dwarf Japanese yew ( Taxus cuspidata var. nana) XI. Spreadmg English yew ( Taxtis baccata var. repandens) XII. Common juniper {Juniperiis communis) .... XIII. Pfitzer juniper (Juniperus chinensis var. Pfitzeriana) XIV. A margined walk. — {Juniperus chinensis var. Sargentii) . XV. The silver red-cedar (Juniperus virginiana var. glauca) XVI. Ground-cover of creeping juniper (Juniperus horizo?italis) XVII. A California group. — Monkey-puzzle (Araucaria araucana) Columnar Italian cypress (Cupressus sevipervirens var. stricta) California incense-cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) XVIII. Small conifer forms. — Dwarf Hinoki cypress (Chamcecyparis oh tusa var. nana). Sawara cypress (Chavioecyparis pisifera) XIX. Lawson cypress (Chamcecyparis Lawsoniana) XX. American arbor-vitse (Thtija occidentalis). Left, var. Bu chananii. Right, var. Columbia XXI. Compact dwarf forms of arbor-vita? (Thuja occidentalis) Tom Thumb at left; var. Woodwardii at right XXn. Umbrella-pine (Sciadopitys verticillata) , near and remote views 144 (xiii) 36 45 49 53 60 65 80 85 92 97 112 117 124 129 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FACING XXIII. A California planting. — Sequoia sertifervirens in center; ^'^^^ Italian cypress {Cupressus sempervirens var. stricta) clipped into formal shape for about thirty years . . 149 XXIV. Spreading cryptomeria (Cr^/ptommajapomca var. eie^an*) . 156 XXV. Nikko fir {Ahies hoviolepis) 165 XXVI. Good young plant of Algerian fir {Abies numidica) . . 172 XXVII. Cilician fir {Abies cilicica) 181 XXVIII. White fir {Abies concolor) 188 XXIX. Thrifty young specimen of Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga taxi- folia) 197 XXX. Handsome cones oi the T>ouglas fir {Pseudotsuga taxifolia) . 204 XXXI. Carolina hemlock (r.*fM(/a caroZmm?ia) 229 XXXII. Canada hemlock ( Tsuga canadensis). Above, var. compacta. Below, var. pendula 236 XXXIII. An old Norway spruce {Picea Abies or P. excelsa) . 245 XXXIV. Norway spruce {Picea Abies). Top, the foliage. Center, var. Clanbrasiliana. Below, left, var. pendula right, var. microsperma 252 XXXV. Alcock spruce {Picea bicolor) 257 XXXVI. Wliite spruce {Picea glauca or P. alba) 272 XXXVII. Engelmann spruce {Picea Engelmanni), with inset of same as grown at Ottawa, Ontario 276 XXXVIII. Colorado spruce {Picea pungens) 285 XXXIX. Golden-larch {Pseudolarix amabilis) 293 XL. An old cedar of Lebanon {Cedrus libani) near New York City 300 XLI. The Deodar cedar {Cedrus Deodara) 309 XLII. A good specimen of Austrian pine {Pinus nigra) . .316 XLIII. The Torrey pine {Pinus Torreyana) at home, near San Diego 320 XLIV. American holly {Jlex opaca) 337 XLV. The autumn beauty of rhododendrons. — Seen before the sun was on them 341 XL VI. The bloom of rhododendrons, with background of conifers 348 XLVII. Broad-leaved evergreens. — Pieris and rhododendron . . 357 XL VIII. The mountain laurel ( Kalmia latifolia) 364 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT FIQUBB PAGE 1. The vegetable solids of topiary work 17 2. A good ball of earth for transplanting 31 3. Prepared for shipment 32 4. Stock of conifers for grafting 42 5. One-year grafts. — From left to right: Abies numidica, Pinus cem- broides var. edulis, Picea Breweriana 43 6. Stock and cion of white pine 44 7. The union completed 44 8. Gipsy larva {Porthetria dispar) 126 9. Gipsy moth 126 10. Work of the white pine weevil 127 11. White pine weevil {Pissodes strobi) 128 12. Ckionaspis pinifolioe as shown on the leaves 128 13. Pine-leaf scale (Ckionaspis pinifolioe) 129 14. Work of spruce gall aphid — Chermes abietis 131 15. Spruce gall aphid on larch 132 16. The larch case-bearer {Coleophora laricella) 135 17. Chermes strobilohius 137 18. Sporophores on trunk of tree 150 19. Fruiting body of Armillaria mellea 153 20. White pine with blister-rust 155 21. Cedar-apples on Juniperus virginiana .160 22. Ginkgo biloba 177 23. Podocarpus macrophylla 180 24. Podocarpus Nagi 181 25. Cephalotaxus drupacea 182 26. Torreya nucifera 185 27. Taxus cuspidata 188 28. Taxus canadensis 189 29. Structure in Pinacese 191 30. Juniperus rigida 198 31. Juniperus chinensis 203 32. Cupressus sempervirens 208 33. Cupressus Macnabiana 209 34. Cupressus funebris 211 35. Chamaecyparis thyoides 212 xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGUKE PAGE 36. Chamaecyparis thyoides var. ericoides 213 37. Chamaecyparis pisifera 214 38. Chamaecyparis pisifera var. filifera 214 39. Chamaecyparis pisifera var. plumosa aurea 215 40. Chamaecyparis pisifera var. squarrosa 215 41. Chamaecyparis obtusa var. ericoides 217 42. Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana 218 43. Thujopsis dolobrata 219 44. Libocedrus decurrens 220 45. Thuja occidentalis 222 46. Thuja occidentalis var. filiformis- 224 47. Lower foliage of Thuja occidentalis var. Ohlendorffi . ... . 225 48. Upper foliage of Thuja occidentalis var, Ohlendorffi .... 225 49. Fitzroya patagonica 228 50. Callitris robusta 229 51. Tetraclinis articulata 230 52. Juvenile foliage of Widdringtonia Whytei 231 53. Mature foliage of Widdringtonia Whytei 231 54. Sciadopitys verticillata 232 55. Taxodium distichum 234 56. Sequoia sempervirens 235 57. Sequoia gigantea 236 58. Taiwania cryptomerioides 237 59. Athrotaxis selaginoides 238 60. Cryptomeria japonica 239 61. Cunninghamia lanceolata . . . 241 62. Araucaria araucana 243 63. Agathis australis 245 64. Keteleeria Davidiana 247 65. Abies Veitchii 252 66. Abies homolepis 256 67. Abies cephalonica 258 68. Abies cilicica 259 69. Tsuga caroliniana 267 70. Tsuga canadensis 267 71. Picea Abies 275 72. Picea orientalis 279 73. Picea rubra 280 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvli PAGE FIGTTRE 74. Picea Engelmanni 283 75. Picea pungens 283 76. Picea Omorika 287 77. Pseudolarix amabilis 289 78. Larixdecidua 291 79. Cedrus libani 294 80. Pinus flexilis 304 81. Pinus Strobus 307 82. Pinus canariensis 311 83. Pinus densiflora 313 84. Pinus sylvestris 314 85. Pinus Mugo var. pumilio 316 86. Pinus nigra var. austriaca 317 87. Pinus nigra var. cebennensis 318 88. Pinus Thunbergii 319 89. Pinus ponderosa 321 90. Pinus halepensis 324 91. Pinus virginiana 325 92. Pinus Banksiana 326 93. Pinus rigida 328 94. Pinus attenuata 329 95. Pinus Torreyana 331 96. Injurious effect of ordinary rich garden soil on a rhododendron . 338 97. Beneficial effect of aluminum sulfate on Rhododendron maximum . 339 The photographic plates are largely of specimens in the Arnold Arboretum, Boston; others are from the Hunnewell estate, Wellesley, Massachusetts and Mr. Brett's plantation in Connecticut; others are from various sources. The engravings of species of plants in the text, all prepared for this work, are mostly made from material supplied by the Arnold Arboretum. PART I THE PLACE AND CARE OF CONIFEROUS (GYMNOSPERMOUS) EVERGREENS GROWN FOR ORNAMENT THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS CHAPTER I THE CONIFEROUS EVERGREENS IN THE LANDSCAPE AN EVERGREEN is a plant that holds its green foliage r\ when dormant. It is the prevailing opinion, no doubt, that an evergreen plant is one that is always green; but all plants are so colored in the growing state, and one that grows year in and year out is necessarily continuously green. In this sense, palms are evergreens; so are meadow and lawn grasses when winters are mild; and so are begonias and toma- toes when cold does not kill them. The true evergreen, how- ever, is the one that remains verdant even though it is not growing, and in spite of winter or frequent frost. It is not deciduous; and, moreover, its foliage remains green rather than brown and sere. The representative evergreens are the conifers, although not all conifers are evergreen. Some of them are deciduous, as the bald cypress and larches. The conifers, or Coniferse, comprise a mighty group in the vegetable community, agreeing not pri- marily in the fact that so many of them are evergreen, but in certain clear botanical structure as explained in Part II. They yield great products for the use of man in timber and resins; and their ornamental value is outstanding. They may well be treated as a unit, either from the forestry side or from the horticultural use. The latter utility is intended in this book; but it is first important to appreciate the coniferous forest, against which so much of our civilization is set. Appreciation of the forest is essential to the best under- B 1 mtPEWT UMARf W C. State ColU^e 2 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS standing of evergreens. The forest is their natural habitat. In the open, the trees attain a different character, to be sure, and this character is to be assumed as the one natural to the species; yet the forest has a community character of its own and illustrates the features of close plantation as compared with isolated trees. Both of these adaptabilities of the species should be understood. Moreover, the forest has a place in the association of the human race that must not be overlooked ; and in these later times, when the great forests are constantly receding, we should make a special effort to keep green the memory of the woods. THE BACKGROUND OF THE FOREST.— Hosmer Among all the trees of the forest, the conifers are the most important from a commercial standpoint. The reason for this is not far to seek. The trees belonging to the coniferous genera — the pines, spruces, firs, cedars, and hemlocks — furnish the material most in demand for construction of all kinds, and also for a great variety of minor uses in which the demand is for strength combined with relative lightness. The so-called "softwoods" are more easily worked and usually are cheaper than are the broad-leaf species, or "hardwoods," at least in the grades suitable for building purposes. It is not strange, then, that in considering the direct economic value of the forests of the United States, those in which conifers predominate are given first place. Forests are of use to man in three principal ways: They supply timber, wood, and other forest products. They safe- guard the catchment basins of streams needed for human use and so tend to maintain regularity of stream-flow. Also they serve as centers for many forms of recreation. Forests have a direct rek ion to human health. This is most noticeable in the EVERGREENS IN THE LANDSCAPE 3 case of coniferous forests. Highly beneficial results often attend a sojourn in a locality in which there are pine or spruce forests. Forest sanatoria, such as those established by the states of New York and Pennsylvania, are usually in sections in which the conifers predominate. From the standpoint of timber supply, the coniferous species furnish approximately seventy per cent of the timber cut each year in the forests of the United States. Of minor uses, fifty per cent of the box material comes from the two main divisions of the pine family — the white and the yellow pines. Spruce is the best material for the cheap production of paper. In the southern states, long-leaf pine is the chief source of turpentine and naval stores. The uses are manifold to which the wood of the conifers is put. Wood, and, in large part, coniferous wood, is at the foundation of the prosperity of the nation. The coniferous forests of the United States form a part of the great belt of conifers that characterizes the North Tem- perate Zone. This belt stretches from Alaska across Canada and the United States and is found again in Scandinavia, northern Europe, Russia, and Siberia. In the United States, coniferous species are the commercially important trees in four of the five natural forest regions: the Northern Forest, the Southern Pineries, the Rocky Mountain, and the Pacific forests. The fifth region is that of the Central Hardwoods. The Northern Forest includes the North Woods of New England and New York, the pine lands of the Lake States, and the area lying at the higher elevations southward along the Appalachian Mountain ranges. The more important conifers of the Northern Forest are white pine {Pinus Strohus), red pine (P. resinosa), red spruce {Picea rubra), hemlock {Tsuga canadensis), and cedar {Thuja occidentalis) . Although at the higher elevations there are pure stands of conifers, the typical 4 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Northern Forest is a mixed forest of conifers and broad-leaf trees. White pine is, or was, the outstanding species. Its tall bole, large size, and easily worked wood marked it from colonial times as, perhaps, the most prized American timber tree. The original forest has now disappeared, except for a few small isolated stands. However, white pine reproduces easily, both naturally and artificially, and grows rapidly, so that in the Northeast it has come to be the principal species used in reforestation. The Southern Pineries, as the name implies, is essentially a coniferous forest. It extends along the Atlantic seaboard from New Jersey southward to the Gulf States. Long-leaf pine (Pinus palustris) is the tree of first importance, both for its lumber and for its turpentine. Three other pines are also to be noted: short-leaf (P. echinata), loblolly (P. Toeda), and Cuban or slash pine (P. carihoea). In the swamps of the South is found the bald-cypress {Taxodium distichum). In the Rocky Mountain region the species of commercial importance are the western yellow pine (P. ponderosa) , lodge- pole pine (P. contorta var. latifolia), Engelmann spruce {Picea Engelmanni), and the mountain form of Douglas fir {Pseudo- tsuga taxijolia) . In the "Inland Empire" of Montana and Idaho, the western white pine (P. monticola) is an important timber tree. Regulated grazing plays an important role in the national forests in this region. The Pacific forest comprises the Pacific Coast states. In Washington and Oregon the most important trees are Douglas fir, western hemlock {Tsuga heterophylla) , several true firs (Abies), western red-cedar {Thuja plicata), Sitka spruce {Picea sitchensis), and western white pine. In California the species that stand out are redwood {Sequoia sempervirens) near the coast, sugar pine {Pinus Lambertiana) , and western yellow pine Plate III. A study in peqjendicularity. {Ju 11 i penis virgin iana ) -Red-cedar EVERGREENS IN THE LANDSCAPE 5 in the Sierras. The largest and highest, as well as the oldest trees in the world, the "big trees" (Sequoia gigantea), are found on the Pacific slope. The foregoing list enumerates but a few, of course, of the total number of conifers in the several forest regions. In gen- eral, the forests of the United States fall into two main classes, the eastern and western forests. East of the Great Plains, broad-leaf species are found in mixture with conifers. There is usually much undergrowth. In the West the forests consist of practically pure stands of conifers, for the most part, except in the Pacific Northwest, of open character and free from under- growth. Without the lumber yielded by the coniferous forests, the United States could never have achieved the rapid material progress that has characterized the growth of the nation, especially since the Civil War. The rapid expansion of the Mississippi Valley States was made possible in no small part by the pine forests of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Like- wise, southern pine has played a great part, just as now Douglas fir is coming to be one of the most used woods. The coniferous forests have been a great heritage, but, unfortunately, they have been misused and until very recent years no thought has been given to their replacement. The forest has been treated as a mine, not as a crop. The American people will have reason to regret their short-sightedness. The Pacific Coast forests now constitute the last great store- house of virgin softwood timber. When that supply is ex- hausted, the needs of the nation can be met only from second- growth forests. Furthermore, four-fifths of the standing timber that remains is privately owned and as yet but little of this area has been brought under scientific forest management. This gives point to the movement for an adequate national 6 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS forest policy that aims to bring about the wise use of all forests, both publicly and privately owned, to the end that the people of the United States may have a continuous supply of wood and of other forest products, adequate for their needs, in perpetuity. THE CHRISTMAS-TREE PROBLEM.— Hosmer Of all that the forest yields to man, perhaps no gift is more prized than is the Christmas tree. To the children the tree, with its gay decorations, its glittering lights, and at the top the bright star, is the center of the Christmas celebration. To their elders it brings but little less pleasure. In many families the Christmas tree is allowed to stand for a week, or even until Twelfth Night, all the while continuing to give joy to young and old. It is an indispensable part of the happy Christmas- tide, and, even when dismantled, it may still serve out-of-doors as a feeding station for the birds. Without a tree the Christmas festivities are not complete. Just how far back in history the Christmas-tree custom goes, no one knows. It is probably of very ancient origin, possibly a survival from the Scandinavian mythology that pre- ceded Christian times. But whatever its origin, the custom is now so wide-spread and deep seated that it has a recognized place in every Christian country. The United States leads the world in the use of Christmas trees. Over five million trees are needed each year to supply the demand in American homes. The following statement is designed to show that the use of trees for this purpose is a legitimate and, if properly conducted, a wise use, and that the purveying of Christmas trees rests on a basis of sound economics as well as on sentiment. Many different kinds of trees are used in the United States as Christmas trees, but practically all are conifers. In the EVERGREENS IN THE LANDSCAPE 7 Northeast the favorite is the balsam fir. This comes near to being the ideal Christmas tree. As a small tree it is usually symmetrical, with long, horizontal, spreading branches. Its needles are pleasantly fragrant and persist indoors longer than do those of most other evergreens. Spruce comes next in im- portance and makes a very good substitute for balsam fir. The species most employed is the red spruce, but the introduced Norway spruce is also to be commended. The other native species, the black and the white spruces, are also used. In the Southern and Central States red-cedar is often used as a Christmas tree. It has a conical form and develops a dense and attractive crown. Where the firs and spruces are not easily obtainable, pines are not despised. In parts of the South the scrub pine is much in demand. In the southern xAppa- lachians, Eraser fir makes a good Christmas tree. In the Rocky Mountain States, Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, and, in places, lodge-pole pine find favor; on the Pacific Coast, white fir, incense-cedar, and western hemlock. Local custom and availability have much to do with the kinds and species which are used as Christmas trees. Santa Claus seems as well satisfied with one kind as another. Northern New England, northern New York, and Canada are the source of supply for the cities of the Atlantic seaboard as far south as Baltimore and even Washington. Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota furnish the markets of Chicago, St. Paul, and the cities of the Plains States. The arrival of the "Christmas tree ship" is a looked-for event in Chicago harbor. Christmas trees vary in size from three to five feet up to thirty-five feet or more. The small sizes up to eight to ten feet are tied in bundles. Large trees are shipped as individuals. Prices in the eastern city markets range from twenty-five to fifty cents up to $40 or $50, but as the Christmas-tree trade is 8 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS now conducted, the owners of the land from which the trees are cut seldom make much profit. When carload lots are shipped, particularly if the trees are graded as to size and condition, the returns may be worth while. There is, however, considerable risk in the Christmas-tree business, especially when a local market is overstocked. Each year after Christmas many per- fectly good trees are hauled to the city dump to be burned. To be assured of a reasonable return, the rational procedure for the Christmas-tree owner is to find a market in a neighboring town or city and supply the retail stores directly. By this method he will probably gain much more than when the trees are handled by a series of middlemen. Very commonly the question is raised as to whether the cutting and use of Christmas trees is not a great waste, and whether steps should not be taken to discourage or prohibit it. In the opinion of the United States Department of Agriculture, the custom is so old, so well grounded, and so venerated, that even if it were economically somewhat indefensible, these aspects would and should continue to outweigh economic con- siderations. But, say the foresters, the cutting of trees for Christmas is proper and wholly justifiable. No other use to which these trees could be put is any more worthy than to make them add to the joy of mankind through their use by children on this great festival of the year. True conservation of the forest is not found in abstaining from the use of trees, but in a rational system of forest management. The Christmas tree is a legitimate by-product of the forest. If the spruce and fir trees that are so used were left standing, to be cut later for the manufacture of paper pulp, it is wholly pertinent to inquire whether the joy of a group of children in their Christmas tree does not outbalance the value of a page or two of the comic section of a Sunday supplement. EVERGREENS IN THE LANDSCAPE 9 There are two ways by which Christmas trees can be sup- plied to meet the demand. Both are in perfect accord with the best principles and practices of forestry. One is by means of intermediate or improvement cuttings, whereby the value and quality of a given stand of forest can be bettered; the other is through the establishment of Christmas-tree plantations, where firs or spruces are grown for this special purpose. At present the larger number of Christmas trees, both in the United States and Canada, are cut on privately owned lands. Many farmers take advantage of the opportunity thus afforded to clean up pastures where the forest is starting to come back, or to clear land that should be kept open. In parts of New England and in other regions where it is the desire of the owner that abandoned pastures should revert to forest, the taking out of small trees, especially balsam fir, may be of distinct advan- tage to the stand. The practice of making thinnings is, when judiciously applied, an integral part of forest management. The demand for Christmas trees often makes it possible for the owner to sell the trees removed at a price sufficient to cover the cost of such thinnings, if indeed he does not make an actual profit. Small trees of the coniferous genera have little value for other purposes. Comparatively few owners feel that they can afford to make thinnings which require an outlay for labor, without some immediate return. The indiscriminate clearing of any area of forest land, without making adequate provision for its restocking by young growth is, of course, to be dis- couraged. True conservation of the forest is its perpetuation through wise use. The other method, that of establishing commercial planta- tions of Christmas trees, is already attracting the attention of many owners of non-agricultural land. As the trees are to be removed while still small, close spacing is indicated; three by 10 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS three feet is good. A rectangular spacing of three feet requires 4,840 trees to the acre. With a triangular spacing of three feet between trees each way, the number is 5,584 to the acre. In New York State, spruce transplants, four years old, can normally be obtained from the nurseries of the Conservation Commission, Albany, for around $4 a thousand. In other states that maintain state nurseries, a similar arrangement usually obtains. Specific information may be obtained by addressing the State Forester. Directions as to how to plant the trees may also be secured from the State Forester, or from the State College of Agriculture. To give such assistance is a part of the duty of these state officers. In a Christmas-tree plantation made by the Department of Forestry of the Michigan Agricultural College, where four- year-old Norway spruce transplants were used, the average height of the trees in the plantation was six feet at the end of six years. A few of the best trees averaged nine and one-half feet for this period. The soil was a stiff clay, full of stones, and wet in the spring. It was found "that if the trees grow faster than one foot a year they become spindly. The best Christmas trees are those which have grown rather slowly. They are bushier and better shaped."* From such a plantation some trees are cut each year, giving those left a better chance to develop. A careful estimate of possible returns from Christmas-tree plantations in New York State, made in 1919 by G. Harris Collingwood, Extension Specialist in Forestry at Cornell University,! showed for a ten-year period an expected net annual profit of $68 an acre. Costs of nursery stock and of *Mich. Agr. Coll. Exp. Sta. Special Bull. No. 78. Apr. 1916. "Christmas Tree Plantations," by A. K. Chittenden. fTwo articles in the Rural New Yorker, Mar. 1 and 8, 1919, "Christmas Tree Farming," by G. Harris Collingwood. EVERGREENS IN THE LANDSCAPE 11 planting, the value of the land, and taxes were all counted in and carried forward at six per cent compound interest. This figure should be taken only as a general indication of the money return to be expected, but it points to the conclusion that when the local conditions are favorable, the growing of Christmas trees can be made a profitable commercial venture. In growing Christmas trees, it should always be borne in mind that the most important item is to be sure that there exists a market, preferably not far distant, where it is reason- ably certain that the trees can be sold when they are of the right size. Where this condition obtains, the establishment of a Christmas-tree plantation should not only be a good invest- ment, but, also, to an owner with imagination, a very satis- fying way of using a part of his land. THE NATURAL SETTING OF EVERGREENS.— Simonds In landscape work. Nature is the best teacher in the use of evergreens as well as that of other growth. In visiting localities in which evergreens thrive, one is usually impressed with their beauty and wishes to have them about one's own home. The effects that should be studied are often found at the edges of a forest, or scattered along river-banks and margins of lakes and marshes. Here trees may range in size from less than a foot in height to those of large stature. The growth may include pines, spruces, cedars, balsams, hemlocks, junipers, and yews in the northern Middle States, and, in the Eastern States, broad- leaved evergreens as well. In the Middle West the more hardy conifers can generally be used with good effect where soil conditions are right and the air pure, but in the larger cities, with their smoky atmosphere, it is useless to plant any member of the pine family. Sometime in the future, when cities can be delivered from the pall of smoke that hangs over them, they 12 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS may be able to raise evergreens. At present, however, conifers planted in a smoky atmosphere are likely to look sickly and to excite feelings of pity rather than of pleasure. Attention might be called to some attractive natural effects. At the edges of pine forests, or scattered about in open spaces near the edge, the pines and other evergreens often retain all their branches, the lower ones resting on the ground and reaching out farther than those above to secure light and air. These show the typical appearance which pines, spruces, firs, hemlocks, and cedars should have in one's home grounds or in other places where they are planted for ornament. Some- times a belt of evergreen growth may be useful as well as ornamental by giving protection from cold winds, or shutting out of view unsightly objects. In such belts it is well to arrange the trees in colonies, pines being grouped with pines, and the more pointed and stiff-growing trees, like the spruces, with those of similar habit. It is said that evergreens should not be mixed or grouped with deciduous trees. To a certain extent this is true, but all will recall the beauty of autumn foliage, especially that of the maples, sumacs, birches, and blueberries, when this beauty is heightened by a background or a neigh- boring group of evergreens. A ground-covering of spreading junipers or yews frequently adds much to the artistic effect of the upright growth. Indeed, when the grounds are not very large, it may be well to fill nearly all of the open space with a low growth of this kind. Evergreens are beautiful throughout the entire year and especially so in winter when partly covered with snow and in spring when the new growth comes out and is contrasted in color with the old, and when the trees are thickly sprinkled with beautifully colored blossoms, the pistil- late flowers often a rich red or purple, the staminate a bright vellow. Plate IV. Combination of yew and pine. — Japanese yew {Taxus cuspidata) as a border; white pine (Pinus Strobus) at the back EVERGREENS IN THE LANDSCAPE 13 The principles of landscape-gardening which apply to the arrangement of plantations, the preservation of ample open space, and the natural irregular arrangement which gives such a charm to woods, apply to evergreens as well as to oaks, maples, and hawthorns. In using evergreens they should first be considered as objects of beauty in themselves; then as back- grounds for roses, elderberries, or other low growth that flour- ishes in the neighborhood, or as a foil to other plants. Yellow birches and hemlocks are often found growing near each other and seem to adjust their branches without much interference. A hillside covered with pines and bordered here and there at the bottom with Carolina roses, red-branched dogwoods, snow- berries or viburnums, often gives a pleasing effect. A birch tree with its white bark shooting above the growth of roses or dogwoods ma}^ contribute to the charm of the whole com- position. Evergreens form an important part of that wealth of plant- life from which the landscaper must choose the material with which he makes his most effective compositions. They can be used with greatest safety for marginal planting, or as groups located near the margins of open spaces, near buildings, or on promontories or hillsides. When planted near the summit of a ridge or a hill, they emphasize more than other trees its effect of height. E\rERGREENS IN THE PL^^TED LANDSCAPE.— Hamblin In temperate regions, most of the evergreen trees are conifers, and also the greater number of ornamental evergreen shrubs of wide use in planting are dwarf conifers. The broad- leaved evergreens, as members of the heath and holly families, are of less universal use than the conifers, and the study of their effective grouping will follow the more important dis- 14 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS cussion of the placing of evergreen conifers. Although entirely different in foliage texture and cultural requirements, the problems of their use in landscape composition have many points in common. Evergreens should be placed much more thoughtfully than deciduous trees and shrubs. The mere fact that they are more costly than deciduous woody plants, and more difficult to grow, puts them in a class by themselves. Yet even if they were cheap and easy to keep in good condition, they would still be very distinct and would need to be placed with care in regions in which the leaves fall from most plants in autumn. Evergreens are so very definite in their habit, texture, and color that each specimen counts very distinctly, and when planted carelessly in small areas give a very spotty appearance. Evergreens are the same in the landscape at all seasons of the year. Although the common trees and shrubs run a yearly cycle from leafless twig to leaf, flower, and fruit, the evergreens, descendants from an earlier plant era, go through the seasons with little modification save the fresher green of the new shoots in May. The changes of growth and decay are theirs, but after they are planted their chief change is increase in size. In winter months, contrasted with the white of snow and gray of leafless twigs, the dark greens of the conifers suggest warmth and cheer to man. Even beast and bird find shelter in spruce and pine in cold weather. This physical fact contributes greatly to our joy in their sight in winter. In summer, their heavier darker greens, against the broad paler leafage of deciduous trees, suggest shade and coolness. Under the hem- lock branches in August it is cool and damp, and the sights and sounds of midsummer are mostly absent. Their suggestion of physical comfort, at both extremes of the year, make ever- greens particularly desirable near the dwellings of man. How- EVERGREENS IN THE LANDSCAPE 15 ever, these factors do not render easier the problem of effective planting. A study of the characteristics of coniferous evergreens from the point of view of art, the art of arranging them in landscape pictures, shows them full of contrasts. Although the foliage is small and narrow, it is so dense that the effect is not feathery, but heavy and solid. There is great difference between the texture effect of tamarix and cedar, yet the latter has the finer foliage. Only the pale greens of the deciduous conifers (larch and bald-cypress) and extreme forms of some chamsecyparis give a light touch to the picture. The density of the dark foliage is increased by the regular formal outline of most species and the regular structure in the placing of the branches. There is no more unrelated object on a peaceful lawn than a blue spruce, and two are twice as lonesome. The more irregular the outhne and broken the branching, the easier the task of grouping, except for special effects. The dense, tense attitude of most conifers makes them difficult subjects to handle. If only they could be dented inwards in places, and pulled out in others, they would be much more companionable among their fellows. Each specimen is so complete and perfect in itself that only when old age has robbed it of its symmetry does it become a subject for consideration as an object of art in the landscape. In color, the normal dark shining green shows less range than do the greens of deciduous trees. Their color value to the camera is much the same in all species. Gray-greens in pine, blue-greens in spruce and fir, white lines on the under side of fir and hemlock leaves, give variety in detail that can be appreciated only at close hand. Unfortunately, freak colors are found in horticultural varieties in a range more than suf- ficient. Intense blue, bright yellow, pale silvery green, and 16 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS bronzy purple are possible in many of the conifers, particularly in the smaller species. Pine and hemlock have mostly refused to depart from their normal foliage. In general, the farther the color of a conifer has ranged from a normal dark green, the less it should be planted in home pictures and the more care must be used in its disposition, when it is permitted, for it is always a special and striking object at all seasons. By their density of twig and foliage throughout the year, evergreens offer ideal protection from wind and storm, as windbreak, shelter, and screen. A very effective shelter-belt can be made by a narrow strip of evergreens. Since conifers are a very heavy mass when grouped, this windbreak must also be a part of the landscape picture, and when used for a screen they will call attention in the direction toward which the view is to be shut off. Their double service of attracting as well as protecting must ever be borne in mind. The dividing planting must then be ornamental also. The best hedges are of evergreen conifers. Evergreens of all kinds give a feeling of richness to the cultivated landscape, possibly in part because they are expen- sive and at times difficult to cultivate to perfection. As foliage plants they have come to be considered as the most beautiful and choice of woody plants. They may be sadly out of place, as seen in some small yard, or badly broken by insects and the elements because of lack of care, yet there is a special halo of inherent virtue around each one of them. The same is true in regard to a natural planting of conifers. Whatever the arrange- ment given them by nature, as a group they are pleasing and add tremendously to the beauty of that particular spot. As Nature puts out her spruces, firs, pines, and cedars, her pictures are always pleasing, and analysis of their arrangement shows how great advantage was taken of every change in soil EVERGREENS IN THE LANDSCAPE 17 and exposure. When man plants conifers to dress his scene, pictorial and nature-like compositions are rarely brought forth. A natural arbor- vitae swamp has more to please the eye than the collections of conifers that wealth can put around its home. It is a far greater tax on the skill of the plantsman to set out a dozen conifers, even all of a kind, than the same number of mixed deciduous trees. A good artificial staging of conifers is rare ; it is too easy to secure an assorted effect instead of harmony of line and outline. The use of conifers in sections of the country in which some species are native and common seems more happy and related to the site than their use in regions of few native trees. It must always be borne in mind that, ex- cept for a few species and irregular old-age individ- uals, conifers present a firm fixed outline against the sky. They make in- dividuals, not masses, and are numbered off by the eye, except when on the large scale of a forest. Spruce and fir, arbor- vitse and red-cedar are clear - cut triangles and cones that will not lose their distinctive shapes unless planted together very closely. An array of l. The vegetable solids of topiary work. 18 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS various genera and species becomes a demonstration in solid geometry. This fact is made use of and heightened by chpping, and the vegetable solids of topiary work are the extreme of this idea. (See Fig. 1.) Many undipped evergreens, however, have a very complacent well-groomed appearance. Most pines, hemlocks, and Douglas spruce, and perhaps others, mingle their branches fairly well even in small groups. Even if their outline has a fairly close line relation, and although their foliage is similar to a marked degree in the genera, never- theless their sharpness of outline and the individual characters of each make their mass formation a mixture and not a unified composition. It is advisable to have few species and fewer genera on display in any one section of a planting. The more numerous the species, the greater the diversity in skyline and composition. The masses of conifers are darkest and densest of all vege- tation; so also are their shadows very black on lawn or across structure or other vegetation. Coniferous evergreens are the deep tones in pictures out-of-doors. As contrast to structures, as background, low foreground, or horticultural adjunct, the shadows they cast have great pictorial value. Too many ever- greens, because of depth of shadow, may make the picture too dark and dismal. Use of the lighter shades of green will help to offset this difficulty, as the selection of white pine instead of Norway spruce near a dwelling. Though the shadows may be as dark, they will be tempered by the lighter foliage color. It is easy to see, therefore, that one evergreen in a planting may have more pictorial weight than any deciduous tree or several of them. Since its value in the picture is so great, its relation to the nearest vegetation is very important. In the grouping of the various conifers, avoiding the intense forms of color, any sorts that site and . soil will allow to thrive may be EVERGREENS IN THE LANDSCAPE 19 placed together with fair effect. The lack of conformity in outline seems the greatest problem. However, spruce and fir look alike to the camera, the triangles are all triangular; juniper and arbor- vitae are equally exclamation points; pine, hemlock, and yew at length spread out similar wide arms; and the low dwarfs, as Mugho pine, dwarf juniper, and the Tom Thumbs make vegetable mattresses. There are, then, these four groups, and a massing within each group gives similarities of outline and structure; a choice from any two or more of these groups gives distinct contrasts. In small areas one conifer can dominate the scene; or a group of a few can be the central feature of the planting. This means that the evergreen plant material should be chosen and placed first (on paper) and the attendant other vegetation is chosen to set it off by contrast of outline, structure, texture, color, size, and position. An equal mixture of evergreens and deciduous trees and shrubs is rarely satisfying. There is too much equality in bulk and the contrast loses value. For best pictorial effects, it is safest to keep the two types of vegetation quite or nearly apart and separated, except when definite differences of vegetation are desirable, and then the differences are strengthened by inequality of bulk and quantity. One evergreen tree is well set off by a background of other similar or contrasting evergreens, but it is too obvious to show off well in good composition or contrast in front of a mass of deciduous trees. A small group of related conifers, a small unit in themselves, look much less lonesome against the larger area of deciduous background. They derive strength from one another and are less structurally unrelated to their contrasted vegetation. Evergreens in mass formation make excellent backing to show off the special beauties of some tree — red maple in spring 20 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS bloom or autumn leaf, crab-apple in flower or fruit, golden stems of willow — for the main mass of the picture is the change- less composition of the evergreens, enlightened by the gift of the seasons from the deciduous tree or trees. Special plantings of all kinds — azaleas, lilacs, lilies, peonies, irises — acquire double value when inclosed and framed by perpetual walls of dark green. A small planting thus set off may have a quantity and quality that a larger one unframed, or seen against sky, cannot possess. After the brief period of bloom, the glory goes back to the evergreens, and the spot is full of beauty. By nature all evergreens, except cedar of Lebanon, Japanese umbrella-pine, Monterey cypress, and a few similar relics of older eras, are forest trees somewhere. Most of them, however, are seen as landscape specimens, in solitary grandeur upon a lawn. For this special use their many virtues decidedly fit them, and when placed so as to bear some relation to other objects, their symmetrical sweep of branches renders them as complete in themselves as a Greek temple or statue. These conifers are, then, related to other objects, but not strictly grouped with anything, and when old age turns their symmetry into irregularity they have still a classic appeal. Since their shape is so definite and permanent, coniferous evergreens are eminently suited to formal work of all kinds, and the size of material, from Tom Thumb arbor-vitae to Austrian pine, can fit the scale of the design. The dignity and repose of a formal scheme is greatly increased by evergreen material, and the topiary art can assist nature. Here, again, the plants are not grouped, in the proper sense of the word, but are placed and spaced as the development of the design re- quires, living plants treated as geometrical forms, or solids for horticultural architecture. Since gardens were builded, ever- greens have furnished the opaque solids. Plate \. Combination of kalmia and hemlock EVERGREENS IN THE LANDSCAPE 21 In the relation of the tree shape to the topography, rather definite suggestions may be secured from nature. Most spiry- topped trees grow naturally in hilly and uneven lands. Spruce, fir, and juniper seem to reach upward and emphasize the irregularities of the ground surface. Much more use could be made of this relation of shape of tree and soil surface in planting, each to bring out the special character of the other. One cannot think of New England's rocky fields without juniper or balsam, and the slopes of the Rockies without fir or spruce. Conversely, the planting of stately firs or pyramidal cypresses in open flat land, unless, as in Norway spruce, there is great lateral spread of lower limbs, seems particularly unhappy and inappropriate. In narrow spaces, shut in and separated from the flat expanse by buildings, walls, hedges, and other high planting, the spiry evergreens seem in fairly permanent quarters, but only as special contrast to site and surroundings. The spiry kinds are related to structures of all sorts — house, barn, or bridge — only by intense contrast. Pines, nearly all sorts, offer the other extreme. Their lines in maturity are mostly horizontal, and the species frequent flat lands and the plains. They are more picturesque in age; the pine is one of the few conifers that grows old gracefully. To this group of horizontal type, with grace in age, can be added yew, cedar of Lebanon, some junipers, hemlocks, and probably Douglas spruce. These species are, thus, the most generallj^ useful of large conifers. They fit all shapes of soil- surface, give level and regular lines against the sky, against structures and other solid masses, and mingle well in mass with one another, or with deciduous tree forms and foliage. More pines and cedars of Lebanon are needed in created landscapes, and not too many of the compact vegetable spires and cones, of which nature has created many in spruce and fir and juniper. 22 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS The shapes of these are too similar to make them distinct to the average eye. The larger evergreens have their particular place in the landscape. Another special field is filled by the low species and dwarf forms of the larger sorts. For formal and pattern beds of all kinds, the low junipers, yews, arbor-vitae and retinis- poras were apparently created. Lacking these, and some of the broad-leaved evergreens, as box and English ivy, the contrast of lawn and normal vegetation, with dark masses of three dimensions in set designs, would not be possible, except as filled with herbaceous material. The plants are wholly restricted in their placing by the requirements of the design and the chief demand on them is that they live and thrive, yet increase in size but little lest they outgrow their allotted space and spoil the design. For the effect that Lord Bacon also observed in tarts, the regular ranging of this material has a decided place in certain styles of design. The chief requirement in the staging is a relation to some degree between the flat- topped, rounded, and pointed ones. To avoid monotony of forms or extreme diversity, securing harmony yet contrast in shapes, textures, and tones, requires an unusual degree of skill in placing plant materials. The flat-topped and cushion-shaped forms of conifers, as dense varieties of spruce and arbor-vitae, make very distinct groups in the landscape, so very distinct that they should be introduced with extreme caution in any except formal work. The spiry sorts, as Irish juniper or yew, are particularly useful as accents in the formal garden. The darkest forms, as savin and dwarf yew, give deep tones and shadows to this living painting; while the foliage tones of silver, gold, and blue add the high lights and sun touches. With such a wealth of material for this three-dimension sketching, the student of planting EVERGREENS IN THE LANDSCAPE 23 wonders why so little use is made of this field, and so assorted the results achieved. Good staging of dwarf evergreens will make happy the home-lover and the nurseryman. Weeping and irregular dwarf conifers give picturesque and Japanese effects when properly placed for a special touch, but most ungainly forms look crazier than ever because of poor placing. Irregular dwarf conifers, as the many forms of juniper and chamsecyparis, are excellent ground-cover in poor soil in the sun. For good land and under trees, the many forms of yew of low habit, and for moist soils the dwarf loose varieties of arbor-vitie, take the place of grass or low deciduous shrubs, hiding soil and slope through the year. One species at a time, in soil that suits it, with some broad-leaved evergreen shrubs and perennials of good foliage, gives carpets of undulating green that no other planting can duplicate. No soil is too dry and sunny, shaded or damp, or the space too narrow, in regions where homes are built, to prevent the use of this richest of soil concealments. Small areas of definite outline, covered with dwarf evergreens in definite plan, make evergreen gardens that satisfy the eye the year through. Evergreen conifers, therefore, contribute in the landscape picture the dark masses, the contrasts, the solid lines against the sky, shelter in hedge, screen, and windbreak, the solitary specimen, accents and adjuncts to garden accessories, the best material for formal work, and permanent cover to hold and hide the soil. Except such types as the pine, they are weakest as parts of harmonious composition, for their chief purpose is individual contrast, except in large plantations. A special use in modern plantings for conifers of low or medium size (no trees) is for foundation and entrance plantings. To connect house walls with lawn and topography, something more permanent in appearance than salvia or deutzia is often 6^ ^J' 24 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS needed. The jumble of blue and Norway spruce, attended by golden juniper, which eventually die or become too big for the place, is seen from many a living-room window. Surely this kind of planting can be much better conceived, with a real unified relation to house and attendant objects. A few kinds, and not many of them, seem a safe rule for first attempts at this kind of planting. Plantings at entrances, doorways, street gate or portal of the garden, call for evergreen material. If the entrance is narrow, columnar junipers could be the main feature; when a feeling of space is desirable, Mugho pine and dwarf yew may mark the entrance. Good proportions in heights, diameters, textures, and colors suited to the type of gateway and their use seem to be the first requirement and often least considered. In northern latitudes, the broad-leaved evergreens are mostly shrubs or woody herbs. Holly is, perhaps, the only broad-leaved evergreen tree, and its use is restricted by its needs. The chief difference in this type of plant material is its dissimilar foliage in size and texture. The flat, leathery, shiny leaves bear little relation to the needles of the conifers, and rhododendron and box do not look well united with juniper and Mugho pine. Still dwarf yew and box can be used harmoni- ously with Mugho pine and yucca. Since the cultural require- ments of the two groups are so different, best results are expected when they are planted wholly separately. The broad-leaved shrubs can be easily combined with deciduous shrubs, the crucial place being where the two extremes join. Semi-evergreen shrubs of broad leaves, as Lonicera fragran- tissima, make attractive the transition between mountain laurel and spirea. Winter is marked by extreme contrast, assisted by bright berries, or twigs, on the leafless ones. Partly because of difficulties of cultivation and maintenance. EVERGREENS IN THE LANDSCAPE 25 but equally because an evergreen in northern lands cannot be so casually shoved into a planting as may deutzia and maple, sufficient use is not made of evergreens in plantings for their all-season wear. If more care is employed, not only in attend- ing their physical wants, but in studying further their more effective staging as objects in the landscape picture, gardens will be built more finely. Enthusiasm for the artistic value of conifers, however, must be tempered by a thorough knowledge of their physical limitations. CHAPTER II CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION OF CONIFERS THE cultivation of conifers presents no special dijQficulties, if proper soil and exposure are available. The question of hardiness is, of course, all-important. It is not only the problem of temperature the given tree will stand, but also the exposure to winds, and, to a considerable extent, the source from which the tree is derived. Sometimes hemlocks and firs, for example, can be transplanted with safety from adjacent fields or woods, while the same species brought from a more southern or more protected region might not readily establish itself. This is particularly the case with species grown on the northern borders of their hardiness. If the plants are raised from seeds matured in similar or even more rigorous climates, they are usually more hardy. THE GENERAL CARE AND HANDLING OF EVERGREENS As to soil conditions, little special research has been under- taken that applies to the cultivation of conifers for ornament. The same is true also as to fertilizers; there is exception to this statement in the growing of young stock in nursery plantations, wherein careful studies are not lacking, but these investigations may not be considered here. In general it may be said that the soil for conifers should be "good," which implies that the same means may be employed for the improvement of land for conifers as for the staple crops. General fertilizing of the land is to be expected to produce good results. In many cases it is desired to plant evergreens on barren outlying parts of the estate; the first consideration is to observe in the neighborhood (26) CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION 27 or the region what species are most hkely to thrive; usually it is not expected to obtain fine specimen trees quickly on such places, if at all; if possible the land should be first improved by good tillage, cover-cropping, and fertilizing. In the way of actual tillage, little is required for the conifers, although they profit by it when young. The conifers are essentially lawn subjects, and sod is the natural setting. With the present scarcity of labor, however, tall grass and weeds are likely to get the start, making the place to look untidy and to increase hazards of fire. The use of the mowing-machine will greatly help, when scythes and lawn-mowers are out of the question. Once well established, the evergreen plantation should require less care than many or even most other kinds of landscape plantings. Speaking of experience with conifers in southern Connecti- cut, George P. Brett writes: "I have tried a mixture of fine bone dust, potash, and nitrate of soda as a fertilizer for ever- greens, but not with verj^ satisfactory results, well-rotted cow- manure being the best solid fertilizer for these trees in my experience. But for the tree not yet fully established and for the tree which is ailing, nothing is so good as a liquid manure applied three or four times during the first month or two after transplanting, trees apparently almost dead having come back to life again under this treatment. Last winter, for example, I removed a black spruce of some twenty-five feet in height from the woods, and we thought we had lost it when all its needles fell ofiF in the spring, but under this treatment it grew a new crop of needles and now promises to be as satisfactory as trees of this kind usually are. All manures and fertilizers, unfortunately, greatly increase the growth of weeds and grass at the foot of the trees, choking and eventually destroying the beauty of the lower branches, and the removal of such growth 28 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS in a large plantation is a serious matter in these days when labor is so difficult to obtain." Soils, manures, and mulches for conifers. (John Dunbar.) The greater number of conifers prefer a well-drained porous gravelly subsoil, overlaid with a light sandy loam. They seem to be particularly happy in a soil underlaid with a porous glacial drift. A few grow spontaneously in swampy grounds, such as tamarack, Larix laricina; cypress, Taxodium distichum; white-cedar, Chama;cyparis thyoides; and common arbor-vitse. Thuja occidentalis. In cultivation, however, they succeed very well in ordinary well-drained soil. In fact, the common arbor- vitae does well in dryish soils; specimens planted on knolls of light sandy loam underlaid with glacial drift are in excellent health. When conifers are set in clay soil, which is often done, the soil should be thoroughly loosened by trenching or subsoil plowing, and well underdrained. Any avai-lable humus, wood- ashes, and well-rotted manure incorporated in the soil greatly aid in rendering it friable and porous for the roots. All conifers respond well to cultivation in growth and vigor. An area extending from the stem to one to two feet beyond the branches, stirred up with hoe and rake perhaps five or six times throughout the growing season, is very beneficial in conserving the moisture around the roots. Mulching with ordinary well-rotted barnyard manure in late autumn affords much stimulus to growth. By the following spring the manure will be in a desiccated condition and can be incorporated with the soil. William Falconer, who had charge of the Dana Arboretum many years ago, the best cultivator of conifers the writer ever knew, placed a heavy mulch of old straw, rotten hay, or any similar material over the roots of the conifers, and this was maintained throughout the entire growing season. In I -^ CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION 29 their remarkable health and vigor, the conifers certainly showed a quick response to this treatment. Of course, this care mostly applies to conifers in a more or less juvenile condition. When they attain adult size, unless they show signs to the contrarj^ conifers are usually independent of such cultural attention. Twenty-seven years ago a street was extended through a hill on the east side of Highland Park, Rochester, New York. There was a cut of about one hundred feet. The slopes were graded to the angle of repose and on the steepest side a re- taining wall was built at the base to prevent the sand from sliding. The material on the slopes was sand intermixed with varying glacial drift. About four years later, that is twenty- three years ago, the slopes were covered with Scotch, Austrian, white, and pitch pines, and red-cedar. Rotten haj', straw, decayed leaves, grass mowings, and the like were scattered amongst them. They have grown well and many of them are from twenty-five to thirty feet tall. These slopes now present a very dignified appearance at the entrance to the Pinetum. At present we are mulching, with stock-yard manure, a number of conifers that show signs of enervation and indicate plainly they need food. We have recently moved a number of conifers with frozen balls and these are very heavily mulched with manure. In summer they will be soaked with water several times, to enable them to overcome the shock of root disturbance. In many cases manure is not obtainable. In such event, newly moved conifers should be heavily mulched with rotten straw, rotten hay, or any similar rubbish for a few years until they become established. The frequent stirring of the ground over the roots subsequently will conserve sufficient moisture. We have never used artificial chemical manures on conifers and cannot say anything about them. 30 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS The pruning of coniferous evergreens. (John Dunbar.) The pruning of conifers is, perhaps, a Httle more difficult to explain than the pruning of any other woody plants. It seems needless to say that removal of the lower branches is a serious mistake, and, if healthy, they should be retained to the base. Pines, spruces, firs, and hemlocks have conical pyramidal outlines, some more so than others, and the elements of beauty consist in accentuating these attributes. Pruning or disbudding can be intelligently performed to add much to the natural symmetry. The extraction or removal, early in spring, of the central or terminal bud, will tend to compel the branches which start from the side buds to spread apart and form a much denser growth. Cutting back the previous year's ter- minal growth to a strong bud or branchlet on the main limbs over the tree, if the plant is inclined to be thin in its branching, always produces a much denser lateral growth. In the case of hemlocks, owing to the nature of their terminal growths, the removal of the central terminal bud cannot be accomplished very well, as the bud is very minute. The best method is to cut back the terminal branches to strong branchlets or buds, and a much denser growth will soon follow. Pyramidal junipers and arbor-vitse, in which the object is to develop very dense pyramidal habits, are often clipped with shears in spring before growth starts to produce density of growth. In nurseries in which there are thousands of such plants, it may be a matter of business to treat them in this way, in order to facilitate the work. However, on private plantations it is better to use a sharp pruning-knife, or good standard pruning-shears, and cut the branches or projecting shoots back in "shingling" fashion. When carefully pruned in this way, the trees present a more pleasing appearance and do not show such a stiff aspect as when shorn with the shears. CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION 31 "VMien priming is skilfully performed, the ordinary observer cannot detect what the primer has done. Pruning or disbud- ding of conifers requires very intelligent observation, and one should have the desired results definitely in mind. Of course, there are different opinions about the pruning of conifers, some growers preferring to leave them entirely alone. However, a little pruning and disbudding in the juvenile state develops natural beauty. This applies to conifers from an ornamental standpoint, but from an economic or forestry point of view this priming has no application whatever. The transplanting of conifers. (Figs. 2, 3.) There is wide difference of practice in the time of year for the transplanting of coniferous evergreens, which means that no one season is imperative. John Dunbar writes that he transplants "conifers at all times of the year, excepting midsummer when they are in full growth. The best success is secured in spring when the buds begin to swell. From the end of August to the middle of September, if there have been abundant rains and the ground has been well soaked, is a very good time to move conifers. They may be planted late in autumn when circum- stances compel it, but there is likely to be a considerable percentage of loss. Valu- able conifers that stand in proximity to each other and require removal for better development, can be transplanted in winter successfully with large frozen balls ' , ^ . 1 , . , . 2. A good ball of earth for on stone boats or tree-movmg machmes transplanting. 32 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS adapted to the purpose. The roots of conifers are very sus- ceptible to injury from exposure to the air, and the utmost vigi- lance should be exercised to keep them covered and moist. "The climate of eastern North America is not adapted to the successful growth of many beautiful conifers, and very few of the species toward the Pacific Coast succeed in the East. This is due not so much to the cold as to the fierce, sweeping dry winds of late winters. The precipitation of moisture is much more abundant on the Pacific Coast, west of the Cascade Range, than it is in the Northeastern States." "With the exception of the hemlocks and some of the firs," writes George P. Brett from experience in southern Connecticut in exposed situation, "all the evergreens have proved easy to transplant with us. Some of them, indeed, can be moved at any season of the year, but we have usually found our losses less when the trees have been transplanted in the early spring months, this spring plant- ing being superior to fall planting in this section of the country on account of the increasing winds of winter adversely af- fecting the fall-planted tree. Great care, „ „ J , ,. . however, must be taken to keep the roots 3. Prepared tor shipment. ^ constantly wet. They must never be allowed to get at all dry, and when transplanting from the wild, if a ball of earth cannot be obtained, some means must be adopted for keeping the roots wet until they are again planted. The wind is also a great enemy of the transplanted tree, especially of the evergreen, its mass of foliage catching the winds as would a sail, with the result that newly planted trees, unless 1'L.vrE Vll. A roadside plaiiliut^ of tirs CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION 33 firmly guyed, generally work a hole around the stem of the tree which will, if unfilled, eventually dry the roots. Most of the losses in my early plantings were due to this cause." The moving of large evergreens. (Plates VIII, IX.) The removal of large conifers, above the usual nursery or transplanting sizes, is a special practice, and the success of it depends on large experience and often the use of special hoists and trucks. The following explanation is from the experience of Henry Hicks, as told in the Standard Cyclopedia of Horti- culture. "Large evergreens are moved with a ball of earth because they have no dormant period, but carry their foliage and need moisture at all times of the year. It is essential that the ball of earth contains a sufficient amount of small fibrous feeding roots to support the tree and that the tree be kept well watered for two or more seasons until the tree has spread its roots over sufficient area to gather enough rainfall to sustain the normal growth. The extent of fibers in the ball is increased by trans- planting and root-pruning. Root-pruning is less essential with trees having an abundance of fibrous roots than with trees having only a few large coarse roots in the central portion. Some trees, as white pine, will survive with a comparatively small number of roots, their drought-resistant qualities enabling them to persist with a small supply of moisture. Other ever- greens, as Nordmann's fir, have a long carrot-like tap-root, and the tree is likely to die if this is cut and the tree given an inadequate quantity of water. Frequent nursery transplanting is, therefore, necessary with this species. "Trees are dug by starting a trench at a radius from the tree about three feet wider than the ball of earth to be taken. The roots are cut off on the outside of the trench and the soil dis- 34 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS sected out from between the roots back to the size of the ball. These roots are bent around against the ball of earth if they are flexible enough to bend. If not sufficiently flexible and tractable, they are cut off. "A canvas is made fifteen to twenty-four inches deep, and is made smaller at the bottom by folding over a V and sewing it. This makes it fit a conical ball and, when it is pulled up three inches by the cross-lashing at the top, makes it tighter. The canvas has cross-ropes sewed on it with rings at the top and bottom, and on the deeper balls two rows of rings in the middle. The bottom rope is tightened by a wooden lever twenty inches long with four holes, the rope being looped through the holes and the lever thrown over to pull the rope tight. The top rope is then tied and tightened by cross-lashing. "To get the ball free from the subsoil, dig under all around and tip the tree slightly. Level off the bottom with a fork. If there are tap-roots, tunnel under and cut them with a saw. Put a platform as far under as possible and tip the tree back. To get the ball in the center of the platform, put a hammock around the ball and pull. Hold the platform in position by crowbars driven in front of it. Lash the ball to the platform, make an incline, drag the platform out of the hole onto a truck or sled. Skids with small wheels set in them about one foot apart enable a team to load a ball quickly. With balls ten to fifteen feet in diameter and twenty inches deep, jacks and pipe rollers are needed. "Trees over ten feet need to be tipped over to go under wires. If the canvas is put on tight and at the proper taper, and if the ball is cut flat to fit close to the platform and lashed tight to the platform, the tipping can be done without the ball shaking loose. Sometimes a canvas or burlap bottom can be put between the platform and the ball. In unloading, the tree CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION 35 is stood up, team hooked to the platform and the tree dragged off to the ground. The tree may drop two feet without injury. The platforms are dragged to the hole and balls less than four feet rolled into the hole. Larger balls have the platform dragged into the hole and the platform pulled out, holding the tree in position by a hammock. To straighten the tree, tramp the earth solid under it until it stands erect. Take off the canvas, spread out the side roots, pack the earth and anchor as with deciduous trees. Keep the ball moist; examine it once a month or more often by digging or boring into the ball during the first two years. Evergreens moved with a too small ball or with not enough fibers in the ball or with the watering neg- lected, may grow three inches a year for the first two or three years. If properly moved, they wiU grow six inches or more a year — half their normal growth. "Deciduous trees may be moved with balls of earth by the above method, and it has proved an aid with difficult species, as beech, oak, liquidambar, tulip. Especially when previously transplanted or root-pruned, the above trees three and one- half inches in diameter moved with a ball of earth four feet in diameter are very successful, while without a ball many are lost or the growth is much slower. Investigation should be made to see whether this is because of less disturbance of the roots or because there is carried with the roots and soil a mycelium of a fungus which aids the roots to take up plant- food and moisture. "The time of year for moving trees is of minor importance. It is overemphasized by purchaser, landscape architects, and nurserymen, and results in heavy financial loss to nurserymen in congesting sales and their own planting in the short spring season. It greatly lessens the total amount of planting needed for forest, shelter-belt, landscape, fruit, and other economic 36 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS purposes. A nurseryman may plant all the year. Evergreens can be taken up with a ball of earth even in May and June. The new growth may curve down. After June 20, the spruces, and after July 10, the pines, are firm enough not to wilt. August-September sales with a ball of earth are just as success- ful as April. The ground is warm and the roots grow rapidly; the ground can be made moist. Weather in September is less dry than in May and June. "Small evergreens up to two feet high may be planted in August and September from one part of the nursery to another without balls of earth, if the roots are very carefully dissected out without breaking. There will be more failures if the week following planting is hot and dry. "Planting with balls of earth may continue all winter, espe- cially if the ground is mulched to keep out the frost and permit economical digging of the tree and the hole. The frozen ball of earth is an old method, frequently referred to, but is not an aid. If the ball is frozen solid and remains so for one or two months with dry winds, the top may dry out and die as has occurred with red-cedar. If the ball is not frozen, sap can come up to take the place of that lost by transpiration. "A ball of earth three feet in diameter is needed for an ever- green eight to ten feet high; four and one-half feet in diameter for an evergreen fifteen feet high, except red-cedar which can have a ball three feet; a ball of earth twelve feet in diameter is needed for a pine thirty-five feet high. Root-pruning pines, spruce and hemlock permits moving the following year with a smaller ball than otherwise. In root-pruning, the trench can go three-quarters of the way around or three or four of the larger roots can be left across the trench to keep the tree from blowing over. Root-pruning of red-cedars is of less advantage and is rarely practised. In New England and northern New CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION 37 York, the pine, spruce and hemlock have only a few coarse roots just under the surface and no roots extending two feet deep. ^Mien moved to better-drained soils on the coastal plain, they develop deeper roots and have ten times as many fibers in a ball four feet in diameter. The above evergreens with their shallow root-systems can be taken up with a disc of roots, peat and grass eight inches deep and three to four feet wide. This can be set on a wagon and trees ten to fifteen feet high easily moved. Less roots will be broken or bare if the ball is tied in burlap. The usual cause of failure in this operation is neglect of watering. Hemlocks and probably other trees will be aided by shading for the first two months." PROPAGATION OF CONIFEROUS EVERGREENS.— Ahrens The conifers are multiplied by three general means, each of which may be discussed briefly: by seeds, by cuttings, by grafts. This account considers good nursery practice in the growing of plants for ornamental planting, and particularly of choice named stock. The growing of forest trees is quite an- other undertaking, on which there is a useful literature; the discussion of that subject is not undertaken in this book. Propagation by seed. The time of gathering the seed of evergreens is very impor- tant, when the cones begin to open near the tips being the proper time. The seed should be gathered at once, otherwise it will be lost. It should be kept in a cool place until sowing. Seed to be sown out-of-doors should be stored during winter in a cool dry room where the temperature does not fall below 36 degrees Fahrenheit. It is advisable to leave the seed in the cones until the weather permits their sowing. They should be sown in beds or frames, the small seed broadcast and large 38 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS seed, like pinus, larix, and taxodlum, in rows. The best soil is sandy loam. The seed must be protected from the birds with cheese-cloth. When the seedlings have developed the first two leaves the cloth may be removed at night and replaced during the day, and after they show the typical growth the cloth may be removed entirely. Careful watering is very necessary. This should be done in the morning with a fine rose, back and forth, to prevent the earth from forming a crust due to flooding. During the first winter, seedlings should be protected with a few dry leaves thrown over them and covered with evergreen boughs. The second winter, hardy evergreens do not need covering, with the exception of Tsuga canadensis and some tender abies. When the seedlings are three years old it is time to trans- plant; however, larix and taxodium transplant better when two years old. Transplanting should be performed before the seedlings start the new growth, dipping the roots in a bath of good stiff clay dissolved in water, to prevent drying. To cause the formation of a good root system, these seedlings should be transplanted every two years until they are ready to be set permanently. Evergreens transplanted often will keep a good shape and ball and may be moved any time in spring or fall, when those not transplanted will be a total failure. Older plants which become bare around the base may be given new life by digging around the tree two feet deep, keeping out far enough to prevent the cutting of any roots and filling the hole with good fertile soil. Tender evergreens should be sown in flats or pans in the greenhouse. A drainage of broken pots of about three-fourths of an inch should be placed at the bottom, and the flat then filled with a mixture of good leaf-mold and potting soil, with enough sand to make it mellow. After the seed is sown, it CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION 39 should be covered according to size, the small seed liberally, and large seed with more covering. The flats are kept in a greenhouse or frame with temperature about 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit. One should always water in the morning. Careless watering often spoils all the seedlings during the summer. The seed-flats should be protected from the hot sun. When winter comes the flats may be placed in a cool frame against a green- house, preferably being supplied with a line of hot-water pipes to keep out the frost; if this cannot be provided, a good cellar will answer. In moderate weather, plenty of fresh air should be furnished. The plants must not be kept too wet, but care should be taken that they do not dry out entirely. The second year, about the middle of September, the strong plants may be placed in pots, and planted out in spring; the smaller ones may be transplanted in flats and kept for another year, potting in September to be set out in spring. After two years the transplanting should be repeated. Further advice on the propagation of conifers, particularly pines, by means of seeds is given as follows by E. Bollinger: "The method of propagating pines on a large scale is by seeds. The seeds are sown from the end of March to May 15, depend- ing on weather and climatic conditions. The ground should be prepared in the fall if possible. "The preparation of the soil should be most thorough. It should not only be plowed deep, but cross-plowed and pulver- ized until it is in fine tilth and free from all lumps and stones. If the land is poor, a liberal application of well-decomposed barnyard manure should be plowed in, and in the fall a lighter application may be given if the ground is prepared in spring. The best soil for pine seed-beds is a loam. "When the land is properlj^ prepared, the beds are staked off uniformly not more than four feet wide, slightlj^ elevated 40 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS in the center. This width facilitates sowing, covering, and weeding operations. A very Hght wooden roller or the back of a spade can be used to smooth down the seed-bed. Thus the seeds can be seen easily, and a more even sowing accom- plished. Sowing should be done on a calm day, covering the seed with a sandy loam to a depth of about four times the thickness of the seeds, and again passing the roller over the beds or patting with back of a spade. The beds should be shaded either with lath frames or overhead brush shades, both proving satisfactory. The overhead brush shade, seven to nine feet high, is perhaps nearer to nature and requires less care. At no time should the seed-beds be allowed to dry out until the young plants are sufficiently developed and strong enough to stand draught, which is about seven to ten weeks after sowing. Lath frames should be watched closely in damp or hot weather and sufficient air supplied, otherwise the tender seed- lings will suffer from dampening, especially if they have been sown quite thick. Sharp clean sand spread evenly to the thickness of about one-twelfth of an inch will usually remedy damping off. "Seed-beds should be kept clean from weeds, especially during hot and dry weather. Such weeds rooting deeply should be removed carefully, or cut with a sharp knife. The slightest heaving of soil gives a chance for the drying out of the tender seedlings. The seed-beds should be covered in the early winter with clean marsh hay to the depth of about one inch, to prevent thawing and freezing. This should not be done until the ground is frozen to about three to four inches. The plant should be allowed to remain in the seed-bed for two full years. Some gardeners transplant the second year in beds prepared the same as the seed-beds, where they can easily be taken care of, watered, and shaded. They should remain in these beds for one or two years, and then planted in a permanent position." CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION 41 Propagation from cuttings. The middle of September is about the time to begin propa- gating by cuttings. The flats should be eighteen inches long, fourteen inches wide, and five inches deep. Three-fourths of an inch of broken pots should be placed on the bottom, then three-fourths inch of potting soil, and the remainder of the flat filled with sand, which must be tramped in with the feet to make it very solid. Loosely packed flats are not satisfactory. The sand for propagating should always be covered, to pre- serve the natural moisture and to avoid the necessity of much watering. Good lake sand, not too fine, is the best; when this cannot be obtained, other good sand can be used, but it must be clean and not mixed with clay or other binding material. Good vigorous cuttings should be taken from one-year growth with a two-year heel, and trimmed for one and one- fourth inches. They should be set in the rows two inches apart, using a dibble with a blunt point, placing with the cut directly on the sand. They should then be pressed and firmed, for cuttings put in loosely will not root well. After a moderate watering, the flats should be put in an air-tight shaded frame. When the cuttings are beginning to heel, the flats may be placed on the sand in the propagating bench. Starting with a moderate bottom heat of about 65 degrees, after a month the temperature may be raised to 70 degrees, care being taken not to dry the flats from the bottom. To prevent this, a funnel is put between the flats and sufficient water poured through to keep the sand on the bench moist. At the end of May well-rooted cuttings may be planted from the flats in the free ground. The cuttings should be carefully shaken out and the roots dipped in dissolved clay to prevent the young roots from becoming dry. The rows should be about eight inches apart, and the plants set at the same depth as 42 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS they stood before, packing the soil firmly. During the summer the soil should be loosened frequently with the garden hoe. Some of the more slowly rooting evergreens, such as retinis- pora or chameecyparis, some junipers. Thuja orientalis, Cedrus lihani, and all picea, should be left in the flats in a half shady place during summer and potted in September. Taxus cuttings, even if well rooted, should not be planted out in spring, but should be potted in September and kept over winter in a frost-free frame or a cool greenhouse. Propagation by grafting. (Figs. 4-7.) Varieties which cannot be grown from cuttings or seed must be grafted. If possible, the stock for grafting should be potted one year before use. When potted in fall it should be well rooted before grafting. Different sizes must be selected as it is difficult to put a small graft on a thick stock. Grafting should be performed on stock in the same class; juniperus should be grafted on J. virginiana, thuja on T. occiden- talis, picea on P. Abies, abies on A. concolor, for although this is a more expensive stock it is far better than A. balsamea. 4. Stock of conifers for grafting. CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION 43 For Pimis Jeffreyi, P. attenuata, P. ponderosa var. pendula, and all other forms P. pojiderosa stock should be used. All pines re- sembling P. nigra var. austriaca should be grafted on that stock. Pinus Strohus varieties should be grafted on that species, as well as P. cemhroides vars. monophylla and edulis, P. Bungeana, P. flexilis, and P. aristata. For P. Mugo and its var. Mughus, P. rigida, and varieties of P. sijlvestris, the latter should be 5. One-year grafts. — From left to right: Abies numidica, Pinus cembroides var. edulis, Picea Breweriana. employed. Pinus resinosa must be used for its varieties as they will not grow on any other stock. Varieties of tsuga should be grafted on T. canadensis, and forms of pseudotsuga on P. taxifolia. Plenty of sand should be used in the propagating bench. To prevent the heat from scorching the roots, the pots should be plunged in the sand and given moderate bottom heat. Plants potted a year before should not be plunged as they will start to grow without this treatment. The time for grafting is when the plants show young roots. The graft should be placed as near the root as possible, THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS making the bark of graft and stock cor- respond and then tying firmly. The graft should be cut near the tip of the tree when there is no frost. In four to six weeks the grafts begin to grow out. If the bandage is cutting the bark, the strings may be loosened at the bottom near the root, but the bandage must not be taken off entirely. When the graft is grow- ing well, the stock should be cut back about six inches above the graft, leaving enough side shoots to keep the stock growing. Before grafting, the stock should be watered thoroughly. In about two or three days, if the grafts are set well and tied firmly, no water will soak into the cuts, and after this they may be given water when it is needed. For about eight weeks the house should be kept closed, after which time a little air will not harm the grafts. At the end of May the grafts may be planted out. The side shoots on pinus, picea, and abies should be left on the stock. This is needed to root the plants and may be re- moved the following spring. Juniperus and thuja can be cut off near the graft in July. They will grow all summer. The plants should remain about three years and after- wards be transplanted every two years. 7. The union completed. Stock and cion of white pine. Plate IX. Details In the moving of a big pine CHAPTER III ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS THE keynote to success with conifers is adaptation; and of course the adaptation is really a local problem, dif- fering with each separate place. A few wide-spread and prevalent species, as white pine, Austrian pine, Norway spruce, arbor-vitse, can be made to thrive under diverse conditions, but, for the most part, each species is peculiar unto itself and the intending grower must read all the notes he can find on the adaptation to his region, closely observe successes and failures where the plant has been tried; and often he must set more plants than he needs, with the expectation that some of them will succeed. The present chapter is mostly a record of experience in adaptation in different regions. CONIFERS IN THE NORTHEASTERN STATES.— Dukbar Conifers have formed a very important part in decorative gardening for hundreds of years. Their variable forms are well adapted to many expressions of landscape gardening in parks, cemeteries, private estates, and small gardens. Some of the hardier forms are admirable for screens, protective belts, and windbreaks. In ornamental gardening, the growing of many conifers, with suiBcient room for spread of branches and adult develop- ment, so as to give ample opportunity for individual expression, has appealed to many devotees of gardening with keen artistic perceptions, and numerous collections have been established on private estates in Europe and the United States. A notable collection of conifers was established at Dosoris, Long Island, (45) 46 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS New York by the late Charles A. Dana about fifty years ago, and was maintained for many years in excellent cultural condition. Mr. Dana loved them most intensely. Perhaps the most notable private pinetum in this country at the present time is on the Hunnewell Estate, Wellesley, Massachusetts, which had its beginning between sixty and seventy years ago, by the late H. H. Hunnewell, and is still well maintained. Many of the conifers have attained large adult size and are in excellent health. The largest public collection of conifers in this country is the pinetum at the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mas- sachusetts, where all of the known hardy species of the northern hemisphere, and all of the available horticultural forms are assembled. It affords an excellent opportunity for the gardener, horticulturist, and landscape-gardener to study the particular forms they have in mind for special purposes. The next largest public collection of conifers is in the Arboretum of Highland Park, Rochester, New York. The planting of the nucleus of this collection was in the spring of 1896, and many of the conifers put out at that time have reached a height of thirty-five to forty-four feet. Pines. It is fortunate that the white pine, Pinus Strohus, one of the most beautiful of all conifers native as far north as New- foundland, is so well adapted to cultural conditions. In very exposed situations the white pine may become partly browned from the sweep of cold penetrating winds. Nevertheless, it makes a noble windbreak when planted rather closely as the trees give mutual support to each other. The plants may be set seven to eight feet apart and when they begin to crowd they should be thinned out and planted elsewhere. The white ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 47 pine is a beautiful object standing alone on the edge of a lawn. It is highly ornamental under varying conditions and with its horizontal branches, slightly curving upwards, succeeds well in light sandy soils. The pyramidal white pine, Pinus Strobus var. fastigiata, is a noble plant in formal gardening. It does not appear to have been in cultivation many years and specimens are not known over twenty-five feet tall. The dwarf white pine, P. Strobus var. nana, forms a low round bush which in ten years does not exceed three feet in height. This is a most important variety in a situation in which a low conifer is required. The Swiss stone pine, Pinus Cembra, from central Europe, is of remarkable beauty and quite hardy, as the foliage is not browned by the coldest winters. In its juvenile- state it forms a dense pyramid and is of very slow growth. This pine is well adapted to situations in which space is much restricted. It requires moist good soil. The limber pine, Pinus flexilis, from the mountains of California and New Mexico, has usually horizontal and pendu- lous branches, forming a very beautiful outline. Its leaves are short and rigid and look quite different from other white pines. It is quite hardy, of slow growth, and seems to thrive best at the base of a slope where moisture is abundant, but well drained. The Korean white pine, Pinus horaiensis, is not a common conifer in American parks or gardens, although it was intro- duced many years ago. The branches spread horizontally, but are somewhat divergent and are inclined in some individuals to be rather thin. It is very hardy and of slow growth, and is well adapted to restricted situations. Occasional removal of the cen- tral buds in spring to produce a dense lateral growth is beneficial. The Japanese white pine, Pinus parviflora, has a very characteristic aspect. The short leaves give a tufted, crowded 48 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS appearance. The branches are usually horizontal and occasion- ally somewhat divergent, and the habit picturesque. There are fine specimens of this species in the Arnold Arboretum. It is not particular about soil conditions. A very decorative form or variety with silvery-bluish leaves appears amongst seedlings occasionally. The tree sometimes called the Macedonian white pine, Pinus Pence, from the mountains of southeastern Europe, bears a general resemblance to the Swiss stone pine in its pyramidal habit. It is slow growing and quite hardy and well adapted to small ornamental grounds. It appears more subject to the attacks of the pine-leaf scale than any other white pine. The Bhotan white pine, Pinus excelsa, from the Himalayas, is characterized by handsome long leaves frequently eight inches in length. The branches are horizontal, drooping, and oc- casionally divergent. A well-developed individual on the border of a lawn is an object of much beauty. A fine specimen, fifty feet in height, is now standing on the grounds of the Genesee Valley Club, East Avenue, Rochester, New York. A number of individuals have been lost from the stems being punctured by sapsuckers, and they appear to "bleed to death." There is no remedy for this, except, perhaps, to destroy these birds and this is not permitted by law. The Mexican white pine, Pinus Ayacaliuite, native in Mexico, has long leaves and bears some resemblance to the Bhotan white pine. The horizontal slender branches are some- times inclined to droop, which gives the tree a most graceful appearance. This pine has a reputation for being tender, but it passed through the very cold winter of 1917 and 1918 a little browned but recovered thoroughly. It should be planted in a situation well protected from the sweep of the prevailing cold winds and in moist, well-drained soil. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 49 The mountain or western white pine, Pinus monticola, native from British Cokimbia to northern Cahfornia and Montana, bears a strong resemblance to the eastern white pine. The leaves are a little stiffer and shorter than in the latter. It grows very slowly in the East, and the largest specimen is perhaps twenty-five feet tall. It never shows the slightest signs of injury from cold. The habit is broadly pyramidal, and it appears to be a good plant for small gardens. The single-leaf, or pinon pine, Pinus cembroides var. mono- phylla, is a native of dry regions from Utah, Nevada, and Ari- zona. It forms a dense broad pyramid about ten feet tall. It always attracts attention from connoisseurs on conifers because of its distinctive characters. The foliage is bluish-green. Amongst the three-leaved pines the most useful species is the bull pine, Pinus ponderosa, native from British Columbia to western Texas. There are individuals of this handsome pine in Rochester, New York, fifty to sixty years old and sixty to seventy feet tall, in perfect health. It passes through the severest winters without injury. The branches are spreading and variously curving. The long handsome leaves are thickly disposed on the branches, and the whole aspect when well developed is very dignified. The bull pine seems most at home in a well-drained moist soil at the base of a slope or in a ravine. The variety pendula has very long drooping leaves, with the branches slightly pendulous, and is very distinctive. There is an excellent example of this pendulous variety on the grounds of the late W. C. Barry, forty feet tall. A variety known as scopulorum from the Rocky Mountains is smaller than the type. Plants in the Pinetum are now five to six feet tall and look very promising. Jeffrey pine, Pinus Jeffreyi, from southern Oregon to California, is much rarer in cultivation than the bull pine. 50 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS It forms a narrow pyramidal outline. The leaves are dense and bluish-green, and it is quite hardy. It has attained a height of thirty-four feet in the Pinetum in twenty-six years. The lace-bark pine, Pinus Bungeana, from China, has slender curving branches and forms a dense tree. When it passes the juvenile state, the bark of the main bole begins to assume a peculiar, flaky, light gray aspect. It grows slowly and has a bushy appearance for a number of years. It is quite hardy. The bark on the stems of adult trees in China is said to be white. The pitch pine, Pinus rigida, native throughout the North- eastern States, is likely to be despised by some planters, but it adds a picturesque appearance in adult age to the landscape. It will grow and look happy in pure sand. It is, therefore, to be recommended for sandy areas and slopes. The knob-cone pine, Pinus attenuata, has done surprisingly well in the Pinetum. It is mostly native west of the Cascade Range. It is now twelve feet tall, and has been growing for eighteen years. It has been badly browned in severe winters, but has always recovered. Coulter pine, Pinus Coulteri, and Sabine pine, P. Sabi- niana, beautiful three-leaved species from the West, did very well in the Pinetum for about seven years, but were killed out- right by a severe winter. Amongst the two-leaved species, the red or Norway pine, Pinus resinosa, native throughout the Northeastern States to Newfoundland, is perhaps the most useful for ornamental planting. It is very hardy and adapts itself to many situations and soils. It appears to do remarkably well in clay soil. When isolated it forms a broad round head towards adult age. The foliage is abundant and massive. For the landscape-gardener this is a most important pine for bold effects. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 51 The Swiss mountain pine, Pinus Mugo, from the mountains of central Europe, has an ascending shrub-Hke habit, from a wide base, and grows to twenty feet or more in height. It is very hardy and does not brown in the coldest winter. It is very important for small gardens. The mugho pine, Pinus Mugo var. Mughus, is exceedingly variable. Occasionally it forms a low mat on the ground not over three feet high and twenty feet across and again it will grow to a height of fifteen feet and form a broad rounded mound. A low variety is sold under the name of compacta, and is a most desirable plant for many situations. The mugho pine in its many forms is one of the most important low pines for parks and gardens, as it is well suited to different soils and exposures. It is not injured in the bleakest exposures. The Scotch pine, Pinus sylvestris, has been planted exten- sively in this country and various opinions are expressed about its utility. It maintains a good appearance from fifty to seventy years in most cases, other conditions being equal. It grows rapidly and is absolutely hardy. The branches are usually spreading and sometimes pendulous, and when well grown it is ornamental. Adult trees are characterized by yellowish- brown bark which is quite ornamental in a winter landscape. As a protective tree in a windbreak, the Scotch pine is one of the best and does well in poor soil. There is a form, var. argentea, with silvery-blue leaves, which is very distinctive. There are two dwarf varieties, pumila and Watereri, which are excellent for small places and useful in rock-gardening. An upright columnar form, var. fastigiata, is now in the trade. The typical form of the Austrian pine, Pinus nigra, native through Europe to western Asia, is proving very satisfactory. Plants raised from seeds collected by the late Henry J. Elwes, in Bosnia, are now twenty-five feet tall. The stout branches 52 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS form a very symmetrical pyramidal head with the upper branches ascending. The leaves are very dark green. This species is rare in cultivation in this country. The var. aus- triaca is planted as extensively as the Scotch pine. With its stout spreading branches and large dark green leaves, a well- developed Austrian pine is an object of much beauty. It is perfectly hardy in the coldest exposures, and makes an excel- lent windbreak as it grows rapidly. It seems to maintain itself well in this country for at least sixty to seventy years. The Crimean pine, P. nigra var. Pallasiana, with stout branches, thin branching habit, and dark green prominent leaves, is now thirty feet tall at Highland Park. The Pyrenean pine, P. nigra var. cehennensis, is a low-growing form with a broad base and orange-colored branchlets. The Japanese red pine, Pinus densiflora, in fifteen years forms a handsome round-topped tree. During the severe winter of 1917 and 1918 it suffered considerable injury, but quickly recovered. The var. umbraculifera is perhaps better known in gardens than the type, and forms a low, round bushy top. It is a most excellent plant in formal gardening. Thunberg pine, Pinus Thunbergii, from Japan, has a very thin branching habit, with heavy branches somewhat sprawling. It is not handsome but has a picturesque appearance and is quite hardy. In twenty years it forms a tree twenty- three feet tall. The jack pine, Pinus Banhsiana, has no ornamental value, but to some persons it has a picturesque appearance. It is very hardy, as it grows as far north as Hudson Bay. It does well on sandy slopes. The slender branches are spreading and occasionally much divergent. The table mountain pine, Pinus pungens, native from New Jersey to North Carolina, has a decidedly flat-topped pictur- ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 53 esque appearance, quite distinct from any other pine. After ten to fifteen years specimens mostly assume a yellow, sickly appearance. This pine appears to be quite hardy. The cones are very persistent, clinging tenaciously to the branches for ten or fifteen years, perhaps longer, and are difiicult to remove. Larches. The Chinese golden-larch, Pseudolarix amahilis, is an elegant ornamental tree. The branches are long and spreading and very irregularly whorled, with the lower ones horizontal and the upper ascending. The branchlets are yellowish-brown. The leaves are deciduous, light pale green, two to three inches long, in dense spire-like clusters. The foliage turns to a clear deep yellow in the autumn. It requires a light, sandy, moist, loamy soil to be in good condition. It is quite hardy, and the oldest trees in this couittry show no signs of failing. The largest trees at Highland Park are twenty-six feet tall, eighteen years planted. The larches are deciduous conifers, but all are beautiful ornamental trees. The European larch, Larix decidua, com- monly distributed throughout central and northern Europe, is a valuable tree for parks and private estates. The habit is pyramidal and often forms a long spire-like top in adult trees. The branches have a yellowish-straw color. The fine deep green leaves, which when unfolding in spring have a yellowish- coppery tinge and in autumn assume a yellowish-bronze color, are very attractive. The European larch does very well in light sandy soil and grows rapidly. A hybrid between Larix decidua and L. Kaempferi (L. eurolepis) which appeared in Scotland, is growing rapidly in the Pinetum. The young trees are still small but they are making good progress. 54 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS The Japanese larch, Larix Kaempferi (L. leptolepis), has very broad horizontal branches, which curve upward and form a very broad pyramid. The leaves have a bluish-gray tinge. The branchlets are characterized by a reddish-brown color. In the autumn the leaves turn deep yellow. Japanese larch does excellently in cultivation, and is a most desirable ornamental. The American larch or tamarack, Larix laricina, native from Manitoba to Pennsylvania, is usually found in swamps and very damp soil. It forms a narrow pyramidal head when young, but in old age it is often very irregular in outline, and the branches, particularly in adult trees, are arranged very irregularly. The tamarack, when isolated and well developed, is a very ornamental tree. Although usually native in wet soils, it does very well in ordinary well-drained ground. The Dahurian larch, Larix dahurica, from east Siberia, has very wide-spreading branches, much more so than in any other larch. The branchlets have a slightly glaucous tinge. The leaves are a deep olive-green color. It is slow growing, but is highly ornamental. Var. Principis Rupprechtii is doing very well at Highland Park. The seedlings are young, but they give good promise of becoming well established. Cedrus. The cedar of Lebanon, Cedrus libani, native on the Lebanon Mountains and in northern Africa, is one of the noblest conifers. The geographical form that has been commonly cultivated in Europe and in some parts of this country is not hardy in western New York or in any part of New England. Many years ago C. S. Sargent had seeds collected on the highest mountains in Asia Minor, where the species occurs. This race, fortunately, has proved to be quite hardy at the Arnold Arboretum, and the young trees are now of considerable ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 55 size. It is very satisfactory at Rochester. The stout horizontal branches, radiating very irregularly and forming a broad head, present a picturesque appearance. It requires a warm, rich, well-drained soil. The Atlas cedar, Cednis ailantica, and the var. glauca failed in western New York in severe winters. In Long Island and New Jersey, however, they succeed remarkably well, and healthy specimens can be seen on various estates. Heinlocks. The hemlock, Tsuga canadensis, is native from New Bruns- wick and Wisconsin south to northern Georgia. Although the species grows far north, when it is planted in situations exposed to the sweep of cold dry winds, it is likely to be badly browned on the sides exposed to the winds. The plant is usually gregarious in a wild state in gulches, valleys, and river-gorges where moisture is abundant and naturally well drained, and depends on mutual support by growing in masses. The hemlock is one of the most graceful conifers, and it is indeed fortunate that such a lovely conifer can be cultivated in the parks and gardens of the northeastern United States. The slender branchlets droop gracefully, and in a well- developed individual the lights and shadows are displayed with fine effect. The late Josiah Hoopes, a great admirer of conifers, declared that if he were restricted to one evergreen, he would surely select the hemlock. In a well-protected situation on the lawn, the tree retains the lower branches for many years. It is a mistake to plant the hemlock in a Aty, poor soil. The tree makes a very beautiful protective screen or belt, other cultural conditions being equal. When skilfully managed it produces a most beautiful hedge and stands the shears well. The var. pendida is one of the most graceful pendulous conifers, and 56 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS forms a flat, broad, low top, with branchlets drooping at the ends of the branches. Fortunately, this handsome plant is sold in many American nurseries. Var. glohosa is a low bushy form, well adapted to restricted situations in the garden. Var. atrovirens is dense and compact, forming a low, broad pyramid. It appears to attain a height of twenty feet and perhaps much higher. The Carolina hemlock, Tsuga caroliniana, native from the Blue Ridge Mountains to northern Georgia, is very distinct in its character from the common hemlock. It is a smaller- growing tree and has a more compact habit of growth. The foliage is very dark green. The largest specimens at Highland Park are twenty feet tall. Its cones are much larger than those of the common hemlock. In the autumn, when the branches are loaded with the yellowish-brown cones with the scales fully opened, it is an object of singular beauty. It is perfectly hardy, and requires a cool, moist, well-drained soil. The Japanese hemlock, Tsuga diversifolia, forms a bushy habit in cultivation, with a number of stems. Wilson says it forms a tree eighty feet tall in Japan. It does not attain any- thing like that height in this country. The conspicuous white lines on the under sides of the leaves contrast very markedly with the dark green on the upper surfaces. Siebold hemlock, Tsuga Sieboldii, from Japan, is not as hardy as T. diversifolia. It forms a low bushy tree and does not exceed six feet in height in ten years. It should be planted in a sheltered situation. Wilson says that in Japan, in native conditions, it grows to about the same height as T. diversifolia. Douglas fir. The so-called Douglas spruce, or red fir of lumbermen, Pseudotsuga taxifolia, is another of the few conifers from the ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 57 western side of the continent that does excellently^ in the North- ern and Northeastern States. It is, however, the form from the interior that is perfectly hardy in the East. The beauty of the Douglas spruce is difficult to exaggerate. Typical color of the foliage is dark yellow-green, but seedlings often appear with glaucous-bluish foliage. It forms a handsome pyramidal outline. The branches are very irregularly whorled or circled on the stem and it differs very much from a spruce or fir in this respect. Branches are also horizontal, with a slight curve downward in the center, and turn up gracefully at the ends. Occasionally they are slightly divergent. In moist well-drained soil it grows rapidly and attains a height of thirty-five feet in twenty-six years. Douglas spruce planted on porous sandy slopes does not grow as rapidly as in more congenial conditions, but it forms a sturdy dense growth and presents an excellent appearance. A well-developed individual on the edge of a lawn, with plenty of room for spread of branches, is a beautiful object. Var. glohosa is a low-growing bushy form well adapted to gardening in restricted situations. Var. jpendula, with the branches drooping at the ends, is highly ornamental. Var. fastigiata, with upright branches, forms a narrow pyramid; whilst there is a var. fastigiata in the trade, a spontaneous seedling that occurred under the observation of the writer is here particularly referred to. Spruces. The spruces are remarkably beautiful trees in parks and gardens when well grown and healthy. Their pyramidal out- lines, with the branches commonly arranged in circles or whorls, present a graceful appearance. The spruces, as a rule, are not as well adapted to dry sandy soils as are pines. While nearly all of them will not thrive in cold wet soils, they prefer 58 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS a moist sandy loam thoroughly well drained. In native condi- tions spruces appear to be at home on hill and mountain slopes where moisture is abundant but never stagnant. Engelmann spruce, Picea Engelmanni, native from British Columbia to New Mexico, is a tree of singular beauty. The strictly pyramidal outline, with the branches closely arranged in circles and maintained to the base, renders it particularly desirable for ornamental grounds. The lower branches are maintained under average conditions from forty to fifty years, and it will probably compare favorably with any other spruce in this respect. As far as the writer's observations are con- cerned, it is very rare for any spruce to maintain all of the lower branches during its entire life, that is, for one hundred years or more in cultivation in the Northeastern States. The Colorado spruce, Picea pungens, native throughout parts of Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, and New Mexico, is perhaps one of the most popularly planted conifers at the present time. In its juvenile state it is very beautiful, with a dense pyramidal outline, but, unfortunately, in twenty or twenty-five years it begins to lose the lower branches, and usually presents an unhappy appearance. The oldest specimen at Highland Park is about thirty years old, and the lower branches from about one-fourth of the stem have died. Amongst the various forms with glaucous, bluish, and silvery foliage, perhaps the var. Kosteriana with silvery-bluish foliage is the most distinct. The var. glauca pendula has bluish foliage and pendulous branches. This form is so very pendulous that it requires a stout stake when it attains considerable size, to prevent it from tumbling over. The var. compacta, a low bush form, is an excellent plant for decorative gardening in formal conditions. The oriental spruce, Picea orientalis, native from the Caucasus ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 59 west into Asia, is a tree of remarkable beauty. The small dark green leaves, very much crowded and appressed on the branches, give it a charming appearance. Branches are spread- ing and ascending, and when in perfect health and vigor are thickly disposed from base to apex. It retains its lower branches as well as any spruce in cultivation in the North- eastern States. The plant partially suffered during the winter of 1917 and 1918, but soon recovered. Near the entrance of Riverside Cemetery, Rochester, New York, are two beautiful groups of the oriental spruce planted thirty years ago. The leader is occasionally attacked by the white-pine borer. A low variety of this spruce is known as nana, with wide-spreading branches, very desirable for small gardens. The Servian spruce, Picea Omorilca, from the Balkan region, gives much promise. It belongs botanically to a small group of spruces in which the leaves are flat or flattish, and it is the only one in this group of cultural promise in the Northeast. The habit is narrow-pyramidal, with the branches ascending and spreading. The branchlets are often slightly upturned, dis- closing the dark green under side of the leaves in contrast with the silvery lines on the upper surface. This spruce requires well-drained, moist, deep, rich soil to be in perfect health. It is quite hardy. The leader is sometimes attacked by a borer. The flat-leaved spruce from Japan, known as Yeddo spruce, Picea jezoensis, after a few years in cultivation looks so unhappy that nothing can be said in favor of its cultivation. When quite young it has a pretty appearance, but, unfortunately, this soon disappears. The Iramomi spruce, Picea bicolor, from Japan, is decidedly promising, but it is rare in cultivation. There are individuals in the Hunnewell Pinetum fifty feet in height and branched to the base, in perfect health and very handsome. . 60 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS The white spruce, Picea glauca {P. canadensis), most decidedly requires a cool, moist, well-drained soil to be happy. Under such conditions it forms a dense pyramidal habit. It usually has light green-bluish foliage. The branches are as- cending and horizontal, and often the branchlets are pendulous. White spruce is largely planted and often placed in dry sandy conditions where it is attacked by red-spider, and it then presents an unattractive appearance. The writer has often seen it in northern Ontario, Canada, in groves and isolated, sixty to seventy feet in height, the individuals standing alone densely branched to the base, in perfect symmetry, and no spruce could appear more ornamental. A remarkably dwarf interesting form of the white spruce is now known under the name of P. glauca alhertiana conica. It was discovered by J. G. Jack, of the Arnold Arboretum, near Loggan in Alberta in 1904. It has a distinctly conical habit and is believed not to grow at any time over three to three and one-half feet. This interesting plant is now being distributed by some nurseries and will be very valuable in formal gardening. The Norway spruce, Picea Abies (P. excelsa), is perhaps planted more extensively than any other spruce in the North- ern and Northeastern States. It is much to be regretted that experience after many years shows it to be unfitted for this country. The greater number of the Norway spruces in this region after twenty-five to thirty-five years begin to go back- ward. The tree is quite hardy, but the climatic conditions do not seem to suit it. In dry sandy soil it invariably is attacked by red-spider. Occasionally it is seen in adult age in healthy condition in valleys or on slopes in deep, cool, moist, well- drained soil. It is a magnificent forest tree in central Europe. When a quick, effective, evergreen windbreak is de- sired, provided the soil is fairly moist, it serves this purpose ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 61 very well for many years. In adult individuals the branches are stout and spreading, with frequently long pendulous branchlets suspended from the main branches, and in a healthy tree this habit appears highly ornamental. There are a number of pendulous, columnar, and dwarf varieties of the Norway spruce. The dwarf varieties appear to show more virility than the type. The vars. Gregoryana, Maxwellii, Ellwangeriana, microsperma, Clanbrasiliana, and nana have variously formed low bushy and conical habits. They are excellent plants for many situations in ornamental gardening where low evergreens are required. In twenty-five years some of these very slow- growing dwarf forms will not attain over three feet in height. The black spruce, Picea mariana, native from Canada to Virginia, and often abundant in swampy or wet grounds, does not succeed well in cultivation in western New York. After ten to fifteen years it presents an unattractive appearance. Var. Doumettii does remarkably well and is very promising. It forms a dense conical pyramid with the branches crowded. In fifteen years it does not exceed nine feet in height. Var. nana is a low dense mat, which ultimately assumes a sub- globose habit. It seems to retain health and vigor after many years. The tigertail spruce, Picea polita, from Japan, is one of the most distinct species, with its rigid leaves and stout branches. It requires a moist rich soil and a well-protected situation, and under such conditions it is quite hardy. In some parts of the country it is alleged to lose the lower branches early, but trees in the Northeastern States after twenty-five years are retaining the lower branches remarkably well. Picea Maximowiczii, from Japan, is a very rare spruce in cultivation. It has short stout leaves and slender branches spreading and ascending, and inclined to be slightly divergent. 62 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS It is very slow-growing and in fifteen years does not exceed seventeen feet in height. Picea Schrenkiana, from Siberia and north China, is quite promising and hardy in a young state. The habit is dense and the leaves are deep green. There are no large individuals of this spruce in cultivation in this country. The red spruce, Picea rubra, native from Canada, northern New York to Pennsylvania and North Carolina, is a hand- some tree in native conditions, and of great economic im- portance. It does not thrive in cultivation and cannot be recommended for ornamental conditions in parks and gardens. Firs. The firs are notable objects in parks and gardens, par- ticularly in juvenile conditions. The large characteristic leaves, thickly disposed on the generally horizontal branches, are very attractive. They do not, perhaps, exhibit the graceful appear- ance of spruces, but in the decoration of parks and gardens they supply a most important ideal, from a different stand- point. Firs require a moist good soil to be in vigorous health. The white fir, Abies concolor, is one of the best in cultivation in northeastern America. The interior form from Colorado is best adapted to planting. In twenty-six years it attains a height of thirty-nine feet, with a distinctly pyramidal outline and branched to the base. The large flat leaves, thickly dis- posed on the branches, are very noticeable and give it a very dignified appearance. Seedlings vary considerably and fre- quently show a glaucous-bluish tinge in the leaves. The white fir should be planted in moist good soil, preferably at the base of a slope where abundance of moisture can be supplied, or in a situation in which the soil is porous and moist and well drained. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 63 The Nikko fir, Abies homolepis, from Japan, is one of the most important exotic species introduced in this country. The largest individuals are at least forty-five feet in height and in perfect health in some gardens in this country, and densely branched to the base. The tree forms a handsome pyramid, resting on a very broad base. The leaves are large and deep green. This fir has been planted considerably around New York and New Jersey. A. homolepis var. umhellata is equally hardy and has about the same habit of growth, but the cones are green, whereas in the former they are violet-purple. Nordmann fir, Abies Nordmanniana, native of the regions southeast of the Black Sea, presents a remarkably noble appearance when in good health. The writer has a tender affection for this species because it was the first fir he became acquainted with as a boy in the north of Scotland. The large, very flat leaves are densely crowded on the horizontal branches. Nordmann fir suffered very much in the Pinetum at High- land Park during the very cold winter of 1917 and 1918, being badly browned and losing many leaves. Some have not fully recovered from the injury up to the present time. Occa- sionally the leaves on the south side will be a little browned from the w^inter's sun after the middle of February in an ordinary winter. It is a very important fir in the Middle States. In the New England States this species should be planted in well-protected situations. Veitch fir, Abies Veitchii, from Japan, is very hardy and has never shown the slightest signs of winter-injury. In a juvenile condition this fir is very handsome, but when it approaches adult size, it becomes thin in habit. This tendency can be very much obviated by disbudding or removal of the central buds of the branches and occasional stopping of the leader to induce a denser lateral growth. 64 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS The Cilician fir, Abies cilicica, from Asia Minor*, is a hand- some species. It suffered considerably during the winter of 1917 and 1918, but recovered in about two years. Many lower- most branches have died, but otherwise it is in perfect health. The largest trees are about thirty feet tall. The grayish-green foliage is very noticeable. The Cephalonian fir, Abies cephalonica, with its sharp- pointed leaves and dense habit of branching, is one of the most beautiful firs where it proves hardy. It is very likely to be badly scorched by the winter's sun in February after a low night temperature. In the winter of 1917 and 1918, some of the largest plants were severely injured, but it can be grown by carefully studying conditions of exposure that may suit it. It is a beautiful tree in the Middle States. The silver fir, Abies alba (A. Picea), from the mountains of central and southern Europe, is distinguished by the leaves lying very flat on the branches. It is a very beautiful species and fast-growing where it is perfectly hardy. In the North- eastern States it is a little hardier than A. cephalonica, but it suffered considerable injury during the winter of 1917 and 1918. There is a silver fir growing on the Winton Road, east side of the city of Rochester, New York, at least seventy-five feet tall and perhaps sixty-five years old. This is a good illustration of what a tender tree may do when planted in well-protected, favorable situations. There is a dwarf variety of the silver fir which after many years does not exceed two to three feet in height and appears quite hardy. The Siberian fir, Abies sibirica, is very hardy and looks well at Highland Park after fifteen years' growth. It is said to lose the lower branches and appear straggling as it approaches adult size. The crowded leaves have a dark yellowish color. The Momi fir, Abies firma, from Japan, has very rigid, large, ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 65 deep green leaves, with horizontal massive branches. At Boston this fir looks bad, but there is a fine individual, perhaps thirty feet tall, in the Park Department Pinetum, Rochester, New York, which is in excellent health and has not suffered any injury. The balsam fir, Abies balsamea, which always looks so at- tractive in native conditions in northern woods, in this country and Canada, soon assumes a most unhappy appearance in cultivation and cannot be recommended. The low variety of the balsam fir known as hudsonia is an excellent dwarf form for gardens and seems to maintain good health. The red fir, Abies nobilis, is perhaps one of the noblest of all firs as it grows in a wild state on the Pacific Coast. After twenty years in western New York, it is only a dense bush six to eight feet tall and does not seem inclined to form a leader and become tree-like. It seems, however, to be quite hardy. UiJibrella-pine. The umbrella-pine, Sciadopitys verticillata, a native of Japan, presents a most singular appearance amongst conifers. There are two kinds of leaves : those on the shoot small and scale-like, but at the end of the branch much longer and linear and forming an umbrella-like circle. The habit of young trees is narrowly pyramidal. Wilson states that in native conditions in Japan the habit is gaunt and thin, and is very different from the dense pyramids to be seen in American parks and gardens. The umbrella-pine should be planted in deep, moist, well-drained soil to appear at its best. It has not been injured in the Northeast in severe winters Sequoia. The big tree. Sequoia gigantea, Is perhaps one of the noblest vegetable organisms on earth. The largest trees in cultivation 66 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS on the eastern side of the continent were in the Ellwanger grounds on Mt. Hope Avenue, Rochester, New York. The seeds were brought from CaHfornia by "Pony Express" in 1854 by Ellwanger & Barry. They raised about three thousand seedlings and most of them were sold in England. Ellwanger & Barry planted a small group near their office and they did re- markably well. The largest individual in 1916 was seven and nine-tenths feet in circumference and fifty-five feet in height. The severe winter of 1916 and 1917 so injured them that two years later they died and have recently been removed. If they were planted out when quite small, which is probable, they therefore were growing exposed to a series of winters ex- tending to about sixty years. The sequoia is, therefore, not to be recommended for ornamental grounds in the northeastern United States. Taxodium. The bald-cypress, Taxodium distichum, which is not ever- green, is a very lovely tree in cultivation and does remarkably well. It is of pyramidal habit and the slender branchlets, covered with light green feathery foliage, render it a charming tree for parks and gardens. It is very important to plant the bald-cypress in a moist, well-drained, good soil. Although this species grows naturally in swamps, probably if it were tried in cultivation it would be a failure. Arbor-vitoe. The common arbor-vitse. Thuja occidentalis, which in a natural state extends into northern Canada, is perhaps one of the hardiest coniferous evergreens and the most abundantly planted. It is planted extensively as a protective hedge. Many of the market-gardeners in Irondequoit, New York, use arbor- vitse in hedges on the western, northwestern, and northern ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 67 sides of areas in which they raise early spring vegetables. When this species attains sufficient size it serves a protective purpose admirably and is used in this way in many parts of the country. The common arbor-vita? in a wild state is quite variable in its habit, often forming a dense upright pyramid, and frequently with partly spreading branches. v There are at least fifty or more varieties of the common arbor-vitaj in cultivation. Some of the larger pyramidal forms are var. robusta (var. Wareana) with a broad pyramidal habit and deep green foliage which is well retained throughout the winter. Var. Vervceneana, with its pyramidal habit and slender branches, is very graceful. The foliage has a faint tinge of yellow, but not conspicuous enough to be disagreeable. Var. Douglasii pyramidalis has a narrow pyramidal habit, with short, dense, crowded branches, and is an excellent form in decorative gardening. Amongst some of the best low forms are var. glohosa, low, spreading and bushy; var. Ellivangeriana, a low dense sort which with age becomes slightly pyramidal, and characterized by typical and acicular leaves; var. Hoveyi, becoming a pyramidal-shaped bush in which the branches have the appearance of being folded together in layers; var. Little Gem, an admirable low form, which in twenty-five years does not exceed two feet in height and forms a spreading low cushion, retaining a dark green color; var. Reidii, a spreading, large, bushy form with smallish leaves, but in time likely to become a little thin. The canoe-cedar. Thuja plicata, native from Alaska to Montana, is, very fortunately, one of the few conifers from the western side of the continent that is promising in the East. The largest individuals in Highland Park are thirty feet tall and branched to the base, and the foliage retains a deep green color throughout the year. It assumes a very graceful pyramidal outline. It should be planted in a moist well- 68 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS drained soil. The canoe-cedar is one of the most beautiful conifers in the Pinetum. The Japanese arbor-vitse, Thuja Standishii, is a very beau- tiful decorative plant. It has a somewhat broadly pyramidal habit, and the foliage, with a pale green aspect, does not change throughout the year, or only very slightly in winter. The tree requires a moist deep soil to appear at its best. The oriental arbor-vitse, Thuja orientalis, from eastern Asia, has usually a strictly pyramidal habit. Branches present the appearance of being densely folded together. The foliage is a bright olive-green color which it retains well throughout the winter. Many named varieties are in cultivation, with dwarf, densely columnar, and pendulous habits. About fifteen years ago a quantity of seeds of the oriental arbor-vitse, collected in China, were given to the writer and several hundred seedlings were raised. They were planted on a steep, moist, sandy slope facing the northeast in Durand-Eastman Park, Rochester. They are now seven to ten feet tall and are nearly all narrowly pyramidal in habit, some much more so than others. The effect of this large group on this slope is excellent. Cypress. The Sawara cypress, Chama;cyparis (Retinispora) pisifera, from Japan, is a very popular evergreen in American gardens. The typical form is a beautiful ornamental tree when grown to one stem. The type should be much more widely grown, and as an ornamental it is not surpassed by any of the seminal or vegetative forms that have been produced from it. The Sawara cypress, or any of its varieties, should always be planted in positions well protected from the sweep of the prevailing cold winds in moist good soil. The var. filifera, with long slender branches, becomes in time a broad round dome and very deco- ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 69 rative. Var. plumosa has a very distinct pyramidal outline and, with the plumose branches and branchlets, is very ornamental. Var. squarrosa, in which all the leaves are acicular and bluish silvery -green, is a most distinct form and always attracts attention. It is indeed difficult to connect it with the type from superficial observation. The Hinoki cypress, Chamoocyparis obtusa, from Japan, is not nearly as well known in cultivation as C. pisifera. It forms a very handsome tree with horizontal branches and the branch- lets somewhat pendulous. A few years ago there were trees sixty feet tall on the estate of the late Dr. George Hall, Bristol, Rhode Island. There are a number of varieties of the Hinoki cypress. Perhaps one of the best is var. nana with a very dense habit and the branches much crowded together, somewhat in layers. The Hinoki cypress should be planted in moist, well- drained, rich soil. The Nootka cypress, sometimes known as yellow-cedar, ChamoBcyparis nootkateiisis, native from Alaska to Oregon, forms a very handsome tree with a narrow pyramidal head from a broad base. It is quite hardy and has shown no ill effects in twenty-five years. It requires a moist situation and protection from the sweep of the prevailing dry winds by the lay of the land or otherwise. There are a number of named garden varieties but they are rare in this country. The white-cedar, Chamwcyparis thyoides, native from New Hampshire to northern Florida in cold wet soils, has nothing particularly to recommend it from an ornamental standpoint. It will grow well in ordinary soil, but it is important to plant in soils full of stagnant moisture where nearly all other conifers would perish. The branching habit is usually thin, with a spire- like top. 70 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Junipers. The junipers are very important in ornamental culture. There are numerous decorative forms amongst them, nearly all of which are suited to light dryish soils. The so-called red-cedar, Junijperus virginiana, is native from Nova Scotia to Georgia and eastern Texas and is widely dis- tributed between these points. It often grows naturally in sandy gravelly hillsides and is excellent for planting in poor sandy soils. The red-cedar is quite variable in its habit, as it often forms a narrow pyramidal tree with the branches erect, or the branches are horizontal and the ends ascending, the general outline being conical. It is extremely hardy and suitable for planting in cold exposures. The red-cedar is said to attain a height of one hundred feet in some native conditions, but it does not exceed forty to fifty feet in cultivation. There are numerous varieties of the red-cedar and many are excellent decorative garden plants. Var. glauca is perhaps one of the most popular forms in gardens. The habit is somewhat loosely pyramidal and the foliage has a delicate bluish cast. Var. tripartita is a spreading bushy form with an irregular head which in twenty years does not exceed eight feet in height. It looks very different from the typical red-cedar. Var. Schottii forms a low dense pyramid with foliage of a light olive-green color. Var. Canaertii is of low, compact, pyramidal habit, with foliage of a dark grass-green color, and appears to be quite distinct from all other varieties in this respect. It has very distinct bluish berries. Var. venusta forms a narrow pyramidal column and in twenty years attains a height of twenty-five feet. It has light green scale-like foliage. This is a rare plant in cultivation, and on account of its distinct habit is very desirable for garden decoration. Var. pendula is the most graceful form for the garden. The habit is somewhat spreading and the ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 71 branchlets pendulous. There is an excellent specimen of this variety in the Arnold Arboretum. Var. Kosteriana forms a wide-spreading bush and bears a strong resemblance to the variety of the Chinese juniper known as Pfitzeriana, the general branching habit of both forms being much alike, Var. Koster- iana in time will probably not exceed five feet in height, and with its graceful spreading branches it is a most important decorative plant for gardens. A low prostrate form of the red- cedar, which is said not to grow more than eighteen inches high on some cliffs on the coast of Maine, has been introduced to the Arnold Arboretum. If it retains this habit in cultivation, it will be a most important low juniper. At the annual meeting of the New York State Horticultural Society, January, 1923, at Rochester, an excellent display of coniferous and other ever- greens was made by the State Agricultural College, Cornell University, in charge of Ralph W. Curtis. He showed a low, dense, bushy form of the red-cedar which he discovered growing on the hills a few miles north of Ithaca. It was not more than two feet high and was evidently an old plant. Curtis has named it provisionally nana, and as this name does not seem to appear in any cultivated forms of the red-cedar, it will probably stand. This will likely become an important plant in gardening. The Chinese juniper, Junijperus chinensis, native of north- eastern Asia, in the typical form does remarkably well in cultivation. The habits of the pistillate and staminate forms are quite distinct; the staminate is more robust and faster growing, with a pyramidal habit; the pistillate or fruit-bear- ing form has a looser habit and evidently does not grow so large. The brownish-yellow fruit is very attractive throughout the winter months. Many species of junipers have two tj^pes of leaves — scale-like and acicular (needle-shaped) . This is marked in the Chinese juniper. Var. Pfitzeriana is one of the most 72 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS important decorative junipers in cultivation at the present time. It is one of the best low conifers to plant close to the walls of a house, and, if given room to develop, adds much dignity to a home. The branches spread out almost horizontally and in time form a large irregular bushy head six to eight feet tall. The branchlets at the tips of the branches are pendulous and the foliage is light olive-green. Var. columnaris is a form introduced to cultivation by the United States Department of Agriculture, through the late F. N. Meyer. It forms a distinct narrow pyramid and all the leaves are acicular. The foliage is light bluish-green and is remarkably decorative. Var. Sargentii is a low-spreading shrub which does not exceed one foot in height and forms dense mats ten to twelve feet in diameter. Amongst the low-spreading junipers, this is one of the most important for covering banks and slopes, and is useful in rock- gardening. It does remarkably well in poor sandy soil, by cultivating and mulching for two to three years to get the roots well established. Var. albo-variegata forms a low dense pyramid with the tips of the branches silvery-white. The white coloring is not sufl5ciently prominent to be disagreeable. The savin juniper, Junijperus Sabina, which is native throughout many parts of the northern hemisphere, has a low erect habit of growth, and will in time attain a height of six to eight feet. The usually imbricated leaves are quite dark green. Planted four to five feet apart, it forms an excellent border to larger evergreens in the background. It is also valuable for planting at the angles and corners of cement steps winding up steep slopes. It is not fastidious about soil conditions and does well in light, sandy, poor soils. Var. tamariscifolia, a geographical form from southern Europe, has a spreading or procumbent habit and appears to be quite different from the type. It is an excellent prostrate juniper and has a most ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 73 agreeable bright green color. The leaves commonly are needle- shaped. It is excellent on banks and slopes. The horizontal juniper, Juniperus horizontalis, is widely- distributed in North America in native conditions. It is often found on sand-dunes, and in western New York, in Genesee County, it grows abundantly in Bergen Swamp with its roots in the water. The horizontal juniper has long prostrate stems which cling closely to the ground and is one of the best for banks, rocky slopes, and rock-gardening. Var. Douglasii is a very low trailing form with bluish foliage which assumes a purplish tinge in the autumn. This is often sold in the nurseries as Waukegan juniper. In twenty years it will form a low mat twelve to fifteen feet across. The common juniper, Juniperus communis, widely native throughout northern parts of the northern hemisphere, is rare in cultivation in this country. Its typical tree form, with branches forming an irregular open head and ten to twenty feet tall, is said by Sargent to be occasionally found in New England, eastern Pennsylvania, and on the high mountains of North Carolina. The writer remembers seeing it as a boy, quite common on the hillsides in the north of Scotland as a tree of considerable size. Var. depressa is the common low form sold in nurseries and is abundant in rocky ground and poor soil in the St. Lawrence Valley, New England, and northern Ontario and Quebec. In several forms this juniper is rather commonly cultivated and is valuable for rocky banks and slopes. Planted three to four feet apart in a massed border, it forms an excellent frontage to a group of larger conifers. The habit is low branching, and in time it forms stout recum- bent stems. It seldom exceeds three feet in height and usually it is not over two feet. There is a var. aurea with bright golden- yellow foliage which is quite striking. Var. oblonga, with an 74 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS upright slender habit and branches shghtly diverging, is a very decorative plant. The Irish juniper, var. hihernica, and the Swedish juniper, var. suecica, suffer in severe winters. The former has a strict, narrow, columnar habit. The Swedish juniper is also quite narrowly upright, but the ends of the branchlets droop slightly. Both of these junipers are likely to be pulled apart and their prim stiff forms much injured by heavy snowstorms. It is necessary to support them with stout iron poles driven deeply in the ground and kept out of sight in the interior of the mass. When tied securely outside the branches they resist the destructive tendencies of heavy snow- storms, and the poles are left undisturbed throughout the year. Juniperus rigida, native throughout various parts of north- eastern Asia, bears a strong resemblance in its foliage to the common juniper. As it grows in the Arnold Arboretum, perhaps twelve to fifteen feet tall, it is highly ornamental with an ascending loose pyramidal habit and the branchlets pendulous at the tips. Experience seems to show that it requires moist good soil to do well. Juniperus squamata, from western China and the Hima- layas, is a low form with prostrate stems and scale-like, linear, much-crowded leaves, grayish-green, with two white bands above. This juniper is likely to suffer in a very cold winter, unless it is buried in snow. At one time the late Timothy McCarthy, superintendent of Swan Point Cemetery, Provi- dence, Rhode Island, used J. squamata in large quantities as an edging for rhododendrons and also as a mass against groups of stone bowlders, with excellent effects. Var. Fargesii is an arborescent form said to attain a height of seventy feet in western China. The plants in Highland Park are still small, but they show a tree habit and appear to be quite hardy in an exposure of several winters. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 75 Juniperus conferta, introduced by Wilson from Japan in 1915, is a littoral species and forms dense mats on sandy shores. The deep green leaves are densely crowded, straight, and pale green beneath. It shows a tendency to be tender. Torreya. Torreya nucifera is a very distinct yew-like plant from Japan. There are several species of Torreya but nucifera is the only one fairly hardy at Rochester, New York, and it must be planted in a situation well protected from the sweep of cold winds. The habit is spreading and bushy, and the two-ranked, deep green, lance-shaped leaves are very ornamental. Yews. The Japanese yew, Taxus cuspidata, is the most important foreign evergreen ever introduced to this country. The rich dark green foliage, which is maintained without loss of color throughout the entire year, renders it a valuable acquisition for gardens and parks. It was introduced in 1862 and has, therefore, been a sufficient time in cultivation to warrant an opinion on its merits. It passes through the severest winters without injury. Fortunately, the Japanese yew is now propa- gated in many American nurseries and is becoming well known in many gardens. The seedlings show much variation, some having a distinctly arborescent habit, that is, growing to one tree-like stem, which may be encouraged by a little pruning of the side branches to develop the tree habit. Most of the seedlings grow into various bush-like forms with wide-spreading branches, and others seem inclined to form low bushy pyramids. The form of the Japanese yew commonly seen in parks and gardens is a spreading bush with its branches horizontal and ascending at the ends, fifteen to twenty feet across and five to six feet high. It has been known as hrevifolia but is now 76 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS called nana. There are, however, in gardens large, broad, bushy- forms that are quite different from nana and are not distin- guished by any varietal name. A low variety, densa, makes a compact, round, spherical bush. Taxus Hichsii originated in the Hicks Nurseries, Westbury, Long Island. It forms a narrow pyramidal head and gives promise of being an excellent decorative plant. The tree form of the Japanese yew is very desirable, and a beautiful object on a lawn. The so-called English yew, Taxus baccata, which is native in Europe and parts of Asia, cannot be compared to the Japanese yew in hardihood. In severe winters it is likely to brown badly, and sometimes branches are killed; in such instances it is usually late in summer before the specimicns recover to look presentable. The English yew is a most beautiful evergreen in any part of this country where it proves hardy. Var. re- pandens almost approaches the Japanese yew in hardihood. It is a low-spreading form in which the tips of the branches turn downward. The leaves are dark green with a slightly glaucous tinge. Var. Washingtoni forms a large spreading bush with the leaves lightly tinged yellow, and seems to be hardier than the type. Var. adpressa has short, abrupt, olive- green leaves, forms a low irregular bush, and is fairly hardy. Var. ereda, an upright bush six to seven feet in height, has been browned in winter several times but has always recovered. Anyone who attempts to grow various forms of the English yew in this country should be cautious to plant them in a situation well protected from the sweep of the cold winds and one sheltered by some means from the sun in late winter. The Canadian yew, Taxus canadensis, native as an under- growth shrub from Newfoundland to Virginia, is often known commonly as ground-hemlock. In damp woods it produces a ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 77 charming effect with its spreading branches covered with the rich dark green leaves. It does remarkably well in cultivation in open exposures, provided the roots are thoroughly mulched and kept cool. The leaves, however, assume a very different appearance, becoming somewhat smaller and shorter and not having the dark green color they show in native shady conditions. Ginkgo. The ginkgo or maidenhair tree. Ginkgo biloba, probably a native of China but never positively found in the wild state, is one of the interesting trees of the world. The fern-like leaves are deciduous. It is said to attain a height of one hundred feet in gardens and temple grounds in Japan and China, and presents a majestic appearance in old age. It was introduced to the United States and planted in Philadelphia in 1784. It is now a fairly common tree in many gardens and parks through- out the country and is perfectly hardy. In a young state it is likely to be very aberrant in its branching habit, that is, some branches will grow erect and others will strike out at right angles from the stem, and some trees present a rather grotesque aspect with such a contrariety in branching habits. However, with age and as the trees begin to assume adult size, the branch- ing becomes much more regular. There are trees in Rochester that perhaps were planted sixty years ago and are now of considerable size in which the branches are now thickly and regularly disposed, and they are of much interest. Var. fastigiata is a narrow pyramidal form in which the branches are strictly upright, and is well adapted to formal situations. Sometimes this f astigiate form will throw out aberrant branches and these should be promptly removed if it is desired to maintain the narrow habit. 78 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS EXPERIENCES WITH CONIFERS IN SOUTHERN CONNECTICUT.— Brett The site on which the following coniferous evergreens are grown is an exposed hilltop, three hundred feet above the Sound and about five miles from the water. The soil is thin, never more than a foot deep, with a subsoil of bowlder clay of extreme hardness called locally "hardpan," almost impervious to water and breakable only by the pick or dynamite. The firs are diflScult to establish under these conditions and the losses have been large, fully fifty per cent in the case of Abies concolor, and with smaller losses in some of the other varieties. A. concolor does well when once established, speci- mens after barely holding their own for two or three years afterward making an annual growth of eight to nine inches and forming perfect-shaped trees. A. Veitchii is the least satis- factory of the firs in this location, the upward growth being very small and the lower foliage becoming unsightly. A. Nordmanniana and A. homolepis are more satisfactory than A. Veitchii, the annual growth being six inches or more and the trees making otherwise a satisfactory appearance, except that A. homolepis tends to lose the lowest branches as time goes on. The hemlocks are also somewhat unsatisfactory in such a location. All varieties purchased from nurseries have perished and only Tsuga canadensis, transplanted from the wild, has succeeded. Even here the losses have been large, fully fifty per cent, as the tree is intolerant of wind and needs shade through the first few years. The situation is exposed to very severe winds from the north and northwest throughout the autumn, winter, and well into the spring months, and the hemlock seems to resent these conditions. Even when planted with specially prepared windbreaks, the losses have been quite large. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 79 The common juniper is wild throughout western Con- necticut. The type, however, is very rare, and most specimens are Juniperus communis, a dwarf bush usually not exceeding three feet in height and very often six to eight feet across in perfect specimens. It is very easily transplanted, preferring dry situations, will not prosper except in well-drained soils, and can be planted to great advantage on rocky hillsides. As winter comes on, the tips of the new foliage present a pinkish appearance and make a very beautiful picture. The red-cedar, Juniperus virginiana, is not planted as an ornamental tree nearly as much as its merits deserve. Easily transplanted at almost any season of the year from the hillsides and abandoned fields in which it grows abundantly, it becomes, under cultivation and care, a handsome tree with a bright full foliage, and is useful for planting along roadsides and for hedges and for blocking out unsightly objects in the landscape. It is not a fast grower as compared with some of the pines and spruces, but makes, under favorable conditions, an annual growth of about eight inches. There are numerous forms in young trees, some being May-pole shafts twenty feet in height, not more than two feet broad anywhere, and covered with dark green foliage from the ground to the top of the tree. A group of these trees with their, in many cases, spire-like heads, makes a beautiful picture against the winter sky. In later years the branches have a tendency to spread and in picturesque old age become horizontal and even drooping, the tree then requiring much more room, but young specimens retain their shape for many years and can be used in formal planting and for numerous other purposes. In young trees the foliage of native specimens often rivals J. virginiana var. glauca in color and retains this bluish tinge for many years, the foliage of such trees being usually finer than that of the type. The red-cedar 80 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS is easily grown from seed but requires shade for the first two or three years, as is the case with most seedling conifers. The most satisfactory spruce for exposed situations is, without doubt, the native white spruce. It is not quite so rapid a grower as the Norway spruce, but makes an annual growth of usually not less than one foot, and its handsome blue-green foliage is much denser than that of the Norway. It is one of the best trees for a windbreak or for dense hedges. This spruce, however, should not be grown in shel- tered positions or anywhere where the summers are extremely dry and hot. The Norway spruce is the quickest grower of all the spruces, some trees going upward at the rate of two feet or even more a year. Like the native black spruce, however, the foliage, especially of the lower branches, tends to become ragged and unsightly, and the side of the tree exposed to the severe winds of winter is nearly always less dense than its southern aspect. This is also true of the black spruce which suffers as an orna- mental tree also by reason of its persistent cones, which give the tree a moth-eaten ragged appearance. Picea pungens, both in the glauca and green varieties, and P. Engelmanni, are slow growers, seldom making more than six inches of upward growth a year. They appear to have no insect enemies, but P. Engelmanni, the Douglas spruce, and some of the firs frequently lose their leading shoots, apparently from the perverse habit of the birds which perch on the young and tender leaders and sway back and forth in the winds of early spring. However, in the spring of 1923, Douglas spruce was attacked by immense numbers of aphis feeding on the new growth. Several sprayings with fish-oil soap were required to combat this pest. Lime and sulfur were also tried, but had a tendency to burn the needles. :*j'.-.«H, .I!^^|-a3^ i^* '^ Plate XIV. V iii.irfjuieil walk — ylmupiru^ thnunsis \.ir ^argeidii) ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 81 The Black Hills spruce is a very satisfactory tree, with an annual growth of nearly a foot. Its perfect deep green foliage, interspersed with the white inner surface which shows on the new growth, makes a most pleasing picture. It seems to be hardy under all conditions and to have no insect enemies. Picea bicolor is very tender and a very slow grower. The leading shoots again and again suffer in the late spring frosts, the trees otherwise appearing to be perfectly healthy. With the white pine practically eliminated from planting by the many insect enemies to which it is now subject, except in plantations in which it can be nursed and sprayed with care, the Scotch pine becomes the most rapid grower and the best species to use for covering waste spaces, for windbreaks, or for blocking out inequalities of the landscape. Very variable in habit, some of these trees have a tendency to spread in a most ungainly manner, horizontal branches being thrown out equal in length to the height of young trees, while others assume a pyramidal form or develop a round-topped head and retain a satisfactory appearance for many years. Apparently free from insect enemies, the Scotch pine will grow under any conditions, not minding extreme dryness or even water condi- tions at the roots such as would be fatal to most other pines that can be planted safely in the North. Pinus Cemhra is a very slow grower, only about two inches of upward growth being the average of several specimens, the tree being otherwise perfectly healthy. Pinus resinosa is one of the most satisfactory pines, being apparently without enemies and having a vigorous growth, not usually averaging more than a foot a year, however, against the two feet or thereabouts of the Scotch pine. This species will not grow when planted in a swamp, as is stated bv some authorities. se THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Tlie Austrian pine is another very satisfactory species, growing about equally as fast as P. resinosa. The Scotch, resinosa, and Austrian pines are all excellent trees for field plant- ing and for covering waste spaces and rocky, worthless land. The white pine, the Bhotan, and some other of the soft- needle pines suffer severely from the pine weevil, and unless constant care is taken and the trees are given frequent spraying, these trees lose their leading shoots and become mere bushes, presenting a ragged and unsightly appearance and are, of course, then useless for timber purposes. These trees, together with P. Banhsiana and P. Cemhra, also suffer severely from a comparatively new insect enemy, the imported sawfly, the larvae of which, almost as numerous on these trees as the so- called tent-worm is on the wild cherries, denude the trees of their needles, and, as there are several broods a year, the new growth in its turn is destroyed, so that the tree eventually dies unless it is saved by spraying or other methods. On young trees, the best plan is to crush the caterpillars with the hands, gloved or otherwise, as they appear, but this requires constant watching throughout the summer because of the several broods. Another recently discovered enemy, but attacking only the white pine, is the pine-tube builder, which also feeds on the foliage, but is not, so far, a very serious menace. Pitch pine and P. ponderosa are among the very slow growers in this locality, some trees, ten to twelve years of age, having attained a height of only six to seven feet in this period. The yew deserves to be much more widely grown for orna- ment than is now the case. Free from enemies, a fairly rapid grower, it can be used for many purposes. It makes excellent hedges, stands pruning well, and the bright red berries con- trasted with the deep green foliage make these shrubs in the autumn a most beautiful picture. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 83 EVERGREEN CONIFERS IN CANADA.— I^Iacoun Vast areas in Canada were at one time covered with an evergreen coniferous forest, and over other very large tracts there was a mixture of evergreen and deciduous trees in which conifers were still a very important part of the forest. In addition, in the more southerly parts of the province of Ontario, the hardwoods were the prevailing trees, with a comparatively small proportion of evergreens. While the lumberman's axe and the forest fires have destroyed thousands of square miles of fine evergreens, yet there are still great coniferous forests in Canada, fine woodlands of mixed timber, as well as those other districts in which there are just enough evergreens to make a pleasing variety in the landscape. Canada is looked on by many as the land of the pine and the hemlock, whereas, in reality, it possesses many kinds of trees. The evergreen is, however, a great asset because of its value for lumber and pulpwood, but it means much to the average citizen apart from this. As a shelter from the winds of winter, a windbreak of evergreens is most desirable and is particularly appreciated in parts of Canada where high winds are frequent, and espe- cially on the prairies, where the cold is so intense. A windbreak of conifers is a veritable haven of shelter for the farmer and for his flocks and herds. Not only do evergreens afford this shelter from the wind, but their very greenness in winter makes the landscape much more cheery during the months of frost and snow. When used as specimens or in groups on the lawn, conifers are very effective in beautifying the landscape. As hedges, evergreen conifers are among the best trees and should be much more widely used for this purpose. The pines. The pine is closely associated with the name of Canada. 84 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS It is one of the most important timber trees, and many million feet of Canadian pine lumber have been sent to other lands. In this connection, however, the pines are given in order of their usefulness as ornamental trees in Canada, the native species being dealt with first. While there are nine native species, the white pine, Pinus Strobus, is the most important commercially and also the best for ornamental purposes. It is wild in the provinces of Mani- toba, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, and has done well when introduced in British Columbia, but is not hardy on the prairies. It is the most attractive pine grown in Canada, the graceful outline of the tree, the soft leaves and their lively color helping to make it a very ornamental species. This pine has made an excellent hedge plant at Ottawa, a hedge planted thirty years ago still being in excellent condition. The western white pine, Pinus monticola, makes a fine large tree. It is a native of southern British Columbia and grows there at an elevation of about 6,000 feet. While not so graceful as the white pine, being a closer or more upright grower, it makes a good ornamental, and is succeeding very well at Ottawa, Ontario. The red pine, Pinus resinosa, is found in the same provinces of Canada as the white, but is not nearly so common. As an ornamental tree it has proved somewhat disappointing in places, because of its tendency to become rather ragged in appearance after the first fifteen or twenty years. Its foliage, also, is somewhat dull in color. It is not as attractive as the Austrian pine, which it resembles somewhat, although it is hardier than that species. Western yellow pine, Pinus ponderosa, is a native of the drier districts of British Columbia, and is a magnificent tree Plate XV. The silver red-c'e(iiir (J luiipcrDx rir(jiinana var. glaiica) ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 85 when growing either under forest conditions or as single specimens in that province. It does well when planted in Ontario and makes a fine ornamental and lawn tree, its massive appearance giving it quite a distinct character. The bark of the trunk is also striking. It bears some resemblance in a general way to the Austrian pine, but can be readily distin- guished by its having leaves in clusters of three. When obtained from the coldest part of its range, this tree proves hardy in places on the prairies. The lodge-pole pine, Pinus contorta var. latifolia (P. Mur- ray ana), is a very useful ornamental species for the prairie provinces because of its hardiness. It resembles the Banksian pine very closely, but is more ornamental, the tree having the appearance of being better clothed with foliage. The cones are also persistent as in that species. It is a native of the foot- hills and mountains from Alberta in the east, to the west coast, and varies much in different parts of its range. It does well when planted in eastern Canada, where, however, it is little used because of more ornamental species hardy there. Banksian pine, Pinus Banksiana, commonly called the jack pine, is found wild on poor, light soils in Canada from the Atlantic west to the Rocky Mountains. It has little value as an ornamental tree, as it has the appearance of lacking foliage, but is useful to the prairies as being one of the few species that can be grown there. Pitch pine, Pinus rigida, is a native of eastern Canada, although not a common tree there, and is one of the few three- leaved pines in this country. It is not of particular value as an ornamental, not being very attractive in outline. The limber pine, Pinus flexilis, is a small, not very orna- mental tree, native of the foothills and Rocky Mountains of southern Alberta and British Columbia. It helps to make a 86 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS greater variety of evergreens on the prairies where it is hardy, but apart from this would seem to have little value for orna- mental purposes. Whitebark pine, Pinus alhicaulis, is a native of the tim- ber limits of Alberta and British Columbia, where it is but a small scrubby tree. So far as known, it has not been tested on low elevations for ornamental purposes. While not having as wide an adaptability as some species, the Austrian pine, Pinus nigra var. austriacay is, perhaps, the most ornamental exotic pine which thrives in Canada. It can be grown successfully in the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and in British Columbia. It is a handsome tree and makes a good lawn specimen, though not as graceful as the white pine. Scotch pine, Pinus sylvestris, is hardier than most exotic species and trees twenty-five to thirty years of age may be found on the Canadian prairies, and here it is proving more useful than in eastern Canada where the tree does not become so shapely as some other species. The Scotch pine varies much in growth and shape, depending on the source of the seed from which the trees are grown. Mountain pine, Pinus Mugo, and particularly the dwarf variety known as Mughus, makes a very attractive bushy tree and is always much admired. It succeeds well in eastern Canada and can be grown in some places on the prairies. Swiss stone pine, Pinus Cembra, although one of the slowest growing of all pines hardy in Canada, is one of the most orna- mental. It is suggestive of a columnar-shaped white pine, being very upright in growth, which makes it suitable for situations in which a tree is desired that shall not take up too much space. It is very hardy and succeeds in all the provinces of Canada. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 87 While the Korean pine, Pinus Jwraiensis, has been little planted in Canada as yet, and is a rather slow grower, it is a very promising species for ornamental purposes. At Ottawa, a tree planted in 189G is about twenty feet in height, and next to the white pine is, perhaps, the most ornamental species in the Arboretum. It is a five-leaved pine, heavier in appearance and darker in foliage than the white pine, and is strongly recommended for trial in eastern Canada. Few trees of Pinus Pence are to be found in Canada. It is proving quite hardy at Ottawa, and, planted in 189(), has made a compact, attractive tree about twenty feet in height. It is a rather slow-growing five-leaved pine, rather upright in habit and of bluish-green appearance, and, while not as ornamental as P. Strobus, P. Cembra, or P. koraiensis, the best three five- leaved pines for eastern Canada, it is a useful species. Additional species doing well, at least when young, in the coast region of southern British Columbia, including Vancouver Island, where the winters are very mild, are: Pinus Ayacahuite, P. Coulteri, P. densiflora, P. Jeffreyi, P. Massoniana, P. cembroides var. Parryana, P. radiata, P. Sabiniana, P. Tor- reyana. No doubt other species not yet thoroughly tested will be found quite hardy. Cunninghamia lanceolata, which is closely related to the pines, has been under test on Vancouver Island for several years and is doing fairly well. The spruces. The spruce is a very important tree in Canada, as a large proportion of the great quantities of pulp wood cut in this country is spruce, and much lumber is manufactured from it. It is valuable for ornamental purposes also. There are five species in Canada, the white, black, and red in the east, and the 88 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Engelmann and Sitka spruces, and also the white, in western Canada. Of these, the most ornamental are the white and the Engelmann. The following species are given in order of their relative value as ornamental trees, beginning with the most useful. White spruce, Picea glauca, is wild in every province in Canada, and is particularly useful in the prairie provinces where so few evergreens are hardy. It is a rapid-growing tree of attractive form. The foliage of the bluest specimens almost rivals that of the bluest forms of the Colorado spruce and, if it were not for the serious insect pests which attack it in eastern Canada, it would be the best spruce to plant for ornamental purposes, but it is frequently rendered very unsightly by attacks of the spruce gall-louse and budworm. Black spruce, Picea mariana, is a much slower grower than the white and is more upright. It is wild mainly in the swampy lands of eastern Canada and in the prairie provinces northward. Though not nearly as attractive as an ornamental tree as the white spruce, its characteristic form and persistent cones give variety and, being very hardy, it is also useful in the coldest parts of Canada. The var. Doumetii is a pyramidal sort of striking color. Red spruce, Picea rubra, is seldom met with as an orna- mental tree, as it is not nearly so attractive as the white spruce with which it grows in eastern Canada. The leaves have none of the bluish tinge which makes the white spruce so attractive and it resembles the Norway spruce in color, al- though not so graceful a tree as that variety. For nearly thirty years the Engelmann spruce, Picea Engel- manni, succeeded well at Ottawa and has now reached a height of about thirty feet, but the leaves and branches are dying from the base up and the trees are becoming very un- ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 89 sightly. This species is a native of the mountains and parti- cularly the mountain valleys of Alberta and eastern British Columbia and, though enduring severe winters there, is evi- dently not suited to the climatic conditions of the low altitudes in eastern Canada. It is of a fine pyramidal form, and, when young, the trees are very attractive. As with the Colorado blue spruce and the native white spruce, the color varies from greenish- to steely-blue. Sitka spruce, Picea sitchensis, is a fine tree, native to the western coast regions of Canada where it reaches a large size and is very valuable for timber. It makes a good ornamental subject also, the foliage being particularly attractive, but, in a part of Canada where so many ornamental evergreens succeed, it is not prized as much as a lawn tree as it otherwise would be. It is not hardy in eastern Canada. The Norway spruce, Picea Abies, is the most generally planted for ornament and for windbreaks in eastern Canada. It is a very rapid grower and soon becomes an attractive object on the lawn or quickly makes protection from wind. It is useful for hedges also. While the stock usually supplied by nurseries is not hardy on the Canadian prairies, it does fairly well when seed is obtained from the coldest districts in which this spruce is native. At Ottawa, most trees of Norway spruce planted thirty-three years ago are still fine specimens, well clothed with foliage, though some are now becoming ragged. In other places in the province of Ontario good trees con- siderably older than this may be found. There are many horticultural varieties of this spruce, most of those listed by nurserymen having been tested at Ottawa. The best of the larger growing forms is var. pyramidata, which makes a hand- some pyramidal-shaped tree, closer in habit than the type. Some of the pendulous forms are attractive for a time, but are 90 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS likely to become ragged. There are many dwarf or semi-dwarf varieties which are quite attractive. Among the best of these are compada, Remontii, Clanbrasiliana, and pygmoea. Next to the Norway, the Colorado spruce, Picea pungens, is the most planted in Canada of the species not native. It is hardy in all the provinces, succeeding very well on the prairies. The variety with steely-blue leaves, known as glauca, is the most popular, and this is, as a rule, the only tree thought of when this species is mentioned, unless it be the form known as Kosteriana, which is of a particularly fine bluish color. This variety, which is usually grafted, needs to be watched when young and a leader trained, as it often takes a sprawling habit for a time unless this is done. While the Colorado spruce makes a handsome though rather rigid-looking specimen when young, in eastern Canada when it is twenty -five to thirty years old the foliage and branches die from the bottom up, and in a few years they become so unsightly that they have to be removed. However, they are well worth growing for the first twenty years or more, and some specimens at Ottawa over thirty years old are still in fine condition. While Picea Omorika is not well known in Canada as yet, it promises to be a very useful ornamental species, at least in the eastern provinces. It is hardy at Ottawa and makes a handsome though rather slow-growing tree. There is a pleasing contrast in the leaves, which are glossy and dark green on one side and with lines of white on the other. Picea jezoensis, often sold under the name of Abies Alcocki- ana, while hardy so far as the terminal growth is concerned, usually has many dead branches in eastern Canada, which prevents it from being as attractive as it otherwise would be. There is a marked contrast between the deep green of the lower side of the leaf and the silvery-white of the upper. It ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 91 should be more satisfactory on the west coast. The var. hondoensis has made a better specimen tree, being much more clothed with foliage than the species. Picea SchrenJciajia is an attractive looking spruce of py- ramidal habit and quite hardy at Ottawa. The foliage, while rather dull in color, is quite distinct from other species. It is uncommon in Canada as yet, but is well worth having where one has room for a number of species. Picea ohovata is much like the many small-leaved and slow- growing varieties of Norway spruce and has been called a variety of it. The cones are, however, much smaller than those of the Norway spruce. It is hardy at Ottawa. Some specimens of the small-foliaged Picea orientalis have proved hardier than others at Ottawa. In most cases it has killed back considerably and is not satisfactory on the whole. The Douglas fir. Douglas fir, Pseudotsuga taxifolia, is one of the most valuable Canadian trees. It reaches a great size in British Columbia, where it is native, and it grows also in Alberta in the Rocky Mountains. Its use as a timber tree is well known, but where it is native it is not prized as an ornamental, except that huge specimens are admired in the parks or native wood- lands. In eastern Canada, however, where it has been planted for ornament, it has proved to be very desirable. After thirty years it is better clothed with foliage and branches at Ottawa than almost any other conifer, and from this experience it is highly recommended. Trees are now nearly fifty feet in height. It is important when growing this tree in eastern Canada to obtain seed or plants from the colder or interior parts of its range. If obtained from the west coast, it will not do well. The color of the foliage varies considerably. 92 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS The firs. The firs are not so valuable as the spruces for ornamental purposes, for although attractive in eastern Canada when young, they lose many branches and become ragged-looking later on. In the coast regions of British Columbia, however, they succeed particularly well and make fine ornamental specimens for many years. The balsam fir, Abies balsamea, is a rapid-growing tree which is quite attractive when young, with its deep green glossy foliage, and is useful for temporary effects in the landscape. When grown in the open, however, it becomes rather unsightly after being planted twenty to twenty-five years, and at Ottawa many specimens have died about this age. While some specimens of alpine fir, Abies lasiocarpa, have killed back at Ottawa, most have proved hardy. Much depends on the source of the plants or seed from which they are grown. It has a denser habit of growth than A. balsamea and promises to remain well clothed with foliage for a longer period. It is wild in the Canadian Rocky and Selkirk mountains, and east of the mountains in the Peace River district. Lowland fir, Abies grandis, is a native of the west coast of Canada and grows to be very large there. When given abun- dance of room it makes a fine ornamental tree. It does not succeed in eastern Canada. White or amabilis fir, Abies amabilis, is native in the coast regions of British Columbia and is not hardy in eastern Canada. Its habit is more pendulous than that of most species. White or silver fir, Abies concolor, is the best ornamental species in eastern Canada. Some forms are almost or quite as blue as the Colorado spruce and, because of its more graceful or less stiff outline, is more attractive than that spruce. It is one of the most beautiful evergreens hardy in eastern Canada. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 93 Nordmann fir, Abies Nordmanniana, is a useful ornamental tree for the west coast. The dark green glossy leaves with the silvery-white of the under side give it a very striking appear- ance. Specimens from coldest districts are worth trying in eastern Canada. Siberian fir, Ahies sihirica, is quite hardy at Ottawa but looks best when young. The foliage is of a lighter green than that of most other firs. It is more useful for temporary than for more permanent planting. Like the other firs, Veitch fir, Ahies Veitchii, looks best when young. The foliage is attractive, being deep green above and silvery below, making a fine contrast. This is compara- tively hardy at Ottawa, but loses some of its branches from winter-injury. It also is more suitable for the west coast. Additional species succeeding in the coast region of southern British Columbia, including Vancouver Island, are: Abies cephalonica and var. Apollinis, A. homolepis, A. cilicica, A. nobilis, A. alba. The arhor-vitcB. The American arbor-vitse is one of the most useful trees in eastern Canada, and in British Columbia the western arbor- vitae, Thuja plicata, is also very valuable. Not only is the American arbor- vitse one of the most durable so far as the wood is concerned — and it is particularly valuable for fence, tele- graph, and telephone poles — but it makes the best evergreen hedge plant for eastern Canada and is one of the most orna- mental lawn trees when given room for full development. While the ordinary wild type oi American arbor-vitae, Thuja occidentalis, makes a well-shaped and attractive speci- men tree, there are many horticultural forms which give great variety to the landscape. Many of these have been tested at 94 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Ottawa during the past thirty years, and some have been found much more satisfactory than others in their abihty to withstand chmatic conditions. Among the best of these are: Douglasii ■pyramidalis, an attractive pyramidal variety, not so narrow or columnar as fastigiata. It has very distinct foliage and is one of the hardiest forms. Because of its general soft ap- pearance, caused by its small foliage, and on account of its having withstood severe tests well, Ellwangeriana is one of the most satisfactory as a lawn specimen. It is really a semi-dwarf with broad outline, and after thirty years is only about fifteen feet high at Ottawa. Globosa is another reliable variety, well named, as its outline is almost globose. This also is a semi- dwarf, being only six feet high after thirty-three years at Ottawa. It has never been injured by winter. Var. fastigiata or 'pyramidalis is usually known as the pyramidal arbor- vitse and is one of the most striking hardy evergreens. It is quite columnar in habit — specimens at Ottawa thirty feet in height are but six feet across at the base. Occasionally limbs of this variety are injured in winter, but, as a rule, it is quite hardy. Var. Vervwneana has proved reliable. It is more graceful in habit than the species and a slower grower. It has yellowish foliage which is not quite definite enough to make it specially attractive on this account. Var. rohusta or Wareana, often called the Siberian arbor-vitse, would seem to be even hardier than the type as it has succeeded on the prairies where the type or species did not. It is more compact than the latter, with characteristic bright green foliage. Many other varieties might be mentioned, none of which is as satisfactory as those just described. The golden-leaved sorts are more attractive when young than later. Western arbor-vitse or giant-cedar. Thuja plicata, is a very beautiful tree when growing wild in the mountains of western ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 95 Canada and at the Pacific Coast. While it is not often found there under cultivation, it makes a fine lawn tree, though requiring much room to develop to its full extent. When this species is obtained from the colder parts of its range, it does well at Ottawa, although a comparatively slow grower there. It is such an attractive tree that it should be tested more than it is. The hemlocks. The common hemlock, Tsuga canadensis, is one of the most beautiful North American trees. It is graceful in habit and its small foliage is of a distinct, characteristic, and pleasing shade of green. It grows to large size, but is a relatively slow grower, and for this reason makes a good lawn specimen for many years, as the branches usually are held to near the ground. One is fortunate in having large specimens of hemlock in a landscape where there are clumps of trees or woodland and it makes a very attractive feature. When used for hedge pur- poses, hemlock proves very satisfactory and makes one of the best low-growing evergreen hedges, as it is a slow grower and can be readily kept in shape. Moreover, it stands shade better than some other trees. Var. gracilis has smaller leaves than the type and is even slower growing. It is an ornamental variety. The common hemlock is not hardy on the prairies, but does well both in eastern Canada and in British Columbia. Western hemlock, Tsuga heterophylla, makes a fine large tree in British Columbia, where it is native in the mountains and along the western coast. It is an important timber tree, the wood being better than T. canadensis in the East. While it has not been used much as an ornamental, it is attractive in appearance and very graceful in outline and should be planted more. It is not known under cultivation in eastern Canada. 96 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS From most sources it would prove too tender, but if obtained from the coldest districts where it grows wild it might succeed. This was long listed as T. Mertensiana in Canadian hsts of plants. Black hemlock, Tsuga Mertensiana, is a native of the moun- tainous and western coast regions of British Columbia. It is a rather small tree as it grows in Canada, with bluish-green foliage, and is quite ornamental, but has been little cultivated as yet. This may be grown successfully in eastern Canada if specimens are obtained from the coldest part of its range. The junipers. The junipers are not planted widely for ornament in Canada. Although some may not be particularly attractive, others make good lawn specimens and the low-growing sorts are very useful for covering banks or for rocky places. They are of comparatively little value for their wood in Canada, as none of them becomes more than a small tree and, except Juniperus scopulorum, are little more than shrubs at the best. The savin, Juniperus Sabina, and its varieties, is the most generally useful juniper for ornamental planting in Canada. The vars. cupressifolia and tamariscifolia should be much more extensively employed where low-growing evergreens are desired. They are particularly effective when covering steep slopes or planted among rocks or in sandy places, where they look much at home. These varieties sometimes reach a height of three to four feet, but often grow close to the ground. They are dense in habit, very effective in a mass, and are quite hardy, doing well in the prairie provinces. The type has reached six feet in height at Ottawa. The common juniper, Juniperus communis, has many varieties. The commonest one in Canada in most of, if not all. Monkey-puzzle {Arancaria aravcana) Plate XVII. California incense-cedar {Libocedrus decurrens) A California group. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 97 the provinces is var. depressa, also sometimes called var. nana. It forms broad masses usually on stony or dry soil, and reaches a height of three to four feet. It is seldom planted for orna- ment, but it does much to improve the appearance of otherwise barren places. Var. aurea is a golden-leaved form of var. depressa, and is also hardy and rather attractive. The var. montana, sometimes called alpina, is found in the northern and mountainous parts of Canada. The most ornamental forms of the common juniper are var. suecica and var. hihernica. Neither of these is, however, quite satisfactory at Ottawa, as the tips of the previous year's growth are usually killed in winter and the branches are rather unsightly until new growth has been made. Both are very compact and upright growlers, in fact, quite columnar. The Irish juniper has greener leaves than the Swedish. They do well in the coast region of British Colum- bia. The Swedish is, perhaps, a little hardier than the Irish. Prostrate juniper, Juniperus horizontalis, has been con- founded with J. Sahina. It growls wild in most of the provinces of Canada and usually lies close to the ground and trails over it, where it forms a virtual carpet. The foliage is bluish and when large masses are seen it has a very pleasing effect. It does well as a ground-cover in the prairie provinces. The red-cedar, Juniperus virginiana, does well in eastern Canada as it is native there, but, owing to the dullness of the foliage, the type is not particularly valuable for ornamental planting. One of the best varieties is elegantissima, which is yellow-tipped, making a pleasing contrast in color. The habit is also more graceful than some. The var. Schottii has brighter green foliage than the type and is more attractive. Var. glauca has bluish foliage, which is quite distinct, but does not seem so hardy as the others. The pyramidal form is quite striking in outline, but the foliage is not very attractive. 98 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Western red-cedar, Juniperus scopulorum, is native in the Rocky Mountains and through to the Pacific Coast. It is much Hke J. virginiana, but is a larger tree. It is not known in cultivation in eastern Canada. The upright-growing forms of the Chinese juniper, Juniperus chinensis, have not proved sufficiently hardy in eastern Canada to be entirely satisfactory, except var. mas, which has done well. The low-growing varieties, such as pendula and Pfitzeri- ana, make very ornamental shrubs of compact habit, about four feet in height. The specific name of the Japanese juniper, Juniperus rigida, would suggest a stiff habit. On the contrary, this is one of the most graceful junipers. At Ottawa, a specimen planted in 1896 is about twelve feet in height. The young branches are quite pendulous and the general habit of the tree pleasing. The foliage is of a yellowish-green, being quite distinct in color from most other species. This juniper is well worth planting as a lawn specimen. The cypress. The true cypress is too tender for Canada, but there are other trees known as cypress which are hardier. Few species succeed in eastern Canada, however, but on the lower main- land of British Columbia and on Vancouver Island they do well, the fine Lawson cypress being one of the most useful ornamental trees. The yellow cypress is the only species native to Canada. Yellow cypress, Chamcecyparis nootkatensis, is a west coast species which is too tender in eastern Canada, although it and some of its varieties have grown for a time, but once above the snow-line they are killed back. Varieties with bluish foliage are quite attractive and when hardy are well worth growing. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 99 There are many varieties of Lawson cypress, Chamcecy- paris Lawsoniana, and most of them succeed well near the west coast of British Columbia where the winters are mild. In eastern Canada they are not hardy. Some of the best varieties are Alumi, argeniea, erecta glauca, erecta viridis, glauca, gracilis, and pyramidalis. White-cedar, Chamoocyparis thyoides, is hardy in eastern Canada and is interesting as being a native of the Eastern States. It is rather loose in habit with dull-colored foliage, and, on the whole, is not very ornamental, though interesting. Hinoki cypress, Chamoocyparis obtusa, is a Japanese species which is fairly hardy at Ottawa if grown in a rather sheltered place, but needs a milder climate for best development. There are several good varieties which show to advantage in the coast region of British Columbia, among the best being var. aurea. Sawara cypress, Chamoecyparis pisifera, proves fairly satis- factory' in eastern Canada, being practically hardy. It is not as ornamental, however, as its varieties, which are referred to under retinispora. The retinisporas. The retinisporas are graceful Japanese conifers which are very useful for landscape effects in eastern Canada and in British Columbia near the coast. There is a marked difference, however, in the relative hardiness of the sorts, some of the varieties of Retinispora pisifera being the hardiest and most useful. They are really cypress of the genus Chamaecyparis. Retinispora pisifera is hardy at Ottawa, but is not so orna- mental as certain of its varieties. Among the best of these is var. filifera, which may be considered perfectly hardy at Ottawa, and, after a thirtv-vear test is still in excellent condi- 100 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS, tion, the best specimens being about eighteen feet in height. The graceful, pendulous form of this tree and its linear leaves and branchlets make it a most attractive lawn specimen, and it cannot be too highly recommended. Some specimens are now developing more tree-like characters with a strong central leader. The var. plumosa is a fine form, more compact in its habit of growth than the type. The leaves are bluish-green above and silvery on the under side. The tips of the branches often winter-kill at Ottawa and turn brown, rendering the specimen rather unsightly until the new growth is made. The golden- leaved form is not quite so hardy or satisfactory. This variety reverts to the type after fifteen or twenty years, branches appearing and taking the lead with foliage of R. pisifera. Where var. squarrosa is hardy, as on the west coast, it is perhaps the most beautiful of the retinisporas because of its soft, light, bluish-green foliage. However, in eastern Canada it is the least satisfactory variety as it kills in patches in the winter, becoming very unsightly, although when somewhat protected by other trees it comes through fairly well. Retinispora ericoides is sometimes Thuja occidentalis var. ericoides, and sometimes a chamsecyparis, but it is usually sold under the name of retinispora. It is of dwarf habit, with soft fine leaves and weak branches, and in winter is badly injured by snow at Ottawa, and usually there is more or less scalding of foliage. After the new growth is made, however, it is a pleasing object. The yews. Owing to the many persons of British origin living in Canada who have a certain reverence for the yew, of which there are such old specimens in Great Britain, there is considerable ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 101 interest in the yew in the Dominion. In the coast regions of British Columbia, where Taxus brevifolia becomes quite a fair-sized tree, one's affection for the yew is readily satisfied, but in eastern Canada the wild species, T. canadensis, is so unlike the British yew that it is scarcely taken into considera- tion. The Japanese yew, T. cuspidaia, has filled the want there. While the common yew, Taxus haccata, succeeds well near the west coast of British Columbia, it is not satisfactory in eastern Canada, although it will sometimes grow well for a time. No doubt, if plants were obtained from the coldest part of its range in Europe, the yew would succeed better than it usually does. A specimen of var. variegata, after twenty-three years' growth, is still in good condition at Ottawa and is now about five feet high. The western yew, Taxus brevifolia, reaches a height of twenty to twenty-five feet or more along the west coast of British Columbia where it is native. It is not grown much under cultivation there, although it is a fairly ornamental tree. It is not hardy in eastern Canada above the snow-line. Canadian yew, Taxus canadensis, is a native of Canada from the extreme east to the province of Manitoba. It has been under cultivation at Ottawa for thirty years and has reached a height of about five feet, but is so open in habit that it is not particularly ornamental. The Japanese yew, Taxus cuspidata, has been under test at Ottawa for twenty-six years and has proved quite hardy. The best specimen, planted in 1896, is now about ten feet in height. The foliage is a rich deep green in color, and, as the tree or bush is of a compact habit, it is quite ornamental and makes a good substitute for T. haccata. The var. nana or compacta is also quite hardy, but specimens planted in 1896 are but three feet high, though compact in habit. 102 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS The cedars. The three well-known species of cedar succeed near the Pacific Coast in British Columbia, namely, Cedrus atlantica, C. Deodara, and C. lihani. The Deodar cedar is, perhaps, the most popular. They are striking-looking trees and are used with good effect. The cryptomeria. These beautiful Asiatic trees do not succeed in eastern Canada, but do well near the Pacific coast and especially on the southern part of Vancouver Island. There is but one species, Cryptomeria japonica, of which there are a number of horti- cultural varieties, the best being var. elegans. The attractive foliage and form of the cryptomerias make them very popular where they grow well. The sequoias. The sequoias, or big trees of California, of which there are two species. Sequoia sempervirens and *S. gigantea, grow well near the southwest coast of British Columbia, including the southern part of Vancouver Island. The California big tree, S. gigantea, succeeds, perhaps, better than the other species, and is making a fine evergreen tree there. CONIFEROUS EVERGREENS FOR THE MIDDLE WEST.— Bollinger Pines are very easy to cultivate. So various are the soils and situations in which the different species are found in their native countries that there is scarcely a spot for which one or another variety is not suitable. Some grow on the bleakest hills and flourish in shallow sands near the Great Lakes and the seashores. For dry, windy and exposed situations, Pinus ponder osa, or bull pine, is well adapted. It thrives in pure clay. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 103 and also does remarkably well in sandy soils. Its broad, coarse, twisted, flexible leaves of deep grayish-green, set firmly in a strong sheath, stand stormy, sweeping winds well. The tree may be used for screens, windbreaks, or as a background for other trees. The red pine, Pinus resinosa, grows in almost any kind of land, except a heavy clay, but thrives best in a sandy soil. It is perfectly hardy, even in northern Canada, and is often planted in places where no other pine will grow. Its luxuriant dark green foliage and uniform size add to the landscape. The gray pine, Pinus Banksiana, is found farther northward than any other American pine. It has no commercial value and is planted only on account of its peculiar stunted growth. In America the Scotch pine, Pinus sylvestris, is cultivated largely for windbreaks and when quick growth is desired. It grows in most kinds of soil, from a heavy clay to a pure sand. This species bears transplanting better than other pines. The white pine, Pinus Strobus, grows in very different situations and soil, except in pure sand or submerged, but thrives best in a sandy loam. It is extensively planted for forest purposes, not only in America but in Europe, on account of its fast growth and the commercial value of its wood, and is also widely used for ornamental planting on large estates for natural or for woodland effects. It is very pleasing as a background for other pines and conifers on account of its rapid, stately growth. Wliite pines transplant easily and require less care after transplanting than any other pines. The limber pine, Pinus flexilis, resembles somewhat the white pine, but is of more compact habit and the foliage is a darker green. It is perfectly hardy in the Northwest and grows in any kind of soil, but prefers a sandy loam. The branches are flexible and the tree of bushy habit. It is used in ornamental 104 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS planting for barren bluffs and ravines where natural effects are desired. Pinus nigra var. austriaca, or Austrian pine, is grown for its wood and for ornamental purposes. Its form is a regular symmetrical pyramid, and when older its flat top becomes picturesque. It is valuable for bold natural effects and wind- breaks. Given ample space it will maintain its lower branches and become a source of beauty for thirty to forty years. Its dark green foliage and stiff branches will withstand wind and heavy snow. Pinus Mugo is one of the best of the pine family for low and compact growth. In form it varies from a prostrate shrub to a pyramidal tree twenty-five to forty feet in height. This pine is perfectly hardy in any part of the United States and Canada and grows in any kind of soil except in low muck and undrained marsh-land; it will do well even in sandy, gravelly soil. Pinus rigida, or pitch pine, is an open, irregular, pyramidal tree to about seventy-five to eighty feet high. It is planted on rocky slopes on account of its picturesque habit when older. Plants are easily raised from seeds. Pinus pungens, western table mountain pine, is a most interesting irregular tree and when young resembles P. Mugo in habit but not in color. ^ Its foliage is of a pale yellowish- green. This tree will grow thirty to forty feet high. The branches are spreading, forming a broad often fiat-topped head. It is hardy in the Northwest and Canada. The tree grows in moist soil but prefers a gravelly subsoil. The Swiss stone pine, Pinus Cembra, has been a favorite for ornamental planting. Its leaves are dark green and the tree of very compact pyramidal form. The branches are short and when the tree is older it becomes often very picturesque. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 105 having an open round-topped head. It is somewhat diflBcult to raise from seed as they are slow to germinate and the seed- lings are likely to damp off unless closely watched on hot, sultry days. Pinus densiflora is perfectly hardy, of compact habit, but exceedingly slow in growth. Its density of foliage and drooping habit make it a valuable ornamental tree for formal effect. The foliage is a bright green. The var. globosa forms a perfectly flat top. It is quite hardy and valuable for ornamental planting, and is a promising asset to the newly introduced conifers. The spruces are natives of the cold climates and should not be planted extensively in the South. In northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin the white, black, blue, and green Colorado spruces are very often badly damaged by the red-spider. When a good force of water is convenient, they are easily eradicated; if not, the trees will gradually die. Like the pine, spruces are easily propagated from seeds sown in the spring. The white spruce, Picea glauca, is perfectly hardy in the extreme North. It grows in any kind of soil and can stand low situations better than any other spruce. Its height is about fifty to sixty feet. The trees are planted very extensively for ornamental purposes on account of the plea^sing whitish- green color. Black spruce, Picea mariana, grows in nearly the same situations as the white spruce. Its habit is a regular pyramid, its foliage bluish-green, and the bark lighter colored. The wood is inferior in quality and snaps frequently in burning. It is a beautiful tree while young and is valuable for parks and gardens on account of its close, compact growth, color of foliage, and the retaining of its branches close to the ground even when old. The Norway spruce, Picea Abies, is probably the best known 106 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS and most extensively cultivated spruce in the United States and Europe. It has a straight trunk from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet in height and from five to six feet in diameter. None is better adapted for planting in narrow strips for shelter or seclusion, because of its rapid growth; it makes excellent hedges for shelter in nursery-gardens, windbreaks for fruit-gardens and farm buildings. In the great prairie country of America this beautiful and useful tree should be planted for protection. It grows in any kind of soil except gravelly and sour or water-soaked, undrained ground. It maintains its branches well to the ground if given ample room to grow, and is, therefore, valuable for single specimens on lawns as well as for a background to other evergreens. The foliage is dark green, and when older the branches are drooping, melancholy yet graceful, and beautiful for the open stretch of landscape as well as for woodland effects. Some of the variegated forms of Norway spruce are in- teresting when young. The young growth of var. argenteo-spica is whitish, gradually turning a pale green. Var. aureahsis leaves of a golden-yellow on the exposed side and the remainder dark green, giving the tree a peculiar aspect. Both varieties are beautiful when the sun plays on the branches, which on young trees are erect, but when older become pendulous. Trees do not grow quite so fast as the Norway spruce, but are just as hardy, and grow well in any kind of soil, even in a heavy clay. They do especially well in partially shady places and in the open lawn; on account of the dense growth are well adapted for single specimens. These forms should be grafted on the Norway spruce when dormant, as they do not come true from seed like most variegated conifers. Picea joungens, Colorado spruce, grows in all soils, seems perfectly hardy in most northern climates and is easily raised ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 107 from seeds. It is a strong, symmetrical, upright tree. The color of foliage varies from light silvery to dull green, and from a dark blue to light purple. Color and form make it a valuable tree for the landscape-gardener. It is of very slow growth until about a foot high, then it seems to shoot up very fast, keeping its lower branches well to the ground. This spruce is not so easily transplanted as some other piceas. It should be root-pruned or transplanted at intervals. It develops fibrous roots. Transplanting on cloudy days and a liberal overhead watering for several consecutive days will benefit the plants. The red-spider is a common enemy of this beautiful spruce. A good force of water applied once or twice a week during the gr6wing season will usually prevent this pest. Picea Engelmanni somewhat resembles the white spruce, only it is more beautiful in color and texture of foliage, a silvery-bluish hue. The habit of the tree resembles P. pungens. It is just as valuable for ornamental planting, but should be placed on northern exposures. It is unable to stand the hot, dry winds in the open prairies, but is perfectly hardy in the other Northern and Western States. The tree grows well in a clay loam, but not in a gravelly or sandy soil. Another interesting spruce is Picea orientalis, native of Asia. It does well only in partially shaded situations and it does not grow rapidly. It holds its branches well to the ground and thrives best in a rich black loarp. This species is subject to winter sunburn, and should be planted on northern expo- sures or where it is partially shaded during the winter months by other trees. The hemlock spruce, Tsuga canadensis, likes moist ground and will grow to a height of seventy-five to eighty feet, with a circumference of six to nine feet, and uniform for two-thirds of its length. When young and planted in a favorable soil, the 108 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS hemlock is very ornamental, owing to the symmetrical arrange- ment of its branches and to its tufted foliage. At this age it is used for hedges, owing to its density of growth and ease of shearing. It is very valuable for single specimens and if pruned occasionally will maintain i^s branches well to the ground. If planted with erect-growing conifers the hemlock will relieve their stiff effect with its graceful drooping branches. It will adapt itself well in shady places for undergrowth for other trees and will grow in such situations better than any other evergreen. For planting on northern exposures of bluffs and ravines, the hemlock is most valuable. Abies halsamea, balsarfi fir, rarely exceeds fifty feet in height. As an ornamental it has no special value, as it retains its beauty only for the first fifteen years. During this period, when in health and vigor, it is extremely beautiful, both in color and form. Balsam fir should be employed in ornamental planting rather as a filler and not as a permanent tree for later years, as it loses its lower branches, has a sickly appearance, and should then be removed. The balsam fir is easily propagated from seed, which germinates freely. Abies concolor, white fir, is grown extensively for ornamental purposes. It is perfectly hardy in all parts of the United States. It grows in any kind of soil, but thrives best in a well-drained clay or loam with a gravelly subsoil; it will not do well in low or water-soaked, undrained ground. The color of the foliage varies from a soft sea-green to a deep blue. Its stately, erect, and spreading branches give this tree a strikingly noble char- acter. The white fir withstands heat and drought well in the Middle West. It grows from one hundred fifty to two hun- dred fifty feet high and its trunk from three to six feet in diameter. The seeds taken from the Colorado type are more likely to germinate than those grown at the Pacific Coast. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 109 ' The Nordmann fir, with its dark green fohage, silvery- white below, does well when planted with other evergreens in groups, when it is partially if not wholly shaded and protected from the winter's sun. Most firs are subject to sun-scorch, but especially Abies Nordmamiiana and A. Veitchii. Both are perfectly hardy and should be planted on a northern exposure, in medium clay loam. They will do well on undrained land or in a gravelly hard-pan soil. Pseudotsuga taxifolia, Douglas fir, is valuable for land- scape planting on account of its easy propagation from seeds, easy transplanting and fast growth, hardiness and adaptation to any soil except low, undrained, swampy soil. The tree is of tall sj^mmetrical habit.' The foliage varies in color from a dark green to a li^ht bluish-silvery hue. It withstands the wind remarkably well and can stand considerable shade, maintaining its branches to the ground when given ample room, and mak- ing fine lawn specimens. Thuja occidenialis, or white-cedar, is one of the hardiest and best evergreens for shelter-belts and timber planting. The American arbor-vitse is the original from which many types have been developed. When planted with ample space, it maintains its branches from the bottom up/' It is, therefore, very attractive for lawns and windbreaks. This tree is very hardy and dependable in almost any situation, but moist location is preferred. The foliage is soft and flexible and of fine deep green color. The tree is easily grown from seeds sown in early spring in lath frames or brush-shades. Var. Doiiglasii aurea is a type with deep yellow foliage, of medium height, forming a broad bushy specimen. In planting it is grouped with other evergreens and adds contrast with its unusual bright golden color, being especially attractive when planted with the darker shades of green as a background. It grows in any 110 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS ordinary good soil, but does especially well in a damp, cool, clay loam. It does not always come true from seed and is usually propagated from cuttings taken in early fall, with gentle bottom heat in frames or greenhouse. The cuttings should be kept cool until callousing takes place, when heat both in bottom and top can gradually be increased. Cuttings should be shaded from the direct sun, watered freely overhead, and given plenty of air. Var. Douglasii pyramidalis has feathery, lace-like, crested foliage of a dark green color. The habit is pyramidal. It is of slow growth, to about eighteen to twenty feet high, and is perfectly hardy and grows well in moist clay loam. Var. lutea, Peabody golden arbor-vitse, is a distinct bright golden type. It is of rather slender growth, twelve to fifteen feet high. It grows best in clay loam. On account of its brilliant golden hue, it is useful where color effect is desired. Var. alba has silvery white-tipped foliage, forming a pleasing contrast to the otherwise dark green leaves. It varies in habit from a low compact growth to a loose, feathery, pyramidal bush, and is hardy and easily propagated from cuttings or by grafting. Var. rohusta, Siberian arbor-vitse, is a very beautiful, dark green, conical type. Its habit is distinct and its branches short and stiff. The foliage is a dark sea-green. It is of rugged constitution and perfectly hardy, but of slow growth. It is propagated from cuttings. Var. Woodwardii is one of the best globe-shaped arbor- vitaes. It maintains its shape without artificial means. The color of foliage is a pleasing sea-green. It grows about three feet high and is as hardy as the species. Var. Hoveyi is a very pretty, dwarf, compact form, with yellow- ish-green foliage. The habit is globose. It is hardy in southern Wisconsin, Minnesota, and other western States and is useful for low planting in front of other taller-growing plants. It is propagated from cuttings. The soil requirement is a moist ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 111 well-drained silt loam, but it also does well in moist, black, mucky soil. This plant is subject to winter sun-scorch and should be planted where the rays of the sun will not fully reach it in the middle of the day. Var. Smithiana is a beauti- ful, low-growing, compact form. The very dark green, soft foliage, gradually changing to almost purple in the fall, gives this plant a special merit where low growth in formal and rock-gardens is required, also for grouping in front of taller varieties. It will maintain its low-growing tendencies, but will spread, unlike any other arbor-vitse. It grows best in a well-drained clay loam and is easily propagated from cuttings, the wood being rather soft. It is perfectly hardy and does well in partial shade as well as in the full sun. It is not subject to sunburn in late winter, and is easily transplanted. Var. Tom Thumb is the smallest of its class known, being a tufted little plant of very low, compact growth, rarely exceeding nine inches. It is valuable for rock and Japanese gardens and the edgings of walks. The plant is propagated from cuttings and is perfectly hardy in the Northwest. ChamoBcyparis, or Retinispora, pisifera, is an open grower of upright form, the branches somewhat pendulous toward the end. The foliage is light green, glaucous beneath, very graceful and feathery. Var. filifera is a medium-sized pyramidal tree of unusually graceful outlines, the ends of the branches drooping in long filaments. This variety seems to be perfectly hardy in the most extreme exposures, either to heat or cold. * It does best when planted in a damp but well-drained clay loam. Var. plumosa (Chamsecyparis) and its variants are not hardy in the extreme North, but in the Middle West they are planted exten- sively on account of the beautiful soft foliage and pleasing form. These are perfectly hardy without protection even in the northern parts of America. Both varieties are propagated 112 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS from cuttings and grafting. They require a silt loam soil with perfect drainage. Retinispora plumosa argentea has light green foliage and white-tipped branches. R. plumosa aurea is a golden form. Both varieties require some protection in winter, especially from the sun. R. squarrosa is a densely branched bushy tree with spreading feathery branchlets. It is not a strong grower and should be planted in front of taller trees. All the retinis- poras are propagated from cuttings or grafted. They require care when young, gentle bottom heat for the cuttings in lath frames as well as in the greenhouse, and copious watering overhead. Chamcecyparis, or Retinispora, obtusa, is a bushy grower of solid or compact form. It is one of the strongest growers of its class. The foliage is firm, of a clear green color and graceful drooping habit. Var. nana, with very dense, short foliage of an extremely dark green, is well adapted for rock-garden planting. Taxus canadensis, American yew, is a valuable dwarf ever- green seldom more than three feet high, with dense, dark green foliage. It is particularly attractive in autumn when loaded with its scarlet fruits. It thrives best in shady situations and well-drained silt loam and is hardy in the Northwest and Canada. This yew is useful for nature planting as well as for hedges and formal gardens. It can be pruned to any de- sired shape. The foliage assumes a reddish tint in winter. It is propagated from cuttings in lath frames with gentle bot- tom heat or in hothouses. Taxus cuspidata, or Japanese yew, grows forty to fifty feet high in Japan, but under cultivation does not attain this height. It is one of the hardiest yews and withstands extreme heat and cold in America. It is of close, upright, compact ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 113 habit. This beautiful yew is valuable on account of its dark, luxurious foliage and irregular form of growth. The tree grows in any rich garden soil with perfect drainage. It is propagated from cuttings and grafting on T. canadensis. Taxus brevifolia is of dwarf, compact growth. It is the darkest of all evergreen trees and is of irregular and picturesque outline, about five to sLx feet high and with a spread of four to five feet. It is very popular on account of its extreme hardiness and beautiful dark green color. It requires a rich clay loam and perfect drainage and is propagated from cuttings and by grafting on T. canadensis. Taxus baccata var. repandens is a low spreading form with luxuriant dark green foliage not unlike T. cuspidata, but of lower growth and more spreading. For planting in front of other evergreens it is one of the most desirable. It stands the winter well when planted in a sandy loam with perfect drainage. It is well to shade the plant somewhat when exposed to full sun in late winter as it is somewhat subject to sunburn, and, therefore, does best on a northern exposure. Var. aurea is a golden form. Var. fastigata and fastigiata aurea can be grown in the Northwest with protection and planted in a protected spot among other evergreens. All varieties of English yew are propagated from cuttings or grafting. Of late years the red-cedar (Juniperus virginiana) has been extensively employed for ornamental planting, especially in the Northwest and Canada. Its extreme hardiness and stately, upright, compact habit make it very useful for wind- breaks, especially for exposed, windy positions. It grows well in any soil except in a sour alkali, but does best on a gravelly or sandy subsoil. The color of foliage varies from a dark green to a steel-blue. Junipers vary in habit from a tall pyramidal tree to a low prostrate or trailing shrub. J. virginiana and its 114 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS allies are mostly propagated from seeds, cuttings, and layers. The seed is hard to sprout and requires two to three years for germination. When propagated from cuttings, a gentle bottom heat is required. It is best done under glass, taking the cutting from nearly ripened wood in the early fall. Stool cuttings are preferable for those varieties with scale-like leaves. These are also increased by side grafting in the winter on previously potted plants of allied species. Copious watering overhead is essential until the graft is set. The plants pro- pagated by layers in early fall require gentle bottom heat. -' Juniperus virginiana var. glauca is a distinct blue type of pyramidal habit. The young growth is almost silvery-white, changing to a beautiful bluish-green in winter. For landscape effect it is excellent. It is perfectly hardy, of compact growth, and thrives in a rich clay loam. Propagation is by grafting on J. virginiana. Var. Schottii is planted for its pyramidal, compact growth and extreme hardiness. It is propagated from cuttings. Var. Canaertii is a pyramidal compact form attaining a height of fifteen to eighteen feet. The foliage is dark green. The plant is useful for planting in formal and natural gardens and its silver-colored fruit is attractive. It does well in any ordinary garden soil and is propagated from cuttings and grafting. Juniperus communis var. depressa has many branches and seldom exceeds five feet in height. It thrives best in a sandy or gravelly soil and is extremely hardy and a rapid, vigorous grower. The foliage is grayish-green, light silvery-green be- neath. It is propagated from seeds and cuttings. Landscape planters make use of it to cover unsightly spots and as an edging to taller trees. Fruit of this variety matures the third year when it is used for medicinal purposes and manufacturing of spirits. Var. aurea is a golden form. It is hardy and useful for color effect with other junipers. ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 115 Irish juniper, var. hibernica, is a compact, pyramidal or columnar form. It does best in damp but perfectly drained soil and is quite hardy in the Middle West. It requires copious and frequent watering during the summer months. It is valuable for formal planting in gardens and lawns. Propagation is by cutting or grafting. Swedish juniper, var. suecica, is quite similar to var. hibernica, but grows higher and is of a lighter and more bluish color and the branches do not grow quite as stiff and compactly. In general the form is pleasing and useful where formal effects are desired. It is propagated from seeds, cuttings, and grafting. Juniperus horizontalis is a trailing or creeping form em- ployed for ground-cover and edging garden walks. It is propa- gated from cuttings and layers. The Waukegan juniper, var. Douglasii, is an interesting creeping form. It seems to love the sand and gravelly soil, yet it will do equally well in rich garden soil or on rocky slopes, banks, and terraces. The color of the foliage is a soft blue in spring, changing to a rich purple color in the fall. This form is very useful for wall- covering, rock-gardens, and edging of walks. It is a rapid grower and easily propagated from layers taken in early October and planted in lath frames in a sharp sand. The plant thrives on sunny slopes and does equally well in partially shady situations. Jwiiperus scopulorum is a narrow, compact, symmetrical form with one single stem. It grows well in the North and South. It is valuable for landscape effect on account of its close, compact and erect habit and beautiful silver foliage. Propagation is by cutting or grafting on allied stock. Juniperus Sabina is very hardy, of erect habit, with numer- ous spreading branches. It is useful for a foundation for other trees. The plant does best in a dry, gravelly, sunny situation. 116 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Propagation is from layers and cuttings. Var. tamariscifolia is an excellent dwarf creeping variety, suitable for rock-gardens, edging, and ground-cover. It is quite hardy in the Northwest and is one of the best of the low type of junipers. Juniperus chinensis var. albo-variegata is a white-tipped form of columnar growth, reaching a height of twenty feet or more. The foliage is a dark bluish-green with white tips at the end of twigs and branches. It requires a damp but well- drained soil and is useful for planting in formal gardens and lawns. Var. aureo-glohosa forms a perfectly round globe, is very dense in growth, with light green foliage having a yellowish hue. It is valuable where low planting is desired in rock- gardens, Japanese and flower-gardens. It requires a rich sandy loam, is propagated from cuttings and grafting on allied stock and is quite hardy if planted on well-drained soil. Var. japonica is a very dwarf form seldom growing over twelve inches high. It is a rapid grower, producing long branches that cling to the ground. It is useful for terraces, hillsides, and edging of rock-gardens and is perfectly hardy. Propagation is by cuttings and layers. Var. Pfitzeriana forms a low, broad pyramid. The branches grow horizontally from the stem, forming a flat, spreading top. It is not a rapid grower, attaining a height of six to ten feet, and is perfectly hardy. This variety is valued for its graceful plumosa-hke foliage. Propagation is by cuttings and grafting. CONIFERS FOR THE PACIFIC SLOPE.— Braunton Conifers should be planted only for certain restricted uses for which they are peculiarly well fitted. Indeed, so many conifers do not thrive luxuriantly in the semi-arid atmosphere of California that they are not always ornate. Those from humid climes are poorly clothed, and this deficiency becomes Plate XIX. Law-son cypress {ChanKrcyparis Luw.soniana) ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 117 more marked with age, so that many species are welcomed in youth, tolerated at mid-age, and destroyed when old. In fact, in southern California conifers of large size are not easy to find, yet many were planted long years ago. Their retirement from public favor may be due, in part, to their misuse in land- scape planting. It is not uncommon to see conifers native to snow-capped mountains on the lower levels, and above, other and broad-leaved evergreens from the tropics — evergreens so tender that their foliage is injured by light frosts. It is rarely indeed that conifers may be planted harmoniously below the line of ordinary vision. Conifers are primarily for the heights and should overtop all other trees. They should not be too closely associated with dwellings, unless on tracts of some altitude or as backgrounds above to relieve otherwise bare landscapes and provide or suggest shelter. Parks and large gardens may carry conifers in considerable numbers, but the small garden is better with none, or the planting confined to dwarf species or one or two isolated speci- mens of unusual attractiveness. Considerable space is needed for natural development without pruning, and seldom does a conifer attract favorable notice or comment when the lower branches have been removed. For this reason, conifers are unfitted to roadside alignment unless a parking of twenty or more feet has been reserved. The greatest misuse to which they are subjected in California, and the most common, is to mix species from habitats of almost perpetual snow with palms from the tropics, several of each on an ordinary city lot. Aside from contrasts in form, the palms are in shades of lightest green, while the conifers are of the darkest. California possesses numerous native species of conifers. Including Taxaceae, they number forty-two, divided in popular groups as follows: Pine family, twenty-eight; redwood family. 118 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS two; cypress family, ten; yew family, two. So many of these are of decided horticultural value that one may plant richly and in great variety of species and general appearance without using other than natives of California. W^hile all pines are much alike in general appearance, and also cypresses, three species of the latter family have unusually handsome and distinct foliage and are widely planted in park and garden. They are: Lihocedrus decurrens, incense-cedar; Thuja plicata, canoe-cedar; and Chamcecyparis Lawsoniana, Port Orford cedar, better known in California as Lawson cypress. However, of all native conifers planted as single or solitary specimens, the most popular are the redwoods, or, as known to the plant trade, the redwood and the big tree. Sequoia sempervirens and S. gigantea. Of the twenty-eight species of native pines, several are employed in forestry work by the state and federal depart- ments and only about four in ornamental grounds. Of the latter, Pinus radiata is used more than all species combined, either as an ornamental or for woodlot and small forest plant- ings. It is, however, very short-lived, being estimated that at the most it lives but one hundred fifty years, and on its native heath it sometimes dies at forty years of age. In park and garden it does not always live the stated minimum, so that many perish of mature old age during the life of the planter. The three other garden species, in the order of their popularity, are: P. Coulteri, P. Torreyana, and P. cemhroides var. Par- ryana, the latter often catalogued as P. quadrifolia. Of cypresses, the Monterey, Cupressus macrocarpa, far out- classes all other species in numbers planted. Thirty years ago it was much used for hedges in city and village, but hedges are now very little planted, though Monterey cypress is much in evidence in windbreaks about orchards and is almost the only ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS . 119 conifer so employed. Of the yews, the one known as the CaU- fornia-nutmeg, Torreya californica, is more planted than the western yew, Taxus brevifolia, though neither is much used in gardens. It is well known that coniferous trees seldom sprout from the stump when cut down, but these yews do. In this respect the nutmeg is extremely vigorous, as much as the redwood which is noted among conifers for stump-sprouting and the rapid growth and great size of comparatively young second-growth trees. In odd forms and habits California has but one curiosity, a weeping spruce, Picea Breweriana, a very pendulous form. Cedrus Deodara is by far the best conifer for general planting in all parts of the Pacific Slope. C. atlantica var. glauca may be given second place. Araucaria Bidwillii, Sequoia semper vire?is, Chamcecyparis Lawsoniana and its varieties, Lihocedrus decurrens, Araucaria excelsa and var. compacta, Cupressus guadalupensis and var. glauca, Abies Pinsapo var. glauca, Picea pungens var. glauca, and Cupressus arizonica, are most frequently planted in the order named. In the region of Los Angeles Taxus baccata, Taxodium mucronatum, and Agathis rohusta thrive. In northern California the following are the most satis- factory conifers: Abies balsamea, A. N ordmanniana, Cedrus atlantica, C. Deodara, and C. libani, Chamcecyparis Lawsoniana, Cupressus arizonica, Juniperus communis var. hibernica, Libocedrus decurrens, Picea Abies, Pinus radiata and P. excelsa. Sequoia sempervirens and S. gigantea, Taxus baccata var. fastigiata, and Thuja orientalis var. aurea. For southern California the most popular conifers planted are: Libocedrus decurrens, Cedrus Deodara, Pinus canariensis, Picea Abies, Cupressus guadalupensis and var. glauca, Chamwcyparis Lawsoniana and varieties, and C. obtusa, Cupres- 120 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS sus arizonica, Abies Pinsapo and A. concolor, Picea pungens var. Kosteriana. Other species worthy of mention are: Cryptomeria japonica var. elegans, Thuja orientalis var. aurea, Cupressus sempervirens and C. macrocarpa, Pinus radiata, and Juniperus chinensis. In the cold snaps of January, in the years 1913 and 1922, many of the largest and oldest Araucaria excelsa were frozen to death and size and age seemed to be no protection, as it is generally conceded to be with trees in general. Some of the very largest in Los Angeles perished, and they seemed to be frozen in all parts, from the base of trunk covered with thick bark, up to the tip, seventy-five or more feet above. This freezing of mature bark-protected trunks is believed to be due to continuation of low temperatures through several nights, which was cumulative in effect, gradually breaking down the tissues. Lower temperatures of shorter duration would not have resulted in such fatalities, which, strange to say, were not visited upon any other conifer. The remarkable ease with which the Monterey pine and the Monterey cypress may be grown from seeds and safely trans- planted, coupled with their drought-resistance, have made them prime favorites for covering bare hillsides when landscape effect is sought. When fuel is desired, eucalypts are planted. California, except in very cool and damp coastal districts, is too hot and dry during summer to suit some very ornate species. Araucaria hrasiliana and Cunninghamia lanceolata are two of this class. Unless planted in a lawn, where there is a constantly rising humidity, Araucaria araucana grows but slowly and is poorly furnished with branches near the ground. In Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, it reaches a better development than at any point farther south. Cedrus Deodar a has proved a pleasant surprise in its really remarkable adapta- ADAPTATION OF CONIFERS 121 bility to a great variety of soils and climates, even on the dry hillsides of forest reserves in the south end of the State. Another handsome conifer also growing well in similar situa- tions is Pinus canariensis. Single conifers are seldom planted primarily for shade, but P. Pinea has received such con- sideration and may occasionally be seen in garden or farm- yard, singly or in groups of three or more. It is the only round-topped or umbrella-shaped conifer. A few species are planted because of the oddity or beauty of the leaves, such as Agathis robusta, the Dammar-pine from Australia. Its thick flat leaves are two inches wide and three inches long. Species of Podocarpus are also provided with leaves similar to those of the blackwood. Acacia melanoxylon. More nearly needle-like, yet somewhat "leafy," is the foliage of Sciadopitys verticillata, the Japanese umbrella-pine, a species not common on the south Pacific Coast, but more popular northward in more humid atmospheres. All conifers on the Pacific Slope thrive better the farther northward they are planted, except those requiring subtropical winter tempera- tures. So favorable are the climates of Oregon and Washington to the growth of conifers that the planter need consider but the one point of hardiness to cold. CHAPTER IV THE INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES OF ORNAMENTAL CONIFERS A CONNECTED discussion of the insects, diseases, and main injuries to which ornamental conifers are subject, is here brought together in this country for the first time. With the exception of the white pine bhster-rust (page 154), none of these pests is likely to be greatly destructive over large areas, although the white pine weevil (page 127) is a serious menace and a more adhesive paint-like spray is apparently needed for it. The grower of conifers, however, must always be on the lookout for insect and pathological depredations; and those that seem to differ from the ones here described or which are doing extensive damage should be promptly reported (with specimens) to the experiment station of the State or to the United States Department of Agriculture. This chapter is in two main parts — the insects (page 124), and the diseases and injuries (page 138). These parts are prepared by specialists directly for this book, the former by C. R. Crosby, Extension Professor of Entomology, and J. B. Palmer, Instructor, Cornell University, the latter by F. Dick- son, Instructor in Plant Pathology, Cornell University. The second part, on diseases and injuries, is divided into four coordinate parts: 1. Coniferous seedling diseases and injuries, page 140. 2. Diseases and injuries of older coniferous trees, page 144. 3. Tree surgery, page 161. 4. Fungicides, page 165. (122) INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 123 Experience of growers with insects and diseases in this class of plants should be assembled and organized. On the subject of the spraying of conifers, George P. Brett writes as follows: "It is desirable that more experiments in regard to the spraying of evergreens should be made, as there is little satis- factory information to be had about it at the present time from the standpoint of the ordinary amateur grower. What is the best spray for the pine weevil, for example, and is there any spray that will check the depredations of pine blister-rust? As far as the pine weevil is concerned, I have tried arsenate of lead, scalecide, and some other preparations, but not with complete success. What is wanted for this veritable scourge of the soft-needle pines is, I should guess, a sort of paint which would prevent the attack, this paint to be applied to the leading shoots at the time of the year when the danger exists, and it ought, with proper experiments, it seems to me, to be easy to find some deterrent which would keep off the attacks of the insect without poisoning the tree. "The imported sawfly is easy to manage if you attend to it in time. It mostly attacks the soft-needle pines, and I have seen Cembra, Banksiana, Strobus, and the Bhotan so com- pletely stripped of their needles by the larvae of this fly as to kill the tree, but it can be easily controlled with arsenate of lead, provided care is taken to make the applications frequently enough to care for the broods which appear at regular in- tervals during the summer, the last brood on my place this year, for instance, having appeared in late September, just be- fore we had our first serious frost. The Scotch pine and the hemlock are also attacked by this pest, but little damage seems to be done to these trees, the larvae apparently thriving only on the soft-needle pines." 124 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS INSECTS OF CONIFEROUS EVERGREENS.— Crosby and Palmer The number of insects doing serious damage to conifers under conditions of cultivation is relatively few, and the discussion of the depredations need not be extensive. This account begins with insects more or less common to all conifers — the borers and bark-beetles, the bag-worm, and the gipsy moth. Then follow the insects preying specially on pines, spruces, and larches. Borers and bark-beetles. Conifers that are in a weakened or unhealthy condition from insect depredations or other causes are subject to attack by a host of borers and bark-beetles of many kinds. The borers may burrow just under the bark or in the solid wood, often causing decay to ensue. Bark-beetles bore through the bark and construct brood chambers between the bark and the wood in which they deposit their eggs. The larvae or grubs form burrows which gradually increase in size as they become larger. These burrows are half in the wood and half in the inner bark. When abundant they girdle the tree or branch, causing its death. When the bark is removed, their burrows are evident in impressed grooves in the surface of the sap wood. These engraved patterns are characteristic of the species and have given the insects the popular name of "engraver beetles." The depredations of borer and bark-beetles can only be prevented by keeping the trees in a healthy and vigorous condition, since most of these pests are unable to gain entrance or breed in thrifty trees. After the tree has been weakened so that the infestation has begun, there is little that can be done to prevent its death. The bag-worm {Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis, Ha worth). Arbor- vitae and cedar in southeastern NeW York, central Plate XX. American arbor- vita> {Thuja occidentalis) . Left, var. Buchananii. Right, var. Columbia INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 125 Ohio, and southward are subject to attack by the larva of a moth which protects itself by a silken bag into which are incorporated bits of leaves and small twigs. The larva remains in this bag throughout its entire feeding period and carries the bag with it wherever it goes. It protrudes the head and front part of the body when moving about or feeding. The young larvae appear in May or June and maturity is reached in the fall. The female moth is wingless and does not leave the bag till after she has deposited her eggs. The bag containing the eggs remains on the tree throughout the winter firmly attached to the twig by a band of silk. In this way the twigs are often girdled and killed. ^Tien abundant, defoliation may be severe and the trees stunted and killed. The bag-worm may be controlled effectively by spraying with arsenate of lead, three pounds of powder in one hundred gallons of water, as soon as the larvae have all hatched, that is, some time early in June. In case only a few trees are affected, hand-picking the bags in the fall or early spring is an effective measure. The gipsy moth {Porthetria dispar, L.). Figs. 8, 9. The gipsy moth is a serious forest and shade-tree pest throughout the greater part of New England. It is a European insect and was introduced into eastern Massachusetts in 1869 where it has become a much more serious pest than in its native home. The winter is spent in the egg state. The egg masses are oval in outline, light brown in color, covered with hairs from the moth's body, and are placed on trunks of trees or in any sheltered place. The eggs hatch in the spring just as the buds are bursting, and the caterpillars feed on the tender foliage. The young caterpillars are not able to feed on the leaves of pine, but the older ones thrive on this food plant. 126 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS If other trees are growing with them, the partly grown cater- pillars may migrate to the pines, causing a stripping of the leaves. The larvae become full grown about the first week of July. The full-grown cater- pillar is about two inches long; the ground color is dark gray and there are eleven pairs of prominent tubercles on the back. The first five pairs are blue and the last six dark red. There is only one generation a year, the moths appearing the latter part of July. The gipsy moth may be controlled in ornamental plantings by spraying the trees with arsenate of lead — five pounds of powder in one hundred gallons of water. The application should be made as soon as the eggs have hatched, more resistant to the poison. Gipsy larva {Porthetria dispar). as the older caterpillars are Pines are less subject to injury when grown by themselves because the young larvae do not have jaws strong enough to devour the leaves. The removal of deciduous trees from pine groves will make it easier to protect the latter from the ravages of the gipsy moth. In the winter, trees should be examined carefully for egg-masses and the eggs killed by saturating them with crude coal-tar creosote to which a little lampblack has 9. Gipsy moth. INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 127 been added as a marker. It is also good practice to band the trunks with "tree tanglefoot" to prevent the ascent of mi- grating caterpillars. The white fine weevil {Pissodes strohi. Peck). Figs. 10, 11. White pine is subject to the attacks of a weevil which kills the central leader or topmost shoot, thus ruining the symmetry of the tree and caus- ing the trunk to be crooked and mis- shapen. The parent insect is a small brown snout beetle with a whitish spot near the hind end of each wing-cover. The beetles emerge from hibernation in May and, after feeding for a time on the terminal shoot, they deposit .1 • • 10. Work of the white pme weevil. then* eggs m punc- ^ tures in the twig. The eggs hatch in a few daj^s and the larvae burrow in all directions through the shoot, riddling the tissue and causing the death of the branch. The grubs become full grown in August and the beetles emerge in early fall and go into hibernation under trash and in similar sheltered places. There is only one generation a year. Much may be done to keep the weevils from injuring the pine leaders by spraying this part of the tree about May 1, before the new leaves appear, with lime-sulfur solution — one part in eight parts of water. This acts as a deterrent and 128 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS keeps the beetles away. Arsenate of lead — one ounce of powder in two gallons of water — is of considerable value but does not give as good results as the lime- sulfur. Jarring the beetles into a specially constructed insect net is also a practical means of control. The jarring should begin in April or May when the beetles first appear and should be repeated at intervals of one week as long as the beetles are to be found. 11. White pine weevil (Pissodes strobi). Pine-leaf scale (Chionaspis pinifoliw, Fitch). Figs. 12, 13. Austrian and other hard pines, when grown for ornamental purposes, are especially subject to attack by the pine-leaf scale. The mature female scale is about one-tenth inch in length, elongate, rounded behind and pointed in front. The color is pure white with a yellowish shield at the pointed end. The male scales are smaller, narrower, and have a ridge along the back. The winter is passed in the egg stage. The eggs are reddish and are closely packed under the old scale of the mother. The eggs begin to hatch in May and the young scale insects crawl out on the new leaves where they settle down, insert their bristle-like mouth-parts and begin feeding. A scale-like covering is soon formed. Hatching con- tinues over a considerable period. In New York there are two broods and possibly a partial third. 12. Chionaspis ■pinifolice as shown on the leaves. INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 129 When this scale is abundant, the growth of the leaves is retarded, they turn reddish, die, and fall off. Infestations as serious as this are ra£her uncommon, but it is not unusual to find trees which have a distinctly grayish color due to the presence of myriads of the scales. In cases in which the pine-leaf scale is present in threatening numbers, it may be held in check by spraying with nicotine sulfate — one pint in one hundred gallons of water in which four to five pounds of soap have been dissolved. To be most effective, the application should be made soon after the eggs have hatched and before the young in- sects have formed a protective scale. This will be in May or early June. It has been reported that good results can be obtained by spraying with a miscible oil — one part in six- teen parts of water — in the spring before the buds have started. Care should be taken, however, to do the spraying on a bright, sunny day when there is no danger of freezing and thus avoid possible injury to the foliage. The jyine sawfly {Lophyrus ahhottii, Leach and others). The larvae of several species of sawflies attack the foliage of the pine. The most common species in the East is known as Abbott's sawfly. The larvae, when full grown, are three- fourth inch in length, yellowish-white in color, marked with rows of rectangular black spots. The eggs seem to be laid over an extended period so that larvae of different sizes may be found at almost any time throughout the summer. Whole trees may be defoliated, but it is more common to find the 13. Pine-leaf scale (Chionaspis pinifolicB). 130 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS injury restricted to individual branches. The insect passes the winter in cocoons under trash on the ground. There is only one generation a year. On small trees, jarring the larvae on to ascreen or some similar device is a good method of control. On larger trees the larvae may be killed by spraying with arsenate of lead at the rate of three pounds of powder to one hundred gallons of water. Pine bark aphid {Chermes pinicorticis. Fitch). White pines growing under more or less adverse conditions are especially subject to attack by a small reddish aphid which is rendered very conspicuous by a covering of white waxy material. Scotch and Austrian pines are sometimes slightly infested, but the injury is negligible. The insects confine their attack to the smooth bark of the trunk and branches and congregate at the base of the needles. Badly infested trees become sickly, the leaves turn yellowish and in severe cases the tree may die. The aphid passes the winter on the bark under the pro- tection of the mass of wax. Early in the spring a cluster of eggs is deposited. The eggs hatch in April and May, the young scatter over the bark, settle down, and become covered with a mass of waxy white threads. On badly infested trees the bark has the appearance of being whitewashed. There are several generations during the season. It is quite probable that this plant-louse has an alternate food plant, but this phase of its life history has not been studied. The pine bark aphid may be controlled satisfactorily by thorough spraying with kerosene emulsion — one part of standard stock emulsion in nine parts of water. When good water pressure is available, the pest can be held in check by washing the trees with a stiff spray of clear water. INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 131 The pitch-mass borer (Parharmonia pini, Kellicott) . The trunks of healthy pine trees are often disfigured by large unsightly masses of gum, caused by the larvae of a beau- tiful, blue-black and orange, narrow- winged moth which burrows in the inner bark and sapwood. The insect sometimes requires three years to complete its development. It may be held in check by carefully removing the mass of pitch and killing the borer in its burrow. Spruce gall aphid (Chermes ahietis, L.). Figs. 14, 15. Norway and white spruces are subject to attack by a plant-louse which causes the formation of cone-shaped galls at the base of the smaller twigs. These galls are about one inch long and bear a striking resemblance to a small pineapple. The infested twigs may die, and when the galls are numerous the tree may assume a ragged and unsightly appearance. Young trees are most liable to serious injury. The plant-louse which produces the galls lives over winter in a partly grown condition, hidden away in cracks of the bark around the buds. In the spring these aphids complete their growth and about the middle of May de- posit a cluster of ap- proximately three hundred yellowish eggs. These eggs hatch in about a week and the h. Work of spruce gall aphid— C/termcs abietis. 132 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS young lice crawl to the tender growth where they station themselves on the leaves which have already begun to show indications of the developing gall. The formation of the gall is apparently initiated by the feeding of the parent plant-louse. As the gall increases in size, the leaf tissue grows over the young aphis which thus comes to occupy a closed cell. Within this retreat the aphid passes through four stages; the cell then opens and it escapes. This usually takes place in August. At the last molt the plant-louse acquires wings and then takes her position on a spruce leaf where she deposits a cluster of eggs, leaving her dead body over them as a protec- tion. On hatching, the young lice scatter over the nearby branches and attach themselves to the leaves and in crevices around the buds. It is in this condi- tion that the insect passes the winter. It is thought by some that the life history of the insect is not as simple as is indicated above but that there is a regular migration from spruce to larch and from larch to spruce. It is quite probable that a migration does take place when both kinds of trees are growing near each other. In cases in which larches are not present, the insect seems to be capable of breeding indefinitely on spruce. The spruce gall aphid can be controlled effectively on ornamental plants by thoroughly spraying with whale-oil soap — one pound in two gallons of water. The application should be made during the winter or in early spring before new growths start. A miscible oil — one part in twenty of 15. Spruce gall aphid on larch. INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 133 water — has given good results when used on nursery trees in the early spring. In England a weak kerosene emulsion is sometimes employed. In case spraying has been neglected till too late in the season, much can be done to reduce the numbers of the lice by cutting off and burning the galls before they open. This method is not to be recommended when spraying is possible. When the trees have become infested in the nursery, it is well to fumigate them before planting out. The Colorado blue spruce is also subject to attack by a closely related gall-forming plant-louse {Chermes cooleyi, Gillette). The galls are similar in structure to those caused by the spruce gall aphid, but are more elongate and are at the end of the twig instead of at the base. The same species also attacks Engelmann spruce. Its life history is similar to that of the form previously treated. It may be controlled by the same measures. The fact that this species regularly migrates to red fir and breeds there during part of its life cycle would indicate the undesirability of planting these two conifers on the same or adjoining estates. Red and black spruces in the East are likely to have the tips killed by the formation of a tight cone-shaped gall which superficially resembles the true cone of the tree. This gall is produced by a plant-louse {Chermes pinifolicE, Fitch) which spends part of its life cycle on the leaves of the white pine, where it is known as the white pine leaf -aphid. Winged forms appear on the pine in May and June and the next generation settle on the young leaves. The lice are covered with a white waxy secretion which renders them conspicuous. They cause the leaves to turn yellowish and may materially stunt the new growth. On spruce this insect may be controlled by removing and destroying the galls before the lice emerge. On pine, spraying 134 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS with whale-oil soap — one pound in two gallons of water — will give effective control. The lice are destroyed in great numbers by insect enemies, and artificial control measures are rarely necessary. The spruce hud-worm {Tortrix fumiferana, Clemens). The most serious pest of the great spruce forests of the northern United States and Canada is a bud-worm, the larva of a small light-brown, gray-mottled moth. Outbreaks occur at intervals of several years and large areas of forests are defoliated and in many cases killed. At such times ornamental trees do not escape attack, but may be seriously injured by the small caterpillars. The caterpillars hibernate in an early stage of their develop- ment and resume feeding in the spring as soon as the new growth appears. They cut off the needles at the base and then web them together with silk, forming a loose shelter in which they live and continue feeding. The caterpillars become full grown about the middle of June in Maine and pupate within the web. The moths emerge a week or ten days later and lay their eggs in small oval clusters on the spruce needles. The eggs hatch in about a week and the young caterpillars feed on the opening buds. There is only one brood a year. On ornamental trees the spruce bud-worm may be controlled by spraying in the spring, just after the buds open, with arsenate of lead — three pounds of powder in one hundred gallons of water. The application should be repeated a week or ten days later. The larch case-bearer {Coleophora laricella, Hiibner). Fig. 16. Young, vigorous larch trees are frequently attacked by a small case-bearer that mines in the leaves, causing a yellowish, unhealthy appearance of the foliage. Badly infested trees may INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 135 turn brown early in the season and after repeated attacks may die, European larch and tamarack, or American larch, are subject to attack by this insect both in woodlands and in ornamental plantings. The larva of the larch case-bearer crawls into a leaf which has been burrowed out and carries this case as a protection for its tender body. The insect passes the winter in a partly grown condition within its dark gray cylindrical case. At this time the cases are about one-seventh inch in length and are relatively slender. The hibernating cases may be observed readily on infested twigs, lying flat on the bark or projecting at various angles from the twigs. In the spring the case-bearer migrates with its case to the buds wnere it burrows as far as possible into the leaf, but retains a hold on the case. One larva will attack and mine a large number of leaves while it is completing its growth. When full-grown the larvae attach them- selves and their cases to the bark at the base of short side branches where they pupate, emerge two to three weeks later and mate in a short time. Early in June the females begin laying their brown ridged eggs on the leaves of the larch. On hatching the larvae bore directly through the eggshell into the leaf and burrow in the tissues. Early in September the case-bearing habit is assumed, using for a case either a portion of a leaf already mined or perhaps a new leaf. In either event, the larva lines part of the hollow leaf with silk, cuts off both ends, and migrates to new leaves, carrying the case about in typical fashion. In the IG. The larch case- bearer {Colcophora laricella) . The tiny moths 136 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS latter part of October they migrate from the leaves to the twigs, where they fasten one end of the case to the bark and hibernate in this condition. No practical method of control is known for this pest in forest areas. In ornamental plantings, however, a dormant spray of lime-sulfur solution, testing 32 degrees Baume, diluted at the rate of one part of lime-sulfur to eight parts of water, has given good results. It is advisable to make this application just as late as possible in the spring before the buds start growing. The larch sawfly {Lygceonematus erichsonii, Hartig). The larch, both under cultivation and in the forest, is subject to severe defoliation by the larva of a sawfly. The insect hibernates as a larva in tough brownish cocoons on the ground under the litter beneath the trees. The sawflies appear in late May or early June. The female inserts her eggs in the young, green, terminal twigs, causing them either to die or to become bent and distorted. The eggs hatch in about a week and the larvae become full grown in three to four weeks. When abundant, the tree is completely defoliated and the growth seriously checked. The young larvae are pea-green in color, with dusky heads. When full grown the head is black and the body is glaucous-green. There is only one generation a year. On reaching maturity the larvae descend to the ground and spin their cocoons under trash or in the ground very near the surface. The larch sawfly can be controlled effectively on orna- mental trees by spraying with arsenate of lead — three pounds of powder in one hundred gallons of water. The application should be made late in May just as the eggs are hatching. When only a few trees are to be protected and when spraying INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES ISI is objectionable, the insect may be eliminated almost entirely by collecting and destroying the cocoons in the autumn. The soil and litter around the tree should be removed to a depth of an inch or two and carted away. It should be buried or disposed of in such a way as to kill all the cocoons. Isolated trees may be rendered free from attack for several years by this treatment. Woolly larch aphid (Chermes strobilobius, Kaltenbach). Fig. 17. The leaves of the larch are often badly infested by a small, nearly black plant-louse which covers itself with a con- spicuous mass of wax-wool. Infested trees often have the appearance of being dusted with flour. The life history of this plant-louse is extremely com- plicated. The insect hiber- nates both on larch and on spruce and can breed for at least two years on larch, but there is a regular migration between these two trees. On the spruce the lice form galls which are similar to those of the spruce gall aphid. On the larch the over- wintered females and their eggs may be found in abundance in early May at the base of the leaf-clusters. On hatching, the young crawl to the leaves where they settle down and secrete a white waxy covering. The aphids are most abundant in late June although they are present in smaller numbers until fall. 17. Chermes strobilobius. 138 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS This plant-louse rarely causes enough injury to spruce to make remedial measures necessary. The methods suggested for the control of the spruce gall aphid would be equally applicable to the present species. On larches the aphids may be killed by spraying with kerosene emulsion. In the case of young trees it might be advisable to fumigate them before planting out. DISEASES AND INJURIES OF ORNAMENTAL CONIFERS.— Dickson Trees, like all other living organisms, are liable to suffer from numerous diseases and injuries throughout their life, from the time the seeds germinate. Some of these tend to reduce the vigor of the trees or to open the way for more serious maladies; others depreciate their value from a com- mercial or ornamental standpoint; while others kill them out- right. In the forests, diseases cause an inestimable annual loss, due to the ideal conditions for their spreading; but individual conifers, as employed for ornamental planting, are usually fairly healthy as far as actual diseases are concerned. The commonest troubles of such trees are often directly trace- able to environmental factors. It should always be borne in mind that trees require care and attention, for when growing under unfavorable conditions they will not thrive and are much more subject to disease than when planted in a favorable environment. Trees require a considerable amount of water and food. These factors are naturally cared for in the forest by the covering vegetation of the forest floor and the accumulation of fallen leaves and debris which is continually adding to the nutritive contents of the soil. On lawns and in parks, however, such materials are constantly removed for various reasons and it often becomes necessary to compensate for this loss of INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 139 natural food by the application of artificial fertilizers. The drainage in such places may 'be such that trees will suffer from lack of water under certain conditions. This must also be readjusted. Air is another essential for growth and health of trees. This applies as much to the root system as to the aerial portions, for trees are often killed by root suffocation due to the banking up of soil around their butts during grading operations or to the tight packing of the soil. It is not always possible to loosen the soil around trees, but doing so will often add to their vigor and health by conserving the soil- moisture and by permitting the circulation of air among their root systems. Certain other factors, such as too high or too low a temperature, sudden changes in temperature, the presence of smoke or noxious fumes in the air, the penetration of illuminating gases into the soil from leaky mains, lightning, and ordinary mechanical injuries, play an important role in impairing the health of trees outside of the forest. A brief introductory statement concerning the fungi as causal factors in disease will probably help the layman better to appreciate such diseases in the following discussion. The fungi are, for the most part, microscopic plants which possess no green parts and are, therefore, unable to manufacture any food materials for themselves. For these materials they depend largely on the higher plants on or in which they live. The various tissues of the plants are attacked and certain parts of them converted into food for the fungi. During these processes conditions arise which are injurious to the higher plants and which are designated by the term disease, while the plant affected is called the host. Sooner or later, changes consequent on the diseased condition become apparent. Such changes, which may take the form of swellings, wilting, variations in color, death of parts or of the whole plant, dwarfing, and the 140 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS like constitute the symptoms of the disease. The fungi, with but few exceptions, propagate themselves by means of tiny structures, invisible to the naked eye, called spores, which are produced in extremely large numbers. Under suitable condi- tions, these germinate and reproduce the fungus from which they arose. 1. Coniferous seedling diseases and injuries Damping-off (caused by various fungi). In most regions damping-off is by far the most serious loss factor in the nursery. All species of conifers are susceptible to this disease, although the junipers are generally considered somewhat more resistant than the remainder. The young root may be rotted off soon after the seed germinates and before the sprout appears above the surface, such losses often being laid to poor seed germination. After the shoot has appeared, a rotted area may develop at or just below the surface of the ground, causing the seedling to fall over, wilt, and die. This happens before the stem has become woody, i.e., before the seedlings are about two months old. At this time, also, the seedling may wilt and die while still remaining erect, due to the rotting of the young root system. A fourth variation in the symptoms is exhibited when the upper part of the seedling only is rotted, infection having taken place before the tip finally withdrew itself from the seed-coat. Of these types, the first two are the most important. Infection in a bed usually commences at certain points and spreads rapidly in all directions from these foci. This disease is caused by certain fungi (Corticium vagum, B. & C, var. solani, Burt, Pythium deharyanum, Hesse and Fusarium spp. being the most usual in this country) which are commonly present in the soil. They become active and INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 141 cause their greatest damage under moist conditions. Control measures should, therefore, aim at the destruction of these fungi in the soil and at the regulation of the surface moisture in the seedling beds. In the case of coniferous seedlings, the application of sulfuric acid has proved the most satisfactory eradication measure, but in applying it attention must be paid to the physical character and natural acidity of the soil. An average strength for use is three-sixteenths of a fluid ounce of clear commercial sulfuric acid to one quart of water (1 part of acid to 170 parts of water), this amount being applied to each square foot of soil immediately after the seed is sown. In the case of open porous soils, from which surface evaporation is rapid, it will be necessary to water the beds once or twice a day to prevent acid injury to the roots. In using this method, it is advisable for the grower to make individual tests on his own soil in order to arrive at the most suitable strength. In addition to preventing damping-off, sulfuric acid will also keep down weeds and cause increased vigor in the seedlings. Soil alkalinity seems to favor the disease so that the addi- tion of lime and wood-ashes as fertilizers should be avoided. Unrotted stable manure is also likely to increase the loss from this disease. The surface moisture and temperature may be effectively controlled by inclosing the beds with upright wire-mesh screens and placing laths across the top. These laths may be removed when the surface becomes too moist or replaced to give the required amount of shading. If this does not result in sufficient drying out of the surface, coarse dry sand may be scattered over the bed. As the crowding of seedlings is an important factor in the spread of the disease, broadcast sowing is recommended.* ♦Hartley, C. Damping-off in Forest Nurseries. U. S. Dcpt. Agr. Bull. 934: 1-99. 1921. 142 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Sun-scorch. This important trouble occurs on all conifers during the growing season, in hot, dry weather, especially when the seedlings or transplants are dense and the soil is sandy. It is due to more water being given off by the plants than is ab- sorbed by their root systems. In serious cases seedlings of all ages are killed outright, but when it is less severe, only parts of the plants may die. The needles first turn yellow, com- mencing at their tips, and then gradually become a deeper brown color and finally nearly red. There is a simultaneous death of the root system. Owing to the fact that affected areas are often in well-defined patches in certain beds, the trouble is at times mistaken for one due to a fungous attack. The relation of the blight to the weather conditions, crowding, and soil character will, however, usually help one to diagnose the trouble correctly. Complete control may be obtained by heavy watering, at least once a week after the seedlings are over two months old. Lath shades, as described under "damping-off," or some other means to the same end, will also prove helpful. Crowding of the seedlings and extremely sandy soil should be avoided. Whitespot. A type of injury which may be mistaken for damping-off sometimes appears in coniferous seed-beds in very hot weather, particularly when the soil is very porous and black. Small, somewhat sunken lesions, which are light in color and have quite a definite margin, appear at the base of the stems. The lesion is often only on the side of the stem which faces the south, but it may encircle the whole stem. Seedlings thus affected may remain turgid and upright for several days but sooner or later they fall over and die. This is often due to INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 143 secondary fungous attacks which cause a decay and bring about an extension of the original lesion. For whitespot, which is apparently due to surface heating of the soil, shading and frequent light watering have given satisfactory^ control. When possible, soils which are porous and of a dark color should be avoided. Winter-killing. Winter-killing is very similar to "sun-scorch." It occurs, however, when the ground is frozen so that the roots are unable to supply a sufficient amount of water to the tops during warm periods of winter or in the early spring. It differs also from "sun-scorch" in that open stands are more liable to be affected. The application of a light straw mulch to the beds and the erection of windbreaks will give control. Care must be taken in the use of a mulch, as injury might accrue from too heavy an application, as described below. Frost-injury. This differs from winter-killing in the fact that it is not due to a drying-out effect but to the formation of ice crystals within the unripened tissues of the plant. It results from early frosts which occur before the tissues have matured or from late spring frosts. Certain trees, such as jack pine, com- mence growth very early in the spring so that the terminal buds and young shoots are often killed by such late frosts. Very late spring sowing and the forcing of growth toward the end of the growing season should be avoided in order to give the tissues a chance to mature before the advent of frosts. Mulching the beds will also help to prevent injury. Growth should be retarded by shading or some other method in the spring until all danger of severe frosts is passed. 144 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Mulch injury. When close, heavy mulches are used, the tops of seedlings may die in winter while the mulch is still on or just after it is removed. The roots, however, do not die until some time after the tops. The immediate cause of death is at present unknown, but it may be prevented by care in supplying a mulch which is neither too heavy nor too compact. 2. Diseases and injuries of older coniferous trees Winter-killing. This type of injury has been described as it occurs in the nursery. Older trees are also subject to it, especially in mild winters when there is very little snow covering and in the early spring. Owing to the fact that conifers retain their leaves during the winter and, therefore, transpire more freely at the critical periods than do deciduous trees, they are par- ticularly susceptible. The symptoms are as previously de- scribed. The needles die from their tips and finally become a reddish-brown color. Many terminal buds are often killed and whole trees are sometimes defoliated. Certain junipers, especially Juniperus virginiana and J. chinensis, are very cap- able of withstanding such conditions. The injury is most likely to occur when ornamental trees with a shallow root system are situated in exposed positions. Mulching should afford satisfactory control. Frost-injury to roots. In very severe winters when there is but little snow, the roots of trees may be partially or entirely killed. This is very likely to occur in the case of trees which possess shallow root systems, such as European larch, pines, and hemlock. It is frequent in white pines. If all the roots are killed, the tree Plate XXII. ITmbrella-pine (Sciadopitys verticillata), near and remote views INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 145 may appear normal in the spring and until the soil begins to dry out; then the death of the tree follows rapidly, usually commencing at the tip of the leader. In the case of a partial killing of the roots, severe sun-scorch may develop with the appearance of the first hot, dry weather. This injury may be prevented by the use of a mulch when such weather conditions exist. Frost-injury to the bark. This is a type of winter-injury which occurs on the sun- exposed side of the trees. Among the conifers, pine and spruce are particularly susceptible. It is thought that repeated freezing and thawing of the tissues of this side of the tree causes the death of patches of the bark which often peel off and expose the sapwood. In some cases, the bark adheres firmly but becomes somewhat sunken so that canker-like areas are produced. These dead spots form suitable places for the activities of various fungi. In order to prevent the entrance of fungi, the injured bark should be removed by proper tree-surgical methods and the exposed wood protected by a suitable dressing. For this purpose a coating of good shellac should be applied to prevent drying out and when this is dry it should be covered with a coat of tar or thick bark-colored paint. (See under tree surgery.) Frost-cracks. Frost-cracks are much more common on deciduous trees than on conifers, although they occur fairly frequently in the case of the spruce and fir. The cracks appear as longitudinal slits running for some distance up and down the trunk on the sunny side, and are caused by sudden falls in temperature. They open wider during cold weather, while during warm periods they may completely close up. They are chiefly of 146 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS importance in that they provide avenues for the entrance of fungi which may cause serious wood-rots. Cracks of this type will usually heal over naturally unless they are repeatedly reopened by low temperatures. The healing may be hastened, however, by using staples to close the wound. The exposed surfaces of wood and bark should be sterilized and waterproofed (see under tree surgery) in the winter when the crack is wide open. The stapling should be done in the spring when the wound is closed. Staples may be made of iron, about three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and should be four to five inches wide and about the same length. The bark and wood is removed to allow the staples to be driven in flush with the wood, and the exposed tissue should be treated with creosote and tar or thick bark-colored paint. The staples should be about two feet apart, and better results will be obtained if the points are bent slightly inward. Sun-scorch. This is also similar to the trouble described under the same name in connection with seedling diseases. In its effects it resembles winter-drying, but it occurs during the summer months. It usually becomes evident after high winds on hot days. The needles on the exposed side of the trees become yellow and then brown from their tips, giving the tree a scorched appearance. Norway spruce, Douglas fir, pines, white-cedar, and arbor- vitse are more commonly affected. Sun-scorch is a result of drought conditions brought about by excessive transpiration. To a considerable extent such injuries are unavoidable, but they may be lessened by any measures which tend to keep the soil moist and well aerated. Mulching, when practicable, is beneficial, especially when combined with artificial watering. INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 147 Smoke and fume injury. In manufacturing cities and in the vicinity of smelters, pulp and fertilizer mills, brick-kilns, coke-ovens, and blast- furnaces, particularly where sulfur gases are produced, the effects on all kinds of foliage are very evident. Evergreens in general are most sensitive, probably owing to the long life of their individual leaves. Junipers, however, show a distinct resistance, while pines and firs are much more susceptible. The degree of injury is governed by the distance from the source of the smoke and fumes, by the direction of the pre- vailing winds, and by the topography of the ground. Injured trees show a dying and browning of the needles from their tips. There may also be a curling of the leaves, while the trees are generally stunted and of a sickly appearance. The injury may result in defoliation and ultimate death of the trees. Unfortunately, there is no control measure for this trouble within the power of the individual grower. It is a case of either smoke and fumes or trees having to go. Smoke and fume prevention on the part of the manufactories concerned is the only remedy if the more susceptible evergreens are to be grown. The planting of junipers in districts in which the trouble is most acute should be considered. Electrical injuries. Electrical injuries may be divided into those due to the natural phenomenon of lightning and those caused by high tension line wires. The common effects of lightning are probably familiar to all; but trees may be injured in a number of freakish ways, some of which are more difficult of diagnosis. Sometimes trees are cleft longitudinally or are completely shattered by very powerful discharges. When these are less powerful, strips of 148 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS bark may be torn from the trunk, either in continuous Hues or at various isolated points. The whole or a portion of a tree may be killed, and this often takes place without any external signs of injury. It is probably due to a killing of the root system or to a girdling of a large or small zone of the living tissues. Many trees are struck, however, which show no ill effects to the untrained observer. There is apparently no difference in the susceptibility of the various kinds of trees to injury by lightning, but it is more likely to occur on those which are more or less isolated on high ground and which have deep root systems. High-tension line wires may cause a local burning or a partial destruction of trees, due to leakage from the wires when they are in contact with the trees or when they are poorly insulated. This leakage occurs particularly in wet weather when there is a film of moisture on the surface of the tree. In rare cases, trees may be killed outright. Apart from their unsightly character, such wounds, unless properly cared for, allow many destructive fungi to gain access to the wood of the tree. They may easily be prevented by insisting on the proper insulation of the wires. Injury due to illuminating gases. There are several kinds of gases used for illuminating and heating purposes, such as water gas, coal gas, gasoline gas, acetylene gas, and others, all of which are more or less poison- ous to vegetation. The injury caused to trees is due to leaky mains, from which the gases penetrate into the soil about the root systems. Certain of the substances are absorbed with the soil-moisture, producing various reactions in the tissues of the trees. Conifers are very resistant to gas poisoning and may completely recover from an exposure. Plate XXIII. A Calitornia phiniin^.-SujijoKi scmpervirens in center; Italian cypress {Cwpressus semperrirens var. .itricfa) clipped into formal shape for about thirty years tni/%t»m'WV w nk^ < . INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 149 Injury from this cause is very difficult to diagnose in the living tree, as the symptoms are very diverse and many of them are also exhibited by trees which are declining for other reasons. A general sickly appearance, with yellowing or browning of the leaves and probably partial defoliation, may first be seen. This usually commences at the top of the tree and progresses downward. The twigs become brittle and lose their bark, and this shedding of the bark may continue until a large portion of the trunk is bare. Unless the trouble is remedied in time, death of the tree results. If a tree is deteriorating and no other cause of injury can be found, the above symptoms would warrant one in suspecting illuminating gases as the causal factor, but no degree of certainty could be felt without a careful examination of the tissues. The wood shows a marked brittleness, while the tissues outside of the wood are dry and brown. The roots, naturally, are the first parts to be affected. The wood of affected trees possesses a characteristic odor for one who is familiar with this trouble. One would also be able to detect the smell of gas in the soil. If the injury is very extensive, it is doubtful whether any remedial measures will be effective in saving the trees, although, as mentioned above, conifers may recover after considerable exposure. If only a portion of the roots is affected, they should be removed. After the leak has been repaired, the soil should be dug up and well aerated for several days or, better still, it should be replaced by other soil which is not impregnated with the gases. Wood-rots. While very serious losses occur in coniferous trees in the forest, due to several destructive wood-rots, these diseases rarely cause much damage to individual ornamental specimens. 150 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS This is due to the fact that the conditions for the spreading of the causal fungi are ideal in the forest, but are much less favorable outside of these domains. Most of the fungi causing these wood-rots are on one general type commonly known as "bracket-fungi" or "polypores." One of the toadstools {Armillaria mellea), however, is responsible for an important root-rot, not only of conifers but also of a great variety of other trees and even of herbaceous plants. The wood may be attacked in various ways. The heart wood alone may be decayed to a greater or less extent. This may take place in the roots, at the butt or higher up in the trunk and branches. In most cases, the parts at- tacked are so weakened that the tree is eventually uprooted or broken off by the wind. Less commonly, the sapwood and bark of living trees are also attacked and rotted. In such cases, death of certain parts or of the whole tree may ensue, due to an interference with the passage of food materials. Infection takes place through injuries exposing the heart- wood or sapwood, as the case may be. Spores of the fungi concerned, falling on the injured spots, germinate under suitable conditions, producing a small tube which penetrates 18. Sporophores on trunk of tree. INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 151 into the wood. Here it continues to grow and causes the wood to disintegrate in a typical manner. Usually no external evidence of the disease is apparent until the fruiting structures (sporophores) of the fungi appear on the injured part, and this does not occur until one or more years after infection. By that time one may generally consider that the rotting of the wood is well advanced. The fruiting structures of the polypores are commonly known as "punks" and usually project as bracket-like bodies from the surface of the tree (Fig. 18). In some cases they may appear as sheets more or less appressed to the surface. The under side of these bodies is covered with minute pores which are the openings to tubes. Within these tubes millions of spores are produced, which at maturity are shed through the openings. When the sporophores arise near the base of the tree, one may often see the ground covered by a thick brown dust made up of these spores. The wind carries them to other trees, where fresh infections may be initiated. In the case of the toadstool referred to above, the sporo- phores arise from exposed or superficial roots or as clusters around the base of the tree. They possess a stalk and a cap which is honey-yellow in color and for this reason the fungus is often called the honey-mushroom. The stalk is somewhat swollen at the base and just below the cap it is encircled by a fragile collar. The spores are produced on the sides of plates or gills on the under surface of the cap (Fig. 19). The base of the stalk is connected with the tree roots by means of round black strands which have the appearance of shoe-strings. These grow through the soil from the roots of one tree to those of another, penetrate the bark and produce infection. Spores may also cause infection through wounds at the base of the tree or in exposed roots. 152 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS The wood-rots which attack coniferous trees are too numer- ous to be dealt with in detail, but all conform more or less closely to the general description given above. The following are some of the more important fungi which are responsible for these rots : Trametes pini, Fries, causes a destructive rot of fir, spruce, larch, and pine. The heartwood, sapwood, and bark are attacked and trees are often killed. The common name for the disease produced is "ring-shake," on account of the fact that complete annual rings are rotted. Fomes pinicola. Fries, occurs less frequently on living trees, but is common on those which have been killed or weakened by other agencies. It causes a sapwood rot in which the wood becomes powdery and red-brown in color. Fomes roseus. Fries, attacks fir, juniper, larch, spruce, pine, hemlock, and arbor-vitae, causing a brown heart-rot. Echinodontium tindorium, Ellis and Everhart, is important in the West where it causes a peculiar heart-rot in fir, spruce, and western hemlock. The spring wood is particularly at- tacked, causing the annual rings to become separated into disconnected cylinders. Finally the summer wood also is destroyed, leaving the trees hollow. Polyporus Schweinitzii, Fries, causes a rot of the heartwood in the roots and butts of pine, fir, spruce, hemlock, larch, and arbor- vitse. It often results in the uprooting of the trees by wind. Armillaria mellea, Quelet (Fig. 19), is more common on deciduous trees but attacks pine, larch, and hemlock, causing a rot of the bark and sapwood of the roots. The rot may also extend to the butt. The final result is usually the death of the trees attacked, but this may not occur for several years. Fomes juniperinus, Schrenk, is responsible for a heart-rot of junipers which often makes the trees hollow. INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 153 Mechanical injuries should be avoided, for these open the way for the entrance of wood-rotting fungi. All wounds should be carefully cleaned out, disinfected, and coated with some such dressing as coal-tar or asphaltum (see under tree surgery). All fruiting bodies should be destroyed as soon after they begin to form as possible. This will not arrest the decay in the diseased individual, but will prevent the spores from infecting other trees. Other sporophores will be produced later and these should be consistently destroyed. In cases in which the value of the tree justifies the expense and when the decay is not too far advanced, the diseased wood may be removed. This should be done by a capable person using proper tree-surgical methods. Such treatments are expensive and it should always be remembered that it is now possible to transplant large trees at a comparatively low cost. Special treatment is necessary in the case of the root-rot caused by Armillaria mellea. If the disease is discovered in the early stages, there are reasonable chances that the tree may be saved. All the soil should be removed from the butt and main roots. The bark should then be removed from the butt with a sharp knife and all diseased roots traced out as far as possible, cut off and burnt. The exposed surfaces on the butt, including all scars caused by the removal of roots, should be sterilized with creosote and waterproofed with a good coating of tar or asphaltum before the soil is returned. It is advisable to leave a fair portion of the root system (about 19. Fruiting body of Armillaria mellea. 154 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS eighteen inches from the butt all round) uncovered for an indefinite period when replacing the soil. When a number of trees are growing in close proximity, diseased individuals should be isolated by digging a trench about two feet deep all around them just beyond the limits of their root systems. No roots or fungous strands should be allowed to cross this trench. Trees in which the disease is well advanced should be sacrificed immediately and burnt on the spot. The soil should then be turned over and treated with a generous dressing of quicklime. This area should remain unplanted for at least three years, during which period the soil should be repeatedly turned over and exposed to the sun. Rusts. Of the fungous diseases to which coniferous trees are sus- ceptible, it is probable that the rusts are of the greatest importance from an ornamental standpoint. The leaves, twigs, and branches or trunk may be affected with varying degrees of injury, resulting in a serious depreciation in the ornamental value of the tree or even in its death. The important rusts occurring on conifers may be divided into two groups — the "blister-rusts " * which are particularly encountered on pines, and the "Gymnosporangium rusts" which attack junipers and cedars. The fungi causing these diseases are extremely interesting on account of their complicated life history, for the completion of which two different hosts are required. This will be brought out in connection with the discussion of the typical examples below. White pine blister-rust (Fig. 20) is caused by the fungus *Only a few of the many forms can be mentioned. For a more complete list the following publication should be consulted: Rhoads, A. S. et al.— Host relationships of the North American rusts, other than Gymnosporangium, which attack conifers. — Phytopathology 8 : 309-352. 1918. INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 155 Cronartium rihicola, Fischer, which is a most formidable enemy of the white pines (i. e., those in which the needles are in fascicles of five). Without doubt all five-needled pines are liable to be at- tacked if exposed to the pathogen. The fungus was first found in North Amer- ica at Geneva, New York, in 1906, but it is probable that it was present for some years prior to that date. Until the summer of 1921 it was confined to New England, New York, and the Lake States where it has caused very serious losses on the eastern white pine (Pinus Strobus) . In spite of all efforts to prevent its spread to the valuable stands of western white pine (P. monticola) and sugar pine (P. Lamhertiana) in the Western States, the disease was discovered in western British Columbia and in northwestern Washington in 1921. In addition to the five-needled pines, the fungus also attacks wild and culti- vated species of currant and gooseberry. Although all species of Ribes are more or less susceptible to attack, the culti- vated black currant (Ribes nigrum) takes the disease most severely. The currant and gooseberry are known as "alternate hosts," in- asmuch as the fungus must pass a portion of its life upon one of these before fresh pines can become infected. Pines of all ages are susceptible to the disease. The fungus gains entrance at the bases of leaf-fascicles or directly through White pine with bHster- rust. 156 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS the bark of growth which is not more than three years old. From these points it passes down into the larger branches or even into the main trunk where it is able to grow in bark thirty to thirty-five years of age. Here the fungus continues to spread until, finally, girdling takes place with the resultant death of all parts beyond the point affected. Infection is brought about by spores which are blown by the wind from leaves of currants and gooseberries in the summer and autumn. One of the most troublesome characters of the disease is that outwardly visible symptoms are not evident for approximately two years after infection, and then only by careful observation may one discern a slight swelling of the bark in the diseased area. Later, usually about three years and six months after the date of infection, the blisters from which the disease gets its name push through the bark. These creamy-colored sacs appear in the spring and soon break open and liberate millions of yellow spores which may be carried as far as seven miles by the wind. They are unable to reinfect pines, but, falling upon leaves of currant or gooseberry, may produce the disease there. In the early summer, upon the under side of such leaves, yellow pustules appear which produce myriads of another type of spore. These spores, which are produced throughout the summer, are also unable to infect pines, but serve to spread the disease to other currant or gooseberry leaves. In the late summer small, brown, hair-like projections arise from the same spots on the under surface of the leaves. They may be so numerous as to give a brown felt-like ap- pearance to the leaves. These hair-like projections consist of masses of a third kind of spore which soon germinates where it is, to produce yet a fourth type — the sporidia. Sporidia are un- able to reinfect currants or gooseberries. Blown by wind, they may infect pines within a radius of not more than 600 \'ards. Plate XXI\'. Spreading cryptomeria {Cryptomeria japonica var. elcgans) INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 157 From what has been said it is evident that the removal of all Ribes plants, both wild and cultivated, from the vicinity of white pines will ensure against infection. This removal must be thorough and, under normal conditions, should be carried out within a radius of 200 to 300 yards. In the case of valuable ornamental white pines which are already infected, experiments have shown that the removal of infected parts is financially practicable if the treatment is applied in time, and is carried out in conjunction with the eradication of Ribes. The best results will be obtained if the work is done from April to June when the cankers are more easily found because of the bright orange-yellow blisters. The workmen must be thoroughly familiar with the disease, as the success of the treatment depends on the finding of all cankers and the accurate determination of the edge of the diseased area. Diseased twigs and branches should be cut off seven or more inches back of the orange-yellow blisters. If none of these is present, the branches should be cut off five or more inches back of the extreme edge of the canker and flush with the next whorl of healthy branches. On large limbs and trunks, infections which have not passed completely round may be treated by removing all the diseased bark and a strip at least two inches wide at the sides and four inches at the ends of the apparently healthy bark from around the edge of the canker. Large wounds should be protected from the attacks of other fungi and insects by a covering of shellac and bark-colored paint. If the tree is nearly girdled, or if most of the branches must be removed, it is useless to attempt to save it.*' j * Spaulding, P. Investigations of the White Pine Blister Rust. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 957 : 1-100. 1922. t Martin, J. F. et al. Treatment of Ornamental White Pines infected with Blis- ter Rust. U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 177 : 1-20. 1921. 158 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Oak rust* is caused by the fungus Cronartium cerebrum, Hedgcock and Long, and affects many two- and three-needle pines, especially the scrub, jack, Sabine, Monterey, and knob- cone. Large gall-like swellings are produced on the branches or trunk, and in some cases witches'-brooms are formed. The alternate host is the oak, the leaves of which are infected by the spores from the pines. Some two- and three-needle pines, especially the lodge- pole and western yellow, are injured by Castilleja rust, which is caused by the fungus Cronartium coleosporioides, Arthur. On western yellow pine it has been found to cause serious losses in some nurseries, where the alternate host, Castilleja miniata, is an abundant weed. Extensive swellings of the branches and trunk are produced, somewhat resembling the previous disease in this respect. Sweet-fern rust is destructive in some nurseries. It occurs on two- and three-needle pines, giving rise to symptoms very similar to those described under the white-pine blister-rust. The alternate hosts are the sweet fern {Comptonia asplenifolia) and sweet-gale {Myrica Gale). Rust witches'-broom of spruce is caused by a Melampsorella species which has its alternate stage on Alsine (sandwort), Cerastium (mouse-ear chickweed), and Stellaria (chickweed). The disease is wide-spread and very harmful in some localities on Engelmann, Norway, black, Colorado blue, and Sitka spruce. It not only attacks and stunts the twigs and branches of young trees, but also brooms and dwarfs saplings and older trees. Rust witches'-broom of fir causes harmful brooming and dwarfing of the tips of various species of fir (Abies) . Cerastium and Stellaria are again the alternate hosts. * The existence of the fungi causing these diseases depends on the close proximity of the coniferous and alternate hosts. Control measures will be as outlined under "White pine blister rust." INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 159 Several native cedars and junipers and some of their horti- cultural varieties are attacked by a number of fungi belonging to the genus Gymnosporangium. For the completion of the life cycle of these fungi, certain broad-leaved trees and shrubs, such as apple, pear, quince, hawthorn, mountain-ash, juneberry, fire-thorn, are essential, and, upon some of these, serious diseases are also caused by the fungi concerned. One type of spore is produced on the junipers and cedars and another type upon the broad-leaved hosts. Neither of these spore-forms is able to reinfect the same host on which it was produced, but must pass to the alternate host. The association of the two kinds of hosts is, therefore, necessary for the spread of the disease from one tree to another. The leaves and young branches of the junipers and cedars are infected by spores from the alternate host. During the second season after infection abnormal overgrowths appear in the form of swellings of the branches and trunk, witches'- brooms (i.e., compact clusters of small branches), or trans- formations of the leaves into galls commonly known as "cedar- apples" (Fig. 21). In a few cases no overgrowths are developed, the only visible symptoms being a yellowing of the leaves. The "cedar-apple" type of abnormality is most frequent upon the red-cedars and junipers which are used for windbreaks or for decorative planting in yards and gardens in the proximity of orchard trees. The spores of this stage are produced upon these diseased parts in the spring. In the case of the broad-leaved hosts, the leaves and fruits are attacked in the spring. Small localized spots of a yellowish color appear, and later long whitish tubes of fungous material are pushed out all over the surface of these spots. Within the tubes, the spores which are able to infect the coniferous hosts are produced. 160 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Segregation of the two types of liost for these fungi, when it is possible, tends to hold the disease in check. While the spores may be blown for distances from a few feet up to several miles, the removal of the pomaceous host to within a distance of one mile will reduce infection to a minimum. All diseased parts on either host should be carefully and consistently removed as soon as discovered. This will reduce the sources from which the infecting spores arise. Leaf-cast diseases. This name is applied to a group of similar diseases which occur on pine, larch, fir, spruce and juniper and which are caused by a number of fungi belonging to the genera Lophoder- mium, Hypoderma, and Hypoder- mella. In general, the later symp- 21. Cedar-apples on Jwwiperas toms resemble Very much those mrgimana. causcd by suu-scorch and winter- killing. Small yellow spots or bands first appear on the leaves and these are followed by a browning of the entire needles. In the spring, fruiting bodies of the fungi appear as black lines or roundish dots along the middle of the dead leaves on the lower side. These bodies contain the spores which are dis- charged through elongated openings and which are blcwn about by the wind to other trees. The leaf -cast diseases are INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 161 often serious on small trees since they may cause complete or nearly complete defoliation. All fallen needles should be gathered up and burned. Spraying with a 4-4-50 bordeaux mixture before rain periods will also reduce the infection in the nurseries. 3. Tree surgery In the care of ornamental trees the following points should be remembered; 1. The wood of a tree is naturally protected by the covering of bark. Any injury to this, or any exposure of the wood, affords an opportunity for the entrance of destructive or- ganisms which may bring about extensive damage, resulting sometimes in the complete loss of the tree. 2. Early attention to small injuries will render unnecessary expensive treatments in the future. 3. More harm than good is often caused by allowing in- experienced workmen to do tree-surgery work. Whether or not a tree shall be treated surgically will depend on two main factors. In the first place it must be decided whether it is possible to save the tree — a question which can be answered only by one who is thoroughly familiar with the trouble with which it is afflicted. In some cases it will be better to replace the tree rather than to try to save it. Secondly, the expense must be taken into consideration. The amount one is willing to spend on a certain tree will, of course, depend on its value from an esthetic or historical standpoint. All ornamental trees are, however, worth considerable care, for they add greatly to the value of real estate. There are a few fundamental principles underlying all tree-repair work. The first essential is that all diseased or dead bark or wood must be removed. In the case of fungous 162 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS attacks, it can be accepted as a general fact that the organism is present not only in the tissue which actually shows the disease to the naked eye, but also for some distance beyond this area in all directions. A certain amount of apparently healthy tissue should always be removed, therefore, in order to ensure the complete eradication of the fungus. All cut surfaces should then be sterilized and protected from drying out and from the attacks of other organisms. This will involve the examination of the treated parts from time to time so that any defects may be remedied immediately. A neglect of this precaution may nullify all previous work done. Finally, all the treated portions must be left in the most favorable condition for rapid healing. Removal of branches. When small branches or twigs are the parts diseased, it will be the simplest procedure to remove them entirely. In doing this, no stubs should be left, for they are both unsightly and a source of danger to the future health of the tree. Diseased branches should always be cut off with a wide-toothed saw flush at the point where they join healthy ones, care being taken not to strip the bark below. The surface of the wound should be trimmed with a sharp knife and the scar pointed above and below. Following the knife, the exposed sapwood and bark should be covered immediately with a coating of good shellac. This will serve the double purpose of preventing the drying out of these living tissues and also the excessive exudation of resin which takes place from the wood of some coniferous trees. (The resin secreted by such trees is sometimes smeared over the cut surfaces to take the place of other dres- sings; but, while it serves well as a protective covering, it usually runs down the bark of the tree, leaving unsightly white streaks.) The exposed heartwood should now be sterilized INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 163 with ordinary commercial creosote and the entire shellacked and creosoted surface finally waterproofed with thick coal-tar or asphaltum. Should the color of the tar be objectionable, it may be replaced by a covering of thick bark-colored paint. This will need careful watching, however, for paint has a ten- dency to crack, and such cracks are sufficient to permit the entrance of fungi. Removal of bark. In many cases, the larger limbs or the trunk of the tree are attacked, either in the living portions or in the heart wood, thus necessitating the local removal of the diseased tissues. The excavation of the heartwood would not in any way interfere with the life processes of the tree, but, as the sapwood and bark are the channels through which water and food materials pass up and down the tree, they must be conserved as far as possible. If the diseased area extends more than two-thirds of the way around the trunk or limb, it is doubtful whether treatment would be possible, for, as has been pointed out above, a portion of healthy tissue must always be removed as a safety zone. In peeling off diseased bark, a sharp hook-pointed knife is most useful. The bark is first cut through to the wood around the margin of the area to be removed, making it V- shaped above and below. The bark is then peeled off and the edges trimmed with a sharp knife. As soon as the exposed surface is sufficiently dry, it should be covered with a coating of shellac and waterproofed with thick bark-colored paint, tar, or asphaltum. Cavity work. Removing diseased wood involves the making of a cavity and requires expert workmanship if the best results are to be 164 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS obtained. Such treatment is usually rendered necessary through neglect of small injuries and especially through the leaving of branch stubs, by way of which fungi reach the heart of the tree and there initiate destructive rots. The full details of this branch of the subject cannot be entered into here, but they are given in readily available form in the publication mentioned below.* The fundamentals, however, may be summarized as follows: All diseased wood must be removed, together with a certain amount of apparently healthy tissue. In doing this it will be necessary to cut away a portion of the bark, but the hole made should be no larger than is absolutely essential. The edge should be trimmed and the opening pointed above and below to facilitate healing over. The exposed sapwood and bark should then be sealed with a coating of shellac and the re- mainder of the exposed wood sterilized. For this purpose, creosote is one of the best preparations, but it must not be used on the bark. The whole shellacked and creosoted surfaces are then covered with a thick coating of tar or asphaltum. The bottom of the cavity must be so shaped that water will run out readily and this will sometimes necessitate the filling up of this part of the cavity to give the requisite slope. This completes the essential operations in the treatment of such wounds. Regular inspections should be made at least biennially and if there is any cracking of the waterproofing material a fresh coat should be applied. An open cavity is much better for this reason, in that it allows one to make thorough inspections from time to time. From an ornamental standpoint, however, it may sometimes be advisable to fill such cavities. For this purpose, asphaltum or cement are most commonly used. The opening to the cavity may also * Collins, F. J. Tree-Surgery. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 173 : 1-29. 1920. Plate XXV. Nikko fir {Ahlcs homolrpi.s) INSECTS, DISEASES, AND INJURIES 165 be covered with sheet tin, zinc, or iron, but the practice is not to be recommended. 4. Fungicides Spraying or dusting are of value in the control of leaf diseases in the orchard and in the field, but very little informa- tion is available concerning the application of these measures to ornamental trees and shrubs. There seems to be no reason, however, why they should not be effective. Fungicides should be applied before rainy periods and before infection has taken place (except in the case of surface fungi such as the mildews), for they are generally preventive and not curative agencies. The three commonest fungicides are bordeaux mixture, lime- sulfur, and sulfur. Bordeaux mixture consists of a mixture of copper sulfate (blue vitriol) and milk of lime, the active principle being the metallic copper. A stock solution of copper sulfate is made by dissolving the required number of pounds of crystals in as many gallons of water. This is most easily accomplished by placing the crystals in a bag and suspending this just below the surface of the water. A wooden container should be used for this solution, as it rapidly corrodes metallic surfaces. The milk of lime is prepared by slaking stone lime and gradually adding water until a thick smooth paste is obtained. Sufficient water is then added to make the number of gallons equal the number of pounds of lime. The spray is used in various strengths, 4-4-50 being the average. This formula signifies that four pounds of copper sulfate, four pounds of lime, and fifty gallons of water make up the mixture. In preparing fifty gallons at this strength, four gallons of the stock copper sulfate solution should be placed in the tank and then thirty-two gallons of water added. After this has been done, the four 166 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS gallons of lime are added and the whole thoroughly stirred. The mixture is then ready for use. Self -boiled lime-sulfur is prepared by placing eight pounds of good stone lime in a container and adding suflScient water to start it slaking. Eight pounds of sulfur are then added slowly, working it through a sieve to break down the lumps. The lime should be prevented from burning by the addition of water, but care must be taken not to drown it. When the slaking is complete, the container is filled up to fifty gallons and the mixture strained through a sieve of twenty meshes to the inch. This solution may be used in cases in which bordeaux mixture causes injury to the foliage. While applying, the mixture should be constantly agitated, as it settles out very rapidly. Copper-lime dust and lime-sulfur dust may be obtained from manufacturers of fungicides. They have the same value as the sprays mentioned above, but are applied in the dry form. "Flowers of sulfur" or finely -ground sulfur flour may be used in the case of superficial fungi, such as the mildews. It should be dusted over the affected parts when they are wet. It is most effective in hot, dry weather. PART II THE KINDS OF CULTIVATED CONIFERS (GYMNOSPERMS) IN NORTH AMERICA By ALFRED REHDER CHAPTER V A SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION OF THE CONIFERS CULTIVATED IN NORTH AMERICA THE group of plants known as conifers, popularly often called evergreens, belongs, together with the Cycads and Gnetacese, to the division of Gymnosperms which is chiefly distinguished from the other phenogamous plants or Spermatophytes by the ovules not being inclosed in an ovary. The conifers are now usually divided into three families of which the first, Ginkgoaceae, the Ginkgo family, is closely re- lated to the Cycads in its mode of fertilization, which is by motile sperm-cells, while in the Taxaceae and Pinaceae, fertiliza- tion is effected by means of passive sperm-cells developing long pollen-tubes as in the other phenogamous plants. The Taxa- ceae differ from the Pinaceae chiefly in the fertile flower, which consists of few or only one carpel with one or two ovules developing into a drupe-like seed usually exceeding the carpels, while in the latter family the flower consists of usually nu- merous carpels and develops into a cone-like fruit with mostly winged seeds inclosed between the carpels. All the conifers are woody plants, sometimes attaining great dimensions. They inhabit chiefly the colder and temperate regions of the globe where they usually form the predominant components of the forests. Among them are the most important timber trees of the northern countries, and as ornamental trees they are particularly valuable in colder sections as they are the only evergreens attaining to a large size and are indispensable for the creation of evergreen woods and shelter-plantations. The scope of this work does not permit the bringing out of 170 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS the very interesting facts connected with the history and par- ticularly with the introduction of the different species into cultivation. In most cases, only the date of the first introduc- tion into cultivation has been given, and these dates concern chiefly the introduction into European gardens. It is to be regretted that very few data are available regarding the intro- duction of plants into American gardens except those of recent date; it would certainly prove to be an interesting and fasci- nating study to trace the historical development of the plant material of our gardens and the various attempts to introduce plants from foreign countries and to bring those of our own rich flora into cultivation. NOMENCLATURE, SEQUENCE, AND KEYS In the following account of conifers, descriptions are given of only the species and varieties which are actually or are supposed to be in cultivation in North America, but many others are mentioned incidentally. In regard to the botanical names, the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature are followed and have been strictly applied, but in cases in which the name adopted in the Official Catalogue of Standardized Plant Names (prepared by the American Joint Committee on Horti- cultural Nomenclature), intended as a guide for nurserymen and horticulturists, differs, that name is given as an alternative and may be used instead of the name considered correct under the International Rules by those who prefer to follow that Catalogue. The English names used here are those proposed in that Catalogue. As the present treatment is intended chiefly for horticultural purposes, it has not been considered necessary to group the varieties and forms from a strictly botanical point of view and, therefore, no distinction has been made between subspecies, ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 171 varieties, forms, lusus, and other subdivisions; all subdivisions of a species are uniformly designated as "variety"; in gen- eral usage this term is often dropped and the varietal name directly joined to the specific name, e. g., Chamoecyparis pisifera plumosa instead of C. pisifera var. plumosa, although this is not strictly correct. No attempt has been made to substitute new names for combinations like Chamoecyparis pisifera var. plumosa aurea; such names have been retained for horticul- tural purposes and placed in quotation marks to indicate that the writer does not consider them botanical combinations. They are, moreover, inadmissible under the International Rules, because the name aurea cannot be used, since there is already a variety aurea, namely C. pisifera var. aurea, Carr. According to the Rules, a name can be used only once for a subdivision of any one species, otherwise it would not be possible to designate every subdivision of a species by only three names : the generic, the specific, and the varietal name. The introduction of several subordinate varietal names into a combination is justified only if it is necessary or desirable to indicate the systematic position of a certain form in a polymorphous species, but for the simple designation of a plant the names of the intervening divisions are often dropped. Combinations of four or more names are cumbersome and have done much to discredit the Latin nomen- clature of horticultural forms, which, after all, is the simplest way to give a definite place to a plant and is understood the world over. In the following systematic account the genera under their families are arranged, as much as feasible, in a linear sequence, according to their supposed natural relationship and under each family a conspectus or key to the genera is given, chiefly based on characters of the flower and fruit, to give a clearer understanding of their relationship and to serve as an ex- 172 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS planation for the sequence of the genera as adopted. As these keys are of use only if flowers or fruits are available, another key to the genera of all three families combined and based on vegetative characters only is given below. This should make it possible to determine any coniferous plant even without flowers or fruits. There may be, however, some cases in which the key may fail, particularly if only young seedling plants are avail- able, since in many conifers, chiefly in the Cupressineae and Taxo- dinese, the foliage in its juvenile stage is very different from that of the adult, as may be seen if Chamceq/paris pisifera and C. pisifera var. squarrosa are compared; even the arrangement of the leaves may change, as in Widdringtonia Whytei which has alternate leaves in its juvenile stage and opposite in the mature plant; also some other abnormal garden forms show a great deviation from their type. Furthermore, some species and even a few genera show such a great resemblance in their vegetative characters, though different enough in flowers and fruits, that it is almost or quite impossible to give an accurate description of these differences which, however, may usually be perceived if the plant in question can be compared with cor- rectly named specimens or plants. KEY TO THE GENERA OF CONIFEROUS PLANTS BASED ON VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS A. Plants with evergreen foliage. B. Leaves alternate, scattered or clustered, c. Arrangement of leaves scattered. D. Form of leaves linear, lanceolate, or subulate, rarely oblong to elliptic. E. Winter-buds not scaly or with green or greenish scales: leaves decurrent into a green leaf- cushion, not articulate at base. F. AU the leaves flattened, linear or linear- lanceolate to oblong-ovate. G. Leaf broad, obtuse, generally oblong, leaves occasionally opposite. (See also Phyllo- cladus, p.l81, with broad, lobed, or toothed leaf-like cladodia) Agathis, 245 p -^-" K >- « - ^ Platk XXV'I. Good young plant of Algerian fir (Abies numidicd) ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 173 GG. Leaf narrow, pointed, rarely obtusish, linear to lanceolate, rarely triangular-ovate. H. Position of leaves more or less 2-ranked, usually w-ith stomatic bands beneath. I. Branchlets terminated by a distinct win- ter-bud with greenish scales. J. Under surface of leaves with glaucous bands: branchlets opposite or sub- opposite. K. Glaucous bands broader than the 3 green bands; leaves with raised midrib above Cephalot.^xus, 182 KK. Glaucous bands narrower than the 3 green bands; leaves without distinct midrib above, sharply pointed Torreya, 183 JJ. Under surface of leaves pale or gray- ish-green: branchlets alternate . . '. T.\xus, 18,5 II. Branchlets not terminated by a distinct clearly defined winter-bud. JJ. Shape of leaves linear, not exceeding 1 inch, distinctly 2-ranked. K. Foliage persistent for several years, pungent, to 1 inch long: branch- lets not deciduous Sequoia {sempervirens) KK. Fohage deciduous together with the 235 branchlets the second season; leaves to H inch long Taxodium (mucrona- 33. Shape of leaves lanceolate, or oblong- turn) iSi lanceolate, usually longer than 1 inch, indistinctly 2-ranked. K. Leaves finely serrulate, with dis- tinct stomatic bands beneath, not more than K inch broad . . Ctjnninghamia, 240 KK. Leaves entu-e, without stomatic bands, about J 3 inch broad Araucakia {Bidnillii) HH. Position of leaves not at all 2-ranked, with- 242 out conspicuous stomatic bands beneath. I. Leaves more or less imbricate, usually pungent. J. Length of leaves up to J^ inch, with white stomatic bands above Athrotaxis (selagi- Jj. Length of leaves V2-1 14 inches, with- nmdes) 238 out stomatic bands, at least ]/f, inch broad at base Araucaria. 241 11. Leaves spreading, linear to linear- lanceolate. J. Width of leaf less than ^ inch, leaves sessile, 32-4 inches long Podocarpus, 179 174 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS FF. All the leaves subulate, sometimes partly scale- like. G. Base of leaves quadrangular or laterally flat- tened, usually keeled above. H. Branches in regular whorls, spreading, forming distinct tiers; lateral branch- lets approximately in one plane Araucaria, 241 HH. Branches more or less irregularly whorled; the lateral branchlets not in one plane. I. Leaves stiff, pungent, strongly laterally compressed, passing into scale-like leaves on mature plants: branchlets pendulous on young plants Taiwania, 237 n. Leaves rather soft, not pungent, of one kind: branchlets not pendulous Cryptomeria, 239 GG. Base of leaves flattened horizontally, concave or flat above, passing into scale-like leaves. Sequoia (gigantea) 236 EE. Winter-buds distinct, covered with imbricate scarious yellowish to blackish scales, often resi- nous: leaves articulate at base, not decurrent into a green leaf-cushion, linear or needle-like. F. Branchlets smooth or nearly smooth after fall of leaves which leave a roundish scar: leaves with stomatic bands only beneath or stoma- tiferous on both sides. G. Upper surface of leaves with raised midrib, flat: winter-buds small, not resinous Keteleeria, 246 GG. Upper sm-face of leaves grooved or flat, or these sometimes quadrangular. H. Leaf -scars not raised: winter-buds short, ovoid, and usually resinous (in one species elongated and leaves spiny- pointed, 13^-23^2 inches long) Abies, 248 HH. Leaf -scars slightly raised at lower end: winter-buds elongated, pointed, not resinous Pseudotsuga, 263 FF. Branchlets roughened after fall of leaves by the stalk-like processes of the leaf-cushions which are separated by incised grooves. G. Leaf quadrangular or flattened and with stomatic lines on all sides or only above, often spiny-pointed, with 2 or more lateral resin-ducts Picea, 269 GG. Leaf flattened and with stomatic bands beneath, sometimes convex above and with stomatic lines above and beneath, never spiny-pointed, with one resin-duct under the midrib Tsuga, 265 DD. Form of leaves scale-like or sometimes scale-like and linear on the same plant. E. Branchlets terete or angled. F. Leaf not or obtusely keeled. ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 175 G. Apex of leaves obtusish, slightly incurved, their form triangular-ovate to oblong . . . Athbotaxis, 238 GG. Apex of leaves not or scarcely incurved, acutely mucronate or acuminate Sequoia {gigaiitea), 236 FF. Leaf with prominent decurrent keel on back, incurved, with minutely serrulate margin. Taiwania, 237 EE. Branchlets flattened into broad leaf-like cladodia with minute scale-like leaves on the margin. Phyllocladus, 181 cc. Arrangement of leaves clustered or whorled, at least partly so. D. Form of leaves flat, deeply furrowed on both sides, 3-G inches long, in whorls of 15-35 at end of branchlets Sciadopitys, 232 DD. Form of leaves needle-shaped, angled. E. The leaves in fascicles of 2-5, rarely to 8 or soli- tary, surrounded at base by a sheath of scarious scales PiNUS, 295 EE. The leaves many, clustered on short spurs .... Cedrus, 293 3. Leaves opposite or whorled. c. Arrangement of leaves opposite. D. Form of leaves linear to oblong-ovate. E. Shape of leaves broad, oblong-lanceolate to ob- long-ovate, rarely ovate, more or less 2-ranked. F. Leaf obtuse, oblong or oblong-lanceolate Agathis, 245 FF. Leaf acuminate, ovate-oblong to ovate or el- liptic-ovate PODOCARPUs(iVa^t) 181 EE. Shape of leaves linear, decussate. F. Leaf obtuse to acutish, usually with glaucescent or grayish bands beneath (juvenile forms of genera of Cupressineae) . G. Texture of leaves rather soft. H. Foliage light bluish-green or almost silvery- white, very soft, violet in winter : branchlets spreading Chamcpcyparis pisifera HH. Foliage bright or dull green: branchlets var. squarrosa, 215 more or less upright. I. Upper surface of leaves bright green or slightly glaucescent, with bluish bands beneath, coloring violet or bro^vnish-red in winter ChamcEcyparis thyoidea n. Upper surface of leaves dull green, gray- var. ericoides, 213 ish-green beneath, changing to brown- ish-green in winter Thuja occidentalis var. GG. Texture of leaves rather rigid, about }4 inch ericoides, 225 long: compact roundish shrubs (see also Cupressus macrocarpa var. Crippsii, p. 209). H. Leaves obtuse, bluish-gray Chamcocyparis obtusa var. ericoides, 216 HH. Leaves acute, bright or bluish-green. . . . Thuja orientalis var. FF. Leaf acute, with 2' glaucescent or whitish lines decussata, 227 above, green beneath Juniperus, 194 DD. Form of leaves scale-like. 176 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS E. Branchlets terete or quadrangular. F. Leaves of vigorous branches not distinctly de- cussate and often only subopposite Widdringtonia, 230 FF. Leaves always distinctly opposite and de- cussate. G. Margin of leaves entire or sometimes fringed; leaves occasionally ternate Jtjniperus, 194 GG. Margin of leaves minutely fringed or den- ticulate; leaves always opposite Cupressus, 207 EE. Branchlets flattened (rarely quadrangular in Chamsecyparis and leaves with entire margin). F. Width of branchlets }4 inch or less. G. Margin of leaves fringed CuPRESStrs, 207 GG. Margin of leaves entire. H. Internodes longer than broad; branchlets bright green on both sides Libocedrus, 220 HH. Internodes of short branchlets about as long as broad; branchlets often with whitish markings beneath. I. Branchlet-systems usually not dis- tinctly frond-like; branchlets less than 3*5 inch broad Cham^cyparis, 211 n. Branchlet-systems distinctly frond- like; branchlets js - i inch broad, much flattened Thuja, 221 FF. Width of branchlets |-^ inch, with white markings beneath Thujopsis, 218 cc. Arrangement of leaves whorled (see also Athrotaxis, p. 238). D. Number of leaves in whorl 3. E. Form of leaves linear to lanceolate or oblong- ovate. F. Shape of leaves oblong-ovate, incurved at apex, about 3^ inch long, with white bands beneath, green above Fitzrota, 227 FF. Shape of leaves linear to lanceolate, with white bands above, green beneath, usually rigid and spiny-pointed Juniperus, 194 EE. Form of leaves scale-like. F. Whorls of leaves close Juniperus, 194 FF. Whorls of leaves, at least on leading shoot, remote; leaves minute Callitris, 228 DD. Number of leaves in whorl 4, whorl remote; branchlets compressed Tetracunis, 230 aa. Plants with deciduous foliage. B. Shape of leaves flabellate, 2-3 inches across at apex Ginkgo, 177 BB. Shape of leaves linear. c. Leaves alternate and usually 2-ranked Taxodium, 233 cc. Leaves in clusters on short spurs. D. Width of leaves ^ inch or more, 1^-3 inches long . . Pseudolarix, 288 DD. Width of leaves narrower, not exceeding 13^ inches long Larix, 289 ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 177 THE DESCRIPTIONS In the following pages are described all the conifers, ever- green and deciduous, probably in cultivation in the continental United States and Canada. The distinguishing of these kinds or species is often difficult. One should have cones as well as leaves to make certain of identification. The descriptions are, of course, technical, for there is no other way of clearly separating the species and varieties. To identify the kinds accurately and with conviction is itself a satisfaction, com- parable even with the rearing of the plants. 'm^ Fam. I. GINKGOACE^. GINKGO FAMILY Deciduous resinous tree, without true vessels in the secondary wood: leaves fan- shaped, parallel- veined : flowers dioecious; the staminate flowers catkin-like, the anthers borne in stalked pairs on a slender axis; the fertile flowers long- stalked with usually 2 ovules; fertilization by motile sperm- cells: fruit drupe-like with a fleshy outer and a bony inner coat; embryo with 2 cotyledons. — One monotjTjic genus in east- ern China. (Ginkgo is the Chinese name of the tree.) GINKGO, L. I^L\IDEN- HAIR TREE G. biloba, L. {Salisburia adiantifolia, Sm.). Fig. 22. Rather sparsely branched tree to 120 feet tall, glabrous: leaves 12. Ginkgo bilobl' Staminate flowers at s; pistillate alternate or in clusters of 3-5 at j>; fruits, about one-half natural size, at a. 178 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS on spurs, slender-stalked, fan-shaped, more or less incised or divided at the broad summit, 2-3 inches across: fruit obovoid or ellipsoid, about 1 inch long, yellowish, consisting of a 2-angled, ovoid, creamy-white thin-shelled nut surrounded by a pulpy, ill-smelling outer coat; kernel sweet, edible. Eastern China, cultivated in Japan. — Introduced to Europe in 1730, to America in 1784. Hardy as far north as southern Canada. A rather sparingly branched, picturesque tree remarkable for its fan-shaped leaves which turn yellow in autumn; it is suitable for planting singly on the lawn and is also a desirable street tree, but the planting of fertile specimens should be avoided, as the Ul-smelling fruits are objectionable. Several horticultural forms are in cultivation, as var. variegata, Carr., with variegated leaves, var. laciniata, Carr., with deeply incised leaves, and var. pendtila, Carr., with pendulous branches. ram.II. TAXACE^. YEW FAMILY Much-branched evergreen trees or shrubs, with resin-tubes in the bark and no true vessels in the secondary wood: leaves alternate, rarely opposite, often 2-ranked, needle-like or scale-like, persistent: flowers dioecious, rarely monoecious; staminate flowers cone-like, the anthers borne on the protected portion of more or less apically thickened or peltate scales (sporophyUs) ; fertile flowers consisting of ovules borne singly or 2 together on a fleshy or rudimentary carpel (sporophyll) , inverted or straight, the outer integument forming an arillus : fruit a dry seed with a bony shell, usually surrounded by a fleshy often highly colored aril, sometimes borne on a fleshy receptacle; embryo with 2 cotyledons. The family is related to the Pinaceae, but differs in the reduction of the pistillate cone to a single ovule, in the modification or suppression of the sporophyll, and in the aril or arillus. The closely related family of Gink- goacese differs in the catkin-like staminate flowers with the anthers borne in stalked pairs on a slender axis, in the fertilization by means of motile sperm- ceUs and in the fan-shaped deciduous leaves. These three families were formerly united under Coniferse and form, together with the Cycadacese and Gnetacete, the division of Gymnospermse. Taxacese contains 12 genera and about 100 species, of which 60 belong to the genus Podocarpus, and is widely distributed in the temperate, subtropical, and tropical regions of both hemispheres. Its name is derived from the genus Taxus, the best and longest known genus of the family. Besides the five genera grown in this country and described below, the following are occasionally cultivated in Europe: Saxegothsea, Microcachrys, Acmopyle, and Dacrydium, a tropical genus with dimorphic, scale-like or needle-like foliage, while Pherosphsera, Amento- taxus, and Austrotaxus are apparently not in cultivation. ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 179 KEY TO THE GENERA A. Anthers 2-celled: carpels l-oviiled. B. Seed without aril: leaves conspicuous, }4r^ inch broad 1. Podocarpus BB. Seed surrounded by an aril: leaves scale-like, but branchlets flattened and expanded into leaf-like cladodia 2. Phyllocladus AA. Anthers 3-8-celled: leaves linear, less than I'i inch broad. B. Female flower consisting of several pairs of 2-ovuled carpels : fruit drupe-like: leaves beneath with 2 glaucous bands broader than the 3 green bands: branchlets opposite. .. .3. Cephaix)TAXUS BB, Female flower reduced to a single ovule. c. Fruit drupe-like: anthers 4-celled: leaves with 2 glaucous bands narrower than the 3 green lines, with aresin-duct in the middle: branchlets subopposite 4. Torreya CC. Fruit berry-like, consisting of a bony seed surrounded by a campanulate aril: anthers 6-8-celled: leaves pale green beneath, without resin-duct: branchlets alternate 5. Taxus 1. PODOCARPUS, L'H^r. Evergreen trees, rarely shrubs: leaves alternate, sometimes opposite or 2-ranked, sessile or short-stalked, linear to elliptic, entire, rarely scale-like: flowers monoecious or dioecious, axillary or subterminal, solitary or in spikes at the end of short brancldets; the staminate flowers catkin-like, consisting of spirally disposed 2-cclled anthers; the fertile flowers consisting of a scale inclosing the ovule, with several bracts at the base, which become usually much thickened at maturity, and form a fleshy receptacle bearing at the top the globular or ovoid drupe- or nut-like seed; cotyledons 2. (Name derived from the Greek pous, podos, foot, and karpos, fruit; in reference to the fleshy fruit-stalk of most species). — The genus contains about 60 species, chiefly in tropical and subtropical mountains of the West Indies, South America, Asia, Africa, and Australia. Some species with the flo%vers in spikes and the fruits without fleshy receptacle are separated by some botan- ists as Prumnopitys (Stachycarpus) . Nageia is a synonym. Two or three species are occasionally planted as ornamental trees in the Southern States, but more are cultivated in European collections. Many species are valuable timber trees in their native countries, and the fleshy seed-stalks of some are eaten. a. Leaves linear-lanceolate, less than 3^ inch broad, spirally arranged. B. Length of leaves 1^-4 inches, apex obtuse or acute 1. P. iriacrophylla BB. Length of leaves J^-1 inch, apex acute and pungent 2. P. Totara AA. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate to lanceolate or sometimes ovate, about ^ inch broad S. P. Nagi 1. P. macrophylla, D. Don (P. longifolia, Hort.). Longleaf Podocabp. Fig. 23. Tree attaining to 50 feet in height, with horizontally spreading 180 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS branches and pendent branchlets; the trunk with gray, shallowly fissured bark: leaves alternate, pinkish when unfolding, more or less spreading, narrowly lanceolate, narrowed toward the apex and acute or obtusish, at the base gradually narrowed into a short petiole, bright green and lustrous and with a distinct midrib above, paler below, 3-4 inches long and more than 3^ inch broad: staminate flowers fascicled, sessile, about 1 inch long: seed ovoid, 3^-^ inch long, borne on a fleshy purplish- violet receptacle. Japan. — Intro- duced to England by Wm. Kerr in 1804, to this country in 1862 by Dr. G. R. Hall. A tree of somber aspect, hardy as far north as South Carolina and perhaps farther. Var. Maki, Sieb. (P. chinensis. Wall. P. macrophylla var. chi- nensis,'Maxim. P.japonica, Sieb.). Branches upright: leaves more upright, linear-lanceolate, obtuse or obtusish, 1M~3 inches long and M~/€ in<^^ broad: seed globose- ovoid, 3^ inch long or slightly longer. Japan. — Introduced to England about 1800. Tenderer than the type. Two variegated forms of this variety are in cultivation. 2. P. Totara, D. Don (P. Totarra, A. Cunn.). Tree to 80, or occasionally to 100 feet or more, tall; bark reddish-brown, fibrous, separating in long slu-eds, on old trees thick and deeply furrowed; branches spreading with distichous ramification: leaves spreading in two ranks, short-petioled, linear to linear- lanceolate, 3^-1 inch long, acute and pungent, dull green above and plane or slightly grooved, paler beneath and with indistinct midrib : staminate catkins axillary, cylindric, 3^-% inch long: fruit axillary, short-stalked, con- sisting of 1 or 2 subglobose seeds often slightly narrowed at the apex and about }/2 inch long, with a red, swollen, rarely shriveled receptacle at the base. New Zealand. — Introduced to Great Britain about 1850. Cultivated in California. A species similar in foliage though belonging to a different group charac- terized by the staminate flowers being arranged in terminal spikes, by spike- like fertile flowers, and by the absence of a receptacle is P. andinus, Poepp. 23. Podocarpus macrophylla. ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 181 (Prumnopifys elegans, Phil.). A small tree or shrub: leaves crowded, slightly 2-ranked, linear. ;h long, obtusish or mucronate, dark green and with a slightly raised midrib above, with a distinct midrib and 2 stomatiferous glaucous bands beneath: fruit subglobose, usually solitary on a slender drooping stalk, dark bluish-black and about 3^ inch across. Chile. — Intro- duced to Great Britain about 1860. Hardier than the preceding species. 3. P. Nagi, Makino (P. Nageia, R. Br. Nageia japonica, Gaertn.). Nagi Podocakp, Fig. 24. Tree to C'O feet in its native country, with spreading or ascending-spreading branches; the trunk with smoctl brownish-purple bark peeling off in thin gray flakes; branchlets opposite or sometimes alternate, green : leaves opposite, 2-ranked by a twist of the short petiole, elliptic-lanceolate to lanceolate, sometimes ovate, acute, narrowed at base, 2-3 inches long and about ^ inch broad, many- nerved, bright green and usually lustrous above, slightly paler beneath, sometimes somewhat glaucescent : stammate flowers cylindric, about 1 inch long, in clusters of 3-5; fertile flowers over 3^ inch across, plum-like, dark purple, bloomy, on a but slightly thickened peduncle. Southern Japan. — Introduced to Europe about 1830 by Siebold. Hardy only in southern California and Florida. A beautiful tree with its lustrous foliage and smooth broad leaves. 24. Podocarpus Nagi. litary or in pairs: fruit globose, little 2. PHYLLOCLADUS, Rich. Evergreen trees or shrubs; branches often whorled; branchlets flattened and expanded into rigid and coriaceous toothed or lobed leaf-like cladodia: true leaves reduced to linear scales: flowers monoecious or dicecious, the male flowers fascicled at the tips of the branchlets, the fertile flowers sessile on the margins of the cladodia or on peduncle-like divisions of the same: ovuliferous scales 1 or several and spirally arranged around an axis, thick and fleshy, free; aril coriaceous, as long as or shorter than the seed. (Name 182 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS derived from the Greek phyllos, leaf, and klados, branch, in reference to the leaf-like branchlets called phyllodia or cladodia.) Six species, Malaysia to the Philippines and New Zealand. Besides the species described below, the following have been introduced into European gardens: P. alpinus. Hook, f., P. glaucus, Carr., and P. trichomanoidcs, D. Don, from New Zealand, and P. hypophylla. Hook, f., from Borneo. P. rhomboidalis L. C. Rich. {P. asplenif alius. Hook. f.). Tree up to 60 feet, or shrub on mountain tops; persistent branches more or less reticulate, cladodia cuneate or rhomboidal: leaves very small, subulate: male catkins 2 or 3 together; female catkins globular, with 1, 2, or 3 fertile scales sur- mounted by 1 or 2 barren ones. Tasmania. — Introduced to Europe in 1825. A small tree or shrub of peculiar and distinct appearance, occasionally seen in California gardens and in eastern conservatories. 3. CEPHALOTAXUS, Sieb. & Zucc. PLUM-YEW Evergreen trees or shrubs; branchlets opposite, with a resin-canal in the center of the pith: leaves linear, pointed, with a prominent midrib above and with 2 broad glaucous bands beneath, arranged in 2 rows, with a resin-duct in the middle: flowers dioecious, staminate in 1-8-flowered, short-stalked clusters, fertile, consisting of a small cone with several bracts, each bearing 2 naked ovules: seed inclosed in a fleshy envelope, drupe-like, about 1 inch long, reddish- or greenish-brown. (Name derived from Greek kephale, head, and Taxus; a Taxus-like plant with the flowers in heads or clusters.) — Six species in Asia, from the Khasia Mountains to Japan. Besides the two species here described, C. Oliveri, Mast., from China is occasionally cultivated in Europe; it is easily distinguished by its very closely set, rigid and spiny-pointed leaves truncate at base and about 1 inch long. A. Leaves 1-2 inches long, abruptly pointed, in semi- erect ranks l.C. drupacea AA. Leaves 2-3 inches long, gradually tapering into a fine point, nearly hori- zontally spreading. 2. C. Fortuni 1. C. drupacea, Sieb. & Zucc. Cephalotaxus drupacea. Japanese P. Fig. 25. Shrub or ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 183 small bushy tree, rarely to 30 feet tall in its native country, with wide- spreading branches usually light green when young; bark of trunk gray and fissured into narrow detachable strips: leaves about 1 inch long, abruptly pointed, narrow and straight, often upturned: staminate flowers very short-stalked: fruit usually obovate, narrowed at the base, purplish, about 1 inch long. Japan. — Introduced in 1830 to Europe by Siebold. Hardy in sheltered places as far north as Massachusetts and usually forming a shapeless, wide-spreading bush. Var. pedixnculata, Miq. (C Harringtonia, C. Koch. C. pedunculata, Sieb. & Zucc). Harrington P. Young branches dark green: leaves to 2 inches long, narrowed into a sharp point: male flowers in branched heads on a stalk ]/2-^ inch long. — Known only as a cultivated plant in Japan and intro- duced in 1829 into Europe. Var. fastigiata, Pilger (C. pedunculata var. fasiigiata, Carr. Podocarpus koraiana, Sieb. & Zucc). Spiral P. Of columnar habit, with upright branches and spirally arranged leaves. Cultivated in Japan. — Introduced to Europe in 1830. Tenderer than the tj-pe and hardy as far north as New York. Var. nana, Rehd. (C. nayia, Nakai). Dwarf P. Shrub with upright or ascending stems 1-6 feet tall and spreading by suckers: fruit subglobose, ^ inch long, edible. North and central Japan. — Introduced in 1916 to the Arnold Arboretum by E. H. Wilson. Var. sinensis, Rehd. & Wils. Shrub to 12 feet: leaves linear-lanceolate, tapering to a sharp point. Central and western China. — Introduced in 1907 to the Arnold Arboretum. 2. C. Fortuni, Hook. Chinese P. Tree to 30 feet tall with slender, spread- ing branches often pendulous at the ends, the trunk usually dividing near the ground into 2 to 5 ascending stems with reddish-brown bark peeling off in large irregular flakes leaving pale markings: leaves 2-3 inches long, tapering gradually into a sharp point, usually falcate, dark green and shining above: fruit short-ellipsoidal, about Ij^ inches long, purplish. China. — Introduced to England in 1849 by Robert Fortune. Hardy as far north as New York and usually forming a rather irregular shrub with handsome dark green and lustrous foliage. 4. TORREYA, Arn. TORREYA Evergreen trees with fissured bark, whorled branches, and subopposite branchlets; winter-buds with few decussate deciduous scales: leaves 2-ranked, linear or linear-lanceolate, spiny-pointed, without distinct midrib above and with 2 narrow glaucous bands beneath becoming fulvous with age, with a resin-duct in the middle; when bruised the foliage emits a pungent or fetid odor except in T. grandis: flowers dioecious, rarely monoecious; staminate 184 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS flowers ovoid or oblong, composed of 6-8 whorls of stamens, surrounded at the base by bud-scales; fertile flowers consisting of a solitary ovule surrounded at the base by a fleshy aril and several scales: fruit drupe-like, consisting of a rather large seed, with thick woody shell entirely covered by a thin fleshy aril, ripening the second season; albumen ruminate; cotyledons 2, remaining under ground in germination. (The genus is named in honor of Dr. John Torrey, one of the most distinguished of early American botanists; 1796- 1873.) — Four closely related species in North America and in eastern Asia; occasionally grown as ornamental evergreens for their handsome foliage and interesting habit. A. Color of two-year-old branches yellowish-green or yellowish-brown. B. Leaves with scarcely impressed bands beneath, of fetid odor when bruised 1. T. taxifolia BB. Leaves with strongly impressed bands beneath, scarcely fetid . . 2. T. grandis AA. Color of two-year-old branches reddish-brown: leaves of aro- matic-pungent odor when bruised. B. Leaves 1^-2 1/2 inches long, linear 3. T. californica BB. Leaves ^-IM inches long, lanceolate, 4. T. nucifera 1. T. taxifolia, Am. (Tumion taxifolium, Greene). Florida T. (Stinking Cedar). Tree attaining 40 feet, with spreading slightly pendulous branches, forming a rather open pyramidal head; bark brown, tinged orange: leaves linear, acuminate, rounded at base and subsessile, dark or dark yellowish- green above, with shallow white bands beneath, M~lK inches long: fruit obovoid, dark purple, 1-13<^ inches long. Florida. — Discovered in 1833 and introduced into cultivation about 1840. Hardy at least as far north as South Carolina. 2. T. grandis, Fort. {T. Fargesii, Franch. Tumion grande, Greene). Tree occasionally to 80 feet high, sometimes shrubby: leaves linear-lanceolate, with a slender spiny point, M-lM inches long and J^ inch broad, bright green and lustrous above, with 2 white impressed bands beneath: fruit ovoid or globose, mucronate, ^<^-l inch long, brownish. Eastern and central China. — Introduced by Robert Fortune in 1855 to England. Hardy as far north as Massachusetts in sheltered positions. 3. T. californica, Torr. ( T. Myristica, Hook, f . Tumion californicum, Greene). California-Nutmeg. Tree attaining 70 or occasionally 100 feet, with spreading, slightly pendulous branches, forming a pyramidal or, in old age, round-topped head; bark grayish-brown, tinged with orange: leaves linear, slightly falcate, acuminate, lustrous and dark green above, with narrow impressed bands beneath, 1-23/^ inches long: fruit oblong-oval or oval, light green, streaked with purple, 1-1 H inches long. California. — Introduced to Europe in 1851. Hardy as far north as Philadelphia; a hand- some tree with slender spreading branches, but usually shrubby in the East. ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 185 4. T. nucifera, Sieb. & Zucc. {Tumion nudferum, Greene). Japanese T. Fig. 26. Tree usually 30 feet, but occasionally 80 feet high, with spreading branches, forming a compact head, sometimes shrubby; bark grayish-brown: leaves lanceolate, acuminate, rigid and spiny-pointed, very dark green above, with 2 white impressed bands beneath, ^-l}4 inches long and ys~y& inch broad: fruit obo void- oblong, about 1 inch long, green, faintly tinged and striped with purple. Southern and cen- tral Japan. — First uitroduced to England about 1764 and again by Siebold in 1831 to the Netherlands; to this country probably about 1860. A hand- some tree with dark green lustrous leaves, hardy as far north as Massachu- setts. The seeds are edible; the strong and close-grained wood is durable in water and is used in Japan for making water-pails and for cabinet-work. Torreya nucifera. 5. TAXUS, L. YEW Evergreen trees or shrubs with reddish or reddish-brown scaly bark; branchlets irregularly alternate; winter-buds with imbricate scales: leaves linear, pale or yellowish-green beneath, usually 2-ranked, without resin- ducts: flowers usually dioecious, solitary and axillary, rarely terminal, small, appearing in early spring; staminate flowers forming globose stalked heads, composed of 4-8 stamens each, with 3-8 anther-cells attached to the peltate connective; fertile flowers consisting of a single terminal ovide with several bracts at the base: seed a bony nut surrounded or almost inclosed by a fleshy cup-shaped scarlet disk, cotyledons 2, green. (Taxus is the ancient Latin name of the yew.) — The genus is distributed throughout the northern hemisphere; in America it extends to central Mexico and in Asia to the Philippines and the Malayan Archipelago. Eight species may be distinguished; they are all closely related and are often considered geographical varieties of a single species. Apparently not in cultivation are T. floridana, Chapm., from Florida, T. glohosa, Schlecht., from Mexico, and T. Wallichiana, Zucc, from the Himalayas and Malaysia. As an ornamental tree the yew is chiefly valued for its handsome dark green foliage and the attractive scarlet berries. The wood is heavy, hard, close-grained, strong, elastic, and of reddish color; it is highly valued for cabinet-making and turning. The foliage is poisonous to horses and cattle, but the berries are innocuous. 186 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS A. Scales of winter-buds obtuse, not keeled. B. Leaves gradually acuminate: bud-scales persistent 1. T. baccata BB. Leaves abruptly pointed : bud-scales deciduous 2. T. chinensis AA. Scales of Avinter-buds acute or acutish, keeled, persistent: leaves abruptly pointed. B. Leaves j^ to jV inch broad, with prominent midrib above 3. T. cuspidafa BB. Leaves ^f inch or less broad, with slightly elevated mid- rib above. c. Seed broader than high: low shrub 4. T. canadensis cc. Seed ovoid: small tree 5. T. brevifolia 1. T. baccata, L. English Yew. Tree attaining 60 feet, with a usually short trunk, occasionally 8 feet or more in diameter; bark reddish, flaky, deeply fissured in old trees; branches spreading, forming a broad low head; branchlets usually remaining green the second year, somewhat pendulous: leaves 2-ranked, linear and usually falcate, shortly acuminate, with promi- nent midrib, dark green above, pale beneath, ^^-l3^ inches long or shorter in some varieties: fruit }/i-}/2 inch across, ripening in September and October, the aril almost globose, about a third longer than the broadly ellipsoid brown seed and with an opening about as wide as the seed which is slightly compressed, slightly 2-, rarely 3-4-angled and 34 inch long, with an oval hilum. Europe, northern Africa and western Asia. — Planted for ornament, particularly in English churchyards, since very early times and many vener- able yews of great age are known in England. Hardy as far north as New York City and some forms in sheltered places as far north as Massachusetts. Many garden forms have originated in cultivation and the following are sometimes met with in American gardens: Var. lutea, Endl. (var. frudu luteo, Hort., f. luteo-baccata, Pilger). Yellov^tberry Y. With yellow fruit, otherwise like the type. Discovered in 1817 in England, introduced into cultivation about 1838. Var. aurea, Carr. (var. elvastonensis aurea, Beiss.). Golden English Y. Leaves golden-yellow, more brightly colored at the tips and margin. This form has proved hardier than the type in New England. Var. Wash- ingtoni, Beiss. (var. Washingtoni aurea, Hort.). Washington Y. A form of wide-spreading habit with the leaves golden-yellow, particularly on the under side. Var. elegantissima, Beiss. (var. aurea elegantissima, Hort.). A vigorous form of dense and compact habit, occasionally more open, with the young leaves striped pale yellow, the older ones with whitish margin. Var. semperaurea, Dallimore (var. ereda semperaurea, Beiss.). A form of rather low growth, the leaves retaining their yellow color the second year. Var. variegata, West. (var. argentea. Loud.). Variegated English Y. Leaves with white or whitish variegation. Var. glauca, Carr. A more vigorous form with ascending branches and with longer leaves bluish-green below, particularly when young. ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 187 Var. procvunbens, Loud. Prostrate English Y. Prostrate slirub, with elongated and much ramified branches. Var. repandens, Parsons. Spread- ing English Y. A low form with long wide-spreading branches and dull, bluish-green, narrower and longer leaves, partly falcately curved upward. Hardy in New England. Var. Jacksonii, Gord. Jackson Y. A form with spreading branches pendulous at the tips and with numerous short curved branclilets: leaves crowded, more or less incurved, rather broad, light green. Var. Dovastoni, Laws. (var. Dovastoni peridula, Hort.). Dovaston Y. Branches wide-spreading, nodding at the tips: leaves dull green, short and abruptly mucronulate. A very handsome form. Originated before 1800 in England. Var. "Dovastoni aureo-variegata," Beiss. (var. Dovas- toni aurea, Hort.). Yellow Dovaston Y. A form with the leaves varie- gated with yellow. Var. fastigiata, Loud. {T. hibernica, Hort.). Irish Y. Strictly fastigiate form, with stout crowded upright branches and branchlets: leaves radially arranged around the branches, dark glossy green, more obtuse than in the type. One of the most desirable evergreens of columnar habit for formal gardens. Discovered and introduced into cultivation about 17G0 in England. Var. "fastigiata variegata," Carr. (var. argenteo-marginata, Hort.). Varie- gated Irish Y. Less vigorous and more tender: leaves marked yellowish- white. Var. "fastigiata aurea," Standish. Golden Irish Y, Young growth golden-yellow. Var. cheshuntensis, Gord. Cheshunt Y. A form resembling the Irish yew, with ascending branches: leaves radially spreading, narrower, dark green above, bluish-green below. Var. erecta, Loud. (var. stricta, Hort.). Broom Y. Bushy form, with slender, upright branches and branchlets: leaves narrower and smaller than in the type, usually radially arranged. Var. adpressa, Carr. {T. parvifolla, Wender. T. brcvifolia, Hort., not Nutt. r. tarc/iVa, Laws. T . baccata tardiva, FUgeT) . Shortleaf English Y. Shrub or low tree of irregular habit, with long spreading branches: leaves oblong, obtusish, mucronulate, H-H inch long: disk of fruit shorter than the seed. Very distinct form which originated in England about 1828 or 1838 and is not of Japanese origin as sometimes stated. Var. "adpressa erecta," Nichols, (var. adpressa stricta, Beiss.), has the foliage of the preceding, but erect branches forming a columnar bush. 2. T. chinensis, Rehd. (T. cuspidata var. chinensis, Rehd. & Wils. T. baccata var. chinensis, Pilger). Chinese Y. Tree to 50 feet tall, with grayish or reddish bark; mature branchlets yellowish-green: leaves distinctly 2- ranked, horizontally spreading at nearly right angles from the stem, very short-stalked, usually falcate, the midrib slightly raised, dark green and lustrous above, grayish-green below, %-\% inches long: seed broadly ovoid. 188 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Taxus cuspidata. slightly 2-angled and slightly compressed, with orbicular hilum. Central China. — Introduced in 1908 to the Arnold Arboretum. Hardy as far north as Massachusetts only in sheltered places. The plants in cultivation are yet too young to allow an opinion regarding the ornamental merits of this yew; its foliage is of lighter color than that of the following species; in its native country it produces fruit in great profusion. 3. T. cuspidata, Sieb. & Zucc. ( T. baccata var. cuspidata, Carr.). Japa- nese Y. Fig. 27. Plate IV. A tree with spread- ing or upright spreading branches, attaining a height of 50 feet; trunk with reddish-brown bark; branchlets usually brown the second year: leaves incompletely 2-ranked, the ranks more or less upright and forming a V-shaped trough, usually falcate, abruptly mucronate, abruptly contracted at base into a distinct yellowish stalk, dark and rather dull green above, with 2 broad tawny yellow or pale bands below, ^-1 inch long, and about i/g inch broad, thickish; petiole abruptly enlarged into the leaf-cushion: fruit ripening in September and October, the aril with an opening narrower than the seed which is ovoid, compressed, slightly 3-4-angled, about }4 inch long, with oval hilum. Japan, Korea, and Manchuria. — Introduced about 1855 to England by Fortune and into this country in 1862 by Dr. G. R. Hall. It is perfectly hardy as far north as Massachusetts and Ontario; it is the most vigorous of the yews and its dark green foliage retains its color through the winter. Var. capitafa, Hort., does not differ from the typical plant. Var. aurescens, Rehd. (T. tardiva aurea, Hort.). Low form with the leaves of the young branchlets deep yellow, changing later to green. Var. nana, Rehd. (var. brevifolia, Hort. Amer. var. compada. Bean). Dwarf Japanese Y. Plate X. Shrubby form with spreading branches densely clothed with short branchlets: leaves somewhat shorter and duller, ascending and not or scarcely 2-ranked: slow-growing, rather compact while young, but with age becoming more open. Var. densa, Rehd. Low form making a dense sometimes almost hemi- Plvii \\\III ^Mlltl hi 1, <. ^..iii^ ii^. I,. .„,,,„. ui, miuh older >,po( iiueii iii upper left comer den^e tree in upper rif,'ht, the result of removing the L)uds trom the terminal growths some years before. ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 189 spherical bush with ascending branchlets: leaves like those of the preceding form. A hybrid between T. baccata and T. cuspidata is T. media, Rehd. Inter- mediate between the parents, differing from T. baccata chiefly in the more vigorous habit, the olive-green branclilets often reddish above, in the slightly keeled scales of the winter-buds, m the broader and stouter, more abruptly acuminate leaves with prominent midrib above, and in tlie more abruptly enlarged base of the petiole, and from T. cmpidata in the olive-green color of the two-year-old branchlets, in the obtuse winter-buds with obtuse scales, in the more distinctly two-ranked leaves with often nearly horizontal ranks and more or less lustrous above. The hybrid was raised about twenty years ago in the Hunnewell gardens at Wellesley, Massachusetts, by T. D. Hatfield; the many seedlings combming the characters of the parents in various ways, but all differing from T. baccata in their greater hardiness. One distinct form is var. Hatfieldii, Rehd., a compact bush of conical shape with upright branches and radially spreading leaves; this form may take the place of the Irish yew where the latter is not hardy. Another similar hybrid, raised by Henry Hicks of Westbury, Long Island, is var. Hicksii, Rehd. {T. cvspidata var. Hicksii, Hort.), a distinctly columnar form with upright branches and radially spreading leaves, the original plant hi the Hicks Nursery being now about 5 feet tall. This is even more similar to the Irish yew than the pre- ceding variety and has proved perfectly hardy at the Arnold Arboretum where the Irish yew is too tender. 4. T. canadensis, Marsh. (T. baccata var. minor, Miclix. T. baccata var. canadensis. Gray. T. minor, Britt.). Canada Y. Fig. 28. Low shrub usually diffuse and straggling, but occasionally ascendmg and up to G feet tall; mature branclilets green becoming reddish-brown: leaves often indistinctly 2-ranked, very short-stalked, narrow, abruptly mucronate, dark yellowish- green above, assuming a reddish tint in winter: flowers usually monax-ious: fruit ripening in August, six to eight weeks earlier than those of T. baccata and T. cuspidata, the aril with an opening scarcely as wide as the seed which is broad-ovoid or broader than high, scarcely ridged, about | inch long. Newfoundland and Manitoba to Virginia and Iowa. — Introduced to England about 1800. The hardiest of the yews, but less handsome than the other species, one of its chief drawbacks being the reddish tinge the foliage | assumes in winter. It •^^"^^ does well as under- »|| growth in shady woods, 28. Taxus canadensis. 190 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS where it forms a low diffuse shrub; in the open it becomes ascending and taller, 5. T. brevifolia, Nutt. (T. baccata var. brevifolia, Koehne). Western Y. Tree 40-50 or occasionally 80 feet high, with slender horizontal or somewhat pendulous branches forming a broad, open, pyramidal head : leaves distinctly 2-ranked, sharply pointed, dark yellowish-green, 3^-% inch long: fruit ripening in August and September; seeds ovoid, 2-4-angled. British Columbia to Montana and California. — Introduced in 1854 to England. In the eastern states it has as yet not been successfully grown, but plants recently introduced to the Arnold Arboretum from Montana will probably be hardy in Massachusetts. Fam. III. PINACE^. PINE FAMILY Resinous trees or shrubs without true vessels in the secondary wood, but with resin-tubes: leaves linear, or needle-like, or scale-like, alternate or opposite, evergreen or deciduous: flowers usually monoecious (dioecious in Juniperus); anthers and ovules plainly subtended by scales (sporophylls) both in true cones; the staminate scales usually bearing 2-6, rarely more, anthers on the under side; the fertile flowers bearing 1-2, rarely many, ovules on the upper side, or peltate and ovule-bearing under the crown or at its base; ovules with 1 integument: fruit a dry woody cone with dry, often winged seeds between the scales ; or (in Juniperus) berry-like tlu-ough the union of the fleshy cone-scales; embryo with 2-15 cotyledons. (Fig. 29.) The family contains 33 genera with more than 250 species widely dis- tributed in both hemispheres, but most abundant in temperate regions. The genera described below are in cultivation in this country, while Fokienia, Diselma, Actinostrobus, and Glyptostrobus are occasionally but rarely grown in Europe; Callitropsis is probably not yet in cultivation. The name of the family is derived from the genus Finns, the largest and most widely dis- tributed genus. The family was formerly known as Coniferse and included the Ginkgoacese and Taxacese, from which it differs in the presence of true staminate and pistillate cones. Like other Gymnosperms it is an old group, more abundant in former geologic ages. Many fossil species are known. The Sequoias of California were formerly more abundant, extending to Greenland. The young plants of many Cupressinese possess foliage quite different in appearance from the mature foliage, the leaves being longer and more spread- ing. These juvenile forms have been called Retinisporas, a name originally applied to some Japanese species of Chamsecyparis. The leaves of Larix and Pseudolarix are deciduous. The branchlets and leaves are deciduous in Taxo- dium. The cone-scales of the Abietinete are double, an outer thinner 3-toothed scale and a thick inner scale that bears the ovules. ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 191 Among the Pinacese are some of our most valuable timber trees; e. g., cedar, arbor- vitse, spruce, fir, hemlock, and redwood. The resin from various pines when distilled yields spirits of turpentine and rosin; when dry-distilled, it yields tar. Venice turpentine is the resinous exudation of European larches; Canada balsam that of Abie^i balsamea. Dammar resin is from the \ \\ Malayan Agath 29. Structure in Pinacese. Lower, cone of Pseudotsuga taxifolia, with the two seeds under a scale at e. Above, staminate cone of pine, with a separate stamen at a. is the semi-fossilized resin o" Agathis australis of Australia and New Zealand. Sandarac resin is from Tetraclinis articiilata of northwestern Africa. Amber is the fossilized resin of prehistoric conifers around the Baltic. Oil of savin is from the leaves and twigs of Juniperus Sabina, and oil of cedar from Thuja occidentalis. Juniper berries, from Juniperus m THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS communis of Europe and America, are diuretic and also used for flavor- ing gin. Edible seeds are produced by Pinus Pinea (stone pine) of the Mediterranean, P. Cembra of Europe and Siberia, P. cembroides of the southwestern United States, Araucaria hrasiliana of Brazil, and A. Bidwillii of Australia. Bread is made by the Laps and Eskimos from the inner bark of Pinus sylvestris; also from various Pinacese by our northwestern Indians. The bark of the hemlock spruce is used for tanning. KEY TO THE GENERA A. Cone-scales and leaves opposite or whorled; ovules erect; cotyledons usually 2 Subf am. I. Cupressine^ B. Fruit berry-like, indehiscent, consisting of 2-6 connate fleshy scales inclosing 1-12 seeds: leaves opposite or ternate, scale- or needle-shaped 1. Junipebus BB. Fruit a woody dehiscent cone. c. Leaves opposite and scale-like (only in the juvenile state needle-shaped): cone-scales peltate or im- bricate, opposite. D. Scales of cone peltate; cone subglobose. E. Each cone-scale with many seeds; cone rather large, usually ripening the second year: branchlets terete or quadrangular, rarely flat- tened, usually irregularly spreading: leaves fimbriate 2. Cupressus EE. Each cone-scale with 1-5 seeds; cone small, ripen- ing the first season: leaves with entire margin: branchlets flattened, rarely 4-sided, usually 2- ranked in one horizontal plane 3. Chaalectpabis DD. Scales of cone flattened, imbricate: branchlets flat- tened. E. Each cone-scale with 3-5 seeds: branchlets much flattened, ^-\ inch broad 4. Tnrrjopsis EE. Each cone-scale with 1-5 seeds: branchlets nar- rower. F. Number of cone-scales 4 or 6, the upper pair fertile 5. Libocedrus FF. Number of cone-scales 8-12, the 2 upper pairs fertile 6. Thuja cc. Leaves usually whorled, scale-like or linear: cone- scales valvate, opposite or whorled. D. Cone with the lower scales sterile and slightly im- bricate: leaves ternate 7. Fitzrota DD. Cone with all the scales fertile and distinctlyValvate. e. Number of cone-scales 6-8, imequal: leaves in whorls of 3 or 4 8. Callitris EE. Number of cone-scales 4, equal or nearly equal. F. Branchlets compressed, articulate: leaves in whorls of 4 9. Tetracunis FF. Branchlets terete: leaves opposite or on lead- ing shoots alternate 10. Widdringtonia ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 193 AA. Cone-scales and leaves spirally arranged, the latter some- times fascicled; ovules inverted, rarely upright. B. Scales of cone without distinct bracts, flat or peltate, with 1-9 seeds. c. Carpels with 2-9 oi-ules, more or less divided into scale and bract, coalescing and connate at maturity; cotyledons 2-9 Subfam. II. Taxodine.e D. Leaves dimorphic, partly scale-like and scattered, partly linear and connate into whorled pairs: cone-scales thick and woody, imbricate 11. Scl\dopitys im. Leaves never connate, homomorphic or hetero- morphic, always scattered. E. Form of cone-scales peltate: leaves heteromor- phic. F. Scales with 2 upright seeds: staminate flowers paniculate: branchlets deciduous the first or second year 12. Taxodiu.m FF. Scales with 5-7 pendulous seeds: staminate flowers spicate: branchlets persistent for several years 13. Sequoia EE. Form of cone-scales flattened, imbricate. F. Seeds of each scale 2, pendulous: leaves ^ hcteromorphic 14. Taiwania FF. Seeds of each scale 3-7: leaves homomorphic. G. Staminate flowers solitary: scales with .'J-G pendulous seeds: leaves scale-like or lanceolate and short 15. Atiirotaxis GG. Staminate flowers spicate or umbellate. H. Arrangement of staminate flowers spi- cate: scales with 4-5 erect seeds: leaves awl-shaped IG. Cryptomeria HH. Arrangement of staminate flowers umbel- late: scales with 3 pendulous seeds: leaves lanceolate, flat, 1-2 in. long. . . .17. Cunxingiiamia cc. Carpels simple, with 1 inverted ovule; cones large; cotyledons 2-4 Subfam. III. Araucarine.e D. Seed adnate to the scale at base: leaves 4-angled or flat and broad at base, crowded, not or indis- tinctly 2-ranked 18. Araucaria DD. Seed free: leaves on lateral branches 2-ranked, large and flat, more or less distant, narrowed at base 19. Agathis BB. Scales of cone subtended by distinct bracts; scales with 2 inverted ovules; seeds winged, rarely wingless: leaves linear or needle-shaped: winter-buds distinct with scarious scales Subfam. IV. ABiETrNE-E c. Arrangement of leaves solitarj'. D. Cones upright. E. Cone-scales persistent; bracts much shorter; seeds about as long as scales: leaves flattened, keeled above 20. Keteleeria N 194 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS EE. Cone-scales deciduous from their axis; bracts often exserted; seeds shorter than scales: leaves flattened and grooved above or rarely 4-angled 21. Abies DD. Cones reflexed or pendulous; scales persistent. E. Bracts exserted, conspicuous: branchlets not roughened by leaf -bases; leaves flat 22. Pseudotsuga EE. Bracts not exserted: branchlets roughened by persistent leaf-bases. F. Leaves usually flat, with bands of stomata on the dorsal side, or sometimes convex or keeled above and with stomata on both sides, never sharply pointed; with one resin-duct in the middle under the vascular bundle 23. Tsuga FF. Leaves usually 4-sided and nearly equally stomatiferous on all sides, or flattened and with more numerous rows of stomata on the ventral side than on the dorsal side or with- out any stomata on the dorsal side, usually more or less pointed; with 2 or more lateral resin-ducts 24. Picea cc. Arrangement of leaves in fascicles or clusters, solitary only on shoots. D. Leaves many, clustered on short, thick spurs. E. Staminate flowers clustered; cone-scales decidu- ous: leaves deciduous 25. Pseudolarix EE. Staminate flowers solitary. F. Cone-scales persistent; cone ripening the first year, small : leaves deciduous 26. Larix FF. Cone-scales finally deciduous; cone large, ripening the second or third season: leaves persistent 27. Cedrus D. Leaves in fascicles from 2-5, rarely to 8, or reduced to 1, sheathed at base by scarious bud-scales: cone with persistent scales 28. Pinus 1. JUNIPERUS, L. JUNIPER Evergreen trees or shrubs, with the branchlets spreading in all directions: leaves either all needle-shaped and in 3's, or needle-shaped and scale-like, and usually opposite, both kinds often found on the same plant, the needle- shaped leaves prevailing on younger plants and vigorous branches, the scale-like ones on older plants: flowers dioecious, rarely monoecious; staminate yellow, consisting of numerous anthers united into an ovoid or oblong catkin; fertile flowers greenish, minutely globular, with several bracts, each or some bearing 1 or 2 ovules; the bracts become fleshy and unite into a berry-like cone, usually wholly inclosing the 1-6, rarely 12, seeds. The fruit ripens either the first year, as in J. virginiana, or the second, as in J. Sabina and ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 195 most species, or in the third, as in J. communis. (Juniperus is the ancient Latin name of the genus.) — Tlie genus contains about 40 species distributed chiefly throughout the extra-tropical regions of the northern hemisphere, in America south to Mexico and the West Indies, and in Africa south to the mountains of eastern Africa. Juniperus is closely allied to Cupressus, and sometimes hard to distinguish without fruit; but young plants with needle-shaped leaves can almost always be told apart, since Juniperus has whitish bands or marks on the upper surface of the leaves, while the similar juvenile forms of allied genera have the whitish marks beneath. Most species are very variable, as well in habit as in the shape of the leaves, which renders the determination of an unknown form, at least without fruit, a rather difficult task. The close-grained fragrant wood of the tree-like species is used for the interior finish of houses and in the manufacture of small articles, as it is very durable in the soil; that of J. virginiana and J. lucayana is in great demand for pencil-making. The fruit and also the young brancldets of some species contain an aromatic oil used in medicine. The fruit of J. drnpacea is edible. A. Leaves jointed at base, needle-shaped, in 3's, not glandular: winter-buds distinct, scaly: staminate flowers axillary. B. Fruit large, /4-I inch across; seeds connate into a usually 3-celled stone: leaves ^i-^i inch broad 1. J. drupacca BB. Fruit smaller; seeds not connate: leaves narrower. c. Upper surface of leaves with 2 white bands: fruit brown or orange. D. White bands of leaves scarcely as broad as green margin 2. J. macrocarpa DD. White bands broader than the green margin: branchlets slender and pendulous 3. J. jormosana cc. Upper surface of leaves with 1 white band. D. Shape of leaves narrow-linear, sulcate above, keeled below, stiff. E. Habit upright; branches ascending or spreading, pendulous at the tips 4. J. rigida EE. Habit prostrate 5. J. confcrta DD. Shape of leaves linear to lanceolate, concave above with broad white band, obscurely keeled below. . 6. J. communis .\A. Leaves decurrent, not jointed at base, opposite or in 3's, scale-like or needle-shaped, usually with a gland on back: without distinct winter-buds: staminate flowers terminal. B. Form of leaves needle-shaped, always in 3's, with 2 white bands above, loosely appressed. (See also J. chinensis japonica.) c. Branchlets green: leaves green or glaucescent beneath: fruit ellipsoidal, 1-seeded 7. J. squamata cc. Branchlets with glaucous bands along the edges of the pulvini, decurrent from a whitish spot at each side of the base of the leaves: fruit suljglobose, 2- 3-seeded 8. J. procumbens 196 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS BB. Form of leaves scale-like or of two kinds (all needle- shaped in vars. of No. 15). c. Margin of leaves minutely denticulate or fringed (under a strong lens). D. Fruit reddish-brown. E. Bark scaly: scale-like leaves obtusish, apiculate, opposite: fruit 3-4-seeded 9. J. pachyphlwa EE. Bark shreddy: scale-like leaves acute or acumi- nate, opposite or ternate: fruit 1-seeded ... .10. J. utahensis DD. Fruit blue or blue-black. E. Scale-like leaves usually ternate, conspicuously glandular : fruit 2-3-seeded 1 1 . J. oeeidentalis EE. Scale-like leaves opposite, rarely ternate, gland- less: fruit usually 1-seeded 12. J. monosperma cc. Margin of leaves entire. D. Color of fruit brown or purplish-brown. E. Scale-like leaves acute; acicular leaves opposite (except on leading shoots). F. Seeds of fruit 3-6: leaves ovate 13. J. excelsa FF. Seeds of fruit 2-3: leaves lanceolate 14. J. procera EE. Scale-like leaves obtuse; acicular leaves often ternate: fruit brown, bloomy, 2-3-seeded 15. J. chinensis DD. Color of fruit bluish, bloomy. E. Plant usually a tree : fruit on erect pedicels. F. Branchlets stout and short, thickly set: acic- ular leaves rigid and spiny-pointed 16. J. bermudiana FF. Branchlets slender. G. Fruit ripening the first season. H. Diameter of fruit ^— /^ inch: leaves acute: branchlets very slender, usually pendulous: southern tender tree 17. J. lucayana HH. Diameter of fruit M~M inch : leaves acute or acuminate: branchlets usually up- right or spreading: northern tree 18. J. virginiana GG. Fruit ripening the second season, J^-^s inch across 19. J. scopulorum EE. Plant a shrub: fruit on curved pedicels, pendu- lous. F. Leaves bluish-green or steel-blue, acute, of slight aromatic odor : prostrate shrub 20. J. horizontalis FF. Leaves dark or bluish-green, acutish or obtuse, of disagreeable odor when bruised: shrub with usually ascending or spreading branches. . .21. J. Sabina Section I. Caryocedrus, Endl. Leaves ternate, all needle-shaped, jointed at base, not glandular: winter- buds distinct, scaly: flowers dioecious, axillary: fruit large, ^^-1 inch across; seeds connate into a 3-celled stone. 1. J. drupacea, Lab ill. Syrian J. Pyramidal tree with narrow head, to .V-»«i'&c;«r--./ PiATE XXIX. Thrifty young specimen of Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga taxifolia) ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 197 45 feet; branchlets triangular, with prominent ridges: leaves decurrent, linear-lanceolate, spiny-pointed, 3^-^ inch long and J^-^^ inch broad (the broadest of all species), with 2 white lines above and broad green midrib, keeled below: fruit bluish-black or brown, bloomy, ^4-1 inch across, edible. Greece, Asia Minor. — Introduced in 1854 to England. Handsome orna- mental tree of columnar habit; thrives in limestone soil. Probably not hardy north of the Middle Atlantic States. Section II. Oxycedrus, Endl. Leaves, winter-buds, and flowers like those of the preceding section: fruit smaller; seeds free, usually 3. 2. J. macrocarpa, Sibth. (J, neahoriemis, Gord.). Plum J. Shrub or f^^mall tree, to l^ feet high, of dense pyramidal habit: leaves crowded, linear- lanceolate, tapering from the base, spiny -pointed, spreading, 3^-^ inch long and about ^^2^ inch broad: fruit to 3^ inch across, dark brown, glaucous. Mediterranean region. — Introduced into cultivation in 1838; probably hardy as far north as New York. Related species are the following: J, Oxycedrus, L. Prickly J. Shrub or tree to 30 feet, with slender branches: leaves linear, tapering from the middle to a spiny point, ^^j— yV i"ch wide: fruit M~3^ inch across, not or only partially glaucous. Mediterranean region to Caucasus and Persia. Intro- duced to England before the beginning of last century. — J. Cedrus, Webb & Berth. (J. pendula. Loud.). Tree with wide-spreading branches and pendu- lous branchlets: leaves less rigid, scarcely spiny : fruit subglobose, ^3-^2 inch long, finally orange-brown. Canary Islands. — Cultivated in California. 3. J. formosana, Hayata (J. taxifolia. Pari., not Hook. & Am.). For- mosa J. Tree to 40 feet usually dividing into several stems from the base, with spreading or ascending branches and pendulous branchlets: leaves more or less directed forward, linear, spiny-pointed, 3^^-! inch long and iV~tV i"<^'i wide, with 2 broad white bands above, confluent near apex, keeled below: fruit subglobose to broadly ovoid, about J^ inch across, reddish or orange-brown. Formosa, China. — Introduced by Fortune to England about 1850, and in 1907 by E. H. Wilson to this country. Handsome tree with pendulous branchlets, hardy as far north as Massachusetts. A related species is J. taxifolia, Hook. & Arn., which is easily dis- tinguished by the obtuse or obtusish leaves 3<4~3^ in. long ,and the lustrous, light chestnut-browTi, subglobose or depressed-globose fruit. Bonin Islands. — Introduced in 1917 by E. H. Wilson to the Arnold Arboretum; probably hardy only in the Southern States and California. 4. J. rigida, Sieb. & Zucc. Needle J. Fig. 30. Small pyramidal tree, to 30 feet, or spreading shrub with the slender branches pendulous at the 198 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS extremities: leaves in closely set whorls, narrow-linear, tapering from the middle into a spiny point, stiff, sulcate and with a narrow white band above, prominently keeled below, yellowish-green, 3^-1 inch long: fruit globose, ]4r}/i inch across, brownish-black, bloomy, finally somewhat shining, ripening the second year. Japan, Korea, and Manchuria. — Intro- duced in 1861 to England by J. G. Veitch. Graceful, narrow-pyramidal tree, loosely branched with pendulous branchlets; hardy as far north as New England and Ontario. 5. J. conferta, Pari. (J. litoralis, Maxim.). Shore J. Procumbent shrub: leaves crowded, narrow-linear, tapering into a spiny point, sulcate and with narrow white band above, keeled below: black at maturity, 3-seeded. Japan and Saghalin, on sandy seashores. — Intro- duced in 1915 to the Arnold Arboretum by E. H. Wilson. Hardy at least as far north as Massachusetts; it should make a good ground-cover and be particularly suited for planting on sand-dunes. 6. J. communis, L. Common J. Plate XII. Upright shrub or tree, sometimes attaining to 40 feet: leaves linear or linear-lanceolate, tapering from the base into a sharp point, concave and with a broad white band above, sometimes di- vided at base by a green midrib, bluntly keeled below, 14-^ inch long: fruit almost sessile, oa t • • -j J 1 li 1 1 / 1 / • u • .30. Juniperus ngida. dark blue, glaucous, ^-f/% inch across, ripenmg the second or third year. The typical form is common in northern and central Europe and extends through northern and western Asia to Korea and Japan; in North America it occurs only occasionally from New England to Pennsylvania and North Carolina. — A variable species with several geo- graphical and climatic varieties and some garden forms. Var. aurea, Carr. (var. aureo-variegata, Beiss. var. variegata aurea, Carr.). Golden J. Young growth golden-yellow turning green the second year. Var. suecica, Loud. {var. fastigiata,'H.oTt.). Swedish J, Narrow colum- nar form, growing sometimes into a tree to 40 feet high, with rather long, spreading leaves, the branchlets with drooping tips: of lighter and more bluish color than the following variety. Var. hibemica, Gord. (var. stricta. ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 199 Carr.). Irish J. Narrow columnar form, with upright branches, deep green, tips of branclJets erect: leaves shorter, less spreading. Var. pendula, Carr. Shrub with spreading, recurving branches and pendulous branchlets. Var. oblongo-pendula, Carr. (var. reflexa. Pari., not J. ohlonga peiidula. Knight). An upright shrub of broadly columnar outline with pendulous branchlets. A very graceful form. Var. depressa, Pursh (J. communis var. canadensis. Loud. J. canadensis, Burgsd. J. nana canadensis, Carr.). Prostrate J. Forming broad patches, the stems ascending from a procumbent base, rarely exceeding 4 feet in height. The leaves somewhat shorter and broader. A form of this is var. aureo-spica, Rehd. {J. nana canadensis aurea, Beiss. J. canadensis aurea, Hort.). Tips of branchlets golden-yellow. Var. montana, Ait. {J. comiimnis nana. Loud. J. nana, Willd. J. alpina, S. F. Gray. J. sibirica, Burgsd.). Mountain J. Low, spreading or pro- cumbent shrub, seldom over 2 feet high: leaves oblong-linear, abruptly pointed, usually incurved, densely clothing the branches, with a broad silvery-white line above, M~H inch long. Arctic and mountainous regions. Var. Jackii, Rehd. Prostrate, with flagelliform trailing branches often to 3 feet long, and almost unbranched except for occasional clusters of short lateral branclilets 1-2 inches long: leaves linear-lanceolate, incurved. Oregon, northern California. — Introduced in 1904 to the Arnold Arboretum. Var. nipponica, Wils. (/. nipponica, Maxim.). Similar to the preceding, but leaves deeply sulcate above and keeled below. High mountains of Japan. — Introduced in 1915 to the Arnold Arboretum by E. H. Wilson. Section III, Sabina, Endl. Leaves opposite or ternate, decurrent, not jointed, usually with a gland on back, scale-like or partly needle-shaped, rarely all needle-shaped and ternate; winter-buds indistinct, naked: flowers monoecious or sometimes dioecious, terminal: seeds 1-6, free. 7. J. squamata, Lamb. {J. recurva var. squamata. Pari. J. remirva var. densa, Hort.). Decumbent shrub, sometimes ascending; branchlets thick, ascending at the apex, green: leaves crowded, loosely appressed, linear- lanceolate or lanceolate, straight or slightly curved, finely pointed, grayish- or bluish-green, with 2 grayish-white bands above, convex below and grooved from the base to near apex, }/q-}4: inch long: fruit changing from reddish- brown to purplish-black, globose-ovoid, 3^-^ inch long. Afghanistan, Himalayas, western China. Var. Fargesii, Rehd. & Wils. Tree to 70 feet: leaves longer and narrower, linear-lanceolate, more spreading, usually about }/^ inch long, acuminate: fruit ovoid, 3^ inch long. 200 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Var. Wilsonii, Rehd. Wilson J. Upright shrub to 6 feet, densely clothed with short branchlets recurved at the tips : leaves shorter and broader, crowded, broadly lanceolate, about }/q inch long. Western China. — Intro- duced to the Arnold Arboretum by E. H. Wilson in 1909. Var. Meyeri, Rehd. Meyer J. Upright shrub much branched with short, straight branclilets : leaves narrow-lanceolate, straight, }/i-\^ inch long, very glaucous on back. China. — Introduced in 1914 by F. N. Meyer through the Department of Agriculture. Very handsome on accoimt of its dense habit and the bluish-white color of its foliage. A closely related species is J. recurva, Ham. A small tree to 30 feet tall, with spreading, curved branches and pendulous branclilets: leaves very concave above, grooved beneath below the middle: fruit ovoid, }/^-}/2 inch long. Himalayas. — Introduced about 1830 to Great Britain. A graceful tree, hardy probably only in the Southern States. 8. J. procumbens, Sieb. (J. chinensis var. procumbens, Endl.). Low spreading shrub with stiff ascending branclilets, about 2 feet high: leaves in 3's, linear-lanceolate, spiny-pointed, concave above and glaucous with a green midrib toward the apex, below bluish with 2 white spots near the base from which 2 glaucous lines run down the edges of the pulvini, }/i-}/i inch long: fruit subglobose, 2-3-seeded, about f inch across. — Cultivated in Japan and introduced in 1843 to Europe and in 1862 to America. Hardy as far north as Massachusetts; sometimes planted as ground-cover, particularly in California. 9. J. pachyphloea, Torn (Sabina pachyphloea. Ant.). Alligator J. Tree to 60 feet tall, with a short trunk and stout spreading branches forming a broad-pyramidal or round-topped head; bark dark brown, thick, broken into small, closely appressed scales; branchlets slender: leaves usually scale- like, opposite, rhombic-ovate, rounded or apiculate at apex, obscurely keeled on back and glandular, bluish-green, -^ inch long : fruit globose or broadly ellipsoidal, tuberculate, reddish-brown, bloomy, about 3^ inch long, with 3-4 seeds. Arizona and New Mexico to southwestern Texas and Mexico. — Introduced to Europe before 1875. One of the handsomest of the American junipers, remarkable for its checkered bark; the acicular foliage of young plants is usually glaucous to nearly silvery-white. Not hardy north of the Middle Atlantic States. 10. J. utahensis, Lemm. (J. californica var. utahensw, Engelm. Sabina utahensis, Rydb.). Utah J. Bushy tree, rarely exceeding 20 feet, with short trunk and erect to ascending branches forming a roundish open head; branch- lets slender : leaves light yellow-green, usually scale-like and closely appressed, opposite or occasionally in 3's, rhombic-ovate, acute and often acuminate, rounded at back and usually glandless, about iV inch long; acicular leaves usually in 3's: fruit subglobose < ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 201 by the tips of the scales, reddish-brown, bloomy, with thin sweet flesh, 1- or rarely 2-3-seeded. Wyoming to California, Arizona and New Mexico. — Rarely planted and of no particular ornamental value. Var. megalocarpa, Sarg. {J. megalocarpa, Sudw.). Tree to 50 feet with a single trunk; the scale-like leaves in 3's: fruit 3-^~f inch across. Arizona, New Mexico. — Introduced in 191G. Related species rarely, if at all, in cultivation in this country are the following : J. Pinchotii, Sudw. Shrubby tree to 20 feet tall; branclilets thick: leaves usually in 3's, obtusely pointed, rounded and conspicuously glandular-pitted on back, about -^ inch long: fruit subglobose. K-J/3 inch long, reddish- brown, 1-2-seeded. Texas. — Introduced in 1917 to the Arnold Arboretum by E. J. Palmer. J. califomica, Carr. Californian J. Shrub or pyramidal tree to 40 feet tall; branclilets rather stout: leaves usually in 3's, obtusely pointed, conspicu- ously glandular-pitted and slightly keeled on bac : fruit ellipsoidal, Y2~^A inch long, reddish-brown, with thick sweet flesh. Southern California. — Introduced to Europe in 1853. J. flaccida, Schlecht. A tree to 30 feet tall, with spreading branches and slender drooping branclilets: leaves opposite, acuminate, spreading at apex, glandular or eg^andular on back: fruit subglobose, 3^3-H int'h across, dark red-brown, bloomy, with thick resinous flesh, 4-12-seeded. Southern Texas and northeastern Mexico. — Introduced to Europe about 1838. Hardy only in the Southern States. J. phcenicea, L. Phcenician J. Shrub or small tree to 20 feet, with erect or ascending branches and slender, much ramified branclilets: scale-like leaves opposite or in 3's, obtuse or obtusish, rounded on back, dull dark or bluish-green: fruit subglobose, H— | inch across, 3-6-seeded. Mediterranean region. — Introduced to England about 1863. Probably hardy as far north as the Middle Atlantic States. 11. J. occidentalis, Hook. Tree to 40 feet, rarely to 60 feet tall, with spreading branches forming a broad, low head, or shrub with several upright stems; branchlets stout, about -^-^ inch thick: leaves usually scale-like, in 3's, closely appressed, ovate, acute, grayish-green, conspicuously glandular on back, rarely acicular: fruit subglobose or ovoid, 14-/3 inch long, bluish- black, bloomy, 2-3-seeded. Washington and western Idaho to southern California. — Introduced to Europe about 1840. 12. J. monosperma, Sarg. (J. occidentalis var. vionospcrma, Engelm. Sabina monosperma, Rydb.). Cherrystone J. A tree occasionally to 50 feet tall, with stout ascending branches or branching from the base and shrubby; branchlets slender, about ^V '^^^^ thick: leaves mostly scale-like, opposite, rarely in 3's, acute or acuminate, often slightly spreading at apex, thickened 202 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS and rounded on back and conspicuously glandular, grayish-green; acicular leaves in 3's, often Yl inch long, inconspicuously glandular: fruit globose or ovoid, H-M inch long, dark blue, bloomy, 1-seeded, rarely 2-3-seeded; the seeds sometimes exserted, pale chestnut-brown, obtuse and prominently ridged. Colorado to Nevada, western Texas and northern Mexico. — Intro- duced about 1900 to Germany. Of little ornamental value and probably not hardy north of the Middle Atlantic States. A related species is !• mexicana, Schlecht. (J. sabinoides, Nees. J. tetra- gona, Schlecht.). Tree to 30 or occasionally to 100 feet tall: leaves obtuse or acute, thickened and keeled on back, usually eglandular: fruit M-H inch long; seed ovoid, acute, slightly ridged. Western and southern Texas to central Mexico. — Introduced to Europe in 1841; hardy only in the Southern States. Also the following species, not or scarcely known in this coimtry, belong to this affinity, having dark blue fruit and ciliolate leaves: J. Wallichiana, Hook. Tree to 60 feet tall, with spreading branches, or shrub; branchlets slender: scale-like leaves free at the acute tips, bright green, furrowed and glandular on back; acicular leaves in 3's: flowers dioe- cious: fruit upright, ovoid, about 3^ inch long, 1-seeded, Himalayas. — Introduced to England in 1849. J. pseudosabina, Fisch. & Mey. Low shrub closely related to the pre- ceding, but leaves less acute and fruit smaller, recurved, often globose. Altai Mountains, Turkestan. — Introduced some time before 1900. Hardy north. J. saltuaria, Rehd. & Wils. Tree to 50 feet tall: leaves bright green, closely appressed, slightly incurved at the acute or obtusish apex, slightly glandular: flowers monoecious: fruit erect, subglobose or ovoid, about 3<^ inch long, black, not bloomy, 1-seeded. Western China. — Introduced in 1904. J. thurifera, L. (J. sabinoides, Griseb., in part. Sabina thurifera. Ant.). Tree to 40 feet, usually narrow-pyramidal in cultivation ; branchlets pinnately ramified, slender: leaves scale-like, free at the acuminate apex, glandular, like the acicular ones opposite: fruit subglobose, about }4 inch across, 2-4- seeded. Southwestern Europe, northern Africa. — Introduced before 1750 to Great Britain. This differs from all the preceding species of the section Sabina in having also the acicular leaves opposite and from No. 12 and the four preceding species in the 2-4-seeded fruit. 13. J. excelsa, Bieb. Greek J. Pyramidal tree to 60 feet tall, with upright or spreading branches: leaves usually scale-like, on smaller branchlets op- posite, closely appressed, rhombic-ovate, with incurved acute apex, glandular on back, dark or bluish-green, on leading shoots usually in 3's, acute, free at apex; acicular leaves opposite, with 2 glaucous bands above, -g-y^ inch long: ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 203 fruit globose, about ]/^ inch across, dark purplish-brown, covered with bluish bloom, 4-6-seeded. Greece, western Asia, and Caucasus. — Introduced in 1836 to England. Hardy as far north as New York. Var. stricta, Rollisson (var. Perkinsii, Gord. var. venusta, Gord.). Spiny Greek J. Columnar form with juvenile glaucous foliage. 14. J. procera, Hochst. Afri- can J. Tree to 100 or 150 feet tall, similar to the preceding: leaves in 3's, or opposite, lanceo- late and spreading or loosely appressed and ovate-lanceolate : fruit globose, small, about 3^ incl across, 2-3-seeded. Mountains o eastern Africa. — Cultivated in California, reintroduced by E. H. Wilson in 1921. Probably the tallest species of the genus. 15. J. chinensis, L. {J. sinensis, Hort.). Chinese J. Fig. 31. Tree to 60 feet, or shrub, some- times procumbent; branches rather slender: acicular leaves opposite or in 3's, linear, pointed and spreading, with 2 white bands above, or scale-like, appressed, rhombic, obtuse: flowers dioecious; the staminate ones numerous, yel- low, often on branchlets with juvenile foliage: fruit globular, brownish-violet 31. Juniperus chinensis. bloomy. inch across, with 2 or 3 seeds, ripening the second year. Himalayas, China, Japan. — Introduced to England before 1767; A variable species of which many garden forms are in cultivation. Variegated forms: Var. albo-variegata, Veitch (var. argenteo-variegata, Hort.). Whiteleaf Chinese J. A compact shrub with the tips of the branchlets creamy-white; the leaves mostly scale-like. Var. aurea, Young (var. mascula avrea, Hort.). Golden Chinese J. Upright form with scale- like foliage, the young growth golden-yellow. Pyramidal or columnar forms: Var. mas, Gord. (var. mascula, Carr. var. strvthiacea. Knight). A dense conical form with mostly acicular leaves and with staminate flowers. Var. neaboriensis, Beiss. {J. neahoriensis, Hort.. not Gord.). A dense conical form with scale-like and acicular leaves. Var. pyramidalis, Carr. Narrow-pyramidal form, with bluish-green, mostly needle- shaped foliage. Spreading and pendulous forms: Var. pendula, Franch. With spreading branches, pendulous at the extremities. Var. Pfitzeriana, Spaeth. Pfitzer 204 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS J. Plate XIII. Forming a broad pyramid with horizontally spreading branches and nodding branchlets, grayish-green. Var. fcEmina, Gord. (J. Reevesiana, Knight). Reeves J. A form with slender spreading branches and scale-like foliage, bearing female flowers and fruit. Dwarf globose forms: Var. globosa, Horn. (J. virginalis globosa, Hort.). A dwart and dense subglobose form with short, crowded, thickish branchlets clothed with bright green scale-like leaves; with only few small branclilets with acicular leaves on the lower part of the branches. Recently introduced from Japan, like the following. Var. aureo-globosa, Relid. (J. virginalis globosa "golden," Hort.), is a form of similar habit, but with the yoimger branchlets more or less golden-yellow. Var. japonica, Vilm. {J. japonica, Hort. J. chinensis var. procumbens, Hort., not Endl.). Japanese J. Low shrub with spreading, sometimes pro- cumbent branches and usually acicular leaves in 3's. Introduced in 1862 from Japan into this country. Variegated forms are "japonica aurea," Mast. (J. japonica aurea, Carr.) . Golden Japanese J. The foliage tinged with golden- yellow, and var. "japonica axireo-variegata," Mast. (J. japonica aureo-varic- gata). Variegated Japanese J., with part of the foliage golden-yellow. Var. Sargentii, Henry. Sargent J. Plate XIV. A prostrate shrub with long creeping stem and ascending branclilets forming dense mats: adult plants with the leaves mostly scale-like and bluish-green, acicular and grass-green on young plants : fruit bluish, slightly bloomy. Japan, Saghalin, and Kurile Islands. ^Introduced in 1892 by C. S. Sargent to America. A handsome form valuable as a ground-cover. This and the preceding variety have been confused often with J. prociimbens, Endl., but that species has the leaves always acicular and in 3's and marked on the back with 2 conspicuous white spots near the base from which glaucous bands extend down the edges of the pulvini. The plant now in cidtivation as J. sphaerica, Lindl., does not differ from J. chinensis. 16. J. bermudiana, L. (J. barbadensis, L.). Bermuda J. Tree to 40 feet tall, in habit much like J. virginiana, but branches much stouter and foliage pale bluish-green; branchlets thickly set, quadrangular, stout and short: leaves mostly imbricate, thick or acicular, spiny-pointed, rigid, erect-spread- ing: stamina te catkins larger: fruit usually 2-seeded and depressed -globular. Bermuda, Barbadoes, Antigua.^Introduced to England before 1684. Hardy only in the Southern States, but probably not in cultivation in this country. 17. J. lucayana, Britt. (J. australis, Pilger. J. barbadensis, Auth., not L. J. virginiana var. barbadensis, Gord.). Southern Red-Cedar. Tree to 50 feet tall, with spreading branches and slender pendulous 4-angled branch- lets: leaves light green, closely appressed, ovate, sharp-pointed, glandular: fruit globose, about }/^ inch thick, dark blue, bloomy, 1-2-seeded. Southern Georgia to Florida, eastern Texas, Jamaica, Cuba, Bahamas, Haiti. — One of Plate XXX. Handsome cones of the Uouglas fir {Fseudotsuga taxifolia) ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 205 the most beautiful of the junipers, often planted for ornament in the Gulf States, and in the West Indies. Var. Bedfordiana, Rehd. {J. virginiana Bedfordiana, Knight. J. virginiana var. gracilis, Sarg.). A juvenile form with light green aeicular foliage and slender pendulous branchlets. 18. J. virginiana, L. Red-Cedar. Plate III. Tree to 100 feet tall, with conical head and spreading or upright branches: leaves aeicular, spiny-pointed, spreading, or scale-like, rhombic, acute or subacute, imbricate, very small: fruit brownish-violet, bloomy, globular or ovoid, 34-H inch across. Canada to Florida, east of the Rocky Mountains. — Introduced before 1600 to England. A very variable species of which many garden forms are in cultivation. Forms differing in color: Var. albo-spica, Beiss. Whitetip R. Tips of branchlets white; here belongs "Triomphe d'Angers" with the variegation more constant and more conspicuous. Var. variegata, Laws. (var. albo- variegata, Beiss.). Branchlets variegated with white. Var. elegantissima, Hochst. GoLDTiP R. Pyramidal tree with the tips of the branchlets golden- yellow. Var. plumosa, Rehd. (var. plumosa alba, Beiss.). Feather R. A pyramidal form with mostly aeicular foliage and white or whitish tips. Var. glauca, Carr. Silver R. Plate XV. Vigorous form with very glaucous foliage. Pyramidal or columnar forms: Var. pjrramidalis, Carr. Dense columnar form. Var. venusta, Rehd. (J. venusta, EUw. & Barry). A columnar form with glossy dark green foliage. Var. Canaertii, Senecl. (var. Cannartii, Beiss.), Canaert R. A compact pyramidal form with dark green foliage and bluish bloomy fruits. Var. Schottii, Gord. Schott R. A comparatively small columnar tree with bright green scale-like foliage. Var. Keteleeri, Hort. Compact pyramidal form with ascending branches and dark green scale-like foliage. Var. p3rramidifonnis, D. Hill. A pyramidal form with bright green foliage in summer, coloring soft purple in autumn and winter. Var. filifera, D. Hill. Broad-pyramidal form with slender, much divided branchlets and blue-gray foliage. Dwarf compact forms: Var. globosa, Beiss. Globe R. A compact- globose form with bright green scale-like foliage. Spreading or pendulous forms : Var. Chamberlaynii, Carr. Ch.\mberl,\yn R. With spreading branches and elongated pendulous branchlets: leaves dimorphic, grayish-green. Var. pendula, Carr. Weeping R. With spreading limbs and slender, pendulous branches: leaves usually scale-like. Dwarf, spreading or procumbent forms: Var. tripartita, R. Smith. Fountain R. A dwarf, spreading form of irregular habit, densely branched, with aeicular, glaucous leaves. Var. reptans, Beiss. (var. horizontalis, Arb. Kew.). Creeping R. Low shrub, with horizontally spreading branches and slender curving branclilets: bright green. 19. J. scopulorum, Sarg. (Sabina .scopulorum, Rydb.). Colorado R. 206 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Closely allied to the preceding; chiefly distinguished by the somewhat larger fruit, ripening not until the second year; by its habit, forming a broad head with stout spreading branches and often dividing into several stems near the base; and by its slu-edding bark. The branchlets are somewhat shorter and stouter, and the foliage usually glaucous or yellowish-green. British Columbia to California in the Rocky Mountains. — Introduced to England probably first in 1836. Var. argentea, D. Hill. A narrow-pyramidal form with silvery-white foliage. Var. viridifolia, D. Hill. A pyramidal form with striking bright green foliage. Var. horizontalis, D. HUl. Upright form with horizontally spreading branches and bluish-white foliage. 20. J. horizontalis, Moench (J. prostrata, Pers. J. Sabina var. procumbens, Pursh. J. repens, Nutt.). Creeping J. Plate XVI. Procumbent, usually with long trailing branches furnished with numerous short branchlets, some- times to 4 feet high and with spreading branches : leaves of young plants subulate, mature foliage imbricate, scale-like, acute or acutely cuspidate, bluish-green or steel-blue: fruit about H inch across, blue, slightly glaucous, on a pedicel shorter than its length. Nova Scotia to British Columbia, south to Massachusetts, New York, Minnesota, and Montana. — Introduced to Europe before 1800. Hardy to northwestern Canada and valued as a groimd-cover for sandy and rocky soQ in exposed situations. Var. Douglasii, Rehd., is a distinctly trailing form with steel-blue foliage, turning purple in autumn with glaucous bloom; also called Waukegan juniper. 21. J. Sabina, L. Savin. Spreading or procumbent shrub, rarely with erect stem, to 10 feet, branchlets rather slender, of a very strong disagreeable odor when bruised: leaves needle-shaped, acute, and slightly spreading or imbricate, oblong-rhombic, obtuse or subacute, usually dark green: fruit -l-}4: inch thick, globular, 1-3-seeded. Mountains of central and southern Europe, western Asia, and Caucasus. — Introduced to England before 1584; hardy as far north as Canada. Var. variegata, Beiss. Hoarfrost Savin. Branchlets variegated with creamy- white : leaves mostly imbricate. Var. fastigiata, Beiss. Column Savin. Erect shrub of columnar habit, with dark green mostly scale-like leaves. Var. cupressifolia, Ait. (var. humilis, Endl.). Procumbent, with ascending thickish branchlets: leaves usually imbricate, scale-like, often bluish-green. Var. tamariscifolia, Ait. Tamarix Savin. Procumbent or ascending, rarely erect: leaves usually all needle-shaped and often in 3's, slightly in- curved, free at the tip and sharply pointed, dark green, with a white band above, often bluish-green. ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 207 2. CUPRESSUS, L. C\TRESS Evergreen trees, rarely shrubby, with aromatic foHage, the bark usually separating in long shred-like scales; branclilets quadrangular or terete, rarely compressed: leaves opposite, small, scale-like, appressed, minutely denticu- late-ciliate, on young seedling plants linear-subulate and spreading: flowers monoecious, minute, solitary on short branclilets, the two sexes on separate branches; staminate ovate or oblong, yellow, composed of 6-1 '2 decussate stamens; fertile flowers subglobose: cones globular or nearly so, consisting of 3-7 pairs of ligneous peltate scales, with a mucro or boss on the flattened apex, each bearing many or numerous seeds, but the lower scales usually sterile and smaller; they ripen the second year. {Cujrressus is the ancient Latin name of the cypress-tree, derived from the Greek kuparissos.) — About 12 species in Pacific North America and Mexico and in the Old World from southeastern Europe to the Himalayas and China. Many species are favorite ornamental trees in warm-temperate and subtropical regions. In their native countries most of the species are valuable timber trees; their wood is close-grained and very durable in the soil and in water. A. Branchlets irregularly ramified, the ultimate bi-anchlets not in one plane. B. Apex of leaves obtuse or obtusish, dark green. c. Leaves not at all or not conspicuously glandular: cones 1-1} 2 inches across. D. Length of leaves -^ inch: staminate flowers with 10-12 stamens 1. C. sempervirens DD. Length of leaves xe inch: staminate flowers with 6-8 stamens 2. C. macrocarpa cc. Leaves conspicuously resinous-glandular: cone %-l inch long 3. C. Macnabiana BB. Apex of leaves acute. c. Leaves dark green: usually small tree or shrub with ascending or spreading branches: cone }/i-l inch across 4. C Goveniana cc. Leaves pale bluish-green or glaucescent: cone ^-\yi inches across. D. Branches upright or spreading; branchlets terete. E. Color of branchlets bright red, slender: leaves wath small gland-pits 5. C. guadalupensis EE. Color of branchlets gray, stout: leaves glandless or conspicuously resinous-glandular 6. C. arizonica DD. Branches spreading, drooping at the extremities; branchlets slightly compressed 7. C. lusitanica AA. Branchlets regularly pinnately ramified, ultimate branch- lets in one plane, slender, drooping. B. Cone 14-^ inch across: branchlets not or slightly com- pressed. 208 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS c. Leaves of branchlets acute, often free at tip : branch- [Benfhami lets slightly compressed . 7. C. lusitanica var, cc. Leaves obtusish : branchlets terete 8. C. torulosa BB. Cone J^-J-2 inch across: branchlets distinctly flattened, dark green 9. C. ftinebris '-I'l Wm>-' ^' ^' sempervirens, L. Italian Cypress. Fig. 32. ^^~^it(^ '^^/^z; Tree to 80 feet with erect or horizontal branches and ^^^:«?M^%^ dark green foliage; trunk with thin gray bark, smooth •^^W^w^iV ji? ^^ slightly longitudinally fissured: leaves ^<\ \'^'m%vi9 ^ closely appressed, ovate, obtuse, glandular: cC^k*v \/'^%\^^j/i'\?^ staminate flowers with 10-12 stamens: cones '^^lt4j|t^J^^^^^?'Xfr short-oblong or nearly globose; scales 8-14, ^ <^j >y^?^p(^^™|^P' with a short boss on the back, bract free at ^'^Ts'S^^^^^^l^^O^^ ^^^ apex; seeds 8-20 under each scale. r^A "^'L'^!^'§'^^^A®\il!W'fe^ Southern Europe and western Asia. — Much i^^^^'H^^^^^/^^n^m^^ planted since ancient times in southern ^^lL'^^^^^^^m^\lvW^ Europe particularly in its columnar form. ^^^^^^^\wN/\J^'^jfh^ It is hardy only in the Southern States and ''^^r^^''^^^^MB H/^J^'^^ California. ^^^^I^^^^jl Wr^^ Var. stricta, Ait. (var. fyramidalis, Nym. ■=^ "^^ ^W ^^^' /"*^'^'«^^' Beiss. C. fastigiata, DC). ryfi^^^^iW^ 32. Cupressus Cohjmnar Italian C. Plate XVII. With C^^^^^W sempervirens. erect branches, forming a narrow, columnar CM^ jlfmyS head. The classical cypress of the Greek and xj^^^^j^ Roman writers. ^-^^ H Var, indica, Pari. (C. Roylei, Carr. C. Whitleyana, Hort.). Globecone Italian C. Similar to var. fastigiata in habit: cones globose, with 10 scales; bract acutely mucronate at the apex. Var. horizontalis, Gord. (C. horizontalis. Mill.). Spreading Italian C. Branches horizontally spreading, forming a broad pyramidal head. 2. C. macrocarpa, Hartw. (C. Hartwegii, Carr. C. Lambertiana, Gord.). Monterey C. Tree to 40, occasionally to 70 feet tall, with horizontal branches forming a broad spreading head; bark ridged, dark reddish-brown, separating into thick persistent scales; branchlets stout: leaves rhombic-ovate, swollen toward the tip, obtuse, closely appressed, not or obscurely glandular, dark or bright green : staminate flowers with 6-8 stamens : cones globular or oblong ; scales 8-12, with a short obtuse boss on the back; seeds about 20. California, Bay of Monterey. — Introduced to Europe in 1838. Var. lutea, Webster. Yellow Macnab C. An upright, fastigiate form with yellow foliage changing to green the second year. Var. fastigiata, Mast. Branches ascending, formmg a compact fas- tigiate head. ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 209 Var. Crippsii, Gord. Cripps C. A juvenile form with rigid short branclilets and spreading sharp-pointed leaves; the tips of young branclilets silvery- white. 3. C. Macnabiana, Murray (C. glandulosa. Hook. C. BaJceri, Jeps. C. nevadensis, Abrams). Macnab C. Fig. 33. Shrub with several stems, or small tree to 20 feet, forming a dense pyramidal head; bark dark reddish-brown, thin, broken into ridges and separating into slightly attached seal leaves ovate, obtuse, thickened at the apex, con- spicuously resinous-glandular, dark green or glaucous: cones short-oblong, 3//_i inch high, dark red-brown, often glaucous; scales usually 6, with prominent conical and curved bosses on the back. California and southern Oregon. — Introduced to England in 1854 by Wm. Murray. This is apparently the hardiest species of the genus; plants raised from seed from the northern limit of its range have survived the last two winters out-of-doors in the Arnold Arboretum. Var. sulphurea, Berckmans. Branclilets with golden tips. 4. C. Goveniana, Gord. (C. calif ornica, Carr.). GowEN C. Tree to 50, rarely to 75 feet tall, with slender, erect or spreading branches, forming a broad, open or pyramidal head; bark bright reddish-brown, separating into thin thread-like scales; branchlets slender: leaves ovate, acute, closely appressed, incon- spicuously glandular: abundant staminate flowers in spring: cones sub- globose or short-oblong, J^-^4 inch across; scales 6-8, with short blunt bosses; seed brown or nearly black. California. — Introduced in 1846 to England by T. Hartweg. Var. pygmaea, Lemm. (C. -pygmoea, Sarg.). Low shrub: cones smaller, with small black seeds. Mendocino County. Var. Sargentii, Henry {C. Sargcntii, Jeps.). Shrub or small tree to 15 feet tall: leaves with a small glandular pit on back: cones globose, often congested, ^-| inch across, with reddish-brown often glaucous seeds. Middle and southern California. 5. C. guadalupensis, Wats. (C. macrocarpa var. guadalupensis. Mast.). Guadalupe C. Wide-spreading tree, 40 feet high or more; bark grayish- brown, lustrous, exfoliating, brownish-red below; branchlets drooping, slender: leaves bluish-green, scentless, acute or acutish, obscurely glandular: . Cupressus Macnabiana. £10 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS cones globose, 1 inch across or more, with 6-8 very thick strongly bossed scales. Guadeloupe Islands, southern and Lower California. — Introduced about 1880 to Europe. 6. C. arizonica, Greene (C Benthami var. arizonica. Mast.). Arizona C. Tree to 40, rarely to 70 feet tall, with horizontal short branches, forming a narrow, pyramidal, or broad, open head; bark on young trees separating into large, thin, deciduous scales leaving a smooth red surface, on older trunks fibrous and dark red-brown; branchlets stout: leaves pale green or glaucous, ovate, obtuse, thickened at the apex, usually without glands: cones sub- globose to broadly ellipsoidal, dark red-brown and bloomy, 3,^-1 inch across; scales 6-8, with stout, pointed, often curved bosses. Eastern Arizona, New Mexico, and northern Mexico. — Doubtful whether in cultivation. Var. bonita, Lemm. (C. glabra, Sudw.). Smooth C. Leaves with con- spicuous resinous gland on back, more or less glaucous: cone 1-1 H inches across; the scales with a short mucro. Central and southern Arizona. — Introduced to Europe in 1882 (as C. arizonica). This is, next to C. Mac- nabiana, the hardiest cj^press and probably hardy as far north as New York. Young plants with juvenile foliage are very glaucous (var. glauca, Woodall) . 7. C. lusitanica, Mill. (C. glauca, Lam. C. Lindleyi, Klotzsch. C. pendula, L'Her. C. sinensis, Hort.). Portuguese C. Tree to 50 feet, with spreading branches and more or less pendulous, irregularly ramified, slightly compressed branchlets; trunk with reddish-brown bark fissured into long narrow strips; leaves ovate, acutish, appressed, slightly free at tips, glaucous: cones pedun- cled, about 3^ inch across, covered with glaucous bloom; scales 6-8, with an elongated, pointed and usually hooked boss. Mexico. — Introduced to Portugal about 1600. For a long time supposed to have come from India and called "Cedar of Goa." Var. Benthami, Carr. (C. Benthami, Endl. C. thurifera, Schlecht., not HBK. C. excelsa, Scott). Bentham C. Narrow pyramidal tree with spread- ing or deflexed branches; branchlets pinnately and regularly ramified in one plane, the ultimate branchlets slightly compressed: leaves acute, free at the tips, with a glandular pit on back. — Introduced about 1840. Var. Knightiana, Rehd. (C. Knightiana, Knight & Perry. C. Benthami var. Knightiana, Mast.). Knight C. Similar to the preceding variety, but branchlets more compressed and very regularly pinnately branched, the ultimate branchlets of nearly equal length, green to glaucous. — Introduced before 1850. 8. C. tonilosa, D. Don (C. nepalensis. Loud.). Bhutan C. Tall pyramidal tree to 150 feet high, with short horizontal branches ascending at the ex- tremities; trunk with brown bark peeling off in long, narrow, fibrous strips; branchlets slender, drooping: leaves rhombic-ovate, acutish or obtusish, appressed or slightly spreading at the apex, bright or bluish-green: cones ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 211 globular, nearly sessile, ^-^ inch across; scales 8-10 with a short, obtuse, inconspicuous boss. Himalayas. — Introduced to Great Britain in 1824 by Wallich. Var. Comeyana, Carr. (C. Corneyana, Knight). Branches and branchlets pendulous; the brancldet-systems not distinctly distichous. — Introduced before 1850. 9. C. fimebris, Endl. (C. pendula, Lambert). Moxjening C. Fig. 34. Tree to 60 feet tall, with wide-spreading, pendu- lous branches and branchlets; branchlets flattened; trunk with brown smooth bark: leaves deltoid-ovate, acute, light green, often slightly spreading at the apex: cones short-peduncled, globose, H~/'2 iiich across; scales 8, with a short-pointed boss. China. — Intro- duced in 1850 to Great Britain by Fortune. A related species is C. cashmeriana, Royle {C. torulosa var. kashtniriajia, Kent. C. fimebris var. glauca. Mast.). Kashmir C. Tree with ascending branches and pendulous branclilets; branchlets compressed: lateral leaves spreading: cones dark brown, ellipsoidal, nearly 3^ inch across; scales 10 with triangular reflexed umbo. Kashmir. — Intro- duced about 1862. 3. CHAMiECYPARIS, Spach. CYPRESS Evergreen trees with scaly or fissured bark; the leading shoots nodding; branchlets usually flattened and pinnately ramified: leaves scale-like (only in the juvenile state subulate), opposite and decussate, densely clothing the branchlets: flowers monoecious, small; the fertile ones inconspicuous, globose; stami- nate yellow or red, oblong, often conspicuous by their abundance: cones small, globular, with 6-11 bracts, each bearing 2, rarely up to 5, winged seeds, ripening the first season. (Apparently an adaptation from Pliny's Chamjecyparissus, "ground-cypress," derived from Greek chamai, on the ground, and kuparissos, cypress, though its species are not lower but generally decidedly taller than the true cjT^resses.) — Six species in North America and Asia. Closely allied to Cupressus, which differs in its larger cones maturmg the second year, the bracts containing 4 or more seeds, and in its quadrangular branches and minutely denticulate leaves. Cj-presses are valuable timber trees in their native countries and belong, with their numerous garden forms, to our most important ornamental conifers. Cupressus funebris. 212 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS A. Lateral leaves not much larger than the facial ones, both of about equal length on the main axis. B. Branchlets not distinctly pinnately arranged, compressed, slender, glandular, bluish-green 1. C. thyoides BB. Branchlets pinnately arranged in one plane. c. Leaves dark green, not glandular, without white markings below: branchlets nearly 4-sided, stout 2. C. noothatensis cc. Leaves with glaucous or whitish markings below: branch- lets flattened 3. C. pisifera AA. Lateral leaves much larger than the facial ones, longer than the latter on the main axis, all closely appressed. B. Leaves obtuse, not glandular, lustrous dark green above, with distinct white markings below 4. C. ohtusa BB. Leaves acute or acutish, glandular, bright green or more or less glaucous, the white markings below sometimes in- distinct 5. C. Lawsoniana 1. C. thyoides, Britt. (C. sphoeroidea, Spach. Ciipressus thyoides, L.). White-Cedar. Fig. 35. Tree to 70 or 80 feet, with erect-spreading' branches; trunk with reddish-brown fissured bark divided into flat connected '^'^^^^^ Ji ridges; branchlets irregularly ^^^^^^^m arranged, spreading, not pen- ~" ''^'^tR^S. dulous, very thin and slender, flattened: leaves closely imbri- i>w, var. coinpacti. Below, var. pendula ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 237 of years. As usually seen in cultivation, it is a handsome narrow- pyramidal tree clothed to the ground with short and slender upcurved branches, but in mature specimens the trunk is clear of limbs up to 80 to 200 feet. It is the most massive of all trees, although exceeded Ln girth by a few others, notably the African baobab. In nature it reproduces only by seeds and does not make stump-sprouts as the preceding species. Var. pendula, Lav. Weeping Giant Sequoia. A form in which the branches are strongly recurved, closely covermg the stem and producing u narrow cylindric effect similar to that of Italian cA'press. There is a form with bluish foliage, var. glauca, Otto, Blue Giant Sequoia, and a form with yellow foliage, var. aurea, Nichols; also insig- nificant variegated forms. 14. TAIWANIA, Hayata. TAIWANIA Evergreen tree: leaves dimorphic, alternate, subulate, falcate, 4-angled. or on fruiting branches scale-like, imbricate, incurved: scales of pistillate flowers with 2 reversed ovules: cones terminal, subglobose, with many spirally arranged imbricate scales subtended by minute bracts; scales obovate, cuneate at base, mucronate, thin, each with 2 narrowly winged seeds; cotyledons 2. (Name from Taiwan, the Chinese name of Formosa.) — One species in Formosa and western China. T. cryptomerioides, Hayata. Fig. 58. Tree to 200 feet high with a tall clean trunk sometimes 30 feet in girth and clean to the height of 100 or 150 feet, with short branches forming a small crown; young plants with ascending branches and pendulous branchlets: leaves of sterile branches linear-subu- late, pungent, incurved-falcate, keeled on the ventral and dorsal side, about 3^ inch long, those of fertile branches tri- angular, imbricate, obtusish 58. Taiwania cryptomerioides. Fruiting branch with or acutish, about j/g"! "it;h adult foliage and branchlet with juvenile foliage. 238 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS long: cone about ^ inch long with about 15 leathery scales; seeds oblong, with the wing about ^ inch long. High mountains of Formosa and southwestern China. — Introduced to the Arnold Arboretmn in 1918 by E. H. Wilson; young plants are growing in California and Florida. When young it is a very handsome tree of broad- pyramidal outline with ascending branches and long pendidous branchlets; the foliage is very similar to that of Cryptomeria. 15. ATHROTAXIS, D. Don. Evergreen densely branched trees; bark peeling o£F in longitudinal shreds : leaves homomorphic, small, alternate or indistinctly decussate, either short, blunt, scale-like and appressed, or lanceolate and somewhat loosely disposed: flowers monoecious; staminate flowers in imbri- cated spiral aments, the anthers 2-celled; fertile flowers in spirally imbricated aments, 3-6 ovules under each scale, these aments becoming small globular cones with woody scales which are contracted at base and at apex peltately dilated or pointed; seeds 3-6, winged; cotyledons 2. (Name derived from Greek athroos, crowded, and taxis, arrangement; alluding to the crowded cone-scales and leaves.) — Three species in Tasmania. One or the other of these species which were introduced to Great Britain in 1857 by Wm. Archer may be in cultivation in this country either in the open in the Southern States or in California or as a greenhouse plant in the North. (^H^ A. Leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate. B. Cone-scales without process on back: leaves spiny-pointed.. .1. A. selaginoides BB. Cone-scales with large acute process on back: leaves obtuse or acute 2. A. laxifolia AA. Leaves rhombic-ovate, obtuse 3. A. cupressoides 1. A. selaginoides, D. Don {A. alpina. Van Houtte. Cunninghamia selagi- noides, Zucc). Fig. 59. Tree to 100 feet tall, with fibrous slightly furrowed bark: leaves spreading, lanceolate, incurved, acute, rigid and spiny pointed, 3^-3^ inch long, with 2 glaucous bands on the ventral side, keeled on back and with 2 small glaucous depressions; those of young seedlings narrower: cones ^-1 inch diameter, the scales numerous, broad-ovate, acuminate. 2. A. laxifolia, Hook. (A. Doniana, Henk. & Hochst.). Tree to 40 feet tall: leaves slightly spreading, ovate-lanceolate, obtuse or acute, about J^ inch long, with translucent entire margin, on the ventral side with glaucous ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 239 stomatic bands, on the back with whitish depressions near the base: cones ^ inch across, the scales thickened, with a large acute process on back. 3. A. cupressoides, D. Don (A. imbricata, Maule. Cunninghamia cupressoides, Zucc). Tree reaching 40 feet, with ascending branches: leaves rhombic - ovate, broad and obtuse, with translucent denticu- late margin, H~K ^^'^^ long, thick and keeled, closely appressed to the branches: cones f-/^ inch across, the scales rounded at top and bearing a tri- angular recurved process in the middle. 16. CRYPTOMERIA, D. Don. CRYPTOMERIA Evergreen pyramidal tree with a straight slender trunk covered with reddish-broTVTi bark, and with irregularly whorled spreading branches ascending at the extremities: leaves spirally arranged, linear- subulate, acute, slightly curved, decurrent at the base: flowers monoecious; staminate flowers axillary, , oblong, yellow, forming short racemes at the end of the branches; pistillate globular, solitary, at the end of short branchlets: cone globular, with thick, wedge-shaped scales, furnished with the recurved point of the adnate bract on the back and with pointed processes at the apex, each scale with 3-5 narrow- winged, erect seeds; cotyledons usually 3, rarely 2. (Name derived from Greek kryptos, hidden, and meros, part; meaning doubtful.) — Only one species is known. C. japonica, D. Don. Common C. Fig. 60. Tree attaining 125 feet in height; bark cinnamon-brown peeling off in long ribbon-like shreds: leaves linear-subulate, compressed and slightly 4- or 3-angled, bluntly keeled on the dorsal and sharply keeled on the ventral side, bluish-green, 3^-1 inch long: cone brownish- red, ^-1 inch across. In central and southern Japan and doubtfully native to China. — It is much planted in Japan and China as an ornamen- tal and as timber trees m the former comitrj% where the light and easily worked but durable wood is much used. It was first introduced in its Chinese form to Great Britain in 1842 and perhaps a few years earlier to Petrograd. It has proved hardy as far north as New York and in sheltered positions in the neighborhood of Boston. The tj'pe has been distinguished as var. japonica, Henry. A pyramidal tree with straight spreading branches and short, stout, dark green leaves : cone- Crypi omeria japonica. 240 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS scales with long-acuminate processes and long-pointed bracts, making the cone very spiny. — Introduced in 1861 by Siebold to Holland. Var. Lobbii, Carr. Lobb C. Similar to the preceding, of more compact habit, with more appressed dark green leaves and the cones with the pro- cesses and the bracts even longer. — Introduced in 1845 by Wm. Lobb from Buitenzorg, Java. Var. sinensis, Sieb. & Zucc. (var. Fortunei, Henry. C. Fortunei, Hooi- brenk). Tree of more diffuse habit, with slenderer branches, deflexed branch- lets and longer and slenderer leaves: cones with fewer scales which have shorter processes and shorter tips of scales. TUs was the first of the forms introduced into cultivation, as stated under the species. It is somewhat tenderer than the Japanese type. Var. compacta, Beiss. Cave C. Of very compact habit, with bluish-green foliage. Var. nana, Carr. Dwarf and procumbent, densely branched form; adapted for rockeries. Var. araucarioides, Henk. & Hochst. Branches deflexed with long, dis- tantly placed, pendulous branchlets: leaves small, stout and stiff, incurved at apex, bright green. Var. dacrydioides, Carr. With long, distant branches, close, somewhat pendent branchlets, and short, very closely set leaves of brownish color. Var. pungens, Carr. Prickly C. Compact form with spreading, rigid, and sharply pointed much-compressed leaves of bluish-green color. Var. cristata, Beiss. (var. Lobbii cristata, Hort.). Monstrous form with fasciated coxcomb-like branches, with occasional normal branches. Var. spiralis, Sieb. & Zucc. Slender shrub, with strongly falcate leaves, twisted spirally around the branchlets. Var. elegans. Mast. (C. elegans, Veitch). Spreading C. Plate XXIV. Low dense tree, with horizontal branches and pendulous branchlets: leaves linear, flattened, soft, spreading, longer than in the type, bright green, chang- ing to bronzy red in fall and winter. Very handsome when yoimg, but short- lived.— Introduced in 1861 to Great Britain and in 1862 to this country by Dr. G. R. HaU. 17. CUNNINGHAMIA, R. Br. CHINA-FIR Evergreen trees with whorled spreading branches distichously ramified with opposite branchlets; without distinct winter-buds: leaves linear-lan- ceolate, rigid, densely spirally arranged and 2-rowed in direction: flowers monoecious; staminate oblong, fertile globose, both sexes in small clusters at the end of the branches : cones roundish-ovate, 1-2 inches long, with round- ish-ovate, serrate and pointed, coriaceous scales, each with 3 narrow-winged seeds at the base; cotyledons 2. (Named in honor of J. Cunningham who ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS £41 -Two species in southern and western discovered this tree in China in 1702.)- Cliina and in Formosa. A. Leaves of fertile branches spiny-pointed, 1-2 inches long: cones about 1 Yi inches long 1. C lanceolata AA. Leaves of fertile branches obtusish, 3^/<4 inch long: cone about ^/i inch long 2. C Konishii 1. C. lanceolata, Hook. (C sinen- sis, R. Br.). Fig. 61. Tree attaining 80 feet in height: leaves linear- lanceolate, with broad decurrent base, sharply pointed, finely serru- late, light green and shining above and with 2 broad whitish bands beneath, 13^-23^2 inches long: cones 1-2 inches long. Southern, central, and western China. — Introduced to Great Britain in 1804 by Wm, Kerr and again in 1844 by Fortune. Hardy as far north as Pennsylvania in sheltered positions but injured in very severe winters. Handsome tree <^ with horizontally spreading branches pendulous at the extremities. If cut down or killed back by frost, it sprouts from the stump and forms bushy specimens. 2. C. Konishii, Hayata. Tree to 100 feet, with longitudinally furrowed cinnamon-brown bark becommg grayish- white with age: leaves on fertile shoots lanceolate, falcate, obtusish, J/2-1 inch long, grayish-green with 2 broad white bands beneath and 2 narrow stomatic bands above, on young plants linear-lanceolate, to IJ/2 inches long, spiny-pointed and without stomatic lines above: cones ovoid, %-l inch long; scales rounded with a sharp mucro at the apex. Formosa. — Introduced to the Arnold Arboretum by E. H. Wilson in 1918 and growmg well in California and Florida. Young plants differ little from those of the preceding species. 61. Cunninghamia lanceolata. 18. ARAUCARIA, Juss. (Synonym: Domheya, Lam.). ARAUCARIA Evergreen tall trees with regularly whorled branches; without distinct winter-buds: leaves spirally arranged, subulate or scale-like and stiff, clothing 242 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS all the branches uniformly and usually closely imbricated: flowers mostly dioecious, the staminate terminal and solitary or disposed in fascicles; anthers 6-8-celled ; fertile flowers in ovoid or globose heads that become large woody cones with only 1 seed underneath each scale; scales numerous, elongated, cuneate, 2-edged or 2-winged; seeds wingless, adnate to the scale at the base; cotyledons 2-4. (Name derived from Arauco, a province of southern Chile where one of the species grows.) — About twelve species in South America, Australia, and the Pacific Islands to New Guinea. They are stately ornamental trees in subtropical countries, while in colder regions they are in their juvenile state favorite greenhouse and pot-plants. A. Leaves flattened, sharply pointed, ^-2 inches long, homo- morphic: cone-scales not winged; cotyledons 2, hypogean (remaining below ground). Sect. Colymbea, Endl. B. Arrangement of leaves spreading in two ranks, contracted at base 1. A. Bidwillii BB. Arrangement of leaves imbricated, crowded, broad at base, c. Shape of leaves lanceolate, loosely imbricated, glaucous green 2. A. brasiliana cc. Shape of leaves ovate-lanceolate, to ^4 inch broad at base, densely imbricated, bright green on both sides. . .3. A. araucana AA. Leaves subulate or flattened and obtusish, not more than 32 inch long, more or less dimorphic, those of fertile branches much shorter, compressed, obtusish and densely imbricate: cone-scales winged; cotyledons 4, epigean (above ground). Sect. EuTACTA, Endl. {Eutassa, Salisb. Eutacta, Link). B. Form of leaves flattened, oblong-lanceolate or elliptic, ob- tusish, densely imbricated, at least 3^ inch wide i. A. Rulci BB. Form of leaves (of sterile branches) subulate or linear- lanceolate, about -^i inch thick, c. Leaf mucronate, not spiny, slightly or not keeled on the ventral side, triangular, falcate. D. Position of leaves loosely appressed and imbricate, broad at base and slightly decurrent, about ^4 inch long 5. A. Cookii DD. Position of leaves spreading, laterally compressed, de- current, 3 3-} 2 inch long 6. ^. excelsa CO. Leaf spiny-pointed, rigid, much flattened, strongly keeled on both sides, quadrangular, scarcely falcate. . .7. A. Cunninghamii 1. A. Bidwillii, Hook. Bxjnya-bunta. Tree attaining 150 feet in height, the trunk free of branches for about half its height; branches in whorls of 10-15, sparingly ramified: leaves in two rows, lance-ovate and very sharp- pointed, M~lK inches long, thick, firm and shining: staminate flowers 2-3 inches long: cone globose-ovoid, about 9 inches long and 7 inches through; scales terminating in an acute edge. Australia. — Introduced about 1840. A handsome and graceful species. 2. A. brasiliana, A. Rich. {A. hrasiliensis. Loud.). Brazilian A. Tree ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 243 to 100 feet tall, with spreading and slightly pendent branches raised at the ends, in whorls of 5-7, with the branchlets and leaves tufted at the ends, tending to disappear below as the plant grows: leaves oblong-lanceolate, much attenuated and very sharp- imbricated: staminate flowers 4-5 1-2 inches long, somewhat decurrent, pointed, deep glaucous green, loosely inches long: cones globose, 5-6 inches across; scales with a recurved spine at apex. Southern Brazil. — Introduced to Europe in 1819. Var. Ridolfiana, Gord. A more robust form with longer and larger leaves. } Var. elegans, Laws, (var. gra- ' cilis, Carr.). A form with more \ numerous and slenderer branches ^^J^^yNiy'v and more crowded, narrower, and -^^^^^^^^'^ often glaucous leaves. 3. A. araucana, K. Koch {A. imhricata, Pav.). Monkey-Puzzle. Fig. 62 and Plate XVII. A striking tree of pyramidal habit, to 100 feet tall; branches generally in whorls of 5, at first horizontal, with upward-curving (sometimes down- ward-curving) tips, but finally be- coming much defiexed; branclilets in opposite pairs, curved upward when yoimg, and continuing to grow until several feet long when adult: leaves imbricated and persisting, even on the trunk, ovate-lanceolate, very stiff, leathery, and sharp-pointed, 2 inches long on the primary stem and branches, 1 inch long on the branchlets, slightly concave at the base, bright green on both sides: staminate flowers 3-5 inches long: cone globose-ovoid, 5-8 inches in diameter; scales with lanceolate acuminate appendage about 1 inch long at apex; seeds about 1 inch long, obscurely 4-angled. Western slope of the Andes in Chile. — A few plants were brought to England in 1795 by A. Menzies, but remained very rare until in 1844 Wm. Lobb sent a large supply of seeds. This is the hardiest species and can probably be grown as far north as the Middle Atlantic States in sheltered locations. Thrives well in mild climates in a hea^^'^ loamy soil in a moist valley or position sheltered from rough winds. The branches are heavy and rather brittle and the beauty and symmetry are soon destroyed if planted in an exposed position. One of the most distinct conifers, of singular and impressive appearance when clothed to the ground with its 62. Araucaria araucana. 244 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS whorls of regularly branched stout and heavy branches covered throughout with dark green spiny leaves. 4. A. Rulei, F. Muell. Tree to 60 feet tall, with the branches in whorls of 5-7; branclilets elongated, horizontal to slightly pendent or slightly ascending at the ends; leafy branclilets very long: leaves oblong-lanceolate to elliptic, imbricated, concave, arched toward the branch, nearly or quite obtuse, H-M inch long, with a prominent dorsal nerve, silvery-gray on the upper and rich glossy green on the lower side. New Caledonia. — Introduced in 1863 to Great Britain. A very handsome plant of regular habit with stout branchlets and dark green foliage. Variable at different ages. When young, the branches are often drooping and the leaves com- pressed and obscurely 4-angled and nearly or quite subulate: var. poly- morpha, Bailey {Eutada Rulei polymorpha, Carr.). Var. Goldieana, Mast. A form with more sparingly ramified erect or ascending branches and narrower leaves. A related species rarely grown is A. Balansae, Brongn. & Oris. Slow- growing plant with usually 5 slender branches in a tier: leaves imbricate, short, ovate, J^ inch long, stiff, falcate, obtuse, dark olive-green: cones subglobose, 4 inches long. New Caledonia. — Introduced in 1875. 5. A. Cookii, R. Br. {A. columnaris. Hook.). A slender columnar tree attaining 200 feet in height, much narrower in shape than A. excelsa which it closely resembles when young; branches disposed as in ^. excelsa, but tree tending to shed the lower ones; branchlets crowded on the branches and turning upward in a boat-like form : young leaves rather closely arranged on the branchlet and M-3^ inch long, broad and slightly decurrent at base, slightly curved, mucronate; adult leaves densely imbricated, short and ovate, obtuse: staminate flowers ij^ inches long: cones globose-ovoid, 4-5 inches high and 3-4 inches in diameter; scales terminating in a long subulate mucro. New Caledonia and New Hebrides. — Introduced about 1850 to Great Britain. 6. A. excelsa, R. Br. Norfolk-Island-Pine. Tree attaining 200 feet in height; branches frondose, in whorls of 4-7: leaves curved and sharp-pointed, rather soft, H~/^ inch long, and densely placed on the horizontal or droop- ing branclilets: cones subglobose, broadest at base, 4-6 inches across; scales terminating in an incurved spine. Norfolk Islands. — Introduced to England about 1793 by J. Banks. This is the most commonly cultivated species, being much grown as small pot-specimens. It is an excellent house plant, and keeps well in a cool room near a window. In summer it may be used on the veranda, but must be shaded. Var. glauca, Carr. Bluish A. With bluish-green foliage, Var. albo-spica, Mast. Silver-Star A. Tips of the young branchlets white. Plate XWIII \ii old Norwav spruce il'ina I hi,",; or I' (riilsn) ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 245 Var. robusta, Kent. Emerald A. A strong-growing form with deep green foliage. Var. virgata, Schwerin. The primary branches without or with very short secondary branchlets. 7. A. Ctmninghamii, Lamb. Hoop-Pine (Moreton Bay Pine). Tree attaining 200 feet in height, with spreading branches in whorls of 4-7, the upper ascending, the lower in older plants somewhat depressed: leaves acicular, straight or nearly so, stiff and pungent, '^-Yi inch long, laterally strongly compressed, with the dorsal midrib decurrent: staminate flowers 2-3 inches long: cone ovoid-globose, about 3 inches long; scales terminating in a lanceolate recurved mucro. Australia. — The most widely distributed of the Australian araucarias and a valuable timber tree. Introduced to Great Britain in 1851. It is a less formal and symmetrical plant than A. excelsa and not much cultivated. Var. glauca, Endl. With silvery glaucous foliage. 19. AGATHIS, Salisb. DAMI^IAR-PINE Evergreen trees with whorled branches; without distinct winter- buds: leaves opposite or alternate, usually more or less 2-ranked, flat and broad, not needle-like, coriace- ous: flowers dioecious; staminate flowers axUlary, cylindric; fertile flowers terminal or axillary: cones usually on short lateral branchlets, globose-ovoid, usually depressed, composed of numerous broadly obo- vate scales without bracts; each scale with a solitary reversed winged seed; cotyledons 2. (Name derived from Greek agathis, ball or glome; referring to the shape of the fertile flowers and the cone.) A. Leaves sessile, oblong to narrow- lanceolate, }4~M: inch broad. . . .1. A. australis AA. Leaves short -petioled, generally oblong, ^i- \}/2 inches broad. 63. Agathis australis 246 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS B. Staminate flowers ^ inch long: leaves obtuse, usually opposite. .2. A. alba BB. Staminate flowers about 1}/^ inches long: leaves short-acuminate to obtuse, often alternate 3. A. robusta 1. A. australls, Steud. {Davimara australis. Lamb.). Ejvuri-Pine. Fig. 63. Tree to 100 or occasionally to 150 feet tall; bark glaucous gray, falling off in large flakes: leaves opposite, rarely alternate, sessile, oblong or obovate-oblong, /^-Ij^ inches long, obtuse, on young trees oblong to narrow- lanceolate and 2-4 inches long: staminate flowers M~lH inches long, solitary: cone terminal on short branchlets, erect, subglobose, 2-3 inches across; scales terminating in a short mucro. New Zealand. — Introduced in 1821 to Great Britain. Cultivated out-of-doors in California, but not very success- fully. Kauri gum, much used in the manufacture of varnish, is the partly fossilized resin of A. australis. It is found 5-6 feet below the surface of the ground in the northern part of New Zealand where there were vast forests of this tree in ages past. 2. A. alba, Foxw. {A. lor anthi folia, Salisb. A. Dammara, Rich. A. orientalis, Rehd. Dammara alba. Lam. D. orientalis. Lamb.). White D. Tree to 100 feet tall: leaves usually opposite, oblong to oblong-lanceolate, obtuse, 2-4 inches long, thickish, striated, dull green: staminate flowers about ^ inches long: cone globose-ovoid, about 33^2 inches long and 2-23/2 inches in diameter. Malayan Archipelago. — Introduced to Great Britain in 1804, Cultivated out-of-doors in California and in greenhouses elsewhere. Both this and the preceding species were introduced to California by Franceschi of Santa Barbara. 3. A. robusta, F. M. Bailey {Dammara robusta, C. Moore. D. Brownii, Lem.). Robust D. Tree to 150 feet tall, with nearly whorled branches: leaves ovate-lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, obtuse to short-acuminate, 2-3, rarely to 4 inches long, striated: staminate flowers about 13^^ inches long: cone globose-ovoid to obovoid, 3—4 inches long; seeds nearly 3^ inch long, with an upright wing as long as the seed. Australia. — Introduced to Europe before 1850. Cultivated in California. A. obtusa, Morrison {Dammara obtusa, Lindl.), from the New Hebrides, is closely related. It was introduced to Europe in 1851 and is but rarely cultivated in greenhouses in Europe. 20. KETELEERIA, Carr. Evergreen trees with rough irregularly furrowed bark and whorled spread- ing branches, of regular pyramidal habit while young, in old age with a broad flat-topped head; winter-buds globose or ovoid, not resinous: leaves linear, flat or keeled, not grooved above, pale green below, appearing 2-ranked: flowers monoecious, staminate arranged in clusters; anthers 2-celled: cones ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 247 upright, with persistent woody scales; bracts inclosed, about half as long as the scales; wings of seeds as long as the scales; cotyledons 2, hypogean (remaining below ground). (Named in honor of Jean Baptiste Keteleer, a French nurseryman, born in Belgium.) — Two or possibly 3 or 4 species in China and Formosa. A. Young branchlets orange-red, glabrous: cone-scales suborbicular, slightly inflexed at apex I. K. Fortunei A.*.. Young branchlets yellowish-gray, puberulous or sometimes gla- brous: cone-scales ovate, recurved at apex 2. K. Davidiana 1. K. Fortunei, Carr. (Abies Fortunei, Murr. Pseudotsuga jczocnsis, Bertrand. Pin us Fortunei, Pari. Ahietia Fortunei, Kent). Tall tree to 100 feet; branchlets glabrous, orange-red: leaves linear, rigid, mucronate or spiny-pointed, obtusish on old trees, flat, with the midrib prominent on both sides, glossy dark green above, paler below, 1-13^^ inches long: cones ovoid or cylindric-ovoid, 3-7 inches long; scales suborbicular, purple while young, later reddish-brown. Southeastern China. — Intro- duced to Europe about 1845. Little known in this country and probably hardy only in California and the Southern States. Handsome pyramidal tree similar to a fir. 2. K. Davidiana, Beiss. {Abies Davidiana, Franch. Pseudotsuga Davidiana, Bertrand). Fig. 64. Tall tree to 120 feet; young branchlets puberidous, rarely glabrous: leaves linear, rounded or notched at the apex, midrib raised on both sides, glossy green above, paler below, \-\}/2 inches long: cones cylindric-oblong, 6-8 inches long, with orbicular- ovate scales, erose at the margin and recurved at the apex. Western China and Formosa. — Introduced by E. H. Wilson in 1900 to Great Britain and in 1907 to the Arnold Arboretum. This species is probably somewhat har- 64. Keteleeria Davidiana 248 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS dier than the preceding one, but has not yet been sufficiently tested. Keteleeria sacra, Beiss., K. Evelyniana, Mast., and K. formosana, Hayata, are probably synonyms or only varieties of K. Davidiana. 21. ABIES, Mill. FIR Evergreen trees of pyramidal habit, with whorled spreading branches; bark usually smooth, thin on young trees, thick and furrowed at base of old trees; winter-buds with or without resin: leaves persistent for many years, linear to linear-lanceolate, entire, sessile, contracted above the circular base and leaving a circular scar as they fall, flattened, usually grooved and deep green and lustrous above, with 2 white or pale stomatic bands and keeled beneath, rarely 4-sided with stomata on all 4 sides, rounded and variously notched or pointed at the apex, usually appearing 2-ranked by a twist at their base, with 2 resin-canals which are either marginal (lying close to the epidermis of the under side) or internal (surrounded by the tissue of the leaf), and with 2, rarely 1, vascular bundles; on upper fertile branches crowded, more or less erect, often incurved or falcate, thickened or quadrangular, obtuse or acute: flowers axillary, appearing in early spring from buds formed the previous summer on branchlets of the year, surrounded by involucres of the enlarged scales of the flower-buds; stamina te flowers pendent on branches above the middle of the tree; fertile flowers globular, ovoid or oblong, with numerous 2-ovuled imbricate scales, erect on the topmost branches : fruit an erect ovoid or oblong-cylindrical cone, its scales longer or shorter than their bracts, broad and rounded or truncate at the incurved apex, narrowed at base into a long stipe; seeds with large thin wing; cotyledons 4-10. (Abies is the ancient Latin name of the silver-fir.) — About 35 species in northern and mountainous regions of the northern hemisphere, often gregarious, extending south in America to Guatemala, in the Old World to northern Africa and the Himalayas. The species of this genus are among the handsomest and stateliest conifers. They succeed best in a cool and humid climate and are particularly impatient of dust and smoke, therefore not suited for planting in or near cities; only a few, like A. concolor, are more resisting. All the known species have been introduced and are in cultivation except A. maroccajia and A. Kawakamii. The following key is artificial and based primarily on vegetative characters; it does not pretend to express the natural affinities of the species and their sequence, therefore differs from that of the enumeration where the species are grouped as much as possible according to their relationship. The de- scriptions of the leaves refer to those of sterile branches; the leaves of fertile branches are as a rule shorter and thicker, usually more or less upturned and ascending, acute and often spiny-pointed and have in some cases internal ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 249 resin-ducts, even if the leaves of the sterile branches have the resin-ducts marginal. A. Leaves without stomata above (or sometimes with few in- complete hnes of stomata near apex in Nos. 1, 18, and i5). B. Branchlets deeply grooved, particularly on two-year-old branches, c. Pubescence lacking on branchlets: leaves with internal resin-ducts 14. J. homolepis CO. Pubescence of branchlets brown, in the grooves: leaves with marginal resin-ducts 15. A. spectabilis BB. Branchlets not or slightly grooved. c. Under surface of leaves without conspicuous white or glaucous bands (sometimes fairly conspicuous in A. chensiensis) . D. Apex of leaves acutish to spiny-pointed. E. Cones violet-purple: leaves of upper ranks partly recurved; resin-ducts marginal: winter-buds very resinous 11. ^1. recurvata EE. Cones green: leaves spreading at nearly right angles or upper ranks directed forward: resin- ducts internal: winter-buds thinly resinous 12. /I. holophylla DD. Apex of leaves emarginate or bifid: resin-ducts mar- ginal. E. Cones green: leaves more or less pectinate: buds not or slightly resinous. F. Leaves emarginate: branchlets glabrous 10. A. chensiensis FF. Leaves sharply bifid (at least in young plants) : branchlets slightly grooved, hairy in the grooves 1.3. A. firma EE. Cones purple: leaves of upper ranks directed for- ward, slender, often curved, bifid at apex: buds resinous IG. .4. Pindrow CO. Under surface of leaves with 2 white or glaucous sto- matic bands. D. AU branchlets more or less pubescent. E. Buds resinous. F. Foliage more or less pectinate. G. Winter-buds very resinous. H. Leaves distinctly pectinate, 13^-2^ inches long: branchlets soon glabrous and lustrous 28. ^. grandis HH. Leaves not all strictly pectinate, l^-l^/i inches long. I. Apex of leaves acute to obtusish; resin- ducts marginal \1. A. religiosa n. Apex of leaves truncate to emarginate; resin-ducts internal %5. A. balsamea GG. Winter-buds slightly resinous: leaves very white beneath, to 1^^ inches long, sharply bifid: branchlets slightly grooved 6. A. Faxoniana FF. Foliage not pectinate. 250 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS G. Direction of leaves spreading upward and outward. H. Length of leaves H~/€ inch; resin-ducts internal. I. Leaf with 8-12 Hnes of stomata in each band: bracts of cone much exserted. . . 24 II. Leaf with 4-8 lines of stomata in each band: bracts not or slightly exserted. .25. HH. Length of leaves about 1 inch; resin- ducts marginal (internal in No. 7). I. Branchlets soon glabrous, yellowish: buds thinly resinous u. Branchlets densely pubescent, brown: buds very resinous. J. Apex of leaves truncate or emargi- nate: bark smooth 3. jj. Apex of leaves acutish to obtuse: bark flaky 7. GG. Direction of leaves forward. H. Width of leaves ^ inch or more. I. Pubescence of branchlets pale, short: leaves about 1 inch long; resin-ducts marginal 27. II. Pubescence of branchlets A. Fraseri A. balsamea 4. A. Jcoreana A. Veitchii A. squamata fous: leaves ^-% inch long; resin- ducts internal 5. HH. Width of leaves ^'j-xe inch, to 1 1-2 inches long; resin-ducts internal. I. Branchlets smooth, minutely pubescent : leaves with 4-5 lines of stomata in each band 1 . II. Branchlets slightly grooved, withh airs in the grooves: leaves with 7-8 lines of stomata in each band 2. EE. Buds not resinous: leaves with marginal resin- ducts: cones green. F. Foliage not pectinate. G. Cone with hidden bracts: leaves spreading upward and outward 21. GG. Cone with exserted and reflexed bracts: leaves directed forward 22. FF. Foliage pectinate: cone with exserted bracts 23. DD. All branchlets glabrous (often slightly hairy in Nos. 8 and 9) : resin-ducts marginal. E. Apex of leaves obtuse or emarginate, rarely acutish : branchlets bro^vn : cones purple or violet. F. Winter - buds resinous: leaves slender, ^^-1 inch long, emarginate. G. Leaves not or scarcely revolute; resin-ducts internal on fertile branches 8. GG. Leaves revolute at the margin; resin-ducts marginal 9. A. amabilis A. Mariesii A. sihirica A. sachalinensis A. cilicica A. Nordmanniana A. alba A. Fargesii A. Delavayi ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 251 FF. Winter-buds not resinous: leaves stout, J^-^ inch, usually obtuse, often with a few sto- matic lines above 18. ^. numidica EE. Apex of leaves sharply pointed. F. Leaf J^-1 inch long, radially spreading: buds resinous, small, bracts of cones exserted and reflcxed 20. A. ccphalonica FF. Leaf pectinate, to 2 inches long: winter-buds large, pointed, not resinous: cone bristly with the long upright tips of the bracts 32. A. venusta AA. Leaves stomatiferous on both sides, grayish-green or glau- cous" buds resinous. B. Position of leaves radially spreading, pointed, short and rigid; resin-canal internal 19. .1. Pinsajm BB. Position of leaves not radially spreading. c. Buds completely covered with resin: leaves flat. D. Branchlets pubescent: leaves not pectinate, with internal resin-ducts 26. .4. lasiocarpa DD. Branchlets glabrous: leaves pectinate, with marginal resin-ducts 29. A. concolor cc. Buds thinly resinous, with a ring of free acuminate scales at base: leaves of the upper ranks curving up- ward from an approssed base; resin-cinals marginal. D. Bracts of cone much exserted and reflexed: leaves of sterile branches flat and grooved above 30. A. nobilis DD. Bracts of cone hidden or slightly exserted: leaves 4-sided 31. A. magnifica 1. A. sibirica, Ledeb. {A. pichta,FoTh. A. Semenovii, Fedtsch.). Siberian F. Tree to 100 feet tall; bark smooth; winter-buds globose, resinous; branchlets gray, minutely pubes"cent: leaves linear, slender, up to 1^ inches long, rounded and entire or bifid at apex, lustrous, bright green above, often with 2 or 3 short lines of stomata near apex, with 2 narrow grayish bands beneath, crowded and directed forward: cone cylindric, 2-3 inches long, bluish before maturity; scales about § inch wide, with denticulate margin; bracts hidden, scarcely half as long as scale. Northern Russia to Kamchatka, south to Turkestan and Manchuria. — Introduced to Europe about 1820. Hardy as far north as Canada, but starts to grow early and is often injured by late frosts. It is not very satisfactory in the Eastern States and is likely to become thin and scraggy. A closely related species is A. nephrolepis, Maxim. (A. sibirica, Trautv. A. gracilis, Komar.). Bark of trunk rough; branchlets more pubescent: leaves shorter: cones smaller; bracts longer. Eastern Siberia, northern China. — Introduced in 1908 to Europe. 2. A. sachalinensis, Mast. {A. Veitchii var. sachalinensis, F. Schmidt). Saghalin F. Tree to 120 feet tall, with smooth light gray bark; winter-buds small, very resinous; branchlets slightly grooved, pubescent in the grooves: leaves similar to those of A. sibirica, but without stomata above and with 252 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS broader stomatic bands beneath and slightly broader and longer: cones about 3 inches long, gradually narrowed toward the apex; scales with entire margin, densely pubescent outside; bracts exserted and reflexed. Northern Japan, Saghalin, and Kurile Islands. — Introduced in 1878 by W. A. Clark to the Arnold Arboretum and in 1879 to Great Britain by Maries. Hardy north to Canada, but not particularly ornamental on account of its thin habit. Var. nemorensis, Mayr. Cones smaller with hidden bracts. Saghalin. — Introduced in 1914 by E. H. Wilson to the Arnold Arboretum. 3. A. Veitchii, Murr. Veitch F. Fig. 65. Tree to 80 feet tall, with smooth grayish bark; winter-buds purplish, very resinous, the lateral almost united with the terminal one; branchlets brown, rather densely pubescent: leaves crowded, directed forward and more or less upward, on the lower side of the branchlets pectinate, linear, 3^-1 inch long, truncate and notched at apex, lus- trous dark green above, with 2 broad silvery- white bands beneath: cone cylindric, 1M~2H inches long, bluish- purple before maturity; bracts slightly exserted and reflexed; seeds with a broad short wing, scarcely as long as body. Central Japan. — Introduced in 1865 to Europe by Tschonoski and in 1876 to this country by Thomas Hogg. Hardy as far north as Ontario and New England and doing weU; it is a desirable species of broad-pyramidal habit and particularly handsome while young. Var. olivacea, Shiras. Cones green before maturity. — Introduced in 1914 to the Arnold Arboretum by E. H. Wilson. 4. A. koreana, Wils. Korean F. Tree to 50 feet; bark of older trees rough, fissured into irregular plates; branchlets sparingly pubescent, yellowish at first, becoming glabrous and purplish; winter-buds thinly resinous: leaves crowded, usually broader toward the apex, rounded and emarginate, or on young plants pointed, }/i-^/i inch long, revolute at the margin, lustrous above, with whitish bands beneath: cone cylindric, 2-3 inches long and about 1 inch in diameter, violet-purple before maturity; scales about ^^ inch broad; bracts about as long as scales, slightly exserted and reflected. Korea. — Introduced to France about 1908 and in 1918 by E. H. Wilson to the Arnold Arboretum, where it has so far proved hardy. 5. A. Mariesii, Mast. Maries F. Tree to 80 feet tall, with smooth pale gray bark, rough at base of old trees; winter-buds subglobose, small. 65. Abies Veitchii. Plate XXXIV. Norway spruce (Picea Abies). Top, the foliage. Center, var. ClaTt- bramliana. Below left, var. pendnla; right, var. microsperma ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 253 resinous; branchlets densely rusty-pubescent: leaves crowded, those of the middle ranks directed forward and nearly appressed, the lateral ones longer and spreading, linear, slightly broader above the middle, rounded or bifid at apex, 3^-M iiich long, lustrous above, with white bands beneath: cone ovoid to oblong-ovoid, narrowed toward the ends, 1^-33^ inches long, dark purple before maturity; scales about 1 inch broad; bracts hidden; seed- wings twice as long as body. Mountains of Japan. — Introduced in 1879 to Great Britain by Charles Maries. Hardy as far north as Massachusetts, but not doing as well as A. Veitchii. 6. A. Faxoniana, Rehd. & Wils. Faxon F. Tree to 120 feet tall; bark dark gray, furrowed; winter-buds ovoid, purple, very resinous; branchlets densely brown-pubescent, slightly grooved: leaves crowded, irregularly spreading in two ranks, the upper rows shorter, linear, obtuse to emarginate, rarely mucronate, slightly revolute at the margins, } 2~1 inch long, lustrous dark green above, with white bands beneath; resin-ducts internal or marginal : cone ovoid-oblong, 2-3 inches long, violet-purple before maturity; scales about ^4: inch broad; bracts somewhat exserted, upright or reflexed; seed- wing scarcely as long as body. Western China. — Introduced in 1911 by E. H. Wilson to the Arnold x\rboretum where it has proved fairly hardy, but so far not very promising. 7. A. squamata, Mast. Flaky F. Tree to 120 feet tall; bark purplish- brown, exfoliating in thin flakes; winter-buds subglobose, reddish-brown, very resinous; branchlets densely brownish pubescent: leaves crowded and ascending, linear, often falcate, obtuse or acutish, |-1 inch long, bluish- green above, with white bands beneath: cone oblong-ovoid, 2-2}/^ inches long, violet before maturity, resinous; scales about f inch wide; bracts slightly exserted. Western China. — Introduced in 1910 by E. H. Wilson to the Arnold Arboretum where it is apparently not quite hardy. Remarkable for its flaky bark which begins to exfoliate on the primary branches when about six years old, the inner bark purplish-red even on young branches. 8. A. Fargesii, Franch. Faroes F. Tree to 100 feet tall; winter-buds resinous; branclilets glabrous, reddish-brown or purplish, slightly grooved and often hairy in the grooves: leaves on upper side of branchlets crowded, spreading at nearly right angles, the middle ranks upright or nearly reflexed, those below pectinate, linear, sometimes falcate, emarginate or bifid at apex, about 1 inch long, dark green and lustrous above, with white bands beneath: cones ovoid-oblong, 2-3 inches long; scales about ^ inch wide; bracts slightly exserted and recurved. Central China. — Introduced in 1901 by E. H. Wilson to Great Britain, in 1907 to the Arnold Arboretum. Hardy as far north as Massachusetts and promises to be one of the most satisfactory species of the Chinese firs. A closely related species is A. sutchuenensis, Rehd. & Wils. {A. Fargesii 254 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS var. sutchuenensis, Franch.). Differs chiefly in its stouter and shorter ascend- ing leaves acute or obtuse, with distinct yellow petioles. Western China. — Introduced by Wm. Purdom to the Arnold Arboretum in 1911. 9. A. Delavayi, Franch. {A. Faheri, Craib. Keteleeria Fabri, Mast.). Delavay F. Tree to 120 feet tall; bark gray, fissured in old trees; winter- buds resinous; branclilets usually glabrous, red-brown, lustrous, slightly grooved and often hairy in the grooves: leaves crowded, spreading at nearly right angles, those of the middle ranks much smaller, nearly upright, and often upturned, scarcely pectinate below, linear, emarginate at apex, f- 1 inch long, acute at the margin and usually strongly revolute, dark green above with wide bands beneath: cones cylindric-oblong, 23^-3 inches long, violet-black before maturity; scales about ^ inch wide and entire at the margin; bracts slightly exserted. Western China. — Introduced by E. H. Wilson in 1901 to Great Britain, and in 1908 to the Arnold Arboretum. A related species is A, Beissneriana, Rehd. & Wils. Tree to 180 feet tall; bark fissured, dark gray; branchlets yellowish or grayish-yellow, rarely slightly puberulous: leaves crowded, linear-ligulate, nearly plane above and sometimes stomatiferous near apex, with pale or glaucescent bands beneath: cone peduncled; bracts hidden. Western China. — Introduced by E. H. Wilson in 1904 to Great Britain and in 1908 to the Arnold Arboretum where it did not prove hardy. Into this affinity seems to belong A. Forrestii, Craib. Tree to 60 feet tall; branchlets brown, glabrous or slightly hairy: leaves pectinately arranged, ascending and forming a V-shaped groove, those of lower and upper ranks directed forward and upward and curving slightly backward, exposing the white under side, linear, to 13^^ inches long, rounded or emarginate, with broad white bands beneath: mature cones not known. Southwestern China. — Introduced about 1910 by G. Forrest to Great Britain, Not yet in culti- vation in this country. 10. A. chensiensis, Van Tiegh. Shensi F. Tree to 120 feet tall; winter- buds ovoid, slightly resinous; branchlets glabrous, yellowish-gray, older ones dark gray: leaves horizontally spreading and more or less 2-ranked, linear, broader above the middle, f-l3^ inches long, usually rounded and emargi- nate at apex, rarely acutish, shining dark green above, with grayish-green or sometimes glaucescent bands beneath: cones ovoid-oblong, 3-4 inches long and nearly 2 inches in diameter, green while young, finally cinnamon- brown; scales about Ij^ inches wide, erose at the margin and tomentose outside; bracts hidden. Central China. — Introduced in 1907 by E. H. Wilson to the Arnold Arboretum where it has proved hardy, but grows slowly. A very distinct species. 11. A. recurvata, Mast. Tree to 120 feet tall, with rough dark gray or reddish-brown bark; buds ovoid, very resinous; branchlets glabrous and ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS ^55 lustrous, yellowish-gray: leaves spreading at nearly right angles on the middle ranks and partly more or less recurved, pectinate below, linear, I -13^2 inches long, shorter on fertile branches, acutish or sharply pointed, lustrous or bluish-green above, paler green beneath: cones oblong-ovoid, 2-4 inches long, violet-purple before maturity, finally grayish-brown; scales about I inch wide; bracts hidden. Western China. — Introduced in 1910 by E. H. Wilson to the Arnold Arboretum where it has proved hardy. A handsome fir, very distinct on account of the partly recurved spiny leaves. 12. A. holophylla, Maxim. Needle F. Tree to 100 feet tall; winter-buds slightly resinous; branchlets yellowish-gray, glabrous, slightly grooved: leaves spreading at nearly right angles outward and upward, pectinate below, linear, entire at apex and spiny-pointed in young plants, acute or obtusish in older trees, lustrous bright green above, with grayish or slightly whitish bands beneath: cone cylindric, 5-6 inches long, green when young, finally dull light brown; scales lJ^-2 inches wide; bracts hidden. Manchuria and Korea. — Introduced in 1905 to the Arnold Arboretum where it has proved hardy and promises to become a handsome and distinct tree of pyramidal habit with bright green lustrous foliage. 13. A. finna, Sieb. & Zucc. (A. bifida, Sieb. & Zucc. A. Momi, Sieb.). MoMi F. Tree to 120 feet tall; bark dark gray, soon becoming scaly, fissured on old trees; buds small, slightly resinous; branchlets brownish, slightly grooved, short-pubescent in the grooves: leaves pectinate, linear, broadest about the middle, with bifid pungent apex on young plants, obtuse and emarginate on older plants, up to 13^ inches long, lustrous dark green above, not keeled and with grayish bands beneath :. cone cylindric, gradually nar- rowed toward the apex, 4-5 inches long, yellowish-green before maturity; bracts exserted, not reflexed. Japan. — Introduced to Great Britain in 1861 by J. G. Veitch and the following year by Dr. G. R. Hall to this country. It is hardy as far north as New York and can be grown in sheltered positions in eastern Massachusetts. It is not doing as well as the other Japanese firs in the Eastern States, and is likely to become a thin, rather scraggy tree when older. 14. A. homolepis, Sieb. & Zucc. {A. hrachyphylla, Maxim.). Nikko F. Fig. 06 and Plate XXV. Tree to 120 feet tall; bark scaly; winter-buds ovoid, resinous; branchlets deeply grooved, particularly on two- and three- year-old branchlets, grayish, glabrous: leaves spreading outward and upward, separated in the middle by a V-shaped depression, pectinate below, those of the outer ranks about 1 inch long, of the middle ranks shorter, linear, rounded and slightly bifid at apex, shining dark green above, with broad white bands beneath: cones cylindric, slightly narrowed at the ends, about 4 inches long, purple before maturity; scales about f inch wide, entire at the margin; bracts hidden. Japan. — Introduced in 1861 to Great Britain by J. G. Veitch. Q56 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS Hardy as far north as New England and southern Ontario, and it has proved, in the Eastern States, one of the most satisfactory and ornamental firs; it forms a broad pyramidal tree usually densely branched to the ground and with dark green lustrous foliage. 66. Abies homolepis. Var. umbellata, Wils. (A. umbellata, Mayr. A. umbilicata, Mayr). Cone green before maturity. — Introduced in 1891 by Dr. H. Mayr to Europe and to this country. Var. Tomomi, Rehd. {A. Tomomi, Bobbink & Atkins). More sparingly branched and with shorter leaves. A related species is A. Kawakamii, Hayata. Branchlets deeply grooved, yellowish, pubescent in the grooves or nearly glabrous: leaves pointing forward, the upper ranks ascending and curved: cones 2-3 inches long. Formosa. — Not yet introduced. 15. A. spectabilis, Spach {A. Webbiana, Lindl.). Himalayan F. Tree to 150 feet tall; bark scaly, rough; winter-buds large, subglobosc, resinous; branchlets reddish-brown, deeply grooved, pubescent in the grooves: leaves arranged as in ^. homolepis, but larger, 1-2 J^ inches long, rounded or bifid at apex, lustrous dark green above, with broad white bands beneath : cones cylindric, 6-7 inches long, violet-purple before maturity; scales about ^ inch broad; bracts hidden or slightly exserted. Sikkim and Bhutan Himalaya. — Introduced in 1822 to Great Britain. A handsome tree with wide-spreading LATE XXX\'. Alcufk spruce {Picea bicolor) ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 257 branches forming a broad-pyramidal head; possibly hardy as far north as the Middle Atlantic States. Var. brevifolia, Relid. (A. Wehbiana var. brevifolia, Henry). Leaves shorter, not exceeding 13<4 inches, with grayish-white bands beneath. North- western Himalaya. — Somewhat hardier than the type. 16. A. Pindrow, Spach {A. Webbiana var. Piiidroio, Brandis). Pindrow F. Tree to 200 feet tall; bark smooth and gray on young trees, grayish-brown and fissured on old trees; winter-buds large, resinous; branchlets smooth and glabrous, gray: leaves crowded above, the middle ranks directed forward, pectinate below, narrowly linear, narrowed into a bifid acute apex, entire in young plants, 1-2^^ inches long, lustrous dark green above and with pale grayish bands beneath: cone cylindric, 4-5^2 inches long, deep purple while young; scales 13<4 inches wide; bracts hidden. Himalaya: Kumaon to Kash- mir.— Probably hardy as far north as the Middle Atlantic States. 17. A. religiosa, SclJecht. (.4. hirteUa, Lindl.). Tree to 150 feet taU; bark gray or grayish-brown, fissured into oblong plates; winter-buds globose- ovoid, resinous; branchlets brown, short-pilose: leaves pectinate, the middle ranks directed forward, linear, narrow, acute to obtusish, f-l/^ inches long, dark green above, with white or grayish-white bands beneath: cones cylindric- oblong, 5-6 inches long and 2-2}^ inches in diameter, dark violet-blue before ripening; bracts longer than the scale, reflexed. Mexico. — Introduced in 1838 to Europe. Probably hardy only in California and the Southern States. 18. A. numidica, De Lannoy (.4. baborensis. Let. A.Pinsapo var. baborensis, Coss.). Algerian F. Plate XXVI. Tree to 60 feet tall; bark gray, smooth; winter-buds ovoid, large, not or slightly resinous; branchlets glabrous and lustrous: leaves much crowded above, spreading outward and upward, on stronger branchlets more or less backward, on weaker ones with a V-shaped depression in the middle, pectinate below, stout, linear, often broadest above the middle, rounded at apex and slightly emarginate or entire, rarely acutish, |-/4 inch long and -jlj inch broad, dark green above, often only faintly grooved and usually stomatiferous near apex or on fruiting branches with several stomatic lines, with white bands beneath: cones cylindric, 5-7 inches long; scales 33<^ inches broad, with entire margin; bracts hidden. Northern Africa. — Introduced into France in 1862. This species is doing well in the Eastern States and is hardy as far north as New York and in sheltered positions to Massachusetts. A handsome and distinct species of broad- pyramidal habit with stiff branches densely covered with short stout leaves. A related but yet incompletely known species is A. nebrodensis, Mattel, from Sicily, with resinous winter-buds and pubescent branchlets; it is in cultivation in France. Another related species is A. maroccana, Trabut, from Morocco, also incompletely known and not in cultivation. 19. A. Pinsapo, Boiss. Spanish F. Tree to 80 feet tall; bark smooth. 258 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS fissured in old trees; winter-buds ovoid, resinous; branchlets glabrous, brownish: leaves spreading radially at nearly right angles, linear, thick and rigid, acute or obtusish, |-| inch long, dark green and stomatiferous and slightly convex above, with grayish bands beneath: cones cylindric, 4-5 inches long, purplish-brown; scales about 1 inch wide, with entire margin; bracts small, hidden. Spain. — Introduced in 1837 by Captain Widdrington to Great Britain. Hardy in sheltered positions as far north as Massachusetts. A handsome tree of striking appearance doing well on limestone soil. Var. argentea, Beiss. With silvery-white foliage. Var. glauca, Beiss. Blue Spanish F. With glaucous foliage. Of this species the following hybrids are known: A. Vilmorinii, Mast. {A. cephalonica XA. Pinsapo). A handsome vigorous tree with spreading spiny-pointed leaves about 1 inch long; intermediate between the parents. Originated in 1868 in France. A. insignis, Carr. {A. Nordmanniana X A. Pinsapo). A broad-pyramidal vigorous tree; winter-buds resinous: leaves crowded, the upper ranks pointing forward, thickish, lustrous bright green, usually obtuse at apex, about 1 inch long. Raised first in 1872 and repeatedly afterward; several forms have been distinguished, as var. Beissneriana, Rehd. {A. Beissneriana, Mott.), var. Kentiana, Rehd. {A. Kentiana, Mott.), var. Masterslana, Rehd. (A. Master- siana, Mott.), and var. speciosa, Rehd. {A. Nordmanniana speciosa, Bailly). 20. A. cephalonica, Loud. (A. panachaica, Heldr. A. Regince-Amalice, Heldr.). Greek F. Fig. 67. Tree to 100 feet tall; bark grayish-brown, smooth, fissured in old trees; winter- buds ovoid, reddish, resinous; brancldets lustrous, red-brown, glabrous: leaves radially spreading and slightly directed forward, the middle ranks above shorter, linear, stiffs, gradually narrowed into a 67. Abies cephalonica sharp point, 3^-1 inch long, shining deep L few bands cones 13^-2 green above, sometimes with stomata near apex, with white beneath, the margins obtuse: cylindric, 5-7 inches long and inches in diameter, brownish; with convex undulate or entire margin; bracts exserted and reflexed. Greece. — Introduced in 1824 to Great Britain. Hardy as far north as Massachusetts; a handsome tree with radially spread- ing pungent leaves. ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 259 Tree to ()8. Abies Var. Apollinis, Beiss. (A. Apollims, Link). Branchlets j'^ellowish: leaves more crowded above, only a few leaves below spreading downward and forward, thicker and broader, acute or sometimes obtusish. — Introduced in 1850 to Germany. 21. A. cUicica, Carr. Cilician F. Fig. 68 and Plate XXVII. 100 feet tall; bark ashy-gray, smooth, scaly in old trees; winter-buds small, with few keeled acute scales, free at the tips, not resinous; branchlets gray, with scattered short hairs: leaves spreading upward and forward, on weak shoots outward and upward and leaving a V-shaped depression in the middle, somewhat pectinate below, linear, slender, rounded or acute and slightly bifid at apex, about 1 inch long, shining bright green above, with narrow white bands beneath: cones cylindric, 7-9 inches long, reddish-brown; scales 1^-2 inches broad, with entire margin; bracts hidden. Asia Minor, Syria. — Introduced in 1853 to Europe by Kotschy. Hardy as far north as southern Ontario and New England. A handsome fir similar to A. Nordmanniana, but with slenderer branches. 22. A. Nordmanniana, Spach. Nordmann F. Tree to 150 feet tall; bark grayish-brown, slightly fissured in old trees; winter-buds ovoid, acute, with slightly keeled obtusish scales, not resinous; branclilets gray with scattered short hairs: leaves directed forward and densely covering the branclilets. lustrous dark green above, with whitish bands beneath: cones cylindric, 5-6 inches long, reddish-brown; scales about IJ/2 inches wide; bracts exserted and reflexed. Caucasus, Asia Minor, Greece. — Hardy as far north as southern Ontario and New England. Introduced about 1840 to Europe. A hand- some and desirable species forming a narrow-pyramidal densely branched tree with dark green foliage. Var. aurea, Beiss. With yellow foliage. Var. tortifolia, Rehd. Leaves of the middle ranks above falcate and twisted, partly exposing the white under side. 23. A. alba, Mill. {A. pectinafa, DC. A. Picea, Lindl., not Mill.). Silver F. Tree to 150 feet tall; bark grayish, smooth, scaly in old trees; winter- 260 THE CULTIVATED EVERGREENS buds small, with few obtuse scales, not resinous; brancblets gray, with scattered short hairs: leaves pectinate, those of the upper and middle ranks pointing outward and upward, linear, rounded and bifid at apex, |— 13^ inches long, lustrous dark green above, with white bands beneath: cones cylindric, 4-5}'^ inches long, green while young, finally reddish-brown; scales about 1 inch broad, tomentose outside; bracts exserted and reflexed. Mountains of Central and southern Europe. — Hardy as far north as southern Ontario and New England, but not very satisfactory in the Eastern States. Var. pendula, Asch. & Graebn. (A. pedinata pendula, Carr.). Weeping Silver F. With pendulous branches. Var. pyramidalis, Voss (A. alba fastigiata, Asch. & Graebn. A. pedinata pyramidalis, Carr.). Sentinel Silver F. With ascending branches forming a columnar head. Var. columnaris, Rehd. {A. pedinata coluvmaris, Carr.). Columnar Silver F. With very short branches of nearly equal length forming a columnar head. Var. equi-trojani, Asch. & Sint. Leaves attenuate toward the apex and slightly emarginate: cones oblong-cylindric; bracts much exserted. Asia Minor. — This variety forms a transition to A. cephalonica; it is probably not in cultivation. 24. A. Fraseri, Poir. Eraser F. (Southern Balsam F.). Tree to 70 feet tall; bark smooth, reddish and scaly in old trees; winter-buds small, subglobose, very resinous; branchlets yellowish-gray, densely covered with short reddish hairs: leaves crowded, spreading upward and forward, pectinate below, linear, rounded and bifid at apex, |-1 inch long, shining dark green above, with broad white bands beneath: cones oblong-ovoid or ovoid, l}^- 9,yi inches long, purple before maturity; scales about ^/'i inch wide; bracts exserted and reflexed. Alleghany Mountains from West Virginia to North Carolina and Tennessee. — Introduced to Europe in 1811 by John Eraser. Hardy as far north as southern Ontario and New England, but not very satisfactory under cultivation. 25. A. balsamea, Mill. Balsam F, Tree to 70 feet tall; bark grayish- brown, scaly on old trees; winter-buds small, reddish, very resinous; branch- lets ashy-gray, short-pubescent: leaves spreading upward, pectinate below, on weaker branchlets indistinctly pectinate above, linear, rounded and slightly bifid at apex, f-1 inch long, lustrous dark green above and often with a few stomatic lines near apex, with narrow grayish-white bands be- neath: cones oblong, 1/^-23^ inches long, violet-purple before maturity; scales f inch wide; bracts usually inclosed (exserted in var. phanerolepis, Fern.). Labrador to West Virginia, west to Minnesota and Iowa. — Intro- duced to England in 1698 by Bishop Compton. Hardy as far north as Canada, but not growing satisfactorily outside of its natural habitat. ENUMERATION OF CONIFERS 261 Var. hudsonia, Engclm. (Picea Fraseri hudsonia. Knight). Hudson F, Dwarf form with dark green shorter and broader leaves. Var. macrocarpa, Kent. Leaves longer and cones 3-3^2 inches long. Wisconsin. — Introduced before 1884 by R. Douglas. This variety forms a transition to the following species. 26. A. lasiocarpa, Nutt. (A. subalpina, Engelm.). Alpine F. Tree to 100 or occasionally to 150 feet tall; bark smooth and silvery-gray, fissured in old trees; winter-buds small, ovoid, resinous; branchlets ashy-gray, with a short rufous pubescence: leaves much crowded, directed upward and forward, linear, rounded or acutish at apex, rarely emarginate, 1-1 H inches long, pale bluish-green, stomatiferous above and only slightly grooved, with broad pale bands beneath: cones oblong-cylindric, 23^-4 inches long, truncate or depressed at apex; scales ^